an For every d r e a m , m a n y details and intricacies h a v e to b e whittled a n d Interlocked. Their joint ramifications must be deeply understood b y the person w h o is trying to create whatever-it-is. Each confabulation of possibilities turns out to h a v e the most intricate a n d exactly detailed results. (This is w h y I a m so irritated b y those w h o think "electronic media" are all alike.)
Technology fs an expression of man's dreams. If man did not Indulge M s fantasies, his thoughts alone would inhibit the development of technology Itself. Ancient visionaries spoke of distant times and p l a c e s , where men flew around and a b o u t , and some could see each other at great distance. The technological realities of today are already obsolete and the future of technology is bound only by the limits of our dreams. Modern communications media and in particular electronic media are outgrowths and extensions of those senses which have become dominant 1n our social development. Hon Vachaprcea, (t) Auditaa Ltd.
A n d each possible combination y o u choose has different precise structures implicit in it. a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d units w h i c h flow from these ramified details. Implicit in Radio lurk the T i m e Slot a n d the P r o g r a m . But m a n y of these possibilities remain unnoticed or u n s e e n , for a variety of social or e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s .
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W h y does it matter? It matters b e c a u s e w e live In m e d i a , at fish live in w a t e r . ( M a n y people are prisoners of the m e d i a , m a n y are manipulators, a n d m a n y w a n t to use t h e m to c o m m u n i c a t e artistic visions,) B u t t o d a y , at this m o m e n t , w e can a n d m u d t design the m e d i a , design the molecules of our n e w w a t e r , a n d I believe the details of this design matter v e r y d e e p l y . T h e y will b e with us for a v e r y long time, p e r h a p s ss long as m a n has left; p e r h a p s if they are as g o o d as they can b e , m a n m a y e v e n b u y m o r e time-- or the o p e n - e n d e d future m o s t s u p p o s e r e m a i n s . (See " E n d g a m e , " p . W T •)
This U the flip Bide of C o m p u t e r Lib.
(Peel free to beg-in h e r e . T h e oiher aide la Just If y o u w a n t to k n o w m o r e about c o m p u t e r s , w h i c h are changeable devices for twiddling s y m bols. Otherwise skip It.)
Ladies and gentlemen, the age of pmtidif italrre presentation and publishing U about to begin. Palpitating presentation*, screenncribbled. will dance to your desire, making manifest the many mysteries o( winding wisdom But if we are to rehumanize an increasingly brutal and disagreeable world, we must step up our efforts. And we must hurry. Hurry. Step right up.
(But if y o u c h a n g e y o u r m i n d It might be fun to b r o w s e . )
In • s e n s e , the other side has b e e n a c o m e - o n for this side. B u t it's a n honest c o m e on: I figure the m o r e y o u k n o w , the readier you'll be for w h a t I'm saying h e r e . Not n e c e s sarily to agree or b e "sold," but to think about it in the non-simple terms that are going to be necessary. T h e material here h a s b e e n chosen largely for its exhilarating a n d inspirational character. N o matter what y o u r b a c k g r o u n d or technical k n o w l e d g e , you'll be able to u n d e r s t a n d s o m e of this, a n d not b e able to understand s o m e of the rest. That's partly from the hasty preparation of this b o o k , a n d partly from the variety of interests I'm trying to c o m p r i s e h e r e . I w s n t to present various d r e a m s a n d their resulting d r e a m m a c h i n e s , all legitimate.
m c l t & a ^ M "When you're doling with media you're in ibow rtuiincu. yoo know, whether you like it or not." "Show brnincn.' he takl. "Absolutely. We've foMa he in ihnw bimnen We've gotta put together a team that will crt us there." I made n mental note to m e the *how bnslnrn m e taphor aq.itn. anil onlinuid. "IMM'i real MIMI'VC talnit pri.lultlv I M in other sirrsw .. ."
S o In these p a g e s I h o p e to orient y o u s o m e w h a t to various of the p r o p o s e d d r e a m s . This Is m e a n t also to record the efforts of a few B r e w s t e r M c C l o u d s , each tinkering t o w a r d s o m e n e w flight of fancy in his o w n s e n s o a r i u m .
rneodbr" H. Helaon, "Bornum-TronicB." Suarthmore 'allega Alumni Bulletin, Deo 19?0, 12-15.
T h e m o s t exciting things here are those that involve c o m p u t e r s : notably, b e c a u s e c o m p u ters will e m b r a c e d in every presentational m e d i u m a n d thoughtful m e d i u m v e r y s o o n . That's w h y this side is w e d d e d to the other: if y o u w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d c o m p u t e r s , y o u can take the first step b y turning the b o o k o v e r . I figure that the m o r e y o u k n o w about c o m p u t e r s - - especially about m i n i c o m p u t e r s a n d the w a y on-line s y s tems can r e s p o n d to o u r slightest acts-- the better y o u r imagination can flow b e t w e e n the technicalities, c a n slide the parts together, c a n discern the s h a p e s of w h a t y o u w o u l d h a v e these things d o . T h e c o m p u t e r is not a limitless p a r t n e r , but it is deeply versatile; to w o r k with it w e m u s t u n d e r stand w h a t it can d o , the options a n d the costs.
Ileywood Gould, Corporation Freak (Tower), 23.
If the c o m p u t e r is a projective s y s t e m , or R o r s c h a c h Inkblot, as alleged on the other side, the real projective s y s t e m s - - the o n e s with p r o jectors in them-- are all the m o r e s o . T h e things people try to d o with m o v i e s , T V a n d the m o r e glamorous uses of the c o m p u t e r , w h e r e b y it m a k e s pictures on screens-- are strange inversions a n d foldovers of the rest of the m i n d a n d heart. That's the peculiar origami of the self.
M y special c o n c e r n , all too tightly framed h e r e , is the u s e of c o m p u t e r s to help people w r i t e , think a n d s h o w . But I think presentation b y c o m p u t e r is a b r a n c h of s h o w biz a n d writing, not of p s y c h o l o g y , engineering or p e d a g o g y . T h i s w o u l d b e idle disputation if it did not h a v e far-reaching c o n s e q u e n c e s for the designs of the s y s t e m s w e are all going to h a v e to live with. At w o r s t , I fear these m a y lock us in; at best, 1 h o p e they can further the individualistic traditions of literature, film a n d scholarship. But w e m u s t create o u r b r a v e n e w w o r l d s with art, zest, intelligence, a n d the highest possible ideals.
V e r y well. This book-- this side, D r e a m M a c h i n e s - - is m e a n t to let y o u see the choice of d r e a m s . Noting that e v e r y c o m p a n y a n d u n i versity s e e m s to insist that its system is the w a v e of the future, I think it is m o r e important than ever to h a v e the alternatives s p r e a d out clearly. But the "experts" arc not going to b e m u c h help; they are part of the p r o b l e m . O n both sides, the academic a n d the industrial, they are being painfully pontifical a n d bombastic in the jarring n e w jargons (see "Babels in Toyland,' 1 p . Lf ) . Little clarity is spread b y this. F e w things are funnier than the pretensions of those w h o profess to dignity, sobriety a n d professionalism of their expert predictions - especially w h e n they, too are p o u r i n g out their o w n personal views u n d e r the guise of technicality. M o s t p e o ple don't d r e a m of what's going to hit the fan. A n d the c o m p u t e r a n d electronics people are like generals preparing for the last w a r .
I h a v e not m e n t i o n e d the e m o t i o n s . M o v i e s a n d b o o k s , m u s i c a n d e v e n architecture h a v e for all of us b e e n part of important emotional m o m e n t s . T h e s a m e is going to h a p p e n with the n e w m e d i a . T o w o r k at a highly responsive c o m p u t e r display s c r e e n , for instance, can be deeply exciting, like flying a n airplane t h r o u g h a c a n y o n , or talking to s o m e b o d y brilliant. T h i s is as it should b e . ("The reason is, a n d b y rights o u g h t lo b e , slave to the emotions." -- Bertrand Russell.)
F r a n k l y . I think it's an outrage m a k i n g it look as if there's a n y kind of scientific basis to these things; there is an underlevel of technicality, but like the foundation of a cathedral, it serves only to support w h a t rises from it. T H E T E C H NICALITIES M A T T E R A L O T , B U T T H E U N I F Y I N G VISION M A T T E R S M O R E .
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This book has several simultaneous Intentions: to orient the beginner In fields more complex and tied together than almost anybody realizes; n e v e r t h e l e s s , to partially debunk several realms of expertise which I think d e serve slightly less attention than they g e t ; and to chart the right w a y , which I think uniquely continues the Western traditions of literature, scholarship and freedom. In this respect the book is much more old-fashoned than it may seem at the g e e - w h l z , very-now l e v e l .
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B u t b e a r in m i n d that h a r d - e d g e d fantasy is the c o r n e r of t o m o r r o w . T h e great A m e r i c a n d r e a m often b e c o m e s the great A m e r i c a n novelty. After w h i c h it's a choice of style, size a n d financing p l a n .
The main ideas of this book I present not as my o w n , but as a curious species of revealed t r u t h . It has all been obvious to me for some t i m e , and I believe It should be obvious as well to anyone who has not been blinded by education. If you understand the problems of creative t h i n k ing and organizing Ideas, If you have seen the bad things school so often does to p e o p l e . If you understand the sociology of the intellectual w o r l d , and have ever loved a m a c h i n e , then this book says nothing you do not know a l r e a d y .
AUTHOR'S COUNTERCULTURE
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In the design of o u r future m e d i a a n d s y s t e m s , w e should not shrink from this emotional aspect as a legitimate part of o u r fan tic (see p . Dr\4? ) d e s i g n . T h e substratum of technicalities a n d the m i n d - b e n d i n g , g u t - s l a m m i n g effects they p r o d u c e , are two sides of the s a m e coin; a n d to u n d e r s t a n d the o n e is not necessarily to be alienated from the other. T h u s it is for the Wholiness of the h u m a n spirit, that w e m u s t d e s i g n .
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CREDENTIALS
Writer, s h o w m a n , generalist. G e m i n i , m o o n in Libra, G e m i n i rising. O n e ' i m e s e v e n t h - g r a d e d r o p o u t . I h a v e relatively little interest in i m p r o v i n g the educational system within the existing f r a m e w o r k . A u t h o r of w h a t m a y h a v e been world's first rock m u s i c a l , " A n y t h i n g * Everything." S w a r t h m o r e College. N o v e m b e r 1957 (with R i c h a r d L . C a p l a n ) . P h o t o g r a p h e r for a y e a r at D r . Lilly's dolphin lab ( C o m m u n i c a t i o n R e s e a r c h Institute. M i a m i . Florida). Attendee of the Great Woodstock Festival (like m a n y o t h e r s ) , a n d it c h a n g e d m y life (as others h a v e r e p o r t e d ) . W h a t w e are all looking for is not w h e r e w e thought it w a s Lifelong m e d i a n u t . M a g a z i n e collector; h u n g a r o u n d T V studios as a child. C o m p u l s i v e explainer. Gimmicist b y disposition, computer-man b y accidestlny.
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A lot of copies of this book have not b e e n p u t together c o r r e c t l y . We h o p e t h a t ' s e l l o v e r n o w , b u t if t h i s b o o k b e l o n g s to y o u please check i t . Incorrectly-made books will be exchanged. within two weeks of purchase (address on p . 2 ) . Otherwise you have a Collector's
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A L L Y O U N E E D D O IS C H E C K T H E N U M B E R S ON T H E ' C O M P U T E R L I B ' S I D E . They run straight through from cover to c o v e r , even thouqh the contents flip c a p r i c i o u s l y . If t h e l e t t e r s " D M " a p p e a r anywhere amongst these plain n u m b e r s , you got a lemon.
Gee » h i z , folk., here »e .re at another p r i n t i n g . n d a l r e a d y t h e b i g c l o c k o n the . a l l t e l l , us that anotber y e a r h a . g o n e b y . T h i . s u p p l e m e n t 1 . m a i n l y tiling, t h a t h a d t o be m e n t i o n e d , b u t it kind o f a . e u m e . you've read a » book lteelf o r are g e n e r a l l y familiar w i t h c o m p u t e r . . BOOKSTORE B R O W S E R S : avoid theae four p a g e . . N E W OWNER OF THE BOOK: Check that the p a g e , are r i g h t , ""^> SORRY THE TYPE STILL ISN'T BIGGER, b u t that . i l l r e q u i r e t h o u s a n d s o f b u c k s in n e w n e g a t i v e s meaning a lot m o r e have to b e .old as ia.
The r e d o u b t a b l e P C C i s n o w s i x i s s u e s a n d s i x dollars a year. People's Computer Company, P.O.Box 3 1 0 , M e n l o Park CA 9 4 0 2 5 . B Y T E M a g a z i n e , S l O / y e a r if y o u h u r r y , $ 1 2 l a t e r , from Green Publishing C o . , P e t e r b o r o u g h , N H . Editorial: Carl H e l m e r s , Box 3 7 8 , Belmont HA 02178. Hardware-oriented. C r e a t i v e C o m p u t i n g : T h e M a g a z i n e of R e c r e a t i o n a l and E d u c a t i o n a l C o m p u t i n g . Xdeametrics, P . O . Box 7 8 9 - M , M o r r i s t o w n , NJ ) 7 9 6 0 . Weird v a r i e t y of s u b s c r i p t i o n r a t e s : s t u d e n t $ 6 , "individual" $8, "institutional" $15. The Computer H o b b y i s t , $ 6 / y e a r . Box 2 9 5 , Cary N C 27511. Hardware-oriented. C o m p u t e r N o t e s (for A l t a i r u s e r s ; f r o m M I T S ) . Mlcro-8 Newsletter, for people really into the Intel. Hal Singer, Cabrillo High School, 4350 C o n s t e l l a t i o n , L o m p o c CA 9 3 4 3 6 . and a l e o S i m u l a t i o n and G a m i n g N e w s , B o x 3 0 3 9 U n i v e r s i t y Station, Moscow, Idaho 83843. E l e c t r o n o t e s is the m a g a z i n e f o r m u s i c s y n t h e s i z e r f r e a k s . B e r n l e H u t c h l n s , 60 S h e r a t o n D r i v e , Ithaca NY 1 4 8 5 0 . and s o m e t h i n g e l s e e n t i r e l y . Privacy J o u r n a l , a m o n t h l y newsletter on problems of p r i v a c y , m a n y or m o s t of w h i c h I n v o l v e computers. P . O . Box 8 8 4 4 , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . 2 0 0 0 3 ; $15 a y e a r .
A l l the DM numbers are supposed to be on this side o n l y . T h e y p o o p o u t at number 59, and were intended merely for c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e .
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( N o t e : it is of i n t e r e s t t h a t a b i l l o n c o m p u t e r p r i v a c y in t h i s y e a r ' s H o u s e of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s J u s t h a p p e n e d to b e H R 1 9 8 4 . )
One individual I know, who relishes his c o u n t e r c u l t u r e i m a g e , told m e w i t h a n g r y and shaking v o i c e that h e doesn't believe in c o p y right and that anything that gets near his c o m p u t e r b e l o n g s to h i m . W e l l , d o n ' t l e a v e your m a n u s c r i p t s near such a p e r s o n . (Why i s it a l w a y s the g u y s w i t h cushy and secure jobs w h o tell you t w e e d l e de d e e , ideas should b e f r e e , and p a t e n t s and c o p y r i g h t s are selfish?) A c t u a l l y , for the i n d i v i d u a l , o n e of t h e s t r o n g e s t forms of protection available is copyright. Far from obsolete, the copyright m a k e s p u b l i s h i n g , and the better c o m p u t e r software, possible. (It is n o t g e n e r a l l y known that c o p y r i g h t v i o l a t i o n is a felony.) (And r i p p i n g o f f a p r o g r a m y o u ' r e s u p p o s e d to p a y for is n o t a b r a v e guerrilla a f f i r m a t i o n , like hitting Harold Geneen w i t h a p i e , b u t grand larceny.) Now that A l t a i r s and LSI-lls have got a lot of you g u y s dreaming about selling s o f t w a r e , a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n i s h o w to p r o t e c t your w o r k . W e l l , you have a c h a m p i o n . C a l v i n M o o e r s (see p p . 1 8 - 2 1 ) i s n o t o n l y a genuine Computer Pioneer From The Forties, b u t , along with Herb G r o s c h , pioneered the Computer Counterculture. Grosch flaunted a beard in front of old m a n W a t s o n , M o o e r s s t r o v e to m a k e c o m p u t e r s e a s y t o u s e — b a c k when that was unheard of. O n e o f h i s c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t s i s in w a y s that small independent underground-type p r o grammers can p r o t e c t their d e v e l o p m e n t s . He and some a s s o c i a t e s a r e exploring the p o s s i ble formation o f a g r o u p for the legal p r o tection of small software p r o d u c e r s and o w n e r s . Incidentally, when you think something you've written belongs to y o u — a computer program, poem or w h a t e v e r — slap the following at the b e g i n n i n g , under the title: (<=) 1 9 7 5 f r v i n g
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substituting, of c o u r s e , your own n a m e . A n d t h e y e a r c u r r e n t l y in e f f e c t . If c o m p u t e r p r i n ting is u s e d , ( C ) , u s i n g p a r e n t h e s e s , i s c o n s i d e r e d an a c c e p t a b l e s u b s t i t u t e f o r c - i n - a - c i r c l e This not only gives notice to potential B o r r o w e r s , b u t it h a s c e r t a i n s t r o n g m a g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s as a legal i n c a n t a t i o n . S e e y o u r l a w y e r f o r d e t a i l s , b u t d o n ' t h e s i t a t e to a p p l y it l i b e r a l l y to y o u r o w n w o r k ; y o u m a y b e g l a d
It b e g a n w i t h a b a n g l a s t C h r i s t m a s : t h e c o v e r of P o p u l a r E l e c t r o n i c s s h o w e d 'a c o m p u t e r you dan build yourself for only $ 4 0 0 ' . It w a s r e a l . A y o u n g f i r m in A l b u q u e r q u e called Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry S y s t e m s , or M I T S , had finally d o n e i t : a computer for w e l l u n d e r $ 1 0 0 0 . In a box not m u c h b i g g e r t h a n a t y p e w r i t e r , a m a c h i n e c o m p a r a b l e to t h e U n i v a c I. T h e y c a l l e d It t h e A l t a i r 8 8 0 0 . Of c o u r s e , in a w a y t h i s w a s a n o b v i o u s s t e p . T h e M I T S c o m p u t e r w a s s i m p l y the p a c k a g i n g , a s a c o m p u t e r , of a s p e c i f i c i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t chip that had b e e n o n the m a r k e t f o r s o m e m o n t h s . T h i s c h i p , the I n t e l 8 0 8 0 , is a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r , or t w o - l e v e l c o m p u t e r (see p . 4 4 ) , g e n e r a l l y e m p l o y e d f o r f i x e d p u r p o s e s In cash r e g i s t e r s , pinball m a c h i n e s , and the l i k e . H o w e v e r , to m a k e it a " g e n e r a l " c o m p u t e r — w i t h the e n g i n e e r i n g , h o o k u p s and a c c e s s o r i e s that e n t a i l e d — w o u l d b e n o s m a l l c a t t e r if t a k e n seriously.
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Next in computer hobbyiem will obviously be the Computer Van. Already vans come with swivel thrones, four-track stereo, color TV; so this next etep is obvious. But most important, recreational vehicles can be purchased on very long timeplans, sometimes seven yeare. {HITS has a demo van with Altair, floppy disk, lineprinter. It drives around showing off. But they'll sell you one like it for a trifling $28,000.) Now for mobile operation we redo the power supply...
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1 9 7 5 m a y b e t h o u y h t of a s t h e y e a r in w h i c h the c o m p u t e r u n d e r g r o u n d suddenly appeared in full f o r c e . The Altair was probably the big crystallizing event. Not that there wasn't a counterculture b e f o r e . There were the games-players at every u n i v e r s i t y , t h e p r a n k p r o g r a m m e r s (see p . 4 B - 9 ) , a n d , w h e r e v e r computers are the center of t h i n g s , a shared experience of misch^ief and b r e a k t h r o u g h . T h e r e w a s C o m p u t e r P e o p l e for P e a c e , a c l i q u e y and u n a p p r o a c h a b l e g r o u p w i t h b o o t h s at the c o n f e r e n c e s (at l e a s t , t h e i r b a c k s w e r e a l w a y s turned w h e n you wanted to ask q u e s t i o n s ) . There w a s the h o b b y f r i n g e . B u t now it's gone different. I n s t e a d of p r e t e n t i o u s c o m p a n y n a m e s m e a n t t o a p p e a l to o b tuse b u s i n e s s m e n , like Performance Measurement Systems Consultants Group and Bottom-Line-Tronics, the new c o m p a n i e s h a v e r o c k - g r o u p n a m e s like G e n e r a l T u r t l e , I n c . , The Sphere and Loving Grace Cybernetics. In t h i s n e w c o m p u t e r c o u n t e r c u l t u r e , the m a i n c o m p u t e r c o m p a n i e s a r e n o t IBM a n d H o n e y w e l l a n d U n i v a c , but DEC and M I T S and G e n e r a l T u r t l e ; the s t a n d a r d c o m p u t e r is n o t the 3 7 0 , b u t t h e 11 (or p o s s i b l y t h e A l t a i r o r t h e 8 ) . T h e s t a n d a r d l a n g u a g e is not F o r t r a n o r A l g o l or P L / I , but B A S I C . Instead of the big color TV that m i d d l e America w a n t s , the underground computernik dreams of his own graphic setup forever r u n n i n g T h e G a m e o f L i f e i n c o l o r (see p p . 4 8 - 9 and pic p . D M 2 6 ) . (Of c o u r s e t h a t ' l l a l s o r e q u i r e t h e c o l o r T V ; s e e " B i t M a p s , " p . Z.) In such a w o r l d , c o m p u t e r s a r e not a tool b u t a w a y o f l i f e . T t e c o m p u t e r is t o y , p e t , checkerboard, music box and T V . Computers are for making m u s i c , computers are for getting people t o g e t h e r via c o m m u n i t y m e m o r y , c o m p u t e r s are for l e t t e r - w r i t i n g , c o m p u t e r s a r e for a r t and m o v i e m a k i n g and t h e a n i m a t e d d e c o r a t i o n of the h o m e . C o m p u t e r s a r e f o r g a m e s ; a v a s t n u m b e r of interactive game-programs are published and s w a p p e d a r o u n d . A l m o s t a l l a r e in t h e B A S I C language. (Bob A l b r e c h t ' s W H A T T O D O A F T E R Y O U HIT RETURN is s a i d to b e d e f i n i t i v e — S7.50 from P e o p l e ' s Computer C o m p a n y , 1919 Menalto A v e . , M e n l o Park CA 9 4 0 2 5 . See also their magazine P C C , as well as Simulation and Gaming News.) PLATO g a m e s , a somewhat different subspecies, are discussed on p . D M 2 7 . The underground computer magazines have b e c o m e a b l i z z a r d (see b o x ) . A l b r e c h t ' s s p r i g h t l y and successful P C C , originally oriented toward h i g h and g r a d e s c h o o l s , has now branched into hobbyism as w e l l . O n the hardware side there is The Computer H o b b y i s t , and now a slick new hobby m a g a z i n e . B y t e , w i t h a f i r s t p r i n t i n g of 5 0 , 0 0 0 . O n the e d u c a t i o n a l side t h e r e is a s w e l l n e w magazine called Creative Computing. T h e n t h e r e is the C o m m u n i t y M e m o r y m o v e m e n t . The b a s i c idea o f C o m m u n i t y M e m o r y is to h a v e a computer resource of information and ideas, commonly available. In i t s m o r e g l o r i f i e d and m y s t i c a l f o r m , the idea s e e m s to be to have a p l a c e , inside the c o m p u t e r , where information can be shared by The P e o p l e , free of i n s t i t u t i o n a l o b struction or the profit motive. T h i s vision is perhaps unclear to o t h e r s b e s i d e s the a u t h o r , b u t it a t t r a c t s a v a r i e t y o f p e o p l e i n t e r e s t e d in s o m e f o r m o f g r a s s r o o t s r e v i t a l i z a t i o n of o u r s o c i e t y . Some of these a r e d i s i l l u s i o n e d sixties radicals w h o look to "comm u n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n " as a b u i l d i n g b l o c k for a n e w s o c i e t y ; o t h e r s a r e i n t e r e s t e d in m o r e n u t s a n d - b o l t s a p p l i c a t i o n s , such a s trying to m a k e b a r t e r a v i a b l e e c o n o m i c f o r m a g a i n , in a n u r b a n society with many nonstandard leftovers, skills and wants. (Presumably this would work by having the computer find pairs of people with matching wants and tradables; or even search out potential trades around multi-person rings.) The first of these systems was Resource One, in S a n F r a n c i s c o ; I saw a n o t h e r C o m m u n i t y M e m o r y in V a n c o u v e r , w h i c h s e e m e d to be i n p r a c t i c e a sort of animated classified-ad system. A user B i t t i n g a t t h e t e r m i n a l c a n p u t in a d s o f h i s o w n , and can s e a r c h t h r o u g h the e n t i r e f i l e for k e y w o r d s of i n t e r e s t . A s t h e r e is no c e n s o r s h i p , some rather surprising things g e t in t h e r e , for which I wish we had room. (A n e w s l e t t e r o f s u c h p r o j e c t s . C o m m u n i t y C o m m u n i c a t i o n s , is being s t a r t e d b y L e e F e l s e n s t e i n . Loving G r a c e C y b e r n e t i c s , 1807 D e l a w a r e S t . , Berkeley CA 94703.) E v e n for those coming anew into the field the radio hams and amateur telescope makers who've l a i d t h e i r M a s t e r C h a r g e c a r d s o n the line for the A l t a i r — computers represent a new social life. Amateur computer clubs have drawn startling numb e r s : for instance, the Los A n g e l e s and San F r a n c i s c o g r o u p s a r e c u r r e n t l y p u l l i n g 1 0 0 m e m b e r s to their weekly m e e t i n g s . (In S a n F r a n c i s c o , c o n tact Fred M o o r e , 55B Santa C r u z A v e n u e , M e n l o Park CA 94025.) This book and its surprise success probably r a t e m e n t i o n o f s o m e s o r t in t h e w o r l d o f u n d e r ground computerdom, '74-75; although my underg r o u n d status m a y be in j e o p a r d y . I had intended to b y p a s s the computer e s t a b l i s h m e n t , and cer tainly not expected to b e c o m e assimilated therein; so the dozens of university class adoptions have come as a considerable shock, as have the accept a n c e a n d l e g i t i m a t i o n I h a d long s i n c e g i v e n u p o n . M y h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s for this r e s p o n s e , a n d I'll t r y t o l i v e u p t o i t . (How i s d i s c u s s e d o n p . Z, last column.) But f o l k s , this a l l is the m e r e s t b e g i n n i n g . A s it s a y s o n d i a m e t r i c a l l y t h e o t h e r s i d e , p . 3, COMPUTERS BELONG TO ALL
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on p. "• HITS' new computi -otorol* 6800. • n o 'l— MM Mt ~ ri « » «» altair • U r - based or, t h . Intel B O W , and 11 customers already Into that ..chin* " ^ i n ,ny way 1** they u y . 3 1
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A computer hit based on tha Motorola 6000. -id. 2 « bytes of cor,, cassstte recorder and 1 6 U n TV dlipUy < » <="""• " ' 1" o t t " m A for H74S by THE S P K T O . 96 East SO0 South, Bountiful, Utah B4010. TVC computer ki .nd enothsr • "ova lookallka, Bill Codbout Electronica, Box 3355 Oakland Mrport, Oakland CA 94614. Ha • !•» pl*h* »" U lookallka.
One of t Ing up at AJH 617/261-1100. N a a o r n , for soae unfathonabl* raaaon, built in tha early 70s a conputer Intended to be upw«rdcosfiatlbla fro- the 360/20. But lt waa not a 360. Why did they do thla? The hind of people who ahop around would not buy 360/20a, and tha kind of people who buy J60/20a would scarcely leave IBM's skirts at upgrade tlaa. Thua the Fvrnorex 40 has, quite understandably, been discontinued. And ell the ones thay had left •re waiting for you brand new up at American Used Cosjputar for •jh4' heart-stopping price of
icludes 48k byte! Now for the bad news. It cones bare-bones, with no software, and no hardware support. Vou get the wiring dlag/raa with it, and a liat of other owners, and you're on your own. AUC does have spare parts, however. And peripherals, ax>stly Bore expensive. M r . Ma no son of AUC told na on tha phone that it had 156 instructions, including 64-bit floating point, 32-bit binary. On studying the literature, however, it appears to Be that the instruction-set he described is Blcroprograsaaed, with the microcoda Intended to be read in at startup tine. (There are 65 microinstructions.) Maybe you can gat the microcode for those 158 instructions and Baybe you can't. Maybe you don't care, If you're well enough fixed to handle one of theae.
Oi you might oat an LSI-11. An LSI-11 buying pool la being formed by Hal Lashley, Southern Cal Co-putar Society, P.O. Box 987, •;. Faeaden* CA 91030.
It cones in basic blsck, 2x5x4 feet, fits in a van, and supposedly does not need aircondltloning. Supposedly plug-compatible with 370 periphexala! It's really a sixteen-blt nachlne, and it haa sight sets of eight registers, having been designed to perform up to eight functions sinultanaoualy. So. 64 Bain registers, 4K dynamic Microstore, 48K of memory, for about the prlc* of a used PDP11/10 with tr. smelling aalts, anyone?
Processor Technology, 2465 4th St., Baikal ay 94710, Bakes a text diaplay kit for tha Altair for SI to (you aupply tha IV Bon i tor and avldantly tha keyboard). 64 character par U n a , 16 linaa.
Bootstrap Enterprises, Ann Arbor, are alao working on • similar unit, cal lad "Tha Dumb Terminal," with a color option. MITS i i ccaaa.ittad now to building a vidao tarmlnal, the CT-B096, that will provide both text and graphic*. Following specs are not final.
It will have a keyboard and video monitor, plug straight into tha Altair, and refresh fron Altair memory aodul**— which nay double as regular aemory, if you don't Bind garbage on the It will have 34 lines of upper-case characters, SxB dots to the character, SO characters to the line on a built-in nonitor. In addition lt will offer graphics from bit nape (see p . Z>, either 130x130 or 340x340. (Tha resolution will be switch-selectable, if you have enough buffer memory; a screen of text takes 2K, so does a 130x120 picture, and 240x240 takea a whole 4K.) Buffer nemory will also be divldabla Into separate *pagea" of text or graphics; and two pagea will be super impoaable, interlacing alternate video fields (see pp. CM6-7). Hota that refreshment Is from randon-acce**, rather than serial, memory, so that sultlple fields cannot be overlaid.
Redoubtable Max Palevsky, who brought you Scientific Data Syatems (which Xerox bought and recently shut down). Rolling Stone and the movie "Harjoe"-- has another winner, which he's also sold to xarox.
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While none haa been announced as yet, a anisic iynthesiier that plugs into the Altair will alaoat certainly be available in 1976. (Mote that thi* could provide an entirely new form of interactive terminal if used with the tfachspres* equipment; see nearby.) ) tha Altair ia in the
DEC's own floppy dlak, for the B and 1 1 , finally came out. Price for II i S3000 for one drive, S4000 for double. LHJctape, which la virtually the sane as DECtape but unpatented, has just come out at S2000 for one drive, Including controller and interface to 11 or Hova (interrupt-driven). Mote that the unit is compact and rugged, and nay be sore suitable than disk or cassette for those of us concerned about portable rigs and vannounting. Computer Operations, Inc., 10774 Tucker St., Beltsville MD 20705. (The bad news: software costs S300 for the driver, plus S750 > DEC if - operating syst n FT-11.) Cambridge Memories, Inc., cleverly sells main nemory banks for the 11 which can attach t< to two PDP-iia at once— thus connecting the two machines without using DEC's expensive Unibus coupler. Also for lls^ Formation, Inc., sells a curious programmer's console that traps and displays the last sixteen Unibus addresses referenced; and Pabrl-Tek offers a cache aeaory for the PDP-11/45. s
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This is the Diablo company, which first made disks and now makes a sensational printing aachine• It has a whirling plastic "daisy wheel" of type, interchangeable, and can type 30 characters per second in either direction, as as well as draw pictures— of a sort. Tha basic difference between these printers and conventional typewriters, like the Selectric, 1* their use of servos rather than ratchets. This neans their characters can be positioned in nany intermediate positions, unlike the fixed position* available on an ordinary typewriter, for instance, the Diablo can position the type to 1/60 of an inch horizontally and 1/48 of an inch vertically. (Nice for justified typesetting.) There are new a number of machines of this kind. First came the Diablo printer, officially the HyTypa 1; then the engineers who built that went off and created a competitive printer called the pUME (pron.'kyoom'); now there's an improved Diablo HyTypa II; Interdata makes a competitive unit, the Carousel printer, with a little print cup) and to Bake things totally confused, there's a special model Diablo called the 800, which can't be connected to computers but is sold for office use as a "word processor." A nuBber of companies stake terminals in the SS000 ballpark embracing on* or the other of these printers. Gen-Corn systems makes one around the Diablo; Anderson-Jacobson makes one around tha gUME. Xerox makes Its own computer terminal, the 3010, around tha Diablo I— which, it should be noted, can be rented for as little a* three months, at S190/month. Tha one everybody wants for their computers 1* called the Xerox BOO, but so far thst is not available a* a computer terminal. It goes faster than the other Diablos and offers typefaces that look beautiful for typesetting; mucfi nicer, it seems, than the type* currently available for the other Diablos. For those Interested in just hooking up the printer mechanism, for substantially less money than a whole terminal, interfaces for hooking the Diablo or QUME printers to PDP-8 or PDP-11 are available fron Data Systems Design, Inc., 1122 University Avenue, Berkeley CA 94702. SUGGESTIONS
TO XEROX COttCBRSIllG DIABLO PRINTERS. No charge. 1. Sell the 800 as a terminal, for goodness sake. 2. Failing that, make those pretty typefaces available for the othsre. 3. Already you offer black and red ribbons; a blue and yellov ribbon Mould permit printing PICTURES IS FULL COLOR, a development of great interest to the many aomputer graphics freaks. 4. However, that uould require somewhat finer positioning of the platen; say, 1/120 in both directions. £. ... failing uhiah, you could put out a "graphic daisy uheel" vith intermediate dot positions equivalent to dot positions between those now available. 6. Could the Diablo somehow be made to sound leas like a dentist's drill? 7. How about a portable?
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The graal Marvin Hineky ia renowned on five continents. Dean of the amorphous field of "artificial intelligence,'' and referred to without ambiguity as "Marvin" throughout computer land, he is a theoretician'e theoretioian. But at the heart of every theoretician, I think, burns the dream that he will eamaday prove the outright, worldly iimyortanae of his thoughts. Like Dee try, at last he will go to hie euitaaee and get out hie guns, and the audience will cheer.
General Turtle, Incorporated, Is a toy company that the teem of Minsky and Papert put together to aarket their educational computer (Set p. 57.) i few. rut the Impact has been wrber of the project puts it, "Me wanted to get our ideas for education out to the world." So they decided to build a terminal. But lt grew, as terminal designs will. It is now the CTI 2500. Remember the tortoise and th* hare? Thi* is the hairlast tortoise on four wheels. Plrst deliveries this fall. And her< • what v ; for rand dollai 1 H C
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Dan Hillis and Radio Parlaan, of tha LOGO group at MIT, are working on a special "preliter•te" terminal to allow non-reader* (possibly including chimps and gorillas) to program in LOGO, especially on tha General Turtle 2500 (see "Minsky's Computer," nearby). Plastic credit cards will have symbola for ths various picture and music-box functions. To write a program, or create a movie on the scope, th* ueer will Insert function cards in slot*. Color coding will be used for program transfer, a red card means "Jump to tha red aubroutln*." Sine* thi* 1* MIT, the full recursive power of tha ay at am will of course be available. (My hope is that chinpanieea and other little .alotnlka can be taught recursive program definition. Than will th* public wake up to computer* being aaay?)
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T h . tad.hl ccnput.r or Sy,t«i 470, a c t - p u f r ol t h . 160 . „ ! . . b , o n . o , t h . d..lgned th«« orlclr-lly— ...p 4 1 _ _ , / n o v »v.il«t,l. f r o . tadahi Corpor.tlon, 1 2 S 0 C a t *rqu.a Av.nua, Sunnyval. CA 940B6. (rtw, a r . no* aav.rtl.ln, (or , y . t _W l . «h„ * m a» in_ aid., of OS/HVT, V S . . t o . ) . T h . flr.t .70 1 . „„ and runnin, at NASA'a In.tltuta for Spac. studl.. T, T.: r^jT".;" •*"«•"~ of thair faaoua knockout" machines to do it in (Datamation, July 75, 9t5 .)
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a 16-bit computer like none you ever saw. 8 working registers, in addition to PC. 32 scratchpad registers (70 nanosecond). 250-nanosecond 1/0. 4K of main memory, 250 nanosecond. (Expandable , of t i.)
pa.o6«Aa> y a u c o v i * . "Diobolo" uas a game of the tuenties that involved poking a spinning object. Oddly, that's uhat today's Diablo involves.
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I H M S ^ C T a J t l - P i T ^ Cassette memory, 1 drive. Alphabetical display, standard video, with 6*16-dot character generator, 64 characters, DYNAMICALLY ALTERABLE. Also expandable. Vectoring graphic display with 2D rotation ("turtle geometry"— line* are specified not by endpoints but by angles and length). 512x512 resolution, 1 Billion endpolnts/sec refresh. Keyboard.
Of courit you've thought that hardwired •etups were for sloppy analog type* of thing. But hare now wa have THE CHESS MACHINE, under straightfaced construction at the MIT AI Lab, which will provide HARDWIRED THREAT ANALYSIS. Yes, its advanced perceptron architecture will supposedly be capable of analysing threats to *ny given position in a GRAND PARALLEL FLASH. Tha Impact of this astonishing development on the world of Electronic Chess, or anything else, for that matter. Is totally impossible to predict.
Over a very nice lunch at Foditys in Chicago, Prof. Minsky^ and I discussed possible styling for his computer. Be particularly liked the arrangement suggested in this sketch; a folddown keyboard and the displays sort of on poles so they could be seen easily through a crowd of bystanders. The handle would only work, of course, with the scopes removed. We'll see later what it finally looks like.
I asked Dan Hillis, a member of the group, about the possibility of Installing th* 2500 in a van. "Think of it as a recreational vehicle with th* van optional," he said.
What makes possible the computer c culture and everything else is, of course, the spectacular development of electronic chip technology, the techniques of shrinking great electronic circuits to almost no site. Electronic rigs that were ahoebox-size ten years ago are typically now etched on chips the size of your thumbnail and sold for a few dollars, no matter what they contain. A few years ago, the chips only contained building block*, such as registers— units for holding information temporarily. But now in the mid-seventies they have come to contain whole computera, or large sections of them. (The distinction between microprocessors and computers is taken up on p . 44.) The first biggies were from Intel: the BO08 and then the 8080, a chip that has become the heart of the Altair (see p . X ) , as well as rival computer*. New computer chips keep coming out: people keep telling me to mention specific ones, but I can't keep track of them. The Motorola 6800 seem* popular; it will soon be the heart of new computer* from MITS and SPHERE (see p . W and Y ) . (An augmented and faster copy of the 6800 i* r e putedly being sold by HOS Technology for S30.) Another interesting computer chip is the PACE microprocessor from National Semiconductor, with four working registers and a ten-word stack; with 16K memory it costs $500. (The PACE is hidden in an automatic drink mixer and boot* inventory controller from Electro Units Corp., San Jose, Calif. Adjusts prices to hours and can even water the drinks precisely. Claimed to make absentee ownership of bar* practical.) Because of chips, the price of computer main memory is collapsing apace. Something like a dollar a word in the sixties, it is something like like a dime a word now. But Intel now offers a •torago chip holding 16K bit* for SSS, which is 3C a bit, and a friend of nine estimate* that memory chips will cost 1/10 of a cent per word in 1976. These cost collapses cause many to predict the end of disk and tape. But that's premature. While these Eappier chips hold a lot for a little, their contents disappear whan the lights go o u t . Until laser-punched tape comes along, disk and magnetic tape will be very much with us as longterm and oackup storage devices. Because of the action in chip technology, a potential Important movement in computer design may have been passed over: the "macromodulas" d e veloped at Washington University in S t . Louis by . (father of the original DEC modules). >clat and B Th* basic idea of the mscromodula approach was to have conputer subsection* that ware completely interpluggable. With them you can build •ny computer, to your own design, in a couple of days. The syatem exists now and it work* just fine: counters, registers, memoriae can ba a t tached quickly by cable. Unfortunately, the cost 1* high and they haven't found a manufacturer. With chip prices falling, and chip know-how widespread, it's hard to justify charging ten or so time* as much for component* juat because they can ba plugged together faster. (Juat as unfortunately, everything in the aacronodule system is built on lections of twelve bits.) For this reason the St. Louis folk are having trouble getting commercial sponsorship. However, perhaps Soms bright hungry chip company, reading this, would like to get into the aacronodule game. And presumably whittle the module down to th* now-universal 8
Unsatisfied with the structure of normal computer*, they are building at MIT's AI Lab a computer whose native language 1* LISP. It will have 32 bit* with virtual memory, and execute LISP like a bat out of bell. In a refreshing reversal of trends, it will be for one user at a tlBe. "Time-sharing is an Idea whose time has gone," chuckles one participant. (Project MAC, where tine-sharing grew u p , waa there.)
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Seymour Cray, master computer builder, created the 6600 system for Control Data. Indeed, he had the audacity to require CDC to build the computer factory on the property adjoining his own estate in Chippewa Falls, Minnesota, How that ha's broken off to start hi* own company (with money from CDC, among others), the new computer factory adjoins his estate on the other side. Tha Cray-1, another supercomputer, i* nearlng completion there.
Patent #3,875,932 has now been issued for How Wachspress' electronic sex machine or whatever it is (you saw lt first on p . DM9) - In the Illustration wa see it tickling a shmoo. After you send Wachspress his fifty-buck royalty, you can either buy the kit or a prebuilt model. Concave or convex, as the poet says. (Etchings are antediluvian and waterbed* are commonplace; as an invitation, what mora incisive comeuppance could ba proffered?)
Speaking of Machspres*. it aearns that the unusual 1/0 equipment offered by the Federal Screw Works (Troy, Mich.) is only a voice output Surprisingly, a voice input device is now coemterclally available from Threahold Technology, Inc., Cinnaminaon, N J . For $10,500 you get a device that will recognisa 33 spoken words, and aicrophones. (Each user ha* to train it on his 12 words, but separata vocabularies may ba stored on the computer for different users or purposes. This ia still some way from tha fabled "talking computer"-- see pp. DM 13-14 for problama and objections-- but it's undeniably a teful
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•-*lbor Day, 1975 Millions of people ssw computer graphics for the first time on the PBS "Ascent of Man" series, where a screen drawing of Early Man's skull was seen to rotate and gradually change In its features. This waa startling even if you know about computer graphics, since it seemed to be proceeding from complex data concerning the entire skulls and their changes. Not so. Actually what you saw was a series of skull drawings by Peter Foldes, a Parisian a r t i s t , with the computer generating transitional drawings between them. (Indeed, though you saw Prof. Bronovskl next to the screen, you did not see him next to the screen at the same time the drawings were changing— because that had to be filmed very slowly.) The system was created by Nestor Burtnyk and Marcelli W e i n , of the National Research Council of Canada. It currently runs only on »n SEL 8 4 0 A . (It was also used by the National Film Board of Canada for creating Foldes" splendid film "Hunger.") They can preview by rolling through b i t map video on a moving-head d i s k . (See Burtnyk and Wein, "Computer Generated Key-Frame A n i m a tion," J - SHPTE, March 7 1 , 149-53.)
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rh» nnin 'jRvelopnent in computer graphics in the last year has been tha sudden upsurge of the bit-map approach to computer display- While the approach, and equipment for l t — like the Data Disk system-- have been around for some time, the falling price of electronics, especially in the , have made lt abruptly the cheapest - type of computer dlsand thus th* « play for g r a p h i d A "bit map" is a iries of dot positions, or b i t e , recorded in i ie form of fast memory and read out in sync to ii conventional scanned video system (see p p . DM(>-7) . The one bits stand for dots or little squares, the zeroes for nothing, and the video system brightens the corresponding zones on the screen. This method haa certain disadvantages— parts of pictures cannot be automatically distinguished or separately animated, as with subroutining display (see "The Mind's Eye," a s p . p . D M 2 3 ) — but for the money it's g r e a t . Sizes given refer to the number of squares in the rectangle of the picture. BLACK-AND-WHITE
The halftone systfea of IfUMRRO, rumored on p . DM38, Is reel. Clever indeed: it divides the half-tone problem into tvo parts, one the o r i g inal picturing of the scene, the other its p r e s entation in the terminal. That means that their system permits one central Image generator to send out pictures to as many terminals as d e sired. Unlike the Watkins Box (see p . D M 3 7 ) , whose half-milllon-dollar opulence can be poured only on a single user at o n c e , in this system the central resource can be distributed among various users, with each one's picture changed Intermittently, or poured on a single user for full animation. Currently it runs in Portran, transmitting encoded pictures to the unusual t e r minals required (built around T r i n i t r o n s ) . But a special central processor is foreseen. The system is called CHARGE, and Ron Swallow, its developer, la Indeed a hard charger. (Software: Bill Underbill and Roger Gunwaldsen.) Swallow's game isn't movies or engineering g r a phics; he wants CHARGE to compete head-to-head with PLATO (see p p . D H 2 6 - 7 ) . And at the prices h e > talking about— 55000 por terminal and $150,000 for tho central proc-"-;-'•-•I.'J l-r.ows?
What about the animated figure that talks to Joe Gariagioln before baseball games? Haha, That's a rubber puppet matted in from a black box; the guy who does the voice works the m o u t h .
Hany unlikely individuals have stormed that heartbreak town of Hollywood, leaving sadder but wiser— but loan Sutherland, dean of aomputer graphiae? Hell, having found that the moviemakers are not ready for image synthesis— the areammitho unprepared, as it. were, for the Total Forge— he ie sojourning at the Rand Corporation.
A fella named Charles M c C a r t h y , of suburban C h i c a g o , bought the "Computer Eye" from Spatial Data S y s t e m s , and will do mail-order picture c o n v e r s i o n s . He'll convert your favorite snapshot to a printout of the same subject made of light and dark l e t t e r s . If you're interested in having the actual grey-scale data for processing in your own computer, inquire. The Kobius G r o u p , I n c . , P . O . Box 3 0 6 , Winfield IL 6 0 1 9 0 .
Want a computer-controlled videocaasette recorder? The model to ask for is the Sony 2 8 5 0 , costing (gasp) some six thousand b u c k s . An interface to the PDP-11 is made by CMX S y s t e m s . 635 V a q u e r o a , A v e . , Sunnyvale CA 9 4 0 8 6 .
UBEEAL ESTATE: for rcUua'.ion, Ron uorKB or. the "dream house'' he keeps inside the ay8ten.
Since the forties, there have been continual announcements that video disks— movies you play on your TV off a record— were right around the corner. Earlier this year they were supposedly going to be available before C h r i s t m a s . Now they Bight be on sale, "on a limited basis," in 1976. (TV G u i d e , 16 Aug 7 5 , p . 7.) Because of the grave difficulties of engineering— inaccuracies in p u n ching the center hole mean the track can't help being off center, for instance— some of u s are skeptical. Two systems have been confidently announced. Philips, the firm that gave us the audio c a s s e t t e , has a system that will follow the spiral track on the disk from underneath with a laser. The disk turns at 30 revolutions per second, or one turn per TV frame, so it can supposedly freeze on one frame when desired. The other system is from R C A , which has a long history of Be-too announcements, but st least two of them made it big (the 45 record and the color TV system now used in the U S A ) , so RCA should not be dismissed out of h a n d . Their disk system will supposedly go at 450 rpm (7.5 r e v o l utions/second) , but they still mean to track it with a needle. The m a n from TV Guide says he's seen it and it works perfectly, but I -«tould p e r sonally look for hidden w i r e s . (MCA, an entertainment conglomerate, has hitched up with Philips and printed a catalog of all the movies they will supposedly make available on disk for the "MCA-Philips" try a tew— such as Dee-try Rides Again for around ten b u c k s . This is probably just a bluff: with the price of audio records what they a r e , no way is a movie going to cost ten b u c k s . But it makes RCA look w e a k e r , which is probably the purpose.)
The prospect surprised them, but MAGI (see p . DM36) allows as how they might let you make movies on their over-the-phone movie-making setup (sketched on p , D M 3 6 ) . Price to capable outd e r s , if the software m e s h e d , would be about $50 an hour. (six hours makes one minute of film, not counting the phone b i l l . Cheap if you know movie economics.) Meanwhile, John Lowry, a t Digital Video L a b oratories in Toronto, has been developing highquality video suitable for transfer to theatrical film. He and they have developed a 655-line color system— with heavy digital enhancement (see "Picture Processing," p . D M 1 0 ) . I scarcely believe my notes, but I saw i t , and wrote down that it was comparable to 3Sam studio c o l o r . The day of "electronic cameras"-- that i e , filmquality video— may be upon us soon.
About 1972, there was announced an electronically-controlled color filter that could change to any hue in nanoseconds. That would be Just **hat we all need for color movies from C O M s — but what happened to it?
Incidentally, scaled-down CMX editing setups are beginning to get a r o u n d . For i n s t a n c e , they have a small setup in the pleasant offices of DJM rilm £ T a p e , 4 East 4 6 , NYC: three of the above Sonys and the CMX Model 50 control s e t u p , using a PDP-11 and k e y s c o p e . Though prices are b y the j o b , the basic charge is $75/hour. (Note that the big CMX s e t u p , with a d i s k , is the m o d e l 300.)
A t the high end of t h i n g s , , railed Three Rivers Company has come in w i t h a 3D vec boring system (competitors discussed p . D M 3 0 ) . Supposedly they can pack a lot m the The price of the GT40 display (see p . DM21), which all in all is one of the b e s t displays o n the m a r k e t , has just dropped to S 6 5 0 0 . To d i s guise this pride d r o p , DEC gives you the smaller tube and no k e y b o a r d . And at the low e n d , a firm called Megatek in San Diego offers line-drawing C R T controllers for $1000 to $3000. A l l permit a n i m a t i o n . You have to supply the o s c i l l o s c o p e . Their equipment plugs into the PDP-11 or the N o v a , or in one case connects in tandem to an A S C I I time-sharing terminal (!). The 11 and Nova models work directly from BASIC; your program in Basic p u t s line lists in the device's buffer m e m o r y . The time-sharing m o d e l converts incoming line lists from A S C I I to binary and stores them internally. 256 lines with 6-bit resolution cost $ 1 9 0 0 , $110°and S1600 for 1 1 , Nova and t-s respectively; 1024 lines with 10-bit resolution cost S 2 8 0 0 , S2000 and S2500 respectively. (Nova and 11 models can be completely updated in two refresh c y c l e s , y i e l ding as m u c h animation as anyone can decently expect for the p r i c e . Software is supplied to provide display output from N o v a , PDP-11 or t i m e sharing BASIC; also t-s Fortran.) M e a n w h i l e , for the hands-on electronics g u y . Optical E l e c t r o n i c s , I n c . makes all kinds of r o tation m o d u l e s . You can build your own 3D r o t a tion setup out of their modules for a couple of thousand; b u t , of c o u r s e , the fancy digital I/O for high-speed refreshment is not a v a i l a b l e . An interesting capability of the OEI e q u i p m e n t , though, is that you can build 4D- or even SDrotation systems out of their m o d u l e s . Hmmni.
Excellent manuals on the PLATO system and TUTOR language are now available from C E R L , U n i versity of I l l i n o i s , U r b a n a . The next generation of PLATO terminals is coming down the l i n e . The microfiche projector is withering a w a y , as was easily foreseeable; m e a n t i m e , steps ore being taken toward a more high-performance terminal, by putting a computer in i t . This is being done both by Jack S t i f l e , w h o has done it with the Intel c h i p , and Roger Johnson, who haa the panel interfaced to an 1 1 . (11 fans please note the implication: it is p o s sible that the interface may be marketed.) M e a n w h i l e , PLATO-like terminals (the model AG-60) are about $5000 from Applications G r o u p , I n c . , P.O. Box 4 4 4 B , K a u n a s , Ohio 4 3 5 3 7 . Note that these have standard non-PLATO interfaces and standard keyboards, but the Owens-Illinois plasma panel (erroneously called Corning e l s e where in the book) blazes in all its g l o r y .
An off-the-shelf bit-map system for the PDP-11 or the Nova is available from Intermedia S y s t e m s , 20430 Town Center Lane, Cupertino CA 95014 (S2750 or $2500 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . M a y be ganged for grey-scale or color. It's 256x256. For the A l t a i r , tha forthcoming 8096 display (see p . Y) will have 120x120 or Z40x240 bit-map g r a p h i c s , for prices starting around $1000, COLOR Extra bit m a p s , plus e l e c t r o n i c s , can g e t you color; if you double the number of bits you can double the number of available colors on your d i s p l a y , ad infinitum. On the small s i d e , 64x64 color wll shortly be available for the Altair from the Digital G r o u p , D e n v e r . A 128x128 color bit-map system for the 11 has just been announced b y DEC (for "nuclear m e d i cine" of all things— b u t they will part with it to anybody for 8 or 10 thousand (not yet f i x e d ) ) , ihey stress that this w i l l be the first of a m o d u lar series of bit-map d i s p l a y s , with plugins for different degrees of resolution and different character g e n e r a t o r s . Ramtek and Comtal both m a k e 256x256 bit-map systems, priced in the $16,000 a r e a . Above this resolution special TV systems tend to be necessary. Both Ramtek and Comtal make very expensive systems for the p u r p o s e , u s i n g solid-state and disk respectively. You m a y or m a y not have heard of the Advent TV p r o j e c t o r , the m o s t glorious TV thing there i s . It costs $3500 and projects a four-foot picture in the best TV color you can f i n d . A lot of guys are bit-mapping to i t . A t M I T they've got bit-map color on the A d vent at better than 400x500 resolution. (An option planned for the Flying Turtle (see p . Y) will a l low its core memory to be used with the A d v e n t as a bit-map display refresher.) A t Comtal they're going for 1000x1000 o n the A d v e n t , rejiggering the electronics fron s c r a t c h . The m o s t spectacular demonstration of bit-map color so far has no doubt been the film done by Dick Shoup et a l . a t Xerox PARC (see p . X ) , showing the super animation that's possible when bigcomputer resources are given over to bit-map a n i m a t i o n . Their system is 6 0 0 x 8 0 0 .
A l l those scoreboards and wisecracking lightg r i d s , now that they are computer-controlled, raise all kindB of possibilities for non-frame animation. The big ones cost in the millions; a snail one for shopping centers costs a hundred grand (Millenium Info S y s t e m s , Santa Clara C A ) . Within a year or s o , though, you ought to be able to get a n i c e animated display-panel of . assuming . for the side of your i you've got the computer i n s i d e .
A surprise something-or-other from DEC, the But V T 5 5 , represents a breakthrough of some sort what w e r e they thinking of? "Graphic capability" has been added to an ordinary upper-case k e y s c o p e . Specifically, the ability to m a k e two g r a p h s , i.e., two wiggly line; (no more) somewhere between the left and right sides of the screen. Y o u can also shade in under them, and add coordinate g r i d s . It's $2500, and obviously great if you're bonkers for 2D g r a p h s .
MORE THANKS In banging together this volume originally, I omitted thanking Hash Wiener, brazan ( brash young old-fashioned new editor of Computer Decisions, who has changed that publication from stolid X peppery. Thanks also to my good friend Robert w . Fiddler, Esq., patent attorney and still an ex-philosophy professor st heart, for many delightful and witty conversations on problems of p a t e n t , copyright snd the vagaries of intellectual p r o p erty. Any harebrained ideas on these topics expressed here, however, are almost assuredly ay own. For much of the information In this supplement I am grateful to Bob Albrecht of PCC, mentioned here and there. Finally, special thanks to Commander Hugo McCauley, better known to you as Hugo's Book service, for his yeoman performance in shipping out the books— not to mention c a r rying them up and down stairs, typing the mailing labels, checking for bad o n e s , and sending out all those notes of apology when we were out of books again and again and a g a i n . And to long-suffering Lois and Megan McCauley, my especial gratitude. WHATEVER The sea-to-shining-sea Nelson Empire now consists of a lot of unsold b o o k s , a 1K A l tair and a second pair of shoes. My scheme for taking on Apprentice Generalists may have to w a i t a w h i l e . So may Computer L i b , the film. But just w a i t . Speaking of w h i c h , what about this b o o k , h e y , now? Eventually there will be a new edition. Y e s , the type is horrendously s m a l l , and that will have to be fixed. But that involves new negatives for every p a g e , an expenditure of thousands of dollars, and some reconsideration of how this should all be set u p . There have been several interesting p l a n s . One was to split the contents of this book into three b o o k s , add m a t e r i a l , enlarge the type and have them each this size and p r i c e . T e n tative titles were Computer Lib /Dream M a c h i n e s , Computers Arise./Computers A r o u s e ! , and Guerrilla Computing/Electronlc Monkeyshim for Guerrilla Computing: ring Kong climbing the front panel of a 370 holding Patty H e a r s t . (I also daydreamed about p u t ting out a 10-volume encyclopedia in the same f o r m a t , embracing psychology/sociology, biology/evolutionary strategy, history (as strategy) /more h i s tory (as mood and f e e l i n g ) , revolution versus continuity (a two-sided position p a p e r ) . . . the Gem-Maniacal Encyclopedia'™. But reason has p r e v a i l e d , and such forays have been postponed indefinitely. The present plan is for Computer Lib to be rewritten and reset in bigger t y p e , at least 256 p a g e s , with at least 9 color pages and color c o v e r . (We're talking about fall '76 or later.) Price will have to be S15. If you think that's a rlpoff you can still get this o n e . (A number of people have complained to me about the $_7 price tag of this v o l u m e . Have they ever bought other books?) Later I would like to put out an anthology of my favorite a r ticles in the field, using the Computers Arise'./Computers Arouse 1 title and format, and with some good 3D if p o s s i b l e . In any c a s e , I w a n t to stay in the publishing game; I haven't had so m u c h fun in years- o t h er projected volumes include The Inner B e y o n d , by Sheila McKenrle; Dirty Driving and the Strategy of Traffic by "Driver Edj" and The Nelson Computer G l o s s a r y . Soon I hope to be able to typeset from my own c o m p u t e r , and possibly to share this facility. This has been a m o s t interesting y e a r . I have bean pleased to m e e t , and otherwise e n j o y , the variety of clever, charming and/or lubricous p e r sons who have sought me out since the book first appeared; as well aa all the speaking e n g a g e m e n t s , soirees and w h a t n o t . I am delighted to receive relevant material and c o m m u n i cations of any k i n d , although problems of time, disorganisation and mood often preclude a Personal Type Reply. It haa been a real lift for my morale to share some of these Ideas and enthusiasms with a wider public at last. It is you, finally, who have to carep and I am very glad you d o . A s to the most important m a t t e r s , there is a news b l a c k out for tha indefinite future. Please stand b y .
IBM, which did not take p a r t in its d e v e l o p m e n t , is sponsoring a $100,000 CHARGE installation a t the University of Waterloo, in C a n a d a .
Next year in Xanadu.
in 3 (both . I d . . ) i . b a a . d In P«rt on my t a l k , at o t b e f o r e S o c i e t y , tha A m e r i c a n D o c u « * n t a t ion I n s t i t u t e , .„r . . . n r l . U o n . tha A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s , tha A * . o i Kai elLlftenee A g e n c y , t h . at ton for C o m p u t i n g M a c h i n e r y , the C e n t r a l th* P r i n t i n g and latitut* of E l e c t r i c a l and E l e c t r o n i c * E n f l n a S o c i e t y for I n f o r i b l i a h l n . A a a o c l a t l o n , the Rsnd C o r p o r a t i o n . . and Television Engineer Ition D i a p l a y , the S o c l . t y of M o t i o n < • < " . . " , (th* A u b u r n l e c t u r e . ) . ME I n c o r p o r a t e d , U n i o n T h e o l o g i c a l rox P a l o Alto R e . a a r c h C * n t * r , and I v e r . i t l a e and J o i n t C o m p u t e r C o n f e
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Everybody at C h i c a g o Circle Campus has b e e n v e r y s p o r t i n g a b o u t this p r o j e c t . I am g r a t e f u l n o t o n l y for the e n c o u r a g e m e n t and a s s i s t a n c e o f v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u s l s ( e s p e c i a l l y J o s e p h I. U p s o n , D a v i d C . M i l l e r and S a m u e l S c h r a g e ) , b u t for the a t m o s p h e r e of s u p p o r t w h i c h h a s m a d e this p o s s i b l e . M y thanks to the D e p a r t m e n t of A r t and the O f f i c e of I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t for f r e e i n g me from t e a c h i n g d u t i e s , to the C o m p u t e r C e n t e r snd the D e p a r t m e n t of C h e n i s t r y for l e t ting me u s e p i c t u r e s of their e q u i p m e n t , and e v e r y b o d y for t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t .
In
1 important sense this ia not no.
T h e machines, and toys, and involvement* w e buy Into, are in but a small proportion of cases o w n e d simply as scores, for their eo.t a* consumption symbols. Rather, w e b u y things lhat R E P R E S E N T I D E A L S . hoping ourselves lo partake of *ome abstraction or image-- the Playboy m a n , the Smart Businessman, the Clever H o m e m a k e r .
I w o u l d like to thank the W a l t D i s n e y o r g a n i z a t i o n for their p e r m i s s i o n to d e p i c t their w o n d e r f u l c h a r a c t e r s , and e v e r y o n e e l s e w h o f u r n i s h e d m a t e r i a l s and p e r m i s s i o n s for the t h i n g s h e r e i n .
Each product tries lo tell us it is the k e y stone of a w a y of life, and then, at least at that m o m e n t of purchase, w e step into, w c embrace that W a y of life, covering ourselves with the feeling, the aura, the magic w e s a w in the c o m mercial.
T h a n k s a l s o to those w h o l o o k e d o v e r some o f the m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y H e r b e r t G r o s c h of C o w p u t e r w o r l d , Dan M c G u r k o f the C o m p u t e r I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n , a n d William Rodgers.
1 already said on the other aide that the computer is a Rorschach, and you m a k e of it some wild reflection of what you are yourself. T h e r e is m o r e to it than that.
Thl* ia not materialism. It Is wishful grasping at m i a s m a . (Following sentence o p tional.) It is c o m m u n i o n , with the object seised simply the Objective Correlative of a hoped-for tranasubstantistion. (Sorry.) It's a seeking, not to possess, 4 lo belong.
the I am p a r t i c u l a r l y gratie f u l m a n y w h o h a v e e x p l a i n e d c o m p u t e r s to ne o v e r the y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y D a v e D e n n i s t o n , Robert Fenichel, Andrew J, S i n n e r , John R. Levine.
I am g r a t e f u l to C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s m a g a z i n e for t h e i r g o o d w i l l , and h e l p in researching computer imago s y n t h e s i s . My roommate Tom D e F a n t i , mentioned e l s e w h e r e in this b o o k , has b e e n c o n s i d e r a t e b e y o n d the c a l l of d u t y in g i v i n g o v e r all the f i r s t - f l o o r r o o m s o f o u r h o u s e to this p r o j e c t for six m o n t h s . M y t h a n k s f i n a l l y to the m a n y o t h e r s w h o s e g o o d w i l l h a s k e p t me g o i n g , in p a r t i c u l a r my f o r m e r w i f e and e t e r n a l friend, Deborah Stone Nelson.
D . W . GRIFFITH-- took the movie-box and created [he photoplay. no longer n twisted stage production.
S p e c i a l g r e e t i n g s to ny f r i e n d a n d neighbor, M r s . John R. Neill: I hope you e n j o y the uses w h i c h y o u r h u s b a n d ' s i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f T i k - T o k the M a c h i n e M a n have found h e r e .
W A L T D I S N E Y - - created a hypnotic pantheon of kindly and innocent semi-animals, sentimentally universal, generally acceptable.
I V A N S U T H E R L A N D — p r o g r a m m e d and systematized a computer setup for helping people think and w o r k with dec ply-structured pictorial information. (See p.ihl)-) D O U G E N G E L B A R T — foresaw the use of computer screens as a w a y of expanding the m i n d , and over the last decade and a half has brought about just that.
C o m p a r e Alice, w h e n she gets lo Wonderland ("Deary m e ! Curioser and curioser!") with Dorothy Gale, transported to O z ("How do I_ get back to Kansas?!!!") Fantasy ties in with everything, including American git-out-n-do-it.
M e n always longed to fly. but it w a s here that they first did. This is the land of the M O V I E , a fantasy fabricated with endless difficulty using various kinds of e q u i p m e n t .
16 20 24 26 28
This is the land of the kandy kolor hot rod, the Hell's Angel c h o p p e r , the drive-in m o v i e . A n d the wild h o t r o d , in fact, is Just the flip side of the deep-carpeted Cadillac: each is a fantasy, an extension of its owner's image of himself in the w o r l d .
30 31 32 34
T h u s it w a s not an historical accident, but utterly predetermined, that in the hands of Americana the computer would b e c o m e a w a y of realizing every conceivable wild fantasy that w a s dear to t h e m .
(Hotel t h i s t h e s i s is b e i n g a d v a n c e d only half-seriously. There have been a number of exactly-dreamful F r e n c h m e n , and for this three-nationality split to be really t r u e , they would all h a v e to h a v e c o m e f r o m A l s a c e , n e x t t o G e r m a n y : Jule.-> V o r n e , Oaguorrc, the brothers HontgoIfi . few.) others Lumiere, the
Thought you might w o n d e r .
OUT THE D O O R IH
8 8 9 10 11 12 1Z IS 15
37 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 44 46 48 S2 S6 58 59
T h e r e la just one problem with all this. N o w that all these things exist, or c o m e nearer to existing, which ones will other people want? What will it be possible for everyone to have? A n d h o w can w e tie all these things together?
A N O T H E R QUICKIE
i this sDresd ia from
Z 4 6 6
This is perfectly all right. This is as it should b e . This ia the best pert of our culture. Not "Let a h u n d r e d flowers bloom," but "Let a h u n d r e d gizmos clank." This has sped i m m e a s urably the imaginative development of m a n y different things w e might w a n t . I try here fairly to explain a few differences a m o n g t h e m .
A n d m o r e , and o n .
T h e occasional O z ill us [rations are ail b y John R . Neill. from various out-of-copyright O z books by L . Frank B a u m , especially O z m a of O z and Tik-Tok of O z . T i k - T o k . the Machine M a n , is the figure to w h o m occasional allegorical significance is attached here b y Juxtaposition.
G e r m a n s are too literal, they can get off on well-oiled cogs. T h e French are too v a g u e . (I've noticed thai G e r m a n science-fiction m a g a zines had covers of machines nnd planets; French science-fiction magazines, of dragons and people with w i n g s . O u r science-fiction covers show people with machines. Intimately, emotionally.) G e r m a n fantasy Is icy and impersonal, French fantasy too personal, and American fantasy is splat In the middle, uniting both: m a n and m a c h i n e , m e a n s and e n d s , emotion and details.
i fabled character
J O H N W . C A M P B E L L - - as author and then editor •f Astounding, turned American sciencefiction from the B u c k Rogers space opera to the h u m a n story, built around thoughtout premises and structures.
L a s t l y , for h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s to m o r a l e (and for n o t f o o t p r i n t i n g the p a s t e u p s } , let's h a v e a w a r n h a n d for P o o k y the W o n d e r D o g .
of
America la the land w h e r e the machine is an intimate part of our fantasy life.
M y t h a n k s to T o m B a r n a r d for s o m e of the e a r l y t y p i n g , and for the P o r t a - X a n .
'74
m e tfGWt> of Wree-fx*^ In the fantasies of their MibjecU, which ihey ted are the precursors ol new artistic images lhat will in turn aclualue theimelve* as another form ol bring, Matters and HouMon tee . new herofigureconstantly recurring. Thi* new hero ii not ihe old "hero of a thouiand face*," the individualist who tuflVr*, din. and U reborn, tl.ughtering and conquering along the way. Instead, he ii Protean, c.pable of infinite change* in appear.nee and slyle, • magician, a Ballkeu r bringing giflL He rupture* categories and confutes the senses, and in doing to he holds oul ihe promise of fusion on a higher level.
I h a v e w a n t e d to w r i t * an i n t r o d u c t i o n to c o m p u t e r s , and a a e p a r a t e b o o k on F a n t i c * for y But the Idea of b i n d i n g them b * c k - t o - b a c k in a W h o l e E a r t h f o r m a t , w i t h l o t a of m l a c h l e v o u * Enr material, d i d n ' t h i t me t i l l Jan 7 3 . I h a v e t r i e d to add a l l the s t i m u l a t i n g and e x h l l a r a s t u f f I could f i n d , e s p e c i a l l y pe at ion* , as on the o t h e r s i d e ; c o m p u t e r * are d e e p l y p e r m a c h i n e s , c o n t r a r y to l e g e n d , end , s h o w i n g - s y s t e m s . I r e g r e t h a v i n g to t h r o w so m a n y of i c o n c e r n * into comic r e l i e f , b u t 1 1 lat s o m e r e a d e r s w i l l s e n s e the s e r i o u s n e s s b e l o w . t I O R
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c a l l e d the D o m e b o o k , t h a t t e l l , y o u I'm b l a t a n t l y i m i t a t i n g , in a w a y , t h . b a c k , t h o u g h , the t o n e a l s o c o m e , in p a r t a u t o m o b i l e r e v i e w . In M e c h a n l x I l l u s t r a t e
If such . hero were to became I he model lor [he approarhing age, he would probably nol be the founder of • m a u movement or I he god ol . new rrliginn. He would be more elusive, more changeful ihtn his predecessors. He would be • sorcerer who Ireala the eilemsl world and the interna! world on equal terms, giving spirit to the former andfleshto the lat let. He would be • matter of par idol and a player of g.nwm, speaking • new language. Hi* one prayer might be the tinea of Blake:
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T h l * p r o j e c t , . i n p l e i n p r i n c i p l e h a * b e e n i n f i n i t e l y b o t h e r s o m e . S e l f - p u b 1 i c a 1 1 on w a s n e c e s •ary b e c a u s e no p u b l i s h e r could have c m p r e h e n d e d the c o n c e p t of t h l * b o o k ; I h e * r t i l y r e c o m m e n d B i l l H e n d e r e o o . (ad.)'« T h e P u b l i s h - I t - Y o u r * O f H a n d b o o k . SI from T h e P u s h c a r t B o o k P r e s s . Box 8 4 5 , l o o k e r s •T 1 0 7 0 1 . t the b o o k I had m e a n t to w r i t e . H o s t 1* f i r a t - d r a f t ; h o w the s e n . I do n o t like u n d e r l i n i n g t h i n g * — a f i r a t - d r a f t e x p e d i e n t . ) Fai d to be l a r g e l y a b a n d o n e d . B a t t e r p l a n n i n g c o u l d h a v e i n c r e a s e d Half I p t , and the g l o s s a r y , had to be k i c k e d a s i d e ; I n c l u d i n g i i-madia," mlerofil a l n l n g s i m u l a t o r s , a u g m e n t e d s t a g e p r o d u c t i o n s of tl •news w h a t . S o r r y f 11 t h s t . W I T H A L I T T L E H E L P F R O M Mt ,
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DREAM MACHINES APPARATUSES OF APPARITION VIDEO L I G H T N I N G IN A B O T T L E : THE CATHODE-RAY TUBE HOLOGRAPIIY S a n d i n ' s Image P r o c e s s o r 3 0 D Y ELECTRON'! CS PICTURE PROCESSING AUDIO u COMPUTERS THREE COMPUTER DREAMS: AI ( a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ) IR ( i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l ) CAI ( c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d instruction) "No More T e a c h e r s ' Dirty Looks." T H E M I N D ' S EYE (computer display) COMPUTER MOVIES PLATO " L a w s of the U n i v e r s e Hyper-Comics" THE MIND'S EYE MORE: 3D L I N E S Y S T E M S D e F a n t i ' s C o u p de G R A S S HALFTONE IMAGE SYNTHESIS 1. Polygon Systems 2. Shades of Reality (nicer greys) 3 . H a r d e n i n g of the Artistries (special hardware) 4. Computer Image C o r p . T H E M I N D ' S EYE M O R E : n Dimensions The Circle.Graphics Habitat T h e T i s s u e of T h o u g h t H o w to L e a r n A n y t h i n g On Writing The Heritage HYPERMEDIA, HYPERTEXTS Engelbart FANTICS THINKERTOYS XANADU W H A T N E L S O N IS R E A L L Y S A Y I N G FLIP O U T
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The aad t h i n g a b o u t it a l l It a y a t * * (of w h i c h o n l y a c o u p l e ex t as y e t ) w o u l d h a v e o b v i a t e d a l l tha f 1 n d l n g - a n d - r e t y p l o g I feel d.*ply for e v e r y o n e w h o ha, t r o u b l e w r i t i n g by c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n s , and w h o w o u l d n ' t If decent systems were a v a i l a b l e .
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or AfPiJitmeNJ It a e e m a different c o m p a n i e s a r e all the time introducing w o n d e r f u l n e w d e v i c e s that will revolutionize, u h . w h a t e v e r it is w e d o w i t h , u h , information a n d stuff. Thing's you'll attach to y o u r T V to get h i g h b r o w p r o g r a m s o r dirty m o v i e s . Microfilm devices that will s h r i n k the contents of the Vatican L i b r a r y to a dot o n y o u r g l a s s e s . G o g g l e s that s h o w y o u h o l o g r a p h i c color m o v i e s . A p i n c e - n e z that lets y o u see the future. A n d so o n .
B f \ r S e t l 5 Guy_'s_ B a c k g r o u n d Television: 1. V i d e o freaks 2. N e t w o r k People 3.
R e a d i n g P o p u l a r M e c h a n i c s o r the S a t u r d a y r e v i e w of patents in the N e w Y o r k T i m e s , y o u get the idea of S o m e t h i n g B i g , N e w a n d W o n d e r ful A b o u t to H a p p e n , so we'll all h a v e a c c e s s to anything, anytime, a n y w h e r e .
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Programmed Instruction, Computer-Assisted Instruction
H e r e are s o m e things that h a v e c a u g h t o n , a n d are mostly familiar to u a all. B o o k . N e w s p a p e r . Magazine. Radio ( A M ) . P h o n o g r a p h record ( 7 8 ) . T a p e r e c o r d e r . B l a c k - a n d - w h i t e television. R a d i o ( F M ) . P h o n o g r a p h record ( 3 3 ) . P h o n o g r a p h record ( 4 5 ) . Color television. T a p e cartridge ( i " ) . T a p e cassette (Philips, c a . 1 / 8 " ) . Stereo r e c o r d s and tapes. O h y e a h , a n d movies: 3 5 m m , 1 6 m m , 8 m m . S u p e r 8 m m . C a r o u s e l projectors. V i e w m a s t e r stereo v i e w e r s .
Publishing Advertising, Public R e l a t i o n s , Marketing Artificial Intelligence
McLuhanatic H e r e a r e s o m e things In the p r o c e s s of catching o n (and not a s s u r e d of s u c c e s s ) : Q u a d r o p h o n i c s o u n d . D o l b y . C h r o m i u m , dioxide tape e m u l s i o n . S u p e r 16 m o v i e f o r m a t .
T h e n there a r e the v i d e o r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s . C B S ' E V R d i e d before it got a n y w h e r e . R C A ' s SelectaVision isn't out y e t . 2-inch q u a d is s t a n d a r d in the s t u d i o s , |-inch P o r t a - P a k is s t a n d a r d a m o n g the V i d e o F r e a k s , a n d it looks like S o n y ' s 3/4" cartridge will w i n a s the m a i n sales a n d storage m e d i u m . ( T h e Philips s y s t e m h e r e looks as t h o u g h it w o n ' t m a k e it, a n d 1-inch is d u b i o u s . ) B u t w h a t ' s this w e h e a r a b o u t video d i s k s (twenty-five y e a r s after they a n n o u n c e d P h o n e v i s i o n . A h , well.)? T h e thing i s , so m a n y of these t h i n g s s e e m to s o u n d alike. T h e y ell m e n t i o n "information retrieval," e d u c a t i o n , t e c h n o l o g y , possibly "the information e x p l o s i o n " a n d "the k n o w l e d g e i n d u s t r y . " P r e s s releases o r effusive n e w s p a p e r articles m a y u s e p h r a s e s like " s p a c e - a g e , " "futuristic," " M c L u h a n e s q u e " o r e v e n " O r w e l l i a n " ( t h o u g h f e w p e o p l e w h o u s e that w o r d s e e m to k n o w w h a t O r w e l l stood for; s e e p ).
T h e n there a r e the b u s i n e s s m a g a z i n e s . In the late sixties t h e y w e r e talking a b o u t " T h e K n o w l e d g e I n d u s t r y " (a fiction, it t u r n e d o u t . of a n economist's l u m p i n g a lot of things together o d d l y ) . N o w t h e y talk a b o u t the C a b l e T V o u t fits a n d the V i d e o C a r t r i d g e outfits a s t h o u g h they're the cat'B p a j a m a s .
A n y t h i n g mathematical; t h e o r e m s , discriminators, neural nets: " p r o g r a m m i n g " ( m e a n i n g setting u p a n y t h i n g v e r y complicated a n d i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ) . Global Village, m o s a i c , s u r r o u n d ; " P r o g r a m m i n g " ( m e a n i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l indoctrination): a n y b o d y else's t e r m s , d y n a m i c a l l y infused with n e w s e n s e s .
H a v i n g B p e n t s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e time a r o u n d a n d a m o n g these a r e a s , I h a v e d e v e l o p e d c o n s i d erable c y n i c i s m a n d a b a d c a s e of the g i g g l e s . Originally it all s e e m e d to fit t o g e t h e r a n d to b e l e a d i n g s o m e w h e r e , b u t talking to p e o p l e at all levels, a n d either g i v i n g a d v i c e o r t r y i n g to interpret the a d v i c e of o t h e r s , I a m c o n v i n c e d that w h a t w e h a v e h e r e in this w h o l e a u d i o visual-presentational w h i z b a n g field is n o t h i n g less t h a n a v e r y h i g h o r d e r of collective i n s a n i t y . T h e strange w a y c o m p a n i e s adopt a n d d r o p v a r ious p r o d u c t l i n e s , a n d v e r b a l i z e w h a t t h e y think t h e y a r e d o i n g , s e e m to m e a c o m b i n a t i o n of l e m m i n g i s m a n d a w i l l i n g n e s s to follow a n y A u t h ority in a n e x p e n s i v e suit. I h a v e talked to e n o u g h v i c e - p r e s i d e n t s a n d p r e s i d e n t s of c o m p u ter c o m p a n i e s , p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n i e s , n e t w o r k s , m e d i a outfits a n d s o o n , to b e totally certain that t h e y h a v e n o special k n o w l e d g e o r u n u s u a l b a s i s of information; yet these people's r e m a r k s , as amplified t h r o u g h the b u s i n e s s r e p o r t e r s , s e n d the w h o l e nation a - d i t h e r i n g . T h e r e a r e t i m e s I think e v e r y b o d y in M e d i a is either d e l u d e d , m i s g u i d e d , lying o r c r a z y .
THREE A n d the intimidating c o m p a n y n a m e s ! Outfits with n a m e s like G e n e r a l L e a r n i n g , I n c . , o r Synergistic C y b e r n e t i c s , I n c . , o r e v e n Communications | Research (Machines, Inc. S u r e l y s u c h p e o p l e m u s t k n o w w h a t they a r e d o i n g , to u s e s u c h scientific-sounding p h r a s e s as these!
" M e d i a " ( m e a n i n g television); "Software" ( m e a n i n g videotapes). " P r o g r a m m i n g " ( m e a n i n g competitive s c h e d u l i n g ) ; " S o f t w a r e " ( m e a n i n g fixed-length T V s h o w s ) . Head e n d , upstream a downstream, back-channel, "interactive T V " ( m e a n i n g a n y f o r m of interactive c o m p u t e r s y s t e m they c a n get in o n ) . Information t h e o r y , c h a n n e l c a p a c i t y , b a n d w i d t h , f e e d b a c k , a n y t h i n g c o m p l e x a n d irrelevant. Full d u p l e x , e c h o p l e x , aspect ratio, scroll, c u r s o r ; "information transfer" ( m e a n i n g telling o r t e a c h i n g ) ; "data d e l i v e r y " (act t h e r e o f ) . " S o f t w a r e " ( m e a n i n g sequential o r b r a n c h i n g tell-itest m a t e r i a l s ) ; " P r o g r a m m i n g " (creating t h e s e ) ; r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e s ( m e a n i n g presentational o r d e r ) ; " i n p u t s " ( m e a n i n g ideas a n d i n f o r m a t i o n ) ; " f e e d b a c k " ( m e a n i n g replies); "simulations" ( m e a n i n g pictures o r events a user can influence). "Software" (meaning b o o k s ) . " D e m o g r a p h i c s " ( m e a n i n g factions); c a m p a i g n o l r a l e g y ( m e a n i n g h o w y o u hit a m a r k e t ) ; "penetration" ( m e a n i n g extent to w h i c h y o u r stuff c a t c h e s o n ) ; " P r o g r a m m i n g " (moaning anything w h a t e v e r ) .
M e d i u m ( m e a n i n g stabilized presentational c o n t e x t ) ; W r i t i n g a n d C r e a t i o n ( m e a n i n g thoughtful p r o d u c t i o n of s o m e t h i n g p r e s e n t a b l e , w h e t h e r sequential o r n o t , in a m e d i u m ) ; " P r o g r a m m i n g " ( m e a n i n g g i v i n g e x a c t instructions to a c o m p u t e r ) ; m e d i a integrity, inventions 1 c o n v e n t i o n s : h y p e r t e x t , t h i n k e r t o y , fantics.
B u t for e v e r y t h i n g that did catch o n , d o z e n s didn't. S o m e e x a m p l e s : 12-inch 45 r p m r e c o r d s . 11.5 millimeter m o v i e s . R C A ' s ,-inch tape cartr i d g e , w h i c h b e c a m e a m o d e l for the m u c h smaller Philips. W i r e r e c o r d e r s . T h e n there a r e the things that c a u g h t o n for awhile a n d w e n t n w a y . Stereopticons ( a n d their beautiful d e s c e n d a n t , the T r u - V u e , w h i c h I loved a s a k i d ) . Cylindrical r e c o r d i n g s . P i a n o rolls. A n d s o o n .
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I o n c e r e u d a m i n d - b l o w i n g r e v i e w article in F i l m s in R e v i e w , early sixties I t h i n k , o n s c h e m e s to m a k e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l movies before 1930. T h e r e w e r e d o z e n s . T h e n t h e r e w a s that m u l t i s c r e e n film N a p o l e o n — a l e g e n d - - d o n e in the n i n e t e e n - t w e n t i e s . ( T h a t o n e really e x i s t e d . ) P h o n e v i s i o n , a b o u t 1947 o r s o , w a s g o i n g to store a h a l f - h o u r m o v i e o n a 12-inch d i s k . D i d t h e y get the idea f r o m the L P ? Did t h e y really think they c o u l d d o it? T h e G e r m a n p h o t o - g i z m o , a r o u n d 1950: a special c a m e r a that s u p p o s e d l y c r e a t e d a s c u l p t u r e of w h a t it w a s p o i n t e d a t . (But h o w did it k n o w w h a t w a s b e h i n d t h i n g s ? ) A
HOME."
T h e e m p h a s i s h a s c h a n g e d f r o m t r y i n g to sell s n a z z y s y s t e m s to the s c h o o l s ( w h i c h don't h a v e the m o n e y ) to the h o m e . T h i s in t u r n h a s c o n v i n c e d m o s t p e o p l e that the n e w s y s t e m s h a v e to b e v e r y limited, like j i m m i e d - u p T V s e t s . ( W e easily lose track of the fact that y o u c a n h a v e a n y t h i n g "in the h o m e " if y o u w a n t to p a y for it; a n d a n e c o n o m y in w h i c h M a r a n t z e s a n d s n o w m o b i l e s h a v e c a u g h t o n b i g indicates that s o m e p e o p l e a r e g o i n g to b e willing to p a y for really hot stuff.) 2.
Wonderful Systems That Were G o n n a
w e i r d lens a r o u n d 1 9 5 0 — I think it w a s d e p i c ted a s h a v i n g a b l u e c e n t e r a n d a r e d p e r i p h e r y , like a fifties h o o d l u m tail-light— that w a s s o m e h o w g o i n g to find "residual traces" of color in b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e s , a n d m a k e ' e m into c o l o r , z o w i e , just b y copying them.
T h e n t h e r e w a s the P a n a c o l o r C a r t r i d g e . During the D a y s of M a d n e s s - - 1 9 6 8 , I think it w a s -- a r a t h e r g o o d little m o v i e g a d g e t w a s b e i n g p u s h e d b y a firm called P a n a c o l o r . It h a d ten parallel m o v i e a n d a u d i o t r a c k s , 1 b e l i e v e , o n a 7 0 m m strip. T h e p r o t o t y p e s w e r e built b y Z e i s s .
T h e k e y q u e s t i o n is not h o w g o o d a s y s t e m is in the a b s t r a c t , b u t w h e t h e r it will catch o n . ( O b v i o u s l y if w e ' r e public-spirited w e w a n t the best s y s t e m s to catch o n , of c o u r s e . ) T h i s m a t t e r of C a t c h i n g O n crucial b u s i n e s s .
is a fickle a n d
A c c o r d i n g to o n e a n e c d o t e , M r . Bell couldn't interest s n y o n e in his i n v e n t i o n , w h i c h h e w a s s h o w i n g at s o m e t r a d e fair. T h e n w h o s h o u l d c o m e b y b u t the E m p e r o r of Brazil (!), w h o w a s a b o u t to leave with his retinue of a d v i s e r s . " W h a t is that?" a s k e d the E m p e r o r of B r a z i l . " N o t h i n g to b o t h e r w i t h , " they s a i d , a n d tried to r u s h h i m b y , b u t h e s t o p p e d a n d l o v e d it, a n d o r d e r e d the first pair of t e l e p h o n e s s o l d . T h i s m a d e the h e a d l i n e s , a n d the sale of telephones began.
E m b l e m of 2d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A n i m a t i o n F i l m F e s t i v a l in H M Y o r k , J « 7 4 . © M a l t D i s n e y P r o d u c t i o n s .
A n o t h e r a n e c d o t e . It is l e g e n d a r y that i n v e n t o r s o v e r v a l u e their o w n w o r k . Yet after T h o m a s E d i s o n h a d i n v e n t e d the k i n e m a t o g r a p h , o r " m o v i n g p i c t u r e , " a d e v i c e y o u l o o k e d into t u r n i n g a c r a n k , h e d e c l i n e d to build a projector for it, s a y i n g that the novelty w o u l d w e a r off. O b v i o u s l y h e did't quite s e e w h a t " c a t c h i n g o n " would mean here.
T h e i r idea w a s that this w a s a c o m pact m o v i e p r o j e c t o r . 1 kept trying to p e r s u a d e the c o m p a n y ' s p r e s i d e n t lhat they h a d inadvertently d e s i g n e d a s p l e n d i d d e v i c e for b r a n c h i n g m o v i e s (see " H y p e r f i l m s , " p.°*77). E x e r c i s e for the r e a d e r : m a p out p r o p erties of the b r a n c h i n g a n d e x p o s i t o r y s t r u c t u r e s implicit in s u c h a d e v i c e . (It's o n e - d i r e c t i o n a l . Gotta r e w i n d w h e n y o u get to the e n d . B u t y o u c a n j u m p b e t w e e n tracks w h e n it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e . ) A n y w a y , it's g o n e
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Robert Comix
In o r d e r for s o m e t h i n g to C a t c h O n , it h a s to b e s t a n d a r d i z e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e ia m o tivation for different c o m p a n i e s to m a k e their o w n little c h a n g e s in o r d e r to restrict u s e r s to Its o w n p r o d u c t s . T h e b e s t e x a m p l e of h o w to a v o i d this: Philips p a t e n t e d its a u d i o c a r t r i d g e to the t e e t h , b u t t h e n g r a n t e d e v e r y b o d y free u s e of the p a t e n t p r o v i d e d t h e y a d h e r e d to the e x a c t s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n . T h e result h a s b e e n the system's spectacular s u c c e s s , a n d Philips, rather t h a n d o m i n a t i n g a s m a l l m a r k e t , h a s a s h a r e of a far l a r g e r m a r k e t , a n d h e n c e m a k e s m o r e money. T h a t ' s a v i r t u e - r e w a r d e d k i n d of s t o r y .
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T h e other p r o b l e m with standardization, t h o u g h , is that w e t e n d to s t a n d a r d i z e too s o o n . W e standardized on A M radio, e v e n though F M w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n better. (One Major A r m s t r o n g , a g r e a t figure in the d e v e l o p m e n t of r a d i o , c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e w h e n n o b o d y w o u l d accept F M . If h e c o u l d o n l y h a v e h e a r d o u r F M of t o d a y , h e m i g h t h a v e said " O h , n u t s , " a n d lived.)
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A m o n g the m a n y o d d t h i n g s that h a v e resulted f r o m the collision of c o m p u t e r p e o p l e with e d u c a t o r s , p u b l i s h e r s a n d others h a s b e e n the respectful imitation of c o m p u t e r w a y s b y t h o s e w h o didn't quite u n d e r s t a n d t h e m . Again, the c a r g o cult.* T h e m o s t d i s m a l of t h e s e p r a c t i c e s h a s b e e n the a d o p t i o n of the t e r m " s o f t w a r e " for a n y intellectual o r artistic p r o p e r t y T h i s w h o l l y loses the distinction, m a d e o n t h e o t h e r side of the b o o k , between: hardware
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A n o t h e r e x a m p l e . W h e n t h e y d e s i g n e d the T o u c h - T o n e p h o n e p a d , the Bell p e o p l e e v i d e n t l y s a w n o r e a s o n to h a v e it m a t c h the a d d i n g m a c h i n e p a n e l , s o t h e y p u t " 1 " in the u p p e r left r a t h e r t h a n the l o w e r left. N o w t h e r e a r e lots of p e o p l e w h o u s e b o t h a r r a n g e m e n t s , e v e r y d a y , a n d at least o n e of t h e m c u r s e s t h e d e s i g n e r s ' lack of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A n o t h e r interesting e x a m p l e of C a t c h i n g O n : d u r i n g t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , it w a s f u n b e i n g at p l a c e s w h e r e t h e y w e r e just getting X e r o x c o p i e r s for t h e first t i m e . E v e r y o n e w o u l d a r g u e that n o b o d y n e e d e d a c o p i e r . T h e n , g r u d g i n g l y , o n e w o u l d b e o r d e r e d . T h e first m o n t h ' s u s e i n v a r i a b l y w o u l d e x c e e d t h e e s t i m a t e for t h e first y e a r , a n d g o u p a n d u p f r o m t h e r e .
Pr*.v*l.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE
STANDARDIZATION
equipment)
s o f t w a r e ( p r o g r a m s , detailed p l a n s of o p e r a t i o n that the h a r d w a r e carries out) c o n t e n t s o r d a t a (material w h i c h is w o r k e d o n b y , m o v e d in o r p r e s e n t e d b y the h a r d w a r e u n d e r control of t h e s o f t w a r e ) In o t h e r w o r d s , h a r d w a r e a n d s o f t w a r e together m a k e a n e n v i r o n m e n t ; data o r contents m o v e a n d a p p e a r in that e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e p u b l i s h i n g - e n d - p i c t u r e folk h a v e m i s s e d this distinction e n t i r e l y . N o t realizing that their p r o d u c t i o n s are the c o n t e n t s ( m a t e r i a l , m a t t e r , d a t a , stuff, m e s s a g e . . . ) that c o m e a n d g o in t h e prefabricated h a r d w a r e - s o f t w a r e e n t i r o n m e n t s , t h e y h a v e m u s h e d this t o g e t h e r into a state of self-feeding c o n f u s i o n . ( T h e m a t t e r h a s n o t b e e n h e l p e d b y the c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d instruction p e o p l e — s e e p . fyft \ c — w h o s e b r a n c h i n g p r o d u c t i o n s s e e m e d to t h e m e n o u g h ljke c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s to b e called "software.")
T h e w o r s t a s p e c t of the c o n f u s i o n a m o n g t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s is that certain deficiencies a n d c r u d i t i e s of v i s i o n slip into t h e m i x . Unless o u r n e w m e d i a a n d their e x a c t ramifications a n d c o n c o m i t a n t s a r e p l a n n e d w i t h the g r e a t e s t c a r e , e v e r y b o d y s t a n d s to l o s e . W e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e detailed p r o p e r t i e s of m e d i a . ( T h e first q u e s t i o n to a s k , w h e n s o m e b o d y is s h o w i n g y o u the Latest a n d G r e a t e s t , is: " W h a t a r e t h e p r o p e r t i e s a n d qualities of t h e m e d i u m ? " T h e followup q u e s t i o n s c o m e easily w i t h e x p e r i e n c e : H o w o f ten d o y o u h a v e to c h a n g e it. w h a t a r e the b r a n c h i n g options, w h a t part could s o m e b o d y accid e n t a l l y p u t in b a c k w a r d s , a r e t h e r e d i s t r a c t i n g complications? etc. } I am unpersueded by M c L u h a n . His ins i g h t s a r e r e m a r k a b l e , y e t s u s p i c i o u s : he_ s u p p o s e s that electronic m e d i a a r e all t h e s a m e . How c a n this b e ? H e r e w e m a y n o w decide w h a t electronic m e d i a w e w a n t in the f u t u r e — a n d this d e c i s i o n , I w o u l d s a y , is o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t w e h a v e to f a c e . T h e e n g i n e e r s s e e m to b e q u i t e t h e o p p o site o f M c L u h a n : s o m e h o w to t h e m it's a l w a y s a m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e , m u l t i - e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m , different e v e r y t i m e ; "this t e c h n i q u e is g o o d for A , that t e c h n i q u e is g o o d for B . " B u t the net effect is the s a m e : " e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a a r e g e n e r a l l y the s a m e . " I w o u l d c l a i m that the're all differe n t , all ten million of t h e m ( T V b e i n g o n l y o n e electronic m e d i u m o u t of t h e l o t ) , a n d the differences matter v e r y v e r y m u c h , a n d only a few c a n c a t c h o n . S o it m a t t e r s v e r y m u c h w h i c h . S o m e are g r e a t , s o m e are l o u s y , s o m e are s u b tly b a d , h a v i n g a l o c k e d - i n i n f o r m a t i o n s t r u c t u r e , built d e e p - d o w n into t h e s y s t e m . (Example: t h e fixed " q u e r y m o d e s " built into s o m e s y s t e m s . ) O n e last p o i n t . E v e r y b o d y o n l y h a s a 24-hour d a y . M o s t p e o p l e , if t h e y i n c r e a s e c o n s u m p t i o n of o n e m e d i u m (like m a g a z i n e s o r b o o k s ) will c u t d o w n o n a n o t h e r (like T V ) . T h i s d r a s tically r e d u c e s the sorts of g r o w t h s o m e p e o p l e h a v e b e e n e x p e c t i n g . E x c e p t , n o w , if w e c a n b e g i n to r e p l a c e s o m e of the i n a n e p a p e r - s h u f f l i n g a n d p a p e r - l o s i n g of t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d , a n d r e p l a c e t h e c r e e p y activities o f the s c h o o l (as n o w g e n e r a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d ) w i t h a m o r e g o l d e n u s e of time a n d m i n d . Read on.
" T h e E m p e r o r h a s n o clothes o n ! 1 Small B o y (name withheld)
L a s t y e a r I actually h e a r d a p h o n e c o m p a n y lecturer s a y that in the future w e will h a v e "Instant A c c e s s to A n y t h i n g , Anytime, Anywhere." W h a t t h e y ' r e p u s h i n g is P i c t u r e p h o n e , w h i c h it s e e m s to m e is u n n e c e s s a r y , w a s t e f u l a n d generally unfeasible. (See: R o b e r t J . R o b i n s o n , " P i c t u r e p h o n e — W h o N e e d s It?", D a t a m a t i o n 15 N o v 7 1 , 1 5 2 . )
In any medium-- w r i t t e n , v i s u a l , filaic or whatever-- you generate instantaneously an a t m o s p h e r e , a p a t i n a , a miasma of s t y l e , i n v o l v e m e n t , p e r s o n a l i t y (perhaps implicit) , outlook, portent. Consider— T h e c o m p l a c e n c y of t h e S u l z b e r g e r * ' Mew York Times-T h e c y n i c i s m and m i s c h i e f of Kraasner's. Realist— T h e p e r k i n e s s and sense of freedom of "Sesame S t r e e t " — The personalized, focussed foreboding of O r s o n W e l l e s f i l m s ; as d i s t i n c t from the I m p e r s o n a l ! z e d , focussed f o r e b o d i n g of H i t c h c o c k — N e x t to this matter of m o o d , all else pales; t h e a c t u a l c o n s t r a i n t s a n d s t r u c t u r e s of m e d i a , the e x p o s i t i o n s and c o m p l i c a t i o n s of p a r t i c u l a r cognitive w o r k s and presentations w i t h i n m e d i a , are as nothing.
« K \ € J > M f IK) T H E C l r r f f f c O P r v J T i m e a f t e r t i m e , the e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t has thought some great revolution would come through getting new k i n d s of e q u i p m e n t into the c l a s s r o o m . First it was m o v i e s . More recently it's been "audiovisual" stuff, teaching m a c h i n e s , film loops and computerassisted instruction. In n o c a s e s h a v e t h e e n t h u s i a s t s for t h e s e s y s t e m s seen how the equipment would fit into conventional e d u c a t i o n — o r , m o r e l i k e l y , screw the teacher u p . T e a c h e r s a r e e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f l u s t e r e d w h e n t h e y h a v e to m o n k e y w i t h e q u i p m e n t in a d d i t i o n to everything e l s e , and fitting the a v a i l a b l e c a n n e d m a t e r i a l s into their lesson p l a n s doesn't work out w e l l , either. T h e o n l y r e a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s for c h a n g e l i e i n s y s t e m s that w i l l change the instructor's position from a manager to a h e l p e r . M a n y teachers w i l l like t h i s , many w i l l n o t .
w h e n s o m e b o d y s h o w s y o u o n electronic o r o t h e r presentational s y s t e m , device or w h a t e v e r . A certain k i n d of s l i g h t - o f - h a n d g o e s o n . It's v e r y e a s y to get f o o l e d . T h e y m a y s h o w y o u o n e thing a n d p e r s u a d e y o u you've seen another. A n d if y o u ' r e c a n n y e n o u g h to a s k 1 feature y o u h a v e n ' t s e e n they'll a l w a y s "WE'RE
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' P r i m i t i v e s e x p o s e d to "civilized" m a n imitaU his w a y s ridiculously -in religious rituals, h o p i n g for the s h i p m e n t s of c a n n e d g o o d s , e t c . that his b e h a v i o r s e e m s to b r i n g d o w n f r o m parts u n k n o w n . A s e l f - e m p l o y e d r e p a i r m a n of m o b i l e h o m e s named Donald Veils has invented a solar-powered t o m b s t o n e chat can show m o v i e s and s t i l l p i c t u r e s of the d e p a r t e d , a l o n g w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e o r g a n m u s i c and any last w o r d s or e u l o g i e s s e l e c t e d b y the d e c e a s e d .
OKI * * * " M e r e c o r r o b o r a t i v e detail, to e n h a n c e a n o t h e r w i s e uninteresting narrative..." Pooh-Bah, Lord High Everything Else
T h e d e v i c e 1B a c t i v a t e d b y a r e m o t e c o n t r o l d e v i c e c a r r i e d by a v i s i t o r to t h e g r a v e s i t e . T h e movies would be shown on a twelve-inch screen m o u n t e d n e x t to t h e e p i t a p h .
" Y o u c o u l d a l s o h a v e p i c t u r e s of C h r i s t a s c e n d i n g to h e a v e n o r C h r i s t o n t h e c r o s s , w h a t e v e r y o u w a n t , " s a y s W e l l s . "It a d d s a w h o l e n e w d i m e n s i o n to g o i n g to t h e c e m e t e r y . , . . " Cleveland Plain Dealer (Quoted in National Lampoon True Paote, May 74, 10.)
Patent 3,767,901 is for the D i s n e y Audi o-Animatronics system, which now b a s i c a l l y consists of the manipulation of rubber p W a l t Dianey
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wan t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t i n g h . , , . v , there Would you b e l i e v e rjieie '-"^ "* ' over the a i r w a v e * in the n i n e t e e n - t w e n t i e s ? T h e thing i s , it used b i z a r r e s p i n n i n g e q u i p m e n t b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e n o C R T s f e e -Lightning in a B o t t l e , " n e a r b y . ) O n l y w i t h S T d e v l o p - n t ot r a d a r in V o r l d W a r " «" ^EJ.. come a p r a c t i c a b l e C a t h o d e Ray T u b e , m a k i n g h o m e t e l e v i s ion f e a s i b l e .
But the big c o m p a n i e s w e r e at first v e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e , „ their m a r k e t i n g , f i g u r i n g t e l e v i s i o n w o u l d be a luxury Item only It t o o k a man n a m e d M a d m a n H u n t * , w h o c a r i c a tured him.elf in a N a p o l e o n h a t . to see that m i l l i o n * w o u l d television if the price w . a r i g h t . So he c a m e b u y H u n t * TV in the late f o r t i e s . A» I r e c a l l , t h e H u n t * T V cost $100 and hsd o n e tuning k n o b . (This w a . l e s s i n t i m i d a t i n g than the row of knoba on m o r e e x p e n s i v e s e t a . ) I L ' t know how H u n t , came out on it . 1 1 . but " i s o p e n i n g of the m a s * m a r k e t m a d e the b i g g e r c o r p o r a t i o n , r e a l i z e it w a s t h e r e . (This same thing may yet h a p p e n a g a i n in n e w e r media.) O r i g i n a l l y a l l there w a s w . a K r . z y Kat and F a r m e r Brovn c a r t o o n s . But b e h o l d , s o o n e r than you c o u l d s.y " v e r t i c a l h o l d , " t h e r e w e r e Sid C a e s a r and I n o g e n e C o c a cm t h e A d m i r a l S h o w , and w e w e r e o f f . A q u a r t e r of « c e n t u r y l a t e r , t h e b e s t of t e l e v i a i o n is no b e t t e r and the b u l k of t e l e v i s i o n is a b o u t a s bad a* It ever w a s . We "understand" television. That i s . we know what a T V ahow l a , h o w it fitB t o g e t h e r and so o n . ICECUBES But w h a t p e o p l e d o n ' t r e a l i z e a b o u t T V is t h a t the g o v e r n i n g f e a t u r e Is the t i m e - s l o t . In any m e d i u m w i t h t i m e - s l o t s , w h e t h e r T V , r a d i o or c l a s s r o o m e d u c a t i o n , t h e time-slot r u l e s b e h a v i o r . W h a t e v e r can h a p p e n is a s c o n s t r a i n e d as i c e c u b e s in a t r a y . T h i s is the l i m i t i n g f a c t o r w h e n o p t i m i s t s try to use TV for t e a c h i n g . If it's c o m i n g o v e r a c a b l e , e v e r y thing has to be s c h e d u l e d a r o u n d I t , and the c o n t e n t s a r e clipped and c o n s t r a i n e d to fit the t i m e - s l o t . It m a y b e better with videotape. CABLES In the last d o z e n y e a r s . C a b l e T V , or C A T V , h a s b e c o m e big b u s i n e s s . A V i d e o C a b l e Is a h i g h - c a p a c i t y electrical carrier that runs through a given n e i g h b o r hood or r e g i o n . B u s i n e s s and i n d i v i d u a l s m a y " s u b s c r i b e " and get t h e i r own s e t s h o o k e d o n t o t h e c a b l e .
In r e c e n t y e a r s , m a n y y o u n g f o l k * h a v e t a k e n to v i d e o a w a y o f l i f e . In the m o s t e x t r e m e c a e e a t h e y say t h i n g s like " t h e w r i t t e n w o r d is d e a d , " p r o m p t e d p e r h a p s b y M c L u h a n . I h a v e found it r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t to talk to v i d e o f r e a k . . (It m a y b e t h a t s o m e o f them a r e a g a i n s t s p o k e n w o r d s a s w e l l . ; I r e a l l y Just d o n ' t k n o w w h a t t h e y ' r e a b o u t . A B
In s o m e c a s e s , " a l t e r n a t i v e t e l e v i s i o n " s i m p l y m e a n s d o c u m e n t a r i e s o u t s i d e t h e n o r m a l f r a m e w o r k of o w n e r s h i p a n d r e p o r t i n g . In o n e e x a m p l e c i t e d b y S h a m b e r g (see b i b l i o g r a p h y ) , v i d e o f r e a k s d i d e x c e l l e n t c o v e r a g e o f t h e 1968 R e p u b l i c a n c o n v e n t i o n . P e o p l e w e r e a l l o w e d to s p e a k for t h e m s e l v e s , u n l i k e " n o r m a l " T V j o u r n a l i s m w h e r e " c o m m e n t a t o r s " t e l l y o u w h a t they s e e . N o w , t h i s is h a r d l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y ] i t is j u s t g o o d d o c u m e n t a r y - m a k i n g t h a t s h u c k s d u m b t r a d i t i o n s a r t i s t i c a l l y , m u c h like the P e n n e b a k e r f i l m s . H o w e v e r , v i d e o e n t h u s i a s t s c l a i m i t i . s o m e h o w d i f f e r e n t , and i n d e e d c l a i m t h a t v i d e o is d i f f e r e n t In p r i n c i p l e from f i l m s . I h a v e b e e n u n a b l e to g e t a s a t i s f a c t o r y c l a r i f i c a t i o n of t h i s i d e a . V i d e o i s b e i n g u s e d in o t h e r w a y s , h a r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d , b y a r t i s t s (best d e f i n e d a s p e r s o n s c a l l e d " a r t i s t s " w i t h i n t h e a r t world t o d a y ) . Very odd "video pieces" have been shown at art s h o w s , w h e r e the o b j e c t s e e m s t o b e to c o n f u s e t h e v i e w e r — o r knock him into a condition of Enlarged P e r s p e c t i v e , shall we s a y . And a variety of non-objective videotapes are now being c r e a t e d . (A g a l l e r y show in 1 9 6 9 w a s c a l l e d " V i d e o a s a C r e a t i v e M e d i u m " — implying sarcastically that it had not b e e n b e f o r e , on the airwaves.) S o m e v i d e o f r e a k s think of v i d e o a s i n t r i n s i c a l l y r a d i c a l or R e v o l u t i o n a r y . In t h i s r e s p e c t t h e y d i f f e r I n t e r e s t i n g l y f r o m , s a y , the e d i t o r s o f the N a t i o n a l L a m p o o n • T h e e d i t o r s o f t h e N a t i o n a l L a m p o o n a p p e a r to b e p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l s , b u t d o n o t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e v e r y m e d i a o f c a r t o o n and j o k e - p i e c e a r e t h e m s e l v e s r e v o l u t i o n a r y . S o m e v i d e o f r e a k s a p p e a r to b e p e r s u a d e d t h a t t h e m e d i u m of television itself is inherently a v e h i c l e for c h a n g e . I c a n u n d e r s t a n d o n e i n t e r e s t i n g s e n s e in w h i c h t h i s m a y b e true: Shamberg talks about video as a method of s e l f - d i s c o v e r y . S e e i n g y o u r s e l f on T V d o e s , o f c o u r s e , c o n f e r c e r t a i n i n s i g h t s . B u t S h a m b e r g s u g g e s t s i t m a y e x p a n d p e o p l e ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s in larger w a y s — allowing people to see the b l e a k n e s s of c e r t a i n p u r s u i t s (he u s e s t h e e x a m p l e o f S h o p p i n g ) , for i n s t a n c e . But if t h i s d o e s h i t h o m e to p e o p l e , i t d o e s n ' t s e e m to m e t o b e t h e m e d i u m t h a t ' s d o i n g it b u t t h e s e l e c t e d c o n t e n t — a s in a l l p r e v i o u s m e d i a . H a y b e I've m i s s e d the p o i n t in s o m e w a y .
"
In a d d i t i o n , t h o u g h , the c a b l e o f f e r s e x t r a c h a n n e l s . N o w , the b u s i n e s s m e n w h o h a v e b e e n t h r o w i n g t o g e t h er these v i d e o c a b l e o u t f i t s a r e a i m i n g f o r s o m e t h i n g . T h e y have b e e n t h i n k i n g that t h e s e e x t r a c h a n n e l s w o u l d net them a lot of m o n e y : b y s h o w i n g t h i n g s on t h e m t h a t can't b e o f f e r e d on t h e a i r — h i g h b r o w d r a m a , or p e r h a p s X - r a t e d s t u f f — t h e y could get e x t r a r e v e n u e . (You'd pay e x t r a to w a t c h it b y b u y i n g an u n s c r a m b l e r , or w h a t e v e r . ) T h i s is t u r n i n g i n t o s o m e w h a t i
i disappointment.
T h e c a b l e p e o p l e had f o r e s e e n , e v i d e n t l y , t h a t p e o p l e w o u l d stay h o m e in d r o v e s to s e e the n e w o f f e r i n g s o n t h e c a b l e . In S h o w B u s i n e s s it's e a s y to f o r g e t , t h o u g h , t h a t e v e r y b o d y haa only t w e n t y f o u r h o u r s in a d a y , and f a r l e s s than 24 h o u r s to d i s p o s e of f r e e l y ; so e v e r y l e i s u r e o c c u p a t i o n is c o m p e t i n g w i t h e v e r y o t h e r l e i s u r e o c c u p a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , the r e s i d u a l l e i s u r e o c c u p a t i o n , w h e n t h e r e ' s n o thing e l s e to d o , is T V . It w o u l d s e e m that few p e o p l e w o u l d w a t c h m o r e t e l e v i s i o n if it w e r e b e t t e r , b u t m a n y w o u l d w a t c h less if t h e y could a f f o r d to go o u t . EXTRA CHANNELS In r e c e n t y e a r s , a n u m b e r of e x t r a c h a n n e l s h a v e b e e n m a d e a v a i l a b l e by l a w . T h e s e a r e the U H F , or U l t r a H i g h F r e q u e n c y c h a n n e l s . T h e s e , like c a b l e a , r e p r e s e n t a c o n sumer breakthrough but w i l l have only negligible i m p a c t .
IN A B0TTL5
!
T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s are a l l very i n t e r e s t i n g . It can b e h o p e d t h a t t h o s e t r y i n g to d e v e l o p n e w f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i l l m a k e an e f f o r t to c o m m u n i c a t e b e t t e r w i t h t h o s e w h o , l i k e the a u t h o r , often c a n n o t comprehend w h a t they are d o i n g .
W h a t this d o e s first of a l l is i m p r o v e r e c e p t i o n . T h e f o u l e d - u p v i d e o p i c t u r e c a u s e d by s u c h e x t r a n e o u s o b j e c t s as the W o r l d T r a d e C e n t e r in N e w Y o r k can b e c o r r e c t e d by h o o k i n g i n t o the v i d e o c a b l e : y o u get a nice, sharp picture.
LI6HWIII
B u t d e c e n t r a l i z e d transmission of information should be d o m i n a n t , not f u g i tive. Each citizen of Media-America should guaranteed as a birthright access to the m e a n s of d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n f o r m a tion." (Shamberg, p . 67)
"
W e l l , w e w e n t down there with our P o r t a - P a k and tried to take it i n s i d e . A guard came over and said w e couldn't and even threw one of us o u t of the booth while the other was i n s i d e . A g u a r d t e l l i n g y o u w h a t to d o in a c y b e r n e t i c environment?"
A c a t h o d e - r a y t u b e is actually a bottle filled w i t h a v a c u u m a n d s o m e f u n n y electrical e q u i p m e n t . T h e e q u i p m e n t in the n e c k of the bottle s h o o t B a b e a m of electrons t o w a r d the bottom of the bottle.
T h i s b e a m of electrons is called, m o r e o r less for historical r e a s o n s , a c a t h o d e r a y . T h i n k of it a s a s t r a w that c a n b e w i g g l e d in the bottle. A c t u a l l y the bottle is s h a p e d so a s to h a v e a large v i e w i n g a r e a at the b o t t o m (the s c r e e n ) , a n d this s c r e e n is c o a t e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g that g l o w s w h e n electrons hit it. S u c h a c h e m i c a l is called a phosphor.
N o w , t w o useful things < beam.
b e d o n e w i t h this
1)
It c a n b e m a d e b r i g h t e r b y i n c r e a s i n g the v o l t a g e , w h i c h i n c r e a s e s the n u m b e r of electrons in the b e a m .
2)
T h e b e a m can b e m o v e d ! T h a t i s , it c a n b e m a d e to p l a y a r o u n d t h e face of the t u b e the w a y y o u c a n slosh the s t r e a m of a g a r d e n h o s e b a c k a n d forth o n the l a w n ; o r w i g g l e a s t r a w in a c o k e bottle. T h e b e a m c a n b e m o v e d w i t h either m a g n e t i s m o r static electricity. T h i s is a p p l i e d in t h e n e c k of the bottle— o r e v e n f r o m o u t s i d e the n e c k - b y deflection p l a t e s , w h o s e electrical p u l s a t i o n s d e t e r m i n e the pattern the b e a m traces o n the s c r e e n . (Note that the b e a m c a n b e m o v e d o n the s c r e e n at great s p e e d . )
T h e vertical deflection plates c a n pull the b e a m u p o r d o w n o n the s c r e e n , controlled b y a signal to t h e m ;
(Shamberg, p . 53) ("Cybernetic" is e v i d e n t l y a code word here for w h a t they think is g o o d , t r u e , beautiful and i n e v i t a b l e , c f . p . D/l A b o u t t h e o n l y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n to b e m a d e is that community v i d e o w i l l be s u b v e r s i v e to a n y g r o u p , b u r e a u c r a c y , o r individual w h i c h feels threatened by a coalescing of grassroots c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Because not only does d e c e n t r a l i z e d TV serve as an early w a r n i n g s y s t e m , it puts p e o p l e in t o u c h w i t h o n e a n o t h e r a b o u t common grievances."
the horizontal deflection plates c a n pull the b e a m s i d e w a y s o n the s c r e e n , controlled b y a signal to t h e m .
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THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATION ( S h a m b e r g , p . 57) W h a t e v e r e l s e y o u m a y s a y a b o u t t h e m , the n e t w o r k s and T V s t a t i o n s a r e at least o r g a n i z e d a s g o i n g c o n c e r n s w i t h i n the i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s of the c o u n t r y . Ideas of " c o m m u n i t y t e l e v i s i o n " and o t h e r s u c h s c h e m e s w h i c h c a l l for some n e w form of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n to s p r i n g f o r t h a r e a b o u t a s p l a u s i b l e aa " c o m m u n i t y c o n t r o l " of s c h o o l s and p o l i c e — or at b e s t l i k e l y to b e a s i n f l u e n t i a l a s "community social centers." INTERACTIVE TV? Some p e o p l e , I w o n ' t say w h o , h a v e g o t t e n a lot of m o n e y for s o m e t h i n g they call " I n t e r a c t i v e t e l e v i s i o n . " W h a t t h i s turns out to m e a n is any f o r m of c o m p u t e r t i m e s h a r i n g that w i l l u s e h o m e T V t e r m i n a l s and v i d e o c a b l e s . T h e q u e s t i o n s are w h y u s e h o m e TV t e r m i n a l s and v i d e o c a b l e a , i n s o f a r as they w o u l d seem to p r o m i s e o n l y c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w - g r a d e p e r f o r m a n c e ; and w h e t h e r t h e s e p e o p l e h a v e thought out a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i a tics of the v a r i o u s m e d i a t h e y p r o p o s e w i t h s u c h a b a n d o n . N o t h i n g I h a v e seen or h e a r d a b o u t t h i s is r e a s s u r i n g .
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Michael Shamberg and Raindance C o r p o r a t i o n , Guerrilla Television. (Holt, 54.) T U B E , an underground TV m a g a z i n e . $ 8 / y r . T U B E , 1B26 Spaight S t . , M a d i s o n , WI 53704. C a b l e R e p o r t , S 7 / y r . 192 N . C l a r k S t . , Room 6 0 7 , C h i c a g o , Samples S I . " S C A N D A L IS R A M P A N T i n the c a b l e television industry. Only Cable R e port follows cable TV developments from the citizen's perspective and tells you what's happening and what's going wrong." A d in C h i c a g o R E A D E R . Nicholas J o h n s o n , How to Talk Back to Your T e l e v i s i o n S e t . B a n t a m , 95c
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B y s e n d i n g c o m b i n e d s i g n a l s to b o t h h o r i zontal a n d vertical deflection p l a t e s , w e c a n m a k e the e n d of the b e a m - - a b r i g h t dot o n the s c r e e n , s o m e t i m e s called a flying s p o t - - j u m p a r o u n d in a n y pattern o n the s c r e e n . A r e p e a t e d pattern of the b e a m o n the face of the C R T is called a raster. F r o m t h e s e t w o capabilities— b r i g h t e n i n g a n d m o v i n g the b e a m - - a n u m b e r of v e r y special technologies e m e r g e : T E L E V I S I O N uses a zig-zag scanning pattern w h i c h r e p e a t s o v e r a n d o v e r . T h i s z i g z a g pattern is a l w a y s the s a m e , night a n d d a y .
Y o u c a n u s u a l l y s e e the lines clearly o n a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e set. T h e pict u r e consists of the c h a n g i n g pattern of b r i g h t n e s s of this b e a m , w h i c h c o m e s in o v e r the a i r w a v e s a s the television s i g n a l .
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A s t h e b e a m c r i s s - c r o s s e s t h e f a c e p l a t e in t h e z i g - z a g television r a s t e r , t h e n , a c o n t i n u o u s l y c h a n g i n g o u t p u t signal f r o m the faceplate s h o w s t h e b r i g h t n e s s e s all a c r o s s t h e s u c c e s s i v e lines of the s c a n . RADAR
D I S P L A Y u s e s a C R T to s h o w r e f l e c ted i m a g e s a r o u n d w h e r e t h e r a d a r a n t e n n a is s t a n d i n g . T h i s u s e s a s c a n n i n g r a s t e r of a star s h a p e , b r i g h t e n i n g the b e a m w h e n reflected images are received.
A n d that is t h e television s i g n a l . Together w i t h s y n c h r o n i z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , it's w h a t g o e s out o v e r the a i r w a v e s , d o w n y o u r a n t e n n a a n d into y o u r s e t . Y o u r s e t , o b e y i n g t h e s y n c h r o n i z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , b r i g h t e n s a n d d a r k e n s its o w n b e a m in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e e n y r e g i o n s o f t h e f a c e p l a t e in t h e television c a m e r a . A n d this p r o d u c e s t h e s c i n tillating s u r f a c e WP call t e l e v i s i o n .
C O M P U T E R C R T G R A P H I C S generally use t h e C R T in still a n o t h e r w a y : t h e b e a m is m o v e d a r o u n d t h e s c r e e n in s t r a i g h t lines f r o m p o i n t to p o i n t . ( B e t w e e n different p a r t s o f t h e p i c t u r e t h e b e a m is d a r k e n e d , t u r n e d v e r y l o w s o y o u d o n ' t s e e it.)
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w h i c h is a n o r d i n a r y c a m e r a , l i k e , w i t h a projecting a picture t h r o u g h onto a sensitive s u r f a c e .
a dark
At any
crosses
device
which
examines
t h i n g in a r b i t r a r y
convernamed
to let t h e c o m p u t e r
scanners:
r a t e , color television u s e s
addi-
pro-
measure
the
places.
the b r i g h t n e s s of s o m e -
p l a c e s is c a l l e d a f l y i n g
flying-spot
in t h e T r i n i t r o n
of t h e f a c e p l a t e .
"green"
are s o m e
different k i n d s
spot
of
these
If t h e
as the electron
dot
a certain p a r t of the s c r e e n , the when
so side b y
as the b e a m from
up
in t h e p i c t u r e a n d
Here
s i g n a l tells t h e g r e e n
more
color
s t r i p e s that t h e y ' r e
hit.
If it's Y e l l o w
side they
light u p
free
Time,
red stripes a n d
the
red
the
green,
and
green,
c r o s s e s t h e m , b u t t h e total effect
than
a few
i n c h e s is
Yellow.
chamber Most American
B u t instead of t h e
surface b e i n g a film, the surface of a C R T w i t h s o m e phosphor:
lens
around
scanner.)
tional c o l o r s i g n a l s , a n d
and
the three m a n u f a c t u r e r s
hooked
b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e p i c t u r e in a r b i t r a r y A
chintzy
poke
be
white-
s i g n a l tells b o t h t h e
be?
g o to a
happens
It is often picture S c a n
(see p . ^ f j ) -
room.)
to light u p How
gram
and
of d a t a
ters, usually b y a b o v e , can
out
a b o u t this last m e t h o d .
c o m p u t e r p e o p l e to t u r n a form
bulb,
see w h a t
color signal s a y s
into it a s a n
into s o m e
true.
it t u r n s
a green
word
desired b y
in a
and
control the r e s p o n s e
i m a g e , the picture c o m e s
If
all o t h e r s
o u t of r e d
s t o r e , get a r e d a n d
'em on
to b e
and blue;
made
A
col-
if y o u ' r e
m i x i n g l i g h t s . t h e c o l o r s that y i e l d
a n electrical s i g n a l a n d
optical
that h a p p e n s
reason, however,
E x c e p t i n s t e a d of t h e p i c t u r e c o i n i n g into it a s o u t o f it a s a n
red,
r e d , b l u e a n d y e l l o w , didn't y o u .
hardware
MAGICAL
h a s , in-
colors—
green.
green.
CRT:
Vidicon, Image
THIS
which
the f a c e p l a t e , tiny
ors
were
C R T S w h i c h b r i n g in a p i c t u r e o n e w a y ( s u c h a s a v i d e o r a s t e r ) a n d s e n d it b a c k o u t a n o t h e r w a y ( s u c h a s b y letting a c o m p u t e r s e a r c h o u t individual p o i n t s ) are called s c a n converters.
talk best),
blue a n d
that y e l l o w
picture transmitter, w h i c h
versions and n a m e s :
in
pattern. o t h e r k i n d s of
CRT
coating o n
vertical stripes of t h r e e p r i m a r y
invention,
indeed.
t h i n k the
tube.
T h i s is a n o r d i n a r y KINDS
beast
a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s , b u t we'll o n l y
a b o u t the simplest
SPECIAL
N o t e : T e k t r o n i x ' t u b e is built into a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s , a n d ia r e c o g n i z a b l e b y its K e l l y g r e e n s u r f a c e . They t h e m s e l v e s m a k e complete c o m p u t e r terminals a r o u n d thiB s c o p e for $ 4 0 0 0 a n d u p , b u t lots of o t h e r p e o p l e p u t it in t h e i r p r o d u c t s a l s o . It s h o w B w h a t e v e r h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p u t o n the s c r e e n , a n d t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m d o e s n o t h a v e to repeat the action. H o w e v e r , it u s u a l l y o n l y s t a y s lit for a b o u t a m i n u t e .
and
for this
pf\
are d i s c u s s e d o n p .
T h e s t o r a g e C R T c o r n e a in t w o f l a v o r s : viewable and non-viewable. B u t w h a t it d o e s is v e r y n e a t : it h o l d s the p i c t u r e o n t h e s c r e e n . T h e m e c h a n i s m s for this a r e of v a r i o u s t y p e s , a n d it's all w e i r d a n d e l e c t r o n i c , b u t t h e i d e a is that o n c e s o m e t h i n g is p u t o n t h e s c r e e n b y t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m , it s t a y s a n d s t a y s . U p to several m i n u t e s , usually. T h e main m a n u f a c t u r e r s a r e T e k t r o n i x , Princeton Electronic P r o d u c t s , a n d H u g h e s A i r c r a f t ; e a c h of t h e s e t h r e e h a s a p r o d u c t that w o r k a b y a different m e t h o d .
Princeton Electronic P r o d u c t s (guess w h e r e ) is a m u c h s m a l l e r outfit, s o p e r h a p s it is a p p r o p r i a t e that t h e y m a k e a m u c h s m a l l e r s t o r a g e tube. It is a b o u t o n e i n c h s q u a r e at its s t o r a g e e n d , a n d y o u d o n ' t l o o k at it d i r e c t l y . Instead, a n i m a g e c a n b e s t o r e d o n it e i t h e r w t h a T V r a s t e r o r b y c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n line d r a w i n g . A f t e r t h e i m a g e is s t o r e d o n it, t h o u g h , it f u n c tions a s a T V c a m e r a : t h e p i c t u r e s t o r e d o n t h e plate c a n b e r e a d o u t w i t h a s c a n n i n g r a s t e r , e x a c t l y a s if it w e r e a p i c t u r e t r a n s m i t t e r in a television c a m e r a . T h e P r i n c e t o n folks h a v e built a q u i t e e x p e n s i v e , b u t q u i t e s p l e n d i d , c o m p l e t e t e r m i n a l a r o u n d this d e v i c e : it c a n h o l d both video and c o m p u t e r - d r a w n pictures, s u p e r i m p o s e d or c o m b i n e d , a n d s e n d s t h e m b a c k out in s t a n d a r d b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e T V . $12000.
normal
fades q u i c k l y , the c o m p u t e r
ordinarily d r a w
7
is t h e
k i n d of a special
faceplate
pickup
least u p
ferent, something Shadow
Mask
entirely
Tube.
but there w e r e
TV ( W K V
color T V
till this y e a r , u s e d
sets, h o w e v e r ,
something
w e i r d called
at
dif-
the
I'll s p a r e y o u t h e
picture,
s e v e r a l different electron
beams
-- o f t e n r e f e r r e d to j o k i n g l y
as the "red
electron
beam,"
" b l u e electron
and
electron
beam,"
though
character. near
beam"
of c o u r s e
These
"green
they w e r e
hit a p e r f o r a t e d
sieve, mask,
the u n w a n t e d
s o t h e y d i d n o t hit d i f f e r e n t - c o l o r e d d o t s that w e r e intricately I'm
sorry
arranged
I s t a r t e d to e x p l a i n
Multigun gun
and
can
be used
more
tubes have than one
old s h a d o w - m a s k
TV
"U*
up and
beams
phosphor on
the
screen.
this.
more
electron
in d i f f e r e n t w a y s
t*-J More*, i^t-j-ls „f iprt , K
i d e n t i c a l in
the s c r e e n , called the s h a d o w
the color signal t w e a k e d
T h e e l e c t r o n b e a m , w h i c h is j u s t like a n y o t h e r e l e c t r o n b e a m , is m a d e to z i g z a g a c r o s s t h e f a c e p l a t e in a s t a n d a r d t e l e v i s i o n r a s t e r . A n d the special p h o s p h o r of the t u b e m e a s u r e s t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e p i c t u r e at t h e s p o t t h e b e a m is h i t t i n g . I h a v e n o i d e a h o w this h a p p e n s , b u t it's c h e m i c a l a n d e l e c t r o n i c a l a n d m y s t e r i o u s , a n d is b a a e d o n t h e w a y t h e p h o s p h o r i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e light f r o m o n e s i d e a n d t h e e l e c t r o n s f r o m t h e o t h e r s i d e at t h e s a m e t i m e . A n y h o w , a m e a s u r e m e n t s i g n a l c o m e s o u t of t h e faceplate, indicating h o w bright the projected p i c t u r e is in t h e v e r y s p o t t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m ia n o w hitting.
very
than o n e beam.
electron They
(aside f r o m
tube, mentioned
the
above).
F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e g u n c a n b e d r i v e n in a v i d e o r a s t e r , to s h o w t e l e v i s i o n , w h i l e a n o t h e r g u n c a n b e u s e d as a c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y , d r a w i n g i n d i v i d u a l lines w i t h n o r e g a r d to t h e T V p a t t e r n .
1 have
heard
it s a i d
s i b l e to b u i l d a C R T surface:
temporarily tron b e a m . you
that it m i g h t b e
with a changeable
that i s , t h e s c r e e n where
bright a n d
it is b e i n g
Interesting.
couid m a k e
becomes hit w i t h
This would
c o m p u t e r displays
p r o j e c t a b l e to a n y
p o u r i n g a super-intensity g r e a t for w r i t i n g a f r i e n d of m i n e .
the e l e c mean
(and
that
TV)
degree, say.
laser b e a m
'Coca-Cola' on If y o u
pos-
mirror
mirrored
by
o n it.
the m o o n , "
b e l i e v e in astral
"Be says
pro-
jection . BIBLIOGRAPHY: Color TV Training M a n u a l , Sa»s i Co./ B o b b s - K e r r i l l ( $ 7 ) , is s w e l l - I l l u s t r a t e d and i n t e l l i g e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e T V u s e of C R T s .
ZZI
SLUM'S WHCJf r|IT t w € F ' L K O C I 6 I 1 M L Y &- t! N o w e e e o ^ f T R u e T ^ P .
Don A m a i n , professor of Art at V. of Illinois, Chicago Circle, says very wise things (having been a phyeiciat1, and He were going to have a whole section on that, but as you can see. there wasn't r o o m .
Diagram
1. A D D E R - M U L T I P L I E R . T h l . c o a b l n . s two Input c h . n n e l e , either d i r e c t l y or a , specified by • t h i r d .
of hou hologram
ia mode,
p. DM Zo.
H v t - n r u e * ,J...-I
(
;«rutr 1
woo i s
«0
Daniel J . Sandin (pronounced san-DEEN) haa •pent the last several yeara putting together a device he currently calls the IP (Image P r o c e s s o r ) . It's a aystem of circuits for c h a n g i n g and colorizing T V . What follows Is the first published description of i t . I regret that the following is probably one of the most difficult sections of this b o o k . (If you know nothing about v i d e o , read Hir..li|i|»'g-st.) o t i f>- 7 The Idea is basically to create a c o m p l e t e ly generalised system for a l t e r i n g the color and brightness of video I m a g e s . ( I . e . , the system does not move them on the s c r e e n . Thus It differs from the Computer Image line of v i d e o twisting graphics s y s t e m s , which alter p o s i t i o n s of o b j e c t s ; see p . DM $ \ . Note also that rather similar facilities exist as part o f , e . g . , the Scanimate system, j . DM 3 1 •> This m e a n s that basically Sandln's system plays with the part of the TV s i g n a l called z, or brightness (as distinct from x or y , the s i g nals for horizontal and v e r t i c a l m o v e m e n t of the dot. )N o w , as a physicist snd f i e l d - t h e o r e t i c i a n , Sandin approached thia aa a p r o b l e m in g e n e r a l i t y ; and Indeed, the style of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n should be a p p r e c i a t e d . Sandin r e p e a t e d l y chose flexibility and power rather than o b v i o u s n e s s in the p a r t s he c r e a t e d . The resulting system is both p a r s i m o n ious and p r o d u c t i v e .
'
B a s i c a l l y , the incoming video image is " s t r i p p e d " of lta synchronizing i n f o r m a t i o n , so that all signals turning up in the guts of the m a c h i n e m a y be freely m o d i f i e d . O n l y at the final output a t a g e are the Jots and tittles of the v i d e o signal put b a c k
T h u s the first and last blocks of the Image Processor act like b o o k e n d s , b e t w e e n w h i c h the other m o d u l e s have their f u n . The first block m a k e s the incoming signal into " n a k e d " v i d e o , the last b l o c k dresses It up respectably a g a i n .
f k « p'ClOr-? >p,
Holography of chose M o d e r n M i r a c l e s that we r e a l l y < get i n t o . It is m i n d - b l o w i n g , I n f l u e n t i a l , and of uncl< importance. T h e c h a n n e l A Inputs are added together a n d - m u l tiplied by C ; the c h a n n e l B Inputs are added together and m u l t i p l i e d by the reverse of C; b o t h results are added to m a k e the o u t p u t . (NOTE: this unit Is used among other t h i n g s , for fades and k e y i n g . ) 2 . C O M P A R A T O R . Thla is like K o d a l i t h film,makIng an Image Into stark b l a c k and w h i t e . Its o u t p u t is pure black or w h i t e . One input s i g n a l (the v i d e o ) Is c o m p a r e d w i t h another input s i g n a l (reference l e v e l , other v i d e o , w h a t e v e r ) . W h i l e one is g r e a t e r the o u t p u t goes all b l a c k , and w h i l e the other la greater it goes a l l w h i t e . 3. V A L U E S C R A M B L E R . This is a s i n g l e m o d u l e d i v i d i n g the p i c t u r e into eight l e v e l s . It may be thought of as e i g h t of the above c o m p a r a t o r s , d i v i d ing the b r i g h t n e s s s p e c t r u m by q u a n t u m j u m p s . T h e floor and c e l l i n g of the a i g n a l to be d i v i d e d a r e specified by the two c o n t r o l c h a n n e l s , but the d i v i d ing lines b e t w e e n them are then a u t o m a t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d . Each c o r r e s p o n d i n g output level may b e c o n trolled by a k n o b .
0 ©
UNCl tCT
H i s first important d e c i s i o n w a s that all parts of the system should be c o m p a t i b l e and I d i o t p r o o f , so that any user could frivolously plug It together any w a y at all without burning out the circuits. I n d e e d , Sandin decided to build It like a m u s i c synthesizer: by m a k i n g all systems e l e c t r i c a l l y c o m patible (aa they are on the M o o g and its p r o g e n y ) , any signal can be used to alter or influence any other s i g n a l . This is a very profound d e c i s i o n , w h o s e far-flung results have not yet been fully e x plored even among Sandin'B rather fanatical s t u d ents.
4*4
0
It is A b a s i c h o l o g r a m (— a c t u a l l y it should be called a laser h o l o g r a m or L e l t h - U p a t n l e k s h o l o g r a m , but w e ' v e no time for auch d i s t i n c t i o n s — ) is o n e of these s m u d g y pictures w h i c h , w h e n v i e w e d under a p r o p e r laser a e t u p , s h o w s you a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l p i c t u r e . W o r s e than t h a t : a s you m o v e your h e a d , the p i c t u r e c h a n g e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . It l o o k s , not like the flat s u r f a c e it I s , but like a lit-up box w i t h a m o d e l in I t .
T h e o n l y p r o b l e m : o r d i n a r i l y they have to b e . u s e d w i t h laser l i g h t , w h i c h is s p o o k i l y o n e colored .
"~-»® 0-
N o t e s from all o v e r ; art s t y l i s t S a l v a d o r D a l i p r e s i d e d at an u n v e i l i n g of "the w o r l d ' s first 3 6 0 ° h o l o g r a m " at a N e w Y o r k g a l l e r y not long a g o . T h e s u b j e c t w a s s o n g stylist A l i c e C o o p e r .
— " ^ " 2 * " O © D O
Basically a h o l o g r a m Is an all-around p i c t u r e . It d o e s n ' t look like a p i c t u r e , but looks like a smudged f i n g e r p r i n t or other m i s t a k e of some k i n d .
What does the h o l o g r a m do? A c t u a l l y it r e c r e a t e s , not a single v i e w , but the entire tangle of light rays that are reflected from the real o b j e c t . E v e n d o w n to bright r e f l e c t i o n s , which s c i n t i l l a t e In the u s u a l w a y , as from c h r o m i u m .
*©•
6Utc, twn. SBT
T h e o r e t i c a l l y predicted by Dennis C a b o r , the h o l o g r a m (Creek "whole p i c t u r e " ) w a s finally m a d e to w o r k in the late fifties by Lelth and U p a t n l e k s . Since then d o z e n s of other types of holograms have b e e n e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h , including color h o l o g r a m s , m o v i e h o l o g r a m s , video h o l o g r a m s , audio holograms and g r a c i o u s know w h a t .
&
T h u s from a r a n g e of Input v a l u e s , w e g e t an output a t e p - f u n c t i o n e a c h of w h o s e b r i g h t n e s s e s is i n dividually adjustable.
The Haunted H o u s e at D i s n e y W o r l d in Florida w i l l ride y o u through a b u i l d i n g full of h o l o g r a m s . T h a t ' s o n e w a y to m o v e through g h o s t s , all r i g h t , T h e r e is a New Y o r k S c h o o l of H o l o g r a p h y .
N o t e that t h e s e d e v i c e s may be a r r a n g e d in p a r a l l e l , thus d i v i d i n g the b r i g h t n e s s s p e c t r u m into as m a n y levels as d e s i r e d . U. O S C I L L A T O R M O D U L E (very u n u s u a l ) . S a n d l n ' s o s c i l l a t o r s are v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e d , just like the o n e s in m u s i c a y n t h e s l z e r s . H o w e v e r , if given any kind of a eync s i g n a l , they lock into the n e a r e s t m u l t i p l e (or s u b m u l t i p l e ) w i t h i n the s p e c i f i e d r a n g e . (But then the c o n t r o l s i g n a l , I f a n y , tweaks it h i g h e r or l o w e r . ) S t a n d a r d i z e d output c o m e s in s i n e , square and .th.
6 . F U N C T I O N G E N E R A T O R . T h i s d e v i c e is h a r d e s t to e x p l a i n . L e t ' s do It in terms of that first m o d u l e , the A d d e r - M u l t i p l i e r . Know h o w the A d d e r - M u l t i p l i e r puts out e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e or a n e g a t i v e p i c t u r e , d e p e n d i n g on w h i c h input you select?
inrur » i o c ^
r
7^— cCKfie rr v «Ufevev-~l
|
For the sake of clarity we w i l l refer to the outputs a s p i c t u r e s , or aa b l a c k , w h i t e or g r e y , which they would be If they went straight out to a s c r e e n ; but they may be turned b a c k Into the system and function as Inputs a s w e l l . " W h i t e " m e a n s +.5 v o l t s , "black" m e a n s -.5 v o l t s . L e t us c o n s i d e r , t h e n , Sandln's m o d u l e s and what they do individually to the b r i g h t n e s s s i g n a l z_. Combinations are beyond the scope of this a r t i c l e What Dan's processor can do to televieion ie not to be believed. Savage colors or delicate Qff*vhiteB, eolarisations and pictures on top of pictures. Then thr • "video feedback" (pointing a TV aar.^r. a t a TV screen), the eystem can genera, throbbing animated cobweb* and spirals of its own. Shown.
W e l l , the F u n c t i o n G e n e r a t o r d i v i d e s the Input b r i g h t nesses Into three r a n g e s , and m u l t i p l i e s each range p o s i tive or n e g a t i v e , in p r o p o r t i o n to lta own knob s e t t i n g . The two planned uses w e r e A ) w i t h a s y n c , to g e n e r a t e fixed p a t t e r n s , and B) w i t h o u t a s y n c , to g e n e r a t e m o v a b l e p a t t e r n s . If b o t h inputs a r e u s e d , it b e c o m e s a s t u b b o r n lock-on v o l t a g e - c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r , w h i c h tends to grab at p a s s i n g s u b m u l t i p l e s . 5 . D I F F E R E N T I A T O R . B a s i c a l l y this sees e d g e s in the p i c t u r e , or any other part of a s c a n - l i n e w h o s e color is c h a n g i n g . Its output is p r o p o r t i o n a l to change o c c u r r i n g in the b r i g h t n e s s of a s c a n - l i n e , A s the input goes from black to w h i t e its output la l i g h t ; aa the input goes from w h i t e to b l a c k its o u t put Is d a r k . (The input h o l e s e l e c t e d d e t e r m i n e s t h e amount of m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . )
Thus the c o m b i n e d setting of the three knobs g e n e r a t es a " f u n c t i o n , " or c u r v e , from the slopes of the i n d i v i d ual s e t t i n g s . See g r a p h . What in p h o t o g r a p h y ia called " s o l a r i r a t i o n " r e p r e s e n t s Just o n e of these combined s e t t i n g s . T h e others a r e n a m e l e s s .
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C O L O R E N C O D E R M O D U L E . This ia the lest b l o c k , go three s i g n a l s , the desired r e d , blue and g r e e n , comes standard N T S C v i d e o .
E v e n if th _t w e r e n ' t a p r o b l e m , t h e r e Is t h e m o r e s i m p l e m i n d 'e d q u e s t i o n o f w h o i n t h e e x i s t i n g It t u r n s o u t , s y s t e m w o u l d use such t e c h n i q u e s . o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e a d d e d to w h a t Is l a u g h a b l y c a l l ed t h e C o r r e c t i o n a l S y s t e m , o r e v e n ailed the Justice S y s t e m . All more laughably the sadists you could p o s s i b l y w a n t work t h e r e , (And no d o u b t some very nice guys-- but e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e d e m on s t r a t e d h o r r i f i c a l l y t h a t d e c e n t p e o p l e , turned into " g u a r d s " e v e n for a s h o r t t i m e , adopt the p a t t erns of b r u t a l i t y w e h a v e known from time i m m e m o r i a l .) S o , like truncheons and electric shock therapy and s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s - - if t h e y a r e u s e d - - w i l l e n t e r the r e a l m o f A v a i l a b l e P u n i s h m e n t s , n o t to be u s e d with clinical precision but with gratuitously brutalizing i n t e n t , new tools for punitivity and sadism. T h e " c o r r e c t i o n a l " s y s t e m w o u l d h a v e to be magically corrected itself before such tools could be employed without simply making things worse. A n d t h e p r o s p e c t is n o t g o o d .
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tach
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Such schemes grow, of c o u r s e , from a caricature of the m a l e f a c t o r - - t h i n k i n g him to b e some sort of miswired c i r c u i t , rather than a human being c a u g h t up in a n g e r , p a i n , h u m i l i a t i o n and u n e m ployment.
E , i s c w t i x c £ l electric..."
(There are Will, but these controversy.)
— Walt Whitman
T h e r e are v a r i o u s p e o p l e w h o w a n t to a t e l e c t r o n i c s to p e o p l e ' s b o d i e s a n d b r a i n s .
NEW
also a lot do n o t h i n g
of c a n a r d s for e i t h e r
about Free side i n this
FACULTIES
There are b a s i c a l l y two s t a r t i n g p o i n t s for this a m b i t i o n . O n e is a u t h o r i t a r i a n , t h e o t h e r is a l t r u i s t i c . I am not sure both schools are not equally d a n g e r o u s , h o w e v e r .
S t a r t i n g from an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t outlook, various designers and bio-engineers are trying to a d d t h i n g s to t h e h u m a n b o d y a n d n e r v o u s s y s tem, for the voluntary b e n e f i t of the r e c i p i e n t .
Let's consider first the a u t h o r i t a r i a n s . Prof. Delgado of Yale has d e m o n s t r a t e d that any creature's behavior can be controlled by jolts • to the b r a i n . Delgado has dealt especially with the n e g a t i v e c i r c u i t s of the b r a i n , that i s , places where an electrical impulse causes pain (or " n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t " ) . In D c l g a d o ' s most stunning demonstration, he stopped a charging bull with just a teeny radio s i g n a l . Ent h u s i a s t i c a l l y D e l g a d o tells us h o w fine this sort of thing w o u l d b e for c o n t r o l l i n g U n d e s i r able Human Behavior, too.
A number of research and development efforts are aimed at h e l p i n g those w i t h sensory impairm e n t s , a n d e l e c t r o n i c s o b v i o u s l y is g o i n g t o involved.
Now, let's consider just what we're talking about. In these e x p e r i m e n t s , n e e d l e s are imp l a n t e d in the c r e a t u r e ' s b r a i n . This can inv o l v e r e m o v i n g a s e c t i o n of the s k u l l , or it c a n be done merely by h a m m e r i n g a long hollow n e e d l e straight into the skull and thus the b r a i n . The r e s e a r c h e r , or w h a t e v e r w e w a n t to call h i m , h a d b e t t e r k n o w w h a t h e is d o i n g . But due to the r e m a r k a b l e m a s s a c t i o n o f the b r a i n , t h e destruction caused by such needles will have not o b s e r v a b l e e f f e c t s if d o n e p r o p e r l y . The h o l l o w n e e d l e , o n c e in p l a c e , b e c o m e s a tube for shielded electrical w i r e s , whose bare m e t a l l i c tips may then be u s e d to c a r r y little e l e c t r i c a l j o l t s , to w h a t e v e r b r a i n t i s s u e is reached by the tip of the n e e d l e , w h e n e v e r tiny signals are a p p l i e d . Now there are regions of the b r a i n , d i s t r i b u t e d i r r e g u l a r l y t h r o u g h its m y s t e r i o u s contents, which are loosely called the " p l e a s u r e " and "pain" systems. They are c a l l e d that b e c a u s e of w h a t the o r g a n i s m d o e s w h e n y o u j o l t it in t h o s e places'. (We do n o t k n o w w h e t h e r j o l t s to t h e s e areas really cause p l e a s u r e or p a i n , b e c a u s e t h e s e t h i n g s h a v e n ' t b e e n d o n e to h u m a n b e i n g s . Yet. T h e c r e a t u r e s it h a s b e e n d o n e t o c a n ' t tell us j u s t how it f e e l s ; thus " p l e a s u r e " a n d " p a i n " a r e in q u o t a t i o n m a r k s . For now.) A n y w a y , w h a t h a p p e n s is t h i s . If y o u s t i m u l a t e a c r e a t u r e in the " p a i n " s y s t e m it tends to s t o p w h a t it is d o i n g - - t h i s is c a l l e d n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t - - and if y o u s t i m u l a t e it in the p l e a s u r e s y s t e m , it tends to d o m o r e of w h a t it was doing. Positive reinforcement. N o w , to some possibilities.
people
this
suggests
wonderful
D e l g a d o , for instance, believes that this technology gives us e v e r y t h i n g w e need for the control of Anti-Social T e n d e n c i e s . Criminals, p s y c h o p a t h s a n d B a d G u y s in g e n e r a l - - a l l c a n b e effectively "cured" (i.e., put on their best b e havior) by these techniques. A l l w e h a v e to d o , h e h h e h , is g e t i n t o t h e i r h e a d s , h e h h e h , h a b i t s of p r o p e r b e h a v i o r . And with these new techniques of reinforcement, we can really teach 'em. Unfortunately
Delgado
is
probably
right.
In p r i n c i p l e t h i s is j u s t a d r a s t i c f o r m o f b e h a v i o r c o n t r o l on the B . F . S k i n n e r m o d e l (depicted a l s o in N i n e t e e n E i g h t y - F o u r a n d A C l o c k w o r k Orange) • T h e n e w s y s t e m is m o r e stark" a n d s t a r t l i n g T > e c a u s e of its v i o l a t i o n of the individual's b o d y i n t e r i o r , b u t not in p r i n c i p l e d i f f e r e n t . S k i n n e r has the same n a i v e , s i m p l e m i n d e d s o l utions for e v e r y t h i n g . A l l " w e " h a v e to d o using " w e " to mean s o c i e t y , the good guys good g u y s a c t i n g o n b e h a l f o f s o c i e t y , e t c . - - is c o n trol the b e h a v i o r of the bad g u y s , and e v e r y t h i n g will be b e t t e r , and " w e " can accomplish anything "we" desire. The
reader
may
see
several
problems
with
this.
In t h e f i r s t p l a c e ( a n d t h e l a s t ) , t h e r e is the obvious q u e s t i o n of w h o w e a r e , and if w e are g o i n g to c o n t r o l o t h e r p e o p l e , w h o is g o i n e - ^ c o n t r o l us_. At a time when our "highest" leaders show . t h e m s e l v e s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h low r e t a l i a t i o n s and l o w e r i n i t i a t i v e s , w e c a n w o n d e r i n d e e d if it is not m o r e i m p o r t a n t to p r e v e n t a n y o n e f r o m e v e r getting this kind of control over humans than to facilitate it.
An example: a firm called Listening, Inc. in B o s t o n , f o u n d e d b y W a y n e B a t t e a u (whom J o h n W . Campbell considered one of the Great Men of Our T i m e ) , devised a system for helping the totally d e a f to h e a r . Supposedly this could transmit the a c t u a l s e n s a t i o n of h e a r i n g into the n e r v o u s system by some s c a r c e l y - u n d e r s t o o d form of e l e c t r i cal induction. The machine was sold off; whether it e v e r g o t a s a f e t y r a t i n g I d o n ' t know.
to
do
This for
is the s o r t of t h i n g t h e b l i n d , as w e l l .
people
would
like
N o w , in p r i n c i p l e , it m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e to t r a n s m i t an i m a g e in s o m e w a y to t h e a c t u a l v i s ual area of the cerebral c o r t e x . (This might or m i g h t not i n v o l v e o p e n i n g the s k u l 1 . ) Somebody's working on i t . In a r e l a t e d t r e n d , n u m e r o u s d e s i g n groups are a t t e m p t i n g to e x t e n d the c a p a b i l i t i e s of the human body, by means of things variously called possums, waldoes and telefactors. " P o s s u m s " ( f r o m L a t i n "I c a n " ) a r e d e v i c e s to aid the h a n d i c a p p e d in m o v i n g , g r a s p i n g a n d controlling. Whatever motions the person can m a k e a r e e l e c t r o n i c a l l y t r a n s p o s e d to w h a t e v e r r e a l m o f c o n t r o l is n e e d e d , s u c h as t y p e w r i t i n g or guiding a w h e e l c h a i r . ("Waldo" is H e i n l e i n ' s term for a p o s s u m that can be o p e r a t e d at a d i s tance.) In the s p a c e p r o g r a m , t h o u g h , t h e y c a l l t h e m telefactors. A t e l e f a c t o r is a d e v i c e w h i c h c o n verts or adapts body movements by m a g n i f i c a t i o n or remote mimicking. Unlike p o s s u m s , they are m e a n t to be o p e r a t e d by p e o p l e w i t h n o r m a l f a c u l t i e s , b u t to p r o v i d e , for e x a m p l e , s u p e r h u m a n s t r e n g t h : c r a d l e d in a l a r g e r t e l e f a c t o r b o d y , a m a n c a n p i c k up i m m e n s e l o a d s , as the m o v e m e n t s of his a r m s a r e c o n v e r t e d to the m o v e m e n t s of the greater robot arms. Telefactors can also w o r k from f a r , far a w a y . T h u s a m a n s i t t i n g in a b o o t h c a n c o n t r o l , w i t h the m o v e m e n t s of his own a r m s , the a r t i f i c i a l arms of a robot vehicle on another planet. (This w h o l e realm of sensory and m o t o r m e c h a n i c s a n d t r a n s p o s i t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f w h a t I c a l l " F a n t i c s , " d i s c u s s e d o n p f . J^ya-ft). Then there are those w h o , like How Wachspress (see n e a r b y ) , w a n t to expand man's senses beyond the o r d i n a r y , into n e w s e n s o r y r e a l m s , by h o o k i n g h i m to v a r i o u s electronics. THOUGHTS T h e r e a r e two p r o b l e m s in all o f t h i s . The f i r s t a n d w o r s t , o f c o u r s e , is w h o c o n t r o l s and what w.,: hold them back from the most evil d o i n g s . Recent h i s t o r y , both at h o m e and a b r o a d , s u g g e s t s the answers are d i s c o u r a g i n g . The second problem, wispish and theoretical n e x t t o t h a t o t h e r , is w h e t h e r in t u r n i n g toward bizarre new pleasures and involvements, we will not l o s e t r a c k o f a l l t h a t is h u m a n . (Of c o u r s e this is a q u e s t i o n t h a t is a s k e d b y s o m e b o d y whenever anything at all c h a n g e s . But that doesn't m e a n it is a l w a y s inappropriate.) In the face b o t h o f p o t e n t i a l e v i l a n d d e h u m aniration, though, we can wish there were some boundary, some good and conspicuous stopping place at w h i c h to s a y : no f u r t h e r , like the three-mile limit in i n t e r n a t i o n a l law of o l d . I personally t h i n k it s h o u l d b e the h u m a n s k i n . Perhaps that's o l d - f a s h i o n e d , being long breached by the P a c e maker. But what other lines can we draw? The
prospects
are
horrorshow,
me
droogies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY T.D. Sterling, E.A. Bering, J r . , S.V. Pollack and H . V a u g h a n , J r . , Visual Prosthesis. The Interdisciplinary Dialog. ACM Monograph. $21.
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I originally hadn't i n t e n d e d to include a n y t h i n g like this in the b o o k , w a n t i n g it to be a family-ntyle a c c e s s catalog a n d all t h a t , b u t this particular item s e e m s fairly i m p o r t a n t . R e m e m b e r h o w w e l a u g h e d at the O r g a n m o tron In W o o d y Allen's Sleeper? W e l l , it t u r n s out not to b e a J o k e . A n individual n a m e d H o w (not H o w a r d ) W a c h s p r e s s , e l e c t r o n i c k c r - i n - r e s l d e n c e at a S a n F r a n c i s c o radio station, h a s b e e n d e v e l o p i n g just that, e x c e p t that h e h a s m o r e elevated p u r p o s e s in m i n d . T h e secret w a s b r o k e n to the w o r l d in Q u i m a g a z i n e earlier this y e a r ; b u t H e f n e r , the p u b l i s h e r , evidently h e l d b a c k the m o r e startling p h o t o g r a p h s of a m o d e l in electronicallyinduced ecstasy. W a c h s p r e s s * d e v i c e s t r a n s p o s e s o u n d (as a u d i o s i g n a l s ) into feelings; y o u t o u c h y o u r b o d y w i t h a n o p e n - e n d e d t u b e o r o t h e r soft fixture a t t a c h e d to his d e v i c e — w h i c h in turn is attached to a hi-fi. T h e s e n s a t i o n s , it is c l a i m e d , a r e p r o f o u n d a n d m o v i n g . Y o u m a y take t h e m a n y w h e r e o n y o u r b o d y ; the effect is d e e p l y r e l a x i n g a n d emotionally e n g r o s s i n g . W a c h s p r e s s t h i n k s h e h a s r e a c h e d a n entire n e u r o l o g i c a l s y s t e m that w a s n ' t k n o w n b e f o r e , m u c h like O l d B ' d i s c o v e r y of the " p l e a s u r e c e n t e r " in the b r a i n ; h e s e e s it a s a n e w m o d a l i t y of e x p e r i e n c e a n d a g e n e r a l ization of m u s i c a n d t o u c h . T h a t is the m a i n p o i n t . " H y p e r - r e a l i t y " is w h e r e h e s a y s it gets y o u : a point c u r i o u s l y c o n g r u e n t w i t h the a u t h o r ' s o w n notions of h y p e r t e x t a n d h y p e r m e d i a a s e x t e n s i o n s of the m e n t a l life. T h i s s a i d , w e c a n c o n s i d e r the p r u r i e n t a s p e c t s of W a c h s p r e s s ' A u d i t a c a n d Teletac d e v i c e s ( w h i c h h e i n t e n d s to m a r k e t in a c o u p l e of y e a r s a s hi-fi a c c e s s o r i e s , b ' g o s h ) . When p l a y e d w i t h the right a u d i o , in the right p l a c e s , a n d a g o o d o p e r a t o r at the c o n t r o l s , t h e y p r o v i d e a s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e said to b e of a h i g h o r d e r . W a c h s p r e s s ' w o r k ties in interestingly w i t h today's " a w a r e n e s s " m o v e m e n t , of w h i c h E s a l e n is the spiritual c e n t e r , w h i c h h o l d s that w e h a v e gotten o u t of t o u c h w i t h o u r b o d i e s , o u r f e e l i n g s , o u r native p e r c e p t i o n s . A s s u c h , the W a c h s p r e s s m a c h i n e s m a y b e a n u n f o l d i n g - m e c h a n i s m for the u n f e e l i n g tightness of M o d e r n M a n - - a s w e U a s a less p r o f o u n d t r e a t m e n t for "marital difficulties" and Why-Can't-Johnny-Come-Lately.
Inscrutable S a n Francisco! Wachspress g a v e a n u m b e r of d e m o n s t r a t i o n s of his d e v i c e s in B a y A r e a c h u r c h e s , until h e b e c a m e d i s t u r b e d at i m m o d e s t u s e s of the p r o b e b y female c o m m u n i c a n t s w h o h a d stood in line to try the m a c h i n e . (Auditac, Ltd., D e p t . C L B , 1940 W a s h i n g t o n S t . . San Francisco C A 94109.)
Harry M e n d e l l , a good friend of m i n e , rigged an i n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t w h i l e h e w a s s t i l l in h i g h s c h o o l . He u s e d a l i t t l e H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d m i n i c o m p u t e r , w h i c h the manufacturer had generously loaned to his Knights of C o l u m b u s C o m p u t e r C l u b of H a d d o n f i e l d , N . J . H a r r y h o o k e d t h e H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d u p to a C R T d i s p l a y t o (see p p . imi,'7,bHtty • At P o f **** C R T ' £ ° l l o w i n 9 . h i s p r o g r a m , t h e c o m p u t e r c o n t i n u o u s l y d i s p l a y e d the l e t t e r s o f t h e a l p h a b e t . A l i t t l e m a r k e r (called a c u r s o r ) would skip along underneath the l e t t e r s , acting as a m a r ker for e a c h of them in t u r n . H a r r y r i g g e d o n e m o r e e x t e r n a l d e v i c e : a s e t of e l e c t r o d e s . T h e s e would be s t r a p p e d , h a r m l e s s l y , to the head of a s u b j e c t . Harry's computer program used these e l e c t r o d e s to m e a s u r e a l p h a r h y t h m , o n e o f the m y s t e r i o u s p u l s e s i n the b r a i n t h a t c o m e a n d g o . Every time the subject flashed a l p h a , Harry's program would copy the letter above the cursor to the bottom of
S i t t i n g in t h i s r i g , s u b j e c t s w e r e a b l e t o l e a r n , rather q u i c k l y , TO TYPE WORDS AND S E N T E N C E S . Just by f l a s h i n g a l p h a r h y t h m w h e n the c u r s o r w a s u n d e r t h e r i g h t letters. J u b i l a n t , Harry showed this setup to an eminent neurop h y s i o l o g i s t from a g r e a t u n i v e r s i t y n e a r b y , a m a n s p e c i a l i z i n g in e l e c t r o d e h o o k u p s . H a r r y w a s a h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t and did not understand about Professionalism. " W h a t ' B so g r e a t a b o u t t h a t ? " s n i f f e d t h e e m i n e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l . "I c a n t y p e f a s t e r . " S o H a r r y d r o p p e d t h a t a n d w e n t o n to o t h e r s t u f f .
DM 10
w i s ™ .
" P i c t u r e p r o c e e d i n g " ie a n i m p o r t a n t t e c h n o l o g y , largely separate from the rest of c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s . It m e a n s t a k i n g a n i n c o m i n g p i c t u r e , u s u a l l y a p h o t o ;nd d o i n g s o m e t h i n g to I t . ( S o m e n o w c a l l t h i s graph area ' m p u t e r pictorlcs. ) F i r s t o f a l l , t h e r e is I m a g e e n h a n c e m e n t . This m e a n s taking p i c t u r e s , dividing them into points w h o s e brightness is s e p a r a t e l y m e a s u r e d , a n d then u s i n g s p e c ial techniques for m a k i n g the picture betterTo people familiar with p h o t o g r a p h y , this m a y seem I m p o s s i b l e ; t o p h o t o g r a p h e r s It I s a m a x i m t h a t p h o t o g r a p h s a l w a y s lose q u a l i t y a t e a c h s t e p . N e v e r t h e l e s s , v a r i o u s mathematical techniques such as Fourier Analysis (mentioned e l s e w h e r e ) do just, t h a t , producing a n e w data structure improving on the original d a t a . Surfaces a p pear smoother, edges sharper.
i..11.-i Knowlton and Leon Harmon have done a lot of experiments with picture conversion (eee bibliography). Here ie a phone made into teeny patterns (shown around). (<[)Knowlton S Harmon.
(These t e c h n i q u e s h a v e been e x t e n s i v e l y used to clean up photographs sent back from our unmanned space v e h i c l e s — both those used exploring other planets and those spying on our o w n — see Secret Sentries in S p a c e , Bibliography.)
For r e c o g n i z i n g more c o m p l e x o b j e c t s in p i c t u r e s — b o x e s , s p h e r e s , faces or w h a t e v e r — more complex s t r u c ture-analyzing programs are necessary. As the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f w h a t m i g h t b e in a p i c t u r e I n c r e a s e , t h e s e i n creasingly become guessing programs. (This b e c o m e s a b r a n c h of a r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e , a m i s l e a d i n g t e r m f o r a curious field, d t s c u a s e T ^ n p ^ Z - / ' / . )
( S o m e of the c l e v e r d a t a - h a n d l i n g t e c h niques of B E F L I X K n o w l t o n then turned a r o u n d a n d u s e d i n L*S, a l a n g u a g e w h i c h m a d e t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a v a i l a b l e to o t h e r c o m p u t e r p e o p l e . T h i s m a y s o u n d like o n l y a c o m p u t e r t e c h n i c a l i t y , b u t it's t h e s o r t of t h i n g that's w i d e l y a p p r e c i a t e d . ( L 6 s t a n d s f o r " b e l L L a b s ' L o w e r - L e v e l List Language."))
Numerous computer people think it Is i m p o r t a n t to match up our computer graphic display systems (described Variously on this side of the b o o k ) to image Input s y s t e m s . T h i s ia a m a t t e r o f t a s t e .
W a n t i n g to g e t o u t s i d e artists i n t e r e s t e d in B E F L I X a n d r e l a t e d m e d i a , h e w o r k e d for a t i m e with film-maker S t a n V a n d e r b e e k ; f r o m this K n o w l t o n s a w that artists' n e e d s w e r e m o r e intricate t h a n h e h a d a n t i c i p a t e d . Augmenting B E F L I X w i t h s o m e of t h e t h i n g s V a n d e r b e e k a s k e d for, K n o w l t o n c a m e u p with a n e w lang u a g e called T A R P S ( T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l A l p h a N u m e r i c Raster Picture S y s t e m ) . T h i s in t u r n l e d to E X P L O R ( E X J M i c i t ( l y p r o v i d e d 2 D P a t t e r n s . ) Local ( n e i g h b o r h o o d ) O p e r a t i o n s , a n d R a n d o m - ' ness). E X P L O R is f a s c i n a t i n g b e c a u s e o f its originality a n d g e n e r a l i t y - - n o t o n l y d o e s it m o d i f y p i c t u r e s a n d s e r v e a s a n artist's t o o l , b u t it h a s f a s c i n a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s a s a c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e a n d m a y e v e n h a v e a p p l i c a t i o n s in c o m p l e x s i m u l a t i o n s for technical p u r p o s e s .
These are all basically techniques for making a data s t r u c t u r e . A n y data stored in computers m u s t h a v e , of c o u r s e , a d a t a s t r u c t u r e — w h i c h b a s i c a l l y m e a n s a n y a r r a n g e m e n t of i n f o r m a t i o n y o u c h o o s e . (see p . 2 6 " f - ) T h e s e v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s a r e i n t e n d e d to c r e a t e r e duced data s t r u c t u r e s , recording only the "most i m p o r tant" data of the p i c t u r e — from w h i c h n e w and v a r y i n g pictures m a y be created, reflecting the "true" structures o r i g i n a l l y s h o w n in t h e i n i t i a l p i c t u r e . H o w m u c h i t ' s going to be possible to create these data structures from input p i c t u r e s remains to b e s e e n ; some of us think it's n o t going to b e generally w o r t h w h i l e . BIBLIOGRAPHY Azriel R o s e n f e l d , "Progress In P i c t u r e P r o c e s s i n g 1969-71." ACM Computing Surveys June 7 3 , 81-108.
Philip J. K l a s s , Secret Sentries In S p a c e . Random, 1971, SB. Interesting general book on g e o p o litical strategy and orbital photoreconnalssance. "Now-it-can—be-toId" a p p r o a c h .
LIZZIE
OF THE LINEPRINTER
A famous converted picture. The painting was divided into 100,000 brightness-measured spots by H . Philip Peterson of Control Data Corporation; then each d o t was made into a square of overprinted letters on the printing device. T h e program allowed 100 levels of g r e y . Above: Control Data's v e r sion, reprinted by permission. Below: a cut-down version that often turns u p . (From o r i g i n a l flat 2D a r t w o r k b y L e n D a V i n c i o f M e d i c i A s s o c i a t e s . ) NOTE: this is n o t a "computer picture." There is no such t h i n g . It's a quantization put out on a lineprinter.
SATfclUTS PICT0H€5 o r YoOR 0 U H H 0 K < CPOHTij OR. i W e V E R . Y o u can g e t p i c t u r e s of any area you want from ERTS (Earth Resources Observation Systems) satellites, from EROS Data Center (no, not a d a t i n g s e r v i c e , s e e p . (o'j ), Sioux Falls SD 57198, or call 605/594-6511 b e t . 7 AM & PM central time.
S o m e of K n o w l t o n ' s b e s t - k n o w n w o r k h a s b e e n in p i c t u r e p r o c e s s i n g , w h e r e h e h a s c o n v e r t e d p h o t o g r a p h s into m o s a i c s of tiny patterns-- w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s s h o w the original. H i s first w i d e l y - k n o w n l a n g u a g e w a s B E F L I X ( B E 1 1 L a b s m o v i e - m a k i n g s y s t e m ) ; this w a s p r o g r a m m e d for t h e 7 0 9 4 in t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s . B E F L I X a l l o w e d t h e u s e r to c r e a t e m o t i o n p i c t u r e s b y a c l e v e r m o s a i c p r o c e s s that u s e d t h e o u t p u t c a m e r a m o r e efficiently . ( A c t u a l l y , t h e l e n s w a s t h r o w n o u t of f o c u s m a n u a l l y a n d t h e e n t i r e f r a m e c r e a t e d a s a m o s a i c of a l p h a b e t i c a l c h a r a c ters; this d i d t h e w h o l e t h i n g m u c h m o r e q u i c k l y and inexpensively.)
Then there a r e r e c o g n i z e r s — programs that look at t h e d a t a s t r u c t u r e f r o m a n I n p u t p i c t u r e , a n d t r y to discern the l i n e s , corners and other features of t h e picture. (While your e y e i n s t a n t l y sees these t h i n g s , computers do n o t , and must look at the dots of a picture o n e - b y - o n e . H o w to a n a l y z e p i c t u r e s I n s u c h t e d i o u s s e quences Is no simple m a t t e r . )
Ken KnowIton and Leon Harmon, "Computer-Produced Grey Scales." Computer Graphics and Image Processing. April 7 2 , 1-20.
K e n n e t h K n o w l t o n is a Bell L a b s lifer. T a l l , p a t r i c i a n a n d g r a c i o u s , h i s w o r k , like S u t h e r l a n d ' s , s h o w s t h e i n n e r light of u n i f y i n g 1 i n t e l l i g e n c e . H e w o r k s in M a x M a t h e w s section of Bell L a b s at M u r r a y Hill, w h e r e t h e y d o all that i n t e r e s t i n g stuff w i t h m u s i c a n d p e r c e p t u a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d s o o n . D u r i n g t h e last d e c a d e . K n o w l t o n h a s t u r n e d o u t vast quantities of arti c l e s , p r o c e s s e d p i c t u r e s , m o v i e s , a n d actual c o m p u t e r languages; while a n y ordinary m a n w o u l d b e satisfied to b e s o p r o d u c t i v e , a p p a r e n t l y h e d o e s a lot of o t h e r t h i n g s in h i s w o r k that h e d o e s n ' t talk a b o u t .
<"Hiinniuii.nr)H5-=".....«..ntf«er'i;rFii'rrt'iuim^o •fiihtitrntiin i m i H H ^ . . . . . . . . . . . . H u i i M t . » » M n i - n t t ^ r ^ IIHII'IIMI n|||fHinH.. — . " . . . H : M » t i | [ r F C t f H « ( l ( ! H m « HH-HIinilllll i|IMUlI..."....."H(mf!(!(llM,'IIIM«'.M1 n i j i U i M i L i i i j rj«?ii3==_-=uL"^_iLi£>th>fri>j j f'eEprrrtrfi(si'_iutt h H N > B S . r M I I U I H H m < ^ « 1 = - = = '((*l l l l l H H ? r F T ¥ ? » f M « I B M J > ! 3 (l(|1^r•^^'wf^^i-^^^^i!^'lHl^1• i i i m ^ = = i n i i > ritfii ;ni-L8EHJLa^•SIL-_= = tlL' =(llt!4i1ll'!H*^|rlll*»f rtr-.^^w XtMttHHtmiWWIMUto HI • >l 1I U t H * tt i » !f F 9 ltTWWW9tS*>W
Since V a n d e r b e e k , Knowlton has entered into a l o n g a n d fruitful c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h Lillian S c h w a r t z , a t a l e n t e d artist. T h e i r m a n y films h a v e b e e n c l e v e r , startling a n d p o w e r f u l . I m u s t s a y that t h e y g r o w o n y o u : I l i k e d t h e m at first, b u t w h e n I s a w five o r s i x in a r o w this J a n u a r y , I f o u n d t h e m just i n c r e d i b l e . Because t h e y a r e a b s t r a c t , a n d full o f f a s t - c h a n g i n g patterns a n d r e v e r s a l s , they take s o m e adjusting to; b u t t h e y ' r e w o r t h s e e i n g o v e r a n d o v e r . E X P L O R m a y b e t h o u g h t of as a highly g e n e r a l i z e d v e r s i o n o f C o n w a y ' s g a m e o f Life (see p . ) • Y o u start w i t h t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns a s y o u r data structure; these c a n b e abstractions o r e v e n c o n v e r t e d p h o t o g r a p h s , as in a r e c e n t K n o w l t o n - S c h w a r t z film s h o w i n g M u y b r i d g e ' s R u n n i n g M a n . In y o u r E X P L O R p r o g r a m , y o u m a y t h e n c a u s e t h e p a t t e r n to c h a n g e b y d e g r e e s , e a c h cell o f t h e p a t t e r n r e a c t i n g to t h e cells a r o u n d it o r to r a n d o m e v e n t s a s s p e c i f i e d b y the p r o g r a m m e r .
m i i e i i f mvnht->bni!i!Bi= = . = . = . . . . H •••• = >"-=< t t u f ^ M f n r ( I C M ^ M • J ? 1 9 » n * h f r e f t < h b t b f c B R H B B = " " » i . . H H » " - = M < it • • • « • -1 (1!> «1 iKAi-f^i ***i*i«rte«<'?r»"'M<»«:**4<«>«.j>iwi|MMi t u H I M * « f M « i M » f 1 H * ) 1 H I lilt I I I I FllttS?«tlt<*t'>VI>h | *V^VttttM<[-PrfftHEfeeir«'irrFff 1'MS Bb£llU.jyLflHBBEREEHHE8fc-tl=-=i_i I M I M 1 ! I 11 tt I S ' i« « I I I ! f ICSSi ('t«Hlt{('»I! 1 I ! I I i i •••.•;??!> t fH M W H H U H S P H i ; r m m t > M H i n ( tiktbbtttatit'ttLi111 t'lft'tttiittti11 i i i • • i i ;' i f'r.rrEiiaif Fffirmn «l11t|l?IM»IHH=»F»"»f?l.apiHHl.Pi i i , i I I I t • * ' F m ' f r M < « ' . * l t (<• W N h l l l i m H H H M I I t » | i r W ^ •;'!(( ! » M - f eMt-?milP!l|Itl t CCt'VVt'tecfTtSllllflO-fBSaSIlS.llf Jli (III •M)mF!l!l?FSI*FPyj'ePP"&t'l't'lll»mr*lrl-t**H-t| >> fctt i-UJ!itlIiilllllil'JI*S^fB?PIPBlBl->'!l'tblJ&l-tit!lllll'l(lf^f Ir^ttfcVtVtllHIHin'tltn'mCfSHHIHiilliflKIHlmit.lllFPJdV** m r i n n H t 11 m hit rmr*it'i'iiii»BKf*1H»IM?5»Il 1! » ('**Pl'l'l<{ C*'it,5>M'l4IJSSl " * > " > > 'VSW'HSPPP'CRPillt >'MVJ«|iNhi:|it»lim^RrKfiPHMt--frtf t m I t l t t t M ' f it C l ^ M f f ^ B B S B M H t . j - A u s a ^ ^ »HII491ll>« «>-><>*> > ..... 1 ..........tl|iiit4(rii;(«rrH. ^ u i i r » « t t ( ' i f i c v CI.ITIU---<---*• • • • > . . . . . . . . . t t I I HIIUF'CF-'HHU ii 14 111III H l l f l l l i n i t i H i . m m u u j a m j L i i j t l H H H H I I H 1 4 1 ttt l K)U-i t«rpfrrf rr ii M . . . < > . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M ^ i 4 4 < { ^ . i I I M I it M I HIII(IHM«|MM(I^.=............. • - • M tllt>'HM(M(fMril«^=.=-.F..I?UMIMWl.MJ.HIi(l(IHl1l''.'??f' %i 1t**jft»iriim..>..T*...*.i.....f i M I 1 1 I I >'irii*:'^ <»>M*tl«.««»tP«tPM«t*il9WII*'*t*"<*> .•.tMtlllHmUMT'.r .*i^j5PKrpBBfBrrtctiittii!'tctftt*.-"«.rT,r.4m4..jiL.-,»j9iliafl!iaisn f'tl*Mf1ifirr(il>M4iiiMIMIHItll'>giaB timtiii*rt«»F'lt-tVHninif.utnin.n-nvKtbttt'1 i i r m u i r f ' . ^ r v
E X P L O R , r u n n i n g without external data, c o m e s u p with s o m e extraordinary snakeskin a n d J a c k Frost patterns. B u t its u s e s in traffic simulation a n d v a r i o u s other studies of p o p u lations in s p a c e c o u l d b e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . E X P L O R h a s o b v i o u s artistic a p p l i c a t i o n s . Lillian S c h w a r t z is u s i n g it e x t e n s i v e l y in f i l m making. It's n o w r u n n i n g o n a m i n i c o m p u t e r f e e d i n g to a m o d i f i e d S o n y T r i n i t r o n c o l o r T V . ( T h i s color s e t u p w a s c r e a t e d b y M i k e Noll a n d is d e s c r i b e d in a r e c e n t i s s u e of t h e C A C M , t h o u g h o n l y for b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e T V ; t h e c o l o r is m o r e r e c e n t . It s t o r e s t h e c o l o r p i c t u r e a s a list o f s e q u e n t i a l c o l o r s r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o m p u t e r ' s c o r e m e m o r y , e a c h dot b e i n g r e p r e C f . " B o y e l l ' s T o r r a r i u m , " p . f l f \ 3 & .) K n o w l t o n h a s u s e d E X P L O R for t e a c h i n g c o m p u t e r a r t at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ; t h e l a n g u a g e is a v a i l a b l e p r o g r a m m e d in " m e d i u m size" F o r t r a n f r o m H a r r y H u s k e y , D e p t . of Information a n d C o m p u t e r S c i e n c e , U . of C a l . at S a n t a C r u z , S a n t a C r u z , C a l i f o r n i a .
DM
S P E E C H BY
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COMPUTER
Y o u m a y have h e a r d a b o u t v a r i o u s k i n d s of "talking computer." Thla deserves some explanation. C o m p u t e r s m a y be m a d e to " t a l k " by v a r i o u s means. O n e Is t h r o u g h a n o u t p u t d e v i c e that s i m p l y s t o r e s r e c o r d i n g s of s e p a r a t e w o r d s or s y l l a b l e s , w h i c h the computer selects w i t h appropriate timing. ( M a c h i n e s of t h i s t y p e h a v e b e e n sold b y b o t h IBM and C o g n i t r o n i c s for a long t i m e . ) A d e e p e r a p p r o a c h i s to h a v e t h e c o m p u t e r s y n t h e s i z e s p e e c h from p h o n e m e s , or a c t u a l l y m a k e the t o n e s and n o i s e s of w h i c h speech is c o m p o s e d . These are very tricky m a t t e r s . Bell L a b s , and o t h e r s , have been w o r k i n g on m a n y of t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s . T h e r e a l p r o b l e m , of c o u r s e , is how to d e c i d e w h a t to s a y . (This was discussed under Artificial I n t e l l i g e n c e , p . fft'll/.) This ie a non-simple picture conversion. The original photograph was converted into measured points; but these were in turn made into growtogether patterns by a program in the EXPLOR language. f£) Knowlton i Harmon.
AUDIO ANALYSIS AND
ENHANCEMENT
T h e p r o b l e m of a n a l y z i n g a u d i o is v e r y like the p r o b l e m of a n a l y z i n g p i c t u r e s (see p . j t h l O ) , and indeed s o m e of t h e s a m e t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d . The audio goes i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r a s a s t r e a m of m e a s u r e m e n t s , and the s e l f s a m e t e c h n i q u e o f F o u r i e r A n a l y s i s is e m p l o y e d . T h i s r e d u c e s t h e a u d i o to a s e r i e s o f f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e m e n t s o v e r t i m e — b u t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , l o s e s l i t t l e of the f i d e l i t y . O n c e a u d i o is r e d u c e d to F o u r i e r p a t t e r n s , it c a n b e r e c o n s t i t u t e d in v a r i o u s w a y s : c h a n g e d in t i m i n g a n d pitch i n d e p e n d e n t l y , or enhanced by polishing t e c h n i q u e s l i k e t h o s e u s e d i n i m a g e e n h a n c e m e n t ( s e e p-9f\i0 ) . This has been done with great success by Tom Stockh a m at the U n i v e r s i t y of U t a h , w h o has r e p r o c e s s e d old Caruso records into Improved fidelity. In t h e p i c t u r e w e s e e h i m w i t h e q u i p m e n t of s o m e s o r t a n d an old r e c o r d .
W i s h t h e r e w e r e r o o m to t a l k a b o u t p l a i n regular audio h e r e — matters like " b i n a u r a l " r e c o r d i n g , and W h y don't they make h i - f i systems b a s e d on a G r a n d B u s (see p M 2 )? But there's no room h e r e . AUDIO AND
COMPUTERS
People are occasionally hear that computers can make They can indeed.
s t i l l B t a r t l e d to sound and m u s i c .
F i r s t of a l l , n o t e t h a t an I n c o m i n g s o u n d is a fluctuating v o l t a g e and can thus be turned into a d a t a s t r u c t u r e . I . e . , a s t r i n g of m e a s u r e m e n t s .
(Wloyt' -
conveys!©*^
In the e a s i e s t c a s e , the c o m p u t e r can j u s t s e n d b a c k out the v o l t a g e s it o r i g i n a l l y got I n . T h i s is r a t h e r r i d i c u l o u s — u s i n g the c o m p u t e r just as a recording d e v i c e — but it's a clear and simple example. T h e q u e s t i o n a f t e r t h a t i s w h a t n e x t : h o w to have the compute; m a k e interesting streams''output ., s o u n d s a n d t o n e s . " measurements, There are numerous methods we can't go into. Max M a t h e w s , at Bell L a b s , h a s for y e a r s been d o i n g m u s i c by c o m p u t e r ; his c u r r e n t s y s t e m is called GROOVE. Heinz v o n F o e r s t e r , at the U n i v e r s i t y of Illinois ( U r b a n a ) , has been d o i n g the s a m e . Another lab at M I T h a s just gotten a P D P - 1 1 / 4 5 (see p. for the same p u r p o s e . (The p r o b l e m i s : c a n the c o m p u t e r k e e p up w i t h t h e o u t p u t r a t e n e e d e d to m a k e m u s i c in r e a l time? maybe the 11/45 can.) A n o t h e r a p p r o a c h is to r e l i e v e the c o m p u t e r itself from making the t o n e s , and use other d e v i c e s — music s y n t h e s i z e r s — for t h i s , controlled by the c o m p u t e r . T h i s is e s s e n t i a l l y the a p p r o a c h taken w i t h G e n e r a l T u r t l e ' s M u s i c Box (see p . )> and at the C o l u m b i a - P r i n c e t o n E l e c t r o n i c M u s i c C e n t e r , w h e r e their R C A M a r k II m u s i c s y n t h e s i z e r — an i m m e n s e o n e - o f - a - k i n d j o b b i e — is u n d e r m o r e g e n e r a l computer control.
T o m a k e s o u n d b y c o m p u t e r is t h e o b v e r s e . If t h e c o m p u t e r c a n b e s e t u p to s e n d out_ a s t r i n g o f m e a s u r e m e n t s , these can be turned b a c k into a f l u c t uating voltage, and thus make sounds.
University
of
Utah
( S t o c k h a m h a s b e e n in t h e n e w s l a t e l y , a s o n e of the p a n e l p u z z l i n g o v e r t h e n o t o r i o u s 1 8 - M i n u t e G a p . ) (The a u t h o r h a s proposed the n a m e K i t c h e n s y n c t r a for a s y s t e m to s y n c h r o n i z e m o t i o n pictures w i t h "wild" sound recording b y these means.)
/
J
Kelt?. BIBLIOGRAPHY T h o m a s G . S t o c k h a m , J r . , " R e s t o r a t i o n of O l d A c o u s t i c ^ R e c o r d i n g s b y M e a n s of D i g i t a l S i g n a l Processing." Audio Engineering Society preprint n o . 831 ( D - 4 ) , presented at Audio Engineering Society 1971 c o n vention .
1»
MUSICAL
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NOTATION
N o t e t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r h a n d l i n g of m u s i c a l n o t e s , as s y m b o l s , Is a n o t h e r rask e n t i r e l y , closely resembling computer text handling (mentioned v a r i o u s l y in t h e b o o k ) . A high-power structure d - t e x t s y s t e m o r T h i n k e r t o y ( s e « p.flHftfl i s f l n e tor staring and p r e s e n t i n g w r i t t e n m u s i c . A n d , of c o u r s e , s u c h s t o r e d m u s i c a l n o t a t i o n (a data s t r u c t u r e ) can o b v i o u s l y be played by the hookups m e n t i o n e d .
P r e n t i s s H . K n o w l t o n , " C a p t u r e a n d D i s p l a y of K e y b o a r d Music." Datamation May '72, 56-60. Describes a s e t u p h e b u i l t at U . of U t a h t h a t a l l o w s p i a n i s t s to p l a y m u s i c on an o r d i n a r y k e y b o a r d , and c o n v e t h e i n p u t to s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e c o m puter. It u s e s a n o r g a n , a P D P - 8 a n d a c o u p l e o CRT displays. Heinz
Some
v o n F o e r s t e r a n a J Joes B e a u c h a m p , M u s i c b y W i l e y , 1 9 6 9 . H A S R E C O R D S IN B A C K .
Computer*
of t h e e a r l y B e l l L a b s w o r k m a y b e h e a r d on an excellent D e c c a LP w i t h the misleading title "MUSIC from MATHEMATICS." (Decca DL ?91°3>• m a t h e m a t i c a l m y t h i s d i s c u s s e d o n p . 3-*}.)
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"Artificial I n t e l l i g e n c e " Is at once the aexiest and m o s t o m i n o u s term In the w o r l d . It c h i l l s and Imp r e s s e s at the same t i m e . In p r i n c i p l e It m e a n s the simulation of p r o c e s s e s of m i n d , by any m e a n s at a l l ; but it generally turns out to be some form or a n o t h e r of c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n (see " S i m u l a t i o n , " p .
T h e s e are three topics of great importance; of I m p o r t a n c e , unfortunately, less for w h a t they h a v e actually a c c o m p l i s h e d than for the d e g r e e to w h i c h they h a v e c o n f u s e d a n d intimidated p e o ple w h o w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d what's g o i n g o n . M e r e l y lo mention t h e m can b e o n e - u p m a n s h i p . All three titles m e a n so m u c h , so m a n y different specific t h i n g s , as to m e a n almost nothing w h e n l u m p e d together as a w h o l e . All three h a v e d e veloped a w e b of intricate technical facts (and s o m e t i m e s t h e o r e m s ) , but the applicability of these elegant findings is in all three cases a matter o p e n to considerable s c r u t i n y .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y laymen are so impressed b y c o m p u t e r s in general that they e a s i l y s u p p o s e c o m p u t e r s can do a n y t h i n g involving i n f o r m a t i o n . And public u n d e r s t a n d ing Is not fostered by certain types of stupid d e m o n s t r a t i o n . O n e y e a r I heard from n u m e r o u s p e o p l e about h o w "they'd seen on TV a b o u t how c o m p u t e r s w r i t e T V s c r i p t s " — w h a t had a c t u a l l y been shown w a s a hokey e n a c t m e n t of h o w the c o m p u t e r could r a n d o m l y decide w h e ther the Bad Man g e t s shot or the C o o d Guy g e t s s h o t — both o u t c o m e s d u t i f u l l y enacted by g u y s In c o w b o y o u t fits. Duh.
Since e a c h of these fields h a s d e v e l o p e d a considerable b o d y of technical doctrine, the reader might well ask: w h y aren't they o n the other side of the b o o k , the c o m p u t e r side? The a n s w e r is that they are c o m p u t e r m a n ' s d r e a m s , d r e a m s of considerable intricacy a n d p e r s u a s i v e n e s s , a n d w c are not considering the technicalities h e r e a n y w a y . A s o n the other s i d e , the p r o b l e m is to help y o u distinguish a p p l e s from o r a n g e s a n d w h i c h w a y is u p . F o r m o r e go e l s e w h e r e , but 1 h o p e this orientation will m a k e sorting things out q u i c k e r for y o u .
It should be p e r f e c t l y o b v i o u s to a n y b o d y w h o ' s b r u s h e d e v e n s l i g h t l y w i t h c o m p u t e r s , h o w e v e r — for T h e B r u s h , see the o t h e r a i d e — that they j u s t d o n ' t w o r k like m i n d s . But the a n a l o g y h a n g s a r o u n d . (Edm u n d C . B e r k e l e y w r o t e a b o o k in the f o r t i e s , I b e l i e v e , w i t h the m i s l e a d i n g title of Giant B r a i n s , or M a c h i n e s T h a t T h i n k . T h e Idea Is s t i l l a r o u n d . )
T h e s e three t e r m s — "artificial intelligence," "information retrieval." " c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d instruction"-- h a v e a n u m b e r of things in c o m m o n . First, the n a m e s are so portentous a n d f o r m i d a b l e . S e c o n d , if y o u r e a d o r h e a r a n y thing in these fields, c h a n c e s are it will h a v e a n air of u n f a t h o m a b l e technicality. B o t h s t r a n g e technicalism a n d d e e p m a t h e m a t i c s m a y c o m b i n e to give y o u a s e n s e that y o u can't u n d e r s t a n d a n y of it. T h i s is w r o n g . T h e fact that there are o b s c u r e a n d D e e p T e a c h i n g s in e a c h h a s n o b e a r i n g o n the general comprehensibiliry of w h a t they are a b o u t . M o r e importantly, the question of h o w applicable all the things these people h a v e b e e n d o i n g is g o i n g to b e is a question of considerable i m p o r t a n c e , especially w h e n s o m e of these people w a n t to take s o m e t h i n g o v e r . Don't get s n o w e d .
H e r e ' s a very s i m p l e e x a m p l e , t h o u g h . C o n s i d e r a m a z e d r a w n on a p i e c e of p a p e r . J u s t b y l o o k i n g , w e c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o m p r e h e n d a l l lta p a t h w a y s ; w e have to poke a r o u n d on It to figure out the s o l u t i o n . C o m p u t e r s a r e s o r t of like t h a t , b u t m o r e s o . W h i l e our e y e s can take in a simple p i c t u r e , like a s q u a r e , at o n c e , the c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m u s t poke a r o u n d in its data r e p r e s e n t a t i o n at l e n g t h to see w h a t w e saw at T h e p r i n c i p l e h o l d s true in g e n e r a l . T h e human m i n d can do in a f l a s h , all at o n c e (or "in p a r a l l e l " ) m a n y t h i n g s that m u s t b e t e d i o u s l y c h e c k e d and tried by the h i g h l y s e q u e n t i a l c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . And the m o r e we know a b o u t c o m p u t e r s , the m o r e i m p r e s s i v e the h u m a n b r a i n b e c o m e s . (The s e e m i n g c l e v e r n e s s of some s i m p l e p r o g r a m s d o e s not p r o v e the s i m p l i c i t y of the phenomena being imitated.)
E a c h of these fascinating t e r m s is actually a roof o v e r a veritable 200 of different r e s e a r c h e r s , often of the m o s t eccentric a n d interesting s o r t , e a c h generally with his o w n d r e a m of h o w his o w n research will b e the b r e a k t h r o u g h for h u m a n i t y , o r for s o m e t h i n g . It w o u l d take a L e m u e l Gulliver to to s h o w y o u the colorfulness a n d fascination of these fields; a g a i n , w e just scratch the surface h e r e .
T h e line is, " W E D O N ' T K N O W YET."
HOW
TO
In v a r i o u s c a s e s this h a s r e s u l t e d In h e l p f u l / tricks that turn out to be u s e f u l e l s e w h e r e in the ( c o m p u t e r f i e l d . In this s e n s e , a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e is a o r t of like m e n t h o l : a little m a y improve t h i n g s j h e r e and t h e r e . But (in m y o p i n i o n ) , that d o e s not m e a n a w h o l e lot of it w o u l d m a k e t h i n g s b e t t e r s t i l l . Nevertheless, some artificial-intelligence e n t h u s i a s t s t h i n k there is n o limit on w h a t m a c h i n e s can d o . T h e y point out t h a t , a f t e r a l l , the b r a i n jLs a m a c h i n e . But so Is the u n i v e r s e , p r e s u m a b l y ; and w e ' r e n e v e r going to build o n e of t h o s e , e i t h e r .
DO PATTERN
\/
1
N e v e r t h e l e s s , It is i n t e r e s t i n g to try t h i n g s w i t h c o m p u t e r s that a r e m o r e like w h a t the m i n d d o e s ; and that is m o s t l y w h a t a r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e is about.
A n o t h e r interesting thing these three fields n a v e in c o m m o n : the frequent u s e of a classical computerman's p u t d o w n on anybody w h o dares question w h e t h e r their super-ultimate goals can ever be achieved.
THAT
What it boils down to Is the study of clues and guessing, among a l t e r n a t i v e . In some c a s e s , w e l l defined c l u e * can be found for recognizing specific t h i n g s , like parts of pictures (even straight tines cannot be recognized by computer without a complex p r o g r a m ) or like handwriting (see b e l o w ) . In the w o r s e c a s e s , t h o u g h , careful study only raises the m o a t h o r r e n d o u s technical p r o b l e m s , and the pursuit of these technical problems la Its own field of study (articles have titles like "Sensitivity P a r a m e t e r s in the A d j u s t m e n t of D i s c r i m i n a t o r s , " meaning It Sure Is Hard to Draw T h e L i n e ) .
C f » . t V T Z Z J ) t e h 1 \ S \
ir s o m e b o d y pulls it o n y o u , the reply is s i m p l y , " H o w d o y o u k n o w y o u e v e r will?"
RECOGNITION
T h i s is one of the m o s t a c t i v e a r e a s in a r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of D e f e n s e Department m o n e y . (It m i g h t be n i c e , g o e s the r e a s o n i n g , to have g u n s that could r e c o g n i z e t a n k s , m a c h i n e s that could look over a e r i a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e p i c t u r e s , r a d a r s that could r e c o g n i z e m i s s i l e s . . . )
illustrating also certain p r o b l e m s of Artificial Intelligence.
But In some felicitous e s s e s , researchers a c tually boll a recognition problem down to 4 m a n a g e able system of c l u e s . For l n a t e n c e , take the p r o b lem of written Input to c o m p u t e r s . (Some people don't like to type and would rather w r i t e by hand on s p e c i a l input tablets.) But how can • program recognise the letters? A h a : the a n s w e r , k i d s , Is In your t e x t . The L e d e e n C h a r a c t e r R e c o g n i z e r (described in d e t a i l in N e w m a n and S p r o u l l , P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r active C o m p u t e r G r a p h i c s , A p p e n d i x 8) is a m e t h o d by w h i c h a p r o g r a m can look at a h a n d - d r a w n c h a r a c ter and try to recognize i t . The program extracts a s e r i e s of " p r o p e r t i e s " for the c h a r a c t e r and s t o r e s then in an a r r a y . Every c h a r a c t e r in a given p e r s o n ' s b l o c k lettering w i l l tend to have certain p r o p e r t y s c o r e s . But the Ledeen recognizer m u s t still be t r a i n e d , that i s , the average property s c o r e s of the letters that each I n d i v i d u a l draws m u s t be put into the system before that Individual's lettering can be r e c o g n i z e d . Even then it's a q u e s tion of p r o b a b i l i t y , rather than c e r t a i n t y , that a g i v e n c h a r a c t e r w i l l be r e c o g n i z e d .
TOO
J u r T
T t U H K
TH€V
HEURISTICS
(pronounced
hewRIStics)
A h a . But w h a t if w e w a n t a computer to do s o m e t h i n g we do not know h o w to do ourselves?
T h i s Is c a l l e d h e u r i s t i c s . W h a t it a m o u n t s to b a s i c a l l y is t e c h n i q u e s for t r y i n g t h i n g s o u t , c h e c k i n g the r e s u l t s , and c o n t i n u ing to do m o r e and m o r e of w h a t seems to w o r k . uld phrase it thla w a y : looking for Or 1 a t e g l e s in w h a t e v e r area w e ' r e dealing isful 1 w i t h . A s a h e u r i s t i c p r o g r a m tries t h i n g s o u t , k e e p s v a r i o u s s c o r e s of h o w w e l l it's d o i n g — a sort s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n — and m a k e s a d j u s t m e n t s in favor of w h a t w o r k s b e s t . T h u s the G r e e n b l a t t C h e s s P r o g r a m , m e n t i o n e d u n d e r " C h e s s , " n e a r b y , can " i n v e n t " c h e s s s t r a t e g i e s and "try them o u t " — w h a t it a c t u a l l y d o e s Is test s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n s of movea for the o v e r a l l g o o d n e s s of their r e s u l t s (in t e r m s of the usual p o s i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s in c h e s s ) , and d i s c a r d the s t r a t e g i e s that d o n ' t get a n y w h e r e . It d o e s this by c o m p a r i n g Its " s t r a t e g i e s " (possible m o v e p a t t e r n s ) a g a i n s t the r e c o r d s of c h e s s m a t c h e s w h i c h a r e fed into I t . (If y o u ' v e read the o t h e r side of the b o o k , h e u r i s t i c s m a y be thought of as a form of o p e r a t i o n s r e s e a r c h (p. S"0 ) c a r r i e d o n b y the c o m p u t e r i t s e l f . ) In some w a y s h e u r i s t i c s is the m o s t m a g i c a l area of a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e : its r e s u l t s are the m o a t i m p r e s s i v e to l a y m e n . B u t , like so m a n y of the compu er m a g i c s . It b o l l s d o w n to t e c h n i c a l i t i e s w h i c h lose the r o m a n c e to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t .
MSTCRJOUJ t W t
UN W W W
" T h e s y s t e m is n o w r e a d y to a n s w e r q u e s tions," said the s p o k e s m a n for the project. A four-star general bit off the e n d of a c i g a r , looked whimsically at his c o m r a d e s a n d said— " A s k the m a c h i n e this: Will it b e P e a c e or War?" T h e clerk-typist ( S p 4 ) translated this into the q u e r y l a n g u a g e a n d typed it i n . T h e m a c h i n e replied:
" Y e s w h a t ? " b e l l o w e d the g e n e r a l .
(if
k°V i f - )
T h e operator t y p e d in the q u e r y . C a m e the a n s w e r : Y e s SIR
Tt.Hlr.)
If we w a n t to m a k e a c o m p u t e r do w h a t w e know p e r f e c t l y w e l l h o w to do o u r s e l v e s , then all we do is w r i t e a p r o g r a m .
A v e r y large artificial-intelligence s y s t e m (goes the story) h a d b e e n built for the military to help in l o n g - r a n g e policy p l a n n i n g ; financed b y A R P A , with p e o p l e from M . I . T . , Stanford a n d so o n .
YES
r H W K . . (lit
1
r
NEURAL SIMULATION An Important branch of Artificial Intelligence la concerned with what bunches of Imaginary neurone could d o , even neuron* that we mad* up to follow particular rules. This area of study ia somewhere between n e u r o l ogy and aathematlce; much of it ie concerned with the mathematics of imaginary s e t u p s , rather than the properclea of actual nerve-nets, aa atudled by psychologists, phyalologiate and o t h e r s . (The hypothetical s t u d i e s , of course, alert reaaarchera to complex configurations and possibilities that may turn out to occur In reality, aa well aa being Interesting for their own aalte— and conceivably aa useful ways ol organising things to be built.)
3.
SPEECH OUTPUT AS SOUND It Is possible In principle to set up computers to talk" by converting the language surface structures that their p r o g r a m come up with Into actual s o u n d . See "Audio," p . DM 1 1 , 4.
SMITH
However, an earlier m y t h , that you could simulate neurons till you got a p a r s o n , la about d e a d . SIMULATION OF THOUGHT-PROCESSES
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A few attempts have been made to market devices which would recognize limited speech and convert It to symbols to go Into the c o m p u t e r . One of t h e m , which supposedly can distinguish among thirty or forty different spoken w o r d s , ia supposedly still on the m a r k e t . Specific user* have to "train" it to the particulars of their v o i c e s .
Nobody talks anymore about simulating artificial bralna; there's too much to i t , and It Involves dirty approximations. However, a cleaner area la In the simulation of thought: creating computer programa that mimic man s mental processes aa he dopes through various p r o b l e m s . Trying thing* o u t , deducing thoughts from what's a l ready k n o w n , following through the consequences of guesses— these can all be done by programs that try to figure o u t " answers to probli ! like The Cannibal and The M i s s i o n a r y , or whatever
I repeatedly hear rumors of "dictation m a c h i n e s " which w i l l type w h a t you aay to them. If such things exist I have been unable to confirm I t .
"Do
(Everybody says that of course what we want la to be able to communicate with computers by s p e e c h . Speaking p e r s o n a l l y , I certainly d o n ' t . Explaining my punctuation *" *" ncretaries is hard e n o u g h , let alone trying to tell It to a c o m p u t e r , when it's easy enough to type it in.)
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AUTOMATA "Automata",' aa the term is uaed in thla f i e l d , la just a fancy word for Imaginary c r i t t e r s , p a r t i cularly little thingiee that behave in exact w a y s . (The Came of L i f e , see p . -fa*. 1* an aut ia ton in ! this 0
SPEECH INPUT TO COMPUTERS BY ACTUAL SOUND
So far we have been talking about the computer's m a n i pulation of language as an alphabetical coding or similar r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . To actually talk at a computer Is another kettle of f l a h . Thla means breaking down the sound Into phonemes and then breaking it into a data atructure which can be treated with the rulee of grammar— a whole nother difficult s t e p .
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" I d o n ' t k n o w , " answered D o r o t h y , w h o had nore to read. " L i s t e n t o this, B i l l i n a : "
SELF-REPRODUCING S Y S T E M S ,
These are terms for Imaginary o b j e c t s , having exactly defined mathematical p r o p e r t i e s , about which varloua abstract things can be proven that tend to be of interest only to m a t h e m a t i c i a n s .
DIRECTIONS F O R USING: F o r T H I N K I N G : — W i n d the C l o c k - w o r k M a n left a r m . ( m a r k e d N o . 1.) F o r S P E A K I N G : — W i n d the C l o c k - w o r k M a n
u n d e r his u n d e r his
right a r m , ( m a r k e d N o . 2,) F o r W A L K I N G a n d A C T I O N : — W i n d C l o c k - w o r k in the middle of his b a c k , ( m a r k e d N o . 3.) N. B.—Tfcn M t c W k m w riuMiitd 10 «<wk pmrUelljfc»t ihouund run.
SPEECH 1. SENTENCE GENERATION The problem of computers speaking human l a n g u a g e s — not to be confused with computer l a n g u a g e s , p p . 15-25 and e l s e w h e r e — is incredibly c o m p l i c a t e d . Just because little human tykes start doing it e f f o r t l e s s l y , it is easy to s u p pose that it's a basically easy p r o b l e m .
Only since the mid-fifties has human language begun to be u n d e r s t o o d . That waa when Noam Chomsky discovered the inner structure of human languages: n a m e l y , that the long (and complex) sentence constructions of language a r e built out of certain exact o p e r a t i o n s . Previous linguists had sought to classify the sentence structures t h e m s e l v e s ; this led to complexities which Chomsky discovered were u n n e c e s s a r y . It is unnecessary to catalog sentence types t h e m selves if we can simply i s o l a t e . I n s t e a d , the exact p r o c e s s es by which they are g e n e r a t e d . These processes he called transformations (a term he borrowed from m a t h e m a t i c s ) . A l l utterances are created from certain elementary p i e c e s , called k e r n e l s , which a r e then chewed by transformations into surfai final u t t e r a n c e s . Examples of kei : The man lives in the h o u s e . The house is w h i t e . Result of combining transformatlon: The man lives in the w h i t e housi . K e r n e l : I g o . Result of past-tense transformation: I I The moat important f i n d i n g , n o w , is that the transformations are carried out In orderly s e q u e n c e s : any sentences can have more transformations carried out on i t , all a d h e r ing to the basic r u l e s , resulting in the m o s t complex s e n tences of any language. Linguists since then have confirmed Chomsky's c o n j e c t u r e , and proceeded to w o r k out the fundamental t r a n s formations of major l a n g u a g e s , including E n g l i s h . N o w , one result of all this ia that It t u m a out to be easier to generate sentences in a language than to u n derstand t h e n . Why? Because it Is comparatively easy to program computers to apply transformations to k e r n e l s , BUT very hard to take apart the r e s u l t . A complex " s u r face structure" may have numerous possible k e r n e l s — does "Time flies like an arrow" have the same structure as "Susie sings like a bird" or "Fruit files like an o r a n g e ? "
" W e l l , I d e c l a r e ! " gasped the y e l l o w hen, i n a m a z e m e n t ; " i f the copper man can do h a l f o f these things he is a very w o n d e r f u l machine. B u t I suppose it isall h u m b u g , l i k e so many other patented articles." " W e m i g h t w i n d h i m u p , " suggested D o r o t h y , " a n d see w h a t h e ' l l d o . "
CYBERNETICS
GORDON
PASi:
G o r d o n P a s k is one o f the m a d d e s t m u d s c i e n t i s t s I have ever m e t , and also one of the n i c e s t . An eloquent English leprechaun w h o dresses the E d w a r d i a n d a n d y , Pask sows awe wherever he g o e s , A forr,ier d o c t o r a n d t h e a t r i c a l p r o d u c e r , P a s k is o n e o f t h e g r e a t international fast-talkers, conferenee-hopping r o u n d t h e p.lobe f r o m U t a h t o W a s h i n g t o n to his p r o j e c t at the B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s M u s e u m . T h i s s p r i n g , 1 9 7 4 , he has b e e n at the U n i v e r sity of Illinois at Chicago C i r c l e , but soon h e goes b a c k to E n g l a n d a n d his l a b o r a t o r y .
Pask
In a f i e l d f u l l o f b r i l l i a n t e c c e n t r i c s , has no difficulty standing o u t .
Result: to program a computer to generate s p e e c h — that la, Invent sentences about a data structure and type them o u t — is comparatively e a s y , but to have it recognize Incoming s e n t e n c e s , and break them up into their kernel meanings,is n o t .
P a s k is o n e o f t h e A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e r s w h o is w o r k i n g o n t e a c h i n g b y c o m p u t e r , about which more will be said; but the o r i g i n a l c o r e o f h i s i n t e r e s t is p e r h a p s t h e process of c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n .
Chomsky and others have discovered that seta of t r a n s formation rules (or g r a m m a r s , pralae be) vary c o n s i d e r a b l y . It le possible to Invent languages whose surface structures are easy to take a p a r t , or p a r s e ; auch languages are called context-free languages. (Moat computer l a n g u a g e s , see other a i d e , are of this type.) Unfortunately natural l a n g u a g e s , like Engllah and French and N a v a h o , are not c o n t e x t - f r e e . It turns out that the human brain can pick apart language structures because it's so good at making sensible guesses as to what i', m e a n t — and If there Is one thing hard to p r o g r a m f o r c o m p u t e r s , i t la s e n s i b l e e u e s a l n c (But see " H e u r i s t i c s , " n e a r b y . ) This means that to create computer system* which will take real sentences apart Into their meanings Is quite d i f f i c u l t , tie can't get into the various strategies h e r e ; but most researchers cut the problem down in one way or other.
The term " c y b e r n e t i c s " was coined by Norbert W i e n e r , the famously absent-minded mathe m a t i c i a n w h o ( a c c o r d i n g to l e g e n d ) o f t e n f a i l e d to r e c o g n i z e h i s o w n c h i l d r e n . ' W i e n e r d i d p i o n e e r i n g w o r k in a n u m b e r o f a r e a s . A s p e c i a l c o n c e r n of his was the s t u d y o f things w h i c h a r e k e p t in c o n t r o l by c o r r e c t i v e m e a s u r e s , o r , as h e c a l l e d i t , F e e d b a c k . The term " c y b e r n e t i c s " he made out of a Greek w o r d f o r s t e e r s m a n , a p p l y i n g it to a l l p r o c e s s e s which involve corrective control. It t u r n s out that almost everything involves corrective c o n t r o l , so the term " c y b e r n e t i c s " s p r e a d s out as f a r a n d as t h i n l y as y o u c o u l d p o s s i b l y w a n t ( T h e p u b l i c is u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n t h a t " c y b e r n e t i c s " r e f e r s to c o m p u t e r s , and the computer people should be called "cyberneticians." T h e r e s e e m s to be n o t h i n g t h a t can be done about t h i s . See "cybercrud," p. g . T h i s is an e v e n w o r s e term m e a n i n g "steering people into crud," s p e c i f i c a l l y , putting things over on people using computers.) P r o p e r l y , the core of " c y b e r n e t i c s 1 seems to d e a l w i t h c o n t r o l l i n k a g e s , w h e t h e r in a u t o m o b i l e s , c o c k r o a c h e s or c o m p u t e r s . Howe v e r , p e o p l e like P a s k , von F o e r s t e r , A s h b y ( a n d s o o n ) a p p e a r to e x t e n d t h e c o n c e p t g e n e r a l l y to the study of forms of b e h a v i o r and a d a p t a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d in t h e a b s t r a c t . The validity and fascination of this w o r k , of c o u r s e , is q u i t e u n r e l a t e d to w h a t y o u c a l l i t .
language-generating computer a y s -
SENTENCE RECOGNITION
Gordon Pask calls his field C y b e r n e t i c s . T h e t e r m " c y b e r n e t i c s " i s h e a r d a l o t , a n d is o n e o f t h o s e t e r m s w h i c h , in t h e m a i n , m a n k i n d would be better off without; although after t a l k i n g to Pask I get the s e n s e that there may b e s o m e t h i n g to i t a f t e r a l l .
Pask has done a good deal on the m a t h e matics of s e l f - c o n t e m p l a t i n g s y s t e m s , that i s , s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of w h a t it means for a c r e a t u r e (or e n t i t y o m e g a ) to l o o k at t h i n g s , see that they are a l i k e , and divine a b s t r a c t conceptions of them. A c r o w n i n g m o m e n t is w h e n Omega b e h o l d s itself and r e c o g n i z e s the continuity and s e l f h o o d . (Pask says several others-- scholars from A r g e n t i n a , Russia and elsewhere-- have hit on the same formulation.)
may
Models and a b s t r a c t i o n , t h e n , arc w h a t call the first h a l f of Pask's w o r k . Gordon
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THE T U R I N G M A C H I N E Is the most classical abstract A u t o m a t o n . A Turing M a c h i n e , named after its d i s c o v e r e r , is a hypothetical device which has an Infinite recording tape that It can move back and f o r t h , and the ability to make decisions d e pending on what's written t h e r e . Turing proceeded to point out that no | matter how fast you go s t e p - b y - s t e p , you can t ever outrun certain restrictions built into all sequential processes as represented by the Turing M a c h i n e . This leys heavy limits on w h a t can ever be done step-by-step by c o m p u t e r . (It means we have to look for non-step-by-step m e t h o d s , which tuch of Artificial Intelligence is aboul
DO HI WANT TALKING FTSTEMS7
THE THREE LAWS OF
CAM A COMPUTER PLAY CHESST
I had one quite Irritating experience irfth a "conversational 1 *y«tern,that la, computer program that was auppoaed to talk back to m e . I waa s u p posed to trP« to it In English and it waa supposedly going to type back to me In English. I found the e x perience thoroughly Irritating. My aide of the conversation, which I slncarely tried to keep simple, produced repeated spologles and confusion from the program. Tha guy who'd created the program kept e x plaining that the program would be Improvsd. so that eventually It could handle responses like m i n e . My reectlon w a s , and i s . Who needs ltT
1-- A robot m u s t o b e y the orders given it b y h u m a n beings except w h e r e s u c h orders w o u l d conflict with the First L a w .
And tha answer is yei , fairly w e l l . Now, a chess program ia not i •thing you Jot down on the back of an envelope one afternoon. It's usually an isnense, convoluted thing that people have worked on for years. (Although I vaguely recell that second place In the 1670 lnter-computer chess contest was won by a program that occupied only 2000 locations In a 16-blt Minicomputer— in other w o r d s , a compact and tricky aneaker.)
Many people In the computer field seem to think we want to be sble to talk to computers and have them talk~"baek to u s . This Is by oo means a settled matter
3 - A robot m u s t protect its o w n existence as long as a u c h protection does not conflict with the First or S e c o n d L a w . -- H a n d b o o k of Robotic*. 56th Edition, 205B A . D . , quoted in I. A s i m o v , I, R o b o t .
Now, simple games (like tlc-tac-toe and Him and even Cubic) can be worked out all the way: all a l t e r natives can be examined by the program and the beat one found. Not so with chess.
:ated and require a Talking programs are cempllci lot of space In the machine, and (more la require a lot of time by programmers who (I think) s>or* In lea* time by other meal talking programs produce in Irritating si paradox. In dealing with human b e i n g s , i : know what we're dealing with, and can adjust what we say accordingly; there Is no va* to t e l l , except by a lot of e x perimenting, what the principles are Inside a particular talking program; so that trying to adjust to it Is a strain and an Irritation. (Compsre: talking to s stranger who may or may not turn out to be your new boss.) Now, some programmers keep saying that eventually they 11 ^ have it acting just as smart aa a real person, so we needn I adjuat; but that's rldlculoua. We always adjust to real people. In other w o r d s , the human discomfort and Irritation of psyching the ayst' eliminated.
Chess basically involves, becauae of It* very many possibilities, a "combinatorial explosion" of alternatives (see p . 4 ) ) ; that I s , to look at " a l l " the possibilities of a midgame would take forever (perhaps literally— the Turing p r o b l e m ) , and thua means must be found for discarding some possibilities.
ELIZA
The structure of branching possibilities is a tree (see p . ) ; so that methods of "pruning" the tree turn out to be c r u c i a l .
Moreover, having to type in whole English phrases can be irritating. (We can't even get into the problem of having the computer pick apart the audio if you talk it In.)
T h e fascinating thing about the ELIZA program is that it seems so like a real person— that i s , a psychoanalyst of the nondirectlve, Carl Rogers school.
A different approach Is taken by the Creenblatt chess program. This la basically a big Heuristic progran. It "learns" best strategies in chess by "watching" the g a m e . That i s , your pour historical chess matches through i t , end it tries out strategies— making various tentative rules about what kinds of moves ate g o o d , then scoring these moves according to the results of making them— as seen in positional advantages that resulted In actually championship play.
This is not to say understandably restricted talking systems are bad. If you know and understand the sorts of response the system makes to what kinds of thing, then an English-like response is really a clear m e s s a g e . For i n stance, the JOSS system (the first Quickie l a n g u a g e see p . IS) had an eloquent message:
But all it is is a bag of t r i c k s .
Then it spots certain types of sentences and turns them a r o u n d . If the person types a sentence beginning with "I a m . . . " , the ELIZA program turns it around with HOW LONG HAVE YOUR B E E N . . . ?
eh? Obviously this is a field In Itself, You won't get grants for i t , but to those who really care about both chess and c o m p u t e r s . It's the only thing to be d o i n g .
which actually m e a n t , What you have Just typed in does not fit the rules of acceptable input for this ayatea. But It was short, it was quick, it was simple, and it was almost polite.
Fred B r o o k s , the keynote speaker at the IEEE c o m puter conference In Fall 7 4 , seems to have said that HAL 9000 (the u n c t u o u s , traitorous Presence in the movie 2001) was the way computers should b e . (Computer D e c i s i o n s , Apr 7 4 , 4.)
And certain highly-charged words are signals to throw in a z i n g e r , regardless of w h a t the user may have s a i d . Por i n stance, if the person uses the word "mother," the machine replies:
I find it hard to believe that anybody could think t h a t . Nevertheless, there are those artificial-Intelligence freaks whose view it Is that the purpose of all this is eventually (a) to create servants that will read our minds and do our bidding, (b) servants who w i l l take things over and will Implement human m o r a l i t y , regardless of our bidding (though we humans are tec frail to do s o — a s in Aslmov's 1, R o b o t ) ; or even (c) create masters who will take everything over and run everything according to their own principles and the hell with u s . (I met a man in a b a r , after an ACM m e e t i n g , w h o claimed to believe thla was the purpose of it a l l : to create the master race that would replace u s . )
(The problem of rudeness in computer dialogue haa not been nuch discussed. This is partly because many p r o g r a m mers are not fully aware of I t , o r , indeed, some are so skilled In certain aubtle forma of rudeness they wouldn't even know they weren't acceptable. The result is that c e r tain types of putdown, poke, peremptorlness and importunacy can find their way into computer dialogue all too easily. Or, to put It another way: nobody like to be talked back t o . C f . Those stupid green THANK YOU lights on automatic toll booths.) Now, this la not to say that research in these areas is w r o n g , or even that researchers' hopes of aome b r e a k through In talking-systems is misguided. I am s a y i n g , basically, that talking systems cannot be taken for g r a n t ed as the proper goal in computers to be used by people; that the problems of rudeness, and irritating the human uaer, are far greater than many of these researchers s u p pose; and that there may be alternatives to thla p o t e n t i a l ly eternal leprechaun-chaalng.
And it looks for specific words which indicate a s e n tence can be turned around for a convincing r e s u l t . For i n s t a n c e , if the person uses the word "everyone," the program aimply r e p l i e s , WHO IN PARTICULAR CAN YOU THINK OF?
FRANKENSTEIN MEETS CYBERCRUD
Similarly, talking systems that use an exact v o c a b u lary, whose limits and abilities are known to the p e r s o n , are okay. (Wlnograd, see Bibliography, has a nice example of telling a computer to stack b l o c k s , where the system knows words like between, o n , above and so on.) Where this is understood by the human, it can be a genuine c o n venience rather than a spurious o n e .
TELL M E ABOUT Y O U R F A M I L Y . N o w , do not be f o o l e d . There ia no Ghost in the M a c h i n e . T h e program does not "understand" the u a e r . THE PROGRAM IS MERELY ACTING OUT THE BAG OF TRICKS THAT JOE WEIZENBAUH THOUGHT U P . C r e d i t where credit i* duel not to T h e Computer's O m n i s c i e n c e , but to Weizenbaum's
The thing i s , many people refuse to believe that it's a p r o g r a m . Even when the program's tricks are explained.
A c c o r d i n g to A r t h u r C . C l a r k e ' s r e t r o a c t i v e n o v e l 2 0 0 1 : A S p a c e O d y s s e y ( S i g n e t , 1 9 6 8 , 9 5 t ) , the H A L 9 0 0 0 c o m p u t e r s e r i e s b e g a n as f o l l o w s :
I d o n ' t k n o w w h o G o o d i s , b u t these are a m o n g the lines Minsky has been w o r k i n g along for y e a r s , so I hope he's e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e n e w s o f w h a t h e ' s g o i n g to a c c o m p l i s h .
Artificial Intelligence enthusiasts unfortunately tend to have a magician's outlook! to make clear how their things work would spoil the show.
A n y h o w , so o k a y t h e y g r o w the U A L 9 0 0 0 in a t a n k . T h e n h o w c o m e in the D e a t h - o f - H a l s c e n e w e s e e K e i r D u l l e a b o b b i n g a r o u n d l o o s e n i n g c i r c u i t c a r d s , j u s t as if it were a plain old 1978 computer?
Possible controlled by
in instead, the block-stacking mechanism was enclosed in a large glass p e n , in which numerous gerblla— hoppy little rodents— were free to wander a b o u t . When a gerbil saw that a block was about to be stacked on h i m , he would sensibly m o v e . Now, it is fairly humorous, and not c r u e l , to put gerbils into a block-stacking m a c h i n e . But this was offered to the public as a device partaking of a far more global mission, the experimental interaction of living creatures and a dynamic self-improving environment, blah blah b l a h . Faasersby were awed, -why ore those animals in there?" one would s a y , and the more informed one would usually say, "It's some kind of scientific experiment." M a l l , this is • twilight area, between science and whimsical hokum, but one cannot help wishing simple and humorous things could be presented with their simplicity and humor laid bare.
a n s w e r » 2 . H A L ' s tanks of n e u r a l P D P - l l s , o n e to a c a r d ,
(Of c o u r s e , if y o u take the l e t t e r s a f t e r the a l p h a b e t , y o u g e t I, B a n d M . So maybe
I take this ,
i allegory.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
glop
Terry W l n o g r a d , "When Will Computers Understand People?" Psychology Today May 7 4 , 7 3 - ^ . (Weizenbaum'i full article on ELIZA appeared in the Communications of the ACM sometime in the mid or late sixties; a flowchart revealed its major tricks,
I h a v e strong h u n c h e s about the inner w o r k ings of m e n w h o get millions of dollars from the D e p a r t m e n t of Defense a n d then soy in private that really they're going to use it to create a m a c h i n e so intelligent it can play with their child r e n . (Not to n a m e n a m e s or anything.) A n obvious question is, d o they play with their children? N o , they play with c o m p u t e r s .
are
H , A and L those are 1130s.)
DEUS EX MACHIN A Obviously such beliefs are outside the realm of jelence or engineering. They belong to pure speculation; and while various mechanisms have in fact been programmed to c r o a k , stagger, stack b l o c k s , compose sentences and ao o n , to suppose that we are In any reel sense anywhere near mimicking human Intelligence, let alone surpassing and superseding i t , la either to be totally fooled or to hanker after aome curious dream from inside y o u r s e l f . As we said on the other side of the b o o k , everybody In computers has deeper motivations and interior twists that form his own special ties to these machines; and when It cooes to our choices of fantasy m a c h i n e s , obviously an even deeper level of psychic imprint la projecting Itself Into the w o r l d . ...EX MENSA
I remember watching one gerbll who stood motionless on hie little kangaroo match*tick legs, watching the Great Greppier rearranging hi* world. Gerbils are somewhat i n scrutable, but 1 had a sense that he was worshiping i t . He did not move until tha block started coming down on top of him. ^
And even some w h o understand ELIZA like to call it up from their terminals for companionship, now and t h e n .
"In the 1 9 8 0 s , M i n s k y a n d G o o d had s h o w n h o w n e u r a l networks could be Generated automatically-- selfr e p l i c a t e d - - in a c c o r d a n c e witii a n y a r b i t r a r y learning pattern. A r t i f i c i a l b r a i n s c o u l d be g r o w n by a p r o c e s s s t r i k i n g l y a n a l o g o u s to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the h u m a n b r a i n . " (P. 96.)
If like the author you are bemused by the great difficulty of getting along with human b e i n g s , then the creation of extraneous belnga of Impenetrable character with vaguely human qualities can only alarm y o u , and the prospect of these additional crypto-entltles which Bust be fended and placated, clawing at ue from their niches at every turn, la both distasteful and alarming.
T h u s , for a rather peculiar axt show held at New York's Jewish Museum in 1970, a group from MIT built a large device that stacked blocks under control of a minicomputer (Inter data b r a n d ) . Now, the fact that it could stack and re-stack blocks with just a minicomputer wa* really quite an accomplishment, but this waa not explained.
W I L L s e e y o u Moui
PLEASE TELL HE YOUR PROBLEM. I am feeling depressed. HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN FEELING DEPRESSED? Ever since my mother l e f t . TELL ME MORE ABOUT YOUR FAMILY. My father is very s t r i c t . PLEASE GO O N . Last night I dreamt he spanked m e . WHAT WOULD IT MEAN TO YOU IF HE SPANKED YOU? Didn't you" ever get spanked? WE WERE DISCUSSING Y O U , NOT M B . You're just a dumb machine a n y w a y . DO COMPUTERS FRIGHTEN YOU? (quoted in Wlnograd, 74-5)
Basically there are two approaches to the design of chess programa. In one a p p r o a c h , the programmers look for specific threats and opportunities in the date structure representing the b o a r d , and try to find good strategies for selecting good moves on the basis of then. This is the approach taken in C O K 0 , the "Cooper-Kor"chess program. The programmers selectively cope with individual problems and strategies as they turn out to be necessary. (This means that It la likely to have specific A c h i l l e s ' heels; w h i c h , of course, the authors of the program keep trying to r e pair by adding specific corrections.)
Furthermore, on today's sequential equipment snd with feasible budgets, I personally think tha likelihood of making programs that are really general talkers Is a foolish g o a l . There are many simpler ways of telling computer systems what you want to tell them— light pen choice, for example.
ROBOTICS
1-- A robot m a y not injure a h u m a n being-, o r , through inaction, allow a h u m a n being to c o m e to h a r m .
can a aet of procedures i what tha computer pro•et of procedures.
People who fantasize about wondroua creatures and deities they want to make out of the computer obviously have something i n teresting in their own heads from which that cornea. Perhaps It comes from a desire for imaginary playmates, or an a m b i valence toward authority, or goodness knows w h a t ; there are so •any odd people at different ends of Artificial Intelligence that there may be a lot of different psychological systems at w o r k . Or maybe artificial intelligence 1 . Just where the most b r i l l i a n t , determined and eccentric dreamers Anyway, I can only ask the ( u * a t i o n , not give the answer.
B u t the point here is not to hassle the d r e a m e r s , just to sort out the d r e a m s a n d put them o n h a n g e r s so y o u can try them o n , a n d m a y b e choose an e n s e m b l e for yourself.
BIBLIOGRAPHY stand People?" Terry Winogrsd, "When Will Computers Psychology Today May 74, 73-79. Particularly readable article. Nicholas Negroponte, The Architecture M a c h i n e . MIT Presa. Takes the view that computers should be made Into magical servants which not only handle bothersome [•11. minds more or less read < Leonard U h r , Pattern Recognition, Learning and Thoughti Computer-Programmed Model* ot. Higher Mental Proesses . PrentIce-Hall. Arthur W . H o l t . "Algorithm for a Low Cost Hand Print Reader." Computer Design Feb 7 4 , 85-89. Edward A . Felgenbaum and Julian Feldmaa (eda.), Computers and T h o u g h t . McCraw-Hlll. Old but still good for orientation. A journal: Artificial Intelligence (North-Holland Publishing C o . , Journal Division; P.O. Box 2 1 1 , Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Wsa $26.50 a year In IS Thla'll show you what they're thinking about now. Roger L i o d , "The Robots Are C o m i n g , The Robots Are Coming." Oul_, Feb 1974. 11 the Typical layman's h y p e . You don't get second page that a typical industrial huge mechanism with one grappling arm. Edward W . Kordrowlckl and Dennis W . Cooper, "COKO III the Cooper-Ko* Ches* Program." CACM July 73, 41 •427. Creenblatt, R.D., Eaatlake, D.E., and Crocker. S.D.. "Tha Creenblatt Che** Program." Proc FJCC 6 7 , 801-810. R . C . G a m m l l l , "An Examination of Tic-Tac-Toa-lika Cornea." P r o c . NCC 74, 349-355.
j>*ur
Like Artificial Intelligence and Information R e t r i e v a l , Computer-Assisted Instruction sounds like s o m e thing exact and impressive but Is In fact a scattering of techniques tied together only nominally by a general Idee.
" I n f o n u t l o n Retrieval" ia one of thoae terms that laymen throv around aa If It were a manhole cover. It aounda aa though It means BO m u c h , so v e r y " m u c h . And ao you actually hear people say thlnga like) "But that would m e a n . . . (pregnant p o u a e ) ... I n f o r m a tion Retrieval:.':" S i m i l a r l y , some of the hokey new copyright notlcee you aee In booka from Wlth-It p u b l i a h era intone that eold books may not be "place* in any i n formation retrieval ayatem..." I take thla to mean that the publiahera are forbidding you to put the b o o k on a b o o k s h e l f , because "Information r e t r i e v a l " simply means any way at all of getting beck Information from a n y t h i n g . A b o o k s h e l f , since it allows you to read the •pines of the b o o k s , ia Indeed an Information Retrieval System.
T h e real name T e a c h i n g . T h a t wot c o m p u t e r teaching i to ask t h a t .
In the claaalc formulation of the early s i x t i e s , there w e r e going to be three levels of C A I : " d r i l l - a n d - p r a c t l c e " s y s t e m s , m u c h like teaching m a c h i n e s , that almply helped a t u d e n t s practice v a r i o u s s k i l l s ; s m i d d l e level (often itself c a l l e d , c o n f u s i n g l y , "computer-assisted I n s t r u c t i o n " ) ' and a third l e v e l , the Socratlc s y s t e m , which would supposedly be I d e a l . S t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g on Socratlc systems would be e l o q u e n t l y and thoughtfully Instructed and corrected by a p e r f e c t being in the m a c h i n e . "We don't know how to do that y e t , " the people keep s a y i n g . Y e t . I n d e e d .
It h a p p e n s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , that the phrase " i n f o r m a tion r e t r i e v a l " was coined In the forties b y Calvin M o o e r s , inventor of T R A C * " language (see p p . 1 8 - 2 1 ) . (If W i e n e r had coined it he might have called it G e t b s c k . If Diebold had coined It It might have been T h o u g h t o m a t i o n . )
1
(My p e r s o n a l view on this s u b j e c t , expressed in an article ( f o l l o w l n g ) Is that Computer -Assisted Instruction in many w a y s e x t e n d s the worst featur ;s of education aa we now know it into the n e w realm of present it ion by c o m p u t e r . )
in A n y h o w , numerous entirely different things go f i e l d , all under the name of Information R e t r i e v a l .
non-computer j itrleval. (See Becker and H a y e s Automatic I n f o n ition R e t r i e v a l - ) These things are kind of old-fashioned f u n — cards w i t h holes punched along the e d g e , for Instance,that you sort w i t h knitting n e e d l e s , or the more recent systems w i t h holes drilled in plastic c a r d s . Trouble i s , of c o u r s e , that computers are b e c o m i n g m u c h more convenient and even less e x p e n s i v e than t h e s e , counting your own time as being w o r t h s o m e t h i n g . This b a s i c a l l y is an apprc 2 . Document Retries that glorifies the old library card f i l e , except n o w the •tuff la stored In computers rather than on c s r d s . But w h a t ' s stored is still the name of the d o c u m e n t , w h o w r o t e I t , where It w a s published and so o n . Obviously h e l p f u l to l i b r a r i a n s , but scarcely e x c i t i n g . 3 . Automatic document I n d e x i n g . Some o r g a n i z a t i o n s find it helpful to have a computer try to figure out w h a t a book la a b o u t , rather than have a person look at it and c h e c k . (I don't see why this eaves a n y t h i n g , but there you a r e . ) A n y w a y , the text of the d o c u m e n t (or selected p a r t s ) are poured through a computer p r o g r a m that s e l e c t s , for i n s t a n c e , k e y w o r d s , that i s , the most Important w o r d s in i t , or rather w o r d s the program thinks are most i m p o r t a n t . T h e n these k e y w o r d s can go on the h e a d i n g s of library file c a r d s , or w h a t e v e r . There are various related systems by w h i c h p e o p l e s t u d y , for i n s t a n c e , the citations between a r t i c l e s , but we won't get into t h a t . 4 . Content r e t r i e v a l . How w e ' r e getting to the sexy s t u f f . A system for content r e t r i e v a l ia one that s o m e h o w stores information in a c o m p u t e r and lets you get it b a c k
T h e trick c
both (
i is of i
W e l l , as we said on the o t h e r Bide of the b o o k , a n y information stored in a computer has a data s t r u c t u r e , which simply m e a n s w h a t e v e r a r r a n g e m e n t of a l p h a b e t i c a l c h a r a c t e r s , n u m b e r s and s p e c i a l c o d e s the c o m p u t e r h a p p e n s to be s a v i n g . In subject even by It back get It?
a c o n t e n t - r e t r i e v a l s y s t e m . I n f o r m a t i o n on s o m e is s o m e h o w jammed into a data s t r u c t u r e — p o s s i b l y human c o d e r s — and then set up so p e o p l e can get out again in some w a y . Lot of p o s s i b i l i t i e s h e r e ,
:r It should be Automated Dialogue 1 Immediately allow you to a a k , should s dialogues? But they don't went you
J)OtS
T H C NftlAC
PA.V10V
T h i s Is a true s t o r y . (The details are a p p r o x imate.) It may provide certain i n s i g h t s .
T h e n there Is the m a t t e r of c o n s i s t e n c y . T h e r e a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g s u b j e c t s a r e the o n e s w h e r e d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s c l a i m o p p o s i n g facts to support o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n s . In o t h e r w o r d s , there is i n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h i n the c o n t e n t of the f i e l d . In this c a s e such s y s t e m s a r e g o i n g to have a problem. (See " R a s h o - M o n P r i n c i p l e " u n d e r " T i s s u e of Thought," ff-jPS '*-<7 A n o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t is t h i s . It m a y be e a s y enough to p r o g r a m a s y s t e m to a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n ,
An A s s i s t a n t C o n m i s s i o n e r of Education was being shown a CAI s y s t e m by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a large and w e l l - k n o w n c o m p u t e r c o m p a n y . O n e one side of the C o m m i s s i o n e r stood a s a l e s m a n , w h o w a n t e d h i m to be i m p r e s s e d . On the o t h e r side stood o n e D r . S . , w h o knew how the system worked. T h e t e r m i n a l , d e m o n s t r a t i n g a history p r o g r a m that had h u r r i e d l y been put t o g e t h e r , typed: WHO C A P T U R E D FORT T I C 0 N D E R 0 G A ?
W H A T T I M E DOES THE N E X T P L A N E L E A V E F O R L A C U A R D I A 7 but it is a lot s i m p l e r t o ^ d l s p l a y s c h e d u l e s y o u r e y e can run d o w n , or a l l o w you to go look a t s o m e k i n d of g r a p h i c display.
" S u r e , " said the s a l e s m a n , ignoring the frantic h e a d - s h a k i n g of D r . S . T h e A s s i s t a n t Commissi!
S p e a k i n g p e r s o n a l l y , I d o n ' t like t a l k i n g to m a c h i n e s and I don't like their t a l k i n g b a c k to m e . I'm n o t s a y i n g y o u have to a g r e e , I'm j u s t t e l l i n g y o u y o u ' r e a l l o w e d to feel that w a y . sumnarlei 5. ie s y s t e m s let you sit a t a c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s c r e e n and read s u m m a r i e s of v a r i o u s t h i n g s , a s w e l l as run through them w i t h v a r i o u s p r o g r a m s to look for k e y w o r d s . (The N e w Y o r k T i m e s n o w o f f e r s s u c h a s y s t e m , c o s t i n g o v e r a t h o u s a n d d o l l a r s a m o n t h to s u b scribers.) 6 . " F u l l - t e x t s y s t e m s . " T h e s e a r e s y s t e m s that o n e w a y or a n o t h e r a l l o w you to read a l l the texi s o m e t h i n g from a c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s c r e e n . T h e r e those of u s w h o see theae a s the w a v e of the f u n X. "fullbut m a n y o t h e r s are p e r f e c t l y o u t r a g e d a t the the ( H y p e r t e x t s y s t e m s , n o w , a r e s e t u p s that a l l o w you to read i n t e r c o n n e c t e d texts from c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s c r e e n s . See P P . - Y T - 7 . ; T h i s has been brief and haa s k i p p e d i a s you s e e , IR Is n o o n e t h i n g .
lot.
The machine
typed: Gypsy
Rose
replied: HE C A P T U R E D QUEBEC A
The Assistant Commissioner evidently enlivened m a n y a luncheon w i t h that o n e , and C o m p u t e r - A s s i s t e d Instruction w a s e f f e c t i v e l y dead for the rest of the admin Istrat ion.
Anyway,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In the m o s t startling of these s y s t e m s , the Q A S , o r "Question-Answering S y s t e m , " some a o r t of d i a l o g u e p r o g r a m (see "Artificial I n t e l l i g e n c e , " n e a r b y ) tries to give you i about the data s t r u c t u r e . But this m e a n s there have 1 i w h o l e lot of p r o g r a m s :
V a n n e v a r B u s h , 'As W e M a y T h i n k . " A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y , July 1 9 4 5 , 101-108. T h e o d o r H . N e l s >n, "Aa W e W i l l T h i n k . " P r o c . O n l i n e 72 Conference Brunei U . Uxbridge, England. /'lu^ere.aj G . S a l t o n , " R e c e n t S t u d i e s In A u t o m a t i c T e x t A n a l y s l : and D o c u m e n t R e t r i e v a l . " J A C M , A p r 7 3 , 2 5 8 - 2 7 8 . Donald E. Walker ( e d . ) , Interactive Bibliographic Search The User/Computer Interface. AFIPS P r e s s , $ 1 5 . T h e o d o r H . N e l s o n , " G e t t i n g It O u t of O u r S y s t e m . " In S c h e c h t e r ( e d . ) . C r i t i q u e of I n f o r m a t i o n R e t r i e v a l (Thompson B o o k s , 1 9 * 7 ) . J . C . R . L i c k l i d e r , L i b r a r i e s of the F u t u r e . M I T P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 . C l e a r and r e a d a b l e s u m m a r y of the rest of thi f i e l d ; then he g o e s on to a d v o c a t e " p r o c o g n l t i v e s y s t e m s , " s y s t e m s that w i l l d i g e s t w h a t ' s k n o w n in any field and talk b a c k to y o u , u s i n g t e c h n i q u e s of a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e . W h a t e v e r its o t h e r m e r i t s , this b o o k Is great for s h a k i n g people u p , e s p e c i a l l y l i b r a r i a n s . It s e e m s so o f f i c i a l . R i c h a r d M . L a s k a , "All the N e w s T h a t ' s F i t to R e t r i e v e . " Computer Decisions. Aug 7 2 , p p . 18-22.
frjfert
V
t*x1 ~ J t « .
SoCRATId
ef »
U - , ,
ANOTHER ANECDOTE
T h e s e systems can b e q u i t e startling in the w a y they •eem to understand you (see L i c k l i d e r b o o k ; a l s o Wlnograd piece under A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e ) . But they don_t understand y o u . T h e y are just poor dumb p r o g r a m a . Many people (Including L i c k l i d e r ) seem to see in .QuestIon-Answering-Systems the wave of the future O t h e r s , like this a u t h o r , are s k e p t i c a l . I t ' , one thing to have a system that can deduce that G r e e n ' s H o u s e la West of Red's House from . bunch of Input s e n t e n c e s on the s u b j e c t , but the question of how m u c h these can b e Improved 1 . in some d o u b t . A system that can answer the q u e s t i o n . "What did Hegel aay about d e t e r m i n i s m ? " is jome w a y s a w a y , to put it m i l d l y .
tt Is a truism that M e n d e l ' s t h e o r i e s of genet les got " l o s t " a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n in • 8 6 5 , to be r e d i s c o v e r e d In 1 9 0 0 . "If only h e r e had been p r o p e r information retri val under the right c a t e g o r i e s , " often s a y . Recent studies indicate that the p u b l i c a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g M e n d e s p a p e r r e a c h e d , or got n e a r l y t o , "prai tically all p r o m i n e n t b i o l o g i s t s of ild-nineteenth c e n t u r y . " (Scientific c a n , July 6 8 , 55.) t take this as s u g g e s t i n g that the p r o b lem Isn't c a t e g o r i c a l retrieval at a l t . It's m u l t I - c o n n e c t e d a v a i l a b i l i t y (see "hypertext," ft.tyh V)"/
S o m e o f u s h a v e b e e n s a y i n g for a long time t h a t learning from c o m p u t e r s o u g h t to b e u n d e r c o n t r o l of the s t u d e n t . O n e g r o u p (never m i n d w h o ) h a s taken h o l d of this idea a n d g o t t e n a lot of funding for it u n d e r the name of STUDENT C O N T R O L . T h i s g r o u p talks a s if it w e r e some k i n d of scientific breakthrough. A f r i e n d of m i n e s u g g e s t s , h o w e v e r , that t h i s p h r a s e may h a v e b r o u g h t the funding b e c a u s e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t h o u g h t it m e a n t c o n t r o l of the s t u d e n t .
BIBLIOGRAPHY George B. Leonard, Education and Ecstasy. Dell, $2.25. Argues for making e d u c a t i o n an e n t h u s i a s t i c p r o c e s s . Theodor H. Nelson, "No More Teachers' Dirty Looks." Follows.
Wit
(The following article a p p e a r e d in the S e p t e m b e r . 1970 issue of C o m p u t e r Decisions, a n d got an extraordinary a m o u n t of attention . I h a v e c h a n g e d m y v i e w s s o m e w h a t — w e all go t h r o u g h c h a n g e s , after all— but after consideration h a v e decided to re-run it in the original f o r m , without qualifications, mollifications or a n y t h i n g , for its unity. T h a n k s to C o m p u t e r Decisions for use of the a r t w o r k b y G a n s a n d for the S u p e r s t u d e n t picture o n the c o v e r , w h o s e artist unfortunately insists on p r e s e r v i n g his a n o n y m i t y .
b y
T h e o d o r
H .
The
Nelson
New
York
Some
N e l s o n
Organization
think
the educational system
is b a s i c a l l y
all right, a n d m o r e resources w o u l d get it w o r k i n g again.
Schools w o u l d d o
things the same w a y . ex-
cept m o r e so. a n d t h i n g s w o u l d get
better.
I n t h a t case the o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n w o u l d be. can
computers help?
supplement
H o w can
computers
a n d extend the traditional
how
usefully
and
accept-
e d f o r m s o f t e a c h i n g ? T h i s is t h e q u e s t i o n t o w h i c h present-day tion" —
efforts
in
"computer-assisted
called C A I —
instruc-
seem to respond.
B u t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h is o f
no
possible
interest
to the new generation of critics of our school tem —
p e o p l e l i k e J o h n H o l t (Why
Jonathan
Kozol
James Herndon
{.Death (The
at
Way
an
sys-
Children
Early
It Spozeil
Fail), and
Age)
To
More
Be).
a n d m o r e , such people are severely questioning the general
framework
and
structure
of
the
way
we
teach. These
writers
examples horror
it t u r n
Here
the
ways
to
you
turn
kids
proposes on.
safe
and
legal
stories aside,
cation.
A
child
particularly
schooling we
conditions.
are
coming
know them
every level to sabotage
off?
author
describe
our
t h a t s c h o o l s as w e
Did you find school dismal and dreary? Did
of
ghastly But
to
appear designedPaJ^*
the supposed
arrives at school
goals o f
bright
and
in his life. B y drabness we deprive h i m of By
fixed
his
orientation,
testing
curriculum
a n d sequence we
initiative
and scoring we
and
such
recognize eduearly
interests.
rob h i m of
motivation,
and
subvert his natural
by
intelli-
gence. S c h o o l s as w e principles: in
know them
all run on
the
iron a l l subjects flat a n d then
groups, at a forced
march
across the
same
proceed, flattened
p l a i n . M a t e r i a l is d u m p e d o n t h e s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r responses
calibrated; their interaction
and
involve-
m e n t w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l is n o t e n c o u r a g e d n o r t a k e n into consideration, but their dutifulncss of is c a r e f u l l y
response
monitored.
W h i l e an exact arrangement of intended tions
for
they
the student
do
ideal.
not
the
to
the but
way
askew. they
take
Rather than
are
supposed
churlishness, surliness, or A
general
beginning cational at
last
human and
effect
motiva-
the system,
I t is n o t t h a t s t u d e n t s a r e u n m o t i v a t e d ,
motivated
usually
is p r e s e t w i t h i n
or
seek
to.
to achieve
in
students turn
to
intellectual
motivation
warped
according
sheepishness.
is g o d - g i v e n
destroyed
by
p r o c e s s as w e k n o w i t : t h u s w e that
most
fundamental
of
at
the
the edu-
internalize
grownup
goals:
just t o get t h r o u g h a n o t h e r d a y . Because human
of
ability
this has
procedure suffered.
our
very
Adult
notion
of
mentality
is
M
17
A n interesting point, incidentally, is that people road this » lot of different w a y s . O n e D e a n of Education hilariously misread it as an across-the b o a r d plug for C A I . Others read in it various forms of m e n a c e or a d v o c a c y of generalized mechanization. O n e letter-writer said I w a s a m e n a c e but at least writing articles kept m e off the streets. H e r e is m y fundamental point: c o m p u t e r ass is ted instruction, applied thoughtlessly and imitativcly , threatens to extend the w o r s t features of education as it is n o w .
cauterized, a n d we call it " n o r m a l . "
Most
people's
minds are mostly turned tiff most o f the time. know
virtually
nothing
of
human
abilities
We
except
as t h e y h a v e b e e n p i c k l e d a n d b o x e d i n s c h o o l s ;
we
need t o i g n o r e a l l that a n d start fresh. T o w a n t dents to be " n o r m a l "
is c r i m i n a l , w h e n w e a r e a l l
so f a r b e l o w o u r p o t e n t i a l . / Seem
To
Be
A
niuses: Sylvia of
Buckminster Fuller, i n
says w e
Verb,
are all b o r n
A s h t o n - W a r n e r tells
h e r success w i t h
stu-
this
us
in
ge-
Teacher
premise, and of
the
bril-
liance a n d c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l she w a s a b l e t o f i n d i n all
her schoolchildren. Curricula
themselves
destructively
arrange
study situation. B y walls between artificially
the
segre-
gated "studies" a n d "separate topics" we f o r b i d the pursuit o f interest a n d k i l l
motivation.
In ordinary schooling, the victim
cannot
himself to the current topic except by
orient
understand-
5 ing
the official
tion.
Though
angle
of
approach
tie-ins
to
previous
and
presenta-
interests
k n o w l e d g e are usually the best w a y t o get a n
and initial
sense o f a t h i n g , t h e r e is o n l y t i m e t o c o n s i d e r officially
presented tie-ins.
(Neither
to answer questions, except briefly —
the
is t h e r e
time
and rarely
by
discouraging " e x t r a n e o u s " tie-ins f r o m c o m i n g u p . ) The
unnecessary
division
and
walling
9
well
and usually in a w a y that promotes " o r d e r " of
sub-
If t h e c o m p u t e r i s a u n i v e r s a l c o n t r o l let's give kids universes
to
system,
control.
jects, sequencing a n d k i b b l i n g o f m a t e r i a l l e a d p e o ple to expect simplifications, t o feel t h a t n a m i n g thing to
is u n d e r s t a n d i n g
believe
creativity
i t , t o fear c o m p l e x means
a
wholes;
recombination,
the
I
parsing of o l d relations, rather than synthesis. Like
political
ies a r i s e f r o m and hind
become
boundaries, curriculum
noticeable features o f progressively m o r e
political
borders,
social
a
boundarcontinuum
fortified.
As
unification
w i t h i n t h e m , so t h a t w h o l l y d i s s i m i l a r
be-
occurs
practitioners
w h o share a n a m e c o m e to t h i n k they d o the
same
thing. A n d because they talk m a i n l y t o each o t h e r , t h e y f o r g e t h o w n e a r is t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b o r d e r . Because cern
of
the fiction
of
"subjects," great
a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n has a l w a y s g o n e
culating
the "correct" teaching sequence
"subject." I n recent years radical quences have been introduced subjects,
including
the
idea of
quence
with
supplanting the
"right"
cal-
for
each
n e w t e a c h i n g se-
for teaching various
mathematics and
such efforts appear to have
con-
into
been
physics.
But
misinformed
the " w r o n g "
teaching
teaching sequence,
w h i c h is " v a l i d a t e d . " S i m i l a r l y , w e h a v e g o n e
by seone
from
a time w h e n the instructional sequence was a
bal-
ance between tradition a n d the lowest c o m m o n
de-
nominator of each subject, to a time w h e n teachers m a y pick "flexible optimized strategies" f r o m
text-
IT
Discrete hypertexts " H y p e r t e x t " means forms of writing which branch or perform on request; they are best presented on c o m puter display screens. In ordinary writing the author may break sequence for footnotes or insets, but the use of print on p r p r makes some basic sequence essential. The c o m p u . display screen, however, permits footnotes on footnotes on footnotes, and pathways of any structure the author wants to create. Discrete, or chunk style, hypertexts consist of separate pieces of text connected by links. Ordinary prose appears on the screen and may be moved forward and back by throttle. A n asterisk or other key in the text means, not an ordinary footnote, but a jump—to an entirely new presentation on the screen. Such jumpable interconnections become part of the writing, entering into the prose m e d i u m itself as a new way to provide explanations and details to the seeker. These links may be artfully arranged according to meanings or relations in the subject, and possible tangents in the reader's m i n d .
Welcomingness and control CHOICE POINT GO
ON
1 DON'T SO
UNDERSTAND
FAR
I'M
BORED
EXPLAIN
THE
DETAILS
PLEASE
TIE I
THIS
IN
BIG WITH
PICTURE SOMETHING
KNOW
LET'S
GO
BACK
TO
LAST
There arc a screen and t w o throttles. T h e first throttle moves the text f o r w a r d and backward, up and d o w n on Ihe screen. The second throttle causes changes in Ihe w r i t i n g itself: t h r o t t l i n g t o w a r d you causes the texl to become hn^ - by minute degrees. Gaps appear between phrases; ne M words and phrases pop into the gaps, an item at a time. Push back on the Ihrotile and the w r i t i n g becomes shorter and less detailed. T h e stretchtext is stored as a text stream w i t h extras, coded to pop in and pop out at Ihe desired altitudes:
Stretchtext is a form of writing. It is read from a screen. The user controls it with throttles. It yets longer and shorter on demand.
Stretchtext, a kind of hypertext, is basically n form nf writing closely related to other prose. 11 is read by a user or student from a computer display screrm. The user, or student, controls it, and causes it to change, w i t h throttles connected to the computer. Stretchtext yets longer, by adding words and phrases, or slim ter, by subtracting words and phrases, on demand.
Dissection o n the screen T h e student of anatomy may use his light-pen as a scalpel for a deceased creature on the screen. As he cuts, the tissue parts. H e could also t u r n the light-pen into hemostal or forceps, and fully dissect the creature — o r put it back together again. ( T h i s need not be a complex s i m u l a t i o n . M a n y key relationships can be shown by means of fairly simple schematic pictures, needing a data structure not p r o h i b i t i v e l y complicated.)
CHOICE
POINT GIVE
ME
MORE
CHOICES
H y p e r m a p zips up or d o w n T h e screen is a m a p . A steering device permits the user to move the m a p a r o u n d the world's surface; a throttle zooms it i n . N o t by discrete j u m p s , but a n i mated in small changes, the m a p grows and grows in scale. M o r e details appear as the magnifiealion i n creases. T h e user may request a d d i t i o n a l display modes " o v e r l a y s , " such as p o p u l a t i o n , c l i m a t e , and industry Such a d d i t i o n a l features may pop i n t o view on reqik MORE TEST DRILL
TELL
arc t u n
Hyper-comics arc perhaps the simplest and most s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d h y p e r - m e d i u m . I h e screen holds a c o m i c s t r i p , but one which branches on the student's request. F o r instance, different characters could be used t o e x p l a i n things in different ways, with the student able to choose w h i c h type of explanation he wanted at a spec flic lime.
CHOICES
ME ME
RIDDLE DRAW
Hyper-comics
ME ME
A
ME
CHANGE
A
DIAGRAM RELEVANT
THE
SURPRISE
JOKE
SUBJECT
ME
\
Performing
A K O
t
^
OA
/( K
\
hypcrgrams
A hypergrum is a p e r f o r m i n g or branching picture; for instance, this angle, w i t h the bar-graph of its related trigonometric functions. T h e student may t u r n the angle upon the screen, seizing it with the l i g h t - p e n , and watch the related trigonometric functions, displayed as bar charts, change correspondingly. Hypergrams may also be programmed to show the consequences of a user's p r o d — w h a t follows or accompanies some m o t i o n of the picture that he makes with a pointing t o o l , like the heartbeat sequence.
S l r u t d i l c x & i . l s in Hit details This form of hypertext is easy to use w i t h o u t getting lost. As a f o r m of w r i t i n g , it has special advantages for discursive and loosely structured m a t e r i a l s — f o r i n stance historical narratives.
* T v c l i n i c i i l i l v ' is nol necessary
Queriable i l l u s t r a t i o n s : a t o r in 01 l i > p c r g r a m A " h y p e r g r a m " is a picture that can branch or perf o r m on request. I n this particular example, we see o n the screen a l i n e - d r a w i n g w i t h p r o t r u d i n g labels. W h e n the student points at a label, it becomes a sliding descriptive r i b b o n , e x p l a i n i n g the t h i n g labelled. O r asterisks in an illustration may signal j u m p s l o detailed diagrams and explanations, as i n discrete hypertexts.
Proponents of C A I want us to believe that scientific teaching requires a certain setup and format, incomprehensible to the layman and to be left to experts. T h i s is s i m p l y not true. " T e c h n i c a l i t y " is a m y t h . The problem is not one of technical Tightness, but what
should be.
T h e suggestions lhat have been given are things that should be; they w i l l be brought about. •
T h e t e c h n i q u e s of m a k i n g pictures b y c o m p u t e r a r e called c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s .
Y o u will therefore s e e that to u n d e r s t a n d all the different c o m p u t e r diaplay t e r m i n a l s , y o u w o u l d h a v e to u n d e r s t a n d all the different c o m p u t e r display t e c h n i q u e s ; unfortunately w e c a n o n l y c o v e r a f e w h e r e , a n d those b u t sparely.
B u t that includes the dull k i n d s of m a k i n g pictures b y c o m p u t e r , the o n e s that d o it with p e n s a n d printing m a c h i n e s . T h e t e c h n i q u e s of m a k i n g c o m p u t e r s p r e s e n t things interactively o n s c r e e n s is called c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y . ( S o m e s a y "interactive c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s ; " this is not just too l o n g , b u t too restrictive a s well: interactive text s y s t e m s are not " g r a p h i c " o r pictorial, b u t they a r e g o i n g to b e a p r o f o u n d l y important area of c o m p u t e r display.)
S o m e of the t y p e s of c o m p u t e r displny to b e c o v e r e d h e r e a b o u t s include: C R T , o r c a t h o d e - r a y t u b e , displays; these a r e m y favorite b e c a u s e the stuff o n their s c r e e n s m a y b e a n i m a t e d b y the c o m p u t e r . v i d e o d i s p l a y s , w h i c h u s e television t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e h a v e troubles d e r i v i n g f r o m the w a y a T V picture is t i m e d .
(Incidentally, the silly w o r d "interaction" w a s c o i n e d b e c n u s e the p r e v i o u s w o r d "interc o u r s e . " w h i c h m e a n t exactly t h e s a m e t h i n g , h a d r a c y connotations for Borne p e o p l e . C f . " d o n k e y " a n d "rooster," also relatively r e c e n t . )
p a n e l d i s p l a y s , i.e., those w h i c h a p p e a r o n a flat p a n e l . T h e B e a r e g o i n g to b e c r o p p i n g u p all o v e r . ( T h e pictures can't m o v e m u c h , b u t the d e v i c e s a r e g o i n g to b e c h e a p . Flat, t o o . S o m e p e o p l e think that's v e r y important.)
Y o u will note that c o m p u t e r display is w h a t m a k e s possible the c o m p u t e r terminals with s c r e e n s that w e s a w o n the other s i d e . All that a s c r e e n - t e r m i n a l is is s o m e sort of c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y , to w h i c h a k e y b o a r d h a s b e e n added.
It w a s explained o n the other side that c o m p u t e r s h a v e n o fixed p u r p o s e o r style of operation, b u t c a n b e set in motion o n detailed a n d repetitive tasks in a n y realm of h u m a n i n terest-- as long as those tasks a r e exactly specifiable in certain h u m d r u m w a y s .
3 - D d i s p l a y s , especially of the C R T t y p e . N O T E : this t e r m refers a m b i g u o u s l y to t w o different things: s e t u p s w h i c h p r e s e n t flat v i e w s of t h r e e - d i m e n n i o n a l s c e n e s , a n d those w h i c h p r e s e n t stereoscopic v i e w s of 3 D s c e n e s ; these a r e m u c h r a r e r .
N o w , if y o u h a d a m a c h i n e like that b u r n i n g a hole in the c o m e r of y o u r office, w h a t w o u l d y o u really w a n t to d o with it? Y o u can't d r i v e it o n the r o a d . V o u can't m a k e love to it,
i m a g e synthesis or" halftone t e c h n i q u e s and systems. These are computer p r o g r a m s a n d special d e v i c e s w h i c h m a k e s h a d e d o r photograph-like p i c t u r e s . (This h a p p e n s to b e a favorite topic of m i n e , a n d s o there's quite a bit o n it h e r e , a lot of w h i c h is not w i d e l y k n o w n in the field.)
(But s e e p . * * . )
Y o u can't c o o k in it, o r get the n e w s o n it. T o get it to control elaborate e v e n t s in the real w o r l d requires a lot of e x p e n s i v e e q u i p m e n t a n d interfaces, s o c r o s s that o u t .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yet s u p p o s e y o u h a v e a n i n q u i r i n g i m a g ination-- w h i c h is not u n l i k e l y , c o n s i d e r i n g that y o u are r e a d i n g this s e n t e n c e .
Newman and S p r o u l l , Interactive Computer G r a p h i c s . H c C r a w , S 1 5 . Your basic text o n a l l f o r m s o f " m c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s (and th.ua a n i m a t i o n ) .
*
tyg
A n d w e a r e also s u p p o s i n g (from a n e a r lier p a r a g r a p h ) that y o u h a v e a c o m p u t e r . W h a t sorts of thing w o u l d y o u d o with it? T h i n g s that are imaginative a n d don't require too m u c h else. t a m hinting at s o m e t h i n g .
a*«|
cK»Mt
Responding computer displays come in a l l sizes and prices. This little setup ( i nt h e u n d e r - $ 10,000 class) is a PDP-8 minicomputer with home-built display circuitry. Gothic lettering data structure available from somebody in the military; m e s sage courtesy o f R.E.S.I.S.T.O.R.S. T h e b i g d i s p l a y is a n I B M Z250 (over $100,000, including minicomputer).
MU>t~'j~ito<
and if thla idea doesn't turn y o u o n , tha rate o f this book is p r o b a b l y n o t for y o u .
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Some c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s h a v e t o b e d e e p l y a t t a c h e d to • c o m p u t e r a n d s o m e d o n ' t . These latter w e call display terminals• A d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l is l i k e a n o r d i n a r y computer terminal (see p I f ) : that i s , fundamentally a device by which a computer and a person c a n type at each o t h e r . H o w e v e r , d i s play torminals have s c r e e n s . Now, some display terminals only show text, just like ordinary printing terminals ("described o n t h e o t h e r s i d e ) . But manufacturers are free to a d d a n y o t h e r f e a t u r e s , a n d s o d i f f e r e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o do v a r i o u s kinds o f p i c t u r e - m a k i n g w i t h t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l s , i_f a p p r o p r i a t e programs a r e running in the c o m p u t e r that c o n trols t h e m .
m
\T
tot;
Two major types are the storage tube and the p a n e l . T h e s e in turn h a v e separate s u b t y p e s , e t c . Refreshed displays have to have some other kind )f s y m b o l i c ( d i g i t a l ) m e m o r y , w h o s e c o n t e n t s r e p e a t e d ly 8 ° tO « /- T-*. r>n -
That such systems should fun goes without s a y i n g . That be • place to w o r k m a y b e less Ihe tone of thia publication, so It h e r e .
(and will) b e they wtll also obvious from 1 w a n t to stress
Some devices are sold as display terminals but a c t u a l l y , to further c o n f u s e t h e i s s u e , contain complete minicomputers. (The fact t h a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r m a y n o t s t r e s s t h i s is simply a marketing angle he has chosen.) Similarly, certain terminals contain microprocessors ( s e e p . iH ) , w h i c h m e a n s t h e y c a n b e p r o g r a m m e d to b e h a v e l i k e v a r i o u s o t h e r t e r m i n a l s , b u t o r d i n a r i l y they c a n n o t b e p r o g r a m m e d to d o m u c h e l s e by t h e m s e l v e s . Without getting into it deeply, there are two main types o f d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l : those that a r e r e f r e s h e d a n d those that a r e n o t . A r e f r e s h e d d i s p l a y is o n e w h o s e viewing s u r f a c e fades a n d m u s t b e c o n t i n u a l l y r e - f i l l e d ; a non-refreshed display somehow stores the presentation in t h e v i e w i n g s u r f a c e i t s e l f . N o n - r e f r e s h e d displays simply take the symbols from the c o m p u t e r , b l a m them o n t o the s c r e e n , a n d t h a t ' s it u n t i l t h e s c r e e n is e r a s e d ( b y c i t h e r t h e c o m p u t e r o r the u s e r ) .
M o s t r e f r e s h e d d i s p l a y s u s e an a c t u a l t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n - - t h a t i s , a C R T ( s e e p.b^t-7) w h o s e e n t i r e a r e a is r e p e a t e d l y r e - p a i n t e d b y t h e e l c t r o n b e a m . S i n c e computers send text o u t to terminals as i n dividual alphabetic and punctuation codes, each terminal m u s t c o n t a i n circuitry to c h a n g e the c h a r a c t e r code to a visible alphabetical character on the screen. Such a p i e c e o f c i r c u i t r y is c a l l e d a c h a r a c t e r g e n e r a t o r . Ther>
Display terminals generally have a little marker, or c u r s o r , that the user or the computer c a n move around the screen. T h e c o m p u t e r c a n s e n s e w h a t t h e u s e r is p o i n t i n g at b y t h e m o t i o n c o d e s it g e t s , t e l l i n g w h e r e t h e u s e r h a s moved the cursor. I h a d intended here to print a little d i r e c t o r y o f d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l m a n u f a c t u r e r s , b u t t h e r e s i m p l y is n o t time. See section on terminals, other side. N o t e t h a t t h e term v i d e o t e r m i n a l is o f t e n u s e d , i n correctly, for any display terminal. T h e term " v i d e o " s h o u l d o n l y b e u s e d w h e n the s c r e e n is r e f r e s h e d b y a n a c t u a l v i d e o r a s t e r . ( S e e " L i g h t n i n g i n a D o t t l e , " p.J>»,£-f.) Text terminals (also called alphabetic terminals, character terminals or keyscopes) simply show written text, p u t in e i t h e r b y t h e c o m p u t e r o r the u s e r . (Some terminals, c a l l e d transaction t e r m i n a l s , c a n be divided u p into specific areas that the user m a y and may not type into-- for banking and stuff. H o w e v e r , w h e t h e r t h a t f o r m o f t e r m i n a l is n e c e s s a r y m a y a l s o b e a m a t t e r of taste in t h e p r o g r a m design.) T e x t t e r m i n a l s range in p r i c e f r o m , s a y , 51500 on u p to $ 6 5 0 0 . (This last is t h e p r i c e o f a r e m a r k a b l e c o l o r text terminal demonstrated by T e c , I n c . , at the 1974 National Computer Conference. Each alphabetic position could contain a letter and/or a bright color; altogether the screen could hold big colorful pictures made up of these bright spaces. Ostensibly just a text t e r m i n a l , actually the d e vice could be regarded as an Instant Movie Generator for television animation. B u t it m a y take T e c , I n c . a w h i l e to realize w h a t they have created.) G r a p h i c t e r m i n a l s o f f e r s o m e kind of p i c t u r e s on their screens. T h e s e c o m e in a g r e a t v a r i e t y : l i n e - d r a w i n g , some w i t h o u t , some with levels of grey. O f i n t e r e s t to t h e b e ginner a r e :
Thia honey ie the GT-40 from DEC ($12,000, including computer— the thing with teeth, below). It's a eubroutining display (see p. DM 23).
Ltng eoreen action wxth lightpen. Computer eimulatee real moon Reversed uhite-to-black for readability
lande: here.
w o n d e r *
If y o u h a v e n o t s e e n i n t e r a c t i v e display, you have not lived.
computer
Except for a few people w h o can imagine it-a n d I ra t r y i n g t o help y o u w i t h t h a t a s h a r d a s I c a n - - m o s t p e o p l e j u s t d o n ' t g e t i t till t h e y s e e it. T h e y c a n ' t i m a g i n e w h a t i t ' s l i k e to m a n i p u i a t e a p i c t u r e . T o h a v e a d i a g r a m respond to y o u . T°~change o n e p a r t o f a p i c t u r e , ano^wtTcTT t n V T F s t a^afitT h e s e a r e s o m e of t h e t h i n g s t h T t ~ c a n h a p of c o u r ^ t e « a C ^ V e c o n i P u t e r oi c o u r s e , o n t h e p r o g r a m .
display-
all depending,
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"The P E P . " Excellent (but very expensive) display that comes o u t to a video screen from a high-resolution storage tube. Permits grey scales and selective erase. Princeton Electronic Products. The IDIgraf (Information Displays, I n c . , Mount Kisco, NY). Allows line pictures with animation; interesting u n i t ; somewhat less than $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 .
m
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"The Tektronix." (Also called " t h e greenie," or "the green screen.") Tektronix, Inc., makes a display based on a pale green storage tube they make. (So does C o m p u t e r D i s p l a y s , I n c . ) Such d i s p l a y s allow y o u to p u t m o r e and m o r e text a n d pictures on a s c r e e n , crowding it a l l u p - -b u t you can't take the lines or words o f f individually.
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M t i c a l l y milled by m a c h i n e s ) , and never mind M a l e s t h e u s e r on\ll - " y . to c o n t r o l e n t i r e l °ii r e f i n e r i e s b y t h e f l i c k o f a l i g h t p e n . , . , „ ^ s f a r a s I'm concerned, these matters w n r L T V 6 ! : y l m P ° r t a n t c o m p a r e d to c h a n g i n g t h e • " i d . making education an excitement, rather writi* p r i * o n - giving scholars total access to D e o n i 2 8 t / n ? n o t e s - i n n * w complex form; allowing Sindt \ l U y a g i n a t i v e l y , and raising human "onTa™-^VK1?11*1*15 they 5hc,uld h a v e "ached h e level IhA, * l p i n s people think at the deepest inS confront ^ « d "mplex alternativesn COI » f r o n t us m o r e o m i n o u s l y today than e v e r .
A PLATO-like terminal (see PLATO terminal, nearby, and pp?M4-27) i s n o w a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e w i t h S T A N D A R D c o m puter interfaces and software. "Less than J5000" from Applications Group, I n c . , P . O . Box 444A, Maumee, Ohio 43537. REFRESHED HIGH-RESOLUTION COLOR SYSTEMS. A number of companies manufacture computer displays allowing complex grey-scale pictures, including color. They are expensive b u t very very n i c e . I n d e e d , if y o u b u y them in c l u s t e r s , t h e s e f a n c y - p i c t u r e s c o p e s c a n c o s t as l i t t l e as t e x t t e r m i n a l s . Some manufacturers a r e : Data D i s k . (Disk refresh.) Note: I once recommendf mm ii nn ee ,, wwh o ee du tt hn ee mm t to o a a cc oo nn ss uu ll tt ii nn gg cc ll ii ee nn tt o or later expressed complete satisfaction w i t their equipment. Ramtek. (S«-,.c.-W ft-^ej A d a g e , I n c . T h e i r m o d e l 2 0 0 is a v i d e o s freshed from semiconductor storage. Comtal. (Disk.) SIppaattiiaa l D a t a SS y s t e m s • (Disk.) Dlcomed. (Disk. Extremely high resolutio
Student programmer Alan McNeil, an art major, pondere aome thing or other. It may be the program for the Nova apace-game he and Pete Bowell are building. Alan also made a film showing what may have been the motions of the continents, shooting etraight off the PLATO screen. Some PLATO purists point out that this is not exactly what PLATO was originally intended for. So? P L A T O p a n e l d l . p l . y (, e e D M 2 6 - 7
Making pictures halftone system
with the GS (see pp. DM
32-9).
T h e thing about display screens-- especially the h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e , subroutining kind-is that the screen c a n b e c o m e a place from w h i c h to control events in the outside w o r l d . E x a m p l e : I believe a ( o w n in N . Y . State haa Its electrical s y s t e m h o o k e d u p to an ID1IOM subroutining display ( m a d e b y Information D i s p l a y s , Inc., a n d coupled to a Varian 620 m i n i c o m p u t e r ) . Instead of h a v i n g a wall with a b i g painted m a p h a v i n g switches set into it. like m a n y s u c h control centers, the switches are linked directly to the m i n i c o m p u t e r , a n d a p r o g r a m in the m i n i c o m p u t e r connects these circuits to the pictures o n the s c r e e n . T h u s to throw a switch in the real w o r l d , the operator points with his lightpen at the picture of the a w i t c h , a n d the m i n i c o m p u t e r t h r o w s the switch. T h e r e a r e oil refineries that w o r k the s a m e w a y . T h e operator c a n control flows a m o n g pipes a n d tanks b y pointing at their pictures. o r at s y m b o l s connected with t h e m , a n d b i n g o , it h a p p e n s O u t T h e r e . In another c a a e , a p e r s o n designing s o m e thing at a screen c a n look across the r o o m a n d see a m a c h i n e p r o d u c i n g w h a t h e just finished designing a few minutes a g o . I w i s h I could say m o r e about that particular s e t u p . T h e true p r o b l e m lhat I think is e m e r g i n g , t h o u g h , is the p r o b l e m of system r e s p o n s e a n d style. O k a y , so you're controlling widget a s s e m b l y , o r traffic light g r i d s , at the C R T s c r e e n . T h e real question is, h o w does the screen b e h a v e a n d r e s p o n d ? T h i s is not, d a r n it, a technical issue. It's psychological a n d then s o m e . T h e design of screen activities w h i c h w i U enjoyably focus the user's m i n d o n his p r o p e r c o n c e r n s - - n o matter h o w personal these m a y b e - - is the n e w frontier of d e s i g n , of art, a n d of architecture. B u t m o r e of that later. N o w , the X e r o x Corporation h a s said that they intend to replace p a p e r (or. the w a y I h e a r d it, " S o m e b o d y is going to replace p a p e r with s c r e e n s , a n d it will b e either I B M o r u s , so let's h a v e it b e us."J Well a n d g o o d . S a v e the trees a n d stem the g r e y m e n a c e . B u t the question is: w h a t will the s y s t e m s b e like? H o w should they p e r form? W h a t forms will information take? W h a t c o n v e n t i o n s , structures, d i a g r a m s , animations, w a y s to sign t h i n g s , w a y s to view things ... H O W S H A L L IT B E ? I a m afraid that as long as people a r e b e fuddled with technicalities, o r confused b y those w h o profess that these considerations are their specialty b y right, w e will n e v e r get straight. L a c k i n g time for the full discussion, I give y o u a motto: IF T H E B U T T O N IS N O T S H A P E D LIKE T H E T H O U G H T , T H E T H O U G H T W I L L E N D U P S H A P E D LIKE T H E B U T T O N .
SAVING ENERGY
WITH COMPUTER
A timely that it needs e l s e w h e r e ) it bodes to save
c r i t i c i s m o f c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y is electricity. B u t (as mentioned s a v e s p a p e r , a n d , i m p o r t a n t l y , it energy as w e l l .
DISPLAY
IF W E S W I T C H T O C O M P U T E R S C R E E N S F R O M PAPER, PEOPLE WON'T HAVE TO TRAVEL AS MUCH. I n s t e a d o f c o m m u t i n g to o f f i c e s in t h e c e n t e r o f t o w n , p e o p l e c a n s e t u p t h e i r o f f i c e s in the s u b u r b s , a n d share the d o c u m e n t a r y s t r u c ture o f the w o r k s i t u a t i o n through the s c r e e n s .
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This view has been propounded, indeed, by Peter Goldmark, former director of CBS L a b s , the m a n w h o brought y o u the LP record.
1.
EARLIEST TO
MAKE
SYSTEM:
A
LITTLE
PROGRAM
2.
BASIC TYPES
OF COMPUTER
DISPLAY
(Note: t h e t e r m " d i s p l a y " is also u s e d in this field to r e f e r to n u m b e r s a n d letters that c a n b e m a d e to light u p in fixed p o s i t i o n s , like o n y o u r p o c k e t c a l c u l a t o r s . T h o s e will not b e d i s c u s s e d h e r e . If y o u ' r e i n t e r e s t e d s e e a n article o n t h e s u b j e c t b y A l a n S o b e l , Scientific A m e r i c a n , e a r l y 1 9 7 3 s o m e t i m e . )
THE
FORKED
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T h e n e x t a t e p in d e s i g n is to g e t t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m o u t of t h e b u s i n e s s of d r a w i n g lineB b y a s u c c e s s i o n of d o t s . S o w e b u i l d a p i e c e of h a r d w a r e that t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m a y s i m p l y i n s t r u c t to d r a w a l i n e . A s a n i n t e r f a c e , it l o o k s to t h e c o m p u t e r like f o u r s e p a r a t e d e v i c e s : r e g i s t e r s that tell w h e r e o n the s c r e e n t h e line m u s t start ("first X " a n d "first Y " ) a n d r e g i s t e r s that tell it w h e r e to s t o p ("end X " a n d "end Y " ) ,
T h e earliest s e t u p c o n n e c t e d a C R T to a c o m p u t e r b y the simplest possible m e a n s , a n d m a d e its p i c t u r e s w i t h d o t s o n t h e s c r e e n — a sort of tattooing p r o c e s s .
YOUR
LINE-DRAWING
DOTS
It w a s s i m p l e b e c a u s e all t h e c o m p u t e r d i d w a s f u r n i s h to t h e c o n n e c t i n g c i r c u i t r y ( o r i n t e r f a c e ) s y m b o l s s p e c i f y i n g h o w far u p , a n d h o w far a c r o s s t h e s c r e e n , t h e n e x t d o t s h o u l d be. T h e s e s y m b o l s w e r e actually c o d e d n u m b e r s , a n d t h e interface t u r n e d t h e m into v o l t a g e s w h i c h then m o v e d the b e a m c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . (This p r o c e s s of m a k i n g a m e a s u r e d v o l t a g e o u t of a c o d e d n u m e r i c a l s y m b o l is c a l l e d d i g i t a l - t o - a n a l o g c o n v e r s i o n • since (as e x p l a i n e d o n the o t h e r s i d e ) t h e m a i n m e a n i n g o f " a n a l o g " t h e s e d e y B is " i n a m e a s u r e d voltage.") N o w , this h a s s e v e r a l d r a w b a c k s . O n e is that t h e lines a r e d o t t y ; n o b o d y likes t h a t . A m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n n o y a n c e , t h o u g h , is that t h e c o m p u t e r s c a r c e l y h a s t i m e for a n y t h i n g e l s e . H e r e is a f l o w c h a r t of w h a t t h e c o m p u t e r h a s to d o in its p r o g r a m . ( E v e n if y o u d i d n ' t l o o k at t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e b o o k , f l o w c h a r t s a r e n o t h i n g scary. T h e y ' r e j u s t m a p s of w h a t h a p p e n s . )
LIGHTNING
" B e c a u s e their w o r d s h a v e forked n o lightning they D o n o t g o g e n t l e into that g o o d n i g h t . " — Dylan T h o m a s
T h i s s p e e d s things u p considerably, a n d a l l o w s t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m to d i s p l a y o n t h e C R T s i m p l y b y telling t h e d e v i c e w h a t lines it wants drawn. M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o g r a m is free to d o o t h e r t h i n g s w h i l e e a c h line is b e i n g d r a w n , t h o u g h this i n v o l v e s t h e p r o b l e m of h o w t h e p r o g r a m is to k n o w w h e n it's t i m e to s e n d o u t a n o t h e r l i n e - - a n d w e n e e d n ' t g o into that here.
T h e m o s t b a s i c , a n d yet eventually the m o s t v e r s a t i l e , c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y is that o f t h e C R T . o r bottled l i g h t n i n g (as I like to call i t ) . It i s , y o u k n o w : a b e a m of e l e c t r o n s , just like l i g h t n i n g in a s t o r m , b u t f r o m t h e n e c k o f a v e r y e m p t y bottle to its flat b o t t o m , w h o s e chemically coated surface w e w a t c h . A s m a n i p u l a t e d b y t h e c o m p u t e r , t h e C R T s t a b s its b e a m to all c o r n e r s of t h e faceplate: f o r k e d l i g h t n i n g .
( I n c i d e n t a l l y , it is a p u z z l i n g fact that s u c h a d e v i c e is a v a i l a b l e n o w h e r e , a l t h o u g h lots of p e o p l e e n d u p b u i l d i n g o n e for t h e m s e l v e s . T h e r e w a s s u c h a thing o n the m a r k e t a c o u p l e of y e a r s a g o - - l i n e - d r a w i n g h a r d w a r e w i t h n o i n t e r f a c e a n d n o C R T — b u t it w a s w i t h d r a w n b e c a u s e of reliability p r o b l e m s . A just p r i c e , if a n y b o d y w a n t s to g o into t h a t , w o u l d b e five h u n d r e d to a t h o u s a n d d o l a r s — this y e a r . )
C o m p u t e r d i s p l a y b e g a n in t h e late f o r t i e s . C o m p u t e r s themselves w e r e completely n e w , and so w a s M r . Dumont's magical Cathode R a y T u b e o r C R T (see p . ' % ) . d e v e l o p e d o n a c r a s h basis d u r i n g the w a r so w e c o u l d h a v e r a d a r , a n d a s l o n g a s it w a s a r o u n d after t h e w a r , w e got television. B u t the lightning bottle, o r C R T , c a n b e u s e d in a v a r i e t y of w a y s . Its c o n t r o l p l a t e s , w h i c h m o v e t h e r a y of e l e c t r o n s a r o u n d o n t h e s c r e e n , c a n b e g i v e n v a r i o u s different e l e c tronic s i g n a l s , c a u s i n g t h e b e a m to m o v e a r o u n d in different p a t t e r n s . In n o r m a l v i d e o , t h e s i g n a l s m o v e t h e b e a m in a z i g z a g p a t t e r n , w h e r e the zigs a r e v e r y close t o g e t h e r a n d t h e z a g s a r e invisible; t h e c a r p e t of z i g s c o v e r s t h e s c r e e n o v e r a n d o v e r in a repetitive p a t t e r n , a n d t h e b e a m ' s c h a n g i n g intensity p a i n t s t h e picture. B u t w e c a n d r i v e the C R T differently, b y u s i n g different c o n t r o l s i g n a l s . F o r i n s t a n c e : w e c a n a p p l y a m e a s u r e d v o l t a g e to t h e h e i g h t o r " Y " plates of t h e C R T , m o v i n g t h e b e a m to a g i v e n vertical p o s i t i o n , a n d a n o t h e r m e a s u r e d v o l t a g e to t h e s i d e w a y s o r " X " p l a t e s , c o n t r o l l i n g its h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n .
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n e c t e d to t h e c o m p u t e r , o r w e c a n s a y t h e hell w i t h it a n d c u t t h e d i s p l a y d e v i c e l o o s e a s a separate
entity.
F'itfT O o T
F u r t h e r m o r e , a n d h e r e w a s the indignity o f it, this s y s t e m t o o k far too l o n g . T o d r a w a line w i t h thirty d o t s in it t o o k thirty t i m e s a r o u n d t h e l o o p in t h e f l o w c h a r t , a n d s i n c e e a c h b o x in t h e flowchart t a k e s at least o n e o f t h e m a c h i n e ' s rock-bottom instructions-- usually m o r e - - t h e n t h e m a i n l o o p o f this d i s p l a y r o u t i n e takes four separate operations p e r d o t , o r 120 operations for a stupid 30-dot line. Plainly t h e r e h a s to b e a b e t t e r w a y to u s e a n e x p e n s i v e computer.
A c t u a l l y it w a s n ' t j u s t t h e i g n o m i n y o f it, b u t t h e fact that it t o o k s o l o n g , that m a d e this a poor method. T h e a m o u n t o f stuff t h e c o m p u t e r c o u l d d r a w in l / 4 0 t h o f a s e c o n d — a n d this t u r n s o u t to b e h o w fast t h e w h o l e p i c t u r e h a s to b e m a d e - - w a s too little. A f t e r l / 4 0 t h o f a s e c o n d t h e h u m a n e y e c a n s e e t h e lines o n t h e C R T start to f a d e , a n d s o t h e p i c t u r e h a s to b e r e d r a w n to m a k e it b r i g h t a g a i n b e f o r e that happens. If y o u r e y e s e e s t h e p i c t u r e f a d i n g , then w h e n the c o m p u t e r d r a w s the picture again y o u will s e e it g e t s u d d e n l y b r i g h t a g a i n - - a n d it will start to f l i c k e r . T h i s is d i s t r a c t i n g , u n healthy, a n d disagreeable.
N o t e that t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o m p u t e r in t h e h i ^ t g r y of c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y u s e d this t e c h n i q u e 1 ^ T h i s w a s t h e T X - 2 at L i n c o l n L a b o r a t o r i e s , a h i g h l y - g u a r d e d installation o u t s i d e B o s ton w h i c h is f o r m a l l y p a r t of M I T . T h e T X - 2 w a s o n e o f t h e first t r a n s i s t o r i z e d c o m p u t e r s - p e r h a p s t h e first; a n d o n it w e r e p r o g r a m m e d a n u m b e r of m i l e s t o n e s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g S u t h e r land's S k e t c h p a d , J o h n s o n ' s S k e t c h p a d I V , a n d Baecker's G E N E S Y S animation system (discussed somewhere).
I v a n S u t h e r l a n d h a s c a n n i l y n o t e d that t h e r e is a c e r t a i n t r a p i n v o l v e d in t h e s e d e s i g n s : as w e build additional " i n d e p e n d e n t " structures to t a k e t h e b u r d e n of d i s p l a y a w a y f r o m t h e c o m p u t e r , w e a r e t e m p t e d to k e e p a d d i n g f e a tures w h i c h m a k e the " i n d e p e n d e n t " structure a c o m p u t e r in its o w n r i g h t . T h i s p a r a d o x i c a l t e m p t a t i o n S u t h e r l a n d calls " t h e g r e a t w h e e l o f K a r m a " of c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y a r c h i t e c t u r e . It is t e m p t i n g to c u t t h e d i s p l a y l o o s e f r o m the c o m p u t e r . It m e a n s t h e c o m p u t e r c a n b e fully o c c u p i e d w i t h o t h e r m a t t e r s t h a n r e f r e s h i n g the s c r e e n — p r e p a r i n g the next d i s p l a y s , p e r haps. M a n y c o m p u t e r p e o p l e b e l i e v e this is t h e r i g h t w a y to d o it, a n d it is c e r t a i n l y o n e v a l i d approach. B u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y it also drastically r e d u c e s the i m m e d i a c y of the system's reaction, m a k i n g interaction w i t h t h e s y s t e m less intimate and wonderful. A p p r o a c h e s w h i c h p u t display refreshment a n d m a i n t e n a n c e in a s e p a r a t e d e v i c e a r e less i n t e r e s t i n g to m e , a n d s o that d i s c u s s i o n c o n t i n u e s s e p a r a t e l y n e a r b y . ("btfiv^^*"**^* f- J*12l).
4.
THE SECOND PROGRAM
FOLLOWER
O n the other Bide of the b o o k . 1 explained that a c o m p u t e r ia basically a sippy d e v i c e , n e v e r m i n d h o w constructed, w h i c h follows a p r o g r a m s o m e h o w stored symbolically In a core m e m o r y . S u c h a device w e call h e r e a p r o g r a m follower. While p r o g r a m s m a y b e in m a n y c o m puter languages-- all of t h e m contrived s y s t e m s for expressing the user's w i s h e s , in different styles a n d with different general intent-- u n d e r neath they all translate to an inner l a n g u a g e of binary patterns, w h i c h m a y Just b e thought of as patterns of X a n d 0 . or light b u l b s on a n d off. T h e innermost p r o g r a m follower of the c o m p u t e r g o e s d o w n lists of binary patterns stored in the core m e m o r y , a n d carries t h e m out as specific instructions. It also c h a n g e s its s e q u e n c e s of operations u n d e r conditions that the p r o g r a m m e r has told it to w a t c h for. T h e m o s t powerful a n d responsive c o m puter displays are those w h i c h build a s e c o n d p r o g r a m follower w h i c h g o e s d o w n lists of pict u r e - d r a w i n g instructions also stored in the s a m e core m e m o r y ,
FOLLOWER.
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W e m a y call this also a "list-of-lines" s y s t e m , since the c o m m a n d s recognized b y the display p r o g r a m follower are typically patterns that tell it w h a t lines to d r a w . Typically also it h a s its o w n w a y of j u m p ing a r o u n d in a p r o g r a m , a n d m a y j u m p to a specific list of lines, o r s u b p i c t u r e , from n u m e r o u s other parts of its p r o g r a m , a l w a y s returning e a c h time to the point from w h i c h it h a d j u m p e d . T h i s -allows the s a m e subpicture to a p p e a r in n u m e r o u s places o n the screen at the s a m e t i m e . (A p r o g r a m that can be j u m p e d to b y other p r o g r a m s w h i c h then r e s u m e operation is called a subroutine; t h u s the real, o r m o s t prestigious, n a m e for s u c h a device is a s u b r o u t i n i n g d i s p l a y . )
T h i s design haa s o m e extraordinary a d v a n tages. O n e is that since the c o m p u t e r ' s p r o g r a m follower a n d the display's p r o g r a m follower both s h a r e the s a m e core m e m o r y • they can w o r k together m o a t intimately. W h e n the user d e m a n d s s o m e t h i n g n e w - - b y t y p i n g , s a y , o r pointing with a light-pen-- the c o m p u t e r can step in a n d take various actions. Its p r o g r a m can c o m p o s e a n e w picture for the u s e r , get s o m e t h i n g from a disk o r tape m e m o r y , o r switch the display's p r o g r a m follower o v e r to a n e w picture it h a s already p r e p a r e d . M o s t importantly, the c o m p u t e r can m o v e i m a g e s o n the s c r e n . allowing interactive a n i mation o n the s c r e e n u n d e r the user's control. E a c h time the display starts to s h o w the s a m e picture e g a i n , the c o m p u t e r simply supplies it with a n e w starting point. Since the list of lines is typically in the form of s e q u e n c e s of lines relative to o n e a n o t h e r , the picture is d r a w n in a n e w place e a c h time-- a n d thus s e e n to m o v e o n the Finally, the c o m p u t e r itself is free m o a t of Ihe time-- free, that is, to d o other t h i n g s , w h i c h typically is a l w a y s desirable. Just h o w m u c h the c o m p u t e r can o r should d o in s u c h a p a r t n e r s h i p is n matter of d i s p u t e . (Ordinarily s u c h devices arc spliced onto m i n i c o m p u t e r s ; a n d m i n i c o m p u t e r f a n s , s u c h a s the a u t h o r , see n o reason not to p e r f o r m all services for the d i s play there in the m i n i c o m p u t e r - - a n d a p o x o n the big m a c h i n e s . O t h e r s , for various r e a s o n s . Bee the s u b r o u t i n i n g display a n d its host mini as n e e d i n g the tender ministratious of a4 bigc o m p u t e r via s o m e sort of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s line. T h e r e are various r e a s o n s for holding this e n tirely legitimate v i e w . People w h o are d e v o t e d to the h i g h n u m b e r - c r u n c h i n g capacity of big c o m p u t e r s , o r to l a n g u a g e s w h i c h require great big c o m p u t e r s to r u n i n . h a v e a right to their o p i n i o n . M o r e o v e r , it is currently feasible lo store large b o d i e s of data only o n big c o m p u t e r s — not b e c a u s e big disk a n d tape m e m o r i e s can't b e easily attached to the small o n e s , for they c a n , but they usually aren't; a n d other w a y s to tie m i n i c o m p u t e r s to big stores of data aren't available y e t . )
S u b r o u t i n i n g displays often h o v e c o m m a n d s allowing t h e m to display text as well a s lines a n d d o t s . In the display of text they c a n u s e the s o m e t e c h n i q u e of " m o v i n g the picture" b y starting its display at successively c r e e p i n g points; this will c a u s e , s a y . w h o l e p a r a g r a p h s to slide o n the s c r e e n . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this feature in the displaying of text c a n n o t b e iphasized. A s m o r e a n d m o r e p e o p l e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e with displays of different k i n d s , they a r e b e g i n n i n g to realize h o w c o n f u s i n g a n d d i s orienting it is for a s c r e e n to clear a n d b e filled with s o m e t h i n g n e w to r e a d . Y o u don't k n o w w h e r e y o u are. O n subroutining displays, m o v i n g the text c o n give the r e a d e r the s a m e s e n s e of orientation h e gets from t u r n i n g p a g e s — a n important thing to r e p l a c e .
HELPING PEOPLE SEE A N D M A N I P U L A T E PICTURES A N D TEXT IN A N Y S T Y L E , A N D F O R A N Y P U R P O S E . Since pictures c a n b e of a n y t h i n g , a n d text c a n b e about a n y t h i n g , this effectively c o m p r e h e n d s the entire m e n t a l a n d w o r k i n g life of m a n k i n d . M a n y r e a d e r s will scoff, s u p p o s i n g that c o m p u t e r display s y s t e m s will a l w a y s cost tons of m o n e y . T h i s is not Ihe c a s e . Y o u c a n alr e a d y get a b e a u t y , with its m i n i c o m p u t e r , for as little as $13,000; a n d this price s h o u l d fall to three o r four t h o u s a n d within a few y e a r s - as s o o n a s the m i n i c o m p u t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s realize that the m a r k e t frontier is not in the office o r factory, b u t in the h o m e . B u t w e ' r e getting a bit a h e a d of o u r s e l v e s h e r e . TYPES OF SUBROUTINING M o s t importantly, the c o m p u t e r c a n m o v e i m a g e s o n the s c r e e n , allowing interactive~anT nation o n the screen u n d e r the user's control. E a c h time the display is about to s h o w the s a m e picture a g a i n , the c o m p u t e r simply supplies it with a n e w atartinfl point. Since the list of lines is typically in the form of s e q u e n c e s of lines relative to o n e a n o t h e r , the picture is d r a w n in a n e w place e a c h time-- a n d thus s e e n to m o v e o n the s c r e e n . r
T h e units m e n t i o n e d a b o v e are of the m o a t basic type: " t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l , " w h o s e pictures at a n y given instant c o r r e s p o n d to flat d r a w i n g s -- b u t , of c o u r s e , derive their excitement a n d magnificence from their capacity to interact, c h a n g e a n d animate w h u t y o u are looking at.
J r W
twUf'S V * *
d.k]:»»«i
# Kf .
DISPLAY
S o m e early s u b r o u t i n i n g displays u s e d a screen-dotting t e c h n i q u e , but took the b u r d e n of it off the c o m p u t e r itself; it w o u l d extract f r o m core m e m o r y the instructions telling it to d r a w individual lines a n d s h o w text. (1 refer h e r e to the D E C m o d e l 3 3 8 , i n t r o d u c e d a b o u t 1965; this attached to a P D P - 8 c o m p u t e r (see p . ' j T ) a n d cost about $50,000 including the c o m p u t e r . ) O t h e r s d r e w lines as straight zips of light a c r o s s the s c r e e n ; a n e x a m p l e is the I B M 2250 d i a p l a y , introduced about 1966. ( T h e m o d e l 1 of thia device b u c k l e d directly to the 3 6 0 , a n d c o s t , 1 believe, s o m e t h i n g like $75,000; its s u c c e s s o r , the m o d e l 4, b u c k l e d to their 1130 m i n i c o m p u t e r , the p a c k a g e costing s o m e $ 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d then y o u w e r e s u p p o s e d to attach it to a n I B M 3 6 0 . ) T h e 2250 w a s a g o o d m a c h i n e , b u t in p e r f o r m a n c e suffers greatly from the restrictions of the 360 c o m p u t e r itself (see p . 4 j ) .
i ^ o .
Seld cm has an event in a new field had as m u c h power and Influence aa w h a t dour Ivan Sutherland did as a young man V the period 1 9 6 0 - 6 4 . ~ The SKETCHPAD system,which w a s basically hla theale w o r k at H I T , waa at once I n v e n t i v e , p r o f o u n d , overwhelmingly Impressive to l a y m e n , snd deeply e l e g a n t . Simply for the universal influence It has had In the computer f i e l d . It d e s e r v e s our close attention. Sutherland was one of the first people to understand the use of the computer in helping people visualize things that weren't fully clear y e t — the o p p o s i t e , of c o u r s e , of the conventional notion of c o m p u t e r s . W h i l e computers had been made to do animations as early a s the f o r t i e s , and computer graphics had been put to w o r k aday d u t i e s in the old 5ACE system (defending us against bombers in the f i f t i e s — remember the good old d a y s ? ) , Sutherland turned c o m puter display from an expensive curiosity into a true dream m a c h i n e . SKETCHPAD ran on the 3 6 - b l t T X - 2 , a one-of-a-kind experimental m a c h i n e at Lincoln L a b o r a t o r i e s (a military research place nominally a part of M I T ) . It had a diaplay s c r e e n , light pen and lots of handy switches. SKETCHPAD w a s basically a drawing s y s t e m . But rather than simulating paper (as some people m i g h t have d o n e ) , it found splendid w a y s to take advantage of the c o m p u t e r ' s special c a p a b i l i t i e s . In the Sketchpad s y s t e m , Sutherland looked for w a y s that a responding computer display screen could help people design t h i n g s . He pioneered m e t h o d s of drawing on s c r e e n s , w i t h such techniques as the "rubber-band line" (a straight line on the s c r e e n , one end of which follows your lightpen w h i l e the other remains f i x e d ) , and the " I n s t a n c e " — a subpicture stored In core m e m o r y which could appear n u m e r o u s times and w a y s in a larger p i c t u r e ) .
This picture vaguely eimulatee the "instance" facility of Sketchpad, by uKicn an overall picture may be created out of repetitions of a c ingle master pattern. ..ilated with '.-.Kjuage (see
It m u s t b e stressed h e r e that, just as c o m p u t e r s t h e m s e l v e s h a v e n o fixed m o d e o r style of o p e r a t i o n , neither d o c o m p u t e r displays; a n d so the p u r p o s e of s u c h d e v i c e s is s i m p l y
T h i s d e s i g n h a s s o m e extraordinary a d v a n tages. O n e is that since the c o m p u t e r ' s p r o g r a m follower a n d the display's p r o g r a m f o U o w e r both s h a r e the s a m e core m e m o r y , they can w o r k together most intimately. W h e n the u s e r d e m a n d s s o m e t h i n g n e w - - b y t y p i n g , s a y , o r pointing with a light-pen-- the c o m p u t e r can step in a n d take various actions. Its p r o g r a m can c o m p o s e a n e w picture for the u s e r , get s o m e t h i n g from a disk or tape m e m o r y , o r switch the display's p r o g r a m follower o v e r to a n e w picture it h a s already p r e p a r e d .
T h e s e earlier m a c h i n e s are b e i n g replaced b y n e w versions with better-designed instructions (see " C o m p u t e r Architecture," p . "$2.. tor a s e n s e of w h a t well-designed instructions a r e ) . A n e s pecially fine unit is D E C ' s O T 4 0 , w h i c h b u c k l e s o n the exceptionally fine P D P - 1 1 m i n i c o m p u t e r (see p.*tt-). T h e G T 4 0 is illustrated n e a r b y . ( ? % ) It g o e s for a o m e $12,000 including the c o m p u t e r . (That's t o d a y , w e repeat. C o n s i d e r noi the price at this instant, but h o w fast it's going d o w n . )
GRASS p.32).
The m i n d - b l o w i n g thing about Sketchpad w a s the way you could move and m a n i p u l a t e the p i c t u r e on the s c r e e n , w i t h all Its p a r t s . O n e o v e r a l l picture could be constructed out of a hundred copies of a basic p i c t u r e ; then a change In the basic picture would I m m e d i a t e l y be shown in all hundred p l a c e s . Or you could expand your picture until it w a s e f f e c t i v e l y the size of a football field (with you looking at a tiny view In the handkerchief-sized s c r e e n ) . Or you could draw m e s h i n g gears on the s c r e e n , and with the lightpen (and through the " c o n s t r a i n t " f a c i l i t y ) make one gear turn by turning the o t h e r ! the constraint,does not seem to have T h i s elegant technlqi o n s t r a i n t " w a s a restriction placed been imitated e v e n n o w . i ill stored picture c o m p l e x . The user on some part of the overa. v a r i o u s parts of the picture on the screet could move or manipulai m a t r a l n t s could only move in certain d l but the parts that had d r a g g l n g other r e c t i o n s , or a c c o r d i n g to certain f o n n u L parts a l o n g , e t c . , as s p e c i f i e d . T h i s w a s a profound I d e a , b e c a u s e It meant that any rules for the m a n i p u l a t i o n of particular o b j e c t s on the screen could be added to Sketchpad as p a r t i c u l a r s w i t h i n the larger p r o g r a m , rather than h a v i n g to be programmed in from s c r a t c h . (One extremely interesting aspect of S u t h e r l a n d ' s t h e s i s , which m o s t people aeem to have m i s s e d , dealt w i t h displaying a structure of c o n s t r a i n t s : that i s , showing w h a t e l e m e n t s depended on w h a t other e l e m e n t s , in a highly abstracted d i a g r a m that the system could show y o u . T h i s form of display has remarkable p o s s i b i l i t i e s . A f t e r his brilliant SKETCHPAD w o r k , Sutherland waa made head of A R P A ' s computer branch (see "Military." p . 3 3 ) . T h e r e he wea involved In many of the computer funding d e c i s i o n s of the late s i x t i e s , w h i c h contributed to the impetus of computer d i s p l a y . (His p r e d e c e s s o r , L i c k l i d e r , had been a pioneer In t i m e - s h a r i n g , end m u c h of the forward movement In the computer field In recent years may just have had to do with the strategic position of those two men w h e n they were at A R P A / I P T . ) Sketchpad w e n t on as a continuing research tradition at L i n coln L a b s . Timothy J o h n s o n , for i n s t a n c e , made a version of it that allowed the drawing of three-dimensional o b j e c t s ; thla became the forerunner of the v a r i o u s three-dimensional line systems described hereabouts• From A R P A . Sutherland w e n t on to the University of U t a h , whence he slipped off w i t h the Computer Science department c h a i r man to found the Evens and Sutherland Computer C o m p a n y , m a k e r s ° * the top-of-the-llne computer display systems (see p . J M * P Suthei land's w o r k has shown an elegance and Inventiveness itandlng In the f i e l d . (For i n s t a n c e , I believe one issue of Lena of the ACM had two unusual articles by him: one d e Communl I e c c e n t r i c "Chinese a u c t i o n " system worked out for scribing .... -omputer, which benefited uaers more than any scheduling use infamous "Greet "Great Wheel Wheel ol of "Karma" a r t i ctl e . previous method K t h o d ; and u d the t h . lnfernoo. ™ :o>pered t h . design of gr.phlc.l o o « p u t e r . to t h . Hindu r.lnc.rnetlon-- il yoo k«.p adding de.ireble f e . t u r e . system < t h . o e e l g o , .oon yoo heve another p t o g i u i follower .nd .noth.r coa puter in the s u e b o x — over «nd o v e r . )
DM
24
IJoHK] How
do
computers
make
movies?
W e l l , first of a l l , computers do movies unless thoroughly provoked.
not
make
In f a c t , o n l y p e o p l e m a k e m o v i e s . But c o m p u t e r s , if sufficiently p r o v o k e d , will do a lot of it: enact the movie and photograph it, frame by frame. There All graphics
is
no
single
method.
forms of computer display and computer may be u s e d to m a k e c o m p u t e r m o v i e s .
" C o m p u t e r a n i m a t i o n " is a n y m e t h o d o f m a k ing movies in w h i c h a c o m p u t e r successively draws or paints the successive individual frames, which may be done by any of the m e t h o d s mentione d in t h i s b o o k . Now, since there are numerous methods of making pictures by c o m p u t e r , then any method of making different individual pictures, i n a s u c c e s s i o n of c h a n g i n g f r a m e s , i s computer animation. S o a " c o m p u t e r m o v i e " is a n y film m a d e b y , or with the p i c t u r e - m a k i n g aid of, computers. In
other
words--
it's
no
one
Here are a few humanis tic.
stills
from
some
other
BIBLIOGRAPHY Newman G Sproull, Interactive Graphics. McGraw, $15.
Computer
T h i s is t h e t e x t b o o k . Anyone i n t e r e s t e d in c o m p u t e r display should get this immediately. An
expensive journal, Computer Graphics and Image Processing, comes from Academic Press.
WHITNEY
J o h n W h i t n e y is the a n c e s t o r o f us all probably the first computer movie-maker. He is a l s o a g r i p p i n g speaker.
Lillian
Schwartz
tion
In the f o r t i e s , he b u i l t a s p e c i a l stand-- using analog computers.
anima-
D e e p l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m u s i c , -Whitney has in h i s i m a g e s e m p h a s i z e d r h y t h m i c a n d contrap u n t a l m o v e m e n t of shapes and lines.
thing.
N o w , there already e x i s t h u n d r e d s , if not thousands, of computer movies. So far most of them h a v e b e e n on t e c h n i c a l t o p i c s - - the mechanics of satellite orbit s t a b i l i z a t i o n , the mechanics of explosions and so o n .
more
JOHN
movies,
Whitney films available from: Pyramid Films, Box 1048, Santa Monica CA 90406. A talented artist with a feel for technology, M s . Schwartz has been working for several years with Knowlton and others at Bell Labs. Her films with Knowlton, mentioned elsewhere, are m a r v e l o u s . She now works at a more permanent s e t u p , a minicomputer that runs successive images on a color TV screen, employing a modified form of Knowlton's EXPLOR language. T h e w o r k is immediately v i e w a b l e . This allows rapid film construction,- not p r e v i o u s l y p o s s i b l e when the w o r k h a d to g o t h r o u g h a s l o w animation camera before she could see the result. For Knowlton-&-Schwartz films contact: Martin D u f f y , A T & T , 195 B r o a d w a y , NY N Y .
Sherwood Anderson,v'Computer Animation: A Survey. J o u r n a l of M i c r o g r a p h i c s , S e p 7 1 , 1 3 - 2 0 . Lists nineteen computer-animation languages of t h a t t i m e . K e n K n o w l t o n , " C o m p u t e r - M a d e F i l m s , " Fill N e w s l e t t e r Dec 7 0 , 1 4 - 2 0 .
lakers John
J J
Instructions for the d e s i r e d movie enter the computer as a deck of punched
Whitney
§
> >
cards.
> >
>
>
>
>
O o o
8 t. 8 *. 8 +• 8 X X X X X John
VanderbL, •• which showc uc •^g influence of BEFLIX, which •t grows from).
Schwartz & Knowlton. Using the EXPLOR. language, they make pictures and patterns scintillate and grow together. (EXPLOR in some ways generalizes Conway's Game of Life; see p.^andp. DM~^_S)
V \
Whitney
Lillian Schwartz (with Henry Magnuaki;
see
p.
DM
25
>
L y n n S m i t h is a y o u n g B o s t o n artist who has worked extensively with Baecker's GENESYS (see n e a r b y ) . One result has been a m o v i e w h i c h should be an e x a m p l e to us all: "The Wedding Movie for Bob and Judy " (Her Friends Bob and Judy were getting m a r r i e d , so she made this m o v i e , a few m i nutes long and quite c l e v e r , to celebrate it. )
B y n o w t h e r e a r e d o z e n s of c o m p u t e r a n i m a tion l a n g u a g e s — p e r h a p s h u n d r e d s . Each one e m ploys the t e c h n i q u e s of a n i m a t i o n w h i c h itB d e v e l o p e r w a n t e d to u s e , t i e d t o g e t h e r in t h e w a y s that s e e m e d a p p r o p r i a t e to h i m . (See "Computer L a n g u a g e s , " p . 1 5 , and note K n o w l t o n ' s v a r i o u s animation languages, described nearby.) One of the m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l a n i m a t i o n s y s t e m s has been Ron B a e c k e r ' s G E N E S Y S , a 2 - d L m e n s i o n a l a n i m a t i o n s y s t e m p r o g r a m m e d in t h e l a t e s i x t i e s at MIT's high-security Lincoln Laboratory. (It u s e d the TX-2 c o m p u t e r , m e n t i o n e d e l s e w h e r e in this book.) B a e c k e r , a cheery and g e n i a l f e l l o w , e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t a s a s t u d e n t in u s i n g t h e T X - 2 f o r a n i m a tion, and was allowed t o . The system he produced has a n u m b e r of l e s s o n s for u s a l l .
A
^
/
This computers world; it any dozen
is m y f a v o r i t e e x a m p l e of how s h o u l d b e u s e d in the human s a y s more on the subject than articles.
(One question that remains unanswered is h o w a s y s t e m like GENESYS could have been used for such a purpose, seeing that most people in the field b e l i e v e GENESYS only r u m on the heavily-guarded TX-2 computer. Regretfully, I can shed no light on this here.)
GENESYS is a "Good-Guy" system,as discussed on p . I H e a n i n g , in t h i s c a s e , t h a t it i s e a s y to l e a r n a n d s i m p l e to u s e . As argued e l s e w h e r e in this b o o k , m a k i n g c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s c l e a r and s i m p l e is o f t e n h a r d f o r the p r o g r a m m e r (and m a y go a g a i n s t h i s g r a i n ) , but is e s s e n t i a l . PICTURES
AND
MOTIONS
GENESYS makes the following simplifications of y o u r m o v i e : a l l i m a g e s a r e m a d e up of d o t s . They do not change as you w a t c h ; a n i m a t i o n c o n sists of the i m a g e s e i t h e r m o v i n g or b e i n g r e placed . T o c r e a t e an i m a g e , y o u d r a w it o n t o t h e screen with a lightpen or a t a b l e t . (As in t h e SKETCHPAD system; see p . ^ O Parts o f . the image may be changed until you're satisfied.
N o w , to c r e a t e the a n i m a t i o n , y o u d o the same thing. Each image can be made to m o v e on the s c r e e n ; and t h e p a t h of the m o t i o n m a y b e drawn on the s c r e e n , through the picture a r e a . Not only t h a t , but the timing of the m o t i o n is controlled through the same d i a g r a m , by the s p a c i n g of the d o t s . (Baecker calls his control diagrams p-curves•)
^
Computer Output Microfilm
are w h a t y o u use to make computer m o v i e s . Basically they consist of a CRT and a movie camera in a b o x . Mostly they are used to put text on m i c r o f i l m by c o m p u t e r , so generally they are not connected to a computer but run off magnetic tape.
L a s t l y , s e c t i o n s of p i c t u r e m a y b e r e p l a c e d b y m e a n s of t h e c o n t r o l d i a g r a m ( a 7 i n d i c a t e d in p i c t u r e a b o v e ) . Having created such an animated sequence, w h i c h is s t o r e d in s y m b o l i c f o r m in the c o m puter ( d i g i t a l l y " ) , y o u c a n v l e u l t o n t l u , s c r e e n , d e c i d e what you do and d o n ' t l i k e about i t , and c h a n g e a n y part of l t . T h e b a s i c e l e g a n c e of t h e s y s t e m is t h i s : Baecker made everything work the same w a y , through control by screen diagrams. He s i m p l i fied the animation problem i„ a clear and simple
R o n n o w t e a c h e s In C a n a d a ing with P D P - l l s . The results
and is into w o r k should be fun.
This turns o u t to be very annoying if you w a n t to hook up the computer directly to the C O M , and make movies that fill the frames spot-by-spot. For that you really need your own movie camera and a minicomputer. (Movie cameras that can be made to start and stop by computer are called "pulse cameras" or "instrumentation cameras.") The society for people who make Movies by C o m p u t e r is c a l l e d U A I D E -(Users of A u t o matic Information Display Equipment— an obsolete title). It used to be a c l u b just for companies that owned COMs made by S t r o m b e r g D a t a g r a p h i x , but evidently it has now cut itself loose and become a subsidiary of the National Microfilm Association, 8728 Colesville Road, Silver Spring MD 20910. (NOTE: for t h e m as w a n t to m a k e c o l o r m o v i e s , the two alternatives have been either to h a v e s e p a r a t e p r i m a r y n e g a t i v e s c o m b i n e d at a l a b — the "old T e c h n i c o l o r " p r o c e s s or to a d d a c o m p l i c a t e d c o l o r - f i l t e r b o x to a COM or other CRT s e t u p . Such things are available commercially now, from D i c o m e d — a whole Color COM.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Computer Output Microfilm. $10 from National Microfilm Assn., above. Lists available COMs and service centers.
POT
a
m KTO la a complete stand-alone system, [or program or "operating system" (si in the CDC 6800 computer all by ltael run on any other manufacturer's coajf • Inulti tously with any othar big programs, munlcatas only with PLATO terminate, no othai PLATO terminals, because of their unusual del
or
ual design and pertly because of Its unlqua ! interface. (See diagram of PLATO terminal, t
PLATO
A PLATO terminal colli about J*000 and seams to be going up; $5000 In the next few ) a popular estimate. But you can't ]uat buy t have to get on the waiting list, and who ara
t really un.l r Princeton. > Evaluation
itlonal Teatl
PLATO'S audio device permits the symtm* to respond to the user with a epoken phrase, snatch of —iMia. or whatever — in a fraction of a second. The magnetic disk ie forever turning; comprisead air shoots the read-head to the required track en the disk for the reply. The hardware was designed by Bltser. The software— that Is, tha underlying computer part. nawmr mind th* content* to b« shown (also regrettably called "software" by many hands)— was Initially lass * tree sad by Bltier, but eventually grew under the direction of others. In particular, sn «x-blologlat named Paul Tenetsr (pron. "Tenser") created Its underlying TUTOR language. (For sn Introduction to computer languages see p. I F and what comma after.) Tha TUTOI language exist mly on PLATO; end PLATO authors may o • TUTOR 1 tuage. Fa The TUTOR language can beat be understood ictlon to CoursewrIter, another CAI languagi off* ed by IBM on lta 1500 Instructional Syatam, M^. Coursewrlter's original Inten enable m-coarputer people, especially teachera, to create drlll-and-practlca Instructional leasons
funds) my l ready and so many mi tlon and the making of mi to believe PLATO could d
Now, Johnny, what Is
1 put together: at Lowry Air Force Baae (Colo1 Florida State University. That means there
3 X 51
— « (.IS
Good • and pushing tha
stressing the Individual student's problem*. The difficulty Is that attempting to extend this method out of the very simple haa great pltfalla and may not even be wortt.vhlla (see pp. >n . ORE MILLION PLATO TERMINALS BY 1980. Another sign In the wind: Montgomery Ward has one. Now, to call the PLATO system a "computer graph' ica" system may aeem somewhat odd to people who know lt in another guise, as a system for Computer-Assisted Instruction (called C A I ) . But as the author does not like CAI in general, at least as It's been g o i n g see p.*S-rt — and rather likes PLATO, I prefer to describe it as I prefer to aee lt. Nevertheless, t had better consider w in terms of what they offer any amendments
Anyway. Coursewriter waa promulgated by IBM with the 1500 and thus suffered premature standar~ jefore thlnga had been thought out. IBM •> blai > for Coui they were Just trying t •> make a a lot of scared people believed Couri the way it had to be, the evolutional usual for computer language* didn't t occur. An egregious omission: Courst Titer did not mputer itself. That Is, programa written for numeric 1 calculation.
m d PLATO properly ve he people have been doing ik they have been doing, and
OR changed all that. It haa both ects of being original. Apparently termen's controversies end dogma, language of great power and spaed; it
"OPTIMIZED FOR CAI"
, and is In aome respects quite It looks very simple to the user— but deceptively simple techniques, lt has I in considerable detail to do anything (See box, " M r !**>faT-tT", .«t r-v) • leaps of s p e d fit ") Aa * 1th s ictween its basic design premises have become lit by airport beacons; clearmlnded individuals with understood to some PLATO enthusiasts. But the most bsslc underlying feature of the system, INSTANT RESPONSE, cannot be quarreled with. PLATO can respond, as already mentioned, to a single key-pressing by a user, almost Instantly; thla feature is virtually Impossible, say, on IBM systems (but ege^boj^p. Tf )• this responslv-nesa Is the eystec's Greatest beauty.
(Above: l-LATO LlVcZ'. Anyway, the word iteelf goes through changes in the Oanie of Life (see P- fV, as programed for the PLATO system by Daivty 2 lea tor, and photo•jrap':r,; jrm j p^,;:-}
:he world's sre.it •yat Some 500 user., at terminal* around the world >ut mostly In Illinois), simultaneously tic up to big computer in Urban*, Illinois and savor lnstanincous pictorial and cent deliver les on their bright :na. Diagrams, explsnatlons, teats and on of a aort, flow almost without internipt Ion he bright orange screens all over. The syatem ia extremely responsive: depending on what the uaer Is up to. Its various programs can respond to each pressing of a key, usually within a fraction of While literature on PLATO is copious, it Is hard to read and slightly sales-oriented, but a f w minutes' intercourse with a PLATO terminal cik^s anyone an enthuaiast for the system. PLATO Is the brainchild of Don Ritzcr. a I. at Illlnoia engineer who haa devoted over a decade to ita creation. Michael Scrii haa called Bltzer "one of tt Bltsar is also certainly on. he'lll™ * C C * u " c u t ' ""SSJ-bear irld d great terminal along, When y ilgn you u y be informed thai ling dog and pony show, i 'ill.. If you have a PLATO terminal— you' presumably being a achool or other favored Institution— you can In principle log onto PLATO from anywhere in the world, though most terminals stay in one place. There ia one aaln network, conaiatlng of a big Control Data computer in Urbana (the model 6800; see p. 4l ) with tendrils extending out into the phone system and the educational TV cable of the state of Illinois. When 1« "finished'* and fully loaded, it will have 1 I foi The PLATO terminal 1 manufactured (all tt (Ins a terrific plai plum* panel was invented by H much of PLATO was publicly fun rich from lt. We said he was
In terms of high performance for lota of users. Various systems (described hereabouts) offer more paver, but at huge aoet.
:irst taste of i n t e r a c t i o n cal c o u p u t e r s y s t e u , PLATO i r n i i n g nind-ojiener-- es> people w, l u think t o u p u t e r s
Because of t led foi high reaponslvenesi i decidec that all i • had c ular . ("lessor running In core at the same tine. That meant there would be no swapping (bringing In materials from disk memory), which can bring mortifying delays (if a lot of people need it at once); but lt also meant lessons, have to be very small. Large bodies of material, which would have to be moved In from disk, are not allowed; thus each lesson Is basically a U t t l e love-nest that must generate Its own action. Hence there la an emphasis on little programs to respond various ways, rather than text which may be read in quantity. i large lounta of text cannot be t PROJECTOR is in the ter:roflche, or microfilm sheet, ) fit in t • palm of your hand. If a PLATO aui leems it necessary, he requires for his lesson, not the use of the keyboard and iflche as well. The student mult put the mltirof. n place when he starts the esson; signals from Urbana (or wherever) then Jump he projected Image among 256 different Images, In esponse to what the student does. Now, PLATO people are not doctrinaire about how heir system la to be used. The plasma screen can be ontlnuously showing little decorations along with he teaching material. The microfiche could be showng irrelevant works of art or travel scenes. These re all facilities at tha option of the PLATO author; t his beck and call, If he thinks his program or esson needs then. (But it's very bothersome to have he microfiche made— an Important difficulty.) Every terminal has the screen, the keyboard, [he touch panel. This Is a transparent window that goes over the plasma screen and reports to the main computer whether it has been touched, and where. (This allows illiterates, especially klddiea, to use the system without typing.) rhe audio disk. This allows the terminal to respond with sound. Including canned words, to the student. (It doss tally synthesize the sound, a* •H on p.BMJi.) •jl W k . JCt to K,. confused from any other device— provided you've got the right Interface. This allows all kinds of other devices, such aa piano keyboards, to be used for student input. Or output (like gum-ball machinal :tually, except foi the r if material that c. itremely general B]
Amongst the terminate, PLATO room. Circle Caucus. What one person is doing ordinarily has no bearing on the others, una aould as well be in Timbuktu as far as the main oafuter is ooncerned.
riction c
This simplified. Bitzer and Tenczar did noi leedera In s seething i ty of dozens of smart people working like bli . the project, it has taken some fifteen years of Bitter's effort, and tena of millions of dollars, to get the system where lt la now— Ready snd Working. Project PLATO now extends far beyond lta original domain. Originally a fairly tight nucleus at the Computer-Based Education Research Laboratory ("CERL") at the U. of Illinois In Urbana, the cosssunlty of PLATO now sprawla out through its lines to a larger constituency, the PLATO community of users. (Indeed, this extended Republic of PLATO— tha systems people (see p. in Urbana, the author! and locsls-ln-charge throughout the network— constitute one of the maddest rookeries of computer freaks In the world. Where else would you find a 14-year-old system* programmer who's had his job for two years? Where else would you see people fall In love over the Talkamatlc (a PLATO program which allows you to have writteo conversations with people at other terminals, wherever they may be) only to clash when at last they meet in person? Where else csn you play so many different games with faraway strangers? (See Box.) Where else can students anywhere In the network sign Into hundreds of different lessons in different subjects (moat of tbem Incomplete)! Where else are people working on various different programs for all to be offered c the • i «ya:ary i f of the wonder Hike O'Brien, a Tolkien fancier, has put the tntin Elvish alphabet onto PLATO as a special aharaater~eet. Here ths system gives a famous warning to turn book, both in English and Elvish. Hike says it intimidates snoopers poking around his material.
Unfortunately, there so few PLATO terminals, thi now be fairly strictly c o m oiled. (Ths eight term! at the University of Illlnt a at Chicago Circle, at which most of these plcturi were taken, generally » ju.
rabble is howling a
if your achool has PLATO terminals, and IF It will pay for the communications linaa, THEN the service* of the central computer are "fraa"— the National Science Foundation Is bankrolling Its operation for a couple of year* more. Then, bango. PLATO central service b e comes something that haa to be paid for too. Juat to give you an Idea, the communication costs to Urbana for Circle Campus'* eight terminal* end at c/er $10 ,000 a year. But the** coat* ahould ba coming down sharply; lt ia the price of tooling up (or whatever th* PLATO future le going to be. Anyway, the general coat of the aystarn comae out to ebout $1.50 an hour, the aaaw as general time-sharing on a PDP-10 (sea p. ) . But that's without paying for the centrel computer— another coat which we expect
Thle ia all a far cry. of couraa, from Bitaar'a claim a decade ago that PLATO terminal* would cost only 8*00. But considering tha system's success, wm la thla: with • i people'a love foi
COT
• stay Platonic'
t. I don't know by whoa, t too the utir amy conti -a by what he type*- Hi :ure candy, box It and i you c
Another called candy I th* animation' chine* are set lhip
View from your Wove spaa* ship includes perspective view of Where you are among billions of stare; and your various controls.
Some game* arc played between peoplet who 1 together before a single PLATO terminal, or(en w (caching Intent. Such game* Include the hop caw where Bunny (you) and Frog (your friend) add the way along a board with numbered squares. Older t Wa* (1*2)X ) , which ': by chance to try to get grouping the number! other i ahead of I
The navigation part of already workit^. To get around you need instruction; here we are at the Training Center.
'BIC BOARD" GAMES
And cur doughty <• Big Board for more challengers. Kids love PLATO games.
then a qui ok kill of the unknown adversary.
when (he Author gets tired of Authoring, or th* Student of Slewing, Just around the corner, • few keystroke* away, ere diversion* and game* to boogie the ImaoJnelion. You can go to a prooraa ("lesson rote") and look at "the great rose*"-- elaborate curlicue* gener*(ed by mathematical pattern* (hat appealed to the author* of (hat program; or find, a I*o tucked In rose, Conway'* Game of Life (see write-up, p. T £ . and pier ture serie*. nearby). Then there are game* you can play against the System, like racetrack and blackjack. (The** game* let you win astronomical *ums of money-- play money, forgotten when you * i gn off.) Remember, o ' course, that you're not really playing against a computer but against a specific program, with Its quirks and shortcut* and blind spots.
i is .al* has neny l combination of anonymity and ln(imacy between user* (-- much like the curious Nonexistent Phone Numbers of Paris; in the French phone system, people calling the same nonexistent phone number can talk to each other; strange blindfolded encounter* occur at (he Number of The Day, spread by word-of-mouth; sometimes these result In people really getting together...)...
' 9"Y by spei ifled angles »\ r o u *tand '*) . In addl (Ion, PLATO offers (not durln <-*) what rnusi be two of the most baroque >me* anywhen (eight race* (the KMngoni, e il the galmi Mio) lystems, all of which a
Anyway, the Big Board games of PLATO have exactly that: a shared list, or "Big Board," showing who Is playing the specific game.
erous advantage*: prove at play, yc have been himilii
People who only play PLATO games occasionally have to *lgn on.by typing their names into the big board. (They often get slaughtered by the regulars) The regular*-- hah. When they're signed Into the system, they have merely to jump to a specific game for their fightln' names to be posted on the big board. A mighty rolleal 1 they make, too— such grei warriors as yon Dave, rot, fright pilot, AL 3000, simpson, doc-, THE RED BARON, The Red Sweater, The Giant Pud, Fodzilla. tigress, enema salad, Conan, Slddhertha, wonder pig:!!::, and EXORCIST.
society of shadows, you pick your - fighting name. Thl* ha* numi most obvious il that st you I rain shed the identity In which you
The main game* with Big Board* are standby, spacewar (rocketshlps wheeling at each other and sliding around on (he dogfight (biplanes wheeling and firing i and sliding around on (he screen), moony
that old ind firing icreen}; ; each other •r (shooting
(As those insiders who have automatic sign-on to Big Boards write programs to do the sign-on, the arrival in a Big Board game Is often an animated sign-on. The cutest trick Is THE RED BARON'*: it I, THE RED BARON 4f *^~(tL* «,„
Then there are game* you play by yoursel f — aceually responding resources (*ee fp. >*, rt-nJ , _wh'ch entice you Into trying things out. Tenciar himself ha* created (wo elegant, gem-like lessons, man and plcto, which teach you computer programming without ever saying so. These two programs present the u*er the i • of i show hia h the little man may be moved around and made to pi up pictures of balls. From there cm tay have have his his way— and is never told that the student may computer language. he's learning to program (Though it Is a quite rei iio. belli
wocks like thi*. For dogfight, the idy has stored In its temporary memo• ry, a* "characters," thi irp ne* that arc going to bu; around the he Baron Just foilows his he code for that special character.)
Bunny 'a turn. Screen you personally:
One last point. No longer can you sign on with an obscenity: a little obscenity-checking program looks for the usual expletives, in case visitor* or other priggish folk might be looking. But of course thl* i* easy to circumvent by putting periods between the letters of your nasty word, or something similarly deceptive to the poor program,.
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IS i r B e m i ^ T D T O O T ? "A tutor uho tooted the flute Tried to tutor two tutors to toot. But he asked through his snoot: is it better to toot Or to tutor two tutors to toot?" The PLATO keyboard. What looks odd and arbitrary t to be divinely ordained.'
you is believed by devout
P L A T O IV- S T A N D A R D
Folk thing
Platoniatt
KEYBOARD
• • a a t a H S H H B H c n j
TO MOVE BETWEEN LESSONS, the basic action is to hold down SHIFT and press STOP. (For further complications see Ins-And-Oute diagram.) TO HOVE VTTBIN A LESSON, basic actions are NEXT (to go forward or tell the eystem it's its turn; BACK, which sometimes returns you to earlier points in the sequence of your lesson; and six step-out-of-li' options, by uhich the author may permit the user to sidestep to explanations, enrichment material, or things out of sequence.
TENCZAR'S CONCEPT OF A CONCEPT Much has been n for "analyzing the c type in. Actually, does not "understand (see "Artificial Int but rathei offer
of TUTOR'S facility int" of what student* :ourse, the computer lat the student says
) prepare preset
PLATO Is a system for canned presentation* that respond to the student. Student* need not know TUTOR. Anyone out to prepare such presentations must leaxn i t , howevert and the attempt has discouraged many.
TEW evidently was for when students wanted thinge Looked Up: bu pressing TERM and typing the unknown word, the student uoula get a definition. '•ASS" suggested that it might also be used when the student was allowed the option of being told the answer. Nats the arrows over Q,U,E.A,D,Z,X,C. 13P,t0r£' Tf' p o i n t dir'otion*' •"P ZVJf 7 ™ °* th* far USt'
They allow the student to move Unfortunate confusion ensues in Proo*"«>ing (as in APL;
BUSE allows the student to correct his input; COPT helps edit and ohcmge things. SUP and SUB allow superscripts and subscriptsfOm MICRO is like a special shiftTy, golg into vhatsver .'pedal I°nt t . currently stored on the terminal. I have no inkling of what w « little square means.
You can read the standard-size lettering off the screen at SIX FEET— even though it's NO BIGGER THAN PICA TYPE. Fantastic. The internal circuitry that draws on the screen 1* highly capable. Receiving a 20-blt code, the terminal Itself deciphers it as — A LINE ON THE SCREEN, or TWO STANDARD CHARACTERS ON THE SCREEN from its FIXED character memory, or TWO SPECIAL CHARACTERS ON THE SCREEN from its CHANGEABLE character memory (which can be loaded with Russian, Armenian, katakana, Cherokee or whatever— even little pictures— at the start of the lesson), or A COMMAND TO THE MICROFICHE PROJECTOR, or A COMMAND TO THE AUDIO PLAYER, or A COMMAND TO WHATEVER'S IN THE GENERAL JACK.
Basically, TUTOR'S "concept" facility reduces every input word to a 60-bit code. The technique of reduction (called a "hashing function") supposedly substitutes for any word of any language a code of 60 bits (see "Binary Patterns," p . 3 3 ) , which means the program in TUTOR can rapidly test s student's input for numerous different possible things. (The power of this technique will be readily recognized by computer people; unfortunately there is no room to explain it further here.)
Paul Tenczax'a TUTOR language, the programming language inside PLATO, is like any other programming language (see pp. 15-31}) intricate, and unlike its results. That i s , a program bears no more resemblance to what it doe* than the word "cow" looks like a COM.
Now the author might use these, however, was his own affair.
OF PIATO.
H f t M O C M TV,C wart*-. U*\Z h Picture*-
The TUTOR language grew out of drill-aridproctlce, for which lt haa a command specifying where a student's answer Is to appear on the screen. This is the "arrow" ccaaund. The language has a strange scanning structure built around thia "arrow* command, auch as the TRAC Language (see pp. 18-21) has a scanning structure built around parentheses and coeamas. B e ginners don't need to understand the scan and the arrow command, but journeymen d o .
Thus a TUTOR program may contain "concept searches" that test whether a student types altereither a desired response or numeri native*. While lt nay be strange i thi* a "concept," ' s powerful techniqui
The original idea was evidently that there would be a basic sequence i n uhich NEXT and BACK would be the forward and back controls, and the other t u would represent Mslp for the Confused, a "Lab'' allowing expervssnts, and additional Data the student decides he needs. The three with Shifts simply provided a second option of each type.
f L T T O TiKT ufFp
Tenczar is a former biologist, and had no preconceptions from computer orthodoxy to bind him in the design of TUTOR. Thus the language is very original. There is only room to raise the following points: To learn the first step* in TUTOR— how to set up drill-ond-practice lesions, for i n stance— is unusually easy. To do anything complex, however, require* you to learn the bulk of the TUTOR language. Thus when people say TUTOR ia "easy," thay TUTOR i Language Isi language with new compound function* of h i * own making. Steps are being taken to correct this; meanwhile, lt ia said that the Urban* people can be persuaded to put in new oussaauds others want for, e.g., chocolate chip cookie*.
PLATO'S HANOI KEYBOARD is on . flexible cable, can be worn in your lap.
Note that all lines and characters for the p l a n a screen can be turned on (orange on black) or off (black on orange).
AUTHOR'* *ij
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T H R E E - D I M E N S I O N A L LINE
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DISPLAYS
S o far w e ' v e discussed (he two-dimensional subroutining displays- H o w e v e r , things d o not b y a n y m e a n s slop t h e r e . A n u m b e r of people in the early d a y s e x p e r i m e n t e d with techniques for d r a w i n g line pictures b y p r o g r a m ; the e a r liest of these u s e d plotters • output devices that let the p r o g r a m d r a w with a p e n . B u t interest soon g r e w in the possibility of interactive threedfmenalonal displays o n s c r e e n s . J o h n a o n ' s Sketchpad 4 did this entirely b y p r o g r a m . But as night follows d a y , people set about putting these techniques into h a r d w a r e , creating devices that w o u l d automatically s h o w things in threedimensional viewB-- allowing the v i e w e r to rotate v i e w s of nonexistent objects as if they w e r e o n u n s e e n turntables.
T h e v i e w s w c are talking a b o u t , n o w , co siat of bright lines o n a d a r k field, a n d so the "objects" w c arc talking about arc called " w i r e f r a m e " objects-- they could effectively b e m a d e of w e l d e d w i r e . But n o w w c d o not h a v e to build t h e m physically to see t h e m .
Actually A d a g e h a d a t r e m e n d o u s lead in this field, but they let it slip for a o m e r e a s o n , a n d h a v e n o w lost II to t w o firms: E v a n s a n d Sutherland o n the high e n d , Vector G e n e r a l o n the low e n d . (But of course things k e e p c h a n ging.) T h e E v a n s a n d Sutherland C o m p u t e r C o m p a n y w a s f o u n d e d In 1966 b y Ivan S u t h e r l a n d , creator of the masterful S k e t c h p a d s y s t e m , a n d D a v i d E v a n s , c h a i r m a n of c o m p u t e r science st the University of U t a h . (For a time both held a p p o i n t m e n t s at U 2 at the s a m e t i m e , but n o w both h a v e left the university to devote full time to their d r e a m factory in Salt L a k e City.) T h e i r first p r o d u c t w a s a n extraordinary piece of h a r d w a r e called the L D S - 1 . w h i c h they aafd innocently stood for Line D r a w i n g S y s t e m . { T o a n y b o d y from U t a h , h o w e v e r , L D S m e a n s Latter-Day-Saint, a n d don't y o u forget it. E v a n s , i n d e e d , is a M o r m o n , but I've b e e n told it m a y h a v e b e e n Sutherland's s e n s e of h u m o r that c h o s e the a c r o n y m . ) It s h o u l d b e pointed out that a special a d v a n t a g e of digital perspective calculation is that v i e w e d coordinates can b e read b a c k b y the c o m p u t e r , a n d s e r v e as n e w data, if y o u g o for that sort of t h i n g .
Basically a three-dimensional s y s t e m of this type stores the lines as coordinates in threes: cndpolnts of lines in a mythical three-dimensional a p a c e . E a c h point's location in the s p a c e is told b y three n u m b e r s ( e x a m p l e s h o w i n g a h o u s e m a y b e seen o n p . ) : a line in a s p a c e is represented in the data structure b y t w o s u c h points, a n d a c o d e or s o m e t h i n g tying t h e m together.
The computer, at penman, draws lints • stored in core memory. In a ' system, trie basic mates is converted representing a particular
T h e s e c o n d p r o g r a m follower in s u c h a device b e h a v e s m u c h as it d o e s in the 2 D s y s t e m , but with certain additions. Like the 2 D s y s t e m , it p r o c e e d s d o w n its o w n p r o g r a m o n e step at a t i m e . Like the Z D s y s t e m , it finds in its p r o g r a m the coordinates of a line to display a n d creates electronic signals r e p r e s e n t i n g its e n d points. B u t it d o e s not display these directly, since these are three-dimensional coordinates. Instead it routes these signals to w h a t w e m a y call a view calculator, a particular piece of h a r d w a r e that has b e e n p r i m e d with the angle f r o m w h i c h y o u w a n t to v i e w the object. T h i s view calculator, automatically a n d b y m y s t e r i o u s m e a n s w h i c h v a r y a m o n g m a c h i n e s , p r o d u c e s the v i e w , a n d U s signals g o to the s c r e e n . Let's say w e w a n t to display a point. T h e display's p r o g r a m follower pulls three n u m b e r s from its display list a n d notes the c o d e that s a y s it's a spatial point a n d not the e n d of a line. T h e s e three n u m b e r s slide o n into the view c a l culator, already p r i m e d with the angle of rotation; a n d the v i e w calculators riggers w h e r e o n the screen that point should b e d i s p l a y e d . The coordinates for the* screen-- telling w h e r e the point g o e s in the desired picture-- g o to the s c r e e n controller, a n d the point is b r i g h t e n e d . H o w are these coordinates calculated? W e l l , s o m e c o m m e r c i a l units d o it electronically ("in analog") a n d s o m e d o it symbolically ("in digital"). T h e result is the s a m e . (If y o u w a n t the equations for this, they'.re in the N e w m a n a n d Sproull b o o k . ) T h e n h o w d o e s the v i e w calculator h a n d l e a line? S a m e thing. T h e p r o g r a m follower pulls three n u m b e r s from its display list a n d notes the c o d e that s a y s it's a line, so it takes three m o r e . T h e n the view coordinates of both points are calculated a n d fed to the s c r e e n controller. T h e s c r e e n controller n o w h a s t w o points o n its screen-so it d r a w s a line b e t w e e n t h e m The first device of this type w a a . I t h i n k , the so-called Kludge (pron. " K l o o j " — computer slang lor a ridiculous m a c h i n e , but in this case applied affectionately) built at MIT's Electronic Systems Laboratory i„ the early s i x t i e s . T h i s device was a o n e - o f - a - k i n d , built out of DEC circuit cards and hooking to a bigger m a c h i n e . The ESL Kludge showed vividly how good it was to have instantaneous view calculation under a user's c o n t r o l . T h e first of these s y s t e m s to b e offered c o m m e r c i a l l y . I believe, w a s the " A d a g e D i s p l a y . " m a d e b y A d a g e , I n c . of B o s t o n , w h i c h u s e d their u n u s u a l A m b i l o g c o m p u t e r (see p . */3) to rotate objects o n the s c r e e n . 1 v a g u e l y recall that it cost about $80,000 with c o m p u t e r but without a c cessories .
T h e A d a g e Display is isometric. m e a n i n g that lines d o not get shorter as they get farther a w a y o r longer as they get c l o s e r . While this is m a r v e l o u s l y i m p r e s s i v e , m o s t people w a n t real perspective; a n d it w a s this that E v a n s ajid S u t h e r l a n d set about to m o k e available in real t i m e , i.e., in direct r e s p o n s e to the v i e w e r ' s actions.
INTERACTIVE ROTATION ia Ida from their fun and exc l t a • a n t — allow people to understand and work with complex 3D structures without having to build t h n physically. T h * understanding, h o w e v e r , cornea fro* being able to turn and manipulate the structure on tha s c r e e n . If you can't turn it you can't really perceive the 3D s t r u c t u r e , because the arrangement of line* could ba a n y t h i n g .
H o w e v e r , system ,n1 devices allow you to turn things on the screen as easily a* If they w e r e on turntable* behind a pane of g l a * s . That's how you s e e , you s e e . Thla Interaction Is what m a k e * computer d i s play augur a new era for m a n k i n d . If we're l u c k y . (It's also why we use the term computer display in this b o o k , rather than "computer graphics," since people who make computers draw with pens are also doing "computer g r a p h i c s " — a related a c t i v i t y , but not o n e to change the w o r l d . )
U N F O R T U N A T E L Y , j u s t to g e t t h r o u g h the b a s i c s t h e r e is o n l y r o o m to d i s c u s s s t i c k - f i g u r e graphic display here. But curved surfaces may also be d e p i c t e d , though usually not inte actively. See b e l o w , and p p . i>*\3(-}.
T h e L D S - 1 . w e i g h i n g in at half a million dollars or s o , b u c k l e d to the P D P - 1 0 , a big 36-bit c o m p u t e r from D E C (see p . 40). Its v i e w calculator w o r k e d symbolically (digitally), a n d t h u s could w o r k to the h i g h e r precision n e c e s s a r y for true perspective calculation. A m o n g the exciting d e m o n s t r a t i o n s that y o u c a n see sitting at an L D S - 1 a r e a m a p of the United States y o u c a n z o o m in o n , b r i n g i n g y o u in to a m a p of N e w J e r s e y , then Atlantic C i t y , then a specific intersection, all in o n e s m o o t h c o n t i n u o u s m o t i o n . Also a simulated l a n d i n g o n the flight d e c k of a n aircraft carrier -- with y o u flying the a i r p l a n e , s o y o u c a n g o o v e r it, to the s i d e , into the d r i n k or straight at the carrier. In all c a s e s the ghostly ship will m o v e , turn a n d c h a n g e p e r s p e c t i v e o n the s c r e e n a s if s o m e h o w it w e r e really t h e r e .
Drawing by Ruth W e i s B 1 BE VISION program done at Bell L a b o r a t o r i e s , m i d - s i x t i e s . ( © U a ' t Disney P r o d u c t i o n s . ) This program represented truly curved s u r f a c e s In its data s t r u c t u r e , as "quadric s u r f a c e s " — that i s , i n v o l ving powers of two in the m a t h — and calculated the visible lines tangent to the edges from the v i e w p o i n t , thus d r a w ing the e d g e s . Removing the hidden parts of the curves is of course one of the greatest p r o b l e m s . (From Ruth A . W e i s s , "BE V I S I O N . " JACK A p r 6 6 , 1942 0 4 , p . 201. 4 1
Several L D S - I s w e r e sold. M e a n w h i l e a little n e w firm of y o u n g g u y s in S o u t h e r n California, V e c t o r G e n e r a l , c a m e u p with a line of terminals like the A d a g e line, e x cept that they could b u c k l e to the 16-bit m i n i c o m p u t e r of y o u r c h o i c e . (In practice m o a t of t h e m h a v e b e e n attached to P D P - l l s ; s e e p . S c . . ) T h e V e c t o r G e n e r a l display is isometric, a n d m a k e s its calculations in a n a l o g , like the A d a g e D i s p l a y . It h a s b e e n v e r y successful am o n g both universities a n d private c o r p o r a t i o n s . In addition, a highly interactive a n d welld e s i g n e d l a n g u a g e is available for the creation of data structures r e p r e s e n t i n g 3 D objects, as well as for g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e p r o g r a m m i n g a n d the creation of w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t s . A n d it's free to individuals o r c o m p a n i e s that h a v e V e c t o r G e n e r a l displays attached to P D P - l l s . (See " C o u p d e G R A S S , " p->\3/.) But wait. E v a n s a n d Sutherland has n o w d r o p p e d the L D S - 1 a n d given u s - - n o , not L D S - 2 , but s o m e t h i n g called T h e Picture S y s t e m — also built onto the P D P - 1 1 , b u t this o n e w o r k s s y m bolically (digitally) a n d in full p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e price starts at eighty g r a n d . S i n c e the Picture S y s t e m w o r k s out of the P D P - 1 1 c o r e m e m o r y , the c o m m a n d s it follows are 16 bits l o n g , since that's the size of a slot in P D P - 1 1 c o r e . B u t w a i t . T h e y ' v e d e s i g n e d the thing to c o n v e r t to 36 bits, so that c o o r d i n ates a r e m o v e d to a private store o r buffer b e t w e e n the p r o g r a m follower a n d the d i s p l a y . T h i s m e a n s the display c a n z o o m a n d zip a r o u n d in the s c e n e without b o t h e r i n g the c o m p u t e r .
rpp-11,
A n o t h e r important feature of T h e Picture S y s t e m : it will d o , not just o r d i n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e , out s u c h w e i r d view calculations as w i d e a n g l e barrel distortion, p i n c u s h i o n distortion a n d similar stuff.
V * Courtesy V. of
Utah
T h e rules of perspective h a v e b e e n u n d e r stood since the R e n a i s s a n c e . In olden c o m p u t e r times ( u p till about 1965) people u s e d to d o three-dimensional v i e w calculation b y angles relative to a three-dimensional data structure. T h e n L a r r y R o b e r t s at M I T noted that there w a s a m o r e appropriate mathematical m e t h o d , long m o l d e r i n g in o b s c u r e texts. T h e idea is this: if y o u a d d an extra d i m e n s i o n to the data, it's easier to p r o g r a m . It's easier b e c a u s e it b e c o m e s a simple matrix multiplication, w h i c h h a s n o c o m m o n s e n s e explanation but is important to mathematicians. S O that m e a n s that to calculate v i e w s of three-dimensional objects, the m o s t usual w a y is n o w to a d d that extra d i m e n s i o n . Instead of h a v i n g a point in s p a c e w h o s e position is 36-2436 (in s o m e set of three-dimensional c o o r d i n a t e s ) , another arbitrary n u m b e r is a d d e d to m a k e it, s a y . 36-24-36-1. It s e e m s that in the m a t h e m a t i c s of multiple d i m e n s i o n s , it c o m e s out simpler that w a y . Ind e e d , from a mathematical point of v i e w the n e w i m p r o v e d d i m e n s i o n is just like the other three. F o r this r e a s o n , s u c h an a u g m e n t e d s y s t e m of coordinates is celled h o m o g e n e o u s coordinates. Like h o m o g e n i z e d m i l k , Ihe additional coordinate is just stirred in with the rest, a n d out c o m e s y o u r desired v i e w calculation. ( T h e formulas are to b e found in N e w m a n a n d S p r o u l l . Principles of Interactive C o m p u t e r O rap hies , M c G r a w , $ 1 5 , y o u r basic text o n the subject.) A t a n y rate the additional coordinate is often referred to, incorrectly, as the " h o m o g e n e o u s coordinate." T h e y ' r e all h o m o g e n e o u s , w h i c h is w h y it w o r k s .
M31
M y f t f r p * ! *
GRASS
impudent and plucky Tom D e F a n t i was an a s s i s t ant professor at 2 4 . This in p a r t b e c a u s e he has created one of the w o r l d ' s hottest 3D g r a p h i c s l a n g u a g e s , which h e calls C R A S S , (He says it stands for CRAphics Symbiosis S y s t e m — a l s o , h e s a y s , it T u r n s You On.) T o w ' s GRASS language is an e x c e l l e n t b e g i n n e r ' s computer language for two r e a s o n s : f i r s t , it is e a s i ly taught to b e g i n n e r s , and s e c o n d , lt is a b o u t things of interest to b e g i n n e r s , i.e., p i c t u r e s a n d g r a p h i c a l manipulation on s c r e e n s . (But c o m p a r e the three b e g i n n e r s ' languages presented b r i e f l y on p p . 16-25.) A prototype for the system w a s d e v e l o p e d a t O h i o S t a t e , on a project d i r e c t e d by a r t i s t C h a r l e s C s u r i . Tom had a free h a n d , t h o u g h , and the language d e s i g n is h i s ; but much of the specific c o d i n g w a s done by Gerry M o e r s d o r f , a n d the g r a p h i c s a l g o r i t h m s a n d r o tation were p r o g r a m m e d b y M a n f r e d K n e m e y e r . Inspiration was furnished by M n y n a r d E . S e n s e n b r e n n e r . GRASS runs on the P D P - 1 1 , a s p l e n d i d m i n i c o m p u t e r (Tom's is shown on p . 36) and is s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d for the control of t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t i c k - f i g u r e d i s plays on the V e c t o r G e n e r a l d i s p l a y system (see p . DM \ci ) . But a lot of p e o p l e have w r e s t l e d w i t h t h e a e matters and n o t d o n e as w e l l . Let's c o n s i d e r :
- i n
H . T h e language ia e x t e n s i b l e , m e a n i n g that the user m a y c r e a t e new c o m m a n d s in the language as_ p r o g r a m s . T h e s e c o m m a n d s , h o w e v e r , m a y b e used in later p r o g r a m s as if they w e r e b u i l t i n t o the language i t s e l f . I . T h e system is c o m p l e t e l y g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e . Many g r a p h i c s l a n g u a g e s are n o t , b e i n g r e s t r i c t e d only to their o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e . T h i s is m o r e d i f f i c u l t , but o h , so much m o r e w o r t h w h i l e . 3 . ITS D E E P G E N E R A L I T Y . T h i n g s s h o u l d b e v e r s a t i l e , a n d a b l e to be tied t o g e t h e r in m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h i s is w h a t w e m e a n b y " g e n e r a l i t y ; " and this kind of g e n e r a l i t y c a n make a system very p o w e r f u l . (The term in m a t h e m a t i c s is "elegance.") A s is said on the o t h e r side of the b o o k , c o m p l l c a t e d n e s s is not g e n e r a l i t y or g o o d n e s s or p o w e r , b u t a sign of the d e s i g n e r ' s s h a l l o w n e s s . A n y w a y , G R A S S haa this kind of g e n e r a l i t y . It has a g r e a t n u m b e r o f f a c i l i t i e s , g r o w i n g w e e k l y , a n d they a l l tie t o g e t h e r in c l e a r a n d p r e d i c t a b l e w a y s , w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n s . R a t h e r than c r e a t e s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n s w h i c h c a n n o t b e tied t o g e t h e r . Y o u n g D o c t o r D e F a n t i has c h o s e n i n s t e a d to m a k e the s e p a r a t e d e s i r a b l e f u n c t i o n s p a r t o f a s i m p l e and clear l a n guage. (A n o t e to y o u e l e g a n t t y p o s : G R A S S is fully r e c u r s i v e A s a n i c e e x a m p l e , D a n S a n d i n (see p . O n . & ) w r o t e a p r o g r a m to d i s p l a y P e a n o l i n e s that w a s u n d e r forty G R A S S i n s t r u c t i o n s l o n g . It is a l s o a s t o n i s h i n g l y r e v e r s i b l e : y o u c a n w a t c h it u n c r e a t e the P e a n o l i n e , s t r a i g h t e n i n g i t s e l f b a c k w a r d . ) In the m o r e u s u a l s e n s e , DeFanti'a l a n g u a g e is n o t the 'most a d v a n c e d ' ; there are m o r e p o w e r f u l 3D s y s t e m s than the V e c t o r G e n e r a l (the L D S - 1 , see p.iiMJo, o f f e r s true p e r s p e c t i v e ) , m o r e e l e g a n t u s e r - l e v e l l a n g u a g e s (see T R A C L a n g u a g e a n d A P L , o t h e r s i d e ) , t r u e h a l f t o n e (the W a t k i n s B o x ) ; y e t h i s a c h i e v e m e n t o n c l o s e e x a m i n a tion is e x t r a o r d i n a r y . N e v e r m i n d h i s a g e , the m o r e e s o t e r i c f e a t u r e s of his s y s t e m (full r e c u r s i v e n e s s , e t c . ) or the fact t h a t h e d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e m a d e o n e m i s t a k e , w h i c h is i n f u r i a t i n g . C o n s i d e r o n l y t h i s : T O M D E F A N T I 'S ' G R A S S ' L A N G U A G E IS P E R H A P S T H E O N L Y S Y S T E M T H A T CAN BE T A U G H T IN A FEW HOURS T O C O M P U T E R - N A I V E B E G I N N E R S THAT PERMITS FULL THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANIMATED INTERACTIVE G R A P H I C S WITH T R E E - S T R U C T U R E D D A T A .
T h e b e s t feature of a l l : it's c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . P D P - 1 1 o w n e r s - - even w i t h o u t V e c t o r G e n e r a l d i s p l a y s — m a y inquire of: T o m D e F a n t i , D o c t o r of Arta P r o g r a m , UICC Chicago It 6O6B0. You m a y w o n d e r how a young b r o n k i n g buck like D e F a n t i haa m a n a g e d to d o such an e x c e l l e n t j o b , so e l e g a n t l y , where s o m a n y h a v e a t u m b l e d and failed?
Cheerily.
: learn from other p e o p l e ' s m i s t a k e s ,
1
of. the
DeFanti eye tern.
MISCELLANY: C o u p l i n g his s y s t e m w i t h that of D a n Sandin (p. t has c r e a t e d the " C i r c l e G r a p h i c s H a b i t a t , " described i
(DeFanti's G R A S S is an i d e a l language for s o m e t h i n g like the 3D T h t n k e r t o y , d e s c r i b e d o n p . S 5 . H o w e v e r , it d o e s n ' t h a v e any p r o v i s i o n for the s t o r a g e of large complex data s t r u c t u r e s , s o the hard p a r t w o u l d a c t u a l l y b e working o u t an adequate storage data structure and storage macros within G R A S S ' S u s e of the D E C file s y s t e m . ) w
SCREEN
CONTROLS
T h e g r e a t t h i n g a b o u t C R T d i s p l a y s is that they can b e u s e d to c o n t r o l t h i n g s by_ m a n i p u l a t i o n of p l c t u r e t Instead of m o v i n g b u t t o n s o r l e v e r s , y o u can seize p a r t s of the p i c t u r e w i t h the l i g h t - p e n a n d m o v e s o m e p a r t of the p i c t u r e . T h e c o m p u t e r , s e n s i n g the choice or a d j u s t m e n t y o u h a v e m a d e , can then perform whatever operations you have directed. jnple.
VU e tf
T«€t*\o;rAr
1. ITS C L E A R S I M P L I C I T Y . T o m b e l i e v e s c o m p u t e r s are for e v e r y b o d y ; h e is n o t a high p r i e s t b e n t o n m a k ing things o b s c u r e (see " C y b e r c r u d , " p . 8 ) . Thus he made his language as s e n s i b l e , c l e a r and easy to learn as p o s s i b l e . Tom likes to s t r e s s the c o n c e p t of " h a b i t ability" (a term of W . C . W a t t ) , m e a n i n g the c o z i n e s s of a system.
COVT«;OI_
lot>%
T h e d e s i g n of s c r e e n contro] s i m p l e c o n t r o l s for e v e r y t h i n g — computer graphics. (See "Fantict
2 . ITS G E N E R A L I T Y . R e f i n i n g a n d c o n d e n s i n g the b a B i c i d e a s of a system is the h a r d e s t p a r t of the d e sign. DeFanti made several interesting d e c i s i o n s .
DIMENSIONAL
i one of the f r o n t i e r s of
FLIP
A . T h e i n t e r n a l form of the l a n g u a g e i s A S C I I c o d e (see p . ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , y o u f»n read p r o g r a m s in t h e i r final G R A S S f o r m .
3D s c o p e s a r e a b o u t the b e s t w e ' v e g o t — so w h a t do we do about multidimensional phenomena?
B. For a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m s u c h as the V e c t o r G e n e r a l , the main form of d a t a s t r u c t u r e is the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t — a list of points and lines in s p a c e . T h i s is the form of d a t a GRASS uses for m o s t p u r p o s e s .
O n e v e r y g o o d s o l u t i o n is to s h o w a s e l e c t i o n of thre* d i m e n s i o n s a t a t i m e , a n d p r o v i d e for easy " f l i p " from one d i m e n s i o n to a n o t h e r — so t h a t i n s t e a d of looking a t s o m e thing on d e m e n s i o n s A , B a n d C y o u are looking a t i t on d i mensions A , B and X .
C . In the d e s i g n of such a s y s t e m y o u w a n t larger 3D o b j e c t s to b e b u i l d a b l e o u t o f smaller o n e s . T h i s itmplies a r r a n g i n g d a t a in tree s t r u c t u r e s (see p . } . You also w a n t to b e a b l e to m a k e things d o c o m p o u n d m o tions on the s c r e e n — for e x a m p l e , s h o w i n g an a i r p l a n e flying a r o u n d on the s c r e e n w i t h its p r o p e l l o r s p i n n i n g ; this too i m p l i e s a W e e s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e are some p r o g r a m m e r s w h o w o u l d use d i f f e r e n t tree s t r u c t u r e s for b o t h o b j e c t s g r o u p -
D . O b j e c t s shown on T o m ' s s y s t e m can a l s o a p p e a r to m o v e on c o m p l i c a t e d p a t h s t h r o u g h t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e . In T o m ' s s y s t e m , such a p a t h is m e r e l y another o b j e c t . It s e e m s o b v i o u s w h e n y o u say i t , y e t this k i n d of simple g e n e r a l i t y is e x actly w h a t many p r o g r a m m e r s seem to a v o i d . (Note: this f a c i l i t y is a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of B a e c k e r ' s p c u r v e ; see p.5«\t5). E . I n p u t d e v i c e s are c o m p l e t e l y a r b i t r a r y a n d p r o g r a m m a b l e . W h a t h a p p e n s on the s c r e e n can b e c o n trolled b y a n y t h i n g — a n y v a r i a b l e (see p . jfc ) in the p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e . In other w o r d s , D e F a n t i h a s d e c o u p l e d the s c r e e n from any p a r t i c u l a r form of c o n t r o l , a l l o w i n g u s e r p r o g r a m s to m a k e the c o n n e c t ion b e t w e e n c o n t r o l s and c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t , using T o m ' s l a n g u a g e , it is c o m p a r a t i v e l y easy to build complex custom c o n t r o l s for any f u n c t i o n . (This is d i s c u s s e d u n d e r "Fantics,"* p-^)j-5j.)
M u c h of today's i m p e t u s for 3 D c o m p u t e r display is c o m i n g f r o m the field of c h e m i s t r y . U n i v e r s i t y c h e m i s t r y d e p a r t m e n t s are b u y i n g e q u i p m e n t like the E v a n s & S u t h e r l a n d L D S - 1 , the A d a g e a n d the V e c t o r G e n e r a l .
Y o u v i e w this c l o u d of d o t s , s a y , a c c o r d i n g to a g e , w e i g h t a n d e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d . Tr. it m e a n s y o u c a n r o t a t e it the g r o u p a r e w h a t . a r o u n d a n d see h o w m a n y p e o p l e in
Why? B e c a u s e c h e m i s t r y is i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d with c o m p l e x t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s . C r y s t a l s , l o n g folding c h a i n m o l e c u l e s , m i n u s cule forces acting o n s t r u c t u r e s w h o s e s h a p e d e t e r m i n e s the o u t c o m e . O r g a n i c m o l e c u l e s that involve t h o u s a n d s of a t o m s , a n d w h o s e c o m p l e x folded structure e x p o s e s o n l y certain k e y f e a t u r e s . A n d so o n . Tom DeFanti. Shows part of hemoglobin molecule. Data structure from Richard J. Feldmann, NItf.
T h e V e c t o r G e n e r a l display illustrated h e r e a n d there o n these p a g e s b e l o n g s to the D e p a r t m e n t of C h e m i s t r y , U n i v e r s i t y of Illinois at C h i c a g o C i r c l e .
F . The language has string functions t h a t a l l o w text h a n d l i n g . Since the language m a y a l s o u s e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l t e r m i n a l s , i t is e m i n e n t l y s u i t e d for "good-guy" i n t e r a c t i v e s y s t e m s for naive u s e r s , as described on p p . 12-13.
U s i n g d i m e n s i o n a l f l i p , h o w e v e r , y o u can c h a n g e the v i e w a s f o l l o w s : r o t a t e the b o x - f r a m e till it b e c o m e s a s q u a r e to y o u r e y e . T h e n y o u h i t the c o n t r o l that m a k e s the u n s e e n d i m e n s i o n " f l i p " to a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n t h a t i n t e r e s t s y o u . T h e c l o u d s t i l l l o o k s the s a m e — u n t i l y o u r o t a t e i t , a n d the third d i m e n s i o n is now " p r e m a r i t a l e x perience." So y o u c a n q u i c k l y g e t a v i e w of how p o p u l a t i o n s are r e a l l y d i v i d e d u p . (Note to s o c i o l o g i s t s : this same o p e r a t i o n , w i t h s t r e t c h i n g a n d c l i p p i n g , p r o v i d e s a v i s u a l t e c h n i q u e for " p a r t i a l i n g " o p e r a t i o n s of the Lazarsfeld type.}
THE TWISTED
SMILE
Y o u c a n m a k e a c h a r a c t e r c h a n g e e x p r e s s i o n on a : s c o p e b y m a k i n g his m o u t h a twisted w i r e that c a n b e rotated between "frown" and "smile" p o s i t i o n s . T h e t r i c k Is the shape of the w i r e .
G . T o m ' s language is i n t e r p r e t i v e , like T R A C Language (see p . 3 0 ) . T h a t m e a n s it is "slow" in t e r m s of the number of m a c h i n e c y c l e s r e q u i r e d for it to d o each o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , D e F a n t i h a s added a " c o m pile" feature to the l a n g u a g e , so t h a t for long m a c r o s (sections of program) t h a t h a v e to run r e p e t i t i v e l y , mo; e f f i c i e n t c o m p i l e d v e r s i o n s of the m a c r o s m a y b e g e n e rated.
I coined the term f a n t i c s , for the a r t a n d t e c h n o l o g y of showing t h i n g s , long b e f o r e I e v e r h e a r d of T o m D e F a n t i , and I am not a b o u t to change it j u s t b e c a u s e h e is now my friend and r o o m m a t e .
F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e y o u ' r e a s o c i o l o g i s t looking a t m e a s u r e m e n t s of v a r i o u s traits among a g r o u p of p e o p l e . I t ' s a c l o u d of d o t s in three d i m e n s i o n s — w h a t e v e r three d i m e n s i o n s y o u ' r e looking a t . Some c o u l d b e : a g e , h e i g h t , weight, sex, ethnic background, premarital experience, e d ucation. .. e t c .
Boukniyht
£ Kelleu
(ste
p.t>^\*j) N O W G U E S S W H A T : D e F a n t i ' s G R A S S language is the b e s t g u a g e I know sf for d o i n g a l l the a b o v e t h i n g s .
lan-
SERVICES. General Electric, Syracuse, offers three-dimensional scene s y n t h e s i s l i k e t h a t at t h e b o t t o m o f t h i s p a g e . Every j o b is c u s t o m . It's done on videotape through programs r u n n i n g on a s m a l l i s h c o m p u t e r . Production costs, a f t e r y o u r d a t a s t r u c t u r e s are a l l i n , c o u l d run as W H E R E T O GET IT. l i t t l e as h u n d r e d s of d o l l a r s p e r m i n u t e (rather than C o m p u t e r 3D h a l f t o n e s y s t e m s a r e n o w a v a i l a b l e to m o v i e m a k e , * thousands). a v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s . I t t e n d s to c o s t a l o t o f m o n e y , b u t Contact: Charles P. Venus, General Electric Co., fr c o m p a r e d w i t h n o r m a l H o l l y w o o d p r o d u c t i o n e x p e n s e s , it t u r n . B u i l d i n g 3. S y r a c u s e NY 1 3 2 0 1 , 3 1 5 / 4 5 6 - 3 5 5 2 . (Given In d e t a i l b e c a u s e h a r d e r to r e a c h t h a n t h e s e others.) o u t n o t to b e s o Computer Visuals, Inc., ElmBford, NY. Offer more detail t h a n C H s y s t e m , a n d g o s t r a i g h t to f i l m w i t h o u t video. SALES OF MACHINES M o r e e x p e n s i v e : p r o b a b l e c o s t s r u n In t h e t h o u s a n d s of er, offe dollars per m i n u t e . A g a i n , e v e r y job is c u s t o m . C o m p u t e r Ima ge C o r p o r a t i o n , De S e e p . DM 3 9 . Contact: Nat C. M y e r s , p r e s i d e n t . I U I B . l e . a n d S u t h e r l a n d C o m p u t e r C o r p o r a t i o n . S a l t L a k e C i t y , Dolphin P r o d u c t i o n s , N Y C , has several Computer Image machines, Ev o f f e r s the W a t k i n s B o x , a r e a l - t i m e d i s P 1 ay d e y i c e b u t t h e i r p r e s i d e n t , A l l e n S t a n l e y , is i n t e r e s t e d in u s i n g the W a t k i n s M e t h o d (see next p a g e ) and offering everything. (s also Goursud pseudo-curved shadln C o m p u t e r Image C o r p . , D e n v e r and H o l l y w o o d , also offers eervlc It c o s t s a b o u t $ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d attac on their m a c h i n e s . On o c c a s i o n they have been willing large c o m p u t e r ; see p . 40) . to b a c k f i l m - m a k e r s , r e p o r t e d l y on a 5 0 - 5 0 b a s i s . Their p r e s i d e n t , L e e H a r r i s o n I I I , is a s w e l l fella. A
Series of R e v i e w
C o m p u t e r Decisions
FIRST
T h i s i s , to m y k n o w l e d g e , the o n l y existing collection a n d s u m m a r y of c o m p u t e r half-tone s y s t e m s to d a t e , a n d in s o m e c a s e s the articles r e v e a l m o r e a b o u t the s y s t e m s than h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d a n y w h e r e . Surp r i s i n g l y , e v e n t w o y e a r s later they d o not s e e m out of d a t e . H o w e v e r , d u e to the editorial style of C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s , a n d m y o w n , this h a s all c o m e out e x t r e m e l y c o n d e n s e d , a n d p h r a s e d in b r e e z y a n d h u m o r o u s w a y s not ordinarily c o n s i d e r e d acceptable for serious technical r e v i e w s . T h e h o p e is that they will s u p p l y orientation to the b r o w s e r , d e e p e r insights to the t e c h n i c a l l y - m i n d e d , a n d further directions for t h e m a s w a n t s to p u r s u e . M y t h a n k s to the p u b l i s h e r s of C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s a n d its e d i t o r , R o b e r t C . H a a v i n d , for their e n c o u r a g e m e n t , p h o n e m o n e y a n d p e r m i s s i o n to reprint thiB.
ARTICLE
G e n e r a l idea of 3 - D Polygon
Articles for
Magazine.
A u t h o r ' s n o t e . T h e s e articles w e r e written for C o m p u t e r Decisions m a g a z i n e , a n d reflect the results of a lot of p h o n e calls they paid for. T h e first of these articles w a a p u b lished in 1 9 7 1 . T h e o t h e r s h a v e not b e e n p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d , as the editors a n d I w e r e n e v e r able to get together o n quite w h s t they w a n t e d .
halftone.
Systems.
h a l f t o n e
There are more ways than one to produce shaded pictures with computer/. Here are the methods I of the 'polygon school.'
i m a g e
s y n t h e s i s lal uses for visualizaof photography, in and T V : for visual^uipment yet unbuilt. izing worlds lost and imagined, equ the responsiveness of aircraft. It m a y not he long until moviemakers can bus different brands of picture synthesizer, just as musicians choose today among M o u g , Buchla and ARP music synthesi/crs Bul none is in production yet. This is an attempt to review the coming apparatuses of apparition. Not only is ihe field of halftone one of the most exciting in computing: it is also one of the nuttiest and most secretive. For instance, at one time a firm that was supposedly marketing its halftone system declared the present author persona iron grata and noi to be communicated with in any way, though information was frccl; available to others. "I don't think it's necessarily paranoia." says R o d Rougelot of General Electric. " A lot of guys started about the same time, and proceeded in a heads-down manner." It took a special kind of initiative lo head off in that direction with no external provocation. "All those heavy cats These systems have
T o mosi people in the computer field, "computer graphics" means line drawing—systems snd programs for mapmaking, pipe layout, automobile and aircraft design, or any other activity where a diagram may help. Using line-drawing programs and equipment, designers m a y create line drawings on fast-respondmil graphic screens, reworking their ideas until satisfied; the system then disgorges polished drawings and specifications for the designer's real intent, something else thai is to be made or done. Bui it is possible for a picture itself—instructjve, interesting or pretty—to be the goal, fn that case wc will often want pictures that look like things instead of wires. A picture that is not all black and white we call "halftone." With much secrecy and a slow start, computer halftone systems are now being buill all over. The methods arc extremely different from one another; only the outputs arc similar. Some exist in software, some have already been built into special hardware.
from AKPA and MIT were saying in the sixties I could never do a Mickey Mouse," says Lcc Harrison in of Computer Image. "'But I'm not that kind of researcher. I talk to (he Lord." The systems' stories are as different as the systems themselves. General Elcctric's system grew out of cockpit displays for blind flying. The system of Pennsylvania Research Associates began wilh terrain and radar modelling. The system of MAGI (Mathematical Applications Group, Inc.) began with the study of radiation hazards in battlefield machinery. T w o system families, that of Computer Image Inc. and m y o w n Fantasm, were designed from the beginning for moviemaking, especially "special effects" and puppe tee ring. The most poignant talc m a y be that of Lee Harrison, whose struggling family was warmed through cold winters by ihe tubes of their analog computer Halftones in two dimensions Two-dimensional computer halftone is not new. Halftone pictures convened from photographs have often been printed out on line printers, either for fun
(nudes often turn up at big installations), or in connection with some scientific problem, such as analyzing chromosomes. Kenneth C . Knowlton, at Bell Laboratories, has executed some well-known photo conversions making pictures into huge grids of tiny whimsical symbols having differeni grey-values. Various other systems have allowed users to create their o w n original 2-D pictures. Bul the natural temptation is lo want the computer really to make pictures. W h y not have the computer produce a photographic picture directly from the 3-D representation of objects? Computers don't do this by nature, any more than they do anything else by nature, so how it m a y be done by computer is very interesting. The problem is also interesting because of its intuitive nature. Visions of scenes in space are around us constantly, and w e intuitively understand the geometry of outlines and light. A s 3-D work progresses large problems are being overcome. The famed "hidden line problem," for enample, was mislead in gly couched, since the problem is not finding what lines arc hidden, but whai surfaces
3-D halftone system Today's new procedures can use the same data to make a realistic shaded or halftone picture. The visible parts Of the objects are ascertained by programs or special hardware, using the same 3-D coordinates as in the ordinary systems. These visible parts are then shaded according to the appropriate color information. The series of shading-points makas the picture on an output device.
Computer graphics the ordinary way The computer, as penman, draws line from a list stored in core memory. In three-dimensional system, the basic list of 3 D coordinates is converted to a list representing a particular view: the result looks like a wire frame.
COMPUTER
DECISIONS
L
figure
W c m u m draw on I M i understanding of tec n o In oul how to mike met urn. for there is no mathematically elegant or preferable approach Scenes •re •eomelrically nch. and low many diffcreni technique* may be u*cd lo extract pictures from them Then* technique* may look at planar structures, spatial interconnection*, relative edge* of intersection* or anything else you can define and process I prefer lo think at computer halftone as like trick photography ol the kind done in Hollywood: a variety of technique* can be combined in various ways As in trick photography. the number of touches and enhancem e n t that you add generally determines how good it will look, regardlesi of what system you begin with The simplest systems are those that depict objects made of polygons—that is, planes wilh straight cdj^s. W e will discuss such systems in the present installment. The »iW poljfosi wader Al least two companies are building image systems that will behave and respond like onrushing realiiy. Such a system, hooked to cockpit-like controls, can she* a trainee pilot the delicate and precipitous results of what he does Realistic action, rather lhan surface detail, is crucial. The techniques of action polygon halftone were origmallv developed by General Electric, of Syracuse, N Y.. and are now also under development al Link Division of Singer Company (makers of the beloved pilot trainer and its progeny). Basically such systems operate upon ihe scan-lines thai crisscross a television screen, switching the color of the running scan as it crosses from polygon to polygon. The action polygon school—GE and link—takes a curious but effective approach to halftone T V : their "environments" arc composed entirely of convex objects made entirely of convex polygons T o use only convex objects (no dents) means thai one objeel m a y be in front of another or vice versa, but never both. (An object with apparent indentations, such as an airplane, has to be made out of a group of convex objects flying together) T o use only convex polygons (notchlcss) makes it easy for the system to decide, at a given instant, whether ihe scan is crossing the polygon or not.
The edge-box reports summed into the facet boxes, each of which was set to respond lo a particular combination of left-right, above-below reports. Al the instant all the facet's edge boxes replied in 'he proper preset combination, the facet box signalled that its o w n Tacet was being crossed by the scan-line W h e n more than one lacet-box responded, the one nearest ihe viewpoint had it* color gated to the *crccn. N o w Rougelol's group is replacing the old NASA system by a new NASA system, which works on entirely different principles, bul keeps the vector calculator The old one could show scenes with up lo 240 edges: ihe new NASA system will al least double that. GE's new method is already operational on smaller research facilities. They don't tell what it is, bul basically il involves sorting by distance. Supposedly the sort method is good enough to make the old edge boxes obsolete The Link group claims competitive performance for their system, which will go lo black-and-white thousand-line T V . They say their system is different, better.
5*\
eady to compete. (Gary Watkins. Utah)
The method of Gary Walkin* is Ihe result of a profound search at the University of Utah for the method—a polygon technique fast enough for realtime enactment, but cheaper than the GE-type systems and not subject to ihe convexity restriction*. They seem to have found it. Each video scan of the scene results in a "slice'' through surfaces in the scene. The two nearest surfaces arc continuously compared to see which is closer, as if by two rulers. The instant a new surface becomes the nearer one, the system makes it the visible one. T V nearest surface always shows, down to the precise instant two surfaces cross.
Campus
of
Fooled
U.
(GE)
WyUe-Romney: shoot ihe works
\
The Wylie-Romncy method, disclosed in 1967, was the Tint generally publicized procedure for making halftone pictures. Indeed, the 1967 publication signalled the explosion of the University of Utah into the forefront of computing research. The Wylie-Romney method was actually the joint work of Chris Wylie, Gordon R o m n e y . David C. Evans and Alan Erdahl; hut much of the impetus for its development came from Evans, chairman of computer sciences al Utah, w h o had long suspected the possibility of 3-D halftone synthesis.
Instantaneous enactment, halftone animation gives a sense of really being there. (Hod Rougelot. General Electric)
This work evolved in pan from GE's work in the fifties with a "ground plane simulator," a system that would show a correct representation ol the ground's position, dipping and rotating, lo the pilot of an aircraft in fog or night In 1963 the General Electric group, under Rod Rougelol. worked oul for NASA Ihe design of an "environment simulator"—a device that would simulate the appearance and performance of any equipment. This is now called the "old NASA system. ' It permitted the user—seated before a color T V screen—to work controls for an imaginary aircraft or spacecraft, and sec roughly what the pilot of the craft would see. flying in real lime through a breathtaking color scene. R i m s made on (his. machine have been stunning Imaginary cities, roller coasters and aerial dogfights arc among the visions that can be presented. General Electrics old NASA method is fairly weird if not mischievous. The earlier "ground plane simulator" had shown an edge (ihe horizon) digitally displayed on a crt: the system was extended to many edges, and the logical analysis of areas between them.
The scene was represented by a collection of edge boxes, physically jumpered into a collection of facet boxes. Each edge box and facet box was loaded with certain numerical and logic values, representing edges and facets in ihe scene, which could change between frames as required by the action. In the prcprocess for each frame the old NASA system used a specially built digital computer, the "vector calculator." This performed at great speed the three-pan vector calculations necessary lo determine all scene positions, including the positions and slants of all edges. Each individual edge generator, loaded with its own edge position, constantly reported whether the running scan of the picture was to Ihe left or right of its o w n edge. It dutifully guarded this edge from border lo border of the picture.
Watkins method: A new nearest surface is instantly tensed through continuous comparison ol the closes! two
Halftone lor art's sake now the artist can create worlds and photograph them. (Gordon Romney, Utah)
( N o t e : m o r e o u t p u t by various Utah systems a p p e a r on f o l l o w i n g pages.)
The Wylie-Romncy method is this: for each picturepoint desired in the final picture, shoot a searching ray through the scene at a corresponding angle. Find where this searching ray hits every surface in its way. Since the locations in space of these hit-points are easily calculated, figure their distances from the vantage point. The nearest of the intersections is the visible one. Look up the color of that surface and shade the output point accordingly. This may sound inefficient, but it is comparatively easy to ascertain all the piercing-points, since the surfaces to be hit in a given scanning row can be largely predicted from the previous row. John Wurnock's method, also from Utah, is unrelated to the other methods, but has qualities mathematicians like, as well as a certain whimsy. Consider a square in the picture area. (Al the start consider the whole picture area.) Sow then. Test whether the present square is entirely filled wilh one color. If so, output a corresponding square all of that color. If the present square is not all one color, divide it into four smaller squares. Take another square and go back to Now then. End the process when each of the squares in the broken-down picture has been completely filled with one color—or the unsatisfied squares arc too small to care about
HOW
AVAILABLE! Machine running technique, the Watkins Box, you to view imaginary objects color and manipulate them in
See
top
of
preceding
Vatkn allot in real
time
page.
Shading: Last of the great lodge-1 unctions Suppose that wc have some data structure representing a three-dimensional object, and a halftone method to search out its visible surfaces. H o w do wc shade the output pouits? What do wc take into account: how combine the basic greys or colors, how blend them with computations of surface angle, distances from the vantage point, or anything else we can think of? The answer: any way at all. The combining function is an aesthetic choice. There are not many areas left where you can make up a mathematical hodge-podge and get pleasing or interestingresults.Computer halftone is a felicitous exception: you can augment by adding or multiplying, diminish by subtracting or dividing, and yet always come up with an image resembling something. Anyone w h o has worked in a darkroom will recognize lhat this is like enlarging: playing with parameters won't obliterate the picture. There arc purists w h o insist that halftone coloration should exactly follow the formulas that simulate the behavior of real light. For some purposes, like pilot training, this m a y often be/true. But insisting on mathematical accuracy as a general principle is like insisting on ultra-high fidelity—an aesthcuc judgment couched as a mechanical imperative. Until now the output hardware was not really ready for halftone. Five years ago a computer could usually create halftone pictures only on a line primer or a 4020 microfilm plotter. Today there are many different photographic printers, going to all sizes of film and paper; one even uses a laser. There arc various display terminals permitting grey-scale and color halftone on T V screens. The age of computer image synthesis has begun. Polygon systems are fast and simple, and will come to be used in our daily lives for such diverse purposes as molecule study, the memorization of delivery routes, and visualization of every kind of layout and design. They will be fundamental to our new world of computer display. D C O M P U T E R DECISIONS
Warnock'x dicing method: What can t be made all one color is redivuled till its pieces can ba. "Old NASA" method: Each edge box constantly reports which side of its edge the scan is on. each facet bo> sums the edge report* to sense whan the scan is crossing it
%
SECOND
BOUKNIGHT A N D KELLEY: PICKING T H R O U G H A CAT'S
ARTICLE.
Curvature. Shadow.
THE PLOT SO
FAR.
Various c o m p u t e r m e t h o d s n o w m a k e it possible to create artificial photographs of three-dimensional objects or ccenes represented in the computer's storage. This is d o n e b y coloring or shading points in an output picture like the points in the scene that can b e sighted through them from the vantage point. W h a t the m e t h o d s really boil d o w n to, t h o u g h , are searching processes in the data representation of the three-dimensional s c e n e . In an earlier article w e h a v e considered s o m e of the techniques being u s e d to depict simple scenes— those m a d e u p of p o l y g o n s . N o w w e turn to m o r e elaborate scenes w h i c h a d d s h a d o w s , surface patterns a n d c u r v a t u r e . VARIOUS N E W TECHNIQUES PERMIT US TO A D D C U R V E S , SHADOWS AND SURFACE PATTERNS T O COMPUTER-GENERATED HALFTONE PICTURES
O n e of the most interesting things about this b r a n c h of c o m p u t e r graphics— already seen in the polygon m e t h o d s discussed earlier— is the variety of techniques that can b e e m p l o y e d . M o r e o v e r , these m e t h o d s , for all their sophistication, can usually b e intuitively u n d e r s t o o d as thought they w e r e operations p e r f o r m e d o n objects in s p a c e . T h e s a m e continues to b e true for the m o r e c o m p l e x s y s t e m s .
CRADLE
T h e m e t h o d of B o u k n i g h t a n d Kelley. at the University of Illinois, permits the addition of s h a d o w to polygon pictures. Their m e t h o d uses a n intricate system of scanning s w e e p s across the s c e n e , analyzing the successive e d g e c r o s s i n g s . For each output line, a list of the e d g e s in the scene is ordered according to w h i c h will b e next e n c o u n t e r e d . T o m a k e a specific output line of s h a d e d points, w e step through successive positions of the scan-line, until an an e d g e is c r o s s e d . With each e d g e w e c r o s s , w e enter or leave at least o n e facet. O f all the current facets w e are in after a given e d g e crossing, the system finds out the nearest o n e , the visible o n e , b y c o m p a r i n g distances. T h e coloration of this facet is then fed out to the picture, until the next e d g e - c r o s s i n g .
Surface patterns.
ENHANCED POLYGON
B o u k n i g h t a n d Kelley e x p a n d their m e t h o d to s h o w s h a d o w s b y a n additional step. T h e y create a n e w list of e d g e s to b e e n c o u n t e r e d , this o n e relative to scans from the light s o u r c e . T h e n , d u r i n g the regular output picture s c a n , they look to this latter data to see about s h a d o w . A s soon as they k n o w t w o consecutive e d g e s of a visible object in the picture, they are able to search the s h a d o w - e d g e list to see if a n y s h a d o w - e d g e s i m p i n g e b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e final list of e d g e s - - visible facet e d g e s a n d s h a d o w e d g e s - - goes to the picture output d e v i c e .
SYSTEMS
In the m e t h o d s discussed so far, w e looked at several c o m p u t e r techniques for p h o t o g r a p h ically depicting s c e n e s a n d objects m a d e u p of p o l y g o n s - - planar facets-- in a represented three-dimensional s c e n e . I m a g i n a r y h o u s e s of c a r d s , c a r d b o a r d airplanes a n d triangular s c e n ery take o n a compelling vividness w h e n depicted b y the c o m p u t e r . A n d for visualizing s u c h things as architectural a r r a n g e m e n t s , s u c h s y s t e m s p r o m i s e to b e of increasing practical value. T h o s e of u s interested in the artistic aspects of c o m p u t e r halftone i m a g e s w a n t m o r e . T h i s article looks at s o m e w a y s to a d d the a p p e a r a n c e of curvature a n d surface pattern to c o m p u t e r - s y n t h e s i z e d i m a g e s .
MAGtlUSKI'S
(different
CONSTRUCTIONS
perspective
OF
REPEATED
PATTERNS
BOUKNIGHT-KELLEY
METHOD
/I ) s
-
calculations)
Consider the series of edges whose projections cross the current scan-line. Each time the s c a n - l i n e crosses an edge, find out what facets are currently pierce by a s i g h t - l i n e from the v i e w p o i n t . The nearest of these facets is the v i s i b l e on Basic
MAGNUSKI'S PATTERNED
CONSTRUCTIONS
A n u m b e r of contributions h a v e b e e n m a d e b y individuals w o r k i n g alone. For instance, H e n r y M a g n u s k i , at M . I . T . , created a p r o g r a m that repeatedly positions patterned facets in space to m a k e large constructions. This p r o g r a m did not calculate "true" s h a d o w , basing its s h a d i n g partly o n angle of surfaces. Neither does it s h o w true c u r v e s . Yet it s h o w s the impressive d e g r e e to w h i c h such effects m a y b e a p p r o x i m a t e d . T h e resulting beach ball picture is reminiscent of M o o r i s h architecture.
triangle
pattern..
is in at
stitched together adjacent positions appropriate angles.
To add s h a d o w , use an e x t r a list of the scene' s edges relative to the light rather than the camera. Between viewed edges, check for shadow-edges as w e l l .
r
DON
L E E F I L L S IN T H E
GAPS
D o n L e e , at the U n i v e r s i t y of Illinois, p r o d u c e d his finc-toned pictures of s p h e r e s in 1966 s i m p l y b e c a u s e s o m e o n e bet h i m a q u a r t e r h e couldn't p r o g r a m the m e t h o d he'd s u g g e s t e d in t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s . H e a l m o s t m a d e it. H e m a d e his pictures of s p h e r e s a n d p o l y g o n s b y calculating the b o u n d a r i e s , then c h e c k i n g for o v e r l a p a n d filling in with g r e y s a c c o r d i n g to v i e w i n g a n g l e . His p r o g r a m w o r k s o n l y in special c a s e s , b u t is interesting for its historical position; it w a s o n e of the earliest half-tone curvature systems.
SIMPLEX
CURVATURE
SYSTEMS:
MAHL
&
MAGI
A f u n d a m e n t a l t y p e of s y s t e m w e m a y call the " s i m p l e x " s y s t e m w a s e x e m p l i f i e d in the p r e v i o u s article b y the W y l i e - R o m n e y p r o g r a m . A s i m p l e x t e c h n i q u e s i m p l y projects s i m u l a t e d r a y s t o w a r d the s c e n e f r o m the v a n t a g e point till t h e y hit the r e p r e s e n t e d o b j e c t s , a n d fills c o r r e s p o n d i n g positions o n the o u t p u t p i c t u r e w i t h the colors e n c o u n t e r e d o n the front s u r f a c e s of o b j e c t s in the s c e n e . T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e e x t e n d s n a t u r a l l y to scenes with c u r v e d a n d otherwise embellished objects.
H A V E
A
BALL
W I T H
DON
R o b e r t M a h l , at the U n i v e r s i t y of U t a h , h a s r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d his results w i t h s i m p l e x m e t h o d s u s i n g q u a d r i c surfaces— those c u r v e d s u r f a c e s g e n e r a t e d b y m a t h e m a t i c a l p o w e r s of t w o . H i s p i c t u r e s — like the c u p a n d s a u c e r s h o w n h e r e — h a v e a pleasing 1920s B a u h a u s like q u a l i t y .
L E E .
T h e n
f i l l s
in
c u r v a c e o u s s h a d i n g .
His
p r o g r a m the
first
g e n e r a l
w o r k s
O n e p r o b l e m w i t h this m e t h o d is that computational c o m p l e x i t y increases rapidly as t h e s c e n e s g r o w m o r e c o m p l e x ; the m o r e s u r f a c e s a n d p i e r c i n g - p o i n t s , the m o r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g ( a n d e x p e n s i v e ) it b e c o m e s to m a k e the p i c t u r e .
out
o u t l i n e s .
M A U L ' S
S I M P L E X
M E T H O D
C a l c u l a t e w i t h Is
I
all
I n t e r s e c t i o n s
o b j e c t s
n e a r e r ;
in
shade
s c e n e ; lt
of
s i g h t i n g
c a l c u l a t e
a c c o r d i n g
to
ray w h i c h a n g l e .
Co/tv-
• J I M * ^ - ,
A,
cjL»r»*=^ s o r f i o i , p i e c u i s ^
a s s . j . , colors
1.
t w
It s e e m s , h o w e v e r , that M a h l ' s w o r k m a y o n l y b e a r e d i s c o v e r y of w h a t o n e o r g a n i z a t i o n w o r k e d o u t earlier a n d is b e i n g s e c r e t i v e a b o u t . A firm delightfully called M A G I ( M a t h e m a t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s G r o u p . I n c . ) of E l m s f o r d , N . Y . , h a s e x t e n d e d the s a m e idea m o r e elaborately. T h e y h a p p e n e d into the halftone g a m e t h r o u g h a military c o n t r a c t . M A G I ' s system, n o w thoroughly developed u n d e r R o b e r t G o l d s t e i n , b e g a n in 1 9 6 5 in a s t u d y of radiation h a z a r d s in battlefield e q u i p m e n t . T h e y w r o t e a p r o g r a m to s i m u l a t e p a t h s of r a d i a t i o n , s a y , that m i g h t r e a c h a t a n k d r i v e r u n d e r v a r o u s disagreeable circumstances. Having w r i t t e n a p r o g r a m that w o u l d a s c e r t a i n t h e s u s ceptibility to radiation of battlefield m a c h i n e r y , . t h e y n o t e d that t h e s a m e p r o g r a m c o u l d b e a d a p t e d to m a k i n g p h o t o g r a p h s . T h e p r o g a m s i m u l a t e d radiation; light is radiation; i p s o facto, p i c t u r e s . Substantially t h e s a m e p r o g r a m w o u l d m a k e p h o t o g r a p h - l i k e i m a g e s , b y treating t h e o b j e c t s a s o p a q u e , a n d reflecting different s h a d e s a c c o r d i n g to c o l o r a n d a n g l e of v i e w .
T h e resulting s y s t e m m a k e s nice pictures of o b j e c t s c o m p o s e d of p l a n e s a n d q u a d r i c s u r f a c e s ; a n d i n c l u d e s , a s will b e s e e n f r o m t h e racing car a n d chair, colored surface d e s i g n s , s h a d o w s a n d spectral reflections. N o t o n l y d o e s M A G I ' s s o f t w a r e for this p r o c e s s p r o d u c e d e l i cately s h a d e d p i c t u r e s ; if the virtual p i c t u r e p l a n e is m o v e d until it intersects t h e s u b j e c t , it p r o d u c e s a c r o s s - s e c t i o n .
MAG1 program waa originally developed f o r s t u d y of r a d i a t i o n h a z a r d s inside m i l i t a r y a r m o r ; the pseudo-photographic t e c h n i q u e s w e r e a a i d e e f f e c t of the approach chosen. Who know: , these tanks may be the ones studied.
H A G I t e c h n i q u e s w e r e u s e d to a l t e r n a t i v e w a y s of l i g h t i n g
study nines.
M A G I r u n s this p r o g r a m r e m o t e l y in F o r t r a n o n a b i g c o m p u t e r - - b u t they h a v e their o w n m i n i c o m p u t e r s e t u p for p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e results a s c o l o r m o v i e s . T h e y n o w offer u s e of this s y s t e m c o m m e r c i a l l y for m a k i n g m o v i e s o r stills.
SYNTHEVISION SETUP uses remote time-sharing computer running big secret Fortran program and containing e n t i r e d a t a s t r u c t u r e of t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l scenes. M i n i c o m p u t e r p h o t o g r a p h i c s e t u p Is o n p r e m i s e s at Computer Visuals, Inc., HAG1 subsidiary marketing the S y n t h e v i s i o n service. Local setup uses Uova minicomputer controlling both CRT display and camera. Informed guess would suggest that time-sharing system does not send all s u c c e s s i v e p o i n t s of o u t p u t l i n e , b u t difference and t r a n s i t i o n v a l u e s ; Nova p r o g r a m w o u l d then i n t e r p o l a t e g r a d a t i o n s in r e l a t i v e l y q u i e t sections of the s c a n - l i n e . M A G I ' s p r e c i s e s y s t e m is s e c r e t . H o w e v e r , the only r e a l q u e s t i o n s b o l l d o w n to: f o r m s of s u r f a c e repr e s e n t a t i o n ; s y s terns o f s c e n e s o r t i n g ; a n d m e t h o d of s c e n e s c a n n i n g to p r o d u c e o u t p u t scan. N o t e that o n e of the m o s t i m p r e s s i v e t h i n g s about H A G I w o r k , at l e a s t for s o p h i s t i c a t e s , is the d e g r e e o f a r t i s t i c c o n t r o l c h a t s e e m s to h a v e b e e n r e a l i z e d in t h e i r i n p u t a n d r e v i s i o n s y s t e m s . It seems they offer e x c e l l e n t control over motion and c o l o r , a n d , of c o u r s e , r e v i s i o n of t h e a c t i o n in a s c e n e till the a a k e r is satisfied.
2t
Popular 5cle Synthevision
in
t h i n k it f a l l of 7 3 .
had
Enlargement from MAGI film. I hope the r e p r o d u c t i o n s h o w s the concentric r i n g s , called Mach b a n d s , that divide a r e a s of s h a d i n g ; K n o w l t o n and H a r m o n ( c i t a t i o n p . DM 10) a d v i s e on p s e u d o random t e c h n i q u e s for c o r r e c t i n g this.
ROUNDUP T h e s e h a v e b e e n s o m e of the h i g h l i g h t s of the halftone g a m e to d a t e . T h e m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d s o far a r e m a i n l y s o f t w a r e - o r i e n t e d , a n d for t h e m o s t p a r t w o r k m o s t efficiently a s p r o grams. In the n e x t article w e will look at s o m e o u t l a n d i s h n e w f o r m s of e q u i p m e n t , u n d e r c o n struction o r p r o p o s e d , for d e d i c a t e d p r o d u c t i o n of 3 - D halftone p i c t u r e s .
THIRD
Specialized
ARTICLE.
SPECIAL FOR
EQUIPMENT
MAKING
PICTURES COVERS
OF
THE
H A R D W A R E
EXISTENCE
OR
BEING
BEING
systems.
BUILT
HALFTONE
COMPUTER.
SOME
HALFTONE
IS N O W
"REALISTIC"
BY
hardware
THIS
M O R E
ARTICLE
UNUSUAL
SYSTEMS
N O W
IN
PLANNED.
Results
of G o u r a u d ' s
swell s m o o t h i n g
for t h e d a f a s t r u c t u r e o n The
Gouraud
from
it b y
an
process
technique.
t h e left, a s y s t e m
(see b o x
extremely
below)
simple
process.
difficult t r u l y - c u r v e d
( N o t e also that t h e e d g e s
The
techniques
all i n t u i t i v e l y do In t w o ized
previous
articles w e
s o m e of t h e i m p o r t a n t b a s i c
have
summar-
techniques
in
computer
h a l f t o n e - - t h e artificial c o n s t r u c t i o n
computer
of p h o t o g r a p h i c
scenes
which
as colored or s h a d e d dinate s y s t e m
pictures
are represented surfaces
of t h r e e
of 3 - D
within placed
the in a
dimensions.
by
scenes, computer coor-
edge
software.
advanced
and
intended
to m a k e
generation
looked
suited
at
Now
3-D
and
we
turn
computer
systems
halftone
df'halftone
represent
than
MAGI.)
to in
more
equipment faster
r e a l i s t i c , o r e a s i e r to w o r k
These
by
jagged.)
were
to s o m e and
face
of t h e
relative
to i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
peculiar techniques
to u s e , o r m o r e cheaper.
have
of s i g h t - l i n e s
positions, a n d
computer
or
we
" s p a t i a l " in c h a r a c t e r , h a v i n g
with the analysis
posed
data structure, rather
surfaces u s e d , e.g.,
remain
Gouraud
the s m o o t h - l o o k i n g
( N o t e that the p o w e r
t e c h n i q u e is in t h e u s e o f a s i m p l e p o l y g o n the m o r e
M m e .
o f i n t e r c o n n e c t e d .flat p o l y g o n s .
created
a
with,
coming
THE
WATKINS
BOX
hardware. The what
University
of U t a h
w i l b e for s o m e
spectacular Watkins
Box.
a computer
This
and
is n o w
building
time the w o r l d ' s
interactive
computer
most
display,
d e v i c e , interfacing
the
between
a television s c r e e n , will
o u t the W a t k i n s
algorithm
(described
in
carry the
first article o f t h i s s e r i e s ) in r e a l t i m e ; through
a predigested
the W a t k i n s
Box
i m a g e of a n
opaque
rotate o r
and
Watkins
Box
can
m o d e , in w h i c h
Gouraud
curved
over
The gruduate simple
marries
for e a c h
point.
it, a c r o s s
method
encountered
(These
shades
on are
polation b e t w e e n I suggested this cover for this a r t i c l e . The folks at C o m p u t e r Decisions reacted with puzzlement if n o t d i s m a y . "This cover doesn't have practical applications for the ave ra^e u s e r , " I think someone said.
It w i l l b e does
not c u r v e
simplicity that's n o
two
and
in t u r n
noted
of
interaround
proced-
a point
by
edge-colors: edge
to
scan-line.
found
by
linear
inter-
endpoints.) that G o u r a u d ' s
the e d g e s .
But
as a small addition great
a the
facets
those
the next
the p r e s e n t
their
the
In a c t u a l
shades
between
t h e c o l o r o f t h e last e d g e be
by
ridiculously
In effect t h e m e t h o d
facet b o u n d a r i e s .
u r e , the G o u r a u d
be
calculates a s h a d e
of the point f r o m
linear interpolation
to
p e r f e c t l y to
I n s t e a d of s h a d i n g
u n i f o r m l y , this t e c h n i q u e gray
it a p p e a r s
algorithm, developed
which
polates the s h a d e
modes: faceted,
nearby).
s t u d e n t o f t h a t n a m e , is a method.
can
o p e r a t e in t w o
m o d e , in w h i c h
Gouraud
an
the u s e r
program.
the object a p p e a r s
(see m a s k s ,
technique
Watkins
by
information,
the s c r e e n
object w h i c h
see manipulated
The normal
list o f facet
will create o n
ripping
method
considering
to t h e W a t k i n s
its box,
sacrifice.
Naturally, the W a t k i n s the private h o m e
Box
will n o t
for s e v e r a l y e a r s ;
l i k e l y p r i c e is i n s i x f i g u r e s .
reach
current
B u t that's
now.
G O U R A U D ' S T W I S T a d d s the a p p e a r a n c e of c u r v a t u r e to a f a c e t e d o b j e c t s h o w n o p a q u e l y b y t h e W a t k i n s m e t h o d ( d e s c r i b e d in first article). I n s t e a d of s h a d i n g e a c h with the s a m e edges you've edges
are
point within
a
facet
c o l o r , interpolate b e t w e e n
vertex-colors according gotten.
to h o w
far d o w n
N o t e that the
the the
jagged
retained.
u
T H E SHAPE OF THINGS T O C O M E If these systems sound far fetched, or only for theoretical tnveattgtatlon. conalder this: the Air Force is n o w letting contracts for an advanced flight training simulator that la a small boy's d r e a m . T o be situated In D r y Lake. Arizona, the simulator will hava the moat realiatic cockpit* ever built: tha entire m o c k up will turn and tilt in response to Ihe user, and the seats will even swell and deflate. to simulate acceleration and weightlessness. T h e cockpits alone, without the visual diaplay screens, will cost ten million dollars each.
PRA'S W O B L D V I E W Roger Boyell, of Pennsylvania Research Aasocistes. Philadelphia, likes io refer to the company's main interest as "modelling the p h y s ical world." T h u s he and hia aaaociatea have developed systems for cartography, landscape modelling, pipe design, and eimulalion of c o m plex radar systems. A radar simulator they are putting together Tor the Navy will show the results of any possible radar system moving over any possible terrain. A pilot or navigator trainee, in a simmulsted cockpit, will aee the miaelon's changing radar picture as he changea the piano's course or the radar's tuning. T h e radar picture, a p pearing on a screen and changing In real time, wilt look just the w a y the radar would look on a real mission-- flying in perspective a m o n g : valleys, high or low. at any bearuid speed, and vi.-w.-d ihroutfh any type of
r <
tly ke the K n o w l t o n - S c h w a r t z D M 2 4 , top S c h w a r t z d i v i d u a l frntur.-s i>m'nnRinr. v i e w .
An o u t f i t they h a v e that will ballpark— the E v a n s
But the viaual systems - a h . T h e pilotuser will look out into an artificial world, a m o n g w h o s e mountains and m e a d o w s and clouds h e will fly in real time. Six C R T s . arranged aa parts of a dodecahedron in an entire viaual surround, will show him the changing terrain and flying environment. F.ach of theae C R T s will b e driven by a real-time perspective halftone simulator, with all displays spliced together and driven by a master simulator responding to his actions. W h o will build them ia not yet decided; they could be Warnock or G E
T h e sheer joy of such a system will b e hard to beat. But no doubt others will b e on the w a y - - perhaps at the a m u s e m e n t pork level.
c a l l e d liUMRRO, in W . n h i n n a real-time interactiv, knock several people e s p e c i a l l y the CC har.; a n d S u t h e r l a n d W a t k i n s i; .
T h e H U M R R O a y s t e n la I n t e n d e d to go o u t color screens (modified Sony Trinitrons) ih s h a d e d p o l y g o n h a l f t o n e , o f f e r i n g • u d o - c u r v e d a h a d l n g l i k e G o u r a u d ' s (see Her). Doyen's approach is to treat each c o m p o nent of the pictorial/radar simulation as a separate problem, to be handled in different w a y s , and blended in a final buffer, a core m e m o r y which ia read out to lelevision. Separate mechanisms supply components of s h a d o w , specular reflection, coloration and randomizing effects. T h e core buffer continuously refreshes the scanned C R T display. Boyell has put the same techniques to w o r k making simulated halftone pictures of the m o o n (aee cut). Both the radar and m o o n systems use the same type of halftone image synthesis, even though superficially they seem quite different. But radar is radiation, Just like light, and Boyell's techniquea of three-dimensional modelling and search apply equally well to d e piction by reflected visible light-- i.e., halftone images.
T h e t e c h n i q u e a w e r e w o r k e d o u t by Ron S w a l l o w , and they're not t e l l i n g about how they w o r k . It la c l a i m e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e i r with 16.000 edges / a n d that this w i l l cost S 1 5 0 . 0 0 0 a n d s e r v i c e 16 (or w a s it 6 4 ) u s e r terminals simultaneously. It n a y h a v e b e e n a b a d p h o n e c o n n e c t i o or this may be what they're really c l a i m i n g O b v i o u s l y i t ' l l h e r e a l l y g r e a t if lt t u r n s E v i d e n t l y t h e y h a v e in m i n d the use of s u c h h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e s c o p e s for t e a c h i n g , a l l o w i n g s t u d e n t s to e x p l o r e i n t r i c a t e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l s c e n e s or o b j e c t s . Terrific. ( N o t e : c o m p a r e the c l a i m of 1 6 , 0 0 0 e d g e s on a $ 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 s y a t e m w i t h the 2 0 0 0 ( ? ) e d g e s a l l o w e d by t h e o l d tlASA s y s t e m b u i l t by C E , o r the W a t k i n s B o x - - I d o n ' t know h o w m a n y c d p e s - - at S 5 0 0 . 0 0 0 fro™ H v a n s a n d S u t h e r l a n d .
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T h e syatem could c o m e in a n u m b e r of different versions. O n e of these involves a large array of LSI computing modules (the checkerboard Scene Machine) to be guided by special hardware under an unusual monitor running on a generalpurpose computer. T h e checkerboard Scene Machine holds a great spread of surface data. It is a logical curiosity, an array that replies as a unit, ignoring cell boundaries, to electrical explorations of the shapes represented in it. T h e resulting trace m a k e s varioua 3-space e x plorations on ihe faces, mountains or automobiles spreadeagled in il. Think of its trace as a radio-controlled firefly skating over a b u m p y checkerboard. Using this m a c h i n e , and various cat's-cradle list structures based on the g e o m etry of light around odd volumes of occupation, the problem of halftone analysis of arbitrary shapes is solved by brute force rather than analytically. A variety of other processeB have also been defined in Ihe syatem for other types of graphic application.
f\ t o r O F B o s c f f ? I don't expect you to believe this, because not even m y patent attorney d o e s , but the system I call Fantasm is intended to m a k e pictures that pass the Turing-test: you won't be able to tell them from real photographs. Fantasm is intended to allow the user to m a k e realistic, Hierony m u s Bosch-like photographs and m o v i e s , with real-looking people (and scenery, imaginary characters, monsters, etc.) in scenes of arbitrary complexity. It is expected that 1975 economics will m a k e its construction feasible. Fantasm I originally conceived as a method of making realistic photographs and movies, not knowing at the time that thia w a s impossible, but feeling it could b e done s o m e h o w if the problem were broken d o w n sufficiently. At times it w a s not clear which of us would b e broken d o w n first, 1 or it.
A s far as I have been able to learn. F a n tasm is the most baroque computer graphic system anyone has proposed. It is noi intended to operate in real time, but rather take as long aa it n e e d s , or as long as Ihe uaer wants to pay for. (o fill in complex viaual details, s h a d o w , reflections, curlicues, leaves, hair, etc. It is best suited to the production in Panavision of Busby Berkeley musicals, or " T h e Lord of the Rings" with realistic wraiths and interspecies battles. Bul it m a y well cost too m u c h lo use for that. Indeed, its economics seem to improve in lowbudget settings like videotape, although there its output bandwidth will flower unseen. But the Scene Machine should also be uaeful for more m u n d a n e applications, auch aa contour m a p p i n g , automobile design, advertising photography a n d medical illustration.
It occurred to m e sometime in 1S60-1 that computer-interpolated, Disney-type cartooning methods would be feasible. After some thought 1 realized that pseudo- photography would be possible, and dropped the cartooning idea. T h e atrange behavior of people w h o m I told about this led m e to increasing secrecy. T h e general goal w a s to m a k e a system thai could do realistic movies without scenery or actors, and m a k e pictures indistinguishable from real photograph* of real scenery a n d actors. ("What do you m e a n , indistinguishable from photographs?" people keep asking. What do they m e a n what do I m e a n ? ) T h e surfacea are to be put in by "sculplora." animated by "puppeieera," a n d photographed by a "director." T h e objective is for moviemaking lo be under the utter imaginative control of the creative uaer.
I am indebted to Prof. Che for the formalization of » 1 function.
A s c e n e of a r b i t r a r y c u r v a t u r e a n d t o p o l o g y Is r e p r e s e n t e d in a a y a t e m of h o l d i n g r e g i s t e r s ; the s u r f a c e Is p r e s e n t e d ( t h r o u g h D - t o - A c o n v e r t e r s a n d an a r r a y p a r a l l e l f u n c t i o n g e n e r a t o r ) to i n t e r r o g a t i n g c i r c u i t r y w h i c h s t e e r s an i n q u i r i n g a l g n a l a r o u n d the r e p r e s e n t e d s u r f a c a a . O p e r a t i o n is e m p i r i c a l . Array h a s p a r t i t i o n l o g i c a l l o w i n g a l m u l t a n e o u a q u e r i e s of v a r l o u a s u b surfaces. F e e d b a c k s t e e r i n g c i r c u i t r y a l l o w s m u l t i p l e loopa t h r o u g h a r r a y . S t e e r i n g s i g n a l a n d returnatf s u r f a c e p a r a m e t e r are a n a l o g a n d c o n t i n u o u s . List techniquea m a n a g e a h a d o w and v i s i b i l i t y ' u m b r e l l a s ' ( s u r f a c e s of o c c u l t e d v o l u m e s or u m b r a s ) . The F a n t a s m S c e n e M a c h i n e ® 1 , tha r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d a a a r c h a r r a y , Is o n e c h i p r e p e a t e d In a c a r p e t . L a r g e - s c a l e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r m i t s the r e q u i r e d d i g i t a l a t o r a g e of a b o u t 500 b i t s p e r s u r face s e c t i o n p l u s a n a l o g c i r c u i t r y a n d s w i t c h i n g l o g i c . Patent work underway. S U M M A R Y : o u t l i n e * h a n d l e d by P e r i m e t e r P a r a m e t e r O c c u l t a t l o n C h a s i n g , f l l l - l n by B u l l e t S e a r c h , a n i m a t i o n c o n t i n u i t y m a n a g e m e n t by l i s t - p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n i q u e . .
11
T h e new p i l o t t r a i n e r w i l and d i p in r e s p o n s e to th' six Riant C R T s , w i t h optl. In fr f o c u s the e y e on I n f i n i t y at t h e s e a m s , the p i l o t w ponding perspective simul, of w o r l d he is f l y i n g t h r o u g h , p l a n d o g f l g h t l n R w i t h , and who k n o w e Superaan?
FOURTH ARTICLE. Systems of Computer Image Corporation.
SO F A R WE H A V E S U M M A R I Z E D A N D DISTINGUISHED A M O N G THE M A J O R TECHNIQUES FOR C O M P U T E R SYNTHESIS OF IMAGES F R O M DIGITALLY S T O R E D R E P R E S E N T A T I O N S OF S C E N E S . WE N O W T A K E THE W R A P S F R O M A DIFFERENT B U T R E L A T E D SET OF TECHNIQUES - T H E S Y S T E M S O F C O M P U T E R IMAGE C O R P O R A T I O N .
CAESAR S y a t e m . C h a r a c t e r s are m a d e to m o v e j a w s and H p s by J o i n t i n g t e c h n i q u e s i m i l a r to A n i s i c II ( b e l o w ) , b u t in s u c h
Lee Harrison III got the ides for what is n o w Computer Image Corporation In 1959. A l ready having an art degree, he went on for a degree In electrical engineering, snd through long lean years put together the technical basics around which Cl'a systems are n o w built. C o m puter Image Corporation Is n o w a going concern, and output from their systems. especially Scanimate, ia n o w widely visible on television.
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Computer Image Corporation aecma to be the first firm to be commercially successful In the halftone field. Whether they should be Included with the others is arguable, h o w e v e r . Their systems are not widely understood, and the relation of theae syatems to the other ayslems and programs described in these articles is problematical. A m o n g the few w h o understand their techniques, some argue thai they do not synthesize images at all. but rather twist preexisting pictures with a sort of M o o g synthesizer, and lhat their analog techniques are really just c o m p o u n d oscillators rather than Irue computing. I think that this view is w r o n g , at least as regards their most ambitloua system, and that CI's techniquea deserve review. All the world is not digital. CI aystoms do fill up areas with grey-scale (and other) pictures, and their systems involve three-dimensional coordinates, occultatlon and coloration; thus I think il a p propriate lo discuss them here.
window s p i n on i n v i s i b l e BS s e p a r a t e b o n e s
T h e following discussion is the first, I believe, to lift the veil of secrecy that has hitherto confounded observers of this company's w o r k . In the light of the extreme sophistication wilh which Ihey have pursued extremely strange techniques, they should benefit from the wider understanding. (Note that this material, which has been assembled from various sources and careful T V watching, ia partly conjectural.)
L i 3 3 a j o _ u s and z i g z a g f i g u r e s are r a p i d l y s p u n in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n -- that i s , v a r y i n g v o l t a g e s x , y and z . T h e r e s u l t i n g " t u b e s " and
S C A N I M A T E is a popular device now widely used (at CI's studios) for the making of T V c o m mercials and station-break e m b l e m s . This is their simplest system, used for the conversion and discombobulation of flat artwork. In Scanimate. the space trace is controlled by handoperated potentiometers. T w o separate oscillator settings are available, so that the space trace can have two separate oscillation patterns, spinning out two entirely different virtual shapea in 3-spacc. A handlhrotile eases from one oscillator setting to the other. This permits on image to be m o v e d , shrunk or enlarged, or flipped; to go from whirling around to a sort of hula; and m a n y more effects. T h e picture painted on it m a y be seen to roll on invisible spindles, bloom into fountains, or undulate as pennants-- all by modulating the brightness of the flying spot as it traces its unseen shape. This s h a p e , in turn, can m o v e between its two forms u n d e r control of the throttle.
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spectlve calculation. The c i r c u i t y p e r m i t s t h e s e s h a p e s to f l e x at j o i n t s , w a v e , and go t h r o u g h o t h e r III S C A N I M A T E : z i g z a g and curling shapea define a m o v i n g s c r o l l on w h i c h an I m a g e is p a i n t e d . IN C A E S A R : c u r l i n g s h a p e s a r e treated 2-dimensiona11y, as b l o c k i n g c o n t r o l s for artwork.
T h e extraordinary ramifications and varieties of this system, with sit its electronic add-on and composite m e t h o d s , stagger the most jaded technical imagination. At the heart of the CI systems is the principle of filling areaa of a C R T screen with an oscillating trace. This is a principle c o m m o n lo both Lissajoua figures and television; but Computer Image has elaborated il peculiarly. B y variations they paint twisted television i m a g e s , wiggle sections of superimposed d r a w i n g s , create moving filigree effects, and hope to animate whole groups of opaque electronic puppets in 3-space.
be r o t a t e d and s h a p e d in n a y e v e n t u a l l y be r o l l e d I I ) , w h i c h m a y t h e n be on the a i d e n e a r e s t the
By u s i n g a s t o r a g e t u b e and s p i n n i n g the t r a c e c l o s e t o g e t h e r , like c o t t o n c a n d y , and c u t t i n g off t h e p a i n t i n g s i g n a l w h i l e t h e t r a c e is w i t h i n t h e area a l r e a d y f i l l e d , we get e l e c t r o n i c m a s k i n g : v/hlch b l e n d s a n i m a t e d d r a w i n g s In 2D ( C A E S A R ) an.' way e v e n t u a l l y m a n a g e s h a d o w s and o c c u l t a t l o n m a s k i n g a m o n g 3D p u p p e t s ( A n i m a c I I ) .
Computer Image's syatems represent an apparently unpromising approach brilliantly followed through. All of CI's systems are a strange combination of closed-circuit T V and analog components out of a music synthesizer: oscillators, potentiometers, interconnection networks. T h e basic mechanisms are the same for all. but they ere carried to different logical extremes, with differing accoutrements, in the four systems. T h e y all seem to be based on the extraordinary Animac II, not yet implemented; it would seem thai for business reasons the c o m p a n y decided to raise m o n e y promoting simpler systems, so its bread and butter n o w consists of two less ambitious systems, Scanimate snd A n i m a c I; both of which might be puzzling if not recognized as parts of a more elegant w h o l e . It would seem they were designed b a c k w a r d s as spinoffs from A n i m a c II, as w a s C A E S A R . their more recent 2-D system.
A fascinating variety of embellishments has been put into these systems by CI's ingenious engineers. Coloration of Ihe final video signal ia added by gating color levels under control of the brightness signal, permitting pictures with several grey-levela to be transformed to up to four rainbow h u e s . Separate shapes described by the space trace m a y be independently m o v e d and jointed at the same time: Harrison pointedly calls such separate shapes "bones." Darkening at the backside of a spun s h a p e , or brightening at edges of a painted portion, and brightening in proportion to curl, are all strange capabilities of this machine. Lipsynchronized mouthlike motion can be imparted to any part of the shape spun by the space trace (whether or not a mouth is painted on it), by an audio detector feeding directly lo the circuitry from a live m i k e . A n d the limba of CI's ghostly figures can be m a d e to swing by connection of sensors to Ihe animators themselves-- in a living pantograph.
rt of w o r l d : Into a p e e u l l s undulate nnj s p i n d l e s ( S e a n l a a t e ) , or w l g g U (CAESAR.
T u b e l i k e s h a p e s may 3D ( A n l a i c ) , and p u p p e t s like c i g a r e t t e s ( A n i m a c p a i n t e d from a T V p i c k u p viewpoint.
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cut o f f the b r i g h t n e s s of a l r e a d y an l m a R e on t h e s c r e e n .
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Consider an oscillating trace on an oscilloscope. This is a two-dimensional oscillation, having two signals, x and y . But a three-dimensional oscillation is also possible; any third signal, z, can be interpreted as a third dimension, meaning that a "point of light" is whirling out some pattern in a three-dimensional space— an oacillotank. so to speak. Let us call this point moving in three dimensions a "space trace."
A last Ct technique, technically minor but remarkable in effect, permits thla blocking end shadowing a m o n g separate objects. This is the use of a storage C R T tube on which every frame is painted (from the viewpoint or from the light source). T h e picture is painted on the storage C R T , nearest things first; snd the return signal from the screen tells whether the apace traee is crossing an area already painted during Ihe frame. T h e tube's output signal then effectively conBtitutea a silhouette. This clue Indicates that the space trace should not be visible; and hence is used lo cut off brightness while the trace la within the already-filled area. This gates between two desired objects or pictures, foreground and b a c k g r o u n d . If operated from ihe point of view of the light. It gates shadow: the signal is used to control the relative brightness of the s h a d o w e d and u n a h a d o w e d features of a puppet in 1-apace.
A n i m a c 1 (usually called A n i m a c ) provides greater flexibility in controlling the space trace. T h e syslem's oscillations ore controlled by an input vidicon, which artists m a y quickly modify with pastel check at the pickup. Ghostly tubular lettering, s w a r m i n g pendulum-patterns and jiggling filigrees are a m o n g the possible doodles. C A E S A R , their newest system, is oriented toward Yogi Bear-type animation. T h e artist's cartoons are automatically superimposed on s b a c k g r o u n d or each other. T h e y m a y be m o v e d , and m a d e to wiggle u n d e r real-time control by the user. But it is to A n i m a c II that these curiosities lead. What Harrison calls the "Snow While Capability" of A n i m a c II will permit the sculpture of full humanoid puppets, wilh perhaps thirty articulated "bones." opaque to one another and casting s h a d o w s , colored, m o v i n g and talking.
T w o y o u n g f e l l a s in a M a n h a t t a n l o f t . M e s s r s . Rutt and E t r a , are offering a m a c h i n e s i o l l a r to S c a n i m a t e hut m u c h
RE RUTT ETRA
N o w lo view this trace w e need to cut it d o w n to two dimensions. By ignoring one of the traces w e can view the oscillotank In certain fixed w a y s ; but by creating a "view calculator," a b o x performing certain perspective tranaTormationa on the three signals of the space trace, w e m a y obtain a view of the oscillotank from a movable vantage point. This is an x-y view which w e m a y put on an ordinary oscilloscope. Let us now add one more signal, b (for brightness). This is the brightness signal familiar in tele via ion. Brightness of the spot is thus independent of the m o v e m e n t of the apace trace. For e x a m p l e , the apace trace could describe a helical path, a sort of tornado motion, and w e could time its apinning to phase with a T V signal. If w e n o w brighten ihe apace trace only with the brightneaa signal of a T V pickup, w e n o w will see (in our view of the oscillotank) what would look like a T V picture curled around itself in space. s built around
Output from all these signals is ordinarily picked u p by another vidicon. which stabilises it by converting it into conventional television Imagery.
T h e o n l y p i c t u r e I've b e e n a b l e to f i n d t h a t r e l a t e s to the 3D s c u l p t u r i n g of A n i m a c II is t h i s f r a m e , b l o w n up from a s h o r t 16nm s e q u e n c e . T h e f i g u r e la s c u l p tured f r o m o s c i l l a t i o n s In t h r e e v a r i a b l e s , m o d u l a t e d to r e p r e s e n t thla f i g u r e of t h i r teen s e c t i o n s or " b o n e s . " H e a d and t o r s o a r e c l e a r l y v i s i b l e in the f i l m ; the f i g u r e
I t ' s not as f i n e l y d u t i i l . d - the Inner s c r e e n r u n s at 525 l i n e s r a t h e r than 7 0 0 — b u t it c o s t s a o m e $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 I n s t e a d of 3 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 .
40
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W H A T A B O U T REAL
THREE-DIMENSIONAL DISPLAY?
Lou K a t z , of N Y U , put o l d - f a s h i o n e d s t e r e o p ticons up to the C R T , and d i s p l a y e d two s e p a r a t e v i e w s to the two e y e s . W o r k s f i n e , e v e n w i t h isometric display.
In science-fiction stories y o u hear about h o w objects are m a d e to appear as if they're standing in the middle of the r o o m . For instance, I believe that in Heinlein's Stranger in a Strange L a n d they watched a "tank" in w h i c h things appeared.
B o b Spinrad of X e r o x Data Systems has a patent o n displaying 3D from a * o m p u t e r through an ordinary color T V . A s s u m i n g you're using s o m e standard w a y of refreshing the T V - - d e s cribed elsewhere-- the i m a g e for one eye is displayed in g r e e n . the other in r e d , a n d y o u look through red a n d fcreen glasses. T h e w o n d e r s of m o d e r n science. Spinrad chuckles over It h i m self.
Well, a lot of people h a v e thought about this, a n d it's not so easy as y o u might think. O n e interesting s c h e m e used a sort of translucent propellor. spinning rather fast, on which computer-generated images w e r e p r o jected from b e l o w . It w a s d o n e b y the dotting m e t h o d , so that a bright dot of light w o u l d a p pear high or low in space d e p e n d i n g on w h e ther it w a s projected on a relatively high or low point o n the propellor.
A n o t h e r s c h e m e glued silver M y l a r to the front of a l o u d s p e a k e r , then played a soft h u m through the loudspeaker to pulse the M y l a r b a c k a n d forth. T h e n y o u used that as a mirror to look at w h a t w a s going o n the C R T - - w h i c h w a s s h o w i n g a lot of points at o d d places that w o u l d a p p e a r to be in s p a c e . Unfortunately this w a s hard to coordinate, a n d , like the propellor, often required y o u to put dots in several places at o n c e , w h i c h don't w o r k .
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For a while y o u could get— m a y b e y o u still c a n — a three-dimensional c o m p u t e r output device. Here's w h a t it did: it created objects s h o w i n g data structures that h a d three variables. (It didn't m a k e wire-frame objects or the like.) Automatically ejecting wire through a styrofoam b l o c k , a n d snipping the d o n e o n e s , it created little m o u n t a i n s s h o w i n g three-dimensional data. V e r y cute. Since m a n y people h a v e p r o b l e m s with m o u n t a i n o u s c o m p u t e r data, it probably should h a v e caught o n .
T h e n a lot of people m u m b l e the w o r d "holography," as if that is going to settle s o m e thing. While h o l o g r a m s are terrific a n d r e m a r k able, a n d h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d o n c o m p u t e r s , m a k i n g t h e m is not a process that c a n be carried out decently o n sequential m a c h i n e s — let alone m a k i n g t h e m in real time. S o if a solution to interactive three-dimensional c o m p u t e r display is going to c o m e t h r o u g h h o l o g r a p h y , it m e a n s a w h o l e n e w batch of technology will h a v e to b e invented.
This w a s interesting but h a d n u m e r o u s disadvantages-- not the least of w h i c h w a s the d a n g e r of the thing flying apart. (Translucent materials tend not to be as strong a s , s a y , metal.) Another basic p r o b l e m , t h o u g h , w a s the fact that a n y given point in the space could only be displayed at a given time, w h e n the propellor's height in that region w a s just right, a n d that m e a n t that at that given instant y o u couldn't display a n y of the other points that could only be displayed at that instant. A c o n siderable disadvantage. Probably the most astonishing 3 D display is Sutherland's Incredible H e l m e t . This consists Df a helmet with two dinky C R T s m o u n t e d o n it, each being driven in real time b y a perspective system (such as the L D S - 1 ) a n d set u p with prisms to the wearer's e y e s . T h r o u g h the p r i s m s the w e a r e r can see the real w o r l d in front of h i m . Reflected in the p r i s m s , h o w e v e r , a n d thus m i x e d into the view of the real w o r l d , is the g l o w i n g wire-frame being presented to him-- in p e r s p e c tive, a n d with its separate v i e w s m e r g i n g into an apparent object in front of h i m . But he n e e d not stand still: as he m o v e s , the helmet's c h a n ging position is monitored b y the p r o g r a m , a n d the display system c h a n g e s the v i e w s accordingly m e a n i n g he can walk a r o u n d a n d through a displayed object. T h e illusion, a n d the possibilities, are fantastic: imaginary architecture, explanations a n d diagrams of things in the r o o m , poetry that c h a n g e s as y o u walk through it, ... well, y o u w o r k on it. Not available commercially.
T h e r e w a s a lot to b e said for tents. T h e y could b e m a d e b y tailors, rather than c o n s t r u c tion g a n g s ; they could b e transported a n d stored flat. T h e i r surface-to-volume ratios couldn't be beat. Noting this, a n architect n a m e d R o n R e s c h said to himself: w h a t about m a k i n g large-scale foldable structures, likeunto geodesic d o m e s , that cou Id b e simply m a n u f a c t u r e d in sheet form a n d creased at the factory, then bolted a n d cabled a n d strutted in the field? R e s c h h a s n o w for y e a r s b e e n e x p e r i m e n t i n g with c o m p l e x folded structures.
M y friend A n d r e w J . S i n g e r , w h o c o m e s a n d goes in the c o m p u t e r field a n d is o n e of the five or six smartest people I ever m e t , says h e k n o w s h o w to build a display t a n k , a n d I believe h i m . H e explained it quickly to m e o n c e a n d I a s k e d h i m to tell it a g a i n , but he just said s a d l y , "What's the use-- there are so m a n y great things that could be d o n e . . . "
FOUR DIMENSIONS, EGAD So m u c h for three d i m e n s i o n s . N o w , s o m e readers are b o u n d to a s k , " W h a t about four d i m ensions?" b e c a u s e they are science-fiction fans or troublemakers or mathematicians or s o m e t h i n g . Just as w e can m a k e a two-dimensional picture of a three-dimensional object, it is p o s sible, d e a r r e a d e r , to m a k e a two-dimensional picture of a four-dimensional object. W h a t is a four-dimensional object?
There's only o n e trouble. If y o u ' v e m e s s e d with p a p e r airplanes y o u k n o w that folding is an inaccurate p r o c e s s , a n d so the prospect of discovering c o m p l e x geometric structures b y the hand-folding of p a p e r is rather slim. R e c o g n i z i n g this, R e s c h has contrived to w o r k at a c o m p u t e r display. His w o r k — the search for great folding structures-- is o n e of the first practical uses of halftone p o l y g o n c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s . H e is, naturally, at the University of U t a h .
W h y , a n y object that has four d i m e n s i o n s , (thanks a lot, y o u s a y ) , or e v e n four m e a s u r a b l e qualities, s u c h as height, w e i g h t , age a n d g r a d e point a v e r a g e . Well, let's not get into that, but it turns out that v i e w s of such multidimensional structures m a y b e obtained b y the s a m e h o m o g e n e o u s matrix techniques already mentioned for regular perspective calculations. Rule of t h u m b : h o w e v e r m a n y dimensions y o u r data has originally, y o u a d d o n e m o r e d i m e n s i o n , h o m o g e n e o u s with the rest, a n d there exist formulas (sorry, I don't h a v e t h e m ) for view calculation. (Note, of c o u r s e , that while a t w o - d i m e n sional view is a picture, a three-dimensional view is a three-dimensional object-- you'll h a v e to view it o n an interactive 3 D c o m p u t e r display of s o m e kind.)
From videotape, "The Hydrogen Atom According to Quantum Mechanics" by T.J. O'Donnell & David Parrish.
I t i s u s u a l l y hard t o combine t h i n g s : especially complicated technical things. Usually i t takes i n f i n i t e r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , finagling, modification, intertwingling. The C i r c l e G r a p h i c s H a b i t a t , h o w e v e r , i s something else again. I tr e s u l t s from two i n t r i c a t e , i n d e p e n d e n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s , e a c h an i n t r i c a t e s y s t e m c a r e f u l l y c r a f t e d b y an e x c e p t i o n a l l y t a l e n t e d p e r s o n , coming t o g e t h e r l i k e t w o hands c l a p i n g . L i k e ham a n d e g g s , l i k e man a n d woman, S a n d i n ' s Image P r o c e s s o r a n d D e F a n t i ' s GRASS language c o n j o i n d i r e c t l y and i n t e r a c t p e r f e c t l y as i f t h e y h a d b e e n made f o r e a c h o t h e r , which they were n o t . Dan S a n d i n ' s Image P r o c e s s o r ( s e e p.J>M&) i s a system o f c i r c u i t boxes t h a t a l l o w v i d e o images t o be d y n a m i c a l l y c o l o r e d , matt e d , d i s s o l v e d a n d p a l p i t a t e d ; Tom D e F a n t i ' s l a n g u a g e ( s e e "Coup de GRASS, p . j ) ^ ' 3 l ) p e r m i t s t h e r a p i d c r e a t i o n , v i e w i n g and manipu l a t i o n o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t s on t h e screen o f a p a r t i c u l a r computer setup. To c o m b i n e t h e m , y o u j u s t s y s t e m a t Tom's s y s t e m .
p o i n t Dan's
L e t ' s s a y t h a t o n t h e s c r e e n o f Tom's s y s t e m we a r e v i e w i n g a n a n i m a t e d b i r d , f l a p p i n g i t s wings. S i n c e i t ' s b e i n g shown on a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e f r e s h e d l i n e d i s p l a y ( s e e pp-iUZT-S.iAJ") , i t a p p e a r s o n l y as w h i t e l i n e s on a d a r k s c r e e n . Dan m e r e l y p o i n t s a TV c a m e r a a t Tom's s c r e e n , a n d r u n s t h e TV s i g n a l i n t o h i s I m age P r o c e s s o r . Now, i n t h e Image P r o c e s s o r , he g i v e s i t t h e m a g i c o f c o l o r . Different c o l o r s , i n t e r p l a y i n g w i t h g r a d a t i o n s and subtlety.
From videotape, "The Number Cruncher, by TDF & DJS.
From videotape, "The Spiral Tape,' by DJS and TDF.
From t h e Image P r o c e s s o r , t h e f i n i s h e d s i g n a l goes o u t t o v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s . What t h e n h a v e we o v e r a l l ? One o f t h e w o r l d ' s most f l e x i b l e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e rapid production o f educational videotapes. To e x p l a i n s o m e t h i n g , y o u c r e a t e a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t i c k - f i g u r e "model" o f i t , u s i n g D e F a n t i ' s GRASS l a n g u a g e . Then y o u make a v i d e o t a p e o f i t , s h o w i n g r o t a t i o n s o r o t h e r m a n i p u l a t i o n s , u s i n g t h e Image P r o c e s sor t o give i t c o l o r . D e F a n t i a n d S a n d i n h a v e s p e n t much o f t h e a c a d e m i c y e a r '73-4 g e t t i n g t h e k i n k s o u t of t h i s procedure. (Many o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s stem f r o m t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f v i d e o t a p e r e corders.) S t i l l s f r o m some o f t h e f i r s t w o r k a r e shown h e r e .
BIBLIOGRAPHY Thomas A. D e F a n t i , D a n i e l J . S a n d i n a n d T h e o d o r H. N e l s o n , " C o m p u t e r G r a p h i c s as a Way o f L i f e . " To be p r e s e n t e d a t U. of Colorado computer g r a p h i c s c o n f e r e n c e , J u l y 1974; t o appear i n p r o c e e d i n g s purp o r t e d l y t o be c a l l e d C o m p u t e r s a n d G r a p h i c s •
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Uneducated people typically think of e d u c a t i o n as the l e a r n i n g of a lot of f a c t s and s k i l l s . While facts and skills certainly h a v e t h e i r m e r i t s , " h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n " is a l s o largely concerned with tying ideas together, and especially alternative structures of such tying-together: with s h o w i n g you the vast u n certainties of things.
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A w o n d e r f u l J a p a n e s e film of the fifties was called Rasho-Mon. It d e p i c t e d a s p e c i f i c e v e n t - - a r a p e - - as told by five d i f f e r e n t people. As the a u d i e n c e w a t c h e s the five s e parate s t o r i e s , they m u s t try to j u d g e w h a t really happened.
Nobody tells the complete truth, though some try. N o b o d y knows the c o m p l e t e truth. N o w h e r e may we find p r i n t e d the c o m p l e t e truth. There are only different views, assertions, supposed facts that support one view or another b u t are d i s p u t e d by d i s b e l i e v e r s in the p a r t i c u lar v i e w s ; and so o n . There are "agreed-on f a c t s , " b u t t h e i r m e a n i n g is o f t e n in d o u b t .
1. DECIDE WHAT YOU WANT TO L E A R N . But you can't know e x a c t l y , because of course you don't know exactly h o w any f i e l d i s s t r u c t u r e d u n t i l y o u k n o w a l l a b o u t i t . 0*1 iT, 2. READ EVERYTHING YOU CAN * especially w h a t you e n j o y , since that way you can read more of it and f a s t e r . 3. G R A B FOR I N S I G H T S . Regardless of points others are trying to m a k e , when you recognize an insight that has m e a n i n g for y o u , m a k e i t y o u r o w n . I t m a y h a v e to d o w i t h t h e s h a p e o f m o l e c u l e s , o r t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of a s p e c i f i c e m p e r o r , o r t h e q u i r k s o f a G r e a t M a n in the P i e l d . Its i m p o r t a n c e is n o t h o w c e n t r a l i t i s , b u t h o w c l e a r a n d i n t e r e s t i n g a n d m e m o r a b l e to y o u . R E M E M B E R I T . T h e n g o f o r another.
T h e great c o m p r o m i s e of the w e s t e r n w o r l d is that w e go b y the r u l e : a s s u m e t h a t w e n e v e r know the final truth a b o u t a n y t h i n g . There are continuing Issues, Mysteries, Continuing Dialogues . What about flying saucers, "why Rome fell," was there a Passover P l o t , and Did Roosevelt know Pearl Harbor would be attacked?
4. TIE INSIGHTS T O G E T H E R . Soon you will have your o w n s t r i n g o f i n s i g h t s in a f i e l d , l i k e t h e s t r i n g o f l i g h t s around a Christmas tree.
Outsiders find the intellectual world pompous , v a g u e in its u n d e c i d e d i s s u e s , s t u f f y in its q u o t e s and c i t a t i o n s . B u t in a w a y these are the sounds of b a t t l e . The clash of theories is w h a t m a n y f i n d e x h i l a r a t i n g a b o u t t h e i n t e l lectual world. T h e S c h o l a r l y A r e n a is s i m p l y a C i r c u s H a x i m u s in w h i c h t h e s e b a t t l e s a r e s c h e duled.
5. CONCENTRATE ON MAGAZINES, NOT B O O K S . Magazines have far m o r e insights p e r inch o f t e x t , a n d c a n b e read nuch f a s t e r . B u t w h e n a b o o k r e a l l y s p e a k s t o y o u , l a v i s h attention o n f t . 6.
M a n y p e o p l e t h i n k " s c i e n c e " is f r e e f r o m all t h i s . These are people who do not know much about science. M o r e a n d m o r e is s c i e n t i f i c a l l y k n o w n , t r u e ; b u t it is r e p e a t e d l y d i s c o v e r e d that s o m e s c i e n t i f i c " k n o w l e d g e " is u n t r u e , a n d this p r o b l e m is b u i l t i n t o t h e s y s t e m . The important t h i n g a b o u t s c i e n c e is n o t t h a t e v e r y t h i n g w i l l be known, or that everything unanimously believe d b y s c i e n t i s t s is n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e , b u t t h a t s c i e n c e c o n t a i n s a systern f o r s e e k i n g untruth and purging it.
8. "FIND YOUR MAN." S o m e w h e r e in t h e w o r l d is s o m e o n e who will answer your questions extraordinarily w e l l . If y o u find h i m , dog h i m . He may be a janitor or a teenage kid; no m a t t e r . F o l l o w h i m w i t h y o u r b e g g i n g - b o w l , if t h a t ' s w h a t h e w a n t s , or take him to expensive r e s t a u r a n t s , or w h a t e v e r . 9. KEEP IMPROVING YOUR Q U E S T I O N S . Probably in y o u r h e a d t h e r e a r e q u e s t i o n s t h a t d o n ' t s e e m to l i n e u p w i t h what you're hearing. Don't assume that-you don't understand; keep adjusting the q u e s t i o n s till y o u can g e t a n answer that relates to w h a t you w a n t e d . 1 0 . Y O U R F I E L D IS B O U N D E D W H E R E YOU W A N T I T T O B E . J u s t b e c a u s e o t h e r s g r o u p a n d s t e r e o t y p e t h i n g s in c o n v e n t i o n al w a y s does not m e a n they are necessarily r i g h t . Intellectual s u b j e c t s a r e c o n n e c t e d e v e r y w h i c h w a y ; y o u r f i e l d is w h a t y o u think it i s . (Again, this is one of t h e . t h i n g s that w i l l give you insights and k e e p you m o t i v a t e d ; but it will get you into t r o u b l e if y o u try t o g o f o r d e g r e e s . )
"Knowledge," then-- and indeed mos t of our civilization and w h a t remains of those p r e v i o u s - is a v a s t y c r o s s - t a n g l e o f i d e a s a n d e v i d e n t i a l m a t e r i a l s , not a p y r a m i d of truth. So that p r e serving its s t r u c t u r e , and i m p r o v i n g its a c c e s s i b i l i t y , is i m p o r t a n t to u s a l l . reason
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FIND YOUR OWN SPECIAL TOPICS, AND PURSUE T H E M .
7. GO TO C O N V E N T I O N S . For some reason, conventions are a s p l e n d i d c o n c e n t r a t e d w a y t o l e a r n t h i n g s ; t a l k i n g to p e o p l e h e l p s . D o n ' t t h i n k y o u h a v e to b e a n y b o d y s p e c i a l to g o to a convention; just plunk down your m o n e y . But you have to have a h a n d l e . C a l l i n g y o u r s e l f a C o n s u l t a n t i s g o o d ; " S t u d e n t " is perfectly honorable.
T h i s is t h e g r e a t t r a d i t i o n o f w e s t e r n civilization. T h e W e s t e r n W o r l d i s , in an important sense, a continuing dialogue among people who have thought different things. " S c h o l a r s h i p " is the t r a d i t i o n o f t r y i n g t o improve, collate and resolve u n c e r t a i n t i e s . The fundamental ground rules are that no issue is e v e r c l o s e d , n o i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e . It a l l c o m e s d o w n to w h a t is w r i t t e n , b e c a u s e the t h o u g h t s and m i n d s t h e m s e l v e s , of c o u r s e , do not last. (The apparatus of citation and f o o t note are simply a combination of h a t - t i p p i n g , go-look-if-you-don't-believe-me, and you-mightwant-to-read-this-yourself.)
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A s Ear a s I c a n t e l l , t h e s e a r e the t e c h n i q u e s u s e d b y b r i g h t p e o p l e w h o w a n t to l e a r n s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n b y t a k i n g c o u r a e a in i t . I t ' s t h e w a y P h . D . ' a p i c k u p a second field; it's the way journalists and "geniuses" operate) it b r i n g s the g e n e r a l understandings of a field that children of e m i n e n t p e o p l e in that field g e t as a b i r t h r i g h t ! i t ' s t h e w a y a n y b o d y c a n l e a r n a n y t h i n g , if he h a s the n e r v e .
T h e R a s h o - M o n P r i n c i p l e : e v e r y t h i n g is like that. The complete truth about something is n e v e r k n o w n .
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T h e r e are l i m i t a t i o n s . T h i s d o e s n ' t g i v e you lab e x p e r i e n c e , and y o u w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y have to be m a k i n g up for g a p s . B u t for a l e r t n e s s a n d the a b i l i t y to use his m i n d , give me the m a n w h o ' s learned this w a y , rather than been b l i n k e r e d and c l i c h e d to d e a t h w i t h i n the educational s y s t e m .
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BIBLIOGRAPHY W i l m a r S h i r a s , C h i l d r e n o f the A t o m . Science-Fiction a b o u t w h a t a school could be like w h e r e k i d s r e a l l y u s e d t h e i r m i n d s . I've a l w a y s b e e n s u r e i t w a s p o s s i b l e ; t h e R . E . S . I . S . T . O . R . S . (see p . made me surer.
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being an e x a m i n a t i o n of some v e r y C o m p l e x H a t t e r s w h i c h N o b o d y Seems to U n d e r s t a n d ; and whose Generality of Relevance may be Gradually A p p r e h e n d e d . ( E v e n t u a l l y I h o p e to d e v e l o p a s o m e w h a t m o r e f o r m a l t r e a t m e n t o f " i d e a s , " as d i s t i n c t from p r o p o s i t i o n s , s e n t e n c e k e r n e l s , e t c . B u t there is c e r t a i n l y n o r o o m for that h e r e . (Logicians! show me the truth-table of "BUT.") T h e p r o c e s s of w r i t i n g is p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d in m o s t q u a r t e r s . M a n y w o r k i n g w r i t e r s d e s p a i r of b e i n g " s y s t e m a t i c , " g e t t i n g things done as b e s t they c a n . On the other h a n d , people w h o think t h e y m i g h t b e a b l e to c o n t r i b u t e - - p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s y m b o l i c l o g i c i a n s a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t s — b e i n g i m m e r s e d in t h e i r o w n f o r m a l i s m s , simply d o n ' t see w h a t ' s going o n — a t l e a s t , w h e n I've tried to talk to them. W r i t i n g is n o t s i m p l e . A s w i t h v i s i o n o r s p e e c h o r r i d i n g a b i c y c l e , an i m m e n s e l y c o m p l e x p r o c e s s is b e i n g u n c o n s c i o u s l y p u r sued. Some people think you m a k e an o u t l i n e and follow i t , filling o u t the d e t a i l s o f the o u t l i n e u n t i l the p i e c e is f i n i s h e d . This is a b s u r d . (True, some people can do t h i s , but that is simply a shortcutting of the real process.) Basically w r i t i n g is THE TRY-AND-TRY-AGAIN INTERPLAY of PARTS AND DETAILS OVERALL AND UNIFYING IDEAS WHICH KEEP CHANGING. In f a c t a n u m b e r o f t h i n g s a r e h a p p e n i n g , o f t e n We can separate them into three:
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simultaneously.
1.
P r o v i s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of ideas and points: A) forming o v e r a l l o r g a n i z i n g i d e a s , B) s e l e c t i n g t e n tative points; C) inductively finding overall o r g a n i z a tion among them; D) finding r e l a t i o n s of i n t e r e s t b e t w e e n points. 2. C o m p l e x s i f t i n g a n d a d j u s t m e n t a m o n g c o l l e c t i o n s of p o i n t s , overall ideas.
N o w , it h a p p e n s t h a t a g r e a t d e a l of w r i t i n g is c o n c e r n e d w i t h n o t e s t o t h e r e a d e r a b o u t a c c o r d a n c e s in t h e m a t e r i a l . In f a c t , q u i t e a few w o r d s are e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h s u b t l y p o i n t i n g o u t to the reader the accords and d i s c o r d s w i t h i n the expository structure of w h a t he is r e a d i n g . W e m a y c a l l t h e s e a c c o r d a n c e - c o n n e c t i v e s or accordance-notes. T w o of the i
; basic terms are Indeed and b u t .
T h e w o r d indeed h a s an i n t e r e s t i n g
function.
T h e w o r d i n d e e d (in i t s m a i n u s e , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e ) i n d i c a t e s a n a c c o r d b e t w e e n w h a t h a s j u s t b e e n s a i d a n d w h a t is t o follow. In o t h e r w o r d s , i t f u n c t i o n s a s a p o s i t i v e t r a n s i t i o n , i m p e t u s o r g a s p e d a l , i n d i c a t i n g a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e f l o w in t h e d i r e c t i o n already indicated. So do the w o r d s t h u s , t h e n , t h e r e f o r e , m o r e o v e r , so and furthermore• T h e s e a r e i n f i x a c c o r d s , t h a t i s , n o t e s of accord that go b e t w e e n two i t e m s . We also see prefix a c c o r d s , such as s i n c e . Inasmuch a s , insofar a s ; these h a v e to be followed by two c l a u s e s , the s e c o n d of w h i c h is in a c c o r d w i t h the f i r s t . T h e w o r d b u t is e x a c t l y the o p p o s i t e . It i n d i c a t e s a d i s c o r d or c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n , a n e g a t i v e t r a n s i t i o n , " b r a k e s " in t h e f l o w , other such infix discords include n e v e r t h e l e s s , despite t h i s , on the other h a n d , even s o , and "Actually,.••" S i m i l a r l y , there are prefix d i s cords: w h i l e , despite, though•.., notwithstanding• I find t h i s t o p i c of inquiry v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e s e sorts of terms have been used since time immemorial by writers adjusting their t r a n s i t i o n s for s m o o t h flow (note s u c h a n t i q u e y v a r i a n t s as h a p l y , h o w b e i t , w i t h a l , forasmuch and h o w s o m e v e r ) , b u t the importance and structure of this service has n o t , I t h i n k , been generally understood. (Note a l s o t h a t t h e r e a r e m o r e i n t r i c a t e a c c o r d a n c e - c o n n e c t i v e s : I wish we could go here into the structure of h F*g|-..j s t l e a s t , . . .if_ n o t . . . , . . . o t h e r w i s e . . . , A n y w a y . . . , a n d N o w . . . . )
(Note: the t r y - a n d - t r y - a g a i n revision and reconsideration p r o c e s s , t i n k e r i n g w i t h s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , is a u n i v e r s a l c o m p o n e n t of the c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s in e v e r y t h i n g from m o v i e e d i t i n g to m a c h i n e d e s i g n . T h e r e o u g h t to b e a n a m e for i t . I c a n ' t t h i n k of a s a t i s f a c tory o n e , a l t h o u g h I w o u l d c o m m e n d to y o u r a t t e n t i o n g r a n d e s i g n l n g , piece-whole diddlework, grand fuddling, meta-mogrification, and t h a t m o s t e x a l t e d p o s s i b i l i t y , t a g n e b u l o p s i s (the v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e in c l o u d s ) . )
T h e past is like the r e c e d i n g v i e w out the b a c k of a n a u t o m o b i l e : the m o s t r e c e n t is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s , a n d e v e r y t h i n g seems e v e n t u a l l y t o b e l o s t . 3.
Fine splicing within developed sequences. A) transition a n d j u x t a p o s i t i o n m a n a g e m e n t s , B) c i t a t i o n s , C) s m o o t h i n g .
cross-
R e g r e t t a b l y , there's no r o o m or time to p u r s u e this h e r e . {The a r t i c l e I h a d i n t e n d e d t o w r i t e w o u l d t a k e a w h o l e s p r e a d . ) For people w h o really care about the m a t t e r , I w i l l make some p o i n t s in v e r y a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m . T h e interesting s t r u c t u r e s in w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l
include:
"Points"— pieces, sentences, phrases, examples, plot and expository "points."
events,
Organizing principles and structures (which w e w i l l c a l l here a r c h e s ) — final i r o n i e s , things to b e led up t o , t h e m e s , p l o t s , concepts, principles, expository structures, -organizing titles, overconcepts. These may be either local or g l o b a l , over the entire w o r k . (Note: arches may n o t b e h e i r a r c h i c a l relative to one another.) Now, we may think of points and arches as individual objects which have i n d i v i d u a l r e l a t i o n s to one a n o t h e r . B e t w e e n two p o i n t s there, m a y b e a g o o d t r a n s i t i o n ; a s p e c i f i c p o i n t m a y l i n k w e l l t o a specific arch. T h e p r o b l e m in w r i t i n g , t h e n , is t h a t o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e s y o u c h o o s e ( s y s t e m s o f a r c h e s ) m a y n o t l i n k w e l l to t h e p o i n t s t h a t h a v e to b e i n c l u d e d a m o n g t h e m ; a n d t h a t t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n p o i n t s don't work out the way you want them t o . Good transitions can't be worked out for the sequence of points you w a n t to m a k e , o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , there are too many good transitions w i t h i n a specific s t r u c t u r e of p o i n t s , and p i c k i n g among them i n v o l v e s d i f f i c u l t c h o i c e s — especially when y o u have to d e v i s e a p p r o p r i a t e arches on the b a s i s of the f i n a l s e q u e n c e of p o i n t s . T h e r e are a n u m b e r of o t h e r i m p o r t a n t s t r u c t u r e s in w r i t t e n material. T h e y include accordances, juxtapositions, cross-citations, connotations, nuances and rhythms. The only ones w e will discuss here are
accordances.
T h e term " a c c o r d a n c e , " as I s h a l l use it h e r e , is s i m p l y a vaguely f o r m a l w a y of talking a b o u t w h e t h e r t h i n g s m a t c h or fit t o g e t h e r . T w o i t e m s a r e i n a c c o r d if t h e y m a t c h o r f i t w e l l , o r i n d i s c o r d if t h e y m a t c h o r f i t b a d l y . T h u s a g o o d t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n p o i n t s (as m e n t i o n e d e a r l y ) r e p r e s e n t s a n a c c o r d , a n d a g o o d l i n k b e t w e e n a p o i n t a n d a n a r c h is a l s o a n a c c o r d .
We know we chould save t h i n g s , but what? Those w i t h t h e j o b o f s a v i n g t h i n g s — t h e l i b r a r i e s and m u s e u m s — s a v e s o m a n y of t h e w r o n g t h i n g s , t h e f a s h i o n a b l e and e x p e n s i v e and h i g h - t o n e d things esteemed by a given t i m e , a n d m o s t of t h e r e s t s l i p s p a s t . E a c h g e n e r a t i o n s e e m s to r i d i c u l e t h e t h i n g s h e l d in e s t e e m b y t i m e s b e f o r e , b u t o f c o u r s e t h i s c a n n e v e r b e a g u i d e to w h a t s h o u l d b e s a v e d . A n d t h e r e i s s o m u c h to s a v e : m u s i c , writing, sinking Venice, vanishing species. But why should things be saved? E v e r y t h i n g is deeply i n t e r t w i n g l e d . We save for k n o w l e d g e and n o s talgia, but what we thought was knowledge often turns to n o s t a l g i a , a n d n o s t a l g i a o f t e n b r i n g s u s d e e p e r i n s i g h t s that cut a c r o s s our lives and v e r y s e l v e s . * C o m p u t e r s offer an i n t e r e s t i n g d a y d r e a m : that w e m a y b e a b l e to s t o r e t h i n g s d i g i t a l l y i n s t e a d o f physically. In o t h e r w o r d s , t u r n t h e l i b r a r i e s to d i g i tal s t o r a g e (see H y p e r t e x t s , digitize paintings and p h o t o g r a p h s (see " P i c t u r e P r o c e s s i n g , p . » * | 0 ) ; e v e n d i g i t i z e t h e g e n e t i c c o d e s o f a n i m a l s , so t h a t s p e c i e s c a n b e r e s t o r e d a t f u t u r e d a t e s (see " T h e H i t i e s t C o m puter," p. t o ) .
pVsH);
Digital storage possesses several special advantages. D i g i t a l l y stored m a t e r i a l s may be copied by automatic m e a n B ; c o r r e c t i v e m e a s u r e s a r e p o s s i b l e , to p r e v e n t e r r o r s f r o m c r e e p i n g I n — i . e . , " n o d e t e r i o r a t i o n " In p r i n c i p l e ; and they could be k e p t in v a r i o u s p l a c e s , lessening m a n k i n d ' s d e p e n d e n c e o n i t s e g g s b e i n g a l l in o n e b a s k e t ( l i k e the L i b r a r y at A l e x a n d r i a , w h o s e b u r n i n g d u r i n g the o c c u p a t i o n of J u l i u s C a e s a r w a s o n e of the g r e a t e s t l o s s e s in human history). B u t this w o u l d of c o u r s e r e q u i r e far m o r e compact and r e l i a b l e forms of d i g i t a l s t o r a g e than exist right n o w . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we better start thinking about i t . T h o B e w h o f e a r a c o m i n g h o l o c a u s t (see p . M ) h a d b e s t t h i n k about p u l l i n g some p a r t of m a n k i n d t h r o u g h , w i t h some part of w h a t h e u s e d to h a v e .
T . H . N e l s o n , T h e S n u n k l n g of t h e H e a r t : O n t h e P e•yy c h o l o g y o f P u n s a n d P r e t e r i s m in C a r r o l l a n d O t h e r B . 1 9180, 80 unless a decent writing system comes along.
?8
DM 44
REALITY IS OBSOLETE
In recent presentational EnSer t h e name u n a e r ti.c
The idea that objective reality Is perceived by our s e n s e s , 1s an obsolete concept. Old truisms like "seeing 1s believing", become much less believable as we become more aware t h a t , the biological machinery of life Itself, transforms images of the physical world before we are made conscious of them. These biological mechanisms share many similarities in principle and in application, to other mechanisms observed in the natural environment and those invented for our own use. Since we are becoming more aware of the nature of perception and those mechanisms involved, now is the time to gain control of o u r selves and share more discretion 1n the operation-of our own biological machinery. He have entered the age of hyper-reality.
y e a r s a v e r y b a s i c change has o c c u r r e d i n systems o f a l l k i n d s . We may s u m m a r i z e I t b r a n c h i n g , s i t h o u g h t h e r e a r e many v a r i a n t s _ , presenting pictures, texts m
s
f
o
r
Essentially, today's systems f o r P. ~ . and w h a W o t can bring you different things automatically S e l e c t i o n o f t h i s type i s gencrd e p e n d i n g on w h a t y o u do
"TVvcalled branching. ( I have suggested hynermedia f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a l media which ( a n d o t h e r ) m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l ways.) A number o f b r a n c h i n g Branching
media e x i s t
Oay-to-day living provides only a limited variety of physical s t i m u l u s , and little Incentive to manipulate the physiological and psychological processing involved, Han's historical preoccupation with the need to maintain constant images of the physical w o r l d , is a product of his extreme orientation toward physical survival in a hostile environment. The current evolving society of leisure orientations removes this need for constant images and thereby enhances the opportunities for a more complete use of the sensory apparatus and those r e lated brain functions. Many have turned to drugs or meditation. More specifically it is proposed h e r e , that modern communications technology be employed as a "vehicle of departure" from this need for constant i m a g e s , to bring about a more complete use of the human technology itself. Hyper-reality is the employment of technology other than the biological m a c h i n e r y , when used to affect the performance of the biological machinery beyond its own limitations. This is almost like making adjustments on a television s e t , except you are what's plugged i n , and the controls are outside your b o d y , being part of whatever technology is interfaced to the body itself. As part of such a manmachine interface you could extend your own mental processes, or if you should c h o o s e , you could just diddle with the dials. Hyper-reality is an opportunity to enhance the various qualities of the human e x p e r i e n c e . Reality is obsolete.
or are p o s s i b l e .
movies o r h y p e r f i l m s (see n e a r b y ) .
Branching
texts
or hypertexts
Branching
audio,
music, e t c .
Branching
the generic term perform i n this
(see nearby).
slide-shows.
W i s h we c o u l d g e t i n t o
some o f t h a t
stuff
here.
The idea of b r a n c h i n g m o v i e s is q u i t e e x c i t i n g . The possibility of it is a n o t h e r thing e n t i r e l y .
— How Wachepreea The only system I know of that worked was at the 1967 Montreal World's Fair (Expo 6 7 ) . A t the Czech Pavilion— you will recall that before the crackdown they had quite a yeasty culture g o i n g in C z e c h o s l o v a k i a — there were some terrific fantic systems g o i n g . One was a wall of cubes with slide projectors inside (that r o l l ed toward you and back as they changed their p i c t u r e s ) . And then the M o v i e .
A
COPYRIGHT
1973
(see p. DM 6) AUDITAC, LTD.
The Czechoslovak!an Branching M o v i e — I forget its real n a m e — had the audience vote on w h a t was to h a p p e n next at a number of d i f f e r e n t j u n c t u r e s . What should she do now, what will he do n e x t , e t c . A n d lo a n d b e h o l d ! after they had voted, the lights went d o w n , and that's what would happen next. People agreed that this gave the movie a special i m m e d i a c y .
N o w , in o u r t i m e , w e a r e t u r n i n g G u t e n b e r g around. The technology of movable type created c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s and p r a c t i c e s a r o u n d the w r i t ten w o r d . Now the technology of computer screen displays make p o s s i b l e almost any structures and p r a c t i c e s you can imagine for the w r i t t e n w o r d .
I never saw the m o v i e — I waited in line several h o u r s b u t the line w a s too long to g e t i n t o the l a s t s h o w ing. So instead 1 w e n t backstage and talked to Radusz C i n cera, who worked out the system. It turns out that it didn't work quite the way people supposed. A lot of p e o p l e thought that "all the p o s s i b i l i t i e s " had b e e n filmed in a d vance. Actually, there were always only two possibilities, and no matter w h a t the audience had c h o s e n , somehow the film was plotted to come down to the same n e x t choice anyway:
So
now
what?
For new forms of w r i t t e n communication amo n g p e o p l e w h o k n o w e a c h o t h e r , j u m p to " E n g e l b a r t " piece., n e a r b y . To learn about new forms of multidimensional d o c u m e n t s f o r c o m p u t e r s c r e e n s , j u m p to " H y p e r texts." Or
In the a c t u a l s e t u p , t h e y s i m p l y h a d t w o p r o j e c t o r s running side by side, with Film A and Film B , and the projectionist would drop an o p a q u e slide in front of whichever wasn't chosen. But Cincera said that a u d iences almost always chose the same alternatives anyway, so half the movie was hardly ever used In the early sixties a m o v i e w a s m a k i n g the r o u n d s in w h i c h a u d i e n c e s w e r e s u p p o s e d l y a l l o w e d t o v o t e o n t h e ending— "Mr. Sardonicus," I believe it was called. From the ads it seemed that audiences w o u l d b e p o l l e d as to which last reel to show. W h e t h e r the v i l l a i n was to g e t his comeuppance, or whatever. Then mentioned the user
there was that Panacolor cartridge projector, elsewhere, which would have allowed choices by
More recently there's the CMX system, also mentioned elsewhere. This is a setup, being jointly marketed by CBS and M e m o r e x , for computer-controlled movie e d i t i n g . But actually it could a l s o b e used as a b r a n c h i n g m o v i e s y stem. Essentially the movie itself is stored f r a m e - b y f r a m e (as v i d e o ) o n b i g d i s k s , m a d e b y M e m o r e x ; a n d , u n d e r computer c o n t r o l , the o u t p u t can be switched rapidly among the f r a m e s , e f f e c t i v e l y s h o w i n g the s t o r e d m o v i e s . (To m y knowledge, the video networks haven't yet recognized the possibilities of this.) The o n l y t r o u b l e i s , i t ' s e x t r e m e l y e x p e n s i v e (half a m i l l i o n ? ) , it has an exact storage capacity limited by the number of disk tracks (presumably one track per frame) perhaps five minutes total one one big u n i t , b u t you can buy m o r e — and it can only give its full performance to o n e v i e w e r a t a t i m e . ) (Or t» (Vt .oU/t. h i W k Iwe-) It may be that the most practical branching movie system would be a cartridge movie viewer and a big stack of cartridges. When you make your c h o i c e , change the c a r t ridge. B u t of c o u r s e t h a t ' s n o t as m u c h fun a s h a v i n g it happen automatically.
By " h y p e r t e x t " writing.
I mean
just
feel
free
non-sequential
O r d i n a r y w r i t i n g is s e q u e n t i a l f o r t w o reasons. F i r s t , it grew out of s p e e c h and s p e e c h - m a k i n g , w h i c h have to be s e q u e n t i a l ; and s e c o n d , because books are not convenient to r e a d e x c e p t i n a s e q u e n c e . But the structures of ideas are not s e quential. They tie together every whichway. A n d w h e n w e w r i t e , w e a r e a l w a y s t r y i n g to t i e t h i n g s t o g e t h e r in n o n - s e q u e n t i a l w a y s (see p.JIr^HL). T h e f o o t n o t e is a b r e a k f r o m s e q u e n c e ; b u t it c a n n o t r e a l l y be e x t e n d e d (though s o m e , like Will Cuppy, have toyed with the t e c h n i q u e ) . I have run into perhaps a dozen people w h o u n d e r s t o o d this i n s t a n t l y w h e n I t a l k e d to t h e m a b o u t i t . M o s t p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , a c t m o r e b e m u s e d , t h i n k i n g I'm t r y i n g t o t e l l t h e m s o m e t h i n g t e c h n i c a l or p o i n t l e s s l y p h i l o s o p h ical. It's n o t p o i n t l e s s at a l l : t h e p o i n t i s , w r i t e r s d o b e t t e r if t h e y d o n ' t h a v e to w r i t e in s e q u e n c e ( b u t m a y c r e a t e m u l t i p l e s t r u c t u r e s , branches and a l t e r n a t i v e s ) , and readers d o b e t t e r if t h e y d o n ' t h a v e to r e a d in s e q u e n c e , but may establish i m p r e s s i o n s , jump a r o u n d , and try d i f f e r e n t p a t h w a y s u n t i l they f i n d t h e o n e s t h e y w a n t to s t u d y m o s t c l o s e l y .
to
browse.
(The a s t u t e r e a d e r , and anybody who's gotten to this p o i n t m u s t b e , w i l l h a v e n o t i c e d that t h i s b o o k is i n ' ' m a g a z i n e " l a y o u t , o r g a n i z e d v i s u a l l y by ideas and m e a n i n g s , for that p r e cise reason. I w i l l be i n t e r e s t e d to h e a r whether that has worked.) A n d t h e p i t y o f i t is t h a t ( l i k e t h e m a n in t h e F r e n c h p l a y w h o w a s s u r p r i s e d to l e a r n that he had been " s p e a k i n g prose all his life and never known i t " ) , we've been speaking hypertext all our lives and never known i t . N o w , m a n y w r i t e r s h a v e t r i e d to b r e a k away from s e q u e n c e . I t h i n k of" N a b o k o v ' s P a l e F i r e , o f T r i s t r a m S h a n d y and an o d d n o v e l o f L a z a r o C o r t a z a r c a l l e d H o p s c o t c h , m a d e up of sections ending with numbers telling you w h e r e you can branch t o . There are many m o r e ; a n d l a r g e b o o k s g e n e r a l l y u s e m a n y t r i c k s to get a r o u n d the p r o b l e m of i n d e x i n g and r e v i e w ing w h a t has and h a s n ' t been said or done a l ready . H o w e v e r , i n m y v i e w , a n e w d a y is d a w n i n g . Computer storage and screen display mean that w e n o l o n g e r h a v e to h a v e t h i n g s in s e q u e n c e ; totally a r b i t r a r y s t r u c t u r e s are p o s s i b l e , and I think that after w e ' v e tried them enough p e o p l e w i l l see how d e s i r a b l e they a r e .
DM 45
TVPES OF
HYPERTEXT
C A N IT B E
Let's assume that you have a h i g h - P " " " display-- and storage displays won t d o , be„ u « y o u h a v e to s e e t h i n g s m o v e in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h e r e t h e y c o m e - f r o m a n d w h a t they m e a n . (Especially text.) S o it h a s to be a r e f r e s h e d C R T . Basic or chunk style h y p e r t e x t o f f e r s c h o i H i T T " e r t h e r as T S o T H o t e - m a r k e r s ( l i k e a s t e r i s k s ) or labels at the end of a c h u n k . W h a t e v e r y o u p o i n t at t h e n c o m e s t o t h e s c r e e n . C o l l a t e r a l h y p e r t e x t m e a n s c o m p o u n d ann o t a t i o n s or p a r a l l e l text (see p . >,
real
is f o r " e v e r y t h i n g "
to tie
.Everything you r e a d , you read from the s c r e e n ( a n d c a n a l w a y s g e t b a c k to r i g h t a w a y ) ; everything you w r i t e , you w r i t e at the s c r e e n (and c a n c r o s s - l i n k to w h a t e v e r y o u r e a d ; s e e Canons, p . t h ) . P a p e r m o u l d e r s . M i c r o f i l m is i n c o n v e n i e n t . In t h e b e s t l i b r a r i e s i t t a k e s at l e a s t m i n - ' u t e s to g e t a p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g . B u t as t o linking them together-- footnoting Aeschylus with Marcus A u r e l i u s , linking genetic data to 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y a c c o u n t s o f I n d i a n t r i b e s - w e l l , y o u c a n o n l y d o it o n p a p e r b y w r i t i n g something new that ties them t o g e t h e r . Isn't that ridiculous? W h e n y o u c o u l d d o it a l l e l e c t r o n i c a l l y in s e c o n d s ? Now that we have all these w o n d e r f u l d e v i c e s , it s h o u l d b e t h e g o a l o f s o c i e t y t o p u t them in the s e r v i c e of t r u t h a n d l e a r n i n g . A n d t h i s is t h e w a y I p r o p o s e . N o t t h r o u g h o b s c u r e f o r m s of " i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l ; " n o t through newly oppressive forms of " c o m p u t e r ^ assisted instruction;" and not through a p u r p o r t e d s c i e n c e of " a r t i f icaTTTntel 1 i g e n c e " t h a t w i l l c r e a t e n e w p e r s o n a l i s m s to i r k u s . All these obstructive o d d i t i e s , I t h i n k , have d e v e l o p e d as s e p a r a t e i d e a l s b e c a u s e o f t h e grand p r e p o s t e r o s i t y of P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m that has created a w o r l d - w i d e cult of m u t u a l i n c o m prehensibility and d i s c o n n e c t e d special g o a l s . N o w w e n e e d to g e t e v e r y b o d y t o g e t h e r a g a i n . W e w a n t to g o b a c k to t h e r o o t s o f o u r c i v i l ization-- the a b i l i t y , w h i c h w e o n c e h a d , for e v e r y b o d y w h o c o u l d r e a d to b e a b l e t o r e a d everything. We must once again become a comm u n i t y o f c o m m o n a c c e s s to a s h a r e d h e r i t a g e .
I
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dunno.
L i c k l i d e r , one of c o m p u t e r d o m ' s Great Men e s t i m a t e d in 1 9 6 5 t h a t to h a n d l e a l l t e x t b y c o m p u t e r , a n d b r i n g it o u t to s c r e e n s , w o u l d cost no m o r e than w h a t w e pay for all text handling now. ( B u t o f c o u r s e t h e r e is t h e p r o b l e m o f w h a t to d o w i t h t h e p e o p l e w h o s e lives are built around p a p e r ; that can't be taken up here.) The people who make big computers say that to got the b i g d i s k s t o r a g e to h o l d g r e a t a m o u n t s o f t e x t , y o u h a v e to get t h e i r b i g g e s t c o m p u t e r s . W h i c h is a l a u g h a n d a h a l f . One I B M - s t y l e c o m p u t e r p e r s o n p o m p o u s l y told me that for l a r g e - s c a l e text h a n d l i n g the only a p p r o p r i a t e m a c h i n e w a s a n I B M 3 6 0 / 6 7 (a s h a m e fully large c o m p u t e r ) . Such people seem not to u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t m i n i c o m p u t e r s o r t h e p o tential of m i n i c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k s - - u s i n g , of course, big disks. There are of course questions of reliab i l i t y , of " b i g b r o t h e r " (see C a n o n s , p . ) , and so o n . But I think these m a t t e r s can be handled. T h e k e y is t h a t p e o p l e w i l l p a y f o r i t . I a m s u r e t h a t if w e c a n b r i n g t h e c o s t d o w n to t w o d o l l a r s a n h o u r - - o n e f o r t h e l o c a l m a c h i n e (more than a " t e r m i n a l " ) , one for the material (including s t o r a g e , transmission and copyrights)-- there's a b i g , big m a r k e t . (And t h a t ' s w h a t t h e X a n a d u n e t w o r k is a b o u t ; s e e p . [H^V/.] M y a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t t h e w a y t o d o t h i s is n o t t h r o u g h b i g b u s i n e s s ( s i n c e a l l t h e s e c o r p o r a t i o n s c a n s e e is o t h e r c o r p o r a t i o n s ) ; n o t t h r o u g h g o v e r n m e n t ( h y p e r t e x t is not c o m m i t t e e - o r i e n t e d , but individualistic-and grants can only be g o t t e n through s e s q u i pedalian and obfuscatory p o m p i z z a z z ) ; but through the byways of the p r i v a t e enterprise system. I think the same s p i r i t that gave us McDonald's and kandy kolor hot rod accessories m a y p u l l us t h r o u g h h e r e . (See X a n a d u N e t w o r k ,
EVERYTHING
IS D E E P L Y
INTERTWINGLED.
( T h e o n l y w a y in w h i c h m y v i e w s d i f f e r w i t h t h o s e of E n g e l b a r t a n d P a s k , I t h i n k is in the m a t t e r of s t r u c t u r e a n d h i e r a r c h y . Uoth men generally assume that w h a t e v e r n a t u r a l h i e r a r c h y i.iay e x i s t in p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t s n e e d s to b e a c c e n t u a t e d ; I h o l d t h a t a l l s t r u c t u r e s m u s t b e t r e a t e d as t o t a l l y a r b i t r a r y , and any h i e r a r c h i e s w e find are i n t e r esting accidents.)
In an important sense there are no "subjects" at all; there is only all knowledge^ since the crossconnections among the myriad topics of this world simply cannot be divided up neatly. Hypertext at last offers the possibility of representing and exploring it all without carving it up destructively.
Arthur C. Clarke wrote a book entitled The Lost Worlds of 2001 ( S i g n e t , 1 9 7 2 ) , a b o u t the v a r i a n t s and a l t e r n a t i v e s o f ' that story that did not find their way to the s c r e e n . In a h y p e r t e x t v e r s i o n , w e c o u l d l o o k a t t h e m a l l in c o n t e x t , i n c o l l a t e r a l v i e w s , a n d see the r e l a t e d v a r i a n t s - with annotations.
p . 2>t\*7.) Obviously, putting man's entire heritage i n t o a h y p e r t e x t is g o i n g t o t a k e a w h i l e . But it c a n a n d s h o u l d b e d o n e . BIBLIOGRAPHY Theodor II. N e l s o n , "The Hypertext." World Documentation Federation,
Proc. 1965.
Mortimer J. Adler, the ..wn who reduced all of Western Culture to a few Great Books plus an index under his own categories, has now Addled the Encyclopedia Britannica. Since 1965 he has been creating Bri tannica 3, the venturesome and innovative new version, now on sale for about half a thou.
COULDN'T
HAVE
HYPERTEXT
NOVELS, YOU
SAY?
Ci<M*i-s effect*
Consider t h e h y p e r t e x t c h a r a c t e r of— Tristram Shandy, by Sterne. Spoon River Anthology, by Masters. Hopscotch, by Cortazar. Pale Fire, by Nabokov. Remembrance And,
of Things
Past, hy
Proust.
surprisingly, hypertext actually F I G U R E S IN G i l e s G o a t - B o y , b y B a x t h .
Britannica 3 is basically a 3~level hypertext, made to fit on printed pages by the strictures of Adler's editing (according to Newsweek, some 200 authors withdrew their work rather than submit to the kind of restrictions he was imposing). The idea may be basically good, even though the sesqulpaedalian titles may impaed the raeder.
THE BURNING
This was of course w h a t V a n n e v a r Bush s a i d in 1 9 4 5 ( s e e ^ f ^ X r ) , in a n a r t i c l e e v e r y body cites but nobody r e a d s . T h e h y p e r t e x t s o l u t i o n in m a n y w a y s o b viates some of these other a p p r o a c h e s , and in a d d i t i o n retains and puts b a c k t o g e t h e r the great traditions of literature and s c h o l a r s h i p , traditions based on the fact that d i v i d i n g things up arbitrarily just generally d o e s n ' t work.
t"vOTTrjHj6IS MePLV I M T O l v l U G ^ .
BUSH
In f a c t h y p e r t e x t s w e r e f o r e s e e n v e r y c l e a r l y in 1 9 4 5 b y V a n n e v a r B u s h , R o o s e v e l t ' s science advisor. W h e n t h e w a r w a s in t h e b a g , he p u b l i s h e d a little article on various groovy things that had b e c o m e p o s s i b l e by that t i m e .
GLINDA'S
MAGIC
BOOK
G l i n d a the G o o d , g e n t l e s o r c e r e s s of the s o u t h e r n q u a d r a n t o f the land o f 0 z ~ - not the f l a p h e a d p o r t r a y e d b y B l l l l e B u r k e in t h e G o l d w y n i z e d f i l m — h a s a M a g i c B o o k in w h i c h E v e r y t h i n g T h a t H a p p e n s Is w r i t t e n . The chosen.
question, of
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You can only watch news tickers for . short time before getting very bored.
"As We May Think" (Atlantic M o n t h l y , J u l y , 1 9 4 5 ) is m o s t n o t a b l e f o r its c l e a r d e s c r i p t i o n of v a r i o u s h y p e r t e x t t e c h n i q u e s - - t h a t i s , l i n k ages b e t w e e n d o c u m e n t s w h i c h m a y be b r o u g h t r a p i d l y to t h e s c r e e n a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r l i n k a g e s . ( S o w h a t if h e t h o u g h t t h e y ' d b e o n m i c r o f i l m . ) How characteristic of Professionalism. B u s h ' s a r t i c l e h a s b e e n t a k e n as t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e f i e l d of I n f o r m a t i o n R e t r i e v a l (see p . ) , b u t its a c t u a l c o n t e n t s h a v e b e e n ignored by a c c l a m a t i o n . Information Retrieval folk have mostly done very different t h i n g s , yet t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e in the t r a d i t i o n . N o w p e o p l e are " r e d i s c o v e r i n g " the a r t i c l e . If t h e r e ' s a n o t h e r e d i t i o n o f t h i s b o o k I h o p e I c a n r u n it in e n t i r e t y .
THE SYSTEM I T S E L F B a s i c a l l y the system I s a l a r g e - s c a l e setup f o r t h e s t o r a g e , b r i n g i n g f o r t h , v i e w i n g and r e v i s i o n o f d o c u m e n t s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s among t h e m . The d o c u m e n t s a r e s t o r e d (of c o u r s e ) I n a l p h a b e t i c a l codes. C o n n e c t i o n s among t h e m , or o t h e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n them, are s i g n a l l e d by the presence o f o t h e r codes w i t h i n them; these are o r d i n a r i l y not d i s p l a y e d , however, e x c e p t as d i r e c t e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r d i a p l a y p r o g r a m and d i s p l a y programs can o f c o u r s e va r y .
toUG- CHfiCiWT AND
D o u g l a s E n g e l b a r t I s a s a i n t l y man a t S t a n f o r d R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e whose dream has b e e n t o make p e o p l e s m a r t e r a n d b r i n g t h e m together. H i s s y s t e m , on w h i c h m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s have been s p e n t , i s a wonder and a glory. He b e g a n a s a n e n g i n e e r o f CRTs ( s e e "Lightning i n a B o t t l e , " p.#16); but his d r i v i n g t h o u g h t was, q u i t e c o r r e c t l y , t h a t t h e s e r e m a r k a b l e o b j e c t s c o u l d be u s e d t o expand man's mind and i m p r o v e each s h i n i n g hour. Doug E n g e l b a r t ' s v i s i o n h a s n e v e r b e e n r e s t r i c t e d to narrow t e c h n i c a l issues. From t h e b e g i n n i n g h i s c o n c e r n was n o t m e r e l y t o p l a n k p e o p l e down a t d i s p l a y c o n s o l e s , b u t i n t h e most p r o f o u n d sense t o expand man's mind. " T h e A u g m e n t a t i o n o f Human I n t e l l e c t , " he c a l l s i t , b y w h i c h he means m a k i n g m i n d s work b e t t e r by g i v i n g them b e t t e r t o o l s t o work w i t h . An o b v i o u s e x a m p l e i s w r i t i n g : before p e o p l e c o u l d w r i t e t h i n g s d o w n , men c o u l d o n l y l e a r n what they experienced or were t o l d by o t h e r s i n p e r s o n ; w r i t i n g changed a l l that. Within the computer-screen f r a t e r n i t y , the next step Is obvious; screens can d o u b l e and r e d o u b l e o u r I n t e l l e c t u a l capacities. But t h i s i s n o t o b v i o u s t o e v e r y body. Engelbart, p a t i e n t l y I n s t r u c t i n g those o u t s i d e , came u p w i t h a b e a u t i f u l e x a m p l e . To show w h a t he meant by t h e A u g m e n t a t i o n o f I n t e l l e c t , Engelbart tied a pencil to a b r i c k . T h e n h e a c t u a l l y made s o m e o n e w r i t e w i t h i t . T h e r e s u l t , w h i c h was o f c o u r s e d r e a d f u l , E n gelbart solemnly put into a published r e p o r t . Not y e t b e i n g a b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a u g m e n t a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t , s i n c e he h a d as y e t no s y s t e m t o show o f f , he h a d m a s t e r f u l l y d e monstrated the disaugmentation of i n t e l l e c t : w h a t h a p p e n s i f y o u make m a n ' s t o o l s f o r w o r k ing out h i s thoughts worse i n s t e a d o f b e t t e r . As t h i s p o o r g u y was w i t h h i s b r i c k i f i e d p e n c i l , e x p l a i n e d E n g e l b a r t , s o a r e we a l l a m o n g our bothersome, i n f l e x i b l e systems of paper.
S t a r t i n g s m a l l , E n g e l b a r t programmed up a s m a l l v e r s i o n o f what most fans c a l l "The E n g e l b a r t S y s t e m " some t e n y e a r s a g o . One v e r s i o n h a s i t t h a t w h e n i t came t o l o o k i n g f o r g r a n t s , management t h o u g h t he a c t e d t o o k o o k y , a n d s o a s s i g n e d a F r o n t Man t o make Che p r e s e n t a t i o n . B u t , as t h e s t o r y g o e s , t h e man f r o m ARPA ( s e e " M i l i t a r y . . . " , p . ^f) p o i n t e d a t E n g e l b a r t a n d s a i d , "We w a n t t o back h i m . "
THE "KNOWLEDGE WORKSHOP" For a l u c k y f i f t y o r so p e o p l e , Engelbart's s y s t e m i s Home. Wherever they a r e — a t Stanf o r d R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e o r f a r away o n t h e ARPAnet— a whole w o r l d o f s e c r e t a r i a l and communication services i s at t h e i r f i n g e r t i p s . The u s e r has b u t t o c a l l up t h r o u g h h i s d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l and l o g o n . At that point a l l h i s w r i t t e n f i l e s , and numerous f i l e s shared among t h e u s e r s , a r e a t h i s f i n g e r t i p s . He may r e a d , w r i t e , a n n o t a t e t h e c r o s s - l i n k . ( E n g e l b a r t ' s system has p r o v i s i o n f o r c o l l a t e r a l s t r u c t u r i n g : s e e " T h i n k e r t o y s , " p*. T 2 _ . ) He may s e n d m e s s a g e s t o o t h e r s i n t h e W o r k s h o p . He may o p e n c e r t a i n o f h i s f i l e s t o o t h e r p e o p l e , and r e a d t h o s e t h a t iiave b e e n opened to him. T h i s a l l has a c e r t a i n v a g u e n e s s i f y o u d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d how b o u n d y o u a r e t o d a y b y paper— the problems of f i n d i n g i t , s o r t i n g i t , looking things up. ( I f you w r i t e , that i s , w r i t e a l o t , y o u know a l l t o o w e l l how i n t r a c t a b l e i s p a p e r , w h a t a damned n u i s a n c e . ) W i t h a system l i k e E n g e l b a r t ' s , now, whatever is written is instantly there. Whatever you w a n t t o l o o k up I s i n s t a n t l y t h e r e , s i m u l t a n eously interconnected to everything else l t s h o u l d be c o n n e c t e d t o — s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s , f o o t n o t e s , comments and so o n . A document i s c o m p l e t e d t h e moment i t i s w r i t t e n : n o human b e i n g has t o r e t y p e i t . ( I t need n o t be t y p e d on paper a t a l l , i f i t ' s j u s t f o r t h e workshop members: a p r i n t o u t i s o n l y needed i f i t has t o go t o someone o u t s i d e t h e s y s t e m . ) I n many w a y s , E n g e l b a r t ' s s y s t e m i s a p r o totype for the world of the f u t u r e , I hope. A L L HANDLING OF PAPER I S E L I M I N A T E D . Whatever you w r i t e , you w r i t e on the screens w i t h k e y b o a r d and p o i n t e r . (No m o r e b a c k s o f envelopes, yellow pads, f i l e cards, t y p e w r i t e r s . ) Whatever you t r a n s m i t to f e l l o w users of the system you s i m p l y ' r e l e a s e ' — no p h y s i c a l p a p e t c h a n g e B hands. T h e g r o u p h a s a l s o w o r k e d o u t some r e m a r k able techniques for c o l l a b o r a t i v e endeavor. Two p e o p l e — s a y , o n e i n C a l i f o r n i a a n d o n e i n New Y o r k — c a n w o r k t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h t h e i r s c r e e n s , p l u s a phone l i n k ; i t ' s as i f t h e y were s i d e - b y - s i d e a t a magic t a b l e . Each sees on h i s screen what t h e o t h e r sees; each c o n t r o l s a m o v i n g d o t ( o r " c u r s o r " ) t h a t shows w h e r e h e ' s pointing. The e f f e c t i s somewhere b e t w e e n a b l a c k b o a r d a n d a d e s k ; b o t h may c a l l u p d o c u m e n t s , p o i n t t h i n g s o u t i n them, change t h e m , and a n y t h i n g e l s e two p e o p l e m i g h t do when w o r k i n g on something t o g e t h e r .
There are v a r i o u s programs f o r d i s p l a y , i n l a r g e p a r t d e p e n d i n g on what s o r t o f screen system the I n d i v i d u a l user has. (NLS i s u s e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g f r o m h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n l i n e - d r a w i n g screens c o n v e r t e d t o 1000l i n e t e l e v i s i o n , down t o i n e x p e n s i v e D e l t a Data t e r m i n a l s — a brand, i n c i d e n t a l l y , that a l l o w s t e x t m o t i o n , w h i c h most d o n ' t ^ Engelb a r t ' s system i s extremely general, a l l o w i n g the c r e a t i o n of f i l e s having a l l kinds of s t r u c t u r e s , and d i s p l a y programs in a l l k i n d s of Btyles. ( I hope t h a t t h i s s i d e o f t h e p r e s e n t b o o k c o n v e y s a s e n s e o f how many s t y l e s t h a t can b e . ) However, most u s e r s are devoted to c e r t a i n standardized styles of working that have b e e n w e l l worked out and p e r m i t t h e easy s h a r i n g o f m a t e r i a l and o f o p e r a t i n g p r a c t i c e s . Here, for instance, i s standard screen layout:
k ,
r
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Two s e p a r a t e p a n e l s o f t e x t a p p e a r , a n d l i n k s may b e s h o w n o n t h e m . (Thus i t ' s a t h i n k e r t o y — see p . .) Two l i t t l e w i n d o w s a t t h e t o p r e m i n d you o f what y o u ' r e s e e i n g and what y o u ' r e asking f o r . We c a n ' t g e t i n t o t h e r e s t o f i t here
THE COMMAND LANGUAGE NLS h a s a command l a n g u a g e w h i c h a l l users must l e a r n . While i t is a streaml i n e d a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d command l a n g u a g e , nevertheless I t requires the user to type i n a s p e c i f i c sequence o f a l p h a b e t i c a l c h a r a c t e r s e v e r y t i m e he w a n t s s o m e t h i n g done. (This Is acceptable to computeroriented people; I suspect i t would not be s a t i s f a c t o r y , s a y , f o r p h i l o s o p h e r s and n o v e l i s t s . For designs o r i e n t e d t o s u c h u s e r s , s e e JOT ( p . * 5 " 0 ) a n d C a r m o d y ' s System, nearby, P a r a l l e l Textface (p?* ?}) and,Th3 (p.^ST).) K
1
I n c i d e n t a l l y , NLS u s e r s may a l s o e m p l o y a cute l i t t l e keyboard, something l i k e a k a l i m b a , t h a t a l l o w s y o u t o t y p e w i t h one hand. You s i m p l y t y p e t h e s i x s i g n i f i c a n t ASCII b i t s (see c h a r t p. £J?) i n one " c h o n t " — i t sounds h a r d b u t i s easy t o l e a r n . Sample commands: I M (move o r r e a r r a n g e ) . t h e mouse.
(insert), D (delete), Then you p o i n t w i t h
HOUSE? A s m a l l b u t d e d i c a t e d g r o u p a t SRI h a s b u i l t up a s y s t e m f r o m s c r a t c h . F i r s t they u s e d l i t t l e CDC 1 7 0 0 m i n i c o m p u t e r s ; t h e n , v a r i o u s g r a n t s l a t e r , they were able t o set up t h e i r own P D P - 1 0 , i n w h i c h t h e s y s t e m now r e s i d e s , and f r o m w h i c h l t r e a c h e s o u t a c ross the c o u n t r y .
The E n g e l b a r t F o l k s have b u i l t a p o i n t i n g d e v i c e , f o r t e l l i n g t h e system where y o u ' r e p o i n t i n g on the s c r e e n , t h a t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y f a s t e r and h a n d i e r t h a n a l i g h t p e n . (Unfortunately, I don't believe i t ' s commercially available.) I t ' s c a l l e d The Mouse. The E n g e l b a r t Mouse i s a l i t t l e box w i t h h i d d e n w h e e l s u n d e r n e a t h and a c a b l e t o t h e terminal. As y o u r o l l i t , t h e w h e e l ' s t u r n s a r e s i g n a l l e d t o t h e computer and t h e c o m p u t e r moves t h e c u r s o r o n t h e s c r e e n . I t s fast and a c c u r a t e , and i n f a c t b e a t s a l i g h t p e n hands down i n w o r k i n g s p e e d .
Doug c a l l s h i s s y s t e m NLS, o r " o N - L i n e System." Basically i t is a highly responsive, deeply-structured t e x t system, feeding out to display terminals. F r o m a t e r m i n a l y o u may read a n y t h i n g you or o t h e r s have w r i t t e n , and w r i t e w i t h aa-yet-unmatched flexibility. The d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l s a r e a l l o v e r . The p r o j e c t has gone n a t i o n a l , t h o u g h a t g r e a t exp e n s e : t h r o u g h t h e ARPA n e t o f c o m p u t e r s , y o u c a n i n p r i n c i p l e b e c o m e a u s e r o f NLS f o r something l i k e $50,000 a year.
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T h r o u g h t h e command l a n g u a g e , NLS a l l o w s users t o c r e a t e programs t h a t respond I n a l l s o r t s of ways; thus the fact t h a t c e r t a i n t e x t h a n d l i n g s t y l e s are s t a n d a r d (as I n above i l l u s t r a t i o n o f s c r e e n l a y o u t ) r e s u l t s more from t r a d i t i o n than necessity.
W h a t h e d o e s , t h e n . Is p r e p a r e g i v e n fields of learning so that they can be stydied by s t u d e n t s u s i n g a b s t r a c t i v e m e t h o d s , w i t h o u t guidance.
Hypertext Is non-sequential w r i t i n g . It's no good to u s , t h o u g h , unless we can go instantly in a choice of directions from a given p o i n t .
T h i s p r e p a r a t i o n b a s i c a l l y has two s t e p s . First he sets up the w h o l e f i e l d . T h i s is d o n e in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h a " s u b j e c t m a t t e r e x p e r t , " w h o n a m e s t h e i m p o r t a n t t o p i c s in the field and s t a t e s w h a t i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s they have. T h e r e s u l t is a c o m p l e x g r a p h s t r u c t u r e (see p . fj, ) w h i c h Pask c l l l s a conversational domain. It c o m e s o u t t o h u g e d i a g r a m s ot labels and lines b e t w e e n t h e n .
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Engelbart's s y s t e m , n o w , w a s mainly designed for people w h o wanted to immerse themselves in lt and learn lta c o n v e n t i o n s . I n d e e d , it might b« said to have been designed for a community of people in close c o n t a c t , a sort of system of blackboards and collaborative talking p a p e r s . A more elemental s y s t e m , w i t h a d i f f e r e n t s l a n t , w a s p u t together a t Brown U . on IBM e q u i p m e n t . W e ' l l refer to i t here as "Carmcdy'a Syatem," a f t e r the young programmer w h o s e name came first on the w r i t e u p .
T n e n p a s k p r o c e s s e s this s t r u c t u r e to m a k e a m o r e u s a b l e map of the field that h e c a l l s an e n t a i l m e n t s t r u c t u r e . The processing b a s i c a l l y i n v o l v e s r e m o v i n g " c y c l e s " in t h e g r a p h , thus m a k i n g the s t r u c t u r e h i e r a r c h i c a l in a s l i g h t l y a r t i f i c i a l w a y j u s t i f i e d b y w h a t t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r - e x p e r t h a s s a i d is t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e f i e l d .
Carmody'a syatem runs on an IBM 360 with 2250 d i s p l a y . While the 2250 is s fine piece of e q u i p m e n t , the quirks of the 360'» operating system (see p . f C ) often delay the user by making h i m w a i t , e.g., for someone e l s e ' s cards to g e t punched before it r e s p o n d s to his more immediate usesi this is like m a k i n g ice-skaters w a i t for o x c a r t s .
gram
A n y w a y , the system essentially Imposes no structure on the m a t e r i a l ) it may consist of text segments of any length and ties and links between t h e m . A n asterisk appearing a n y w h e r e in one p i e c e of text signals a p o s s i b l e J u m p , b u t the reader d o e s n ' t necessarily know w h e r e toi sapping the asterisk w i t h the lightpen takes y o u t h e r e , h o w e v e r .
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Pask intends that the student's explora t i o n s . w i l l c o n s i s t of t e s t i n g a n a l o g i e s , or w h a t P a s k c a l l s m o r p h i s m s , to f i n d the e x a c t s t r u c t u r e s o f k n o w l e d g e h e i s s u p p o s e d tg be a c q u i r i n g . This k n o w l e d g e w i l l be in the form o f i s o m o r p h i s m s , or e x a c t a n a l o g i e s , i.e. laws. P a s k ' s o v e r a l l systern,examples of w h i c h h e h a s r u n n i n g in h i s l a b o r a t o r y in E n g l a n d , he calls C A S T E (Course A s s e m b l y S y s t e m and Tutorial E n v i r o n m e n t ) . A further development, w h i c h is t o b e p u t o n a P D P - 1 1 / 4 5 c o m p u t e r (see p . and p . I L ) at the B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s M u s e u m , is c a l l e d T H O U G H T - S T I C K E R . T h i s p r o g r a m is i n t e n d e d to a l l o w the d e m o n stration and testing of analogies d i r e c t l y , by c h i l d r e n .
%
HIERARCHICAL FORMAT A . STORAGE A l . Everything in NLS is stored with h i e r a r c h i c a l c o d e s . A 2 . Their effect depends on the display. B . DISPLAY B l . The h i e r a r c h i c a l codes of NLS have no consequences in particular. B 2 . The h i e r a r c h i c a l codes for NLS can splay the m a t e r i a l out into a variety of d i s play a r r a n g e m e n t s . B 2 A . They can be displayed in outline f o r m . B 2 B . They can be displayed in n o r m a l text f o r m . B 2 C . These dratted numbers can even be made to disappear. C LANGUAGE C l . The command language d e t e r mines w h a t the display shows of the h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e , C 2 . What is shown can be d e t e r mined by a program in the command l a n g u a g e . (For i n s t a n c e , "how many levels d o w n " it is being s h o w n ) . C 2 A . This is four levels d o w n . (The earlier example w a s n ' t . ) C 3 . The display format all d e pends on w h a t display p r o gram you u s e , in the NLS command l a n g u a g e .
Thia ia stark and s i m p l e . It could also g e t you g o o d and l o s t . H o w e v e r , a simple t e c h n i q u e took care of t h a t : every/time the user j u m p e d , the a d d r e s s of his p r e v i o u s location w a s saved on a stack (see "The M a g i c of the Stack," p. . T h e user a l s o had a RETURN b u t t o n : w h e n he w a n t e d to go back to w h e r e he had l a s t jumped f r o m , t h e system w o u l d p o p the last address off the top of the s t a c k , and take him t h e r e . (This feature w a s a d a p t e d from m y 1967 S t r e t c h t e x t p a p e r , and turned o u t to w o r k o u t q u i t e w e l l in p r a c t i c e . )
PASK AND
E s s e n t i a l l y P a s k is r e d u c i n g an extremely formal structure of w h i c h m a y t h e n b e s t u d i e d by_ t h e the student's initiative. (What analogies
It is l e f t for the r e a d e r to figure o u t i n t e r e s t i n g u s e s for i t . How w o u l d y o u d o c o l l a t e r a l s t r u c t u r e s ? H o w could you s i g n a l to a r e a d e r w h i c h of several p i e c e s of t e x t a jump was to?
the
Now it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h i s e x a c t l y c o m p l e m e n t s the n o t i o n of h y p e r t e x t as 1 h a v e b e e n p r o m u l g a t i n g it lo t h e s e m a n y y e a r s .
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H y p e r t e x t is n o n - s e q u e n t i a l t e x t . If w e w r i t e a h y p e r t e x t o n s o m e t h i n g , it w i l l b e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e i F ~ w e g i v e it the g e n e r a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e of the f i e l d . In other w o r d s , the interconnective structures c h o s e n f o r t h e t e x t u a l p a r t s a r e l i k e l y to h a v e the s a m e c o n n e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e (in g e n e r a l ) as Pask's Entailment Structure.
Paek
I w i l l npw try to d e s c r i b e P a s k ' s w o r k as h e has e x p l a i n e d it to m e . Perhaps this w i l l b e of s o m e h e l p to t h o s e w h o m a y h a v e b e e n m y s t i f i e d or d u m f o u n d e d by c o n t a c t w i t h this fabulous n a n .
For a n o t h e r kind of h y p e r t e x t , the anthol o g i c a l h y p e r t e x t b u i l t up o f lots of o t h e r w r i t i n g s , i t is a l s o r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h e c o n n e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s to c l u s t e r to t h e s a m e g e n e r a l f o r m as P a s k ' s e n t a i l m e n t s t r u c t u r e .
G o r d o n P a s k ' s c o n c e r n is a b s t r a c t i o n a n d h o w c o n c e p t s a r e f o r m e d , w h e t h e r in a c r e a t u r e of n a t u r e or a robot or a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . A b s t r a c t i o n is of i n t e r e s t p r i m o r d i a l l y (as l i f e evolved thinking capacity), psychogenetically (as the m i n d a c q u i r e s n e w f a c i l i t i e s , d e s c r i b e d most p e c u l i a r l y by P i a g e t ) , and epistemologically (how do we know? L i k e , how do we k n o w , m a n ? ) , and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y (how can we m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y find out m o r e ? ) .
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e v e r y s a m e f i e l d o f k n o w l e d g e P a s k is o u t t o r e p r e s e n t a s a n e x p l o r a b l e , f o r m a l i z e d w h o l e , I a m o u t to r e p r e s e n t as an e x p l o r a b l e U n f o r m a l i z e d w h o l e , w i t h anecdotes, jokes, cartoons, "enrichment materials," and anything else people might d i g .
and
ills i n t e r e s t , t h e n , i s i n t e a c h i n g b y a l l o w i n g s t u d e n t s to d i s c o v e r e x a c t r e l a t i o n s in a s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t m a t t e r b y t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f a b s t r a c t i o n t h a t is o f s o m u c h i n t e r e s t . of
1 d o n ' t q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d is h o w a r e to b e e x p l o r e d and t e s t e d . )
I n d e e d , h i s e x p l o r a b l e s y s t e r n s - - (I d o n ' t k n o w if t h e y w i l l b e w h a t I e l s e w h e r e c a l l hypergrams or responding resources)-- will be f a s c i n a t i n g , fun and t e r r i f i c a l l y e d u c a t i o n a l . Because he is.
Steven C a r m o d y , W a l t e r G r o s s , T h e o d o r H . N e l s o n , D a v i d Rice and A n d r i e s van D a m , "A H y p e r t e x t E d i t i n g System for the 360." In F a i m a n and N i e v e r g e l t ( e d s . ) . P e r t i n e n t C o n c e p t s in C o m p u t e r G r a p h i c s (U. 1 1 1 . P r e s s ' 6 9 ) , 2 9 1 - 3 3 0 . N o t e : M r . G r o s s now g o e s by the name of Lightning C l e a r w a t e r .
Engelbart in German m e a n s A n g e l b e a r d ; Doug Engelbart is indeed on the aide of the a n g e l s . In building his mighty system he p o i n t s a new way for h u m a n i t y . The sooner the b e t t e r . Any history of the twentieth century w i l l certainly hold him h i g h . Few great men are also such nice g u y s .
Charles H . I r b y , "Display T e c h n i q u e s for I n t e r active Text Manipulation." Proc NCC 7 4 . 247-25S.
a f i e l d to relations s t u d e n t , at
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Douglas C . E n g e l b a r t , Richard U . W a t s o n & James C . N o r t o n , "The Augmented Knowledge Workshop.' V Proc NCC 7 3 , 9 - 2 1 .
similar
A n y w a y , a p r i n c i p a l p o i n t is t h a t t h e s t u d e n t is i n c o n t r o l a n d m a y u s e h i s i n i t i a t i v e d y n a m i c a l l y ; t h e s u b j e c t is n o t a r t i f i cially p r o c e s s e d into a presentational s e quence. M o r e o v e r , the arbitrary i n t e r c o n n e c tions of the s u b j e c t , which are no r e s p e c t e r s , of the p r i n t e d p a g e , a r e r e c o g n i z e d as the f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s the s t u d e n t m u s t d e a l with a n d c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d . On all these p o i n t s P a s k a n d I a r e in t o t a l a g r e e m e n t .
(At least one r e a l h y p e r t e x t w a s a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n o n this s y s t e m . I t tied together a lot of p a t e n t s for m u l t i l a y e r e l e c t r o d e s . R e a d e r s agreed t h a t they could learn m o r e from i t a b o u t m u l t i l a y e r e l e c t r o d e s than they had i m a g i n e d w a n t i n g to k n o w . )
BY THE BEARD OF THE PROPHET!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HYPERTEXT
G o r d o n P a s k ' s w o r k is r e m a r k a b l y to m y o w n s t u f f o n h y p e r t e x t .
T h e s y s t e m a l s o had handy f e a t u r e s for light-pen t e x t e d i t i n g , and v a r i o u s nice p r i n t o u t t e c h n i q u e s . A l l t o l d , it w a s a clean and p o w e r f u l d e s i g n . W h i l e i t lacked h i g h e r level v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , like E n g e l b a r t ' s d i s p l a y of Levels (see "outline" in E n g e l b a r t a r t i c l e ) or c o l l a t e r a l d i s p l a y (see " T h i n k e r t o y s , " p.D*\rz), it w a s in some way: ted for naive u s e r s ; that i s , i t w a s e v e n t u a l l y fairly safe to u s e . and could in large p a r t be t a u g h t to rank b e g i n n e r s in a couple of h o u r s — p r o v i d e d they d i d n ' t have to know a b o u t J C L c a r d s .
That's enough of t h a t . I can't help r e marking that I still don't like that sort of s t r u c t u r i n g , but It is deep in N L S , and if you don't like it either (poor deprived lucky user of N L S ) you can program it to d i s a p p e a r , so it s hardly in your w a y .
The Augmentation
carried
HIERARCHICAL FORMAT A . STORAGE B . DISPLAY C . LANGUAGE
But let's expand this example a l i t t l e : 1.
is
T h e r e s u l t i n g E n t a i l m e n t S t r u c t u r e is t h e n p r e s e n t e d to t h e s t u d e n t as a g r e a t m a p of the field w h i c h he may e x p l o r e .
The sane apparently la true of the data s t r u c t u r e . 1 used to be somewhat disturbed at che way Engelbart's text systems seen to be rigorously h i e r a r c h i c a l . T h i s in fact la the c a s e , in the sense that having multiple discrete levels Is built deep into the s y s t e m . But it turns out to be h a r m l e s s . T h e stored text ie divided by the storage techniques i n to multiple l e v e l s , corresponding to a Harvard o u t l i n e . Think of it as something like t h i s : 1.
(This processing called EXTEND.)
In s t i l l o t h e r w o r d s , l e t ' s c a l l it a p a r t y .
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A h , Lovel could you and I with H i m compire T o gratp this sorry Scheme of Tbingi entire. W o u l d not w e ihstter it to bits—snd then Re-mould it nearer to tbe Heart'* Desire I Edward
Fitagerald.
A l m o s t e v e r y o n e s e e m s to a g r e e t h a t M a n k i n d ( w h o ? ) Is on the b r i n k of a r e v o l u t i o n in the w a y i n f o r m a t i o n Is h a n d l e d , and that t h i s r e v o l u t i o n Is to c o m e f r o m s o m e sort of m e r g i n g of e l e c t r o n i c s c r e e n p r e s e n t a t i o n and a u d i o - v i s u a l t e c h n o l o g y w i t h b r a n c h i n g , i n t e r a c t i v e computer systems. (The n a i v e t h i n k " t h e " m e r g i n g Is I n e v i t a b l e , as If " t h e " m e r g i n g m e a n t a n y t h i n g c l e a r . I used to t h i n k that t o o . ) P r o f e s s i o n a l p e o p l e s e e m to t h i n k this m e r g i n g w i l l be an i n t r i c a t e m i n g l i n g of t e c h n i c a l s p e c i a l t i e s , that our n e w s y s t e m s w i l l r e q u i r e w o r k by a l l k i n d s of c o m m i t tees and c o n s u l t a n t s (adding and a d j u s t i n g ) u n t i l the R e s u l t s — e i t h e r s p e c i f i c p r o d u c t i o n s or o v e r a l l S y s t e m s — a r e f i n i s h e d . T h e n w e w i l l h a v e to L e a r n to U s e T h e m . More consulting fees.
W h a t p e o p l e d o n ' t s e a is h o w c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y n o w m a k e s p o s s i b l e ths r e v i s i o n a n d improvement—- the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n — of a l l o u r m a d i a . It " s o u n d s too t e c h n i c a l . "
John B. Macdonsld Research Leader Computer Applications: Graphic. Western Electric Company Engineering Research Center
But this is the b a s i c m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g : tha f u n d a m e n t a l l a s u e s are N O T T E C H N I C A L . To u n d e r s t a n d t h i s is b a s i c a l l y a m a t t e r of M E D I A C O N S C I O U S N E S S , n o t t e c h n i c a l knowledge. A lot of p e o p l e h a v e a c u t e m e d i a c o n s c i o u s n e s s . But s o m e p e o p l e , like Pat B u c h a n a n a n d the c o m m u n a r d s , s u g g e s t that t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g s h a b b y a b o u t t h l a . M a n y t h i n k , i n d e e d , that w e l i v e in a w o r l d of false I m a g e s p r o m u l g a t ed by " m e d i a , " a s i t u a t i o n to b e c o r r e c t e d . But this la a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . M a n y I m a g e s are false or p u f f y , a l l r i g h t , but lt la I n c o r r e c t to s u p p o s e that t h e r e Is a n y a l t e r n a t i v e . M e d i a h a v e e v o l v e d from s i m p l e r f o r m s , and c o n v e y the b a c k g r o u n d I d e a s of our t i m e , a s w e l l a s the f a d s . M e d i a t o d a y f o c u s the I m p r e s s i o n s a n d I d e a s that in p r e v i o u s e r a s w e r e c o n v e y e d b y r i t u a l s , p u b l i c g a t h e r i n g s , d e c r e e s , p a r a d e s , b e h a v i o r in p u b l i c , m u m m e r ' t r o u p e s . . . b u t a c t u a l l y e v e r y c u l t u r e is a w o r l d of i m a g e s . The c h i e f t a i n in h i s p a l a n q u i n , the s h a m a n w i t h his f e a t h e r s and r a t t l e , are telling us something about themselves and a b o u t the c o n t i n u i t y of the s o c i e t y a n d p o s i t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l s in i t . N o w the m e d i a , w i t h a l l t h e i r q u i r k s , p e r f o r m the s a m e f u n c t i o n . A n d if w e d o n o t l i k e the w a y s o m e t h i n g s are t r e a t e d by the m e d i a , in p a r t t h i s s t e m s f r o m not u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w they w o r k . " M e d i a , " or s t r u c t u r e d t r a n s m i s s i o n m e c h a n i s m s , c a n n o t h e l p b e i n g p e r s o n a l i z e d by t h o s e w h o run t h e m . (Like e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . ) The problem is to u n d e r s t a n d h o w m e d i a w o r k , a n d thus b a l a n c e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the t h i n g s that m e d i a m i s r e p r e s e n t . THOUGHTS ABOUT MEDIA: 1 . A N Y T H I N G C A N BE S A I D IN A N Y
MEDIUM.
A n y t h i n g c a n b e said in a n y m e d i u m , a n d I n s p i r a t i o n c o u n t s m u c h m o r e than ' s c i e n c e ' . But the t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h a r e u s e d to c o n v e y s o m e t h i n g c a n b e q u i t e u n p r e d i c t a b l e .
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C o m p u t e r G r a p h i c s d o e s not m a k e p o s s i b l e anything that was previously Impossible: U c a n o n l y I m p r o v e the t h r o u g h p u t o r an e x i s t i n g process,
3.
A s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n of c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s Is w h e n o v e r a p e r i o d o r rive y e a r s the cost s a v i n g s fYom I m p r o v e d p r o c e s s t h r o u g h p u t e x c e e d t h e c o s t s of h a r d w a r e , s o f t w a r e , m a i n t e n a n c e a n d I n t e g r a t i o n i n t o an o x l s t i n e p r o c e s s
By " f a n t i c s " I m e a n the art and s c i e n c e of g e t t i n g i d e a s a c r o s s , b o t h e m o t i o n a l l y and c o g n i t l v e l y . "Presentat i o n " c o u l d b e a g e n e r a l w o r d for I t . T h e c h a r a c t e r of w h a t g e t s a c r o a s Is a l w a y s d u a l : b o t h the e x p l i c i t s t r u c t u r e ^ a n d f e e l i n g s that go w i t h t h e m . T h e s e two a s p e c t s , e x a c t n e s s a n d c o n n o t a t i o n , are an I n s e p a r a b l e w h o l e ; w h a t is c o n v e y e d g e n e r a l l y h a s b o t h . T h e r e a d e r or v i e w e r a l w a y s g e t s f e e l i n g s a l o n g w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n , e v e n w h e n the c r e a t o r s of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h i n k that its " c o n t e n t " Is much more restricted. A beautiful example: ponderous technical manuals which carry much more connotatlvely than the a u t h o r r e a l i z e s . Such v o l u m e s m a y c o n v e y to s o m e r e a d e r s an ( I n t e n d e d ) i m p r e s s i o n of c o m p e t e n c e , to o t h e r s a s e n s e of the a u t h o r s ' o b t u s e n e e s and n o n - i m a g i n a tion. Explicit declarative structures nevertheless have c o n n o t a t i v e f i e l d s ; p e o p l e r e c e i v e not o n l y c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , b u t i m p r e s s i o n s , f e e l i n g s a n d s e n s e s of t h i n g s . F a n t i c s is thus c o n c e r n e d w i t h b o t h the a r t s of e f f e c t — w r i t i n g , t h e a t e r and so on—end the s t r u c t u r e s and m e c h a n i s m s of t h o u g h t , i n c l u d i n g the v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s of the s c h o l a r l y e v e n t ( a r t i c l e , b o o k , l e c t u r e , d e b a t e and class ) . These are all a fundamentally Inseparable w h o l e , a n d t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d p e o p l e w h o t h i n k that s y a t e m s to i n t e r a c t w i t h p e o p l e , or t e a c h , or b r i n g up i n f o r m a t i o n , c a n f u n c t i o n on s o m e " t e c h n i c a l " b a s i s — w i t h no t i e - i n s to h u m a n f e e l i n g s , p s y c h o l o g y , or t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e — are kidding themselves and/or everyone e l s e . Syst e m s f o r " t e a c h i n g by c o m p u t e r , " " i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l , " a n d so o n , h a v e to b e g o v e r n e d In t h e i r d e s i g n by l a r g e r p r i n c i p l e s t h a n m o s t of t h e s e p e o p l e a r e w i l l i n g to d e a l w i t h : the c o n v e y a n c e o f i m a g e s , i m p r e s s i o n s a n d I d e a s . T h i s is w h a t w r i t e r s a n d e d i t o r s , m o v i e - m a k e r s a n d l e c t u r e r s , radio a n n o u n c e r s and layout people and advertising people a r e concerned w i t h ; and unfortunately computer p e o p l e tend n o t to u n d e r s t a n d lt for b e a n s .
I think this Is a d e l u s i o n and a c o n - g a m e . I t h i n k that w h e n the r e a l m e d i a of the f u t u r e a r r i v e , t h e s m a l l est child w i l l k n o w it r i g h t a w a y (and p e r h a p s f i r s t ) . T h a t , I n d e e d , should and w i l l b e the c r i t e r i o n . W h e n y o u c a n ' t tear a teeny kid a w a y f r o m the c o m p u t e r s c r e e n , we'll have gotten t h e r e . W e are a p p r o a c h i n g a s c r e e n a p o c a l y p s e . T h e a u t h o r ' s b a s i c v i e w is that R E S P O N S I V E C O M P U T E R D I S P L A Y S Y S T E M S C A N , S H O U L D A N D W I L L R E S T R U C T U R E A N D L I G H T UP T H E M E N T A L LIFE OF M A N K I N D . (For s m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l o u t l o o k , s e e box n e a r b y , "Another Viewpoint.") I believe computer screens can make people h a p p i e r , s m a r t e r , a n d b e t t e r a b l e to c o p e w i t h the c o p i o u s p r o b lems of t o m o r r o w . But only if w e d o r i g h t , r i g h t n o w . WHY?
In f a n t i c s a s a w h o l e , then w e a r e c o n c e r n e d
T h e c o m p u t e r ' s c a p a b i l i t y for b r a n c h i n g a m o n g events, controlling exterior devices, controlling o u t s i d e e v e n t s , a n d m e d i a t i n g in a l l o t h e r e v e n t s , m a k e s p o s s i b l e a n e w e r a of m e d i a .
1. turally
and T h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h a t a r b i t r a r i n e s s , a n d r e consideration among broader and m o r e general a l t e r n a t i v e s , a w a i t s u s . A l l the p r e v i o u s u n i t s a n d m e c h a n i s m s of l e a r n i n g , s c h o l a r s h i p , a r t s , t r a n s a c tion and c o n f i r m a t i o n , a n d even s e l f - r e m i n d e r , w e r e b a s e d in v a r i o u s w a y s u p o n p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s — the p r o p e r d e s of p a p e r , c a r b o n p a p e r , f i l e s , b o o k s and b o o k s h e l v e s . T o read from p a p e r y o u m u s t m o v e the p h y s i c a l o b j e c t in f r o n t of y o u . Its c o n t e n t s cannot be m a d e to s l i d e , f o l d , s h r i n k , b e c o m e t r a n s p a r e n t , or get l a r g e r . But a l l t h i s Is n o w c h a n g i n g , a n d s u d d e n l y . The c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s c r e e n d o e s a l l these t h i n g s if d e s i r e d , to the same m a r k i n g s w e h a v e p r e v i o u s l y h a n d l e d on p a p e r . T h e c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s c r e e n is g o i n g to b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l v e r y f a s t ; t h i s is g u a r a n t e e d by t h e s u d d e n l y r i s i n g cost of p a p e r . A n d w e w i l l u s e them for e v e r y t h i n g . This already happens wherever there are responding c o m puter screen s y s t e m s . (I h a v e a f r i e n d w i t h two C R T s on his d e s k ; o n e for the n o r m a l f l o w of w o r k , a n d o n e to handle interruptions and side e x c u r s i o n s . ) A lot of forests will be s a v e d . H o w , there a r e m a n y p e o p l e w h o d o n ' t like this i d e a , and huff a b o u t v a r i o u s a p p a r e n t d i s a d v a n t a g e s of the s c r e e n . But w e c a n i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e u n t i l a l m o s t e v e r y o n e is s a t i s f i e d . F o r t h o s e w h o say the s c r e e n s a r e "too s m a l l , " we can improve reliability and b a c k u p , and o f f e r s c r e e n s e v e r y w h e r e (so that m a t e r i a l need n o t b e physically carried between t h e m ) . T h e e x h i l a r a t i o n a n d e x c i t e m e n t of t h e c o m i n g t i m e is hard to c o n v e y on p a p e r . O u r s c r e e n d i s p l a y s w i l l b e a l i v e w i t h a n i m a t i o n in their s e p a r a t e s e g m e n t s of a c t i v i t y , a n d w i l l r e s p o n d to o u r a c t i o n s a s If a l i v e p h y s i c ally too. The question i s , then: HOW W I L L W E U S E THEM? Thus the d e s i g n of s c r e e n p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d of t r a n s a c t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n a y s t e m s , is of the h i g h eat p r i o r i t y .
FRENCH
HAVE
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In F r e n c h t h e y u s e the t e r m 1'Informatique to m e a n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y , the p r e s e n t a t i o n of lnformation to people by automatic equipment. U n f o r t u n a t e l y the E n g l i s h equivalent, informatics. has been p r e e m p t e d . T h e r e is a computer programming firm called Informatics, I n c . , a n d w h e n I w r o t e t h e m a b o u t this in t h e early sixties they said they did not want their n a m e to b e c o m e a g e n e r i c t e r m . Trademark law s u p p o r t s t h e m in t h i s to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . ( O t h e r s , like W a l l y F e u r z e i g , w a n t t h a t to b e the w o r d r e g a r d l e s s . ) B u t in t h e m e a n t i m e I o f f e r u p the t e r m f a n t i c s , w h i c h is m o r e general anyhow.
T h e a r t a n d s c i e n c e of p r e s e n t a t i o n . includes
with:
T h u s it
na-
2 . T e c h n i q u e s of p r e s e n t a t i o n : w r i t i n g , s t a g e d i r e c t i o n , movie m a k i n g , m a g a z i n e l a y o u t , sound o v e r l a y , e t c . a n d of c o u r s e
U n t i l n o w , the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s d e t e r m i n e d w h a t they w e r e to u s and h o w w e used t h e m . But h e n c e f o r t h t h i s is a r b i t r a r y .
THE
P E R I L S , AMP
2.
TRANSPOSABILITY
T h e r e h a s a l w a y s b e e n , b u t n o w is n e w l y , a U N I T Y O F M E D I A O P T I O N S . Y o u c a n get y o u r m e s s a g e a c r o s s in a p l a y , a t r a c t , a b r o a d s i d e , a t e x t b o o k , a walking sandwich-board, a radio program, a comic book or f u m e t t l , a m o v i e , a s l i d e - s h o w , a c a s s e t t e f o r the A u d i - S c a n o r t h e A V S - 1 0 , o r e v e n a h y p e r t e x t (see p . } ) » ] % ) . (But t r a n s p o s i n g c a n r a r e l y p r e s e r v e c o m p l e t e l y the c h a r a c t e r or q u a l i t y of t h e o r i g i n a l . ) 3.
BIG AND SMALL
APPROACHES
W h a t few p e o p l e r e a l i z e i s that b i g p i c t u r e s c a n b e c o n v e y e d in m o r e p o w e r f u l w a y s t h a n they k n o w . The r e a s o n t h e y d o n ' t k n o w it is that t h e y s e e the c o n t e n t in the m e d i a , a n d n o t h o w the c o n t e n t Is b e i n g g o t t e n a c r o s s to t h e m — t h a t in f a c t they h a v e b e e n g i v e n v e r y big pictures i n d e e d , but don't know I t . (I t a k e t h i s p o i n t to b e the N i c k e l - I r o n C o r e of H c L u h a n l s m . ) P e o p l e w h o w a n t to t e a c h In t e r m s of b u i l d i n g u p f r o m the s m a l l to the l a r g e , a n d o t h e r s w h o (like t h e a u t h o r ) l i k e to p r e s e n t a w h o l e p i c t u r e f i r s t , t h e n f i l l in the g a p s , a r e t a k i n g two v a l i d a p p r o a c h e s . (We m a y c a l l t h e s e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e B i g P i c t u r e a p proach and the P i e c e m e a l a p p r o a c h . ) Big pictures are just a s m e m o r a b l e a s p i c k y - p i e c e s if. t h e y h a v e s t r o n g i n s i g h t s at t h e i r m a j o r i n t e r s e c t i o n s . <*.
THE WORD-PICTURE
3 . M e d i a t h e m s e l v e s , their analysis and ultimately
4 . T h e d e s i g n of s y s t e m s f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n . This w i l l of c o u r s e i n v o l v e c o m p u t e r s h e r e a f t e r , b o t h c o n c e p t u a l l y a n d t e c h n i c a l l y ; s i n c e It o b v i o u s l y I n c l u d e s , for t h e future, branching and intricately Interactive systems e n a c t e d by p r o g r a m m a b l e m e c h a n i s m s , i . e . c o m p u t e r s . Thus c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y , d a t a s t r u c t u r e s ( a n d , to an e x t e n t , p r o g r a m m i n g languages and t e c h n i q u e s ) are all a p a r t . F a n t i c s must
T h i s w o r d - p i c t u r e c o n t i n u u m is j u s t a p a r t of broader continuum, which I call Fantics.
6. S o c i o l o g i c a l t i e - i n B — e s p e c i a l l y s u p p o r t i v e and d y s f u n c t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , such as tie-ins with occupational s t r u c t u r e ; s p o n s o r s h i p a n d c o m m e r c i a l s ; w h a t w o r k s in s c h o o l s a n d w h y . M o s t p r o f o u n d l y of a l l , h o w e v e r , f a n t i c s m u s t d e a l w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t s u s e d to o r g a n i z e t h i n g s : 7. T h e p a r t s , conceptual t h r e a d s , unifying concepts a n d w h a t n o t that w e c r e a t e to m a k e a s p e c t s of the w o r l d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . W e put them i n t o e v e r y t h i n g , but s t a n d a r d ize t h e m in m e d i a . F o r e x a m p l e , t a k e r a d i o . G i v e n in r a d i o - - the t e c h n o l o g i c a l f u n d a m e n t — is m e r e l y the c o n t i n u o u s t r a n s m i s s i o n of s o u n d . Put i n t o it h a v e b e e n t h e " p r o g r a m , " the s e r i a l (and t h u s the e p i s o d e ) , the a n n o u n c e r , the theme s o n g a n d the m u s i c a l b r i d g e — c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h a r e u s e f u l p r e sentationally. The arbitrariness of such mental constructs should b e c l e a r . T h e i r u s e f u l n e s s in m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n p e r h s p a is n o t . Let's
tbe
ale < i n c l u d e
5 . P s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t a n d i m p a c t of v a r i o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s — b u t not p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a l a e s t h e t i c s , a s of h a i k u or m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . W h e r e d i r e c t l y r e l e vant fantics also includes
CONTINUUM
T h e a r t s of w r i t i n g a n d d i a g r a m m i n g a r e b a s i c a l l y a continuum. In b o t h c a s e s the m e n t a l i m a g e s and c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s p r o d u c e d a r e a m e r g e r of w h a t i s h e a r d or r e c e i v e d . W o r d s a r e s l o w and t r i c k y for p r e s e n t i n g a lot of c o n n e c t i o n s ; d i a g r a m s d o t h i s w e l l . B u t d i a g r a m s g i v e a p o o r f e e l for t h i n g s a n d w o r d s do t h i s s p l e n d i d l y . T h e w r i t e r p r e s e n t s e x a c t s t a t e m e n t s , in an a c c o r d - s t r u c t u r e of b u t s a n d i n d e e d s , m o l d e d In a s t r u c t u r e of c o n n o t a t i o n s h a v i n g (if t h e w r i t e r la good) exact imprecisenesa. T h i s is h a r d l y s t a r t l i n g : y o u ' r e a l w a y s s e l e c t i n g w h a t to s a y , a n d the u s e of v a g u e w o r d s (or the u s e of p r e c i s e - s o u n d i n g w o r d s v a g u e l y ) is s i m p l y a f l a g r a n t f o r m of o m i s s i o n . In d i a g r a m s , t o o , the c h o i c e of w h a t to l e a v e In a n d o u t , h o w to r e p r e s e n t o v e r w e e n i n g c o n d i t i o n * a n d f o r c e s a n d e x e m p lary d e t a i l s , are highly c o n n o t a t i v e . (Great d i a g r a m s a r e to b e s e e n in the S c i e n t i f i c A m e r i c a n a n d o l d e r I s s u e s of T I M E m a g a z i n e . )
design;
about
take a surprise e x a m p l e , nothing
electronic
it.
M a n y " h i g h w a y s " a r e w h o l l y f i c t i t i o u s — at l e a s t to b e g i n w i t h . L e t ' s say that a R o u t e 37 le c r e a t e d a c r o s s the s t a t e : that n u m b e r is m e r e l y a s e r i e s of s i g n s that u s e r s c a n r e f e r to aa they look at their m a p s a n d t r a v e l along. H o w e v e r , a s time g o e s b y , " R o u t e 3 7 " t a k e s o n a c e r t a i n r e a l i t y a s a c o n c e p t u a l e n t i t y : p e o p l e t h i n k of it a s a t h i n g . P e o p l e say " J u s t take 37 s t r a i g h t o u t " ( t h o u g h it m a y t w i s t a n d t u r n ) ; g r o u p s like a R o u t e 37 M e r c h a n t s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , or e v e n a C i t i z e n s to S a v e Scenic .37, may spring u p . What was originally simply a nominal construct, then, becomes quite real as people organize their lives around lt. T h i s a l l s e e m s a r b i t r a r y b u t n e c e s s a r y in b o t h h i g h w a y s s n d r a d i o . W h a t , t h e n , d o e s lt h a v e to do w i t h the new electronic media?
Simply t h i . : till now the s t r u c t u r e , of media somehow •prang naturally from the nature of t h i n g s . M o w thej don I a n y m o r e . R a d i o , books and m o v i e , have a natural Inner dynamic of their o w n , leading to auch c o n i t n icts. While thia may prove to be ao for computer m e d i a as w e l l (—as I ited p . & V O , argued In "Getting It Out of O u r Systi then again it m a y n o t . In other vordi WE M U S T A C K N O W L E D G E THAT W E A R E INVENTING P R E S E N T A T I O N A L TECHNIQUES IN T H E N E W M E D I A , not merely transporting or transposing things into then because they seem r i g h t . ThiL p s y c h o l o g l to be cal constructs of m a n - m a c h i n e systems may. turn a r b i t r a r y . Thus bringing to terminal systems c o n like d i a l o g u e instruction ( " C A I " ) , or a r b i t r a r y ctlona of h o w things m a y b e c o n n e c t e d , presented or rrltti ti on the computer m a y be a great m i s t a k e . The h i g h w a y - n u m b e r analogy c o n t i n u e s , T h e older highways had numbers for c o n v e n i e n c e , and our travels B e came organized around t h e m , a n d p a r t i c u l a r h i g h w a y s (like " U . S . 1" and "Route 6 6 " ) came to have special c h a r a c t e r . But n o w with the I n t e r s t a t c s , a h i g h w a y is a p l a n n e d , sealed u n i t , n o longer just a c o l l e c t i o n of roads g a t h e r ed together under a n a m e . This u n i t , the I n t e r s t a t e , is n o t m e r e l y a p s y c h o l o g i cal c o n s t r u c t , b u t a planned s t r u c t u r e . K n o w i n g w h a t w o r k s and what doesn't in the design of fast h i g h w a y s , the I n t e r states were built for s p e e d , s t r u c t u r e d as closed u n i t s . D e s i g n i n g them with limited access h a s been a c o n s c i o u s decision in the system design for w e l l - b a s e d r e a s o n s , not, a chance structure brought in from h o r s e - a n d b u g g y d a y s . N o w , the c o n s t r u c t s of p r e v i o u s m e d i a — w r i t i n g , f i l m s , other a r t s — evolved over t i m e , and in m a n y c a s e s m a y h a v e found their w a y to a " n a t u r a l " f o r m . B u t b e c a u s e of the peculiar w a y that c o m p u t e r m e d i a a r e c u r r e n t l y e v o l v i n g /—under large grants largely granted to p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o use v e r y large w o r d s to p r o m o t e the idea that their o r i g i nal professions are largely a p p l i c a b l e — ) , this sort of n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n m a y not take p l a c e . T h e n e w c o n s t r u c t s of computer m e d i a , e s p e c i a l l y computer s c r e e n - m e d i a , m a y n o t have a chance to be thought o u t . W e need d e s i g n s for screen p r e s e n t a t i o n s and their m i x t u r e — v i g n e t t i n g , W i n d o w s , screen m o s a i c s , transformed and a u g m e n t e d v i e w s , a n d the rapid a n d r o o p r e h e n s i b l e c o n t r o l of these v i e w B a n d w i n d o w s . We are still Just b e g i n n i n g to find clever v i e w i n g t e c h n i q u e s , and have hardly begun to d i s c o v e r h i g h l y r e s p o n sive forms of v i e w a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l ( c f . c o l l a t e r a t i o n in " T h i n k e r t o y s , " p.y»*2»), a n d K n o w l t o n ' s b u t t o n - b o x (^..jftj) (See T . N e l s o n , "A C o n c e p t u a l F r a m e w o r k for Kan-Machine Everything," cited p . , a n d m a t e r i a l on controls, below.) THE MIND'S UNIFICATION One of the r e m a r k a b l e things a b o u t the h u m a n m i n d is the w a y it ties things t o g e t h e r . P e r c e p t u a l u n i t y comes out of n o w h e r e . A b u n c h of i r r e g u l a r r e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l b l o c k s b e c o m e s thought of a s "my n e i g h b o r h o o d . " A most r e m a r k a b l e case of m e n t a l u n i fication Is afforded b y the v i s a g e of o u r good friend M i c k e y M o u s e . T h e c h a r a c t e r Is d r a w n in a m o s t p a r a d o x i c a l f a s h i o n : two g l o b e l i k e p r o t r u s i o n s ( r e p r e s e n t i n g the e a r s ) a r e in d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s o n the h e a d , d e p e n d ing on w h e t h e r w e view h i m from the front o r the s i d e . No one finds this o b j e c t i o n a b l e ; f e w p e o p l e even n o t i c e , it s e e m s . THE
PARADOXICAL
ANATOMY
OF MICKEY
T h e h u m a n m i n d b e i n g as supple aa lt i s , a n y t h i n g w h a t e v e r c a n b e used to c o n t r o l s y s t e m s . The p r o b l e m is h a v i n g it b e s c o m p r e h e n s i b l e w h o l e . As already remarked, things ia e x t r a o r d i n a r y . clutch, gear, accelerator c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e to m s k e and I n s t r u c t .
o u r ability m e n t a l l y to unify That w e s o m e h o w tie together and brake into a c o m p r e h e n s i b l e cars go and stop should amaxe
E n g i n e e r s and "human f a c t o r s " p e o p l e a p e a k a s though there w e r e some kind of s c i e n t i f i c or d e t e r m i n a t e w a y to d e s i g n c o n t r o l s y s t e m s . P i f f l e . W e c h o o s e a s e t of c o n t r o l s , m u c h like an a r t i s t ' s P a l e t t e , on the b a a l s of g e n e r a l a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s ; a n d then try b e s t a n d m o a t a r t i s t i c a l l y to fit them t o w h a t n e e d s d o i n g . T h e result must b e c o n c e p t u a l l y clear and r e t r o a c t i v e ly " o b v i o u s " — simply b e c a u s e c l s r l t y is the s i m p l e s t w a y to keep the u s e r from m a k i n g m i s t a k e s . C l e a r a n d s i m p l e s y s t e m s a r e e a s i e r to l e a r n , h a r d e r to f o r g e t . Leas likely to b e s c r e w e d u p by the u s e r , and thus a r e m o r e e c o n o m i c a l — g e t t i n g m o r e d o n e for the r e s o u r c e s p u t i n . T h e r e ia a sort of p a r a d o x h e r e . T h e k i n d s of c o n trols a r e t o t a l l y a r b i t r a r y , b u t their u n i f i c a t i o n in a good s y s t e m is n o t . S m o o t h n e s s and c l a r i t y c a n come from d i s p a r a t e e l e m e n t s . It is for this r e a s o n that I lay p a r t i c u l a r stress on m y J O T s y s t e m for the input a n d r e v i s i o n of t e x t , u s i n g a p a l e t t e of keys a v a i l a b l e on the s i m p l e s t s t a n d a r d c o m p u t e r t e r m i n a l , the 33 T e l e t y p e . I c a n n o t m a k e the final j u d g e m e n t on h o w good this s y s t e m i s , b u t it p l e a s e s m e . J O T is a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e b e c a u s e lt s u g g e s t s that a c o n c e p t u a l l y u n i f i e d s y s t e m c a n b e c r e a t e d from t h e a r t f u l n o n - o b v i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n of loose elements originally having different intended p u r p o s e s . M e n t a l a n a l o g y is an i m p o r t a n t a n d clear c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e . W e tend to forget that the s t e e r i n g w h e e l w a s I n v e n t e d , s e p a r a t e l y r e p l a c i n g b o t h t h e b o a t ' s tiller a n d the a u t o m o b i l e ' s t i l l e r . W e a l s o f o r g e t that the u s e of such s t e e r i n g m e c h a n i s m s m u s t b e a c t u a l l y l e a r n e d b y c h i l d r e n . Such c o n t i n u o u s a n a l o g i e s , t h o u g h , r e q u i r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n t i n u i t i e s in the s p a c e to b e c o n t r o l l e d — an i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n . S i m p l i c i t y a n d c irity h a v e n o t h i n g to d o w i t h the b u t w i t h the c l a r i t y a n d u n i q u e a p p e a r a n c e of c o n t r o ] s t a b i l i t y of i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s . F o r this r e a s o n I find d e p l o r a b l e the a r r a y e d c o n t r o l s that a r e t u r n i n g u p , e . g . •n today's audio equipment. Designers seem to think r o w s of t h i n g s are d e s i r a b l e . On the c o n t r a r y : t h e b e s t d e s i g n e d c o n t r o l s I e v e r used a r e on the S o n y T C - 5 0 pocket tape recorder ^
But u s e f u l w h o l e n e s s can be helped a l o n g . Juat as what I have called the a c c o r d a n c e - s t r u c t u r e of w r i t i n g (see "Writing," p.^yj) m o v e , it along s m o o t h l y , fantic design that b u i l d s from a w e 1 1 - o r g a n i z e d internal d y n 1 h U o n f ' " ' ' ° " = " * * « t i c system the same m o m e n t u m and c l a r i t y that c a r e f u l l y - o r g a n i z e d w r i t i n g h a a .
.^.hS.
T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n of w h o l e n e s s can only occur howe v e r , If the under-level c o m p l i c a t i o n , of been c a r e f u l l y streamlined and .moothed b a c k , at lea.t as they affect the uaer C o n s i d e r the design of the J O T text e d i t i n g s y s t e m (p.***?): while It 1 . simple t o t h . u s ^ r , c o m p u t e r p e o p l e often reset to it w i t h lndignsllcm snd anger b e c a u s e lt h i d e , w h a t are to them the s i g n i f i cant f e a t u r e s of computer text e d i t i n g - explicit p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h s t o r a g e , especially the calling and r e v i s i o n of " b l o c k s . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , I say it is the d e tails at thia level w h i c h m u s t b e smoothed back If w e are to m a k e s y s t e m s for regular p e o p l e . T h e Bame a p p l i e a to the T h 3 system (see p . DM- < P T ) w h i c h is d e s i g n e d to keep the user clear-minded a s h e c o m p a r e s things in m u l t i p l e d i m e n s i o n s . The m e c h a n i s m s at t h e c o m p u t e r level m u s t b e hidden to make this w o r k . FANTIC SPACE P u d o v k i n a n d E l s e n a t e l n , great RUBS: of the t w e n t i e s , talked a b o u t "filmic spi ary space that the action s e e m s to b e in
T h i s c o n c e p t extends Itself n a t u r a l l y to fantic space the space and r e l a t i o n s h i p s sensed by a viewer of a n y m e d i u m , or a u s e r in a n y p r e s e n t i n g or responding e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e design of c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y s y s t e m s , t h e n , is r e a l l y the a r t f u l c r a f t i n y of fantic s p a c e . T e c h n i c a l i t i e a r e a u b s c r v l e n t to e f f e c t s . ( I n d e e d , I think computer g r a p h i c s is r e a l l y a b r a n c h of m o v i e - m a k i n g . ) FANTIC
STRUCTURE
T h e f a n t i c s t r u c t u r e of a n y t h i n g , t h e n , c o n s i s t s of its n o t i c e a b l e p a r t s , i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , c o n t e n t s a n d e f fects. I c l a i m that it is the fantic u n i t y — the c o n c e p t u a l and p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c l a r i t y of these t h i n g s — that m a k e s f a n t i c s y s t e m s — p r e s e n t a t i o n a l systei— e-dJ -----materi• alc l e a r and h e l p f u l , or n o t . L e t u s take Intel c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d insti I w i l l n o t i d e n t i f y or h a p s I d o n o t understar h a v e an a r r a y of studei
MOUSE
POSSIBLE Diagonal
M>VICE
'FKST'
EASIER
MOUSE
S p u r i o u s c o n t r o l e l e g a n c e c o m e s in m a n y g u i s e s . C o n s i d e r B r u c e M c C a l l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of the T a p - A - T o e F u t u r o i dic F o o t l e s s D e - C l u t c h i n g t m s y s t e m . T h i s w a s o f f e r e d on the f i c t i t i o u s 1 9 3 4 B u l g e m o b i l e s , a n d a l l o w e d y o u t o d r i v e the c a r w i t h one p e d a l , r a t h e r than t h r e e (see b o x n e a r b y ) .
(frontal)
RECONCILIATIONS: Mounting
Rolling Relative to Camera
W h a t this s h o w s , of c o u r s e , is the w a y the mind c a n unify into a c o n s i s t e n t m e n t a l w h o l e even t h i n g s w h i c h a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t by n o r m a l r u l e s (in this c a s e , the r u l e s of t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e ) . Even p e r c e p t i o n s a r e subject to the same p r i n c i p l e of u n i f i c a t i o n . The f i n g e r n a i l is an e x c r e s c e n c e w i t h n o n e r v e s in i t ; y e t s o m e h o w y o u c a n f e e l t h i n g s w i t h y o u r f l n e e r n a i l a — tying together d i s p a r a t e s e n s a t i o n s i n t o a unified s e n s e of s o m e t h i n g In the w o r l d ( s a y , a c o i n y o u ' r e trying to pick u p ) . In the same w a y , an e x p e r i e n c ed driver feels the r o a d ; In a v e r y real s e n s e , the c a r ' s w h e e l s and s u s p e n s i o n b e c o m e h i s o w n s e n s o r y e x t e n s i o n s . T h i s p r i n c i p l e of m e n t a l u n i f i c a t i o n is w h a t m a k e b things come t o g e t h e r , both l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y , in a fantic f i e l d . A viewer sees two c o n s e c u t i v e m o v i e shots of streets and u n i f i e s them I n t o one s t r e e t ; c o n t r o l s , if you are used to t h e m , b e c o m e a s i n g l e fused s y s t e m of o p t i o n s ; w e c a n have a sense of a g r e a t e r w h o l e , of w h i c h one v i e w on a Bcreen is a p a r t .
Careless and horrible designs are not all fictitious. O n e e g r e g i o u s e x a m p l e a l s o I n d i c a t e s the l o w l e v e l of d e sign currently going into some responding systems: c o m p u t er p e o p l e h a v e d e s i g n e d C R T w r i t i n g s y s t e m s f o r n e w s p a p e r s w h i c h a c t u a l l y h a v e a " k i l l " b u t t o n o n the c o n s o l e , b y w h i c h a u t h o r s w o u l d a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l t h e i r s t o r i e s . In a r e c e n t m a g a z i n e a r t i c l e it w a s e x p l a i n e d that the e v e n t ual s o l u t i o n w a s t o c h a n g e the p r o g r a m s o that to k i l l the s t o r y y o u h a d to h i t t h e " k i l l " b u t t o n t w i c e • T o m e this s e e m s like a b e a u t i f u l e x a m p l e of w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n y o u l e t i n s u l a t e d t e c h n i c a l p e o p l e d e s i g n the s y s t e m f o r y o u : a " k i l l " b u t t o n on the k e y b o a r d is a b o u t a s i n t e l l i gent a s i n s t a l l i n g k n i v e s on t h e d a s h b o a r d of a c a r , pointing at the passenger.
N O T i n ooR^.STMy
CONTROLS: THEIR UNIFICATION A N D FEEL C o n t r o l s a r e intimately related to screen p r e s e n t a t i o n , just as a r b i t r a r y , and just a s i m p o r t a n t . The artful design of c o n t r o l s y s t e m s is a deeply m i s u n d e r s t o o d a r e a , in n o w a y d e c o n f u s e d by c a l l i n g it human f a c t o r s . " There are m a n y f u n c t i o n s to b e c o n t r o l l e d , such a s text e d i t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , v i e w s of the u n i v e r s e on a s c r e e n , the h e a d i n g of a v e h i c l e , the tilt of an a i r c r a f t , the w i n d a g e and a d j u s t m e n t s of a r t i l l e r y the temperature of a stove b u r n e r and a n y other c o n t r o l lable d e v i c e s . And n o w a d a y s any c o n c e i v a b l e d e v i c e s could control t h e m — p u s h b u t t o n s , k n o b s , c r a n k s , w h e e l s , leyers and j o y s t i c k s , t r i g g e r , d i a l s , m a g i c w a n d s , m a n i pulation by lightpen on C R T screens (see p . ^ T i ) f l i c k s of the f i n g e r , the turning pX the eyes (as in s o m e e x perimental g u n - a i m i n g d e v i c e s ) , the h u m a n v o i c e (but that i n t r o d u c e s p r o b l e m s — see p.finrj), k e y b o a r d s , e l e c tronic t a b l e t s , Bogelbart m i c e and c h o r d w r i t e r s , a n d s o
EMMP
W h a t m a k e s for t h e b e s t c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s , then? T h e r e is n o s i m p l e a n s w e r . I w o u l d s a y p r o v i s i o n a l l y that it is a m a t t e r of u n i f i e d a n d c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s t r u c t s in the m e n t a l v i e w of the d o m a i n to b e c o n t r o l l e d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a w e l l - d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n d c l e a r l y - i n t e r r e l a t e d s e t of c o n t r o l l i n g m e c h a n i s m s . B u t that is h a r d l y the la. •ord < i subje,
It s h o u l d b e p l a i n that in r e s p o n d i n g s c r e e n s y s t e m s , " w h a t h a p p e n s on the s c r e e n " a n d " h o w the controls respond" are not really distinguishable. T h e s c r e e n e v e n t s a r e part of t h e w a y the c o n t r o l s respond. T h e screen functions and control functions merge psychologically. N o w , there is a trap h e r e . J u s t a s the g a s p e d a l , clutch, gearshift and brake merge p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , any c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e c a n m e r g e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y . C l u t c h a n d g e a r s h i f t d o n o t h a v e , f o r m o s t of u s , c l e a r p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e l e v a n c e to the p r o b l e m of c o n trolled forward m o t i o n . Yet w e psychologically i n t e g r a t e the u s e of these m e c h a n i s m s a s a u n i f i e d m e a n s for c o n t r o l l i n g f o r w a r d m o t i o n ( o r , like the a u t h o r , get an A u t o m a t i c ) . In m u c h the s a m e w a y , any s y s t e m of c o n t r o l s c a n g r a d u a l l y c o m e t h r o u g h u s e to h a v e a p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , even s p u r i o u s l y . T h e trap is that w e so easily lose s i g h t of a r b i t r a r i n e s s and even s t u p i d i t y of d e s i g n , a n d live w i t h lt w h e n it c o u l d b e a o m u c h b e t t e r , b e c a u s e of this p s y c h o l o g i c a l melding.
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T h e g e n e r a l t h i n k i n g in this s y s t e m s e e m s to b e that the s t u d e n t m a y g e t an o v e r a l l o r g a n i z i n g v i e w of w h a t h e is s u p p o s e d t o b e l e a r n i n g ( M A P ) ; i n f o r m a t i o n o n w h a t h e is c u r r e n t l y s u p p o s e d to b e a b o u t ( O B J ) ; canned suggestions based on what he's recently done (ADVICE). M o r t v e r , h e c a n g e t the s y s t e m to p r e s e n t a rule about the s u b j e c t or g i v e h i m p r a c t i c e ; a n d f o r e i t h e r of these h e m a y r e q u e s t e a s i e r r u l e s or p r a c t i c e , or h a r d e r r u l e s ( i . e . , m o r e a b s t r u s e g e n e r a l i t i e s ) or harder p r a c tice. For the l a t t e r , the s t u d e n t is s u p p o s e d to h i t R U L E or P R A C T followed b y H E L P , H A R D E R or E A S I E R , v i z . :
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There is another poor tendency. When computer p r o g r a m m e r s or o t h e r t e c h n i c a l p e o p l e d e s i g n p a r t i c u l a r systems without thinking more g e n e r a l l y , things are not l i k e l y to b e e i t h e r s i m p l e o r c o m b i n a b l e . W h a t m a y r e sult is i n t r i c a t e u s e r - l e v e l c o n t r o l s f o r o n e p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n , c o n t r o l s that a r e d i f f e r e n t l y used f o r a n o t h e r particular function, making the two functions not c o m binable.
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b u t o f c o u r s e this is n o w p h a s e d o u t ; i n s t e a d m o s t c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r s h a v e f i v e or s i x stupid b u t t o n s in a r o w . (Was it t o o good to l a s t ? )
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N o w r e g a r d l e s s o£ w h e t h e r this is a well-thought-w a y t o d i v i d e u p a s u b j e c t — I'll b e i n t e r e s t e d to se< h o w it w o r k s o u t — t h e s e c o n t r o l s d o not seem to b e wi a r r a n g e d for c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y . It s e e m s to b e the < rows-of-buttons approach. I h a v e n o d o u b t that the p e o p l e w o r k i n g on this i S t e m a r e c e r t a i n this is the o n l y p o s s i b l e l a y o u t . Bi c o n s i d e r that the s t u d e n t ' s o p t i o n s m i g h t b e c l e a r e r i h i m , f o r i n s t a n c e , if w e s e t it u p as f o l l o w s :
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A f f i l e kg;
S e l e c t i o n of p o i n t s a n d p a r t s c o n t r i b u t e s to b o t h a s p e c t s . If y o u a r e t r y i n g to k e e p t h e f e e l i n g o f a thing from being p o n d e r o u s , you can never Include e v e r y t h i n g y o u w a n t e d , hut must select from a m o n g the explicit points and feeling-generators that you have thought o f .
O n e of the i n t e n t s of t h i s b o o k h a s b e e n to o r i e n t y o u to s o m e of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d s o m e of t h e o p t i o n s , c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r a l l y . T h e r e la n o t r o o a , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , to d i s c u s s m o r e t h a n o n e o r t w o o v e r a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s in d e t a i l . T h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l s u c h s y s t e m so fsr h a s b e e n PLATO (discussed p p . D M 1 8 - 1 9 ) ; others
2 . T h e d e s i g n of m e d i a t h e m s e l v e s , o r of m e d i a s u b s y s t e m s , i s n o t u s u a l l y a m a t t e r of o p t i o n . B o o k s , m o v i e s , radio and TV are g i v e n . But on o c c a s i o n , as for w o r l d ' s fairs or v e r y p e r s o n a l p r o j e c t s , w e have a certain o p t i o n . Which allows things like: HELP
W h a t I a a t r y i n g to s h o w h e r e la t h a t m e r e l y the a r r a n g e m e n t of b u t t o n s c r e a t e s d i f f e r e n t f s n t i c c o n s t r u c t s . If you see t h i s , y o u w i l l r e c o g n i z e t h a t c o n s i d e r i n g all the o t h e r o p t i o n s w e h a v e , d e s i g n i n g n e w m e d i a Is n o s m a l l m a t t e r . T h e c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s m e r g e m e n t a l l y w i t h the p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h e t e m p t a t i o n to s e t t l e o n s h o r t - s i g h t e d d e s i g n s h a v ing s h a l l o w u n i t y is a l l t o o g r e a t . FANTIC
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F a n t i c d e s i g n Is b a s i c a l l y the p l a n n i n g a n d s e l e c t i o n of e f f e c t s . (We c o u l d a l s o c a l l t h e s e " p e r f o r m a n c e v a l u e s " — c f . " p r o d u c t i o n v a l u e s " in m o v i e s . ) S o m e of t h e s e i n t e n d e d e f f e c t s a r e s i m p l y t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n o r c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e — " i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r , " to u s e o n e of t h e m o r e o b t u s e phrases current. Other desirable effects include o r i e n t i n g the u s e r a n d o f t e n m o v i n g h i m e m o t i o n a l l y , i n c l u d i n g sometimes overwhelming or entrancing h i m . In the d e s i g n of f a n t i c s y s t e m s i n v o l v i n g a u t o m a t i c r e s p o n s e , w e h a v e a v a s t c h o i c e a m o n g t y p e s of p r e s e n t a tional t e c h n i q u e s , tricks that are just n o w b e c o m i n g understood. Not just screen techniques and f u n c t i o n s , but also response techniques and f u n c t i o n s . (If " f e e l i e " a y s t e m s a r e e v e r p e r f e c t e d , a s in H u x l e y ' s B r a v e N e w W o r l d , i t ' s s t i l l t h e s a m e in p r i n c i p l e . S e e W a c h s p r e s s , p . T>*\^.) In b o t h g e n e r a l a r e a s , t h o u g h — w i t h i n m e d i a , a n d d e s i g n i n g m e d i a — It s e e m s to m e t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n of o r g a n i z i n g c o n s t r u c t s Is t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d p r o b l e m . In p a r t i c u l a r , the o r g a n i z i n g c o n s t r u c t s m u s t n o t d i s t r a c t , or t e a r u p c o n t e n t s . A n a n a l o g y : in w r i t i n g , t h e i n v e n t i o n s of t h e p a r a g r a p h , c h a p t e r a n d f o o t n o t e w e r e i n v e n t i o n s In w r i t i n g t e c h n i q u e t h a t h e l p e d c l a r i f y w h a t w a s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d . W h a t w e n e e d in c o m p u t e r - b a s e d f a n t i c d e s i g n is i n v e n t i o n s w h i c h d o n o t a r t i f i c i a l l y c h o p u p , c o n s t r a i n , o r i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e s u b j e c t (see box, Procrustes, n e a r b y ) . I do not feel these principles are everywhere s u f ficiently a p p r e c i a t e d . For i n s t a n c e , the b u i l t - i n s t r u c t u r e s o f P L A T O (see " F a n t i c S p a c e o f P L A T O , " p . |)*\ 7.7) d i s t u r b s m e s o m e w h a t In I t s a r b i t r a r i n e s s — a n d the w a y i t s c o n t r o l k e y s a r e s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d .
NEW MEDIA TO
SmellavlBlon or whatever they called i t : movies w i t h a s m e l l - t r a c k , w h i c h went out I n t o the t h e a t e r t h r o u g h o d o r g e n e r a t o r s . B r a n c h i n g m o v i e s (see p . ^ H H 1 ^ ) . "Multi-media" (multiple audio tracks and s i m u l t a n e o u s slide p r o j e c t i o n s on different screens). Stereo movies. A n d s o o n . T h e t h i n g a b o u t t h e o n e s m e n t i o n e d ia t h a t they a r e not v i a b l e as c o n t i n u i n g s e t u p s for repeated p r o d u c t i o n s . They do not offer a permanent w i d e m a r k e t ; t h e y a r e n o t s t a b l e ; t h e y d o n o t c a t c h o n . W h i c h is in a w a y , of c o u r s e , t o o b a d .
FINAL
R e s p o n d i n g s y s t e m s n o w m a k e it p o s s i b l e f o r s u c h o r i e n t i n g s t r u c t u r e s to be m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l and r e s p o n d i n g ( c f . the o r i e n t i n g f u n c t i o n of t h e " d i m e n s i o n a l flip" control illustrated on p . D M J | ) .
B u t t h e g r e a t c h a n g e is J u s t a b o u t n o w . Current technicalities allow branching m e d i a — especially those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o m p u t e r s c r e e n s . A n d it I s u p to u s now to d e s i g n t h e m . 3. M E N T A L E N V I R O N M E N T S are w o r k i n g p l a c e s for s t r u c t u r e d a c t i v i t y . T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s of s h o w m a n s h i p a p p l y to a w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a s to b o t h t h e c o n t e n t s of m e d i a and the design of m e d i a . If m e d i a a r e e n v i r o n m e n t s i n t o which packaged materials are b r o u g h t , structured e n v i r o n ments are basically environments where you use n o n - p a c k a g ed m a t e r i a l , o r c r e a t e t h i n g s y o u r s e l f . T h e y m i g h t a l s o be called "contentless media." T h e p r i n c i p l e s of w h o l e n e s s in s t r u c t u r e d e n v i r o n m e n t s a r e t h e s a m e a s f o r t h e o t h e r s , a n d m a n y of o u r e x a m p l e s r e f e r to t h e m .
But this all m e a n s that Interior computer t e c h n i c a l i t i e s h a v e to b e S U B S E R V I E N T , a n d the p r o g r a m m e r s c a n n o t be a l l o w e d t o d i c t a t e h o w it i s to b e h a v e o n t h e b a s i s of t h e u n d e r l e v e l s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e c o n v e n i e n t to t h e m . Q u i t e the c o n t r a r y : from the fullest c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the richest u p p e r - l e v e l s t r u c t u r e s w e w a n t , w e the u s e r s - t o b e m u s t d i c t a t e w h a t l o w e r - l e v e l s t r u c t u r e s a r e to b e prepared within.
The b r a n c h i n g c o m p u t e r s c r e e n , t o g e t h e r w i t h the s e l f s a m e c o m p u t e r ' s a b i l i t y to t u r n a n y t h i n g e l s e on a n d o f f a s s e l e c t e d b y t h e u s e r , a n d to f e t c h u p i n f o r m a t i o n , y i e l d s a r e a l m of o p t i o n in t h e d e s i g n of media and environment that has never existed b e f o r e . M e d i a w e d e s i g n f o r B c r e e n - b a s e d c o m p u t e r syBterns a r e g o i n g to c a t c h o n w i d e l y , s o w e m u s t be f a r more a t t e n t i v e to t h e o p t i o n s t h a t e x i s t in o r d e r to c o m m i t — n a t i o n a l l y , p e r h a p s — to t h e b e s t .
B u t t h i s m e a n s y o u , d e a r r e a d e r , m u s t d e v e l o p the f a n t i c i m a g i n a t i o n . Y o u m u s t l e a r n to v i s u a l i z e p o s s i b l e u s e s o f c o m p u t e r s c r e e n s , so y o u c a n g e t o n d o w n to t h e d e e p e r l e v e l of h o w w e a r e g o i n g to tie t h e s e t h i n g s together.
In t o m o r r o w ' s s y s t e m s , p r o p e r l y u n i f i e d c o n t r o l s can g i v e us new f l e x i b i l i t i e s . If d e e p l y w e l l - d e s i g n e d , these promise magnificent new c a p a b i l i t i e s . For i n s t a n c e , we c o u l d a l l o w a m u s i c i a n to " c o n d u c t " t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of h i s w o r k b y a c o m p u t e r - b a s e d m u s i c s y n t h e s i s s y s t e m ( s e e " A u d i o , " p.>>*\il), p e r h a p s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e m a n y q u a l i t i e s of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o n a s c r e e n a s h e g o e s , b y m e a n s of s u c h t e c h n i q u e s a s d i m e n s i o n a l f l i p (see p.*tt7l). (The t r a d i t i o n of c u m u l a t i v e a u d i o s y n t h e s i s , a s p r a c t i c e d in t h e f i f t i e s b y L e s P a u l a n d M a r y F o r d , and more recently by W a l t e r C a r l o s and M i k e O l d f l e l d , will take on a new fillip as multidimensional control techniques become common.)
T h e d e s i g n e r o f r e s p o n d i n g c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s is c r e a t i n g u n i f i e d s e t u p s for v i e w i n g a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g t h i n g s — a n d t h e f e e l i n g s , i m p r e s s i o n s and s e n s e o f t h i n g s t h a t go w i t h t h e m . O u r g o a l s h o u l d b e n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n REPRESENTING THE TRUE CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF HUMAN THOUGHT. (Yes, Dream Machines Indeed.) B u t it s h o u l d b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e : e n a b l i n g t h e m i n d to w e i g h , pursue, s y n t h e s i z e and e v a l u a t e ideas for a b e t t e r t o m o r r o w . Or for a n y at a l l .
BIBLIOGRAPHY Theodor H. Nelson, "A Conceptual Framework for Man-Machine Everything." Proc. NCC 73. "Computopia and Cybercrud." C o m p u t e r s in I n s t r u c t i o n , T h e
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The author (designer, director, etc.) must think c a r e f u l l y a b o u t h o w to g i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n to w h a t is being presented. T h i s , too, has both aspects, cognition and f e e l i n g s . A t the c o g n i t i v e e n d , t h e a u t h o r m u s t c o n c e r n h i m self w i t h d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n o r a r g u m e n t , o r , in f i c t i o n , Plot• But s i m p l y p u t t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t s t o g e t h e r i s n o t e n o u g h : the a u t h o r m u s t u s e o r g a n i z i n g c o n s t r u c t s to c o n t i n u a l l y o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r ' s (or v i e w e r ' s ) m i n d . Rep e a t e d r e f e r e n c e to m a i n c o n c e p t s , r e p e a t e d s h o t s (in a m o v i e ) of p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n s , s e r v e t h i s f u n c t i o n ; b u t e a c h m e d i u m p r e s e n t s its o w n p o s s i b l e d e v i c e s f o r t h i s purpose. T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the f e e l i n g s of t h e w o r k criss-crosses the c o g n i t i v e ; but w e can't get Into it h e r e .
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F a n t i c d e s i g n , t h e n , is t h e c r e a t i o n e i t h e r o f t h i n g s to b e s h o w n ( w r i t i n g , m o v i e - m a k i n g , e t c . ) a t t h e l o w e r e n d , or m e d i a to s h o w t h i n g s i n , or e n v i r o n m e n t s . 1 . T h e d e s i g n of t h i n g s to b e s h o w n — w h e t h e r w r i t i n g , m o v i e - m a k i n g , or w h a t e v e r — is nearly always a c o m b i n a t i o n of s o m e k i n d of e x p l i c i t s t r u c t u r e — an e x p l a n a t i o n or p l a n n e d l e s s o n , or p l o t of a n o v e l — a n d a f e e l i n g t h a t the a u t h o r c a n c o n t r o l in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s . T h e t w o a r e .deeply i n t e r t w i n e d , h o w e v e r .
CONSEQUENCES.
It s e e m s to m e c e r t a i n t h a t w e a r e m o v i n g t o w a r d a generalized and universal Fantic system; people can and should demand i t . Perhaps there will be several; b u t if s o , b e i n g a b l e to t i e t h e m t o g e t h e r for s m o o t h t r a n s m i s s i o n is e s s e n t i a l . ( T h i n k of w h a t it w o u l d be l i k e if t h e r e w e r e t w o k i n d s of t e l e p h o n e s ? ) T h i s t h e n I s a g r e a t s e a r c h a n d c r u s a d e : to p u t t o g e t h e r t r u l y g e n e r a l m e d i a f o r ^ f u t u r e , s y s t e m s at w h i c h w e can r e a d , w r i t e , learn and v i s u a l i z e , year after year after year• T h e i n i t i a t i v e s a r e n o t l i k e l y to c o m e f r o m t h e m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p u t e r p e o p l e ; a o m e of t h e m a r e p a r t of the problem. (Be p r e p a r e d for e v e r y p o s s i b l e f o r m o f aggressive defensiveness from p r o g r a m m e r s , especially: " W h y w o u l d y o u w a n t t h a t ? " T h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r is BECAUSE, dammit^)
But t h e r e is a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g a r t i f i c i a l — t h a t i s , s o m e f o r m of a r t i f i c e — in p r e s e n t a t i o n . So t h e p r o b l e m is to d e v i s e t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h h a v e e l u c i d a t i n g v a l u e b u t do n o t c u t c o n n e c t i o n s or t i e s o r o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s you w a n t to s a v e . (For t h i s r e a s o n I s u g g e s t the r e a d e r c o n s i d e r " S t r e t c h t e x t , " p . -WV*] , c o l l a t e r a l l i n k a g e (P- J)H 5 ^ ) > a n d the v a r i o u s h y p e r g r a m s (p.J)P-j l^). These s t r u c t u r e s , while somewhat arbitrary and a r t i f i c i a l , n e v e r t h e l e s s c a n b e u s e d to h a n d l e a s u b j e c t gently.) A n I m p o r t a n t k i n d of o r g a n i z i n g c o n s t r u c t is t h e map or o v e r a l l o r i e n t i n g d i a g r a m . T h i s , t o o , is often p a r t l y " e x a c t " a n d p a r t l y " a r t i f i c e : " c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of the d i a g r a m m a y h a v e u n c l e a r i m p o r t b u t c l e a r and h e l p ful c o n n o t a t i o n . (For i n s t a n c e , c o n s i d e r t h e " p i c t u r e s y s t e m s " d i a g r a m o n p . D M 2.0 — just w h a t does the vertical dimension mean? Y e s , b u t w h a t d o e s it r e a l l y mean?)
LAST
W h a t ' a w o r s e , we are confronted not merely with the J o b of u s i n g c o m p u t e r s to p r e s e n t s p e c i f i c t h i n g s . T h e g r e a t e r t a s k ia to d e s i g n o v e r a l l c o m p u t e r m e d i a t h a t w i l l l a s t u s Into a m o r e I n t e l l i g e n t f u t u r e . A d r i f t in • s e a of I g n o r a n c e a n d c o n f u s i o n , it i s n e v e r t h e l e s s o u r d u t y to try to c r e a t e a w h o l e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m t h a t e v e r y b o d y can climb a b o a r d . For the long r u n , fantic s y a t e m s m u s t be t r e a t e d n o t a s c u s t o m s y s t e m s for e x p l i c i t p u r p o s e s , but as O V E R A L L G E N E R A L DESIGNS WHICH W I L L H A V E T O T I E TOGETHER AND CATCH O H . otherwise collapse and perish.
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i N T e U t C T R e N ' C J ? Either o f thece alternatives may continue with
Another application of tiv: P r e « n t Invention ia alao in « w »roa ,f pictorial display, but offer. . great w i t t y of p o t e D t U l user c h o i c e , in , simple circumstance.
One Is that the presentation m a y be continuous In all directions,
aiding In continuous uter orientation.
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(Not only is a demonstration reversible within a given shank, b u t the user may
Graphical
back the pip through an intersection into the antecedent shank--
conveniently
Indeed, how may the uaer keep track of what 1 . happening,
Another is that presentations a r e
reversible in various v u y o , an aid both In ucer orientation a n d self-study.
The problew of Intricate computer graphic, may be phrased aa
choose them?
Several features of thla control application a r e of special Interest.
step, or "v*lk,"
around the tcrcen.
rollovc: e l v m that a
development a and a n i m a t i o n , under control of its own shank.
I call t h i . the " m i k i n g net" .ystcm because control is
effected through a changlne network of choices vblch
v t e r
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'FANTICS.* F i r s t o f a l l , I f e e i tll ry few people understand what teractive computer s y s t e m s a r e abot s like the s t o r y o f the b l i n d m e n a n d the e l e p h a n t - - each thinks I t ' " .
.inuc to reverse the presentation through that preceding shank, or to re-onte
he is and where he has been? The extern*! mechanism I have selected for this facility paradoxically combines great versatility for sophisticated presentations vith 41e.1t simplicity before the naive u s e r .
The Idea is this: the user may co=nnnd *
the intersection a n d mike
and to
These
explore numerous alternatives. The displayed control n e t is thus to be understood a s a large
continuing succession of changing presentations, making only one simple choice at • time, y e t receiving Intricate and rich animations vith extremely clear
another c h o i c e , "the path n o t taken.")
features allow the utter clearly to repent demonstrations a s often aa he l i k e ,
netvork of choices, mostly unseen, whose currently visible portion "walks" *iro< the screen aa use progresses.
Within this system, then, numerous variants a r e
continuity on the screen. possible.
For instance, the currently visible portion of the n e t m a y Itself
The exterior mechanism is this: along with an arbitrary graphic be whimsically incorporated in a p i c t u r e , v i z . : presentation on the screen, the user is contlnuoualy presented vitb the image s
I—.H
VlUJiJC
The pip is a conventional iii^it-pen cursor.
"3 T n e "current shank" is a line
vhose Implicit gradations control developnentc In the picture; and the choice
Okay, ote mu a n sah,i p*j , handled by
so I w a n t e d a terra t h a t w o u l d 1 t h e s maons dt g e n e r a l s e n s e , t h e s h o w * , feelings-- whether or not machine,
I derive "fantics" from the Greek words "phainein" (show) and its derivative "phantastein" (present to the e y e o r m i n d ) . Y o u w i l l o f c o u r s e r e c o g n i z e its cousins fantastic, fantasy, phantom. ("Phantom" means w h a t is s h o w n ; in m e d i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n it r e f e r s to a n o p a q u e o b j e c t d r a w n a s t r a n s p a r e n t ; a " p h a n t o m l i m b " is a n a m p u t e e ' s t e m p o r a r y f e e l i n g that the s e v e r e d limb has been r e s t o r e d . ) And a f a n t a s t is a d r e a m e r .
of a forking set of a r r o w s , t .y
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But I think it's a l l show business PENNY A R C A D E S are the model for Interactive computer s y s t e m s , not classrooms or libraries or i m a g i n a r y robot p l a y m a t e s . A n d c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s is an i n t r i c a t e b r a n c h o f m o v i e mak ing.
The word " f a n t i c s " would thus include the s h o w i n g o f a n y t h i n g (and thus w r i t i n g a n d t h e a t e r ) , w h i c h is m o r e o r l e s s w h a t I intended. T h e t e r m is a l s o i n t e n d e d t o cover the tactics of conveying ideas and impressions, especially with showmanship and p r e s e n t a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , organizing constructs, and fundamental structures underlying presentational systems.
of arrows a t too end of the current shank determine a discrete choice between alternatives that a r e to transpire. The u s e r , seizing the pip vith the lightpsn, moves it {through the usual light pin techniques) sldcvviye alone the current shank.
Moving it In
the "forward" direction cuuees progressive developments in the plctuiz, moving It "backvard" causes a reversal of anititir.Tic a n d other previous developments. When the pip roichsc the chol-je j-oirit in the for.-j.-i direction, the user may drag lt (through the usual lightpen t e c h n i q u e ) along either o i the
beckoning alternatives. This then causec further developments in the
presentation consonant with the line selected.
..^ The Greeks told of a giant, Procrustes [rhyme, with Rusty'.) who was very hospitable to passing travelers. He would invite, indeed compel them, to sleep in h i . b e d . Unfortunately, because it w a s a very odd b e d , h e had to c u t them u p first... Procrustes has haunted conversations ever since 1 and any time w e are forced to use categories that don't p r o perly fit a subject, it seems like an invitation to the Procrustean b e d . Hypertext syatems at last offer total freedom from arbitrary categorizing and chopping! but in some system, for storing and presenting information, I can't help hearing the whisk of Procrustes' k n i f e —
T h u s E n g e l b a r t ' s d a t a h i e r a r c h y (P.s*%-T). S K E T C H P A D ' S C o n s t r a i n t s (p.J»»T>), a n d P L A T O ' s f a n t i c s p a c e s (p.>M<-J5 a r e f a n t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t n e e d t o b e u n d e r s t o o d if w e a r e t o u n d e r stand these systens and their potential u s a g e s .
Livermore L a b s , those h y d r o g e n - b o m b design people, will have a "Laboratory for Data Analysis." sn opulent facility for e x perimenting with multidimensional visualization.
"Developments" of the picture here Include expansion, contraction
V
sliding movements and fnurc-by-fnice animation. (Thece materials will have b e e n , of c o u r s e , explicitly input b y authors and artists.) In a sample employment, consider a presentation on the subject of Volcanoes.
Let the first shank of the control net control the "rise of a
volcano from the sen"— an undulating ocean surface pierced first b y d w i s p of •moke, then a growing peak, with rivulets of lava M e n t o run down l t . sides
"Take new Tap-A-Toe Futuroidic Footless De-Clutching. Instead of old-fashioned g a s , brake a n d clutch pedals that kept your feet busier than a dance m a r a t h o n , Tap-A-Toe Futuroidic Footless De-Clutching offers the convenience of Single Pedal Power Control-c o m b i n e s a l l f o o t f u n c t i o n s in o n e s i n g l e pedal I off
ou change mortgage U.S.
labelled respectively WORD ORISIH a n d UITERIOR.
"Three tapseconomy.
you stop quicker
than the
Bruce McCall, "1934 Bulgemobile Brochure," N a t i o n a l L a m p o o n , M a y 7 4 , 76-
Either option continues 1!*
presentation without a break, retaining much of the picture on the screen. Selection of WOTQ ORffilH cnunes the word VOLCAKO to change to VULCAII, a n d a picture of the god Vulcan is seen to seize a' lightning bolt rising frcra the crater; text appears t o explain t h i s . Alternatively, if the user chooses IKTE3I0R, the tubes a n d ducts within the volcano appear, a n d explanatory text
SteiMVisioM A nice example of a unified presentational aysteHi would allow you a "feelie" glove along with your computer display— the sort of thing Mike Noll has been doing at Bell L a b s . Now, suppose you are playing with a diagram of a star on a computer display screen. It's all very well to sea its layers, flowing arrows r e presenting convection currents, promontories and so o n — b u t same things you ought to be able to feel• For example, the mechanical resonance-properties of stars. It would be nice to ba able to reach and grasp ths star, to aqueese it and feel its pulsations as it regain* lta shape. This could be done in the glove— at the same time the image of the glove grasps the star on the screen, and the star is squished.
(The p^th unchosen fades from the 1
Everything is deeply intPrtwtngied.
g e a r s , as s m o o t h foreclosure.
" A n d t h a t ' s a l l t h e r e is t o i t . T a p - A Toe Futuroidic Footless De-Clutching with S i n g l e P e d a l C o n t r o l is as easy a n d e f f o r t less as the J a p m a r c h on M a n c h u r i a ! "
A t the e n d of the first shank, the u;sr c^iy bran:h to two drrovt
T h e best with the w o r s t .
" T h i n k o f i t : o n e t a p - - y o u gi moving faster than a barfly after Repeal
and darken as they contribute to its growth.
- UL.
One of your jolly ironies. I have seen p i c tures of beautiful multlbutton control handles which were designed for project SMASH, would you believe Southeast [Asia] Nultisensory I Helicopters. Aargh.>
Of course, to build such a responding glove, particularly one that gave you subtle feelings back in your fingers, would probably be very e x pensive. But it's the kind of possibility people should start considaring-
Designing screen systems that focus the u s e r ' s thought o n his w o r k , with h e l p f u l v i s u a l i z a t i o n s a n d n o d i s t r a c t i o n s , is the g r e a t task of fantic d e s i g n . In a s y s t e m I d e s i g n e d f o r C R T m o t i o n picture editing, the user could maipulate w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n s on the screen (corresponding to the usual yellow-pad n o t e s ) . To see the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r s p l i c e , for i n s t a n c e , the e d i t o r w o u l d o n l y h a v e to draw a l i n e b e t w e e n two annotated lines r e presenting shots. Trim variations could be seen b y m o v i n g this c u t - l i n e ( i l l u s t r a t e d ) . Not long a f t e r , C B S and Memorex did i n troduce a s y s t e m for m o v i e - e d i t i n g by C R T - b u t I've h e a r d that in their s y s t e m the u s e r has to a c t u a l l y d e a l w i t h n u m b e r s . If s o , t h i s is m i s s i n g t h e w h o l e p o i n t .
DM
52
Our greatest prooiems 11 olve thinking and the visualization of complexity. By "Thinkertoy" I mean, first of all, a system to help people think. ('Toy' means it should be easy and fun to UBe.) This is the same general ides for which Engelbart, for instance, uses the term "augmentation of intellect." But a Thinkertoy is something quite specific: I define it as a computer display system that helps you envision complex alternatives. The process of envisioning complex alternatives is by no means the only important form of human thought; but it is essential to making decisions, d e signing, planning, writing, weighing alternate theories, considering alternate forms of legislation, doing scholarly research, and so on. it is also complicated enough that, in solving it, we may solve simpler p r o b lems as w e l l . He will stress here some of the uses of these s y stems for handling text, partly because I think these are rather interesting, and partly because the complexity and subtlety of this problem has got to be better understood: the written word is nothing less than the tracks left by the mind, and so we are really talking about screen systems for handling ideas, in all their complexity. Numerous types of complex things have to be intercompared, and their relations inter-comprehended. Here are a few of the many types: Alternative designs
Discrepancies among the testimony of witnesses.
Now, it will be noted f i r s t off that this is an e x tremely general method. By collateral structuring we can easily handle the equivalents of: tables of contents; indexes) comments and marginalia; explanations, exegesis, explication; labeling; headings; footnotes; notes by the writer to himself; comments and questions by the reader for later reference; and additional details o u t of s e quence . Collateration, then, is the creation of such multiple and viewable l i n k B BETWEEN ANY TWO DATA STRUCTURES, in principle. It is general and powerful enough to handle a great variety of possible uses in human intellectual endeavor, and deserves consider-able attention from researchers of every stripe.** The problem then, is how to handle this for rapid and convenient viewing and whatever other work the user wants to do— writing and splicing, intercomparing, annotating and so o n . Two solutions a p pear on this spread: The Parallel T e x t f a c e ^ , designed as a seminal part of the Xanadu system (see p.>\•>£.), which I hope will be marketed with that system in the near future, and a more recent design which I've worked on at the University of Illinois, the 3D Thinkertoy or T h 3 . CLARITY AND POWER
It is because of my heartfelt belief in this kind of simplicity that I stress the creation of prefabricated environments, carefully tuned for easy use, rather than the creation of computer languages which must be learnt by the user, as do such people as Engelbart (see and DeFanti (see p . ^ M O . Now, their approach bbviously has considerable merit for sophisticated users who want to tinker repeatedly with variant approaches. For people who want to work incessantly in an environment, and oil other things— say writers— and are a b sent-minded and clumsy and nervous and forgetful (like the present author), then the safe, prefabricated environment, with thoroughly fail-safe functions and u t terly memorable structural and control interrelationships, is the only approach. *
He stressed on the other side of the book that computer systems must be clear, simple and easy to u s e . Where things like business uses of computers are concerned, which are intrinsically so simple in principle, some of the complications that people have been forced to deal with in ill-designed computer systems verge on t h e criminal. (But some computer people want others to think that's the way it has to b e . "Your first duty is to keep your job, right?" one computer person said to me recently. "It wouldn't do to set up systems so easy to use that the company wouldn't need you a n y more." See "Cybercrud," p.8.) But if it is desirable that computer systems for simple-minded purposes be easy to u s e , it is absolutely necessary that computer systems for complicated purposes be simple to use. If you art wrangling over complex a l ternatives— say, in chess, or in a political simulation game (see "Simulation," p . S$ ) , or in the throes of trying to write a novel, the last thing you will t o l e rate is for your computer screen to introduce complications of its own. If a system for thinking doesn't make thinking simpler— allowing you to see farther and more deeply— it is uselss, to use only the polite terra. But systems can be both powerful a n d simple a t the same time. The myth that things have to be complicated t o do anything for you is pernicious rubbish. Well-designed systems can make our mental tasks lighter and our achievements come faster.
Successive drafts of the same document.
tt is for thia reason that I consnend^the reader these two designs of mine: as examples of user-level control and viewing designs— fantic environments, If you will (see p!^i*,)~ that are pruned and tuned to give the user great control over the viewing and crosjsconsideration of intricate alternatives, without oomplicatlon. I like to believe that both of these, indeed, are ten-minute ayatews— that i s , when w« get them running, the range of uses shown here can be taught to naive users in ten minutes or less.
In my 1965 paper (see bibliography) I called collateral structures zlppered lists. A group at Brown University has reportedly worked along these lines since I worked with them, but due to certain personal animosities I have not kept up with their developments. It will be interesting to see what kind of response they can get out of the IBM systems they are using. BIBLIOGRAPHY Theodor H . NelBon, "A File Structure for the complex, the Changing and the Indeterminate." Proc. ACM 65 84-100. . "Simplicity Versus Power in User Systems." Unpublished.
DECISIOfl/CRJ'ATIVITY
SYSTEMS
A
It has b e e n recognized from the dawn o f computer display that the grandest ar.d most important use of the computer display should be to aid decisions and creative t h o u g h t . The work of Ivan Sutherland (SKETCHPAD) and Douglas Engelbart have really shown how we may use the display to visualize and effect our creative decisions swiftly and vividly.
Pairs of things which have some parts the same, some parts different (contracts, holy books, statutes of different states, draft versions of legislation...) i
Different theories and their ties to p a r t i cular examples and evidences.
For some r e a s o n , however, the most important aspect of such systems has been neglected, '.-.'e do not icake important decisions, w e should not make delicate decisions, serially and irreversibly. Rather, the power of the computer display (and its computing and filing support) must be so crafted that we may develop alternatives, spin out their complications and interrelationships, and visualize these upon a screen. WE
OFTEN
WANT
TO
SAVE
ALTERNATIVES.
i Ani r/uilj tt my [burtj tbl frilid, [Ati aik'd ml tcitb bir twimmmg ijii\
Under examination these different types of intercomparison seem to be rather different. Now, one a p proach would be to create a different data structure and viewing technique for each different type of complex. There may be reasons for doing that in the future.
That I [uttU ] rttbtrfilltbsn m
'i 6V ebntt,] i
For the present, however, it makes sense to try to find the most general possible viewing technique: one that will allow complex intercomparisons of all the types mentioned, and any others we might run across. One such technique is what I now call collateration, or the linking of materials into collateral structures,* as will be explained. This is fairly straightforward if you think enough about the problem; E n g e l bart discovered it independently.
Theodor H . Nelson 19 July 1970
No system could do this for us automatically. What design and programming can create, however, is a facility that will allow us to l i s t , sketch, link and annotate the complexities we seek to under-t stand, then present "views" o f the complexities in reany different forms. Studying those v i e w s , annotating and refining, we can reach the final designs and decisions witb much rore in mind than we could otherwise hold together in the imagination. Some of the facilities that such systems must have include the followi ng:
[Sit] tiU her Itvt witb mtiin frtft; J*i tt 1 tut* mj GlKtvitvt, Mj [tritfi] 6> Jtwi/j Bridi.}
From
Coleridge's Poems: A Facsimile R e p r o d u c t i o n of the P r o o f s a n d H S S . of s o m e of the P o e m s . (Folcroft, 1972.)
Annotations to anything, to any remove. Alternitives of decision, d e s i g n , writing, theory. Unlinked or irrerru]ar p i e c e s , hanging as the user wishes. Multicou-cling, or complex l i n k a g e , between alternatives, annotations or w h a t e v e r . Historical filing of the user's actions, including each addition and modification, and possibly the vieving actions that preceded them.
Let us call two structures collateral if there are links between them, connecting a selected part of one with a selected part of the other. The sequences of the connected parts may be different. For simplicity's sake, suppose each one is a short piece of writing. (He will also assume that there is some convenient form of rapid viewing and following between one end of a link and another.) rt
Frozen ironr-nts and versions, which the user may hold as memorable for his thinking. Kvc.lutior.ary coupling, where the correspondences between evolving versions tire automatically maintained, and their differences or relations easily annotated. In addition, designs for screen "views", the motion, appearance and disappearance of elements, require considerable thought and Imagination. The object ic not to burden the u s e r , or make him aware of complexities in which he has no interest. But almost everyone in intellectual and decision pursuits has at some time an implicit need for some of these facilities. If people knew they were possible, they would demand them. It is time for their creation.
U e might
also
A full-fledged decision/creativity system, embracing both text and graphics, is one of the ultimate design goals of Project XANADU.
PARAU.EL TEXTFACE
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This u s e r - l e v e l s y s t e m is i n t e n d e d to a i d in all forms of w r i t i n g a n d s c h o l a r s h i p , as w e l l as a n y w h e r e e l s e that w e n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d a n d m a n i It w i l l a l s o w o r k w i t h c e r t a i n a n i m a t e d
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T h e P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e , as d e s c r i b e d h e r e , f u r n i s h e d the i n i t i a l i m p e t u s for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the X a n a d u t n l s y s t e m (see p . J)*" 5"fc) • X a n a d u w a s d e v e l o p e d , i n d e e d , o r i g i n a l l y for t h e p u r p o s e o f i m p l e m e n t i n g s o m e o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s , b u t the t w o s p l i t a p a r t . It t u r n e d o u t that the P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e r e q u i r e d an e x t r e m e l y u n u s u a l d a t a s t r u c s t r u c t u r e and p r o g r a m t e c h n i q u e s ; t h e s e then b e c a m e the X a n a d u s y s t e m . A s d e v e l o p e d in t h e f i n a l X a n a d u d e s i g n , t h e y turn o u t to h a n d l e s o m e v e r y u n u s u a l k i n d s of s c r e e n a n i m a t i o n a n d f i l e r e t r i e v a l . B u t this g r e w o u t of s t r u c t u r i n g a s y s t e m to h a n d l e the f u n c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d h e r e . Thus the P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e b a s i c a l l y a Xanadu system.
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T h e o t h e r o d d s a n d e n d s on t h e s c r e e n a r e h i d d e n k e y s to c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n m a d e to f a d e ( m this i l l u s t r a t i o n ) , j u s t to l e s s e n t h e distraction. P a n e l b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o n t r o l g r a p h i c s m a y fam a d e to a p p e a r b y t o u c h i n g t h e n w.tU t U lijkff*^. Independent text pulls dependent text along. Painted streaks simulate motion, not icicles. 1 '
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W h e n s u c h l i n k s l e a d to d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , b o t h o f t h e s e d e s t i n a t i o n s m a y n e v e r t h e l e s s b e s e e n at o n c e . T h i s is d o n e by p o i n t i n g a t b o t h b r o k e n l i n k s i n s u c c e s s i o n ; t h e s y s t e m t h e n a l l o w s b o t h l i n k s to be c o m p l e t e d , b r e a k i n g t h e s e c o n d p a n e l b e t w e e n the t w o d e s t i n a t i o n s (as s h o w n b y d o t t e d l i n e a c r o s s panel). 9L
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Another highly desirable feature would allow t h e u s e r to v i e w p r e v i o u s v e r s i o n s , t o s e e t h e m c o l laterally w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a r t s of c u r r e n t v e r s i o n s , a n d e v e n g o b a c k to t h e w a y p a r t i c u l a r things w e r e and resume w o r k from the p r e v i o u s version.
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S e p a r a t e p o r t i o n s of the E d i t R o s e i n v o k e various edit operations. (You must also point with t h e l i g h t p e n to t h e n e c e s s a r y p o i n t s in t h e t e x t : o n c e for i n s e r t , twice for D e l e t e , three or four t i m e s for R e a r r a n g e , three times for Conv I
In t h e P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e t h i s is a l l c o m p r i s e d in t h e s a m e e x t r e m e l y s i m p l e f a c i l i t y . (Extremely s i m p l e from the u s e r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , that is. I n s i d e it i s , o f c o u r s e , h a i r y . ) In a n e g r e g i o u s t o u c h o f n a r c i s s i s t i c w e u s e the v e r y t r a d e m a r k o n the s c r e e n as d e v i c e ( e x p a n d e d from the " X " s h o w n in the 1 panel
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© m i l . T-HtLfeu A c t u a l l y t h e X in " X a n a d u 1 ™ , " as it a p p e a r s o n t h e s c r e e n , is a n h o u r g l a s s , w i t h a s o f t l y f a l l ing t r i c k l e of a n i m a t e d d o t s in t h e l o w e r h a l f , a n d S a n d s of T i m e s e e n as h e a p s a b o v e a n d b e l o w . These h a v e a c o n t r o l , as w e l l as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , f u n c tion. TO UNDO SOMETHING, YOU MERELY STEP "BACKWARD IN T I M E " b y d a g g i n g t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e h o u r g l a s s with the l i g h t p e n . One p o k e , one editing operation undone. Two p o k e s , two o p e r a t i o n s . Y o u may then continue to view and make changes as if t h e l a s t two o p e r a t i o n s h a d n e v e r t a k e n p l a c e . T h i s e f f e c t i v e l y c r e a t e s an a l t e r n a t i v e t i m e - l i n e . * iiowever, if y o u d e c i d e t h a t a p r e v i o u s l y u n d o n e e d i t o p e r a t i o n - J h o u l d be kept after a l l , you may step forward-- stepping onto the previous time-line-oy u s i n g t h e l o w e r h a l f o f t h e h o u r g l a s s .
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We see this c l a r i f i e d in a m a s t e r time d i a g r a m or K e v i s i c - n T r e e w h i c h m a y b e s u m m o n e d t o t h e s c r e e n never mind how. l n this example we see that three versions are still " c u r r e n t , " V a r i o u s o t h e r starts and variations having been a b a n d o n e d . (The s h a g g y f r o n d s c o r r e s p o n d to s h o r t - l i v e d v a r i a t i o n s , r e l u l t ing f r o m o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e then r e v e r s e d . In other words " e x c i s e d " t i m e - l i n e s , to u s e G e r r o l d ' s term-- see footnote.) «ciiUiu »
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In w a y s t h i s m a y s e e m s o m e w h a t o b t u s e . Yet above a l l i_t i s o r d e r l y , a n d t h e c o m p l e x o f c o l l a t e r a l f i l e s has a c l a r i t y that could be a l l - t o o - e a s i l y lost in s y s t e m s w h i c h w e r e p r o g r a m m e d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y to e a c h problem. ,„,.
<€)lt7Z The fundamental strength of collateration, s e e n h e r e , is o f c o u r s e t h a t a n y n e w s t r u c t u r e c o l l a t e r a l to a n o t h e r m a y b e u s e d as a t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s or an o u t l i n e , t a k i n g the u s e r i n s t a n t l y to p a r t s w h i c h a r e o f i n t e r e s t in s o m e n e w c o n t e x t .
T h e u s e r - - l e t ' s s a y h e is a t h o u g h t f u l w r i t e r may define various Versions or D r a f t s , here marked on the R e v i s i o n T r e e .
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T h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y three a l t e r n a t e p r e m i s e s of o f t i m e - t r a v e l : I) t h a t the p a s t c a n n o t b e c h a n g e d , a l l e v e n t s h a v i n g p r e c e d e d t h e b a c k s t e p ; 2) t h a t t h e p a s t c a n b e c h a n g e d ; a n d 3) t h a t w h i l e t i m e - t r a v e l e r s m a y b e - a * e l u d e d i n t o t h i n k i n g ( 2 ) , t h a t ( 1 ) is r e a l l y t h e c a s e - - l e a d i n g to v a r i o u s a p p o i n t m e n t - i n - S a m a r r a plots. O n l y p o s s i b i l i t y (2) is o f i n t e r e s t h e r e , b u t there are v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e logics of m u t a b i l i t y and time-line stepping. O n e o f t h e b e s t I h a v e s e e n is i n The Man W h o Folded H i m s e l f by David G e r r o l d (Popular LTFrary ."ITTS) : logic expounded pp. 6 4 - 8 . I am b e m u s e d by the p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n G e r r o l d ' s t i m e - c o n t r o l s and t h o s e , w o r k e d out i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
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This d e s i g n , TfO (Thinkertoy In 3 d i m e n s i o n s ) , ii o n e I have been w o r k ing at w h i l e on the faculty of the U n i v ersity of I l l i n o i s . It is designed s p e cifically for Implementation using D e Fanti's C R A S S language (see p.,5*1 31). and the Vector C e n e r a l 3D d i s p l a y (see p . ' ^ O ) . Whether It w i l l ever be a c t u a l l y p r o g r a m e d d e p e n d s , of c o u r s e , on n u m e r ous f a c t o r s . It is meant to be a v e r y h i g h power t h i n k e r t o y , s u i t a b l e for e x p e r i m e n tation with creative p r o c e s s e s , e s p e c i a l l y writing and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e s i g n . (There Is no room to d i s c u s s the latter h e r e . ) It is s u i t e d ( s p e c i a l l y to the v i s u a l ization of t e n t a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s in a m o r p h o u s c l u s t e r s . In some of its features lt goes considerably b e y o n d the more " c o m m e r c i a l " thinkertoy s y s t e m , the P s r s l l e l T e x t f a c e (elsewhere in this s p r e a d ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the same d e s i g n c r i t e r i a apply: a well-designed computer environment for any p u r p o s e should be l e a r n a b l e In ten m i n u t e s ; o t h e r w i s e the d e s i g n e r has not b e e n doing his j o b . (I m e a n it w o u l d be l e a r n a b l e in ten m i n u t e s if you and I had it in front of u s , w o r k i n g . This d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l h a v e to be weird and a b s t r u s e , I'm sorry to s a y . ) This s y s t e m Is d e s i g n e d a r o u n d a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l d i s p l a y s c r e e n (the V e c t o r C e n e r al d i s p l a y , a s m a n l p u l a b l e b y t h q ^ R A S S l a n guage). N o w , most people do not think of text as t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l . L a y m e n think of it a s t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l , since it's u s u a l l y p r i n t e d on rectangular p a g e s . C o m p u t e r p e o p l e o r dinarily think of it as o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l , a s a long s t r i n g of c h a r a c t e r s and s p a c e s — e s s e n t i a l l y what you'd get If you p r i n t e d things in one line on a l o n g , long r i b b o n . W e l l , f r a n k l y , I don't think of text as t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l e i t h e r ; but like a n y t h i n g e l s e , it has n u m e r o u s q u a l i t i e s or d i m e n s i o n s , any three of w h i c h it's n i c e to be able to view at o n c e (see " D i m e n s i o n a l F l i p , " ) p . « • & ( ) . And that's e s s e n t i a l l y the idea: the three d i m e n s i o n s w e ' l l look at at any one time w i l l be a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w of a l a r g e r whole.
By r o t a t i o n and z o o m i n g the u s e r m a y f o c u s on the o r i g i n a l p i e c e s , and w o r k w i t h t h e m , w r i t ing and r e v i s i n g . M o r e o v e r , b y u s i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n of z o o m and h a r d w a r e c l i p p i n g (as a v a i l a b l e on thia e q u i p m e n t ) , t h e u s e r m a y r e s t r i c t hla w o r k to a s p e c i f i c r a n g e of m a t e r i a l on p a r t i c u l a r d i -
T h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y two v i e w s of what you a r e w o r k i n g w i t h : the G a l a x y and the B o x . T h e y a p p e a r in v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , a l l o w ing you to s t u d y d i s c r e t e r e l a t i o n s and s t r u c tures in the m a t e r i a l ; v a r i o u s " d i m e n s i o n s " of Che m a t e r i a l ; a l t e r n a t e v e r s i o n s and d r a f t s to be m a d e from the m a t e r i a l ; and the c o m p l e x c o l lateration (see u n d e r " T h i n k e r t o y s " ) of d i f f e r ent s t r u c t u r e s . In w h a t f o l l o w s w e w i l l d i s c u s s the s c r e e n f u n c t i o n s but not the c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h h a v e not firmed up p a r t i c u l a r l y . 1.
F i n a l l y , the u n i f y i n g ide; s y s t e m s i m p l i c i t y is t h i s : all faces of a c u b e .
GALAXY V I E W S .
T h e p o i n t s a r e s e e n a s a cloud of d o t s on the s c r e e n . If n o v i e w c o o r d i n a t e s a r e s u p p l i e d , the d o t s w i l l be r a n d o m l y p o s i t i o n e d . A.
Puns s o m e t i m e s reflect a h i g h e r r e a l i t y . Now it turns out that this s t r u c t u r e in fact reflects a g r e a t Folk T r u t h : w r i t t e n d i s c o u r s e does in fact c o n s i s t of " p o i n t s " w h i c h you intend to get a c r o s s • That w e h e r e intend to have them rotate a s d o t s u p o n a s c r e e n r e f l e c t s this s t r u c t u r e .
T h e g e n e r a l idea of the T h 3 s y s t e m , t h e n , is that the user m a y v i e w the " p o i n t s " he w i s h e s to m a k e , v a r i o u s l y u p o n the 3D v i e w i n g s u r f a c e . S u c c e s s i v e d r a f t s , t h e n , w i l l all b e p r o j e c t i o n s , g e o m e t r i c a l l y , from this i n t e r i o r s t r u c t u r e of p o i n t s .
C O L L A T E R A L G A L A X I E S AND B O X E S . V i e w i n g of c o l l a t e r a l s t r u c t u r e s w o r k s through the same m e c h a n i s m . G a l a x i e s and b o x e s may b e c o l l a t e r a t e d :
G A L A X Y A N D BOX
N o w , the basic torn of s t o r a g e w i l l be o n e of those N e l s o n - s t r u c t u r e s that d r i v e s c o m p u t e r p e o p l e b a t t y . S p e c i f i c a l l y , the b a s i c d a t a s t r u c t u r e w i l l be c l u s t e r s of points.
W r i t i n g i s , in f a c t , a p r o j e c t i o n from the Intended " p o i n t s " to a f i n i s h e d e x p o s i t i o n w h i c h e m b r a c e s t h e m . N o w , this is very like the view of l a n g u a g e held in m o d e r n l i n g u i s t i c s , n a m e l y , that a finished s e n t e n c e is a " s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e " c o n s t r u c t e d out of b a s i c s e n t e n c e kernels chewed up by certain t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s • H e l l , I am just p o i n t i n g out h e r e that w r i t i n g Is a s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e of " p o i n t s " w h i c h have b e e n e m b e d d e d and spliced in a s t r u c t u r e of t r a n s i t i o n s , a c c o r d a n c e - n o t e s and so forth (see
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\
2.
"Star Trek" e f f e c t . U n d e r a u s e r ' s z o o m c o n t r o l , the d o t s fly a p a r t a s If h e is h u r t l i n g t h r o u g h space.
B.
MAGNIFICATION. The user may "magnify" t h e d o t s , m a k i n g e a c h show Its k e y w o r d s , f u r t h e r t e x t , and on up to the f u l l Piece.
C.
R O T A T I O N . T h e 3D s t r u c t u r e of t h e d o t s in s p a c e m a y be seen by the u s e r at any time t h r o u g h s h o r t r o t a t i o n s •
0.
A n y r e l a t i o n s that e x i s t a m o n g the P o i n t s , i n s o f a r a s they h a v e b e e n l o g g ed i n t o t h e s y s t e m , m a y b e d i s p l a y e d
E.
T h e u s e r m a y sort the p o i n t s by m o v i n g them w i t h a l i g h t p e n .
F.
T h e u s e r may w r i t e w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l p i e c e s and s p l i c e them t o g e t h e r , c o m b i n i n g l i g h t p e n and k e y b o a r d o p e r ations.
C O M P L I C A T E D N O T E : T h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e s e m e c h a n i s m s to p i c t o r i a l g r a p h i c s i n two and t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s Is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , and to c o n c e p t u a l s u b s t r u c t u r e s (such as may e x i s t ) b e h i n d t h e s e g r a p h i c s . T h e same goes for c o l l a t e r a t i o n and a n n o t a t i o n of m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c l u s t e r m a t e r i a l s , e.g. in s o c i o l o g y : the s y s t e m w o u l d a l l o w , for i n s t a n c e , the v i e w i n g , a n n o t a t i o n and c o l l a t e r a t i o n of s o c i o m e t r I c c l u s t e r i n g s . ) BOX F I S S I O N .
(The B e a u t y P a r t . )
For p a i r e d v i e w s of p r o j e c t i o n s from the same c l u s t e r w h i c h d o not s h a r e a c o m mon c o o r d i n a t e , a m a r v e l o u s trick Is p o s s i b l e : BOX F I S S I O N . S t a r t i n g w i t h o n e b o x c o n t a i n i n g a g a l a x y , w e pull lt a p a r t , m a k i n g two b o x e s and t w o g a l a x i e s w h o s e Points are linked.
BOX VIEWS
In the G a l a x y V i e w s , the i n d i v i d u a l P o i n t s s i m p l y s w a r m a b o u t w i t h no d e f i n a b l e p o s i t i o n . 'Box V i e w s " a l l o w y o u to o r d e r the p o i n t s on a n y d i m e n s i o n s that h a v e m e a n i n g to y o u , in an a r bitrary coordinate-space. T h e b o x is m o r e than a m e r e m e a s u r e m e n t f r a m e . On r e q u e s t the u s e r m a y s e e the p o i n t s p r o j e c t e d on a s p e c i f i c face of t h e b o x ( o r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y ) ; and o n r e q u e s t h e m a y a l s o s e e p r o j e c t i o n l i n e s b e t w e e n a b o x - f a c e and its c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o i n t in t h e p o i n t c l u s t e r .
N o w b o t h b o x e s can b e r o t a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , and a n y v i e w c o n s i d e r e d ; e q u i v a l e n c e l i n k a g e s m a y n o w b e v i e w e d b e t w e e n any two v i e w s . (The e y e m u s t , h o w e v e r , t u r n two
the
1
"Magnifying^ as b e f o r e , w i l l c r e a t e a v i e w of the t e x t : b u t In the b o x m o d e of v i e w i n g , the text a p p e a r s on the side of the b o x . T h a t i s , the inner v i e w w i l l p r o j e c t to the o u t s i d e , y i e l d i n g a d r a f t . N a t u r a l l y , this is the c u r r e n t a s s e m b l y of y o u r p i e c e s ; If c e r t a i n c o o r d i n a t e s a r e s e l e c t e d it is e v e n a " t y p e s e t " v e r s i o n . (FURTHER T E C H N I C A L I T I E S OF T H E S E ' P O I N T S ' : E a c h point may have a v a l u e ( n u m e r i c a l p a r a m e t e r ) in any of a n u m b e r of d i m e n s i o n s (which number may itself c h a n g e ) . S u c h values may be n u l l , as d i s t i n c t from z e r o , showing that the point h a s no p o s i t i o n on that p a r t i c u l a r s c a l e . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h each point may be o n e or m o r e p i e c e s and scraps or w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l . S u c h s c r a p s may be just p h r a s e s or single w o r d s . ( I n d e e d , such scraps may be a s s o c i a t e d not just w i t h a p o i n t , but w i t h s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c v a l u e s of a p o i n t . ) Each (crap may a l s o c o n t a i n k e y w o r d s — . e l a t l o n s b e t w e e n pol also be d e f i n e d . T h e r e m a y be a va riety of types of r e l a t i o n , w h i c h either between two p o i n t s of d o n ' t . )
(Note: Vector General hardware does not a l low c h a r a c t e r r o t a t i o n ; o n l y k e y w o r d and h e a d l i n e r o t a t i o n Is p o s s i b l e , t h r o u g h s o f t w a r e c h a r a c t e r g e n e r a t i o n . T h u s text p i e c e s on the side of a b o x show c e r t a i n f r e a k y m o v e m e n t s If t h e side i s not v i e w e d s q u a r e - o n . ) ^ A t the 1971 S p r i n g J o i n t C o m p u t e r C o n f e r e n c e , I think lt w a s , I w a s h e c k l e d by a l i n g u i s t w h o a c c u s e d m e of b e i n g " u n i m a g i n a t i v e , ' i n s i s t i n g further that w r i t i n g is m e r e l y an e x t e n s i o n of s p e e c h and thus " m e r e l y " the a p p l i c a t i o n of f u r t h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ; and he c l a i m e d further that what the uaer t h e r e f o r e n e e d s is an input language to s p e c i f y these t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . T h i s v i e w , w h i l e I n t e r e s t i n g , is w r o n g . A b u t / i n d e e d c o n t r o l l a n g u a g e m i g h t be intei iting, h o w e v e r . however-operatlon, a postfix " b u t .
[Appended by the S e e "Writing," p . DM*(3 . ]
(It Is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e Lnat the links in Box F i s s i o n a r e h a n d l e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y , to an e x t e n t , b y the h a r d w a r e . ) WELCOME TO THE FUTURE.
HUH?
T h i s h a s s u m m a r i z e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of some ideas for the v i e w i n g and m a n i p u l a t i o n of c o m p l e x s t u f f . I o f f e r this d e s i g n , i n s o far a s I h a v e b e e n a b l e to p r e s e n t lt hejje, a s an e x a m p l e of fantic d e s i g n (see p . 5 0 ) • T h e r e ls.no l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y to i t ; it c o r r e s p o n d s to the t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of no t e c h n i c a l s y s t e m ; it a r i s e s from no i n t r i n s i c or t r a d i t i o n a l d a t a s t r u c t u r e s used for c o m p u t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of these t h i n g s . But none of t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s is to the p o i n t . T h i s d e s i g n h a s a c e r t a i n s t a r k l o g i c a l s i m p l i c i t y ; it e x t e n d s itself p l a u s ibly from its b a s i c o u t l o o k (or s t a r t i n g i d e a s , if y o u can i s o l a t e them) into a tool for truly I n t r i c a t e c r o s s - c o n s i d e r a t i o n , w i t h o u t a d d i n g u n n e c e s s a r y and h « r d - t o - ^ r e m e m b e r " t e c h n i c a l i t i e s . " At least that s h o w I think of i t . O b v i o u s l y the a e s t h e t i c s of lt a r e I m p o r t a n t to the d e s i g n e r . But a more final c r i t e r i o n of its g o o d n e s s — Its u s e f u l n e s s — may d e p e n d on the same p a r s i m o n y and o r g a n i zational clarity.
Xanadu, f r i e n d ,
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ft rilAliUK.VT. 1TO7, ihe Author. O w n in III health, had M l m l to a lonely farm h w between Porlock and Union, on th* Eimoor confine* »l Himier •ml Uriuoihlre. lb contra timet of tt tlii-ht tndUpultlrtB, sn ai>» .* dad l«*n prm-r
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T o make y o u a p a r t o f a new e l e c t r o n i c l i t e r a t u r e and a r t , w h e r e y o u c a n g e t a l l y o u r q u e s t i o n s a n s w e r e d and nobody w i l l p u t y o u down.
O r i g i n a l l y Xanadu was programmed a r o u n d the P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e (see p. . B u t as t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e were b e t t e r a n d b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d , Xanadu became a more g e n e r a l u n d e r l y i n g s y s t e m f o r a l l f o r m s of i n t e r a c t i v e g r a p h i c environments. I t s data s t r u c t u r e has V i r t u a l B l o c k l e s s n e s s and i s t h u s w e l l r e l a t e d t o t h e s m o o t h m o t i o n s needed by s c r e e n u s e r s . Thus i n i t s f i n a l f o r m , now b e i n g debugged, i t w i l l s u p p o r t n o t o n l y t h e P a r a l l e l T e x t f a c e ( s e e p.^Z) )» t h e W a l k i n g N e t ( s e e p . W15| ) , S t r e t c h t e x t ( s e e p . D M l 9 ) , Zoom Maps ( s e e p. 13) and so o n , b u t i n d e e d any d a t a s t r u c t u r e t h a t needs t o c o m b i n e c o m p l e x l i n k a g e s w i t h f a s t a c c e s s and r a p i d c h a n g e s . Because t h e d a t a s t r u c t u r e i s r e c u r s i v e l y e x t e n s i b l e , i t w i l l p e r m i t h y p e r t e x t (see p.DrlTl) o f any d e p t h a n d c o m p l e x i t y , and t h e c o l l a t e r a l l i n k a g e ( s e e p . j } | ^ 2 ) o f any o b j e c t s o f contemplation.
H e r s y m p h o u v nml song. T o such a deep delight 'twould win m c That with music loud and long, I would build that d o m e in air, T h a t sunny d o m e ! those caves of Ice ! A n d all w h o beard should see liicm there. A n d all should cry. B e w a r e ! Beware ! His flashing eves, his ftoaiiug buir [ W e a v e a circle roundJ hb ii mm thrice, thrice, A n d close your eyes with holy dread, For he on Loucj-dew hath fed. A n d drunk the milk of Paradise.
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And t h e c o n c e p t o f w h a t i t was t o be k e p t c h a n g i n g , as I saw more and more c l e a r l y t h a t i t h a d t o be on a m i n i c o m p u t e r f o r t h e home. (You c a n have one i n y o u r o f f i c e t o o , i f y o u want, b u t t h a t ' s n o t what i t ' s about.)
/
T h e shadow of the d o m e of pleasure Floated mid w a y on the w a v e s ; W h e r e w a s beard the mingled measure F r o m the fountain and the caves. Il w a s a miracle of rare device, A tunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice 1 A damsel with a dulcimer In a vision ouce I saw : It w a s an Abyssinian muid, A n d on her dulcimer she played,
"The
O r i g i n a l l y i t was g o i n g t o be a s u p e r s y s tem f o r h a n d l i n g t e x t by c o m p u t e r ( s e e p . iCi. and |^ ) . B u t i t grew: as I r e a l i z e d , l e v e l by l e v e l , how deep t h e p r o b l e m was.
To g i v e y o u a s c r e e n s y s t e m t h a t w i l l o f f e r h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s and • t e x t s e r v i c e s a t a p r i c e anyone can a f f o r d . To a l l o w y o u t o send and r e c e i v e w r i t t e n messages a t t h e E n g e l b a r t l e v e l ( s e e p.J)I | /6)« a l l o w you t o e x p l o r e diagrams (see p. 0MI9and P. t>f*l51) . To e l i m i n a t e t h e a b s u r d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " t e a c h e r " and " p u p i l . "
KHAN.
James
this
(The f a c t t h a t t h e w o r l d d o e s n ' t have any h y p e r t e x t l i b r a r i e s - - y e t - - i s a m i n o r point.)
Is X a n a d u did Kubla K h a n A stately pleasure-dome decree : W h e r e Alpli, the sacred river, ran T h r o u g h caverns measureless to m a n D o w n to a sunless wit. So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round : A n d there were gardens bright with sinuous rills W h e r e blossomed m a n y an incense-bearing tree: A n d here were forests undent ns the hills, Enfolding sunny spot* of greenery. B u t oh ! that deep romantic cluui'u which slanted D o w n the green hill athwart a crdarn cover I A savage place ! us holy and enchanted A s e'er beneath a waning m o o n w a s liaunted B y w o m a n walling for her demon-lover ! A n d from this chasm, with ceoM-lcss turmoil seething. A s If this earth In fast thick p uutn were brcatiling, A mighty fountain m o m e n t l y won forced : A m i d whose swift ualf-intermltted burst H u g e fragments vaulted like rebounding hail, O r chaffy grain beneath the thresher's nail : A n d 'mid uww rfiuiHng rocks at once and ever Itflung^u p m o m e n t l y the sacred river. Five miles meandering with a m n / y motion T h r o u g h w o o d and dale the sucred liver ran, T b e n reached the caverns measureless to m a n , A n d sank In tumult to a lifeless ocean : A n d 'mid this tumult K u b l a heard from far Ancestral voices prophesying w a r !
"Is that the r i v e r that r u n s d o w n
I have been w o r k i n g o n Xanadu, u n d e r o t h e r names, f o r f o u r t e e n y e a r s now.
To g i v e y o u a s c r e e n i n y o u r home f r o m w h i c h y o u c a n see i n t o t h e w o r l d ' s h y p e r t e x t libraries.
Then all the charm Is broken—all that phantom-world so fair, Vaniahes and a thousand circlet* spread. And each mle-shapn Ihe other, Stay awhile. Poor youth ' who scarcely dar'st lift uplbtoeeya The stream a III w<xi rrarw It* smoothness, noon Therlsioas will relurn ! And lo ! be stags. And soon the fragments dim of lorety forms C o m e trembling back, unite, and now once, more Tlie pool becomes a mirror.
KUBLA
i s my_ dream.
The name comes f r o m t h e poem ( n e a r b y ) ; Coleridge's l i t t l e s t o r y o f the a r t i s t i c trance (and t h e P e r s o n f r o m P o r l o c k ) make i t an a p p r o p r i a t e name f o r t h e P l e a s u r e Dome o f t h e c r e a tive writer. The C i t i z e n Kane c o n n o t a t i o n s , and any o t h e r c o n n o t a t i o n s y o u may f i n d i n t h e poem, a r e s i d e b e n e f i t s .
Story."
Xanadu i s u n d e r p r i v a t e d e v e l o p m e n t and s h o u l d be a v a i l ' a b l e , i f t h e economy h o l d s , i n 1976. R e g r e t t a b l y , f i r s t p r i c e s w i l l n o t be a t t h e $3000 l e v e l n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e t r u e Home System. Exact equipment f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n vers i o n has n o t b e e n s e l e c t e d . A number o f m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s (see p. ^ H ) a r e i n s e r i o u s content i o n , n o t a b l y t h e L o c k h e e d SUE, b u t t h e r e ' s s o m e t h i n g t o be s a i d f o r a r e g u l a r m i n i . The PDP-11 i s o f i n t e r e s t ( s e e p. H 2 ) ; ( s o espec i a l l y i s i t s C a l D a t a l o o k a l i k e - - u n l e s s DEC w o u l d l i k e t o b u i l d us a PDP-11X w i t h s e v e n modes of i n d i r e c t d i s p l a y addressing. Are you reading t h i s , Ken O l s e n ? ) And h e r e ' s a l a u g h : a company c a l l e d IBM may i n f a c t make a s u i t a b l e comp u t e r , e x c e p t t h a t t h e y c a l l i t t h e "3740 Work Station." So f o r t h o s e c u s t o m e r s who want IBM e q u i p m e n t , m a i n t e n a n c e and p r i c e s , w i t h Xanadu software, i t ' s a definite p o s s i b i l i t y . So, f a n s , t h a t a b o u t w r a p s i t up. I ' l l be i n t e r e s t e d i n h e a r i n g f r o m p e o p l e who w a n t t h i s s y s t e m ; many h a r d h e a d e d b u s i n e s s p e o p l e have t o l d me nobody w i l l . P r o v e 'era w r o n g , A m e r i c a !
Patent
9>
work
on
Xanadu
is
in
progress.
Of c o u r s e , i f h y p e r - m e d i a a r e n ' t t h e g r e a t est t h i n g s i n c e t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s , t h i s whole p r o j e c t f a l l s f l a t on i t s f a c e . But i t i s hard f o r me t o c o n c e i v e t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t b e .
rlret of all, wind that Xanadu i ualfled ayatam for complex < display. Thla basically ami that the same stem (without tha displays) machine for the data network Itself,
p. 44). It le an operating system wiOi two proerasmi a highly generalised data management system for handling extremely ccmpla* data In huge files, and a gsnarallsad diaplay system, awrltd (o th* othii, (or handling branching animation and retrieval and canned display program.. Thaaa ordain retrlevele by tha data system. Tha Perallal T*atfac* (see p. IfcCJ) and tha Walking Wat
naarby, for
So far, so good. That awana that ws can have e minicomputer network handling tha entire structure! eendlng out library mat.rial, to uaere on cell, and .torlng any material, they want saved. Thla eaves . n kind. 0 ( haselee with big computers and bti-eowputer-eiyle progresmlng.
:and-alone turnkay uaa (
But who will p.y f Q r u , T o b u t l ( j t h . k l n J o capacity we're talking about- all tboa. dlaka, all those minicomputer* In a netvork— won't it take lmmanae amounts of capital? low, paepl, ask am, will any Aaerlcao company aver back euch a Utopian scheme?
LANCUAGgSi Xanadu programs oil abla In any higher languagea, proprietary character, but all I language.
One method of financing haa proven ltaelf In the postwar suburban era, thla time of drlva-in* and hamburger atanda.
The eyetea haa lta own undar-level language, XAP (Xanadu Aaeembly Program). Wille two higher-level u diaplay languages, DISJOTJ (Diaplay Lingo) and X " (tha ultimata?) are contemplated, theae "ill not ordinarily be accessible to the uaer. The purpose of Xanadu la to tumlah tha uaer vith unwaputerlsh good-guy system* for specific purposss, not a chance to do hie own programming.
View from the snack balcony of a large Xanadu Installation, overlooking the internal greenery. Hexagonal architecture parent* physical expansion without interruption of services. (The mollusks have been telling ue something about expansion.)
What I propoaa, then, la the Hoa-«nd Pop Xanadu Shop. Or, more properly, the Xanadu stand. "Horn and Pop" are tha owner* of tha individual stand. But the customer* csn ba Families, too.
Important feature* of the data system t dreaaabillty (In tha trllliona of elem* tual Blocklateness. For advantages of •fila Nap,
From far away the children aae the tall golden X's, "Oh, Daddy, can't we stop? I want to play Spacewar," ssys little Johnny. Big Sle adda, "Tou know, I have to check somathing for my paper on Roman politics." And Horn says, "Say, that would ba a good place for lunch."
COMPATIBILITYi because of lta highly compacted and unconventional structure, lt la not compatible w" th other operating system* (including time-sharing). Anyway, to put lt on a larger Machine la like hovino your Hasda driven around In a truck. Because lt uaea a line-drawing display (eee p. D M ' ! } ) and therefore draws Individual arbitrary Ilnaa on the screen repeatedly, it la not compatible with television either— unless you point a TV camera at It, or the equivalent. Sorry.
2 BILLION SCREE* HOCKS." park tb* car, and Dad she lt card, and tha klda rut wait for a big horizontal
STANDARDIZATIOej. Taking a lesson from the integrated work of various people whose work haa been described in thla book, wa aee that If you want a thing done right, you have to do it youraelf- (eraat Ideaa of Western Man; one of a aeriea.) My good friend Calvin Nooara with hla T M C Language (aee p p . 18-21) haa diecovered that trademark is one way to nail thla ae a right.
tie algn that aays "OVE1 1 pull Into ths lot. They the clerk his Xanadu cred-
through hi
of tours*, goes to hat ,u console.
THE PLAN.
AS CBAZT AS IT SEEMS?
tha public wants it, k who think of computi lt. Thla meana "thi public" must • •show c
Several levels of standardization are important with Xanadu. One, all Xanadu ayataau must be abla to work with all Xanadu files (except for possible variations in screen performance and aixe of local memory), How. there are those who would not be concerned for this sort of universality, and who wight even try to make sure systems were incompatible, so that you had to buy acceaaorlaa and conversion kits up and down the line. That ia one of the things that must be avoided! "partial* compatibility, subject to expensive options and conditions, a well-known technique In the field.
i It.
On* way to go la to atart a new corporation, register lt with tha SEC and try to raise a lot of money by selling stock publicly. Unfortunately there are all kinda of obataclea for that, ("lag A" 1* about aa far aa lt will go.)
Ctm/t
Through the-alraele of franchising, now, a lot of the difficulties of conventional backing can be bypaaaed. The franchisee haa to put up tha money for the computer*, the icopaa, the adorable purple enamel building, the John* and ao on; aa a Xanadu franchisee he gets the whole turnkey system and certain responsibilities In the OVEKALL XANADU WETUOBK— of which he 1* a member. He is assigned permanent storage of certain claaaea of materials, on call from elsewhere In the net. (Naturally, everything la stored in more than one place).
By stabilising the "Xanadu" trademark, I hope to prevent such shenanigans. Thus every accredited Xanadu system will offer full compatibility with the data atructure. and either full performance or substitutes aa necessitated by the hardware. The "Xanadu" trademark can thus In principle be made available to manufacturers abiding by all design features of the system.
If you publish your ldeaa like thla, aren't you afraid someone will steal them? Ho. (The Law of Intellectual Property la about the strongest backing the Individual haa in this society.) Beside* uhich, there is here no revelation of the Xanadu Sneakreta. Q. Won't some big company sweep your Xanadu under If they Imitate lt? A . Let 'em. If thay come up with a aystea having equivalent scope, which seems unlikely (see Canona, p.JJUSI ) , I might even feel I had achieved enough. But in the meantime, like the tortoise, and like DEC, I aa going to continue to try to do It rlaht. Q . Aren't you afraid that writing a flippant book will keep people from taking you seriously? A . I do not want to be taken aerloualy In soma quarters until lt'a too late.
A.
AVAILABILITY. It is hoped that Xanadu will be available In 1975 for at least one machine (guess which). As s program It will be available only in absolute SB,.„A|i.,
%
AHEM. There is s lot to talk about, but a lot of time can be wasted talking. It is suggested that thoughtful computer firms, interested in aome form of participation, study this book carefully— at least enough so no one's time need be wasted.
:rlbei The Xan requests st the screen ss quickly as | in priority If he want* to pay for It' itore his own files, including linksgi among other uteri*!* and marginal notations to oi that can be called. (See collateral structuraa, P-D*l5i; theae can automatically bring forth any thing they're linked to. (See "Nelson's Canons,' p.ih?*.)) A user's historical record will be atored to whatever degree he desires, but not (If he chooses) in ways that can be identified wll him.
Q.
Porta-Xan. (Hookup by Tom Barnard.) Faceplate reflects CRT to user while he's abroad in the world. One-hand typewriting and pointing device frees the other. Can be built with available ruggedised components.
Second, all Xanadu systems should be able to work with outside systems either through or off the net, lf_ they conform to the unusual data rules required by the unusual design of the system. This assures that Xanadu systems will be compatible with any other popular networks. It also assures others who want to offer Xanadu-claaa services to system owners (through, e.g., conventional time-sharing) that If thay adhere to tha rules (sea "Canon*." p.»*t?f) they can play the game on a certified basis.
lead only dial . local phone num— — to connect with j network. (The coet col ot ualng thing to do on the network haa (Special high-capacity U n a s need not ba Installed between storage atation*, as appropriate digital tranaaiaalon acrvlcea are becoming available commsrclally.)
3 =
Various security techniquea prevent othar* from reading a subscriber** files, even If thay sign on falaely; the Dartmouth technique of scrambling on non-stored keyword* Is a good one.
I have heard rumors that someone else In the field calls a computer product "Xanadu." I tend to doubt thla; and even lt they did, my usage goea back to 1 9 6 6 .
BIBLIOCKAFHT
F
k recent report by Arthur D. Little, a Boston fit that makes its money by aeealng to be omniac commented on the considerable market potent! for on-line data aupply system*. The report cost SkOd or SfcQOO, 1 forget which. Big-iU >wl.
H,..^ U . W - A -
The Xanadu atand alao haa i multiple screena, which can be i business aaetlnga, design sssslc legal consultations, lectures, •
Elliot Klugman, Hat CKubla Babeoki, Cal Daniels and John V.E. Bidgaay for the considerable time and involvement they gave to the Xanadu program design sessions; thanks also to various others who eat in from time to time. For the final selection of algorithms, however, no one is to blame but me.
Ladoga, , aualcalaa, • Xanadu stands
: am grateful to the good offices of Suarthmore College for the use of their equipment in the continuing efforts to debug the Xanadu programs.
How are M e g o i n g to s e l l the H o n e C o m p u t e r ? N e l l if you w a n t to s e l l c o m p u t e r s , let n e t e l l y o u i Y o u ' v e got to talk to the h o u s e w i v e s , and the childrt No one w a n t s to p r o g r a m , they w a n t s o m e t h i n g they cat "Linen.'" M r . W o n k a Mid, "I'm an old n u n . I'm n m < h oloYi thin joii think. 1 can't go on fur ever. I've got no children of m y o w n , no family it all. So w h o is goiiif- to run the factory when I git too ol J to do it tnyiclf? Semtowt't got in keep il I;DIII(>~ jf onlyfi>rthe lake of the O o m p a -
t's got to o f f e r f u n , and it|s t's got to g i v e y o u s o m e t h i n g h a t ' l l lift y o u f n t's got to be u p l i f t i n g to the Lady from D u l u t h . ou've got to h a v e a v i s i o n ; yo i've got to h a v e an ou s h o u l d m a y b e sing a jingle t's got to h a v e a t i n g l e , in a So <
iuing under
our g u i d a n c e
Is X a n a d u w o r t h w a i t i n g
for?
That d e p e n d s , doaan't i t , o n t h e v a l u e of the h a n d - b u s h differential bird utility ratio.
le; t jangle); t tangle-
i n g
inertial,
LooinpaL Mind you. there arc iliouuiidi of clever m e n w h o mylhing Tot the r hi tic ;, IK.„
nif tint ton of [icrioii. 1 dnn'i
nt i piown-up per inn ; all. A grownup won't lntcii m c ; ho won', learn. H e v 1 try to do ilnngi hit o w n wiy i not m m c . So I hive t hive a child. I wint a gixxl illblc luv,,,;' child. ...ie t w h o m I CMI tell all m y ...cm ii - while I a m mil ihvv." I and the Chocolate Factory.
I a m sorry 1 have not been able U reply to all those, w h o have written to m a saying they wish they could work for The Nelson Organisation
So c
1, m y friend*, ao do 1.
[I... f_..i,]
X A N - A - D U , 00-THE-
TORLU--
OF -
^OUVUij'/
• a
what \ IS
KEAUY
11 Knowledge, understanding *nd freedom o n ill be advanced by th* promotion end deployment ol computer display consoles ""il" right program* behind them I •I) romptiter prcsenlatlorwl media, coming soon, will not be technically determined but rather will be new realm, for human artistry This point „( view radically affect* how we design man machine system* o( any kind, especially I1*** , o r '"formation retrieval, teaching, and general writing and reading Some practitioners nee such systems an narrowly technical, with the computer hoisling up little pieces of writing on some "scientific" basis and showing them to you one grunt at a lime A Metrecsl banquet. 1 disagree. The system, should be opulent. 3) The problem in presentational systems of any kind is lo make thinp look good, fee) right, and come •cross clearly. The thinp lhat mailer are the feel ol the system, the user's state ot mind, his possible confusion, boredom or enthusiasm, the problems of communicating concept*. and the very nature ol concept* and their interconnection There will never be a •science" of presentation, except as it relate* to these thinp. 4) Not the nature of machines, but the nature of ideas, U what mailers. It U incredibly hard to develop, organize and transmit idea*, and il always will be But at least in Ihe fulurc w c won't be boobytrapped by the nature ol paper W e can design magic pa pet-
I b e l i e v e that an i n t r o d u c t i o n to any s u b j e c t can be h u m o r o u s , o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o f o u n d , e x c i t i n g , v i v i d , and appealing even to experts on their-separate l e v e l s .
m SrVflMG-
it is time to nart lining computers to hold informal ion for the mind much as books have held this in format ion in the paal. N o w information for the mind is very different from "information for Ihe computer" a* we have thought of it. hacked up and com pressed into block* Irwlend we can stretch the computer t a m proposing a curious kind of subversion. "Let us design." I soy. and when people «ec the systems, everybody will want one All I want to do is put Renaissance humanism in a multidimensional responsive console. And I • trying to work out the forms of riting of the future. Hypertexts. Hypertexts: H forms ol writing, appearing on computer screens, that will branch or perform at the reader'H command. A hypertext is a nonhequcntial piece of writing; only the computer display makes it practical Somewhere between a book, a T V show and o penny arcade, the hyperlent can lie n vast tapestry of in torm a (ion. all in plain English i spiced with n few magic tricks on the screen I, which the reader m a y attack and play for the things he wants, branching and jumping on the screen, using simple controls an il he were driving n car. There can be specialized subparts lor specialized intercuts, instant availability ol relevancies in all direction*, footnote* that are book* themselves. Hypertexts will be so much belter than ordinary writing that the printed word will wither away. Rrat uriling by peoptt. make no mistake, not data bank*, robot summaries or other clank A person U writing lo other people, juiit as before, but on magical paper he can cut up and tie in knots and My around on.
I b e l i e v e in c a l l i n g a s p a d e a s p a d e -- n o t a p e r s o n a l i z e d e a r t h - m o v i n g e q u i p ment m o d u l e ; and a multi-U imens iona1 s p a d e , by g u m , a h v p e r s p a d e - - not a p e r s o n a l i z e d earth-moving equipment module with augmented dirt a c c e s s , retrieval and display c a p ability under individulaized c o n t r o l .
Perhaps
It ts essential to state these firmly a n d publicly, b e c a u s e y o u are going to see a lot of s y s t e m s in the near future that purport to be the last-word cst's-pajama s y s t e m s to bring y o u "all Ihe information y o u n e e d , a n y t i m e , a n y w h e r e . " Unless y o u h a v e thought about It y o u m a y b e s n o w e d b y s y s t e m s w h i c h are inherently a n d deeply limiting. H e r e are s o m e of the things w h i c h I think w e will all w a n t . ( T h e s a l e s m a n for the other syatem will say they are impossible, or " W e don't k n o w h o w to d o that yet," the standard p u l d o w n . But these things arc possible, if w c d e s i g n t h e m In from the bottom u p ; a n d there are m a n y different valid a p p r o a c h e s w h i c h could bring these things into b e i n g 3
EASY A N D ARBITRARY FRONT
I can prove
it.
T h e user m u s t b e allowed multiple rovers (movable p l a c e m a r k s at points of current activity); m a k i n g possible, especially, multiple w i n d o w s (to the location of each rover) with displays or collateral links. T h e system should also h a v e provision for high-level mooting ( y i s v ^ a n d the automatic k e e p i n g of historical trails.
T h e s e arc rules, derived from c o m m o n s e n s e a n d u n c o m m o n c o n c e r n , about w h a t people can a n d should h a v e in gcnernl screen s y s t e m s , s y s t e m s to read f r o m . 1.
someday
ErJDS.
T h e "front e n d " of a s y s t e m - - lhat Is, the p r o g r a m that creates the presentations for the u s e r a n d interacts with h i m - - m u s t b e clear a n d simple for people to u s e a n d u n d e r s t a n d . T H E T E N - M I N U T E R U L E . A n y system w h i c h cannot b e well taught to a l a y m a n in ten m i n u t e s . b y a tutor in the p r e s e n c e of a r e s p o n d i n g s e t u p , is too complicated. T h i s m a y s o u n d far too stringent; I think n o t . Rich a n d p o w e r f u l s y s t e m s m a y b e given front e n d s w h i c h arc nonetheless ridiculously clear: this is a design p r o b l e m of the foremost i m p o r t a n c e . T E X T M U S T M O V E , that is, slide o n the screen w h e n the u s e r steps f o r w a r d or b a c k w a r d within the text h e is r e a d i n g . T h e alternative, to clear the screen a n d lay out a n e w p r e s e n t a tion, is baffling to the e y e a n d thoroughly disorienting, e v e n with practice. M a n y c o m p u t e r people d o not yet u n d e r stand the necessity of this. T h e p r o b l e m is that if the screen is c l e a r e d , a n d s o m e t h i n g n e w then a p p e a r s o n it, there is n o visual w a y to tell w h e r e the n e w thing c a m e from: s e q u e n c e a n d structure b e c o m e baffling. H a v i n g it slide o n the screen allows y o u to u n d e r s t a n d w h e r e y o u ' v e b e e n a n d w h e r e you're going: a feeling y o u also get from turning p a g e s of a b o o k . ( S o m e close substitutes m a y b e possible o n s o m e types of s c r e e n . ) O n front e n d s supplied for n o r m a l u s e r s , there m u s t b e n o explicit c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s requiring input control strings, no visible e s o teric s y m b o l s . Graphical control structures h a v i n g clarity a n d safety, o r v e r y clear taskoriented k e y b o a r d s , a r e a m o n g the p r i m e alternatives.
T h e n , a c o m p l e x of certain v e r y necessary a n d v e r y powerful facilities b a s e d o n these things, viz.: A . A N T H O L O G I C A L F R E E D O M : the u s e r m u s t be able to c o m b i n e easily anything h e finds into an "anthology," a rovable collection of these materials h a v i n g the structure h e w a n t s . T h e linkage information for s u c h anthologies m u s t b e separately transportable a n d passable b e t w e e n users. B . S T E P - O U T W I N D O W I N G : from a place in s u c h an a n t h o l o g y , the u s e r m u s t b e able to step out of the anthology a n d into the previous context of the material. For instance, if h e h a s just read a quotation, h e should b e able to h a v e the present anthological context dissolve a r o u n d the quotation (while it stays o n the s c r e e n ) , a n d the original context r e a p p e a r a r o u n d it. T h e n e e d of this in scholarship should b e o b v i o u s . C . D 1 S A N T H O L O G I C A L F R E E D O M : the u s e r m u s t b e able to step out of an anthology in s u c h a w a y a n d not return if h e c h o o s e s . (This h a s important implications for w h a t m u a t really b e h a p p e n i n g in the file structure.) Earlier versions of public d o c u m e n t s m u s t be retained, as u s e r s will h a v e linked to t h e m . H o w e v e r , w h e r e possible, linkages m u s t also b e able to survive revisions of o n e o r both objects.
T h e assumption m u s t b e m a d e at the outset of a w i c k e d a n d malevolent g o v e r n m e n t a l authority. If s u c h a situation d o e s not d e v e l o p , well a n d g o o d ; if it d o e s , the s y s t e m will h a v e a few m i n i m a l safeguards built in. F R E E D O M F R O M BEING M O N I T O R E D . The u s e of p s e u d o n y m s a n d d u m m y accounts b y indiv i d u a l s , as well as the omission of certain r e c o r d k e e p i n g b y the s y s t e m p r o g r a m , are n e c e s s a r y h e r e . File retention u n d e r d u m m y accounts is also r e q u i r e d .
All operations m u s t b e fail-safe. I want a world where w e can rend the world's literature from screen* r.-ither than personally searching out the physical books. A world without routine u,?erwork, because all copying operations take place automatically and formalized transaction! occur through formalized ceremonies at consoles. A world when- w o can learn, study, create, and share our creations without having privately to schlepp and physically safeguard them. There is a familiar, all-embracing motto, the jingle w e all know from the day school lets out, which I take quite seriously: " N o more pencils; •o more books, no more teacher*' dirty looks " T h e Fantic Ace.
Arbitrary front e n d s m u s t b e attachable: since w e are talking about reading from text, or text-and-picture c o m p l e x e s , stored o n a large data s y s t e m , the presentational front e n d m u s t b e separable from Ihe data services p r o vided further d o w n in the s y s t e m , so the u s e r m a y attach his o w n front-end s y s t e m , h a v i n g his o w n style of operation a n d his o w n private c o n v e n i e n c e s for r o v i n g , editing a n d other forms of w o r k or play at the s c r e e n . 2.
M y w o r k is c o n c e r n e d principally with the theory a n d execution of s y s t e m s useful to the m i n d a n d the creative imagination. This has polemical a n d practical aspects: I claim that the precepts of designing s y s t e m s thai touch people's m i n d s , or contents to b e s h o w n in t h e m , are simple a n d u n i versal: m a k i n g things look g o o d , feel right a n d c o m e across clearly. I claim thai to d e s i g n s y s t e m s that involve both m a c h i n e s a n d people's m i n d s is art first, technology s e c o n d , a n d in n o w a y a d e r i vative specialty off in s o m e b r a n c h of c o m p u t e r science. H o w e v e r , presentational s y s t e m s will c e r tainly involve c o m p u t e r s from n o w o n . Since h u n d r e d s of s u c h s y s t e m s are n o w being built, m a n y of them all w r o n g , w e m u s t teach designers (end certain others) the basics of c o m p u t e r s , a n d give t h e m s o m e g o o d e x a m p l e s lo emulate (such as Sutherland's S k e t c h p a d , Bilzer's P L A T O , a n d , I h o p e , s o m e of m y o w n designs). F u r t h e r , the popular superstitions about c o m p u t e r s must b e fought-- the m y t h s that they are mechanistic, scientific, objective or i n d e p e n dent of h u m a n intent a n d contemplative involve-
S M O O T H A N D RAPID D A T A
ACCESS.
T h e s y s t e m m u s t b e built to m a k e possible fast a n d arbitrary access to a potentially h u g e data b a s e , allowing extremely large files (at least into the billions of c h a r a c t e r s ) . H o w e v e r , the s y s t e m s h o u l d b e contrived lo allow y o u to r e a d f o r w a r d , b a c k or across links without s u b stantial hesitation. S u c h access m u s t b e implicit, not requiring k n o w l e d g e of w h e r e things are physically stored or w h a t the internal file n a m e s m a y . h a p p e n to b e . File divisions m u s t b e invisible to the u s e r in all his r o v i n g operations ( F R E E D O M O F R O V I N G ) : boundaries must be invisible in the final presentations, a n d the u s e r m u s t not n e e d to k n o w about t h e m .
3.
RICH D A T A
FACILITIES.
7.
COPYRIGHT.
C o p y r i g h t m u s t of c o u r s e b e retained, but a universal flexible rule h a s to b e w o r k e d o u t , permitting material to b e transmitted a n d copied u n d e r specific c i r c u m s t a n c e s for the p a y m e n t of a royalty fee, s u r c h a r g e d o n top of y o u r other e x p e n s e s in u s i n g the s y s t e m . For a n y Individual section of material, s u c h royalty should h a v e a m a x i m u m : i.e., " b y n o w y o u ' v e b o u g h t it." V a r y i n g royalty rates, h o w e v e r , should b e the arbitrary choice of the copyright holder; except that royalties should not v a r y sharply locally within a tissue of material. O n public s c r e e n s , m o v i n g b e t w e e n areas of different r o y alty cost m u s t b e sharply m a r k e d .
Arbitrary linkages m u s t b e possible b e t w e e n portions of text, o r lext a n d pictures; annotation of a n y t h i n g m u s t b e p r o v i d e d for; collateration (see p . » g 0 ) should b e a s t a n d a r d facility, b e t w e e n a n y pair of well-defined o b jects; P L A C E M A R K facilities m u s t b e allowed" to d r o p a n c h o r at. or in, a n y t h i n g . T h e s e features imply private annotations to publiclyaccessible materials as a standard automatic service m o d e .
T h e AI p e o p l e d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d , the IR p e o p l e d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d , the CAI p e o p l e don't u n d e r s t a n d , and for God's sake don't tell
B e c a u s e of the d a n g e r of file s a b o t a g e , a n d the private a t - h o m e retention b y individuals of files that also exist on public s y s t e m s , it is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e F I D U C I A L S Y S T E M S F O R T E L L I N G W H I C H V E R S I O N IS A U T H E N T I C . T h e doctoring of on-line d o c u m e n t s , the rewriting of history-cf. both Winston Smith's continuous revision of the encyclopedia in Nineteen E i g h t y - F o u r a n d H . L . Hunt's forging of historical telegrams for " T h e White H o u s e " - - is a constant d a n g e r . T h u s o u r s y s t e m s m u s t h a v e a n u m b e r of c o m p l e x provisions for verification of falsification, e s p e cially the creation of multilevel fiducials (parity s y s t e m s ) , a n d their storage in a variety of places. T h e s e fiducials m u s t b e local izable a n d separate to small parts of files.
BIBLIOGRAPHY rud. "Coaputopla and Cybe Theodor H . Nel in R o g e r L e v i e n ( e d . ) . C o m p u t e r s in I n s t r u c t i o n (Rand C o r p o r a t i o n , 1 9 7 1 ) . or H . N e l s o n , "A C o n c e p t u a l F r i a e w o r k for M a n - M a c h i n e Every t h i n g . " Proc. NCC 73.
IBM.
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T h e n there w a s the s u p p r e s s i o n of m y first b o o k (this is m y s e c o n d ) . Y o u m i g h t say it w a a a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , at least o n m y p a r t . M y boss's u n d e r s t a n d i n g w a s evidently that the a d v a n c e m e n t of m y ideas w o u l d be detrimental to his. If it h a d b e e n a question of free s p e e c h in Yugoslavia it might h a v e b e e n different. W e l l , it takes a long time to get a b o o k together, but here w e g o a g a i n . d m m , part thi «lt of nun to 117 what dream it *>•: nun n but an ••>, If he e» about to «poind thi* dream. Metliouiht 1 w ible to tatte. hb lonpiH' I., ifflwitr. nor h.. heart to repett, >h.ln.r Jrr«o"».. Bottom tha Wtovw
N o w y o u aee w h y I b r o u g h t y o u h e r e . This Gem-maniacal book h a s , obviously, been created as a crossroad of several cross p u r poses: to furnish a n e e d e d , g r a b b y l a y m a n ' s introduction to t w o vast but rather inaccessible realms; to present a c o h e r e n t , if contentious, point of v i e w , a n d unroll a particular sort of apocalyptic vision after p r e p a r i n g the v o c a b u l a r y for it; to m a k e bright friends a n d informed s u p porters for m y outlook a n d projects; to gel h o m e to s o m e of m y friends the fact thai w h a t I a m doing is at boitom not technical; a n d finally, if nothing else, to set forth s o m e principles about the w a y things should b e , w h i c h others will have-to a n s w e r if they p r o p o s e to d o less. T h u s , overall, this b o o k is a m e s s a g e in a Klein bottle, waiting to see w h o ' s thirsty.
T h e n (here w a s the lime I w a s called In as a consultant o n a vast federal s y s t e m , n e v e r mind what. Numerous computer programs were to b e coordinated b y a hypertext s y s t e m they h a d created a n d they w a n t e d to k n o w if they'd d e s i g n e d il right. It took m o n t h s to find oul from the p r o g r a m m e r s exactly w h a t the s y s t e m w a s , so I e n d e d u p writing the m a n u a l ; after w h i c h I explained w h a t w a s w r o n g with the p r o ject a n d the w h o l e hypertext s y s t e m w a s s c r a p p e d . A n d m y job with it. I n e v e r quite got the s w i n g of c o n s u l t i n g
Flying coast-lo-coast with the president of a large corporation, h e a n d I p l a n n e d the w h o l e X a n a d u b u d g e t for the following y e a r at s o m e t h i n g like half a million dollars, T w o y e a r s later, r e d u c e d in c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d driving a yellow c a b In N e w Y o r k , the m i s e r a b l e vehicle b r e a k s d o w n in front of those s a m e corporate h e a d q u a r t e r s . A n d the r e a s o n I h a d that b a d taxi w a s thai I w a s out of favor with the taxi d i s p a t c h e r , o n account of h a v i n g b e e n a b s e n t the p r e v i o u s w e e k - - I h a d h a d to fly to California to give a b a n q u e t a d d r e s s at the R a n d C o r p o r a t i o n . T h e n there w e r e m y a d v e n t u r e s with the CIA.
1 s u p p o s e il all started in college. S w a r t h m o r e left m e with a n e x a g g e r a t e d notion of the extent to w h i c h ideas are v a l u e d in the a c a d e m i c world; il took t w o graduate schools to clear this u p . After lhat, as far as I w a s c o n c e r n e d , P h . D . stood for P o o p h e a d . B u t I still cared about ideas, a n d the d e e p necessity of finding their true structure a n d organization. From writing I k n e w the grueling difficulty of trying to m a k e ideas get in o r d e r . I believed in the p u r e , white light of inspiration a n d the p o w e r of the naive but clever m i n d to figure out a n y t h i n g , if not obstructed but d u m b d o g m a s a n d obtuse mental s c h e m a t a fostered b y the educational s y s t e m . W h e n I finally got the idea of w h a t c o m p u ters w e r e a b o u t , s o m e t i m e in 1 9 6 0 , I took endless w a l k s at night trying to h a s h these things out a n d see w h e r e they led. T h e text s y s t e m s c a m e clear to m e , at least in their b e g i n n i n g s ; in a few w e e k s ; the realization that 3 D halftone w a s possible c a m e to m e as a s h o c k the following s p r i n g , I believe as 1 w a s w a l k i n g across Radeliffe C o m m o n . Since then trying lo build these s y s t e m s for creation a n d the true o r d e r i n g of intricate thought h a s b e e n m y driving d r e a m . M y o w n life a m o n g these d r e a m m a c h i n e s has b e e n a n i g h t m a r e , thoroughly u n p l e a s a n t , a n d if people are right in telling m e that n o b o d y w a n t s s y s t e m s like the o n e s I a m d e s i g n i n g , I'll get the h e c k out of this a n d b e a disk j o c k e y or a toy s a l e s m a n o r s o m e t h i n g . I first got into this as a writer; all I w a n t e d w a s a decent writing s y s t e m that w o u l d r u n o n a c o m p u t e r . Little did I realize the i m mensity of w h a t that entailed, o r that for s o m e reason m y w o r k a n d a p p r o a c h w o u l d e n g e n d e r indignation a n d a n g e r w h e r e v e r I w e n t . T h e r e is a fiction that e v e r y b o d y in these fields is doing s o m e t h i n g fundamentally scientific a n d technical, a n d this fiction is usually u p h e l d in carefully enacted m u t u a l playlets. T r y i n g to cut t h r o u g h that a n d s a y , "Let's build a h o m e for m a n k i n d that will at last b e s h a p e d to fit m a n ' s m i n d , " d o e s noi s e e m to-generate i m m e d i a t e warmth and welcome. But I'm glad for the friends I've m a d e in this field, a n d of course there h a v e b e e n a lot of l a u g h s . (I'd really h a v e hated to m i s s b e i n g in this field, just for the thrilling m a d n e s s of it all.) All in all m y a d v e n t u r e s h a v e b e e n a sort of participatory j o u r n a l i s m , w h i c h I'd like to write u p properly s o m e t i m e . S o m e highlights; T h e d a y s of m a d n e s s in '68, trying to start a n honest corporation to d o all this stuff, a n d suffering endless l u n c h e s with Wall Street h a n g e r s - o n w h o w e r e looking for a vehicle to take public. T h e y w a n t e d another chickenfranchise type c o m p a n y , t h o u g h , a n d certainly not ideas. B e i n g briefed b y four different c o r p o r a t i o n s . moBt of t h e m m a j o r , o n the fantastic p o w e r s their interactive-movie s y s t e m w a s g o i n g to h a v e . O n e of these briefings w a s in the b o a r d r o o m of a f a m o u s s k y s c r a p e r . A n d n o w , only o n e of those s y a t e m s is left-- K o d a k ' s . T h e n there w a s the courtly g e n t l e m a n w h o w a s going to be m y N o a h Dietrich, m y Colonel P a r k e r . H e a s s u r e d m e that t h r o u g h his b u s i n e s s connections all w a s going to go m a r v e l o u s l y , a n d then later intimated that as a special favor he w a s going to put m e in touch with other universes a n d the flying s a u c e r p e o p l e . I just didn't h a v e lime for other u n i v e r s e s .
I w a s sitting in m y office at V a s s a r , sagely advising a s t u d e n l , w h e n the p h o n e r a n g u n d the caller identified himself as J o h n W . K u i p e r s , h e a d of c o m p u t e r r e s e a r c h at the C I A , H e told m e I h a d b e e n noticed as a n e w bright y o u n g m a n in the field, a n d w o u l d I like to w o r k for t h e m ? N o w , there is s o m e t h i n g a b o u t b e i n g a cynic a n d a r o m a n t i c . ( T h e y g o together: the cynic deflates i d e a s , the romantic falls in love with t h e m . ) It is not impossible for the cynical romantic to s u r m i s e that b e c a u s e e v e r y t h i n g h e h a s s e e n personally t u r n e d out to b e so l o u s y , that the true h o p e m a y lie at Ihe heart of the v o r t e x , just w h e r e e v e r y b o d y thinks is i m p o s s i b l e . A l s o the K e n n e d y a f t e r m a t h , w h e n sophisticated people h a d learned to l a u g h at simple idealism a s a facade for the real w h e e l - a n d - d e a l i n g , slap-and-tickle, m a y h a v e h a d s o m e t h i n g to d o with it; a n y w a y , I w a s e n c h a n t e d . T h u s b e g a n the K u i p e r s C a p e r . YES, THERE
IS A M c L E A N ,
VIRGINIA
I w a s g i v e n a h a n d l e r n a m e d B o b , a jolly fellow, w h o k e p t a s s u r i n g m e that m u c h m o n e y w a s just a r o u n d the c o r n e r . I w a s regaled with s u c c e s s stories of o t h e r people in the c o m p u t e r field w h o really, u n d e r c o v e r W o r k e d for T h e m . ( T h e y weren't d o i n g a n y t h i n g v e r y exciting.) I got to s h o w m y slides in the C I A office building in A r l i n g t o n , a n d to see there v e r y fancy display e q u i p m e n t b e h i n d shielded (!) d o u b l e - d o o r s in a shielded (!!) c o m p u t e r r o o m — shielded lo k e e p a n y planted b u g s from transmitting out the c o n tents of the c o m p u t e r s ' w o r k i n g registers. I e v e n got to visit the m a i n C I A " c a m p u s " in M c L e a n , Virginia, w h e r e the sign s a y s Agricultural R e s e a r c h Station. It is a n incredible feeling to w a l k a c r o s s that b i g eagle in the t e r r a z z o , a n d to b e g i v e n the visitor's b a d g e that s a y s "United States G o v e r n m e n t " all in w i g g l y lines. T h e y told m e that they w o u l d b e glad to set m e u p in b u s i n e s s a s a h y p e r t e x t c o m p a n y , b u t 1 w o u l d h a v e to h a v e a c o r p o r a t i o n , b e c a u s e that w a s the w a y they a l w a y s did t h i n g s . A n d so it c a m e to p a s s that T h e N e l s o n O r g a n i z a t i o n , I n c . w a s f o u n d e d at the e x p r e s s request of the United States Central Intelligence A g e n c y . I w o u l d n ' t h a v e h a d it a n y other w a y . If life can't b e pleasant it c a n at least b e surrealistic. .. . BUT N O
SANTA
CLAUS
I w a s e n c o u r a g e d to write proposals for t h e m , a n d write proposals I d i d . (I h a p p e n e d to finish typing the first o n e d u r i n g a lightning s t o r m , a n d lightning c r a s h e d just as I w a s signing the p a g e ; 1 felt like F a u s t . ) I explained h o w h y p e r text m i g h t h a v e p r e v e n t e d the B a y of P i g s . After d u e consideration, I did not say w h a t hypertexts m i g h t h a v e d o n e for the W a r r e n R e p o r t . Numerous jolly p h o n e calls a s s u r e d m e that m y first $25,000 w a s just a r o u n d the c o r p e r . T h e b r e a k c a m e w h e n B o b called m e a n d a s k e d m e to rewrite a p r o p o s a l o n e m o r e t i m e . H e h a d circulated it, h e said, a m o n g various people "at the s h o p , " w h o h e r e m i n d e d m e w e r e holders of a d v a n c e d d e g r e e s , a n d it h a d b e e n r e m a r k e d that they f o u n d m y p r o p o s a l m e a n i n g less: " E v e r y place y o u say 'hypertext' y o u could just as well put ' g o b b l e d y g o o k ' instead; you'll h a v e to clear that u p a Utile."
T h a t did It. T h e y couldn't read either. W h o turns out to b e in c h a r g e of c o m p u t e r stuff in the heart of the C I A , the inner s a n c t u m , the neat of v i p e r s , but the s a m e old p o o p y P h . D s . 1 decided to resuscitate m y virtue. A s far as 1 k n o w , there ia still not a D e c e n t Writing S y s t e m a n y w h e r e in the w o r l d , although several things n o w c o m e close. It s e e m s a s h a m e that g r o w n m e n a n d w o m e n h a v e to rustle a r o u n d in piles of p a p e r , like squirrels looking for a c o r n s , in s e a r c h of the p h r a s e s a n d ideas they t h e m s e l v e s h a v e g e n e r a t e d . T h e d e c e n t writing s y s t e m , as I see it, will actually b e m u c h m o r e : it will help u s create better things in a fraction of the t i m e , but also k e e p track of e v e r y t h i n g in better a n d m o r e subtle w a y s than w e e v e r could b e f o r e . B u t n o b o d y sees this-- I s u p p o s e it's only writers a n d editors that k n o w they're trying to " k e e p track of ideas"-- a n d I h a v e b e e n u n a b l e to get thia across to a n y b o d y . ( T h e professional w r i t e r s , of c o u r s e , won't talk to m e either.)
S o h e r e 1 a m after fourteen y e a r s with exactly t w o s y s t e m s to s h o w for it: the m a i n o n e , X a n a d u , the text-and-animated-picture n e t w o r k s y s t e m , a n d F a n t a s m (I shouldn't h a v e spent the time but it w a s a labor of l o v e ) , the s i m u lated-photography s y s t e m . A c t u a l l y , I don't h a v e either of t h e m to s h o w , it's all just flowc h a r t s , but it turns out that if I w o r k o n either of t h e m with university e q u i p m e n t , m y w o r k of fourteen y e a r s gets confiscated. S o m u c h for that; the outside e x p e d i e n t s for d e b u g g i n g c o n tinue. A n d , to lighten the b u r d e n , I've finally given u p o n trying to reach professionals, w h o evidently n e e d a thick g r a v y of technicalism to m a k e the o b v i o u s palatable; with this bookity I a m taking m y case to T h e P e o p l e . It is t h e r e , a n y w a y , out in C o n s u m e r d o m , that the real a c tion is g o i n g to o c c u r . S o the important thing is for e v e r y b o d y to k n o w what's really possible, a n d w h a t they could h a v e . T h a t is w h y 1 h a v e shot off m y big c a n o n s (and this epistol). T o m e , y o u s e e , this is really a holy c r u s a d e , w h e r e a s I k n o w g u y s lo w h o m it's just a living. It's n o less than a question of f r e e d o m in o u r time. T h e cases of Solzhenitsyn a n d Ellsberg r e m i n d u s that f r e e d o m is still not w h a t it s h o u l d b e , a n y w h e r e . Computer display a n d storage c a n b r i n g u s a w h o l e n e w literature, the uniting a n d the apotheosis of the old a n d the n e w ; but there are m a n y w h o w o u l d not necessarily w a n t to see this c o m e a b o u t . D e e p and widespread computer systems would be tempting to t w o d a n g e r o u s parties, "organized , c r i m e " a n d the E x e c u t i v e b r a n c h of the Federal g o v e r n m e n t ( a s s u m i n g there is still a difference b e t w e e n the t w o ) . If w e are to h a v e the f r e e d o m s of information w e d e s e r v e a s a free p e o p l e , the s a f e g u a r d s h a v e to b e built in at the b o t t o m , n o w . A n d the o p u l e n c e w h i c h is possible m u s t b e m a d e clear to e v e r y o n e before w e settle o n an inferior s y s t e m — as w e did with television. S o m e people h a v e called m y ideas a n d s y s t e m s "Orwellian." T h i s is a n n o y i n g in t w o w a y s . In the first place it s u g g e s t s the n i g h t m a r e of Orwell's b o o k Nineteen E i g h l y - F o u r , w h i c h obviously I w a n t n o part of. (But h e y , d o y o u r e m e m b e r w h a t that w o r l d of 1964 w a s actually like? T h e cryptic w a r s against u n s e e n e n e m i e s that k e p t shifting? T h e g o v e r n m e n t s p y i n g ? T h e u s e of l a n g u a g e to twist a n d m a n i p u l a t e ? T o p a r a p h r a s e H u e y L o n g : "Of c o u r s e we'll h a v e 1984 in A m e r i c a . O n l y we'll call it 1972.") T h e s e c o n d r e a s o n the term "Orwellian" is offensive is that it s o m e h o w r e d u c e s the life of O r w e l l , the m a n , to the w o r l d of "1984." T h i s is a shallow a n d s h a b b y thing to d o to a m a n w h o s p e n t his life u n m a s k i n g o p p r e s s i v e n e s s in h u m a n institutions e v e r y w h e r e . In the larger s e n s e , then-- in h o m a g e to that s i m p l e , h o n e s t , a n g r y m a n , w h o cared about n o t h i n g m o r e than h u m a n f r e e d o m - - I w o u l d be p r o u d i n d e e d if m y s y s t e m s could b e called Orwellian. T h a t r e m i n d s m e . N o w h e r e in the b o o k h a v e I defined Ihe p h r a s e " c o m p u t e r lib." B y C o m p u t e r Lib I m e a n simply: m a k i n g people freer t h r o u g h c o m p u t e r s . That's all.
Fantically-- or fanatically-Y o u r s for a better w o r l d , Before w e h a v e to settle for A n y - -
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Civilisation, and the bulk of m a n k i n d , have about forty years to live, according to certain studies (see p . 6 5 ) . T h e studies are depresstngly g o o d , although unfinished. There are four possible things to d o .
O n e of the world's most exclusive clubs is also one of its moat dismal. It la T h e Club ot R o m e , founded by Italian businessman Aurelio Peceet. having- Cas of 1973) aome seventy m e m bers from twenty-five countries. Their concern they call T h e Predicament of M a n k i n d , or the "problematique." It ia the problem of growth, pollution, population, and What's Happening in general.
1.
Ignore it.
2.
D e n y it.
But the breeder reactors multiply thla output. Perhapa w e could survive the the watte for a few hundred years, till It come* back out But the olher part of it is the fissionable material which enn be mBde Into backyard b o m b s . N o w begins the winter of the world. W e are pot toning everything. With so little time left, w e are of course expanding and accelerating every form of pollution and destruction.
4. T h e glorious flameout. Est, drink and be m e r r y . Tor tomorrow w e die. O r apocalyptic occultism, or whatever.
W e are killing the last ot our beautiful brothers, the whales. Just to provide marginal amortization of the whale-ships that are going to be scrapped a n y w a y .
5. W o r k starting n o w . In whatever directions might, just might, point or contribute to a w a y out. Set d o w n upon this beautiful planet, a garden spot of the universe, w e are turning It into a poisoned pigsty .
O n funds from Volkswagen, they have sponsored studies which thinking; m e n con only regard as the most dismal in portent of anything we've seen in years. O r ever.
You and I m a y starve to deaih, dear reader. In some year fairly aoon n o w , around the turn of the century, there will no longer be nearly en o u b h food for the teeming billions.
Basically the prediction is that mankind haa perhaps forty or fifty years left. Not because of w a r , or b o m b s , or dirty movies, or Divine retribution, but for simple economic reasons. H o w e v e r , the studies are often called "computer studies," because c o m p u ters are the viewing mechanism by which w e have come to see these coming events.
T h a i , a n y w a y , is what Ihe predictions say. T h e predictions are compelling, not because a computer m a d e them -- anybody can m a k e a c o m puter predict anything - but because the p r e m ises from which the predictions grow were very well thought oul.
M A L T H U S AGAIN In the nineteenth century, a pessimistic economist n a m e d T h o m a s Malthus predicted that there would always be starving people, because people increased geometrically-- expanding at c o m p o u n d interest, with a fixed rate of increase creating an ever-steeper growth-- while agricultural production, which must feed us all, expands arithmetically, not as a rate but a few acres or improvements at a lime. This meant, Malthus thought, thst there would always be the starving poor. For various reasons this did not happen in Europe. But the regrettable soundness of the general principle persists: w h e n rates of food production can't nearly keep u p with rates of population growth, people are going to starve.
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T o haggle now about ideology ia like arguing about w h o is driving while w e are headed toward a brick wall with ihe gas pedal j a m m e d to the floor. T h e public thinks, "science will save us," a view at which m a n y scientists, snicker bitterly. Perhaps w c will be shrunk to an inch's height, or fed on rocks, or given gills and super-kidneys to live in the ever-mcre-poisoned sea. O r perhaps w c will do what science says others have done: die out.
This is basically the prediction. DYNAMIC
MODELLING This science-will-save-us ostrich-position is nicely exemplified by Albert Rosenfeld. Science Editor Of Saturday Review/World.
Basically what has happened is this. O n e Jay Forrester, of M I T . has for some years been studying "dynamic models" of things, a n e w breed of simulation which couldn't have been done without computer*. A n d now dynamic models of the world's entire economic system can be crested and tried out. Basically dynamic models are mathematical complexes where things change at rales that change themselves over time. For instance, the more you eat. the fatter you get, and the fatter you gel, the hungrier you are going lo b e . N o w , jus,l because this is simple lo say in w o r d s , and sounds aa though mathematicians would have had solved the whole class of problems centuries a g o , that's not how it ia. T h e intricacy of such models, even for juel a few variables, m a d e lt impossible to foresee what happens in such c o m plexes exact by techniques of computer enactment. Forrester, w h o has studied such syatems since the fifties, has become alert to their problems and surprises. T h e culmination of his w o r k has been a model of the entire world's economic growth, agriculture, population, Industrialization and pollution: this la described in his book World Dynamics (Wright-Allen. 1971). The sidii . p o r t e n t s o f F o r r e s ier-s w o r k did n o t go u n n o t i c e d . The dangers of population increasing at compound interest on a planet of unchanging s i z e , and f u r t h e r d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e s e c h a n g e s , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i n g s m i g h t be getting worse than anybody t h o u g h t . An alert Italian businessman brought together a g r o u p of s c h o l a r s from all o v e r the w o r l d to study t h e s e p r o b l e m s , a n d c a l l e d the g r o u p The C l u b o f R o m e . T h e i r f i r s t w o r k is out n o w , and it is v e r y s c a r y and all too r e a l . T h e b o o k is c a l l e d T h e L i m i t s to G r o w t h . B a s i c a l l y w h a t they h a v e d o n e is a very e l a b o r a t e c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n , m o d e l l i n g the e n t i r e e c o n o m y of the p l a n e t in the y e a r s to come as a s t r u c t u r e o f r a t e s . T h e y h a v e taken i n t o a c c o u n t population, food-growing capacity, industrial g r o w t h , p o l l u t i o n , and a lot o f o t h e r t h i n g s . T h e m o d e l is p r e c i s e and elaborate.
It Is not any individual prediction lhat is frightening, since the n u m b e r s plugged into the separate runs are merely hypotheses, lo show the shape of the consequences. It Is the overall set of runs that is so ghastly, because they siw a y s come out the s a m e . PAY CLOSE ATTENTION N o w , it 16 important to clarify what is happening here and what is not. What is not happening: an oracular pronouncement by "the computer," showing some transcendental prediction by a s u p e r h u m a n intelligence. What is h a p pening: people are trying out separate possible assumptions lo see what their consequences are, enacted by the computer according to the economic rules Ihcy set u p . Result: always the s e m e . A n y set of rules, played out in the unstable exploding-population world beyond the seventies, appears lo have similarly dire results. W H A T H O P E IS T H E R E ? T h e original model is only an approximation, and the basic results, aa published in T h e Limits to Growth (ace box) reflect those approximations. O n e of the things thai can be done is to fill in and expand the model m a r e , to see whether any hopes can be found in the details and fine cracks which don't appear from the gToas results. A n d , of course, to study and re-study the basic findings. (For instance, a small error w a s recently found: a decimal point w a s misplaced in the "pollution" calculation, leading tc an overstatement of the pollution in aome of the r u n s . (Bul pollution, r e m e m b e r . Is only part of the problem,) So there you arc. Thia is a study of the greatest importance. W e m a y , just m a y , be getting wind of things in time to change the outcome. (If only w e k n e w n o w . But again, this study is w h e r e serious discussion must begin.)
T h e y tried all k i n d s of a l t c r n a t i futures using t h e m o d e l - - w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if the b i r t h rates w e r e differ* W h a t if there w e r e no p o l l u t i o n ? Whai if r e s o u r c e s w e r e i n f i n i t e ? IBM IS BULLISH O N T H E A c c o r d i n g to all the s i m u l a t i o n s the h u m a n race w i l l be w i p e d o u t - - m o s t l y or c o m p l e t e l y - - by the y e a r 2 1 0 0 . Let's go b r i e f l y t h r o u g h the m o d e l . N o t e t h a t it can't be e x a c t , and we c a n ' t know w h a t y e a r s things are going to h a p p e n . The c u r v e s t h e m s e l v e s - - the s h a p e of t h i n g s to come-- tell the story all too c l e a r l y . (For those w h o w o u l d like a little m o r e d r a m a w i t h their n u m b e r s , finding these m a t t e r s too a b s t r a c t , I s t r o n g l y r e c o m m e n d the very b e a u t i f u l Indian film " D i s t a n t T h u n d e r , " a s o r t of " M r . S m i t h S t a r v e s to D e a t h . " O r j u s t stick a r o u n d a w h i l e . ) HUIIT T h e model a s s u m e s that b i r t h rates s t a y r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t in p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s of the w o r l d , and that new land and a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s i n c r e a s e food p r o d u c t i o n in r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - u n d e r s t o o d wars. Of c o u r s e , p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e s to go u p , o n the f a m i l i a r b u t d e a d l y c u r v e .
FUTURE
Lewis M . B r an scorn b . w h o haa the a w e some title of Chief Scientist of I B M . has been giving n u m e r o u s talks recently thai seem to be directed against pessimism resulting from the Club of R o m e studies. "'On the shoulders of the Information processing community reals the responsibility tor convincing the public that w e have the tools, if it ha* the will, to addreas the complex systems management problems of the future,' Uranacomb said. "'More lhan any other profession our community can restore the public's confidence that from tha limited resources of the world can be fashioned a life of well managed abundance fur all.' he concluded."
Since "science" has given us the Boeing 747 snd the neutrino, neither of which could once, he thinks, have been imagined possible, obviously (to him) science can do anything else w e think is impossible! He fully imagines lhat science will c o m e up with something lo take care of geometrically Increasing n u m b e r s of people. In perpetuity? "Take a lesson from the neutrino," he says. " W e can solve our problems." ("Look to the Neutrino. T h o u Doomssyer," Saturday Review/World, Feb 23 1974. 47.)
OTHER
But n o w , wilh the breeder .reactor*-- i r lots of countries-- pouring the stuff out. the era of atomic plenty is here. T h e amaller countries w h o want them are getting their atomic weapons - though holding back assembly of the part*, for variouB reasons. It ia generally believed a m o n g bomb-watchers, for instance, that India and Israel hove theirB anytime they want. A d d this to the great avalanche of missiles, tall and horny in their silos, reedy to go on two, later three or four, side*. (The U . S . official arsenal now stands at the explosive equivalent of 5 billion tens of T N T , a ton or T N T for every h u m a n being. A n d that's just the explosive part, not the fallout; a fraction of these bombs could destroy all life on earth by its seething residue.) A n d n o w . because of the S A L T talks, w e may expect a new and drastic increose of this Readiness Posture. Hoo b o y . What is then* tt suy .
a us to m a k e ihe prcdlctio
Not by killing the bearer of bad tidings, or by pretending they were not clearly stated-but by seeing what possible alternatives remain in the few moments of real choice w e m a y yet have-- scant years at best. Now for the b a d n e w s . The running r a t i o o f f o o d to p e o p l e , F o o d p e r C a p i t a , takes n s u d d e n n o s c - d i v e . A n d t h e n so does p o p u l a t i o n .
That's the kicker. With more and more fissionable crud being disgorged. its availability for terrorists w h o want to build their o w n increases. Ralph Lapp pointed out last year that Ihe stuff wa* shipped in unguarded trucks, and one or two good hijacking* would enable *ny bright kid to build his o w n dirty A - b o m b . By the year 7000 it ia not inconceivable thst bootleg atomic weapons will be as widespread as handgun* in Detroit-- and as m u c h used.
FUN
T h e growing diffusion of w e a p o n s and grudges, and Ihe great vulnerability of almost everything, assure that terrorism and political extortion will will increase dramatically for the foreseeable future. O n the other h a n d , whole economic blocs and industries have lately m a s k red and demonstrated by example h o w to hold the country at bay in order to get tfeii wishes; as everybody can see what's happening, und learn from it. the n u m b e r of wrtnehing unpleasantnesses created by terrorists and industries und interest blocs will irurrii^i All ires*; wore c-,senlinlly foreseen by T h o m a s C . Schelling In his masterly 1960 w o r k . T h e Strategy of Conflict. Schelling formalizes a theory of intimidation as part of his study of communicating adversaries. (His ia a structural rather thun s psychologies! study, examining the properties of situations whether or not they are psychologically perceived. Regrettably, perception of situations ia improving all the
Coustesu says the oceans are dying a lot faster than he anticipated -- and gives mankind fifty years after life ends there.
But even if everything else were all righl, the Breeder Reactor* are sure to gel ua. I refer to those w o n d e r machines that the electric c o m panies are calling Clean Energy for the Future. What is not explained wilh such slogans is lhat breeder reactors noi only create energy, Ihey create atomic waste, breeding n e w fissionable material-- including plutonium. Plutonium is well n a m e d for the gcd of hell. Chemically a poison and radloactlvely a horror. II does noi go away; wherever w e pul it. it will get back to u s . T h e mere radiation from the atomic crap is hardly the problem. T h e radioactive poisons are getting into Ihe oceans. They are getting into the clean walera of Ihe land. (A December 1071 new* report, for Instance, revealed thai a D B S leak of radioactive chemicals wa* into Ihe water aupply of Bloomfield, Colorado.) N o w , atomic enthusiasts call It a Disposal Problem. Ilk* th* question of where to bury the garbage. But it's a very different problem. Wherever w e put it, it will come back. T h e M a * N o . that'll ba poisoned after the containers go. Deep wells 1 T h e mountain*? But there la no place thai cannot be guaranteed against earthquake and recycling. It will come back. T h o u g h doiens of generations might survive It. It Mill be waiting.
So there it is, folks, merry times ahead. H u m a n it> m a y end with a b a n g (thermonuclear exchanges, or just desultory firings urtil we're all poisoned or sterile), or a w h i m p e r (universal sttrvniion). or, I would anticipate, some spastic combination of the two. and all within the (possible) lifetime of the average reader. Thi* Is. at any rate, what 1 think most likely. Except of course w e won't see it happen that w a y . We'll watch the starvations on T V (as w e did Biafra, Bangladesh, now West Africa, what next... India?), and tsk about the poor foreigners w h o can't take cere of themselves. A n d as the problems increase and m o v e toward oui heartland, it'll be blamed on environmentalists and on the n e w s media, till b a n g . Just m a y b e . But we've all got to get access lo Ihe Club of H o m e models, and look (or holes or strategies. If computer modelling s y s t e m doing this kind of work are made widely enough available, perhaps some precocious grade-schooler or owlish hobbyist will find some way out that the others haven't
We've got to think hard about everything.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Frederick Pohl and C M . K o m b l u t h , T h e Space Merchants. Ballantine, paper. T h o m a s C . Schelling. T h e Strategy of Conflict. Paper. T h e Grent American B o m b Machine (citation not h a n d y ) . Paperback. A book called Cold D a w n (citntion not handy; originally published in Ihe N e w Yorker) presents a most discouraging view of thia country's actions ir the S A L T talks. Ont Access Catalog, nol lo be named here, gives a recipe for an atonic b o m b . Very funny, ha ha. "The U-235 w e are using, (although Plutonium will work just as well) is a radioactive substance and deserves some care In handling. II is N O T radioactive enough lo kill with limited exposure, but don't sleep with it or anything." A n d so o n . T h a n k s a lot. fellas. Ralph Lapp had a piece in Ihe N o w York Times Magazine last year, pointing out thst plutonium is shipped In unguarded truck* and It's only a matter of time before purks get their hands on il... A piece in a recent Esquire. "Did There Ever C o m e a Point in Time W h e n There Were Forty-Three Different Theories *boul Watergate? Yea. to Ihe Best of O u r Recollection." is a very helpful general source, especially for those w h o suspect a connection between "Watergate" and the assasainations of the Kennedy*. Malcolm X . Martin Luther King. etc. Bul for a real chill see "Mae Brussell's Conspiracy Newsletter" in the March (?) 1974 Realist, aa well a* "Who Is Organized Crime and W h y Are T h e y Saying Such Awful Things About It." same i»*ue. Glen A . Love and Rhoda M . Love. Ecologicul Crisis: Readings for Survival. Harcourt. 14 (paper). A quick way lo catch up on aome bad stuff. Pour bucka well spent.
For a dazzling, romantic and optimistic view of the ruture. see Dlmen*lons of Change by Don Fabun (Glencoe Pre**, 15 in paper). The Futuriat magazine goe" o u t l" members of the World Future Society. A n Aaaociation for T h e Study of Alternative Futures, Post Office Box 10369, Betheada Branch, Washington, O C 70014. The magazine used lo be prstty aappy and optimistic, but acema lo be acquiring sophistication. j Id Chicago 1 1V-5J "
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F o r four b u c k s a n d a half, a n outfit called M e - B o o k s will s e n d , to a child y o u d e s i g n a t e , a story of w h i c h h e is the h e r o , in w h i c h his friends a n d siblings a p p e a r , a n d w h o s e action i n v o l v e s his a d d r e s s a n d b i r t h d a y .
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w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y look to the p u b l i c like the latest h o t c h a w h i z b a n g zippity u p - t o - d a t e f u t u r istic stuff, e v e n t h o u g h to the k n o w l e d g e a b l e p e r s o n t h e y b r i n g b a c k the late fifties. (In fact t h e r e a r e n o letters in the M I C R c h a r a c t e r set.)
W e w e r e just getting to that. In fact, t h e r e a r e t w o s u c h a l p h a b e t s , called O C R (for Optical C h a r a c t e r R e c o g n i t i o n ) . T h e y h a v e b e e n s t a n d a r d i z e d so e v e r y b o d y c a n d e s i g n e q u i p m e n t a n d / o r p r o g r a m s to w o r k w i t h t h e m . T h e y a r e called the A a n d B optical fonts, o r , for c o m p l e t e n e s s , O C R ( A ) a n d O C R ( B ) . T h e y are v e r y
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W h a t , then (you m a y a s k ) w o u l d s y m b o l s d e s i g n e d for c o m p u t e r s look like if they h a d b e e n d e s i g n e d m o r e recently?
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A s a n e x p e r i m e n t , the a u t h o r tried s e n d i n g for a c o p y of My_ F r i e n d l y Giraffe a s told a b o u t a little b o y n a m e d T r i c k y D i c k N i x o n , r e s i d i n g at 1600 P e n n s y l v a n i a A v e n u e in W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . T h e result w a s e x t r e m e l y g r a t i f y i n g , a n d w e l l w o r t h the $ 4 . 5 0 . H e r e w i t h s o m e e x c e r p t s .
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T h e n u m b e r s are o d d b u t r e c o g n i z a b l e . T h e last four thingies a r e p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k s , w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y c a n m e a n a n y t h i n g the p r o g r a m m e r w a n t s t h e m to. (In o t h e r w o r d s , f r a n k l y , I don't k n o w their n a m e s o r s t a n d a r d functions.)
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T h e national p h o n e c o m p a n y (usually called affectionately, " M a Bell") h a s drastically c h a n g e d its s w i t c h i n g m e t h o d s in t h e last f e w y e a r s . T h e y a r e r e p l a c i n g the o l d e l e c t r o m e c h anical s w i t c h e s , o r " c r o s s b a r s , " w i t h a n e w d e v i c e called t h e E S S , o r Electronic S w i t c h i n g S y s t e m . If there's o n e in y o u r a r e a y o u m a y h e a r a b o u t it in their jolly n e w s s h e e t that y o u ret w i t h t h e bill. In the old c r o s s b a r d s y s , a p h o n e c o n n e c t i o n w a s a p h o n e c o n n e c t i o n a n d that w a s t h a t . N o w , w i t h the E S S , all sorts of n e w c o m binations are possible: the E S S h a s stored p r o g r a m s that d e t e r m i n e its o p e r a t i o n . If y o u dialled a n o n - w o r k i n g n u m b e r , it j u m p s to a p r o g r a m to t a k e c a r e of t h a t . It d o e s all s o r t s of t h i n g s b y special p r o g r a m , a n d n e w p r o g r a m s c a n b e c r e a t e d for special p u r p o s e s . N o w the p h o n e c o m p a n y is t r y i n g to find t h e s e r v i c e s that p e o p l e will p a y f o r . H a v i n g calls r e r o u t e d t e m p o r a r i l y to o t h e r n u m b e r s ? Linking u p s e v e r a l p e o p l e in a c o n f e r e n c e call? Storing y o u r most-called n u m b e r s , so y o u c a n r e a c h t h e m w i t h a single o r d o u b l e digit?
T h e s e particular services a r e n o w offered e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .
T h i s h a s b e e n a r o u n d for d e c a d e s , a n d h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h c o m p u t e r s , b u t isn't it
Y o u write with a p e n attached b y r o d s to a t r a n s m i t t e r ; s o m e w h e r e e l s e , a p e n a t t a c h e d b y r o d s to a r e c e i v e r d u p l i c a t e s w h a t y o u h a v e written. W h a t is b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d c o n s i s t s of t h e m e a s u r e d s i d e w a y s m o t i o n ( " c h a n g e in x " ) , t h e m e a s u r e d u p - a n d - d o w n m o t i o n ( " c h a n g e in y " ) , a n d the c o n d i t i o n of t h e p e n ("up" o r " d o w n " ) . W h a t w o u l d t h e s e d a y s b e called " t h r e e a n a l o g c h a n n e l s , m u l t i p l e x e d o n a s i n g l e line." T h e s e o n l y c o s t a c o u p l e of h u n d r e d d o l l a r s . W h y h a s n o b o d y b e e n u s i n g t h e m for c o m p u t e r input?
B A R N A BY'S
being
T h e w a y it w o r k s is this: t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of p r o g r a m s s t o r e d in a c o r e m e m o r y ; the o n l y " o u t p u t d e v i c e " o f the s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of its field of r e e d s w i t c h e s , a r r a n g e d to c l o s e circuits of the t e l e p h o n e n e t w o r k .
S u g a r C r e e k , T e x a s will h a v e 3 0 0 0 h o m e s with a m i n i c o m p u t e r - b a s e d alarm s y s t e m . Evidently v a r i o u s a u t o m a t i c s e n s o r s a r o u n d e a c h h o u s e sniff for fires a n d b u r g l a r s , a s w e l l a s p r o v i d i n g p a n i c b u t t o n s for m e d i c a l e m e r g e n c i e s .
It w a s a truly stellar g r o u p that r e p o r t e d to J u d g e Sirica o n 15 J a n 1974 that the 1 8 - m i n u t e W a t e r g a t e t a p e b u z z h a d at least five starts a n d s t o p s . T h e s i x panelists i n c l u d e d : R i c h a r d B o l t , a f o u n d e r of Bolt, B e r a n e k a n d N e w m a n , Inc. F r a n k l i n C o o p e r , h e a d of H a s k i n s Laboratories, tate-p^l ) T h o m a s S t o c k h a m , audio resynthesizer e x t r a o r d i n a r y (see p M)
T h e s y s t e m uses dual N o v a s (one a b a c k u p ) , a n d p r i n t s o u t t h e n e w s to fire a n d police d i s p a t c h e r s o n a g o o d o l d 3 3 A S R T e l e t y p e . (Digital D e s i g n . M a y 7 3 , 16.)
T h e n e w s , h o w e v e r , g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d to t h e m as "technicians."
M D e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r s that h a v e b e e n d i a l l e d , a n d w h a t n o t , t h e E S S j u m p s to a specific p r o g r a m , a n d that tells it to c o n n e c t a n i n c o m i n g call to particular o t h e r circuits, o r to r i n g o t h e r lines, o r w h a t e v e r .
OF TWO*
" O v e r p a y y o u r p h o n e bill b y o n e c e n t . It d r i v e s the c o m p u t e r c r a z y . " Nope. T h e a m o u n t of p a y m e n t g e t s p u n c h e d in a n d g o e s t h r o u g h t h e g e a r s quite n o r m a l l y .
It's really n e a t . a s w e l l v i d e o g a m e n o w in b a r s , p r o b a b l y c o n t r o l s the f o u r - p l a y e r p i n g p o n g o n the s c r e e n with a minicomputer or microprocessor.
T h e r e a r e o n l y a c o u p l e of t h i n g s to w o r r y about. O n e is that it m a k e s w i r e t a p p i n g , n o t a c o m p l e x bother involving clipped w i r e s a n d m e n h u n c h e d o v e r in c r a m p e d s p a c e s , b u t a s i m p l e program. A n o t h e r is that s o m e p e o p l e t h i n k that b l u e - b o x e r s ( s e e n e a r b y ) m a y b e able to p r o g r a m it, f r o m t h e c o m f o r t of their o w n h o m e s . Meani n g that not just c o u r t - a u t h o r i z e d w i r e t a p s , b u t Joe S c h m o e w i r e t a p s , w o u l d b e possible. Let's hope not.
If y o u w a n t to p u t t o g e t h e r y o u r o w n c o m p u t e r - o n - a - c h i p , o r a n y other c o m p l e x integrated circuit, a c o m p l e t e simulationv e r i f i c a t i o n - l a y o u t - a n d - f a b r i c a t i o n s e r v i c e is available f r o m Motorola, Semiconductor Products D i v . . P . O . B o x 20924, Phoenix, A r i z o n a . P r e s u m a b l y it costs a m i n t , b u t after that y o u c a n roll o u t y o u r circuits like c o o k i e s .
E s p e c i a l l y exciting is the social p o s s i bility of horizontal s c r e e n s for o t h e r f u n i n t e r p e r s o n a l stuff. A s w e l l a s collaborative w o r k . ( B u t b o y , let's h o p e t h e radiation shielding- is good.)
T h e C o m p u t e r Diet b y V i n c e n t Antonetti ( E v a n s P u b . ) Y o u r circuit is o v e r l a i d o n their b e e h i v e - c h i p of logical s u b c i r c u i t s , called a P o l y c e l l . Y o u u s e their M A G I C l a n g u a g e (Motorola Automatically G e n e r a t e d Integrated C i r c u i t s ) , w h i c h t h e n f e e d s a r e s u l t i n g circuit data s t r u c t u r e to a p r o g r a m called S I M U L 8 ( y u k y u k ) to try out the circuit w i t h o u t b u i l d i n g it. T h a t w a y y o u c a n s u p p o a e d l y b e a u r e b e f o r e t h e y m a k e the final masks.
s h o w s " t h T a u t h o r sitting o n the d e s k p l a t e of a 360 c o n s o l e . The m e n d s for computer" have been
inside consists principally of c h a r t s h e r e c o m w e i g h t l o s s . " T h e p o w e r of a m o d e r n digital interpolated the t a b l e s . A slide rule m i g h t h a v e simpler.
T h e t h i n g i s , h e p r e s e n t s a p a p e r o n the t h e r m o d y n a m i c s of w e i g h t loss w h i c h m a y b e i m p o r t a n t ; in this h e states the difference e q u a t i o n s w h i c h a r e the heart of his d i e t . A n d t h e s e m a y i n d e e d b e perfectly valid. S o w h y not call it w h a t it i s , T h e T h e r m o d y n a m i c Diet? I a l w a y s figured that the d a y of H o b b y i s m w o u l d a r r i v e w h e n the folks offered a build-it-yourself c o m p u t e r . k n o w w h a t t h e y c a m e o u t w i t h instead A g e n e r a l interface for h o o k i n g t h i n g s
13
Computer at H e a t h k i t But you last y e a r ? to t h e P D P - 8 .
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K i r k B r a i n e r d . of L , A . , is u s i n g c o m p u ters for a registry of p e o p l e w i t h s o m e t h i n g to t e a c h . H e h o p e s that if p e o p l e a r e m u t u a l l y available to e a c h o t h e r al a d e e p e n o u g h level, p e o p l e c a n b e g i n to act out of altruism in g e n e r a l .
A S T R O P L A S H . etc. T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s c o m p u t e r i z e d astrology s e r v i c e s . G i v e n y o u r date of b i r t h , a n d h o u r if k n o w n , they'll t y p e out y o u r s i g n s , e x p l a n ations, etc. P r e s u m a b l y there is a text n e t w o r k w h i c h the s y s t e m selects a m o n g a c c o r d i n g to "reinforcing t e n d e n c i e s , " e t c . , a m o n g the entities t h o u g h t to b e influential. C o n c e i v a b l y this c o u l d d o nine-tenths of w h a t a talented h u m a n astrologer d o e s , a n d w i t h the s a m e validity, w h a t e v e r that m a y b e . In a n y c a s e It's p r o b a b l y a lot c h e a p e r .
T h i s is a n o u t r a g e o u s m i s n o m e r . The c o m p u t e r Is o n l y c a r r y i n g o u t , m o s t s p e e d i l y , w h a t h a r d e n e d politocoes h a v e a l w a y s d o n e : F A C T I O N A L A N A L Y S I S , n o w possible w i t h n e w f o u n d precision o n the basis of certain election returns. T h i s is b a s e d o n the c y n i c a l , a n d fairly reliable, v i e w that p e o p l e vote a c c o r d i n g to w h a t faction of the g r e a t e r p o p u l a c e they b e l o n g to-- m i d d l e - c l a s s w h i t e liberals, blue-collar n o n - u n i o n m e m b e r s , a n d so o n . T h e factions c h a n g e slowly o v e r time, a n d people m o v e a m o n g t h e m , b u t the fact of factionalism r e m a i n s unchanged. W e l l . B y the close of a m a j o r election c a m p a i g n , m o s t factions c a n b e pretty well p r e d i c t e d , especially a s to presidential c h o i c e , o r w h a t p r o p o r t i o n of that faction will g o for a given candidate. B u t s o m e factions' reactions a r e not c e r tain u p to the d a y of the ballot.
Is i t t o o s o o n for a computer pornography contest?
S o . " C o m p u t e r p r e d i c t i o n s " of elections basically b r e a k the c o u n t r y into its factional d i v i s i o n s , state b y state a n d district b y district, a n d t h e n tabulate w h o c a n b e p r e d i c t e d to vote fof w h o m o n a factional b a s i s .
(Is it t o o l a t e 7 ) T h e n w h a t ' s the
suspense?
S e e p . t>^"3V' T h e s u s p e n s e c o m e s f r o m the u n c e r t a i n factions— g r o u p s w h o s e final reactions aren't k n o w n a s the election starts. C e r t a i n election districts a r e k n o w n to b e c h o c k full of the t y p e s of p e o p l e w h o s e r e a c tion isn't k n o w n .
People think computers are rigid and i n v a r i a n t . This (as stated e l s e where In this book) is due to the systems which people have imposed, and then b l a m e d , on the c o m p u t e r . The fact is that computers are now being set up to give new flexibility to manufacturing p r o c e s s e s . C o m p u t e r s , directly connected to milling m a c h i n e s , grind metal into any conceivable shape much faster than a human c r a f t s m a n . To change the r e s u l t , change the program-in a fraction of a s e c o n d . Fabric d e s ign has been done on computer s c r e e n s ; the obvious next step is to have the computer control the loom or knitting machine and immediately produce whatever's been d e s i g n e d . Custom clothing: soon we may look forward to tailoring services that store your measurements and can custom-tailor a suit for you to any new fashion, in m i n u t e s . (But will the price beat Hong Kong?) Customized printed matter is already here (see " M e - B o o k s , " p . 6 ) Wherever people want individual variations of a basic manufacturing p r o c e s s , computers can do i t .
T h e T e l e p h o n e C o m p a n y (at least in Illinois a n d I n d i a n a ) offers a s p e a k e r o n " T h e S h a d o w y W o r l d of Electronic S n o o p i n g " to interested g r o u p s .
T h e final " c o m p u t e r prediction" s i m p l y consists of c h e c k i n g out h o w those districts v o t e d , c o n c l u d i n g h o w t h o s e factions a r e g o i n g in the p r e s e n t election, a n d e x t e n d i n g this p r o portion t h r o u g h the rest of the c o u n t r y . It's often painfully a c c u r a t e — b u t , t h a n k g o d . not a l w a y s . W h e n it isn't don't b l a m e "the c o m p u t e r . " T h a n k h u m a n cantankerosity.
YOUR
AUTOMOBILE
COMPUTER
Didja k n o w , h u h , w e ' r e g o i n g to h a v e c o m p u t e r s in o u r cars? W e refer h e r e to t w o things— anti-skid controllers. w h i c h a r e really just special circuits-- y o u k n o w , " a n a l o g c o m p u t e r s " — to c o m p e n s a t e a m o n g s k i d d i n g w h e e l s . T u r n s out that this is a p p a r e n t l y m o r e s e n s i tive a n d reliable t h a n e v e n y o u r g o o d d r i v e r s w h o e n j o y controlling s k i d s . A l r e a d y a d v e r t i s e d for s o m e i m p o r t s . g r a n d b u s electronics (see p . ) . Since the electrical part of the a u t o m o b i l e is getting so b l a m e d c o m p l i c a t e d , the Detroit I r o n m o n g e r s h a v e d e c i d e d to s w i t c h to a g r a n d b u s structure instead of h a v i n g all those s w i t c h e s a n d t h i n g s separate a n y m o r e . Should m a k e the w h o l e thing far easier to service a n d customize. P r e s u m a b l y this will all b e u n d e r the control of a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r . (See p - ^ ^ j ) T h i s m e a n s that the c a r c a n h a v e things like a C o l d W e a t h e r Startup S e q u e n c e - - a p r o g r a m that starts the c a r , t u r n s o n the h e a t e r , m o n i t o r s the e n g i n e a n d c a b i n t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d bleats the h o r n , t w i c e , politely w h e n it's all r e a d y - - all at a time p r e s e t b y the d a s h b o a r d clock. P r e s u m a b l y Detroit is not yet p l a n n i n g to g o this far. B u t b e c a u s e of the auto industry's a n o m a l o u s l y h u g e influence in A m e r i c a , s o m e h a v e e x p r e s s e d the fear that this m o v e -- t o w a r d the integrated-circuit. digitally-controlled g r a n d b u s w o u l d effectively p u t Detroit in c o n trol of the entire electronics i n d u s t r y .
m a y o r m a y not b e a real c o m p u t e r - - friends h a v e told m e it isn't— b u t it's certainly a g o o d idea. W h e n y o u pull y o u r l a t e - m o d e l V o l k s w a g e n into a dealer's s e r v i c e a r e a , the g u y s c a n just roll o u t a c a b l e a n d p l u g it into the c o r r e s p o n r d i n g s o c k e t in y o u r v e h i c l e . A t the o t h e r e n d of the cable is s o m e sort of d e v i c e w h i c h tests a series of special circuits t h r o u g h o u t the c a r for G o o d C o n d i t i o n . T h e s e circuits indicate that t h i n g s a r e w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y - - lights, p l u g s , p o i n t s , b r a k e s a n d so o n . T h i s is the s a m e t e c h n i q u e u s e d b y N A S A u p to the final m o m e n t of C O M M I T L A U N C H - - a s y s t e m of circuits m o n i t o r s the conditions of w h a t e v e r c a n b e m o n i t o r e d , to m a k e s u r e all's functioning w e l l . It's m o r e e x p e n s i v e to w i r e it u p that w a y , b u t it m a k e s c h e c k i n g out the r o c k e t - - o r the c a r — that m u c h e a s i e r .
T h e ever-clever J a p a n e s e are computerizing faster, better a n d m o r e d e e p l y than w e a r e . T h e y n o w h a v e a p r o t o t y p e taxi o p e r a t i n g u n d e r c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l . T h e y ' r e calling it, at least for e x p o r t , C o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d V e h i c l e System ( C V S ) . Basically it's like a n Elevated R a i l w a y - y o u c l i m b u p a n d wait-- b u t w h e n y o u gel in. y o u p u n c h a button for y o u r destination. A c c o r d i n g to H i d e y u k i H a y a s h i of the Ministry of Ind u s t r y a n d International T r a d e , the s y s t e m will b e operational in T o k y o within the d e c a d e , a n d is the " c l e a n e s t , safest, quickest transport s y s t e m e v e r d e v i s e d b y m a n . " T h i n k fast, Detroit. (A nice point: o n e of the m o s t important features of s u c h a s y s t e m ia that the vehicles don't react to e a c h o t h e r , as d o vehicles in the existing H u m a n - c o n t r o l l e d Vehicle S y s t e m ( H V S ) . A w h o l e line of the c a r s c a n b e accelerated o r s l o w e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a crucial aspect of their flexibility a n d safety. N o t h i n g can p o s s i b r y go long.) (Leo C l a n c y . " N o w - - C o m p u t e r - C o n t r o l l e d , D r i v e r l e s s C a r s , " National E n q u i r e r 3 M a r 7 4 , 24-5.)
THOSE THINGS ON
M o d e r n u i u g « , she 2 9 , i n t e r e s t e d in r e c u r s i v e r e l a t i o n s and r e v e r s e Polish culture. Phone a B u s t . C o n t a c t b o x R S - 2 3 2 (t see p . J > n 3 ^ ,
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thsl the I R S hasn't b e e n able to d o instant m a t c h i n g of W - 2 f o r m s to tax r e t u r n s . That'll b e fixed in fiscal ' 7 4 . a n d interest a n d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t * In ' 7 5 . ( T I M E , 31 D e c 7 3 , 17.)
THE RAILROAD
A s w e lean o n the a - w a t c h i n ' the trains g o insignia o n their s i d e s , Scotch-Lite all b e g r i m e d SIC
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TRANSIT
S o m e of the s a p p i e r n e w U r b a n T r a n s i t S y s t e m s give y o u a ticket with a m a g n e t i c stripe o n the b a c k . E a c h time y o u ride y o u m u s t p u s h the c a r d into a n E n t r a n c e M a c h i n e , w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y d o e s s o m e t h i n g to the stripe, till Anally the ticket r u n s out a n d y o u h a v e to p a y m o r e money. S e c r e c y of the r e c o r d i n g c o d e is a n i m p o r tant aspect of the t h i n g . I n d e e d , w a g g i s h g o s s i p claims that a o m e s u c h s y s t e m s start with a b l a n k m a g n e t i c stripe a n d just a d d stuff to lt, m e a n i n g the c a r d c a n b e w a s h e d clean with a m a g n e t b y l a r c e n o u s c o m m u t e r s . B u t this s e e m s u n l i k e l y .
Basically it's a stack of horizontal stripes in r e d , b l u e a n d other c o l o r s . T h i s la A C I , for A u t o m a t i c C a r Idenliflcation. It m a y yet straighten out the railroads. In this neolithic i n d u s t r y , it is not k n o w n at a n y g i v e n time w h e r e a railroad c o m p a n y ' s c a r s a r e , a n d s o m e peculiar etiquette g o v e r n s their u n r e q u e s t e d uBe b y other firms in the i n d u s t r y . Yet the o b v i o u s solution m a y c o m e about: a r u n n i n g inventory of w h e r e all the c a r s a r e . w h e r e e a c h o n e is g o i n g , w h e t ' s in it. a n d w h o thst b e l o n g s to. B u t . of c o u r s e , that's still in the w o r k s . Revolutionary ideas take time.
6f T h e potential d a n g e r s o f t r a n s a c t i o n s y s t e m s a r e fairly o b v i o u s f r o m t h e s u p e r m a r k e t e x a m p l e , b u t t h e y fan o u t in g r e a t e r c o m p l e x i t y a s t h e s y s t e m s get m o r e c o m p l e x . C r e d i t c a r d s , for instance, w e r e only m a d e possible b y c o m p u t e r s a n d c o m p u t e r i z e d c r e d i t verification; b u t it is o n l y n o w , fifteen o r s o y e a r s into t h e c r e d i t - c a r d e r a , that l a w s p r o t e c t t h e c a r d h o l d e r a g a i n s t u n l i m i t e d liability if h e l o s e s it.
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Microprocessors are h a r d e r , b e c a u s e y o u don't s e e t h e m . G o o d rule-of-thumb: a n y device w h i c h acts w i t h c o m p l e x i t y o r a p p a r e n t d i s c r e t i o n p r e s u m a b l y incorporates a terminal, m i n i c o m p u t e r or m i c r o p r o c e s s o r . Two
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A t r a n s a c t i o n s y s t e m is a n y s y a t e m that t a k e s n o t e o f , a n d p e r h a p s r e q u i r e s verification of, transactions. E x a m p l e : the n e w point-of-sale s y s t e m s ( P O S ) . T h i s is w h a t ' s a b o u t to r e p l a c e the c a s h r e g i s t e r .
In t h e s u p e r m a r k e t of t h e f u t u r e , e v e r y p a c k a g e will h a v e a b a r c o d e o n a s t i c k e r , o r printed o n the w r a p p e r . I n s t e a d of t h e c h e c k o u t c l e r k l o o k i n g at t h e label a n d p u n c h i n g t h e am o u n t of t h e sale into t h e c a s h r e g i s t e r — a n error-prone and cheat-prone technique w h i c h requires considerable training— y o u r N e w I m p r o v e d C h e c k o u t C l e r k will w a v e a w a n d o v e r t h e b a r c o d e . T h e b a r c o d e will b e s e n s e d b y t h e w a n d , a n d t r a n s m i t t e d to a c o n t r o l c o m p u t e r , w h i c h will r i n g it u p b y a m o u n t a n d c a t e g o r y (for t a x p u r p o s e s ) , a n d e v e n k e e p t r a c k of i n v e n t o r y . n o t i n g e a c h o b j e c t a s it is r e m o v e d from stock.
H e r e is w h a t y o u r b a r c o d e will l o o k l i k e . (A circular c o d e , w h i c h w a s a l r e a d y t u r n i n g u p o n s o m e T V d i n n e r s , h a s b e e n eliminated b y the b a r c o d e . T h i s is u n f o r t u n a t e , s i n c e t h e s c a n n e r n e c e s s a r y to r e a d t h e b a r c o d e is e l e c t r o n ically m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , b u t t h e r e w e a r e . )
Y e t w e p l u n g e a h e a d , a n d it is o b v i o u s w h y . Transaction systems m a n a g e d in, a n d b y , c o m p u t e r s a l l o w m o r e flexible a n d (in p r i n c i p l e ) reliable o p e r a t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e s e c u rities b u s i n e s s , t h o u s a n d s of s t o c k certificates a r e lost a n d m i s l a i d , a n d t h e t r a n s a c t i o n p a p e r m u s t b e t y p e d , s h u f f l e d , p u t in e n v e l o p e s , s e n t , o p e n e d , s h u f f l e d a g a i n , c o m p a r e d . . . all b y h a n d . Little w o n d e r t h e y ' r e w o r k i n g o n a n A u t o m a t e d Stock E x c h a n g e S y s t e m . B u t if it's t a k e n fifteen y e a r s to g e t t h e implicit b u g s o u t o f c r e d i t c a r d s . . . n o t to m e n t i o n t h e f r e q u e n t a l l e g a t i o n s that m u c h W a l l S t r e e t " i n e f f i c i e n c y " is a c t u a l l y t h e d i s g u i s e d m a r a u d i n g of O r g a n i z e d C r i m e . . . uh-oh. {If t h e y c a n b u y t h e b e s t l a w y e r s , t h e y c a n p r o b a b l y b u y the best p r o g r a m m e r s . ) T h e n t h e r e is t h e C h e c k l e s s S o c i e t y . This is a c a t c h p h r a s e for a n o f t - a d v o c a t e d s y s t e m that a l l o w s y o u to t r a n s f e r m o n e y instantly b y c o m p u ter; s u p p o s e d l y s o m e s u c h t h i n g is w o r k i n g a l r e a d y in F r a n c e . A g a i n , t h e y b e t t e r g e t it p r e t t y safe b e f o r e a s a n e m a n will g o u p in it.
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It is i n t e r e s t i n g that o n e p r o f e s s i o n s e e m s to b e s t e p p i n g f o r w a r d to try to i m p r o v e this situation: t h e a u d i t i n g p r o f e s s i o n , d e v o t e d to verification of financial s i t u a t i o n s o f c o m p a n i e s , s e e m s to b e b r a n c h i n g into t h e verification of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of c o m p l e x s y s t e m s . T h i s will b e g r e a t , if it w o r k s . C y n i c s , h o w e v e r , m a y n o t e that a u d i t o r s h a v e p e r m i t t e d s o m e r e m a r k a b l e p r a c t i c e s in t h e " c r e a t i v e " a c c o u n t i n g of r e c e n t y e a r s . (Obviously t h e w a y to c h e c k o u t t h e safety of b i g s y s t e m s is to offer b o u n t y to t h o s e w h o c a n b r e a k its security. B u t w h o is w i l l i n g to s u b j e c t a s y s t e m to a test like t h a t ? )
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N o w , m o a t of t h e b i g s y s t e m s y o u r u n into t e n d to b e a c o m b i n a t i o n of t r a n s a c t i o n a n d data-base system. For instance, s u p p o s e y o u m a k e a n airline r e s e r v a t i o n . T h e airline h a s a l a r g e d a t a b a s e to k e e p t r a c k of: t h e i n v e n t o r y of all t h o s e a r m c h a i r s it's flying a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y , a n d t h e list of w h o s o far h a v e a n n o u n c e d p l a n s to sit in t h e m , a n d in s o m e c a s e s w h a t t h e y i n t e n d to e a t . W h e n y o u b u y y o u r ticket that t r a n s a c t i o n t h e n g e t s y o u p u t In t h e listing. S a m e for c a r rentals a n d s o o n .
T h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e of " c o m p u t e r d a t i n g " is p e r f e c t l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . A p p l i c a n t s s e n d in d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e p r o s p e c t i v e d a t e s t h e y w o u l d like to m e e t . T h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s i m p l y d o e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h e sorts of t h i n g y o u w o u l d d o if y o u d i d this b y h a n d : it a t t e m p t s to find t h e "best' 1 m a t c h b e t w e e e n w h a t e v e r y b o d y w a n t s a n d what's o n h a n d .
I B M ' s c u r r e n t r e f u s a l to let o t h e r s
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Data b a s e s y s t e m s are a n y s y s t e m s w h i c h k e e p t r a c k of a w h o l e lot of stuff, often w i t h c o m p l e x pointer t e c h n i q u e s (see " D a t a S t r u c t u r e s , " P - Z £ > ) . A c u t e e x a m p l e is t h e m e s s a g e s e r v i c e n o w offered b y S t u c k e y ' s s n a c k / s o u v e n i r s t a n d s all o v e r t h e c o u n t r y . Y o u m a y leave m e s s a g e s for y o u r f r i e n d s o r l o v e d o n e s o n t h e r o a d ; t h e y c a n s t o p at a n y S t u c k e y ' s a n d a s k for their m e s s a g e s , just a s if it w a s a t e l e p h o n e a n s w e r i n g service. ( Y o u ' r e listed b y y o u r p h o n e n u m b e r is this to a v o i d p r a n k s ? A n d w h a t about people with n o p h o n e s ? ) It's free a n d a n e a t i d e a . ( O b v i o u s l y , the m e s s a g e s a r e s t o r e d o n t h e d i s k of a b i g central c o m p u t e r , a n d q u e r i e d f r o m t e r m i n a l s at t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d s . )
In t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , a p e r k y y o u n g fella at t h e H a r v a r d B - S c h o o l , I b e l i e v e , o n e Jeff T a r r , c a m e u p w i t h t h e n o t i o n of a c o m p u t e r i z e d d a t i n g s e r v i c e . T h e result w a s O p e r a t i o n M a t c h , a n i m m e n s e financial s u c c e s s , w h i c h sort of c a m e and went. N o followup studies w e r e e v e r d o n e o r s u c c e s s statistics g a t h e r e d , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , b u t t h e y certainly h a d their f u n .
T h e s a f e t y o f s u c h s y s t e m s is of c o u r s e a m a t t e r of i m m e n s e g e n e r a l c o n c e r n . IBM p o r t e n t i o u s l y ( s i c ) a n n o u n c e d its intent to s p e n d millions of dollars o n " c o m p u t e r s e c u r i t y " a f e w y e a r s a g o . H o w e v e r , a f e w million d o l l a r s is n o t g o i n g to p l u g t h e s e c u r i t y h o l e s in t h e I B M 3 6 0 , a n d e v i d e n t l y t h e 3 7 0 is j u s t a b o u t a s v u l nerable .
I
( I n c i d e n t a l l y , w h i l e this d o e s a r r e s t t h e classic c a s h i e r ' s c h e a t - - r i n g i n g u p e x c e s s i v e p u r c h a s e s o n the c u s t o m e r s , t h e n h a v i n g a c o n federate w a l k t h r o u g h equivalent a m o u n t s — the c o n s u m e r is still entirely p r o n e to c h e a t i n g b y t h e store in t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . Remember, it's 1 9 7 4 . S o y o u still m a y h a v e to c h e c k y o u r tapes, folks.)
s h o u l d o f c o u r s e b e called M A T C H U P DATING, s i n c e t h e r e ia n o t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p u t e r i s h a b o u t e i t h e r t h e p r o c e s s o r its i n t e n d e d r e s u l t . B u t t h e r e w e g o a g a i n : w o r d - m a g i c , the i m p l i cit a u t h o r i t y of i n v o k i n g t h e w o r d C o m p u t e r . (See " C y b e r c r u d , " p . .)
in K i n g s t o n , N . Y . that w a s graveyard--
like a n
a
junkyard automobile
e x c e p t piled h i g h w i t h d e a d
com-
puters . T h e y w e r e from various manufacturers. T h e g u y s w o u l d s m a s h t h e m with s l e d g e h a m m e r s , o r o t h e r a w f u l t h i n g s , to m a k e s u r e t h e y c o u l d n e v e r w o r k a g a i n . T h e n y o u c o u l d b u y the circuit c a r d s . I s a w 1 4 0 1 s five h i g h , U n i v a c File C o m p u t e r s , t a p e d r i v e s . . . it w a s a n e l e c tronic nut's p a r a d i s e . Y o u could decorate y o u r d e n w i t h h u g e old c o n t r o l p a n e l s , m a g d i s k s and whatnot, lt s e e m s to b e g o n e n o w . They forbade pictures.
O b v i o u s l y this c o u l d b e a m a t t e r for s e r i o u s o p e r a t i o n s r e s e a r c h : a t t e m p t i n g to d i s c o v e r the best m a t c h u p techniques a m o n g things that n e v e r really fit t o g e t h e r , detail for detail; t r y i n g to find o u t , b y f o l l o w u p q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , w h a t t r a i t - m a t c h i n g s s e e m e d to p r o d u c e t h e b e s t result, etc. B u t s u c h serious matchup-function r e s e a r c h r e m a i n s , s o far a s I k n o w , to b e e v e n begun. O b v i o u s l y there are several p r o b l e m s . D e m o g r a p h i c a l l y it is a l m o s t n e v e r t r u e that "for e v e r y m a n t h e r e ' s a w o m a n " — in e v e r y a g e - b r a c k e t there's almost a l w a y s an i m b a l a n c e of t h e o p p o s i t e s e x in t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g eligible a g e - b r a c k e t , e i t h e r too m a n y o r too f e w . But m o r e t h a n t h a t , t h e r e is little likelihood that t h e traits w o m e n w a n t a r e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n ted a m o n g t h e a v a i l a b l e m a l e s , o r v i c e v e r s a . F o r i n t r o d u c t i o n s e r v i c e s it's o b v i o u s l y w o r s e : t h e r e is n o b a l a n c e likely b e t w e e n w h a t c o m e s in o n e d o o r a n d w h a t c o m e s in t h e o t h e r . The s e r v i c e c a n o n l y d o its b e s t w i t h t h e available p o o l of p e o p l e - - a n d m a k e b e l i e v e it's s o m e h o w m a d e ideal b y t h e u s e o f the c o m p u t e r . It's like a n e m p l o y m e n t office: a p p l i c a n t s don't match openings.
N u m e r o u s other dating services h a v e a p p e a r e d , s o m e of w h i c h don't e v e n p r e t e n d to u s e t h e c o m p u t e r ( a n d o t h e r s w h i c h claim to b e a r e g i s t r y for n o n s t a n d a r d s e x u a l a p p e t i t e s ) , b u t n o n e that's g o t t e n t h e attention of t h e o r i g inal P r o j e c t M a t c h . B u t there's n o question w h o d a t e s o u t of that o n e .
DO
YOU
GOT
got the b e s t
Jeff T a r r .
RHYTHM?
A d e v i c e called the B I O - C O M P U T E R (trade m a r k ) p u r p o r t e d l y helps y o u predict y o u r " b o d y b e a t s . " telling y o u w h a t d a y s a r e the right sort of t i m e to d o p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s in t e r m s ' of y o u r o w n biological e n e r g i e s . T h e o b j e c t costs $ 1 5 postpaid from B I O - C O M P U T E R . D e p t . C L B / D M ( w h y n o t ? ) , 964 T h i r d A v e . . N Y N Y 1 0 0 2 2 . T h e q u e s t i o n w i t h all s u c h special p u r p o s e d e v i c e s - - "fishing c o m p u t e r s , " h o r s e - r a c i n g c o m p u t e r s , e t c . , is a l w a y s w h e t h e r t h e t h e o r y a n d f o r m u l a s w h i c h a r e built into t h e m a r e c o r r e c t . T h e r e is n o r e a d y w a y to tell.
O n e possibility, nice and expensive, is to rent a n u m b e r of mailing lists from a single mailing-list h o u s e , with them guaranteeing that they'll c o m p a r e all the lists y o u choose and not send to any person m o r e than o n c e . But as y o u m a y b e suspecting, this costs m o n e y . All this screening and intercomparing requires computer time, and so, even though you are getting a m o r e and m o r e perfect mailing, you are paying m o r e a n d m o r e and m o r e m o n e y for it. So y o u can see w h y reasonable businessm e n are willing to send out ads even w h e n they k n o w s o m e recipients will get several duplicates.
Branch
Theodor H Nelson 4 5 8 H 20Th St Hejf York,Ny 100H
Great Another interesting point. T h e r e are mailing lists for all kinds of different possible customers. T h e possibilities are endless. Minority-group doctors. People interested in both stamp collecting and flowers (you'd h a v e to get a c o m p a n y with both lists, and have them go through them for the duplicates... y o u get the idea).
news! for
elsonjf amily!
t
H o u l d n ' t y4u like your money even when you're asleep? How
011
th^Nelsonfamily
can
to work
save
for you
full
r i g h t -at t h e i r
time.,
own
bank. -
Note that mailing lists are priced according to their desirability. W e e d e d mailing lists, featuring only Live O n e s , people w h o ' v e ordered big in recent times, are m o r e expensive. Lists of doctors, w h o b u y a lot, .are m o r e expensive than lists of social w o r k e r s . A n d so o n .
Passbook Savings Plan which - n o a r t e r l y or e v e n
new""
T h e n there's the matter of the pitch. IRS
T h e ad's phrasing m a y b e built a r o u n d the mailing plan. S o m e circulars c o m e right out a n d tell the recipient he's going to get several copies because he's such a wonderful p e r s o n . T H E N there are those advertisements that are actually printed b y the c o m p u t e r , or at least certain lines are filled in with the recipient's n a m e a n d possibly s o m e snazzy phrases to m a k e him think it's a personal letter. W h o responds to such things I don't k n o w . M y favorite w a s the one-- I wish I could find it to include here — that w e n t something like You'll really look swell, M r . Nelson walking d o w n Main Street of N e w York in y o u r sharp-looking n e w slacks...
Dear
Reader:
I don't k n o w whether I enjoyed the spaces or the M a i n Street m o r e . But y o u see h o w this w o r k s . There's this batch-processing p r o g r a m , see, and the n a m e s a n d addresses are o n o n e long tape, a n d the tape goes through, and the p r o g r a m takes one record (a n a m e and a d d r e s s ) , a n d decides whether to call the addressee " M r . , " " M s . " or w h a t e v e r , a n d then plugs his n a m e into the printout lines that give it That Personal T o u c h ; a n d then the mailing envelope or sticker is printed; and the tape m o v e s on to the next record.
fj^rj.apa^.intta-.to m u t u a l f u n d s . you've undoubtedly £ ™ % of p r o m i s e s a n d p r e m i u m s . I w o n t t r y to p • K „ , „ 11 i nil v o u w o n ' t g e t r i c h If y o u s u b s c r i b e You won't clever
to
and
busi"»°-
rem"" 1 "-
P L A C E
. B O 3U ULLDDEERR,. CCOOLLOORRAADDOO S800330022
tol^fS^^^"^^^}^Bsi^/ ^^^
' U
won't appeal i p p e a l to V O
B e c a u s e it "» a i v e s vou
Q / H T ^ N I ]
SOTJ5
*~
Y O U C A N G E T O F F A L L MAILING LISTS — that is, the ones "participating" in the Association-- b y writing to
T h e y will send a b l a n k . If y o u fill it in they'U process it and delete your n a m e from mailing lists of all participating c o m p a n i e s . Presumably this won't help with X-rated or stamp-coUecting lists, but it ought to keep you from getting semiannual gift catalogs from places like T h e H o u s e of G o - G o Creative, Inc. and those million solicitations from C o n s u m e r Reports a n d that File B o x c o m p a n y .
fc
1
hwj W
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a final solution.
Direct Mail Advertising Association Public Relations Department 230 Park A v e n u e N e w Y o r k , N Y 10017
quicK.
« w w w ^
bowl over friends
•= = 5 P C W T L ^ o
W e m a y look forward to increasing e n croachments on our time and trust b y the direct mail industry: especially in better a n d better quack letters that look as though they've really been personally typed to y o u b y a real h u m a n being. (It is apparently legal for letters to be signed b y a fictitious person within a c o m p a n y . ) In the future w e m a y expect such letters to b e sent on fine p a p e r , typed individually on good typewriters, and convincingly phrased to m a k e us think a real personal pitch is being tendered.
^
Y o u call u p the b a n k and ask your balance and they s a y , "I'm afraid I can't get that information. Y o u see, it's on a computer." (See Baaic Rejoinder, nearby.) Well, the reason it's this w a y is that they're handling things in Batch (see p-HS ) and they aren't storing y o u r account on disk, or if they are they don't have a terminal they can query it with. But to say that they can't get the information becauae it's on a computer is a typical use of the computer as an excuse (see C y b e r c r u d , p . $ ) ; and second, if the person believes this to b e an explanation, it's a sign of the intimidation and obfuscation that have been s o w n a m o n g the clerks w h o don't understand computers. Write them a letter. C h a n g e b a n k s . Let's get the banks to put on m a r e and m o r e citizen services. Rah!
i f
we
it P e r think "
62
"Cot*
Everybody blames
the
computer.
P e o p l e are e n c o u r a g e d to b l a m e the c o m p u t e r . The employees of a f i r m , by t e l l i n g o u t s i d e p e o p l e t h a t i t ' s the c o m p u t e r ' s f a u l t , are e n c o u r a g i n g p u b l i c apathy through private d e c e i t . The p r e t e n s e is t h a t t h i s t h i n g , t h e c o m p u t e r , is r i g i d a n d i n h u m a n (see " T h e M y t h o f the C o m p u t e r , " p . ? ) and makes all kinds of s t u p i d m i s t a k e s . Computers rarely make m i s t a k e s . If the c o m p u t i n g h a r d w a r e m a k e s a h a r d w a r e e r r o r in a b i l l i o n o p e r a t i o n s , i t m a y be noticed and a r e p a i r m a n c a l l e d . (Of c o u r s e , o n c e in a b i l l i o n o p e r a t i o n s is o n c e in a t h o u s a n d s e c o n d s , or p e r h a p s e v e r y t e n m i n u t e s . T h a t o u g h t to b e mentioned.) Anyhow, innocent gadgetry is n o t w h a t f o r c e s y o u to m a k e s t u p i d m u l t i p l e choices on b u r e a u c r a t i c f o r m s ; mere equipment isn't what loses your subscription records;
By s y s t e m w e m e a n t h e w h o l e s e t u p : t h e c o m p u t e r , the accessories that have b e e n c h o s e n f o r i t , its p l a n o f o p e r a t i o n or p r o g r a m , and the way files are kept and complaints handled. Don't blame
the
computer.
Blame the system; blame the p r o g r a m m e r ; b l a m e the p r o c e d u r e s ; b e s t o f a l l , b l a m e the c o m p a n y . Let them know y o u w i l l t a k e y o u r b u s i n e s s to w h e r e v e r t h e y have h u m a n b e i n g s . S a m e for g o v e r n m e n t a l agencies: write your congressman. And so o n .
4
$Sit
t o r t u s "
P e w of us can help feeling outrage at the book clubs, or subscription offices, or billing departments. that don't reply to our letters. O r reply inappropriately, with a form printout that doesn't match the problem. First let's understand h o w this h a p p e n s . T h e s e outfits are based on using the c o m puter to handle all correspondence and transactions. T h e "office" m a y not have any people in it at all-- that is, people w h o s e job it is to understand and deal sensibly with the p r o b lems of customers. Instead, there m a y just be k e y p u n c h operators staffing a Batch S y s t e m , set u p by someone w h o has long since m o v e d o n . T h e point of a batch system (see p.f$") is to save m o n e y and bother b y handling everything in a controlled flow. This does not m e a n iri principle that things have to be rigid and restrictive, but it usually m e a n s it in practice. (See "The P u n c h C a r d Mentality," p . •) T h e system is set up with only a fixed n u m b e r of event types, a n d so only those events are recognized as occurring. Most important, y o u r problem is a s s u m e d to be one that will be straightened out in the course of the system's flow. While there m a y be provision for e x c e p tions-- one clerk, perhaps— y o u r problem has not s e e m e d to him worthy of m a k i n g an e x c e p tion for. Here is m y solution. It has w o r k e d several times, particularly on book clubs that ignored typed letters and kept billing m e incorrectly. Get a roll of white shelf p a p e r , two or three feet wide and twenty or m o r e feet long. Write a letter on the shelf paper in magic m a r k e r . M a k e it big, perhaps six inches to a w o r d . Legibility is necessary, but don't m a k e it too easy to read. Explain the problem clearly.
l^jotfcW
w e should all practice and have ready at the tip of our tongues: W H Y THE HELL NOT? YOU'RE THE ONES THE C O M P U T E R S , N O T ME!
WITH
Let's froth u p a little citizen indignation here.
N o w take y o u r p u n c h card— y o u did get o n e , didn't y o u , a bill or something?-- and mutilate it carefully. T e a r it in quarters, or cut it into lace, or something. But m a k e sure the serial n u m b e r is still legible. Staple it lovingly to your nice big letter.. N o w fold y o u r letter, and find an envelope big e n o u g h for it to fit in, and send it, registered or certified mail, to A N Y H U M A N B E I N G , A C C O U N T I N G D E P A R T M E N T , or w h a t e v e r , and the company's address. This really w o r k s quite well. I a m assuming h e r e , n o w , that your p r o b lem has merit, and y o u have been denied the attention required to settle it. If w e w a n t justice w e m u s t ourselves be just.
In principle w e no longer need account numbers. N o w that text processing facilities are available in moBt (if not all) major computer languages, the only excuse for not using these features is the programmer's notion of his o w n convenience— not that of the outside customer or victim. Example. Someone I k n o w got brand n e w ^•**4*»»*4B>B«ss>J> > and M m m o b * credit cards. He m a d e no note of their n u m b e r s . T h e n he lost them both. Duly he reported the losses. Neither service could look him u p , they said. without the n u m b e r s . Not having used t h e m , he had no bills to check. Even though he w a s the only person at that addresa with anything like that n a m e . A n d w h y not, pray tell? Either b e cause they were fibbing, or because they had not Been fit to create a simple straightforward program for the purpose. (See Baaic Rejoinder, nearby.) I have heard of similar cases involving major life insurance companies. Don't lose the n u m b e r s . Let's all dance to it: W h e n anything is issued to y o u , Write the n u m b e r d o w n .
A T
T h e people w h o send it out like to call it personalized advertising and the like. But most of us call it J u n k Mail. A n d its vagaries are N O T T H E P O O R C O M P U T E R ' S F A U L T . What gets people angry derives from the system built around the poor computer.
T h e r e is one further step, b u t , again, to be used only in proportion to the offense. This step is to be used only if a meritorious c o m m u n ication, like that already described, has not been properly responded to in a decent interval. W e a s s u m e that this unjust firm has sent you a reply envelope or card on which they must pay postage. N o w carefully drafting a follow-up letter, explain once again, in civil language, the original problem, your efforts at attention, and so o n . N o w put it in a package with a ten or twelve-pound rock, affix the reply envelope to the outside, and send it off. T h e problem, you see, has been to get out of the batch stream and be treated as an exception. Flagrantly destroying the p u n c h card serves to remove you from the flow in that fashion. ( H o w e v e r , just tearing it a little bit p r o b ably won't: a card that is intact but torn can simply be put in a certain slot of the card-punch and duplicated. Destroy it good and plenty.) In all these cases remember: the problem is not that you are "being treated as a n u m b e r , " whatever that m e a n s , but that your case does not correctly fall in the categories that have been set up for it. B y forcing attention to your case as an exception, you are making them realize that more categories are needed, or more people to handle exceptions. If more people do this w h e n they have a just complaint, service will improve rapidly.
Y o u m a y w o n d e r w h y you get more and m o r e seed catalogs, or gift-house catalogs, as time goes o n , even though you never order anything from them. O r w h y a deceased m e m b e r of the household goes on getting mail year in and year out, regardless of your angry postcards . H o w does it keep coming? T h r o u g h the magic of something called the Mailing List. A n d especially the peculiar w a y that mailing lists are bought and sold.
m e rcBMwu. MDIUH
N o w , a mailing list is a series of n a m e s and addresses of possible customers. stored on computer tape or disk. Y o u can b u y the use of a mailing list. But y o u cannot b u y the mailing list itself. Suppose y o u have a brochure advertising pumpkin-seed relish, which you suggest has rejuvenating p o w e r s . Y o u want this brochure to go out to rich college graduates. Y o u go to a mailing-list house. "I cannot sell you this mailing list outright," says the jolly proprietor, "for it is m y business to sell its use again and again, so I d o not want a n y b o d y else to have a copy of it." So you leave 2500 pumpkin-seed relish brochures with the mailing list c o m p a n y . and p a y them a lot of m o n e y . A n d they swear on a stack of bibles that they have mailed the brochures to their special list of rich college graduates . Well, let's say you get 250 sales from that mailing. (10% is fantastically good.) But out of curiosity you go to another mailing-list house and have another mailing sent out-- this one to people w h o have low incomes and little education. This time you get lj>% orders. N o w guess what you are acquiring. A mailing list of your very o w n . ple w h o eat pumpkin-seed relish.
Of peo-
Mailing lists are, y o u see, generally rented blind, with no chance to see the addressees or check as to whether they've already been mailed to. A n d that explains all the duplications. If an advertiser is going after a certain type of customer, and goes to several mailinglist houses asking for mailings to that particular type of customer, chances are some people will be on several of the lists. A n d since there's no w a y to intercompare the lists, these poor g u y s get several copies of the mailing. (Another w a y this can happen is if some cheapskate has his o w n mailing Hat and doesn't cheek it for repeats of the same n a m e . But writing the computer program to check for repeats of the same n a m e is not easy-- there might just be a Robert Jones and a Rob Jones at the same address-- and these things are not usually checked manually. They're big.) Another possibility exists for eliminating duplications w h e n you rent mailing lists. You can bring in a magnetic tape with your mailing list on it, and they can send out the mailing only to the m e m b e r s of their list w h o are not already on your list. That w a y you still cant steal their list, since the tape is on their premises. T h e trouble is, they can steal your list, by making a copy of the tape. O h dear.
From
all t h i s , o n e last s p e c u l a t i o n
creeps
forward. I v a n S u t h e r l a n d , in c o n s i d e r i n g t h e t u r e of s u b r o u t i n i n g noted
that a s y o u
display
get m o r e
more
sophisti-
c a t e d in t h e d e s i g n of a d i s p l a y
program
lower, you
make
come
struc-
processors, has . and
full circle a n d
fol-
it a full-
fledged c o m p u t e r , with b r a n c h , test, a n d metic
arith-
operations. If t h e s o m a t i c m e c h a n i s m
to h a v e a p r o g r a m not m u c h
should
turn
out
f o l l o w e r a s d e s c r i b e d , it is
o f a s t e p to s u p p o s e t h a t it m i g h t
have
t h e traits o f a n a c t u a l c o m p u t e r , i . e . , t h e to follow p r o g r a m s , b r a n c h , a n d ulations o n data b e a r i n g o n
ability
perform
those
manip-
operations.
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e digital c o m p u t e r actually h a v e b e e n Neumann, and
we
person B
on our
It m a y
invented may
long before
already.
sound
far-fetched, b u t the
i s m s e l u c i d a t e d at this l e v e l a r e s o already
may
von
h a v e billions o f t h e m
that this h a r d l y
seems
mechan-
far-fetched
ridiculous.
A l m o s t n o t h i n g is k n o w n a b o u t t h e b r a i n . O h , t h e r e a r e lots o f p i c t u r e - b o o k s s h o w i n g c r o s s - s e c t i o n s of b r a i n s . . . M a y b e y o u t h o u g h t it w a s j u s t a b i g c a u l i f l o w e r , b u t it's full o f strings a n d straps a n d l u m p s a n d h a r d l y a n y t h i n g is k n o w n a b o u t a n y o f it.
COMPUTER
We
used
to d i s s e c t b r a i n s w h e n
in D r . Lilly B d o l p h i n 1
down
are about
1.2
lab.
I worked
Dolphin
brains
t i m e s t h e s i z e of o u r s , a n d
quite r e a s o n a b l y
smarter than
it is c l e a r t h a t b e i n g
a b l e to a d a p t
c h e m i s t r y , especially D N A s t o r a g e is a b e c k o n i n g This would ories w h i c h any
we
make
to
computer
frontier.
cheaper
whales
mem-
than
We
deepfreeze maybe
possible c o m p u t e r
a r e far l a r g e r a n d
now
molecular
and R N A ,
computer
smarter.
that w a s
come
much
about
can
s e p a r a t e this into
two
it s o m e h o w can
of w h a l e s
The would
DNA
Readout.
T h i s p a r t of t h e
create long molecules
holding
And Killer's
Blue.
t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e of d o l p h i n s
ones you just
tem
2 i feet a c r o s s .
b i g g e r t h a n that; the
was
feasibly
keep
in a l a b .
isn't w h a t
counts"?
That "brain
That's an
(or c a d g i n g
interesting
makes
if y o u ' r e
size point.
f ^ ) .
The
DNA
Readin.
to electrical f o r m
Weird
This
w o u l d c o n v e r t it
again.
possibilities f o l l o w .
(if c h e m i c a l m e m o r y
One
DNA and
c o u l d b e set u p
form, whatever
somehow
than pathways)
in
"learned"
If y o u
big brains are elephants
anatomical explanation: A s o u r ability to c r e a t e c l o n e s
and
could clone n e w
And
creatures, or
genetic
"im-
racehorBe
supported
of c o u r s e that g h a s t l y
in h u m a n
stuff a b o u t
o n the m a n a heavy by
by
and
a g r a p p l i n g tool, a n d
is
(An
supported
in t h e w h a l e
anatomies
couldn't m a n a g e
can't e v o l v e
with
whales.
inflexible n e c k
it in t h e f r o n t of a t o r p e d o .
by
But most
by
offset putting
other
a big b r a i n , so
have a chance, maybe you courses, but r e m e m b e r
push
Or
wait, and
club,
should
the
slant
perhaps you
prefer
b e p r e p a r e d to s p e a k
if t h e c o m p u t e r p e o p l e a r r i v e r e a d y
you
around.
COMPUTER DOWN
one.^
Anyhow, dogs
B u t t h e r e a l z i n g e r is this o n e .
species
are smarter than
are s m a r t .
just a p r o g r a m
— b u t the s y s t e m c o u l d o u t p u t a that w o u l d d e s t r o y m a n k i n d .
bug—
virus
TO
THE
For
instance:
PEOPLE!
CYBERCRUD! could
d o all k i n d s o f t h i n g s
help y o u
were
a c t i v e l y till it c o m e s o u t b e s t ; h e l p t h e credit-card him
holder with bill-paying b y
to try o u t different p a y m e n t s
inter-
harried allowing
to different
c r e d i t o r s till h e settles o n t h e m o n t h ' s b e s t BACK
WRITING
to t h o s e c o m p a n i e s computer;
ANGRY
that w r i t e y o u
helping with
for
available.
calculate y o u r tax
mix,
LETTERS nasty
letter-writing
Y o u ' l l h a v e to w r i t e t h e
programs.
is Well,
rats...
It m i g h t to
POWER
i n d i v i d u a l s , if o n l y t h e p r o g r a m s
letters b y
s o t h e scientific q u e s t i o n
whether big-brained
juBt b e a s m a l l a c c i d e n t a l p r i n t o u t m e a n t
WITH
in g e n e r a l .
desirable...
B u t a b o u t t h e s e o t h e r g u y s in o u r l e a g u e and beyond. H o w d o w e k n o w soientifically t h a t " t h e s i z e o f t h e b r a i n isn't w h a t c o u n t s " ? B e c a u s e o b v i o u s l y they're not as s m a r t as w e are, people say. T h e r e f o r e it isn't b r a i n size that c o u n t s . T h e d e p t h o f this l o g i c s h o u l d b e evident. (I've e v e n h e a r d p e o p l e s a y , " O f c o u r s e they're not as s m a r t . T h e y don't h a v e g u n s . " )
How
do you the
think c o m p u t e r s
can
help
world?
W h a t are y o u
waiting
for?
BIBLIOGRAPHY James
D . W a t s o n , M o l e c u l a r B i o l o g y of t h e Beautifully written; science teachers.
m e a n t for
The Mark
Double Helix, which
Ptashne and
formi-
ia a
gas.
Scientific A m e r i c a n ,
S . E . L u r i a , Life: T h e U n f i n i s h e d Scribner's.
Pay
c l o s e attention to a n e l e p h a n t
W o r k i n g e l e p h a n t s in I n d i a r e s p o n d 5 0 0 different o r a l c o m m a n d s .
sometime. to
some
autobiographical
Walter Gilbert, "Genetic
Repressors." 1970, 36-44.
Lewis
Gene.
highschool
B u t potentially
d a b l e ; if s o , start" w i t h h i s
June
C a n y o u t h i n k of a 5 0 1 s t t h i n g to a s k a n e l e p h a n t to d o ? (I r a t h e r s u p p o s e it c o u l d o b l i g e . ) A n y w a y , the d o z e n w h a l e s sonally w e r e s m a r t as h e U .
I've k n o w n
per-
Experiment.
T h o m a s , T h e L i v e s of a C e l l . V i k i n g , 57. E l o q u e n t w r i t i n g to p o p u l a r i z e , among other t h i n g s , the Hew C e n e t l c view that your modern animal c e l l s , and m i n e , a c tually contain varloua fungi and other s t r a y d i n g - a - l l n g s t h a t s l i d i n t o o n e of our ancestors and found useful w o r k , joining the basic genetic program.
It u s e d to b e b e l i e v e d that m e m o r y w a s e x c l u s i v e l y a m a t t e r of s y n a p t i c c o n n e c t i o n s - t h e g r a d u a l c l o s i n g of little s w i t c h e s b e t w e e n n e r v e cells w i t h p r a c t i c e . It is n o w k n o w n that t e m p o r a r y o r s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y is s y n a p t i c , b u t s o m e t h i n g e l s e t a k e s p l a c e after t h a t . It's b e l i e v e d that after a c e r t a i n p e r i o d , a n d it h a s s o m e t h i n g to d o w i t h r e s t a n d s l e e p , m e m o r i e s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d to s o m e o t h e r f o r m , p r e s u m a b l y c h e m i c a l . But h o w ?
It u s e d to b e f a s h i o n a b l e to " T h e b r a i n la a But n o w is a
Fashion*
say,
computer." people s a y , " T h e
hologram." change.
up
to
Remember:
then t y p i n g the c h e c k s ;
they
traits t h a t
o r s o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n , u l p , t h i n k s is
test t h e facility, o r m a y b e
the w e i g h t
society."
building
and
b a l a n c i n g it, o n t h e e l e p h a n t
comparatively
non-
" t h o s e s o r t s of
h u m a n B , or s e m i - h u m a n s ; having somebody
improves,
w h i c h , c o n s i d e r i n g the
the P e k i n e s e , m e a n s
viable modifications
sharply
buying
time-sharing
start a c o m p u t e r
it e a s i e r to g e t cast-off e q u i p m e n t ;
Computers I b e l i e v e that t h e o n l y o t h e r a n i m a l s very
provements"--
a terminal, and
should
Or
k i d s , w r i t e t h e R . E . S . I .S . T . O . R . S . ( p .
just to sit a n d
H o w e v e r , people h a v e m u c h bigger brains than almost a n y other animals. T h a t indicates s o m e t h i n g too.
rather than taught •
Weird.
we
you
t h e s e a r e likely to h a v e .
that m i g h t t u r n o u t to b e ,
injected o r i m p l a n t e d
your
several
is t h a t
is g e n e r i c , r a t h e r
i d i o s y n c r a t i c to a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s n e u r a l knowledge
People with small h e a d s are b y a n d large just a s s m a r t as p e o p l e w i t h b i g h e a d s . That's one argument.
Or
as c a d g e c a n ) time o n a
Maybe
take c o m p u t e r back
consider b u y i n g
f a m i l i e s to g e t o n e .
not
which say?
should
think
So
super-smarties,
system.
W h a t ' s that y o u
you
m i n i c o m p u t e r , for a c o u p l e of t h o u s a n d .
(if y o u ' r e a p a r e n t ) , c h i p p i n g in w i t h
sys-
information.
Maybe own
only
dolphins.}
digital
now?
pubthat
small w h a l e s , the
as the possible
do
B y r e a d i n g this b o o k in s o m e d e t a i l , e s p e c i a l l y that difficult m a c h i n e - l a n g u a g e stuff ( s e e " R o c k Bottom" a n d "Bucky's Wristwatch," p p . 32 " 3 ) • o r * n e p i e c e s o n specific c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s C p p - t ^ - ^ ^ l >• y o u really s h o u l d b e m e n t a l l y p r e p a r e d to g e t into p r o g r a m m i n g , if y o u d i g it.
a little
didn't get m e n t i o n e d
d o l p h i n s a r e just v e r y Basically w e
the
(I s h o u l d p o i n t o u t h e r e that Lilly's too g o o d :
aspects:
even
a k i l l e r - w h a l e b r a i n in
a q u a r t e r t h e l e n g t h of t h e
licity o n
have.
had
W h a t will y o u
mean
us.
A n d , of c o u r s e , the b i g g e r w h a l e s cell,
B y b r o w s i n g this b o o k y o u m a y h a v e m o r e s e n s e of w h a t c o m p u t e r s a r e d o i n g , c a n d o , should d o .
Lilly
p o i n t e d o u t t h a t this m i g h t
FRONTIER
R e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t ' s a c t u a l l y in t h e
Wvt^rNexT?
C l i n i c a l e v i d e n c e , of c o u r s e , tells u s t h a t if this o r that p a r t is c u t o u t , t h e p a t i e n t can't talk, o r w a l k , o r s m e l l , o r w h a t e v e r . B u t that d o e s n ' t c o m e c l o s e to telling u s h o w t h e t h i n g w o r k s w h e n it d o e s w o r k . T h e histologists, the p e r c e p t u a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s , the a n a t o m i s t B , a r e all w o r k i n g at it— w i t h n o c o n v e r g e n c e . Beautiful e x a m p l e : the split-brain stuff, w h i c h 1 just better n o t e v e n b r i n g u p h e r e (see n e w M a y a Pines b o o k , Harcourt B r a c e ) .
dolphins w e r e THE
61
brain
M y friend A n d r e w J . S i n g e r h a s a b e a u tiful h y p o t h e s i s that w r a p s it u p . His g u e s s is that m e m o r i e s a r e m o v e d f r o m s y n a p t i c s t o r a g e to D N A (!) s t o r a g e d u r i n g d r e a m i n g , o r m o r e specifically R E M s l e e p . I like that o n e . IHE COPPER M A N
W A L K E D O U T OF THE ROCKY
CAVERN
"fee HT icirjOHfom? The
f o c u s of attention in genetics
and
o r g a n i c c h e m i s t r y h a s for a d e c a d e n o w the r e m a r k a b l e s y s t e m s a n d m o l e c u l e s of life. D N A
O n e t h e o r y a b o u t the m e c h a n l c a of this ia that a sort of z i p p e r s l i d e , called the r i b o s o m e . c h u g s d o w n the t a p e , attaching the c a l l e d - f b r ~ a m i n o a c l d a a n d p e e l i n g off the e v e r - l o n g e r r e s u l t .
been
s t r u c t u r e s of the
and
M u c h p r e B a i n g r e s e a r c h in m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y , t h e n , is c o n c e r n e d with s e a r c h i n g for w h a t e v e r it Is that s w i t c h e s different t h i n g s o n a n d off at different times in the c a r e e r s of the ever-splitting cells of o u r b o d i e s . N o t to m e n tion t h o s e of all o t h e r living c r e a t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g turnips.
RNA. COMPUTERISH
DNA
CONJECTURES
ia the b a a i c m o l e c u l e of life, a l o n g
a n d tiny s t r a n d of e n c o d e d
Information.
it is a digital m e m o r y , a stored
Actually
T h e g u y s w h o specialize in this a r e usually c h e m i s t s , a n d p r e s u m a b l y k n o w w h a t they're d o i n g , so the following r e m a r k s are not i n t e n d e d a s b u t t i n g into c h e m i s t r y . H o w e v e r , new pers p e c t i v e s often g i v e fresh insight; a n d the m a t t e r s w e ' v e c o v e r e d BO far m i g h t s e e m to h a v e a c e r tain r e l e v a n c e .
representation
of c o d e s n e c e s s a r y to s u s t a i n , r e p r o d u c e ,
and
e v e n duplicate the c r e a t u r e a r o u n d it. It is literally a n d
exactly a digital
memory.
Its s y m b o l s a r e not b i n a r y b u t q u a t e r n a r y , a s e a c h position c o n t a i n s o n e of four c o d e m o l e c u l e s ; h o w e v e r , a s it t a k e s t h r e e m o l e c u l e s in a r o w make
u p o n e individual c o d o n , o r
s y m b o l , the actual n u m b e r
four different s y m b o l s in a r o w
DNA
o n thia t a p e is a data s t r u c t u r e , a n d
of
a data s t r u c t u r e w h i c h
of t h r e e . (I d o n ' t
may Indeed,
i n d e e d it is
s e e m s to b e i n v o l v e d
the e x e c u t i o n of a p r o g r a m —
the adjective for s l x t y f o u r i s h n e s s , a n d it's
just a s
a n d R N A , as already r e m a r k e d ,
w i t h o u t distortion b e t h o u g h t of a s a t a p e .
symbols
is 64-- the n u m b e r of p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s know
to
functioning
of p o s s i b l e
the p r o g r a m
with
that
o c c u r s a s the o r g a n i s m ' s cells differentiate.
well.) N o w , h e r e a r e s o m e of t h e f u n n y
T h e basic m e c h a n i s m w o r k e d out b y
of the s y s t e m
Francis Crick
who
understandably
The
problem
Watson,
got the N o b e l P r i z e for it.
w a s this: h o w
c o u l d living cells
t r a n s m i t their o v e r a l l p l a n s to the cells split into?
and
carried out b y
was
and J a m e s
how
a b o u t this.
c o d e , just like a p e r i o d
in o r d i n a r y
mechanism
ular o r d e r , b u t distributed
be
(Geneticists e n g a g e d
process?
is a s t o n i s h i n g l y
elegant.
Basically t h e r e is o n e l o n g m o l e c u l e , the m o l e c u l e , w h i c h is really a l o n g t a p e of all the information the o r g a n i s m l o n g helix
and
DNA
recording
had guessed years before.
The
for e y e color m a y the g e n e
is
partic-
the g e n e s of a
find
that the
gene
t u r n o u t to b e right n e x t to
for l e n g t h of tail-- b u t w h e r e
a r e r e a l l y , a n d w h a t the p a r t i c u l a r m o l e c u l e s
do
sorts of
is c a p a b l e of b r a n c h i n g to dif-
ferent selections of (or s u b p r o g r a m s ) in the overall p r o g r a m , d e p e n d i n g o n v a r i o u s
factors
in the cell's e n v i r o n m e n t - - o r p e r h a p s
its a g e .
N o w , it is o n e t h i n g to look for the p a r ticular c h e m i c a l m e c h a n i s m s That's fine. consider
those
On
that h a n d l e t h i s .
the o t h e r h a n d , w e
can
program
follower it m u s t b e to b e h a v e
chemical
H e r e is s o m e m o r e w e i r d
proand
t h e n for t h e m to c o m e a p a r t , u n w i n d i n g to g o
stuff a b o u t this.
ceLU.
L a r g e sections of t h e D N A it t u r n s o u t , just m e a n i n g l e s s
strand are
( T h i s is like the difference b e t w e e n tracing out particular circuitry a n d
trying to
figure
from h o w
get u s e d .
blind:
the g e n e r a l s u p p o s i t i o n
is that
A t a n y r a t e , the following interesting c o n j e c t u r e s arise:
random
anything—
T h i s ties i n , of c o u r s e , w i t h
the notion that genetic c h a n g e is r a n d o m
1.
The
mechanism
display
genetic
of somatic r e p r o d u c t i o n is
a subroutining p r o g r a m the s e c o n d p r o g r a m
and
f o l l o w e r — not u n l i k e
follower of the
(see p .
slowly through a master p r o g r a m
and
and
t h e n s o m e t h i n g else activates a c h a n c e perfected
through
1 - b a s e c h a n g e s d u r i n g the
process
of s u c c e s s i v e m u t a t i o n
and
with each n e w
evolution.
step directs the b l o c k i n g
A s the p r o g r a m
by
s o m e viruses.
of life, b u t
thought
and hence more s o m e viruses
a certain p l a c e a n d l y i n g d o w n
and copy. analogy
the R N A - -
and
copy,
c o n t a i n p l a n s for m a k i n g all the
else that c a n b e m a d e w i t h a m i n o a c i d s .
(Those
w h i c h a r e not p r o t e i n s o r
processes b r o u g h t about b y these Now
well m a y y o u a s k
how
so far a s is k n o w n , is e x t r e m e l y
chemical
kinds.) this l o n g
recording m a k e s chemical molecules.
being virus
t h i n k of a n hap-
From
The
from
answer,
puzzling.
A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , the b a s i c c o d e m o l e c u l e s (or n i t r o g e n o u s b a s e s ? a r e a r r a n g e d in g r o u p s of t h r e e . W h e n the R N A is t u r n e d o n , t h e s e triples latch o n t o the m o l e c u l e s of a m i n o acid that h a p p e n to b e floating b y in the s o u p y interior of the cell. ( T h e r e are twenty-s e v e n a m i n o a c i d s , a n d sixty-four possible c o m b i n a t i o n s of t h r e e b a s e s ; this is fine, b e c a u s e s e v e r a l different c o d o n s of three b a s e s c a n g l o m onto the s a m e p a s s i n g a m i n o a c i d . ) N o w , the tape r e c o r d i n g it d i v i d e d into s e p a r a t e sections o r t e m p l a t e s ; a n d e a c h t e m p l a t e d o e s its o w n t h i n g . W h e n a t e m p l a t e is filled, the Btring of a m i n o a c i d s in that section s e p a r a t e , a n d the l o n g c h a i n that results is a particular m o l e c u l e of significance "in s o m e a s p e c t of the critter's life p r o c e s s e s — often a g r a n d l o n g t h i n g that folds up_ in a certain w a y . e x p o s i n g only certain active s u r f a c e s to the o n g o i n g c h e m i s t r y of the cell.
A
the first
(the z y g o t e ) , v a r i o u s
liver cell is e x t r e m e l y
different
a b r a i n cell, b u t t h e y b o t h d a t e b a c k
successive
splitting f r o m
that first z y g o t e .
t h e y h a v e different s t r u c t u r e s a n d
we
If this w e r e
m i g h t s u p p o s e that this p r o g r a m
it w o u l d
perhaps
by
stored
areas;
and
I n d e e d , it m a k e s
some
w h i c h the p r o g r a m
further sections of the
such a program --a
so,
too w a s
therefore b e n e c e s s a r y to postulate
addressing mechanism
s e n s e to s u p p o s e that
h a s the f o r m of a d i s p a t c h
table
list of a d d r e s s e s In the t a p e , p e r h a p s
to c a u s e the
fol-
close.
program.)
asso-
ciated w i t h specifications of the tests w h i c h
are
branching.
by Yet
manufacture
4
chemicals.
O n e simplification m a y b e p o s s i b l e : the " s t r u c t u r e " of a cell m a y really b e its c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , s i n c e cell w a l l s a n d o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s a r e t h o u g h t to b e special knittings of certain tricky m o l e c u l e s . O k a y , so that m a y r e d u c e (he q u e s t i o n slightly. H o w t h e n d o e s the cell c h a n g e f r o m b e i n g a n O r i g i n a l ( u n d i f ferentiated, z y g o t i c ) cell to the S p e c i a l i z e d cella that m a n u f a c t u r e particular o t h e r c o m p l e x chemicals? O n e h y p o t h e s i s w a s that t h e s e o t h e r cells h a v e different p l a n s In t h e m , different t a p e s . B u t this t h e o r y w a s d i s c a r d e d w h e n J o h n G u r d o n at O x f o r d p r o d u c e d a f r e s h f r o g z y g o t e f r o m the intestinal cell of a frog ( w h i c h a c c o r d i n g l y , in d u e t i m e , b e c a m e a frog d e f a c t o ) . T h i s p r o v e d , m o s t t h i n k , that the w h o l e t a p e is in e v e r y cell. T h u s there m u s t b e a o m e t h i n g - o r - o t h e r that b l o c k s the different t e m p l a t e s at different t i m e s ( Y o u t h e r e , n o w y o u ' r e a full-fledged e p i thelial cell, n e v e r m i n d w h a t y o u d i d b e f o r e ) a n d selects a m o n g all the s u b p r o g r a m s o n the t a p e .
T h e s e wild s p e c u l a t i o n s a r e offered in the spirit of interdisciplinary g o o d fellowship a n d g o o d c l e a n f u n . W h e t h e r (1) a n d (2) h a v e a n y actual c o n t e n t , o r a r e m e r e l y p a r a p h r a s e s of w h a t is a l r e a d y k n o w n o r d i s p r o v e n , I don't k n o w ; s o m e b o d y m a y find the rest s u g g e s t i v e . Two
be o b s o l e t e . T h e g e n e t i c m e c h a n i s m r e a l l y s e e m s t o b e a l i s t p r o c e s s o r ( s e e p . 2i> tdl\ numerical addressing. T h e g e n e Is n o w t h o u g h t to be d i v i d e d I n t o f o u r s e g m e n t s , celled Promoter, Initiator, gene p r o p e r , and T e r m i n a t o r . As I understand i t , the p r o m o t e r and t e r m i n a t o r sonee c o n t a i n codes w h i c h m e a n , s i m p l y , r, is a c o d e d s e g m e n t w h i c h e f nd S t o p . The lnitiato niche fectivelyflabela the g e n e . This initiator t e d in t h e a b o v e a r t i c l e , w e m a y c o n a l d e r b o t h l t a logic
ue for e v e r y g e n a . A s s u g g e s t e d in t h e a b o v e a r t i c l e , w e m a y c o n s i d e r b o t h i t a l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e — i t s m e c h n l s m a a n d e f f e c t s , c o n s i d e r e d f r o m a c o . p u ce r u n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w — a n d l t a c h e m i c a l i t r u c t u r t , o r w h a t Is eally happening. T h e g e n e s a r e t u r n e d o_f_f b y g r a b b i n g m o l e c u l e s , o r r e p r e s s o r * , w h i c h g l o m o n t o t h e i n l t i a t o r (~»j v a c t i o n * of t h e g e n e s w h i c h t h e y h a v e b e a n s p e c i f i c a l l y c o d e d to r e p r e s s . R e s e a r c h in t h i s a r e a m u s t n o w f i n d ' h« s p e c i f i c c o d i n g of m o l e c u l e s w h i c h b l o c k a n d u n b l o c k s p e c i f i c g e n e a , a n d h o w t h e a e f i t in t h e o v e r a l l graph f m e t e b o l i a m , i m m u n o l o g y , d e v e l o p m e n t , and so o n . If t h e r e is a n y t h i n g to m a k e a n o l d a t h e i s t u n e a s y , it Is h a e x t r a o r d i n a r y b e a u t y of t h i s clockwork.
m o r e observations, though.
a r e not particularly d e e p , a n d m a y o b v i o u s , but they suggest an 5.
T h e r e ia definitely a P r o g r a m
intestine cell into a fresh C a n c e r ia a r u n a w a y
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Ur
These
indeed
be
approach.
w h a t e v e r it is that t u r n s a n old
6. T h e a b o v e r e m a r k s a e e m to lng a s s o c i a t i v e , rather than „ . fcv~/ w ' HJKMV
it c o u l d e v e n b e testing a c o u n t e r .
( T h i s is the steep o n e . )
o n the D N A , in o n e o r m o r e p r o g r a m
4.
all cells a r e n o t a l i k e .
entiated cells.
different tape
3.
l o w e r c a n find the t e m p l a t e s to o p e n a n d
cartoon.
MECHANISMS
b e g i n n i n g cell of the o r g a n i s m
states of the overall p r o g r a m . It m a y
its e n v i r o n m e n t ;
(And
Now.
not
steps
b e testing for particular c h e m i c a l secretions in
splits c r e a t e m o r e a n d m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d , differ-
anything
in
Bunny
is d i r e c -
or m a y
successive
it in
process
b a s i c p r o t e i n m o l e c u l e s of the b o d y , a n d m o l e c u l e s of the b o d y
in a B u g s
branching--
Well,
unhooking
both parent
I can't for the life of m e
pening s o m e h o w
wrong,
its c o n v e r t e d
built of a m i n o a c i d s a r e later m a d e
a n d toddling a w a y - -
to t h i s , b u t I k e e p v i s u a l i z i n g it a s
CONTROL a b o u t this h a v e this
t h e r e , then
d u p l i c a t e d a s p a r t of t h £ t e m p l a t e , t h e n
program
for
in t h e genetic material: or R N A , u n h o o k i n g
In e a c h cell, the m a s t e r p r o g r a m
command to n e w
streamlined than elemental.
b r e e z i n g u p to the D N A
themselves
form
(but not all) h a v e the c a p a c i t y
inserting t h e m s e l v e s
2.
ting certain tests, w h o s e results m a y
actually
they are usually d e p e n d e n t o n s o m e other
A s a t a p e r e c o r d i n g , the m o l e c u l e directs the creation of c h e m i c a l s a n d o t h e r cells b y a n intricate series of p r o c e s s e s , not w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . B a s i c a l l y , t h o u g h , the i n f o r m a t i o n o n the b a s i c D N A t a p e is t r a n s f e r r e d to a n e w t a p e , a n active copy called "messenger RNA," which becomes an a c t u a l p l a y b a c k d e v i c e for the c r e a t i o n of n e w m o l e c u l e s a c c o r d i n g to the p l a n s t o r e d on t h e o r i g i n a l .
cell. computing.)
mechanisms
N o w , v i r u s e s a r e often
of a s the m o s t b a s i c f o r m
or
is in e a c h cell, p r e s u m a b l y
it is b e i n g s e p a r a t e l y followed in e a c h ( T h i s is s o m e t i m e s called distributed
A m a z i n g u s e is m a d e of t h e s e
very
somewhere,
u n b l o c k i n g of particular stretches of the t a p e .
stretch that t u r n s out to b e
u s e f u l , a n d this is s o m e h o w successive
com-
subroutining
T h a t i s . it steps
m u t a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e a b a s e o r t w o at a t i m e , b i n a t i o n in a d r y
b u t basically the D N A - -
out
it b e h a v e s . )
"dork,"
s t r e t c h e s of
c o m b i n a t i o n s of b a s e s that don't m e a n or e v e r
S o m e things are k n o w n
like this.
Pauling
b e c o m e t w o stitched-together c o r k s c r e w s ,
a n d s o m e aren't, a n d I m a y
also
(from the top d o w n ) w h a t sort of a
the s t r u c t u r e of a p r o g r a m
c e s s e s p e r m i t the helix to b e d u p l i c a t e d , to
their s e p a r a t e w a y s to d a u g h t e r
T h e r e is e v i d e n t l y s o m e sort of p r o g r a m follower w h i c h
higgledy-piggledy.
in m a p p i n g
question.)
T h i s is a
(or c o r k s c r e w ) , a s L i n u s
Another
that d e t e r m i n e it, a r e still m y s t e r i o u s
r e q u i r e d to p e r p e t u a t e
r e p r o d u c e it.
punctuation.
T h i s s i g n a l s the e n d of a t e m p l a t e .
p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s of c r e a t u r e The
things
O n e is that t h e r e is
a particular c o d o n of t h r e e b a s e s that is a stop
that the t e m p l a t e s o n t h e t a p e a r e in n o
they
could these p l a n s
a mechanical
that a r e k n o w n
Restart: to w i t .
differentiated
zygote. subroutine.
»«t*. •»
Her Gobind K h o r a n a , Millard Glbbs l e c t u r e . May 1974, " P r o g r e s s In t h e T o t a l S y n t h s s i s o f the T y r o s i n e tHm\A>Gen« a n d Its C o n t r o l E l e m e n t s . "
ft. fl?EVlWJLY Not all kidi oho play with computer* ar* quit* aa law-abldtng •• tha R.E.6.I.S.T.O.R.S. And th* tamptatlona art vary strong. On* such youngster want on a hlghschool field-trip to * suburban Philadelphia police •tatton. and aaw a demonslrstion of tha polloa remote Information ayatem. Tha police who war* demon*trating II, not balng computer freak*, didn't realise how •1mpie 11 waa to observe the dial-in numbers, paaaworda and protocol. When thla lad got home, ha merrily want to hla computer terminal In the basement and proceeded to en tar Into Philadelphia'* llal of moat- wanted criminal! th* n*m*s of all hla taachera. A few days later • man came to hla houae from the FBI. He waa evidently not • regular operative but a technical type. He aaked very nicely It the boy had a terminal. Then Ihe FBI man aaked very nicely if ha had put In theae names. The boy admitted, grinning, that he had. (Everyone In tha achool knew II had lo be he.)
"Of course lt didn't do any harm," aay* th* culprit. "I had them down for crime* llk* 'intellectual murder.' What could happen to then for that*" Ooea that make you feel better*
PHILADELPHIA'S A N D C R O O K S PLEASE N O T E : Thia happened five or six year* ago, end without a doubt the ayatem la by now totally aecure and Impenetrable. Let'* hope.
looser-Of ftcPRJ)5: The question of "privacy" in the aba tract ian't really an laaue. W h o carea if God a*** under your clothe*? The problem la what happen* to you on the b u t * of people' your record*. Margo St. Jamei
tore "data bank" doesn't have any part icular technical m e a n i n g . It era to any large store of infor« t i o n e ' especially something attached to
tlMK.
*5J>
hU
eve*.
The phone ayatem ia bruised and bleeding from the depredation* of people w h o have found out how to cheat the phone company electronically. Such people are called Phone Freak* (or Phreax); articles on them have appeared in such placea aa Ramparta, The Re«ll*t and Oul. For no clear reason, the electronic device* Ihey use have been given various colorful namea: bl*ck box: device which, attached to a local telephone, permita It to receive an incoming call without billing the calling party; ii "look* like" the phone ia *UII ringing, aa far aa the billing mechanism la concerned. blue box: device that generate* the magical "Inside" tones that open up the phone network and stop the billing mechanism. Poseaaion of a blue box can put you In prison. with * many thing*, th* phone ayi i not designed under the aaauti at there would be thousanda of electronic w capable of fooling around with II. Thus the phone system la tragically vulnerable to auch mealing around. The only thing they can do la get ferocious laws passed and really try to catch people, both of which are apparently happening. Supposedly It la illegal to poaaeas a tona generator, or lo inform anyone aa lo what the magical frequenclea are-- even though a allda whistle ia auch a tons generator, and any engineering library la a*ld lo hev* th* information.
Because of the way census data is h a n d l e d , n o w , it is not possible to ask for the records of a specific i n d i v i d u a l . But this kind of capability leads to some real danger* There is a lot of information stored •bout most individuals in this c o u n t r y . Credit i n f o r m a t i o n , arrest r e c o r d s , medical and psychiatric f i l e s , d r i v e r s ' l i c e n s e s , military service r e c o r d s , and so o n .
But oven given, and only for th* sake of argusmnt, the feasibility of Spartan-Sprint for Ei*h-in-«-barrel shota, look what's happening now.
1
The usefulness should be e v i d e n t .
Even if people wars entitled to ateej beck eaoeae profit! from the phone c o m p a n y - ths so-called "people's dlaoounl'-- tha trouble is thai they mas* things up for everyone. We have a beautiful and delicate phone ay .tern, on* that atands ready lo do wonderful things for you Including bring computer service to your home; •van If. for the sak. of argument. II I* run by dirty rati, meaalng around with It la Ilk* poisoning tha reservoir for everybody.
MlJtVs and rOBa.
N o w , it is not hard to find out about an i n d i v i d u a l . A few phone calls from an official-sounding p e r s o n can ascertain his credit r a t i n g , for i n s t a n c e . But that is very different from putting all these r e cords together in one p l a c e .
MI*V (Multiple Independently Targ*t«d Re-entry Vehicle) basically swans Multiple warheads. On. rocket can carry all these little guys, aee, that fan out whan lt gate near the target, and each one goes to Its own target city or Installation. POB, or fractional Orbital Bombardment aystem, just means that thay send the thing Into an orbit around the world, snd the warheads com* in from the opposite sid*. Any side. Meaning that all those radars pointed at Russia would •ak* good drive-in anvl* screene.
The potential for m i s c h i e f lies in danger to i n d i v i d u a l s . Persons up to no good could carefully investigate someone through the computer and then b u r g l a r i z e or k i d n a p . Someone u n s c r u p u l o u s could look for rich widows with 30-year-old u n married d a u g h t e r s . O r g a n i z e d crime could search for patsies and strong-arm v i c t i m s .
ABM la sort of a dead duck: the on* face-saving Instillation ia in North Dakota, and there won't be any others. But one wonders how such things could ever be funded. But then again I remember once hearing Eric Sevsreid, whom soma call a liberal, pontifical* on thla subject. "They describe it aa a 'thin •hieid,'(he said) Why can't w* just spend a few billion more and get complete protection?" Othsrwia* canny people, if fooled by th* technologists, will believe anything.
In the face of this sort of p o s s i b i l i t y , computer people have been w o r r y ing for y e a r s ; noteworthy is the study by Alan Westin that originally sounded the alarm, and his too-reassuring followup study of some d a t a - g a t h e r i n g organn a t i o n s (see b i b l i o g r a p h y ) . But the scary data b a n k s , the ones that evidently keep track of political d i s s e n t e r s , aren't talking about w h a t they do (see Schwartz p i e c e ) . B a s i c a l l y , the two g r e a t e s t from data banks are organized cri the Executive branch of the Fede:
Ita nasa haa kspt changing, poaalbly to lull th* public, possibly to gull the Congress. Anyhow, would you believe a systea, totally controlled by computers, designed to shoot down oncoming •lsailaa? If you would, read on. It's been called Nifce-X, Safeguard and goodness knows whet. (It's even been called a "thin shield"-- masculine, huh7 Perhaps Congress would pay s o n if they called it the Trojan 4X.I But generally wa refer to lt aa the M M {Anti-Ballistic Missile). It's the anti-oissile Missile people have talked about, and in it lis aany interesting morals, possible comparison*, etc., for which there Is no
But the ABM is a beautiful sumpla ! top-down planning— like the Vletnamis war. I imagine that th* Sprint cam* >out aome thing like this t "Garfield, our people In Operations Basearch have concluded that Spartan won't work."
"Garfield, I want your team to gat on lt and find somsthlng additional that will make it work.* and cs 'Lease
of the telephone company, remember, the sane people who mak* the Prlncesst" phone. Of the hundred, of Billions al dollars they are taking in on this project, auch
had had control national data Enough said.
tt may seem o d d , bi i has idhe is concerned about computers and the privacy p r o b l e m . Cynics may joke about what his concern actually is; but a more credible stand was taken by v i c e - p r e s i dent Ford at the 1974 National Computer C o n f e r e n c e . Ford expressed personal concern over p r i v a c y , particularly c o n s i d ering a proposed system called F E D N E T , which would supposedly centralize g o v e r n m e n t records of a broad v a r i e t y .
which makes the computers: to Bell labs, which guides the project, whose Whlppany, H.J. facility is totally given over to iti to the rocket-builders snd ao B systs Note that in telling you thi* I em drawing only on information that ia publicly available, and drawing eoncluatona from lt the way on* usually draws concluHer* ia how th* great ABM is sup-
N o t mentioned by Ford was the matter of N C I C , the National Crime Information C e n t e r . This will be a s y s t e m , run by the F B I , to give police anywhere in the country access to c e n t r a l i z e d r e c o r d s . THE QUESTION IS WHAT GETS S T O R E D . A r rest records? Anonymous tips? (It would be possible to frame individuals rather nicely if a lot of loose stuff could be slipped into the file.) Many people seen to be concerned with preserving some "right to p r i v a c y , " which is certainly a very nice idea, but it isn't in the C o n s t i t u t i o n ; getting such a " r i g h t " formalized and agreed upon is going to be no small m a t t e r . But that isn't w h a t bothers m e . Considering recent e v e n t s , and the c h a r acter of certain elected officials whole devotion t o , and conception o f , democracy is lately in d o u b t , things' are scarcely as abstract as all t h a t . Considering how helpful our government has been to brutal regimes abroad-- notably the Chile overthrow, which some say was run from here (and which used sports arenas for d e t e n tion just as J o h n Mitchell did--) we can no longer know w h a t use any information may find in this g o v e r n m e n t . Tomorrow's Data Bank may be next week's Enemies L i s t , ' " i Protective Custodial Advisi Ten > List and f xt yel (I don't know if you saw Robert Mardian's eyes on the Watergate h e a r i n g s , but they chilled my blood.)
Isswns* radars scan ov*r th* horizon looking for possible reflections that alghe be intercontinental missiles. The radar laiagas sre forever constantly analysed ij computers, using •vary trick of pattern Recognition (see p. on I D Anal
Somsthlng is coming.
Great doors swing open, and a long phallic snap* arises. It has jagged angular fine, inherited from th* mailer anti-aircraft Nik* (wa aay Hikey that preceded lt. Thia eUsslls .lad th* Spartan. It take* off. The computer system is tracking tha oncoming missile. Here lt comas— it's dodging now-- the Spartan ia turning, going faster and faster-- they're coming Oncoming aiasll* speedi maybe 15,000 alias an hour. Spartan spaed, maybe 10,000, who knows. In these f*w minutes the Spartan has gone 400 alias. How's your tannlal
"Computers, Privacy, and Secur e r Decision*. Kay 74, 46-48. river snd Freedoe. 1967.
red box: device that almulates th* elgnala mads by falling coin*. The fact that th* namea of theae devices are given here is not lo b* construed as In any same* approving of thsm. and anybody w h o masses around with them la a fool, playing with napalm.
Brlghtar than . thousand suns! Sorry, Scsrsdal*. can't win >em all. If you find this description mindboggling, that', bec.u.. it is. Anybody -ho imsgine. U - t thl. project, on which Billion* of your dollars hav* already been spant, can work. Is a wishful thinker Indeed. Even If •!sill,, ,t*y*d like they the good old days of 1 « 2 , big helplai clunkers they had to fuel up J ™ ooior* th* shoot, th* likelihood of th. 5-mil. ABM detonation they count on was pretty low. (Supposedly ACTA w a a hoping that Spartan and Sprint could ba replaced with ultrapcver, fry-ln-the-sky laser beaaa, sapping down all comers with aky-plercing stab* under computer control— but that Is said to hav* been abendoned.)
I case In point
Ai/d B l u e trHD
There 1. another missile. It is called Sprint, it l, .haped Ilk, the point of s pencil, it Is alsoat all propellent. Wn*„ ^ m g r , , c cemputars realise that the bad guy ha* gotten through, up goes Sprint: Sprint ia elo qu*ntly ealud the "terminal d e f . ™ . systeat." it only ha* . couple of elnutee.
For ins at D*T! uth C o l l e g e , scientists have been wher< the orklng hand-i hand with their big timesharing projec f dai is already available on-line in the so. s c i e n c e s . The last c e n s u s , for instant In detailed and undigested form. Suppi you're at Dartmouth and you get into argument over w h e t h e r , s a y , divi < the age i age who olve: you just go to the nearest t e r m i n a l , in a quick program in B A S I C , and the
M a . St. Jame* la a celebrated * prostitute, once well known for her activities with Paul Kraaaner aa "The Realist Nun;" she la now Chairraadam of an organization called C O Y O T E , campaigning for the decriminalization of prostitution. She originally had no intention of becc ing a prostitute. Rather, she learned that there waa a falae record of her arrest for prostitution; and despite her efforts to clear her name, the record followed her wherever she tried to get a Job. Finally the said the hell with It and did become a prostitute.
"And the rocket's red glare, The bomb* bunting in air, Gave proof through the night That our flag uae etill there.
r> you h
1 fired a
•ut now cones th* good part. Th* Spartan go** off. lay!
UTso— ' " * ndmark Study ot Computer-Prfv*cy Problems Completed." CACM, Dec 11, 1096-7. nt review of Uestln 4 Baker.
It too
Hies of If 1 the attacking mlsall*. the hope 1* that U u attacking aiasll*'* thermonuclear warhead will get heated on one side and misfire. So lt lands in Time* Square, just break* a few buildings and spreads radioactive contamination. •ut welt.
•*•* Found, S t C ) . 110. • lecord.: rirst th* Psnscrs; Thenl' Datamation, Dec 7}. 105-110. * Fair Are Those Fair Credit Guides'" Pat—ation Hay 73, 110-114. 1 HirstD. Computer Systems end the Isau* of Privacy, HOW Far away Is 1M4T" Data—tion. JetX,
What If Spartan alseed. oops, aorry, Montreal. Never fear! Have you forgotten Sergeant York? Have you forgotten the
3 his cubicle clearj t jus fil r fling additional,
•Gee whir, they aay to aearch and destroy. I guess that suat mean..." Something new, this: the topdown project of th* worst sort, where the orders go down, and only news of partial success goes up, rather than th* facts of total hopelessness. As in VietThe sophisticated argument is that th* ABM effort l*ts our nation "keep its hand in," "sharpen skills," in case something vsguely like this is *v«r r**lly needed— and possible. But this overlook* the overall strategic problem. All this foolishness leads away from tha stability keeps everybody alive. (An Interesting point to notei a biologist and population geneticist named Sternglas* claims lt doesn't matter: that human reproduction is so susceptible to radiation poisof df— I fsw d mid end h
itally, an illustrious Dan McCracken (author Of ailng text* on seat of the good prograsmiw major language*] goes around lecturing on the futility
Th* thing Is. any set of assumptions, no natter how intricate, can be enacted by a computer model. Anything you can express exactly can be paired out, snd you can see its consequence* In the computer's readout-- a printout, a screen display, or some other view Into the resulting dels structure.
Ii in Imposing lerm which means almost anything. Basically, "simulation" means any activity that represents or resembles something. Computer simulation is using the computer to mimic something real, or something thai might b e , for any purpose: to understand an ongoing process better, or lo see how something might come oul in the
Hero again, though, the Science myth steps In to mystify thia process, aa though the mere use of the computer conferred validity or some kind of truth. (On T V shows the Space Voyagers stand In front of the "computer" and ask In firm, unnaturally loud voices what will be the results of soand-so. The computer's oracular reply Is Infallible. On T V . ) Let there be no mystery about this. Any use of a data structure on a what-if basis is Simulation. You can simulate in detail or crudely; your simulation can embody any theories, sensible r stupid-, and your results may or m a y not cor1 to reality. A "computer prediction'' ia the outcome of a simulation thai someone, evidently. Is willing to stand behind. (See "computer election predictions," p . 4iS~",) These point* have to be stressed because if there Is one computer activity which is pretentiously presented and stressed, it is simulation. Especially to naive clients. There is nothing wrong with simulation but there is nothing supernatural about it either. Another term which n iam« la modelling. In the loose sense, simulation or modelling consists of calculations aboul any descrlbable phoenomens-- for Instance, optical equations. In optical modelling (and this ia how they design today's great lenses), a data structure is created which represents the curvature, mounting, etc. of the separate glasses in a lena. Then "simulating" the paths of Individual rays of light through that lens, the computer program test* that lena design for how well the rays come together, and so o n . Then the design I* changed and tried again. Another type of simulation, an important and quite diatinct one-- Is thai which represent* the complex interplay of myriad units, finding out the upshots and consequences of intricate premise*. In traffic simulations, for Instance, II 1* easy enough to represent thousands of cars In a data structure, end hsvc them "reset" like drivers-- creating very convincing traffic Jams, again represented somehow within the Basically simulation requires two things; • representation, or data structure, that somehow represents the things you're simulating in the as pacts that concern you; and then a program does something to these data, that is In some w a y ilka the process you're concerned about acting on the thing* you're modelling. A n d each event of significance enacted by the program must somehow leave ita trace in the data structure. The line between simulation and other programming Is not always clear. Thua the calculation of the future orbits of the planets could be called "simulations." • The most Intricate case*, though, don't particularly resemble any other kind* of program*. The intricate enactments of physical movement*, especially swarms and myriads with mixed and colliding populations, are especially Interesting. On a recent Scientific American article, simulation helped to understand possible stream era of stars between galaxies as resulting from normal conalderatlon* or Inertia and gravitation. (Alar and Juri Toomre, "Violent Tides between Gsi*lies." S d . A m . Dec 73, 18-48. )J Models of complex and changing rates are another interesting type. Enacting complex thing*, whose amounts are constantly changing In terms of percentage multipliers of each other, sound easy in principle, but their consequences can be quite surprising. (See "The Club of Rone." p. tf .) To Imagine th* kinds of mixed-case myriad modal* now possible, w e could on today's big computers model snlirs societies, with s separate record describing each Idlvldual out of million*, and specifying his probabilities 0 f action and different preference* according to various theories -- then follow through whole societies' behavior in terms of education, Income, marriage, sex poverty, death, and anything else. Talk about tin soldier, and boats In the bathtub. Any computer language can be used for some kind of simulation. For simulations involving relatively few entitles, but lots of rates or formulas, good old BASIC or F O R T R A N is fin*. OlAOI's "Synthavision" system, which could be said lo "simulate" complex figures In a three-dimensional space, i» don* In Portren; •** P-S*\1.) for simulation* involving s lot of separate object*, special cases and discrete events. T R A C Language (see p. | e ) [a great. 1/ numerous mathematical formula, are Involved, and you want to change them around oonsldersbly In an experimental sort of w a y . A P L Is well suited (aee pp 2j2 ) . There ar* a number of special "atmuUuon" languages, notably BTM8CRIPT and Q P 8 S . Thee* hav* additional features useful, for Instance, In simulating *venta ovar time, auch a* "EVENT" command* which synchronize or draw dl vision lines In Urn* (th* simulated Urn*). Simulation languages generally allow a great variety or data types and operations on them. The llat-procaaalng fanatic*, of ooure*, insist that their own languages (such as U 8 P and S N O B O L ) ar* best And than there's P L A T O Case p ^ £ , > , who** T U T O H languag* 1* splendid for both formulas and discrate work-- but allow* you only 1(00 variables, total (60 bit* .each).
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Obviously these enactments (or sometime* "predictions") are wholly fallible, deriving any validity they may have from th* soundness of the Initial data or model.
If simulation mean* the Enactment of some event by computer. Operations Research means doing theae enactment* to try out different atrategies, and teat the moat effective ones.
However, they have another Important function, one which is going to be very Important In education and, I hope, general public understanding, as computers get spread about more widely and become more usable.
Operations research really began during World War II with such problems as submarine hunting. Given so-and-so many planes, whst pattern should they fly in lo make their catching submarines most likely? Building from certain types of known probability, (but in areas where
The availability of simulation modela can make things easier to understand. Well-set-up simulation programs, available easily through terminals, can be used as Staged Explanatory Structures and Theoretical Exploration Tool*. The user can build hi* o w n w a r s , his o w n societies . his o w n economic conditions, snd see what follow* from the ways he sets (hem u p . importantly, different theories can be applied to the same setups, to make more vivid the consequence* of one or the other point of view.
found), operotions researcher* could sometime* find the best ("optimal") strategies Tor many different kinds of activity. Basically what they do is ploy the situation out hundred* or thousands of H m e a . enacting it by computer, end using dice-throwing techniques to determine the outcomes of all the unpredictable parts. T h e n , after all entities have done their thing, the program can report on what strategies turned out to be most effective.
(Indeed, similar facilities ought to be available for Congress, to allow them lo pour s new tax through the population and see w h o suffers, w h o gains...)
Example. In 1973 the Saturday Review of so m e thing-or-other printed s piece on the solution . by O R techniques, of the game of Monopoly. Effectively the game had been played thousands of times, the dice thrown perhaps millions, and the different "players" had employed various different strategies against each other In a varying mix: Always B u y , Buy Light Green, Utilities snd Boardwalk, etc.
I should point out here that for this purpose-- Insightful Simulation— you don't always need a computer. I have in mind the so-called "simulation games." which If well designed give extraordinary Insights to the players. Allen Calhamer's brilliant game of Diplomacy, for instance (Games Research, Boston; available from Brenlano's. N Y C ) teaches more about international politic* than you could suppose possible, t a m also Intrigued by a game called "Slmsoc," worked out by a sociologist to demonstrate the development of social structures from o state of random creation, but I haven't played it. (Clark C . A b t . or Abt Associates, Boston, has also done a lot of Interesting design here.)
A complete solution was found, the strategy which tends (over many playa) to work beat. I forget what it w a * . Using another technique. Ihe game of football was analyzed by Robert E . Machol or Northwestern and Virgil Carter, a football personage. Their idea was to test various maxims of the g a m e , to find out which c o m m o n rules about beneficial plays were Irue. W h s ! they did waa replay fifty-six big-league football games on s play-by-play basis, rate the outcomes, and see which circumstances proved most advantageous on Ihe average. I've mislaid the reprint (Operations Research• a recent year), and being totally ignorant of football can remember none of Ihe findings. A n y h o w , that'* where to look.
A last point, a very "practical" application. Simulation makes il possible (o enact things without trying Ihem out In concrete reality. For instance, in the lens-design systems mentioned earlier, the lenses don't have to be actually built to find out their detailed characteristic*. Nor la lt necessary to build electronic circuitry, n o w . to find out whether it will work-- at least that's what the sales m e n aay. You can simulate any circuit from a terminal, and "measure" what it does al any time or In any part with simulated meters. Similarly, when any computer la designed n o w , It's simulated before It's built, and programs are run on Ihe simulated computer, aa enacted within a real computer, lo aee if it behaves as Intended. (Actually there are aome hot-wire types w h o insist on building thing* first, but one assume* that the more sensible computer designer* do this.)
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T h e earlier explanation or Operations Research wasn't quite right. It's any systematic study or whnl works best. Computers can help.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Virqil Carter and Robert E. Machol, "Operations Research on Football." Operations Research, 1, 541-544.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Simulation magazine ia the official journal of Simulation Councils, Inc., the curiously named society of the Simulator*. It costs SIB a year from Simulation Councils, Inc.. Box 2228. La J oil a C A 62037.
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For all I know you get annual m e m bership free with that. I've always wonted to join bul it was always the one thing too many: but their conference programs are sensation*). Where else can you hear papers on traffic, biology, military hardware, weather prediction and electronic design without changing your seal?
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A lot of people think compute in some way cruel and d e s t r u c t i v e , Thi! comes in part from the image of the ^, puter as " r i g i d " (see "The Myth of th« C o m p u t e r , " p .
lot the nature o: than the naturt o type poems or
The point is that the military p e o ple are gung ho on t e c h n o l o g y , and keen on c h a n g e , and Congress buys it for them. No way is there room to cover this subject d e c e n t l y . But we'll mention a few t h i n g s . The Pent; „ . fir___st of a l l , with its p a y r o l l of m i l l i o n s , with its stupendous inventories of blankets and bombs and toilet p a p e r , was the prime mover behind the d e v e l o p m e n t of the Cobol business computing l a n g u a g e . So a vast amount is spent just on computers to run the mili*" " "'.shaent from a business point of viei O f course that's i ot the stuff.
With automobiles it's harder; but C M , for instance, simulates the handling characteristics of lta cars betore they're ever built-- so that designers can redistribute weight, change steering characteristics and so on, till the handling char acts rl tat ics come out Ihe w a y the Consumers seem to like.
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"Simulation" means almost anything that in any w a y represents or resembles something. useless or Improper
Ex amp lea. Here are ways w e could "simu-
Show dots moving around an oval track on a completely random baals, and declare the first lo complete the circuit T h e Winner. Assign odda to Individual horses, and then use a randomizer to choose Ihe winner, taking into account those odds. (This ie how the P L A T O "horserace" game works; see p.JHJ7.) Give conditional odds to the differenl horses, based on possible "weather conditions." Then flip a ooln (or the computer equivalent, weighted randomisation) to test the "weather conditions," and aaslgn the horse's performance accordingly. Program an enactment of a horaa race. In which the winner 1* selected on Ihe basis of th* Interaction of th* horoscopes of horse and rider. Create a data structure representing th* three-dimensional hinging of horse's bones, and tha Interlaced timing of the the horse'* gait. (This haa been don* at U . of Pennsylvania on a D E C 111.) Than hav* (h*ae stick figures run around a track (or the data alructure equivalent). Using a synthetic photography system auch aa MAuT'a Synlhavielon (see p . j n ^ ) , create the ID data structure for th* entire surf ace of a running horae over time; then make several copies of this horae run around a track, and make simulated photographs of it. A n d so on. So don'1 be snowed by th* term "simulstton ." H a**n* m u c h , little or nothing, depending.
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Until n o w , the o b s c u r i t y of computers has kept the p u b l i c from u n d e r s t a n d i n g that a n y t h i n g like p o l i t i c a l issues were involved in their u s e . But now a lot of things are going to b r e a k . For instance--
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J . Lds;ar H o o v e r ' s recent death raised a very serious p r o b l e m . What about all those files he had been k e e p ing? Responsible critics of the F B I , such as Fred J . C o o k , have claimed t.ut H o o v e r ' s policy b a s i c a l l y consisted of chasing lone punks (like D i l l i n g e r , Bonnie and C l y d e ) , h a r a s s i n g p o l i t i c a l d i s s e n t e r s , and keeping vast u n n e c e s s a r y records on innocent citizens-- thus v i r tually creating the vast network of o r ganized crime in A m e r i c a , which stays off the police b l o t t e r s . Thus the quesof the FBI T h e q u e s t i o n has been a n s w e r e d . In July 1973 N i x o n appointed Clarence K e l l e y , police chief of Kansas C i t y . A f t e r the p r e v i o u s goings-on-- for i n s t a n c e , Nixon's seeming to offer the post to Judge Byrne w h i l e he was presiding o v e r the Ellsberg trial-- this looked to the press like a aid and u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l r e s o l u t i o n . But i itT Kelley certainly is aware of techn o l o g y . It seems to be he that put d i s play screens In Kansas City police c a r s , created the A L E R T system (Automated Law Enforcement Response Team) and COPPS (Computerized Police Planning S y s t e m ] , which for your amusement ties into MULES (Missouri Uniform Law Enforcement S y s t e m ) . (See H e l v i n F. B o c k e l m a n , "On-Line f > n ~ puters Keeping Things S t r a i g h t , " which describes the Kansas City computer s e t u p . C o m m u n i c a t i o n s . June 7 3 , 12-Z0.) In a more threatening v e i n , supposedly the Kansas City department kept computer files on " m i l i t a n t s , mentals and a c t i vists." (Schwartr a r t i c l e , p . 19.) "hat Kelley does is thus of interest to us a l l . The big q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r , for all his concern with police automation, he is also concerned with the freedoms this country used to be a b o u t .
It is thus a supreae irony that ARPA paid for the d e v e l o p m e n t of: COMPUTER DISPLAY (the Sketchpad studies at Lincoln L a b s ; see p . ^ e \ t > ) ; TIME-SHARING ( e . g . the CTSS s y s t e m , see p . f T ) ; HALFTONE IMAGE SYNTHESIS (the Utah algorithms: but see all of p p . J.», "St. - 3 1 ) ; and lots m o r e . Some folks m i g h t say that proves it's all e v i l . I say let's look at c a s e s . While they have military a p p l i c a t i o n s , that's simply because they have appliitions in every f" i eml d ,i and l i the t a e just where the money i s . J u s t to enumerate tary things--
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,nd and control-- the problem .f keeping track oi who's done what to whj ipm, nd ,what's. -left on both s i d e s , lemn :.rony that the g n "46SL Command and Control System"-- a grand room with many projectors drlvei by c o m p u t e r , only something like thosi In " D r . S t r a n g e l o v e " and "Fail-Safe"-may be a prototype for offices and cot ference rooms of the f u t u r e . mlc all the ele< eluding thoi
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cosput elligence"in from forma c e s . This is no simple probleu-- how tt find out what i. so from a ntradictory info nation; think about i t . Don't think about how we get that i n f o r m a t i o n . ill*]
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QUIS CUSTOOIBT, mj
7J, p. 21. K sysMets analyst : the welfare progr* NECESSITY HAS BEEN THE EXCUSE FOR EVERY INFRINGEMENT OF HUMAN FREEDOM, I T I S THE ARGUMENT OF TYRANTS; I T I S THE CREED OF SLAVES,
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The i sting stuff in computers a n came out of the m i l i t a r y . The Department of Defense has a branch called A H P A , or Advanced Research and Development A g e n c y , which finances all kinds of technical developments with vaguely military p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
Digital Equipment Corporation, in re •port mo to the "Energy Crisis" of 1973, didn't turn out their Christmas tree. Instead they hooked it u p to a water wheel they happened to n e v e . Typical. This policy ha* m a d e for slow but steady g r o w t h , In effect, Digital built a national c u s tomer base a m o n g the most sophisticated clients. T h e kids w h o as undergraduates and hangers-on built interfaces and kludgey arrangements, n o w aa project heads build big fancy systems around D E C e q u i p m e n t . T h e places that k n o w computers usually have a variety of D E C equipment a r o u n d , usually drastically modified.
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A n area D E C has emphasized from the first haa been computer display (discussed al length on the flip side). T h u s it is no surprise that their interactive animated computer display, the G T 4 0 (see P - M | ) is an outstanding design and success. (And" the University of U t a h , currently Ihe mother c h u r c h of computer display, runs its graphic systems from P D P - l O s . )
D E C w e n t about 11 differently, always d e signing for the people w h o k n e w w h a t they w e r e doing*, and always going to great lengths to tell y o u exactly w h a t their equipment did. First they m a d e circuits for people w h o wanted to tie digital equipment together. T h e n , since they had the circuits a n y w a y , they m a n u factured a computer (the P D P - 1 ) . T h e n more c o m p u t e r s , increasing the line slowly, but always telling potential users aa m u c h as they could possibly w a n t to k n o w . T h e a a m e for its m a n u a l s . People w h o wrote for information from Digital would often get. not s s u m m a r y sheet referring you to a local sales office, but a complete m a n u a l (say. for the P D P - 8 ) , including chapters on p r o g r a m m i n g , h o w to build interfaces to it, and the exact liming and distribution of the main internal pulses. T h e effect of thia w a s thai sophisticated users-espectally in universities and research establishments-- started building their o w n . Their o w n interfaces, their o w n modifications to D E C c o m p u t e r s , their o w n original systems around D E C computers.
(There were no P D P - 2 . 3 or 13.)
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In this p l u c k y , h o m e s p u n c o m p a n y , w h e r e e v e n president Olsen is k n o w n by his first n a m e ( K e n ) , il is understandable thai marketing pizazz takes a back seat. This apparently w a s the view of a g r o u p of rebels, led b y vice president E d deCastro, w h o broke off in ihe late sixties to start a n e w computer c o m p a n y around a 16-bit computer design called the N o v a — r u m o r e d lo have been a rejected design for ihe P D P - 1 1 . T h e c o m p a n y they started, Data General, has not been afraid to use the hard sell, anil between their hard sell a n d s o u n d machine line they've seriously challenged the parent c o m p a n y .
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H o w e v e r . I do have grateful recollections of the w a r m t h and courtesy with which people from Digital Equipment Corporation have taken pains to explain things to m e . hour after h o u r , conference after conference. In the early sixties they had one m a n in one small office to service and sell all of N e w Jersey and N e w York City. But that one g u y , D a v e Denniston. spent considerable time responding to m y questions and requests over a period of a couple of years, and in the nicest possible w a y , even though (here w a s no w a y I could buy anything. Y o u don't forget treatment like thst.
But Digital m a r c h e s o n . the Cor,(>ulor I'ur.'s computer c o m p a n y . If I B M Is computerdem's K o d a k , w h o s e overpriced but quite reliable goods h a v e various d r a w b a c k s , D E C is N i k o n , with u mlx-and-match assortment of w h a t the hotshots w a n t . That's pluralism for y o u .
Any nuubcr of diftei are used for mass storagi information! each haa iti
T r y i n g to print lists of a v a i l a b l e s t u f f h e r e is h o p e l e s s . T h e r e are t h o u s a n d s of p e r i p h e r a l s fron h u n d r e d s of m a n u f a c t u r e r s . If y o u b u y a m i n i , f i g u r e t h a t y o u r p e r i p h e r a l s w i l l c o s t I 1 S 0 0 ( T e l e t y p e ) on un_. B u t m a i n t e n a n c e (see p . 5 C ) is t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e n . If you buy p e r i p h e r a l s from the m a n u f a c t u r e r of t h e c o m p u t e r , a t l e a s t y o u c a n be s u r e s o n c o n e w i l l b e w i l l i n g to m a i n t a i n t h e w h o l e t h i n g . (Independent peripheral manufacturers will often repair their own e q u i p m e n t , but nobody w a n t s to be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i n t e r f a c e . )
t magnetic devices [ symbolic (digital) m medium, or form
EFFECTIVELY STANDARDIZED BY IBM 3/4-inch magnetic tap*. Pr*-196S: 6 tracks data, 1 track parity. Post-196S: 8 tracks data, 1 track parity. 2741 disk Stack of removable platters site of a layer cake. 3330 diak Same but bigger cak*.
If y o u w a n t a l i s t s e c " T a b l e o f M i n i p e r i p h e r a l S u p p l i e r s , " C o m p u t e r D e c is i o n s , D e c 7 2 , 3 3 - S ; otore t h o r o u g h p o o p "Is o f f e r e d by Datapro Research C o r p . , 1 Corporate C e n t e r , R o u t e 3 8 , M o o r e s t o w n NJ 0 8 0 5 7 .
Viek drive for the 11. Moot auch devices go at 30 spirts a second, or 1600 rpm. The heads that read and urite moving arms that have to be positioned on the different tracks. (Sons disks have a head for every track, uhiah
tsd disk itself is hidden in the plastic case. Nevertheless, they sometimes get soratahed or break. A disk costs S?S and holds up to 2,400,000 characters of information (1.2 million PDP-11 uords, uhiah are IS bits each).
If you have disk drivse ($5600 saah) you need a controller (S5S0O). Sigh.
Surely nobody can resist th* peripherals offered by General Turtle, inc., 545 Technology Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139. Th* Turtle is a sort of caaserola on wheels that takes a pencil down tha middle, Attached to your computer, it can be programmed to ramble around draw' in? picture*, or Just do w h e e U * * on the parquetry. SBOO. •oa Is 1600. tt sing* In four lot of Vivaldi, doe* fiva octaves fftiter like • -Teletype. Thay will tha phone (617/661-1773).
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Plastic case, size of coolis hat, enclosing disk. (loppy disk rlaxible, card-thin disk enclosed in square 8" envelope. data cell Inot very common) Plastic strips pulled out of wedgeshaped tube* arranged In a rotating cylinder. Strip i* pulled out of thi* carouael, whipped around a drum to aaka temporary drum memory, returned to case. EFFECTIVELY STANDARDIZED BY OTHERS
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I'm not getting any favors from D E C , 1'n t saying about them what people ought (o
S o m e k i n d s of p e r i p h .1 d e or c o m p u t e r ua ct ct ec s si ou ri i ec si , a r ec aallwwaayys n e c e s s a r y . Only t h r o u g h p e r i p h e r a l s can y o u look at or h e a r results of w h a t the c o m p u t e r d o e s , s t o r e q u a n tities of i n f o r m a t i o n , p r i n t s t u f f out and whatnot.
Then the Hualc voices, enough for i and looks to th* cos play you samples on
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D E C ' s computers have always been designed by p r o g r a m m e r s , for p r o g r a m m e r s . This m a d e for considerable suspense w h e n the P D P - 1 1 did not a p p e a r , even though the higher n u m b e r s did. and the grapevine had il that the 11 would be a sixteen-bit m a c h i n e . It proved to be well waiting for (see p . 22.}, and has since b e c o m e the standard sophisticated 16-bit machine in the industry.
Other computer companies have mimicked I B M . T h e y have built big computers and iried lo sell them to big corporations for their business data processing, or big "scientific" machines and tried to sell them to scientists.
A l s o h e l p f u l on disks and t a p e s : " M a k i n g a Go of M i n i s t o r a g e , " by Linda D e r n e r . Comp u t e r D e c i s i o n s . F e b 7 4 , 3 2 - 3 8 . B e s t recen"t
mn:
Because of the great success of its small c o m p u t e r s , especially the P D P - 8 . even m a n y c o m puter people think ihey only m a k e small c o m p u ters. In fact their big c o m p u t e r , the P D P - 1 0 , is one of the most successful U m e - s h s r i n g c o m p u t e r s . A n e x a m p l e ot its general esteem In the field: it is the host computer of A R P A N E T . the national computer network a m o n g scientific installations funded b y the Department of Defense; basically this m e a n s A R P A N E T is a network of P D P - l O s .
T h e computer companies are often referred to in the field as " S n o w White and the Seven Dwarfs"-- a phrase that atays the s a m e e v e n aa the lesser ones (like R C A and General Electric) get out of the buslneaB one b y o n e . T h e phrase suggest*, that they're all alike. T o an extent; but there ia one c o m p a n y sufficiently different, and Important e n o u g h both In Its history and its continuing e m i n e n c e , to require exposition h e r e . This is Digital E q u i p m e n t Corporation, usually pronounced "Deck," the people w h o first brought out the minicomputer and continue to m a k e fine stuff for people w h o k n o w w h a t they are doing.
A s to the s e r i o u s m a t t e r o f d i s k s , a n e x c e l l e n t r e v i e w a r t i c l e is " D i s c S t o r a g e f o r Minicomputer Applications," Computer Design June 1 9 7 3 , 55-66. This reviews both principles of d i f f e r e n t types of disk d r i v e s , and w h a t various manufacturers offer.
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Ho joke her*. People are still making Braille copies of things by hand. But th* way to do lt 1* by computeri 'he machine can punch out new copies of whatever'* stored in lt, repeatedly.
L IMC tape 3/4-lnch tape on a 4-inch reel (fits in pocket). apecially coated against friction, developed at Lincoln Labs for LIWC computer (see p . 4 1 ) . °kCt*Sa**i' else and real but differently formatted for DEC machines (variaa with modal). Vary reliable. A personal favorite of many prograossers. 3M CARTRIDGE The Scotch-tape people say th* caaaetta is unreliable, and offer aa an alternative a belt-driven quarter-Inch baby, coating maybe S10OO without Interface. CRAM (Card Random Access Memory)-- rare Big place* of plastic [about four Inch** by two feet) pulled by notch*a out of a cartridge and whipped around a drum. National Cash Register. HARDLY STANDARDIZED AT ALL "Cassettes"— Phllip*-typ* audio-type cassette. Used by various manufacturer* in various way*. Syk*s. Sycor. DEC, Data General end other, h a v . separata, snd u s ually incompatible, system*.
A Brailie-punching adapter kit is available for tha plain 33 Teletype, I believe froet Honeywell.
[It 1* of Interest that an early use of Mooers' TRAC Language was with Braille convsz slon.l
YOU never know what you'll sea next. In 1969 one firm announced a "high-density r-ad-only memory device - which anyone could sea waa a plain 45 RPH phonograph— but with digital e l ectronics. And it mad. senas. But it doasn t •earn to have caught o n .
56
A LITTLE G E M F R O M T H E IBM S O N G B O O K (Who lays IBM doesn't encourage Individualism? T o tha tuna of "Pack U p Your Troubles in Your Old Kit Bag.")
BIBLIOGRAPHY
" T H E R E IS A W O R L D E L S E W H E R E . " - Corlolsnus There is no w a y to escape IBM entirely. IBM mediates our contacts with government and medicine, wilh libraries, bookkeeping systems, and bank balances. But these Intrusions are still limited, and moat of us don't have to live there.
" T O T H O M A S J. W A T S O N , President, IBMPack up your troubles-- M r , Watson's here! A n d smile, smile, smile. He is the genius In our IBM He's the m a n worth while. He's inspiring all the time. A n d very versatile-- oh) He Is our strong and abla President 1 His smile's worth while.
There are m a n y computer people w h o refuse to have anything to do with IBM systems. Others, not so emphatic, will tell you pointedly that they prefer to stay as far away from IBM computers a* possible. If you ask w h y . they m a y tell you they don't care to be bothered with restrictive, unwieldy and unnecessary complications [the JCL language is usually mentioned). This Is one reason that quite a few people stick with minicomputers, or with firms using large computers of other brands.
"Greet organizer and a friend s Say all we boys. Ever he thinks of things to say T o Increase our Joys. He Is building every day In hi* outstanding style— so Pack up your troubles, M r Watson's here A n d Smile-- Smile-- Smile
It is possible to work productively In the computer field and completely avoid having to work with IBM-style systems. M a n y people d o .
(As a nostalgic public service Advanced Computer Techniques, Inc.. of Boston, gave sway LPs of IBM songs at the '69 S J C C . They might Just have some left...
Harvey D , Shapiro, "l.B.M. and all the dwarfs." N e w York Times Magazine, July 29. 1«73, 10-36. A n objective, factual article, sympathetic to IBM-- although it drew at least one irate letter from an lbmer w h o didn't think it sympathetic enough. lall?"
N e w s w e e k . Octo-
Frank T . G a r y , letter to the editor, N e w s w e e k , Oct. 15 73, p , 4. A snappish reply to the above by the IBM Board Chairman, w h o evidently didn't like the article very Robert Somuelson. "IBM's Times Sunday linan 1973, p. 1. -•This article gives a unique glimpse of some of the interesting things lhat came to light in the Control Data suit against IBM-- citing trial documents never publicly released . * William Hodgers. Think. Stein and D a y . 1969. Subtitled A Biography of the Watsons and I B M .
IBM can put pretty m u c h anything on s single chip, to m a k e a functioning machine the size of a postage stamp; but so can a lot ol other companies. The question really becomes whether what goes on thst chip ia a worthwhile machine lhat does what people want. .. . B U T T H E S A M E O L D B L O C K ? It Is by no m e a n s clear that IBM has any general ability to m a k e computer systems easy to
This is a psychological problem. A* a corporation they are used to designing systems that people have to use by fist, and must be trained to use. contributing to the captivity and inertia of the customer base. T h u s the notion of making things deeply and conceptually straightforward, without special Jargon or training, m a y not be a concept the company is ready for.
T h e famous Consent Decree of January 1956. (In a consent decree, an accused party admits no guilt but agrees to behave In certain w a y s thereafter.) In response to a federal anti-trust suit. IBM agreed to: sell as well as lease its computers, and repair those o w n e d by others; permit attachments to lta leased computers. not require certain package deals; license various patents; not buy up used machines; and get out of the business of supplying computer services, i.e., programming and hourly rentals. Unbundling decision, late sixties. While this was not a government action but a an internal policy decision by the c o m p a n y , it s o m e how had a public-relations appearance ol official compulsion. Beset by pressures from makers of look-alike machines, users of competitive equipment, and the threat of anti-trust action, IBM decided to change its policy and sell programs without computers and computers without programs. Delight amongst the Industry turned to chagrin as this became recognized as a price hike. T h e Telex Decision. September '73; Telex C o r p . of Tulsa was awarded $352, 500.000 in triple damages (since reduced) for losses attributed to IBM's "predatory" pricing and other marketing practices. M u c h more important. IBM w a s required lo disclose the detailed electronics required to hook things to their computers and accessories within sixty days of announcing any. This w a s a great relief for the whole industry. Essentially it meant IBM could no longer dictate what you attach to their machines Unlortunately, it is not clear whether this will stand. But what we're waiting to hear about is whether tha Nixon Justice Department is, or is not, going to press the big anti-trust suit which has been long brewing, al the persistent request of other firms in the Industry,
-» Concentrates on the days before computers. Fascinating profile of Watson, a business tiger; but the view of the corporation in an evolving nation Is general Americana that transcends fiction. Would you believe Rodgers says Watson was tha kingmaker w o put General Ike in the White House? Unfortunately, the book has relatively less on the computer era. so the inside story ol m a n y of their momentous decisions since then i
Marvelous; hard to get; Gould thinks IBM quietly bought up all the copies. T h e musings of a sophisticated, clever and observant cynic w h o began knowing nothing about I B M , Gould's wide-eyed observation of its corporate style and atmosphere is a jolt to those of us who've gotten used to it. A n d he thought it was just another big company!
-^Questionnaire survey intended to test truth of c o m m o n accusations against I B M . (Discussed in text above.) W.David Gardner, "The Government's Four Years and Four Months In Pursuit of IBM." Datamation, June 1973, 114-115.
"THINK O F T H E C O M P U T E R A S E N E R G Y . " says a recent series of IBM ads. But in terms of monopoly, price, un the world's convenience, there woul seem only one way to complete the analogy, viz.: "THINK O F T H E C O M P U T E R A S E N E R G Y .
Almost any Issue of Computerworld or Datamation, tha two main industry news publications, carries articles mentioning complaints about IBM from various quarters on various issues. Datamation's letters are also sometimes Juicy on the topic. A n y Issue of O n Line, a n e w s sheet of th* Computer Industry Association, ten bucks a year. (C1A-- no relation to the intelligence agency 162S5 Ventura Blvd., Encino, C A 9131B.)
"Think of IBM as King Faisal."
other reasons.
focyk/6 of
w ! Think left o f f ;
S O M E DIVISIONS O F IBM you m a y hear about
OPD OPD F8D
OHice Producta Division. Typewriters, copisrs. Data Processing Division. Computers and accessories. Federal Systems Division. Big government contract*: N A S A *tufl. and w h o knows what. ASDD Advanced Systems Development Division. Very secret. Component* Division. Makes parts for th* other g u y s , including Integrated circuits. BRA Science Resasrch Associates. Chicago. Publishes textbooks and learning kit*. Hstson Lab T.J. Watson Research Laboratory. Wsatchaatar County, north ol N e w York City. Theoretical snd lookahaad research.
For a long time, during th* sixties. IBM's high prices provided sn environment that m a d e II easy for other companies to come into tha field and sell computers and peripheral*. These high prices were referred to as "the IBM umbrella."
T h s author regret* not being able to liat mora articla* and books favorable to I B M . but th*** do not aeem to turn up so m u c h However, her* are s fsw.
However, this era haa ended. IBM n o w cuts prices in whatever areas It's threatened. A brief flourishing of companies making add-on disk and core memories for IBM computars ha* become precarious; not only will IBM n o w cut prices, but thay have shown themselves still disposed to invent new restrictive arrangements (the recent "virtual m e m o r y " announcement for the 370 claimed thai th* program will only work oo IBM disk and core).
For an axample of the kind of adulation of IBM baaed on faith, see Hsnry C . Wallich, "Trusl-Bustlng the U.S.A.," N*wsweek 1 Oct 73, p. SO. Th* IBM Songbook, any yaar-- they haven't been issued since th*ftftla*--Is definitely a collsctlbla.
55 IBM a n n o u n c e d a n u m b e r o f w o r t h y o b j e c t i v e s w h e n the 360 l i n e w a s a n n o u n c e d in 1 9 6 4 . IBM s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y be t h a n k e d for a t l e a s t t h e i r l i p s e r v i c e to t h e s e n o b l e g o a l s . 1, 'One m a c h i n e for all p u r p o s e s , b u s i n e s s and s c i e n t i f i c . ' (Thus the n a m e ' " 3 6 0 , " for the " f u l l c i r c l e " of a p p l i c a t i o n s . ) By " b u s i n e s s " this m a i n l y m e a n t d e c i m a l , at f o u r b i t s a d i g i t . A c t u a l l y t h i s m e a n t g r a f t i n g 4 - b i t d e c i m a l h a r d w a r e to a n o t h e r wise n o r m a l b i n a r y c o m p u t e r , and m a k i n g b o t h types of u s e r s share the s a m e f a c i l i t y . 2. 'Information s t o r a g e and dardized.' T h e 360 w a s s e t u p to a t i m e , 8 b i t s at a t i m e , 1 6 , 3 2 , p r e c e d i n g s t a n d a r d h a d b e e n 6 , 18
transmission will be stanh a n d l e i n f o r m a t i o n 4 b i t s at and 64 b i t s at a t i m e . (The a n d 36 b i t s a t a t i m e . )
3. '360s will can be m o v e d freely
all look a l i k e to the n r o g r a n from m a c h i n e to m a c h i n e . '
f a c i l i t a t e t h e m o v i n g o f p r o g r a m s froi, a i l l B i i L u m p u t e r s to b i g o n e s , a m o r e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t h a s p e r h a p s b e e n to m a k e it h a r d to m o v e f r o m a b i £ c o m p u t e r to a s m a l l e r o n e . Note* tn~"T u s e f u l n e s s of this a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x t o T B M ' s m*IrTetinr.
In t h e i r 3 6 0 l i n e , I B H a l s o r e p l a c e d t h e i n d u s t r y ' s s t a n dard ASCII code with a strange alphabetical code called EBCDIC ("Extended Binary Coded Decimal Information C o d e " ) , ostensibly b u i l t up from the 4 - b i t d e c i m a l c o d e ( B C D ) , b u t b e l i e v e d b y * c y n i c s to h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d c h i e f l y to m a k e the 360 i n c o m p a t i b l e with other systems and terminals.
THE
FUTURE W h a t will I B M d o next?
B e t w e e n the trade press a n d d o z e n s of acquaintances in the field, almost everything 1 hear about I B M a n d its products is negative (say five or ten to o n e ) - - except from people w h o w o r k or h a v e relatives there. P e r h a p s it's Just sour g r a p e s . O r the authorityhating character or research t y p o s . O r selective r e a d i n g . O r p e r h a p s there really is something sinister. T h e major questions are theae.
Speculation ia almost futile, but necessary a n y h o w . T h e prospects are fascinating if not terrifying. N o o n e can ever predict w h a t I B M will do; but trying to predict IBM's actions-- I B M - w a t c h i n g is something like K r e m l i n - w a t c h i n g - - is e v e r y b o d y ' s h o b b y in the field. A n d Its c o n s e q u e n c e s affect e v e r y b o d y . With so m a n y things possible, a n d determined only in the vaguest w a y b y technical considerations, the question of w h a t I B M chooses to d o next Is pretty s c a r y . B e c a u s e w h a t e v e r they d o we'll b e stuck w i t h . T h e y can design o u r lives for the foreseeable future.
E v e n if it is true, as A n o n y m o u s s a y s (see Bibliography) that I B M intimidates people a n d k e e p s its enemies from getting jobs at IBM-oriented establishments, that's not the e n d of the w o r l d . G r o s c h , G o u l d , Ilodgers a n d M c G u r k are alive a n d w o r k i n g . Extramural h a r a s s m e n t like that e m p l o y e d b y C M against N a d e r , for e x a m p l e , has not b e e n reported.
1. H o w clean is their salesmanship? 2 . A r e their systems unnecessarily difficult or c u m b e r s o m e on purpose? 3 . H o w d e e p is their system of e n t r a p m e n t a n d forced c o m m i t m e n t of the customer? H o w necessary are the de-standardizations a n d the constant c h a n g e s ? 4. D o they h a v e a final liberating vision? D o they really, after all, Intend to bring about a d a y w h e n life is easier for people? W h e n the difficulties of present-day c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s , especially theirs, wither a w a y ? 1 think that history's J u d g m e n t o n I B M in o u r time m a y n a r r o w d o w n to that simple question.
(In this light it is not h a r d to u n d e r s t a n d IBM's stand o n software copyrights v s . patents. I B M is against p r o g r a m s being patentable, w h i c h w o u l d cover abstracted properties, but a r g u e s in favor of copyright, w h o s e protection Is probably m o r e limited to the particulars of a given p r o g r a m . If they h a v e their way. It w o u l d be assured that I B M could u s e any ingenious n e w p r o g r a m m i n g tricks without c o m p e n s a t i o n , w h e r e a s all u n n e c e s s a r y complications of b u l k y , c u m b e r s o m e software w o u l d be covered In entirety b y copyright.) Finally, tt has not b e e n demonstrated that I B M h a s any general ability to m a k e systems conceptually simple a n d easy to u s e . (Two good e x a m p l e s of h a r d systems are the M a g T a p e S electric and Data text - easy for p r o g r a m m e r s , but hardly for secretaries.) T h e r e s e e m s to b e no e m p h a s i s o n elegance or conceptual simplicity at I B M . T h o s e w h o adopt s u c h a philosophy (such as K e n n e t h Iverson) d o so o n their o w n . A s mentioned earlier, this h a s something to d o with the fact that individuals generally use IBM's Bystems b e c a u s e they h a v e to, being e m p l o y e e s or clients of the firms that rent I B M e q u i p m e n t , so there is n o impetus to design p r o g r a m s or systems to run o n simple or clearm i n d e d principles, or dress out intricate s y s t e m s so they can be used easily. 4. T H E I M A G E . It is h a r d to analyze i m a g e s , corporate or personal. T h e y are often received in s u c h different w a y s b y different populations. But there m a y b e a commonality to the I B M i m a g e as generally s e e n . T h e i m a g e of I B M involves s o m e kind of cold m a g i c , a brooding sense of sterile efficiency. B u t other things are percolating In there. If w e elide that connotation ol efficiency aside, the I B M i m a g e seems to have t w o other principal c o m p o n e n t s , authoritarianism and c o m p l a c e n c y . It is this m i x ture that longhalrs will naturally find revolting. This s a m e combination, h o w e v e r , m a y be exactly w h a t it is that appeals to b u a i n e s s - m a n a g e m e n t typas.
IP Y O U R E A L L Y W A N T I T . .. you can get character-by-character responding systems on I B M c o m p u t e r s . T h e n e w Stock E x c h a n g e system uses s "Telecommunications A c c e s s M e t h o d " permitting n o n - I B M terminals to respond character-by-character. Just as systems for non-computer-people s h o u l d . T r y i n g to use this Input-output p r o g r a m on your local I B M computer Is another p r o b l e m , t h o u g h . Aside from p r o g r a m rental costs, there Is ths p r o b lem of its compatibility with Ihe whole line of I B M software. Adaptation* and r e p r o g r a m m i n g would probably be necessary u p snd d o w n the line j
W e k n o w that In the future I B M will a n n o u n c e n e w m a c h i n e s a n d s y s t e m s , price c h a n g e s (both u p a n d d o w n ) in fascinating patterns, r e a r r a n g e m e n t s of w h a t they will "support," a n 3 c h a n g e s in the contracts they olfer (see b o x . "IBM's C o n t r o l " ) . Occasional high-publicity s p e e c h e s b y I B M high officers will continue to b e w a t c h e d with great c a r e . B u t mainly w e don't k n o w .
END OF THE'DINOSAURS? T o a very great extent, IBM's c o m p u t e r m a r k e t is based o n big c o m p u t e r s run in batch m o d e , u n d e r a v e r y obtrusive operating s y s t e m . M a n y people are beginning to notice, t h o u g h , that m a n y things are m o r e sensibly d o n e o n small c o m p u t e r s than on big o n e s , e v e n in c o m p a n i e s that h a v e big c o m p u t e r s . T h a t w a y they can be d o n e right a w a y rather than having to wait in line. Is this the m a m m a l that will eat the dinosaur eggs?
I B M ' s slick manufacturing capabilities m e a n that practically a n y m a c h i n e they w a n t e d to m a k e , a n d put o n a single c h i p , they c o u l d , a n d in a v e r y short time. (The g r a p e v i n e h a s it that the C o m p o n e n t s Division, w h i c h m a k e s the c o m p u t e r parts, h a s b r a g g e d within the c o m p a n y that it doesn't really n e e d the other divisions a n y m o r e — it could just put w h o l e c o m p u t e r s on teeny chips if it w a n t e d to.)
O n the other h a n d , a v e r y unfortunate trend Is beginning to a p p e a r , an implicit feud within large organizations, w h i c h m a y benefit IBM's big c o m p u t e r a p p r o a c h . T h o s e w h o advocate m i n i c o m p u t e r s are being opposed b y m a n a g e r s of the big computing installations, w h o see the minis as threatening their o w n p o w e r a n d b u d g e t s . This m a y for a long time hold the minis b a c k , p e r h a p s with the help a n d advice of computer salesmen w h o feel likewise threatened. B u t there will be no holding b a c k the minis a n d their m y r i a d offspring, the microprocessors (see p . ^ ) . A n d the inroads should begin s o o n .
In this time of the 3 7 0 , things are for the m o m e n t stable. T h e 370 c o m p u t e r line is still their m a i n marketing thrust. H a v i n g sold a lot of 370 c o m p u t e r s (basically s p e d - u p 3 6 0 s ) , their idea is at the m o m e n t to sell conversion Jobs to adapt the 370 to run the n e w "Virtual S y s t e m " control p r o g r a m (VS or O S / V S or various other n a m e s ) . T h i s system (which is. incidentally, widely respected) m a k e s core m e m o r y effectively m u c h larger to p r o g r a m s that r u n o n it. This effectively e n c o u r ages p r o g r a m m e r s to u s e tons of c o r e , b y m e a n s of virtual m e m o r y : essentially getting people in the habit of p r o g r a m m i n g as if core w e r e infinite. T h i B extension of a p p a r e n t m e m o r y size distracts from a n y inefficiencies of both locally written p r o g r a m s a n d I B M p r o g r a m s , thus tending to increase u s e a n d rental c h a r g e s .
(Others are g r o w i n g to k n o w and love true high-capacity time-sharing as a w a y of life, like that offered for D E C . G E a n d H o n e y w e l l m a c h i n e s . T h i s . too. m a y begin to h a v e derogatory effects on IBM's markets.) Finally, it m u s t b e noted that almost all big c o m p a n i e s h a v e c o m p u t e r s , usually I B M c o m p u t e r s , a n d so an era of marketing m a y well h a v e e n d e d . It m a y be possible for I B M to go on selling bigger a n d bigger c o m p u t e r s to the customers w h o already h a v e t h e m , but obviously this g r o w t h can no longer be exponential.
W h e n that marketing impetus r u n s out we'll see the next thing. T h e other n e w I B M initiative is with smaller m a c h i n e s , the S y s t e m 3 a n d S y s t e m 7, being p u s h e d for relatively small b u s i n e s s e s . T h a t is w h e r e they see another n e w m a r k e t . H o w easy and useful their p r o g r a m s are in this area will be an important question. With the S y s t e m 7, a 16-bit minicomputer for $17,000, I B M h a s at last genuinely entered the minicomputer m a r k e t . (.Balancing its speed a n d cost against c o m p a r a b l e m a c h i n e s , w e can figure the I B M m a r k u p as being about 5 0 % , w h i c h is typical.) In addition, it is r u m o r e d that I B M m i g h t put out a tiny business m i n i , to sell out of O P D . (Datamation. D e c 7 2 . 139.) B u t really, w h o k n o w s . In addition to this h u g e - m e m o r y strategy for its big m a c h i n e s , a n d the starting foray into s p e cialized mini s y s t e m s , there is the office strategy a n d " w o r d processing." I B M h a s conceptually consolidated its various magic-typewriter and text services u n d e r the n a m e ol " w o r d processing," w h i c h m e a n s a n y handling of text that goes through their m a c h i n e s . T h i s superficially unites their O P D efforts (typewriters a n d dictation m a c h i n e s ) with things going o n in U P D , auch as Datatext, and allays interdivisional rivalries for awhile Also, b y stressing the unity of tha subject matter, il leaves the door o p e n for later and m o r e g l a m o r o u s initiatives, s u c h as hypertext systems (see " C a r m o d y ' s System. 1 ' flip side) . In other w o r d s , the foot Is in the d o o r . M r . B u s i n e s s m a n has the ides thst automatic typing a n d things like that are IBM's special p r o v i n c e .
F e w firms a n y w h e r e h a v e the confidence to advertise generiosJry a product w h i c h Is m a d e b y others as well, as in IBM's " T h i n k of the c o m p u t e r as e n e r g y " series.
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H e r b G r o s c h . now editorial director of C o m p u t e r w o r l d . Is perhaps IBM's worst e n e m y . O n c e he w o r k e d for old m a n Watson, and w a s the only I B M employee allowed to have a b e a r d . N o w . a m o n g- other things, , I R Mhe gTvts speeches and testimony w h e r e v e r possible shout ths M e n a c e ol I B M , at conlerences. at governmental hearings, and In letters to editors. Yet IBM's m a i n c o m p u t e r sales strategy today is to stress ths a d v a n tages of big computers wilh lots of core m e m o r y (and persuade you you don't w a n t highly Interactive systems or independent minicomputers) . A n d the fundamental rule staung the advantages of big computara Is called Grosch'a L a w . formulated years ago by none other. S e e p .
Finally, there 1* the popular doctrine of IBM's Infallibility. Thla. too. la a w a y s from the truth. T h e most conspicuous example w a s something called T S S / 3 8 0 . A n interesting example ot an IBM nonbreakthrough was the dramatic announcement in 19B4 of the 380 computer, portrayed as a machine which would at last combine the functions of both "business" computers and "scientific" c o m puters. Bul other companies, such as Burroughs (with the 5500) had been doing this for s o m e time. T h e quaint separation of p o w e r s between scientific computers (with all-binary storage of numbers) and business computers (decimal storage) w a s bssed only on tradition and m a r keting considerstions. and w a s otherwise u n d e sirable. In amalgamating the "two types." IBM w s s only rescinding their o w n previous u n necessary distinction. T h e drama of the a n nouncement derived in large measure from ths stress they had previously laid on the division. (Fortune ran an Interesting piece on the decision struggles preceding the introduction of the 3G0 computer, and the internal arguments as to w h e ther there should be one line of computers or t w o . See the flve-billlon-dollsr gamble piece. Bibliography.) This ties in closely with another interesting aspect of the IBM image, the public notion that IBM is a great Innovator, bringing out novel technologies all the time. It is well k n o w n In the field that they are not: IBM usually does not bring out a n e w type of product until some other c o m p a n y has pioneered it. (Again r e m e m b e r the earlier point, that the product offering Is a strategic maneuver.) Bul of course such facts do not appear in the promotional literature, nor are they volunteered by the salesman. T h e expression for this in the field is that IBM "makes things respectable." That is, customers get that reassured feeling, w h e n IBM adds other people's innovations to their product line, and decide it's okay to go ahead and rent or buy such a product. (This also sometimes kicks business bsck to the original manufacturer.) A few examples of things that were already on the market w h e n IBM brought them out. often making them sound completely new: transistorized computers (first offered by Philco), virtual m e m ory (Burroughs). microprogramming (introduced commercially by B u n k e r - H a m o ) . This is not to say that IBM is incapable of innovation; merely that they are never in a hurry about it. T h e introduction of IBM p r o ducts is orchestrated like a military campaign, and what I B M brings out is always a carefullyplanned, profit-oriented step intended not to dislocate its product line. Thia is not to say that they don't have n e w stuff in the back r o o m , a potential arsenal ol surprises of m a n y types. But it is probable that most of them will never be seen. This is because of IBM's "impact"
Unique in IBM's position is the problem of fitting n e w products Into the market alongside its old ones. Its problem is m u c h w o r s e , say, lhan lhat of Procter a G a m b l e . T h e problem is not merely its size and the diversity of its products, but the fact that they m a y interfere with each other ("impact" each other, they say) in very complicated w a y s . A program like their Datatext. for example, which allows certain kinds of text input and revision from terminals, m a y affect its typewriter line. These are no small matters: the danger is that s o m e n e w combination of products will save the customers m o n e y IBM would otherwise be getting. Innovations must expand the amount IBM is taking In, or IBM loses by making them. These complications of the product line in a w a y provide a counterbalance to IBM's fearsome p o w e r . T h e corporation has an I m m e n s e inertia based on its existing product line and customer base, and on w a y s of thinking which have been carefully promulgated and explained throughout its huge ranks, that cannot be revised quickly or flippantly. Nevertheless it Is remarkable h o w at every turn-- notably w h e n people think IBM will be set back-- they m a n a g e to m a k e policy declaiona or strategic m o v e s which further consolidate their position. Often these seem to Involve restricting the w a y their computers will be used (see b o x , "IBM's Control.") (The most ironic such counter m o v e by I B M occurred a few years ago with the so-called "unbundling" decision. IBM at last agreed (on complaint from other software firms] to stop giving Its programs a w a y to people renting the hardware. Glee was widespread in the industry, which expected IBM to lower computer prices In proportion to what it would n o w charge for the software. Not st all. IBM lowered Its c o m puter prices by a minuscule amount and slapped heavy n e w price* on the software-- often charges of thousands of dollars per month.)
TSS/360 w a s B time-sharing system-that Is, the control program to govern one model of the 3G0 as a time-sharing computer. According to Datamation ("IBM Phases Out W o r k on Showcssa T S S Effort," Sept. 1, 1971, 5 B - 9 ) . over 400 people w o r k e d on lt at once for a total of some 2000 man-years of effort. A n d it w a s scrapped, a writeoff of s o m e 100 million dollars In lost development costs. T h e system never worked wall e n o u g h . Reputedly users had to wait m u c h too long for the computer's responses, and the system could not really compete with those offered elsewhere. T h e failure and abandonment of this program is thus responsible for IBM's present n o n competitive position In time-sharing: customers are n o w assured b y IBM that other things are more important. IBM-haters thank their stars that this h a p p e n e d . Cynics think it conceivable that high-power time-sharing w a s dropped b y I B M in order to shoo Its customer base toward areas it controlled m o r e completely. T w o other conspicuous IBM catastrophes have been specific computers: the 360 model 90 in the late sixties, and a machine called the S T R E T C H s o m e w h a t earlier. Both of these machines w o r k e d and w e r e delivered lo customers. (Indeed, Ihe S T R E T C H Is said by some to have been one of the best machines ever.) But they w e r e discontinued by IBM as not sufficiently profitsble. Therein Is said lo have been the "failure." ( H o w e v e r , it has been alleged in court cases thai these were "knockout" machines designed to clobber the competition at a planned loss. ] B . Negative views of I B M systems. In the technical realm. IBM Is widely u n loved because m a n y people think some or all of their computers and p r o g r a m s are either poor, or far from what they should b e . T h e reasons vary. S o m e of the people feeling this w a y are I B M customers, and for a lime they had an organized lobby, called S H A R E (which also facilitated sharing of programs) . Recently, h o w e v e r , S H A R E has become IBM-dominated, a sort of c o m p a n y union, according to m y sources. T h e design of the 360, while widely accepted as a fact of life, is sharply criticized b y m a n y . (See "What's w r o n g with the 3607",
IBM's p r o g r a m s , while they are available for a broad variety of purposes, are often notoriously c u m b e r s o m e , a w k w a r d and inefficient, and sometimes dovetail very badly. H o w e v e r , the less efficient a program is. the m o r e m o n e y they m a k e from it. A program that has to be run for an hour generates twice as m u c h revenue than if it did its w o r k in thirty minutes: a p r o gram that has to be run on a computer with, say, a million spaces of core m e m o r y generates len times the revenue it would in two hundred thousand.
T h e complex training and restrictions that go with IBM programs seem to have interesting functions. (See b o x . "IBM's Control.") C.
Theories of IBM design.
T h e question Is. h o w could a c o m p a n y like I B M create anything like the 360 (with Its severe deficiencies) and its operating system or control program O S (with its sprawling complications, not present in competitors' systems)? Three answers are widely proposed: O n Purpose (the conspiracy theory), B y Accident (the blunder theory), and That's H o w They're Set U p (the M a n a g e m e n t Science theory). T h e s e views are b y no m e a n s mutually exclusive.
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IBM appeared In 1911 as the consolidation of a n u m b e r of small companies making light equipment, under the n a m e C - T - R C o m p a n y (Computer-TabulatingR e c o r d ) . This was prophetic, considering h o w aptly it described the c o m pany's future business, and especially prophetic considering that today's stored-program computer w a s undreamed of at that time. According to William Rodgers' definitive c o m p a n y biography Think, the company'a creator w a s a s h r e w d operator n a m e d Charles R . Flint, dashing entrepreneur and former gun runner to the South American republics, w h o in his shrewdness brought in to run the c o m p a n y an Incredibly talented, fire-breathing and self-righteous individual n a m e d T h o m a s J. Watson, even though Watson at that time w a s under prison sentence for his sales practices at another well-known c o m p a n y . T h e sentence w a s never served, and Watson went on to preside for m a n y years over a corporation to which he gave his unique stamp. Watson arises from the pages of Think as a sanctimonious tyrant, hard as nails yet reverently principled in his words: the pillar of fervid, aggressive corporate piety. I B M w a s totally Watson's creation. T h e c o m p a n y b e c a m e what he admired in others, a mechanism totally obedient to his will and implementing his forceful and inspiringly rationalized convictions with alacrity. A s the C h u r c h is said to be the bride of Christ, IBM might be characterized as the Bride of Watson, molded to the styles of d e m a n d i n g n e s s . pressure, efficiency and pietism which so characterized that m a n . But the ideas flowed from Watson alone, except for a few confidantes w h o received his n o d . T h e c o m p a n y is vastly bigger n o w , and slightly more colorful, in a muted sort of w a y ; but it is still the stiff and deadly earnest battalion of his d r e a m . Because of Watson's background as salesman, he m a d e Sales the apex of the corporation. T h e salesmen had the most prestige within the c o m p a n y and could m a k e the most m o n e y ; below that was administration, below that, technical stall. Watson eliminated the meat-slicing machines, and pushed the product line based on punched cards developed by IBM's first chief engineer, H e r m a n Hollerith. According to R o d g e r s . it w a s impetus from the Depression, and the n e w bookkeeping requirements of Roosevelt's remedies, that skyrocketed the firm uniquely during the depths of general economic catastrophe, till Watson came to d r a w the highest salary of any m a n in the nation. In 1934 his Income w a s $364,432 (Will R o g e r s , not the author of T h i n k , w a s second with •324.314) . Watson had neatly arranged to gel 5% of IBM's net profit.
While IBM participated in the creation of certain early computers, it is Interesting that Watson dismissed Eckert and Mauchly w h e n they came around after World W a r II tring to get backing for their ENIAC design, in certain w a y s the first true electronic computer. Eckert snd Mauchly went to Remington R a n d , and the reaulting Univac w a s the first commercial computer. H o w e v e r , IBM bounced back vary well If there was one thing they k n e w h o w to do it w a s sell, and w h e n they brought out their computers It was practically clear sailing. (The Univac I was the first of m a n y c o m p u ters to be delayed and boggled in the completion of its software, and this considerable setback helped IBM get the lead very quickly; they have never lost It since.) In the early sixties the IBM 7090 and 7094 were virtually unchallenged as the leading scientific computers of the country. But IBM in the late sixties almost relinquished tha fields of very big computers and time-sharing to other companies, and their c o m p u ters are not regarded as innovative. Nevertheless, IBM's Systems 3B0 and 370, despite various criticisms, have been very successful; thousands of them are in operation around the globe, far more than all their rivals' big computers all put together. This despite the fact that some of these systems have failed, including the big Model 91 (an economic failure) and the TSS/360 time-sharing program, a technical catastrophe. T h e y have from time to time been accused of unfair tactics, and various antitrust and other actions (see "Legal Milestones" box) have required IBM to change us arrangements in various w a y s . O n e decree required them to sell the computers that before they had only rented: .mother decision, lo. "unbundle," or bull computers separately from their programs (previously "given" a w a y with the computers they ran o n ) , Is widely believed to have prevented government action on the same matter. Showing characteristic finesse. IBM thereupon lowered the computer prices almost imperceptibly, then slapped heavy price-tags on the programs that had previously been free. Recent moves b y the government have suggested an especially serious and far-reaching anti-trust suit against I B M . possibly one that might break the c o m p a n y u p , with its separate divisions going various w a y s . H o w e v e r , In today's climate of cozy relations between business and government. It is hard to imagine that such matters would not be settled to IBM's liking. This lends a curious tint lo a remark one IBM person has m a d e to the author, to wit, that m a y b e IBM wants to be broken u p . That might be one w a y of reducing the unwieldiness and lnterdependency of its product line; In addition to reducing its vast, underutilized personnel base. (Another angle: Acting Attorney General Bark has expressed the view that IBM Is big only because its products and m a n a g e m e n t are wonderful, so the antitrust case m a y simply evaporate during the r u m p days of the Nixon incumbency.)
T h e M a n a g e m e n t Science theory of I B M design is the only one of these w e need take u p . T h e extensive use committee decisions m a y design compromises with aimlessness, rather than simple structures. (See chapter, "The Meeting."
of group discussion and tend to create a w k w a r d a certain intrinsic incisively distinct and Gould's marvelous 58-80.)
Their use of i m m e n s e teams to do big programming jobs, rather than highly motivated and especially talented g r o u p s , Is widely viewed aa counterproductive. For Instance, Barnet A . Wolff, in a letter to Datamation (Sept. 1, 1971, p . 13) says a particular program "remains ineffflcient, probably because of IBM's unfortunate habit of using trainees fresh out of school to write their systems code." There m a y also be something in the w a y that projects are Initiated and laid out from the top d o w n , rather than acquiring direction from knowledgeable people at the technical level, that creates a tendency toward perfunctorlness and clunky structure.
A persistent r a lhat IBM tin all Its sale am en in a geographic area if a key or preeUge sale is "lost," as w h e n M . I . T ' s Project M A C switched over to General Electric computers in the sixties, or w h e n Western Electric Engineering Research Center passed over IBM computers to get a big PDP-10. M u c h aa some people would like to believe these stories, there seems to be no documentation. You would think one such victim would write an article about It if it were true.
T h u s there m a y very well be no intentional policy of unnecessary complication (see B o x , "IBM's Control"). Bul the w a y In which goal* are set and technical decisions delegated m a y generate this unnecessary complication.
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A n Interesting aspect of IBM publicity la its stress on statu*. Publicity photographs often show e subordinate seeking advice from a superior. IBM ada appeal to the corporation president in all of us- - either Ooing It Alone (taking a long walk ovsr an Executive Decision) or soberly directing a lesser employe* In one extraordinary case, w e aaw worshipful convicts st the feet of a Teacher implausibly situated in the corner of a prison
PROVINCIAL? There would **«n to ba no question that IBM people are comparatively conservative and conventional. This partly because that's w h o IBM hires (though thay reportedly urge tolerance of Ihe unusual employee in a training film. "The Wild Duck"). A huge number of IBM people never worked for anybody else: obviously this affects the perspective, like slaying at one university all your life, or in one city.
"When w e went from IBM to National Cash Register, it was like the difference between night snd day." Retired hardware executive, talking about inventory program*
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It m a y also be that because IBM places sjch a premium on dependability and obedience, new Idea* (and the abilities needed to generate them) naturally run Into a little trouble. Some critics find among IBM people a heavy concern with conventional symbols of achievement, and (unfortunately) seeing the world stuck sit over with conventional labels and Middle American stereotype* Some of the most amusing material on thla comes from an odd source s writer named Hey wood Gould w h o , si] unprepared, became a consultant to IBM. earned unconscionable amounts of money (HO.ODD In six months), and lived to write a very funny and observant book about it (see Bibliography) , But it is neceaaary on these matters to aee how difficult things can be for IBM people, T o be Identified as an IBM person Is something like wearing a ring in your nose, a yarmulka or a halo: an entrapment in a social role thst makes the Individual's position a w k w a r d among outsiders. IBM people often have to take guff at parlies, unless they are IBM parties, DeFenslveness m a y account for soma of the Overdo, and some of the clannlsh-
B RA1 NtfASHED? It Is true thai IBM people are essentially in tholr o w n world. O n e theorv Is that comparlmentallzation within the firm (rather visible in their designs) m a y tend to stifle. Indeed, because IBM people can expect to be briefed and schooled In every technical matter they will need lo know for a given assignment, the Incentive to follow technical developments through outside magazines and societies m a y be reduced. Between Think magazine and corporate briefings, it is possible for IBM people to be comparatively (or even completely) unaware of innovations elsewhere In the field, except aa theae new developments are presented to them within the organization. In this light It is easy to understand the Ibmers' sense of certainty that their firm invented everything and is at the forefront. Of course m a n y fine research efforts do go on there, in considerable awareness of what's happening elsewhere. Particular individuals at IBM have done excellent research on everything from computer hidden-line Imaging to the structure of the genetic code and computer-synthesized holograms. A P L itself (see pp.Zt.-3i. as developed by Iverson at Harvard and later programmed by him at IBM, is another example of sophisticated individual creativity there. So it's entirely possible. But IBM certainly has no monopoly on understanding or creativity, and IBM-haters sometimes talk as if the reverse is true.
THc
VIRTUAL KtCHAU'CS
IBM controls the industry principally by controlling Its customers. Through various mechanisms. It seems to enforce the principle that "Once an IBM customer, always an IBM customer," With sn extraordinary degree of control, surely possessed In no other field by any other organization in the free world, it dictate* what Its customers m a y buy, and what they m a y do with what they get. More than this: the exactions of loyalty levied upon IBM's customers are similar, in kind and degree, to what it demand* of Its own employees. IBM make* the customer's employees more snd more like its o w n employees, committing them as individuals, and effectively committing the company that buys from it. to IBM service in perpetuity. Here are some of the wsy* Ihls system of control seems to work. We are not saying here that this is necessarily how IBM plans it. rather, these are the virtual mechanics, virtual In the old sense, this is how it might as well b* working. In th* anthropological sense thl* Is • "functional" analysis, showing the tie-ins rather than the actual detailed thought processes that occur. And even if these are really the mechanics, perhaps IBM doesn't mesn them to be. It might Just somehow be a continuous accident. InterconnacUon and c npaUblllUei IBM acta as if it does not want competitor* to be abla to connect their accessories to its computer* It's as though G M could design th* roads so as to prevent the passage of other vehicles than il* o w n . This 1* done several way*. First. IBM has sometimes used contractual technique* to prevent such interconnection* lo It* syatem*. either lor bidding other thing* to be attached (or si least slapping on axira service charge* if thay arsl. or declaring that It would not be responsible for ovsrsll performance of such • eelur;. allacUvely withdrawing Ihe hardware iuarante* that la such s strong selling point. secondly. IBM does not tail all lhal need* to t*j known In order to make these intsrconi* details of the hardwsr* Interfaces Finally. IBM can simply decree, perhaps claiming technical •*c***lty, that InterconnacUon la lmpo**lule. For Instance, IBM said for a lima that Ihalr latest big program. "VS," 01 Virtual System, wouldn't work (U-snsiauon would not be allowed) U compeUUv* memories used c th* c
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1 book will help people w h o are Inconvenienced by systems to understand and plnpoln they think is wrong with the aysti their data structure, Interactive properties, or other design featurea-- and that they will try to express their discontents intelligently and constructively to those responsible. Including, where appropriate. International Business Machines Corporation Armonk, N Y . 2.
SALES T E C H N I Q U E S .
These accusations are well summarized by "Anonymous" in a recent article (see Bibliography) . Basically the accusauons against IBM's sales practices are thai they play dirty: If you. say. the computer manager in a business firm, want to buy equipment from another outfit. IBM (so the story goes) will go over your head to your boss, accuse you of Incompetence, try to get you fired if you appose them, and Heaven knows what else. Anonymous claims that various forms of threat, Intimidation, "hardsell scare tactics" and "behind-the-scenes m a n ipulation" are actually standard practice in IBM sales, he or she alleges various instances in certain municipalities. Such behavior is emphatically denied, though not in relation to lhat article, by Board Chairman Gary. In a recent letter to Newsweek (see Bibliography). Cary emphasizes the Importance of IBM's 76-page Business Conduct Guidelines. Whether these are publicly examinable is nut stated. These charges were also taken up concretely in a recent survey ol computing managers done by Datamation (summarized by McLaughlin in "Monopoly Is Not a Game:" see Bibliography). In Datamation's analysis of this survey, the managers did not seem to agree with these charges against I B M . However, it must be noted-- and this seriously calls into question the entire survey as analyzed-- that out of 1100 panelists to the questionnaire. Datamation only considered 3B9 responses "usable," partly (It Is stated) because m a n y did not give data allowing themselves to be identified. Considering the widespread fear ol IBM in the field, this m a y have strongly biased the poll in favor of I B M .
Thus the Telex Decision of September 17. 1973. in which it was decreed by the judge lhat IBM would have to supply complete interface Information promptly when introducing a new computer, was a source of great jubilation in the computer field. However, lhal part of the judgment has since been cancelled. M u c h the same problem exists In the software area. IBM Is less than interested in helping its competitors write programs that hook up to IBM program*, so the details of program hookup are not always made clear. Here, too, m a n y smaller companies Insist they should be made to do it. B . Control and guidance of what the customer can gat. To a remarkable degree. If you are an IBM customer, you pracucally have to buy what they tell you. This IBM manages by an intricate system of fluctuating degrees of sales and support and contractual dealing. T h e IBM customer always has several opUons: but these are like forced cards, IBM la always introducing and discontinuing products, and changing prices •nd contractual arrangement* snd software opUons in an elaborate choreography, which applies calculated pressures on Ihe customer. IBM has a flnely-luned syatem of customer Incentives by which it controls product phasing, to use the polite term, or planned obsolescence, as some people call it, (Ryal R . Poppa, I of Pertec Corp.. predicts lhat IBM ( quired to switch over lo naw product* every flva or six yesr*. rather than every seven, which Poppa contends has been the figure. ("Poppa Sees Several IBM Changes." Computet world, 21 Nov 73. 29.) Program*, especially, are available with different degress of approval from IBM Ths technique of "support" Is ths concrete manlfeatation of approval. A support* d program Is one which IBM promises lo II* when bugs turn u p . With an unsupported program, you're on your o w n . God has forgotten you. Because so much of IBM's virtue Ilea In tha strength and fervor ol It* support, th* us* of unsupported programs, or unsupported features of supported programs, Is • difficult and risky mailer. Ilk* driving without a m a p snd s spite tire, or even going Into the Himalaya* without glovea. Effectively th* withdrawal of support I* th* death knell of any big program, such ss TSS/1B0, even though customers rosy want to go on using
A n InteresUng view on IBM's sales ethica was expressed recently by Ryal R . Poppa, prealdent of Pertec Corp. "In the past, when there have been sale* situations where 'you can't honor the policy and win the deal,' IBM has violated the policy with the practice, he said."
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It is IBM's alleged misbehavior in pursuit of sales that has drawn some of the strongest criticism within the Industry, as well as considerable litigation. Their "predatory pricing" (a lerm used by the judge in the recent Telex decision), and other mean practices, are (whether true or false) folklore within the Industry.
N o w , there are m a n y manufacturers w h o think this is very wrong of IBM: w h o believe they should have the right to sell accessories and parts-- especially core and disk memorles-to plug onto IBM's computers. II has been generally possible for these other manufacturers to work these interconnections out awhile after the computer comes out on the market, but it's getting mare difficult.
(Incidentally, it is amusing to note that even In this remaining company. In terms of "performance per dollar," the managers surveyed (and surviving the weedout) ranked the top three companies as D E C , Burroughs and Control Data. IBM waa worst oul of B. Obviously service counts for a lot.)
However, he believes that situation Is changing under IBM's new management, so that the guidelines will be observed in the future. ("Poppa Sees Several IBM Changes." Compulerworld. 21 Nov 73, 29.) T h e peopls w h o take these matters of IBM sales practices most seriously-- IBM's competitors-- now have their o w n organization, the Computer Industry Association. This is an association of computer companies, which has aa i intention the "establishment and preser of a sound and viable U .S. computer industry. based on... free and open competition." Emphasis theirs. Translation: they're out to get IBM, Prealdent Dan L. M c G u r k . formerly of Xerox Data Systems, has blood in his eye. M e m b e r ship is open only lo computer companies, but their newsletter O n Line is available lo individuals (see Bibliography) . Anyone seriously interested In these matters is referred to them.
3. T E C H N I C A L DECISIONS A N D DESIGNS A . Prologue. Part of the myth of IBM's corporate perfection is based on the notion that technical matters somehow predominate in IBM's decisions, and that IBM's product offerings and designs thus emerge naturally and necessarily and inevitably irom theae considerations. This is rather far from the truth, IBM presents many of their actions as technical, even as technical breakthroughs, when in fact they are strategic maneuvers. T h e announcement of a new computer, for example, such as Ihe 3B0 or 370. Is usually made to sound as if they have invented something special, while in fact they have simply made certain decisions as to "which way they intend to go" and how they plan to market things in the next few years.
Availability of products la in general a matter of exquisite degree. It's not so much that you can or can't get a particular thing, but that the pricing and available contracts at a given time exert strong pressure to put you where they have chosen within their currently featured product line Moreover, extremely strong hints are always available; the salesman will tell you what model of their computers Is likely to be a dead end, or. on the other hand, what model is likely to offer various options and progressive developments in the near future. Some things are half-available, either as "RPQs" Ian IBM term for special ordersRequest Price Quotation), or available to sophisticated customers at IBM's discretion. With all the degrees of availability, It is easy for IBM to open or close by degrees various avenues in which customers are interAlso, different size* of computer will or won't allow given programs or desirable program features. M a n y IBM customer* have to get bigger computers than they would otherwise want because a given program-- for instance, a C O B O L compiler with certain capabilities-- Is noi offered by IBM for the smaller machine. Indeed, an elaborate sizing scheme exists for matching the machine to the customer - or, s cynic might say. assuring that you can't get the program feature* you ought to be able to get unless you gel a larger computer than you wanted. What It boils down to la that you. the customer, have few genuine options, especially if your firm 1* already committed lo doing certain things with a computer. And when IBM brings out a new computer, the prices and other Influences are exacungly calculated to make mandatory the jump thay hav* in mind to tha new model, (This planning of customer transitions does not always work. When the 370 was Introduced, for instance. IBM had in mind lhat companies with s certain s u e of 3B0 would trade up to a bigger 370. In soma cases ussrs traded down to a smaller 370. which was able to do the same work for lea* money, to th* acuta bother of IBM.)
C.
Having to do thing* just their way.
IBM systems and programa ara set up 10 do things in partlculsr wsy* To a remarkable degree, II la difficult to u*« them In ways not planned or spproved by IBM. and difficult to Us system* snd progrsms together. Program* and feature* which th* casual observer would suppose ought to ba compaUble. land not to b*. For aome resson compatibility always lend* to cost extra It is as though th* compaUbllity of •qulpmanl and programs ware planned by IBM a* much a* their product line.
Effectively the IBM customer tends to be frequently trapped in a cage of restrictions, whether this cage is intentionally created by IBM or not One is reminded of the motto of T . H . White's anthill in The Once and Future KingT H A T W H I C H IS N O T F O R B I D D E N IS C O M P U L S O R Y . T h e degree to which these manipulated or Intentional is. of of debate.
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Perhaps the moat unfortunate thing about IBM (from an outsider's point of view) 1* that effectively their systems can only be used by bureaucracie* w h o m ihey have trained. From keypunch operator up lo installation manager, all are effectively enslaved to curious complexities thai keep changing. The ever-changing structure of O S . and its quaint access methods. Is just one example it might even seem to the outside observer that IBM's g a m e , intentional or not. Is to keep things difficult and intricately fluid to retain utter control. In other words, It is as though they fostered a continual turnover of unnecessary complications to keep a captive bureaucracy running In place. People w h o they have indoctrinated tend not to buy opponents' computers. People w h o ar* immersed in Ihe peculiarities of IBM systems, and busy keeping up with mandatory change*, do not get uppity. They are too buay. and the Investment of their tlms and effort 1* loo high for them lo want to
Anti-IBM cynics say that s lot of the work involved in working wilh IBM computers Is self-generated, arising from the unnecessary complexities of OS/310. JCL. T C A M and ao on. But ol course that cannot be evaluated here. PROSPECTS Thsa* remarks should clarify the bleakness of Ihe prospect for man's futur* among computers If IBM's system of control really does work this way. and If it is going to go on doing so Because it means th* future that some of us hope for-- the simple snd casual availability lo individuals of clear and simple computer system* with extraneous complications edllad away-- may be foreclosed if ihey can help a. Let's turn out not t
• things
"... IBM In It* Infinite wisdom ha* decreed lhal thi* 1* the way we must go." Cynical computer installation manager. quoted in Compulerworld, II A u g 13. p. *•
It Is important to note first of all lhat IBM is In m a n y respects the very model of a generous and dutiful corporate citizen. In " c o m m u n ity relations," in donations to colleges and universities, In generous release of the time of Its employees for charitable and civic undertaking*, it It almost certainly the most public-spirited corporation In America, and perhaps on Ihe face of the earth. They have been generous about m a n y public interest project*, from Braille transcription to donating photographers and facilities Tor films on child development. T h e corporation sponsors worthwhile cultural events. "Don Quixote" with Rex Harrison on T V was terrific. Katherlne Hepburn's "Glass Menagerie" was marvelous.
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IBM's enlightenment and benevolence toward its employees la perhaps beyond that of any company anywhere They have rigorously upgraded the position of w o m e n and other minority employees; the opportunities for w o m e n m a y be greater there than anywhere else. They have upgraded repair of their systems, at any level, to white-collar status, and tool kits are disguised as briefcases. This innovation, making a repairm a n Into a "field engineer," Is one of the cleverest public-relations and employment policies ever instituted. They are opanhanded to employees w h o want to run (or office, evidently regardless of platform. In the sixties there were peace candidates w h o worked for I B M . and evidently got time off for it. More recently, Fran Youngsteln. an IBM marketing instructor, was a 1973 candidate for Mayor of N e w York on the ticket of the Free Libertarian Party, opposing all laws against victimless crimes (e.g. prostitution and odd s e x ) , as well as D a y Care and welfare.
They also rarely fire people. Once you're in. and within certain broad outlines, it's e x tremely safe employment. For those w h o turn out not to fit in well, they have a tradition of certain gentle pressure-practices like moving you around the country repeatedly at IBM expense. This encourages leaving, but also e x poses the less-wanted employee to a variety of opportunities he might not otherwise see. without the trauma and anxiety of dismissal. "IBM." as everyone k n o w s , is the trade nark of the International Business Machines Corporation, an Immense company centered in A r m o n k . N . Y . , but extending to over a hundred countries and employing well over a quarter of • million people.
To m a n y people. IBM is synonymous with computers. Some of the public, indeed, believes them to be the only computer manufacturer. B and lllm. there is K o d a k . In automobiles, there is General Motors. A n d in the computer Held there is I B M . IBM sells some 6S to 701 of all tha c o m puters and programs thai are sold. In this respect, the balanced near-monopoly, they are like Kodak and G M .
(It is said that there are IBM firings, but they are rare and formidable. Hey wood Gould's description of an IBM firing (Corporation Freak, p p . 113-115), for which he does not claim authenticity, ia nevertheless bloodcurdling.) IBM's international manners (in its 115 countries) are likewise praiseworthy. Compared to the perfidious behavior of some of our other multinational corporations, they are sweetness and light and highschool civics. Sensitive to the feelings of people abroad, they are said to operate carefully within arrangements m a d e to satisfy each country. They train nationals for real corporate responsibility rather than bringing in only outside people. A n d they are sensitive to issues: for instance, they recently refused lo set up an Apartheid computer in South Africa. O N E T H I N G IS P E R F E C T L Y C L E A R : IBM has no monopoly on understanding or sophistication.
But there are important differences. Eveverybody k n o w s what a camera la. or an automobile. But to m a n y , II not most, people, a computer is what IBM says it is. T h s Importance of this firm, for good or 111, cannot be overstated: whose legend Is so thick, whose slock prices have doubled and redoubled, ten u m e a over, to its mulubillion-dollar mass: whose seeming Infallibility-- at least, as seen by outsider*-- have been the stuff ol legend, whose style ha* proliferated across the world. • style which has in a w a y itself become synonymous with "computers," whose name s y m bolizes for m a n y people-- remarkably, both those w h o love it and those w h o hate it— the New Age,
The rigidity associated in the public mind with "tha computer" m a y be related in some deep w a y to this organization. A s a corporation they are used to designing systems that people have to use in their )ob* by fiat, »nd thus there are few external limitations on the complications to our live* that IBM can create. Many people mistake IBM for ")u*t another big company," and here lies the danger. IBM's postuon in tha world is so extraordinary, so carefully poised (as a result of various antitrust proceedings and precautions) just outside of total monopoly of a vitally important and allpenetrating field, that m u c h of what thsy do haa implications lor all ol u*. Ralph Nader'* contention that General Motor* l* too powerful to function as an Independent government surely applies even more to I B M . General Motors Is not in s poaluon to persuade th* public that every car has to have tan wheels and a snowplow. IBM seems In some v > have molded computars in its c world that t But IBM la deeply sensluvs, in it* w a y , lo public relations, and has woven sn axtsnslve aystaa ol political Uas and 1 agenda (if not mythology) which hav* kept it almost completely exempt from the critical attention of concarn.d ctuzena, Thus It if necessary her*, simply as a matter of covering the field at an Introductory level, to rale* aome que*lion* and criticism* that occur to people who are concerned about IBM IBM presumably wilt not mind having these matters raised. th*ir public-spirited concern in so m a n y ar*** assures that wh*n something so publicly important •• the character ot their o w n power Is concerned, occasional scrutiny should be welcome
Now for the bad n e w s . . They offer m a n y computer programs for a variety ol purposes.
These programs are not necessarily sat up the w a y you would want them. (But If you take the trouble to adapt to them, you'll probably never get back.) T h e programs favor card or card-like input and. to date, strongly discourage time-sharing and widespread convenient terminal use by untrained people. IBM programs are also notoriously inefficient. (That w a y you have to use bigger machines for longer .)
A company or governmental agency The courses indoctrinate with the IBM can get immense amounts of "help" outlook, and the planted people spread and "information" from I B M . which II. Moreover, both mechanisms help offers free courses, even IBM IBM spot the people they can work wilh people on "released time" to look to m a k e a big sale-- and (lt is alleged over the problems on the premises. by some) those w h o stand in the w a y . IBM offers various kinds of c o m patibility among its systems.
It always seems to cost extra.
IBM equipment Is rugged and durable, and their repairmen or "field engineers" struggle with great diligence and alacrity to keep it running
1. S O C I A L A S P E C T S O F I B M . It Is perhaps in the social realm. Including its Ideological character, that a lot of people are turned off by I B M . IBM has traditionally been the paternalistic corporation. [Paternalistic corporations were some kind of big philosophical issue to people In the fifties, but nobody cares anymore. A n y w a y , the rest were perhaps inconsequential compared to IBM.) Big IBM towns not only have a Country Club (no booze) , but a Homestead far the comfort of important corporate guests. There are dress codes (although non-white shirts and below-thecollar hair are now allowed) , and yes. codes of private behavior (now subdued) . These irritate people with libertarian concerns. They do not bother employees, evidently, because employees k n e w what they were getting into. Generalizations about IBM people obviously cannot be very strong . Obviously there is going to be immense variation among 265,000 people, half of w h o m have college degrees; but of course one of the great truths of sociology is that any non-random group haa tendencies. More lhan that In this case. In a w a y IBM people are an ethnic group. Impressive indeed are the general energy and singlemindednesi of the people, galvanized by their certainty that IBM is true, good and right, and that the IBM w a y is the w a y . This righteousness is of course a big turn-off for a lot of people. Perhaps It leads in turn to the most-heard slurs about IBM people, that thay are brainwashed or provincial.
A m o n g computer people, feelings toward IBM range from worship to furious hate (depending only in part on whether you work there). M a n y , m a n y are of course employed by I B M . and the devotion with which they embrace the corporation and U s spirit is a wonder of the But the spiritual community of IBM extends further. Upper-management types, especially Chairmen of Boards and comptrollers, seem to have a reverence for IBM that is not of this world, some amalgamated vision which entwines images of eternal stock and dividend growth with an idealized notion of management efficiency. M a n y others use and live with IBM's equipment, and view IBM as anything from "the greatest company in the world" to "a fact of life" or even "a necessary evil." In some places whole colonies of users mold themselves in its image, so that around IBM computers there are m a n y "Utile IBMs." full of people w h o imitate the personalities and style of IBM people. ( R C A . before lis computer operation fell to pieces. Imitated not Just the design of IBM's 360 computer, but a whole range of titles and departmental names from out of IBM. T h e sincerest form of flattery.) But outside this pale-- beyond the spiritual community of IBM-- there are quite a few other computer people. Some simply ignore I B M . being concerned with their o w n stuff. S o m e like IBM but happen lo be elsewhere. Others dislike or hate IBM for a variety of reasons, business and social. A n d this smoldering hatred Is surely far different In character from anybody's atutud* toward Kodak or G M . While it la not tha Intent hers to do any kind of an anti-IBM n u m b e r . It la nevarthsless necessary to attempt lo round out Ihe on*-*ld*d picture that 1* projected outside th* computer world. In what follow* there I* no room to try to give a balanced picture. B*c*uae IBM can speak (or llaelf, and doe* so with m a n y voles*. It 1* mors Important to indicate here tha kind* of crlUcism* which ar* commonly made of IBM by sophisticated people within th* industry, so that IBM-worshipar* will have some idea of what bother* people. But of course no attempt can be made here to Judge the** matter*, thl* i* Just intended a* source material for concerned
M r j O o R BjM. d O W W
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1350s (TUBES) 650 (Decimal)
700 Series 701
702 (decimal) ?-> 705 (decimal)
MID-1960S (INTEGRATED CIRCUITS)
1970s ("MEDIUM-SCALE INTEGRATION")
360 Series (32-bit as w e U as decimal) 30, 35, 30. 40. is. SO. 65. 67, I 75. 35. 90. 91
370 Series 125, 135. U S . 153, IBS. IS*. 199..
(Variable) Syatem 7 (19 bits)
T h e asm* slick marketing could be applied lo any other industry . But it wouldn't be IBM Nowhere else could the mystery of the subject be met and enhanced with so many more mysteries.
51
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T h o s e of u s w h o w e r e a r o u n d will n e v e r forget the D a y s of M a d n e s s ( 1 9 6 8 - 9 ) . Computer s t o c k s w e r e b o o m i n g , a n d their b u y e r s d i d n ' t K n o w w h a t it w a s a b o u t ; b u t e v e r y w h e r e t h e r e w e r e financial p e o p l e t r y i n g to b a c k n e w c o m p u t e r c o m p a n i e s , a n d e v e r y w h e r e the s m a r t c o m p u t e r people w h o ' d m i s s e d out o n Getting T h e i r s w e r e l o o k i n g for a d e a l . Datamation
for N o v e m b e r
t h i c k , t h e r e w e r e that m a n y and
1969 w a s
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inch
computers
accessories.
A t t h e Fall J o i n t C o m p u t e r C o n f e r e n c e that y e a r in L a s V e g a s , I h a d to c o v e r t h e h i g h l i g h t s of t h e e x h i b i t s in a h u r r y , a n d it t o o k m e all a f t e r n o o n , m u c h o f it practically at a t r o t . Then, after c l o s i n g t i m e , I f o u n d o u t t h e r e h a d b e e n a w h o l e other building. It is i m p o r t a n t to l o o k at h o w a lot o f t h e s e c o m p a n i e s w e r e b a c k e d , t h e b e t t e r to u n d e r s t a n d h o w irrationality b l o o m e d in t h e s y s t e m , a n d m a d e t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e s p e c u l a t i v e s t o c k s in 1970 quite inevitable.
It w a s v e r y difficult to talk to t h e s e p e o p l e , particularly if y o u w e r e t r y i n g to g e t s u p p o r t for a legitimate e n t e r p r i s e built a r o u n d u n u s u a l i d e a s . ( E v e r y b o d y w a n t s to b e s e c o n d . ) A n d what's w o r s e , t h e y t e n d e d to h a v e that m o s t r e p r e h e n sible q u a l i t y : t h e y w o u l d n ' t listen. Did they w a n t to h e a r w h a t y o u r i d e a actually w a s ? "I'll get m y t e c h n i c a l p e o p l e to e v a l u a t e it"-- a n d they s e n d o v e r J o e w h o o n c e took C O B O L . I finally f i g u r e d o u t that s u c h p e o p l e a r e i m p o s s i b l e to talk to if y o u ' r e s i n c e r e - - it's a q u a l i t y t h e y find u n f a m i l i a r a n d t h r e a t e n i n g . I don't think there's a n y w a y a p e r s o n w i t h a g e n u i n e idea can c o m m u n i c a t e with s u c h Wheeler-Dealers; t h e y j u s t fix y o u w i t h a p i e r c i n g g l a n c e a n d s a y " Y e a h , b u t are w e talking a b o u t h a r d w a r e or s o f t w a r e ? " (the t w o w o r d s t h e y k n o w in the field).
A n u m b e r of c o m p a n i e s w e r e s t a r t e d at t h e initiative o f p e o p l e w h o k n e w w h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g a n d h a d a clear i d e a , a n e w t e c h n i q u e o r a g o o d m a r k e t i n g s l a n t . T h e s e w e r e in t h e minority, I fear.
T h i s is all the s a d d e r b e c a u s e the c o m p a n i e s that a c h i e v e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s in this field, a s far a s I c a n s e e , a r e t h o s e w i t h a u n i f y i n g i d e a , c a r r i e d o u t u n s t i n t i n g l y b y the m a n o r m e n w h o b e l i e v e in it. I t h i n k of O l s e n ' s Digital E q u i p m e n t Corporation, Data G e n e r a l , E v a n s a n d Sutherland C o m p u t e r Corporation, Vector General. T h i s is n o t to s a y that a g o o d i d e a s u c c e e d s w i t h o u t g o o d m a n a g e m e n t o r g o o d b r e a k s : for i n s t a n c e , V i a t r o n , a firm w h i c h w a s the d a r l i n g of the c o m p u t e r high-flying s t o c k s , h a d a p e r fectly s o u n d i d e a , if n o t a d e e p o n e : to p r o d u c e a v i d e o t e r m i n a l that c o u l d b e s o l d for a s little as $ 1 0 0 a m o n t h . B u t t h e y got o v e r e x t e n d e d , a n d h a d m a n u f a c t u r i n g t r o u b l e s , a n d that w a s that. ( Y o u c a n n o w g e t a v i d e o t e r m i n a l for $ 4 9 a m o n t h , t h e H a z e l t i n e . ) O f c o u r s e , a lot o f i d e a s a r e h a r d to e v a l u a t e . A m a n n a m e d O v s h i n s k y , for i n s t a n c e , n a m e d a w h o l e n e w b r a n c h o f electronics after h i m s e l f ( " o v o n i c s " ) , a n d c l a i m e d it w o u l d m a k e i n t e g r a t e d circuits c h e a p e r o r better t h a n a n y b o d y e l s e ' s . S c o f f , scoff. N o w O v s h i n s k y h a s h a d the last l a u g h : w h a t h e d i s c o v e r e d s o m e n o w call " a m o r p h o u s s e m i c o n d u c t o r t e c h n o l o g y , " a n d his circuits a r e b e i n g u s e d b y m a n u f a c t u r e r s of c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is o n e F r a n k M a r c h u k , w h o s e "laser c o m p u t e r " w a s a n n o u n c e d several y e a r s a g o b u t hasn't b e e n s e e n y e t . M a n y c o m puter people are u n d e r s t a n d a b l y skeptical.
M o r e c o m m o n w e r e c o m p a n i e s s t a r t e d at the initiative of s o m e b o d y w h o w a n t e d to start "another X " — another m i n i c o m p u t e r c o m p a n y , another terminal c o m p a n y , e x p e c t i n g the p r o d u c t s o m e h o w to b e satisfactory w h e n t h r o w n t o g e t h e r b y hired help. P e r h a p s these people s a w c o m p u t e r c o m p a n i e s a s s o m e t h i n g like g o l d m i n e s , putting out a c o m m o n p r o d u c t with interchangeable commodity value.
T h e d e a l , a s s o m e of t h e s e W a l l S t . h a n g e r s o n w o u l d e x p l a i n it, w a s m o s t i n t r i g u i n g . Their i d e a w a s to c r e a t e a c o m p u t e r c o m p a n y o n l o w c a p i t a l , " b r i n g it p u b l i c " (get c l e a r a n c e f r o m t h e S E C to sell s t o c k p u b l i c l y ) , a n d t h e n m a k e a killing a s t h e s h e e p b o u g h t it a n d t h e p r i c e w e n t up. T h e n , if y o u c o u l d g e t a " t r a c k r e c o r d " b a s e d o n a f e w fast s a l e s , t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r i c e of y o u r s t o c k ( t h e s e a r e t h e d a y s o f m a d n e s s , r e m e m b e r ) m a k e s it p o s s i b l e to b u y u p o t h e r companies and become a conglomerate.
"ITS A
WHEELER
T
T h i s is still a field w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l s c a n h a v e a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e . B u t the w r o n g w a y to try it is t h r o u g h c o n v e n t i o n a l c o r p o r a t e fina n c i n g . G e t y o u r o w n c o m p u t e r , d o it in a g a r r e t , a n d t h e n talk a b o u t w a y s of getting it o u t to t h e w o r l d .
BIBLIOGRAPHY T h e j o k e r is that if y o u m i s s e d o u t o n all this y o u w e r e m u c h b e t t e r off. A n y o n e w i t h a g e n u i n e i d e a is b e i n g set u p for t w o f l e e c i n g s : the first b i g o n e , w h e n t h e y tell y o u y o u r i d e a s , skills a n d l o n g - t e r m i n d e n t u r e a r e w o r t h 2 i % (if y o u ' r e l u c k y ) c o m p a r e d to their i m m e n s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of " b u s i n e s s k n o w h o w , " a n d t h e s e c o n d , w h e n y o u g o p u b l i c a n d the u n d e r w r i t e r gets v a s t r a k e o f f s for h i s i n c o m p a r a b l e s e r v i c e s . W h a t is m o s t likely to g e t lost in all this is a n y o r i g inal o r s t r u c t u r e d c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e w o r l d that the c o m p a n y w a s i n t e n d e d , in y o u r m i n d , to achieve.
*«••, i t * a r e a l . Life imitates art on Routs 4 6 , N . J .
In p a r t this is b e c a u s e a n y o n e w i t h t e c h nical k n o w l e d g e is a p p a r e n t l y l a b e l l e d Silly T e c h n i c i a n in t h e financial c o m m u n i t y , o r I m p o s sible D r e a m e r ; it is e n t r e n c h e d d o c t r i n e a m o n g m a n y p e o p l e t h e r e that t h e m a n w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l i d e a c a n n o t b e a l l o w e d to c o n t r o l t h e direction of t h e r e s u l t i n g c o m p a n y . In o n e c a s e k n o w n to m e , a m a n h a d a beautiful i n v e n t i o n (not e l e c t r o n i c ) that c o u l d h a v e d e e p l y i m p r o v e d American industry, lt w a s i n e x p e n s i v e , s i m p l e to m a n u f a c t u r e , p r o f o u n d l y effective. H e m a d e his d e a l a n d the c o m p a n y w a s s t a r t e d , u n d e r his d i r e c t i o n . B u t it w a s a t r i c k . W h e n the s e c o n d i n s t a l l m e n t of f i n a n c i n g c a m e d u e (not t h e s e c o n d r o u n d . m i n d y o u ) , the b a c k e r s called for a n e w d e a l , a n d h e w a s s k e w e r e d . R e s u l t : n o s a l e s , n o effect o n the w o r l d , n o n o t h i n g to s p e a k o f .
John
Brooks, The Go-Go * Talley. $10.
Years.
Weybright
USED COMPUTERS
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While in principle there would seem to be every advsntage in buying used computer!., there ore certain drawbacks, Service is the main one: the manufacturer ia not very helpful about fixing discontinued machines, and you m a y have to know how to do it yourself. Even with machines still available, you may have trouble getting onto a service contract from Ihe manufacturer, since It "may have been mistreated." (American Used Computer, in Boston, will usually guar ante* that its merchandise will be accepted back into manufacturer's contract service.) A final drawback is price: a popular machine m a y cost aa m u c h used aa n e w , since they're saving you the waiting period.
For (he most part, his; computer;- hnve alwayn been rented or leased, rather than bought outright. There are various rcanons f'ir thia. From the customer's point of view, it mskes the whole thing tax-deductible without amortisation problems, and means that it's possible to change part of the package - the model of computer or the accessorieB-- more easily. A n d big amounts of money don't have to be shelled out at once. From the manufacturer's point of view (and of course w e are speaking mostly of I B M ) , It is advantageous to work the leasing gnme for several reasons. Cash inflow is steady. T h e manufacturer Is in continuous communication with the customer, and has his ear for changes and improvements costing m o r e . Competitors are at a disadvantage because the immense capital base needed to get into the selling-andleaslng game makes competitition impossible. Basically, leasing really may be thought of as having two parts: the sale of the computer, and banking s loan on it; essentially the lease payments arc Installment payments, and the real profits come after the customer has effectively paid the real purchase prk-e and is still forking over. M a n y firms other than IBM prefer to sell their computers outright. Minicomputers are almost always sold rather than rented. H o w e v e r , for those w h o believe in renting or leasing, the so-called "leasing firms" have appeared, effectively performing a banking function. They buy the computer, you rent or lease it from them, and they make the money you would'vo saved if you'd bought. I B M , now required to sell its computers as well ss lease them, keeps making changes in its systems which cynics think are done partly to scare companies away from leasing, since if you've bought the computer you can't catch u p . (Large computers bought from companies that like to sell them, auch as D E C and C D C , do not aeem to have this problem.)
una*, mfyMTetvMCt h practical problea of Immense importanct meaning repair and upkeep ol compute Lots of guys in Boston and L.A. are iving fun Baking conputem but here you are stuck in Squeedunk id it doesn't work anynore
You can aign a "aaintenance contract" with the manufacturer, which is sort of like breakdown Insurance: whatever happens he'll fix. Eventually. If you own equipment frc •anufacturors, though. It's worse-, each ns contract to fix his own equipaent. (And r i tha biggest point in favor of IBM. Their maintenance is
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•thing called third-party maintenance: companies to keep all your hardware working. RCA and o that.
T H E S E V E N D W A R V E S A M I THEIR FRIENDS T h e computer companies arc often called "Snow White and the Seven Dwarves," even though the seven keep changing. Here are some main ones beside I R M . 1 hope I haven't left anyone out. Requiescanl in Pi General Electric Sperry Rand Univac (sold out to Honeywell) Honeywell R C A (sold out to Univac) Burroughs Phllco Control Data Corporation ( C D C ) General Foods National Cash Register ( N C R ) a others beyond recollection. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Xerox Data Systems (XDS; formerly Scientific Data Syslems (SDS)) Hewlett-Packard (HP) Data General Interdata, Inc. Vartan Data Machines Lockheed
SOFTWARE Computer progroits. or "software," used 10 come fr«c with the computer. Bul IBM turned around and "unbundled," meaning you had lo buy It separately, and Ihere has been some following of this example. H o w e v e r , for users w h o are buying a computer with some conned program for a particular purpose, prices are obviously for the whole package; it's people w h o use the same computer for a lot of different things that have to pay for individual programs. There are m a n y small software companies. For the cost of a letterhead anyone can start one; the question is whether he has anything special lo sell. Some people w h o m p up programs on Iheir o w n which turn out to be quite useful. (For instance, one Benjamin Pitman offers a magnificent program in Fortran to generate textual garbage. It's so good it can be used lo expand proposals by hundreds of pages. He calls it Simplified Integrated Modular Prose (SIMP) and lt sells for J10. His address is Computer Center, University of Georgia, Athens G A 30602?) Obviously, lo create big systems for intricate management purposes requires a great deal more effort. Traditionally these are done by vast programmer teams working in C O B O L or the like, constantly fighting wilh monitor programs snd chewing up millions of dollar*. H o w e v e r , the ntw Quickie Languages (three shown p p . |L-?$) m a y offer great simplification of such programmin^
Programs are protected by copyrighl-Ihflt'e. the only way there can be a software Industry at all-- but since there has been no court litigation in Die field, nobody k n o w s what the law really is or whht it covers. Everybody agrees that traditional copyright precedent covers a lol of ground— "derivative works" definitely violate copyright, even study guides to textbooks -- but no one k n o w s how far this goes. S a m e for patents. T h e Patent Office has granted program patents, notably the one on Ihe sorting program of Applied Data Research, Inc., but T h e Patent Office has a profound distaste for this potential extension of its duties, unrt it telling everyone that programs aren'l patentable, even though they clearly fall within its mandate as unique, original prccesscs. People w h o only n u d Ihe headlines thirk thai the S u p r e m e Court struck d o w n the patentability of programs. N o such thing. In this light the patents lhat the University of Utah has gotten on the halflonc image synthesis programs of Warnock and Wylic and R o m n e y (sec p. ) are of considerable interest. These patents use the "software-as-hardware" ruse: the program it. described in detail as taking place in a fictitious machine shown In m a n y detailed d r a w ings whose nebulous character is not readily seen by the uninitiated: events vaguely taking place in "micreprogrammable microprocessors" have been neatly foisted on the Patent Office as detailed technical disclosure. It's a great g a m e . T h e idea is that the claims are so drawn as to cover not just the fictitious machine, but any program that should happen to work the same w a y . But such approaches, though c previous.patent practices, have not ye! litigated in this field.
It's kind of unfortunate: otherwise usable machines get wasted. (But here's waste for you: certain well-known laboratories, owned by e profit-making monopoly, smash their u*ed computers if nobody wants them within Ihe lab. They claim they can't resell them because they would then be "competing" with the manufacturers. I wish thr conservationists would get on that one.) (Notts from all over: it seems thst all the surviving numbers of the Philco computer, a nice machine but very m u c h discontinued, have either gone to the stste of Israel or to Prslt Institute in Brooklyn. W h e n I spoke at Pratt they showed m e their Philco machines, chugging healthily, and said they had (I think) some four more Phil cos in crates, donated by their original o w n e r s . ANNOUNCEMENTS A n eccentric aspect of the computer field is the Announcement, the statement by a company (or even individual) that he is planning to make or sell a certain computer or program. Some very odd things happen with announcements in this field. (None of this is unique tu computerd o m , but it goes to unusual extremes here.) Under our system it is permissible for any person or firm to announce that he will make or sell any particular thing, and even if he's lying through his teeth, it's not ordinarily considered fraud unless money changes hands. Talk is cheap. T h u s it is c o m m o n prsctice in American industry for people to say that they will soon be selling hundred-mile-an-hour automobiles, tapioca-powered rocketships. antigravity belts. O k a y . In the computer world the ssire thing happens. T h ' strategy depends on the announcer's market position. T h e liitle guys arc often bluffing wistfully, hoping someone will get interested enough lo put up the money to finish the projtct, or the like; the big companies are often "testing the water." looking to see whether there are potential customers for what they hsven'1 even attempted to develop. Announcements by big companies also havt strategic value: if they announce something a smaller guy has already announced, they may cut him off at Ihe pass, even though they htvo no intention of delivering. That's just one example. The analysis of IBM's announcements is a parlor game in the field. It has been alleged, for Instance, thht IBM announced its 360 computer long be fere it was ready to cut off incursions on its customers by oilier firms; Control Data, in a recent suit, alleged that the Model 90 number* of (he 360 were announced, and then developed, simply tt> destroy Control Data and its o w n big fast mcchincs. These art just examples. In other »
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Datamation ran several good articles on buying computer stuff in its September, 15. 1970 issue. "Software Buying" by Howard Bromberg (3S-40) and "Contract Caveats" by Robert P. Blgelow (4144) are very helpful warnings about not getting burned. Another, "Projecl Management Games." by Werner W . Leutert (2434) is an absolutely brilliant, bloodcurdling strategic analysis of the ploy* and dangers involved ir. buying and selling very expensive things, such as computers and software. A N Y O N E I N V O L V E D IN C O M P U T E R M A N A G E M E N T S H O U L D R E A D THIS MACIIIAVELIJAN PIECE WITH T H E G R E A T E S T C A R E . Anyone interested in the theory of s h o w d o w n and negotiation can read it with a differ-
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O n e of the stranger projects of the sixties w a s a g a m e played b y the most illustrious p r o g r a m m e r s at a w e l l - k n o w n place of research; the place cannot b e n a m e d h e r e , nor the true n a m e of the project, b e c a u s e f u n d s w e r e obtained through sober c h a n n e l s , a n d those w h o a p p r o v e d w e r e u n a w a r e of the true nature of the project, a g a m e w e shall call S U R F I T ("SURvival of the FITtest".) E v e r y d a y after lunch the g u y s w o u l d solemnly deliver their p r o g r a m s a n d see w h o w o n . It w a s a sort of analogy to biological evolution. T h e p r o g r a m s w o u l d attack each other, a n d the survivors w o u l d multiply until only o n e w a s left. It w o r k e d like this. C o r e m e m o r y w a s divided u p into " p e n s , " o n e for each p r o g r a m m e r , plus a n area for the m o n i t o r .
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E a c h p r o g r a m , or "animal," could b e loaded a n y w h e r e in its p e n . T h e other p r o g r a m s k n e w the size of the p e n but not w h e r e the animal w a s in it. U n d e r supervision of the special m o n i t o r , the animals could b y turns bite into the other p e n s , m e a n i n g that the contents of core at several consecutive locations in the other p e n w a s b r o u g h t b a c k , a n d c h a n g e d to zero in its original p e n .
Y o u r animal could then "digest"— that is, analyze-the contents bitten. T h e n the other animal got his t u r n . If h e w a s still alive— that is, if the p r o g r a m could still function— it could stay in play; otherwise the animal w h o had bitten it to death could multiply itself into the other pen. T h e w i n n e r w a s the g u y w h o s e animal occupied all p e n s at the e n d of the r u n . If h e w o n several times in a r o w h e h a d to reveal h o w his p r o g r a m w o r k e d . A s the g a m e w e n t o n , m o r e a n d m o r e sophistication w a s p o u r e d into the analytic routines, w h e r e b y the animal analyzed the p r o g r a m that w a s its victim; so the p r o g r a m m e r could attack better next time. T h e p r o g r a m s got bigger and bigger. Finally the g a m e c a m e to a close. A creature e m e r g e d w h o could not b e b e a t e n . T h e p r o g r a m m e r h a d reinvented the g e r m . His w i n n i n g creature w a s all teeth, with n o diagnostic routines; a n d the first thing it did w a s multiply itself t h r o u g h the entirety of its o w n p e n , assuring that n o matter w h e r e it m i g h t just h a v e b e e n bitten, it w o u l d survive.
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Twitting a p r o g r a m within its o w n premises is a jolly aspect of c o m p u t e r f u n . T h i s g a m e of three-dimensional tic-tac-toe w a s played with a p r o g r a m r u n n i n g o n a m i n i c o m p u t e r at the S p r i n g Joint, 1969. C A U T I O N - - A D U L T S O N L Y . g) While this e x a m p l e m a y offend s o m e people, it vividly s h o w B h o w p r o g r a m s m a y b e toyed with — in this c a s e , b y the mischievous sign-on-to m a k e t h e m b e h a v e h u m o r o u s l y .
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W h e n w o r d got a r o u n d that this n u d e w a s in a public file o n the time-sharing s y s t e m , m y office-mates s c r a m b l e d to get printouts of h e r . T h e cleverest, t h o u g h , h a d a d e c k p u n c h e d . A s h e predicted, she w a s t h r o w n off b y the s y s t e m s people within an h o u r or so-- leaving the other g u y s with their printouts, but he h a d the d e c k . N o w h e can put her b a c k in the c o m p u t e r a n y time, but they can't.
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THE PHANTOM The way s y s t e m s at M I T t i m e s , with all the lineprinter
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this story is told, o n a of the time-sharing w o u l d g o d o w n at completely mysterious of core a n d disk b e i n g w i p e d o u t , a n d printing out T H E P H A N T O M S T R I K E S .
F o r a long time the guilty p r o g r a m could not b e f o u n d . Finally it w a s discovered that the b o m b w a s h i d d e n in an old a n d v e n e r a b l e statistics p r o g r a m previously believed to b e completely reliable. T h e reason the p h a n t o m didn't a l w a y s strike w a s that the B o m b part queried the s y s t e m clock a n d m a d e a p s e u d o r a n d o m decision w h e t h e r to b o m b the system d e p e n d i n g o n the instantaneous setting of the clock. T h i s is w h y it took so long to discover; the p r o g r a m usually bided its time a n d b e h a v e d p r o p e r l y . All k i n d s of d u m b Jokes s n d cartoons circulate a m o n g the public about c o m p u t e r s . T h e n o u r friends regale u s computerfolk with these Jokes a n d c a r t o o n s , s n d b e c a u s e we don't laugh they say w e h a v e n o sense of h u m o r . O h w e d o , we d o . B u t w h a t w e laugh at ie rather m o r e complicated, a n d relates to w h a t we think of aa t h e real structure of t h i n g s . S o m e of the best h u m o r in the field is r u n in Datamation; a n anthology called Faith, H o p e a n d Parity r e r a n a lot of their best pieces from the early sixties. Classic w a s the K l u d g e series, a r o m p describing various activities a n d products of the K l u d g e K o m p u t e r K o r p o r a t i o n , w h o s e foibles distilled m a n y of the m o r e idiotic things that h a v e b e e n d o n e in the field. ("Kludge," p r o n o u n c e d "klooj," is a. c o m p u t e r m a n ' B term for a ridiculous m a c h i n e . ) Datamation's h u m o r o u s tradition has continued in a p o n d e r o u s b u t extremely funny serial that ran in '72 called Also S p r a c h v o n N e u m a n n , w h i c h in mellifluous a n d elliptical e u p h e m i s m s described the author's a d v e n t u r e s st the "airship f o u n d r y " a n d other confused c o m p a n i e s that h a d h i m d o i n g o n e p r e p o s t e r o u s thing with c o m p u t e r s after a n o t h e r .
A p p a r e n t l y this w a s the r e v e n g e of a disgruntled p r o g r a m m e r , long since d e p a r t e d . Not only that, but his r e v e n g e w a s thorough: the B o m b part of the p r o g r a m w a s totally kni*'ed into the rest of it, it w a s a v e r y important p r o g r a m that h a d to b e r u n a lot with different data, a n d n o documentation existed, m a k i n g it for practical p u r p o s e s impossible to c h a n g e . T h e final solution, so the story g o e s , w a s this: w h e n e v e r the r o w d y p r o g r a m h a d to b e r u n , the rest of the m a c h i n e w a s cleared o r put o n protect, so it ran a n d h a d its fits in majestic solitude.
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H e sat d o w n at the terminal a n d typed in the c o m m a n d . P R I N T R H B O M B . But before he could see its contents, the terminal typed instead
94
O n e of the m e a n e r p r a n k s w a s a p r o g r a m that ran o n the old 7094. It could fit o n o n e c a r d (in b i n a r y ) , a n d put the c o m p u t e r in an inescapable loop. Unfortunately the usual " S T O P " button w a s disabled b y this p r o g r a m , so to atop the p r o g r a m o n e w o u l d eventually h a v e to pull the big e m e r g e n c y button. T h i s b u r n t out all the m a i n registers. TIMES S Q U A R E
LIGHTS
O n e of the w e i r d e r p r o g r a m s w a a the o p e r a t o r - w a k e r u p p e r s o m e b o d y wrote for the 7094. It w a s a big p r o g r a m , a n d w h a t it did w a s D I S P L A Y A L P H A B E T I C A L M E S S A G E S O N T H E C O N S O L E L I G H T S , eliding past like the n e w s in T i m e s S q u a r e . Y o u put in this p r o g r a m a n d followed it with the m e s s a g e ; the computer's console b o a r d w o u l d light u p a n d the n e w s w o u l d go b y . Since the lights usually blink In uninteresting patterns, thla w a s v e r y startling.
TSS HAS GONE
T h i s w o u l d blink lights a n d spin tapes impressively and lengthen the run of y o u r p r o g r a m to w h a t e v e r ' y o u w a n t e d . BOMBING T H E TIME
SHARE
O n e of the classic b e d - b o y p r a n k s is to b o m b timesharing systems-- that ia, foul them u p a n d bring t h e m to a halt. M a n y p r o g r a m m e r s h a v e d o n * this; o n e has told m e It's a wonderful w a y to get rid of y o u r a g g r e s s i o n s . Of c o u r s e , it con d a m a g e other people's w o r k (especially if disks are b o m b e d ) ; a n d it a l w a y s gels the ay stem p r o g r a m m e r e h o p p i n g m a d , b e c a u s e it m e a n s you've defied their authority a n d m a y b e found a hole they don't k n o w a b o u t . H a r e are a couple of e x a m o l e s .
T h e s e rules h a v e the following general effect: patterns y o u m a k e will c h a n g e , r e p e a t , g r o w , disappear in wild c o m b i n a t i o n s . S o m e patterns m o v e across the screen in s u c c e e d i n g generations ("gliders"). O t h e r patterns pulsate strangely a n d eject gliders repetitively (glider g u n s ) . S o m e patterns c r a s h together in w a y s that p r o d u c e m o v i n g glider g u n s . W e i r d . While the g a m e of Life, as y o u can see from the rules, haa nothing to d o with c o m p u t e r s intrinsically, obviously c o m p u t e r s are the only w a y to try out c o m p l e x patterns in a reasonable length of time.
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N O N - O B V I O U S R E S U L T S OF S O M E SIMPLE P A T T E R N S : s o m e d i e . o n e blinks b a c k a n d forth, others b e c o m e stable. ( C o n w a y ' s C a m e of Life p r o g r a m m e d for P L A T O b y D a n n y Sleator.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TIME-WASTER
In o n e c o m p a n y , for s o m e r e a s o n , it w a s a r r a n g e d that large and l o n g - r u n n i n g p r o g r a m s h a d priority o v e r short quick o n e s . V e r y well: s o m e o n e w r o t e a counterattack p r o g r a m o c c u p i n g several b o x e s of p u n c h c a r d s , to w h i c h y o u a d d e d the short p r o g r a m y o u really w a n t e d r u n , a n d a card specifying h o w long y o u w a n t e d the first part of the p r o g r a m to grind before y o u r real o n e actually started.
T i m e flows in the g a m e b y "generations." T h e pattern o n the b o a r d in each generation determines the pattern o n the b o a r d in the next generation. T h e g a m e part simply consists of trying out n e w patterns a n d seeing w h a t things result in the generations after it. E a c h cell is either O C C U P I E D or E M P T Y . A cell b e c o m e s occupied (or "is b o r n " ) if exactly three of its n e i g h b o r s w e r e full in the previous generation. A cell stays occupied if either t w o or three of its neighbors w e r e o c c u p i e d in the previous generation. All other cells b e c o m e e m p t y ("die").
B u t this w a s incredible! A p r o g r a m so virulent lhat if y o u just tried to read its contents, without r u n n i n g it, it still b o m b e d the s y s t e m ! T h e s y s t e m s m a n r u s h e d from the r o o m to see w h a t h a d g o n e w r o n g .
T h i s p r o g r a m w a s extremely c o m p l e x . Since the 94 displayed the contents of all m a i n registers a n d trap, arithmetic a n d overflow lights, it w a s necessary to d o v e r y weird things in the p r o g r a m to turn these lights o n and off at the right times.
THE
T h e g a m e is a strange m o d e l of evolution, natural selection, q u a n t u m m e c h a n i c s or pretty m u c h w h a t e v e r else y o u w a n t to see in it. Part of its initial fascination w a s that C o n w a y didn't k n o w its long-term o u t c o m e s , a n d held a contest (eventually w o n b y a g r o u p from M I T ) .
RHBOMB
T h e time-share at the L a b s , n e v e r m i n d w h i c h L a b s , kept g o i n g d o w n . Mischief w a s s u s p e c t e d . M i s chief w a s verified: a p r o g r a m called R H B O M B , s u b mitted b y a certain p r o g r a m m e r with the initials R . H . , w a s r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d t u r n e d out a l w a y s to be present w h e n the terminals printed T S S H A S G O N E D O W N . It w a s verified b y the s y s t e m s people that the p r o g r a m called R H B O M B w a s in fact a B o m b p r o g r a m , with n o other p u r p o s e than to take d o w n the time-sharing s y s t e m .
H o w e v e r , s o m e m o n t h s later a s n o o p y s y s t e m s p r o g r a m m e r noted that a file called R H B O M B h a d b e e n stored o n d i s k . R a t h e r than h a v e R . H . scalped p r e m a t u r e l y , h e thought h e w o u l d c h e c k the contents.
ZAP T H E
T h e rules a p p e a r e d in the Scientific A m e r i c a n in O c t o b e r 1 9 7 0 , in Martin G a r d n e r ' s g a m e s c o l u m n , a n d the w h o l e country w e n t w i l d . G a r d n e r w a s s w a m p e d with results ( m a n y published in F e b . 7 1 ) ; after a couple m o r e issues G a r d n e r w a s h e d his h a n d s of it, a n d it goes on in its o w n m a g a z i n e .
T h e rules are deceptively simple: s u p p o s e y o u h a v e a big c h e c k e r b o a r d . E a c h cell has eight neighbors: the cells next to it u p , d o w n a n d diagonally.
R . H . w a s s p o k e n to sternly a n d it did not h a p p e n again.
P r a n k s are a n important b r a n c h of h u m o r in the field. H e r e are s o m e that will give y o u a s e n s e of it.
A G r a n d F a d a m o n g computerfolk in the last couple of y e a r s has b e e n the g a m e of " Life," invented b y J o h n Horton C o n w a y .
G a m e s with c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s are universally enjoyed in the c o m p u t e r c o m m u n i t y . W h e r e v e r there are g r a p h i c displays there is usually a veraion of the g a m e S p a c e w a r . (Bee S t e w a r d B r a n d ' s S p a c e w a r piece In Rolling S t o n e , mentioned e l s e w h e r e . ) S p a c e w a r , like m a n y other c o m p u t e r b a s e d g a m e s , is played b e t w e e n p e o p l e , using the c o m p u t e r as a n animated b o a r d w h i c h can w o r k out the results of complex rules. S o m e installations h a v e c o m p u t e r g a m e s y o u c a n play against; y o u arc effectively "playing against the h o u s e , " trying to outfox a p r o g r a m . T h i s is rarely e a s y . A variety of t e c h n i q u e s , h i d d e n from y o u , can be u s e d . W h e n "a c o m p u t e r " plays a g a m e , actually s o m e b o d y ' s p r o g r a m is carrying out a set of rules that the p r o g r a m m e r haa laid out In a d v a n c e . T h e p r o g r a m has s natural e d g e : it c a n c h e c k a m u c h longer serlea of possibilities In looking for the best m o v e (according to the criteria in the p r o g r a m ) . T h e r e Is s m o r e complicated a p p r o a c h : the c o m p u t e r can b e p r o g r a m m e d to test for tha best strategy in a g a m e . T h i s la m u c h m o r e complicated, a n d ia ordinarily considered an e x a m p l e of "artificial intelligence" (aee " T h e G o d - B u i l d e r s , " e l s e w h e r e in thla b o o k ) .
D o n a l d D . S p e n c e r . G a m e Playing with C o m p u t e r s , ( S p a r t a n / H a y d e n . $13.) T h i s includes flowi a n d w h a t - h a v e - y o u for s o m e
A continuing scries of g a m e p r o g r a m s (mostly or all in B A S I C ) a p p e a r s in P C C . a n e w s p a p e r mentioned earlier. Stewart Brand's m a r v e l o u s S p a c e w a r piece, also mentioned earlier, ia highly r e c o m m e n d e d . Robert C . G a s - a i U , "an <.xa.ln.tion of Tic-Tac-Toellke G*fl»«." P r o c . NCC 7 4 , 349-355. Exa»u.nes structure of simple gasws (••p. 3D tic-t«c-toe or guBIC) - h e r . forced wins are poesiblej and prograsi structures to play t h e * . . of Life," Ti M , 21 Jan 7 4 , 66-1 (Lifeline, -aid to be pub11shad by Robert T . kteinwright of W i l t o n , Connecticut.)
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Lauren. 14. was t»lking to another girl at Ihe A C M TO con 14
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They have varied backgrounds. T h e father of one Is n bulcl the falher of another Is one of ihe country's foremost intellectuals. (None of that matters to the kids.) I have dined in a number ot their h o m e s , and find this in common: their parents show them great respect, love and trust. Indeed, Resistor parents have expressed some surprise to learn that their children's work Is at the full-fledged professional level. T h e important thing, lo the parents, is that the kids are working on constructing things Ihey enjoy.
Tln-ir name makes people think they're a war protest group, but actually Ihe R.E.S.I.S.T.O.R.S, of Princeton. N ,J. are n bunch of kids w h o play with computers. They're nil young; mcmbei are purged when they finish high school. Their clubroom la at Princeton University, but the Initiative la strictly theirs. The name stands Tor "Radically Emphatic Students Interested In Science. Technology and Other Research Subjects." Computers are not all they do--they've also gotten Inlo slot racing nnd the game of Diplomacy-- but computers arc what Ihoy're known for. T h e Resistors (lei's spell 11 the short w a y ) exhibit regularly at the computer conferences. and have startled numerous people with the high quality of their work. They've been invited to conferences abroad. They have built various language procei and done graphics! lately their fad la working with the LDS-1 In Princeton's Chemistry Department.
Since there was H lot .,t (;.i1,.-.e,ty . (ho Resistors got a free account on a national time-sharing system, Though they didn't have to pay, the system kept them informed on whet they would have owed. In a year or so they ran up funny-money bills of several hundred thousand dollars. P..E.S.I.S.T.O. a.: after infamous Onega ceremony.
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Tho trade press is umblvalcnt toward the Resistor*. O n the one hand they make good copy. (Al one Spring Joint they had the only working time-shoring demo-- on a carpel next to a phOne booth.) O n the other, Ihcy sometimes Nccm hriitty and publicity-hungry . like m a n y celebrities. (At another Spring Joint they d u g up an IBM Songbook und serenaded the guys ut the IBM pavilion, w h o hud to act nice about it.) So they don't get written up in computer magazines so much anymore. I first met the Resistors in 1370. and started hanging around with them for two reasons. First, Ihcy ore perfectly delightful: enthusiastic in the w a y Ihnl most Adults forego, und very wilty . T o them computer talk was not u thing ii|>;irt. us it Is Cur both outsiders end m a n y professionals.
Where do they learn il all? They lcact Newcomers hang around, learn computer talk. work on projects , and tease each other. They also use the informal trade channels, subscribing to magazines and filling oul information request cards under such company names as Plebney International Signal Division and Excallbur W a x Fruit.
Secondly, und this was the self-seeking impect, I noted that these kids were quite export, and interested in Riving m e advice where computer professionals would not. They got interested in helping m e wilh m y (perhaps quixotic) Xanadu"" project (see flip side). This was enough lo keep m e visiting for a couple of years. N o w , some people arc too proud lo auk children for information. This is d u m b . Information is where you find it.
T h e great thing about these klda Is their zany flippancy. They've never failed, they've never been ofruld for their jobs, and so they combine the zest of the young with their expertise. Their forms of expression arc aa startling to professionals as they are to outsiders: don't say anything ponderously if it can be said playfully. Don't say "bit ricld" if you can say "funny bits;" don't say "alphanumeric buffer" If you can soy "quick brown fox box; " don't say "interrupt signal" If you cai :all it a Hoy Charlie: " don't say "readdressing logic" if you ;an say "whoopee
T h e last I hcurd. the Resistors were ut work in ;i C O B O L compiler for the Pl)l'-ll. hoping it would save the local high school from the disastrous (10 them) purchase of an IBM 1130. (Since the school's intent WOB lo teach business programming, Ihcy hoped that the avuilabillty of C O B O L would encourage the school to buy the more powerful und less expensive PUP-11.) T h e Resistors urc few, but I think they are very important in principle, an cxislencc proof. They show how silly and artificial is our edifice of pedagogy , with ull its sequences und sterilizations, end how anybody cun learn anything in Ihe right atmosphere, stripped of Its pomposities. T h e Resistors arc not obsessed with computers; their love at computers is part of their love of everything, and everything is whut computers arc for.
4. A t t e m p t to find out how else computer: a r e used in the p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , and m e n t i o n these to h e l p orient the r e a d e r .
The public is thoroughly confused about c o m p u t e r s , and the p r e s s and p u b l i c i s t s are scarcely free from b l a m e . IT'S TIME F O R E X P L A N A T I O N S . People want to know what c o m p u t e r systems really do-- no more of this "latest space-age technology" g a r b a g e . M r . B u s i n e s s * • a n , M r . W r i t e r , are y o u man enough to s t a r t telling it straight? The computer p r i e s t h o o d , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , often w a n t s to awe people w i t h , or unduly s t r e s s , the notion of the computer b e i n g i n volved in a p a r t i c u l a r thing at a l l . It is time for everybody to stop being impressed by this and get on with t h i n g s . Don't just copyedit what they give y o u . Nose around and really find o u t , then write it loud and c l e a r . These simple rules are my < gge: inging on more intelligent dei tha '11 help e n l i g h t e n the publ ; by t
for
1. FIND O U T A N D DESCRIBE THE FUNDAMENTAL A P P R O A C H A N D PHILOSOPHY OF THE P R O G R A M . T h i * can invariably b e stated in three clear English sentences or l e s s , but not necessarily by the person w h o created i t . THIS IS W H A T WRITERS A R E FOR: it is your duty to probe u n til the matter has become c l e a r . Examples. "This chess-playing progri
notes for various kinds "This
This goes a g a i n s t the c x c l u s i v i s t t e n d e n cies we all have w h e n w e want to b a l l y h o o s o m e t h i n g . It is a matter of c o n s c i e n c e , an important o n e .
W h a t c o u l d go wrong? A n d most i m p o r t a n t : W h a IMPORTANT
DISTINCTIONS
It is only by c l a r i f y i n g distinction; ' going to get anything
7. Don't say "a ma 1functioning computer' (hardware error) if the computer functioned as it was d i r e c t e d on an incorrect program (software e r r o r ) . (And remember that the best p r o g r a m m e r s make m i s t a k e s , so that a c a t a s t r o p h i c bug in a system is no sign that it was p r o g r a m m e d by an i n c o m p e t e n t , only that it isn't finished.) 8 . (A p a r t i c u l a r point about g r a p h i c s . S e e flip s i d e . ) Don't say " T V screen" if a computer screen is not T V , i.e., S2S h o r i zontal lines that you can see on the screen if y o u look for t h e m . (See p . >»\fc versus p . £ w \ ? J . ) HOW A B O U T : "visual display screen"? -- y o u can a d d , "on which the computer can draw moving lines," or w h a t e v e r else the p a r t i c u l a r system d o e s . 9 . Don't assume that your audience is computer-illiterate.
What or whose computer is used to do a thing is of almost no concern (unless it is one of unusual d e s i g n , of which there are comparatively f e w ) . Not the make of the comput e r , but the GENERAL IDEA OF HOW T H E PROGRAM O P E R A T E S , Is the most important t h i n g . ing paid by , have ti • that < public u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and >ss. (If y o u think I t c a n ' t splendid Kodak ads in the
I. Keep g e e - w h i n i n g restricted to the crlptlon of a system's psychological effect real p e o p l e . (What impresses 1you may turn to be old hat.) — 3. Look for angles special to f reporting. Pursuing details is like! bring up better story pegs and more I t e r e s t . Instead of saying "computer ists" 1 done s o m e t h i n g , you might find 1 thl • tlni how unlike:. oph/slcist and 1 finding what's special•• "Never before'hes s been done on a compute: so small the six< a portable typewriter (end having only 1 4000 words of m e n o r y ) . .
Did they rale free subscriptions to computer ma go tines* I asked. Could they claim Ihcy really "make decisions affecting the purchase of computers"? "Of course w e do!" was the reply. "All together: shall w e buy a computer?" Resistors (in unison) "NO!"
Their originul advisor w h o m w e shall coll Gaston, is mischievous in his o w n right. It was meeting-time al Gaston's piece on a bright Saturday, end I »us on the fawn working on Xanadu with Nat and Elliott wher (l interrupted lo say that an unwelcome salesman of burg lar alarms was about to arrive. "Let's have a little fun with him." said Gaston. The kids were to be introduced as Gaston's children, I was an uncle. W e took our stations. T h e salesman may have realized ho was walking into a trap from all the strangely beaming adolescents that stood in the living room. H e got out his wares and started to demonstrate the burglar iilarm, but it didn't go right. Peter, standing in front of Ihe equipment with n dcmonicully vucuous grin, had reversed n diode behind his back so thul Ihe alarm rang continuously unless you broke the light beam. "Itumpf," said Gaston, "you w a n system?" W e trooped into the kitchen, running. A N Y N E W S ? typed Gaston. C R E A M Y E L L O W BUICK P U L L E D INTO D R I V E W A Y , replied the Teletype. JERSEY LICENSE P L A T E . . . (and the salesman's license n u m b e r ) . and finally. O W N E R O F R E C O R D N O T K N O W N . John was typing this from the other Teletype in the barn. T h e salesman stared nt the Teletype H e looked around at our cherubic smiling faces, lie looked at the Teletype. "That's all right," said the salesman. "But now I'd like to show you a real security system. . ." A n d it was back to the old burglar alarm.
deeply versed in computers or softw just a p r o g r a m m e r . (Anyway, if son thing has been p r o g r a m m e d by an e n t o m o l o g i s t , it is probably more interesting to refer 3 him as an e n t o m o l o g i s t than as a "computer 1 4 . Do not refer to apparent of the computer (unless that rathe) feature of the program]. Cre n o r . Do j inybody is "the clever comp it is the progra These guys don't get if you think s o , say :cogn ihey dese S . N e v e r , never say "teach the computer elliptical w a y of saying "write computer progr; m s . " Programming means creating exact and s| e c i f i c plans that can be automatically folloi ed by the equipment like 'cry" •ile of dr of flushing i t . an the flip taught."
archseologici
Of coui hardware mat equipment 01 your real di put the f a d
I was driving some Resistors around Princeton- ihev w * ™ yelling con.radie.ory driving inatructions. "I demand trujle redundancy ,n the directions." I „„[<,. -Right up ahead you turn right right away." said a seok.-mnn
1 0 . D o n ' t assume that lt can't all b e said s i m p l y . O n l y lazy or h a r d - p r e s s e d write! are u n c l e a r . 1 1 . Do not use c u t e s y - t a l k , particular that w h i c h suggests that computers have an intrinsic c h a r a c t e r . By " c u t e s y " I mean s e n tences like "Scientists have recently taught a computer to play c h e s s , " Mis-Leads like "What does a computer sound like?" (when talking about music constructed by a particular program in a particular w a y ) , and awe-struck ' icrlptlons l i k e , "At last the Space Age has come to the 1 bus! 1 2 . Do not use the garbage term " c o m p u terized," unless there is a clear statement of whore the computer is in the s y s t e m , what the computer is doing and h o w . A " c o m p u t e r ized traffic system," for i n s t a n c e , could be any damn t h i n g , but a "system of traffic light under computer c o n t r o l , using various timing techniques still under d e v e l o p m e n t , " says something. 1 3 . Don't put in cliches as f a c t , for example by the use Jit such terms as " m a t h e m a t i c a l " or "computer scientist" unless they really a p p l y . Do not imply any mathematical character unless y o u know the system possesses it: many programs contain no operations that can fairly b e called m a t h e m a t i c a l . S i m i l a r l y , tidely Lentis ' is :ompu
should b e de suggests the b a b y , puppy • t Imply that something is ' *ss y o u have checked that
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ernest G o w e r s , Plain W o r d s . This wonderful little book showed English civil Jervants "bureaucratic w r i t i n g " was totally u n n e c e s s a r y . Its precepts-- mainly concerned with callini
challenge: not Just to ei the specifications, but i find aesthetically pleaai
i are • m y s t e r y to o t h e r s , iwhat f r i g h t e n i n g , s o m e w h a t o n c e r n s s e e * so p e c u l i a r , •re, t h e i r l a n g u a g e so in-
C o m p u t e r pi w h o see them as r i d i c u l o u s . Th< their h o u r s so I comprehens ible.
C o m p u t e r p e o p l e n a y b e s t b e t h o u g h t of as a new e t h n i c g r o u p , very » " c h u n t o t h e m s e l v e s . N o w , it is very h a r d to c h a r a c t e r i z e e t h n i c g r o u p s in w o r d s , and c e r t a i n to g i v e o f f e n s e , but if I had to c h o o s e one w o r d for them it w o u l d be e l f i n . W e are like those l i t t l e p e o p l e down among the m u s h r o o m s , s k i t tering around completely preoccupied with u n f a t h o m a b l e c o n c e r n s and s e e m i n g l y i n d i f f e r e n t to n o r m a l h u m a n i t y . In the m o o n l i g h t ( i . e . , p r e t t y l a t e , w i t h snacks a r o u n d the e q u i p m e n t ) y o u m a y h e a r our m u s i c . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the first rule in d e a l ing w i t h l e p r e c h a u n s a p p l i e s ex h y p o t h e s i to c o m p u t e r p e o p l e : w h e n o n e p r o m i s e s to do y o u a m a g i c a l f a v o r , k e e p y o u r e y e s fixed on h l a u n t i l he has d e l i v e r e d . O r y o u w i l l g e t w h a t y o u d e s e r v e . P r o g r a m m e r s ' p r o m i s e s are n o t o r iously u n k e p t . But the d i p p y g l o r i e s of this w o r l d , the e a r n e s t n e s s and w h i m s y , are s o m e t h i n g e l s e . A real c o m p u t e r f r e » k , if y o u ask h i m for a p r o g r a m to p r i n t c a l e n d a r s , w i l l w r i t e a p r o g r a m that g i v e s y o u y o u r c h o i c e o f G r e g o r i a n , J u l i a n , O l d R u s s i a n and F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a r y , in e i t h e r s m a l l r e f e r e n c e p r i n t o u t s or b i g ones y o u can w r i t e i n .
P r a c t i c e s a y i n g them l o u d l y and f i r m l y to y o u r s e l f . That way you won't freeze w h e n t h e y ' r e p u l l e d on y o u . T H A T ' S N O T H O W Y O U DO IT THAT'S NOT HOW YOU USE COMPUTERS T H A T ' S N O T W H A T Y O U DO W I T H C O M P U T E R S T H A T ' S N O T HOW I T ' S D O N E THAT'S NOT PRACTICAL H O W M U C H DO Y O U K N O W A B O U T C O M P U T E R S ? WITH YOUR BACKGROUND, Y O U C O U L D N ' T U N D E R S T A N D IT L E T ' S C A L L IN S O M E O N E W H O K N O W S T H I S APPLICATION (generally a shill) IT I S N ' T DONE (you k n o w the a n s w e r to that o n e ) a n d the one I've b e e n w a i t i n g tb h e a r , IF G O D H A D I N T E N D E D C O M P U T E R S TO BE U S E D THAT W A Y , HE WOULD HAVE DESIGNED THEM DIFFERENTLY.
O n e c o m m o n t r a i t of o u r t i m e s - - the t e c h n i q u e o f o b s c u r i n g o n e s e l f - - m a y be m o r e c o m mon a m o n g c o m p u t e r p e o p l e than o t h e r s (see " T h e M y t h of the M a c h i n e . " p .
to p o n d e r . I h a v e s e e n it the t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n w h o , w i t h a b o u t , cannot stop talking for a p r o j e c t . A p o i g n a n t displacement.)
A sad a s p e c t of t h i s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , is by no m e a n s o b v i o u s . T h i s is that the s a m e c o m p u t e r folks w h o c h a t t e r e l o q u e n t l y a b o u t s y s tems that f a s c i n a t e t h e m tend to fall d a r k and s i l e n t w h i l e s o m e o n e e l s e is e x p o u n d i n g his o w n f a s c i n a t i o n s . Y o u w o u l d e x p e c t that the p e r s o n with effulgent technical enthusiasms would really click with kindred s p i r i t s . In my e x p e r i e n c e this o n l y h a p p e n s b r i e f l y : h o s t i l i ties and d i s a g r e e m e n t s b o i l out of n o w h e r e to cut the g o o d m o o d . My o n l y c o n c l u s i o n is that the s a m e s p i r i t that o r i g i n a l l y d r i v e s us m u t t e r i n g i n t o the c l o c k w o r k feels t h r e a t e n e d w h e n o t h e r s s t a r t m o n k e y i n g w i t h w h a t has b e e n c o n t r o l l e d and p r i v a t e f a n t a s y . T h i s c a n b e s u m m e d up as f o l l o w s : N O B O D Y WANTS TO HEAR ABOUT ANOTHER GUY'S S Y S T E M . H e r e as e l s e w h e r e , things fuse to b l o c k h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n : e n v y , d i s l i k e of b e i n g d o m i n a t e d , r e f u s a l to r e l a t e e m o t i o n a l l y , and w h a t ever e l s e . Whatever computer people hear a b o u t , it s e e m s they i m m e d i a t e l y try to t o p . W h i c h Is n o t to say that c o m p u t e r p e o p l e are m e r e c l o c k w o r k lemons or B e t t e l h e i m i a n r o b o t - c h i l d r e n . But the t e n d e n c i e s are t h e r e .
BIBLIOGRAPHY G e r a l d M . W e i n b e r g , The P s y c h o l o g y of Computi Programming. VarTNoTtrand R e i n n ' o T o T ^ Systematic
treatment
in a r e l s t e d
and Judy ahov. O n . of Lha nastiest people I have av»r waa tha haed of aacurlty for a blg-oomput*r atallatlon. Sarvaral people agree with me U he delights In tailing people thay can't do specific things on u s computer, merely for aak* of restricting them. Anyway, at thla same lnstallatii a programmer, l.t's call him A , who disliked au thorlty, ana disliked t M * director of sacurity let's csll him s, with a moody passion. S spent auch of his time Intensely. •*»••• Ively contemplating possible ways that might b r « k into th. s y . t ™ , and .laborataly programing dafans*a and cowtarmaaauxa* 1 Ui.at.nitor. HOW do I know thla? I know who constantly went through B's w< " -11 plana Incaaaantly for On baskat. • will gat a big taunting printout. comlm •apectadly to hla off th* machine, hla .11 his M C I . U u a known
place between people who want computer programs, but can't write thorn, and people who can write them, but don't want to. Or, that ta, who don't want to get caught having to do a lot of unnecessary work if lt could be done nora simply. than, is where the ly be the boss— says, do it this way." requests and counter-offers he wants and the pro•Id rather do it a dlfil for both sides to - d e a r . Often the cuathlng but would be -__ier that Is much easier Often the programmer can make helpways to do it that will
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e is no r o o m h e r e to c o a c h y o u on how to r e p l y to all t h e s e . Be a s s u r e d that there is a l w a y s a r e p l y . The brute-force brazen comeback, equally d i r t y , is j u s t to s a y s o m e t h i n g like DIDN'T Y O U SEE THE LAST JOINT
PROCEEDINGS?
(where x is a n y p l a c e on the map on p . S" , and y is any c u r r e n t computer, such as a PDP-10.^
Computer people have many ordinary traits that show up in e x t r a o r d i n a r y w a y s - - l o y a l t y , p r i d e , t e m p e r , v e n g e f u l n e s s and so o n . They h a v e p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t i e s , as w e l l . Of d o g g e d ness and c o n s t r a i n e d f a n t a s y t h a t e n a b l e them to p r o d u c e in t h e i r w o r k . (Once a t lunch I asked a t a b l e f u l l of p r o g r a m m e r s w h a t p l a n e f i g u r e s they c o u l d get out of one cut t h r o u g h a cube. I got a b o u t three times as m a n y a n s w e r s .as I t h o u g h t there w e r e . ) U n f o r t u n a t e l y there is no r o o m or time to go on a b o u t all these t h i n g s - - see B i b l i o g r a p h y - - but in this p a r t i c u l a r a r e a of f a n tasy and e m o t i o n I h a v e o b s e r v e d s o m e i n t e r e s ting t h i n g s .
down to a paraonal a program that meeti
... p r o g r a m m e r s , in m y experience, tend to be painstaking, logical, inhibited, cautious, restrained, defensive, methodical, and ritualistic."
very bad things can happen if program negotiation is not done carefully and honestly enough. The programmer can Bisunderstand and create sanething that was not wanted, or the cuatenwr can carelessly nisstate himself and ask for the wrong thing. Or worst of all— the programmer can d e liberately mishear and do state thing different, saying, "There, that's what you wanted," aa ha hands over something that isn't what wa* really asked for. And the poor custc«Mr may evan believe lt (see "Cybercrud," p. I ) . Program negotiation should be more widely acknowledged as a difficult and painful business. It is exhausting and fraught with stressi people (on both side*) get all kinds of psychoscmatic symptoms (like abdominal pains, tics and chills). The fact that people's careers often depend on the outcone makes the atmosphere worse, rather than fostering the thorough and sympathetic cooperation which is essential. If there is one thine that lavmui in hu.iru,*.
K e n Knowlton. "Collaborations with Artists— A Programmer's Reflections," in N s k e a Rosenfeld <eds.). Graphic Languages (North-Holland P u b . C o . ) , p . 399.
U S E F U L , A N D POS5IBLY E M B A R R A S S I N G QUESTIONS If the Computer Priests start to pick o here are some helpful phrases that will give strength. I do not want to give the impression tl Guardians of the Machine are always bad gu Nevertheless, sad lo relate, they are not alv good g u y s . Like everyone out to bolster his position including the plumber and the electrician m a n haa learned h o w easy it is to intimidate the laymi N o w . these people are often right. But if you have reason to question the w a y things are donewhether you're a m e m b e r of the same corporation, a consumer advocate or whatever-- you are probably entitled to straight answers that will help settle the istly . without p u t d o w n s . A n y honest N o w , these helpful que •stly a m a y elicit long mysterious an: and confident. Write d o w n what's said and ! vith the glossary in this book until you undi Ther the a i ask n 1 a m not Inviting Ihe reader to m a k e trouble flippantly. I a m suggesting that m a n y people have a right to k n o w which ha* not been exercised, and there m a y be some discomfort at first. H O W D O E S IT W O R K ? (This question m a y have to be backed up as follows: "There are no computer systems whose workings cannot be clearly described to someone w h o understands the basics. I INSIST T H A T Y O U M A K E A S I N C E R E A T T E M P T . " ) W H Y D O Y O U C L A I M IT H A S T O B E THIS W A Y ? (SPEAK M O R E S L O W L Y , PLEASE.) W H A T IS T H E D A T A S T R U C T U R E ? C O U L D Y O U E X P L A I N T H A T IN T E R M S O F T H E D A T A STRUCTURE? W H O D E S I G N E D THIS D A T A S T R U C T U R E ? A n d can I lalk to him? W H A T IS T H E A L G O R I T H M ? W H O IS T H E P R O G R A M M E R ? A n d can I talk lo him? W H Y D O W E H A V E T O USE A C A N N E D P R O G R A M FOR THIS? W H Y IS T H E I N P U T L A N G U A G E S O C O M P L I C A T E D ? W H Y D O W E NEED CARDS? W H Y CAN'T PEOPLE TYPE IN T H E I R O W N INPUT? W H Y N O T H A V E A SIMPLE-MINDED F R O N T E N D T H A T L E T S U S E R S C O N T R O L IT T H E M S E L V E S ? W H Y H A V E F O R M S T O FILL O U T ? W H Y N O T H A V E A D I A L O G U E F R O N T - E N D O N A MINI? W H Y C A N ' T IT B E ON-LINE? fr.* *K C O H B l s * * « / f fit* ft. lO-%)? W H Y D O E S IT H A V E T O B E T H A T B R A N D O F C O M P U T E R ? W H Y N O T G E T A S Y S T E M WITH LESS O V E R H E A D ? W H Y S H O U L D ALL C O M P U T E R OPERATIONS BE CENTRALIZED? D O N ' T T H E Y G E T IN E A C H O T H E R ' S W A Y ? W H Y D O E S IT A L L H A V E T O B E O N O N E C O M P U T E R ? W H Y N O T P U T P A R T O F IT O N A D E D I C A T E D MINI? W H Y C A N ' T W E D O THIS P A R T I C U L A R T H I N G A L L O N A MINI? W O U L D N ' T IT C O S T LESS IF W E G O T A M I N I C O M P U T E R F O R THIS T A S K ? W H Y C A N ' T THIS BE P R O G R A M M E D IN S O M E L A N G U A G E LIKE BASIC? YOU K N O W AND I KNOW THAT COMPUTERS DONT HAVE TO W O R K THAT WAY . WHY DO YOU CHOOSE T O D O IT T H A T W A Y ? If these suggestions seem unnecessarily contentioui II Is because some of theae guys like lo pick on peopis, and you m a y have lo be ready. A n d you m a y need all the support you can get, if. say, you take a stand "If the lnfarmaUon Is In there, I don't sea « in't get It oul." "You have no right lo ask questions like thl ( tha program requires It, change ths progri
-1 C A N T D E A R HEAT." R E M A R K E D L A N G W I D E R E
THE MEETING OF THE MINOS The _ £*pprt"
Naive Advocate
details
What you've gotta understand ia that thai are problwa involved..
i do all thasa things. Comeuppancei the customer will gat what he d*s*r* Morali if you want something, you'd better damn M negotiate lt at th* detailed laval.
T h e Strang* language of computer people makes more senae than laymen necessarily realise. It's a generalized analytical w a y of looking at time. space and activity. Conalder th* following. - T H E R E IS INSIGNIFICANT B U F F E R S P A C E W T H E F R O N T H A L L . " (Buffer: place to put something temporarily. > " B E F O R E 1 A C K N O W L E D G E Y O U R I N T E R R U P T . LET M E T A K E THIS P R O C E S S T O T E R M I N A T I O N , " - C O O K W G IS A N A R T O F INTERLEAVING T D M E - B O U N D O P E R A T I O N S . " (I.e..doing parts of separate jobe in the right order with an eye on th* clock.)
Some In the early throes of computer enthusiasm, it ii easy to suppose that anything tan be d o n e by computer-- that i s , any thine involving the chewing or diddling of information. This is decldealy not s o . For Instance, lt Is easy e n o u g h , and often p r a c t i c a l , to have a computer do something a few mi 111 on t i n e s . But it is almost never practical to have a computer do something s trillion t i m e s . Why? W e l l , let's say (for the **ke~oT sTSplicity) that a certain program loop takes 1/1000 of a second. To do it a thousand t i m e s , then, would take one s e c o n d , and to do it a million tines would take a thousand s e c o n d s , or about seventeen m i n u t e s . But to do it a trillion times n o w , would mean doing it 17,000,000 "minutes. or ' over thirty y e a r s . N o w , you will note that even if you speed up thst loop to 1/1,000,006 o f a s e c o n d , a trillion repetitions will take almost twelve days which is obviously going to need some justifying, even assuming that it Is otherwise feasible. (For problems of this type people begin thinking about building special h a r d w a r e , anyw a y . It will be n o t e d , for i n s t a n c e , that the PDP-I6-- see p . J T - - lets you compile your own special equipment for problems thst need eternal repetitions. COMBINATORIAL
EXPLOSIONS
One kind o f thing that's too much to do is generally called a combinatorial explosion-that i s , a problem that '^explodes" into too many things to d o . for i n s t a n c e , consider the game of c h e s s . Just because you can write a program to look ahead at all the possible o u t comes o f , s a y , tic-tac-toe, that doesn't mean you can consider ail the possibilities of c h e s s . To look at " a l l " the possibilities just a few moves ahead involves you in trillions of c a l c u l a t i o n s . Renembcr about trillions? And it turns out that there are a lot of problems like t h a t .
METHODS FOR DOIMC THINGS
i^MerwiT
jm-imr>H(r
$tn<Ms
w - r i * )
IS Time-sharing prices are a mix of lotsa stuff: 1. Connect time. This you psy-Ey - the hour. Good prices: Jz (DTSS), II.SO (Monmouth County [MJ] Community College but they have no *
Basically, an opernl i rig s y s 1 cm is program thst supervises all the other p grams in s c o m p u t e r . For this also called a supervi sor or a Because the operating system i be in c h a r g e , many computers nun cial w i r e d - i n instructions that r operating system can u s e . This j other programs from taking complete control of the m a c h i n e .
2.
Operating systems cone in all s u e s . The bigger ones take up a lot of computer tine because they have to do a l o t . The smallest kind,which are really kind of d i f f e r e n t , are just to help a single p r o grammer move quickly between his basic p r o g r a m s . {A typical such system is DEC's D O S , or Disk Operating 5 y s t e m , which you can get with the PDP-11.) This system is really a kind of butler that keeps track of where your basic programs are stored on disk and brings then in for you q u i c k l y .
no beginner: * "Core charge: tially the price of processing itself; depends on amount of number crunching. PDP-10 bills this in kilocore-seconds. i.e., how many thousand words of core nenory your program really turns out to n e e d , for how many Storage, which costs much. Example: 1000 characters for a month for a buck. (Typical.) That adds up * "ou might do better
A step up is the Batch M o n i t o r , or operating system set up for Batch Processing (see p . 5 ~ £ 3 r ) . In batch p r o c e s s i n g , prograns go through the computer as if on a conveyer b e l t , one at a time (or in some systems several at a t i n e ) . T h e operating system shepherds then.
Note that time-sharing usually less in non-business hours some exceptions charge m o r e . IBM'* OS/VS2-:. (Big IBH 370..)
Hatch processing is used when programs don't need any interaction with human u s e r s . (Or, and this is more c o m m o n , when human users want tine-sharing but can't ge_t it; see below.) A multiprogramming operating system is one that allows several different prograns (or conveyor-belt sequences of batch programs) to operate at one t i n e . (This is how most IBM J60s are used.)
WHERE TO GET IT
BIBLIOGRAPHY MacDonald7Al All About Timesharing
ic Computer Sysi "Elsevier PubTTi Sen
1
No way can we here get into the prose and cons (both senses) of the myriad time-sharing services that are available. An excellent summary of fifty-six different time-sharing services (variously using computers by Honeyw e l l , IBM, D E C , U n i v a c , C D C , Xerox and Burroughs) appeared in the February, 1973 Computer Decisions ("Piecing Out the Tinesharine Putil'e w Ty John R. H i l l e g a s s , p p . 2 4 - 1 2 ) . This summarises infornation available from Datapro Research C o r p . , Moorestown, N J . The article cautions against the potential high cost of tino-sharinp, services, and urges you to |*.ct a 1 1 the advice you can before committing to a time-sharing :
There are really no c Tha problem 1* always to think up Mthuds for doing things by computer, tklso called algorithms.} Basically what can be don* by computer is what can be don* on a tab 1.top with slip* of paper— comparing, copying, sorting, marking, doing arithmatic— and handing slip* of paper
That . they try :he operating system orktng. :he changes lt needs to adapt to new •ent and working rules and schedules iltware. And change the parts through which mischievous users crash the systea.
was created by keneny and Kurtz, ited the BASIC language to be used it (• ;ee p . (fc ) .
Systems people often look like dirty
Their computer arrived in fall '63. Their time-sharing system went into operation in spring '64, prograwneJ mostly by Dartmouth s t u d e n t s . and has grown and i improved continuously since t h e n . On that b a s i s : programmed bv students.
)ther they often look like harrlfd, 'hatever else) In the dike, trying Id back the tide
•How would you do that by computer?" — but "Can you think of a method for accomplishing that?" Th* "computer" i* really Irrelevant, for it ha* no nature and mtraty twiddle* information
' J
L _ " Then there is .Then there is the problem of "Turing impossibility." Turing was a mathematician who discovered that some things can be done s e quentially in a finite amount of t i n e , snd some things c a n ' t , such as proving certain types of mathematical theorem. In other w o r d s , anything that has to do things in sequence-whether a computer o r a nind o f G o d , if any-cannot possibly know anything which is not Turing-computable, Another important limitation. On a more practical level, though, there ar* just lots of things which nobody has figured out how to do in any feasible w a y , or are just now figuring out different systematic ways of d o i n g . (For s favorite such area of m i n e , compare the different conputer half-tone image synthesis systems described on p p . DM " I L t o DM "J"! .) Thus you see that figgering < doing stuff is still one of the principal aspects of the computer f i e l d . (Whole journals are devoted to i t , such as C A C M , JACM and so on.) But then of c o u r s e , every few years there comes a new movement in the field that bodes to make us start all o v e r . One such trend is called structured programming . being promulgated by a Dutch researcher named Dijkstra, among others. The idea of structured programming is to restrict computing languages in certain ways and "eliminate the GO TO," i.e., no longer have jumps to labeled places in programs. By dividing computer programs up only in certain w a y s , goes this school of thought, the programs can perhaps be proven w o r k a b l e , in the mathematical s e n s e , rather than just demonstrated to w o r k , as they are now-a notoriously error-prone situation. If the Dljkstra school is c o r r e c t , we say h a v e to start all over again with a new bunch of programming languages. These remarks give you the flavor of some restrictions and lines of development. The rest of this page is devoted to The Great Software Problem-- the Operating System.
OrtWTiVlGr '
or O S / 1 6 0 , or OS
We have no space here to discuss O S , the operating system of the IBM ibO snd 1 7 0 , which is just si w e l l : it Li a notoriously heavy-handed system, elaborated with what some would call devastating messlness. Kinds of convenience taken for granted by user* of such computer systems as the Burroughs S000, the P D P - 1 0 , DTSS and others aren't there. The programmer ha* to concern himself with intricacies having names like A C O N s , V C O H s , T C B s , E C B * , and the complications of JCL, (While these othar systems may have equivalent complications, the programmer need not mess with them to create efficient programs, as the 160 demands.) The programmer must even set s»lde the previous programmer's information in "SAVE AREAS," which is liks a restaurant guest having to clear th* dirty dishes on sitting down-and return them when he leaves. Several of the 160's sixteen general registers are confiscated. Time-sharing requires its own JCL-typ* language. And so o n .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
time-sharing.
Tine-sharing means the simultaneous use of one computer by several different users at o n c e . It's basically a complex form of nultiprogrammi n g . In principle this is like a la:y sua a n . The centra) c o n p u t e r works o n one user's p r o gram for a w h i l e , then on a n o t h e r ' s . . . until it is back to the first u s e r . There are basically two kinds of tinesharing: tinc-sharing where you can only use certain facilities or l a n g u a g e s , and timesharing where you can use all the facilities of the computer (including programming in the computer"s assembly 1 a n n u a g e ) . Examples of restricted time-sharing are the various minicomputer systens that arc available which time-share the BASIC language. (Nova and PDP-11 and H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d , for Sorae examples of unrestricted timesharing arc the PDP-10 (see p . l o ) , D a r t mouth's D T S S , Honeywell's M U L T 1 C S , IBM's T S O , and General E l e c t n c ' s MARK III. Bigger is not necessarily b e t t e r . For i n s t a n c e , there are time-shared versions of BASIC that run on big IBM c o m p u t e r s . Howe v e r , tt m a y very well be that big IBM installations can save money by eliminating this function and buying instead a small Hewlett-Packard minicomputer to run their BASIC o n , thereby supplying BASIC to more users at less cost and freeing the 360 for whatever it is IBM systems do b e t t e r . Restricted time-sharing, with only one or a few languages o f f e r e d , is much easier to provide for than full tine-sharing. Full time-sharing is always shared with b a t c h . In other w o r d s , the c o m p u t e r , darting among u s e r s , still finds some tine to Jevote to the batch stream. Time-sharing is self-1imi11ng. That i s , the more users are signed onto a tine-sharing system at a given m o m e n t , the more slowly the system responds to all of them. Operating systems i program. They take a l c . __ lime: tor instance, Dartmouth'* time-sharing operating s y s t e m , taking as ouch as 211 of Che computer's t i m e , is considered e f f i c i e n t . The importance of time-sharing is not in terms of "raw" efficiency, that i s , the cost of each million o p e r a t i o n s , but in terms of human efficiency, the ability of each user to get so much more out of the computer by using Interactive programs and languages. OPERATING SYSTEMS TRICKERY
„..,„«.
i continuous
possessloi
Paging is one of the Great Abstruse Problems of modern operating system*. The problem is this: you've always got fast expensive memory and cheap slow memory. How can the operating systea store most of your program in cheap flow memory and still predict which parts you'll need soon enough to get them In there for you? In the hotter s y i t e m s , indeed, the operating system tries to predict what's most Important and move It to a fast little memory called a c a c h e . Thi* »r*a is so bitarr* and complicated I prefer not to think about i t . "Minis for me," says M r . Natural.
It took a lot longer to get going than they expected-- I have a 1968 [') button that s a y s , VCUJ NEVER OUTGROW YOUR •VTAi FOR MULTICS-- but now it's available from Honeywell. Teople say it's the greatest, all right-- its fascinating facilities include the ability to execute parts of other people's prograns, if you have pernission-- but it's also s*id to be awfully expensive.
The Dartmouth conputer philosophy-i.e., the idea carried through by John Kemeny and Tom k'urt;--was that a conputer is like a library: its services should he iree to all in a c o m m u n i t y , paid for through some general fund. Students and faculty at Dartnouth use it free. (Unless they have grants.) You can use it too, if you p a y . The result: everybody at Dartmouth uses the c o m p u t e r . It's always running, (ahem) six days a w e e k . There are almost two hundred terminals around the campus; peak afternoon usage is about a hundred and fifty. Freshmen learn BASIC first thing, after which the computer is a standing facility, to he used in courses in m u s i c , s o c i o l o g y , literature, h i s t o r y , engineering or whatever; for independent research; or just for fun and canes and showing off to v i s i t o r s , for simp11c i tv and c1 a tions o f ai1 the faci1 t e r m i n a l s . I The connand i es the terminal to type c" Kemeny.) "any TuJJy-JudJ i es insist that computer usage should be billed, is it is on most college campuses" That is essentially the Calvinist view. But what if wc treated libraries like that? It would probably cost S10 just to borrow any b o o k . The point is that it we bcTTevc that certain conditions are a social good, then we should be flexible about how to inplemcnt them. (See Arthur W . Luehrmann and John H. N e v i s o n , "Computer Use under a Free-Access Policy, S c i e n c e , II May 74, 9 S 7 - 9 6 1 . This article continues this line of argument and further describes the Dartmouth billing system.) A n y w a y , Dartmouth will sell you its timesharing system for about S?500 a month (and you'll need a computet setup that begins at 517,500 a m o n t h ) . That'll run SO terminals. A bigger setup will cost m o r e . But that gets you Fortran, C O B O L , S N 0 H 0 L , e t c . , rtt best BASIC in the whole w o r l d , g a m e s , financial s y i t e m s , and nyriad other programs they've built at Dartmouth. Furthermore, N r . A d m i n i s trator, it means the system will be available to users with a minimum of complication and
Interestingly, the MULTICS operating system is largely programmed in the PL/I language (see p. ). Contact: Honeywell Information 5 y s t c m s , 200 Smith Street, •IS 0 6 1 , Waltham, M a s s . 02154.
THt
LOWM
HEA*.<>
K B V U » TMt
WoRVj:
Grt' ' log
sharing systetis arc- local, other: " allowing users in other them with local telephone
calls. Perhaps the nost far-reaching time-sharing system, though, is General Electric'* MARK I I I , with concentrators in many of the najor cities of the world (mostly E u r o p e ) . The n a m computer is in O h i o , but the overall system may be thought of as an octopus around the globe. Besides hundreds of cities in the USA, The GE system offers local access in Australia, Austria, iielgium, C a n a d a , Denmark, Finland, France , Puerto Rico, Netherlands, aly. .itcJ Kingdom and Hest What this basically neans is that if a company has offices in these places, it can do its internal communication through lencrai ETectric's computer system. This presents obvious merits and difficulties, which there is no room to discuss h e r e . The service is said to be expensive. They also offer a toll-free number for program consultation.
General Electric
Inforoa-
A number of companies have b o u g h t . Including the U . S . Naval Academy at Annapolis, which offers Uartnouth-style computing to its m i d s h l p n e n . Connect charge is W to 19 an hour depending on your terminal speed, plus processing charges. Contact: D T S S , INC., Hanover Mi 0 1 7 S S . (Several commercial firms also offer DT5S to u s e r s , including Computer Sharing Serv i c e s , Inc. Denver; Crumman (lata S y s t e m s . Woodbury, NY; PolyCom Systems L t d . , Toronto.)
Swapping means transferring one user's program out of core memory in order to move in somebody else's program. T h i * can happen very rapidly, and even when it's done to you the <
MULT ICS was announced in 196S as the Time-Sharing System of All T i m e , to be created jointly by M I T , General Electric and Bell Labs.
have cone up with tor tne J / U . It i* a sort of interactive batch programming. That i*. it allows the user at • • -imunicaie with programs running i batch m o d e . i is a form of true time-sharing, iractor* tend to compare it with "true" time-sharing, such as ' - 1 0 ) , it has a number of draw-
0TSS. Th* Old Haoas »• orkad on th* original t ou b*caa* grownups ot o
uir, who fid )i l*r[moulh eflor : IBM). Me sta
th* Dartmouth 'ttc oibara from that t • tb* rrane** 0. Ki
, the model 1SI, a fairly large machine (ca. ISO,000 a • » » * » - * " • p. 3 8 ) , TSO normally allows only t w n t j . The bad feature of TSO -oat " ' " D tioned is its slow response time. mas tioneu is » " .nmetimes aood. sometimes response may be sometime* g««u. execrable. IBM is urcina its fan* to believe that it. ndt g r a t i n g " system, called OS/VS2-2. will be auch batter.
HfRf
THEY
C O M C — H e
The history hook: en years from now, if a n v wi1 1 note that the fii : computer-on-a-chip was produced by Intel. Intel i i astutely managed company. ^sso^ that would would he chose to make a microprocessor h V isuited to placement .•-i o t h e— r s•' machine* at low c o s t . This that if you make a fancy bulldozer or bakeoven and want it to have some form of intricate ore-planned hehavior, you'll put "t" Intel chip" in i
Microprocessors are what's happening. Computers cost several thousand bucks on u p . Microprocessors cost several hundred on u p , and that price range is falling fast.
Actually the Intel chip
So»e microprocessors are already on integrated circults, postage stamp-sized electronic tangles that are simply printed and b a k e d , rather than wired up; this means there is effectively no bottom limit to the price of microprocessors. Hark this wel 1. It means thst in a few years there will be a microprocessor in your refrigerator, your typewriter, your lawnmower, your c a r , and possibly your w a l l e t . (If you don't believe this, look what happened to pocket calculators in the last couple of y e a r s . The chip those arc built around costs five b u c k s . But next come the programmable c h i p s , the microprocessors.)
C
f o r ^ ^ a r s ^ TWO LF.VELS, TWO SPEEDS
A last p o i n t . One of the most important characteristics of an ordinary computer is its worJ length, that i s , the number of binary positions in a usual chunk of its information.
el c o m p u t e r .
You will remember from the "Rock Bottom" section (pp. 3Z-3) that every computer has an internal language of binary patterns or "aachine language" (i11 ustrated in horrendous detai1 in the program called "Bucky's tfristwatch," p p . 3 3 - 4 ) .
C * M M .
W e l l , a microprocessor has two levels, has an upper-level program follower with it binary program; but each instruction of th upper-level program is in turn carried out by • program follower running a program at a lowe: level-- called a nlcroprog'
r extraordinary
building super-cash-registers i IT the like. So their mcmorii ; and s p e e d s , to be tailored i 'ou should know the diffe:
-- HeaJ-Only M e m o r y . Contents < changed, costs less than chan, any given s p e e d ) . •- Rapid-Access M e m o r y . All called read-write m e n o r v . Sarac ; •e memory Hay ha, its contents chai NOT).: i you simulate some computer with a micro program, its simulatcd "registors" are usually locations in the lower-level RA! - Read-Mostly M e m o r y , You can (;ct out ts contents f a s t , but change them onlv very
ramifications.
First of a l l , it means that the upper-level binary language can be anything you want-- that . any feasible computer l a n g u a g e - - b e c a u s e each of its instructions, in turn, will be carried by program.
(The lower-level memory i: "program memory" and the uppercalled "data m e m o r y , but this ing from certain typical a p p l u rather than their inherent nati programs at both levels.)
This . for __. , that machines can be created which may be programmed directly in some higher-level language, such as APL (note Canadian machine described on p . Z _ i ) or BASIC (note one of the Hewlett-Packard machines described on p. 17 ) . Th* characters in the upper-level program (APL or B A S I C ) , stepped through by the upper-level program follower, cause the lower-level program foilower to carry out the operations of the language.
Raymond M . ilolt and Manuel R. I.emas, "Currcni Microcomputer Arclii tecture." Computer He sign, Feb 7 4 , 6 S - 7 3 . Sunmari zes on the market (s liography also.
computer prograi
Uig Ci Lxpcnsive. Up to 32 hardware registers. Cooes with cassette holding various
Burroughs 1700
Microdata 3200 Varian 7J
* oorapular which haa . undar th* binary languag* you want lo us*.
t h e
M c s
-*
a
«d
Lower level
microseconds) 12.5 mi croseconds)
S or 16 bits (900 nanoseconds) 8 to 24 bits (900 nanoseconds)
While these individual chins cost under a hundred dollsrs e a c h , memories and other necessary sections cost extra. For people who want to develop systems around these c h i p s , Intel has cannily prepared a number of setups. If you want to go 4-bit, you get the "Intellec 4," S 2 2 0 0 , which also needs a Teletype. This jives you various display lights- and debugging features. M e a n w h i l e , you can assemble and simulate on sinulation programs offered on national cine-sharing. If you want to go 8-bit, you get the "Intellec 8" for S2400 (also without T e l e t y p e ) , and benefit additionally from the fact that you can prepare the underware in PL/1 , and compile it on national timeCrafty and clever Intel, which has captured much of the overall market already, has now brought out i of these c h i p s . Rail.
Lower memory: 16 h i t s , 90 nanoseconds (or 35 nanoseconds, programmed by a card (on which you darken the squares.) Uppe,
10 bil
500 !
What this is is a very high-power minicomputer: it can be turned into a lookalike for any other 16-bit rainiconputcr. For instance, they can soli lt to you with an imitative nicroproj;ran that turns it effectively into an IBM 1130. From a marketing point of view, this effectively means a firm owning an IBM 1130 can replace it with a Meta 4 which runs the same prog r a m s , saves money and gives you in adJition the botton-levcl features of a far more powerful computer. (Such an under-level program that makes one machine effectively imitate .mother computer is called an emulator.) This capacity to emulate other computers is the "metaphor" alluded to in the machine's name.
The Lockheed SUE ("System User-Engineered Computer") Is a very interesting and desirable machine. The central processing unll costs s little over six hundred and forty dollars: (Thai's without memory. power supply or card csge. ) It uses a Grand Dus system of interconnection (se* p. HZ )-
64 bits 16 I 165 nsec 661 (190 read-write)
1650 stripped, Already microprogrammed to be like other IIP computers - - but there ' s space for y o u r s , a* w e l l . 17500. S8Q00 up ($10,000 for model 3 2 / S , stack-oriented). J1S,000 to J100.000 (heavy upgrade of Varian 6 2 0 ) .
One nice thing ii n put together several cpu'a and different m semiconductor and ROM- - selecting w which cpus have what priorities in what memories, as well as Interrupt*, etc. D a m nice-- especially considering the upper-level Instruction-set. Th* microprogram lt comes with makes th* Lockheed SUE into * sort of copy (7?) of th* PDP-11, including its eight registers and similar address mode* (see p. ^ 1.) • Wa* the name SUE actually Lockhead'a Impudent challang* to DECT DEC did sue. but no outcome ha* been publicised.
Interdata 85
^ic«0Pi»C«rc«r TO sesuiu- iijro P » » / M . * Intel HCS-i Intel MCS-' SYS 500
microprocessor*, (Al*o called Microprogram* Should b* callad Undarwar*.)
Upper level
•""«»•<•
a r e
Imitate any microsecond mini.
equipment llsclf.
SOFTUHU:
°"°
me times called cl memory is often a confusion rcsulcons of the d e v i c e s .
The purpose of microprocessors, you s e e , is generally to be hidden in other equipment and do some simple thing over and over; not to have their programs changed around all the time as on an ordinary computer. There are exceptions, computers which have a second level down where you can put microprograms; and these are called, sensibly enough, microprogramSable computers. They are bought and set up with regular computer accessories, plus facilities to change the microprograms. Thus they cost a lot m o r e but o h , they do so much more for you. You can design your own computer-- i.e., its in*truetion-sat-- and then create i t , with a microprogram. (See the Standard Computer and the M e t . - 4 , nearby.)
"
C h i p s
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Second, the machine costs less to Bake than an ordinary computer. The reason is that the architecture of ordinary computers is designed now (at last) for programmer convenience. Thus a machine like the P D P - 1 1 , which in principle does nothing any other computer doesn't d o , is still more desirable than m o s t , because its instructions arc so well designed. It is clear and sensible to the programmer, with the result that programming it takes less time and costs less money. Microprocessors reverse this trend. The lowerlevel structure of registers and instructions can be anything that is convenient to m a n u f a c t u r e , whether -* -**. programmers like i t . Low manufacturing cost ! of' the ' i i design criteria.
i n C e l
f
A coi.ip.itcr wittily called the Meta 4 (heh lieh) is a fairly neat machine made by Digital Scientific C o r p . , 11455 Sorrento Valley Rd., San Diego CA 9 2 1 2 1 . MicroprO' to people who pinball machii
This has •
°
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The trick that makes this alt work-- whether for the hidden-away type or the computer type of microprocessor-- is that the lower level has a ouch faster memory than the upper l e v e l . This means that an upper-level word can be taken, and looked up in the lower l e v e l , and all the lower-level steps carried o u t , very fast compared to the upper-level m e m o r y . Many such m a c h i n e s , for instance, have lower-level speeds in the nanoseconds (billionth: of a s e c o n d ) , while the upper-level speeds are m e r e ly in the microseconds (millionths of a s e c o n d ) .
Microprocessors should not be called microcomputers , a tern that seems to have captivated Hall Street lately. "Microcomputer" just means any teeny computer; but there is an exact and crucial difference between an ordinary computer e) and a microprocessor (whatlicroprocessor
lumber of separate
?n„Canrb?,^ " n J c r S S 0 " ' - a " d "»» b e a « e R b l e d into a full computer. (Indeed, various firms dtTof-
! to 24 bits 8 bits Stack-oriented (now 900 nsec 12.5 usee /aster m o d e l ) . 8 or 16 bits 4 bits Basic chip $60. 900 nsec 10.8 usee (Weird but interesting wido microprocessor-- circulates among many separate activites, rather than branching. 16 577* S bits
AES-B0 (Auto. System*, Montreal) National Semiconductor IMP-16C (8 1/2 x 11UtC PDP-16M
odd site for computer.
another binary languag*
"(Abbreviations: nsec (nanoseconds, us«c (microseconds, millionth: abbreviation).)
S13S0 stripped for notebook.) 0 . (Compatible Fill'- 11 Unibus .)
A otcroprogrammablc higgle has been available for some time. It'* a 36-bit computer manufactured by Standard Computor Corporation, 1411 *• Olympic Boulevard, Los Angeles,, CA 90015. This computer is a serious aachine, it , the many-hundred-thousand-dollar class, which can be set up to mimic any other S6-blt machine. It has been sold in two versions: one a pure FORTRAN machine (that's right, its upper language is pure Fortran:) and a lookalike for the IBM 709*. Lower level word length is IS b i t s . (An interesting puiile is why this outfit has not gotten together with Lincoln Laboratories, Lincoin Laboratories, outside Boston, has a 36-bit — perinental machine called the TX-2 which has been used for coeputer graphics, »iich as Sutherland * SKETCHPAD system (see p . X»si?) and Baecker * CfcHfc SYS (see p . > M 29 )• Now, presumably Lincoln Lab* like most other research outfits, is hurting for money. Why couldn't they make an arrangement for Standard to sell it* machine with a TX-2 emulator, thus making-available such programs as Sketchpad ^ (which ha* never been equalled) to a wider public.
42
STICK
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S
o
o
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TH»
o The Stack is a mechanism-- either built into the computer ("hardware") or incorporated in a program ("software") which allows a computer to keep track of a vast number of different a c t i v i t i e s , interruptions and c o m plications at the same t i m e . B a s i c a l l y , it Is a mechanism which allows a program to throw something over its shoulder in order to do something e l s e , then reach hack over its shoulder to get back what it was previously working o n . But no matter how many things it throws over its s h o u l d e r , everything stays orderly and continues to work s m o o t h l y , till it has resumed everything and finished them a l l .
I have heard no computer more widely praised among computer people than the B u r roughs SOOO (replaced by the 5 S O 0 ) . The SOOO was designed about 1960 by Edward Claser and Bob BaTton. It was designed to be used only with higher l a n g u a g e s , not allowing programmers access to the binary instructions thems e l v e s . Indeed, it was particularly designed to be used with A L G O L , which would have been the standard language if IBM had allowed it (see p . 3 1 ) and is still the " i n t e r n a t i o n a l " language.
It goes like this: if the program has to set aside one t h i n g , it puts that one thing in core memory at a place specified by a number called a stack p o i n t e r . Then it adds one to the stack p o i n t e r , to be ready in case something else has to go on the s t a c k . This is called a P U S H .
the H i
r
S
and r e c u r s i v e " programs, meaning programs hat « , „ . , » „ t h e . s e i , . , .Sen the, themselves arc in progress.
Stacks are also used for handling "interrupts" -- signals from outside that require the computer to set aside one job for a n o t h e r . Having a built-in hardware stack enables the interrupts to pile up without .-n fi.tinnn
"ruriT
Because of this a p p r o a c h , its main r e g i s ters were to be hidden from the p r o g r a m m e r , and attention centered instead upon the s t a c k , a high-level programming device (see box on S t a c k s ) . H o w e v e r , index registers were added to make it better for F o r t r a n . The SOOO was marketed as an " a l l - p u r p o s e " computer with an operating s y s t e m , anticipating IBM's 360 of a few years l a t e r . Indeed, after the 360 was a n n o u n c e d , Burroughs sales picked u p , because IBM salesmen were at last-promoting the concepts that customers hadn't understood when they heard about them from Burroughs salesmen years b e f o r e .
This even mako . nns^ii.i,. •• . ., meaning „ , b r o u . i „ e . h i , c i i Z ' S , ? " } " " •
When a p r o g r a m is ready to resume a p r e v ious a c t i v i t y , it subtracts one from the stack pointer and fetches w h a t e v e r that stack pointer points t o . This is called a P O P .
F i n a l l y , stack a r i t h m e t i c , like that done on the B u r r o u g K ^ S b U O , enables arithmetic (and other algebraic types of activity) to be handled without setting aside registers or space in core m e m o r y . As a simple-minded example on a hypothetical m a c h i n e , suppose ve wanted to handle
On this m a c h i n e , le to a program and a
this gets compiled
the
The Burroughs Corporation t be an acknowledged leader in computer d e s i g n . Apparently their sales force is something else u n f o r t u n a t e l y . I once spent some time with a Burroughs salesman who not only knew nothing about the magnificent structure of the machine he r e p r e s e n t e d , but would not get me further information unless I demonstrated that the company'1 represented (a large c o r p o r a t i o n ) was seriously interested. He wore very fancy clotHes"; *"
It may not be immediately o b v i o u s , but this trick has immense p o w e r . For i n s t a n c e , we may stack any number of things together-the addresses of p r o g r a m s , data we are moving between p r o g r a m s , intermediate r e s u l t s , and codes that show what the c o m p u t e r was doing previously, Using s t a c k s , programs may use each other very f r e e l y . It is p o s s i b I e , for i n s t a n c e , to jump among subroutines-- independent little programs-- w i l l y - n i l l y , using a stack to keep track of where you've b e e n .
T±}>
Some computer c o m p a n i e s , such as IBM, resolutely ignore stack a r c h i t e c t u r e , though hardware stacks have become widely adopted In this case the stack holds the previous locations and intermediate d a t a , so that the program follower can go back where it came from at the end of each s u b r o u t i n e .
The PDP-11 is not a beginner's c o m p u t e r . But the power and elegance of its architecture have established i t , since its introduction in 1 9 7 0 , as perhaps the foreraost smal1 computer in the w o r l d .
In e l e c t r o n i c s , a " b u s " l connector that supplies power and from several d e s t i n a t i o n s .
In computer: among several ising carrying a compl ix parallel
The Grand B u s , a is catching o n . (The cause the colloquial 1 t rademark.)
well. There are eight main r e g i s t e r s . T w o , though, function specially: the program c o u n ter (that part of the program follower that holds the number of the next i n s t r u c t i o n ) , and the hardware stack p o i n t e r , both follow the s.ime programming rules as the main registers-jn unusual technique. Thus a jump in the p r o gram is simply a " m o v e " instruction, in which the next program address is "moved" into main register * 7 , the program c o u n t e r .
A c t u a l l y , t h o u g h , we can't be too sure about the word " s m a l l . " Because as successive parts of the line arc u n v e i l e d , it becomes increasingly clear that this line of " s m a l l " computers has been designed to include some very powerful machines and coupling techniques among them; and it would seem that we haven't seen everything y e t .
In addition, all external devices seem to the program to be stored in core m e m o r y . That is, the interface registers of accessories ri.ive "addresses" numerically similar to core locations-- so the program just "moves" d a t a , ,ith MOVt instructions, to doorways in c o r e , ilhis is facilitated by the automatic handling of previously bothersome s t u f f , like Ready, Wait and Done bits.)
1
idea among c o m p u t e r s , m is used here bei, "Unibus," is a DEC
Basically the Grand Bus i of multiple wires that goes among several pieces of e q u i p m e n t . So far that's just a b u s . But a Grand Bus is one that allows the different pieces of equipment to be changed and replaced e a s i l y , because signals to any common piece of equipment just go out on the This means that the interface problem is deeply simplified, because any device with a proper bus interface can simply be plugged onto the b u s . It does mean a lot more complexity of signals. The U n i b u s , for e x a m p l e , has about fifty parallel strands. But that means v a r ious tricky electrical dialogues can rapidly give instructions to devices and consider replies about their s t a t u s , in quick and s t a n dardized w a y s . Prominent grand buses include:
Physically all devices are simply attached to a great sash of wires called a U n i b u s . (See Grand Bus box.)
In other w o r d s , DEC's PUP-1 which has already cut into sales of their PDP-8 12-bit series and PDP-15 18-bit s e r i e s , may soon c into its PDP-io 36-blt series-designer Bell unveils (perhaps) monster PDP-lls in arrays or dou word-length or w h a t e v e r .
BIBLI0BRAPHV R.W. S o u t h e r n , PDP-11 Programming Fundamentals. [Programmed worxo o o V . No price listed.) AlgonJ J . - I college Bookstore, 1385 Wood'..-nue, O t t a w a , O n t a r i o ,
The PDP-11 was designed by C, Gordon Bell and his associates at Carnegie-Mellon Univers i t y . In designing the a r c h i t e c t u r e , and e s pecially the ins t r u e t i o n - s e t , they simulated a wide variety of possibilities before the final design was d e c i d e d . The resulting a r chitecture is extremely efficient and powerful (see b o x , "The ll's M o d e s " ) .
PDP-11 lookalikes are sold by Cal D a t a . Other firms have been scared off by DEC's a tent, but Cal Data say they ave a patent too.
E
The Nova hus (nameless) the first?) PDP-ll's Unibus rs i n cramp*.), and >u th* basic uchitactur* ts how to cram Into •nouqh choices for getting around
Lockheed SUE's Infibus PDP-g's O m n i b u s . The idea is great in general. For your home audio e q u i p m e n t , for instance. Grand Bus architecture would simplify everything. Not only t h a t , but Detroit is supposedly going to put your car's electrical system on a Grand B u s . This will mean you can tell at once what is snd isn't w o r k i n g , and hook up new goodies easily.
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In d**lgnlng th* PDP-11, Cordon Bell and hi -worker* systematically sought • powerful solion, simulating various possible *tructur*s by •puter piogram, trying out • variety at differ t combination* and • Th* eleganc* and power of littl* abort of braathtaking• 11, th* final design, provide* type* of indlr*ct addressing.
through table*, and various oth* following di*gr*
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nan* for stepping 1 POP, dispatch tables, •mming technique*. Th* int for handy r*f*r*nc*.
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FI«T OF Tl|f
The IBH 360 (now called 370 because * ful line of computer in the world. Is the best. There are those not their computers.
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fu»t»e6»fHrt«|fr,
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Control Data's 6600 computer was the first really big computer. The first one was delivered around 196S. The machine and its operating system, CHIPPEWA, were created by Seymour Cray and his team in hinterland Min-
bought becai very tough ; pp.
A strange unseen curse seems to haunt the 360 series; indeed, some cynics even think it results from deliberate policies of IBM! Yet the 360 (and its software) seem somehow o r ganized to make programs inefficient and slow; to make programs b i g , needing lots of core memory (with numerous enticements for the programmer to take up m o r e ) ; to prevent the compatibilities that are so widely advertised, except through expensive options; to make things excessively complicated, thus locking in both its customers and the employees of its customers to practices iind intricacies that are somehow unnecessary on other brands of
lixtreme speed was designed into the computer in a number of w a y s . The main computer has no input or output at all; this is handled by data channels which have been built up into full-scale minicomputers or "peripheral processors" of 18 hits.
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A computer named the LINC, now usually referred to as "the classic Line," was perhaps the first minicomputer. It was an important forerunner of our highly interactive systems of today, notably including today's graphic displays with double program followers (see p . ahT,^ ) , which offer the highest interactive Perhaps most importantly, it was designed with none of the biases that creep in from the traditions of business computing. It was called the Line because it was designed at Lincoln Laboratories (about 1960), for "biomedical research"-- actually it was the sort of computer you'd warl for hooking up to all sorts of inputs and o-tputs, to make music, to run your darkroom, but only medical scientists could afford i t , so that's what they said it was for. The LINC had two interesting It was probably the first computer to be designed with a built-in CRT display (see flip s i d e ) . It also came with a funny little tape drive, designed for reliability and high response, that was supposed to perform almost as conveniently as a disk and be reliable even in dusty or messy environments. This was the LINCtape, still offered as an accessory by company. DEC adapted it somewhat and made the DECtape, handy pocket tape unit of the PDP computer line.
However, • memory much slower than the main registers, a trick is used: program instructions arc drawn from core into a superfast instruction list 'often called a c a c h e ) . and any jumps or loops within this seven-word cache can be executed at unthinkable speeds-- perhaps tens of millions of times per second. The design of the 360, which was basically decent.
The architecture of the 360 was quite simil • to the PDP-6 (now the P D P - 1 0 ) , designed about the same time: general-purpose registers of over thirty bi 1 ising the 16 i :ithei accumulators or index registers. i registers i form of addressing was adopted, called "baseregister addressing." This had certain advantages for the operating system that was planned, and was thought to be sufficiently powerful that you wouldn't need Indirect Addressing. Two main registers were required, one holding a "base" more or less equal to the program's starting address, and an "index register,' whose contents are added to the base to specify an address. Often a third number, or "offset," is added as w e l l .
It i :old , . A do ten or so were made up specially out Df DEC modules and dealt out to various scientists, and the genera! hope was that DEC would take the machine up as part of its product line, but that's not what happened. DEC instead pushed its PDP-.. and i , by : 1 b y .
* IJHC-8
The machine is i lly geared for floating-point nurabc 5 9 ) . Because of the intense speed of the "fas I instruction cache, many instructions (such tion and division of integers) plishcd faster by a short they had actually been wi They 6600 became the St.t of a whole line, including the 6400, 68( and othersi The 6400 is used by I'L.VfO (s.
DEC was offered the option of b Lincoln Laboratories' classic LINC, ded instead to combine it, in the mid-sixties, with the already-successful PDP-S. That way a!] the PDP-8 programs and most of the LINC programs would work on i t . The result is kind cf strange, but very popular in biomedical research: two computers in one, handing control back and forth as needed. You can write programs on the Line with sections for the 8, and vice versa. H m m . A more recent and slicker called the PDP-12. While you might half-think that both sides of the computer could work simultaneously, giving you double speed, it doesn't work that way. There's only one core memory, and that sets the basic speed; cither a PDP-8 instruction or a Line instruction can be underway at once, but not both.
The ides of this technique is that programs can be "relocatable," operating anywhere in core memory. A few instructions at the beginning of each program can ascertain where it is running from, and establish the Base accordingly. The basic idea of the 360 seems to have been doped out for multiprogramming, or the simultaneous running of several programs in core, a feature IBH has pushed heavily with this com-
Basically the atory was thlai aome of the higher people- at D E C , perhaps disaatlsfled with DEC'a aoft ooll, pochap* out for their own personal share of thing*, broke out and i their own corporation. Thoy had in ie do*inn for a h o t , *olid minicomputer 'ojected design fortV: PtiP-l iable i lold i .rd. th~ *h~' Ut i r
teak ack, be built iua {»t,<s%a'j$ , a design
WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE 360* The main differences between the 360 and the PDP-6 and 10 represent conscious and legitimate and arguable design decisions. To fans of the PDP-6 and 10, here are the 360's main drawbacks: NO INDIRECT ADDRESSING. This was because, within the addressing scheme adopted, indirect addresses could not be adjusted automatically. (But it also makes programs more inefficient, thus more profitable to IBM.) NO STACK. Why? Too expensive, said Amdahl, Blaauw and Brooks in tha IBM Systems Journal. Funny, they have stacks on IS000 P D P - I U - — n j ' it would have saved everybody a lot of money on programming.
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Data General (tho company mentioned) haa u*ed a very interesting marketing strategy- Inatead of bringing out a variety of new computor* •> time goe* o n , thoy concentrate on making tha Nov* faator and smaller. Thay began by competing against DEC— e s pecially in "tho UKM market," purchaaer* who are burying mi ni computer* in larger *
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And Amdahl, no longer with IBM and now head of the Amdahl Corp. Is coming down the pike with a super-360 of his own, in art backed by Japanese money. It will be bigger lhan IBM's iggast-- and cheaper. (See Hesh Wiener, "Outdoing IBM: th* Amdahl Challenge," Computer Decisions. March 7 3 , 18-20.)
E
A horrifying and weird picture of an experimental monkey sitting on a POP-12 and making like the Creature from the Black Lagoon is to be seen in Tine, 14 Jan 7-J, p . 54. It looks very scientific. BIBLIOGRAPHY The classic book: C . Gordon Bell and Allen Newell, Computer Structures: Readings and Example?" HcCraw-IIill, lTTT: Note thst Bell designed various of the PDPs, and Newell pioneered in list processing (see p . I t ) Computer Characteristics Review keeps you ^ n " t o u c h with the traits of available computer* and peripherals. l-25/ye*r_
NO MEMORY MAPPING (axcapt on certain m o d e l s ) . Where the PDP-6's successor, the PDP-10, automatically takes care of redistributing addresses in core to service evory program •> if it were operating from location zero on u p , the 360 left this general problem to local programmers and (on certain levels) to operating systems. Handling this automatically in the PDP-10's hardware obviates the complications of base-index addressing and make* possible the efficiencies of indirect addressing.
Nevertheless, we see here the double structure that plays such an important part in highly interactive computer displays (see P- £)*XT> ) . Indeed, Line programmers often use the machine just that way: the PDP-8 running an actual program, the Line part running the CRT display in conjunction with i t .
Jump (thu* *n at: atruction Jump* to loc Subroutine jump Increment, skip it **r. Load AC Instruction* among reg
i competitor, Digital Computer •ella a Kova lookalik*. Wheth. will **11 you It* program* to
, The Architecture and Bngii
Heavier than Boll and Newell. A catalog of thousands of structures and tricks, emphasizing the tradeoffs among
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D E C ' s P D P - 1 0 i s in s o m e w a y s t h e c o m p u t e r t h a t t h e I B M 7 0 9 4 w a s in t h e
H e r e , t h e n , are some thumbnail descriptions of some g r e a t , classic or p o p u l a r c o m p u t e r s , e x p a n d i n g OUT basic d i a g r a m s as n e e d e d .
of
Individual the patterns
computers represent shown so far.
T h e P D P - 1 0 is e x c e l l e n t f o r m a k i n g h i g h l y i n t e r a c t i v e s y s t e m s , s i n c e i t c a n r e s p o n d to e v e r y i n p u t c h a r a c t e r typed by the u s e r .
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I t is a f a v o r i t e b i g c o m p u t e r a m o n g r e s e a r c h p e o p l e and the w e l l - i n f o r m e d . The A R P A N E T , which connects bia c o m p u t e r s at s o m e of the h o t t e s t r e s e a r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t s is l a r g e l y b u i l t w i t h P D P - l O s . T h e r e a r e P D P - l O s a t M I T ' U . of U t a h , S t a n f o r d , Y a l e , Princeton and Engelbart's snon ( s e e p . Jnu-fc). T h e -Watkins B o x ( s e e p . » n y > ) h o o k s to a 1 0 .
variations
The p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e of r e g i s t e r s , m e m o r i e s a n d p a t h w a y s a m o n g t h e m is c a l l e d t h e architecture of a computer (see p . 0 2 , ) . T h e b i n a r y i n s t r u c t i o n s a v a i l a b l e to the p r o g r a m mer are called the i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t of the p a r t i c u l a r c o m p u t e r (see p , J 3 ) . (The w o r d " a r c h i t e c t u r e " is o f t e n u s c d t o c o v e r b o t h , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t as w e l l . ) The principal variations among computers a r e t h e w o r d l e n g t h (in b i t s - - s e e " b i n a r y a n t i t n e patterns," number and arrangement of main r e g i s t e r s . T h e n come the d e t a i l s of the i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t , e s p e c i a l l y the w a y s in w h i c h i t e m s a r e s e l e c t e d f r o m c o r e m e m o r y -- the a d d r e s s i n g s t r u c t u r e . Then the i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t , w h o s e c o m p l i c a t i o n s and s u b t l e t i e s can be considerable indeed. T h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m p u t e r is t h e c o m p l e x result of all of t h e s e . If they f i t t o g e t h e r w e l l , i t is a g o o d d e s i g n . If t h e y f i t t o g e t h e r p o o r l y , i t is a b a d d e s i g n . A bad d e s i g n is u s u a l l y n o t s o m u c h a m a t t e r o f o v e r t s t i n k y f e a t u r e s as o f r a m i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h f i t together disappointingly. ( G l i t c h is a t e r m often used for such stinky features or relat i o n s h i p s .)
5t LTJ) The IBM 7090 was the classic computer. I n t r o d u c e d a b o u t 1 9 6 O a n d m o s t l y gorfo b y ' 6 6 , it w a s s i m p l e and p o w e r f u l , w i t h c l e a n a n d decent instructions. With its daughter the 70941 it became virtually standard at u n i versities, research institutions and scientific establishments. At many installations t h a t w e n t o n to 3 6 0 s t h e y l o n g f o r t h o s e clearminded days. The 90 had three index r e g i s t e r s and fifteen bits to specify core addresses. (This m e a n t , of c o u r s e , that core memory could ordinarily b e no longer than 32,768 w o r d s ("32K — s e e " B i n a r y p a t t e r n s , " p.'J'J.) A later m o d e l , the 94, went u p to 7 index registers, since there were three bits to select them with. n
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P D P - 1 0 t i m e - s h a r i n g w o r k s e v e n if y o u d o n ' t h a v e a d i s k , using DECtape (DEC's cute little t a p e s ) . Of course, without d i s k i t ' s r e a l l y h o b b l i n g , b u t this c a p a c i t y is n e v e r t h e l e s s noteworthy.
It Grucral °ajuT*« (iT-onUt », J>4« Bey/ho) *F
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O r i g i n a l l y it w a s t h e P D P - 6 , w h i c h a p p e a r e d a b o u t 1 9 6 4 a n d w a s t h e f i r s t c o m p u t e r to b e s u p p l i e d w i t h a t i m e - s h a r i n g s y s t e m , w h i c h w o r k e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , if r o c k i l y . Now it's good and s o l i d . D E C ' S o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m f o r it ( s e e p 4 5 ) is c a l l e d T O P S , b u t B B N s e l l s o n e c a l l e d T E N E X , a l s o highly regarded. T h e 10 d o e s t i m e - s h a r i n g , r e a l - t i m e p r o g r a m m i n g and b a t c h p r o c e s s i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s w a p p i n g to c h a n g e a b l e areas of core m e m o r y . (This f e a t u r e s h o u l d soon be a v a i l a b l e , at l a s t , on IBM c o m p u t e r s ("VS2-2").)
U n l i k e t h e I B M 3 6 0 , w h o s e h a r d w a r e p r o t e c t i o n c o m e s in o p t i o n s , t h e 10 h a s s e v e n l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t h e u s e r c a n s p e c i f y w h o m a y road h i s f i l e s , run t h e m , c h a n g e t h e m , and do four other things. The PDP-10 does have job control c o m m a n d s , b u t t h e y a r e n o t e v e n c o m p a r a b l e in c u m b e r o s i t y t o I B M ' s J C L L a n g u a g e (see p . 3 1 ) , and they are the same for all three m o d e s of o p e r a t i o n : t i m e - s h a r i n g , real-time and b a t c h .
The machines mentioned here are an a r b i trary s e l e c t i o n . Some of them are the Great N u m b e r s , c o m p u t e r s so i m p o r t a n t t h a t folks u s e their n u m b e r s as p r o p e r n o u n s , w i t h no b r a n d name: you have
W h o d e s i g n e d i t is n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r . I've h e a r d p e o p l e a t t r i b u t e it v a r i o u s l y to the M o d e l R a i l r o a d i n g C l u b a t M I T , to G o r d o n B e l l , a n d o n e A l a n K o t o k .
The PDP-10 has debugging commands which work under timesharing and with all languages, and hugely simplify programming.
The possible ways of organizing computing hardware are v a s t , and only partly explored, (An aside to c o m p u t e r g u y s : o n the I n t e l c h i p debugging consoles they have an address trap (trapping on a presettable e f f e c t i v e a d d r e s s ) and a pass counter (trapping after n p a s s e s ) . How come we haven't seen these sooner?)
"Do
D i g i t a l E q u i p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n , a w a r e t h a t its c o m p u t e r trademark P D P " c o n n o t e s m i n i c o m p u t e r s to t h e u n i n f o r m e d n o w w a n t s t h e 10 to b e c a l l e d D E C s y s t e r n - 1 Q r a t h e r t h a n P D P W e ' l l s e e if t h a t c a t c h e s o n .
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Though these were million-dollar m a chines ten years a g o , you now hear of them being offered free to anyone who'll cart them away; partly because they needed a lot of p o w e r , airconditioning and oso o n . But they were great number crunchers. (if y o u want a 90, I believe that 9 0 lookalikes are s t i l l a v a i l a b l e f r o m S t a n d a r d M a c h i n e s in California.) —
j lit
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on*
1
Univac's 1106 and 1108 are f a s t , highly regarded machines. In d e s i g n i n g t h e c o m p u t e r Univac did a clever thing: they built an u p graded 7094. T h i s m e a n t (as I u n d e r s t a n d it) that all the p r o g r a m s from the o l d 7094 w i l l run on i t . But instead of two main registers they have 2 8 .
I
4
(Where they found the bits in the i n s t r u c t i o n w o r d to s e l e c t a m o n g a l l t h o s e r e g i s t e r s I can't tell y o u . )
,Nk.)
The PDP-8 ws* designed by Gordon Boll (in its o r i g i n a l v e r e i o n , t h e P D P - 5 ) a b o u t I960. O r i g i n a l l y it c o s t a b o u t $ 2 5 , 0 0 0 ; as o f H e y 1 9 7 4 t h a t p r i c e lat d o w n t o a b o u t $ 3 0 0 0 , o r l o s s t h a n * t h o u s a n d d o l l a r s if y o u w e n t to b u y t h * circuit* and w i r e it a l l up y o u r •elf. T u p , h e r e cornea t h a t H e a t h k i t . The PDP-8 haa boon D E C 1 m hottest seller) you'll find then in industrial plants and m u s e u m s , or oven hidden in t h e weirdest e q u i p m e n t , from typesetting devices to b i g disk drive*. At universities all over there are kid* who know them inside o u t . T o d a y t h e P D P - 8 *eea>* a r c h a i c , w i t h i t s one accumulator and awkward addressing schemes! you can only get to 2£6 different addresses in core memory d i r e c t l y , and i t ' s chopped u p into pages. B u t for its t i m e it was a b r i l l i a n t design, packed like a parachute, and even t o day there are people who swear by i t . (But look at what Bell'* done latolyi the PDP-11.)
So m a n y programs exist for t h e P D P - 8 , t h o u g h , snd so a u c h s e n t i m e n t a l f o n d n e s s , t h a t lt w i l l b e with u s f o r t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e . T h u s tha " B u c k y ' s W r i * t w a t c h " e x a m p l e (*««»,. * 1 T ) i s n o t t o t a l l y f r i v o l o u a i w e stay a a s u a e that a PDP-8 on one or two wristwatch-sized c h i p s Is only a year o r ao s w a y . But lot's h o p e t h e y d o t h e 11 f i r s t . (Lookslikes available Controls and Pabri-Tek.t
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T h e 1 1 0 8 is a l a r g e r marly m a i n r e g i s t e r s .
version, with
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T h e P D P - 1 0 h a s 36 b i t s b u t h a s i n s t r u c t i o n s to o p e r a t e on c h u n k s , or b y t e s , of any l e n g t h . It h a s s i x t e e n m a i n r e g i s t e r s , as d o e s the 3 6 0 , b u t u s e s t h e m m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y . T h e P D P - 1 0 also h a s u n l i m i t e d i n d i r e c t a d d r e s s i n g : a n i n s t r u c t i o n c a n take its e f f e c t i v e a d d r e s s from a n o t h e r l o c a t i o n , w h i c h c a n in t u r n s a y t o t a k e i t s e f f e c t i v e a d d r e s s e l s e w h e r e , ad i n f i n i t u m . For your heavy tight elegant stuff. P e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , the 10 has a full set of stack i n s t r u c t i o n s (see " T h e M a g i c of t h e S t a c k , " p . 4 2 ) , a l l o w i n g p r o g r a m m e r s to u s e m u l t i p l e s t a c k s for p u r p o s e s o f their o w n . (The o p e r a t i n g system's o w n stacks are p r o t e c t e d . ) m e r s d o n o t h a v e to s a v e e a c h o t h e r ' s r e g i s t e r s , as on the 3 6 0 . P r o g r a m m e r s are relatively safe from each o t h e r .
S o m e t h i n k o f t h e P D P - 6 a n d 10 as a g l o r i f i e d 7 0 9 4 ( w i t h 1 8 a d d r e s s i n g b i t s , i n s t e a d o f 1 5 ) . In t h i s c a s e w e m i g h t c o n s i d e r the 360 a s t r i p p e d - d o w n v e r s i o n of the 6 , since IBM t h r e w o u t t h e s t a c k a n d in m o s t m o d e l s t h e m e m o r y n a p p i n g . P D P - l O s are o r d i n a r i l y sold w h e r e the views of scientists and e n g i n e e r s are c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t , and comptrollers do not have first c h o i c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , some say that its b u s i n e s s - p r o g r a m m i n g f a c i l i t i e s ( i . e . , C O B O L , d u h ) a r e just as good as t h o s e o f c o m p a n i e s w h o c l a i m to h a v e d e s i g n e d c o m p u t e r s tor all p u r p o s e s . " First National City Bank of New York has found t h a t the P U P - 1 0 m a k e s a s p l e n d i d b a n k i n g c o m p u t e r for internal u s e , p r o f i t a b l e at an i n t e r n a l c h a r g e o f $ 3 . 7 5 a n h o u r p l u s processing charges. Prices for a PDP-10 system with disk start s t a r t a b o u t J S 0 0 . O O 0 , o r ( 1 5 g r a n d a m o n t h , and go up into 'he millions. H o w e v e r , DEC salesmen are not like I B M ' s , who can reputedly s e l l E s k i m o s to i c e b o x e s . For one t h i n g , DEC salesmen are on s a l a r y . T h a t fits D E C ' S d e m u r e , a w - s h u c k s i m a g e , but it doesn't exactly sell big computers. (For y o u F i r e s i g n T h e a t e r f a n s , the m u t t e r i n g s of the dying computer on the " B o z o s " album are various PDP-10 system thingies, artistically juxtaposed.)
It u s e d to b e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a c h i n e s l i k e t h i s to h a v e m a n y m a n y waTin 3l, ?K M«hts. showing what a l l t h e m a i n frLJ" registers a! any r t r a c t i o n of a s e c o n d . But there's r e a l l y n o p o i n t in s e e i n g all t h a t s i n c e a b o u t all y o u can tell from it is w h e t h e r t h e c o m p u t e r is e o i n e o r l
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MEMORY
Big computers can have multiple p r o g r a m followers and sets of regist e r s (a p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r a n d i t s l n r e i s t e r s a r e ?m . * together called a C P U , Central Processing Unit) A c o m p u t e r w i t h t w o C P U s , i.'e., t w o s e t s of p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r s and r e g i s t e r s t o c a r r y t h e p r o g r a m a 6 u t , is called a dual processor; a computer w i t h m o r e t h a n t w o C P U s is c a l l e d a multi-processor. Separate independent sections of c o r e m e m o r y m a y b e p u t in o n e c o m p u t e r , allowing separate program followers and d a t a c h a n n e l s to w o r k at the sane time. ( N o t e : a " b a n k " of core m e m o r y is a n i n d e p e n d e n t s e c t i o n . E x c e p t in this s e n s e of " c o r e m e m o r y b a n k " or " c o r e b a n k , " t h e r e is n o o t h e r c o r r e c t usage of the layman's vague term "memory bank." Computer people only say " m e m o r i e s , " and distinguish further among core, disk, tape, etc. N o t e that "data b a n k s " are a separate issue-- see " I s s u e s , " p.J"?.) <~<,f, > . «...
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Many computer p e o p l e , the author i n c l u d e d , e n t e r t a i n c e r t a i n d o u b t s about the long-term usefulness of big c o m p u t e r s , since m i n i c o m p u t e r s are c h e a p e r , e s p e c i a l l y in the l o n g r u n , a n d c a n a c t u a l l y b e in t h e o f f i c e s a n d h o m e s w h e r e p e o p l e c r e a t e and use the information. Big c o m p u t e r s are n e c e s sary for t i m e - s h a r i n g (see p . 45) and h u g e " n u m b e r - c r u n c h i n g " jobs (see "Grosch's Law," n e a r b y ) . H o w e v e r , it w i l l s o o n be c h e a p e r to p u t s t a n d a r d i z e d n u m b e r - c r u n c h i n g j o b s in s t a n d alone or a c c e s s o r y h a r d w a r e ; see " M i croprocessors," p. i)^.
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Fans of big computers also argue that they are n e c e s s a r y for business p r o g r a m m i n g , but that only m e a n s traditional business programming-- noninteractive and b a t c h - o r i e n t e d . For tomorrow's friendly and clear business s y s t e m s , networks of minis may be preferable. B u t m a k e r s of big c o m p u t e r s m a y be u n w i l l i n g to a d m i t this p o s s i bility.
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M i n i c o m p u t e r s are ao nifty that w e m a y ask w h y h a v e big c o m p u t e r s at all. T h e a n s w e r is that there arc considerable e c o n o m i e s , especially in applications that require m a n y repetitive o p e r ations a n d don't n e e d interaction with u s e r s . A hypothesis about the e c o n o m y of big c o m p u t e r s w a a formulated a long time a g o b y Herbert J . R . G r o s c h , onetime director of I B M ' s W a t s o n L a b u n d n o w a h e o v y detractor of I B M . T h u s it is called G r o s c h ' s L a w . T h e idea is basically that there is a s q u a r e - l a w relationahip b e t w e e n a machine's size a n d its p o w e r (narrowly defined in t e r m s of the coat of millions of operations, a n d without considering the e d v a n t s g e s of interactive s y s t e m s or other features w h i c h m a y b e of m o r e ultimate value). A n y w a y , w h e n I a s k e d h i m recently for his formulation of G r o s c h ' s L a w . 1 got the following:
dssaription* of some prominent will be found on ths next four
big aomputers pages.
"Grosch's L a w (formal): E c o n o m y in c o m p u t i n g ia as the s q u a r e root of the s p e e d . (informal): If y o u w a n t to d o it ten limes as c h e a p , y o u h a v e to d o it a h u n d r e d times as fast. (interpretive): N o matter h o w clever the h a r d w a r e b o y s a r e . the software b o y s piss it a w a y !
38
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The p a r t s o f a computer a r e s e t up t o be g o t t e n a t , t o be r e f i l l e d and repaired T h e i r I n n a r d s swing open l i k e r e fr i g e r a t o r s . S i m i l a r l y , the w i r i n g o f computers i s i n s e p a r a t e sect i o n s o r modules ("module" m e r e l y bei n g toda;y's s t y l i s h t e r m f o r " u n i t " ) , h a v i n g v>e r y o r d e r l y c o n n e c t i o n s among them. I n d i v i d u a l c i r c u i t s a r e on c i r c u i t she>e t s o r " c a r d s " w h i c h p l u g i n s i d e w a y s and may be r e p l a c e d e a s i l y , There's n o t h i n g r e a l l y computerish a b o u t t h i s , i t ' s m e r e l y s e n s i b l e constructio but i t i s t r a d i t i o n a l i n o t h e r f i e l d s t o b u i l d s o m e t h i n g as a tangle of wires. (When T V makers f o l low t h e s e r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s , t h e y c a l l i t "space age c o n s t r u c t i o n . " ) —
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Why a r e t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s so f a r apart? So t h e r e ' s room t o swing them open, r e f i l l o r change them, s i t . down and r e p a i r them. Refrigerators c o u l d , and p e r h a p s s h o u l d , a l s o be b u i l t i n separate s e c t i o n s , but i t ' s not t r a d i t i o n a l . Automobiles can't be s p r e a d o u t because t h e y have t o endure t h e j o s t l e s o f t h e road. But computers l i k e t h i s baby a r e n ' t g o i n g anywhere.
terminals
installation."
This i s a b i g computer.
Also i n t i m i d a t i n g i s the fact t h a t y o u have t o s t e p up as you e n t e r a computer room. ~ T n a t s because comp u t e r rooms o r d i n a r i l y have r a i s e d f l o o r s , p e r m i t t i n g c a b l e s t o be r u n a r o u n d among t h e p i e c e s o f equipment w i t h o u t your t r i p p i n g .
I n p r i n c i p l e i t ' s no d i f f e r e n t f r o m a s m a l l one; b u t i t has b i g g e r memories, more r e g i s t e r s , more p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r s . There are more s p e c i a l i z e d p a r t s , and more t h i n g s h a p p e n i n g a t once. (Thus t h e t e r m " d i g i t a l computer complex" i s sometimes u s e d f o r a b i g c o m p u t e r . ) I t comes s u p p l i e d w i t h a m o n i t o r p r o g r a m o r o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m ( s e e p. 4 5 ) d v a r i e t y of other u t i l i t y programs and language p r o c e s s o r s . a
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a
B i g g i e s have many ominous and s e e m i n g l y t h i n g s t o s c a r e t h e layman. For one t h i n g , where i s t h e computer? o f r o a r i n g c a b i n e t s . WhicTPis i t ?
Computer rooms a r e g e n e r a l l y l i t by m i l l i o n s o f f l u o r e s c e n t b u l b s , making them g a r i s h l y b r i g h t . This i s simply t r a d i t i o n .
incomprehensible A l l y o u see i s a l o t
B i g computers can have m i l l i o n s o f words o f c o r e memory. Moreover, there are u s u a l l y several disk drives and t a p e d r i v e s , as seen i n t h e p i c t u r e s , used t o h o l d d a t a and programs. (Some o f t h e programs a r e t h e system p r o g r a m s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e language p r o c e s s o r s and t h e o p e r a t i n g system-see p . tfS-- b u t o t h e r programs and most o f t h e d a t a b e l o n g t o t h e u s e r s . )
Answer: a l l o f them. "The c o m p u t e r " i s d i v i d e d among t h e d i f f e r e n t c a b i n e t s ( n o t e d i a g r a m and c l u s t e r o f p i c t u r e s l o c a t i n g t h e o p e r a t o r among them, below).. The e x t e r n a l d e v i c e s o r p e r i p h e r a l s ( s e e p. S"7) a r e u s u a l l y i n s e p a r a t e h o u s i n g s . Usually t h e r e i s one s i n g l e box o r " m a i n f r a m e " c o n t a i n i n g c o r e memory, main r e g i s t e r s , p r o g r a m - f o l l o w i n g c i r c u i t r y , e t c . , as i n t h e mac h i n e i l l u s t r a t e d , b u t t h e s e t h i n g s d o n ' t have t o be i n one b o x , and sometimes a r e n ' t .
AN
OPERATOR
IS
NOT
A
PROGRAMMER
C i n d y W o e l f e r is the d a y - s h i f t o p e r a t o r o f C i r c l e ' s b i g c o m p u t e r . The job mainly consists of changing disks and tapes, starting and s t o p ping different jobs listed on the scope, and restarting the computer when the system crashes (gratuitously ceases o p e r a t i o n ) .
very
Ms. Woelfer, stimulating.
a
thoughtful person, says She can program, but the
she job
does not find her job doesn't involve pro-
granming. It's also a lonely job. Non-systems Daley, aren't ordinarily allowed around. About
people, except Mayor the only people to talk
to are the systems programmers and see whether their programs
to
who are
stop through up n e x t .
look
at
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scope
37
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32-bit
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Lexington, M A
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16 bits
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02173
or for a s little a s $ 2 5 0 / m o . , l o n g - t e r m .
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than
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clarifies
structure
BE
Rental Electronics, Inc.
all
"microcomputers"
This
M A Y
N o v a m i n i c o m p u t e r s a r e leasable f r o m :
regard-
Thus
MINI R E N T A L S
from y o u r fingers.
used
use. midi
HEY, SOME
won't
z a p p the c o m p u t e r w i t h
microcomputer to
S p r a y it all
o v e r the r u g , especially
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can,
static electricity in c a r p e t e d computer rooms.
the c o m p u t e r , a n d y o u
Two-level
Free
c o m e s s c e n t e d in a s p r a y
l a u n d r y — is s a i d to e l i m i n a t e
without
B u t that's
microprocessor
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p r o d u c t called C l i n g
—
this
lot of programs.
really
adver-
and even
"minicomputer"
ferred a
been
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confusing.
(They that
or
unfortunately,
have
their
just
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(memory a n d
of 18 bits
tising is
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the add-
have:
an architecture
main
between with
mini
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as
computer,
"microcomputer,"
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fit
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r o c k s q u e e z e o f
c l i m b e r , t h r o u g h
c o u r s e ,
b u t
list of minicomputer manufacturers
ie at the bottom of p. 7 . 5 ,
\
36 M i n i c o m p u t e r s a r e now b e i n g found i n highschools; a c t i v e marketing t o h i g h s c h o o l s i s now b e i n g done by b o t h DEC and H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d .
^ MINI
C h i l d r e n ' s museums i n B r o o k l y n and B o s t o n have r e c e n t l y o b t a i n e d PDPl l s f o r the kids t o i n t e r a c t w i t h . I n the B r o o k l y n c a s e , t h e computer w i l l even d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e x h i b i t and h e l p the c h i l d d i s c o v e r t h i n g s about i t , i n ways w o r k e d o u t by Gordon Pask fsee D I n t h e f u t u r e , networks o f m i n i s may be t h e systems t o o f f e r l o w - c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v i c e s t o t h e home ( f o r s p e c u l a t i o n s , see P . 1>V\ £7). But m i n i s w i l l a l s o s t a r t t o make b i g ger and b i g g e r i n c u r s i o n s on t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e b i g machines. For i n s t a n c e , one g r o u p p r o p o s e s a t i m e - s h a r i n g system w h i c h w i l l s i m p l y c o n s i s t o f Novas interconnected i n a r i n g , the so-called STAR-RING, w h i c h w i l l s u p p o s e d l y compete w i t h b i g time-sharing.
This is a PDP-11, one of the world's beet-designed minicomputers (see p. Y Z J J The PDP-11 is a 16-bit machine. Shown is Model 45, the fastest PDP-11, which has various special features. Stripped, with 4K of core memory (that's 4096 locations), it costs about $13 grand. A smaller PDP-11 goes for some $5000.
A m i n i c o m p u t e r s i m p l y means a s m a l l c o m p u t e r , no d i f f e r e n t i n p r i n c i p l e f r o m t h e b i g ones ( s e e n e x t s p r e a d ) , and i t can do a l l t h e same t h i n g s e x c e p t as l i m i t e d by speed and memory c a p a c i t y . ( M i n d , we a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t r e a l computers, n o t the l i t t l e c a l c u l a t o r s you h o l d i n y o u r hand t h a t j u s t do a r i t h m e t i c . A r e a l comput e r i s one w h i c h works on s t o r e d programs and a l l k i n d s o f d a t a , w o r k i n g n o t m e r e l y on numbers b u t on such o t h e r t h i n g s as t e x t , mus i c and p i c t u r e s i f s u p p l i e d w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e p r o g r a m s ; see f l i p s i d e . ) There i s some argument o v e r what c o n s t i t u t e s a m i n i c o m p u t e r ; b a s i c a l l y we w i l l say i t ' s any comp u t e r w i t h a word l e n g t h o f . 1 8 b i t s o r l e s s (see " B i n a r y P a t t e r n s , " p. 2-7). (Some companies, l i k e Datac r a f t and I n t e r d a t a , a r e t r y i n g t o p e d d l e t h e i r w o r t h y computers as " m i n i c o m p u t e r s " even though t h e y ' r e 24 and 32 b i t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b u t t h a t ' s v e r y odd. I n t e r d a t a says any computer under t e n t h o u s a n d i s a m i n i - - w h i c h means a l l computers w i l l be m i n i s by and b y ; a v e x i n g t h i n g t o do t o t h e term.) T r a d i t i o n a l l y minicomputers come w i t h much l e s s . I n the o l d days p r e t t y much a l l t h e programs you g o t w i t h i t were an assembler (see p. ys) and a debugger (see p. J o ) and a F o r t r a n c o m p i l e r ( s e e p. 2 D i f y o u were l u c k y . Today, though, w i t h minis having h i g h l y b u i l t - u p s o f t w a r e l i k e (see pp.io-t/? f o r d e s c r i p t i o n s ) t h e PDP-8, t h e PDP-11 and t h e Nova, you can g e t a l o t o f d i f f e r e n t assemblers, t o g e t h e r w i t h F o r t r a n , BASIC, and a l i t t l e disk or cassette operating system (see p. H&) t o make y o u r l i f e a l i t t l e easier.
•
The i d e a o f o w n i n g a c o m p u t e r may* seem s t r a n g e t o some p e o p l e , b u t w i t h p r i c e s f a l l i n g as t h e y a r e i t makes p e r f e c t s e n s e . Numerous i n d i v i d u a l s own m i n i s , and as t h e p r i c e c o n t i n u e s t o d r o p t h e number w i l l shoot up. For s e v e r a l f a m i l i e s w i t h c h i l d r e n t o p o o l t o g e t h e r and buy one f o r t h e k i d s makes a l o t o f sense. One f r i e n d o f mine has an 8, a n o t h e r i s c o n t e m p l a t i n g an 1 1 . ( I ' v e been t r y i n g t o g e t my own f o r y e a r s ; p e r h a p s t h i s book...) Anyhow, t h e g e n e r a l p r i c e r a n g e i s now $3000 t o $6000 p l u s a c c e s s o r i e s , and t h a t ' s d r o p p i n g f a s t . Rental i s u s u a l l y a g r e a t mis t a k e : p r i c e s a r e v e r y h i g h and a f t e r s i x months o r so y o u ' l l have p a i d f o r i t w i t h o u t owning i t . ( B u t names o f r e n t a l p l a c e s w i l l be f o u n d i n t h i s book, and some o f - t h e r a may o f f e r good a r r a n g e m e n t s . ) M i n i s may now be had i n q u a n t i t y f o r $1000 each-- p r i c e o f t h e PDP-8A i n May 1974-- and soon t h a t w i l l be t h e consumer p r i c e . Unfortunately, the price of the computer i t s e l f i s d r o p p i n g f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e a c c e s s o r i e s , such as t h e b a s i c t e r m i n a l y o u ' l l need, w h i c h s t i l l w e i g h s i n a t $1000-5000. M o r e o v e r , as soon as y o u want t o do a n y t h i n g s e r i o u s you'11 need a d i s k ( s t a r t i n g a r o u n d $4500) o r a t l e a s t a c a s s e t t e memory ( s t a r t i n g a r o u n d $1500). But these p r i c e s t o o w i l l come way down as t h e consumer m a r k e t opens. Some o f us m i n i c o m p u t e r f r e a k s see l i t t l e r e a l need f o r b i g c o m p u t e r s . Minicomputers are s p l e n d i d f o r i n t e r a c t i v e and "good-guy" systerns ( s e e P* 13)» p e r s o n a l m a c h i n e s , t o hand l e t y p i n g and b o o k k e e p i n g ; even f o r b u s i n e s s systerns, i f you r e c o g n i z e the v a l u e o f w o r k i n g o u t y o u r own i n BASIC o r , s a y , TRAC Language.
Here's that selfsame PDP-11 in its overall setting. With peripherals shown, plus the magnificent Vector General display (shown later on in book, p?*3l& eleewhere), this setup cost well over a hundred grand. (This is the Circle Graphics Habitat, otherwise known as the Chemistry Department Computer, JJ. Illinois at Chicago Circle. Why do chemists need such things? See p .
The good ol' PDP-8, perhaps the most popular minicomputer (12 bits). Full PDP-88 now cost about $3000, "kits" less. Shown here with a Sykes cassette tape deck— a nice, rather reliable unit— and a screen display (see ppf^TZr'S) • Courtesy Princeton University . S R.E.S.I.S.T.O.R.S. (see p . M
a s
Minicomputers are being p u t i n s i d e a l l manner o f o t h e r equipment t o h a n d l e complex c o n t r o l . (However, for r e p e t i t i v e simple tasks, the l a t est t h i n g i s m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s (see p. If), which cost less but are harder t o program.)
Kids love computers. They belong together. This lad flips panel switches on a Nova, perhaps the third most popular mini after the 8 and 11 (16 bits; 80s
35
This la what the program looks like In the computer's cure m e m o r y . (A printout like the following is called a ntaohlnelantuage listing.) Since all the addresses are filled In, thin program ia aafd to be In absolute binary. IT they weren't filled in, It would be called relocatable binary . Machine language listing* c o m e in different flavors. A binary listing (or d u m p ) ia generally in ones and serves. A n octal listing groups the bits by threes and substitute* Ihe n u m b e r s zero through seven for the different c o m binations of three bits T h e other main kind, the hexadecimal listing or d u m p (an IBM thing), groups the bite by fours end substitutes the n u m bers 0-9 and the letters A lo F , for the sixteen different combinations of four bits.
This Is whet the program looks like w h e n you set lt up for the Assembler, which is the easier w a y . A program laid oul like this in called an Assembly Listing. Studying it m a y help you d e b u g (see p . A n easy-to-remember alphabetical code la uaed to represent eech final instruction desired. Such an abbreviation Is called a m n e m o n i c ; usually they're more cryptic. T h e m n e m o n i c s ere turned b y the assembler Into the binary opcode. Y o u don't have lo K n o w (he actual addreasea in core m e m o r y , you just use alphabetical n a m e s or labels, and the A s sembler figures out w h e r e they really go and puta in the binary addresses. Desired n u m b e r s , such as 9, are plugged into the address parts of Instructions. Y O U R O W N C O M M E N T S (here set off wilh slashes) csn stay here loo. In this FIDO e x a m p l e , the Assembler follows two c o m m o n practices: it recognizes a label because lt ends in a c o m m a , and recognizes a c o m m e n t because lt begins wilh a slash.
C O U N T S "THIS COPPER M A N IS N O T ALIVE A T A L L "
ooo oox 0X0
oxx xoo xox xxo XXX
ooo oox oox OOX OOX
0X0
oox oox oox oox oox
oxx xoo xox xxo
0X0
ooo oox oxo oxx xoo xox xxo
oxo oxo oxo oxo oxo oxo 0X0
oxx oxx oxx oxx oxx oxx oxx oxx xoo xoo xoo xoo xoo xoo xoo xoo xox XOX XOX
xox xox xox xox xox xxo xxo xxo xxo xxo xxo xxo XXO XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX X OOO X OOO X OOO X OOO X OOO X OOO X OOO X OOO X OOX X OOX X OOX X OOX X OOX X OOX X OOX X OOX X OXO X 0X0 XOXO X 0X0 XOXO X OXO X OXO X OXO
XXX
XXX
ooo oox oxo oxx xoo xox xxo XXX
ooo oox 0X0
oxx xoo xox xxo XXX
ooo oox QXO
oxx xoo xox xxo XXX
ooo oox 0X0
oxx xoo xox xxo XXX OOO OOX OXO
oxx XOO XOX XXO XXX OOO OOX OXO OXX XOO XOX XXO XXX OOO OOX OXO OXX XOO XOX XXO XXX OOO OOX OXO OXX XOO
xox XXO XXX
XXXXXOOOOOOO XXOOOOOOOOOO OOOOXXOOXXOX XOXOOOOOOOOX XXOOOOOOOOOX OOOOXXOXOOXX XOXOOOXXOOXO XXXXXOOOOOOO
CLEAR INPUT t TEST ZERO JUMP CHKCL INPUT 1 T E S T NINE JUMP ADMIN CLEAR OUTPUT 1 OUTPUT 4 OUTPUT 9 INPUT 2 T E S T FrVE JUMP AD2TEN CLEAR OUTPUT 2 OUTPUT 6 O U T P U T 10 ADD N A D D INPUT STORE I N I ADD ONE S T O R E IN2 S T O R E 1N2P1 CLEAR ADO N
xxooxoooooox xxooxooooxoo xxooxoooxoox xxooooooooxo ooooxxoxooxo xoxoooxxoxxx XXXXXOOOOOOO XXOOXOOOOOXO XXOOXOOOOXXO XXOOXOOOXOXO OOXOOXOXOXXX OOXOOXOXOXOX OXXOOOXOOOOX
ooxooxooxxxo oxxoooxooxxx oxxoooxxxxxo XXXXXOOOOOOO OOXOOXOXOXXX OOXOOXOXOXXO OXXOOOXOXXOX OXXOOOXXOOOO OXXOOOXXXXOX OOXOOXOOXXXO OXXOOOXOXOXX OXXOOXOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOXXOXOOXX XOXOOOXOOXOX XOXOOOXXXXOO OOOOXXOXOOOO XOXOOOXOXXXX OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOXXOOXXXX XOXOOOXOXXXX XXXXXOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO OOXOOXOOXXXO OOOOOOOOOOOO XOXOOXOOOOOX OOXOOXOOXXXO OOOOOOOOOOOO XOXOOXOOOOOX OOXOOXOOXXXO XXOOXOOOOOOX XXOOXOOOOXOX
ADD OUTPUT STORE 0UT1 STORE 0UT1P1 STORE 0UT1P2 ADD ONE STORE OUT2 STORE 0UT2P1 T E S T NINE JUMP PAST JUMP AD10HR TEST THREE JUMP 1NCHR
#0000000.
/NO,
CHECK
/YES,
CLOCK
AGAIN.
R E A D M I N U T E S L O T O F 1ST
/NO.
GO T O
/YES.
MINUTE
SET
INCREMENTER
EACH
/TEN-MINUTE /TO
DIGIT
T e n minutes after starting to program in Machine Language you will probably want A s s e m bly L a n g u a g e .
ZERO.
/CHECK TEN-MINUTE /NEW
GO T O T E N - M I N U T E
/YES,
SET
DIGIT
It's a pain trying to keep track of binary n u m b e r s for where things are stored.
ZERO.
/GET CLOCK-NUMBER
COUNTER
/AND
FORM INPUT
/PUT
IT W H E R E I T B E L O N G S .
/PUT
SO: let's give them alphabetical n a m e s . That's assembly language. (And the conversion program w e put our alphabetical into, to turn them back inlo Ihe binary patterns that really run the machine-- lhat conversion program is called the Assembler.)
INSTRUCTION
/FORM OTHER INPUT
INSTRUCTION.
I T WHERE I T B E L O N G S .
/HERE T O O . /GET COUNTER
AGAIN.
/AND
FORM O U T P U T
/PUT
I T HERE WHERE I T B E L O N G S .
/AND
HERE.
A n assembler is a direct and non-incky translator, intended mainly to handle the details of exact transposition between instruction codew o r d s and the exactly corresponding machinelanguage program that you intend.
INSTRUCTION.
TOO.
/HERE
/FORM OTHER O U T P U T /PUT
INSTRUCTION.
I T WHERE I T B E L O N G S .
/HERE
IT W O R K S LIKE THIS: T h e assembler scans through the assembly - language p r o g r a m , testing the successive alphabetical characters. After finding the key punctuation m a r k s or delimiters (shown as c o m m a and slash for the FIDO assembler), it scans for the alphabetical Instruction m n e m o n i c s , and translates them by a table in core m e m o r y into the corresponding binary codes. (Il ignores everything on a line after a s l a s h , which is lucky, since in the comments you m a y use w o r d s which are the s a m e as instruction mnemonics.)
TOO.
/BECOMES "INPUT
N"
/IS
9?
HOUR DIGIT A
/NO,
TEST AGAIN / Y E S . GO F L I P 10-HOUR / I S H O U R D I G I T A 3? /NO,
GO INCREMENT
/IS T E N - H O U R /NO.
DIGIT
HOUR.
N + l."
COUNTER A
INCREMENT HOUR
TWO?
NORMALLY
/ Y E S . I T W A S 23:59, S O S E T "OUTPUT
N*l" IS
/ADD
COUNTER
1 T O HOUR
/BECOMES " O U T P U T
N".
/CO INCREMENT CLOCK-NUMBER /ADD
1 TO MINUTE
/AND
PUT I T
COUNTER
DIGIT.
A n assembler is the simplest form of compiler (see p . 3 0 ) . Basically it translates an aaaembly-language p r o g r a m , which cannot be run directly, inlo a binary program which can.
ALL MINUTE
/THE
DIGITS.
/ T H E N GO BACK
TO CLOCK-WATCHING .
/ADD
1 TO TEN-MINUTE
/AND
PUT I T
/IN
T h e assembler also counts the in st ruction a, and (starting wherever you say) figures where in core m e m o r y the instructions (and any data or spaces you put in) g o . T h e n it m a k e s a list of these addresses, called a symbol table (also called a n a m e Hal at less elegant places).
N" HERE.
/GO INCREMENT CLOCK-NUMBER
/IN
HERE.
A C T O 1.
/AND "OUTPUT
DIGIT
T h e n from this symbol table it fills Ihe resulting binary addresses into the binary c o m m a n d s of the p r o g r a m .
ALL
/THE TEN-MINUTE
DIGITS.
/THEN GO BACK TO
CLOCK-WATCHING.
/FIRST
CLEAR DIGIT (BECOMES " O U T P U T N " ) /THEN GET TEN-HOUR DIGIT /AND ADD 1 TO I T . /BECOMES "OUTPUT N * I " . /ROUTINE T O GET NEXT CLOCK NUMBER. /ADDING FOUR T O CLOCK NUMBER /TAKES US T O NEXT CLOCK. / H A V E WE R U N O U T O F C L O C K S (N=15)? / N O . GO STORE N A N D RETURN /YES, SET
m't you glad you don'l have to?
/HOUR
ADD
STORN,
It's a pain trying to get ail the ones and zeroes right. (£*«> i-A .L, %t 5*«< *.»-y)
INCREMENTER.
EACH
/TEN-MINUTE /TO
DIGIT.
HOUR?
/NO.
/ T I M E T O pi: it.
AD10HR. OUT1P2. IN2P1. t
WATCH.
/IS I T A 9?
/SET
J U M P INCN ADD ONE OUTPUT 1 OUTPUT S OUTPUT 9 JUMP CHKCL ADD ONE OUTPUT 2 OUTPUT 6 O U T P U T It JUMP CHKCL CLEAR
1 U &J *>-
NEW M I N U T E ?
IK
/BECOMES "INPUT
TEST T W O JUMP INCHR CLEAR
xxooxoooxoox XOXOOOOOOOOX OOXOOOOOXXXO XXOOXOOOOOXO XXOOXOOOOXXO XXOOXOOOXOXO XOXOOOOOOOOX XXXXXOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO OOXOOXOOXXXO OOOOOOOOOOOO XXXXXOOOOOOO OOXOOXOXOXXX OOXOOXOXOOOX OOOOXXOXOXOO XOXOOXOOXOXX XXXXXOOOOOOO OOXOOXOXOXXX OOXOOXOXOOOO OXXOOXOXOXXX XOXOOOOOOOOX OXXOOXOXOXXX XOXOOOOXOOXO OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOCOX OOOOOOOOOOXO OOOOOOOOOOXX OOOOOOOOOXOO OOOOOOOOOXOX OOOOOOOOXOXO OOOOOOOOXXXX XXOOOOOOOOOO XXOOXOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO
/CLOCK IS I/O SLOT
ONE
CLEAR ADD N ADD FOUR TEST PTEEN JUMP STORN CLEAR ADD N ADD THREE STORE N JUMP CHKCL STORE N JUMP ROUND
ZERO. 9 ONE, 1 TWO. 2 THREE, 3 FOUR, 4 FIVE, S NINE. 9 F T E E N . IS I N P U T . 6t$tB OUTPUT, S2MB N. I
Generally the assembler then sends out the binary program to some external device, such as a disk m e m o r y or paper tape p u n c h . T h e n it can be put into core m e m o r y w h e n you want to run it. (You can put s program into core m e m o r y one bit al a~tlme through the front-panel switches;
/N=3 /AND
but nobody likes doing this except for teeny proRETURN
mote: an aaaembler for one computer (say
/ T O S T A R T O F PROGRAM
/OfE'VE DONE CHECKING C L O C K S ) . / S T O R E NEW C L O C K - N U M B E R C O U N T E R / A N D SERVICE NEXT CLOCK. END OF MAIN / THESE ARE CONSTANTS.
/ R A W INPUT I N S T R U C T I O N . (OCTAL) /RAW OUTPUT INSTRUCTION. (OCTAL) / C O U N T E R F O R W H I C H C L O C K WE'RE O N .
the PDP-8) lhal runs on a different computer (say, the 360) is called a cross assembler.) PROGRAM.
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T h e r e is a certain folk hero w h o m the people all call B u c k y . It ia said that h e w e a r s three wrletwatches: one for w h e r e h e la n o w , one for w h e r e he will b e n e x t , and o n e that telle w h s t time it is at his h o m e .
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i Well n o w . Here's sn e x a m p l e of a little p r o b l e m on w h i c h to try o u r F I D O c o m p u t e r .
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Let's wire u p a m s g i c wrlstwatch for B u c k y the Folk H e r o , o n e that will use a teeny F I D O o n a chip (the coming- t h i n g ) , attached to three r o w s of numerical readouts flike those o n pocket calculators).
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Thia application Is not so a b s u r d aa y o u
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It la obvloualy quite simple in principle. It will let u s see s o m e of the w a y s that the rock-bottom m a c h i n e langusges or c o m p u t e r s are u s e d .
A n y h o w , w h a t the p r o g r a m is really d o i n g , w h e n it finds the timer has reached zero, is. testing w h e t h e r the rightmost digit is a n i n e . (It only has to test o n e , since minutes are the s a m e r o u n d the w o r l d . ) If it's not n i n e , il just a d d s o n e to each— a part of ihe p r o g r a m called A D M I N , starting at X X O O X O . If it's n i n e , h o w e v e r , il sets the final digits all to z e r o , e n d then testa the tens digit to aee if it's a five, m e a n i n g the e n d of an, h o u r . (The n u m b e r five has been Ingenuously stored in a location w h i c h M i k e has called F I V E , w h i c h a s s e m bled lo slot n u m b e r X O X O O X O . If y o u look there, y o u will see that the slot d o e s , indeed, contain the binary pattern for the n u m b e r 5.)
> that in thia flowchart
A « r - 3 • s a n s , "stuff the number 3 into the variable A." A variable Is a named location in core memory •
Naturally this got s a v e d for last, a n d w h a t is presented here s h o w s it. T h e e x a m p l e w a s m e a n t to b e a case of not-very-numerical p r o g r a m m i n g that w o u l d a h o w the abstract ness of it all. T h e p r o g r a m Itself has no intrinsic quality related to the problem; thai m u c h should b e visible.
W h a t a pity there is no lime to take you on a guided tour of (his p r o f o u n d , magnificent p r o g r a m . If y o u dig this sort of thing, h o w e v e r , y o u might just b e able to d o p e it o u t .
A n y h o w , I p r o g r a m m e d this myself a few w e e k s a g o In the F I D O l a n g u a g e , a n d w a s very pleased with it, but then discovered a couple of appalling b u g s . A s time closed in o n this project 1 asked m y friend M i k e O'Brien to c o d e the p r o g r a m , a n d h e kindly consented, taking time out of his previous w e e k e n d p l a n s . H e r e is Mike's p r o g r a m , for w h i c h I a m grateful.
: h a d y o u r taste.
Hope you
H o w E V e r , after it w a a set in t y p e , M i k e realized that lt too has s o m e gross flaws a n d w o u l d not w o r k as here presented. W e thought of having a chocolate chip cookie contest for corrections, sending out chocolate chip cookies to entrants fixing it u p , but w e don't h a v e such a c o m p u t e r a n d w e wouldn't r u n the p r o g r a m if w e h a d o n e a n y w a y , so see if y o u can get the basic'idea of it, s n d if y o u are a real wise g u y fix the p r o g r a m for y o u r o w n satisfaction, a n d that will b e that. X
1MI
T h e basic idea is that w e h a v e a F I D O , p r e s u m a b l y on a single integrated circuit c h i p , attached to thirteen external devices (or p e r i p h erals, or input-output devices, or I/O devices or w h a t e v e r ) . T h e s e devices are a timer or clock, w h i c h reaches zero o n c e p e r minute-thls is a c o m p u t e r clock, m e a n i n g a timer, not something that people can read-- a n d the three r o w s of numerical readouts that are the desired Superwatch. F o r simplicity's sake w e a s s u m e here that each n u m e r a l is interfaced to do either input or output; thus the F I D O c o m p u t e r can aak any given n u m e r a l w h a t it s a y s , a n d c h a n g e its c o n tents.
Mike O'Brien's elightly diagruntled poeteoript to the program.
T h e finished Wriatwatch ia going to give time o n a twenty four-hour baaia. not t w e l v e , like at N A S A a n d suchlike places. After 12: 59 c o m e s 13:00. After 23:59 c o m e s 01:00.
[OOP
T h e bulk of the p r o g r a m is occupied with testing the numerala a n d c h a n g i n g t h e m . Howe v e r , in proportions of activity, the poor thing ia going to s p e n d moat of its time Baying, "Is it time yet? Is it time yet? Is it time yet?" (That's the s e c o n d , third a n d fourth instruction.) Because the F I D O selects the particular input-output device with the last seven bits of an input or output instruction, this has been d o n e with "address modification" arithmetic: creating an output instruction to address a p a r ticular device b y adding the Inst ruction to the "*"» °I » « device. Thia ia an ancient snd" honorable p r o g r a m m i n g trick. In several c a s e s , the p r o g r a m chooses a device to e x a m i n e , or fill, b y taking a blank input or output instruction (kept at locations X O X O X O X and X O X O X X O , reapectively) a n d *dd" '« the A C , to a counting n u m b e r that la being used to step a r o u n d In the array of n u m e r a l a . (Thia counting n u m b e r is "N," alored in location X O X O X X X . ) (Theae instructions w e r e put into the slots in octal f o r m , ss " 6 » M B " and " 6 2 M B " respectively. T h e al ashes sre m e a n t lo distinguish &eroea from O h s . T h e * B " at the e n d (in the assembly Hating) m e a n s that the assembler ia s u p p o s e d io translate these n u m b e r , to B i n a r y , taking them three bits at a U l M « • » • cornea out lo X X O O O O O O O O O O . )
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If you want information on the machine language and assembly language of any given machine, write the manufacturer for ihe programming manual. There may also be a pock6t card.
UIKh-Of pattern pattern selecting selecting where to perform operation) operation) OO PP CCO OD ED E ^ A D D R E S S
W e look at lest •! what realty happen* Inside • given computer. It muil be a specific computer because there la no single Inner language for all computers. For •Impllclty'a take (llk* most Introductory teste) w a haraby present a flctlttoui machine.
X X X X X ( don't matter
(Faithful Instrument. Domesticated and Obliging). The FIDO la a twelve-bli machine. The main register (It haa only one) la twelve bit* long, and every m e m o r y slot la twelve bits long. Every Instruction ts twelve bits long; every data word Is twelve bits long, though of course much longer pieces of data can be put together by taking more than one twelve-bit
CLEAR AC This Instruction c filled with teroes. A D D (from memory to A C ) This adds the contents of (he specified m e m o r y location to the contents of the AC. Result remslns in the A C . Whatever was in the m e m o r y before is still there. This instruction Is also used to bring a new pattern to the A C . copying it from the specified memory location; but you have to C L E A R the A C first, so you're adding It lo
An occult aspect of computer design la the matter of how lo pack into the so-many bits of an instruction word all the option, th. programmer should have.
STORE
For no particular reason ths instruction •elect bit* are usually on the left, the address bit* on the right, and option bits (no room for them in thia book, unfortunately) In the middle.
This instruction copies the contents of the A C to the specified memory location. Whatever was In the m e m o r y location is destroyed.
Some rudimentary instructions of the FIDO are listed In a nearby box. The instruction* of the FIDO are of two type*: plain onea that Just use the main register (like C L E A R ) , and the divided one*, which select a memory alot or output device. O n the FIDO theae are divided Into an operation code (opcode) of five blia-the bits that tell the program follower what the operation ia to be: and an address of seven bits, specifying which memory alot (or external device) 1* to be operated o n .
The number of bits in the address determines the number of places in the memory that Ihe programmer can choose among, 15 bits in the address means s choice of 12.768 memory locations. 7 bita mean* • choice of only 128 (See "Binary Patterns," p. 33 .)
Whatever was In the A C Is still there
INPUT* This Instruction copies the c of a specified device register to the A C . OUTPUT* This instruction cop lea the contents of the A C to a specified device register.
These seven bili allow exactly 128 different patterns. (from O O O O O O O to X X X X X X X ) , which means w e can select among exactly 12B different memory slot*. (See Binary Patterns. p.->S.) ( H J » . )
Deciding whal the instruction layouts are lo be hinges on the architectural design of the computer (see p.3*. ) and the ins
JUMP This instruction makes the program follower take its next Instruction at the specified address snd go on from Ihere.
It's ultimately a matter of design elegance, but the consequences sre very concrete. An elegant instruction-set Is easy to use and therefore aaves a lot of time and money. (Anyone interested in studying the matter might want lo compare the PDP-11, a 18-bit computer with a brilliantly designed inatructlon-set. with some other 16-bil computer.)
T E S T . SKIP IF E Q U A L " This is a c o m m o n test instruction, permitting the program to branch depending on various conditions. The contents of the A C are compared with the specified core memory location, tf they are not the s a m e , the program continuea and lakes the next instruction in Ihe normal fashion. IF the two patterns are Ihe s a m e , the program follower SKIPS the next instruction and goes on lo Ihe one after.
T h e Ft do come* with one row of light* and switches; the row of lights can ahow the contents of any specific working register or memory slot. When the computer Is stopped, this i* helpful for debugging programs (see p.
A h . if only w e could tell you all about the FIDO hare! Its many more instructions. The option bits in the commanda that allow fancy variation*, or the option bits In the Interfaces, spoken of earilar. which allow the program to give different commands to external devices. i with i o the pulsating rhyihma of.,
OPERATION CALLED FOR
The FIDO is nothing but a stripped-down rsion of that beloved family pooch of computerdom,
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^ For instance, thai middle instruci> i> can be a J U M P instruction, taking the program lo a whole nother part of —— core mm ee mm oo rr yy and and aa new ne series of events.
PDP-?(Described p . f o .)
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If you buy s PDP-8 from Digital Equipment Corporation, you get all this and more. (Except for the external devices.) A n d the PDP-8. of course, allows much bigger memories than 128 •lot*, bul that's too complicated for here.) Art.
This brings up aome interesting facts.
• big-point is,
are what the computer operate* on deep d o w n . "Binary" Juat mesne that only two symbol* are used (Just si "decimal" m e a n * thai ten symbols sre u s e d ) . Patterns of binary symbols happen lo be electrically convenient, so thai'* how computer* are built, but that would change If Some more convenient set of symbols came
Actually computers with small word lengths like these ant called minicomputers. Big computers have m u c h bigger w o r d lengths. T h e IBM 360 haa a 32-bil word lengih. The Control Data 6600 has a 60-bit w o r d .
A T T H E B O T T O M P R O G R A M S ARE BINARY
N o w , it la an interesting fad Ihet not only are computer memories divided u p into slots, or locations, of equal length.
But since that suits few people's individual purposes, w e build up HIGHER L A N G U A G E S A N D ^ D A T A S T R U C T U R E S . So that different uaers deal wilh different mechanics corresponding better and more conveniently to the siructure: lhal interest them.
Binary patterns are very systematic and e**y to deal with. Consider the number of binary symbols you can have in Juat four apace*. -LET'S U S E T H E L E T T E R S X A N D O . A N D P U T T H E M IN A L P H A B E T I C A L O R D E R , S O Y O U ' L L SEE T H A T WE'RE T A L K I N G A B O U T PATTERNS. RATHER THAN NUMBERS .
address, that t each of Ihcse location* ha* Ihe location a number by which the 1 be found. A n d these number* are binary. Many forma of Information sre kept In binary patterns which are not n u m b e r s . For instance, letters of ihtf alphabet are uruatly stored as 8blt patterns.
lx|x|o|x|o|o|o|x|
A N D D A T A IS B I N A R Y , since ll'a all a to red in binary m e m o r y .
H o w e v e r , w e will have to stop using these X'a and O's. It's not really done. *o w e will switch to the more usual w a y of writing binary patterns with l's and zeroes. (Apologies lo readers w h o hate numbers; but remember that Ihcse patterns, while w e m a y write them out as l's and leroes, "••v represent wholly non-numerical kinds of information J Thst means Iha letter Q is 1 1 0 1
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but it's still the letter Q .
BINARY N U M B E R S . Theae arc the same old binary patterns, but when w e decide to treat them a* numbers, they are binary n u m b e r s .
You can »*• that the pattern repeats in certain interesting w a y s . Each column repeat* Itself aa you read down; adding a new position lo Ihe left doubles the number of possible patterns you can have in tha
These are ths infamous "bit*" you have heard of. A s you can a**, thara Is nothing hard or complicated about them. The number of bit* in a thing are the number of spacaa which can ba ait bar X or
N o w , the moat basic tact about any computer it* WOT* length: lhal is, the number of spaces a standard m e m o r y nlot of lhal computer.
K\ \ i T f i J
Special number one bit • 1 two bits 4 three bits > a n 18 four bit* ri ' >~j five bit* T T 1 I"*! 32 six bit* 64 •even bit* 128 eight bit* 2S6 nine bits 512 ten bits 1014 ("ONE It- is 1024: memories and everything else cone In K's, or multiple* of 1024.)
Actually th* term "k," atandlng for "kilo-," should mean one thousand. and the term B K , or Binary IC, la used by fussy people to aland for the very important nearby number 1021. But computer people generally uae expressions ending in K for Ihe following special numbers: THAT'S H O W M A N Y C O M B I N A T I O N S FIT IN NUMBER eleven bits 2048 ("2K") twelve bita 40S6 ("4K") thirteen bits 8192 ("BK") fourteen bits 16.384 ("18K") 32.T88 ("32K") flftM bits. rease very fast, and • ides n up. this: th* number of bit* u»*d to select so m e thine H » H s the number of things you csn »«lecl among. For instance, if you have a computer memory with }2K different locations, you need fifteen bit* exactly to • pacify a location In m e m o r y . Here sre some rsmiflcallons:
All computers can In principle do tha ssm* thlnga.
decimal number
However, soma are too alow or too small ever to do what othara c though tha types of thaii operation* are similar. 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100
M l U-LL)
A "ll-Mt eorapuiar- u i u the PDP-8) b weed* that ar* all twelve bits long. A ocBBpuiar" (llk* tha PDP-11) ha* M D O are all 16 bits long.
C E R T A I N N U M B E R S A R E SPECIAL because they are the number of things that can be specified by a certain number of bits.
{But it's a big issuer of tula and argument among oooipular paopla.)
• T h * word length of • computer determine* how large a number il can hold. A computer with * lw«lve-bit word can only hold a number up lo 4089 In one memory location (since w e ua« 000 000 000 000, in* firat combinslion. to slsnd for t*ro); if w o want lo use longer numbers w e have to set eaida iwo or more word locations per number. (A l#-blt computer can hold a number up 10 63,MS in one memory location.) • In designing dsia structure*. If you use binary codes (rsther lhan. say. alphabetical characiars), you hav* to allow enough bits for all the allernalivei lhal might turn u p . . In the design of tha wired-ln instruction* (or a computer, therefore. Ihe number of bita set whether aaide to specify *n sddreaa 'n core determines ' "u thai instruction can salaci (nun 11 or Juat s part of It
THE ROCK BOTTOM PROGRAM
FOLLOWER
H o w , you ask desperately, does thla innermost program follower work? T h e on* that ia built into the computer?
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U N W M 6 C S
Every computer ia wired to accept a specific ayatem of c o m m a n d s . W h e n theae c o m m a n d s •re atored in the computer's m e m o r y , and the computer'? program follower gels lo them, they cauee it to respond directly by electronic reflex. Thia is called nusohln* laaMfusfjs. the very language of the machine Itself
Computera are baalcally alike. Ignore their appearances: a roomful of roaring cabinets m a y have a great deal in c o m m o n with • small blinking box; indeed, they m a y have the same architecture, or atructure. and therefore be the s a m e computer.
(For the architecture of a beginner's c o m puter, see p . S * ; for the architecture of a o m e famous computers, eee^p.'jo-} .)
Different computers have different machine languages, but the Inatructiona of all computers are basically aimilar. Big computera have more c o m m a n d s , with m o r e variations, and carry them oul faster; bul those variations are lust extra w a y s of saving atepa. not qualitatively different features.
REGISTERS A N D
ALL COMPUTER PROGRAMS ARE EVENT U A L L Y W R I T T E N O R E N A C T E D IN T H E M A C H I N E ' S PARTICULAR BINARY L A N G U A G E . N o w , it ia entirely poe«ible to write your programs at thia level, considering and arranging rock-bottom c o m m a n d s . Thia is called machine-language programming (and assembly programming; aee examples a little later o n ) . Indeed, working at thia level ia very highly respected in aome quarters. Others avoid it. Thia l« a very aerioue matter of teats and what you're working o n . Higher-level languages. seen on earlier pages, have m o r e convenient forms for people, but must be translated, either ahead of time or on • running basis, to the bottom-most codes that m a k e things happen in the machine. All of them are built out of machine language. Writing the language processors, programs that enact or translate theae higher-level languages, is considered a black art. (See p . J * . )
and gotten back out of specific places:
Computer architecture covera three main things: registers (places w h e r e something happens to information); memories (places w h e r e nothing happens to information): their interconnections; and machine language, all the bottom-level instructions (for this last see "Rock Bottom," p . 3 2 , ) . MEMORIES
Computers are m a d e , basically, of two things', registers snd m e m o r i e s . A register is w h e r e something happens to information; a m e m o r y la w h e r e nothing happens to information. Let'a go over that alowly. A register is a place w h e r e something happens to information: the Information can be flipped around, tested, changed by arithmetic, or whatever. (We noted earlier that registers are what connect a computer to its accessories. T h e y are also principal parts of the computer Itself.) A m e m o r y is a place w h e r e nothing happena to information. A program puts the information there, and there it stays till s o m e p r o g r a m pulls it out again or replaces it,
A core m e m o r y has a definite rhythm or cycle, into which It divides the passing time. T h e m e m o r y cycle of a core m e m o r y ia so important that Its duration is often called the cycle time of the A request to the core m e m o r y m a d e at the beginning of the cycle is honored at the end of the cycle. Core cycles are very fast, being theae days about one microsecond, or millionth of a second. A core m e m o r y can only perform one act (store or fetch) during one m e m o r y cycle.
O n e last point about core memories. T h e n u m b e r which speciSes an address to the m e m ory is a binary pattern-- lust like all the other information (see "Binary Patterns," p . ). (Or m o r e exactly, whatever binary pattern is suppiled lo the m e m o r y as the address to store or from which to fetch, that pattern will be treated as the address to store or from which to fetch, that pattern will be treated aa a binary n u m b e r whether it w a s supposed to be or not. It could be the alphabetic w o r d G R I N C H which got there by mistake (aee "Debugging," p . JJO ) , but the m e m o r y will treat it as an address n u m b e r and go to the address specified by that pattern.
A main or general register (often called ths accumulator, for no good reason) is w h e r e the program brings things to be w o r k e d o n , tested, c o m p a r e d , added to and so o n . T h e r e can be several of them in a computer.
True computera are programmable devlcea thai can modify their o w n i nat ruction a, change their sequence of operations and do other versatile stuff.
T h e w o r d length (number of bit-spaces in a main register and m e m o r y slot) T h e n u m b e r of main registers and what they can do; i.e., how they are set up and what operationa can take place in and a m o n g them; i.e., the Instruction Set (see nearby); T h e amount of m e m o r y ; T h e accessories or peripherals; T h e cycle time.
T h e reason w e don't just have all registers-and no memories at all-- ia that registers traditionally cost m o r e than m e m o r i e s . ( H o w e v e r , s o m e machines are being tried that have all working registers instead of m e m o r y . See S T A R A N , p.43.)
T E S T O N E SPECIFIC binsry pattern, and branch in the program depending on the result.
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Y O U R BASIC C O M M A N D S , N O W (Computers exist which do little m o r e than these, and yet they can in principle do anything fancier computers can do.) T O B E S H O W N : T h e following are tha rock-bottom baaic operations of computers, available aa speclflq Instructions in all computers (with some variation). T h e Drat seven listed below will be used in th* extended example In the next spread.
S E T A N A C C E S S O R Y IN O P E R A T I O N / T U R N IT O F F . R E V E R S E (or " C O M P L E M E N T " ) a binary pattern-changing all the X'a to O'a and vice versa. SLIDE (or "SHIFT") a binary pattern sidelong through a register. F L I P P E R (or " L O G I C A L " ) operationa between two binary pattern*, especially— O R (or "INCLUSIVE O R " or "IOR")-result ia an X w h e r e either original pattern w a s an X . A N D (or " M A S K " ) - - reault la an X only w h e r e both original patterns had an X .
L O A D a binary pattern from cor* m e m o r y to a main ragiatar. FANCY OPERATIONS S T O R E a binary pattain in cor* m e m o r y from a main ragiatar.
T h e following operation* ar* deairable but not strictly necessary, and m a n y computers, especially minicomputers, don't hav* them all.
THEN THE PROGRAM COUNTER AUTOMATI C A L L Y H A S O N E A D D E D T O IT, S O IT P O I N T S T O THE N E X T INSTRUCTION .
It ia of no concern to the p r o g r a m m e r how Ihis Is done electronically. (And indeed electronics is generally of little concern to computer people, unless they are trying to design or o p timize computers or other devices themselves. Indeed, the electronic techniques are constantly changing.) All w e need to k n o w is that an electrical decoding ayatem (called the logic circuits) carries out the specific instruction-- for instance, by shutting off the path to the m e m o r y , turning on the adding circuit, and opening paths through the adding circuit and beck to the main register.
W h e n an instruction calls for a jump or branch in the p r o g r a m , what happens? T h e Jump c o m m a n d causes a new n u m b e r to be stuffed into the program counter, that's w h a t , and ao that's w h e r e the program goes next. ALTERNATING
CYCLES
M a n y Instructions tell the program follower to take a data w o r d (also a binary pattern) from m e m o r y and put lt in a main register or vice
Such an Instruction is translated by the decoding logic into a request to the m e m o r y . Here's the computer, then, in all its glory: s device with a symbolic p r o g r a m , stored in a m e m o r y , being stepped through by s program follower. T h e c o m m a n d s of the program cauae the program follower to carry out the individual steps requested by each c o m m a n d of the p r o g r a m .
Since a core m e m o r y can only do one thing during one of ita cycles, the next instruction In the program cannot be fetched until the data haa m o v e d to or from the m e m o r y . T h u s in m a n y types of program the cycles
Instruction cycle (fetch tha next) Data cycle (data goes to or from m e m o r y ) , In at ruction cycle, Data cycle, and ao o n .
O n e important reason for this standardization is that each holding place, or m e m o r y location, can be given a n u m b e r or address. If every slot in the m e m o r y has an address, information can be stored in specific places:
N O T T O B E S H O W N : Here are the real of the utterly fundamental c o m m a n d s of computers. (Theae are not used in th* forthcoming example.)
T h e n the instruction at that address 1* fetched to the program follower (that is, put in the Instruction register), decoded and carried
N o w that the program counter holds tha n u m b e r of the next instruction it in turn Is accordingly fetched and executed.
Other registers perform other functions in the computer; a given computer's design, or architechture, is largely the arrangement of registers and the operations that take place between them.
A m e m o r y consists of n u m e r o u s holding places or storage locations, each holding one standard piece of information for the computer, e w o r d having a specific n u m b e r of bits (see p . .) W e muat stress: a " C O M P U T E R W O R D " HAS NOTHING T O D O WITH ENGLISH W O R D S O R A L P H A B E T I C A L C H A R A C T E R S . T h e term refera to a specific machine's standard m e m o r y slot, having a fixed n u m b e r of bit positions.
W H E N s program is set into operation, the binary pattern specifying Its first address In m e m o r y la put Into the program counter.
T h e instruction pulled from m e m o r y is held In the c o m m a n d or instruction register and there decoded by the system's electronics.
Memories c o m e in all sizes and speeds. So lots of computers have big alow m e m o r i e s , such as disk m e m o r i e s , along with their small fast r Every programmable device haa a "machine language," or rock bottom code aystem that activatea the thing directly; ite program follower responds electrically to these codea. and enacta them one instruction at a time.
Basically it consists of two specific registers, tha Program Counter (usually sbbreviated P C ) and th* Instruction Register (usually abbreviated I R ) , and other electronic a tuff, loosaly termed "decoding logic." (Since w e are already visualizing the program follower aa a little h a n d , let's think of the index finger as the program counter and imagine that the t h u m b can flip an Instruction into a little c u p , the Instruction Register or IR What the heck.)
T h e atructure of computers, in their glorious similarities and fascinating differences, ia called computer architecture.
In most available computers the machine languages » ™ binary, meaning composed of only two eltemstive symbols. Binary because it's a sensible w a y of organizing the machine's structure; It permits programs to be reduced to a •ingle c o m m o n form of information, and permits programs to be stored in binary m e m o r y . Each individual instruction or c o m m a n d ordinarily occupies one m e m o r y slot, though some c o m p u ters have c o m m a n d s of varying length.
These d e e p - d o w n operations A R E A L L T H E THINGS THE C O M P U T E R EVER D O E S . However, in their combinations these instructions can be w o v e n Into chains and diadems of complex actiona.
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SUBROUTINE JUMP— "Go to another part of the program but re m e m e m b e r thia place because you'll be coming back on your o w n . " R E T U R N F R O M SUBROUTINE-"Go back to wherever it w a * in the program that you last c a m e from." PUSH
(on Stack machines only, aee p . )— take a binary pattern and put it on top of the Stack.
P O P (on Stack machines only, aee p . ) - - take whatever binary pattern is n o w on (he lop or the Slack.
Somehow LOADING. STORING, MODIFYING A N D TESTING BINARY PATTERNS DOESN'T SEEM TERRIBLY F R A U G H T W I T H POSSIBILITIES: bul the endleaa variation a and ramification* m a k e chess look like tic-tec-toe. A n d part of ihe p o w e r , of course. Ihe great speed, the teeny fraction of a second \ each slop lakes: five hundred operations yel^ take only about a thousandth of a second, no matter h o w intricate the enactment to which these tiny elepa are built, il atill happen a awfully fast.
A D D O N E (or " I N C R E M E N T " ) - - (Uaeful w h e n you're counting the n u m b e r of timea s o m e thing haa been done.) S U B T R A C T O N E (or " D E C R E M E N T . " not "excrement")-- (Alao uaeful w h e n you're counting the n u m b e r of time* something haa baei
A S T R O N O M I C A L / W P I N I T B S I M A L A R I T H M E T I C (or " F L O A T I N G P O I N T " arithmetic)-- operates on a certain n u m b e r of Significant Digits and keeps separate track of the decimal point-- actually a Binary Poinl, ainca it'a rarely If ever done decimally.
A computer, then. Internally Juat consists of certain places to w o r k on information (main registers), certain places to keep it the r**t of the lime (memories), certain pathway* and Interconnection* between them, an instruction-B*I having certain power* whoa* instructions can be operated on out or m e m o r y , and • program follower thai oarrlea out tha tnetructlone of that lnatruction-eet.
S U B T R A C T . (Can also be don* if necessary with combination of adda and flip*.)
A D D T W O binary pattern* together (Thla causes th«m lo be treated aa n u m b e r s , whether they were lo begin with or not.)
M O R S FLIPPER ("LOGICAL") operations: T U T T W O binary patterns against each other, and branch or not in the program depending on the reeult.
X O R (or " E X C L U S I V E O R " ) - - reeult is an X only where one pettarr. had an X , bul not both. N A N D - - reversed A N D . N O R -- reversed O B .
Almost any operationa can be "built in"-" T h e sky la of oouraa the limit, since any electronic operation can be added Io a c o m p u ter's 1 nat ruction-ae I if dealred-- say. "turn on the electric blender" or "multiply quaternions"-- but tha former la more easily done a* an output instruction, and tha latter aa part of a program.
INSTRUCTION-SIT. The ay stem of c o m m a n d pattoms daalgned and wired Into a particular computer, •sen with its exact results
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C 2 5 0 U R e s e s r c h s n d h o b b y types hate C O B O L o r ignore it, but it's the m a i n bualness p r o g r a m m i n g language. Y o u r income tax. your checking a c c o u n t , y o u r automobile license— all are p r e s u m ably h a n d l e d b y p r o g r a m s in the C O B O L l a n g u a g e .
A certain n u m b e r of c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s sre v e r y widely accepted a n d u s e d ; 1 list t h e m h e r e . If y o u w s n t to learn a n y of t h e m , I believe that Dsniel M c C r s c k e n h a s written a m a n u a l o n e v e r y o n e of t h e m . (Not the variants listed, though.)
C O B O L , o r C O m m o n B u s i n e s s Oriented L a n g u a g e , w a s m o r e or lesa d e m a n d e d b y the D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e , a n d b r o u g h t into b e i n g b y a committee called C O D A S Y L . w h i c h is apparently still g o i n g . C O B O L u s e s mostly decimal n u m b e r s , is d e s i g n e d basically for batch processing ( d e s cribed e l s e w h e r e ) , s n d u s e s v e r b o s e a n d plonking c o m m a n d formats.
This program uas a surprise from Alan Nslles, a student at Chicago Circle. Be wae amused by my praatias of alphabetising phone numbers, and wrote a program to do it automatically.
W h y their n a m e a a r e a l w a y s spelled with capital letters I don't k n o w . (Generally they get let d o w n in longer articles, t h o u g h . )
Premises of tha program: you supply it -jith your phone number, and it prints out all the alphabetical combinations that could also be dialled to reach your telephone.
Just b e c a u s e it's standard for business p r o g r a m m i n g doesn't m e a n it's the best or most efficient l a n g u a g e for business p r o g r a m m i n g ; I've talked to people w h o advocate b u a l n e s s p r o g r a m m i n g in F O R T R A N , B A S I C , T R A C a n d e v e n APL. B u t then y o u get into those endless a r g u m e n t s . . . a n d it turns out thai a large proportion of b u s i n e s s p r o g r a m m e r s only k n o w C o b o l . w h i c h pragmatically settles the a r g u m e n t .
F O R T R A N w s a crested in the late fifties, largely b y J o h n B a c k u B , ae s n algebraic p r o gramming s y a t e m for the old I B M 7 0 4 . fflowever, the usual story is thst it stands for " F O R m u l a TRANslator.)
T h e r e a r e people w h o s a y they've discovered h i d d e n beauties in C O B O L ; for instance, that it's a splendid l a n g u a g e for c o m p l e x pointer manipulation (see Data S t r u c t u r e s , p . Xie ) That's w h a t m a k e s horse r a c i n g .
Fortrsn is "algebraic," thst i s , it u s e s a n algebraic sort of notation a n d was mostly suited, in the b e g i n n i n g , to writing p r o g r a m s that carried out the sorts of formulas that y o u u s e in highschcol a l g e b r a . It's Btrong on n u m bers carried to a lot of decimal places ("scientific" n u m b e r s ) s n d the h a n d l i n g of a r r a y s , w h i c h Is s o m e t h i n g else mathematicians a n d e n g i n e e r s d o a lot (see A r r a y s u n d e r B A S I C ) .
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Fortran h a s g r o w n a n d g r o w n , h o w e v e r ; after Fortran 1 c a m e Fortran II, Fortran III a n d Fortrsn IV; a s well s s a lot of variants like Fortran Pi ("irrational, a n d s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n HI a n d I V " ) , W A T F O R a n d W A T F I V .
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"After you etudy it for six months, it makes perfect sense." —An IBM enthusiast. J C L i s a language with which y o u subrait programs to an IBH 360 o r 370 c o m p u t e r . "Submit" ia r i g h t . Its c o m p l i c a t i o n s , which many call u n n e c e s s a r y , symbolise the career of submission to IBM upon which th* 360 programmer e m b a r k * . (Sea I B M , p p . S 2 - 3 , a n d 3 6 0 , p . 41.)
T h e larger F o r t r s n s - - thst i s , l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s o r s that r u n on the b i g g e r c o m p u t e r s - now h a v e m a n y operations not contemplated in the original F o r t r a n , including operations for handling text a n d so o n . B A S I C , p r e s e n t e d earlier, is in s o m e pects a simplified version of F o r t r a n .
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S N O B O L is the favorite c o m p u t i n g l a n g u a g e of a lot of m y friends. It is a list-processing l a n g u a g e , m e a n i n g it's g o o d for a m o r p h o u s data. (It derives from several p r e v i o u s list-processing l a n g u a g e s , especially I P L - V a n d C O M I T . ^ S N O B O L is a b i g l a n g u a g e , a n d only r u n s o n b i g c o m p u t e r s . T h e m a i n concept of it is the "pattern m a t c h , " w h e r e b y a string of s y m b o l s is e x a m i n e d to s e e if lt h a s certain characteristics, including a n y particular contents, relations b e t w e e n contents, o r other variations the p r o g r a m m e r c a n specify; a n d the string substitution, w h e r e s o m e specified string of s y m b o l s is replaced b y another that the p r o g r a m m e r contrives.
A L G O L is considered b y m a n y to b e o n e of the best "scientific" l a n g u a g e s ; it h a s b e e n widely accepted in E u r o p e , a n d is the standard "publication l a n g u a g e " in w h i c h p r o c e d u r e s for d o i n g things a r e published in this c o u n t r y . It is different from F O R T R A N in m a n y w a y s , but a k e y respect is this: while in F O R T R A N the p r o g r a m m e r m u s t lay out at the b e g i n n i n g of his p r o g r a m exactly w h a t s p a c e s of core m e m o r y are to h a v e w h a t n a m e s , in A L G O L the spaces in core m e m o r y a r e not g i v e n n a m e s except within subsections of the p r o g r a m , or " p r o c e d u r e s . " W h e n the p r o g r a m follower gets to a specific p r o c e d u r e , then the l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s o r n a m e s the s p a c e s in core m e m o r y .
is p r o b a b l y the favorite l a n g u a g e of the artificialintelligence freaks (see .ff* UP • A fondnesas for L I S P , incidentally, is not considered to reflect o n y o u r masculinity.
T h i s h a s several a d v a n t a g e s . O n e ia that it c a n b e u s e d for so-called "recursive" p r o g r a m a , o r p r o g r a m a that call n e w v e r s i o n s of t h e m a e l v e s into operation. I g u e s s w e better not get into that. B u t mathematicians like
L I S P is a "cult" l a n g u a g e , a n d its adherents are s o m e t i m e s called Lispians. T h e y see c o m p u t e r activities in a s o m e w h a t different light, as c o m p o s e d of e v e r - c h a n g i n g chains of things called "cars" a n d " c u d d e r s , " w h i c h will not b e explained here.
Originally this l a n g u a g e w a s called I A L , for International Algebraic L a n g u a g e , b u t then as it g r e w s n d got polished b y various international committees it w a s g i v e n its n e w n a m e . 0 don't k n o w if a n y o n e consciously n a m e d it after A l g o l , the star.)
L I S P w a s developed b y J o h n M c C a r t h y at B U T , b a s e d largely o n the Lambda-notation of A l o n z o C h u r c h . It allows the chaining of o p e r ations a n d data in deeply intermingled f o r m a . While it r u n s o n elegant principles, moat people object to its i n n u m e r a b l e parentheses (a feature s h a r e d to s o m e extent b y T R A C L a n g u a g e ) .
It h a s g o n e t h r o u g h several v e r s i o n s . Algol 6 2 , the publication l a n g u a g e , is o n e thing; Algol 7 0 , the 1970 v e r s i o n , is m u c h m o r e complicated a n d s t r a n g e . Several versions of A L G O L h a v e gotten popular in this c o u n t r y . O n e . d e v e l o p e d at the University of M i c h i g a n , ia called M A D (Michigan Algorithm D e c o d e r ) ; its s y m b o l is of c o u r s e Alfred E . N e w m a n . A n o t h e r favorite (for its n a m e , a n y w a y ) la J O V I A L (Jules' O w n Version of the International Algebraic L a n g u a g e ) , d e v e l o p e d u n d e r Jules S c h w a r t z ( a n d s u p p o s e d l y n a m e d without his consultation) st S y a t e m D e v e l o p m e n t Corporation.
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W h e n I B M a n n o u n c e d U a S y s t e m 360 b a c k in 1964, there h a d b e e n h o p e that they w o u l d support the international l a n g u a g e committees a n d m a k e Algol the bssic l a n g u a g e of their n e w c o m p u t e r line. N o s u c h l u c k . Instead they a n n o u n c e d PL/1 ( P r o g r a m m i n g L a n g u a g e I ) , a c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e that w a s going lo b e ail things to all m a n .
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In p r o g r a m m i n g style il r e s e m b l e d C O B O L , but h a d faculties for varieties of "scientific" n u m b e r s a n d s o m a g o o d data structure s y s t e m s , lt is available for the 360 a n d for certain big H o n e y w e U c o m p u t e r s ; i n d e e d , the operating a y a tem tor M U L T I C S (see p . 1? ) w a s written In PL/1. W h e t h e r there a r * people w h o love the l a n g u a g e I don't k n o w ; there are certainly people w h o hate It.
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If y o u feel like m a k i n g p r o g r a m s r u n fast, s n d not take u p very m u c h core m e m o r y , y o u g o lo m a c h i n e l a n g u a g e , the computer's very o w n w i r e d - u p d e e p - d o w n system of c o m m a n d s (see p . '32,). lt takea l o n g e r , usually, but m a n y p e o ple consider it v e r y satisfying. T h e n , of c o u r s e , if y o u h a v e a particular style a n d a p p r o a c h a n d set of interests, y o u will probably start building u p a collection of individual p r o g r a m s for y o u r o w n p u r p o s e s . T h e n you'll w o r k oul simplified w s y s of calling these into operstion s n d tying their result* a n d data together. W h i c h m e a n s you'll h s v e • language of y o u r
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A c o m p u t e r language la a ayatem for casting spelli c o map um te et ra planguage a ayatemtrue for statement, casting spells. Thia isA not h o r but anla exactly Each Thia is not a mae tvocabulary a p h o r but an statement, Each language haa of cexactly o m m a n dtrue s , that is. diffe-ent orders you can give that are fundamental to the l a n g u a g e , a n d a s y n t a x . that ia . rules about h o w to give the c o m m a n d s right, and h o w you m a y fit them together and entwine t h e m .
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Learning to w o r k with one language doesn't m e a n you've learned another. Y o u learn them one at a time, but after s o m e experience it gets easier. T h e r e are c o m p u t e r languages for testing rocketshlps and controlling oil refineries s n d m a k i n g pictures. T h e r e are c o m p u t e r languages for sociological statistics a n d designing automobiles. A n d there are computer languages w h i c h will do any of these things, a n d m o r e , but with m e r e difficulty because they h a v e n o p u r p o s e built in. (But each of thc*e general-purpose languages tends to h a v e it* o w n outlook.)
Most c o m p u t e r languages involve s o m e h o w typing in the c o m m a n d s of y o u r spell to a c o m p u t e r set u p for that bigger l a n g u a g e . (The c o m p u t e r is set u p b y putting p r o g r a m , called the processor for that languag
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A compiling l a n g u a g e , auch as F O R T R A N or C O B O L . i compiler p r o g r a m , which nits in the c o m p u t e r , and receives the input progri "source p r o g r a m , " the w a y the assembler d o e s . It analyzes the source p r o g r a m and substitutes for it an object p r o g r a m , in machine language, w h i c h is a translation of the source p r o g r a m , and can actually be run on the c o m p u t e r . T h e relation of the higher language is not one-to-one to m a c h i n e language: m a n y instructions in m a c h i n e language are often needed to compile a single instruction of the source p r o g r a m . (A source p r o g r a m of 100 lines can easily c o m e out a thousand lines long in its output version.) M o r e o v e r , because of the interdependence of the instructions in the source p r o g r a m . the compiler usually has to check various arrangements all over the p r o g r a m before it can generate the final c o d e . Most compilers c o m e in several stages. Y o u have to put the first stage of the compiler into the c o m p u t e r , then r u n in Ihe source p r o g r a m , and the first stage puts out a first intermediate version of the p r o g r a m . T h e n you put this version inlo a second stage, which puts out a second intermediate version; a n d so on through various stages. This is d o n e fairly automatically on big c o m p u t e r s , but on little m a c h i n e s it's a pain.
M o a t p r o g r a m m e r s h a v e a favorite language or t w o , and this is not a rational matter. T h e r e are m a n y differe-il computer languages-- in fact thousands-- bul w h a t they all have in c o m m o n ia acting, o n seriea of instructions. B e y o n d that, every language la different. S o for each l a n g u a g e , the questions are W H A T A R E THE INSTRUCTIONS? and H O W D O T H E Y FIT T O G E T H E R ?
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(In fact, compilers tend to be very slow p r o g r a m s ; but that d e p e n d s on the a m o u n t of "optimizing" they d o , that is, h o w efficient they try to m a k e the object p r o g r a m . ) c h e w s the instructions of the language into another form to be processed later.
A n interpretive language w o r k s differently. T h e r e sits in core a processor for the language called en interpreter; this g o e s through the p r o g r a m o n e step at a time, actually carrying out each operation in the list and going on to the n e x t . T R A C a n d A P L are interpretive; it's a good w a y to d o quickie languages. Interpreters are perhaps the easier method of the two to g r a s p , since they seem to correspond a little better to the w a y m a n y people think of c o m p u t e r s . T h a t doesn't m e a n they're better. For p r o g r a m s that have to be run over a n d o v e r , compiling is usually m o r e economical in the long run; but for p r o g r a m s that have to be repeatedly c h a n g e d , interpreters are often simpler to w o r k with.
|Aa,U
A BLACK
T h e n , after various steps, y o u get lo try y o u r p r o g r a m ,
Actually, the design of a language-- especially the s y n t a x . h o w its c o m m a n d s fit logether-- strongly influences the design of its processor. B A S I C a n d A P L . for instance, w o r k left-to-right o n esch line, a n d top-to-bottom on a p r o g r a m . Both act on something stored in a w o r k area. T R A C , on the other h a n d , w o r k s left-to-right on a text string that c h a n g e s size like a r u b b e r b a n d . Other languages exhibit comparable differences.
O n c e y o u k n o w a language y o u can cast spells in it; but that doesn't m e a n it's e a s y . A spell cast in a c o m p u t e r language will m a k e the c o m p u t e r d o w h a t you w a n t - IF it's possible to d o it with that computer; IF it's possible to d o it in that language; IF you u s e d the vocabulary a n d rules of the language correctly; a n d IF y o u laid out in the spell a plan that w o u l d effectively d o w h a t y o u h a d in m i n d . B U T if you m a k e a mistake in casting your spell. that is a B U G . (As you see from the IFs a L o v e , m a n y types of b u g are possible.) P r o g r a m b u g s can cause unfortunate results. (Supposedly a big NA'iA rocket failed in takeoff once because of a misplaced dollar in a p r o g r a m . ) Getting the b u g * out of a p r o g r a m is celled d e b u g g i n g . It's very h a r d . DESIGNING C O M P U T E R
LANGUAGES
E v e r y p r o g r a m m e r w h o ' s designed a l a n g u a g e , a n d created a processor for it. h a d certain typical uses in m i n d . If you w a n t to create y o u r o w n I n n g u a g c , you figure out w h a t aorta of operations you w o u l d like to h a v e be basic in it, and h o w you w o u l d like it all lo fit together so as to allow the variations you h a v e in m i n d . T h e n you p r o g r a m y o u r processor (which ia usually v e r y h n r d ) .
ART
M a k i n g language processors, especially compilers, is widely regarded as a black art. S o m e people have tricks that are virtual trademarks (see b e l o w ) .
M I X E D C A S E S A N D V A R I A T I O N S (for the whimsical) T h e r e are a lot of m i x e d cases. A load-and-go compiler (such as W A T F O R ) is put into the computer wilh the p r o g r a m , compiles it. a n d then atarts it going immediately. A n interpretive compiler looks u p w h a t to do with a given instruction by interpreting il into a series of steps, but compiling them instead of carrying (hem out. (A firm called Digitek is well k n o w n for m a k i n g very good compilers of this type.) A n incremental compiler just r u n s along compiling a c o m m a n d at a time; this can be a lot faster but has d r a w b a c k s .
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. David Gries, Compiler C o n at ruction for Digital C o m p u t e r s . Not for b e g i n n e r s , but a beautiful b o o k . G o o d on abstract theory of l a n g u a g e s , too.
IF
H o w does a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m print something out an a printing m a c h i n e ? tt s e n d s the code for each letter out to the printing m a c h i n e . H o w doea a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m respond to something a user types in? It c o m p a r e s the codes that c o m e in from the letters he types with a series of codes in m e m o r y , a n d w h e n it finds a m a t c h b e t w e e n letters, n u m b e r s , w o r d s or p h r a s e s , b r s n ches to the corresponding action. H o w does a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e a s u r e something? It lakes in numerical codes from a device w h i c h has already m a d e the m e a s u r e m e n t s and converted them to c o d e s .
DOES NOT
W A M T
W E
M U t V & t K S ,
G O T
' C ^
T h e basic kinds of n u m b e r operations w i r e d into all c o m p u t e r a are few: Just a d d (and s o m e t i m e s subtract) binary n u m b e r s . H o w e v e r , u p a b o v e the m i n i c o m p u t e r r a n g e , a c o m p u t e r m a y h a v e multiply, divide, a n d m o r e . Fancier c o m p u t e r s offer m o r e types a n d operations on t h e m .
F o r historical ressons computers have b e e n used mostly with n u m b e r s u p to n o w but thst is going to b e thoroughly turned ' - r o u n d . Within a few years there m a T b e m o r e t e x t - written prose and p o e t r y atored on computers then n u m b e r s .
P L A I N B I N A R Y — V e r y important for c o u n ting. Represents n u m b e r s aa patterns of l's s n d O's (or X's a n d O h a , if y o u p r e f e r ) . How to handle negative n u m b e r s ? T w o waya: T R U E N E G A T I V E - - binary n u m b e r with a sign bit at the b e g i n n i n g , followed b y the n u m b e r .
S r r ; ^ " 'BM' U W M r«v«l«l that I B M h a d an a w e s o m e n u m b e r of letters and communications stored on msgnelic memory.
D u r i n g the recent massive lawsuit b y
COMPUTE!
W h e n I lived in N e w Y o r k , I had a driver's license with the staggering serial number
S o m e T V writer's idea of a c o m p u t e r a n n o u n c e s this w h e n data are insufficient or contradictory. H o h u m .
C o d e s are patterns or s y m b o l s w h i c h are assigned m e a n i n g s . S o m e t i m e s w e m a k e u p special codes to cut d o w n the sm o u n t of information that has to b e stored. O n y o u r driver's license, for instance, they m a y reduce y o u r hair color to o n e decimal digii (four bits of information), since there are less than nine possibilities for quick identification of hair-color a n y w a y . O b v i o u s l y , codes can b e a n y d a m thing: a n y set of s y m b o l s that is less than w h a t y o u started w i t h . But b y c o m p r e s s i n g information they lose information, so that subtleties disappear (consider the use of letters A to F to g r a d e s t u d e n t s ) . W h e n y o u divide a c o n t i n u u m into categories, not Just the f e w n e s s of the categories, but the places y o u d r a w the line— called " b r e a k s " o r "cutting-points"-- present p r o b l e m s . S u c h c h o p p i n g frequently blurs out important distinctiona. C o d i n g is a l w a y s arbitrary, frequently destructive a n d stupid.
Lots of w a y a n o w exist to handle written information b y c o m p u t e r . T h e s e often present better w s y s to operate lhan b y using codes of this t y p e . But m a n y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r s prefer to m a k e y o u u s e c o d e s . ( N O T E : there are t w o other s e n s e s of "code" u s e d hereabouts: 1) the binary patterns m s d e to stand for a n y information, especially o n input a n d output; 2) w h a t c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s consist of, that is, lines of c o m m a n d s . )
J o M t
yvO
N O 5443 12903 3-4121-37 N o w it m a y v e r y v e U b e , as in s o m e serial n u m b e r s , that information is hidden in the n u m b e r thst Insiders can dope out, like m y criminal record or automobile accid e n t s , if a n y , (N is m y initial, and two of the digits s h o w m y date of birth, a h a n d y check againat alteration b y thirsty m i n o r s . But the rest of it is ridiculous.) T h e fact that that leaves 15 m o r e decimal digits m e a n s (if n o other codes are h i d d e n ) that N e w Y o r k State has provision in their license n u m b e r i n g for u p to 999,999,999,999,999 inhabitanta. It is doubtful that there will ever be that m a n y N e w Y o r k e r s , or indeed that m a n y h u m a n beings while the species e n d u r e s . In other w o r d s , either N e w Y o r k State ia planning o n h a v i n g m a n y , m a n y m o r e o c c u p a n t s , or an awfully inefficient code has been adopted, m e a n i n g a lot of m e m o r y space is w a s t e d holding those silly big n u m b e r s for millions of drivers. H o w e v e r , thst doesn't represent a lot of m o n e y . 10 million decimal spaces these d a y s fits on a couple of disk drives. But It's an awful pain in the neck w h e n y o u w a n t to cash a c h e c k .
T h e " a m o u n t " part contains the a c tual binary n u m e r a l s , the "size" is the n u m b e r of places in front of or after the decimal point that the n u m b e r starts. V e r y important for a s tronomical a n d infinitesimal matters, since a floating-point n u m b e r can b e b i g g e r , s a y , than
Data has to get inside the m a c h i n e s o m e h o w , and results have to get b a c k out. T w o m a i n types of codes— that is, standardized patterns— exist, although w h a t forms of data p r o g r a m s w o r k o n Inside varies considerably. (The input data can be completely transformed before internal w o r k starts.)
9,676,543,210.000 or smaller than
1. A S C U (pronounced " A s k e y , " A m e r i c a n Standard C o d e for Information E x c h a n g e . T h i s allows all the kinds of n u m b e r s a n d alphabets y o u could possibly w a n t (for instance, Swahili) for getting information in and out of c o m p u t e r s .
.00000001234567 F o r s o m e people even this isn't p r e cise e n o u g h , so they p r o g r a m u p "Infinite precision arithmetic," w h i c h carries out arithmetic to as m a n y places as they w a n t . It takes m u c h longer, t h o u g h .
Points
"Logical deduction" really consists of techniques for finding out what's already in a data structure. "Logical inconsistency" m e a n s a data structure contradicts itself. Rarely does it h a p p e n that a c o m p u t e r helps y o u discover something n e w about a subject that y o u didn't auspect or see c o m i n g without the c o m p u t e r : after all, y o u h s v e to set u p a study in auch a w a y as to m a k e r o o m to find things o u t , a n d y o u can only m a k e room to find s o m e things o u t .
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T r o u b l e is, the arithmetic is h a r d e r to wire for this k i n d , b e c a u s e there are t w o zeroes (plus a n d minuB) b e t w e e n 1 and - 1 . A D D A B L E N E G A T I V E — this system does a sort of flip a n d b e g i n s a negative n u m b e r with all o n e s . It m e a n s that the m a chine doesn't h a v e to h a v e s u b traction circuitry: y o u Just a d d the flipped negative version of a n u m b e r , a n d that actually subtracts it. T h i s has n o w caught o n generally. (It's usually called "twos c o m p l e m e n t negative," w h i c h has s o m e o b scure mathematical m e a n i n g . ] B C D ( B i n a r y - C o d e d D e c i m a l ) — the a c c o u n tant's n u m b e r i n g s y s t e m . U s e d b y C O B O L (see p . ^ \ ) . It's plain old d e c i m a l , with e v e r y n u m e r a l stored in four bits; the m a c h i n e or l a n g u a g e h a s to a d d t h e m o n e n u m e r a l at a t i m e , instead of c r u n c h i n g together full binary w o r d s . F L O A T I N G P O I N T - - the scientist's n u m b e r technique for anything that m a y not c o m e out e v e n . E x p r e s s e s a n y quantity as an a m o u n t s n d a size.
ChKb
*CUTH»H
P u n c h cards are not Intrinsically evil. T h e y h a v e served m a n y uaeful p u r p o s e s . Bul the p u n c h - c a r d mentality is still a r o u n d . Thia will be seen in the p r o g r a m m e r w h o habitually aels things u p so w e h a v e to u s e p u n c h cards ( w h e n other m e d i a , or interactive terminals, w o u l d be better); w h o inaists on the user or victim putting d o w n n u m b e r s ( w h e n with a Utile m o r e effort the p r o g r a m could handle text, w h i c h ia easier tor the h u m a n , or e v e n look u p the information in data it has already); w h o Insists that people's last n a m e s be cut d o w n to eleven letters because he doean't feel llk« leaving a longer field or handling exception* in hi* p r o g r a m ; w h o insist* on the outsider cutting hi* information Into anarfy little c o d e s , w h a n s u c h digestion, if n s e d e d al all, could be batter d o n * b y tha p r o g r a m ; a n d ao o n . T h e p u n c h card mentality is responsible tor m a n y of the m o w that h a v e been blanked o n "oonputars."
ASCII is used to and from most Teletype terminals a n d key s c o p e s . H o w e v e r , ASCII is also used for internal storage of alphabetical data in m a n y n o n - I B M s y s t e m s , andit la also ths r u n n i n g form of a n u m b e r of p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e s , s u c h as T R A C language (see p. 1 9 ) , T E C O jie* --"T. a n d G R A S S (see
W H A T ' S A V A I L A B L E IN MACHINES AND LANGUAGES S o m e m a c h i n e s , like the 3 6 0 , are more-or-less w i r e d u p to handle several n u m b e r types: b i n a r y , floating point, B C D . Little m a c h i n e s usually only h a v e plain bina r y , so other types n a v e to be handled b y p r o g r a m a built u p from that fundamental binary.
IBM's deliberate u n d e r m i n i n g of ths ASCII code i* a source of widespread a n g e r . (See I B M , p . 57,.)
L a n g u a g e s m a k e u p for this b y providing p r o g r a m s to hsndle n u m b e r s in s o m e or all of these formats. T h e r e are languages that offer e v e n m o r e kinds of numbers-IMAGINARY numbers (two-part n u m b e r s following certain rules) QUATERNIONS (like Imaginary n u m b e r s but w o r s e ) a n d g o o d n e s s k n o w s w h a t else. O n Ihe other h a n d , a o m e languages restrict w h a t n u m b e r facilities are available for simplicity's s a k e . B A S I C , for Instance, doesn't distinguish b e t w e e n Integers (counting n u m b e r s ) and those with decimal points; all n u m b e r s m a y have decimal points. T R A C L a n g u a g e only give* y o u integers to start, since it's easy e n o u g h to p r o g r a m other kinds of n u m b e r behavior in QXkm Infinite precision).
2. E B C D I C (pronounced "Ebaadick.") E x t e n d e d Binary C o d e d D e c i m a l . Thia w a s the code I B M brought out with the 3 6 0 . passing ASCII b y . (IBM s e e m s to think of compatibility a* a privilege that m u « l be e a r n e d , i.e., paid for.) E B C D I C also ellowa n u m b e r s , the English alphabet, and various punctuation m a r k s . Thla ia used to a n d from most I B M terminals C Z 7 4 1 type").
H
4/'» H O L L E R I T H , m e a n i n g the column patterns that go in on p u n c h e d card*. (They can also c o m e out that w a y , If you want them to.) C A R D - I M A G E B I N A R Y . If for s o m e reason you w a n t exact binary patterns from y o u r p r o g r a m , ihey can be p u n c h e d oul as r o w s or column* on p u n c h cards. BTB R U N O Just to show you h o w comical thing* can get. th* original PL/I specification* (see p.3j; ) allowed n u m b e r s to be input and output In lerma of P o u n d s . Shilling* and Pence 112 pence to the shilling, 20 shillings to the p o u n d ) . N o p r o vision w a a m s d e for Guineas (the 21 shilling unit), or farthings. unfortunately
Data la p u n c h e d Into cards according to s o m e plan associated with the p r o g r a m . B e y o n d those simple matters there is n o preordained a r r a n g e m e n t for information on a p u n c h card; it nil d e p e n d s on w h n t the p r o g r a m calls for. But each separate piece or section of information-- each b u n c h of consecutive characters that together h a v e a specific m e a n i n g — are called a field. A field can be a n a m e , a n u m b e r , an a m o u n t or m o n e y , an alphabetical code r e p r e senting s o m e t h i n g , a numerical code representing s o m e t h i n g , or other stuff. W h e n the cerda g o into the p r o g r a m , the p r o g r a m can pick off the information it n e e d s o n e field at a time-putting the field in c o l u m n s 1 to 17 into o n e p r o g r a m variable, the field from c o l u m n s nine to ten into another p r o g r a m variable, a n d so
T h e p u n c h card is an important e x a m p l e of an input unit influencing the structure of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s . It is convenient to u s e fields on a p u n c h card as the basic data structure of a p r o g r a m a n d s a y , "That's the w a y it has to be for the c o m p u t e r . In the worst cases we see the w o r k i n g s of the " p u n c h card m e n tality" or " B O - c o l u m n m i n d " (see b o x ) .
Data usually has to b e marshalled into r o w s , or e v e n regiments a n d battalions, before lt can go into a c o m p u t e r .
—•People will often thrust a p u n c h e d data card at y o u a n d a s k , " W h a t d o e s this m e a n ? " Who knows? It m a y h a v e lettering b a n g e d along the top, s h o w i n g w h a t charscters the holes r e p resent, but if these charscters don't Bhqw a n y thing u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , s u c h as the person's n a m e , you're in the d a r k . T h e c a r d m a y h a v e p r e printed section lines dividing it u p , but these ere rarely self-explanatory. It's often i m possible just to look at a p u n c h e d card a n d tell by e y e w h a t the individual fields are for, or e v e n w h e r e they begin a n d e n d ; all that d e p e n d s on the p r o g r a m . O n l y s o m e o n e w h o u n d e r s t a n d s the p r o g r a m , or at least k n o w s w h a t fields the c a r d is divided into a n d w h a t the characters represent there, can h e l p .
( S o m e people juat get their data into a c o m p u t e r b y sitting at a terminal a n d typing it in. p e r h a p s a n s w e r i n g questions typed to them b y s front-end p r o g r a m . But they're the lucky o n e s . Most of u s h a v e to get the data set u p o n s o m e kind of holding surface before it gets fed in. That's sn input m e d i u m . J DATA
MEDIA
A date m e d i u m ("medium" is the singular of " m e d i a " ) is anything thst holds the m a r k s of data outside the core m e m o r y of a c o m p u t e r . T h u s p u n c h e d cards a n d p u n c h e d p a p e r tape m a y be u s e d as input m e d i a . u s e d for putting information into a c o m p u t e r . (Each m e d i u m n e e d s a corresponding input or output d e v i c e , to w h i s k across the surface a n d translate Its m a r k s or holes into the c o r r e s p o n d i n g electronic pulses.)
STORAGE
T h e s a m e principle of fields applies in other data m e d i a , especially magnetic tape and disk. W e m a y extend the notion of a field to explain records and files. A fl ld * - generally s p e a k i n g , is a section of positions o n s o m e m e d i u m reserved for o n e particular piece of information, or the data in it,
A record is a b u n c h of fields atored o n s o m e m e d i u m w h i c h h a v e s o m e organized u s e . (For instance, the accounting information held b y a n electric utility c o m p a n y about a particular customer is likely to be stored as a record with at least these fields: account number-, last n a m e ; initials; address; a m o u n t currently o w e d . ) A file is a w h o l e big complete b u n c h of information thst is stored s o m e p l a c e . In m a n y applications a file la c o m p o s e d of n u m e r o u s similar, consecutive records. For instance, an electric c o m p a n y m a y well store the records for all of its customers on a magnetic tape, o r d e r e d b y account n u m b e r (account 000001 first). Storing s e q u e n c e s of similar records in long files is typical of business p r o g r a m s , though p e r h a p s this should begin to c h a n g e . It's especially suited to batch processing, that is. handling m a n y records in the s a m e w a y at the s a m e time. (See "System P r o g r a m s . " ) N o w , the divisions of field, record a n d file are conceptual: they are w h a t the p r o g r a m m e r thinks a b o u t , b a s e d o n the information n e e d s of a specific c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m .
S o m e t i m e s , in dismal s y s t e m s we e n c o u n ter d a y - t o - d a y — like for university registration — a p u n c h card will h a v e a person's n a m e in the first few c o l u m n s , or w o r s e , a personal serial n u m b e r . O t h e r information continues from there. T h e s e m a y or m a y not be r e c o g nizable, either from reading the holes by e y e , or from designations pre-printed o n the c a r d .
T h e r e are three types of data media: input, output s n d storage m e d i a . A n input m e d i u m carries the data in. A n output m e d i u m receives the results of a p r o g r a m ; for instance, a sheet of p a p e r c o m i n g out of a printing device is an output m e d i u m , ss is a p u n c h e d card or p u n c h e d p a p e r tape. Storage media are output m e d i a that m a y be u s e d as input m e d i a later o n . T h u s p u n c h e d cards a n d p u n c h e d p a p e r tape can be storage m e d i a . But the better storage m e d i a use m a g netic recording (which is faster a n d leas b u l k y ) , like magnetic tape a n d d i s k s , or just plain "disks" as w e generally call t h e m . (See fuller list of m a g media u n d e r "Peripherala," p . 5 7 )
A block is something else, w h i c h m a y be related only to quirks of the situation. A block is s section of stored material, divided either according to the divisions of the data or peculiarities of the device holding it, s u c h as a disk d r i v e . Short records m a y be stored m a n y to a block. If records are long they m a y be m a d e u p of m a n y blocks.
T h e units a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s of data u s e d for input, output a n d storage are in principle not necessarily the true o n e s of the data structure used b y the p r o g r a m . T h e blocks a n d records of storage, for instance, m a y h a v e irregular data with pointers sitting in t h e m . (Unfortunately there is s o m e c a r r y o v e r , in that p r o g r a m m e r s are tempted to use data structures w h i c h are easy to store a n d run in a n d o u t , rather than handling the true complexities of the s u b ject. T h i s is a l w a y s s temptation.)
A S C I I c o d e . Y o u can figure out from the table the bit pattern for a n y letter, or w h a t a n y given combination of s e v e n bits means.
Let u s consider the units a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s of data u s e d for input a n d output a n d storage. T h e s e a r e , respectively, fields, r e c o r d s , files and b l o c k s . THE PUNCH
MAGNETIC
E x a m p l e . Find the capital letter G in the table. F o r the first three bits of the c o d e , look at the top of the c o l u m n : 100. F o r the next four, look s i d e w a y s to the left: O l l l . S o G la: 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 .
CARD
-tin particular, tape blocks can be almost a n y size, while disk blocks often h s v e a certain fixed size ( n u m b e r of characters or bits) based o n the peculiarities of the individual device. (This can be a pain in the n e c k . ) O n the other h a n d , d u e to. the quirks of magnetic recording, y o u r p r o g r a m usually can't just c h a n g e something in the middle of a block; the w h o l e disk block or tape file has to be r e placed. T h i s is less trouble with s short disk block than a long tape file.
Let's begin with s fun e x a m p l e : that hoary old m e d i u m for input a n d output, the p u n c h e d (or " p u n c h " ) c a r d . T h e p u n c h card will a h o w ua w h a t a field is. T h e p u n c h card is generally believed to have b e e n invented b y H e r m a n Hollerith (although the author's in l a w s had bitter recollections lo the c o n t r a r y ) . It w a a first u a e d o n a broad scale to count u p the c e n s u s of 1890, s n d lster b e c a m e an early cornerstone of I B M , but thst's another story. T h e p u n o h e s o n a csrd represent a r o w of information (auch as a r o w of typed letters), this is not obvious because the card is a r e c tangle rather than a line. H o w e v e r , the length of the card ia actually divided into eighty poai tiona, each of w h i c h m a y hold o n e n u m b e r , alphabetic character or punctuation m a r k . T h e s e poaitiona are actually n a r r o w c o l u m n s , eighty of t h e m , with different poaitiona in w h i c h holes m a y be p u n c h e d . O n e hole in a c o l u m n represents • n u m e r a l ; w h i c h position in the c o l u m n apecifiea w h a t n u m b e r . T w o holes in a c o l u m n generally m e a n a letter of the alphabet, three holes in a c o l u m n m e a n a punctuation
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TRADITIONAL CONVEYER-BELT
PROGRAMS
M a n y traditional business p r o g r a m s sre of this type, reading in o n e data record at a time, doing something to it (such as noting that an Individual haa paid the exact a m o u n t of his gas) a n d writing out a n e w record for that customer o n the current month's tape. THB
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(An eighth bit Is u a e d as a c h e c k o n tha n u m b e r of o n e s in the code; this la called the parity bit, a n d either r o u n d s to an e v e n n u m b e r of bits (even parity) or an o d d n u m b e r of bits (odd parity). T h u s if a code cornea through to the c o m p u t e r with a w r o n g n u m b e r of o n e s , ths c o m p u t e r can take remedial action.) T h o e e funny multlletter codes are for controlling terminals a n d like that. Pocket card courtesy of C o m p u t e r Transceiver S y a t e m a , Inc.
PROBLEM
Standardized fields, blocks snd records sre often necessary or convenient. B u t , on th* other h a n d , the kinds of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s people find oppressive often have their roots in this kind of data storage a n d Its associated styles of p r o g r a m m i n g , especially the use of fixed-field records as the be-all and end-all. T h e m o r e interesting uses of th* c o m p u t e r (Interactive, obliging, artistic, etc.) use a greater variety of data structures.
People's naive idea of " p r o g r a m m i n g " is often a reasonable approximation to the notion of "dels structure." Data atructur* ia h o w information ia est up_. After it's set u p . p r o g r a m a can twiddle it; but the twiddling options ar* based o n h o w the information is set up to begin with.
A C O N C R E T E E X A M P L E . Suppose w e went to represent the genealogy of the m o n e r o h a of E n g E n g l a n d . so far aa ia k n o w n , in a computer data atructure. N O T E T H A T A D A T A S T R U C T U R E IS D I F F E R E N T F R O M A P R O G R A M : if eeveral p r o g r a m m e r s agree beforehand on a data structure, then they can go separate w a y s and each can write a p r o g r a m to do something different with it-- if they have really agreed on a complete and exact layout. which they m a y only think they've d o n e .
Here are s o m e assumptions I have e m b o d i e d in thla deta structure. That la, I had them in m i n d . (The parte y o u didn't h a v e In m i n d sre w h a t get you later.)
p First w e con alder the subject matter. G e n ealogy is conceptually simple to u s , but aa data ia not aa trivial aa it might s e e m at first. E v e r y person haa two parenta and a specific date of birth. Each pair of parents can have m o r e than o n e child. a n d individual parenta can at different times share parenthood with different other individusls. P r e s u m a b l y w e w o u l d like a data structure that allows a p r o g r a m to find out w h o w a a a given person's parent, w h o w e r e a given person's child r e n , w h a t brothers a n d sisters each person h a d . and similar matters (BO far as is k n o w n b y historians-- another difficulty). Note that just because it ia simple to put this Information in a wall chart, that does not m e a n it la simple to figure out an adequate data structure. Note too, that any aspect of the: data w h i c h is left ou£ cannot then be handled b y the p r o g r a m . What's not there is not there. T h e easy w a y out is to use a language like, s a y , T R A C L a n g u a g e , and use its basic units (in this case, "forms") to m a k e u p a data structure w h o s e individual sections w o u l d s h o w parentage, dates, brothers and sisters and so o n . T h e braver approach ia to try to aet it u p Tor something like F O R T R A N or B A S I C , languages w h i c h treat core m e m o r y m o r e like a numericallyaddressed array or block, as does rock-bottom machine language. Let u s a s s u m e that w e hsve decided to use an array-type data structure, for instance to go with a p r o g r a m in the B A S I C language on a 16bit m i n i c o m p u t e r . W e do not have m u c h r o o m in core m e m o r y , so for each person in o u r data structure w e are going to have to store a separate record on a disk m e m o r y , a n d call it into core m e m o r y as required. After m u c h head-scratching, w e might c o m e u p with something like the following. It is not a v e r y good data structure. It is not a very good date structure on p u r p o s e . It uses a block of 28 w o r d s , or 448 bits, per individual, not counting the length of his n a m e , w h i c h is an additional 8 bits per c h a r acter or s p a c e . H o w e v e r , this in itself is neither good n o r b a d . It's m o r e than y o u might expect, but leas than you might n e e d . (Incidentally, out of concern for storage s p a c e , s o m e date fields are p a c k e d m o r e than one to a 16-bit c o m p u t e r w o r d . T h i s is s c o r n fully called bit-fiddling b y computerfolk w h o w o r k o n big m a c h i n e s and don't have to w o r r y about such matters.) [_ m o n a r c h n o . (if a n y ) , s e x r serial no~. \ stringpointer ^ (two 16-bit w o r d s long) serial n o . 1 aerial n o . '"aerial n o .
Individual's o w n (name) mother father brothers (up to five)
sisters (up to five)
date of 1st reign, if any date of 2d reign, if any female children, u p to five
t S U l . U l bits} T o o . m o n t h s start
Parents and children of m o n a r c h a are included, as well as monarchs. All m o n a r c h s h a v e a separate m o n arch n u m b e r . N o m o n a r c h reigned m o r e than twice. (?) N o m o n a r c h or parent of a m o n a r c h h a d m o r e than five children of one s e x . (Note the d a n g e r of these assumptions.) W e are not interested in grandchild r e n of m o n a r c h s unless they are also m o n a r c h s , or siblings, or parents of m o n a r c h a . T h e information about the different people can be input in a n y o r d e r , as the years of reign can be stepped through b y s p r o g r a m to find the o r d e r of reign. If this s e e m s like too m u c h bother, that is In a w a y the point. Data structures m u s t be thought out. Since computers h s v e no intrinsic w a y of operating or or handling data (though particular languages will restrict y o u in particular w a y s ) , y o u will h a v e to w o r k all this out, a n d a carelessly chosen data structure will leave something o u t , or Tail lo distinguish a m o n g important differences, or otherwise have its r e v e n g e .
(Self-test: is five bits long e n o u g h to e x press the grestest n u m b e r of m o n t h s a n y English m o n a r c h reigned? -- see "Binary Patterns." O r d o w e h a v e to fix this data structure on that score also?)
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R e m e m b e r the s o n g that had a pointer data structure? (in alphabetical order)
A p r o g r a m to ascertain h o w m a n y kings w e r e the sons of kings w o u l d look at each entry that had a m o n a r c h n u m b e r , test w h e t h e r the m o n a r c h w a a m a l e , and if m a l e , w o u l d look at the male parent's serial n u m b e r . T h e n it w o u l d look u p that parent's entry, and see w h e t h e r it in turn had a m o n a r c h n u m b e r , and if s o , add o n e to the count it w a s m a k i n g . T h e n it w o u l d go back to the entry it had b e e n looking at. and step on to the o n e after that.
ANKLE BONE BACK BONE FOOT BONE >-HEAD BONE HIP B O N E KNEE BONE NECK BONE SHIN B O N E SHOULDER BONE THIGH BONE
This is actually a pretty lousy data structure. T h e clumsiness of this approach to s u c h data-- and y o u ore w e l c o m e to think of a better one-- s h o w s s o m e of the difficulties of handling c o m p l e x data about Ihe real w o r l d . T h i n g s like lengths of n a m e s and n u m b e r s of relatives p r o d u c e great irregularities, but m a k e these kinds of data no less worth of our attention.
W e could a d d lots of things to o u r data structure (and so m a k e it m o r e u n w i e l d y ) . F o r instance, w e might w a n t lo m a r k eoch serial n u m b e r specially if it referred to s o m e o n e w h o w a s the offspring of a m o n a r c h . W e could s i m ply set a particular bit to 1 in the serial n u m b e r for them (called a flag or t a g ) . W e could also flag dates and genealogies that are regarded as u n certain. T h e r e is no limit to the exactness a n d complexity with w h i c h information m a y be represented. But doing it right c a n , as a l w a y s , be troublesome. A lol of c o m p u t e r people w a n t to avoid dealing with c o m p l e x data; p e r h a p s you can b e gin to see w h y . But w e m u s t deal with the true complexities of information; therefore lang u a g e s and systems that allow c o m p l e x information structures m u s t b e c o m e better-known a n d
FILE
STRUCTURE
28
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(For instance, if y o u haven't noticed yet: w e left out legitimacy. F o r m a n y p u r p o s e s w e w a n t to k n o w w h i c h kings w e r e bastards.)
The ingements of whole files-- g r o u p s of records or other info c h u n k s - - are u p to the p r o g r a m m e r . T h e structure of filea is called, not surprisingly, file structure, and it is u p to the p r o g r a m m e r to decide h o w his filea should
A s explained already, that w a a the basic block. W e atill have to keep the n a m e a s o m e w h e r e , in a string area. W h e t h e r to keep thia in core all the time, or o n dlak, la a decision w e needn't g o into h a r e .
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T H E FRONTIER: C O M P L E X
male children, u p to five
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Habits die h a r d . T h e notion of sequence-even falae, imposed sequence - is d e e p in the racial unconscious of c o m p u t e r people. A n interesting concrete term s h o w s this nicely. B e c a u s e computer people often think any file should h a v e a baaic s e q u e n c e , they use the term inverted file for a file that haa been c h a n g e d from its basic sequence to another s e q u e n c e . But increasingly, all the sequences are false and artificial. W h e r e n o w are inverted files? All files sre inverted if they're anything. Fortunately, the final frontier of data structure is n o w increasingly recognized aa tha control of complex storage of filea on diak m e m o r y . T h e latest fancy term for thia Is data base system, m e a n i n g planned-out overall storage that you can send your p r o g r a m s to like m e s s e n g e r s . T h e fact that IBM n o w has m o v e d Into thla area (with its intricate "access m e t h o d s " and all their Initials) m e a n s complex storage control haa finally arrived, although the pioneering w o r k w a s done by B a c h m a n at G E s o m e years ago (see bibliography). Till the laat few years, external storage, with pointers and everything, haa not been conveniently u n d e r the p r o g r a m m e r ' s control except in c r u d e w a y s . Finally w e are seeing systems beginning lo get around lhal automatically handle c o m p l e x file structures in versatile w a y a that p r o g r a m m e r s can use m o r e easily.
Malcolm C . Hi Programming.
Data-Structurt Scott, F o r e s m a n , 1973.
-•This book can be r e c o m m e n d e d to ambitious b e g i n n e r s . It has useful s u m maries of different languages, as well as fundamental treatment of data structures as they intertwine with specific languages. A n obscure and intricate study of the interchongcability of data structures-'- h o w they fundamentally interconvert-- has been the longtime research of one Anatol Holt, w h o calls his w o r k M e m - T h e o r y . M e m is from m e m o r y . and also, conveniently, a H e b r e w letter. This is an extremely ambitious study, as it in principle e m b r a c e s not juat m u c h or all of computer science, but perhaps mathematics itself. Math freaks attention: Holt haa said he intended to derive all of symbolic logic and mathematics from relation* and pointer structures. Let's hear it for turning Russell on his h e a d . I don't k n o w if Holt has published snything on it in the open litersturt or not. H o w e v e r , he does have a g a m e available which s e e m s weirdly to e m b o d y these principles. T h e g a m o of M o m la available for (6.50 postpaid (S6.86 to Pennsylvanians) from Stelledar, Inc., 1700 Walnut St.. Phila. P A 19103. It has beautifully colored pieces, looks deceptively simple, and is unlike anything, except discrete abstractive thinking itself. R e c o m mended . Charles W . B a c h m a n . " T h e P r o g r a m m e r as Navigator." C A C M N o v 1973. B a c h m a n w a a the prime m o v e r in the development of large linked disk data ayatema at General Electric; he is the Pioneer. This is about big n-dimensional stuff. David Lefkovitz, File Structures lor On-Llne Syalema. Spartan-Hayden B o o k a , 112. Alfonso F . C a r d e n a s , "Evaluation of File O r g a n ization- a Model and Syatem " C A C M S e p 7 3 . 540-548. Not surprisingly. » turns out that different file organUationa have different advantages. E d g a r H . Sibley and Robert W . Taylor. "A Data Definition and M a p p i n g Language." CACM D e c 73. T50-7S9. E x a m p l e of current sophisticated approaches; a whole language for nailing the data just the w a y it should b e . Has helpful further citations.
A n array (also called a table) ia a section of core m e m o r y w h i c h the p r o g r a m m e r cordon8 off for the p r o g r a m to put and manipulate data in. If S P E N C E R is the n a m e of the array , then S P E N C E R ( l ) Is the first m e m o r y slot in it, S P E N C E R ( 2 ) is the s e c o n d , and ao o n u p to h o w e v e r big it la.
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O n e of the c o m m o n e s t end most destructive m y t h s about computers is the idea that they "only deal with n u m b e r s . " This is T O T A L L Y F A L S E . Not only ia it a ghastly m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , but it is often an intentional misrepresents!ion, and as s u c h , not only ia it a mi arep re sen tat ion but it is a d a m n e d lie, and anyone w h o tells it ia using "mathematics" as a wet noodle to beat the reader with. C o m p u t e r s deal with s y m b o l s a n d patterns.
PAST -CHANGING DATA O n e of the uses of such structures is in strange types of p r o g r a m s w h e r e the interconnections of information are changing quickly and unpredictably. Such operations happen fast In core m e m o r y . In this kind of p r o g r a m m i n g (for w h i c h languages like LISP, S N O B O L and T R A C L a n g u a g e are especially convenient), the pointers are c h a n g e d back and forth In core m e m o r y , every which w a y , all the time . Presumably according to the p r o g r a m m e r ' s fiendish master plan-- if he's gotten the b u g a out. (See D e b u g g i n g , p . T o .)
F A N C Y FILES (You can get a feel for h o w this ordinarily relates to input from outside-- see " H o w Data C o m e s , G o e s . a n d Sits ," n e a r b y .) T h e contents of a numerical field, or piece of data c o m i n g in, can simply be stuffed b y the p r o g r a m m e r into a variable.
C o m p u t e r s deal with s y m b o l s of any kind-letters, musical notes. Chinese i d e o g r a m s , a r r o w s , i c e c r e a m flavors, snd of course n u m b e r s . ( N u m bers c o m e also in various flavors, simple and b a r o q u e . See chocolate b o x , p, 9f\ .
T h e contents of a record, or unified set of fields, con get put into an a r r a y . T h e p r o g r a m can then pick into it for separate variables. If desired, or just leave them there to b e w o r k e d o n .
Data structure m e a n s any s y m b o l s a n d patterns set u p for use in a c o m p u t e r . It m e a n s w h a t things are being taken into account b y a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m , and h o w these things are aet u p - - w h a t s y m b o l * a n d arrangements are u s e d to represent them.
T h e n y o u twiddle y o u r variable) with y o u r p r o g r a m as desired.
T h e p r o b l e m , obviously, is Representing T h e Information Y o u W a n t Just T h e W a y Y o u W a n t It, in all its true complexities.
FANCY
W h e n you've d o n e o n e record, y o u repeat. That's h o w lots of business p r o g r a m s g o . S o m e other routine k i n d s , too.
But these structures are not restricted to data in core m e m o r y . C o m p l e x a n d changeable filea can be kept on disk In various w a y s by the s a m e kind of threading (called "chaining" on m a storage).
Another w a y of handling changeable files is through a so-called directory block, which keeps track of w h e r e all the other blocks are stored.
STRUCTURES
M a n y forms of a d v a n c e d p r o g r a m m i n g are based on the ides that things don't h a v e to be stored next to each other, or in any particular o r d e r . If things aren't next to each other, w e need another w a y the p r o g r a m can tell h o w they belong together. A pointer, then-- sometimes called a link-is a piece of data that tells w h e r e another piece of data is, in s o m e form of m e m o r y . Pointers often connect pieces of data.
But these techniques, y o u s e e , m a y be used in both fast and slow operations, and for any p u r p o s e , so trying to categorize them tends not to be helpful. (Note also that these techniques w o r k w h e t h e r you're dealing with bits , or characters , or any other form of data.)
Pointer I
1 O n e piece j of Data
1 A n o t h e r piece] of Data
(This is often forbiddingly stated as " m a k i n g a mathematical model"-- but that's usually in the rhetorical, far-fetched and astral sense in w h i c h all relations are "mathematical" and letters of the alphabet are considered to be a special distorted kind of n u m b e r . )
A pointer can be an address in core m e m o r y : it can b e an address on disk (diskpointer); it con point to a w h o l e string of data, s u c h as a n a m e , w h e n there is no w a y of k n o w i n g in a d v a n c e h o w long the siring m a y be (stringpointer). A series of pieces of data w h i c h point to each other in a continuing s e q u e n c e is celled a threaded
N o w It h a p p e n s that there are m a n y kinda of data atructure, a n d they are interchangeable in intricate w a y s . T h e a a m e data, with all its relationships a n d intricacies, can be set u p in a vast variety of arr a n g e m e n t s and styles w h i c h are inside-out and u p a i d e - d o w n versions of each other. T h e s a m e thing (aay, the serial n u m b e r , 24965, of an automobile) m a y be represented in o n e data structure b y a set of s y m b o l s (such as the decimal digits 2 , 4, 9, 6, 5 in that o r d e r ) , and in another data structure b y the position of something else (such as the 24965th n a m e in a list of automobile o w n e r s registered with the m a n u f a c t u r e r ) .
F o r this reason the handling of data held together b y pointers-- e v e n t h o u g h it m a y m a k e all sorts of different patterns-- is called list processing. (The (The term "list processing" might s e e m to go against c o m m o n s e n s e , as it might suggest something like, s a y , a laundry lisl. w h i c h is structured in a very simple blocklike f o r m . But that's w h a t w e call it.)
F u r t h e r m o r e , m a n y different forms of data m a y be c o m b i n e d or twisted together in the s a m e overall a e t u p .
Prominent list-processing languages include S N O B O L , L 6 and LISP (see p . ^ l ) . T h e r e is a r g u m e n t as to w h e t h e r T R A C L a n g u a g e is a list-processing l a n g u a g e .
T h e data structure choaen goes a long w a y in impoaing techniques a n d stylea of operation on the p r o g r a m .
H e r e are s o m e interesting structures that p r o g r a m m e r s create b y list processing:
O n the other h a n d , the c o m p u t e r language y o u use has a considerable effect u p o n the data structures y o u m a y choose. L a n g u a g e s tend to impose styles of handling information . T h e decision to p r o g r a m a given problem in a specific lang u a g e , auch aa B A S I C or C O B O L or A P L or T R A C L a n g u a g e , either locks y o u into specific types of data structure, or exerts considereble pressure to do it a certain w a y . In moat cases y o u can't aet it u p just any w a y y o u w a n t , but have to adjuat to the language y o u are using-- although today's languages tend to allow m o r e and m o r e tvDea of data.
R I N G S (or c y c l e s ) . T h e s e are a r r a n g e m e n t s of pointers that go a r o u n d in a circle to their first item again. deii; -
Note: B y decent standards of English, the w o r d data should be plural, datum singular. But the mBtter is too far gone: data is n o w utterly singular, like "corn" and "Information," a granular collective which m a y be s c o o p e d , p o u r e d or counted. But I d r a w the line at media ore m a n y , "media" Is plural!
" C o m p u t e r s pui
Media
'orylhing into pigeonholes."
W r o n g . People put things into pigeonholes. A n d designers of computer p r o g r a m s can set u p lousy pigeonholes. If you let 'em. M o r e sophisticated p r o g r a m m i n g con often avoid pigeonholes entirely.
a
T R E E S . T h e s e are structures that fan out. (There are n o rings in a tree atructure. technically speaking.)
Plainly, then, it ia theae overall structures that w e really care about; but to understand overalt atructures, w e need an idea of all the different forma of data that m a y be put in t h e m . VARIABLES A N D A R R A Y S T h e earliest data structures in c o m p u t e r a . and still the predominating o n e s , are variables a n d (We met them earlier u n d e r B A S I C , aee fP-H>-f7. and A P L . aee pj, ) A variable ie a apace or location in cor* m e m o r y . (Por convenience, moat p r o g r a m m i n g languages allow the p r o g r a m m e r to call a variable by a n a m e . ao that he doesn't have to keep track of its numerical address.)
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G R A P H S T R U C T U R E S (sometimes called p l e x c a ) . H e r e the w o r d "graph" is not used In the ordinary w a y , to m e a n a diagrammatic sort of picture, but to m e a n any atructure of connected points. Rings and trees are special cases of graph
G r a p h atructures can go any which w a y .
People w h o w a n t to feel With It occasionally uae the term "bit" for any old c h u n k of information. like a n a m e or address. Thia is W r o n g . A Bit is the smallest piece of binary information, an item that can b* one of two things, like heads or tails, X or 0 , one or zero; end all other information can be packed into a countable n u m b e r of bits. (How m a n y m a y d e p e n d on th* data structure chosen,) A s a handy rule of thumb: uvery letter of the alphabet or p u n c tuation m a r k ie eight bits (se* ASCII b o x ) ; for heavy storage of ev*ryday decimal n u m b e r s , every numerical digit can be further packed d o w n (to four bit* in B C D code)
W H E R E T O G E T IT
R O U N D (art obacur* and donnish Joke) p. the Greek letter "rho," Ii en A P L operator / for testing the size of arrays. W h e n used In the one-sided format, tt g i v e s t n e of each dimension of an array. Thus />A. w h e n A is / is 2 2. YOUR BOAT' equals 9. since there are 9 letters In the array ' Y O U R B O A T ' ; YOUR BOAT'
IT
frr
since p 9 la 1, and 'YOUR B O A T ' Is likewise 1.
This language is superb for "scientific" p r o g r a m m i n g , including heavy n u m b e r crunching and experimentation with different formulas on small data bases. (Big data bases are a problem.) It ia also not bad for a variety of simple business applications, such as payroll, accounting, billing and inventory.
F A S T A N S W E R B A C K IN A P L If you want quick a n s w e r s , the A P L terminal just gives you the result of whatever you type in. For instance,
IBM doesn't sell A P L services. Their timesharing A P L Is available, however , from various suppliers. Of course, that m e a n s you probably have to have an IBM-type terminal, unless you find a service that offers A P L to the other kind-- an addition which seems to be becoming fashionable. Usual charge Is about ten bucks an hour connect charge, plus processing, which depends on what you're doing. It can easily run over $15 an hour, though, and more for heavy crunching or printout, so watch It. T h e salesman will c o m e to your house or office, verify that your terminal will w o r k (or tell you w h e r e you can rent o n e ) , patiently show you h o w to sign o n , teach you the language for m a y b e an hour if he's a nice g u y , and proffer
—•APL services are probably safer to sign onto, in terms of risked expenses, than most other time-sharing systems. (Though of course all time-sharing involves financial risk.) Because the system Is restricted only and exactly to A P L , you're not paying for capabilities you won't be using, or for massive disk storage (which you're not allowed in most A P L services a n y w a y ) , or for acres of core m e m o r y you might be tempted lo fill. —• In other w o r d s , A P L Is a comparatively straight proposition, and highly r e c o m m e n d e d If you have a lot of math or statistics you'd like to do on a fairly small n u m b e r of cases. Also good for a variety of other things, though, including fun. Different vendors offer interesting variations on IBM's bssic A P L \ 3 6 0 package, ss noted below. In other w o r d s , they\ompete with each other in part by adding features to the basic A P L \ 3 6 0 prog r a m , vying for your business. Each of the v e n dors listed also offers various programs in A P L you can use interactively at an IBM-type terminal, in m a n y cases using an ordinary typeball and not seeing the funny characters; though how clear and easy these programs are will v a r y . A n d r e m e m b e r , of course, that you can do your o w n thing, or have others do It for y o u , using A P L . A P L is also available on the P D P - 1 0 , and preaumably other non-IBM big machines. THE VENDORS
7 1 2 3 4 (carriage return)
Scientific Time-Sharing Corporation (7316 Wisconsin A v e . , Bethesda M D 20014) calls its version A P L ' P L U S . They'll send you a nice pocket card summarizing the c o m m a n d s .
typed-in array P R O G R A M S IN A P L But the larger function of A P L is to create programs that can be stored, named and carried out at a later time. For thia, A P L allows you to define p r o g r a m s , a line at a time. T h e programs remain stored in the system as long aa you w a n t . Using the "Del" operator ( V ) , you tell the system that you want to put in a p r o g r a m . Del causes the terminal to help you along in various w a y s . A nice feature is thai you can lock your A P L p r o g r a m s , that is, m a k e ihem Inaccessible and unreadable by others, whether they are programmers or not. in this case you define a program starting with the mystical sign del-tilde (Ays) instead of del ( V>. B n d invoke the n a m e s of dark spirits.
A P L , like B A S I C , can be classed as an "algebraic" language— but this one is built to please real msthematlcians, wilh high-level stuff only they know about, like Inner and Outer Products. Paradoxically, thia makes A P L terrific for teaching these deeper mathematical concepts, helping you aee the consequences of operations and the underlying structure of mathematical things. Matrix aUjebra, for Instance, can be visualized a lot better b y working up to It with lesser concepts (like vectors and inner products) enacted on an A P L terminal. It would be really swell if someone would put together a tour-guide book of higher mathematics at the grade/high school level for people with access to A P L . Interestingly, Alfred Bork (U. of Cal. at Irvine) Is taking a similar approach to teaching physics, using A P L as a fundamental language in his physic*
S N E A K Y R E P E A T E R S T A T E M E N T IN APL? O n e of the A P L operators, "iota" ( i ) . seema to make Its o w n program loop within a line. W h e n uaed one-sided, it furnishes a series of ascending numbers up to the n u m b e r It's operating on. This until the last one la reached. You type: 3 x \ T A P L replies: 3 6
9
12
15
18
21
In other w o r d s , one-sided iota looks to be doing Its o w n Utile loop, Increasing its starting number by 1, until It gets to the value on lta right, and chugs on d o w n tha line with each. Very aneaky w a y of doing a loop . However! It isn't really looping, exactly. What the lota doea Is crest* a one-dimensional •rray , a row of integers from 1 up to the n u m b e r on It* right. Thia result ia what then moves on
A P L - P L U S offers over twentyfive concentrators around the country, permitting local-call services in such metropolitan centers as Kalamazoo and Rochester. (Firms with offices in both cities , please note.) T h e y also hsve an " A U T O S T A R T " feature which permits the chaining of programs into grand complexes, so you don't have to call them all individually. A P L ' P L U S charges the following for storage, if you can dig it: J10 P E R MILLION B Y T E - D A Y S . (A byte is usually one character.) T h e census is probably taken once a d a y . This firm also services ASCII terminals, which some people will consider to be a big help. That m e a n s you can have Interactive users of A P L programs st ASCII terminals, and that you can also program from the few A P L terminals that aren't of the IBM type. Time Sharing Resources. Inc. (777 Northern Blvd., Great N e c k , N . Y . 11022) offers a lot of A P L service, including text systems and various kinds of file handling, under the n a m e TOTAL/APL. A m o n g the interesting features T i m e Sharing Resources. Inc. have added is an E X E C U T E c o m m a n d , which allows an A P L string entered st the Keyboard in user on-line m o d e to be executed as straight A P L . This Is heavy. Perhaps the most versatile-sounding A P L service right n o w Is offered by , of all people, a subsidiary of Ihe American Can C o m p a n y . American Information Services (American Lane, Greenwich C T 06830) calls their version V I R T U A L A P L , meaning thst it can run in "virtual memory"-- a popular misnomer for virtually unlimited m e m o r y - and consequently the programmer is hardly subject to apace limitations st ell. Moreover, files on the AI5 syatem are compatible with other IBM languages, so you can use A P L to try things oul quickly and then convert to Fortran, Cobol or whatever. (Or, conversely, a company m a y go from those other language* lo A P L without changing the w a y their filea are stored on thla service.) A P L m a y indeed Intermix wilh theae other language*, how
A n d Ihe prices look especially good: $8.75 an hour connect, »15 a month m i n i m u m (actually their m i n i m u m disk space rental -- 1 IBM cylinder-- ao for that amount you get a lot of storage), But remember there are still core charges, and II per thousand characters printed or transferred to storage. In the West, a big vendor is Proprietary Computer Systems. Inc. , V*n N u y * . Csllfornla.
For an A P L terminal, you might just want • 2741 from IBM (about a hundred a month, but on a year contract). Or see the list under "Terminals" ( p . ^ ) , or ask your friendly A P L company w h e n you sign u p . T w o more A P L terminsls, mentioned here instead of under "Terminals" for no special reason: Tektronix offers one of its green ie graphics terminals (see flip side) for A P L (the model 4013). This permits A P L to draw pictures for y o u . It seems to be an ASCII-type unit. Computer Devices, Inc. supposedly makes an an A P L terminal using the nice N C R thermal printer, which is m u c h faster and quieter lhan a mechanical typewriter. Spookier, though. A n d the special paper costs a lot of m o n e y .
BIBLIOGRAPHY Iverson has a formal book. Ignore it unless you're a mathematician: Kenneth E . Iverson, A Programming Language. Wiley, 1962. Paul Berry, A P L \ 3 6 0 Primer. Student Text. Available "through IBM branch offices," or IBM Technical Publications Department. 112 East Post R o a d . White Plains, N Y 10601. No IBM publication n u m b e r on it, which ia sort of o d d . 1969. -•This is one of the most beautifully written, simple, clear computer manuals that is lo be found. Such a statement m a y astound readers w h o have seen other IBM manuals, but it's true. A D . Falkoff and K . E . Iverson, A P L \ 3 6 0 Users' M a n u s l . Also available from I B M . no publication n u m b e r . P O C K E T C A R D S (giving very compressed s u m maries) are available from both: Scientific Time Sharing C o r p . (see W H E R E T O G E T IT) Technical Publications Dept., I B M . 112 East Post R o a d . White Plains, N . Y . 10601. Ask for A P L Reference Data card S210 0007-0. M a y cost a quarter or something. Paul Berry. A P L \ l l 3 0 Primer. Adapted from 360 manual. S a m e p u b . But for version of A P L that runs on the IBM 1130 minicomputer. Roy A . S y k e s . "The Use and Misuse of APL." $2 from Scientific Time-Sharing C o r p . . 7316 Wisconsin A v e . . Bethesda M D Z0014. A joker for you math freaks. Trenchard M o r e , Jr., "Axioms and Theorems for a Theory of Arrays." 1BM Journal of Resch. * Devt.. March 73. 135-157. This is a high-level thing. a sort of massive set theory of A P L , intended to m a k e A P L operators apply to arrays of arrays, and lead ultimately to the provability of programs. "Get on Target with APL." A suggestive circular sales thingy. IBM G520-2439-0. IBM has a videotaped course in A P L by A.J. Rose. (Done 1968.) £ ^ > W h a t you really need to get started is Berry's Primer, Falkoff and Iverson's manual, and a pocket card. Plus of course the system snd the friend to tutor you.
Power and simplicity do not often go logether. A P L is an extremely powerful language for mathematics, physics, statistics, simulation
to d e b u g . Indeed . A P L programs are hi to understand because of their density. A n d the A P L language does no! fit very well or
O S
7
" "
A P L is not just a programming language. It is also used by some people as a definition or description language. that is, a form of notation for stating how thing* work (laws of nature, algebraic systems, computers or whatever). For instance, w h e n IBM's 3S0 computer ceme out, Iverson and his friends did a very high-class article deacriblng formally in A P L juat what 360* do (the machine's architecture). But of course this was even less comprehensible lhan Ihe 380 programming manual. Falkoff. A . D . . K . E . Iverson snd E.H. Sussenguth. "A Pormsl Description of System/360," IBM Systems Journal, v.3 no. 3. 1964. The forms! description In A P L . IBM System/360 Operating System: Assembler Language. Document N u m b e r C28-6514-X (where X is a number signifying the latest edition). IBM Technical Publication*. Whit* Plain* N e w York. T h e Manual.
F e w people k n o w ell or A P L . or w o u l d w e n t to. T h e operation" are diverse a n d o b s c u r e . and m a n y or them are comprehenaible only to people in mathematical fields. H o w e v e r . if you k n o w a dozen or so you can really get off the g r o u n d
SAMPLE PROGRAMS Here is an A P L p r o g r a m that types out b a c k w a r d s w h a t y o u type in. First look at the p r o g r a m , then the explanation b e l o w .
V
y o u get back on y o u r typewriter its value 7.1 and if y o u type N O R A £ 2 . 4J you get back
T h e r e are basically four kinds of information used b y A P L , a n d all of them can be put in a r r a y s . T h r e e of theae types are n u m e r i c a l . a n d arrays of them look like thia o n paper: Integer arraya:
Explanation. T h e down-pointing triangles ("delB") symbolize the beginning a n d end of a p r o g r a m , w h i c h in this case w c h a v e called R E V . O n Line 1, the " Q u o t e - Q u a d " s y m b o l (on the right) causes the A P L processor to wait for alphabetical input. P r e s u m a b l y the user will type s o m e t h i n g . T h e user's line of input is stuffed into thing or array 1. T h e user's carriage return tolls the A P L processor he has finished, so it continues in the p r o g r a m . O n the second line. A P L takes array I a n d does a one-Bided (Jj to it, w h i c h h a p p e n s to m e a n turning it a r o u n d . Left-arrow into the quote-quad s y m b o l m e a n s print it out. B e c a u s e of A P L ' s c o m p a c t n e s s , indeed, this magnificent p r o g r a m can all go o n o n e line:
Logical arrays: 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 (theae arrays of o n e s a n d zeroes are called "logical" for a variety of reasons: in this case w e could call them "logical" simply b e c a u s e they sre uaed for picking a n d choosing a n d deciding.) T h e s e three numerical types of information m a y be freely intermixed in your a r r a y s . O n e m o r e type, h o w e v e r . 1B allowed. It's hard to figure out from the m a n u a l s , but evidently this type can't b e m i x e d in with the others too freely. W e refer to the alphabetical or "literal" a r r a y , as in T h e quick b r o w n fox t u m p e d o v e r the lazy d o g . N o w , pre-written A P L p r o g r a m s can print out literal information, e n d accept it from a user al a terminal, w h i c h ia w h y A P L is good for the creation of systems for naive users (see " G o o d - G u y Systems," p . ' 7 ) . Literal vectors m a y be picked apart, rearranged a n d assembled b y all the regular A P L operators. That's h o w w e twiddle o u r text.
v First the input goes into I, (hen the processor d o e s a p I (reversal) a n d puts it out. A n d here is o u r old friend, the fortune-cookie prisoner.
10 o
V
1NF
' H E L P , I A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P '
v O n line 1 the p r o g r a m prints out whatevcr's in q u o t e s . A n d line 2 causes it to go b a c k and do line 1 again. F o r e v e r .
THE
T K T - W > - & B M J c H
'V(
A n u m b e r of baaic A P L operators help y o u stretch, squish a n d pull apart y o u r a r r a y s . Consider the lowly c o m m a (called "ravel," w h i c h m e a n s the s a m e as " u n r a v e l " ) . ,A
forget A's old dimensions, m a k e it one-dimensional. m a k e A and B o n e long one-dimensional array.
A,B
Here la h o w w e m a k e things appear and disappear. ("Compression.") A/B
A m u s t b e a one-dimensions! array of ones and zeroes. T h e result is those elements of B selected b y the o n e s . Example: 1 0 1 / c a t results in
It should be mentioned at Ihis point that b r a n c h i n g tests are conducted in A P L p r o g r a m s b y specifying conditions w h i c h are either true or false, a n d A P L ' s a n s w e r is 1 if true, 0 if false. (This is another thing these logical arrays are for.)
—» 7 a A >
B
w h i c h b r a n c h e s to line 7 in the p r o g r a m if A Is greater than B . a n d is ignored (as an unexccutable b r a n c h to line zero) if B is greater than A . S o m e love lt, s o m e hate it.
THE APL ENVIRONMENT Aside from Ihe A P L language itself, lo p r o g r a m in A P L y o u m u s t learn a lot of "system" c o m m a n d s , alphabetical c o m m a n d s b y w h i c h to tell the A P L processor w h a t y o u w a n t to d o in general -- w h a t to store, w h a t to bring forth from storage, a n d so o n .
This is not the place to go into the syatem c o m m a n d s , ir you're serious, you can learn them rrom the book or the A P L salesman.
(name of array)
will tell y o u . Il gives y o u the positions, in order of size, of the n u m b e r s . A n d ^ doea It tor descending order. T h e s e sre Just samples. T h e list goes on
AB
A times B
the sign of B
This m a k e s s e n s e . T o a r g u e that it is Inherent in "taking a w a y half the idea of multiplication." h o w e v e r , is d u b i o u s . S o m e symmetries Iverson has m a n a g e d to c o m e u p with are truly r e m a r k a b l e . T h e a r r o w , for instance. T h e left arrow:
A s s i g n m e n t statement: B (which m a y have been c o m p u t e d during the leftward scan) is assigned the n a m e of A ;
T h e j u m p statement, w h e r e B (which m a y have been c o m puted during ihe leftward scan) is a statement n u m b e r ; the p r o g r a m n o w goes a n d executes that line.
T h i s operation leaves the n u m b e r 1 , because 3 is greater than 2. So y o u could b r a n c h o n a test with something like
Here's another selector. Thia operator takes the first or laat few of A . depending o n size a n d sign of B :
^
one-sided
AX B
O r consider this:
T h e opposite slash has the opposite effect, inserting extra null elements w h e r e there are zeroes: 1 1 0 l\3 5 » results in 3 5 0 9
If you want to k n o w the relative poaitiona of n u m b e r s of different sizes in a one-dlmenaional array,
two-sided
T h i s s y m m e t r y is mystically interesting because the assignment snd j u m p statements are so basic to p r o g r a m m i n g .
Ordinarily you h a v e a w o r k s p a c e , a collection of p r o g r a m a and data w h i c h y o u m a y s u m m o n b y n a m e . W h e n it c o m e s - - that is, w h e n the c o m puter has fetched thia material and a n n o u n c e d on y o u r terminal that it ia ready-- y o u can run the p r o g r a m a and use the data in y o u r w o r k a p a c e . Y o u can also have p a s s w o r d s for y o u r different w o r k s p a c e s , so others at other terminals cannot tamper with your stuff.
s n d B 4 A is the opposite.
N o w , the consequences of this overall Idea w e r e not determined b y G o d . T h e y w e r e w o r k e d out b y Iverson. very thoughtfully, so as to c o m e out symmetrical-looking and easy to r e m e m b e r . What w e see is the clever exploitation of apparent but inexact symmetries in the ideas. Often APL's one-sided a n d Iwo-sided pairs of operators are m o r e suggestively similar than really the s a m e thing.
I|TL
N o w that w e k n o w about the operators a n d the arraya, w h a t does A P L do?
IVERSON'S T A F F Y - P U L L
T h e overall A P L language, really. Is the carrying through of this notation to create an immensely powerful p r o g r a m m i n g language. T h e Impetus obviously c a m e from the desire to m a k e various intricate mathematical operations eosy to c o m m a n d . T h e result, h o w e v e r , is a p r o g r a m m i n g language with great p o w e r for simpler teaks aa well.
W h e n Iverson assigns one-sided and twoaided m e a n i n g s to a s y m b o l , often the two m e a n i n g s m a y look natural only because Iverson is such an artist. E x a m p l e :
CRASHING THE SYMBOLS TOGETHER
It w o r k s o n a r r a y s , singly and in pairs, according to those funny-looking s y m b o l s , ss the A P L processor scans right-to-left.
jYMtocy
^7 R E V
2 4 -6 8 10 2048
Scalar arrays: 2.5 -3.1416 0.001 2795333.1 (a scalar is something that can be m e a s u r e d o n a ruler-like scale, w h e r e there are a l w a y s points in betweeen.)
o f
Iverson's notation Is built a r o u n d the curious principle of having the s a m e symbols m e a n two things depending on context. (Goodness k n o w s he uses e n o u g h different symbols; doubling u p at least m e a n s he doesn't need any m o r e . ) It turna out that this notation represents a consistent series of operations in astounding combinations.
A a in B A S I C , you can use subscripts to get at specific elements in a r r a y s . Referring to the examples a b o v e , if you type JOE [2]
Crjoitej
T h e r e are m a n y , m a n y different error m e s s a g e s that ihe A P L processor can send y o u , d e p e n d i n g o n the circumstances. It is possible to m a k e m a n y , m a n y mIntakes In A P L , a n d there are error m e s s a g e s for all or t h e m . All or t h e m , that ia. lhat look to the computer like errors; If you d o something permissible that's not w h a t you intended, the computer will not tell y o u . But It is a terminal language, designed to help people m u d d l e through.
x«-n take input from the user and stuff it into X . Another weird example: supposedly ihe conditional branch B/A (one w a y of writing, "jump to A if B is true") is a special case of the "compression" operator. (Berry 360 p r i m e r . 72 and 165.) This is very hard to understand, although it seems clear while you're reading it. O n the other h a n d , there is every indication that A P L is so deep y o u keep finding n e w truths in it. (Like the above p a r a g r a p h . ) T h e whole thing is Just unbelievable. Hooray for all that.
APL FOR USER-LEVEL SYSTEMS (See " G o o d - G u y Systems." p . 15 ) Because A P L can solicit text input from a uaer and analyze It, the language la powerful for the creation of user-level e n v i r o n m e n t a n d systems-- with the d r a w b a c k , universal to all IBM terminals, that input linea muat end with specific characters. In other w o r d a , it can't be aa fully Interactive a* computer languages thai use ASCII terminals. Needless to s a y , the mathematical elegance and p o w e r of th* system Is completely unnecessary for moat user-level syatems. Bul It's nice to k n o w it's there. A P L Is probably beat for syatems with well-defined and segregated filea - "array-type problems," like payroll, accounts and so o n . It Is not suited for m u c h larger e m o r p h o u a and evolutionary aluff. the w a y liat languages like T R A C are. Don't us* A P L if you're going to store large evolving texts or huge brokerage data b a s e s , like what tankers are free in the Mediterranean. T h e quickesl payoff m a y lie in using A P L to replace bu*in*aa form* and hasten the flow of information through • c o m p s n y . A salesman on the road with an A P L terminal, for instance, can at once enter hi* order* in the computer from the cu*tomer'a office, checking inventory directly . If th* p r o g r a m ia u p .
23 H e r e is another e x a m p l e s h o w i n g h o w w e c h u g • J o n g the r o w of s y m b o l s a n d take it a p a r t , A g a i n , the alphabetical entitles r e p r e s e n t t h i n g s .
^
first operation
SOME APL
(one-sided^
OPERATORS
It w o u l d b e i n s a n e to e n u m e r a t e t h e m all. b u t h e r e is a s a m p l i n g of A P L ' s o p e r a t o r s . T h e y ' r e all o n the p o c k e t c a r d s (see B i b l i o g r a p h y ) .
APL THINGS, T O GO WITH Y O U R
F o r old times' s a k e , h e r e a r e o u r friends: ( A n d a c o u s i n t h r o w n in for s y m m e t r y . )
A s w e said, A P L h a s operators (already e x p l a i n e d ) a n d t h i n g s . T h e things c a n b e plain n u m b e r s , or A r r a y s (already m e n t i o n e d u n d e r B A S I C ) . T h i n k of t h e m as r o w s , b o x e s a n d s u p e r b o x e s of n u m b e r s :
•A
second operation ( t w o - s i d e d ) T r y d i v i d i n g u p these e x a m p l e s :
ROMEO ELEANOR <3>
SAM
C^? S U S I E
O n e m o r e thing n e e d s to b e n o t e d . Not o n l y c a n w e w o r k out the s e q u e n c e s of o p e r a t i o n s , f r o m right to left, b e t w e e n the s y m b o l s ; the c o m p u t e r c a n c a r r y t h e m out in a stable fashion. W h i c h is of c o u r s e essential.
( w h a t e v e r A s h o u l d h s p p e n to b e ) A plus B
-B A-B xB
( w h a t e v e r A s h o u l d h a p p e n to B . heh heh) negation of B A minus B the sign of B
AxB
( e x p r e s s e d a s - 1 , 0 or 1) A times B
2
4
2 3
4
1 S
I I
6
10
5
!A
?A The t r u t h of the matter i s that A P L I n the computer is a c o n t i n u i n g succession of t h i n g s b e i n g o p e r a t e d o n a n d r e p l a c e d i n the w o r k a r e a .
A?B
factorial A ( 1 x 2 * 3 . . . u p to A ) the n u m b e r of possible c o m b i n a t i o n s y o u c a n get f r o m B , t a k e n A at a time a r a n d o m integer taken from array A take s o m e Integers at r a n d o m from B . H o w m a n y ? A .
a three-dimensional thing, seen from Ihe front. M a y b e w e better look at the levels side b y side: 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 8
'YARGH
Other weird things. Y o u can apply an ation to all the e l e m e n t s of a n a r r s y u s i n g the operator: + / A is the s u m of e v e r y t h i n g in A , is the c o m b i n e d p r o d u c t of e v e r y t h i n g in A . so o n . W h e w .
a n d so o W h a t is effectively h a p p e n i n g is that the A P L p r o c e s s o r is h o l d i n g w h a t it's w o r k i n g o n in a h o l d i n g a r e a . T h e w a y it carries out the s c a n of the A P L l a n g u a g e , there o n l y h a s to b e o n e thing in there at a t i m e .
O h y e s , a n d finally a n o - d i m e n s i o n a l thing. Example:
S e r i o u s l y , these are a r r a y s , a n d Iverson's A P L w o r k s t h e m o v e r , t u r n s t h e m inside o u t , twists s n d z s p s t h r o u g h to w h a t e v e r the a n s w e r s a r e .
C o n s i d e r the incredible p o w e r . Single A P L s y m b o l s g i v e y o u l o g a r i t h m s , trigonometric functions, matrix functions, n u m b e r system c o n v e r s i o n s , logs to a n y arbitrary b a s e , a n d p o w e r s of e (a m y s t e r i o u s n u m b e r of w h i c h e n g i n e e r s a r e f o n d ) .
t h i n g that r e s u l t s from operation L y d o n e t o that b y U G V
A P L c a n h a v e ThingB with four d i m e n s i o n s , five a n d so o n , but w e w o n ' t trouble y o u h e r e with pictures.
It is called n o - d i m e n s i o n a l b e c a u s e there is only o n e of It, so it is not a r o w o r a b o x .
B u t . of c o u r s e , A P L g o e s o n a n d o n . T h e r e a r e d o z e n s m o r e (including s y m b o l s m a d e of m o r e than o n e w e i r d A P L s y m b o l , printed o n top of e a c h other to m a k e a n e w s y m b o l ) .
first thing
a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l thing
a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l thing
A n d here are s o m e grooviea:
A! B
f
plain A
A+B
OPERATORS
A s in B A S I C a n d T R A C , the a r r a y s of A P L a r e really stored in the c o m p u t e r ' s c o r e m e m o r y , associated with the n a m e y o u g i v e t h e m . T h e a r r a y s m a y b e of all different sizes a n d d i m e n sionality:
oper/ x/A And
A s y o u m a y suspect, A P L p r o g r a m s can be incredibly c o n c i s e . (This is a f r e q u e n t l y - h e a r d criticism: that the c o n c i s e n e s s m a k e s t h e m h a r d to u n d e r s t a n d a n d h a r d to c h a n g e . ) MAKE YOUR
OWN
( e m p t y B i r a y , but a n a m e is s a v e d f o r it.)
Finally a n d gloriously, the u s e r m a y define hia o w n f u n c t i o n s , either o n e - s i d e d or t w o - s i d e d , with alphabetical n a m e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , y o u c a n create y o u r o w n o n e - s i d e d operator Z O N K , a s in
[NUML 3.1416] (a zero-dimensional a r r a y ,
ZONK
B
a n d e v e n a two-sided A ZONK
+
-
ZONK,
A ^
Z
ZONK \ ^
B
Don't a s k w h a t it m e a n s , b u t it's a l l o w e d .
Starting at the right of this u s e r p r o g r a m , the m a i n A P L p r o g r a m p u t s Z into the w o r k a r e a . That's the first t h i n g . T h e n , s t e p p i n g left in the u s e r p r o g r a m , the A P L p r o c e s s o r follows the rules a n d d i s c o v e r s that the next operation m a k e s it
S w h i c h h a p p e n s to m e a n , "the negation of Z . " S o it carries this out o n Z s n d replaces Z with the result, - Z . T h e n , continuing to s c a n leftward, the A P L p r o c e s s o r continues to replace w h a t w a s in the w o r k area with the result of e a c h operation in the s u c cessive lines of the u s e r p r o g r a m , till the p r o g r a m is c o m p l e t e d .
w
i
n
e
PRESS©!
A n A P L m a c h i n e , a m i n i that d o e s n o t h i n g but A P L . is n o w available f r o m a C a n a d i a n firm for the m e r e pittance of THREE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS ,
the price of m a n y a m e r e t e r m i n a l . T h i s a c c o r d i n g to C o m p u t e r w o r l d . 10 O c t 7 3 . R u n , don't w a l k , to M i c r o C o m p u t e r M a c h i n e s , I n c . . 4 Lansing S q . , Wlllowdsle, M 2 J 1 T 1 , Ontario, C a n a d a . That $3500 gets y o u a 1 6 K m e m o r y , the A P L p r o g r a m , k e y b o a r d a n d n u m e r i c a l k e y b o a r d , a n d p l a s m a d i s p l a y . Cassette ( w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y stores s n d retrieves a r r a y s b y n a m e w h e n called b y the p r o g r a m ) is $1500 e x t r a . R U N S O N B A T T E R I E S . S o r r y , n o g r e e n s t a m p s . (Note that the A P L p r o c e s s o r tekeB u p m o s t of the 1 6 K , but y o u c a n get m o r e . )
0 ^ r-y-)
f +
E s c h a r r a y is really a series of m e m o r y locations with its label a n d b o x i n g information— d i m e n s i o n s s n d l e n g t h s — stored separately. O n e v e r y nice thing a b o u t A P L is that a r r a y s c a n k e e p c h a n g i n g their sizes freely, a n d this n e e d b e of no c o n c e r n to the A P L p r o g T s m m e r . ( T h e s r r a y s c s n also b e b o x e d a n d r e b o x e d in different d i m e n s i o n s just b y c h a n g i n g the b o x i n g information— with a n operator called "ravel.")
B
w h i c h c a n then g o right in there with the b i g b o y s :
S u p p o s e w e h a v e a simple user p r o g r a m , Y
since it's only o n e n u m b e r . )
- 7 .
.-IN
T h e r u m o r that I B M has A P L o n a c h i p . Inside a Selectrlc — w h i c h therefore d o e s all these things with n o external connection to a n y (external) c o m p u t e r - - r e m a i n s unsubstantiated. T h e r u m o r h a a b e e n a r o u n d for s o m e t i m e . But it's quite possible. T h e thing is. lt w o u l d p r o b a b l y destroy I B M ' s entire p r o d u c t line-- a n d pricing edifice.
22
TWO-SIDED OPERATORS
SAME SYMBOLS WORK BOTH WAYS
In old-fashioned notations, s u c h as ordinary arithmetic, w e are u s e d to the idea of an operator b e t w e e n two things. Like
N o w . one of the fascinating kickers of A P L is the fact that most of the symbols have both a one-sided m e a n i n g a n d a two-sided meaning; b u t , thank g o o d n e s s , they can be easily kept straight.'
2+2 H e r e is a concrete example: the s y m b o l T or "ceiling." U s e d one-sided, the result of operator f applied to something numerical is the integer just above the n u m b e r it is applied to: [ 7 . 2 is 8. U s e d two-sided, the result is w h i c h ever of the n u m b e r s it's between is larger: 10 f 6 is 10. (There is also [_ . floor, w h i c h y o u can surely figure out.)
or in algebra,
S T A T I C
6 U V e | ^
APL
T h e s e , too, occur in A P L ; i n d e e d , A P L can also nest two-sided operators— that is, put t h e m one inside the other, like the leaves of a c a b b a g e . Old-fashioned notations nest with p a r e n t h e s e s . But A P L nests leftward. It w o r k s according to a v e r y simple right-to-left rule.
x X
y
X
N o w , w h e n y o u string things out into a long A P L expression, Iverson's notation determines exactly w h e n an operator is one-sided a n d w h e n it is two-sided:
2
A s y o u go from right to left, the result of this ,
S o m e people call it a "scientific" l a n g u a g e . S o m e people call it a "mathematical" l a n g u a g e . S o m e people are most struck b y its use for interactive s y s t e m s , so to them it's an interactive l a n g u a g e . But most of u s just think of it as T H E L A N G U A G E WITH ALL THE F U N N Y S Y M B O L S , a n d here they are:
another thing?) another op? J ^-
is operated o n b y the next thing a n d operator, yielding another result w h i c h is in turn operated o n b y the next thing a n d operator, yielding final result.
Enthusiasts see it as a language of inconceivable p o w e r with extraordinary u s e s . Cynics r e m a r k that it has all kinds of extraordinary p o w e r s for inconceivable u s e s — that is, a weird elegance, m u c h of w h i c h h a s n o use at all, a n d s o m e of w h i c h gets in the w a y . This is probably w r o n g . A P L is a terrific a n d beautiful triumph of the m i n d , a n d a v e r y useful p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e . It is not for e v e r y b o d y , but neither is c h e s s . It is for bright child r e n , mathematicians, a n d c o m p a n i e s w h o w a n t to build interactive systems but feel they should stick with I B M . A P L is one of IBM's better p r o d u c t s , probably because it is principally the creation of o n e m a n , Kenneth Iverson. It is mainly r u n o n 360 a n d 370 c o m p u t e r s , though implementations exist for the D E C P D P - 1 0 a n d p e r h a p s other popular m a c h i n e s . (Actually iverson designed the lang u a g e at H a r v a r d a n d p r o g r a m m e d it o n his o w n initiative after m o v i n g to I B M ; a d d e d to the p r o duct line b y popular d e m a n d , it w a s not a planned product a n d might in fact be a hazard to the firm, should it catch o n big.)
ONE-SIDED
THING
y o u generally start with a thing o n the right. T h e n c o m e s an operator. If the next s y m b o l is another thing, then the operator is to be treated as a twosided operator (because it's b e t w e e n two things). If the object b e y o n d the first operator is another operator, h o w e v e r , that m e a n s A P L is supposed to stop a n d carry out the first operator on a one-sided basis. E x a m p l e :
*punoc*w+e J A \ = Q ; {" ° V ' A <*S2=>)V:i_(+T-*i~0?L1238U657]9.BFiUN-ITOQV* PRVCAZxWYEMO/XL.SJGKH
OP
OPERATORS
W e are also u s e d to s o m e one-sided operators in our previous life. For instance:
- 1 m e a n s the negation of 1;
m e a n s negating that.
Conclusion: It's two-sided. Interpretation: "subtract B from A .
A P L can also nest one-sided operators.
first operator is applied to A; result is w o r k e d on b y s e c o n d operator;
thing,
result is w o r k e d o n b y third operator;
stop.
result is w o r k e d o n b y fourth operator, yielding final result.
Conclusion: T h e first operator is one-sided. Interpretation: "negate B . " T h e n take next s y m b o l .
A P L is a language of a r r a y s , with a fascinating notation. T h e array system a n d the notation can be explained separately, a n d so they will. Let's just say the language w o r k s on things modified successively b y operators. Their order a n d result is based u p o n those fiendish chicken scratches, Iverson notation.
A Weifcj) e x w i e ,
j t
Just for kicks, let u s m a k e u p a notation having nothing to do with c o m p u t e r s , using these Iverson principles:
T H A T NIFTY NOTATION T h e first thing to understand about A P L is the fiendishly clever system of notation that Iverson has w o r k e d out. This system (sometimes called Iverson notation) allows extremely c o m p l e x relations a n d computer-type events to be expressed simply, densely a n d consistently. (Of c o u r s e , y o u can't even type it without an I B M Selectric typewriter a n d an A P L ball. Note the product-line tie-in.) T h e notation is baaed o n operators modifying things. Let's use alphabetic symbols for things a n d play with pictures for a m i n u t e .
1)
n
u
t
W I T H
A90^B
T
If an operator or s y m b o l is b e t w e e n two n a m e s of things, carry it out two-sidedly. If not, carry it out one-sidedly.
A 90) 90} B
G o from right to left.
90! A 90} B
T h e best simple e x a m p l e I can think of involves file cards o n the table ( n a m e d A , B , C...) a n d operators looking like this:
455 A 90} B
2)
OJ
45}
90J
180J
455
90T
1805
W
n°TWOIS/.
1
455 A 90} 90} B
l _
/x
to w h i c h w e m a y assign the following m e a n i n g s : B 0} 45) A ONE-SIDED: 0J A 45^ A 90J A
f*\wt.i\\\jf t*w
1t*t
In considering the successive m e a n i n g s of thia rebus w e are proceeding from right to left, as y o u note, a n d each n e w s y m b o l a d d s m e a n i n g . ThiB is the general idea.
TWO-SIDED: STAPLING O P E R A T O R S B 45^ A staple A (thing n a m e d on the right) to B (thing n a m e d on the left) at a position 45* clockwise from middle of B's centerline. B
4,fl, Y o u will note, in this e x a m p l e . the curious arrangement w h e r e b y y o u can have several pictures , or operators , in a r o w . This is o n e of the fun features of the l a n g u a g e .
ROTATION OPERATORS do nothing to A rotate A clockwise 45* rotate A clockwise 90* etc.
I . u t (..
~*
X*
A n d equivalently for other angles. N o w . using these rules, a n d letting our things be a n y file cards that are h a n d y , here are s o m e results:
0) A C 45) B 0) 90)
It's hard to believe, but there y o u are. This notation s e e m s adequate to m a k e a whole lot of different stapled patterns. Exercise! U s e this nutty file card notation to p r o g r a m the m a k i n g of funny patterns . Practice with a friend and see if y o u can communicate patterns through these p r o g r a m s . one person u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g l y carrying out the other's p r o g r a m a n d being surprised . T h e point of all this has been to s h o w the powerful but s o m e w h a t startling w a y that brief scribbles in notations of this type can have all sorts of results.
#(ZLP,S,4)
which is allowed to survive as is, because the moving finger of the T R A C scanner does not re-scan the result. It Is left to the very curious to try to figure out w h y this Is needed.
OUTPUT. P S , string P R I N T S T R I N G : prints out the second argument. INPUT. RS
Whatever can b e executed is r e p l a c e d b y its i •suit. T h i B m a y or m a y not yield s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is in turn executable. W h e n n o t h i n g left is e x e c u t a b l e , w h a t ' s left is p r i n t e d o u t . That's the T R A C l a n g u a g e .
FAST A N S W E R B A C K
DM T R A C
LANGUAGE
T R A C Language can be used for fast answerback to simple problems. Typing in long executable T R A C expressions causes the result, if any, to be printed back out immediately. F o r naive users, however, the special advantage is in how easily T R A C Language m a y be used to p r o g r a m fast answerback environments of any kind. A SERIOUS L A N G U A G E ; B U T BE WILLING T O BELIEVE W H A T Y O U SEE T R A C Language,is, besides being an easy language to learn, very powerful for text and storage applications. Conventional computer people don't necessarily believe or like lt. For instance, as a consultant I once had p r o g r a m m e d , in T R A C Language, a system for a certain intricate form of business application. It w o r k e d . It ran. Anybody could be taught to use it in five minutes. T h e client w a s considering expanding it and installing a complete s y s t e m . T h e y asked another consultant. It couldn't be done in T R A C Language, said the other consultant; that's s o m e kind of a "university" language. E n d of project. H O W T O G E T IT There have been, until recently, certain difficulties about getting access to a T R A C processor. O v e r the years, M o o e r s has worked with his o w n processors in C a m b r i d g e . Experimenters here and there have tried their hands at p r o g r a m m i n g It, with little compatibility in their results. M o o e r s has worked with several large corporations, w h o said said they wanted to try processors to assess the value of the the language, but those endeavors brought nothing out to the public. F I N A L L Y , however, T R A C Language service Is publically available, in a fastidiously accurate processor and with M o o e r s ' blessing, on Computility™timesharing service. They run P D P - 1 0 service in the Boston-to-Washington area. (From elsewhere you have to pay long distance. ) T h e charge should run $12 to $15 per hour in business hours, less elsewhen. But this depends to s o m e extent on what your program does, and is hence unpredictable. A licensed T R A C Language processor m a y be obtained from M o o e r s for your o w n favorite P D P - 1 0 . Processors for other c o m puters, including minis, are in the planning stage. T R A C Language is now nicely documented in two new books by M o o e r s , a beginner's manual and a standardization book (see Bibliography). Since M o o e r s operates a small business, and m u s t m a k e a livelihood from it, he has adopted the standard business techniques of service m a r k and copyright to protect his interests. T h e service m a r k " T R A C " serves to identify his product in the marketplace, and is an assurance to the public that the product exactly meets the published standards B y law, the " T R A C " m a r k m a y not be used on p r o g r a m s or products which do not c o m e from Rockford Research, Inc. Following I B M , he Is using copyright to protect his documentation and p r o g r a m s from copying and adaptation without authority. M o o e r s also stands ready to a c c o m m o d a t e academic students and experimenters w h o wish to try their hands at p r o g r a m m i n g a T R A C processor. A n experimenter's license tor use of the copyright material m a y be obtained for a few dollars, provided you do not Intend to use the resulting p r o g r a m s commercially. For Information of all kinds, including lists of latest literature and application notes, contact: Calvin N . M o o e r s Rockford Research, Inc. 140-1/2 Mount Auburn Street Cambridge, M a s s . 02138 Tel. (817)876-6776
R E A D S T R I N G : this c o m m a n d is replaced by a string of characters typed In by the user, w h o s e end Is signalled bv a changeable "meta" character. C M , arg2 ^
C H A N G E M E T A : first character of second argument b e c o m e s new meta character. M a y be carriage-return code. R E A D C H A R A C T E R : this c o m m a n d is replaced by the next character the user types in. Permits highly responsive interactive s y s t e m s .
DISK C O M M A N D S . S B , b l o c k n a m e , f o r m l , f o r m 2 ... S T 0 R E B L O C K : under block n a m e supplied, stores forms listed L , F B , blockname F E T C H B L O C K : contents of n a m e d block are quietly brought in to forms storage from disk. MAIN FORM COMMANDS. D S , f o r m n a m e , contents D E F I N E S T R I N G . Discussed in text. C L , f o r m n a m e , plugl, plug2, plug3 ... C A L L : brings form from forms storage to working p r o g r a m . Plugl is fitted into every hole (segment gap) n u m b e r e d 1, plug2 into every hole n u m b e r e d 2, and so on. SS, f o r m n a m e , punchoutl, punchout2 ... S E G M E N T S T R I N G : this c o m m a n d replaces every occurrence of punchoutl with a hole (segment gap) n u m b e r e d 1, and so on. INTERNAL FORM COMMANDS. (All of these use a little pointer, or form pointer, that m a r k s a place in the f o r m . If there is no form remaining after the pointer, these instructions act on their last argument, which is otherwise ignored.) LN, f o r m n a m e , string, default Looks for specified string IN the f o r m , starting at pointer. If not found, pointer u n m o v e d . ( N O T E : string search can also be done nicely with the SS c o m m a n d . ) C C , f o r m n a m e , default C A L L C H A R A C T E R : brings up next character in form, m o v e s pointer to after it. C N , f o r m n a m e , no. of characters, default C A L L N: brings up next N characters, m o v e s pointer to after them. C S , f o r m n a m e , default C A L L S E G M E N T : brings up everything to next segment gap, m o v e s pointer to it. C R , formname C A L L R E S T O R E : m o v e s pointer back to beginning of f o r m . MANAGING FORMS STORAGE L N , divider LIST N A M E S : replaced by all form n a m e s in forms storage, with any divider between them. Divider is optional. D D , n a m e l , n a m e 2 ... D E L E T E D E F I N I T I O N : destroys n a m e d forms in forms storage. DA D E L E T E A L L : gets rid of all f o r m s in forms storage.
TEST COMMANDS. E Q , firstthing, secondthing, ifso, Unot Tests if EQual: if firstthing is s a m e as secondthing, what's left is ifso; if not equal, what's left is if not. G R , firstthing, secondthing, ifso, if not Tests whether firstthing is numerically GReater than secondthing. If so, what's left is ifso; if not, what's left is if not. OH YEAH, ARITHMETIC. (All these are handled in decimal arithmetic, a character at a time, and defined only for two integers. Everything else you write yourself as a shorty p r o g r a m . ) AD
}
}> mentioned in text.
DI
BOOLEAN COMMANDS. (Several exist in the language, but could not possibly be understood from this writeup. )
* Description of T R A C language primitives adapted by permission from " T R A C , A Procedure-Describing Language for the Reactive Typewriter,' copyrlght©1966 by Rockford Research, Inc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY =. Calvin N . M o o e r s , The Beginner's Manual for T R A C W Language, 300 pages, $10. 00, from Rockford Research, Inc. (See " W h e r e to Get It.") ^ Calvin N . M o o e r s , Definition and Standard for T R A C ^ T - 6 4 Language, 86 pages, $5.0u7"from Rockford Research, Inc. Calvin N . M o o e r s , " T R A C , A Procedure-Describing Language for the Reactive Typewriter," Communications of the A C M , v.9, n.3, pp. 215-219 (March 1966). Historic paper, out of print. This paper is copyrighted, and the copyright Is owned by Rockford Research, Inc. , through legal assignment from the Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. A n d for those w h o want to understand the depth of the standardization problem, M o o e r s offers freebie reprints of: Calvin N . M o o e r s , "Accommodating Standards and Identification of P r o g r a m m i n g Languages," Communications of the A C M , v.ll, n. 8, pp. 574-576 (August 1968).
an interpretive language (each step carried out directly by the processor without conversion to another form first); an extensible language (you can add your o w n commands for your o w n purposes); a Ust-processing language (for handling complex and amorphous forms of data that don't fit in boxes and arrays). It is one of the few such languages that fits in little computera.
TEST C O M M A N D S
IN T R A C
LANGUAGE
There are test c o m m a n d s in T R A C Language, but like everything else they w o r k on strings of characters. Thus they m a y w o r k on n u m b e r s or text. Consider the E Q c o m m a n d (test if equal): #(EQ, firstthing, secondthing, ifso, if not) w h e r e "firstthing" and "secondthing" are the strings being c o m p a r e d , and ifso and if not are the alternatives. If firstthing is the s a m e as secondthing, then ifso is what the T R A C processor does, and if not is forgotten. E x a m p l e : # ( E Q , 3, #(SU, 5, 2), H O O R A Y , N U T S ) If it turns out that 3 is equal to #(SU, 5, 2), which it is, then all that would be left of the whole string would be
3. D R I L L I N G T H E H O L E S T h e holes (called by M o o e r s s e g m e n t gaps) are created by the S E G M E N T S T R I N G instruction. #(SS, f o r m n a m e , whateverl, whatever2 ...) w h e r e " f o r m n a m e " is the f o r m you want to put holes in and the whatevers are things you want to replace by holes. E x a m p l e : Suppose you have a f o r m
while otherwise the T R A C processor would produce N U T S . T o m o s t computer people this looks completely insideout, with the thing to do next appearing at the center of the test instruction. Others find this feature at-trac-tive.
DISK YOU ARE A
CREEP|
OPERATIONS
N o w for the juicy disk operations. Storing things on disk can occur as an ordinary T R A C c o m m a n d .
Y o u m a k e this m o r e general by m e a n s of the S E G M E N T S T R I N G instruction:
'
# ( S B , n a m e , f o r m l , f o r m 2 , f o r m 3 ... ) creates a place out s o m e w h e r e on disk with the n a m e you give it, and puts in it the forms you've specified. E x a m p l e :
#(SS, I N S U L T , C R E E P )
#(SB, J U N K , T O M , D I C K , H A R R Y )
resulting in
and they're stored. If you want them later you say •{YOU
A R E
A
[
1]
#(FB, J U N K ) which can be filled in at a m o r e appropriate time. and they're back. Fuller e x a m p l e . Suppose w e type into the T R A C processor the following:
#(DS, T H I N G Y , O N E
FOR
#(SS,
TWO,
T H I N G Y , ONE,
T H E M O N E Y A N D TWO
FOR
THE
SHOW)
Because you can m i x the disk operations in with everything else so nicely, you can chain p r o g r a m s and changing environments with great ease to travel smoothly a m o n g different s y s t e m s , circumstances, setups.
)
t
note space
W e have n o w created a f o r m T H I N G Y and replaced parts of it with s e g m e n t gaps. Since each of the later arguments of S E G M E N T S T R I N G specifies a differently n u m b e r e d gap, w e will have gaps n u m b e r e d [l], [2], and [3]. T h e gap [1] will have replaced the w o r d O N E , the gap [2] will have replaced the w o r d T W O , and a lot of gaps n u m b e r e d [3] will have replaced all the spaces in the form (since the fifth argument of S S w a s a space). T h e resulting form is:
H e r e is a stupid p r o g r a m that scans all incoming text for the w o r d S H A Z A M . If the w o r d S H A Z A M appears, it clears out everything, calls a whole nother disk block, and w e l c o m e s its n e w m a s t e r . Otherwise nothing happens. If you have access to a T R A C system (or really want to w o r k o n it), you m a y be able to figure it out. ( R E S T A R T must be in the w o r k s p a c e to begin.) /RESTART]
[THINGY]
_ . f J H f t s T T E M P , #{RS))#(SS,TEMP,
)#(RPT)|
# ( E Q , S H A Z A M , # ( T E S T ) , (#(EVENT)))#(RPT)f
[[ll3^1^3]THE[3]MONEY[3M^ f ( C S ^ T E M P , (#(RESTART)))[
W e can get it to print out interestingly by typing # ( C L , T H I N G Y , R U N , H I D E ) (since after the call, the plugged-in f o r m will still be in the f o r m s storage.) This is printed:
# ( D A ) # ( F B , M A R V E L ) * ( P S , W E L C O M E R U N F O R T H E M O N E Y A N D H L D E F O R T H E S H O W
or perhaps, if w e use a carriage return for the last argument , w e can get funny results. T h e call # ( T H L N G Y , N O T A F I G , T H A T , [carriage return] should reeult in N O T A FIG FOR THE MONEY AND THAT FOR THE SHOW
O
MASTER)|
In this e x a m p l e , however, you m a y have noticed m o r e parentheses than you expected. N o w for w h y . PROTECTION A N D ONE-SHOT T h e last thing we'll talk about is the other two syntactic layouts. We've already told you about the main syntactic layout of T R A C Language, which is
It turns out that two m o r e layouts are needed, which w e m a y call P R O T E C T I O N and O N E - S H O T . Protection is simply (
)
which prevents the execution of anything between the parentheses. T h e T R A C processor strips off these plain parentheses and m o v e s on, leaving behind what w a s in them but not having executed it. (But it m a y c o m e back. ) A n obvious use is to put around a p r o g r a m you're designing: #(DS, P R O G , (#(AD, A , B)))
In T R A C Language, every command is replaced by its result as the program's execution proceeds This is ingenioua, weird and highly effective
f safe | stripped stripped but other uses turn up after you've experimented a little. T h e last T R A C c o m m a n d arrangement looks like this
and you can put any c o m m a n d in it, except that its result will only be carried one level ##(CL, Z O W I E , 3 , 4 ) results in (using the forms w e defined earlier),
IJ'i*adk*y«^ THE MAGIC
fooin
(>/V'
fys
,Mf0
a
p (
100%
9 M t
SCAN
T h e secret of combining T R A C c o m m a n d s la that every c o m m a n d , w h e n executed, la replaced b y its a n s w e r ; and whatever m a y result Is In turn executed.
fe.*rs
ope*
Ins
/ar***)*/,
1
a**
T h e r e la an exact procedure for thia:
*fr
SCAN F R O M L E F T T O RIGHT UNTIL A RIGHT PARENTHESIS; r-»RESOLVE T H E C O N T E N T S O F T H E I PAIRED C O M M A N D PARENTHESES / (execute and replace by the c o m m a n d ' a result); STARTING A T T H E BEGINNING O F T H E RESULT, K E E P SCANNING LEFT-TO-RIGHT UNTIL A RIGHT PARENTHESIS, - j
IT'S
W H E N Y O U G E T T O T H E END, PRINT O U T WHAT'S LEFT. The beauty part ts h o w it all w o r k s so good.
H E L P ; I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M
A n arithmetic example — so you get the procedure.
H E L P , I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M
LOOP
the P R I N T S T R I N G c o m m a n d would only have printed execute what's in the c o m m a n d parentheses Si replace with their a n s w e r , leaving: scan to next right parenthesis
HELP Since a c o m m a ends an a r g u m e n t in T R A C language. N o w , the P R I N T S T R I N G c o m m a n d leaves no result, so it Is vaporized; all w e have left in the w o r k area is
execute L replace
SuKKfAVdoftGC/
LOOP
so it prints that. If it had said
#(AD,2,»(AD,3,4))
H
( P O W ! )
Thia language is marvelously suited to data base management, management information systems, interactive query syatems, and the broad spectrum of "business" programming. For large-scale scientific number crunching, not so (rood. With one enceptlon: "Infinite precision" arithmetic, when people want things lo hundreds of decimal places. Chugga chugga.
#(CL, P R O G R A M )
find no m o r e parentheses print out what's left.
This implicit call is the trick that allows people to create their o w n languages very quickly. In not very long, you could create your o w n c o m m a n d s - aay Z A P P . M E L V I N and s o m e m o r e ; and while at first It Is m o r e convenient to type in the T R A C format
Y o u might try this yourself on a longer example: #(AD,»(SU, • {AD,3,4),#(SU,7,3)),1)
which Is n o w scanned. But that's another C A L L , and w h e n It is executed by fetching the object called P R O G R A M , its replacement In the w o r k area Is
H e r e is an interesting case: # (AD, 1)
#(PS, H E L P ; I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M L O O P ) » ( C L , P R O G R A M )
There's no third a r g u m e n t to add to the 1 — bu* that's okay In T R A C L a n g u a g e . 1 it r e m a i n s .
and guess w h a t . W e done U again.
P U L L I N G IN O T H E R
(Another e x a m p l e of T R A C Language's consistency: suppose It executes the c o m m a n d
STUFF
T h e core m e m o r y available to the use Is divided into two areas, which w e m a y call W O R K S P A C E and S T A N D B Y .
*(CL, E B E N E Z E R )
THE STANDBY Strings with N a m e s T h e Standby area contains strings o( characters with n a m e s . H e r e could be s o m e examples:
FORM
COMMANDS
Let us be a little m o r e precise. T h e Standby area Is really called by M o o e r s " f o r m s storage, " and a stringw i t h - n a m e that is kept there is called a f o r m . O n e reason for this terminology is that these strings can consist of p r o g r a m s o r arrangements that w e m a y want to fit together and c o m b i n e . T h u s they are " f o r m s " . 1. C R E A T I N G A
ZAPP I MELVIN that are Interpreted by the T R A C processor aa meaning the s a m e thing. 2B.
w h e n there is no string called E B E N E Z E R . T h e result ia nothing; s o that c o m m a n d disappears, leaving no residue. )
• ( M L , # ( A D , 7 , 3 ) , #(SU,16, fl))
"(ZAPP, "(MELVIN)) it is very little trouble in T R A C Language to create n e w syntaxes of your o w n like
FORM
F I L L I N G IN H O L E S .
Another thing the C A L L c o m m a n d in T R A C Language does is fill in holes that exist In f o r m s . Let us represent a hole as follows: [ 1
[WORD
Additional arguments in the call get plugged Into holes in the f o r m . E x a m p l e s : call
|HAROLD #(DS, f o r m n a m e , contents) T h e a r g u m e n t s used by D S give a n a m e to the f o r m and specify what you want to have stored in it. E x a m p l e : #(DS, E L V I S , 1234) Ijgg. H E L P : I A M T R A P P E D IN A L O O P W C L , P R O G R A M ) ]
I n a m e d E L V I S with contents 1234.
result
•(CL.WORD) f(CL,WORD,0) •{WORD, A) •{WORD.OO)
HT HOT HAT HOOT
N o w , a form can have a n u m b e r of different holes. Let us denote these by |1](2||3||4| ... N o w suppose w e have a f o r m
[I M U S T N ' T F O R G E T M Y G A L O S H E s T f T h e r e is an instruction that m o v e s things f r o m the Standby area to the W o r k s p a c e . This is the C A L L instruction. • (CL, whatever) T h e C A L L instruction pulls In a copy of the n a m e d string to replace it, the call instruction, in the w o r k area. T h e string n a m e d in the call Instruction also stays in the Standby area until you want to get rid of it. E x a m p l e : #(CL, H A R O L D )
(Note that to get a p r o g r a m into a f o r m without its being executed on the w a y requires s o m e preparation. F o r this, "protection" is used; see end of article.) II turns out that D E F I N E S T R I N G is the closest T R A C L a n g u a g e has to an assignment statement (as In B A S I C , L E T A = W H A T E V E R ) . If you want to use a variable A , say, to Store the current result of something, In T R A C L a n g u a g e you create a f o r m n a m e d A . • CDS, A , W H A T E V E R ) W h e n e v e r the value of A is changed, you redefine form A .
-'
[»|H|2|T|3)/
which w e might call n u m e r o u s w a y s : call
result
" ( W O R D , W , I, E )
WHITE
• (WORD,, OO, O W L ) HOOTOWL (Note that putting nothing between two c o m m a s m a d e nothing the argument.) •(WORD, •(WORD, ,OB,Oi
HOTSHOT
Perhaps you can think of other examples.
would be replaced b y 2. C A L L I N G A
FORM.
54321 A s noted already, Suppose w e say In a p r o g r a m • (CL, E L V I S } #(AD,l,#fCL, H A R O L D ) )
This fill-in technique Is obviously useful for p r o g r a m m i n g . If a form contains a p r o g r a m . Its holes can be m a d e to accept varying n u m b e r s , form n a m e s , text strings, other p r o g r a m s . E x a m p l e : Suppose w e want to create a n e w T R A C c o m m a n d , A D D , that adds three n u m b e r s Instead of just two. Fair enough:
will then be replaced by Then the result is:
l A D f l ) ^ . 1234
IAD,[l|,llAD.|2),[3J|i]
54322 N o w let's do a p r o g r a m loop using the C A L L . type in to our T R A C processor
II w e
Bul a wonderful extension of this, that hasn't been mentioned yet, Is
and there you are.
This brings up another example of how nicely T R A C Language w o r k s out. Suppose you have the following In f o r m s storage:
2A. T H E IMPLICIT C A L L . *(CL, P R O G R A M ) it should type H E L P ; I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M H E L P ; I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M H E L P ; I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M
LOOP LOOP LOOP
Y o u don't even have to say C L to call a f o r m . If the first argument of a c o m m a n d - that is, the first string inside the c o m m a n d parentheses — is not a c o m m a n d k n o w n to T R A C Language, w h y , the T R A C processor concludes that the first argument m a y be the n a m e of a f o r m . So n o w if you type
XZAPjlL.[2j)]
paper. Suppose you
Indefinitely.
#(AD, ' ( H A R O L D ) , # (ELVIS)) • (ZOWIE.5,7)
W h y is this? Let's go through the steps. W e noted lhat in our Standby area w e had a atrlnif n a m e d P R O G R A M which consisted of •{PS, H E L P ; I A M T R A P P E D IN A P R O G R A M L O O P ) # ( C L . P R O G R A M )
It will first note, on reaching the right-paren of the H A R O L D c o m m a n d , that since H A R O L D Is 54321, you evidently wanted this:
It happens that the arguments 5 and 7 will be passed neatly from Z O W I E to ZIP to Z A P to the final execution of the A D ; all through the s m o o t h plugging of holes by the Implicit call and the Magic Scan procedure of the T R A C processor.
• (AD, 54321, '(ELVIS))
T h e T R A C processor acans across lt to the first right parenthesis.
eaca/i of result
• j P M I E L P M AM TRAPPED I N ^ R Q G R A M LOOP),[CL, P R O G R A M ) and n o w executes this.
~~
and then will do the same with ELVIS: *(AD, 54321,1234)
P R W T h 8 T R * ™ r - t h ' ! P S 0 U" l h CU P R CI oN nT d 8 aT R I " G instruction, fhe^it7?2^ ? '' " "Tument, forgets m e rest. But the only argument after P S la r t a
so that pretty soon It'll type for you 55555
T M C Language is * so-called "list processing languaga" ar "List Languaga.* This t a n has COB* to swan any languaga lot Middling data having arbitrary and changing t o n . Two othar proalnant languages of Uila type ar* gwoBOL and •lly fraaky.
In the well-thought-out ramifications of its basic concept, the T R A C L a n g u a g e is so elegant as to constitute a w o r k of art. It beautifully fulfills this rule: " . . . the facilities provided by the language should be constructed f r o m as few basic ideas as possible, and ... these should be general-purpose and interrelated in the language in a w a y which avoided special cases w h e r e v e r possible." (Harrison, Data-Structures and P r o g r a m m i n g , p u b . Scott, F o r e s m a n , p . 251.) T h e fundamental idea of T R A C L a n g u a g e , which has b e e n w o r k e d out in detail wl£h the deepest c a r e , thought and consistency, is this: A m i l d - m a n n e r e d m a n in C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , w h o o w n s his o w n very s m a l l business, is the creator of o n e of the m o s t extraordinary and powerful c o m p u t e r languages there is, though lots of people in the field don't realize it. T h e language is fairly w e l l - k n o w n a m o n g professionals, but its real p o w e r is hardly suspected. If B A S I C is a fairly conventional p r o g r a m m i n g language, strongly r e s e m b l i n g F O R T R A N . T R A C (Text R e c k o n i n g and C o m p i l i n g ) L a n g u a g e is fairly unusual. T h e n a m e of it Is " T R A C L a n g u a g e , " not just T R A C — b e c a u s e it's a registered brand n a m e (like K l e e n e x T i s s u e s ) . Within the rules, the w o r d " T R A C " is an adjective and not a n o u n . T h u s T R A C is its first n a m e , L a n g u a g e is its last; so w e c a n refer to " T R A C L a n g u a g e " instead of having to p r e c e d e it with the. It is included here for several r e a s o n s . 1) It is e x t r e m e l y easy to learn, at least for b e g i n n e r s . E x p e r i e n c e d p r o g r a m m e r s often h a v e trouble with it. 2) It is e x t r e m e l y powerful for n o n - n u m e r i c tasks. In fact, it is ideal for building y o u r o w n personal language. 3) It offers p e r h a p s the best control of m a s s storage, a n d y o u r o w n style of input-output, of any language. 4 ) It is superbly d o c u m e n t e d and explained with the n e w " T h e Beginner's M a n u a l for T R A C L a n g u a g e " w h i c h is n o w available. 5) It is likely to catch o n o n e of these d a y s . ( S o m e large corporations have b e e n investigating it extensively.)
A L L IS T E X T . T h a t is, all p r o g r a m s and data are stored as strings of characters, in the s a m e m a n n e r . T h e y are labelled, stored, retrieved, and otherwise treated in the s a m e w a y , as strings of text characters. D a t a and p r o g r a m s are not kept in binary f o r m , but r e m a i n stored in character f o r m , m u c h the w a y they w e r e originally put in. T h e p r o g r a m s are e x a m i n e d for execution as text strings, and they call data in the f o r m of text strings. This gives rise to certain interesting kinds of compatibility. a) C o m p l e t e compatibility exists in the c o m m a n d structure: the results of o n e c o m m a n d can b e c o m e another c o m m a n d o r can b e c o m e data for another c o m m a n d . A L M O S T NOTHING C R E A T E S A N E R R O R CONDITION. If e n o u g h information is not supplied to execute a c o m m a n d , the c o m m a n d is ignored. If too m u c h information is supplied, the extra is ignored. b) C o m p l e t e compatibility exists in the data: letters and n u m b e r s a n d s p a c e s m a y be freely intermixed. Special terminal characters (like carriage returns and b a c k s p a c e s ) a r e handled just like other characters, giving the p r o g r a m m e r c o m p l e t e control of the a r r a n g e m e n t of output on the page. c) C o m p l e t e compatibility also exists f r o m o n e c o m p u t e r to another, so that w o r k o n o n e c o m p u t e r can be m o v e d to another with e a s e . B y the t r a d e m a r k T R A C , M o o e r s guarantees it — an innovation. COMMAND
It is not so m u c h the basic idea of T R A C L a n g u a g e , but the neatness with which the idea has been elaborated, that is so nice. A s a side point, here is an important motto for thinking in general about computers (and about other things in general): M A K I N G T H I N G S FIT T O G E T H E R W E L L TAKES A LOT OF W O R K A N D T H O U G H T . Let Calvin Mooers' T R A C L a n g u a g e be a shining e x a m p l e .
T R A C L a n g u a g e is great for creating highly interactive s y s t e m s for special p u r p o s e s , including turnkey s y s t e m s for inexperienced users and " g o o d - g u y " s y s t e m s . It c o m b i n e s this with good facilities for handling text, and w h a t is needed along with that, terrific control o v e r m a s s storage. It is also excellent for simulating c o m p l e x on-off s y s t e m s ; r u m o r has it that T R A C L a n g u a g e w a s u s e d for simulating a m a j o r c o m p u t e r before it w a s built. Against these advantages w e m u s t balance T R A C Language's less fortunate characteristics. F o r n u m e r i c a l operations it is e x t r e m e l y s l o w , if not terrible, c o m p a r e d to the m o s t popular languages. T h e s a m e applies to handling n u m e r i c a l arrays and controlling loops, w h i c h are c o m p a r a tively a w k w a r d in T R A C L a n g u a g e . Finally, m a n y p r o g r a m m e r s are incensed by the n u m b e r of parentheses that turn up in T R A C p r o g r a m s ; in this it r e s e m b l e s the language L I S P . But this is an aesthetic judgement. T h e T R A C L a n g u a g e has been thought out in grpat detail for total compatibility of all parts. ( M o r e o v e r , by standardizing the language exactly, M o o e r s heroically assures that p r o g r a m s can be m o v e d f r o m c o m p u t e r to c o m p u t e r without difficulty.)
FORMAT
A T R A C c o m m a n d has the following f o r m . T h e crosshatch o r sharp-sign is the w a y this language identifies a c o m m a n d ' s beginning. # ( N M , arg2, arg3, arg4,..) N M is the n a m e of any T R A C c o m m a n d . It counts as the first " a r g u m e n t , " o r piece of information supplied. A r g 2 , a r g 3 , etc. are w h a t e v e r else the c o m m a n d needs to k n o w to b e carried out. W e will look first at e x a m p l e s that use the arithmetic c o m m a n d s of T R A C L a n g u a g e , not b e c a u s e it is particularly good at arithmetic, w h i c h it isn't, but b e c a u s e they're the simplest c o m m a n d s . T h e arithmetic c o m m a n d s are A D (add), S U (subtract, M L (multiply), D V (divide). E a c h arithmetic c o m m a n d takes three a r g u m e n t s , the c o m m a n d n a m e and two n u m b e r s . E x a m p l e s : #(AD,1,2) is a c o m m a n d to add the n u m b e r s 1 and 2. #(SU,4,3) is a c o m m a n d to subtract the n u m b e r 3 f r o m the n u m b e r 4. #(ML,632,521) is a c o m m a n d to multiply 632 by 5 2 1 . #(DV,100,10) is a c o m m a n d to divide 100 by 1 0 . N o w c o m e s the interesting part. T h e w a y T R A C c o m m a n d s m a y be c o m b i n e d provides the language's extraordinary p o w e r . This is based on the w a y that the T R A C p r o c e s s o r e x a m i n e s the p r o g r a m , which Is a string of character c o d e s . W a t c h as w e c o m b i n e two A O instructions: # ( A D , 3 , # ( A D , 2,5)) T h e a n s w e r is 1 0 .
Miraculous!
H o w can this b e ? • T R A C is a registered service m a r k of Rockford R e s e a r c h , Inc. Description of T R A C L a n g u a g e primitives adapted by permission f r o m " T R A C , A Procedure-Describing L a n g u a g e for the Reactive Typewriter", copyright © 1966 by Rockford R e s e a r c h , Inc.
I a m grateful to C . A . R . K a g a n , of Western Electric Engineering Research Center, for his extensive (and finally successful) efforts to interest m e in T R A C Language.
JT A c o m m a ends an argument in the T R A C language? A h , that all arguments could be ended so easily. --My grandfather.
PRINT INPUT LET B PRINT OF T H E END
"HOW OLD ARE YOU" A = A/40.0 " Y O U R A G E IS" . B . " T I M E S T H E A G E EMPIRE S T A T E BUILDING."
T h U will cause the following to h a p p e n : P r o g r a m types: H O W OLD ARE YOU?
20
P r o g r a m types: Y O U R A G E IS .5 T I M E S T H E A G E O F T H E E M P I R E S T A T E BUILDING. T h e IF c o m m a n d T h e IF c o m m a n d Is a w a y of teaiing what's stored tn a variable. E x a m p l e : 88
IF M = 40 then 63
Thla teats variable M to see if it contains the n u m b e r 4 0 . If M la indeed 4 0 . the p r o g r a m follower j u m p s to line 6 3 . If not. it goes right on a n d takes the next higher instruction after 8 8 . T h e IF can test other relations than equality, including "leaa that." "greater than." "not equal," "less than or equal to." etc. For instance,
T H I S IS A S E R I O U S L A N G U A G E , A N D CAN SAVE SOME COMPANIES A LOT OF M O N E Y B A S I C fa a very serious l a n g u a g e . A d v a n c e d vera ion a of B A S I C h a v e Instructions that allow users lo put tn alphabetical information, a n d store a n d retrieve all kinds of Information from disks or tape. In other w o r d s , B A S I C can b e used for the fairly Blmple p r o g r a m m i n g of a vast r a n g e of p r o b l e m s a n d " g o o d - g u y systems" mentioned e l s e w h e r e . Complete B A S I C systems allowing c o m p l e x calculations can b e h a d for p e r h a p s 13000; a general-purpose c o m p u t e r r u n n i n g B A S I C with cassette or other m a s s storage, for bualneaa or other p u r p o s e s , can n o w h e had for s o m e $6000. Allowing a few thousand dollars for p r o g r a m m i n g specific applications In B A S I C , simple systems can b e created for a variety of p u r p o s e s that s o m e c o m p a n i e s might say y o u n e e d e d a hundred-lhousand-dollar system for. This la serious b u s i n e s s . L a n g u a g e s like B A S I C m u s t b e considered b y people w h o w a n t simple s y a t e m s to d o understandable things in direct w a y s that are meaningful to t h e m , a n d that don't disrupt their c o m p a n i e s or their lives. This has b e e n a very hasty a n d brief presentation in w h i c h I h a v e tried to c o n v e y the feeling of this important l a n g u a g e . If y o u h a v e the c h a n c e to learn it, b y all m e a n s
(available in B A S I C . A P L a n d m a n y other languages) A r r a y s a n Information setups with n u m b e r e d positions. T h e positions can contain all sorts of different things, however: n u m b e r s , letters or other dutu, d e p e n d i n g on the data structures allowed in the l a n g u a g e .
S O M E F U N T H I N G S T O T R Y IN B A S I C 89
IF Q
7 then 102 C-I;
Write a p r o g r a m that prints calendars. will send the p r o g r a m follower to c o m m a n d 75 if variable Q containa a n u m b e r less than 7. (Note that different B A S I C a for different c o m p u t e r s m a y h a v e slightly different rules here.)
— — i A T h e B A S I C l a n g u a g e , developed at D a r t m o u t h , m u s t not b e confused with the underlying binary languages of individual computers (aee " R o c k Bottom," p . 3 2 , ) . T h e s e underlying codes arc called " m a c h i n e languages" (or. In a d r e s s e d - u p f o r m , easier to use for p r o g r a m m e r s , "assembler l a n g u a g e " ) T h e s e are the basic languages , different for each m a c h i n e . Dartmouth B A S I C , or jut plain Basic, is a widely available, standardized, simple beginner's l a n g u a g e .
— ANOTHER PROFOUND EXEMPLARY
r - - - 62 ;
BS
LET Z PRINT LET Z IF Z = GOTO
PROGRAM
= 25 Z . " B O T T L E S O F B E E R IN T H E W A L L " = Z - 1 0 G O T O 74 10 -•• • — — •
iverts an input n u m b e r to l i Write a dialogue system that w e l c o m e s the user to the sanitarium, asks him questions, ignores the a n s w e r s a n d insults h i m . (Use the I N P U T statement for receiving numerical a n s w e r s . Since the a n s w e r s are ignored they c a n all b e stored in o n e variable.)
JdL
..-1
W H E R E T O G E T IT (Features of the B A S I C l a n g u a g e v a r y considerably from system to s y s t e m . W h i c h o n e s offer the highly desirable alphabetic c o m m a n d s a n d m a s s storage h a v e to b e c h e c k e d out individually.) B A S I C is offered o n m a n y if not m o s t t i m e s h a r i n g services, so y o u c a n u s e it from y o u r h o m e o n a lerminal. (But note lhat this c a n b e e x p e n s i v e a n d e v e n d a n g e r o u s , if you're p a y i n g yourself; there arc not presently adequate cost safeguards lo prevent y o u from r u n n i n g u p h u g e bills .) B E S T B U Y ? R u m o r s persist of a lime-sharing service s o m e w h e r e that offers B A S I C for $S an h o u r , total, with disk storage t h r o w n in. I h a v e not b e e n able to verify this.
i—* 7 4 75 T h e p r o g r a m will start typing thusly: 25 B O T T L E S O F B E E R IN T H E 24 B O T T L E S O F B E E R IN T H E
WALL WALL
D E C offers m i n i c o m p u t e r - b a s e d s y s t e m s w h i c h tlmeahsrc B A S I C a m o n g several terminals simultaneously. (But y o u h a v e to b u y the w h o l e big system .) T h e o n e s that r u n o n the P D P - 8 sre m a r k e t e d mainly to schools, a n d for this reason are called, s o m e w h a t peculiarly. E D U S Y S T E M S Their multiterminal system for the P D P - 1 1 is called R S T S ( p r o n o u n c e d "Kisstiss,") a n d is m a r k e t e d mainly to b u s i n e s s e s .
a n d ao o n . until Z has reached 0; then it will type 0 B O T T L E S O F B E E R IN T H E TIME T O G O H O M E .
WALL
a n d then it will atop.
T h e reason w e are able to escape from this loop is that w e h a v e a test instruction, IF statement n u m b e r 6 2 . It la very Important for the p r o g r a m m e r to Include tests w h i c h allow the p r o g r a m to get out of a loop. This m a y b e couched as a motto, viz.:
AH AUTOMATIC
LOOP.
LOOP
Indeed, for people w h o are big on p r o g r a m loops, B A S I C provides a pair of instructions w h i c h handle the p r o g r a m loop completely. T h e s e are the F O R a n d N E X T instructiona. W c won't s h o w them h e r e , but they're not very h a r d . Using the F O R c o m m a n d , y o u can easily direct the computer to do something a million and one tunes, s a y . This c a n b e exhilarating. Y o u can even direct It lo Include that p r o g r a m in something to be d o n e a billion times, resulting in s p r o g r a m loop that w o u l d b e carried out over a trillion tlmea. All in a short p r o g r a m ! But of course thia ia Juat p o w e r o n paper; w e w e n t our p r o g r a m a lo b e useful, a n d finish their Job a in the present c e n t u r y , a n d so such flights are Juat mental exercises. F A S T A N S W E R B A C K W I T H B A S I C (in s o m e versions) If y o u want a fast a n s w e r to a numerical question, y o u can do it without the line n u m b e r s . typing in PRINT
A r r a y s are h a n d y for w o r k i n g with a lot of different things o n e at a time. T h e y can b e given n a m e s just like varinbles.
p . I D
Y o u will note that this p r o g r a m , like the o n e that printed " H E L P . 1 A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P , " has a loop, that ia, a repeated sequence of operations . T h e first o n e w a s a n endless loop , w h i c h repeated forever. Thia loop, h o w e v e r , is m o r e well b e h a v e d (by s o m e people's s t a n d a r d s ) , In that it allows a n escape w h e n a certain criterion has been reached-- in thia c a s e , printing a line of text 25 times with variants.
LEAK BEFORE YOU
Hewlett-Packard offers B A S I C , I believe, on all of its m i n i c o m p u t e r s . Of special interest is an o d d c o m p u t e r called the Series 9800 M o d e l 3 0 . You're only allowed to p r o g r a m in B A S I C . (It's actually a microprocessor; see
A one-dimensional array is like a row , a twodimensional array is like a tabletop, a threedimensional array is like a b o x , and for m o r e dimensions y o u can't visualize.
3.1416 • 7124
will cause B A S I C to print the a n s w e r right out a n d forget ths whole thing.
T E X T S T R 1 N O S IN B A S I C T h a deluxe versions of the Dartmouth B A S I C language have operations for handling text-* or what computerfolk call "strings," that ia. string* of alphabetic characters a n d punctuation. T h e a e operationa tend lo begin with t (standing for "Jtring"?) a n d there's no r o o m for them h e r e . Bul what (hey m e a n la that B A S I C can type letter*, count the n o u n a in G o n e With T h e W i n d , or print out the nine h u n d r e d million n a m e * of God. If you write the p r o g r a m .
M a n y other minicomputer manufacturers n o w offer B A S I C . Data General's N O V A is o n e .
S u p p o s e y o u h a v e a one-dimensional array n a m e d S A M . T h e n in a p r o g r a m you can usually ask for the third element in S A M b y referring lo S A M ( 3 ) . Belter lhan that: you can refer by turns lo every element of S A M b y using a counting variable a n d c h a n g i n g its value. S A M (JOE) can be a n y o n e of the elements of the a r r a y , if w e set the value of J O E . Ihe counting variable, to the n u m b e r of Ihe position w o want to point to.
BIBLIOGRAPHY K e m e n y a n d K u r t z , B A S I C P r o g r a m m i n g . Wiley, 1967. D E C ' s E d u s y s t e m H a n d b o o k is a very nice introduction to B A S I C , quite pleasant a n d whimsical; it m a y b e a good introduction e v e n if you're using other people's B A S I C s y s t e m s . It's (5 from D E C , C o m m u n i c a t i o n a Services, Parker S t . , M a y n a r d , M a s s . 01754.
For arrays having m o r e than one dimension, the principle is the s a m e . Y o u m a y refer in a p r o g r a m to any apace in the array by giving a n u m b e r in parentheses, or subscript, specifying ihe space's position in each dimension. S u p p o s e y o u h a v e an array n a m e d P R I C E S , w h i c h gives the prices of, s a y , various sizes a n d b r a n d s of T V sets.
T h e r e is also a p r o g r a m m e d text on B A S I C b y Albrecht (published b y W i l e y ) . For those of u s w h o freeze at numerical-looking m a n u a l s , p r o g r a m m e d texts c a n take a w a y s lot of anxiety .
•air
M Y C O M P U T E R L I K E S M E (when I s p e a k in B A S I C ) . This book has evidently been pul together b y the People's C o m p u t e r C o m p a n y , a n d hos s o m e idealistic fervor behind it. $1.19 from U y m a x , B o x 3 1 0 . M e n l o P a r k . C a l . 94025.
B A S I C is a g o o d e x a m p l e of an "algebraic" type of l a n g u a g e , that ia, o n e formulated m o r e or leas lo look like high-school algebra a n d permit easy conversion of certain algebraic formulas Into actual runnable p r o g r a m s . T h e most widuly used language of thia type is F O R T R A N (see p . 3 | ) . T h u s B A S I C ia often referred to aa a "Fortran-type language." T h e kickeroo-- a n d if y o u understand Ihis it's half the battle - ia that a line of B A S I C or F O R T R A N directs a certain event to take place, while a statement in algebra Juat describes relatione. T h e strange reaemblance b e t w e e n the deacrlplive language (algebra) a n d the prescriptive language (Fortran or Basic) ia that algebraic operationa (which are just recombinatlona a n d restatements) can b e mimicked by the c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e , a n d this early obaeaslon of m a t h y computerfolk led to m a k i n g the computer language look like a descriptive algebra. Especially with Ihe weird use of the equals-sign lo m e a n "is replaced n o w b y . " In hindsight this w a a a ridiculoua idea; s o m e of the m o r e recent languages (Such as A P L ) use a left-pointing arrow instead of an equal* sign, s h o w i n g lhat an action ia being called for, rather than a relationship being described.
9" diag. 12" IS" 19"
» 3 , column 2. S u p p o s e y o u h a v e a two-dimensional array giving the telephone n u m b e r s , salaries and ages of several different employees of a c o m p a n y . Y o u h a v e decided to call the array W H A M .
Tel.no. Salary Age Y o u can refer to any single entry in this array aa W H A M ( I R V . J O E ) , w h e r e IRV and J O E are two counting variables you've decided to set u p . If you set 1 K V a n d J O E both to 1. W H A M ( I R V . J O E ) is really W H A M ( l . l ) . which refers y o u to Ihe telephone n u m b e r of employee A . If y o u c h a n g e J O E to 2, that gives y o u W H A M ( l . l ) , giving y o u B's p h o n e ; while W H A M ( 2 , 1 ) would ba A'a salary. T h e b B *r« juat Ihe mechanics . Whal you choose to do with thn. aurl of thing ia your o w n affair. Counting around in arrays (and core m e m o r y , w h e r e they're stored) is called indexing.
W h e n y o u type In a p r o g r a m , the B A S I C p r o c e s s o r will d o certain things to it (actually c o o k it d o w n ) a n d store it In c o r e m e m o r y :
The END command T h e E N D c o m m a n d in B A S I C simply consists of the w o r d E N D . It m u s t c o m e last in the p r o g r a m . T h e r e f o r e it m u s t h a v e the highest line n u m b e r . E x a m p l e : 99
END
The PRINT command W h e n e v e r the p r o g r a m follower gets to a P R I N T c o m m a n d , it prints out o n the terminal w h a t e v e r Is specified. E x s m p l e : 97 p r S * . T p \ 0 u T M ' 5
BASIC
T h e B A S I C l a n g u a g e , also called D a r t m o u t h - B a s i c , w a s introduced in the Bixtiea at D a r t m o u t h College b y J o h n Ketneny a n d T h o m a s K u r t z . It w a s intended to b e s simple a n d easy-to-learn introduction to c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g , yet p o w e r f u l e n o u g h to d o useful t h i n g s . It h a s g r o w n In u s e , in recent y e a r s , both ss the foremost b e g i n n e r ' s l a n g u a g e , a n d as a perfectly fine l a n g u a g e for d o i n g m a n y simple k i n d s of w o r k — like c u s t o m b u s i n e s s applications, statistics, a n d " g o o d - g u y " a y B t e m s for n a i . s u s e r s a s d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e in this b o o k . K e m e n y is n o w president of D a r t m o u t h , a n d K u r t z r u n s their h i g h - p o w e r time-sharing c o m p u t e r c e n t e r , ao B A S I C has a p e r m a n e n t h o m e base there.
E v e r y time y o u c h a n g e o n e of the lines of the p r o g r a m the B A S I C p r o c e s s o r will insert, delete or replace lines as y o u h a v e c o m m a n d e d , then r e a r r a n g e w h a t e v e r ' s left a c c o r d i n g l y . In o r d e r of the line n u m b e r s .
HAIL C A E S A R .
IMPUGN
Y
50
INPUT
Y
the p r o c e s s o r will start the p r o g r a m g o i n g at the c o m m a n d w i t h the earliest line n u m b e r , a n d y o u r instructions will b e e x e c u t e d a c c o r d i n g to the rules of B A S I C .
w h i c h m e a n s that w h e n a p r o g r a m follower gets to c o m m a n d # 6 2 , it m u s t next J u m p to 99 a n d g o o n from t h e r e , unless that h a p p e n s to b e the E N D statement.
N o w w e will c o n s i d e r s of B A S I C .
A SIMPLE S A M P L E
62
s of the c o m m a n d s (or statements)
E x a m p l e of a B A S I C c o m m a n d : 153
LET X = Y
Y o u can c h o o s e a n y l i n e n u m b e r s y o u w a n t , b u t the lines are automatically put in the o r d e r of their n u m b e r s . S i n c e w h e n y o u write a p r o g r a m y o u don't usually k n o w at the outset w h a t it will look like later, y o u try to leave e n o u g h g a p s in the n u m b e r s at the start to fit in the instructions y o u m i g h t w a n t to put b e t w e e n t h e m later.
T H E SETTING T o b e g i n w i t h , there m u s t b e a c o m p u t e r , a n d it m u s t h a v e a p r o c e s s o r f o r the B A S I C l a n g u a g e . that la, a p r o g r a m For carrying out the operations of D a r t m o u t h B A S I C . W e will a s s u m e that this B A S I C p r o c e s s o r i s a l l set u p in core m e m o r y r e a d y to g o .
43 67 68
BASIC
43 67 68 T h e a e two b o y s h a d n e v e r seen a c o m p u t e r before, but 1 l o a d e d it u p with the B A S I C l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s o r , s h o w e d t h e m a few basic c o m m a n d s a n d told t h e m to turn it off w h e n they w e r e t h r o u g h . I got b a c k ten h o u r s later a n d they w e r e Btill at it. T o o b a d k i d s h a v e s u c h short attention s p a n s .
A n d w e will a s s u m e , aa previously m e n t i o n e d , that y o u h a v e s o m e k i n d of a terminal-- that ia, a device with a k e y b o a r d , a o m e kind of place the c o m p u t e r c a n a e n d m e s s a g e s to y o u a n d vice v e r s e , a n d is m o r e or less s t a n d a r d . N o w then: all that ia n e e d e d Is for y o u to u n d e r s t a n d the B A S I C l a n g u a g e , a n d y o u c a n p r o g r a m thia c o m p u t e r within the confine* of B A S I C . **• It is o n e of the strange aspects of this field that l a n g u a g e s c a n be taught independently of discussions of the m a c h i n e itself.
PROGRAM
PRINT GOTO END
" H E L P , I A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P " 43
" H E L P , I A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P " 43
<-i '
H E L P , I A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P H E L P , I A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P H E L P , I A M C A U G H T IN A L O O P I n t e r m i n a b l y , or until y o u d o s o m e t h i n g drastic. It n e v e r gets to the E N D statement. ( T w o strategies for doing something drastic are usually to hold d o w n the C O N T R O L button a n d type C , or hold d o w n both C O N T R O L a n d S H I F T buttons. If y o u h s v e t h e m , a n d type P . O n e of these usually w o r k s . )
T h e B A S I C l a n g u a g e , like a n u m b e r of other l a n g u a g e s , allows y o u to set aside places in core m e m o r y a n d give t h e m n a m e s . T h e s e places m a y hold n u m b e r s . T h e y c a n b e u s e d to c o u n t the n u m b e r of times that things a r e d o n e (or not d o n e ) , to hold a n s w e r s , n u m b e r s to test a g a i n s t , n u m b e r s to multiply b y a n d so o n .
The LET command T h e L E T c o m m a n d puts s o m e t h i n g into a variable. Example: 43
In B A S I C , these places a r e g i v e n n a m e s of o n e alphabetical letter. T h a t m e a n s y o u c a n h a v e u p to 26 of t h e m . Examples: 1
sometimei
even X
B e c a u s e these n a m e d s p a c e s in m e m o r y m a y b e u s e d s o m e t h i n g like the w a y letters a r e u s e d in a l g e b r a , w e call t h e m v a r i a b l e s . In fact, e a c h o n e is a place with a name.
EEL
PRINT GOTO END
T h e result is that y o u r terminal will print
f j i - w " ! t\*\. Act-* I *44*«J
eouUU
e*H*t#i. If y o u u s e the n a m e s B ,C a n d D for variables In y o u r p r o g r a m , the B A S I C p r o c e s s o r will automatically s e t u p places for t h e m to be s t o r e d .
LET R =
2.3
W h a t is o n the right side of the equals s i g n i n the laat statement. in this case 2 . 3 , is stuffed into w h a t e v e r location of core m e m o r y is designated o n the left side, in this case a place k n o w n to y o u only a s R . With the result that s o m e p l a c e i n core m e m o r y ia
T h e L E T statement is a n e x a m p l e of a n a s s i g n m e n t statement, w h i c h m o s t c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s h a v e ; a n a s s i g n m e n t statement a s s i g n s a specific piece of Information (often a n u m b e r , but often other things) to s o m e n a m e (often standing for a particular place in core m e m o r y ) . T h e L E T c o m m a n d in B A S I C c a n also b e u a e d to d o arithmetic. E x a m p l e : 14
(Note: T h i s is how lt l o o k s • In a minicomputer. O n a time-sharing system there's a lot of irrelevant other atuff going o n , w h i c h we'll leave out.)
99
T h e p r o g r a m will start at the first instruction, w h i c h h a p p e n s in this case to b e instruction n u m b e r 4 3 . T h a t o n e prints a m e s s a g e . T h e next c o m m a n d , b y line n u m b e r , is 6 7 . T h i s tells the p r o g r a m follower to go b a c k to 4 3 , w h i c h it d o e s .
Ca».|H>V
O k
GOTO
T h e s e are e n o u g h c o m m a n d s to write a s a m p l e p r o g r a m .
VARIABLES
50
WERT
T h e G O T O c o m m a n d tells the p r o g r a m follower the n u m b e r of the n e x t c o m m a n d for it to d o , from w h i c h It will g o o n . E x a m p l e :
w h i c h automatically replaces the previously line 5 0 . If y o u w a n t to get H a of the line entirely, y o u type
a n d a n end-of-line c o d e , a n d the w h o l e line i s g o n e .
BIRD T H O U N E V E R
T h e G O T O c o m m a n d ( p r o n o u n c e d " G o 2")
T h e simplicity of the l a n g u a g e b e g i n s at the p r o g r a m i n p u t , or editing, level. E a c h c o m m a n d of B A S I C m u s t b e o n a separate line, a n d e a c h line m u s t h a v e a separate line n u m b e r . S u p p o s e y o u accidentally type in 50
BIRD T H O U N E V E R W E R T "
T h e n w h e n y o u tell the p r o c e s s o r to start the p r o g r a m , b y t y p i n g (with n o line n u m b e r )
Note that the n a m e B A S I C d o e s not refer to the bottomlevel or elemental l a n g u a g e s of c o m p u t e r s . B A S I C h a s b e e n contrived specifically to m a k e p r o g r a m m i n g q u i c k e r a n d easier. It is not "basic" to all c o m p u t e r s ; s u c h bottom l a n g u a g e s are called " m a c h i n e l a n g u a g e " or " a s s e m b l e r l a n g u a g e " (see p p .
w h e n y o u m e a n t " I N P U T " instead of " I M P U G N . " Y o u m a y replace that c o m m a n d at a n y time b y typing the s a m e line n u m b e r a n d the n e w version of the line,
P R I N T "HAIL C A E S A R .
W h e n a n d if the p r o g r a m follower gets to this c o m m a n d , the terminal will print out
L E T M = 2.3 + (12-7999.1)
( T h e asterisk h a s to b e u s e d for multiplication b e c a u s e traditionally terminals don't h a v e a times-sign.) B A S I C will w o r k this out from right to left s n d store the result in M . Tha INPUT command T h e I N P U T statement a s k s the p e r s o n at the terminal for a n u m b e r a n d then s h o v e s it into a variable. E x a m p l e : 41
INPUT
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w h i c h c a u s e s the terminal to type a question m a r k , a n d w a i t . W h e n the u s e r h a s typed in a n u m b e r f o U o w s d b y a carriage r e t u r n , the B A S I C processor stuffa Ihe n u m b e r Into the variable a n d p r o c e e d s with ths p r o g r a m . H e r e is a p r o g r a m uaing the I N P U T statement.
These languages have been chosen b e c a u s e they arc i m p o r t a n t , very d i f f e r e n t from e a c h o t h e r , very p o w e r f u l , i n f l u e n t i a l a n d h i g h l y r e g a r d e d in the field interact i v e fron t i m e - s h a r i n g <-.v, tens ind very s u i t a b l e for m a k i n g i nt Vac t i vc p F U g r a n s and good-guy systens."
are what m a k e computers go 'round. H your computer only did one thing, then to start it you'd only need one button to
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But that's not what it's about. Everyone should have s o m e brush with computer p r o g r a m m i n g , just to see what it Is and isn't. What it is: casting mystical spells in arcane terminology, w h o s e exact details have exact ramifications. What H isn't talking or typing to the computer in sum.' w a y Din! requires intelligence by the machine Whui is: an intricate technical nrt. What it^ isn't: science.
W e have lota of different things that w c want computers to d o , and w e want one c o m m a n d to w o r k on different varieties of data, or on the results of a previous c o m m a n d , or even to c h e w on another c o m m a n d itself: and so a computer language is a contrived method of g-iving c o m m a n d s to a computer that allows the c o m m a n d s to be entwined in a complex fashion.
W h y three languages? Because one would look loo m u c h alike. Only by perusing several do you get any sense of the variety they take.
Thia m e a n s having rules the computer can carry out and the person can r e m e m b e r .
T h e s e t h r e e l a n g u a g e s m a k e it p o s s i b l e in p r i n c i p l e for y o u to l e a r n c o m p u t e r s w i t h no c o a c h i n g . A l l y o u n e e d fin p r i n c i p l e ) is y o u r o w n t e r m i n a l , a n d t i n c - s h a r i n j ; a c c o u n t s w i t h f i r m s r u n n i n g B A S I C (most of t h e m d o ) , T R A C L a n g u a g e (for a v a i l a b i l i t y see p . 21), a n d / o r API. (for p a r t i a l l i s t of e p. 25).
This m e a n s having baaic operations that can be built Into bigger operations (routines, subroutines, s u b p r o g r a m s , p r o g r a m s ) . T h u s a c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e is r e a l l y a m e t h o d by w h i c h a u s e r c a n tie these programs together. Computer languages are b u i l t a c c o r d i n g to c o n t r i v e d s e t s o f r u l e s for tying p r o g r a m s t o g e t h e r . Such r u l e s a r c 1imi ted o n l y by the i m a g i n a tion of t h e i r c o n t r i v e r s , Each c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e has its own c o n t r i v e d s y s t e m of r u l e s , a n d it m a y b e c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t from the c o n t r i v e d r u l e s t y i n g t o g e t h e r any o t h e r c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e . ( T h a t ' s one r e a s o n for h e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h r e e d i f f e r ent c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s , to s h o w s o m e o f the m a d v a r i e t y that c a n e x i s t . )
programs
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W h y these three? Several good reasons. O n e . they can be used from a terminal, which m e a n s that you could in principle get a terminal in your h o m e and play with the computer from over the telephone. But this is expensive, and at worst fraught with accidental financial liabilities, so the possibility is minor right n o w . Nevertheless, it should be practical and inexpensive fairly soon.
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N o t e : into: L . * ; the p r o g r a m m e r , i_.ni c h a n g e from the t e r m i n a l ; i n t e r a c t i v e are those which interact with u s e r s , u m is d i f f e r e n t . H o w e v e r , these l a n g u a g e s .irt q u i t e s u i t a b l e for b o t h . Another reason for these three: they represent, in a w a y , several major types, B A S I C ii, n widespread .ind fairly standard language- that is, il is available on computers e v e r y w h e r e . M o r e o v e r , it looks rather like Fortran, which is the most importnm "scientifie" computer language. T R A C L a n g u a g e , (hough well-known a m o n g researchers, has mighty p o w e r s lhat are not so well k n o w n . M o r e o v e r , it achieves its powers through the simple and highly consistent following of a few simple principles, and is ihus both very easy to learn and an elegant Intellectual triumph for its inventor.
M o r e o v e r , it is a so-called "list language." meaning lhat it can handle information having extremely varied and changing form-- a very important feature to those of us interested in computer applications like picture-making and text handling, which use amorphous and busy types of data. (See "Data Structures," p p . 2 6 T ) A P L is another elegant language, also worked out handsomely from certain basic i- 1 — by a very thoughtful and inspired i
In the contemplation of these three languages you m a y begin to see the influence of the individual h u m a n mind in the computer field quite contrary lo the stereotype. I would like to stress here that each of these three languages represents somebody's individual personal achievement, and is in turn a foundation upon which others, writing programs, can build
fwo of these language-* r-rn.- rh" c r e a t i o n of i n t e r a c t i v e : *• - \ori on a l i n e - b y - l i n e b a s i ; ; rpj^r L a n g u a g e ( p p . 1 8 - 2 1 ) p., 'ion o f s y s t e m s that r e a c t , the u s e r types i n , r a t h e r tl. .:. . „ : ; • . , • . , r I n e c a r n a g e r e t u r n at the end of a line This p e r m i t s y o u to profiraia u s e r - l e v e l systems that arc e v e n m o r e r e s p o n s i v e . IF Y O U ' R E S C A R E D . Don't w o r r y , it's not a test. Flip the pages and look at the e x a m ples, (in particular, you might look for the same program which appears in each language: a program to cause the computer to print " H E L P , [ A M T R A P P E D IN A L O O P " forever.) This book is organized so you can look at it or skip it in any order, so there is no particular reason you have to fight through the next three chapters if you want to press o n . But if you want to study these languages, by all
Languages that can be used from a terminal are called on-line languages. There are a n u m ber of other popular on-line languages: J O S S (the original), F O C A L . L O G O . S P E A K E A S Y . I'm just sorry there's no room for them here. Some popular non-interactive language arc b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d on p p . jil->l.
C o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s tend to l o o k like nothing else you've ever s e e n . Thus comp u t e r p r o g r a m s , w h i c h of c o u r s e h a v e to be w r i t t e n in t h e s e c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s , look p r e t t y w e i r d . S o m e p r o g r a m s look l i k e o l d t r a i n s c h e d u l e s (in n u l t i p l e columns). S o m e look a l i t t l e l i k e p r i n ted p o e t r y . In any c a s e , a C O M P U T E R P R O G R A M N O M O R E L O O K S L I K E ITS R E S U L T T H A N T H A N T H E W O R D " C O W " L O O K S LIKE A C O W . O n e o f the c e n t r a l c o n c e p t s of this b o o k is t h a t of a ' " p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r , " a dynamic entity which somehow follows a program, '.Veil, E V E R Y L A N G U A G E H A S A P R O G R A M F O L L O W E R F O L L O W I N G ITS OWN P A R T I CULAR RULES. T h e s e r u l e s are c o n t r i v e d for c o n v e n i e n c e , s u i t a b i l i t y to a p u r p o s e , a n d " a e s t h e t i c s " of a s o r t - - o f t e n s o m e forra of s t a r k c o m p r e s s i o n . (The p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r s w i r e d into c o m p u t e r s are s o m e w h a t m o r e a k i n to o n e a n o t h e r ; s e e " R o c k B o t t o m , " p . 32.) A b o u t all we can say l a n g u a g e s h a v e in c o m m o n i s : E V E R Y C O M PUTER LANGUAGE ALLOWS LOOPS, TESTS AND B R A N C H E S , AND COMMUNICATION WITH EXTERNAL D E V I C E S , as m e n t i o n e d on p . 1 1 . Beyond that the d i f f e r e n c e s are i n c r e d i b l e .
start programming is to have a terminal running A tins nearby who already knows the language and !i; rupterl with questions.
Till more So the b a s i c s e c r e t of c o m p u t e r p e o ple is t h i s : it's not t h a t the n e c e s s a r ily k n o w so m u c h , b u t they c a n a d a p t to a w h o l e new w o r l d o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s m o r e quickly.
W e e
A c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e is a s y s t e m Cor ty int] t o g e t h e r the f u n d a m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n s of c o m p u t e r s for l a r g e r t a s k s . Each c o n p u t e r l a n g u a g e fits t o g e t h e r a c c o r d i n g to its o w n p r i n c i p l e s , b a s e d in p a r t o n the p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p r e o c c u p a t i o n s of the p e r s o n or p e o p l e w h o d e s i g n e d it. Modern computer languages g e n e r a l l y can h a n d l e all the m a i n k i n d s of p r o g r a m m i n g : text h a n d l i n g , number c r u n c h i n g , storing t i l e s on d i s k m e m o r y a n d g e t t i n g t h e m b o c k , and c o n t r o l l i n g w h a t e v e r e x t e r n a l d e v i c e s v o u nay h a v e . E v e n [ticking p i c t u r e s in s o m e
A "program" runs on an ordinary computer, without necessarily interacting wilh the outside world: a "ayatem" involves a whole setup, of which the computer and a program in it are just the central things.
T h e p r o g r a m geno ally g i v e s the u s e r an inag inary " p o i n te r ," a i a r k e r s p e c i f y i n g w h a t p o i n t in the t e x t the p r o g r . m is c u r r e n t l y c o n c e r n e d
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W h a t is the pointi the o p e r a t i o n s iirt- to raid ith • t r o l l i n g the c u i i c m { I U M L I U JiI OJ of the poii m o v i n g it b a c k w a r d or f o r w a r d by a s p c c i l i c n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r s ( i n c l u d i n g p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k s a n d s p a c e s ) or lines ( k n o w n to the p r o g r a m by the c a r r i a g e - r e t u r n c o d e s i n t e r s p e r s e d in the t e x t ) .
N u m e r o u s i n t e r a c t i v e p r o g r a m s e x i s t for e d i t i n g text at' c o m p u t e r t e r m i n a l s - - in o t h e r w o r d s , for d o i n g w h a t M a g i c T y p e w r i t e r s d o , b . u s i n g a c o m p u t e r i n s t e a d of a s m a l l s p e c i a l purpose machine. U n f o r t u n a t e l y m o s t of tiiese s y s t e m s a r e dreadful. D r e a d f u l , that i s , for o r d i n a r y h u m a n b e i n g s . W h a t c o m p u t e r p e o p l e s e e m to think of as a p p r o p r i a t e s y s t e m s for h a n d l i n g
J Such s y s t e m s allow y o u to i n s e r t text (with s o n s d i f f i c u l t y ) , d e l e t e (with s o m e d i f f i c u l t y ) , and rearrange ( m a y b e ) . O r d i n a r i l y the u s e r m u s t l e a r n an e x p l i c i t cosuaand l a n g u a g e , son* s y s t e m of a l p h a b e t i c a l c o m m a n d s that have to be t y p e d In to e f f e c t any change m • c , i . P r o g r a m m e r s think this »* goo,i i-ighens the m i n d .
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You would think the fundamental dichotomy among: computer terminals w a a between those that print on paper and those that show y o u stuff on • screen. But it isn't. (That's like the difference between people and w h a l e s - m u c h greater outside than inside.) Actually the fundamental distinction between terminals is between ASCII (pronounced "Askey") and IBM terminals. ASCII is a code and scheme of organization which w a s adopted by "the industry." under the blessing of the National Bureau of Standards. But IBM has pointedly ignored this standard. T h e principal terminal of the ASCII type, in sheer n u m b e r s , is the model 33-ASR Teletype (trademark of Teletype C o r p . ) . so this kind of terminal Is called the "33 A S R type." or "Teletypetype." or w c even say a given terminal "looks to the computer like a Teletype."
If you're serious about keeping up with developments in Ihe terminal area, you might want to subscribe to Terminals Review ($28/yr.) highly spoken of by Datamation. ( G M L Corp., 5B4 Marrott R d . , Lexington, M A 02173.)
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All are ASCII -type unless otherwise noted. Note: there are hundreds of types and brands of terminals available. These are jus! some thoughts.
MISCELLANEOUS
B E S T B U Y ? T h e model 38 A S R Teletype gives you upper and lower case, and ia otherwise similar to the standard model 33. (70 a month from R C A Service C o m p a n y . Data Communications Div. (offices in major cities); $15/mo. for Ihe coupler. 30-day cancellable bul costs $50 to put in, $34 (o take out.
Various firms rent lerminals, some on a short-term basis. (Some terminal companies are bad n e w s , keeping u p their equipment badly and offering poor service, so watch it.) (The day will c o m e , let's hope it's soon, that you can renl a terminal overnight or for a w e e k e n d like a movie camera. Bul till people get a sense of how far and fast things arc m o v i n g , we'll continue to schlock along haphazardly.)
There is a cute terminal lhat behaves just like the 33 A S R , but is faster and uses N C R pressure paper or a ribbon, interchangeably . T h e Extel Series A teleprinter from Extel C o r p . . 310 Anthony Trail, Northbrook, 111. 60062. If you like Selectrics, but went lo go to ASCII, there is one weird possibility. A firm called T y c o m Systems Corporation (26 Just R o a d , Fairfield N Y 07006) offers an interesting alternative. It happens lhat all Selectrlcs ( a n y w a y , Model I and Model II) have a seam around the midriff at which the typewriter can be unscrewed into two sections. Clever T y c o m ! T h e y m a k e a device which fits between, looks to the bottom like the top of the Selectric, and looks to the top like the bottom. Also, it turns the Selectric into a terminal, receiving ASCII codes from whatever computer you attach it to and causing the computer to type t h e m , or sending out what you type to the computer in ASCII.
I B M , h o w e v e r , seems to like changing its systems around a lot. for instance changing its codes w h e n it brings out a new computer. (Fortunately, it just happens thai they also sell adapters between them. W h e w . ) So IBM-type terminals are different by design. There is one main type, h o w e v e r , e x e m plified by the IBM model 2741 terminal. T h u s w e say a terminal is an "IBM-type" or "2741-type" terminal.
Curiously, IBM has given ils blessing to this arrangement, meaning you can have this sandwich deal done to a Selectric you rent from I B M , and serviced under beefed-up IBM maintenance agreements ($72 per y e a r , or S16.50 per h o u r , as of 1970).
D I S P L A Y TT.PiMlNALS (sec p p . I'M 20-1) T h e r e a r c n a n y bran.!;;. Sniic .i'-e. v i d e o .
T h e Hazeltine 1000 video terminal rents f o r $ 4 9 / m o . on a 1-year contract. L O W E R - C A S E O P T I O N ; m o d e m and coupler apparently not included. (Hazeltine, G r e e n l n w n , N Y 11740, with offices all over.)
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IBH w o u l d h a v e y o u c a l l these " w o r d proc e s s i n g s y s t e m s , " s i n c e t h a t m a k e s them s o u n d o f - a - p i e c e w i t h t h e i r d i c t a t i o n e q u i p m e n t , Actually they're text regurgitation s y s t e m s , b u t let's just c a l l them M a g i c T y p e w r i t e r s .
G e n e r a l l y these are b e i n g sold as s e c r e t a r i a l a i d s , p a r t l y b e c a u s e they tend to b e too u n g a i n l y for u s e by w r i t e r s t h e m s e l v e s . A p r i n c i p a l u s e h a s b e e n in large law o f f i c e s , w h e r e c o n t r a c t s , w i l l s a n d such are s t o r e d as " b o i l e r p l a t e " ( s t a n d a r d ^ i-.; t i ons of D o c u m e n t ) and then mod i • . • L - l a w y e r to j u s t i f y the
n a g n e t l c m e m o r y , such as coated c a r d or d i s k , and e q u i n a c i r c u i t r y , w h i c h r e s p o n d s to v a r i o u s a c t s by the u s e r . W H A T THEY DO: a l l o w you to type stuff i n , w h i c h ia b o t h t y p e d on the p a p e r and a t the s a m e time s t o r e d an the m a g n e t i c w h a t e v e r . Small errors y o u c o r r e c t as y o u type a l o n g , g e n e r a l l y by backspacing,
For those of us literary lypes w h o want upper and lower case but ore sluck wilh 3 3 A S R & , a L O W E R - C A S E C O N V E R S I O N KIT is available from Data Terminals and Communications, Campbell, California.
If you have no objection to I T T . they offer u portable video terminal with built-in m o d e m and coupler, the Asciscope, for $65/month. Supposedly there's a long waiting list. (ITT Data Equipment snd Systems Division, Essl Union A v e . . East Rutherford , NJ 07073.)
see Kustom Electronics, inc. (aren't they the rock-amp people?), Data Communications Division, 1010 West Chestnut, C h a n u t e . Kansas G6720. They've already set up travelling terminals for the mobile constabulary of Kansas City (Mo.) , Palm Beach and Nashville. (Communications, Jan. 73, ad p . 47.) N o w , of course, you'll need a whole stationary radio setup to run that...
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VIDEO T E R M I N A L S W I T H O U T T H E VIDEO A very hot item right now is a terminal called the "Digi-Log"-- actually several different models-- available from Dlgi-Log Systems , Inc., 666 Daviaville R d . , Willow G r o v e , P s . 19090. This device fits in a briefcase. Basically it is a keyboard with a socket for the phone, and an antenna wire. You phone the computer, drop the phone handset in the slot, and clip ihe wire to the antenna of a T V set. Presto! O n the T V set appears what you and the computer type at each other. This is especially good for travelling salesmen (to communicate with their offices and ordering system via time-sharing computer) and executives w h o do computer work from the road. Also for people w h o want to show off remote computer systems. Disadvantage: only 42 characters per line, which is a w k w a r d for some things, such as p r o g r a m m i n g in Fortran. Price; $1200 io $1400. They also lease. al rates as low as $40/monlh (3 years).
Also available on rental, supposedly, from Westwood Associates, Inc. , SO Washington Terrace, East O r a n g e , NJ 07017. A n n Arbor Terminals. Inc. (Ann A r b o r , Mich.?) is said to offer a similar unit that is
T h e equivalent IBM-type terminal-- keyboard, coupler and clip to the TV-- is the IPSA-100, offered by I.P. Sharp Associates, Inc. (Bridge Administration Building, Bridge Plaza, O g d e n a b u r g , N Y 13669). Unfortunately it's m u c h larger than Ihe Digi-Log-- it comes in a medium-size suitcase -- and more expensive ($1700 u p ) . H o w e v e r , they offer the A P L character-set (see A P L under a n "Magic Languages," p'2.2) option-- even a model with both normal and A P L character-sets as a switch-selectable option (costs even m o r e ) . a s
Honeywell (Honeywell Information Systems, Wellcsley Hills. M a s s . ) has recently m a d e available a Braille program to be used with "standard terminals" in their systems. (This m a y be Ihe adaptation developed at M I T lo do Braille on Ihe 33 A S R . )
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T o provide a m e m o r y with your ASCII or IBMIBM-type terminal, an odd machine called the Techtran 4100 (about $1000 from Techtran Industries, 58U Jefferson R d . . Rochester, N Y 14623) can be used for offline storage, it uses a magnetic cassette. Here are some things you can do with it; type stuff into the Techtran, later squirt it to a computer at high speed receive stuff from a computer at high speed, later type it back automatically on the terminal type into the Techtran, correct it, and then have it typed back automatically-no computer. T h e question of whether the Techtron can be used with the Digi-Log has not been publicly resolved.
A 2741-type Selectric terminal with m e m o r y , offering these same capabilities, is n o w available ' from IBM! It is the Communicating M a g Card Executive ( C M C ) . Since the M a g Card Executive, to which they have added the communication feature, costs over $200 a m o n t h , figure the communication feature could cost another $100 or so monthly , or probably half again as m u c h as the Anderson-Jacobson.
There is a very important performance difference between ASCII and IBM terminals. T h e ASCII terminal can send each character typed by the user-- each "keystroke"-- to the computer immediately. This m e a n s that highly responsive programs can be written, which examine the user's input and can reply instantaneously, if need b e , after anything Ihe user types.
W h y thia unwieldy design? Supposedly it results from the curious decision, in the design of IBM's 360 computer, to m a k e aU devices resemble the card reader as far as the computer is concerned. Just as the card reader reads punched cards till the last one is d o n e , the IBM terminal Is designed lo send and receive characters until a "finished" condition Is reached.
A good outfit, lhat rents both ASCII and IBM-type terminals of their o w n manufacture, is Anderson Jacobson C o . (1065 Morse A v e . , Sunnyvale, Calif. 94086, and major cities). T h e y have a 5electric terminal, for instance, which rents for about 5100 a month (about the s a m e as the standard IBM 2741) but is portable.
It happens that Anderson Jacobson (above) will rent you their 2741-type Selectric terminal, wilh a Techtran. for about $220 a month total. But they won't rent Ihe Techtran separately .
Indeed, even the Selectric (IBM trademark), __EB«=p-i-=-3 typing mechanism appears in s o m e Teletype-type terminals.
IBM-type terminals, h o w e v e r , require a "line feed" character or an "end of transmission" character to be typed by the user to m a k e it the coropuler'a turn. This locks the keyboard so the e it. T h e n the computer must type something, ending with its o mlock" signal that m a k e s it the person's turn again
Unfortunately rental people are hard to H n d , since they are usually local, and the Yellow Pages idiotically l u m p together every possible form of computer sales and service under "Data Processing Equipment and Supplies," and few firms further specify their business in the listing. Here are some n a m e s (neither endorsed nor criticized): Computer Planning i S u p p l y , Chicago T T S Systems, L A Vardon » Associates, Dallas
T h e earlier video terminals c a m e with dreadful styling, like a 1940s science-fiction m o v i e . But as an example of how the market is developing, one of the handsomest video terminals is the $1300 Mini-Tec from T E C Incorporated. 9800 North Oracle R o a d , T u c s o n . Ariz. 8S704. II comes covered with wood-grain contact paper and looks very nice. (You should have seen their early models.)
Both Teletype- and IBM-type terminals come in either video-acreen or printing models, from a variety of manufacturers.
A " C R T Survey" listing characteristics of 110 C R T displays (including both video terminals and fancier pictorial displays-- see flip side of ihis book) is available for len bucks postpaid from Datapro Research C o r p . , O n e Corporate Center, Route 38, Moorestown, NJ 08057.
PRINTINC T E R M I N A L S .
Recently , of all things, plans for a do-ityourself unit of Ihis type were announced in a popular electronics magazine (Don Lancaster, " T V Typewriter," Radio-Electronics. Sept. 1973, 43-52). This does not include Ihe full plans, which ore available for $2 from T V T Y P E W R I T E R , Radio-Electronics. 45 E . 17th St. . N e w York. N Y 10003. Supposedly this can be built for "around $120"-- probably a deal more - if you are a skilled electronics builder or technician. But that looks to include a great deal of labor. T h e finished unit holds up to 32 characters per line and up lo 16 lines on the screen: a second m e m o r y can be a d d e d , to hold a second alternative screenful.
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13 THE MOST I M P O R T A N T C O M P U T E R TERMS FOR T H E '70s Mere are some phrases that w i l l count in the new era of c o m p u t i n g , when we w i l l run into more and more c o m p u t e r systems set up for particular purposes.
tfsed to b e that o r d i n a r y p e o p l e h a d Co deal with c o m p u t e r s b y filling out i n t r i c a t e f o r m s , which w e r e then translated into p u n c h c a r d s . T h e forms p u t things in w e i r d c a t e gories (see " C o d e d - D o w n D a t a , " p . .} No
M o t t o 1 for the new e r a : USING A COMPUTER SHOULD ALWAYS BE E A S I E R THAN N O T U S I N G A COMPUTER.
longer.
A n y w a y , n o longer n e c e s s a r y .
Motto
C o m p u t e r systems can now give y o u a c t i o n , excitement--
2 for the n e w e r a ;
and e x p l a n a t i o n s .
T h i s is d o n e t h r o u g h the m a g i c of the T E R M I N A L . T e r m i n a l s come in two c o n s p i c u o u s flavors ( t y p e w r i t e r and s c r e e n or "boob tube") a n d a l s o h a v e t w o less - n o t i c e a b l e d i v i s i o n s ("Teletype" or " i n d u s t r y " versus " I B M t y p e . " )
P e o p l e w h o d e l i g h t in intricacy are coing t< h a v e to learn some new t r i c k s . Internal int r i c a c y is f i n e , as long as the u s e r doesn'i h a v e to d e a l w i t h i t .
A n y w a y , a terminal is s o m e t h i n g that allows a p e r s o n and a c o m p u t e r to type at each other. M A K I N G T H I N G S E A S Y IS H A R D .
N o w , c o m p u t e r s are m e r e l y gadgets for twiddling information. They no more u n d e r stand E n g l i s h , or h u m a n p s y c h o l o g y , than p u p p i e s c a n read m u s i c . (See " A r t i f i c i a l I n B telligence," p - l V J S l u t the c o m p u t e r ' s progran c a n , for i n s t a n c e , d i r e c t the c o m p u t e r to type o u t a s i m p l e q u e s t i o n , a n d c o m p a r e the user's a n s w e r with a simple s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e ! . For e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e the u s e r is v i s i t i n g a h o s p i t a l . A c o m p u t e r c a n sign h i n in w i t h o u t the a b r a s i v e n e s s o f a r e c e i v i n g n u r s e , a n d with far m o r e p a t i e n c e . T h e f o l l o w i n g m i g h t be a s a m p l e dialogue. (Here the c o m p u t e r types w h a t ' s in c a p s , a n d the use A replies are in lower- case-)
M o t t o 4 for the new e r a : ANY S Y S T E M F O R A S P E C I F I C PURPOSE S H O U L D BE T E A C H A B L E IN TEN MINUTES OR LESS. terminal or keysaope <see p . DM I9& J. It alloys the oomputer to present textual or numeric information, play games vith you, quit you for infori good-guy system. • whatever
DO Y O U HAVE AN A C U T E PAIN? (Y, N , DK) dk YOUR A N S W E R I S : D K F O R " D O N ' T KNOW." DOES THAT MEAN Y O U ' R E N O T S U R E WHAT 'ACUTE' MEANS? (ANSWER A ) A PAIN C O M E S A N D GOES? { A N S W E R B ) Y O U H A V E A PAIN SORT O F O N T H E BORDER? (ANSWER C )
c o n n e c t e d to a functioning c o m p u t e r , (Note that the c o m p u t e r m a y be in the t y p e w r i t e r or desk itself.) (As d i s t i n c t from o f f - 1 i n e , setting things up for p r o c e s s i n g T f l t e r . ) interact i ve not just c o n n e c t e d , b u t responding to you. Interactive systems and programs can respond to your choices and r e q u e s t s , clarify what they want from y o u , e t c .
A n y o n e w h o h a s b e e n taught the u s e of some f i x e d - p u r p o s e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m , such as an a i r l i n e r e s e r v a t i o n s y s t e n , m a y d o u b t this But p e r h a p s this book w i l l c l a r i f y things somewhat.
r e f e r r i n g to s o m e t h i n g far a w a y , as d i s tinct from l o c a l , right w h e r e y o u a r e . A c o m p u t e r c a n be either remote or l o c a l , e.g., on your d e s k , front e n d ( n . ) , f r o n t - e n d ladj.) w h a t e v e r stands b e t w e e n y o u and a s y s t e m . A front e n d c a n be the terminal in your o f f i c e , for e x a m p l e . A front-end p r o g r a m ie u h i c h m e d i a t e s between other s y s t e m or p r o g r a m , p e r h a p s Oil! acting data for it by q u i s l i n g you set up for only o n e u s e . A b i g computer at a c o m p u t i n g c e n t e r h a s to have many u s e s ; a little c o m p u t e r in your office can be d e d i c a t e d . Dedicated computers are now h i d d e n in a l l sorts of t h i n g s : cash r e g i s t e r s , for e x a m p l e (see " M i c r o p r o c e s s o r s , " p . •"f'-f) • • rnkey fadj ,) turned o n with a k e y . E s p e c i a l l y , turnkey s y s t e m s , small c o m p u t e r systems that c a n jus t be turned on (key or n o t ) and are fully set u p , ready to r u n , programmed, e t c .
EASY TO USE, AND FRIENDLY.
An i n t e r a c t i v e system o f this kind is c a l l ed a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s y s t e m , i n that it " c o n v e r s e s " w i t h the u s e r . T K e s e c r e t is that the a l t e r n a tives in the c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m are few a n d c a r e fully w o r k e d o u t b e f o r e h a n d : there are g r e a t p i t falls w h e n there are too many a l t e r n a t i v e s , as w h e n such c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s y s t e m s are u s e d for t e a c h i n g (sec p p . \?.xa ).
More expensive ecopes (or computer diBP l a y 8 allou pictorial ani•ol (die, sed throughout flip side). THE MATH THING TO UKDIBSTAHD: uhat they do is decided by human
Here is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x a m p l e : a s y s t e m I wish I h a d f o r b a l a n c i n g a c h e c k b o o k . Note that the inner p r o g r a m for this c o n v e r s a t i o n a l system could be w r i t t e n ' i n any o f the three l a n guages presented later.
principles." Human beings ta'.e note.
W H A T P R D G R A M W O U L D Y O U LIKE TO RUN? ckbk CHECKBOOK PROGRAM S T A R T S . DO Y O U W A N T TO P R O O F T H E NEW S T A T E M E N T F O R MARCH? y PLEASE LIST T H E C H E C K S T H A T H A V E COME I N . 2 3 1 , 239 , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 S . SUM O F INCOMING C H E C K S IS $ 3 4 5 . 7 2 . D O Y O U WANT BREAKDOWN? n P R E S U M A B L Y B A N K IS C H A R G I N G Y O U .60 F O R SIX C H E C K S . A L S O M O N T H L Y C H A R G E O F FIFTY CENTS (PLEASE C O N F I R M ) . y ARE THERE A N Y OTHER BANK CHARGES THIS MONTH? n ARE T H E F O L L O W I N G D E P O S I T S ON THIS S T A T E M E N T -- M A R C H 1 S A L A R Y , J S S 4 . 0 0 7 y GIFT FROM A U N T A G A T H A , 14 MARCii, $25.00? n TOTAL ON STATEMENT SHOULD BE $ 1 7 5 3 . 2 1 , PLEASE CONFIRM, y Y O U R C U R R E N T FLOAT IS $ 6 5 6 . 7 5 . DO Y O U W A N T BREAKDOWN? y CURRENT FLOAT A S F O L L O W S - N O . 241 IRVING'S R E C O R D S 7 M A R C H $ 6.75 N O . 243 S I N I S T E R 5 M A L A D R O I T (LEGAL FEES) 12 M A R C H 1600.00 N O . 246 DOGGIE HAIRDRESSERS 12 M A R C H $ 20.0( N O . 247 S A M CRONK (REPAYMENT) 14 M A R C H i 30.0C TOTAL $656.7! ARE YOU DONE WITH CHECKBOOK PROGRAM? y (The p a r t s h o w n above is e a s y . Thinking out the w a y s f o r t h e u s e r t o c o r r e c t h i s r e c o r d s , a n d / o r the b a n k , is the tough p a r t . )
ANY MAN O F COMMON SENSE CAN DESIGN A C O M P U T E R S Y S T E M F O R A P U R P U S L I M P O R T A N T TO H I M ; the data s t r u c t u r e , forms of infornation, general operat i o n s , reco rd - keep ini;, and r e s p o n s e s to o n - l i n e u s e r s . But for some r e a s o n
-JOE 1
this is
1 USER-
A good friend of mine, Jordan Young, lt a former R.E.S. I-S.T.O.R. (see p . 77 ) and now a systems prograrancr (see p . ts 1 on the nighty Dartmouth tine-sharing system, DTSS. (See p . f S".)
Heloti: a "bull pen" of terminals, all hooked up to the nain computer at the Chicago Circle Campus, University of Illinois. What each person does at his terminal is normally independent of uhat any other person does, through timecomputer. Installations more suited to tinesharing can have large numbers of terminals, all over a aamput, a aompany or the uar
Jordan tells me that one of the wore Important people at Dartmouth is a mythical Individual named Joe Turkey User. This estimable personage Knows hardly anything about computers, makes a lot at mistake*, thinks he understands what you tell him when he doesn't, tends to hit the wrong keys on the terminal, and in general tends But tha motto up there ia: 'If i •lnple enough for Joe Turkey I too complicated."
TOUR FIRST COMPUTER CONTACT When you flret sit at a comput* the feeling is one of sheer terror. Sweat ana chills, jumpiness and sudden clumsy nervous actions, lunatic abeentnindednees and stammering fear and awkwardness interfere with your ability to function or understand the person who is helping you.
A n u m b e r of companies m a k e m i n i c o m p u t e r s (partial list on p . M > ) ; h o w e v e r , c o m p a n i e s w h o want b u s i n e s s s y s t e m s b u i l t a r o u n d m i n i c o m p u t e r s may w a n t to investigate c o m p a n i e s that w i l l p u t together whole b u s i n e s s s y s t e n s for them a r o u n d m i n i s .
It's perfectly normal.
(It is lioped that one c o n t r i b u t i o n of this book w i l l be to give the reader a b e t t e r idea of w h a t to a s k f o r . ) i to b e in this i CONSIDERATE 1
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user-oriented set u p for " u s e r s " - - p e o p l e w h o i but p r o g r a m m e r s or input t y p i s t s , * " " who a c t u a l l y need something d o n e . u s e r level ( n . ) , user-level (aJj.J " w h e r e the user is" m e n t a l l y ; his level of i n v o l v e m e n t . User-level sys tern, system s e t up for p e o p l e w h o a r e n o t t h i n k i n g about computers b u t about the subject or activity the computer is s u p p o s e d to h e l p w i t h . naive u s e r ( n . ) , naive-user (adj.) p e r s o n w h o doesn't know about computers but is going to use the s y s t e m . Nsivsu s e r systems are those set up to make things easy a n d clear for such p e o p l e , (We are all naive users a t soma time o r o t h e r ; it's nothing to be ashamed of. T h o u g h some computer people seem to think lt i s . ) idiot-proof not susceptible to being loused up by a naive u s e r . The hostility in this term m a y in some cases be r e a l . C o n p u t e r people sometimes f o r g e t , or d o n o t w i s h to t o l e r a t e , the d e g r e e of c o n f u s i o n that naive users bring to the k e y b o a r d . This a t t i tude is not just their p r o b l e m h u t e v e r y b o d y ' s , since they lay it on u s , good-guy system term to be used h o r e for iuive-u;er s y s tems that are f r i end ly , hi* Ip fu 1 , s imp le and c l e a r . stand-alone system system (regardless of purpose ) "lii-h d o e s n ' t h a v e to b e a t t a c h e d to any thin-; else. (May contain its own conputer.)
Genesis O n e C o m p u t e r C o r p o r a t i o n , 99 Park A v e . , NY 1 0 0 1 6 . Appears to use B A S I C language (see p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . Qantel C o r p . (offices in five m a j o r c i t ies). Sells a m i n i c o m p u t e r of their own m a n u f a c t u r e , using a language called Q I C (Qantel Interactive C o d e ) , w h i c h a salesman tells me is " j u s t like B A S I C " (see p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . Minimum setup includes a d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l , p r i n t e r , computer a n d 6 - m i l l l o n - c h a r acter d i s k , at $ 3 1 , 0 0 0 .
ft*** r**»rk •• *fi |-*r Tc '** V
c s p o n d i n g to events in the world as n e e d e d , ithout d e l a y s . Computer systems that con'. ine r e s e r v a t i o n s , •spoiid to naive user) Systems that can catch up al- t n "intelligent terminal" s t u p i d term r e f e r r i n g to a n y object thai does more than a c t like a plain t e r m i n a l . The term is stupid b e c a u s e it confuses dis tinet i o n s , S o m e "intel 1igent terminals" h a v e e x t r a c i r c u i t s for various p u r p o s e s ; o t h e r s c o n t a i n their own m i n i c o m p u t e r s ; s t i l l o t h e r s a r e o r d i n a r y terminals c o n n e c t e d to front-end p r o g r a m s .
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"Modem" takes the terminal's pulse code and w a r b l e s it into the phone as a u d i b l e t o n e s . T h e c o m p u t e r answers with similar w a r b l e s and t w e e d l i n g ; the m o d e m c o n v e r t s that back into a l p h a b e t i c a l c h a r a c t e r s .
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F I C T I O N S A B O U T W H A T C O M P U T E R S DO J W T It's awfully easy to fool people with simple w o r d s , let alone buffalo them with weird technical-sounding gab. The thing about tech talk la that It can really ba applied to any area. The trick Ilea In the arrangement of boxcar adjective nouna. and In the vsrue use of windy term* that have connotations In aome particular technical area - aay. the apace program. Juat conalder. H e might call • r g-arden sp*de-A PERSONALIZED EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENT MODULE A MINERALOOICAL MINI-TRANSPORT
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Juat the way everyone can understand cameras, vll "A cuter* la a device you point et something to willfully capture its appearance." "A car la a device people get inside which then goes scaatwher* elae, under the willful control of the driver." Well, how about "A computer ii a device which manipulate! information and external accessories, according to a plan willfully prepared by a plann
H i SfATo iNAL
M a n y p e o p l e suppose there Is m o t do (s« think thei A c o u p l e of years a g o , a leading p i c t u r e m a g a z i n e carried a p i e c e about S t a n f o r d ' s A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i gence L a b o r a t o r y , c l a i m i n g that one " S h a k e y the R o b o t " had b e e n d e v e l o p e d to n e a r - h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e and c a p a b i l i t i e s . This w a s p u r e b o s h , since r e p u d i a t e d in the c o m p u t e r m a g a z i n e s , b u t a lot of p e o p l e O u t T h e r e in R e a d e r l a n d b e l i e v e d i t . (See "The G o d - B u i l d e r s , " flip s i d e . ) O n c e I had a long d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a s o m e w h a t w i l d - e y e d young w o m a n w h o b e l i e v e d that the g o v e r n m e n t was m o n i toring her b r a i n w i t h c o m p u t e r s . I think I p e r s u a d e d hei 1 thi: foa: ible uld I ost the •f dolla
The f i r s t , or C l a s s i c , computer era 1 straightforward equipment and work>n s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p r o b l e m s .
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T h e s e c o n d , or B a r o q u e , conputer era used intricate equipment for hardt o - u n d e r s t a n d p u r p o s e s , tied together w i t h the greatest difficulty by computer p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o couldn't or w o u l d n ' t explain very w e l l w h a t they were doing.
A N E N T R E N C H I N G T O O L (Flrealgn Theater) A Z E R O - S U M DIRT L E V E L A D J U S T E R A FEEDBACK-ORIENTED C O N T O U R M A N A G E M E N T PROBE A N D DIGGING S Y S T E M
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Computer operators t change programs, change disks and tap eeleet modes of opet that can do more ths (See p. 38.)
A G R A D I E N T D1SEQUILIBRAT0R A M A S S DISTRIBUTION N E G E N T R O P R I Z E R
Input typists (also called keypunch operstors) are clerks who copy Information into the conputer (on terminals) or onto something the ccmput (punch cards, magnetic disk.
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out a change is cominj pany or faction is bringinj though some nay feel it is i n t e r e s t . 1 would like to the D I A P H A N O U S age of the c m p u t e r ,
NOTE: these Job* may end 1 when nothing els* has to fa because users put things 1
By " d i a p h a n o u s " I refer both to thi t r a n s p a r e n t , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e character of the systems to c o m e , and to the likelihood that computers will be showing us everything (dia -, across e v e r y t h i n g , phainein, to~sTow). \&rr
Computer repairmen, or "field engineers,' fix computers and their accessories when something goes wrong electrically In the computer field, the lune things are often called by different namea (for instance, the IBM 1B00, a fairly ordinary minicomputer, is called by them the "IBM 1800 Data Acquisition and Control System"), different things are often called by the same n a m e s , and thing* can be inside-out and upside d o w n versions of each other in extraordinary variety. (Indeed, c o m p u ter people may find thla book inside-out, which is okay with m e . Life is • Klein bottle.) Sorting things out. then, means having a few basic concepts clear in your mind, and knowing w h e n you see examples and variations of them.
In the first p l a c e , C O M P U T E R S WILL D I S A P P E A R C O N C E P T U A L L Y , will become " t r a n s p a r e n t " , in the sense of being parts of u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h o l e s . M o r e over, the " p a r t s " of a computer system w i l l have CLEAR CONCEPTUAL M E A N I N G . In other w o r d s , COMPUTER SYSTEMS WILL BE U N D E R S T A N D A B L E . Instead of things being c o m p l i c a t e d , they will become l HAIVE USER (no offense) Is an ordinary person fho doesn't need to know any of these in order to do something useful with i
N o w , many people think computers are by their nature incomprehensible and coaplicated-u n f o r t u n a t e l y , that's because they have been M A D E T O B E . Usually this is u n i n t e n t i o n a l , but I fear not a l w a y s . E X A M P L E . Instead of being t o l d , "this is the mysterious XYZ c o m p u t e r , it has to have things just s o , you have to fill out these HWO. forms to go into the VI4..." you will h e a r such surprisingly simple things as "This system is set up for keeping track of w h o owes what to the c o m p a n y . On the screen you can get lists of accounts and outstanding bills and w h o owes them; if you point at ona with the light p e n , the printing machine over here w i l l print a bill all set to go in the
fh«r*'a no suah thing. But faying *uoh thingm intimidate* many, especially (ho** w h o hav been told they do not have "logioal minds.' What is meant, actually, is indeed important: in working uith computer* you must often uork out ths exact ramifioatione of speoifio combinations of things, u i t h o u e s k i p p i n g s t e p s . But the other mode of thinking, the intuitive, has ite place in the computer field too. e-hiehauei- vour habitual style of mind, oomput. offer you food— and utensils-far thought.
HORRIBLE MISUNDERSTANDINGS
Oat out of your head the notion that aome one syatem you've seen showed you what Computer* Are Really Like. Computer systems can be as different externally aa bata and whales. (Yet it's the same kind of heartbeat, bul thst's no help in dealing with them.) T h e n what is It computer people know . you may ask, that leads them to understand new systems quickly? A h a . Computer people simply adjust faster to whole new world*.
Some people think of computers aa things that somehow mysteriously digest and assimilate all knowledge. "Just feed it to (he computer." Is , the motto. But what you feed into ths computer Just eits there unless there's a program, "How would you do that by computer?" Is a question people often ask. T h s question should b*, "how would you do thst st all?" If there is a method for doing somsthlng which can be broken d o w n inlo simple steps, and requires no human Judgment, then maybe we can take those step* and program them on e computer, Bul maybe w e can also think of s simpler wsy to get them done. Than there is the Idas that • computer Is something you ask questions. This assumes, 1 guaas, lb* earlier premiss, that Ihe computer has already digested and assimilated s lot of stuff and can sling tt back at you in new arrangeActually what must happen, to get "questions" answered. Is this: there must be some program lhal puts Input mate Hal Into a data structure. (Sea "Date Structures.") Then you need programs that will oounl and trace, or whatavsr, through the data structure in wsy* you desire. Than you need s wsy to start these tracing-end-searching program* going through th* date structure In ways you want. So you need • program accepting input from s keyboard, or whatever, snd starting the other program* tn operation. . .
In other w o r d s , systems will increasingly have UNDERSTANDABLE PARTS W I T H UNDERSTANDABLE INTERCONNECTIONS."
THE A U T O M O B I L E A N A L O G Y (mi r-to-bumper, rest stop it tollbooth. orchange,
H o w i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to s o m e o n e f n 1 9 0 5 . Yet how s i a p l e - m i n d e d w h e n you ui d e r s t a n d i t . T h a t ' s how it is wi th computers. sounds so s t r a n g e ant o you folks out thereit's often as simple < if you know the fundaWhat is responsible for this remarkable change?
USING A C O M P U T E R S H O U L D A L W A Y S BE EASIER T H A N N O T USING A C O M P U T E R . If It Isn't, you (or your company, or your state) may have bean sold * bill of good*. O R they may hav* decided your inconvenience 1* leas important than somsthlng sis*. In any case, you have a right to ssk sharp questions.
THE DAMNED LIE "Computers ar* rigid and inhuman."
W H A T IS THIS S Y S T E M A B O U T ? Handy questions to six* up what s computer Is supposed to What data doa* It contain? Where is the data stored?
What information do you suppo** can reasonably be derived from that?
A BETTER APPROXIMATION People are sometimes (all too o f t e n ) rigid" and i n h u m a n . (Machines snd animals are nonhuman-- the term " i n human" applies only to p e o p l e . ) "Rigid and inhuman" computer systems are th* c r e a t i o n of rigid and inhuman
does Information go In and out?
For one t h i n g , smaller and smaller companies are buying computer s e r v i c e s , and they won't stand for ridiculous c o m p l i c a t i o n s . For another thing, a number of people in the computer field have gotten sick of systems that make things hard for p e o p l e . F i n a l l y , the price of c o m p u t e r s , especially m i c r o processors (see p . "fr ) are coming down lo fast that they can be' tailored to fit p e o p l e , rather than vice v e r s * . But most of a l l , it's jList/tiae, that's a l l . BIBLIOGRAPHY C L . F r e i t a s , "Making the Best Buy for th* Small B u s i n e s s . " Computer D e c i s i o n * , March 7 3 , 2 2 - 2 6 . Compares th* relative costs of minicomputer* and time-sharing; concludes that minis are tha belt b u y . Burton L . K a t e , "Making Minicomputers Work in a Medium-sized B u s i n e s s . " Data P r o c e s s i n g , Winter 1 9 7 1 , 9 - 1 1 . Stresses th* point that w e l l - d e s igned computer systems can be used by existing personnel of a firm, without excessive c o m p l i c a t i o n . Frederic G. W i t h l n g t o n , "Cosmetic P r o g r a m m n g . " D a t a m a t i o n . Mar 7 0 , 9 1 - 9 5 . How to Dak* iysTemi" Friendly on th* o u t s i d e .
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H O W DOES THE LOOP
THE MAGIC OF THE C O M P U T E R
WORK?
T h e c o m p u t e r does things o v e r a n d over b y c h a n g i n g a stored c o u n t , then testing the stored c o u n t against a n o t h e r n u m b e r w h i c h is w h a t the c o u n t s h o u l d get to, a n d g o i n g to the b e g i n n i n g if the d e s i r e d c o u n t h a B not b e e n r e a c h e d . T h i s is called a l o o p . O f there's n o w a y it c a n e v e r get o u t , that's a n e n d l e a s l o o p . ) (Actually, the p r o g r a m loop is d o n e the s a m e w s y as a p r o g r a m b r a n c h : IF a certain c o u n t h a s not b e e n r e a c h e d , it b r a n c h e s B A C K to the start of the l o o p . )
PROGRAM
T h e b e e i c , central m a g i c a l interior d e v i c e of the c o m p u t e r w e Bhall call a p r o g r a m follower • A p r o g r a m follower ie a n electronic d e v i c e ( u s u a l l y ) w h i c h r e a d s a y m b o l a s p e c i f y i n g o p e r a t i o n s , carries out the step e a c h specifies a n d g o e s o n to the n e x t .
O t h e r things b e s i d e s p r o g r a m s m a y b e stored in the m e m o r y . A n y t h i n g b e s i d e s p r o g r a m s a r e usually called d a t a .
T h * p r o g r a m follower r e a d s d o w n the list of inatructions in the p r o g r a m , t a k i n g e a c h instruction in t u r n a n d c a r r y i n g it out b e f o r e it g o e s o n to the n e x t . N o w , there a r e p r o g r a m followers that just d o that a n d n o t h i n g m o r e ; t h e y h a v e to stop w h e n t h e y get to the e n d of the list of i n s t r u c t i o n s .
T h e instructions of p r o g r a m s u s e the data in different w a y s . S o m e p r o g r a m s u s e a lot of d a t a . s o m e u s e a little, s o m e don't u s e a n y . It is o n e of the fascinating a n d p o w e r f u l t h i n g s a b o u t the c o m p u t e r that both the instructions of a p r o g r a m . a n d the data they w o r k o n , a r e stored as patterns of bits in the s a m e m e m o r y , w h e r e t h e y c a n b e modified a s n e e d e d . I n d e e d , the p r o g r a m c a n m o d i f y its o w n p a t t e r n s of bits, a v e r y important feature.
A true c o m p u t e r , h o w e v e r , c a n d o s e v e r a l things m o r e . It c a n J u m p b a c k to a n earlier point in the p r o g r a m a n d g o o n f r o m t h e r e . R e p e a t i n g the p r o g r a m in this fashion is called a l o o p .
W H A T D O P R O G R A M S L O O K LIKE? In w h a t f o r m s a r e these p r o g r a m s s t o r e d , y o u a s k ? W e l l , t h e y a r e written b y p e o p l e in c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s , w h i c h a r e then stored in s o m e form in the c o m p u t e r ' s fast c o r e m e m o r y , w h e r e the p r o g r a m follower c a n act o n t h e m . B u t w h a t d o e s a c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e look like, y o u a s k ? A h a . . .
It c a n p e r f o r m testB o n s y m b o l s in the m e m o r y — for i n s t a n c e , to s e e If a loop h a s b e e n d o n e e n o u g h t i m e s , or if s o m e o t h e r part of the job h a s b e e n finished-- a n d j u m p to s o m e other p r o g r a m d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s e s y m b o l s . T h i s iB called a b r a n c h .
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F i n a l l y , the c o m p u t e r c a n c h a n g e the information stored in m e m o r y . F o r i n s t a n c e , lt c a n place a n a n s w e r in a specific part of m e m o r y .
O f y o u w a n t to s e e w h a t the b o t t o m - m o s t level looks like, w i t h all the bits a n d t h i n g s , s k i p a h e a d to p . O K )
W H A T , T H E N , IS A (Digital) C O M P U T E R ? A d e v i c e h o l d i n g stored s y m b o l s in a c h a n g e a b l e m e m o r y , p e r f o r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s o n s o m e of t h o s e s y m b o l s in the m e m o r y , in a s e q u e n c e specified b y o t h e r s y m b o l s in the m e m o r y , able to c h a n g e the s e q u e n c e b a a e d o n tests of s y m b o l s in the m e m o r y , a n d able to c h a n g e s y m b o l s in the m e m o r y . (For e x a m p l e , d o arithmetic a n d
W H A T E V E R IT M A Y D O IN T H E R E A L W O R L D , to the c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m it's just a n o t h e r d e v i c e .
store the result in the m e m o r y . ) R a t h e r t h a n try to slip it to y o u o r p r o v e it in s o m e f a n c y w a y , let's just state b a l d l y : the p o w e r of a u c h a m a c h i n e to d o a l m o s t a n y t h i n g s u r p a s s e s all p r e v i o u s technical tricks in h u m a n history. HOW CAN A COMPUTER CONTROL SO M A N Y DIFFERENT
A N A L O G C O M P U T E R S DISPOSED OF T h e r e a r e t w o k i n d s of c o m p u t e r s : a n a l o g a n d digital. (Also h y b r i d , m e a n i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n . ) A n a l o g c o m p u t e r s a r e s o u n i m p o r t a n t c o m p a r e d to digital c o m p u t e r s that w e will polish t h e m off in a c o u p l e of p a r a g r a p h s .
THINGS?
A n s w e r . Different a s they m a y s e e m , all d e v i c e s a r e controlled in the s a m e w a y . E v e r y d e v i c e h a s a n Interface, that i e , its o w n special c o n n e c t i o n s e t u p , a n d in this interface a r e the device registers. " U\*\uey T h e s e d e v i c e registers look the s a m e to the c o m p u t e r : the c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s i m p l y m o v e s information patterns into t h e m or m o v e s information patterns f r o m t h e m to s e e w h a t they c o n t a i n .
particular s y m b o l i c signals the d e v i c e n e e d s
T h e c o m p u t e r , b e i n g a m a c h i n e , doean't k n o w o r c a r e that d e v i c e register 17 ( s a y ) controls a h o g f e e d e r , or d e v i c e register 23 ( a a y ) r e c e i v e s information f r o m s m o g d e t e c t o r s . B u t w h a t y o u c h o o s e , in y o u r p r o g r a m , to p u t Into d e v i c e register 1 7 , controls w h a t the h o g s e a t , a n d w h a t c o m e s into d e v i c e register 23 will tell y o u r p r o g r a m , y o u h o p e , about s m o g conditions. C h o o s i n g h o w to h a n d l e these t h i n g s in y o u r p r o g r a m la y o u r business.
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" A n a l o g " is a s h o r t e n e d f o r m of the w o r d " a n a l o g y . " Originally a n "analog" c o m p u t e r w a s o n e that r e p r e s e n t e d s o m e t h i n g in the real w o r l d b y s o m e o t h e r sort of p h y s i c a l e n a c t m e n t - - for i n s t a n c e , b u i l d i n g a m o d e l of a n e c o n o m i c s y s t e m with tubes a n d liquids; this c a n d e m o n s t r a t e K e y n e s l a n e c o n o m i c principles r e m a r k a b l y w e l l . H o w e v e r , the t e r m "analog" h a s c o m e to m e a n almost exclusively pertaining to m e a s u r a b l e electrical s i g n a l s , a n d a n "analog c o m p u t e r " is a d e v i c e that creates o r modifies m e a s u r a b l e electric s i g n a l s . T h u s a hi-fi amplifier is a n a n a l o g c o m p u t e r (it multiplies the s i g n a l ) , a m u s i c s y n t h e s i z e r is a n a n a l o g c o m p u t e r (it generates a n d r e s h a p e s a n a l o g s i g n a l s ) . T h u s the term h a s deteriorated: almost a n y t h i n g with w i r e s is a n analog c o m p u t e r . A n a l o g c o m p u t e r s c a n n o t b e truly p r o g r a m m e d . only rewired. A n a l o g e q u i p m e n t is useful, important a n d i n d i s p e n s a b l e . B u t it is s i m p l y not in the s a m e class with digital c o m p u t e r s , henceforth called " c o m p u t e r s " in this b o o k , w h i c h manipulate s y m b o l s o n the basis of c h a n g e a b l e s y m b o l i c p r o g r a m a . " A n a l o g c o m p u t e r " also m e a n s a n y w a y of calculating that involves m e a s u r i n g a p p r o x i m a t e r e a d i n g s , like a alide rule.
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Forget w h a t y o u ' v e ever heard or i m a g i n e d about c o m p u t e r s . Just consider this: T h e c o m p u t e r is the most general m a c h i n e m a n has e v e r d e v e l o p e d . I n d e e d , it should b e called the All-Purpose M a c h i n e , but isn't, for reasons of historical accident (see n e a r b y ) . C o m p u t e r s c a n control, a n d receive information f r o m , virtually a n y other m a c h i n e . T h e c o m p u t e r is not like a b o m b or a g u n , w h i c h can only d e s troy, but m o r e like a typewriter, wholly n o n committal b e t w e e n g o o d a n d b a d in its n a t u r e . T h e scope of w h a t c o m p u t e r s c a n d o is breathtaking. Illustrated are s o m e e x a m p l e s (although h a v i n g all this h a p p e n on o n e c o m p u t e r w o u l d b e u n u s u a l ) . It c a n turn things o n a n d off, ring bells, put out fires, type out o n printing m a c h i n e s . C o m p u t e r s are incredibly d o g g e d . C o m p u t e r s can d o things repeatedly forever, or a n e x a c t , i m m e n s e n u m b e r of times (like 4,901,223) , d o i n g something over and o v e r , depending on whether it's finished or not. A computer's activities c a n b e c o m b i n e d in r e m a r k a b l e w a y s . O n e activity, repeated o v e r a n d o v e r , c a n b e part of another activity repeated o v e r a n d o v e r , w h i c h can b e a part of still another activity, w h i c h c a n b e repeated a d infinitum. T H E R E A R E D E F I N I T E L I M I T A T I O N S o n w h a t c o m p u t e r s can d o , but they are not easy to describe briefly. A l s o , s o m e of t h e m are a r g u e d about a m o n g c o m p u t e r p e o p l e .
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C o m p u t e r s are C O M P L E T E L Y G E N E R A L , with n o fixed p u r p o s e or style of operation. In spite of this , the strange m y t h has evolved that c o m p u t e r s are s o m e h o w "mathematical." Actually v o n N e u m a n n , w h o got the general idea about as soon as a n y b o d y ( 1 9 4 0 s ) , called the c o m p u t e r THE ALL-PURPOSE MACHINE. (Indeed, the first backer of c o m p u t e r s after W o r l d W a r II w a s a m a k e r of multi-lightbulb signs. It is an interesting possibility that if he had not b e e n killed in an airplane c r a s h , computers w o u l d h a v e b e e n seen first as text-handling a n d picture-making m a c h i n e s , a n d only later developed for mathematics a n d business.) W e w o u l d call it the All-purpose M a c h i n e h e r e , except that for historical reasons it has b e e n slapped with the other n a m e . B u t that doesn't m e a n it has a fixed w a y of operating. O n the contrary. COMPUTERS HAVE NO NATURE AND NO CHARACTER, s a v e that w h i c h has b e e n put into them b y w h o e v e r is creating the p r o g r a m for a particular p u r p o s e . C o m p u t e r s a r e , unlike any other piece of e q u i p m e n t , perfectly B L A N K . A n d that is h o w w e h a v e projected o n it so m a n y different faces.
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A HELPFUL COMPARISON It helps s o m e t i m e s to c o m p a r e c o m p u t e r s with typewriters. Both handle information according to s o m e b o d y ' s o w n v i e w p o i n t . N e r v o u s Question
Helpful Parallel
"Can a Computer Write a P o e m ? "
"Can a Typewriter Write a P o e m ? " (Sure. Your p o e m . ) "Can't T y p e w r i t e r s O n l y B e h a v e Mechanistically?" ( Y e s , but carrying out y o u r intent.) "Aren't T y p e w r i t e r s Completely Impersonal?" (Well, it's not like h a n d w r i t i n g . but it's still w h a t y o u sa-
"Can't C o m p u t e r s O n l y B e h a v e Mechanistically?
"Aren't C o m p u t e r s Completely Impersonal?
M a n y ordinary people find c o m p u t e r s intuitively obvious a n d understandable; only the complications elude t h e m . P e r h a p s these intuitively helpful definitions m a y help y o u r intuition as well. 1. T h i n k of the c o m p u t e r as a WIND-UP C R O S S W O R D PUZZLE. 2. A C O M P U T E R IS A D E V I C E F O R T W I D D L I N G I N F O R M A T I O N . (So, w h a t kinds of information are there? A n d what are the twiddling options? T h e s e matters are w h a t the c o m p u t e r field consists of.) 3. A c o m p u t e r is a completely general device, w h o s e m e t h o d of operation m a y b e c h a n g e d , for handling s y m b o l s in any specific w a y .
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T o s u m u p , t h e n . T h e M a c h i n e is a m y t h . T h e b a d things in o u r society are the p r o d u c t s of b a d s y s t e m s , b a d decisions a n d conceivably b a d p e o p l e , in various c o m b i n a t i o n s . M a c h i n e s p e r ac are essentially n e u t r a l , t h o u g h s o m e m a c h i n e s c a n b e built w h i c h are b a d i n d e e d , s u c h as b o m b s , g u n s a n d d e a t h - c a m p s .
C y b e r c r u d is not a i m e d only at l a y m e n . It can w o r k e v e n a m o n g i n s i d e r s . T h e operations m a n a g e r of a national t i m e s h a r i n g s e r v i c e , for e x a m p l e , w a s fanatical about cleanliness. In o r d e r to a s s u r e a C l e a n C o m p u t e r R o o m , he said, a n d hence no d a n g e r o u s dust n e a r the tapes o r disks , h e m a d e a rule requiring that a n y o n e entering the c o m p u t e r r o o m h a d to w e a r cloth booties o v e r his s h o e s . Booties w e r e h u n g outside for those w h o h a d to e n t e r . " A n d 1 h a d the greatest time m a k i n g his." s a y s his w i f e , l a u g h i n g . "With the cutest little b u n n y faces o n t h e m . T h e buttons w e r e the hardest part to get - y o u k n o w , the o n e s with e y e s that roll!" S h e l a u g h s v e r y h a r d as s h e tells this. " O f c o u r s e there w a s n o n e e d for it." h e n o w chortles, "but it s u r e k e p t p e o p l e out of the computer room." (That's applied logic for y o u . )
T h e m y t h of T h e M a c h i n e la a curious aspect of o u r i d e o l o g y . Is it especially A m e r i c a n , or w o r l d - w i d e ? Public thinking about c o m p u t e r s is heavily tinged b y a peculiar i m a g e w h i c h w e m a y call the M y t h of the M a c h i n e . It g o e s as follows: there is s o m e t h i n g called the M a c h i n e , w h i c h is T a k i n g O v e r T h e W o r l d . A c c o r d i n g to this poinl of v i e w T h e M a c h i n e Is a relentless, p e r e m p t o r y , repetitive, invariable, m o n o t o n o u s , i n e x o r a b l e , i m p l a c a b l e , ruthless, i n h u m a n , d e h u m a n i z i n g , impersonal J u g g e r n a u t , brainlessly c a r r y i n g out repetitive ( a n d often violent) actions. S y m b o l i c of this is of c o u r s e Charlie C h a p l i n , d o d g i n g the relentl e s s , repetitive, m o n o t o n o u s , i m p l a c a b l e , d e h u m a n i z i n g g e a r s of a m a c h i n e h e m u s t deal with in the film M o d e r n T i m e s . O r d i n a r i l y this v i e w of T h e M a c h i n e is contrasted with a n idea of a W a r m H u m a n B e i n g , usually a n idealized v e r s i o n of the p e r s o n t h i n k i n g these t h o u g h t s . Warm Human Being
COMPUTERS A N D THEIR PRIESTS First get it t h r o u g h y o u r h e a d that c o m p u t e r s a r e b i g , e x p e n s i v e , fast, d u m b a d d i n g - m a c h i n e - t y p e w r i t e r s . T h e n realize that m o s t of the c o m p u t e r technicians that y o u ' r e likely to m e e t o r hire are c o m p l i c a t o r s , not simpiifiers. T h e y ' r e trying to m a k e it look t o u g h . N o t e a s y . T h e y ' r e building a m y s t i q u e , a p r i e s t h o o d , their o w n m u m b o j u m b o ritual to k e e p y o u f r o m k n o w i n g w h a t t h e y - - a n d y o u - - are d o i n g , "
B u t c o n s i d e r s o m e t h i n g . T h e m o d e l often g o e s further than this. T h e M a c h i n e is c o l d , the H u m a n B e i n g cmotionai a n d w a r m . Y e t there is s u c h a thing a s b e i n g too emotional a n d w a r m . T h e r e is in fact a third type in the s c h e m a , the b e i n g w h o g o e s too far o n the s a m e s c a l e . S t r a n g e l y , h e h a s at least three different n a m e s , t h o u g h the picture of h i m is abstractly the s a m e :
x -- R o b e r t T o w n s e n d , U p T h e Organization ( K n o p f ) , p . 36.
O u t s i d e r s arc often p r e y to c y b e r c r u d Ihey d r e a m u p t h e m s e l v e s . I o n c e k n e w a college registrar's office w h e r e they h a d b e e n getting along fine for y e a r s with p a p e r f o r m s . T h e y e a r before the c o m p u t e r w a s slated to a r r i v e , they started u s i n g file c a r d s filled out b y h a n d , instead. W h y ? " W e l l , w e t h o u g h t that w o u l d m a k e it easier for the c o m p u t e r . C o m p u t e r s u s e c a r d s , don't they? 1
Note that referring to a c o m p u t e r as if it w e r e a living creature is not c y b e r c r u d ; to say that a p r o g r a m "looks at" a d e v i c e , "tries to" effect a p r o c e d u r e , a n d " g o e s to sleep," a r e all colorful brief w a y s of d e s c r i b i n g w h a t really h a p p e n s . (See Guidelines for Writers a n d S p o k e s m e n , p . H1) )
H H t T j t c R e r r o w
The Machine
Warm Human Being
"Bum" ''Nigger" "Hippie"
N o w , " b u m s . " "niggers" a n d "hippies" are not real p e o p l e . T h e w o r d s a r e d e r o g a t o r y slang for the destitute, for p e r s o n s w i t h a n y African a n c e s t r y , a n d for p e o p l e d r e s s i n g in certain styles. B u t the r e m a r k a b l e thing a b o u t the s l a n g is that ull three of these d e r o g a t o r y t e r m s s e e m to h a v e the s a m e connotation in o u r culture: s o m e o n e w h o is dirty, lazy a n d lascivious. In other w o r d s , w h a t e v e r distinguishes T h e M a c h i n e f r o m the W a r m H u m a n B e i n g is carried too far b y the b u n c h at the other e n d . In other w o r d s , this c o n c e p t u a l c o n t i n u u m is a s i n g l e , f u n d a m e n t a l scale in o u r culture: w h y is u n c l e a r . S i n c e m o s t p e o p l e c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s - - naturally!-- to b e in the m i d d l e c a t e g o r y , it acts a s a sort of r e f e r e n c e c o n t i n u u m of t w o b a d t h i n g s o n either s i d e . It also h a s a n o t h e r effect: it s u p p l i e s a d e r o g a t o r y w a y of s e e i n g . O n the r i g h t - h a n d s i d e , it allows m a n y A m e r i c a n s not to s e e , o r to s e e o n l y with d i s g u s l , the destitute a n d those with African a n c e s t r y a n d those d r e s s i n g in hippie style. B u t this b o o k isn't about that. T h e left side of the c o n t i n u u m is o u r p r e s e n t c o n c e r n . T h e r e , t o o . p e o p l e refuse to s e e . W h a t p e o p l e m a i n l y refuse to see is that m a c h i n e s in g e n e r a l aren't like that, relentless, repetitive, m o n o t o n o u s , i m p l a c a b l e , d e h u m a n i z i n g . O h , there a r e s o m e m a c h i n e s like thai, particularly the a u t o m o b i l e a s s e m b l y line. B u t the n s s e m b l y line w a s d e s i g n e d the w a y it is b e c a u s e it gets the m o s t w o r k out of p e o p l e . It gets the w o r k it d o e s out of p e o p l e b y the w a y it exerts p r e s s u r e . S o h e r e w e s e e the s a m e old trick: people building a s y s t e m a n d s a y i n g it h a s to w o r k that w a y b e c a u s e it's a m a c h i n e , rather than b e c a u s e that's h o w 1 d e s i g n e d it. isider
I) EL
T h e a u t o m o b i l e is a m a c h i n e , b u t it is h a r d l y the repetitive, " d e h u m a n i z e d " thing w e usually h e a r a b o u t . It g o e s uphill, d o w n h i l l , left a n d right, fast a n d s l o w . It m a y b e d e c o r a t e d . II Is the s c e n e of m a n y w a r m h u m a n activities. A n d m o a t i m p o r tantly , automobiles are v e r y m u c h the extension of their o w n e r s . e x e m p l i f y i n g life-style, personality, a n d i d e o l o g y . C o n s i d e r the Haja B u g g y V o l k s w a g e n a n d the ostentatious c u s h y Cadillac. C o n s i d e r the d a s h b o a r d o r n a m e n t a n d the b u m p e r sticker. T h e Machine, indeed.
C y b e r c r u d ia, of c o u r s e . juat o n e b r a n c h of THE GREAT G A M E OF TECHNOLOGICAL PRETENSE that haa the w h o l e w o r l d in its g r a s p .
T h e c a m e r a is a m a c h i n e , but o n e that allows Its u s e r to freeze a n d p r e s e r v e the v i e w s a n d i m a g e s of the w o r l d he w a n t s . T h e bicycle is a m a c h i n e , b u l o n e that b r i n g s y o u into p e r s o n a l a n d non-polluting contact with n a t u r e , o r at least that stylized k i n d of nature acceaaible to bicycle p a t h s .
4
firts>
If w e ignore this m y t h w e c a n see each possible m a c h i n e or s y s t e m for w h a t it i s , a n d s t u d y h o w it ties In with h u m a n life for g o o d or ill, fostering or lousing u p s u c h things as the g o o d life, p r e s e r vation of s p e c i e s , love S n d self-respect.
" T h e c o m p u t e r ia the ultimate R o r s c h a c h test," F r e e d Bales said lo m e twelve y e a r s a g o . D r . B a l e s , a H a r v a r d psychologist, w a s s o m e w h a t p e r t u r b e d b y the p a p e r s h e w a s getting in his s e m i n a r o n c o m p u t e r modelling in Ihe social s c i e n c e s . S o m e w h a t nutty people in Ihe s e m i n a r w e r e writing s o m e w h a t nutty p a p e r s for h i m . A n d truer w o r d s w e r e n e v e r s p o k e n . O n this point I find Bales h a s b e e n terribly, terribly right. T h e c o m p u t e r is a n incredible projective test: w h a t y o u see in the c o m p u t e r c o m e s right off the b a c k wall of y o u r p s y c h e . In o v e r a d e c a d e in the field I h a v e not c e a s e d to m a r v e l at the w a y people's personalities e n t w i n e with the c o m p u t e r , e a c h m a k i n g it his o w n - - o r rejecting it-- in his o w n , often u n i q u e a n d peculiar w a y , deeply r e flecting his c o n c e r n s a n d w h a t is in his h e a r t . Y e s , o d d people are attracted lo the c o m p u t e r , a n d the b o n d s that hold t h e m are not those of casual interest.
In fact, p e o p l e tend to identify with it. In this light w e m a y c o n s i d e r the oftenh e a r d r e m a r k s about c o m p u t e r s b e i n g rigid, n a r r o w , a n d inflexible. T h i s is of c o u r s e true in a s e n s e , but the fact lhat s o m e people stress it o v e r a n d o v e r is a n important clue to s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e m . M y o w n i m p r e s s i o n is that the people w h o stress this aspect are the comparatively rigid, n a r r o w a n d inflexible p e o p l e . O t h e r c o m p u t e r e x p e r t s , n o less w o r t h y , tell u s the c o m p u t e r is a s u p e r t o y , the g r a n d e s t play m a c h i n e e v e r to b e d i s c o v e r e d . T h e s e p e o p l e tend to b e the m o r e o u t g o i n g , g e n e r o u s a n d playful t y p e s . In a classic s t u d y , psychiatrist B r u n o Bettclheim e x a m i n e d a child w h o thought he w a s a m a c h i n e , w h o talked in staccato m o n o s y l l a b l e s , w a l k e d jerkily a n d decorated the side of his b e d with g e a r s . W e will not discuss here the p r o b able origins a n d c u r e of this c o m p l e x ; but w e m u s t c o n s i d e r that identifying with m a c h i n e s is a crucial cultural ( h e m e in A m e r i c a n society, an uvailublc t h e m e for all of u s . A n d It well m a y b e thai c o m p u t e r people are partaking of this s a m e self-image: in a m o r e b e n i g n f o r m , p e r h a p s , a shift of g e a r s (as it w e r e ) from Bettelheim's m e c h a n i c a l child, but still c i (he s u m e track.
S o m e of the c o m p u t e r high-'chool kids I've k n o w n , b e c a u s e of their y o u t h , h a v e b e e n e v e n m o r e u p f r o n t about this lhan udults. 1 k n o w o n e b o y , for instance, w h o s e d r e a m w a s to put a 3 3 A S R Teletype o n w h e e l s u n d e r radio control, a n d a l a r m people ut the c o m p u t e r c o n f e r e n c e b y h a v i n g it roll u p to t h e m a n d clatter out questions i m p e r s o n a l l y . (If y o u k n e w the kid -- aloof a n d h a u g h t y - s e e m i n g - y o u m i g h t Ihink that's h o w h e a p p r o a c h e s people in real life.) 1 k n o w a high-school b o y (not a c o m p u t e r e x p e r t ) w h o p r o g r a m m e d a c o m p u t e r lo type out a love s t o r y , u s i n g the B A S I C "print" c o m m a n d , the only o n e he k n e w . H e could not b r i n g himself to write the love story o n p a p e r . T h e best e x a m p l e I can think of. t h o u g h , took place at the k i d s ' booth (see p . 9 7 ) at a c o m p u t e r c o n f e r e n c e . O n e of the m o r e w i t h d r a w n girls w a s sitting at a n off-line video terminal, idly typing things onto the s c r e e n . W h e n s h e h a d g o n e a sentence r e m a i n e d . 11 said: 1 love y o u all, bul at a distance.
h ( O n the other side of Ihis b o o k , D r e a m M a c h i n e s , w e will curry this mailer further. T h e m o s t exciting thinga in the c o m p u t e r field are c o m i n g from people trying to realize their wildest d r e a m s b y c o m p u t e r : artificial intelligence, c o m p u t e r m u s i c , c o m p u t e r picturem a k i n g a n d so o n . )
3) Y A G O T T A S : C O M P U T E R A S
COERCER
M o r e a g g r e s s i v e l y , c y b e r c r u d is a t e c h n i q u e for m a k i n g p e o p l e d o w h a t y o u w a n t . " T h e c o m puter r e q u i r e s it," y o u s a y , a n d so p e o p l e c a n b e m a d e to h a n d o v e r p e r s o n a l information, secretaries c a n b e intimidated into s c o u r i n g the files, p a y m e n t s c h e d u l e s c a n b e artificially e n f o r c e d . A n u m b e r of p e o p l e h a v e gotten m a d at m e for coining the t e r m " c y b e r c r u d . " w h i c h I define as "putting things o v e r o n p e o p l e u s i n g c o m p u t e r s . ' But as long as it g o e s o n we'll n e e d the w o r d . A t e v e r y c o r n e r of o u r society, people are issuing p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a n d m a k i n g other people d o things a n d s a y i n g it's b e c a u s e of the c o m p u t e r . T h e function of c y b e r c r u d is thus to c o n f u s e , intimidate or p r e s s u r e . W e h s v e all got to get w i s e to this if it is g o i n g to b e curtailed. C y b e r c r u d takes n u m e r o u s f o r m s . All of t h e m , h o w e v e r , s h a r e the patina of "science" that c o m p u t e r s h a v e for the l a y m a n . la) C O M P U T E R A S M A G I C
WORD
T h e m o s t delicate, a n d s e e m i n g l y i n n o c e n t , t e c h n i q u e is the practice of n a m i n g things so as spuriously to s u g g e s t that they involve c o m p u t e r s . T h u s there is a m a n u f a c t u r e r of pot-pipes with "Data" in its n a m e , a n d apparently a p o r n o g r a p h y h o u s e with a " C y b e r - " . lb) C O M P U T E R A S M A G I C
INGREDIENT
T h e a b o v e s e e m s silly, but it is n o less silly than talking about " c o m p u t e r predictions" a n d " c o m p u t e r studies" of t h i n g s . T h e m e r e fsct that a c o m p u t e r is_ involved in s o m e t h i n g h a s n o b e a r i n g o n its character or validity. T h e w a y things are d o n e with c o m p u t e r s affects their character a n d validity, just like the w a y things are d o n e w i t h o u t c o m p u t e r s . (Indeed, merely using a c o m p u t e r often h a s n o b e a r i n g o n the w a y things a r e d o n e . ) T h i a s a m e t e c h n i q u e is easily m a g n i f i e d to s u g g e s t , not m e r e l y that s o m e t h i n g involves c o m p u t e r s , b u t is w h o l l y d o n e b y c o m p u t e r s . T h e w o r d " c o m p u t e r i z e " p e r f o r m s this fatal function. W h e n u s e d specifically, as in c o m p u t e r i z e the billing operation, it c a n b e fairly clear; b u t m a k e it v a g u e , as in c o m p u t e r i z e the office, a n d it c a n m e a n anything. "Fully c o m p u t e r i z e " is w o r s e . T h u s w e h e a r a b o u t a "fully c o m p u t e r i z e d " print s h o p , w h i c h turns out to b e o n e w h o s e c o m p u t e r s d o the t y p e setting; but they could also r u n the p r e s s e s , p a y the bills a n d w o r k the coffee m a c h i n e . F o r p r a c tical p u r p o s e s , there is n o s u c h thing as "fully" c o m p u t e r i z e d . T h e r e is a l w a y s o n e m o r e thing c o m p u t e r s could d o .
THE GENERAL STATUS
"If it can't b e d o n e in C O B O L , I Just tell people it can't b e d o n e b y c o m p u t e r . It s a v e s a lot of trouble." Attributed to s o m e b o d y in R o c h e s t e r . (See C O B O L , p 7 ) I -)
TRICK
Status tricks, c o m b i n i n g the p u t d o w n a n d the self-boost, date b a c k to times i m m e m o r i a l . But today they take n e w f o r m s . T h e biggest trick is to elevate yourself a n d d e m e a n the listener at the s e m e t i m e , o r , m o r e g e n e r a l l y , the t e c h n i q u e is m a k i n g p e o p l e feel stupid w h i l e acting like a big c h e e s e . T h u s s o m e o n e o n e might say , " P e o p l e m u s t b e g i n to get u s e d to the o b j e c tive scientific w a y s of d o i n g things that c o m p u t e r s n o w m a k e n e c e s s a r y . " B u t the translation s e e m s to b e : "People m u s t get u s e d to the inflexible, badly thought o u t , inconvenient a n d u n k i n d s y s t e m s that I a n d other self-righteous individuals a n d c o m p a n i e s a r e inflicting o n the w o r l d . " YOU DON'T A L W A Y S
GOTTA
T h e u n i n f o r m e d are b u l l d o z e d , a n d e v e n the i n f o r m e d a r e p r e s s u r e d , b y the foolish m y t h s of the c l e v e r , implacable a n d scientific c o m p u t e r to w h i c h they m u s t a d a p t . P e o p l e are told they h a v e to "relate to the c o m p u t e r . " B u t actually they are b e i n g m a d e to relate to s y s t e m s h u m a n s h a v e d e s i g n e d a r o u n d it, in m u c h the s a m e w a y a s w o r d d a n c e is d e s i g n e d a r o u n d the s w o r d .
St.;*
In the m o v i e "Fail-Safe." they s h o w e d y o u lots of fake tape drives with the reels constantly t u r n i n g in o n e direction. T h i s they called a " c o m p u t e r . " Calling a n y sinister b o x "a c o m p u t e r " is a w i d e s p r e a d trick. G i v e s people the willies. K e e p s 'em in line.
W h e n establishment c o m p u t e r p e o p l e s a y that the c o m p u t e r requires y o u to b e s y s t e m a t i c , they generally m e a n y o u h u v e lo learn their s y s t e m . B u t a n y o n e w h o tells y o u a m e t h o d " h a s to b e c h a n g e d for the c o m p u t e r " is usually fibbing. H e prefers to c h a n g e the m e t h o d for the c o m p u t e r . T h e r e a s o n s m a y b e b a d or g o o d . Often the c o m p u t e r s a l e s m a n or indoctrinator will p r e s e n t as "scientific" t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h w e r e d o p e d out o r w h o m p e d u p b y a c o u p l e of g u y s in the b a c k room.
H e r e is a n e x a m p l e , as told to m e . A friend of m i n e w o r k e d in a d r e s s factory w h e r e they h a d a perfectly g o o d s y s t e m for billing a n d b o o k k e e p i n g . C u s t o m e r s w e r e listed b y n a m e a n d k e p t in a l p h a betical o r d e r . T h e fast p a c e of the g a r m e n t i n d u s try m e a n t that c o m p a n i e s often c h a n g e d n a m e s , a n d so v a r i o u s c o m p a n i e s h a d a n u m b e r of different n a m e s in the file. T h i s b o t h e r e d n o b o d y b e c a u s e the p e o p l e u n d e r s t o o d the s y s t e m . T h e n m a n a g e m e n t b o u g h t a small c o m p u t e r , n e v e r m i n d w h a t b r a n d , a n d hired a c o u p l e of g u y s to c o m e in a n d put the b o o k k e e p i n g s y s t e m o n it. Still o k a y . I n d e e d , small p r o g r a m m i n g firms c o n s o m e t i m e s d o this sort of thing v e r y w e l l , b e c a u s e ihey c a n w o r k flexibly with the p e o p l e a n d don't necessarily feel c o m m i t t e d to m a k i n g it w o r k a certain w a y .
W e l l , this w a s a nice instance w h e r e the existing s y s t e m c o u l d h a v e b e e n exactly t r a n s ferred lo the c o m p u t e r . T h e fact thai s o m e c u s t o m ers h a d s e v e r a l n a m e s w o u l d certainly h a v e b e e n n o p r o b l e m ; a p r o g r a m could h a v e b e e n written that allowed u s e r s to t y p e a n y acceptable c u s t o m e r n a m e , c a u s i n g the c o m p u t e r to look u p the correct a c c o u n t ( a n d if d e s i r e d , print its u s u a l n a m e a n d a s k for verification).
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B u t n o . T h e g u y s did not a n s w e r e m p l o y e e s ' questions c o m p r e h e n s i b l y , n o r did they w a n t s u g gestions. T h e y immediately d e c r e e d that since c o m p u t e r s only w o r k e d with n u m b e r s (a fib. but a c o n v e n i e n c e to t h e m ) , e v e r y c u s t o m e r w o u l d thenceforth h a v e lo b e referred to b y n u m b e r . After that the firm h a d n o t h i n g but Iroubie, t h r o u g h confusion o v e r the multiple n a m e s , a n d m y friend predicted that this w o u l d destroy the c o m p a n y . I haven't h e a r d the o u t c o m e . T h i s story is not necessarily v e r y interesting; it m e r e l y h a p p e n e d . It's not s m a d e - u p example.
BY T H L AID O F T H E M I R R O R S H E P U T O N T H L
HEAD
2) W H I T E LIES: T H E C O M P U T E R M A D E M E D O IT N e x t c o m e all the leetle white lies about h o w s u c h - a n d - a u c h ia the computer's fault a n d not y o u r decision. T h u s the c o m p u t e r is m a d e a G e n e r a l S c a p e g o a t at the n a m e time it's c o v e r i n g u p for w h a t s o m e b o d y w a n t s to d o a n y w a y . "It has to b e thia w a y . " " T h e r e ' s nothing w e c a n d o ; this ia all handled b y computer." " T h e c o m p u t e r will not allow thia." " T h e c o m p u t e r won't let u a . " T h e translation is, of c o u r a e , T H E S T I N K Y L O U S Y P R O G R A M D O E S N O T P E R M I T I T . W h i c h m e a n s in turn: W E D O N O T C H O O S E T O P R O V I D E . IN O U R PROGRAMS AND EQUIPMENT. ANY ALTERNATIVES. N o w . it is often the case that g o o d a n d sufficient reason exists for the w a y things are d o n e . But it is also often the caae that c o m p a n i e s a n d the public are i n c o n v e n i e n c e d , or w o r s e , b y decisions the c o m p u t e r people m a k e a n d than hide with their claim of technical necessity. (See p.^L: Dealing with c o m p u t e r p e o p l e . )
Y o u c a n b u y little b o x e s with blinking lights thst d o n o t h i n g else but blink. T h e y really put people uptight. " A r e y o u recording w h a t I s a y ' " people a s k . "Is it a c o m p u t e r ? " They'll believe s u c h a b o x is a n y t h i n g y o u tell t h e m .
M o r a l : until w e o v e r t h r o w the m y t h that p e o p l e a l w a y s h a v e to a d a p t to c o m p u t e r s , rather than the other w a y a r o u n d , things will n e v e r g o right. Adaptations s h o u l d take place o n both s i d e s , d a r n it.
E V E R Y B O D Y D O E S IT C y b e r c r u d is b y n o m e a n s the p r o v i n c e of c o m p u t e r p e o p l e alone. B u s i n e s s manipulators a n d b u r e a u c r a t s h a v e quickly learned the tricks. C o m p a n i e s d o it to the p u b l i c . T h e p r e s s , I n d e e d , contributes (see S u g g e s t i o n s for Writers a n d Spokesmen, p. ) . But the c o m p u t e r people are best at it b e c a u s e they h a v e m o r e technicalities to shuffle a r o u n d magically; they c a n put a n y b o d y down. N o w , c o m p u t e r people d o d e a e r v e r e s p e c t . S o m a n y things that people d o with c o m p u t e r s are h a r d . It c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d that they w a n t to b e appreciated, a n d if not for the particulars, for the m a c h i s m o ( m s c h i n i s m o ? ) of c o p i n g with intricacy . But that is n o e x c u s e for k e e p i n g others In controlled i g n o r a n c e . N o m a n h a s a right to b e p r o u d that h e is p r e s e r v i n g a n d manipulating the i g n o r a n c e of o t h e r s .
1 ) to manipulate situations. 2) to control others . 3) to fool. 4) lo look like hot stuff. 5) lo k e e p outsiders from seeing t h r o u g h s o m e t h i n g . 6) to sell s o m e t h i n g . 7) to put s o m e o n e d o w n . 8) to conceal. 9) general secretiveness. 10) low expectation of others' mentality. 11) s e e k i n g to b e the b r o k e r a n d m i d d l e m a n for all relations with the c o m p u t e r . 12) v a g u e n e s s s o u n d s p r o f o u n d . 13) y o u don't h a v e to s h o w w h a t you're not s u r e of. 14) y o u r public i m a g e is monolithic. 15) y o u really don't k n o w .
THE MAIN C O M P U T E R ORGANIZATIONS A C M , the Association for Computing Machinery. This is the main computer professional society; the title only has meaning historically, as m a n y m e m b e r s are concerned not with machinery itself, but with software, languages, theories and s o o n . If you have any plans to stick with the subject, membership in the Association for Computing Machinery is highly recomm e n d e d . A C M calls itself "The Society of the Computing Community." T h u s it properly embraces both professionals and fans. Dues for official students are $8 a yeai $35 for others, which includes a subscription to Communications of the A C M , the official m a g . Their address for m e m b e r s h i p s and magazines is A C M , P . O . B o x 12105, C h u r c h St. Station, N e w Y o r k , N Y 10249. (The actual A C M H Q is at 1133 A v e . of the Americas, N e w Y o r k , N . Y . 10036.) T h e y have stacked the deck so that if you want to subscribe to any A C M m a g a zines you'd better join a n y w a y . Here are the year prices: Member Communications of the A C M free Computing Surveys $7 Computing Reviews $12.50 Journal of the A C M $7
T h e one d r a w b a c k to joining the A C M is all the doggoned mailing lists it gets you o n . It's unclear whether there's anything you can do to prevent this, but there oughta be. SIGs and SICs. For A C M m e m b e r s with special interests (and w e all have t h e m ) , the A C M contains subdivisions-- clubs within the club, of people w h o keep in touch to share their interests. These are called SICs (Special Interest Committees) and SIGs (Special Interest G r o u p s ) . T h e r e are such clubs-- SICs and SIGs-- in n u m e r o u s areas, including P r o g r a m m i n g L a n g u a g e s , C o m p u t e r Usage in Education, etc. Encouraging these subinterests to stay within A C M saves a lot of trouble for everybody and keeps A C M the central society, AFIPS.
AFIPS is the U N of computing. T h e y sponsored the Joints, and n o w sponsor the N C C . Just as individuals can't join the U N , they can't join A F I P S , which stands for American Federation of Information Processing Societies. Depending on your special interests, though, y o u can join a m e m b e r society. T h e constituent societies of AFIPS are, as of June 1973: (If any turn y o u o n , write AFIPS for addresses: A F I P S , 210 S u m m i t A v e . Montvale NJ 07645.) ^5"ACM: the Association for Computing Machinery. IEEE, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. This is the professional society of electronics g u y s . Simulation Councils. This is the professional society for those interested in Simulation (see p.TiK). Association for Computational Linguistics . (Where language and computer types gather.) American Association of Aeronautics and Astronautics. American Statistical Association. Instrument Society of America. Society for Information Display. (See flip side.) American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. American Society for Information Science. (This group is mainly for electronified librarians and information retrieval types-- see flip side.) Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Special Libraries Association. Association for Educational Data Systems. IFIP. This is the international computer society. Like A F I P S , its m e m b e r s are societies, so joining A C M m a k e s you an IFIP participant. IFIP holds conferences around the world. F u n . Expense.
CONFERENCES.
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
Conferences in any field are exciting, at least till you reach a certain degree of boredom with the field. Computer conferences have their o w n heady atmosphere, c o m p o u n d e d of a sense of elitism, of being in the witches' cauldron, and the sure sense of the impact everything y o u see will have as it all g r o w s and g r o w s . Plus y o u get to look at gadgets. Usually to go for one day doesn't cost m u c h , and at the bigger ones y o u get lots of free literature, have salesmen explain their things to y o u , see m o v i e s , hear fascinating (sometimes) speakers. T H E J O I N T S ! T h e principal computer conferences have always been the Spring Joint Computer Conference, held in an astern city in M a y , and the Fall Joint C o m p u t e r Conference, held in a Western city in N o v e m b e r (the infamous Spring Joint a n d Fall Joint, or S J C C and F J C C ) . In 1973, because of poor business the previous year, the two w e r e collapsed into one National C o m p u t e r Conference ( N C C ) in June (Universal Joint?) T h e Joints have always been sponsored b y AFIPS (see b e l o w ) . T h e National C o m p u t e r Conference will henceforth be annual, at least for a while. T h e cost of attending is high-while it's just a couple of dollars to look at the exhibits, this rises to perhaps fifteen dollars to go to the day's technical sessions or fifty for the w e e k (not counting lodging and eats)-- but it's very m u c h worth it. T h e lower age limit for attendees is something like twelve, unfortunately for those with interested children. Other important conferences: the annual A C M conference in the s u m m e r ; B E M A (Business Equipment Mfrs. A s s n . ) in the fall and spring (no theory, but lots of gadgets); and other conferencs o n special subjects, held all the time all o v e r . Lists of conferences and their whereabouts are in most of the magazines; Communications of the A C M and C o m p u t e r Design have the biggest lists.
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A s you m a y k n o w , conferences largely consist of separate "sessions" in which different people talk on specific topics, usually reading out loud from their notes and showing slides. Conference proceedings are books which result Trom conferences. Supposedly they contain what each guy said; in practice people say one thing and publish another, more formal than the actual presentation. This leads to a curious phenomenon at the main computer conferences ( S J C C . F J C C . A C M and n o w N C C ) . W h e n you register they give you a book (you're actually paying perhaps $15 for it), containing all the papers that are about to be given, nicely tricked out by their authors. If you rush to a corner and look at the book it m a y change your notion of which sessions to go to. A n y w a y , the resulting volumes of conference proceedings are a treasure trove of interesting papers on an immense variety of computerish and not-socomputerish subjects. Great for browsing. Expensive but wonderful. (Horrible w h e n you're m o v i n g , though, as they are big and heavy.)
J O I N T P R O C E E D I N G S . Proceedings for the Spring Joint and Fall Joint, from the fifties to 1972, are available from AFIPS Press , as are proceedings of the 1973 N C C . (AFIPS Press, 210 Summit A v e n u e , Montvale NJ 07645.) T h e y cost $20-26 each after the conference is over; less in microfilm. (At the Joint Conferences, AFIPS Press often gives discounts, at their booth, on back Joint proceedings.) £ ^ > I f y o u want to spend m o n e y to learn about the field. Proceedings of the Joint Conferences are a fine b u y . Back A C M Proceedings. From the A C M . Other Proceedings. Often sold at counters at conferences. O r available from various publishers. Join the A C M and you'll find out soon enough .
T R Y T O G E T T O T H E N A T I O N A L J O I N T . Just as every Muslim should go to M e c c a , every computer fan should go to a National Joint (National Computer Conference, or N C C ) . T h e next two are (check the magazines): M a y 1974, Chicago M a y 1975 rSan Fganoisgo- A W A H E-1M, N O Q U A L I F I C A T I O N S A R E N E E D E D . Think of it as a circus for smart alecks, or, if you prefer, a D e e p Educational Experience.
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T h e r e is a lot of talk about "best" w a y s of teaching about computers, but in most places the actual alternatives open to those w h o want to learn are fairly dismal. Universities. Universities and colleges tend to teach computing with a mathematical emphasis at the start. Indeed, most seem to require that to get into the introductory computer course, you must have had higher math (at least calculus. sometimes matrix algebra as well). This is preposterous, like requiring an engineering degree to drive a car. (Gradeschool kids can learn to program with no prerequisites.) • t > l t seems to be to cut d o w n enrollment, since they're not set up to deal with all those people w h o want to learn about computers. (And w h y not?) Also it's a status thing; as if this restriction s o m e h o w should keep enrollment to students with "logical minds." whatever those are, or "mathematical sophistication ," as if that were relevant. "Computer schools," community and commercial colleges, on the other h a n d , tend to prepare students only for the most h u m d r u m business applications-- keypunching (which is rapidly becoming obsolete), and programming in the C O B O L language on IBM business systems. This gets you no closer to the more exciting applications of computers than you were originally. S o m e experimental trends are more encouraging. S o m e colleges, for instance, offer "computer appreciation courses," with a wider introduction to what's available and more varied p r o g r a m m i n g intended to serve as an introduction to this wider horizon. Highschool courses seem to be cutting through the junk and offering students access to minicomputers with quickie languages, usually B A S I C . Both Digital Equipment C o r p . and Hewlett-Packard seem to be making Inroads here. Kiddie setups, rumored to exist in Boston and San Francisco, are geared to letting grade-school children see and play with computers. Also one company (General Turtle, see p. k V/) is selling computer toys intended to encourage actual programming by children.
C o m p u t e r . (Formerly IEEE C o m p u t e r G r o u p N e w s . ) $ 1 2 / y r . T h o u g h t f u l , clearly written articles o n h i g h - l e v e l t o p i c s . Q u i t e a bit o n Artificial Intelligence (see flip s i d e ) . I E E E C o m p u t e r S o c i e t y , 16400 V e n t u r a B l v d . , E n c i n o C A 91316.
H e r e a r e s o m e o t h e r m a g a z i n e s that m a y interest y o u . N o particular o r d e r . PCC. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m a j o r p l a c e s y o u g e t inform a t i o n in the c o m p u t e r field: f r i e n d s , m a g a z i n e s , bingo c a r d s , conferences a n d conference proceedings.
C o m p u t i n g R e v i e w s . Prints r e v i e w s , b y individuals in the field, of m o s t of the s e r i o u s c o m p u t e r articles. U s e f u l , b u t subject to i n d i v i d u a l b i a s e s a n d g a p s . (See A C M , b e l o w . )
F r i e n d s w e can't h e l p w i t h . B u t y o u m i g h t m a k e a o m e at c o n f e r e n c e s . O r join a c o m p u t e r c l u b ?
T h e principal m a g a z i n e s a r e (first f e w listed r o u g h l y b y d e g r e e of g e n e r a l interest):
C o m p u t i n g S u r v e y s . E x c e l l e n t , clearly written i n t r o d u c t o r y articles o n a variety of s u b j e c t s . A n y s e r i o u s b e g i n n e r s h o u l d definitely s u b s c r i b e to C o m p u t i n g S u r v e y s . ( S e e A C M , below.)
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C o m m u n i c a t i o n s of the A C M . H i g h - c l a s s fj.v j o u r n a l a b o u t theoretical m a t t e r s a n d Vl'v'-Py e v e n t s o n the intellectual side of the field. (See A C M , b e l o w . ) C o m p u t e r D e s i g n . $18/yr. o r free. C o n c e n trates o n parts for c o m p u t e r s , b u t also tells technical details of n e w c o m p u t e r s and peripherals. C o m p u t e r D e s i g n , Circulation D e p t . . P . O . B o x A , Winchester, M a s s . 01890. Data P r o c e s s i n g m a g a z i n e . O r i e n t e d to c o n v e n t i o n a l b u s i n e s s applications of c o m p u t e r s . $ 1 0 . North A m e r i c a n P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 134 N . 13th S t . , Philadelphia. P a . 19107.
T h o m a s H . Crowley, Understanding Computers. M c G r a w - H i l l . T h i s is the m o s t r e a d a b l e a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d introduction to the t e c h n i calities a r o u n d . J e r e m y B e r n s t e i n , T h e Analytical E n g i n e . R a n d o m H o u s e , 1 9 6 4 . History of c o m p u t e r s , well told, a n d the w a y t h i n g s l o o k e d in 1 9 6 4 . w h i c h w a s n ' t really v e r y different.
T h e Honeywell Computer Journal. Something like $ 1 0 a y e a r . H o n e y w e l l Information Systems, Inc., Phoenix, Arizona. S h o w c a s e m a g a z i n e of m i s c e l l a n e o u s content; r e a d a b l e , nicely e d i t e d . H a s u n u s u a l practice of i n c l u d i n g m i c r o f i c h e (microfilm c a r d ) of entire i s s u e in a pocket.
C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s . S o m e $7 a y e a r o r f r e e . S o m e nice light articles. a s w e l l a s helpful r e v i e w articles o n different s u b j e c t s . A v o i d s technicalities. C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s , 50 E s s e x St. , Roselle P a r k N J 0 7 6 6 2 .
C o m p u t e r w o r l d (actually a w e e k l y tabloid p a p e r ) . N o t free: $9 a y e a r . M o r e u p - t o - t h e - m i n u t e than m o s t p e o p l e h a v e time to b e . C o m p u t e r w o r l d , Circ. D e p t . , 797 Washington S t . . N e w t o n , M a s s . 02160.
Gilbert B u r c k a n d the Editors of F o r t u n e . T h e C o m p u t e r A g e . H a r p e r a n d R o w . Ignore the ridiculous full title. T h e C o m p u t e r A g e a n d Its Potential for M a n a g e m e n t ; this b o o k h a s n o t h i n g to d o with m a n a g e m e n t , b u t is a nice g e n e r a l orientation to the field.
T h e N e w Educational T e c h n o l o g y . $ 5 / y r . P r e s u m a b l y c o n c e n t r a t e s o n activities of its p u b l i s h e r : G e n e r a l T u r t l e , I n c . , 545 T e c h n o l o g y S q u a r e , C a m b r i d g e , M A 02139: w o n d e r f u l c o m p u t e r toys for s c h o o l s a n d the w e l l - h e e l e d .
Datamation. $15 a y e a r or free. T h e m a i n c o m p u t e r m a g a z i n e , a b r e e z y , clever m o n t h l y . Lots of a d s , interesting articles the l a y m a n c a n r e a d with not m u c h effort. T w i t s I B M . S u b s c r i p t i o n s a r e $ 1 5 if y o u ' r e not a c o m p u t e r p e r s o n , free if y o u a r e . D a t a m a t i o n , 35 M a s o n S t . , G r e e n w i c h C T 06830.
C o m p u t e r s a n d Automation. A v o i d s technicalities b u t quite a bit of social-interest stuff. N o b o d y gets it free; s o m e t h i n g like $ 7 . 5 0 a y e a r . B e r k e l e y E n t e r p r i s e s , I n c . , 815 W a s h i n g t o n S t . , Newtonville, M a s s . 02160.
T h e best r e v i e w of w h a t ' s h a p p e n i n g lately, b y n o n e other than M r . W h o l e E a r t h Catalog himself: S t e w a r t B r a n d , " S p a c e w a r : Fanatic Life a n d S y m b o l i c D e a t h a m o n g the C o m p u t e r B u m s . " Rolling S t o n e . 2 D e c e m b e r 7 2 , 5 0 - 5 6 . H e visited the m o s t hotshot places a n d reports especially o n the f u n - a n d - g a m e s side of t h i n g s .
Delightful e d u c a t i o n a l / c o u n t e r c u l t u r e tabloid e m p h a s i z i n g c o m p u t e r g a m e s a n d f u n . O r i e n t e d to B A S I C l a n g u a g e . $ 4 / y r . f r o m People's C o m p u t e r C o m p a n y , P . O . B o x 310, Menlo Park, C A 94025.
D o n a l d E . K n u t h , T h e A r t of P r o g r a m m i n g . (7 v o l s . ) A m o n u m e n t a l s e r i e s , excellently written a n d w i d e l y p r a i s e d , for a n y o n e w h o w a n t s to d i g in a n d b e a s e r i o u s p r o g r a m m e r . T h r e e of the s e v e n v o l u m e s a r e o u t s o f a r . at a b o u t t w e n t y b u c k s a p i e c e . V o l . 1: F u n d a m e n t a l A l g o r i t h m s . V o l . 2: S e m i n u m e r i c a l A l g o r i t h m s . V o l . 3: S o r t i n g a n d S e a r c h i n g . Addison-Wesley.
I B M S y s t e m s J o u r n a l . S h o w c a s e technical j o u r n a l of m i s c e l l a n e o u s c o n t e n t , especially a r c a n a a b o u t I B M p r o d u c t s . $5/yr. I B M , A r m o n k , N V 10504. I B M J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t . S h o w c a s e technical j o u r n a l of m i s c e l laneous content. $7.50/year. I B M , A r m o n k , N Y 10504.
BUMMERS T h i s is p e r h a p s a m i n o r i t y v i e w , b u t I think a n y introduction to c o m p u t e r s w h i c h m a k e s t h e m s e e m intrinsically m a t h e m a t i c a l is m i s l e a d i n g . Historically t h e y b e g a n a s m a t h e m a t i c a l , b u t n o w this is s i m p l y the w r o n g w a y to think a b o u t t h e m . S a m e g o e s for e m p h a s i z i n g b u s i n e s s u s e s a s if that w e r e all.
J o u r n a l of t h e A C M . A h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l , m a t h / ("j"*,CVlV'\ o r i e n t e d i ° u r n a l H e a v y o n g r a p h theory \ ^ / a n d pattern r e c o g n i t i o n . ( S e e A C M . below.) Digital D e s i g n . $ 1 5 o r f r e e . A b o u t c o m p u t e r p a r t s a n d d e s i g n s . Digital D e s i g n , C i r c . D e p t . . 167 C o r e y R o a d , B r o o k l i n e , M a s s . 02146.
W e will n o t n a m e h e r e a n y of the v a r i o u s d i s a g r e e a b l e p a m p h l e t s a n d b o o k s w h i c h stress t h e s e a s p e c t s a n d don't m a k e things v e r y c l e a r . t J J > V B O U T F R E E S U B S C R I P T I O N S . M a n y of the m a g a z i n e s a r e free to "qualified" r e a d e r s , usually those willing to state o n a s i g n e d f o r m that they influence the p u r c h a s e of c o m p u t e r s , c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s , p u n c h c a r d s , o r the like. ( T h e y a s k other q u e s t i o n s o n the f o r m , b u t w h e t h e r y o u influence p u r c h a s e is usually w h a t d e c i d e s w h e t h e r they sci.d y o u the m a g a z i n e . ) It is also helpful to h a v e a g o o d - s o u n d i n g title o r c o m p a n y affiliation.
Infosystems. A s p i r i n g m a g . $20 or free. Hitchcock Publicatons, P . O . B o x 3007, W h e a t o n , 111. 6 0 1 8 7 . T h i n k . T h i s is the I B M h o u s e o r g a n . P r e s u m a b l y free to I B M c u s t o m e r s or p r o s p e c t s . I B M . A r m o n k , N Y 10504. T h e r e a r e also e x p e n s i v e ( s n o b ? ) m a g a z i n e s , bought b y executives.
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C o m p u t e r A g e . $95/yr. E D P N e w s Services Inc., 514 10th S t . N . W . , W a s h i n g t o n D C 20004.
BINGO
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T h e s e a r e little p o s t c a r d s y o u find in all the a g a z i n e s e x c e p t the A C M a n d c o m p a n y o n e s . Fill 1 in y o u r n a m e a n d a n attractive title ("Systems / C o n s u l t a n t " o r " c o n s u l t a n t " is g o o d - - after all, s o m e d a y s o m e o n e m a y a s k y o u r a d v i c e ) a n d circle the n u m b e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the a d s that entice y o u . You'll b e flooded with interesting, e x p e n s i v e l y p r i n t e d , colorful, educational material o n different people's c o m p u t e r s a n d a c c e s s o r i e s . A n d note that e n d e r s don't lose: a n y c o m p a n y w a n t s its p r o d u c t s known.
C o m p u t e r D i g e s t . $ 3 6 / y r . Information G r o u p , 1309 C h e r r y St. , Philadelphia P A 19107. Data P r o c e s s i n g D i g e s t . $ 5 1 / y r . 6820 la T i j e r a B l v d . . L o s A n g e l e s C A 9 0 0 4 5 .
H e y n o w , here's a m a g a z i n e called C o m p u t o p i a . O n l y $ 1 5 a y e a r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y in J a p a n e s e . Computer A g e C o . Ltd., Kasumigaseki Bldg., B o x 122, Chiyoda-Ku, T o k y o , J a p a n . \ \
H o w e v e r , a postoffice b o x is g o o d , a s it h e l p s to a v o i d calls at h o m e f r o m s a l e s m e n , w a s t i n g their time a s m u c h as y o u r s . If y o u a r c in a rural-type a r e a w h e r e y o u c a n a s s u m e a c o m p a n y n a m e with n o k legal difficulties, s o m u c h the better.
T h a t ihe field h u s run b o o n p o p u l a r i z e d b y its better writers m a y s i m p l y c o m e f r o m a n h o n e s t d o u b . that o r d i n a r y p e o p l e c a n u n d e r s t a n d c o m p u t e r s .
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1 dispute that. T h r o u g h m a g a z i n e s , millions of A m e r i c a n s h a v e l e a r n e d a b o u t p h o t o g r a p h y . T h r o u g h the p o p u l a r s c i e n c c - a n d - m c c h a n i c s type m a g a z i n e s , a n d m o r e recently the electronics m a g a z i n e s , v a r i o u s o t h e r technical subjects h a v e b e c o m e w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d .
A n u m b e r of i n e x p e n s i v e g a d g e t s p u r p o r t to teach y o u c o m p u t e r p r i n c i p l e s . M a n y p e o p l e h a v e b e e n d i s a p p o i n t e d , o r w o r s e , m a d e to feel s t u p i d , w h e n t h e y learn n o t h i n g f r o m t h e s e . Actually the best these t h i n g s really c a n d o is g i v e y o u a n idea of w h a t c o n b e d o n e with c o m b i n a t i o n s of s w i t c h e s . F r o m that to l e a r n i n g w h a t c o m p u t e r p e o p l e really think a b o u t is a l o n g , long way.
S o far n o b o d y h a s o p e n e d u p c o m p u t e r s . T h i s is a first a t t e m p t . If this b o o k w o n ' t d o it a n o t h e r o n e will.
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A n d y o u better believe that P o p u l a r C o m p u t e r s m a g a z i n e is not v e r y far o w a y . S o o n a fully-loaded m i n i c o m p u t e r will cost loss than ihe best hi-fi sets. In a c o u p l e of y e a r s , t h o u s a n d s of individuals will o w n c o m p u t e r s , a n d millions m o r e will w a n t to. L o o k out. h e r e w e g o .
i W o o p s . h e r e it is. P o p u l a r C o m p u t i n g , $15 a y e a r ($12 If p r e p a i d ) , B o x 2 7 2 . C u l a b a s a s . C A 91302
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T h e explanations— not yet fully d e b u g g e d — are intended for a n y b o d y . T h e listings of expensive products a n d services are intended not only as corroborative detail, for a general sense of what's available, but also for business people w h o might find them helpful, for affluent individuals and c.lubs w h o want to try their h a n d , and finally as a b o x score of h o w the prices are coming d o w n . Because w e are all going to be able to afford these things pretty soon.
People ask m e often w h e r e they can learn about "science." A s in all fields, m a g a zines are usually the best sources of general orientation. Science Digest is kind of helpful for a atart, although unfortunately they print summaries of every fool study that generalizes to the hearts of all humanity from two dozen Iowa State freshmen.
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Scientific American is the favorite. S o m e stuff is hard to read but some,isn't; the pictures a n d diagrams are terrific.
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Science k Technology magazine s e e m s to m e one of the better ones-- breezy, informative, not trivial. Science magazine is read b y most actual scientists, and if y o u have a lively curiosity and can guess at the meanings'of w o r d s , will tell y o u an incredible a m o u n t , (This is a main source for the science articles in the N e w Y o r k T i m e s , w h i c h in turn...) Their articles on politics of science, and the future, are very interesting, important, a n d depressing. Y o u have to join A m . A s s n . for the A d v a n c e m e n t of Science, Washington, D.C.
This diagram s h o w s the amazing and unique w a y prices drop in the computer field. T h e prices s h o w n are for the first minicomputer, the P D P - 5 (and its hugely popular offspring, the P D P - 8 ) ; but the principle has held throughout the field, and the d o w n w a r d trend will probably accelerate due to the n e w big integrated circuits.
Daniel S . Greenberg's Science and G o v e r n m e n t Report (sorry— $35 a year) is what really tells it. Greenberg is the m a n w h o k n o w s , both what is shaping u p in science and the insane governmental confusions and floundering responses and grandstanding and pork-barrel initiatives... G r e e n b e r g is, incidentally, one of the finest writers of our time and a great humorist. Science and Government Report, Kalorama Station (really?). B o x 21123, Washington, D . C . 20009. This is the wall that the handwriting is o n .
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Another example: an IBM 7090, a very decent million-dollar computer in 1960, w a s put u p for sale at a modish Parke-Bernet "used computer auction" in 1970. If I r e m e m b e r aright, they could not get a $1000 b i d , because today's machines are so m u c h smaller, faster and m o r e dependable.
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INTRO " W h e r e It's A t " Sources of Information CYBERCRUD THE M Y T H OF T H E C O M P U T E R T h e P o w e r a n d the G l o r y THE DEEP DARK SECRET (Computer Basics Reduced to O n e E a s y P a g e ) THE NEW ERA INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS TERMINALS COMPUTER LANGUAGES: Prelude 1. BASIC 2. T R A C ® Language 3. APL DATA STRUCTURES Binary Patterns COMPUTER LANGUAGES: Postscript ROCK B O T T O M : Inner Languages of C o m p u t e r s ; Computer Architecture BUCKY'S W R I S T W A T C H , a sample machine-language program The Assembler Your Basic Computer Structure: THE MINICOMPUTER BIG C O M P U T E R S GREAT COMPUTERS: Sketches of S o m e S p e c i f i c M a c h i n e s L i s t of M i n i M a k e r s MICROPROCESSORS (The N e w T h i r d K i n d of C o m p u t e r ) ADVANCED PROGRAMS OPERATING SYSTEMS TIME-SHARING COMPUTER PEOPLE Program Negotiation S u g g e s t i o n s for W r i t e r s Fun and Games H o w C o m p u t e r S t u f f is B o u g h t and S o l d H o w C o m p u t e r C o m p a n i e s are Financed, Sometimes IBM Digital Equipment Corporation P e r i p h e r a l s for Y o u r M i n i SIMULATION OPERATIONS RESEARCH GREAT ISSUES MILITARY USES OF COMPUTERS The ABM System DNA DAMN THAT COMPUTER! S T U F F Y O U M A Y RUN I N T O T H E C L U B OF R O M E
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THE B U C K STOPS HERE Everywhere in the world people can pretend that your ignorance. or position. or credentials. or poverty. or general unworthiness, are the reasons you are being pushed around or m a d e to feel small. A n d because you can't tell, you have to take it.
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A n d of course w e can do the same thing with computera. Y e a . w e can do it in spades. (See "Cybercrud." p . S.) But m a n y of us do not want to. There has to be a better w a y . There haa to be a better world.
T h e o b v i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e is s i m p l y for the c o m p u t e r p e o p l e to b e a l l o w e d to take o v e r altogether. It m a y I n d e e d b e that c o m p u t e r p e o p l e -- the m o r e w e l l - i n f o r m e d a n d v i s i o n a r y o n e s , a n y w a y - - c a n s e e the farthest, a n d a p p r e c i a t e m o s t d e e p l y the better w a y s things c a n g o , a n d the steps that h a v e to b e t a k e n to get t h e r e . ( A n d B o a r d s of M a n a g e r s c a n at least b e partially a s s u r e d that h a n k y - p a n k y at the l o w e r levels will b e p r e v e n t e d , if m e n in c h a r g e k n o w w h e r e the b o d i e s are buried. >
T h a t s e e m s to b e h o w it's g o i n g .
Examples:
T h e p r e s i d e n t of D a r t m o u t h C o l l e g e , J o h n K e m e n y , is a r e s p e c t e d c o m p u t e r m a n a n d a d e v e l o p e r of o n e of the i m p o r t a n t c o m p u t i n g l a n g u a g e s , B A S I C (aee p . I£ ) . T h e n e w p r e s i d e n t of the R u s s e l l S a g e F o u n d a t i o n , H u g h C l i n e , u s e d to teach c o m p u t i n g at Columbia. It's p r o b a b l y the s a m e in i n d u s t r y . w o r d s , m o r e a n d m o r e , for better a n d for things are b e i n g r u n b y people w h o k n o w u s e c o m p u t e r s , a n d this t r e n d is p r o b a b l y versible .
In o t h e r worse, h o w to irre-
In s o m e w a y s , of c o u r s e , this is a sinister p o r t e n t . In private i n d u s t r y it's not s o b a d , s i n c e the d a n g e r is m o r e of e m b e z z l e m e n t a n d b o t c h - u p t h a n of p u b l i c m e n a c e . B u t t h e n there's the p r o b l e m of the g o v e r n m e n t . T h e m e n w h o m a n a g e the information tools a r e m o r e a n d m o r e in c h a r g e of g o v e r n m e n t , t o o . A n d if w e c a n h a v e a W a t e r g a t e w i t h o u t c o m p u t e r s , just w a i t . (See " B u r n i n g I s s u e s , " p . $"£)
"WHoee irs A T C o m p u t e r s a r e w h e r e it's a t . R e c e n t l y a b a n k e m p l o y e e w a s a c c u s e d of e m b e z z l i n g a million a n d a half dollars b y c l e v e r c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . His p r o g r a m s shifted f u n d s f r o m h u n d r e d s of people's a c c o u n t s to his o w n . b u t a p p a r e n t l y k e p t t h i n g s looking i n n o c e n t b y c l e v e r p r o g r a m m i n g t r i c k s . A c c o r d i n g to the p a p e r s , the p r o g r a m k e p t u p a p p e a r a n c e s b y r e d e p o s i t i n g the stolen a m o u n t in e a c h a c c o u n t just a s interest p a y m e n t s w e r e a b o u t to b e calculated, t h e n w i t h d r a w i n g it a g a i n just after. ("Chief Teller Is A c c u s e d of T h e f t of $ 1 . 5 Million at a B a n k H e r e . " N e w Y o r k T i m e s , 23 M a r c h 7 3 , p . 1.) T h e alleged e m b e z z l e m e n t w a s d i s c o v e r e d , not b y b a n k a u d i t , b u t b y r e c o r d s f o u n d o n the p r e m i s e s of a r a i d e d b o o k m a k e r . In B recent s c a n d a l that h a s r o c k e d the insurance w o r l d , an insurance c o m p a n y appears to h a v e g e n e r a t e d t h o u s a n d s of fictitious c u s t o m e r s a n d accounts b y c o m p u t e r , then bilked other insurance c o m p a n i e s — those w h o re-Insured the original fictitious policies— b y fictitious c l a i m s o n the fictitious m i s f o r t u n e s of the fictitious policy-holders.
T h e w a y to d e f e n d o u r s e l v e s against c o m p u t e r p e o p l e is to b e c o m e c o m p u t e r p e o p l e o u r s e l v e s . W h i c h of c o u r s e is the p o i n t . W e m u s t all b e c o m e c o m p u t e r p e o p l e , at least to the extent that w e h a v e already b e c o m e Automobile People a n d C a m e r a P e o p l e — that i s , i n f o r m e d e n o u g h to tell w h e n o n e g o e s b y o r w h e n s o m e o n e points o n e at y o u .
MANY
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T h e future is g o i n g to b e full of c o m p u t e r s , for g o o d o r ill. M a n y c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s a r e b e i n g p r e p a r e d b y a variety of lunatics, idealists a n d d r e a m e r s , as well as profit-hungry c o m p a n i e s a n d u n i m a g i n a t i v e c l o d s , all for the benefit of m a n k i n d . W h i c h o n e s will w o r k a n d w h i c h o n e s w e will like is a n o t h e r m a t t e r . T h e g r a n d a n d d r e a m y o n e s b i d fair to r e o r g a n i z e drastically the lives of m a n k i n d . F o r i n s t a n c e , D o u g E n g e l b a r t at S t a n f o r d R e s e a r c h Institute h a s a beautiful s y s t e m , called N L S , that will allow u s to u s e c o m p u t e r s a s a g e n e r a l i z e d postoffice a n d publication s y s t e m . F r o m y o u r c o m p u t e r t e r m i n a l y o u juBt s i g n o n t o E n g e l b a r t ' s S y s t e m , a n d y o u ' r e st o n c e in t o u c h w i t h lots of w r i t i n g s b y o t h e r s u b s c r i b e r s , w h i c h y o u m a y call to y o u r s c r e e n a n d w r i t e replies t o . ( T h e s e g r a n d e r a n d d r e a m i e r applications a r e d i s c u s s e d o n the o t h e r side of this b o o k . )
In April of 1 9 7 3 . a c c o r d i n g to the C h i c a g o r a d i o , s b u r g l a r y r i n g h a d a " c o m p u t e r i z e d " list of a t h o u s a n d p r o a p e c t i v e v i c t i m s .
B u t the plain c o m p u t e r visions a r e g r a n d enough.
T h e r e h a v e b e e n instances w h e r e d i s h o n e s t university s t u d e n t s , n e v e r t h e l e s s able p r o g r a m m e r s , w e r e able to c h a n g e their c o u r s e g r a d e s , stored o n a central university c o m p u t e r .
T h e great w o r l d of t i m e - s h a r i n g , for i n s t a n c e . ( " T i m e - s h a r i n g " m e a n s that the c o m p u t e r ' s time is s h a r e d b y a variety of u s e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . S e e p . "/?.) If y o u h a v e a n a c c o u n t o n a t i m e - s h a r i n g c o m p u t e r , y o u c a n sign o n from y o u r terminal (see p . / <j) o v e r a n y t e l e p h o n e , n o matter w h e r e y o u a r e , a n d at o n c e d o a n y t h i n g that particular c o m p u t e r a l l o w s — calling u p p r o g r a m s in a variety of c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s , d i p p i n g into data o n a variety of subjects a s easily a s o n e n o w consults a chart.
It is not u n h e a r d of for a c e p r o g r a m m e r s to create g r a m } i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e s y s t e m s that r u n w h o l e c o m p a n i e s , s y s t e m s they can personally play like a p i a n o , i n d then blackmail their f i r m s . A friend of a friend of the a u t h o r ia a n s e e p r o g r a m m e r at ths P e n t a g o n , s u p p o s e d l y a private s u p e r v i s i n g c o l o n e l s . O n d a y a h e is m a d at his b o s s , h e s a y s , the a r m y c a n n o t find out ita strength within 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 m e n . O r three million if h e so chooses.
T h i s a w k w a r d Btste of affairs, o b v i o u s l y s p a n n i n g b o t h the A m e r i c a n continent a n d m o s t r e a l m s of e n d e a v o r , h a a c o m e about for v a r i o u s reasons. First, the climate of u n c o m p r e h e n s i o n leads m e n in m a n a g e m e n t to treat c o m p u t e r matters a s " m e r e technicalities"-- a m y t h aa sinister aa the public notion that c o m p u t e r s a r e "scientific"— a n d a b a n d o n the k i n d of scrutiny they sensibly a p p l y to a n y other c o m p a n y activities. S e c o n d , m o a t of today's c o m p u t e r s y a t e m s a r e Inherently U s k y a n d i n s e c u r e - - a n d likely to stay that w a y a w h i l e . Getting things to w o r k o n t h e m involves giving p e o p l e e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d invisible p o w e r s . (Eventually thla will c h a n g e , but w a t c h out for the m e a n t i m e . )
F o r i n a t a n c e , at D a r t m o u t h C o l l e g e — w h e r e t i m e - s h a r i n g is p e r h a p s farthest a d v a n c e d aa a w a y of life— the u s e r ( a n y D a r t m o u t h s t u d e n t , for i n s t a n c e ) c a n juBt sit d o w n at a terminal a n d write a s i m p l e p r o g r a m (in D a r t m o u t h ' s B A S I C l a n g u a g e , for i n s t a n c e ) to a n a l y z e c e n s u s d a t a . S i n c e D a r t m o u t h h a s a c o m p l e t e file o n its t i m e - s h a r i n g s y s t e m of the detailed s a m p l e f r o m t h e 1970 c e n s u s , the p r o g r a m c a n b u z z t h r o u g h that a n d report a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y the n u m b e r s of d i v o r c e d A l e u t s o r b o y millionaires in the s a m p l e , o r ( m o r e significantly) the relative i n c o m e s of different ethnic g r o u p s w h e n categorized a c c o r d i n g to the q u e s tioner's interests. B u t s i m p l e t i m e - s h a r i n g is o n l y the b e g i n n i n g . N e t w o r k s of c o m p u t e r s a r e n o w c o m i n g Into b e i n g . M o s t significant of theae ia the A R P A N E T (financed b y A R P A , the D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t ' s A d v a n c e d R e s e a r c h Projects A g e n c y , It is n o n e t h e l e s s n o n military in c h a r a c t e r ) . D o z e n s of large t i m e - s h a r i n g c o m p u t e r s a r o u n d the c o u n t r y a r e b e i n g tied into the A r p a n e t , a n d a u s e r of a n y of these c a n r e a c h d i r ectly Into the o t h e r c o m p u t e r s of the n e t w o r k — u a i n g their p r o g r a m a , data o r o t h e r facilities. A r p a n e t enthusiasts s e e this aa the w a v e of the future.
MINI M A N S I O N S B u t w h i l e c o m p u t e r s a n d their c o m b i n a t i o n s g r o w b i g g e r a n d b i g g e r , they also g r o w smaller a n d s m a l l e r . A c o m p l e t e c o m p u t e r the size of a n O r e o cookie is n o w available, g u a r a n t e e d for twentyfive y e a r s ( a n d v e r y e x p e n s i v e ) . B u t its actual h e a r t , the Intel m i c r o p r o c e s s o r , is o n l y sixty b u c k s n o w , a n d just wait (see M i c r o p r o c e s s o r s , P . */ ^ ) . B y 1980 there s h o u l d b e a s m a n y p r o g r a m m e d a n d p r o g r a m m a b l e objects in y o u r h o u s e a s y o u n o w h a v e T V s , radios a n d t y p e w r i t e r s ; that's a c o n s e r v a t i v e estimate. B u t just w h a t these d e v i c e s will all b e d o i n g — a h . there's the question that h a s m a n y p e o p l e talking to t h e m s e l v e s . OTHER COMING
THINGS?
T h e r e a r e a lot of tall stories a b o u t w h a t c o m p u t e r s will d o for the w o r l d . A m o n g the m o s t t h r e a t e n i n g . I t h i n k , a r e g l o w i n g reports of "scientific" politics (don't y o u believ*e it). W e h e a r h o w c o m p u t e r s will b r i n g "science" to g o v e r n m e n t , h e l p i n g , for e x a m p l e , to r e d r a w the lines of election districts. (See C y b e r c r u d . p . % .) T h e n y o u m a y also h a v e h e a r d that c o m p u t e r s a r e g o i n g to b e o u r n e w m e n t o r s a n d c o m p a n i o n s , tutoring u s , chatting w i t h u s a n d p e r h a p B lulling u s to s l e e p — like Hal in 2 0 0 1 . W o r r i e d ? G o o d . (See " T h e G o d - B u i l d e r s , " n i p s i d e . ) (\*. 'Z^
A c o U e g e student b r o k e t h r o u g h the security of the Pacific T e l e p h o n e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m f r o m a terminal a n d , a c c o r d i n g to C o m p u t e r w o r l d (6 J u n e 7 3 ) , stole o v e r a million dollars w o r t h of e q u i p m e n t b y o r d e r i n g it delivered to h i m ! ( P e n t h o u s e , D e c e m b e r 7 3 , claims h e w a s in h i g h s c h o o l a n d it w a s o n l y nine h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d b u t y o u get the i d e a . ) After s e r v i n g a f e w w e e k s in jail, h e h a s f o r m e d his o w n c o m p u t e r - s e c u r i t y consulting c o m p a n y . M o r e p o w e r to h i m .
T h e n e w b r e e d h a s got to b e w a t c h e d . T h i s is the u r g e n c y of this b o o k . R e m e m b e r that the m a n w h o writes the p a y r o U p r o g r a m c a n w r i t e himself a o m e pretty a m a z i n g c h e c k s - - p e r h a p s to b e m a i l e d out to S w i t z e r l a n d , next y e a r . F r o m h e r e o n it's c o m p u t e r politics, c o m p u t e r dirty t r i c k s , c o m p u t e r w o n d e r l a n d s , c o m p u t e r everything. F o r a n y o n e c o n c e r n e d to b e w h e r e it's s t , t h e n , this b o o k will p r o v i d e a f e w s u g g e s t i o n s . N o w is the time y o u either k n o w o r y o u d o n ' t . E n o u g h p o w e r talk. K n o w l e d g e Is p o w e r . H e r e y o u g o . D i g in.
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T h e greatest h u r d l e for the b e g i n n e r (or " l a y m a n " ) is m a k i n g a n effort to g r a s p particulars of that w h i c h h e h e a r s a b o u t . A . W H A T IS I T S N A M E ? E v e r y s y a t e m o r p r o p o s a l o r project h a s a n a m e of s o m e s o r t . M a k e a n effort to learn it, o r y o u ' r e stuck trying to refer to "that c o m p u t e r i s h thing." ( A n d don't b e a a n o b a b o u t a c r o n y m s , those all-cap n a m e s a n d t e r m s s p r u n g f r o m the f o r e h e a d s of other w o r d s , like I L L I A C a n d P L A T O a n d C A I . T h e r e ' s a n e e d for t h e m . Short w o r d s a r e too g e n e r a l lo u s e for n a m e B , a n d l o n g p h r a s e s a r e too u n w i e l d y . ) B . IN W H A T P A R T I C U L A R W A Y D O E S IT E M P L O Y T H E C O M P U T E R ? For record-keeping? F o r looking stuff u p quickly o r fanclly? F o r s e a r c h i n g out c o m b i n a t i o n s ? F o r m a k i n g u p c o m b i nations a n d testing their properties? F o r enacting c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n a ? A s automatic typewriters? T o play m u a i c , or just to store the written notes? It ia h o p e d thst y o u will b e c o m e sensitive to these distinctions, a n d b e able to u n d e r s t a n d a n d r e m e m b e r t h e m after s o m e b o d y explains t h e m . O t h e r w i s e y o u ' r e stuck just referring to "that c o m p u t e r b u s i n e s s , " a n d y o u ' r e in with the rest of the s h e e p .
s
• T h i s side of the b o o k , C o m p u t e r L i b p r o p e r ( w h o s e title is n e v e r t h e l e s s the simplest w a y to refer to both h a l v e s ) , is a n attempt to e x p l a i n s i m p l y a n d concisely w h y c o m p u t e r s are m a r v e l o u s a n d w o n d e r f u l , a n d w h a t a o m e m a i n things a r e in the field , T h e s e c o n d half of the b o o k , D r e a m M a c h i n e s , is specially a b o u t fantasy a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d n e w t e c h n i q u e s for it, T h a t half is related to this h a l f , b u t c a n b e r e a d first; I w a n t e d to s e p a r a t e t h e m as distinctly as p o s s i b l e .
T h e r e m a r k s belo' all refer to this first half, the C o m p u t e r Lib half of the b o o k .
FANDOM W i t h this b o o k I a m n o l o n g e r celling m y s e l f a c o m p u t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l . I'm a c o m p u t e r f a n , a n d I'm o u t to m a k e y o u o n e . (All c o m p u t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s w e r e f a n s o n c e , b u t p e o p l e get c r a b b i e r a s t h e y get o l d e r , a n d m o r e p r o f e s s i o n a l . ) A g e n e r a t i o n of c o m p u t e r f a n s a n d h o b b y i s t s is w e l l o n its w a y , b u t for the m o s t part t h e B e a r e p e o p l e w h o h a v e h a d s o m e sort of a n I n , T h i s is m e a n t to b e a n In for t h o s e w h o didn't get o n e earlier. Thfc c o m p u t e r fan Is s o m e o n e w h o a p p r e c i a t e s the o p t i o n s , f u n , e x c i t e m e n t , a n d fiendish fascination of c o m p u t e r a , N o t o n l y Is the c o m p u t e r fun in itself, like electric trains; b u t it also e x t e n d s to y o u a w i d e variety of p o s s i b l e p e r s o n a l u s e s . (In c a s e y o u don't k n o w it, the p r i c e of c o m p u t e r s a n d of u s i n g t h e m Is g o i n g d o w n as foBt a s e v e r y o t h e r p r i c e is g o i n g u p . S o in the n e x t f e w d e c a d e s w e m a y b e r e d u c e d to e a t i n g s o y b e a n s a n d c a r r o t s , b u t we'll certainly have computers.) S o m e h o w the idea is a b r o a d that c o m p u t e r activities a r e u n c r e a t i v e , a a c o m p a r e d , s a y , w i t h rotating clay a g a i n s t y o u r f i n g e r s until it b e c o m e s a p o t . T h i s is categorically false. C o m p u t e r s i n v o l v e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creation at the h i g h e s t l e v e l . C o m p u t e r s a r e a n I n v o l v e m e n t y o u c a n really get into, r e g a r d l e s s of y o u r trip or y o u r k a r m a . T h e y a r e t o y s , t h e y a r e tools, t h e y a r e g l o r i o u s a b s t r a c t i o n s . S o it y o u like m e n t a l c r e a t i o n , toy t r a i n s , o r a b s t r a c t i o n s , c o m p u t e r s a r e for y o u . If y o u a r e interested in d e m o c r a c y a n d its f u t u r e , y o u ' d better u n d e r s t a n d c o m p u t e r s . A n d it y o u a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t p o w e r a n d the w a y it is b e i n g u s e d , a n d aren't w e all right n o w , the s a m e t h i n g g o e s .
T h e r e is a l r e a d y a b a c k l a s h against c o m p u t e r s , a n d the spirit of this a n t i - c o m p u t e r b a c k l a s h is c o r r e c t , b u t s h o u l d b e directed against v e r y specific k i n d s of t h i n g s . T h e p u b l i c s h o u l d stop b e i n g m a d at " c o m p u t e r s " in the a b s t r a c t , a n d start b e i n g m a d at the p e o p l e w h o m a k e inc o n v e n i e n t s y s t e m s . It is not "the c o m p u t e r , " w h i c h h a s n o intrinsic style o r c h a r a c t e r , w h i c h is at fault; it is p e o p l e w h o u s e "the c o m p u t e r " a s a n e x c u s e to i n c o n v e n i e n c e y o u , w h o a r e at fault. T h e m e c h a n i s m s of legitimate public protest-- sit-ins a n d s o o n — s h o u l d p e r h a p s s o o n b e t u r n e d to c o m p l a i n t o v e r b a d a n d i n h u m a n c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s .
T h e q u e s t i o n i s , will the c r u m m i e r t r e n d s c o n t i n u e ? O r c a n the p u b l i c l e a r n , in t i m e , w h a t g o o d a n d beautiful t h i n g s a r e p o s s i b l e , a n d translate this realization into a n effective d e m a n d ? I d o not b e l i e v e this is a n o b s c u r e o r specialized i s s u e . Its s h a d o w falls a c r o s s the future of m a n k i n d . if a n y , like a giant s e q u o i a . Either c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s a r e g o i n g to g o o n i n c o n v e n i e n c i n g o u r l i v e s , o r t h e y a r e g o i n g to b e t u r n e d a r o u n d to m a k e life better. T h i s is o n e of the directions that c o n s u m e r i s m s h o u l d t u r n . I h a v e a n a x e to g r i n d : 1 w a n t to s e e c o m p u t e r s useful to i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d the s o o n e r the b e t t e r , w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r y c o m p l i c a t i o n o r h u m a n servility b e i n g r e q u i r e d . A n y o n e w h o a g r e e s w i t h t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s is o n m y s i d e , a n d a n y o n e w h o d o e s n o t , is n o t . T H I S B O O K IS F O R P E R S O N A L F R E E D O M , AND A G A I N S T R E S T R I C T I O N A N D C O E R C I O N . T h a t ' s really all it's a b o u t . M a n y p e o p l e , for r e a s o n s of their o w n , e n j o y a n d b e l i e v e in restricting a n d c o e r c i n g p e o p l e ; the r e a d e r m a y d e c i d e w h e t h e r h e is for o r against this p r i n c i p l e . A c h a n t y o u c a n take to the streets: C O M P U T E R P O W E R T O THE PEOPLE! D O W N WITH CYBERCRUD!
T H E F U T U R E . IF A N Y THE
SOCIETY
S i m p l y a s a m a t t e r of citizenship, it is essential to u n d e r s t a n d the i m p a c t a n d u s e s of c o m p u t e r s in the w o r l d of the f u t u r e , if a n y ; a n d to h a v e a s e n s e of the i s s u e s a b o u t c o m p u t e r s that c o n f r o n t u s a s a p e o p l e - - especially p r i v a c y a n d d a t a b a n k s , b u t also s t r a n g e n e w additions to o u r e c o n o m i c s y s t e m ("the c h e c k l e s s s o c i e t y " ) . o u r political s y s t e m ( h a l f - b a k e d v o t e - a t - h o m e p r o p o s a l s ) , a n d so o n . 1 r e g r e t that t h e r e is not r o o m to c o v e r these h e r e .
W h i c h b r i n g s u s to o u r n e x t t o p i c . T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e c o m p u t e r will r e m a k e society; it h a s . Y o u deal w i t h c o m p u t e r s p e r h a p s m a n y t i m e s a d a y - - or w o r s e , c o m p u t e r s d e a l w i t h y o u , t h o u g h y o u m a y not k n o w it. C o m p u t e r s a r e g o i n g into e v e r y t h i n g , a r e i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g , a n d it's g o i n g to get m o r e a n d m o r e s o . T h e r e a d e r s h o u l d h a v e a s e n s e of the d a n c e of o p t i o n s , the r e m a r k a b l y different w a y B that c o m p u t e r s m a y b e u s e d ; b y e x t e n s i o n , h e s h o u l d c o m e to s e e the e x t r a o r d i n a r y r a n g e of o p t i o n s w h i c h c o n f r o n t u s a s a society in o u r f u t u r e u s e of t h e m . I n d e e d , c o m p u t e r s h a v e w i t h a s w o o p e x p a n d e d the o p t i o n s of e v e r y t h i n g .
V a r i o u s c o m p a n i e s a r e s e e k i n g w i d e p u b l i c s u p p o r t for the sorts of t h i n g s they a r e trying to b r i n g a b o u t . Legislation will b e p r o p o s e d o n w h i c h the v i e w s of the p u b l i c s h o u l d h a v e a b e a r i n g . It is i m p o r t a n t that these b e u n d e r s t o o d s e n s i b l y b y s o m e p a r t of the electorate b e f o r e they a r c m a d e too p e r m a n e n t , r a t h e r t h a n m a d e m a t t e r s of d u m b a s s e n t . Finally , a n d m o s t s o l e m n l y . c o m p u t e r s a r e h e l p i n g u s u n d e r s t a n d the u n p r e c e d e n t e d d a n g e r of o u r future (see " T h e C l u b of R o m e , " p . £ 8 ) . T h e h u m a n r a c e m a y h a v e o n l y a short time left o n e a r t h , e v e n if t h e r e is n o w a r . T h e s e studies m u s t b e s e e n a n d u n d e r s t o o d b y a s m a n y intelligent m e n of g o o d will a s p o s s i b l e .
B u t a variety of i n c o n v e n i e n t s y s t e m s a l r e a d y t o u c h o n o u r l i v e s , n u i s a n c e s w e m u s t d e a l w i t h all the t i m e ; a n d 1 fear that w o r s e is to c o m e . I w o u l d like to alert the r e a d e r , in n o u n c e r t a i n t e r m s , that the time h a s c o m e to b e o p e n l y attentive a n d critical in o b s e r v i n g a n d d e a l i n g w i t h c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s ; a n d to t r a n s f o r m criticism into a c t i o n . If s y s t e m s a r e b a d , a n n o y i n g a n d d e m e a n i n g , these m a t t e r s s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t to the attention of the p e r p e t r a t o r s . Politely at first. B u t just a s the a t m o s p h e r i c pollution fostered b y G M h a s b e c o m e a m a t t e r for citizen c o n c e r n a n d attack t h r o u g h legitimate c h a n n e l s of p r o t e s t , s o too s h o u l d the p r o c e d u r a l pollution of i n c o n s i d e r a t e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s b e c o m e a m a t t e r for the s a m e k i n d s of c o n c e r n . T h e r e a d e r s h o u l d realize h e c a n criticize a n d d e m a n d ; THE PUBLIC DOES N O T HAVE T O T A K E WHAT'S BEING DISHED O U T .
W e l c o m e to the c o m p u t e r w o r l d , the d a m n d e s t a n d craziest thing that h a s e v e r h a p p e n e d . B u t w e . the c o m p u t e r p e o p l e , a r e not c r a z y . It is y o u o t h e r s w h o a r e c r a z y to let u s h a v e all this fun a n d p o w e r to o u r s e l v e s .
COMPUTERS BELONG TO ALL
B . A . . phllo»ophy, Swarthmore;
g r a d u a t e s t u d y U . of C h i c a g o ; M . A . . s o c i o l o g y . H a r v a r d .
M e m b e r of editorial b o a r d . C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n , m a g a z i n e . H a t e d in N e w Association for C o m p u t i n g M a c h i n e r y since
MANKIND.
M o s t l y self-taught in c o m p u t e r . .
Y o r k T i m e s ' W h o ' s W h o in C o m p u t e r a ;
m e m b e r of
1964.
R e s e a r c h assistant. C o m m u n i c a t i o n R e s e a r c h Institute. 1962-; . Instructor in s o c i o l o g y , V a s s a r C o l l e g e . 1 9 6 4 - 6 . S e n i o r staff r e s e a r c h e r . H a r c o u r t . B r a c e a W o r l d P u b l i s h e r . . 1 9 6 6 - 7 . C o n s u l t a n t lo Bell T e l e p h o n e L a b o r a t o r i e s , " h l p p a n y . N . C o n s u l t a n t lo C B S L a b o r a t o r i e . , S t a m f o r d . C I . . 1 9 6 B - 9 . P r o p r i e t o r of T h e N e l s o n O r g a n i z a t i o n . I n c . . N e w Y o r k C i t y . L e c t u r e r in a r t . II. of Illinois at C h i c a g o C i r c l e , s p r i n g 1 9 7 3 . L e c t u r e r in c o m p u t e r e d u c a t i o n . Office of Instructional R e s o u r c e . D e v e l o p m e n t . U . of Illinois «t C h i c a g o C i r c l e . 1 9 7 3 - 4 .
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M a n has created the myth of "the computer" in his o w n image, or one of them: cold, immaculate, sterile, "scientific," oppressive. Some people flee this image. Others, drawn toward it. have joined the cold-sterile-oppressive cult, and propagate it like a faith. M a n y are still about this mischief, making people do things rigidly and saying it is the computer's fault. Still others see computer' for what they really sre: versatile gizmos which m a y be turned to any purpose, in any style. A n d so a wealth of new styles and human purposes are being proposed and tried, each proponent propounding his o w n dream in his o w n very personal w a y . A l l r i g h t s reservrcl.
A d d i t i o n a l c o p i e s a r e $7 p o s t p a i d from Hugo's Book Service, Box 2622, Chicago, Illinois 60690. Package of ten c o p i e s , S 5 0 postpaid.
This book presents a panoply of things and dreams. Perhaps some will appeal to the reader. ..
THE C O M P U T E R PRIESTHOOD Any nitwit can understand computers, and m s n y d o . Unfortunstely, due to ridiculous historical circumstances, computers have been made a mystery to most of the world. A n d this situation does not seem to be improving. You hesr more and more about computers, but to most people it's just one big blur. The people w h o know about computers often seem unwilling to explain things or answer your questions. Stereotyped notions develop about computers operating in fixed ways--and so confusion increases. T h e chasm between laymen and computer people widens fast and dangerously . This book is a measure of desperation, so serious and abysmal is the public sense of confusion and ignorance. Anything with buttons or lights can be palmed off on the layman as a computer. There are so m a n y different things, and their differences are so important; yet to the lay public they are lumped together as "computer stuff," indistinct and beyond understanding or criticism . It's as if people couldn't tell apart camera from exposure meter or tripod, or car from truck or tollbooth. This book is therefore devoted to the premise that EVERYBODY SHOULD UNDERSTAND COMPUTERS. It is intended to fill a crying need. Lots of everyday people have asked m e where they can learn about computers, and I have had to say nowhere. Most of what is written about computers for the layman is either unreadable or silly. (Some exceptions are listed nearby; you can go to them instead of this if you want.) But virtually nowhere is the big picture simply enough explained. Nowhere can one get a simple, soup-to-nuts overview of what computers are really about, without technical or mathematical m u m b o jumbo, complicated examples, or talking d o w n . This book is an attempt. (And nowhere hsve I seen a simple book explaining to the layman the fabulous wonderland of computer graphics which awaits us all, a matter which means a great deal to m e personally, as well as a lot to all of us in general. That's discussed on the flip side.) Computers are simply a necessary and enjoyable part of life, like food and books. Computers are not everything, they are just an aspect of everything, and not to know this is computer illiteracy, a silly and dangerous ignorance. Computers are as easy to understand as cameras. I have tried to make this book like a photography magazine— breezy, forceful and as vivid as possible. This book will explain how to tell apples from oranges and which w a y ia u p . If you want to make cider , or help get things right side u p . you will have to go on from here. I am not a skillful programmer, hands-on person or eminent professional; 1 am just a computer fan, computer fanatic if you will. But if D r . David Reuben can write about Bex I can certainly write about computers. I have written this like a letter lo a nephew , chatty and personal. This is perhaps less boring for the reader, and certainly less boring for the writer, w h o is doing this in a hurry. Like a photography magazine, it throws at you some rudiments in s merry setting. Other things are thrown in so you'll get the sound of them , even if the details are elusive. (We lesrn most everyday things by beginning with vague impressions, but somehow encouraging these is not usually felt to be respectable.) What I have chosen for inclusion here has been arbitrary, based on what might amuse and give quick insight. Any bright highschool kid . or anyone else w h o can stumble through the details of a photography magazine, should be able lo understand thia book. or get the main ideas. This will not make you a programmer or • computer person, though it may help you talk thst talk, and perhaps make you feel more comfortable (or at least able to cope) when new machines encroach on your life. If you can get a chance to learn programming- - Bee the suggestions on p . -- it's an awfully good experience for anybody above fourth grade. But the main idea of this book ia to help you tell apples from oranges. and which way is u p . 1 hope you do go on from here. and have made a few suggestions. I am "publishing" this book myself, in this first draft form, to test its viability, to see how mad the computer people get. and to see if there is as much hunger to understand computers, among all you Folks Out There, as 1 Ihink. I will be interested to receive corrections and suggestions for subsequent editions. if any . (The computer field is its o w n exploding universe. so I'll worry about up-to-deteness at that time -)
Knowledge is power and so it tends to be hoarded. Experts in any field rarely want people to understand what they do,and generally enjoy putting people d o w n . Thus if w e say that the use of computers is dominated by a priesthood, people w h o spatter you with unintelligable answers and seem unwilling to give you straight ones, it is not that they are different in this respect from any other profession. Doctors, lawyers and construction engineers are the same w a y . But computers are very special, and we have to deal with them everywhere, and this effectively gives the computer priesthood a stranglehold on the operation of all large organizations, of government bureaux, and anything else that they run. M e m b e r s of Congress are now complaining about control of information by the computer people, that they cannot get the information even though it's on computers. Next to this it seems a small matter that in ordinary companies "untrained" personnel can't get straight questions answered by computer people; but it's the same phenomenon.
It is imperative for m a n y reasons that the appalling gap between public and computer insider be closed. As the saying goes, war is too important to be left to the generals. Guardianship of the computer can no longer be left to a priesthood. I see this as just one example of the creeping evil of Professionalism ,* the control of aspects of society by cliques of insiders . There m a y be some chance. though, that Professionalism can be turned around. Doctors, for example, are being told that they no longer o w n people's bodies . A n d this book m a y suggest to some computer professionals that their position should not be as sacrosanct as they have thought, cither.
This in not to say that computer people are trying to louse everybody up on purpose. Like anyone trying to do a complex job as he sees fit, they don't want to be bothered with idle questions and complaints. Indeed, probably any group of insiders would have hoarded computers just as m u c h . If the computer had evolved from the telegraph (which it just might have), perhaps the librarians would have hoarded it conceptually as much as the math and engineering people have. But things have gone too far. People have legitimate complaints about the w a y computers are used, and legitimate ideas for ways they should be used, which should no longer be shunted aside. In no way do I mean to condemn computer people in general. (Only the ones w h o don't want you to know what's going on.) The field is full of fine. imaginative people. Indeed, the number of creative and brilliant people known within the field for their clever and creative contributions is considerable. They deserve to be known as widely as , say . good photographers or writers .
"Computers are catching hell from growing multitudes w h o see them uniformly as the tools of the regulation and suffocation of all things w a r m , moist, and h u m a n . The charges, of course, are not totally unfounded, but in their most sweeping form they are ineffective and therefore actually an acquiescence to the dehumanization which they decry. W e clearly need a much more discerning evaluation in order to clarify the ethica of various roles of machines in human affairs."
Ken Knowlton in "Collaborations with Artists-a Programmer's Reflections" in Nake a Rosenfeld , eds. , Graphic Languages (North-Holland P u b . C o . ) , p . 399.
• This Is a side point. I see Professionalism as a spreading disease of the present-day world, * sort of poly-oligarchy by which various groups (subway conductors, social workers, bricklayers) csn bring things to a halt if their particular new increased demands are not met. (Meanwhile, the irrelevance of each profession increases, in proportion to its increasing rigidity.) Such lucky groups demand more in each go-round- - but meantime, the number who are permanently unemployed grows and grows. Ellen Frankfort. V a ^ ^ P f l H l l c s . Quadrangle Books Boston Women's Health Collective. Our Bodies. Ourselves. Simon a Schuster.
