Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II

Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis 71 CATALYSIS AND AUTOMOTIVE POLLUTION CONTROL II

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis Advisory Editors: 6.Delmon and J.T. Yates Vol. 71

CATALYSIS AND AUTOMOTIVE POLLUTION CONTROL II Proceedingsof the Second InternationalSymposium (CAPoC 2). Brussels, Belgium, September 10-13,1990

Editor

A. Crucq Unite de Recherche sur la Catalyse, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium

ELSEVIER

Amsterdam

- Oxford - New York - Tokyo

1991

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V. Sara Burgerhartstraat 25 P.O. Box211,1000AEAmsterdam,The Netherlands Distributors forthe Unitedstates and Canada: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 655 Avenue of the Americas NewYork, NY 10010, USA

Library of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

1990 Brussels, Belgium) C A P O C (2nd C a t a l y s i s a n d a u t o m o t i v e p o l l u t i o n c o n r r o l I1 proceedings 3f t h e S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m ( C A P o C 2). B r u s s e l s . B e l g i u m . S e p t e m b e r 10-13. 1990 / e d i t o r , A. C r u c q . p. c m . -- ( S t u d i e s in s u r f a c e s c i e n c e a n d c a t a l y s i s 71) I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s a n d index. I S B N 0-444-88787-3 1. Automobiles--Catalytic converters--Congresses. 2. C a t a l y s i s - 2 o n g r e s s e s . 3. A u t o m o b i l e s - - M o t o r s - - E x h a u s t gas--Congresses. 4. C e r i u m o x i d e s - - C o n g r e s s e s . I. C r u c q . A . (And?&,. 193311. T i t l e . 111. S e r i e s . TL214.P6C3E8 1990 629.25'28--dc20 9 1-30962

.

CIP

ISBN: 0-444-88787-3

0 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1991 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V./ Academic Publishing Division, P.O. Box 330,1000 AH Amsterdam,The Netherlands. Special regulations for readers in the USA - This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from theCCCaboutconditions underwhich photocopiesof partsofthis publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the USA, should be referred to the Publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage t o persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Although all advertising material is expected to conform to ethical (medical) standards, inclusion in this publication does not constitute a guarantee or endorsement of the quality or value of such product or of the claims made of it by its manufacturer. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Printed in The Netherlands

V

CONTENTS

- Foreword - Acknowledgments - Financial Support - Organizing and Scientific Committee

X XI1 XI11 XIV

- Scientific Papers GENERALINTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF EXHAUST GAS POLLUTION

Opening address E. Deworme

1

Energy and Air Pollutants in Belgium. The Contribution of Automotive Trafic since 1980 W.J. Hecq (General lecture)

5

Environmentalist Views on Automotive Exhaust Gases K. Taschner (General lecture)

17

The Evolution of the EEC Regulations on Vehicle Emissions H. Henssler (General lecture)

35

The Technological Development of the European Vehicles and the Environment C. Cucchi and M. Hublin (General lecture)

41

Industrial Application of Catalysts for Offgas Treatment T. Schmidt (General lecture)

55

Characterization of Exhaust Emissions from Two Heavy Duty Vehicles Fueled with Eight Different Diesel Fuels K.E. Egeback, G. Mason, U. Rannug and R. Westerholm

-

75

Fuels Evolution in Europe and Consequences on Exhaust Catalysis J.C. Guibet (General lecture)

93

Supply and Demand of Precious Metals for Automotive and Other Uses M.C.F. Steel (General lecture)

105

The Value of Spent Exhaust Catalysts W. Fierain (General lecture)

115

VJ TECHNICAL PAPERS

Role of CeOz in automotive exhaust catalysts

Cerium Oxide Stabilization :Physical Property and Three-way Activity Considerations J.E. Kubsh, J.S. Rieck and N.D. Spencer

125

The Role of Ceria in Three-way Catalysts A.F. Diwell, R.R. Rajaram, H.A. Shaw andT.J. Truex

-

139

Characterization of Oxidation Catalysts by CO-TPR and Selective Carbon-Carbon Bond Rupture Ch. Serre, F. Garin, G . Belot, G. Maire and R. Roche

-

153

Design and Performance Evaluation of Automotive Emission Control Catalysts R.G. Silver, J.C. Summers and W.B. Williamson

167

Influence of Rh and Ce02 Addition on the Activity and Selectivity of a PtIA1203 Catalyst in the CO+NO and CO+NO+O2 Reactions G. Leclercq, C. Dathy, G. Mabilon and L. Leclercq

181

Influence of Water in the Activity of Catalytic Converters M. Weibel, F. Garin, P. Bernhardt, G. Maire and M. Prigent

195

The Role of the Oxygen Vacancies at the Support in the CO Oxidation on RhlCe02 and RhlTi02 Autocatalysts G. Munuera, A. Fernandez and A.R. Gonzalez-Elipe

207

Physico-Chemical Properties of Ce-Containing Three-Way Catalysts and the Effect of Ce on Catalyst Activity J.G. Nunan, H.J. Robota, M. J. Cohn and S.A.Bradley

22 1

Studies to the Functioning of Automotive Exhaust Catalysts Using In-situ Positron Emission Tomography K.A. Vonkeman, G. Jonkers and R.A. van Santen

239

TPD and XPS Studies of CO and NO on Highly Dispersed Pt+Rh Automotive Exhaust Catalysts : Evidence for Noble Metal-Ceria Interaction P. Loof, B. Kasemo, L. Bjomkvist, S. Andersson and A. Frestad

253

VII

Laser Raman Characterizationof Sulface Phase Precious Metal Oxides Formed on Ce02 L.L. Murrell, S.J. Tauster and D.R. Anderson

275

Depollution of Diesel engines Diesel Emission Control E.S. Lox, B.H. Engler and E. Koberstein (General lecture) - 291 Kinetics of Soot Oxidation on Potassium-Copper-Vanadium Catalyst P. Ciambelli, P. Parrella and S. Vaccaro

323

Catalystsfor Diesel Powered Vehicles D. J. Ball and R.G. Stack

337

Use of base metals in exhaust catalysis Catalytic Automotive Pollution Control without Noble Metals S. Stegenga, N. Dekker, J. Bijsterbosch, F. Kapteijn, J. Moulijn, G. Belot and R. Roche

353

Three-way Activity and Sulfur Tolerance of Single Phase Perovskites D. Jovanovic, V. Dondur, A. Terlecki-Baricevic and B. Grbic

371

Fundamental studies on model catalysts NO Reduction and Adsorption Intermediates on Pt-Rh Alloy Catalysts L. Heezen, V.N. Kilian,R.F. van Slooten, R.M. Wolf and B.E. Nieuwenhuys

381

A Comparative Kinetic Study of the CO-02 Reaction over Pt-Rh ( I l l ) , (100),(410) and (210) Single Crystal Sulfaces J. Siera, R. van Silfhout, F. Rutten and B.E. Nieuwenhuys -

395

Molecular Beam Studies of CO Oxidation on Rh(l10) M. Bowker, Q. Guo, P.D.A. Pudney and R.W. Joyner

409

-

VIII

Unregulated emissions Role of Sulphate Decomposition in the Emission and Control of Hydrogen Sulphide from Autocatalysts A.F. Diwell, S.E. Golunski, J.R. Taylor and T.J. Truex

-

The Effect of Aging on Nitrous Oxide N 2 0 Formation by Automotive Three-way Catalysts M. Prigent, G. de Soete and R. Dozikre

417

425

Theoretical approach to the catalytic converter Flow, Heat and Mass Transfer in a Monolithic Catalytic Converter D. Schweich (General lecture)

437

A New Theoretical Approach to Catalytic Converters J.P. Leclerc. D. Schweich and J. Villermaux

465

Supports for Automotive Catalysts New developments in Catalytic Converter Durability S.T. Gulati (General lecture) Study of Platinum Deposit on Ferritic Stainless Steel Conversion Coatings L. Aries, P. de Veyrac, M. Mantel and J.P. Traverse

48 1

~

509

Monolith Substrate Efsects on Catalyst Light-Off T.S. Jasper, K. Robinson, D. Anderton and D.H. Cuttler -

523

Comparison of Metal Foil and Ceramic Monolithic Automotive Catalytic Converters G. L. Vaneman

537

Sols as Precursors to Transitional Aluminas and these Aluminas as Host Supports for Ce02 and Zr02 Micro Domains L. L. Murrell and S.J. Tauster

547

Preparation of Thermostable High-Sugace-Area Aluminas and Properties of the Alumina-Supported Pt Catalysts F. Mizukami, K. Maeda, M. Watanabe, K. Masuda, T. Sano and K. Kuno

557

IX

Ageing of Automotive Catalysts Kinetics of the Physico-Chemical and Catalytic Activity Evolution of a Pt-Rh Catalyst in Automotive Exhaust Gas G. Mabilon, D. Durand and M. Prigent

569

Characterization of Bimetallic Su$aces by 1801160 Isotopic Exchange. Application to the Study of the Sintering of PtRhlA1203 Catalysts S. Kacimi and D. Duprez

581

The Effect of Sulfur on Three-way Catalysts D.R. Monroe, M.H. Krueger, D.D. Beck and M.J. D'Aniello, Jr.

593

Effect of Severe Thermal Aging on Noble Metal Catalysts H. Shinjoh, H. Muraki and Y. Fujitani

617

Morphological Transformations in Reducing and Steam Atmospheres of Alumina-Supported Rhodium and Platinum Catalysts D. Duprez, F. Sadi, A. Miloudi and A. Percheron-Guegan

629

Miscellaneous The Influence of Three-way Catalyst Parameters on Secondaly Emission -B. Engler, E. Koberstein, D. Lindner and E. Lox

64 1

Improvements in Techniques for Reducing Emissions by Using Computer Simulation M. Hashimoto, R. Matsumura, F. Yukawa, M. Saitoh and M. Matsumoto

657

PdIA1203 Catalysts for the NO-CO-02 Reaction :"In Situ" Determination of the Palladium State under the Reactant Mixture 667 J.L. Duplan and H. Praliaud AUTHOR INDEX

679

STUDIES IN SURFACE SCIENCE AND CATALYSIS (other volumes in the series)

681

X

FOREWORD

In September 1986, we organized in Brussels the first International Symposium on “Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control” known under the acronym CAPoC 1. At the end of this symposium, most participants expressed their hope that it would be repeated after a not too long interval of 3 to 4 years. A CAPoC 2 was thus organized in September 1990 and this volume constitutes the proceedings of the symposium. CAPoC 2 has been a great success from the point of view of its scientific interest, as evidenced by the content of this book, and also from the point of view of the participation, as 260 scientists, as compared with 177 in 1986, attended the symposium. This is the proof that exhaust catalysis remains a major topic of interest. As in 1986, most participants came from EEC countries, with large delegations from Belgium (48), France ( 5 9 , Germany (36), and the United Kingdom (31), but we again note the importance of the U.S. (23) and Swedish (17) delegations and the interest of people coming from all over the world, including Japan, P.R.China, Venezuela, South Africa and Algeria. About two-thirds of the participants came from the industrial world, mainly the car and oil industries and catalyst manufacturers. As in 1986, the Organizers choose to devote the first day of this fourday symposium to non technical, non catalytic problems, related either to pollution in general or specifically to automotive pollution. Nine general lectures on these subjects were presented and are published in this book. Concerning the strictly catalytic part of the Symposium, the Organizers received 66 papers for consideration, of which 42 were chosen for presentation and of which 34 are published here. This book also contains the text of three general lectures out of the four that were orally presented. In order to accomodate 42 papers and 4 general lectures within 3 days, a poster presentation of some of the accepted papers was necessary. The choice made by the Scientific Committee between oral or poster presentation was based not on the quality of the papers but on the topics. In this way, and with the aim of stimulating the discussion, it was possible to organize half-day sessions with oral presentations on the same topics.

XI

In these proceedings, the lectures and papers are grouped into the following headings: 1- The role of Ce02 in exhaust catalysts (1 1 papers) 2- Supports for automotive catalysts (6 papers) 3- Ageing of automotive catalysts (5 papers) 4- Depollution of Diesel engines (3 papers) 5- Fundamental studies (3 papers) 6- Base metals in exhaust catalysis (2 papers) 5- Fundamental studies (3 papers) 7- Unregulated emissions (2 papers) 8- Theoretical approach of the catalytic converter (2 papers) 9- Miscelleaneous It is worth well to mention that in 1986 not a single paper was presented concerning the role of Ce02 in exhaust catalysis. The Organizers thank all the people that have submitted papers for their interest in CAPoC 2, and all authors of presented papers for the high quality of their contributions. Thanks are also due to all delegates for their participation in the very fruitful discussions both inside and outside the conference room.

Dr. A.CRUCQ

XI1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The CAPoC 2 conference has been held in the “Salle Dupreel” of the “Institut de Sociologie” of the University of Brussels. The Organizers thank the authorities of the University for their hospitality and for the welcome address given by the representative of the Rector of the University. The Organizers express their gratitude to E.Deworme, State Secretary to the Energy, for his interest for the symposium and for the welcome address given at the opening session. Special thanks are due to all lecturers of the introductory session: W.Hecq, K.Taschner, H.Henssler, C.Cucchi, T.Schmidt, K.E.Egeback, J.C.Guibet, M.C.F.Stee1 and W.Fierain - for the high quality of their contribution. The Organizers are pleased to thank Drs S.T.Gulati, E.Lox, D.Schweich and M.Shelef for the outstanding general lectures they have given as an introduction to the topics discussed in the papers presented during the following scientific sessions. Finally, the Organizers want to recognize the important but sometimes hidden contribution of all members of the ”Unit6 de Recherches sur la Catalyse” to the success of the symposium.

XI11

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

The Organizers of this Symposium gratefully acknowledge the financial support sponsorship from the following organizations: A.C.Rochester (Division of General Motors) Commission of the European Community Degussa AG Fabrimetal FEBIAC Ford Motor Cy Johnson Matthey plc Strategic Analysis Europe

XIV

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE : Frennet A. (Chairman) Crucq A. (Secretary) Campinne M. Derouane E. Gerryn C1. Koberstein E. Poncelet G. Schmitz J.C. Evans W.D.J. Germain A. Hecq W. Leduc B. Prigent M. -

UniversitC Libre de Bruxelles UniversitC Libre de Bruxelles Ecole Royale Militaire FacultC Notre Dame de la Paix Ford Europe Inc. Degussa AG UniversitC Catholique de Louvain General Motors Eur. Tech. Center Johnson Matthey plc UniversitC de Likge UniversitC Libre de Bruxelles UniversitC Libre de Bruxelles Institut Francais du PCtrole

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE : All members of the organizing committee, plus : Belot G. Peugeot S.A. Brunelle J.P. Rhone Poulenc Garin F. UniversitC de Strasbourg UniversitC de Lille Leclercq L. Universitk de Nancy Pentenero A. UniversitC de Leiden Ponec V. Johnson Matthey plc Webster D.E. -

1

OPENING ADDRESS by Elie Deworme

Belgian State Secretary for Energy Mr President, Mrs. Rector, Ladies and Gentlemen, The State Secretary of Energy, Elie DEWORME insists on thanking the organizers of this symposium for having invited him to take part in their activities and having offered him the occasion to give a speech. Unfortunately, the current international situation requires his full attention and this is the reason why he has asked me to represent him. However, he wishes to stress the great interest he takes in your activities. Indeed, the State Secretary is convinced that the subject of this meeting is important and he notes with satisfaction that an impressive number of experts from all over the world are taking part in this meeting, which will last for four days. Environmental protection constitutes a problem that knows no frontiers; this is why international collaboration is essential. When we evoke international collaboration, it means that we have to promote a harmonization of the policies and the regulations both on a European and a world-wide level. Furthermore, and this is undoubtedly the meaning of your approach, it seems equally important to combine our efforts on a scientific level, and to bring together regularly the knowledge in this field. However, we would like to draw your attention to another aspect of this problem, which brings us closer to the current events: saving energy. The recent events in the Gulf, and the international tension resulting from it, calls back the ghost of the oil crisis. It is obvious that we are not in the same situation as in 1973-1974 and 1979-1980, when the industrialized countries were subjected to an "embargo" of the oil producing countries. Today, the consuming countries supported by certain producers are organizing the embargo.

2

That does not prevent a large number of OECD-countries, including Belgium, from preparing themselves to deal with a supply deficit. Last week, we had a reunion with several regional ministers in order to discuss a number of measures to increase the consumer’s awareness of energy savings. In the course of the 198O’s, our country has conducted, both at its own initiative and by means of a concerted action within international organizations such as the EEC or the International Energy Agency, a series of actions on a national level, aiming at energy savings; those actions included information campaigns (distribution of brochures, spots on television, participation in fairs and exhibitions, etc.), financially encouraging measures (grants or fiscal advantages for private individuals or firms achieving energy saving investments) and even restrictive measures (for example to insure that the equipment put on the market possesses sufficient energy efficiency). Those measures have allowed us to obtain significant results, although it is not always easy to identify all the factors underlying the decrease of energy consumption. The evolution curves of energy intensity, that is the relationship between the energy consumption and the gross domestic profit, show a general decline that leaves no doubt, at least during the first half of the 1980’s. We are inclined to think that this period was favourable for the environment. One of the sectors in which energy saving is desirable and directly affects the public is obviously the transport sector, and more specifically the automobile sector. In this connection, we should salute the remarkable efforts of the researchers of the firms to reduce the consumption and the pollution due to automobiles; I often state that the only energy source that does not pollute is that which we do not use. It is true that for the last one or two years, the automobile constructors have realized enormous investments to reduce both the consumption of the cars and their pollution. On the other hand, the number of cars in circulation has considerably increased, as well as the yearly distances covered by each car. Consequently, we have cars that pollute less but in a larger number. This indicates the size of the efforts we still have to make together. You, the scientists, by finding new techniques to limit the pollution, and we, the politicians, by inciting the population to adopt a “nature-friendly’’ behaviour. The automobile constructors have introduced catalysts in a large number of models. These are solutions to promote and to encourage. In turn, the Belgian Government has taken measures to encourage use of catalysts by offering a premium to the owners of old cars who equip their car with a catalyst.

3

It is necessary that the public understands the value of its environment and the importance of the heritage we give to our future generations. This is the message that the State Secretary for Energy, Elie DEWORME, would like to give for the week ahead: to combine transport security with energy savings but also with struggle against pollution. I wish you fruitful activities during these coming days and I thank you.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control ZI 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

5

ENERGY AND AIR POLLUTANTS IN BELGIUM The Contribution of Automotive Traffic since 1980 Walter J. HECQ.

Political Economy Centre, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles During the seventies, three important events: the publication of the Rome Club's Meadow Report, the United Nations Conference in Stockholm, and the oil shocks revealed the dangers threatening the Western economies, 1.e. : - the long-term depletion of natural resources; - the atmospheric pollution produced by combustion gases, which is showing its international scale; - an over-dependence on imported oil fuels. This latter has been brought out by recent events. The measures taken in the meantime have made it possible to slow down the quasi continuous increase in energy consumption and the pollution associated with it. A number of indicators show this in various countries including Belgium. Firstly, primary energy consumption, which had been on the increase since the end of the Second World War rose from 19.1 Mtoe in 1950 to 45.3 Mtoe in 1973, slowed down and then reached 48.5 Mtoe in 1979. Secondly, since 1970, the daily average ambient concentrations of SO2 and smoke in the air started to decline in Brussels and elsewhere, as indicated by the monitoring station network. The decline in the use of coal and its progressive replacement by natural gas, and also reductions in the sulfur content of oil products has made it possible to make a reduction in the larger number of local pollution sources. However, these measures revealed themselves to be insufficient with a long distance pollution still adding to the latter and remaining. This long distance pollution has led to the establishment of a European level Policy. This took the shape of EEC Directives on the progressive restriction of exhaust emissions from vehicles and major combustion plants. For the latter, 1980 levels are used as reference levels which must not be exceeded. 1980 is also the first year in which energy consumption started to diminish in Belgium and some other Western countries. So, this year will be the starting point of the comparisons that I shall make later. If energy consumption - like emissions of certain pollutants - has become more or less stabilised since then, five forms of atmospheric energy-

Table 1. Five Exemples of Environmental Concerns. CONFORMITY WlTH

LEVEL

POLLUTION COMMON NAME

POLLUTANTS

CONTRIBUTION TO ADVERSE EFFECTS

ATMOSPHERIC TRENDS

ATMOSPHERIC

WHO STANDARDS IN

LIFE TIME

BELGIUM

~

PARTICULATE MAmAND

LOCAL URBAN

W O R

CARBON MONOXIDE EFFECT

co

CONSTANT OR LOW

TENS OF DAYS

DECREASE

SQ?

TOTAL

CONSTANT OR LOW GROWTH

YES EXCEPT EPISODES IN URBANIZEDAREAS

SEVERAL

ID.

MONTHS LOCAL AND REGIONAL

ACIDRAIN SOZ, N&, HCL

sqr

60%

LOW DECREASE

2 - 5 DAYS

NO

Nox

30%

GROWTH

1 - 2 DAYS

NO

03

N.D.

M E D m

--

YES, EXCEPT EPISODES IN SUBURBS AREAS

co"u0us INCREASE

a?

GLOBAL

W N E HOLE

CFCs, NO, CO; ....

50%

MEDIUM INCREASE

8 YEARS

N20

=lo%

ID.

170 YEARS

03

40%

ID.

--

NO

?

GROWTH

?

7

related pollution continue to cause concern. They have approximately three geographical ranges: local, local and regional (continental) and global. (i) Local (urban) atmosDheric Dollution:: Two kinds of pollution are observed in urban areas (table 1). The g e c t of particulate matter : particulates from mineral residue and unburned organic matter in fuels is associated with, inter alia, the use of heavy fuels (diesel and fuel oil) and coal. Their effects on building materials (appearance and accentuation of corrosion phenomena) are well known. In epidemiological and toxicological studies, these particulates are also held to be a factor leading to a growth in respiratory illness (chronic bronchitis) and mortality. The effect of particulates is reinforced by the presence of SO2 in the air (synergy effect). It is for this reason that the guide values counselled by the W.H.O. (short term, 24 hours : black smoke < 125 pg/m3, SO2 < 125 pg/m3; long term, 1 year : black smoke < 50 pg/m3, SO2 < 50 pg/m3) (W.H.O., 1987) and the limit values set in the council directives (Official Journal) link these pollutants. These established limit values are still exceeded during the winter periods. Domestic heating and diesel vehicles are the principle sources. The effect of carbon monoxide (CO) : carbon monoxide is an intermediary combustion product which is very common in the urban atmosphere. It is emitted principally by two types of source, involving incomplete combustion i.e. small coal fires and gasoline motors. With the disappearance of the former and the increasing number of motor vehicle, carbon monoxide is produced in great quantities by automobile traffic. Also, in unfavourable weather conditions (poor dispersion) and in the big cities, it is not uncommon to see mean concentrations rise above the limits counselled by the W.H.O. (11.5 mg/m3 over 8 hours, 30 mg/m3 per hour) (W.H.O., 1987). Given its well known affinity with haemoglobin in the blood, during such periodes, carbon monoxide is a danger (hypoxia) to at risk groups i.e. angina pectoris patients, bronchitics, young children and pregnant women.... (ii) Atmospheric pollution at local and regional level : Two types of pollution cause concern (table 1) on a larger geographic scale. Acid rain : this phenomenon, widely described in the press, takes the form of wet and dry deposits. These deposits attack building materials and health; they make the soil and surface waters acid at great distances from their origin. Two pollutants are the main contributors of acid deposits, namely sulphur dioxide ( S O 9 and nitrogen oxides (NO, : NO + NO2). Both are produced by burning fossil fuels. Sulphur oxides are formed from residual sulphur in petroleum fuels and coal. Nitrogen oxides are formed by

8

two mecha-nisms: either by the oxidation of nitrogen compounds contained in fuels, or by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen. If gasoline contains reduced amounts of sulphur and nitrogen, taking account of combustion conditions, it is the nitrogen oxides from the air which form the family of polluting acids produced in significant quantities by gasoline vehicles; Photochemical pollution : this pollution is the result of secondary pollutants and among them, tropospheric ozone ( 0 3 ) is an aggressive oxidant. Briefly, ozone is formed by a process catalyzed by sunshine and NO,. The NO, are recycled thanks to volatile hydrocarbons (VOC)' . If the NO produced is greater than the NO --> NO2 photochemical conversion rate, the NO reacts with the ozone and the 0 3 concentration is reduced. This is a common phenomenon in urban areas. During daylight periods, when the NO produced is insufficient, NO2 - VOC photochemical conversion produces 0 3 . Concentrations of this gas in the atmosphere are therefore rising. The average annual concentration of 0 3 in the troposphere rose almost continuously from 30 to 50 ppb in 16 years. The W.H.O. guide values -150-200 pg/m3 for one hour and 100-120 pg/m3 for 8 hours - are exceeded from time to time and alterations to both animal and vegetable tissues result. (iii)AtmosDherk pollution at global level: While acid rain and photo-chemical pollution have spread at continental level, the "greenhouse effect" is found worldwide (table 1). This phenomenon, the effects of which are still poorly understood although without doubt of great significance, is closely associated with the use of fossil fuels. Four energy related gases, including the principal product of combustion C02, and also nitrous oxide (N20), methane (CH4) and ozone ( 0 3 ) are involved in the process to differing degrees (Table 1). These gases have the property of absorbing the IR re-radiated back by the earth, thus heating the troposphere. Given the quantities emitted and the time factor involved in the process, models predict that an increase of 1.5 to 5.5 C" in the temperature of the troposphere is likely by 2030-2050. Consequently, a general modification of the climate is expected, accompanied by a rise in the level of the sea (thermal expansion and the melting of polar ice). Changes in crop yields and the composition of flora, the disrippearance of coastal areas and the salination of estuaries are among the repercussions of the greenhouse effect most often mentioned. 1 - CO also play a role in this process. It controls the level of the OH radical which in turn, determines the lifetime of hydrocarbons

9

Seven air pollutants (particulates, CO,S02,NO,, VOC,C02,N20)are thus implicated in the five major current forms of pollution associated with the combustion of fossil fuels. Emissions of these pollutants are a function of five parameters : - the quantity of fuel consumed; - the systems of combustion used; - the conditions under which combustion takes place; - fuel composition; - any abatment technologies applied. The last four parameters are, to variable degrees, currently subject to regulations and can define the emission factors. As for the other parameter, the amount of fuel consumed, this also plays a significant role in pollutant emissions. It is also an important factor from the point of view of the energy dependence of our economies and the rational use of non-renewable resources - which include fossil fuels.

T

I

e

30

W

I 25 Y

Dlesel Gasollne

e 20 a

Transponatlon

1 I I 1

0 Resld.Agr.Com.PubL

15

Industry

10

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

Figure I . Inland primary energy consumption in Belgium.

Developments in energy consumption in Belgium since 1980. As in other industrialised countries (France, the Netherlands, ...), Belgian energy consumption, which peaked in the seventies, started to decline in 1980 (figure 1). It reached its lowest level in 1983, by which time consumption had declined by 12% compared with 1980. Then, with the economic recovery and the reduction in fuel prices, energy consumption started to rise slowly once more. In 1988, the gross inland primary energy

10

consumption was very little higher than in 1980 (46Mtoe). During this period, gasoline consumption followed a similar curve, but with a time lapse of two years : a 15% decrease between 1980 and 1985 followed by a 17% increase between 1985 and 1988. Thus, gasoline consumption in 1988 returned to the same level as in 1980 (3.1 Mtoe), which represents 6.7-6.8% of gross inland primary energy consumption. In fact, during this same period the number of gasoline driven cars on the road had followed the same pattern. It decreased from 2.8 million units in 1980 to 2.6 million in 1985, increasing again to 2.7 million units in 1988. Studies (L. DE BORGER, 1987; T. MOROVIC et al., 1987; TestAchats, 1983-1989) also show that specific vehicle consumption decreased by more than 10% during this period (vehicle improvement, energy saving, etc ...). So it is overall annual vehicle kilometrage which grew between 1980 and 1988 (FEBIAC INFO, 1990). The diesel situation is different, consumption of this fuel increased steadily in 1980 (2.1 Mtoe) and 1988 (3.5 Mtoe) and numbers of diesel vehicles have also increased greatly: from 240,000 in 1980 to 810,000 in 1988. It should be noted that in Belgium, there is less tax on diesel oil than on gasoline, and that relatively speaking, "diesel" cars consume less than gasoline cars. Furthermore, they are reputed to be more robust. These observations explain the success of diesel cars in this country.

Combustion pollutants emissions between 1980 and 1988 and the role of traffic. As stated pertinently in the last W.E.C. report (W.E.C., 1989), "Breakdown of manmade pollutant emission by sector is an essentialstarting point for policy decisions concerning energy system structure and pollutant control". According to the figures 2, 3, 4, 5, there has been a general decrease' in combustion pollutants in Belgium since 1980. This decrease is explained h the first place by the significant increase during the 1980s in the numbers of nuclear power plants, which do not produce chemical pollution. The second explanation is the progressive implementation of regulations restricting emission of pollutants from fossil fuels (a reduction in the sulphur content of oil products and of CO, VOC, NO, emissions from gasoline vehicles, inter alia). A third explanation has to do with structural and economic'changes after the oil shocks which have influenced the development and distribution of the fuels used. This has resulted in overall reductions in: - particulates, SO2 and CO emissions whose effects are felt locally; 1

- Volatile hydrocarbon are an exception, their emissions have increased

11

1800000 1600000 1400000 ~

4

1000000

r

600000

;

Q Electricity 6 Heat

D Diesel

t 1200000

El Gasoline

800000

Transportation

0 Rwid.Agr.Corn.Pub1.

8 Industry

400000 200000 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

Figure 2. CO emissionsfromfossil fuel combustion in Belgium. 450000

-I

400000

t

350000

0 Electricity & Heat

300000

0 Diesel

4 250000

N Gasoline

; 200000

E! Transportation

r

0 Resid.Agr.Corn.Pub1. W Industry

100000 50000 0

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

Figure 3 N O x emissions from fossil; fuel; combu tion in Belgium (expressed in NO2 ) T

140000 120000 t

I

100000

Electricity h Heat

Dleset

Q Gasoline

80000 a

r

~

I

150000

160000

I

Transportation

60000

0 Resid.Agr.Com.Pub1.

40000

8 Industry

20000 0

Figure 4. VOC emissions from fossil fuel combustion in Belgium.

~

I I

PARTICULATESEMISSIONS

80000 70000

Irn

SO2 EMISSONS 700000

MWOO

OEMMh&h.(

50000 I

1

I 40000 I I

In

soowo I 400000

:

30000

r

0Iway.COnplaL

J00000

r

20000

200000

10000

lwOW

0

0

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

1980191t 1982 19131911 19151916 19871918

Nx) EUSSIONS

C02 EMISSIONS 14mo

120000 100000

40000

JSOOO

rnEMH1yLH.M

I 30000

U

;

4sm

in {

80000

25000

:

I

'

60000

r

20000 11000

40000

1oooo

P0000

KO00

0nnuqI.corrrpubL

0

0 I980 1081 1982 1983 1984 1985 I986 I987 1988

1910 1911 1982 1985 1984 1986 1931 1087 1918

Figure 5 :Particulate, SO2 CO;!and N20 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in Belgium.

13

- emissions of acid pollutants (S02, NO,) and of one ozone precursor (NO,) which have effects at local and regional level1 ; - and, finally, emissions of greenhouse gases (C02, N20) which have worldwide implications. In this concept involving seven forms of pollutants, gasoline vehicle exhaust has a significant influence in three forms: - at local level: here we are talking about carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, 80% of which are caused by motor vehicles in Belgium (figure 2). If global CO emissions in Belgium have been reduced by 2.9%, the emissions from gasoline vehicles fell by 6.8% between 1980 and 1988 (from 1.394.106 t to 1.299.106 t ) thanks to the progressive adaptation of vehicles to EEC standards (R 15.00, 15.01, 15.03, 15.04). However, after decreasing by 16.6% between 1980 and 1985, CO emissions rose again by 11.6% between 1985 and 1988. - at local and regional level : this concerns one of the "acid' and ozone precursor pollutant, oxides of nitrogen (NO,). Total emissions of this pollutant dropped by 11.3% in Belgium between 1980 and 1988 (figure 3). The contribution of gasoline vehicles represents more than 30% of these total emissions in Belgium. On the other hand and despite the adaptation of vehicles to EEC R 15.02, 15.03, 15.04 standards, NO, emissions by gasoline vehicles increased slightly, by 0.7% between 1980 and 1988. From 142,600 t of NO2 in 1980 and 143,600 t of NO2 in 1988. In this case, increased vehicle kilometrage limited the effect of implementing the regulations. However, these emissions fell continuously until 1985 (- 14.3%), and then the trend was reversed from (+ 17.6%). - at local and regional level: this third form has to do with both the NO, emissions mentioned previously and emissions of volatile hydrocarbons (VOC), both precursors of photochemical pollution. In total, VOC emissions increased in Belgium by 1.6% between 1980 and 1988, largely due to the increased contribution of diesel engines (figure 4). The proportion due to gasoline engines in 1988 (97,650 t of VOC) is lower by 7.2% than that for 1980 (105,300 t of VOC). Such values represent about 64%-70% of total hydrocarbon emissions due to combustion in Belgium. As for CO and NO, emissions, VOC emissions fell between 1980 and 1985 (- 14%) then rose (+ 7.7%) from 1985 to 1988. As for other pollutant emissions (figure 5): particulates, S02, C02, N20, gasoline vehicles make relatively low contributions; < 10% of total emissions from other sources. The same is true for the proportion of diesel vehicle emissions in total emissions due to combustion, the role of these emissions are limited with the exception of particulates, and, to a lesser 1-

And even at global level since 0 3 is a greenhouse gas

14

extent, of NO, and CO. To summarize, the role of gasoline motors in pollutant emissions from combustion essentially concerns three pollutants -- CO, NO, and VOC -- the negative effects of which are mainly local (urban areas) and regional. If a significant reduction in CO and VOC emissions from gasoline engines is observable for the 1980-1988 period, this is mainly the result of a net decrease observed for the period between 1980 and 1985. This decrease was followed by an increase in these emissions from 1985 on, at which point, the price of petroleum products started to fall (a fall in the price of the $ and of crude oil). As for NO, emissions, these follow a similar "v" configuration, but were higher in 1988 than in 1980.

300,

NO7 (ug/m31

0KRO0I

03-24

DECEMBER 1986

CO ( p p m l

0KRO81

83-24

OECPlBER 1986

NUMB. CRRSJHR

0KR08l

83-24

OECM B m 1986

-1

Figure 6 . Relationship between trafic density (number - cars I hr.) and NO, N02. CO concentrations ( semi - hourly ) in Brussels.

15

When we know the relationship between traffic density and the concentration of pollutants in the ambient air as shown in the figure 6, it is not surprising that measures intended to reduce emissions of CO, VOC and NO, were adopted by both the Belgium and the Community authorities with the coming into force of improved standards provided for in the Luxemburg Agreement (Directive 88/76/EEC) and the signing, in June 1989 of the decrees applicable to vehicles with an engine capacity below 1400 cc. In order to conform these new standards, the solution chosen is the extensive use of the catalytic converter : one of the technologies which appears better suited at present to wiping out increases in emissions of these three pollutants (CO, NO,, VOC) which have been observed since 1985; this technology also has the indirect merit of causing a drop in the emission of lead particles into the atmosphere. In this context, we should emphasize the initiative of the Belgian authorities who, like several other European governments (Germany, Holland), have decided to grant premiums to private individuals buying vehicles with an engine capacity of two liters or less and equipped with a catalytic converter. This measure, which has been effective from July 1st this year, will remain in force for two years. Given the encouraging prospect of such measures and also the prospect which justifies our presence here i.e. the improvement of catalytic processes, we must keep in mind not only the diesel vehicles whose number is growing but also another goal in preparing for the future : namely that we must make ongoing efforts to economize oil, a non-renewable resource located in large amounts in politically instable states; a resource on which our country and many others are still very dependent. REFERENCES.

- DE BORGER, L. (1987): "Modelvonning van personenvervoer (vervoer en energie) op basis van een personenenquEte" - Ministerie van Economische Zaken, Programma Energie, 55 p., December 1987. - FEBIAC INFO (1990): "Dossier mobilis" - FEBIAC INFO, no 8.8 p., juin 1990. - Journal Officiel (1988): "Proposition de directive du Conseil modifiant la directive 80/779/CEE du Conseil concernant des valeurs limites et des valeurs guides de qualit6 atmosphkique pour l'anhydride sulfureux et les particules en suspension" - Journal Officiel des Communautt?s Europcknnes, no C 254/6,30/09/1988. - MOROVIC T.. GRUNDING F.-J., JAGER F.. JOCHEM E.. MANNSBART W., POPPKE H., SCHON M., TOTSCH I. (1987): "Energy Conservation.Indicators",SpringerVerlag CEE, FhG, 333 p.. 1987. - Test-Achats (1985): "Dossier voitures ? essence" i (1) et (2) - Test-Achats Magazine, no 273,... DD. 617. 1985 et no 274. DD. 4-18. 1986. - Test-Achats (1989): '*Dos&rvoitures no 1 et 2: L'expkriencedes automobilistes" - TestAchats Magazine, no 317, pp. 3645,1989 et no 318, pp. 29-37.1990. - W.E.C. (1989): "An Assessment of Worldwide Energy-Related Atmospheric Pollution" - World Energy Conference, Report 1989,224 p., London, August 1989. - W.H.O. (1987): "Air Quality Guidelines for Europe" - W.H.O., Regional Publication, European Series, no 23, Copenhagen, 1987.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

17

ENVIRONMENTALISTS' VIEWS ON AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST GASES

Karola Taschner European Environmental Bureau , Bruxelles, Belgium. INTRODUCTION

Automotive transport is very popular. It gives the possibility to move fast, far and in the first place self-determined and independent. The car means freedom for the driver, in the first years of the automobile for some " happy few", and nowadays, almost for everybody. The car was a success. It is only over the last decade that the disavantages emerged, due to the continuously growing car park. The all too numerous cars met physical barriers: lack of space, air pollution and noise were increasing. About 80 % of the EC population live in urban areas and so are concerned. But according to estimates of Commission, the situation will even aggravate, because car ownership rises continually The same is expected for vehicles for freight transport which will increase in number, weight and size due to the Single Market, which will result in a considerable rise in ton kilometers, between 30-50 % by 2000, according to the Task Force Report contracted by the Commission and up to 80 % according to the Institut fur Landes und Stadtentwicklung, Dortmund. Figure 1 indicates the evolution of goods and passenger traffic in the EC. Among noise, degradation of the urban and rural environment, consumption of land - which is a limited resource - and congestion, exhaust gases are the problem. Figure 2 shows the evolution and forecast of NOx and C02 emissions by sector. Clearly these emissions will not decrease in the next two decades. COMPOSITION AND EFFECTS OF NOXIOUS EXHAUST EMISSIONS

A number of damages are attributed to tailpipe emissions. the toxic pollutants are causing health impairments, plant damage and damages to material. The first pollutant to raise concern was carbon monoxide because it was emitted in so high quantities that ambient air concentrations were acutely toxic. Through concentrations have decrease meanwhile, carbon monoxide is still a problem because not much is known about chronic effects and because it

18

Car ownership

EUROPE 12

600 500 400 300

200 100 n "

I

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Evolution of goods traffic

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Evolution of passenger traffic

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Figure 1 :Transport indicators (ref 2 )

2010

2015

61 OLOZ OLOZ

oooz oooz

066 L 066 L

086 L 086 L

Figure 2: NOx and C02 emissions for Europe 12 by sector (ref 2)

20

contributes to the climate effect as its greenhouse potential is five times that of C 0 2 . In addition, it binds the "scrubbers" in the air thus reducing the selfpurification of the troposphere. Black fumes from cars disturb visibility and are also responsible for soot formation. But particulates which have a smaller diameter - white smoke- have risen concern to cause cancer because they contain on their very porous surface all kinds of carcinogenic compounds such as heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Particulates have such a small diameter that they pass right into the lung alveoles. An investigation into cancer statistics and occupation in London found that drivers of taxis and others diesel-powered vehicles had an increased incidence of bladder cancer. One pilot study among railway workers in the US has suggested that individuals exposed to diesel fumes stand a 42 % greater chance of developing cancer compared to individuals not exposed. In another study, of retired railway workers, an association has been found between lung cancer and exposure to diesel fumes. Automotive transport is responsible for more than 50 % of nitrogen oxides. This is demonstrated by the NOx emission map of the Federal Republic of Germany, which repeats accurately the grid of the most busy motorways. This is evident as long as only traffic emissions are reported, but still when total emissions are presented (Ref. 3). Nitrogen oxides are affecting in particular elderly people, asthmatics and people suffering from heart and lung disease. The limit value for air quality was fixed at 200 pg /m3, but that seems to be too high, especially for this group and in particular when NOx occur together with other air pollutants. The damages to vegetation due to NOx are manifold. In the acid rain discussion, nitrogen oxides were late comers, but they have not stopped ever since to raise concern. Acidification is nowadays caused to an increasing proportion by NOx, as sulphur dioxide emissions decreased over the last couple of years. Forest die-back is seen in connection with nitrogen oxides. The balance of sensitive ecosystems like moor, heather, is easily disturbed by excess input of acidifying substances, but also by the fact that nitrogen oxides act as fertilizer so bringing competitional disadvantages for plants which are sustained by extremely poor nutritional conditions. It is those plants which we find on the Red Lists of extinct or endangered species. Nitrogen oxides, together with hydrocarbons, play a role as precursors for tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog. - Ozone is a toxic gas for both man and animals. It reduces lung function. - Ozone affects plants, in particular in combinaison with other air pollutants, like NOx and SO2 - synergistic effects can be observed, entailing higher damages than one pollutant alone, e.g. reduction of harvest. -Tropospheric ozone affects the climate by contributing to the greenhouse effect.

21

Ozone data recorded between 1876 and 1910 near Paris were at a level of about 10 ppb all over the year. Nowadays, they show seasonal variations reaching a peak of 40 to 50 ppb in spring and summer. The differences in concentration and their variation are obviously due to human activities. Since 1970, the mean annual increase in ozone abundance in the Northern hemisphere has been between 0.5 and 1% per year, and about 2% in heavily polluted regions. High ozone values were reported from all countries of the European Community this summer, also from the North. Values exceeding 300 pg/m3 occurred in many Member States. WHO regards 120 pg/m3 as the threshold value where health effects occur. The Dutch Institute of public health has studied health effects at ozone concentrations higher than 240 pglrn3 and found them to provoke headache, cough, nausea, vertigo, irritation of eyes and nose, and a decrease of lung function. The importance of these effects varies with the exposition period and the quantity of ozone inhaled. The persons at risk are those working outside, people practicing sport and allergics. Frequent expositions might cause irreversible damages The Swiss, Austrian, and German ministers of the environment have agreed in August on a limit of 180-200 pg/m3 where the public should be warned to refrain from excessive outdoor physical activity. In Germany, a controversy has arisen if prohibition of automotive circulation during photochemical smog periods would reduce the risk. The Federal Minister of the Environment thought it to be useless, the Hamburg Senator was in favour of taking such a measure. In Belgium, in the region of Gent, ozone values higher than 300pg have occurred. The mayor of Gent demanded that industrial entreprises reduce their emission of air pollutants. So it can be concluded that the emissions from automotive transport have not improved: acid rain is still an unsolved problem.particulates. NO, and 0 3 continue to cause air pollution. REDUCTION STRATEGIES FOR EXHAUST GAS EMISSIONS

I In principle, it was evident since a long time that vehicles emit noxious exhaust gases and that it was necessary to reduce them by applying the best available technolow. I1 Environmentalists used to be critical with individual passenger transport. They have since long favoured public transDort for several reasons. Nowadays in the discussion, the concern of increasing air pollution and of the climate change prevails.

22

Another efficient measure to combat air pollution consists in speed limits. Reductions by 10 % could be reached by imposing speed limits which really should be applied, i.e. controlled effectively.

I11

I

-

Vehicle exhaust gas reduction by technical means.

There are two goals to be met: one consists in reducing C02 emissions by encouraging the development and the use of energy-efficient cars. The other aim is the reduction of pollutants from car exhausts to US 83 limit values by 1993 and US 93 standards by 1995 taking into consideration that only conformity of production is relevant for the environment and not type approval. This point of view is held by consumers as well and the European Parliament.(Table 1) Was there another convincing technology besides the 3-way catalyst? There were motoric measures, exhaust gas recirculation, etc. There were expectations in the lean burn engine. But nothing had ever been as efficient. The 3-way catalyst improved in performance and still does. Since the early eighties, European environmentalists have pleased for the introduction of US 83 limit values. I do not want to repeat the sad story of deceptions, when equivalence between US and EC was defined by the total amount of emissions over all the territory and not by what came out of the single tailpipe, and what was called the "Luxembourg Agreement", which fixed limit values for the nineties which were outdated already in the eigthies.

Table 1 : Limit values of exhaust emissions for cars (in g/km)

23

The proportion of cars applying state of the art pollution control has increased only slowly in Europe though faster in the contries of the Stockholm Group (EFTA countries) (fig. 3, 4 & 5). But the car market of the E R A countries is ten percent the EC's (fig. 6). Even measures taken now in adopting stricter limit values will be mitigated by the continous increase in the European vehicle fleet. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions will rise by 2005 (fig 7 & 8) and nitrogen oxides by the turn of century already (fig. 9). 100% 90% 80% 70%

60% -

50%

-

40% -

30% 20% 10% -

0%

1985

1988

I

I

1991

1994

MODEL YEAR

S t d h l m Group

+

EmopeanCwmnnity

0

West Elrope

Figure 3 :Pollution controls on cars in Europe (state of the art controls) (Ref 1). Driving cycle The current driving cycle simulates urban driving conditions with a maximum speed of 50 km/h. Now an extra - urban part will be added, which goes up to 120 k d h . Both driving cycles will be combined and receive a common limit value (see table I), though two separate limit values would allow for a more exact determination of the pollutants, already two limit values for the urban and extra urban test cycle for CO would be an improvement. It would not come as a surprise if car types appeared on the market which could meet the commission's limit-values with an open loop three-way catalyst because they can compensate high NOx emissions in extra-urban driving conditions by low ones in urban conditions. This means compromissing at the expense of the environment. Here two separate limit values for NOx and HC would be preferable.

1: 1:

11

ia 9 8

7 8 i

5 4

3 2

f

1

0

1985

1

1

1

1988

1991

1994

MODEL YEAR Totnl New Car Sales

I

Slate of Art Cors

Figure 4 :Pollution controls on in Europe (European Community) (Ref 1) 1 .)

1 .:

1.; 1.1 1

'

0.7

0.0 0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2 0.1

0

'1985

1988

1991

1994

M W E L YEAR Tolnl New Car Sales

i

Stnte of Art Cars

Figure 5 :Pollution Controls on cars in Europe (Stockholm group ) (Ref 1)

25 14 13

12 11 10 9 -

!

7

.-

8

-

8

i

5 4

-.

3 2 1 -

0 1985

1988

1991

1994

MODEL YEAR

+

Total New Car Sales

Slate of Art Cars

Figure 6 :Pollution Controls on cars in Europe (Total Western Europe) (Ref 1) 3!

15

0 0

10

5

0

I

1985

1

I

1995

NOGROWTH

2005

+

1%

I

2015

0

2%

A

2025

3%

Figure 7 :EEC vehicle exhaust emissions trends :CO (alternative VMT growth rates) (Ref 1)

26 2.e 2.4 2 1 2

P

1 4

I? 1 2

Y

o.: 0.6

0 4 0.2

0

1985

1995

8

NOGROWTH

2005

I

1%

2015

0

2%

A

2025

31

Figure 8 :EEC vehicle exhaust emissions trends :HC (alternative VMT growth rates) (Ref 1) 4.5

4

3.5

3 2.5 2 1.5

1

0.5

0

I

1

I

1

I

1985

1995

2005

2015

2025

8

NOGROWTH

+

1%

0

2%

A

3%

Figure 9 :EEC vehicle exhaust emissions trends :NOx (alternative VMT growth rates) (Ref 1)

27

Durability testing. Durability testing is envisaged to guarantee the efficiency of pollution abatement systems. The US durability test which goes over 80.000 km will be valid also in the E.C., but provisions are made also for an alternative European test which requires testing only over 30.000 km though under particular stress, even deterioration factors would suffice in case an automobile producer does not want to carry out any durability testing. Testing after 80.000 km would be the most effective, the alternatives are compromises for economic reasons. However, these provisions only concern new cars. To guarantee the reduction of exhaust gases during the vehicle's whole lifetime, a testing requirement must be provided for in-use vehicles. Here the BEUC and the EEB would like to see the Commission coming up with a proposal for the testing of in use cars to make inspection and maintenance mandatory. US driving cvcle and limit values The recognition of US driving cycle and limit values is laid down in Annex 3A of the current Directive on car exhaust: This practice is to be phased out according to the proposal. Annex 3A was the guarantee that US limit values for car exhausts could be applied in the EC and make Member States and their authorities aware of the difference in standards. In suppressing Annex 3A we will lose the possibility to compare and an incentive to conform to stricter US limit values which should remain the goal. Otherwise we will widen the technical gap between the US and the EC market. Small commercial vehicles. As most of the small utility vehicles derive from passenger car concepts there is no reason why they should not meet the same limit values as passenger cars. Concerning energy efficiency, the EEB suggests to contemplate tax incentives for cars consuming less than 4 1 per 100 km.The use of natural gas would be useful as its combustion emits less C02 per energy unit. Natural gas had a good performance in city buses concerning the reduction of exhaust gas pollutants. Smaller, lighter and better designed cars will help to improve energy efficiency. It is not appropriate to have a vehicle weight of more than one ton to transport one person! Electric cars best fed by solar energy would be an ideal solution for some uses, but technically, they have not reached maturity in particular because storage facility and weight of batteries are still unsatisfactory.

28

Given the climate effect, diesel and lean bum rise in the appreciation of environmentalists and they regret the incompatibility of these engine concepts with the catalytic converter technology. Critical evaluation of the Catalytic technology to reduce air pollution from automotive vehicles. The 3-way catalyst has been a success. It has been the precondition for a considerable amelioration of car emissions. Platinum is a precious metal and so is not chemically reactive. Nevertheless, there have been questions about how it behaves in the environment, what kind of reactions it might catalyze. But a Swiss study gave evidence on its harmlessness. It has been tried to use oxidation catalysts to get rid of the particulates. But this was less successful as the use of an oxydation catalyst results in sulfate formation, which cloggs up the catalyst. Catalysts were poisened and had a short lifetime. In addition, there is the problem that the working temperature is too low: 140 "C instead of 300 "C. The discussion on trap oxidizers using copper and vanadium as catalysers have, not yet the expected performance, besides the fact that the use of copper might have led to copper pollution in the environment. Copper is toxic for plants and animals. Also considerations to use iron salts as catalytic additive for diesel fuel meets scepticism because under these circumstances, very small needle shaped iron salt cristals are formed. They would have the capacity to penetrate lung alveoles like asbestos fibers and it is not advisable to wait until the bad experiences repeat before iron salt additives are banned. To combat diesel particultes with the help of catalysts does not seem to be the adequate technical solution. Engine modifications for cars but also for trucks have proved to be more reliable and burner controlled particulate traps got good notes in the German field test on buses and lorries.

I1

-

Public transport.

Given the hopeless situation at the time of the Luxembourg agreement, it seemed impossible to obtain the strict limit values for car exhausts which were needed. Environmentalists looked for a resort to reduce automotive emissions and found it: public transport for passengers and rail transport instead of road haulage. This simple concept found much sympathy. Comparisons made between the subsidies received as state aid for road and rail revealed that the road user does not pay the full social and environmental cost he is generating. The amount he is paying as excise duty does not cover health effects and accidents (paid by the forest owners, farmers etc and the public at large).

29

Facts such as accidents and casualties on the road, hours spent in congestions, and the rising amount of the time which had to be dedicated to automotive transport are not to the advantage neither of the car, nor of the lorry. Transport is responsible for 58 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions and 22 percent of carbon dioxide (table 2).

Table 2 : Atmospheric emissions (9%)

-

1987

-

EEC

Source: Energy 2010 (1989). Comments to Table 2 : Transports contribute considerably to NOx emissions accounting for 60% of total emissions in 1987 in the Community. Its contribution to C02 emissions and thus to the green-house effect is also important and due to the burning of fossil fuels. The energy production sector accounts however for almost 40% of total C02 emissions. No technology exists at present capable of filtering C02. The only possibilities are less energy consumption, energy efficiency and cleaner fuels.

Of the different transport modes, road transport represents the most considerable environmental impact concerning air pollution and surface use (table 3). Air pollution from road transport is 13 fold higher concerning NOx and 20 to 60 fold more energy is needed. Only SO2 emissions are comparable (table 4). The surface covered by road infrastructure are 4,7 % in Belgium and 3 % in The Netherlands, 1,3 % in the average of the EC (table 5). The social and environmental costs of road transport -land use cost and long term cost along with the consequences of an intensification of the greenhouse effect not included - are running up to five percent of the GDP (table 6). Nonetheless, Member States of the EC continue to invest preferentially in road infrastructure instead of railways . In a market economy, state aids have to be balanced among competitors. Up to now the road has received a preferential treatement at the expense of the public transport. Environmentalists demand to put them on an equal footing in raising the excise duty on fuel by at least doubling the fuel price; the German Greens even demand an increase by the factor five.

30

Table 3 : Hierarchy of impacts per component of environment and of transport mode.

*: Small impact; **: Significant impact; ***: Severe impact; --:very small impact. (a) (b) (c)

Plus danger to transfer the problem to the electricity supply. Impact may become severe in case of mishap. Environmental effects of mobile sources at high altitude are still not well known

Comments on Table 3 : These rankings are based on conventional knowledge and experts' consensus. For a given transport mode, horizontal comparison between impacts is hampered by value judgements about the relative importance of different components of the environment (water, air, land, health). Road transport has the most significative overall impact on the environment. This is not only due to the fact that road modes are the most widely used but also to the more intense unitary impacts (per tonne-km or passenger-km) they provoke.

Table 4 : Emission factors and energy per mode of transportation

(a) Unit emissions only concern lomes : Charge factor for energy consumption equal to 50 % . With a charge factor close to 100 % , high capacity road transports should be almost as energy saving as rail.

Source : Strategic plan for rail freight. This study was ordered by the Netherlands Ministery of Transports and Waterways. (Rotterdam, July 1989 ) Comments to table 4 : By many standards, rail is more environmental-friendly than road transport. Data are not available for passenger traffic and C 0 2 emissions but it is currently suggested that the picture concerning emissions and energy consumption should be broadly similar to that of the table. This evidence provides the primary argument for a policy aimed at the encouragement of transport modes alternative to road transport (modal shift).

31

Table 5 : Road substructure (all roads), density of the road system and coverage of the ground (1985) (a). ~~

Length

Surface covered

1000 km

km2

I L NL P UK

127.9 70.1 491.2 34.5 151.8 804.7 92.3 303.0 5.2 96.3 51.9 348.3

3UR (b)

km of roads per 1000 km2

1445 792 5800 390 1600 8740 1043 3424 59 1110 586 3936

Surface covered in % of the total surf. 4.7 1.8 2.3 .3 .3 1.6 1.5 1.1 2.3 3 .O .6 1.6

4197 1627 1975 26 1 301 1466 1313 1006 2008 2582 564 1427

km of roads per inhabitant (EUR=100: 162 171 101 43 49 182 326 66 177 83 64 77

2577.2

28925

1.3

1143

100 (c)

USA

6600.0

87000

.9

704

345

JAPON

1127.5

9900

2.7

3028

117

B DK D ELL E F IRL

(a>

Colums 2 and 3 correspond to estimations made at the begining of the 8 0 s

(b)

Growth of the road system from 1975 to 1985 was of 3,7%, or 0,36%per year (0,47% from 75 to 80 and 0,25% from 80 to 85)

(c>

8 km per lo00 inhabitants

Origin: OCDE (1988) and CDP elaboration

32

Table 6 : The environmental costs of road transport (as % of GDP) Source Community of

I

Pollution (a) Congestion (b) Accidents (c) Total (d)

5

Environmental Costs in 1989 in ECU (e)

220

0.7 - 1.5 2.6 - 3.1 2.5 5.8 - 7.1

I

255 - 312

Socio-economic costs of pollution due to exhaust gases from road vehicles estimated for the Federal Republic of Germany. These costs are mainly health related. Time and energy use in the large european comdors : towns and links between towns (Bouladon report)). Socio-economiccosts of road accidents (France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Federal Republic of Germany). The probability of accidents, in the EEC, is 125 times greater for private car users than for train passengers. Mostly non intemalised socio-economic costs. Costs related to land use are not available.

EEC's GDP in 1989 is estimated at ECU bn 4391 (EUROSTAT). Sources: OCDE (1988) (page 11) and Community of European Railways (1989) (page 24). Comments to table 6 : These data should be interpreted with caution for they come from various sources. The OCDE estimate of 5% of GDP for non-internalised costs of transports is perhaps the most solid. The other source helps to form an idea about the likely breakdown of the aggregate figure. Given that land-use costs and long-term costs associated to the consequences of an intensification of the green-house effect (C02 emissions) are not included, it is legitimate to interpret the 5% figure as a lower limit. According to all experts, these costs should be fully paid by the users of the different transport modes (via road pricing, vehicle mileage and fuel taxes, etc.). Today they are paid by tax-payers and victims and this suggests that the services of transport modes, and in particular road transport, are simply too cheap to the users.

The calculation finally on what and how much individual transport emits and how much could be avoided by using preferably public transport clearly stroke the balance into the direction of public transport In all countries, environmental organisations nowadays mobilize against the preferential treatment of automotive transport. An additional driving force is the concern raised by the greenhouse effect. Automotive transport is less energy efficient than public transport.

33

Quite new coalitions are formed and what is more important, people realize that there have been developments in transport policy of wich they are the victims and now they pronounce their disagreement. I only want to remind you of this summer, when alpine transit almost came to a standstill because one bridge collapsed. Inhabitants neighbouring the bypass routes were unwilling as an emergency to receive the extra burden of lorries. Heavy lorries are in the first place the target of displeasure. The car still maintains its popularity as can be read from the increase of cars sold over the past years. But also here changes are evident. Some urban municipalities take measures to reduce the number of vehicles in the city or ban them altogether. Nine renown Swiss holiday resorts advertised their having banned internal combustion vehicles. And these measures are by no means acompanied by a storm of indignation, on the contrary, people applaud. Automotive transport passes a period of criticism. Characteristic for the reflections was the title of a book: "Rethinking the automobile". All the different measures proposed are aimed to redress the balance which has certainly been too much into the direction of automotive transport. There are people who have never gone by train. This is an obvious sign that the possibilities are not well used. It is not to sweep the balance to public transport exclusively, but to create conditions without congestions, undue air pollution and noise, accidents and roads consuming the surface. Who wants to save automotive transport has to be for the proportionate development of public transport. That is common sense.

References 1

2 3

M.P.Walsh, "NOx emissions from road traffic in Europe" Workshop on projections of NOx emissions, Oslo, December 1989 "Major themes in energy", EC-Community Daten zur Umwelt 1988/89,pp 284-288, Umweltbundesamt Erich Schmidt Verlag

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control ZI 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

35

THE EVOLUTION OF THE EEC REGULATIONS ON VEHICLE EMISSIONS H. Henssler, Commission of the European Communities

1 - INTRODUCTION This paper deals mainly with the evolution of the regulations of the European Communities relating to the control of exhaust emissions from motor cars since the first CAPOC-seminar in 1986. As an introduction the main principles of the so called "Luxemburg Compromise" of June 1985, are briefly recalled as they represent the key for understanding the further evolution of the European emission standards. These principles were : (a) to set up European standards which in their effect on the environment were equivalent to the emission standards of the USA, however, taking into account the specific conditions of Europe concerning its car fleet and traffic patterns. (b) to allow for a choice of technologies to comply with the future European standards, these technologies being essentially the closed loop three-way catalyst and, as an alternative supposed to be cheaper, lean burn engine concepts, if necessary, fitted with simple oxidation catalysts. The realisation of these principles have led to a regulation containing 3 distinct sets of limit values according to 3 categories of engine capacities : 2 litres and more, 1.4 to 2 litres and less than 1.4 litres. In correspondance with the assumed availability of the concerned technologies also distinct implementation dates have been fixed : - For the category above 2 litres : 1 October 1988 for new car types, 1 October 1989 for the registration of new cars, - For the category between 2 litres and 1.4 litres : 1 October 1991 for new types and 1 October 1993 for all new cars and - For the category below 1.4 litres : 1 October 1990 for new types and 1 October 1991 for all new cars. The standards of the Luxemburg compromise are based on the existing European test procedure, the so-called urban driving cycle, but allowing, as a transitional measure, the alternative use of the US - FTP 75 driving cycle. These standards also require all spark ignition engines to be adapted to the use of lead-free petrol of 95 RON. They are equally applicable to diesel engines, however, engines with more than 2 litres being submitted to the standards of

36

the medium category. The Luxembourg compromise had to wait until 3 December 1987 to become an EEC Directive thanks to the European Single Act of February 1986, which introduced the possibility of decisions by a qualified majority, thus overcoming the Danish and Greek vetos. This Directive with the reference 88/76/EEC represents the 5th amendement to Directive 70/220/EEC which had established in 1970 the basic emission standards of the European Community. For the sake of completeness it may be added that the United Nations' Economic Commission for Europe translated in 1988 this latest EEC Directive into a new ECE Regulation no 83 intended to replace their traditional regulation no 15 covering motor car emissions.

-

2 FURTHER EVOLUTION The further evolution of the European emission standards since 1985 has been largely determined by a number of commitments which were part of the Luxemburg compromise or have been taken in connection with the adoption of Directive 88/76 : These commitments concerned : - the substitution of the interim standards for the car category below 1.4 litres by more severe European standards - the completion of the existing urban test procedure by sequences representing driving conditions on highways and motorways - the setting of standards for the emission of particulate matter by diesel powered cars - the introduction of requirements concerning the durability of emission control devices and the evaporation of fuel.

2.1 - The Extra-Urban Driving Cycle Immediately after the Luxemburg Council the Commission charged its well established expert group on vehicle emissions known under the abbreviation MVEG with the technical work resulting from these commitments. This group is composed of the experts of the interested national administrations, of the motor and petrol industry and of consumer and environmental organizations. Its work in relation to the future European extra-urban driving cycle started on the basis of studies of typical highway and motorway driving patterns in Germany and the United Kingdom and by the Committee of Common Market Constructors. The results of these studies were put together and resulted in a synthesized driving cycle which was presented in March 1988 as the European Extra Urban Driving Cycle "EUDC", caracterized by a relatively simple driving pattern and presenting a peak speed of 120 km/h and an average speed of 62.6 kmh. MVEG then examined the possible combination of this cycle with the

31

existing urban driving cycle with the help of tests carried out on a representative sample of 133 cars of different types and featuring different emission control systems. Eventually, the group agreed on a combination where the urban cycle precedes the extra-urban cycle, a combination which became known as "MVEGA" and which preserves the potential of the urban cycle to measure emissions at a cold start.

2.2

-

Diesel Particulate Standards

In parallel, MVEG worked on the future European standards for the emissions of particulate matter of cars powered by diesel engines on the basis of an investigation of the actual emissions from present European diesel car models. As sampling and analyzing method that of the present US regulation was retained and efforts were made to adapt it to the European test procedure. In June 1988 this work resulted in the adoption of Directive 88/436/EEC. Because of the lack of precision of the sampling method and the resulting relatively high limit values (1.1 dtest for type approval and 1.4 g/test for the control of production conformity), it was understood that this Directive could only represent a first stage of the particulate control in the EEC and the European Parliament fixed as the objective for a further more stringent stage with 0.8 g/test for type approval and 1.0 g/test for the control of production conformity. 2.3

- Emission Standards for Small Cars

Finally, MVEG examined the question of definitive European emission standards for the car category below 1.4 litres. The result of the technical work suggested that if the principles of "technical choice" and "reasonable costs" were to be retained, the limit values for the gaseous emissions of the small car category should be equal to those of the medium category i.e. 30gtest for CO and 8gtest for the combined mass of HC and NOx. These limit values were proposed by the Commission in 1987 and were approved in November 1988 as the common position of the Council and the Commission in accordance with the Single Act procedure. The European Parliament, however, with which Council and Commission have to co-operate under this new procedure, was of the opinion that the environmentai situation had becoms dramatic in the EEC, on the one hand, and that the closed loop three-way catalyst technology was now available to the whole European car industry, on the other hand. Consequently, the Parliament requested limit values which are at least as severe as those of the USA for the small car category which represents roughly 60% of the present European car fleet. After some discussions, the Commission followed the Parliament and

38

presented in May 1989 a revised proposal. The majority of the Member States agreed in June 1989 and adopted directive 89/458/EEC with the limit values of 19 gjtest for CO and 5 g/test for HC+NOx (type approval limits) to be applied on 1 July 1992 to new car types and on 31 December 1992 to all new cars. This decision represents another milestone of the motor vehicle emission regulations of the European Community : The principle of the technological choice has been abandonned and replaced by the principle of the best available technology on which the future European standards have to be based. Consistantly, the Council committed the Commission to present a proposal which aligns the limit values of all car categories to those of the small car category and, at the same time, to adapt these standards to the improved test procedure including the extra-urban driving sequences.

2.4

-

The Consolidated Directive

In compliance with these commitments, the previous ones from June and November 1985, and the recent ones from June 1989, the Commission decided to comprehend in one directive the different requirements relating to gaseous and particulate emissions of passenger cars and thus to consolidate the EEC emission standards for this vehicle category. Of course, the proposal is based on the results of the MVEG work described above : the driving cycle completed by the extra urban sequences, the improved particulate sampling method and the specifications for testing the durability of emission control devices and the evaporation of petrol from the fuel system of the cars. The limit values of this proposal for the gaseous emissions constitute a purely technical transposition of the small car standards into the new complete test procedure. The proposed particulate standards correspond to the objective fixed by the Parliament (0.8/1 .O gjtest). For this transposition the appropriate results of the 133 car sample established for the choice of the driving cycle combination has been used i.e. only those cars, both petrol and diesel, whose gaseous emissions were below the limit values of 19 g/test CO and 5 @test HC+NOx. The limit values which resulted from this operation are for the approval of new car types : 2.72 g/km C0.0.97 g/km HC+NOx and 0.19 g/km particles.The corresponding values for the control of production conformity are 3.16g/km CO, 1.13g/km HC+NOx and 0.24g/km particles. It is worth to note that these standards represent approximately 10% of the limit values of the first EEC directive of 1970 (70/220/EEC) relating to emission control. According to international practice, these standards are now expressed in "grams per kilometer" of the new European test procedure combining the urban and the extra-urban driving cycle representing a test distance of 1lkm. In accordance with the directive on small cars these limits are proposed to apply from 1 July 1992 to new car types and from 1 January 1993 to all new cars.

39

The Commission wanted of course to be sure that these limit values comply in fact with the postulate to be at least as severe as the existing US standards. Hence, a study was commissioned to 2 national testing laboratories in order to compare the actual emissions measured with the proposed European test cycle to those measured with the US test procedure FTP'75. The study was carried out with 44 representative European car models- 31 with petrol engines and equipped with closed loop three-way catalysts and 13 with diesel engines - complying with the CO standard of 19g/test and the HC+NOx standard of 5g/test of directive 89/458. This study showed despite an important scatter of the results, a clear trend of the European test procedure to yield generally higher emissions than the US procedure. This trend was most obvious for CO where the European test resulted in average in 45% higher values than the FTP'75 test. For HC+NOx and particulate emissions the average of the results were 15% higher than in FTP'75 test. In terms of limit values, this means, that the proposed European standards for gaseous emissions are indeed more severe - about 12% for CO and 4% for HC+NOx than the US standards. However, for particulate emissions the study showed that the objective fixed by the European Parliament and followed by the Commission has been too lenient : a value corresponding to the present US standard of 0.20gImile would be 0.14gkm In the European test and the corresponding standard for the control of production would be 0.18g/km. The Commission is prepared to correct its proposal in this respect.

3

-

ASSESSMENT OF THE PROPOSAL FOR A CONSOLIDATED EMISSION DIRECTIVE AND ITS POSSIBLE INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS

The main characteristics of the proposal are, on the one hand, the strict respect, by the Commission, of the previous agreements and commitments which are mentionned in the first part of this paper. The Commission believes in the continuity of the EC policy on vehicle emission standards because of its economic importance, in general, and of its bearing on the European automotive industry, in particular. On the other hand, this proposal is caracterized by the determination of the Commission to find a genuine European solution to the environmental problems caused by road traffic, a solution which is most adapted to the European conditions in respect of both its car fleet and its driving patterns. It needs to be said that the proposal which was presented to the Council of Ministers on 5 January 1990 and to the European Parliament on 22 February 1990 has not received a unanimous approval from these institutions. The majority of the European Ministers who discussed it at their meetings of 22 March and of 7 June 1990 declared it nevertheless to be a good basis for a rapid decision and confirmed their interest in a genuine European solution. The problems which have been identified so far appear to be more of a technical nature than fundamental. The European Parliament, at least its

40

Environmental Committee, appears, however, convinced that, in principle, the best for Europe would be to copy the American emission regulations. In the forthcoming dicussions, the Commission has decided to stand firm concerning its proposals and the following months will show what eventually, will be the solution which rallys the majorities of the European institutions. In any case, whatever the solution will be, from an industrial point of view, it appears clearly that from January 1993 on all cars produced for the market of the EEC in big series will be, independent of their engine capacity equipped with closed loop three-way catalysts if they are powered by petrol engines. As far as diesel powered cars are concerned, the proposed standards both for gaseous and particulate emissions, do not assume the use of catalysts or trap oxydizers. The reason for this is that expert consultations did not allow the Commission to assess neither the potential of these techniques, nor the time of their availability, with sufficient accuracy. The Commission will, of course, follow their development and, if possible, adapt the standards to their potential, in order to generalize their fitting to the concerned vehicles. 4

- OUTLOOK INTO THE NEXT FUTURE

The Commission is aware that catalysts deteriorate within a certain period of usage. The regulatory durability tests available now including the US - 50 000 miles- test which has been also included into the directive proposal do not offer a safe means to determine the moment when catalysts are no longer efficient and have to be replaced. The Commission believes that only a Community-wide system of periodic inspections of the cars in use is appropriate for this purpose and allows eventually to take the full environmental benefit of this technology. Consequently, the Commission is actively working on a directive proposal in this respect which it deems necessary to complete its present proposal relating to vehicle construction. Another complementary measure which the Commission will present in a few months, concerns the emission standards for all vehicles covered by the scope of this directive and not being passenger cars. Such vehicles, generally being light commercial vehicles of category N1 but also heavy passenger cars having more than six seats and/or a total mass exceeding 2.5 tomes, are presently governed by transitional provisions which submit them to more lenient standards than passenger cars. The reason for this is essentially that such vehicles have a power-to-weight ratio considerably inferior to that of typical passenger cars. Consequently, these vehicles have higher emissions than passenger cars under identical test conditions. At present, we are studying, a system of standards which is adapted to the technical conditions of these vehicles but represents the same level of severity as the proposed passenger car standards. Consequently, it can be foreseen that after the mid-nineties all motor vehicles driven by petrol engines will have to be equipped with closed loop three-way catalysts.

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

41

THETECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROPEAN VEHICLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

C. Cucchi and M. Hublin

CCMC 1. INTRODUCTION

On June '85, the Council of Environment reached an agreement on a plan for further tightening of the emission standards for passenger cars. This plan, known as the "Luxembourg Agreement", was motivated by the need to contain the impact of the road traffic on the environment and was intended to establish an equivalency between the total amount of pollutants emitted by the the European and the US car fleets, taking into account the difference in the composition and the patterns of use of the two vehicle parks. Table 1 summarizes the decision reached on the emission limit values and the corresponding dates of implementation. The basis for the following further actions were also layed down at that time: - Step I1 emission standards for small cars with an engine displacement below 1.4 litres - limit values for particulate matter emissions from passenger cars equipped with a diesel engine to be implemented in two steps. - introduction of an added driving cycle representative of extra-urban driving conditions. - limit values for vehicle evaporative emissions - durability requirements The Luxembourg Agreement was transposed into a Directive (Dir. 88/76/EEC dated 3 December '87), with a two-year-delay as a consequence of the late coming into force of the Single European Act Since '87, the Commission, with the support of the MVEG, has defined the issues that were left open. In particular: - a limit value of PM = l.lg/test was selected for diesel vehicles to be implemented on 1/10/90 for all vehicle types. - Step II emission standards for passenger cars below 1.4 It. was defined as: CO = 19g/test; HC + NOx = 5g/test and the corresponding dates of implementation put forward to 1/7/92 - 31/12/92 - the driving sequence shown in Fig. I was developed to reproduce the extra-urban driving conditions, and between the possible combinations

42

of the urban and extra-urban driving sequences Fig. 2, configuration A was retained as the new European driving cycle. - a test procedure to measure vehicle evaporative emissions within a European context was developed.

TABLE 1 Luxembourg Agreement Exhaust Emission Limit Values

I

CAR

NOx GfIEST

CATEGORY

Gasoline Engines >2000 cc

I

DATES IMPLETATION

I 3.6

NM 1/10/91 AT 1/10/93

1400-2000 cc

t

NM* 1/10/89 AT 1/10/89

I

el400 cc STEP 1

45

15

5

TO BE DEFINED

NM 1/10/92 AT 1/10/93

Diesel Engines** >1400 cc

c 1400 cc STEP 1

45

NM 1/10/90 AT 1/10/91

NM 1/10/90 AT 1/10/91

1

15

6

NM 1/10/90 AT 1/10/91

STEP 2

* **

NM-NEWMOD FOR DIRECTINJECTION DIESEL ENGINES. 2000 c c , THE DATES OF IMPLANTATION HAVE BEEN FIXED AT 1/10/96 FOR ALL TYPES.

While particulate emission limit values and Step I1 standards for small cars have already been finalized in Directives (Dir. 88/436/EEC of 16 June 1988 and Dir. 89/458EEC of 18 July 1989 respectively), the new driving cycle, the evaporative emission requirements and the durability requirements are planned to be introduced in a New Consolidated Directive which will impose a set of standards common for all car categories as from 31/12/92 (1/7/92 for new models). The Commission has recently published a proposal on this issue (COM (89) 662 dated 2 February 1990) as discussed in the paper “Evolution of the EEC Regulations on Vehicles Emissions” presented by Mr. Henssler

43

during this meeting. This fast evolution of the emission requirements has brought about an intensive engineering activity for the development of emission systems optimized within a European context. The auto industry has always felt that the technical solutions defined for the US market may not always be the most suited for a vehicle park which differs from the point of view of vehicle size, engine displacement/types and patterns of use. The economic aspects of new legislative requirements in terms of vehicle purchase prices and operating costs cannot be overlooked. 120

100

-

STATISTICS: LENGTHS :

-

VMAX.:

i5

i

6955 rn 400 S 120Kmh 62 Km/h

80-

s E3w

60-

n 40-

20

-

00

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

I

I

I

TIME (Sec.)

Fig. 1 EUDC Driving Cycle 2. EXHAUST EMISSION TECHNOLOGIES

The evolution of the car park in the US has been characterized by the following trends as a consequence of the emission requirements that are being enforced in this country: - exclusive use of electronically controlled fuel metering systems for gasoline engines - exclusive use of the three-way catalyst concept with or without an added oxidation catalyst - disappearance of the diesel engines despite the interest shown even by local manufacturers as a consequence of the corporate average fuel economy requirements and the large investments made. - very large percentage of vehicles equipped with fuel injection systems. Practically all US and European models are fuel injected.

44

120 -100 c 2 180 A;;W

40 v)

20 0

0

100 200

300 400

500

600 700 800

900 lo00 1100 1200

Time (s)

120

..-. 100 280

B Z W $40 a 20 0

0

100

200

300 400 500

600 700 m 900 lo00 1100 1200

Time (s)

1

120 -f

.

I I

80 60 40 20 0

0

m 40.

a

(I)

20.

100 200

n

300 400 500

600 700 800 900 loo0 1100 1200

I

nI7 I Time (s)

120 100 80

60 40 20 0

0

100 200

300 400

500 600 700 Time (s)

800 900 loo0 1100 1200

Fig 2 :Driving Cycle Configurations

45

The final decision of the European legislators concerning the emission standards in terms of driving cycle and limit values will determine the future situation in Europe.

2.1 Gasoline engines Various levels of severity, in terms of driving cycle and limit values, have been brought forward since the time of the Luxembourg Agreement. Each of them has a different impact on the technological choices available to the manufacturers and on the final price of the vehicles. The following paragraphs review the main proposals.

2.1 .I Urban Cycle - CO = 30gltest ;HC

+ NO* = 8gltest

These are the standards chosen for medium cars at the time of the Luxembourg Agreement and, at an early stage, also proposed by the Commission for small cars as Step II. They offer the choice between different technolgies such as: - lean-bum engine with an oxidation catalyst - three-way catalyst in an open-loop configuration - engine modifications + fuel injection system - engine modifications + EGR + oxidation catalyst As a consequence, the car manufacturer remains free to select the optimum solution on the basis of the following criteria: - emission reduction efficiency - engine performances including fuel consumption - driveability - system costs Of particular interest for this level of seventy is the lean-bum technology.On the basis of the response of gasoline engines to the aidfuel ratio Fig. 3, it is theoretically possible to reach optimum emission and fuel consumption levels in the lean region. However, under these conditions, engine operations become critical due to an increase in the combustion duration and in cycle to cycle scatter. To push forward the lean missfiring area, it is necessary to create high turbulance in the combustion chamber by resorting to high swirl intake ducts, air jets at the valve or butterflies valves in the intake ducts Fig. 4. The definition of a lean burn engine requires long development times. The optimum performances that can be achieved in terms of fuel consumption are counter-balanced by the following issues when compared with a conventional engine: - increase in HC emissions - higher NOx emissions during the cold phase

46

- higher dispersion of the emission levels as a function of the tolerances of the fuel metering system - driveability.

It

T

"1-

30

10

m ;lrH

N E L ~ Y s T I o N

mo

m$sa

M 1

14

1

1

18

1

1

18

1

1

20

1

8

1

p

iuno

1

24

Fig. 3 Engine Emissions and Specific Fuel Consumption vs AIF Ratio

Fig. 4 a :High swirl intake ducts

Fig 4b :Buttelflies valves at the intake ducts

Fig 4c :Air jet at the valve

47

As a consequence of the above, an oxidation catalyst and an improved carburetor or an injection system are needed to meet emission limit values as stringent as HC + NOx =8g/test. Further reduction in the emission levels are difficult if not impossible to achieve as NOx emissions can only be controlled through an optimization of the air/fuel ration setting. No EGR or three-way catalyst can be used in a true lean bum engine for obvious reasons. 2.1.2. Urban cycle - CO = 25gltest ;HC

+ NOX = 6.5 gitest

These are the standards that are in force in Europe since 10/89 for passenger cars with an engine displacement above 2.0 It.. This level of severity can only be met by the technolgy of the three-way catalyst in a closed-loop configuration. This technology is based on the property of Platinum and Rhodium to act as catalyst for both the oxidation of CO and HC and the reduction of NO,. Clearly, the highest efficiencies for the oxidation reactions are achieved when the exhaust gases flowing through the catalyst have an excess of O~(1ean mixture) and the highest efficiency for the reduction reaction when they are poor in 0 2 (rich mixture). Nevertheless, there is a window around the stoichiometry where the conversion efficiencies of the catalyst for both the oxidation and the reduction reactions are satisfactory (80-90%). An electronically controlled fuel metering system is required to ensure the correct composition of the exhaust gases flowing through the catalyst under all the engine running conditions. An oxygen sensor detects any deviation from stoichiometry , sends a signal to a control unit that corrects accordingly the amount of fuel delivered (closed-loop systems). In practical terms, the aidfuel ratio achieved with such systems is never set on a constant value but oscillates around a constant value (- stoichiometry). The frequency and amplitude of these oscillations are a function of system transport time (delay between the information given by the sensor and the corresponding modification of the A/F ratio at the inlet valve) and the control strategies. The overall efficiency of the three-way catalyst results from see Fig.5: - the base calibration of the fuel metering system - the frequency and amplitude of the aidfuel ratio oscillations around the above value. Therefore, the selection of the fuel metering system and the control strategies play a key role in the achievement of low vehicle emission levels. Electronically controlled carburetors, throttle body fuel injection systems and multipoint fuel injection systems are today available for use in combination with a three-way catalyst. In the category of passenger cars above 2.0 It, fuel injection systems are almost exclusively utilized.

48

1m

-

-

*

;E

t,

zp w U

aa-

)(01

m-

Hc

2

P

40-

v)

a

z8

10-

m

o

,

,

,

,

u

,

,

,

,

I

Fig. 5 (a) Catalyst Eficiency om

om

U11

1m

14.60

1.aY

1.m

IS09

14-

AIRIFUEL RAno AMPLITUDE 0.3 M FFIEWENCY 1.8 HZ

-

i RICH

om

I

0.1 I l

1

I

LEIN

1.w

1.02

I

A

RICH

A L E A N

too

I

I

NOx

HC

8,

NOx

10

WPUNDE

AIR'FUEL wno 1.0 M . FRCOUENCY 1 Hz

AYPUNDE

URlRlELRATIO 1.0 M - FREQUENCY 0.7 +k

+_

Fig. 5 (b) Three-Way Catalyst Efficiency

49

2.1.3 Urban cycle - CO = I9gltest ;HC

+ NOx = Sgltest

These are the emission standards chosen as Step II for small cars below 1.4 litres. They can be met only by the technology of the three-way catalyst in a closed-loop configuration. In practical terms, they correspond to a level of severity more stringent than that of the US '83 requirements as a consequence of the specific configuration of the European urban driving cycle. Their approval by the Council of the EC will have an evident impact on the vehicle prices (see Table 2) and their operating costs. It will also require large investments, especially for the auto industry suppliers, as a consequence of the widespread use of the electronics for the engine management and the phase-out of the production of carburetors. Electronically controlled carburetors are not always the most economical technology due to their intrinsic characteristics (poor control of the A/F ratio if compared with fuel injection systems). 2.1.4 New European cycle - CO = 2.72glkm ;HC

+ NO, 0.97glKm

The above limit values have been proposed by the Commission for all categories of passenger cars in connection with the introduction of the new European driving cycle. They are intended to meet the following prerequisites: - to be at least as stringent as the US '83 standards - to align the requirements for passenger cars with an engine displacement above 1.4 It. to the standards already approved for small cars (i.e. Step I1 - urban cycle - CO = 19dtest HC + NOx = 5g/test). The new European driving cycle is unique as it introduces driving modes at vehicle speeds higher than the ones covered by other test cycles including the US highway cycle. Under heavy load conditions, CO and NOx engine emissions rise sharply and the means to control them are limited without penalty on driveability and/or fuel consumption. As a consequence, the technologies today available to abate vehicle exhaust emissions must be reconsidered in function of the new cycle and the corresponding limit values. A comprehensive study that was recently carried out by CCMC shows that the three-way catalysts in a closed-loop configuration technology is already required if the limit values for the new European driving cycle are set at: CO = 5-

HC + NOx = 1.25 g/km see Fig. 6

50

TABLE 2 Emission Technologies and their Impact on Emission, Reduction, Price, Increase and Fuel Consumption Variation Consumer Fuel Price Consumption Increase Increase

Technologies Conventional Engine for "Lux. Agreement"(Step 1) Lean Bum Engine with Carburetor and Conventional Ignition Conventional Engine for Tax Incentives in

(%I

(%)

0.5

2

*

Overall Emission Increase

Limit Values

0 22 **

1.o

-2

22

1.5

3.5

34

Luxemburg Agreement step1 cQ=45g/t HC+NOx = 15 g/t

FRG-NL Pulsair and EGR LeanBum Engine with Carburetor and Recalibrated Conventional engine with EFI Lean-Bum Engine and EFI Lean-burn Engine

4.5

Davignon 1

I

Open loop-3Way-Cat Carburettor Lean-burn Engine Closed Loop - EFI Var. Intake System 3 Way-Cat

** ***

34

I

9*

34**

-15%

CO = 38 g/t HC+NOx = 12.8 g/t

2

34

-7

34**

-3

53***

Commission Proposal

+2

53***

CO = 30 g/t HC + NOx = 8 g/t

-7

approx. 60

+3

73

US '83 or equivalent

Fuel Consumption change is the average of 90/120/Urban consumptions Some of the technologies described above are only at an early stage of development. This varies from manufacturer to manufacturer

BASELINE = small vehicle, 1.4 L conventional carburetted engine meeting ECE 15/04

51

4

HC

+ NQx

3

2 1,25 1

0

CQ

0 0

2

4

5

6

8

10

Fig. 6. CCMC Study on the Impact of the New European Driving Cycle on Emissions- Lowest Levels Achieved by Vehicles not equipped with a three-Way Catalyst and Closed-Loop System. Other technologies such as a three-way catalyst in an open-loop configuration or an oxidation catalyst + E.G.R., which can still achieve very low emission levels in limited cases on the urban cycle, cannot control at the same time CO and HC + NO, emissions below the above figures when tested according to the new driving cycle . The Commission proposal, being even more stringent than the above values, will require added optimization of the present state of the art technology (i.e. three-way catalyst in a closed-loop configuration). Control strategies of the engine management system, catalyst composition and design, auxiliary devices such as E.G.R. must be reengineered on the basis of the constraints posed by these new European standards in order to achieve the desired result. Models meeting the US '83 requirements do not necessarily have emission levels below CO = 2.72g/km when tested according to the urban + extra-urban driving cycles as shown in Fig. 7. 2.2 Diesel engines

At present, the emission standards for pasenger cars equipped with diesel engines are set at CO = 30g/test, HC + NOx= 8g/test, PM = 1.1 g/test (but for engines below 1.4 It for which CO = 45g/test, HC + NOx= 15g/test). The only constraint is represented by the trade-off between particulate matter and HC + NO, emissions. The optimization of the engine calibration is sufficient to meet todays requirements. The Commission proposal concerning the introduction of the new European driving cycle provides also for a

52

further tightening of the particulate emission limit values. This means that diesel engines will have to meet: HC + NO, = 0.97g/km,

CO = 2.72g/km,

PM = 0.19 g/km.

Under these conditions, the trade-off PM/HC + NO, becomes critical within the technologies presently available to abate diesel exhaust emissions, i.e.: - combustion chamber design - fuel injection system design - EGR - improved diesel fuels. ---. .. -- .. . - M TEST I I t S U L l S IN t-i"/ K 5.0

-EEC PROC.

SLOPE

CO (With DF)

=

1.452

3.5 3.0 -

4.5

4.0

2.5

-

1.5 -

2.0

1.0

-

0.5

-

*/

US PROC.

0.0 0.0

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

1

0.5

10

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

40

4.5

5.0

0 GASOLINE VEHICLE

DIESEL VEHICLE

Fig. 7 Comparison between Emision Levels Achieved on the New European Test Procedure by Vehicles Designed for the US '83 Standards. It should be noted that NO, emissions cannot be dealt with an after-treatment system such as a three-way catalyst. At the same time, particulate filters for automotive applications are being investigated with still poor results as far as the filter life is concerned. Only oxidation catalysts have proved to be useful in reducing HC levels and, to a somewhat lesser extent, also particulate matter levels. The need of using oxidation catalysts as a possible essential mean to meet the future legislative requirements add to the urgency that the car manufacturers feel concerning the establishment of appropriate specifications for the European diesel fuels. Diesel fuel quality has an important impact on the exhaust emissions of diesel engines. In addition, the widespread use of catalysts requires the availability of sulphur-free diesel fuels.

53 3. EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS

Passenger cars contribute to the emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds due to the evaporation of the gasoline during prolonged parking as a consequence of the fluctuations of the ambient temperature, when parked after use and, in a lesser amount, when used. In line with the mandate of the Luxembourg Agreement, the recent Commission proposal also introduces requirements in this area. A test procedure has been defined to measure the vehicle V.O.C. emissions during prolonged parking (diurnal losses) and when parked after use. A 2gltest limit value was proposed. The technology presently available to reduce this type of emissions and attain the above goal is based on the following principle: - the fuel system (fuel tank, carburetor bowl, etc ...) is vented exclusively through an activated carbon canister - the carbon canister is purged by fresh air drawn through the canister into the intake manifold during engine operations. This technology also allows the control of any evaporative loss when the vehicle is running. The constraints added by the evaporative emission requirements have an indirect bearing on the selection of the technology to abate exhaust emissions as: - the fuel metering system must be able to deal also with the canister purge flow which contains an unmeasurable amount of fuel - some fuel metering systems generate higher amount of fuel vapour than others (for example: carburetors versus fuel injection sytems). 4. CONCLUSIONS

The increased concern of the public opinion about the environment and the need to protect it has spurred the Commission towards the implementation of emission standards of increased severity. With the new Consolidated Directive recenlty proposed by the Commission, the legislative requirements concerning exhaust emissions will become more stringent than the corresponding requirements presently in force in the US. This will mean that all gasoline cars will be soon equipped with 3-waycatalysts in a closed-loop configuration while diesel engines will incorporate the latest development in terms of engine and fuel system design. This evolution is putting a strain on the industry that in a short period of time has to adapt the technology of the 3-way catalyst, known through the US experience, to the European requirements in terms of test procedures and specific patterns of use of the vehicles. There will be added costs due to the complexity of the new systems and the need for large investments in the component sectors, in order to meet the demand for new sophisticated products.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control I1 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

55

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF CATALYSTS FOR OFFGAS TREATMENT Dr.-Ing. Torsten Schmidt,

Kali-Chemie AG, Hannover, West Germany

Table of Content. 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.4 2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 3

Fundamentals Air pollution control: legislation Air Dollution control: process selection Principles of catalytic reactor desia Chemical reactions, heat and mass transfer Catalyst deactivation Plant design Examples of.apdication Selectivecatalytic nitric oxide reduction 0ffg.a~ treatment ef stationam internal combustion eneines or turbines Exhaust gas emission control for spark ignition engines according to the three way system Diesel engines Gas engines (two stroke), gas turbines Claus plant o f f a SULFREEN process Catalytic afterburning Catalytic $terburning of VOC for industrial production processes Survey Example: Laminating of paper Literature

SUMMARY Catalytic offgas treatment requires adaptation of catalysts to the existing production pmess and its emissions. Industrial catalytic offgas treatment offers opportunities in conversion of noxious emissions into environmentally compatible reaction products at low temperatures without formation of noxious by-products or residues. Due to the versatility of catalysts and offgas treatment processes their application yields various economies. Limitations include catalyst deactivation due to presence of poisons or the Occurence of concentrationpeaks. Those are tackled by chemical and engineering research and development of catalyst and plant manufacturers. Kali Chemie AG, Hannover @). offers optimized catalysts as a result of long term experience in cracking, isomerization, reforming, chemical, automobile exhaust and industrial offgas treatment catalysts.

56

-

1 FUNDAMENTALS 1.1 Air pollution control: legislation Technological measures for reduction of gaseous emissions to the atmosphere can be divided into three categories and priorities. 1. Avoidance of emissions by process optimization (primary measure) 2. Recycling of emissions (secondary measure) 3. Conversion of emissions (tertiary measure) [2] Catalytic processes for air pollution control are employed for the latter purpose. In 1987 the catalyst market consisted of three major fields of application: - refineries 950 Mio $ - chemical industries 1.496 Mio $ - air pollution control 568 Mio $ Market volume of air pollution control catalysts is divided into automobile exhaust purification (90%) and industrial offgas treatment (10 %)'. Performance of offgas treatment processes must comply with statutory regulations. Thus, design of plants and catalytic reactors must yield conversions of pollutants which ensure concentrations below the threshold levels specified for the particular pollutant and emission process. In West Germany threshold levels are mandatory, and are based on the Federal Emission Control Law (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz)and particular instructions (e.g. TALuft; GroPfeuerungsanlagenverordnung). 113 Some examples of emission threshold levels are given in table 1.

1.2 Air pollution control: process selection The primary goal of catalytic processes in air pollution control is the conversion of noxious emissions (e.g. hydrocarbons) into environmentally compatible reaction products (e.g. carbon dioxide and water) at minimum energy consumption and without formation of either noxious residual substances or noxious by products. Unlike many catalytic processes in refining or in petrochemicals, the basic principle in air pollution control is that the catalyst has to fit to the (existing) production process and its operational parameters.

1 - Source: Prof. J.T. Richardson: Introduction on Catalysis: Application of heterogeneous catalysts, Loughborough, 31.07.88-06.08.88

57

Table 1 - Emission Limit Values According to German Air Pollution Control Legislation POLLUTANT

THRE~HoLDLIMIT

THERMAL POWERPLANTS

NOx

0,2 G/M3

TWO STROKE GASENGINES

NOx

0,80 G/M3 0,65 G/M3

co

NM-HC ALDEHYDES SOLVENT APPLICATION

(E.G.P R I ” G , LAMINATING) CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS PLANT

0,13 G/M3 20 MG/M3

VOC CLASS III (E,G,ACETONE) CLASS II (E,G, TOLUENE) CLASS I (E,G, FORMALDEHYDE)

0,15G/M3 0,l G W 3

20 MGM3

The basic offgas parameters are: (i) atmospheric pressure (ii) low temperatures (iii) low concentration of pollutants (below 1 vol.%) (iv) wide variety of substances with several changes during catalyst service time (v) non stationary operation. [ 10,1] Catalytic processes are evaluated according to the following selection criteria: (i) efficiency (compliance with threshold levels) (ii) effort (energy consumption; demand for maintenance and supervision) (iii) reliability (iv) compatibility with production plant and energy supplies (v) avoid residues or by products (e.g. spent catalysts, filters, products of incomplete oxidation) Competing processes many include: condensation, adsorption, absorption, reverse osmosis, biological treatment, thermal oxidation. Recently catalyst application is state-of-the-art in the following fields of application: [ 123 - flue gas treatment (NOx control by selective catalytic reduction; SCR) - stationary internal combustion engine offgas treatment (oxidation of CO and HC; non selective NOx reduction) - treatment of Claus plant offgases (oxidation of H2S, CS2, COS) - complete oxidation of volatile organic compounds (so called catalytic af terburning)

Table 2. Chemical reactions in Catalytic Air Pollution Control

OXIDATION EXAMPLE

COMPLETEOXIDATION OF HYDROCARBONS CmHnOp+ (m+n/4-p/2) 0 2 -+ mC02 + n/2 H20

REDUCTION

DECOMPOSITION

SCR 4 NH3+ 4 NO + 0 2 + 6 H 2 0 + 4N2

DECOMPOSITIONOF OZONE 203 -+ 302

NSCR CO +NO + 1/2 N2 +C02 CmHn +2 (m +n/4) NO (m + n/4) N2 +n/2 H20 + mC02 TEMPERATURE RANGE

200 - 600 "C

RESIDENCE TIME

0.42 - 0.02 s

GHSV

5000-50000 h-

APPLICATION

CATALYTICAFI'ERBURNING; ENGINEOFFGAS

SCR NSCR 200 - 400 "C 2 - 0.3 s

0.42 - 0.02 s

1000-5000 h-1 5000-50000 h-1

DENOx

ENGINE OFFGAS

20 - 100 "C

0,7

- 0,3 S

5000-10000 h-l STERILISATION

59

1.3 Principles of catalytic reactor design

1.3.1 Chemical reactions, heat and mass transfer Chemical conversions arising in connection with chemical and biological exhaust gas treatment processes can be subdivided into - oxidation reactions - reduction reactions - decomposition reactions. Catalvtic exhaust gas purification refers to processes in which the polluting gaseous and vaporous substances (pollutants) are converted into harmless substances by means of chemical reactions on the surface of a solid, inorganic auxiliary material (catalyst). [ 5 ] For that reason, technical catalysts consist mainly of highly porous materials which provide a large surface area for the chemical reaction. Due to the fact that the reactants (pollutants and oxidation or reducing agents) are present in a different physical state than the catalyst, there are not only chemical reactions at the catalyst but also physical transport phenomena (table 2). [3] The essential mass transfer steps of such heterogeneously catalyzed reactions are (figure 1): -1. mass transfer between the offgas flow and the boundary layer, -2. diffusion of reactants through the boundary layer to the outer (geometric) catalyst surface and from there through pores to active sites on the internal surface, -3. adsorption at active sites, -4. chemical reaction, -5. desorption of reaction products from active sites, -6. diffusion of products through pores and boundary layer, -7. mass transfer into the offgas flow. The application of solid catalysts in gas reactions (heterogenous catalysis) increases the velocity with which the reactions in question are occurring through - compression of the reactant gases at the catalyst surface, which results in an increased number of collisions, - decrease of the activation energy. As a result of the increased velocity of reaction, the throughput of air polluting substances achieved by the chemical reaction is reached (i) at lower temperature (ii) at smaller reactor dimensions (shorter residence times) compared with thermal processes. High reaction rates over highly active catalysts lead to a decrease of the effectiveness factor. Thus, after light-off only active sites on the external surface are used for conversion, because the catalyst bed is heated up due to exothermal reactions. Effectiveness factor is high in low temperature

60

applications. Heat transfer between catalyst surface and the offgas flow preheat the catalyst surface to the ignition temperature of the gas purification reaction and removes the heat of reaction from the surface. During reactor design stationary and non stationary transfer phenomena have to be considered to ensure adequate contact time of pollutants with the catalyst and to prevent the catalyst overheating. [6,7, 81 Figure I :Mass Transfer in Heterogeneous Catalysis

1. Transport of Reactants from Bulk of Gas Flow to Boundary Layers 2. Diffusion of Reactants through Boundary Layer to External Catalyst Surface

3. Diffusion of Reactants through Pores to Internal Catalyst Surface 4. Adsorption of Reactants

at Active Sites

5. Chemical Reaction

6. Desorption of Reaction Products

11

7. Diffusion of Products through Pores

8. Diffusion of Products through Boundary Layer 9. Transport of Products into Bulk of Gas Flow Generally chemical engineering principles (mass and heat balance, plug-flow tubular reactor) can be applied to catalytic reactor design, if rate equations are known. This requires detailed investigation to determine activation energies and frequency factors for each substance. In practice, catalyst sizing is carried out empirically according to pilot plant information. These yield conversion versus either temperature or gas hourly space velocity (sv) curves. From these curves catalyst volume (v) and operating temperatures are chosen for the required conversion at a given flow rate (4)v). S v '4 )yV

61

1.3.2 Catalyst selection Catalysts for air pollution control are delivered as bulk material (beads, pellets) or honeycomb carriers. Carrier materials mainly consist of porous ceramic material (y-Al2O3 alumosilicate, silica). Dense materials such as cordierite or mullite or steel are covered with active layers (wash-coats) before impregnation with active materials. Active materials may be selected from the noble metals (e.g. platinum, palladium) or metal oxides (e.g.oxides of manganese, copper, cerium, titanium, vanadium, chromium). Metal oxide catalysts often are produced as mixed catalysts (prepared by precipitation methods). Noble metal catalysts are always supported catalysts (prepared by impregnation methods). [ 161 Catalyst for offgas treatment have to conform to the following technical and commercial selection criteria [9]: -high activity: high reaction rate of desired reactions at low temperatures and low catalyst volumes, -high selectivity: formation of noxious by-products must be avoided (e.g.: CO, N20, SO3) -high stability against chemical, thermal and mechanical impacts -low pressure drop to minimize electrical energy consumption for blowers 1 3.3 Catalyst deactivation

The economics of catalytic offgas purification require long service times (e.g. beyond two years). Catalyst lifetime can be reduced due to catalyst deactivation. The following factors can cause catalyst deactivation: [4]: - Chemical factors (so-called poisoning) Substances which are not desorbed or react irreversibly with catalyst carrier (e.g. acids) or active material (e.g. sulphur, arsenic, heavy metals) lead to changes in chemical composition, loss of active sites, reduction of accessible surface or covering of active sites (so-called fouling). - Thermal factors (so-called aging) Rates of change in structure of solid catalysts (e.g. crystallite growth, spinells, sintering) increase with increase of temperature. Structural changes can lead to decrease of surface area or reduction of dispersion. For each catalyst maximum operating temperatures must be used. - Mechanical factors: (i) attrition (e.g. by vibration, abrasive dusts), (ii) crushing (e.g. external stresses of reactor shell) Risks of catalyst deactivation must be considered during process and plant design. Minimization of risks start with process and catalyst selection. Pilot plants or trial tests can be camed out to check offgas composition for catalyst poisons or peak concentration, which could lead to catalyst

62

overheating. If catalyst deactivation occurs due to unforeseen reasons, analysis of phenomena can give hints, whether or not chances for reactivation exist. Reversible mechanisms like: - coking, - covering with aerosol or salt, - condensation of organics, - strongly adsorbed species (e.g. HCl, P2O5) may be removable by heating or washing. Otherwise (irreversible deactivation, e.g. sintering) the catalyst charge has to be replaced completely or partially or fresh catalyst has to be added.

1.4 Plant design considerations The equipment and instrumentation of the projected plant is determined by the following factors: [13] a) crude gas composition (average, peak) b) crude gas temperature c) crude gas pressure d) necessary conversion efficiencies (admissable residual emission) e) type of catalyst f ) possibilities of energy supply g) possibilities of heat recovery. With regard to the technical realization of catalytic exhaust gas purification processes it is necessary to adapt plant concepts to specific exhaust gas problems. A basic flow sheet for catalytic exhaust gas purification plants is represented in fig. 2. Figure 2 :Unit operations in catalytic off-gas treatment

Q I

I

1 - TAKE-OVER OF THE OFFGAS

2 - MECHANICAL CONVEYING 3 - SEPARATION OF DISTURBING COMPONENTS 4 - PREHEATING BY HEAT EXCHANGE 5 - EXTERNAL HEAT-SUPPLY 6 - MIXTURE W OXIDIZING OR REDUCING SPECIES 7 - CATALYTIC REACI'ION

8 - HEAT-RECOVERY 9 - DISCHARGE OF THE PURIFIED GAS

63

The following processing stages can be considered as unit operations of catalytic exhaust gas purification plants: 1.- Take-over of the offgas (e.g. by suction) 2.- Mechanical conveying of the offgas e.g. by ventilators, compressors) 3.- Separation of disturbing components for prevention of catalyst deactivation (e.g. filters, adsorbers, absorbers) 4.- Heating of the offgas by heat exchange (e.g. recuperative tubular heat exchangers or regenerative heat exchangers) [17 I] 5.- External energy supplies (e.g. burners, preferably using natural gas as additional fuel, electrical resistance heating) 6.- Mixture with oxidizing or reducing agents (e.g. oxygen or ammonia) 7.- Catalytic reactors. Commonly fixed bed reactors, honeycomb or bulk material type catalysts. Flow direction can be chosen arbitrarily if honeycombs are employed. Bulk material catalysts require flow direction top to bottom for prevention of bed movement (attrition) or channelling. Very rarely fluidized bed reactors are reported. [14] 8.- Heat recovery (e.g. steam or thermal oil heating) 9.- Discharge of the purified gases (e.g. stacks) Fig. 3 shows the simplified thermal energy balance for an afterburning plant. In the case where the energy demand of a process is designed to involve heat recovery by pollutant oxidation (table 3), the catalyst ignition temperature is reached by heat exchange, without the consumption of external fuel. Table 3 - Stoichiometry and heat of reaction for some complete oxidation reactions

Compound

I

Stoi chiometry

C7Hg + 902+ 7C02 + 4H20 CH30H + 3/2 0 2 + C02 + 2H20 C3H60 + 402+ 3C02 + 3H20 co co + 1/202+ c02 NH3 NH3 + 3/4 02- N + 3/2 H20 H2S H2S + 3/2 0 2 + SO2 + H20 Ethylacetate C4Hg02 + 5 0 2 + 4C02 + 4H20 Toluene Methanol Acetone

Heat of Reaction

IT pro 1g/m:

40.935 kJkg 21.119 H/kg 29.065 kJ/kg 10.423 H/kg 18.424 H/kg 15.355 kJ/kg 23.530 H/kg

30,6 K 15,8 K 21,9 K 7,5 K 13,9 K 11 K 18 K

64

Figure 3 :Thermal Energy Balance

T'WTa

QU

Catalytic Oxidation

P,CJ

External Energy Supply

W A

Thermal Energy Balance, Stationary

2. Convective Heat Transport

0 = OE,K+OE,F+Q&,S+OE,WR-~E,V

OE,K= @v,L. P O L . CL(T'WT,~ - T'wT,~:

3. External Energy Supply

@E,F = W,EG .A~U,EG

4.Combustion

QE,S =

5. Heat Losses (negligible due to thermal insulation)

@E,V

A ~ u , s. PS . @V,L

-)

0

Such a process is self supporting. These conditions (pollutant concentration and rates of heat transfer in the crude gadpurified gas heat exchanger) allow significant reduction in operating costs. Use of separation units (e.g. filter, adsorption, absorption, thermal afterburning) can reduce the risk of deactivation by poisons, dust or highpeak concentrations. Temperature measurement in front, behind and inside the catalyst bed and control (e.g. by additional fuel supply, heat exchange rate, fresh air dilution) reduces the risk of overheating. Economics of plants treating low concentration offgas can be improved by the incorporation of adsorptive concentration units. [19, 201

65

2 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS

2.1

- Selective

catalytic nitric oxide reduction [21] (SCR, DeNOx, "denitrification")

Field of jxmlication Removal of nitric oxides from flue gases or process exhaust gases, e.g. boilers, nitric acid plants, glass melts, municipal waste incineration. PrinciDal reactions After admixture of ammonia, nitric oxides are converted selectively (also in the presence of oxygen) into molecular nitrogen. 4 NH3 + 4 NO + 0 2 4 6 H20 + 4 N2 Process description - SCR for Dower station flue gass Two process variants must be distinguished: (a) High-Dust process (Fig. 4) The flue gases are directly withdrawn from the steam generator (behind the economizer and before the air preheater) and are passed over the catalyst after the admixture of the reducing agents.

Bolier

sCR

D e Dusting

De-Sulphuritation

Fig. 4 :SCR process - crude gas operation

66

The largely nitric oxide free flue gas is fed to the air preheater for the purpose of preheating the combustion air (heat recovery). Depending on the fuels used, additional exhaust gas purification stages are installed downstream (dedusting, desulphurization). Crude gas preheating or fuel supply before the catalyst is not necessary, since the crude gases (= flue gases) are withdrawn at a place in the steam generator where the latter possess a sufficient temperature (350-450"C). Honeycomb mixed contacts are used as catalvsts. Material: Ti, V, Fe, W, Ni, Co, Cu, Cr, U, Mo, Sn as oxides Ag, Be, Mg, Zn, B, Al, etc. as metals [lo] Selectivity: SO2 + SO3 - conversion must be avoided Activity: as low NH3, consumption as possible Stability: high demands because of the abrasion resulting from the dust load of the flue gas oDeration (Fig. 5) dust and sulphur oxides are (b) In case of pure removed by electrostatic filters or flue gas scrubbers, before the crude gas is mixed with reducing agents and reaches the catalyst. The adjustment of the necessary reaction temperature (300-400"C) requires preheating of the crude gas and external energy supplies. In principle, similar, but more active honeycomb catalysts are used. Because of the preseparation of the disturbing components, lower demands are made on selectivity. Furthermore, a higher life time is expected.

Fue 1

Boiler

Dedusting

De-Sulphurization

Fig. 5 :SCR process - purified gas operation

67

2.2

Offgas treatment of stationary internal combustion engines or turbines

2.2.1 Exhaust gas emission control for spark ignition engines according to the firee-wav system 122.231 Exhaust gases from combustion engines contain the following classes of p011u tants - hydrocarbons (CnHm) - carbon monoxide (CO) - nitrogen oxides (NO4 By means of special catalysts and an appropriate carburetion, the three pollutant classes can be jointly removed for spark-ignition, four-stroke engines through one catalytic converter (three way system). catalytic converter

b

lambda-probe control-unit control

IL----------------Jl

temperature

I1

t-I

Throttle

I

t-I

IL-

OXIDATION

CmHn + (m+n/4)02 +mC02 +n/2H20 c0+1/202 + c02 H2 + 1/2 0 2 + H2O

Speed

REDUCI'ION

CmHn + (m+n/4) NO + (m+n/4) + C02 +n/2H20 CO + NO+ 1/2 N2 + C02 H2 + NO + 1/2 N2 + H20

Fig. 6 :Three-way catalyst system

68

As shown in Fig. 6 [ l 11, the catalyst is integrated into the exhaust system of the engine. Preheating or external energy supply is thus not necessary because of the given exhaust gas temperature. The necessary concentrations of oxidation agents (02, NO) and reducing agents (CnHm, CO, H2) are adjusted by the electronic oxygen sensor control (lambda probe) through a reactive effect on the carburation of the engine. The purified exhaust gases are discharged via the remaining exhaust system. In the case of gas engine driven block heating stations, the thermal energy contained in the pure gases is recovered. Precious metal impregnated honeycomb catalysts are used as catalysts. The precious metals used in this connection are mainly platinum and rhodium. The coatings and the supports are optimized with regard to a high temperature stability. 2.2.2 Diesel ennines Hydrocarbon and CO emission can be reduced by catalytic oxidation with noble metal supported catalysts (bulkmaterial or honeycomb). Catalysts must be optimized with respect to selectivity to avoid NO/N02 and Sods03 conversion.(Fig. 7)

catalytic afterburning

J i l l

Fig. 7 :Diesel engine ofSgas treatment

69

Particles can be removed by filtering. Some filters are catalytically impregnated to reduce temperature of coke/soot burning during regeneration. Due to high oxygen concentrations NOx emission control is not possible with TWC system (see 2.2.1). Feasible solutions are using offgas recycling or SCR system (see 2.1). 2.2.3 Gas emines (two stroke). gas turbines Offgases sometimes contain concentrations of hydrocarbons (alkanes, aldehydes) or carbon monoxide which exceeds the threshold limits. Noble metal or honeycomb catalysts are employed for oxidation of these pollutants. Catalysts contain high noble metal concentrations if temperatures are low (300 "C) and concentrations of ethane are high. Future tasks are to be seen in the removal of methane emission and other gases which until recently were not regarded as pollutants (non methanehydrocarbons, NMHC).

2.3 CLAUS plant offgases Typical Claus plant exhaust gases contain 1 % of H2S, COS, CS2 and 0.5 % S02. 2.3.1 SULFREEN process 1241 The flow sheet and the basic reactions of the SULFREEN process are presented in fig. 8. The reactions of the Claus process occur at lower temperatures (120140 "C). Modified pelleted alumina catalysts are used. The elementary sulphur arising as a product at the reaction of H2S with SO2 adsorbs on the inner surface of the aluminium oxides (pores). As a result, the catalyst is reversibly contaminated. Regeneration of the catalyst and recovery of sulphur is achieved by cyclical purging with hot inert gas. 2.3.2 Catalytic afterburning [15] Before released to the atmosphere residual sulphur compounds (H2S; COS, CS2) have to be converted to S02. Selectivity of the catalyst must avoid SO3 formation which could cause severe corrosion problems in afterbuming plants. Application of modified y-alumina catalysts allow lower energy consumption at high flow rates compared to thermal afterbuming. Process Darameters

temperature: space velocity:

350 "C 1500-2000 h-1

Table 4 Complete oxidation of volatile organic compounds catalytic afterburning : fields of application

INDUSTRIES

POLLUTANTS

EXAMPLES

FOODSTUFF

ODOURS

SMOKING; ROASTING ETHYLENEOXIDE; OZONE WIRE -ENAMELLING ARTIFICIAL LEATHER POLYESTER PHENOLIC-RESIN; PVC PROCESSING, LAMINATING PRINTING

STERILIZERS

MEDICAL

SOLVENTS

SURFACE COATING

SOLVENTS

PLASTIC PROCESSING

MONOMERS

GRAPHICAL PROCESSES CHEMICAL AND REFINERIES

SOLVENTS

SYNTHESIS

MONOMERS,BY-PRODUCTS, RESIDUAL REACTANTS

SOLVENTS

VAPOURS

DEPOTS SEWAGE WATER TREATMENT

CARBON-MONOXIDE

I OXYGENATED-HYDROCARBONS I

Parameters : Flowrate : 102-105m3/h ;

Temp.: 200 "C- 600 "C ;

FORMALDEHYDE; MALEIC ACID; PHTALIC ACID; VINYLCHLORIDE; FIBRE-PRODUCTION BITUMENE; FUEL, BENZENE; SOLVENTS OFFGASES OF W E T OXIDATION

Pollutant C o n t e n t :102-104ppm

71

CLAUS PROCESS : CONVERSION OF H2S INTO S

3 H2S + 3/202 + 2 H2S + SO2 + H 2 0 2 H2S + SO2 + 3/2 S2 + 2 H 2 0 3 H2S + 3/202

+ 3/2 S2 + 3 H 2 0 Afterburning

I'

c1

Fig. 8 :SULFREEN process 2.4

Catalytic afterburning of volatile organic compounds for industrial production processes

These processes are applied to reduce emission of volatile organic compounds by means of complete catalytic oxidation. They are tailor made to a variety of production processes. 2.4.1 Survev A survey on fields of application for complete oxidation of volatile organic compounds is shown in table 4.

72

2.4.2 Laminating of Daper [lo] During laminating of printed paper with polypropylene foils, solvents containing offgas are emitted. Due to flexibility of the production, concentrations and flow rates differ temporarily. Typical solvent mixtures contain ethanol, ethylacetate, methylethylketone, toluene. Metal oxide catalysts yield sufficient activity at ignition temperatures of about 250 "C. A catalyst volume of 600 1 is implemented to purify an offgas flow of 8.000 m3h and 8 g/m3 at maximum conditions. Table 5 shows purified gas composition and some process parameter for a service time of more than 8.000 h. Activity of the catalyst keeps concentrations of hydrocarbons within threshold limits (0,l g/m3). Due to selfsupporting plant operation, C02 emissions are equivalent to the carbon content in offgas. CO and NOx emissions are quite low. Gas chromatographic investigations (table 6) show that during catalytic complete oxidation the number of hydrocarbon compounds is reduced. Residual hydrocarbon contents in purified gas consist of unconverted parts of the feed components. Thus it can be concluded that no other hydrocarbon compounds are formed during contact with catalyst. Table 5 Purified gas composition after certain catalyst service periods Flow rate : 8000 m3 h-1 Concentration : 2- 8 g m-3 Solvents : Ethylacetate; MEK, Toluene; I-Propylacetate Catalyst : Mixed metal-oxides (KCO SG 21 16) Operating Hours

Operating Mode

Ignition Temp "C

Purified Gas Composition TOC CO NOx mg/m3 mgjm3 mg/m3

1275 3000 8000

SelfSupporting SelfSupporting Selfsupporting

238

2

250

10

240

18

30

1

C02 %

0.5

Implementation of plant ensures flexible adaptation of preheating (burner. aidair heat exchanger) and prevents catalyst overheating (450 "C). Catalyst temperature control is accomplished by thermocouples in the catalyst bed.

73

Dilution of offgas with fresh air allows operating, even if design concentrations are exceeded. Heat recovery (hot water, hot air) improves the economy of the offgas treatment plant (fig. 9). Table 6

-

Gas chromatographic investigation of reaction products of complete oxidation of organic solvents Solvents : Ethanol, Ethyl acetate, MEK, Toluene Catalyst : Mixed Metal Oxides KCO SG 2216 Ignition Temperature : 220 "C GHSV: 70o0h-1 Toc

OF DETECTED

'

~

OFFGAS

I

OTHERS

ETHANOL

ACETATE

8

4090 mg/m3

585 mg/m3

I

466 ppm C3

3

2,55 mg/m3

100%

I

99,9%

PEAKS

~

99,9%

mn-

Fig. 9 :Catalytic dterburning plant for laminating processes

74

3. LITERATURE 1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Janee, M,: Auswirkungen von gesetzlichen Vorschriften und technischen Regelwerken auf die Abgasreinigung. in: VDI-Bericht Nr. 730, VDI-Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1989. Zlokamik. Umweltschutz - eine standige Herausforderung. Chem.-Ing. Technik Nr. 5 (1989) S. 378-385. Schlosser. E. G;Heterogene Katalyse. Verlag Chemie Weinheim (1972). &L B;Reaction Kinetics on Reactor Design. Prentice Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1980). firchner, K, Kaiczik, A.: Grundlagen der katalytischen Nachverbrennung. VDI-Berichte 525 S. 119-145, VDI-Verlag Dusseldorf (1985). Eigenberger. Q Stabilitat und Dynamik heterogenkatalytischer Reaktionssysteme. Chem.-Ing. Tech. 50 (1978) S. 924-933. Wicke. E.: Grundlagen der katalytischen Nachverbrennung. Chem.-Ing. Tech. 37 (1965) S. 892-904 Kanzler, W.; Schedler, J.; Thalhammer, H.: Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen bei katalytischen Nachverbrennungsanlagen. Chem.-Ing. Tech. 59 (1987) S. 582-585 Szepe. S.;Levenspiel, k Proc.4th European Symp. on React. Eng., Brussel (1968) Pergamon Press, London (197 1) Schmidt. T.: Katalytische Verbrennung chlorierter Kohlenwasserstoffe. VDI-Berichte 730 S. 201-238, VDI-Verlag, Dusseldorf (1989) SuiveY, J. Complete Catalytic Oxidation of Volatile Organics. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1987,26, S. 2165-218012 VDI-Richtlinie 3476 Sattler. K.; Umweltschutz, Entsorgungstechnik Vogel Verlag, Wiirzburg 1982 Hardison. L. C.: Dowd. E. J.: Emission Control via Fluidized Bed Oxidation CEP August, 1977, S. 31-35 Ketmer. R.: Lubke. T.: Betrieb von KNV-Anlagen nach Clausanlagen VDI-Bericht 730, S. 255-274, VDI-Verlag Diisseldorf (1989) Eneler. B.; Koberstein, E.:Katalysatoren in der Abgasreinigung. VDI-Bericht 730 S .97-120, VDI-Verlag Diisseldorf 1989 Taneer.Y; Energiesparendes KNV-Verfahren durch neuartige ProzePfuhrung mit regenerativen Warmeaustauschem. VDI-Bericht 730 S . 189-200, VDI-Verlag Diisseldorf 1989 . Martin. fL;Wirmeiibertrager. G. Thieme Verlag Stuttgart 1988 Brauer.fl& Adsorptive Reinigung schwachund mittelbelasteter Abluftstrome Vortrag auf dem 2. Fachsymposium Umweltschutz in Mainz, Mai 19 8 8 . Walter. B;Anwendungsbeispiele fur die katalytische Nachverbrennung. VDI-Berichte 525 (1985) S. 347-365 Richter.E;Die katalytische NOx-Reduktion - eine Ubersicht in: VDI-Bericht Nr. 730 S . 121-156, VDI-Verlag Diisseld. 1989 . Koberstein, Katalytische Motorabgasreinigung. in: VDI-Bericht 525 S. 217-246, VDI-Verlag Diisseldorf (1985). Publikation: Engelhard Kali-Chemie AutoCat GmbH, Hannover. Ruhl. E.: Katalytische Reinigung von Claus-Anlagen-Abgasen. VDI-Berichte 730 S. 255-274, VDI-Verlag (1989), Dusseldorf.

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis andAutomotive Pollution Control 11 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

75

CHARACTERIZATION OF EXHAUST EMISSIONS FROM TWO HEAVY DUTY VEHICLES FUELED WITH EIGHT DIFFERENT DIESEL FUELS Egeback K.E. (1) Mason G. (21, Rannug U. (3) and Westerholm R. (4) (1)-Environmental Section, The Swedish Motor Vehicle Inspection Company, Box 508, S-162 I5 Vallingby, SWEDEN (2)-Department of Medical Nutrition, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge University Hospital F60, Novum, S-141 86 Huddinge, SWEDEN (3)-Department of Genetics, Stockholm University, S-I06 91 Stockholm, SWEDEN (4)-Department of Analytical Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, SWEDEN

Abstract The impact on exhaust emissions of diesel fuel composition was studied by a comprehensive program compiled after discussions with the oil industry, the motor vehicle manufacturers and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. In order to reduce the emissions from diesel fueled vehicles different possibilities have to be taken into consideration such as improvement of the engine, use of exhaust purification devices and use of diesel fuels of improved quality. The aim of this investigation was to study the connection between certain fuel parameters and exhaust emissions.Eight different diesel fuels were used in the investigation and the emission tests were carried out using a city bus and a truck, driven on a chassis dynamometer. Both regulated andunregulated emissions were measured. In addition to the emission measurements samples were taken and prepared for biological testing.The investigation showed that there is a clear correlation between certain fuel parameters and the emissions and biological activity of the exhaust. Multivariate analysis was undertaken on groups of data derived from the eight blends of fuels in order to study the correlation between the fuel and emission parameters. A least square regression analysis of the correlation between 23 fuel parameters and 43 exhaust emission parameters resulted in correlation coefficients, which were higher than 0.95 for the two vehicles tested. It was confirmed that the most important fuel parameters to be controlled are the density, boiling point range, the content of aromatics and cetane index. In addition to these parameters the content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons should be controlled and limited. Sulfur is also an important parameter to be controlled especially when the fuel is going to be used for vehicles equipped with catalysts or catalytically activated particulate filters.

76

INTRODUCTION

In many countries where actions have been taken to reduce the emissions from light duty vehicles there is now a growing concern regarding the emission from heavy duty vehicles. To reduce the emissions from such vehicles operating in city areas is the most urgent action to be taken. As work was going on in Sweden to prepare a definition of low emitting heavy duty vehicles operating in city areas there was a need to look into the area of diesel fuels and their impact on exhaust emissions. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency which was authorized to prepare proposals for the Swedish Government concerning vehicle emissions and automotive fuels asked the Automotive Emissions Research Laboratory, organized within the Swedish Motor Vehicle Inspection Company, to define a program and to carry out an investigation in order to chemically and with bioassy tests characterize the emissions produced when changing some of the diesel fuel properties. The program was prepared in collaboration with the Swedish Urban Air Project and especially with the Emission Group Branch, who have also been carrying out analysis of unregulated emissions in addition to carrying out biological testing. The results in this article should be seen as an extended abstract of a report covering the whole investigation which will be published during the autumn 1990 (Westerholm and Egeback, 1990). EXPERIMENTALS

The objectives of the investigation were fourfold: - How do the aromatics in the fuel influence the emissions? - Does the sulfur content of the fuel influence the emissions? - Does the use of light diesel fuel influence the emissions? - How does the ignition improver used in diesel fuel influence the emissions ? In order to answer these questions the program was composed of a literature study, experimentals and analysis of the data generated by the experimentals.

Fuels Eight fuels were included in the investigation, see Table 1. The fuels were selected after discussions with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, different oil companies, diesel engine manufacturers and other experts. In order to answer the objectives of the investigation it was quite clear that at least for some of the fuels only the content of aromatics and sulfur should be changed so as to study their effect on the exhaust fuels should show the impact on the emission of sulfur and three of the fuels to be used should determine the impact of aromatics. Two light diesel fuels (kerosene) were to be

77

used as well as one with approximately the same composition as the light diesel fuels but somewhat heavier. One additional fuel would be regarded as the worst case. When the fuels were manufactured it appeared that the outcome was not as expected especially for the fuels which were meant to be used to determine the impact of aromatics. When changing the aromatic and sulfur content other properties in the fuel were also changed. However, the unintended changes were not too large and, therefore, there appeared to be a good possibility to study the effect on the exhaust emissions of fuel aromatics and sulfur, respectively. Of the eight fuels D1, D2 and D4 are from the same base fuel, table 1. The only main difference between these three fuels are that D2 has a higher content of aromatics compared to D1 and that D4 has a higher content of both sulfur and aromatics than D1. There is also a difference of fuel density. D1 has the lowest and D4 the highest density of the three fuels. The fuel D5 is a blend of different kerosenes. Its density is nearly as high as for a common commercial diesel fuel in Sweden. The contents of sulfur and aromatics are on the same level as for a low sulfur light diesel fuel in Sweden. The fuel D6 is a common commercial (summer) fuel and was regarded to be a reference for this type of commercial fuel in Sweden. The fuels D7 and D8 are the same fuels except that 2000 ppm ignition improver, ethyl hexyl nitrate (EHN) was added to D8. The fuel D9 is a blend of cracked gasoils with a low content of sulfur. Table1.-Fuel characteristics D6

D7

D8

D9

52.8 50.0 81 1.7 821.3

47.2 47.0 832.0 831.3

48.3 836.8

44.7 808.3

55.7 808.7

52.8 813.2

231 252 260 43.10

220 233 289 252 323 261 42.88 42.98

205 329 364 42.87

190 245 300 43.24

187 243 289 43.24

205 282 301 43.19

26.1 20.2 4.8 1.1 1.0 110 0.16

20.0 17.2 2.7

20.5 17.2 2.7

0.1

0.6

0.9 14.3 0.02 0.0

0.2 207 0.01 0.2

17.3 14.5 2.2 0.6 0.7 11.0 CO.01

D1 Cetan Nr Density (1) Distillation (2) 10%

90%

FBP Energy (3) Aromatics (4) -Total -Mono -Di -Tri

Olefms (4) Nitrogen (5) Sulfur (6) EHN(7)

238 251 26 1 43.20 1.8 1.8

D2

16.6 16.2 ~ 0 . 0 5 0.4

D4

23.0 18.1 4.9

D5

25.1 21.1 3.8

~ 0 . 0 5 ~ 0 . 0 5 ~ 0 . 0 5 0.2

1.4 2.0 2.2 0.2 12 0.34 3.9
1.6 29.2 0.02

(1) g/L, 15"C, (2) OC, (3) MJ/kg, (4) volume-%, ( 5 )

(6)weight-%,(7)ethyl hexyl nitrate, weight %.

78

Of the fuels tested only fuels D5, D6, D7 and D8 are commercially available on the Swedish market. The two fuels D7 and D8 (light diesel fuels or jet fuels) are commonly used for city buses and are regarded to be better from an environmental point of view than the heavier commercial fuels (such as D6). The fuel D5 has newly been introduced on the Swedish market to be used for city buses.Al1 fuels were analyzed for the same properties at the same facility, a well equipped laboratory with experienced staff. In addition to the presented fuel parameters, table 1, the PAH content in each fuel was quantified. The analysis and quantification of PAH are described in detail elsewhere (Westerholm and Egeback, 1990).

Vehicles Two vehicles: a bus and a truck were used during the generation of data. With kind support from Swedish vehicle manufacturers, the bus was loaned out by the Saab Scania Company and the truck by the Volvo Truck Company. Vehicle data are presented in table 2. Table 2.-Vehicle data. Vehicle Scania 113 Volvo FLlO Engine type DSC 1104i TD 101 F Displacement volume (L) 11 9.6 Maximum power (kW) 191 (1800 rpm) 229 (2050 rpm) Service weight (kg) 10480 8570 Maximum weight (kg) 15800 19000 In this report the Scania vehicle is denoted vehicle 1 and the Volvo vehicle is denoted vehicle 2, respectively. It must be pointed out that the vehicles should not be compared to each other. The aim of this investigation was to study fuel related emission and was not aimed as an evaluation of the vehicles. The vehicles were serviced by Saab Scania and Volvo, respectively. When the vehicles arrived at the laboratory the lubrication oil was changed to a special lubrication oil: Mobil Delvac 1. Before each test the vehicle was conditioned so as to warm up the engine. All tests were carried out with the engine hot. No adjustment of the engine or the engine fuel system was performed during the course of the testing.

Test programme The equipment used for sampling the exhaust gas is shown in figure 1. It consists of a chassis dynamometer (Schenk, FRG), a CVS-system (Constant Volume Sampler) and a dilution tunnel. The dilution tunnel is equipped with a critical flow venturi with a flow rate of 2.15 m3/s. The system was designed to

79

fulfil the specifications in the U.S. Federal Register (Federal Register, 1987). The Schenk chassis dynamometer for HDV is equipped with a set of inertias to simulate vehicle masses up to 20.000 kg. ABdMNSK BllPROVNlNG

,. ,,.,....-c ,",".,, m.

Sl**L

I

VEHICLE ON THE TEST STAND

Figure I .-Test equipment The instrumentation for analysis of

HC, CO and NO is a system

ABIZISMNSK BllPROVNlNC

Driving distance

c a 11.WOrn

Diiing time

1.740 s

Maximal speed

58.2 b / h

Average speed

22.5

Percent Idling:

22%

BUS CYCLE

Figure 2-Bus Cycle

.

manufactured by Beckman (Beckman Inc., USA). A heated flame ionization detector (FID) was used for hydrocarbon (HC) analysis, a nondispersive infrared analyzer (NDIR) was used for carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide analyses and a chemiluminescence detector for analysis of oxides of nitrogen. Samples for measurement of HC, CO and NO were taken in diluted exhaust. The procedures for the preparation of the filters and the sampling of the particles are as follows.:The particle filters, Pallflex T60A20, are conditioned in a climate chamber for at least 2 hours at 20°C and 50 % humidity before weighing.

80

After the filters have been used the same conditioning procedure was executed before reweighing. If the filters were to be usedfor analysis of polyaromatic compounds and for biological testing a special cleaning procedure was used (Westerholm and Egeback, 1990). Three different driving cycles were used: the bus cycle, the US transient cycle for heavy duty vehicles and the 13 mode test, ECE R49. Due to the fact that both regulated and unregulated pollutions were only measured during the bus cycle tests, these data alone will be presented in this summary. The bus cycle (Stochastischer Fahrzyklus fiir Stadtlinien Omnibusse) has been developed at the University of Braunschweig, FRG. It simulates the driving condition of a bus in city traffic. It has a duration of 29 minutes and the driving distance is about 11 km. The top speed is 58.2 km/h and the average speed is 22.9 km/h. a speed versus time scale of the bus cycle is shown in figure 2. In table 3 the total sampling during bus cycle driving has been summarized. Up to four repeated samples were analysed for each vehicle/fuel test case. Special analyses of the particles were carried out in order to study the different fractions such as the soluble organic fraction, carbon, sulfates, nitrate and phosphates, however not presented in the present article. Table 3-.Emission cornDonants measured

Component measured

Procedure for sampling or measurement

HC/CO/NO/C02 Dilution tunnel Particles j Filter Soluble organic fraction Filter/Gravimetric of particles Aldehydes Cartridge Oxygenates (*) Bag Light aromatics (*) Bag PAC FilterPUF Mutagenicity FilterPUF TCDD Receptor Affinity FilterPUF Fuel consumption Gravimetric (*)The results of these components will be presented and discussed in a final report (Westerholm and Egeback, 1990.)

81 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

This section is a short presentation of the results obtained during the different measurements and it summarizes the conclusions drawn when analyzing the data. The complete data set was subjected to multivariate analysis which will be presented in the final report (Westerholm and Egeback, 1990).

Regulated emissions and aldehydes The results from the measurements of hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate emissions and aldehydes are shown in figure 3 for vehicle 1 and in figure 4 for vehicle 2. The main conclusions drawn from the analysis of the data are:

HC General The emission level is low for all fuels. Vehicle 1 : Among the three fuels of the same basic blend (Dl, D2 and D4) the fuels with lower density emit less HC. The ignition improver (D8) seems to cause a higher emission of HC Vehicle 2: No clear conclusion can be drawn. The engine in this vehicle seems to react to the differences in the fuel properties in a different way than the engine in vehicle 1.

NOx General: For both vehicles the variation of NOx emissions is very small when comparing the different fuel. The emission level is somewhat lower for fuels Dl and D8 than for other fuels. When comparing the three fuels of the same basic blend (Dl, D2 and D4) the lower density fuels seem to emit less NOx As NOx is a pollution of great concern, studies of the influence of certain fuel parameters on NOx emissions should be expanded

co General The emission level is low for all fuels. There is a certain variation of the CO emission when comparing the different fuels. No firm conclusions can be drawn by just examining the results in the figures. In this context CO is not considered as a pollutant of great concern.

82

...

1 "

L.1

1

.L

*..

,.a

.

1.1

s.0

0

L.0 0..

2.* 1.0

*.a

0.. 0..

s.0

0.i

e.*

0.0

0.0

Pmmculns cmiirion BF....,...,..

>......

?me.,.

Figure 3. Emissions of HC, NOx, CO, particles and aldehydes, vehicle 1 , mean values

Particles General: There is a clear relationship between the fuel properties and the particulate emissions. Heavier fuels emit more particles than lighter fuels in most cases. A vehicle dependency can also be seen. The relationship between the content of sulfur and aromatics respectively, and the emissions based on multivariate analysis are discussed below. Vehicle I: In line with the general conclusions there is a clear relationship between the fuel density and the emissions. Vehicle 2: Apart from the general conclusions, fuel D9 emitted more particles than D7 despite these fuels being of similar density. When comparing D9 to D7 no significant differences in their properties can be seen except for their cetane numbers, 52.8 for D9 and 44.7 for D7.Considering the influence of the cetane number on the combustion process one possible conclusion to be

83

drawn (and confirmed by the engine manufacturers) could be that the engine in vehicle 2 reacts to differences in cetane number in almost the opposite way with regard to particulate emissions than the engine in vehicle 1.

.".

S"CI.

0".

="ox.

0".

CYSI.

Figure 4 . Emissions of HC, NOx, CO, particles and aldehydes, vehicle 2 mean values

Aldehydes General: The emission of aldehydes is not only sensitive to the fuel composition but also to the type of engine. There is a large variation from fuel to fuel and a great difference in the emission pattern when comparing vehicle 1 to vehicle 2. Of all eight fuels only fuel D7 shows the same pattern for both vehicles. The high rate of aldehyde emission for D7 may be caused by the less complete combustion as a result of its low cetane number, 44.7. To fully understand the nature of the emission of aldehydes a more thorough investigation should be undertaken.

84

Vehicle I : There is more than a three fold difference between the lowest value of the sum of formaldehyde plus acetaldehyde (D6 and D7) and the highest value of the sum for D7. The ratio between the emission of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde is not the same for all fuels. The acetaldehyde part of the aldehydes is much smaller (16 %) for D7 than for all the other fuels. For these, D4, D6 and D7 it is still small (22 %) while the acetaldehyde part is 48% for D9. Vehicle 2: There is almost a three fold difference between the lowest value of the sum of formaldehyde plus acetaldehyde @2) and the highest value (D7). By examining the results presented in figure 5 it can be seen that the sum of aldehyde emissions is lower for fuels with a short distillation curve like Dl and D2. In addition to the general conclusion drawn about fuel D7, the tendency is that the lighter fuels emit less formaldehyde than the heavier. The acetaldehyde part of the sum of aldehydes ranges from 23 % to 64 %. The fuels which gave the highest proportion of acetaldehyde are D8 and D9, i.e. fuels with a high cetane number and a low initial boiling point. This may be an indication of the risk that the front end hydrocarbons contribute to the formation of aldehydes. PAH levels in fuels The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels in the eight diesel fuels tested are presented in figure 5. The 28 PAH's analyzed ranged from three ringed (phenethrene) to six ringed (coronene). All the individual PAH analyzed in the fuels were added together and termed sum of PAH when presented in the figures. All figures represented by blocks are mean values (N=3), the standard deviation being represented by the overlying block on top of the mean value. The factor on the top of block is the multification factor by which the bar has been multiplied. From the figure it can be seen that fuels D1, D2 and D4 contain less than 5 mg PAHL, fuels D5, D7, D8 and D9 contain in the range of 150 to 350 mg PAHL and fuel D6 contains approximately 1000 mg PAH/L. Major contributors to fuel PAH contents are methylphenanthrenes and methyl anthracenes. PAH emissions

All PAH measured in the exhaust emission samples are the same as quantified in the fuel samples. All the individual PAH analyzed in the fuel have been added together and termed sum of PAH when presented in the figures. Particulate associated PAH was sampled on Pallflex T60A20 filters and the semivolatile phase PAH was sampled down stream of the filter on an absorbent material, poly-urethane foam (PUF). The particulate and the semivolatile phase associated PAH were chemically analyzed separately. The sampling and the

85

chemical analysis procedures are described in detail elsewhere (Westerholm and Egeback,l990). FUEL

m g / l

D1

D4

D2

m

M

V

D5

D6

D7

DB

D9

LLJSTD

Figure 5. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contents in fuels, mean value (N=3) and standard deviation, mg PAHIL. General: From the results of the emission measurements on both vehicles it can be concluded that the emission of both particulate , PAH and semivolatile phase associated to PAH are fuel dependent. In the most favourable case the lowest emission (considering both particulate and semivolatile associated) is approximately 35 pg/km and in the worst case the sum of PAH is approximately 450 pg/km i.e. by the selection of a better fuel the PAH emission is lowered by a factor of approximately 10. Vehicle I Particulate associated PAH emissions are presented in figure 6. The emissions from fuels D1, D2, D4 are in the range of 25 to 45 pg/km, and from fuels D5, D7, D8 and D9 in the range of 75 to 120 pg/km. The corresponding value from fuel D6 is approximately 220 mg/km. Regarding the semivolatile phase sum of PAH emission, displayed in figure 6, it can be seen that for the fuels D2, D4 and D7 emission levels are less than 35 pg/km. Fuels D l , D5, D8 and D9 were emitting in the range of 75 to 150 ug/krn and fuel D6 approximately 230 p g k m . Considering both the particulate and the semivolatile associated PAH emissions: Fuels D1, D2, D4, D7 and D8 were emitting less than 150 pg/km, fuels D5 and D9 in the range 150 to 300 pg

86

P A H b and finally D6 more than 300 pLg/km. The semivolatile phase contribution to the total measured PAH emissions variates between 8% and 70% (Dl). SUM o f P A H u g / k m

V e h i c l e

140

1

300 280

-

260

-

220

-

200

-

180

-

160

-

140

-

240

i

I I I

II

120 100

I

80 60 40

20 0

T D1 D1

D2DZ

D4 D4 I

m

M

V

___

D5D5 f

D6D6

D7D7

'liter

11---PUF

m

0

S

T

D8 08

D9 D9

Figure 6.-Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions; mean value and standard deviation, pglkm. Vehicle 2 : The particulate associated PAH emissions are presented in figure 7. The PAH emissions from fuels D1,D2, D4, D7 are lowest (approx. 50-80 pg/km), fuels D5 and D8 intermediary (90-120 pg/km) and largest for D6 and D9 which are in the range of 160 to170 pLg/km. Also the semivolatile phase associated PAH emissions are presented in figure 6. From the figure it can be seen that the lowest emissions are obtained from fuels D1, D2, D5, D7 and D8 which are in the range of 10 to 40 pg/km. Intermediary are fuels D4 and D9 in the range of 70 to 120 pg/km. The highest emissions was detected in the exhaust originating from fuel D6, approximately 200 pgkm. When comparing the total emission of PAH i.e. both particulate and semivolatile phase associated emissions it is seen that the lowest emissions originate from fuels D1, D2, D4, D5, D7 and D8, less than 150 pg/km, intermediate D9 less than 300 pg/km and finally D6 more than 300 p g k m . These results imply that fuel D6 is the most unfavourable fuel with respect to PAH emissions and that fuels D1 and D7 best. The per cent contribution from the semivolatile phase varies between 12% (D7) to 63% (D4) which underlines the importance of sampling and analysing the semivolatile phase PAH emissions.

87 SUM o f P A H

u g i / k m

V e h i c l e

230

240 260

N o 2

1

I

I

fl I1

220 200 1.30 160

140

120 100

80

60 40

20 0

D1 D1

DZD2

D4D4

D5D5

D6D6

I----Filter m

M

V

a

S

11--

T

D7D7

DBDB

D9D9

P U F

D

Figure 7-Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions; mean value and standard deviation, pglkm. Mutagenicity tests

General The results from the Ames tests show a fuel dependent mutagenicity. Both Salmonella tester strains TA98 and TAlOO gave in most cases a similar fuel dependent mutagenicity profile. The mutagenicity level also showed a vehicle dependence. However, in this summary of the investigation only the results from tester strain TA100tS59 are shown in the figures 8 and 9. Using multivariate analysis a good correlation between PAH emission and mutagenicity in Salmonella was found, especially in the presence of a metabolizing system. Particulate phase For both tester strains the particulate extracts showed a similar mutagenicity with and without S9 or, as in most cases, a higher mutagenicity in the absence of S9. Based on the mutagenicity of the particulate extracts the fuels could be classified in low (Dl, D4, D7, DS), medium (D5, D9) and high mutagenicy (D6) fuels. This classification was more clear out with vehicle 2. Semivolatile phase In general the semivolatile phase gave lower mutagenic effects compared to the particulate phase. The fuel dependent mutagenicity profiles of the semivolatile phase followed the profiles of the particulate phase. Also in this case fuel D1 showed the lowest mutagenicity.

88

T A 100 + S 9

r a v e r t o n t s / r n

V e h i ~ l c N O

1

220 200 180 160 140 120 1 00

80 60 40

20 0

D1 D1

DZDZ

D4 D4

D5D5

D7D7

D6D6

DBDB

D9D9

--- PUF

I --- Filter I1 S T D

Figure 8.-Mutagenic effects,vehicle 1 ; mean value and standard deviation, revertantslm.

,

T A l[DD+SS

r e v e r t a n t a / r n

6oo

N o 2

V e h i c l e

I

I

I

I

7

D1 D1

DZDZ

D4D4 I

B

M

V

D5D5

D6D6

--- Filter

--

I1 S T D

T

D7 D7

D8 D8

D9 D9

PUF

Figure 9.-Mutagenic effects, vehicle 2 ; mean value and standard deviation, revertantslm.

89

TCDD-receptor affinity tests For each fuel sample extracts of both the particulate and the semivolatile phase collected using the PUF technique associated emission products were tested for TCDD receptor binding activity. The binding affinities were expressed as EC5o values (Toftgard et a1.,1955) and are shown in figures.10-11 Vehicle 1 Particulate phase The ECso values for binding to the dioxin receptor of the particulate phase exhaust emissions are given in figure 10. Dioxin receptor binding activity was observed in all the emission samples tested. The EC50 values for binding to the dioxin receptor of the samples varied over an approximately 8-fold arange. Fuel D 1 displayed the lowest binding affinity. Fuel D6 produced the emission sample with the highest affinity for the dioxin receptor with the lowest EC5o value. This EC50 was significantly lower than those for fuels D1, D2, D5 and D8 but not significantly different from those of the remaining fuels.

TCDD

rn

V e h i c l e

0 6

No.1

I II

>0.5

0 5

0 4

03

0 2

01

0

. .

. . . . .

7

P2 DZ

D1 D1

D4 D4 I

r

n

M

V

. . . . .

7

D5 D5

--- F i I t c ~

r S

D7D7

D6D6 I1 T

,

,

.

DB Da

D9 49

--- P U F D

Figure 10 - EC50 values, vehicle one; particulate phase and semivolatile phase, mean values and standard deviation.

90

Semivolatile phase The ECso values for binding to the dioxin receptor of the semivolatile phase exhaust emissions are shown in figure 10. Dioxin receptor binding activity was observed in all the samples except that from fuel D7. Fuel D6 gave rise to the semivolatile phase emission with the highest affinity for the dioxin receptor with the lowest EC50 With the exception of the sample from fuel D1, the dioxin receptor binding activities of the semivolatile phase emissions were similar or lower than those of the corresponding particulate phase emissions. Vehicle 2:

Particulate phase Figure 11 shows the EC5o values for dioxin receptor binding of the particulate phase exhaust emissions. Dioxin receptor binding activity was again observed in all the samples. Due to technical difficulties an ECso value for fuel D4 could not be estimated and insuf'ficient sample remained to repeat the analysis. On examination of the fuel dependency of the ECso values obtained it was observed that fuel D6 once again produced the emission with the highest receptor binding affinity with an EC50. However, there were no significant differences between any of the fuels with regard to the ECso's of their emissions. Only a 2-fold variation in EC50 values was observed in the samples from vehicle 2. TCDD

rn

N o 2

V e h i c l e

0 6

I m

M

V

--- Filter ~

S

II

--- PUF

T

D

Figure 11.- EC50 values, vehicle two; particulate and semivolatile phase,mean values and standard deviation.

91

Semivolatile phase Figure 1 1 shows the EC50 values for dioxin receptor binding of the semivolatile phase exhaust emissions. No detectable dioxin receptor binding activity was seen in the samples arising from fuels D1,D4 and D8.Receptor binding activity was seen in the semivolatile phase emissions from fuels D2 and D9. CONCLUSIONS

Answers to the main objectives of this study can be summarized as: 1.-Aromaticity shows a clear influence on the emission, those fuels with high aromatic contents have high levels of PAH in their emissions measured. 2.-The sulfur content of the fuel does not seem to have a marked influence on the emission, but for particulate and SOXemissions. 3.-Light density diesel fuels are favourable in terms of emissions compared to high density fuels. 4.The ignition improver did not have a major influence on the exhaust emissions. Refemng to the outcome of this study, improvements of the diesel fuel quality will have a clear beneficial effect on the air quality in city areas.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank all participants involved in this investigation. The project was financed by the Swedish Environmental Agency.

References Impact of Fuels On Diesel Exhaust Emissions: A chemical and biological charactenzation. Westerholm R. and Egeback K-E Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Report Series. Stockholm, 1990 Codes of Federal Register 40 Parts 81 to 99 Protection of Environment. Revised as of July 1, 1987 Characterization of TCDD-receptor ligands present in extracts of urban particulate matter. Toftgard R., FranzCn B., Gustafsson J.A. and Lofroth G. (1985) Environment International, Vol. 1 1, pp 369-374.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control 11 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

93

FUELS EVOLUTION IN EUROPE AND CONSEQUENCES ON EXHAUST CATALYSIS J.C. Guibet

Institut Franqais du Pbrole, Techniques &Application Energktiques 1-4, avenue du Bois-Prkau, F - 92506 Rueil Malmaison France SUMMARY

1 - The market for unleaded gasolines will certainly grow rapidly in Europe in the early 1990 s (use with and without catalysts) 2 - The Eurosuper fuel (RON 95) is the most widespread product in Europe with relatively low characteristics variation from one country to another. West Germany (regular-grade) and France (superpremium) represent today extreme situations in the quality of unleaded fuels. There is no evolution of characteristics of unleaded fuels likely to alter the efficiency of catalysts. Lead traces are very low; sulfur contents are relatively low and can be further improved Interest in the future will be focused on : - the share of superpremium in the overall unleaded gasoline pool - the relations between the chemical composition of unleaded fuels and exhaust emissions in relation with catalyst performance INTRODUCTION

The major event in the European motor fuel distribution context is the recent appearance and penetration, at different rates in the various countries, of unleaded fuels. This development logically comes before the generalized spread of vehicles equipped with catalytic converters. These are still relatively few in number. Their population in 1990 is estimated at about two million vehicles out of a total of 140 million units. This means that, today, the majority of european unleaded fuels are used in vehicles without catalyst. This situation is bound to change because, from 1992, the future emissions standards will require the use of catalytic converters on all new vehicles. We intend to examine here the main properties of unleaded fuels distributed in Europe in 1989. Some more recent data on the first half of 1990 are provided for certain countries, including France. Among the quality criteria considered, we will particularly describe those likely to affect the efficiency of the catalytic converter. Our aim is to see how, for Europe as a

94

whole, the mutual adaptation of unleaded fuels and the new vehicles in circulation is being prepared, in anticipation of the generalized use of exhaust catalysts. 1. THE SHARE OF UNLEADED MOTOR FUELS IN THE EUROPEAN DISTRIBUTION NETWORK IN 1989/1990.

The different types of unleaded motor fuel currently distributed in Europe are divided into three grades : - regular-grade, mainly used in West Germany : its RON is close to 92 to 93 and its MON between 82 and 83. - standard motor fuel corresponding to the European specification (minimum RON 95, minimum MON 85) : it is found in all the EEC countries, as well as Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, Table 1 :European and world market for unleaded motor fuels Situation between end 1989 and June 1990 Country Japan Canada U.S.A. Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France West Germany Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom

Share of Unleaded Fuels

Distri ution by PI duct Type tegular Eurosuper Superpremium 0 (%) A%L 14 100 86 23 4 65 92 90 53 30 50 50 10.5 67

x 60 30

28

6 23 28 50 50 2 33

0 0.2 4 21 40 45 0.2 0.5 42 58

0. 4 19 33 45 0.2 0.5 41.5 58

25

21

24 2

8.5 6

2 7

0.5 4

95

- high-octane premium grade (RON 98, MON 88) : France, the Netherlands and, to a lesser degree, West Germany and the United Kingdom currently consume this type of fuel. For each country, Table 1 gives an estimate of the share of unleaded motor fuel distribution in the total gasoline pool. The situation of nonEuropean countries, such as the United States, Canada and Japan, is given for reference, and as an example of geographic areas where the use of catalytic converters has become widespread. The figures given must be considered as approximate on account of the fairly rapid growth of the unleaded fuel market in many countries. Thus Table 2 shows that, in France, the situation has been changing from month to month since the beginning of 1990. Table 2 : Penetration of unleaded motor fuels in France in the first half of 1990 Relative Market Share Product Type Regular-grade Gasoline Conventional Leaded Premium Unleaded Premium* TOTAL

(%)

January 4.6 89.1 6.3 100

March

5.o

86.6 8.4 100

April 4.5 85.4 10.1 100

June 4.3 80.5 15.2 100

For Europe as a whole, the unleaded motor fuel market is estimated in June 1990 at about 31 Mt/year for a total of 118 Mdyear. Thus, the share of unleaded fuels would be approximately 26 % of the total gasoline european market. 2. 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF MOTOR FUELS IN EUROPE

The data given below are taken from recent surveys published by OCTEL and analyses made by Institut Frangais du Petrole on samples taken at service stations. The information is merely indicative, and does not claim to describe accurately the present situation of the gasoline pool which, as we have already pointed out, is changing fast.

96

2.1. Leaded motor fuels These products, which are still largely in the majority, are only examined briefly here because they are incompatible with catalytic converters. However, it may be interesting to recall their general properties, which could have repercussions on refining and therefore on the quality of unleaded fuels. Today, the maximum lead content in conventional motor fuels is 0.15 g/l in nearly all European countries except France, where it is still 0.25 g/l, and Spain and Portugal, where it is 0.40 g/l. Table 3 : Average and extreme properties of leaded premium-grade gasolines in some European Countries.

I Country France R.F.A. Italy Benelux United Kingdom

Lead I Content g/l

0.25 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

~

MON

RON I

Min 96.8 97.9 94.9 97.9

Average 97.6 98.9 97.0 98.1

Max 98.3 99.9 98.1 98.3

Min 85.6 87.9 86.2 86.8

Average 87.0 88.8 88.1 88.4

Max 90,l 90.2 90,4 89,3

97.5

98.2

99.6

86.4

87.2

88,O

In most cases (Table 3), the octane numbers of leaded premium- grade gasoline average about 98 RON and 88 MON. Assuming that a lead content of 0.15 gll achieves a gain of about 3 points in the RON and MON, it is clear that the development of Eurosuper type unleaded gasoline (RON 95, MON SS), to the detriment of conventional leaded premium-grade gasolines, could take place without any important change in the refining process. On the other hand, the production of large amounts of superpremium unleaded gasoline (98 RON) instead of leaded gasoline would require a deep adaptation of refining process. Concerning other leaded gasolines it must be noted that regular grade was recently eliminated in West Germany. It is still distributed in very limited quantities in France (5 % of the market). 2.2. Unleaded regular-grade gasoline

This type of product is essentially found in West Germany and Austria, where it accounts for 42 and 57 % respectively of all unleaded fuels. Table 4 shows the average and extreme octane numbers of unleaded regular-grade gasolines in.West Germany. We point out that the RON varies

97

over a fairly wide range between 90.5 and 94.1, whereas the MON levels are all in the 82 to 83 zone. The average RON (92.8) and MON (83.0) values are only 2 points under the Eurosuper type unleaded premium-grade gasoline specifications.[SP] Table 4 : Octane numbers of unleaded regular-grade gasolines in West Germany RON MON

Min 90.5 82.3

Average 92.8 83.0

Max 94.1 83.5

2.3. Standard unleaded gasoline, Eurosuper type. This is the most widespread product in Europe today in the class of unleaded gasolines. Table 5 shows that its octane numbers only differ slightly from one country to another, and meet the requisite specifications. The MON is generally very close to 85, while the RON is well above 95, as much as 96 or even 97. This shows that, for the refiner, the strongest constraint in terms of fuel blending concerns the MON. Very often, to obtain the minimum value required (85 for MON), the RON has to be let far above 95 (give away). This situation occurs particularly if significant amounts of olefin-rich, low MON catcracker gasolines are blended in the fuel. Table 5 : Average and extreme properties of eurosuper type unleaded premium-grade gasolines Country West Germany Italy Benelux UnitedKingdom Scandinavia

Min 94.9 94.7 94.7 96.2 94.4

RON Average 96.1 95.6 95.1 97.0 95.4

Max 98.6 96.4 95.4 97.7 97.4

Min 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.5 84.7

MON Average 85.4 87.0 85.8 86.0 85.3

Max 85.8 87.0 86.4 87.6 85.8

2.4. High-octane unleaded gasoline For this type of product, the minimum values are 98 for RON and 88 for MON respectively. This is the most widespread unleaded fuel in France today. The octane numbers found in the distribution network (Table 6) show a very slight dispersion around 88 for MON. The RON very often exceeds 98, and could reach or even go over 100 (exceptionally up to 102). As in the

98

case of Eurosuper, this reflects a more severe constraint for MON than for RON. Table 6 : Average and extreme octane numbers of superpremium type unleaded gasolines distributed in France.(Spring 1990) RON MON

Min 98.4 88.1

Average 99.7 88.4

Max 101.1 88.8

3. EXAMINATION OF SOME PROPERTIES LIKELY TO AFFECT AUTOMOBILE CATALYSIS

Catalysts run satisfactorily with a wide variety of motor fuels, provided they do not contain lead or other impurities liable to poison the catalyst. Hence the influence of the fuel is not decisive. However, it may be important in terms of light-off temperatures, composition of unconverted hydrocarbons, emissions of by-products such as H2S, and the endurance behavior of the catalyst. We examine a number of points that appear interesting to consider.

3.1. Lead content The maximum permissible content in Europe is 13 mg/l. Although complete analytical results for all the countries are not available, it is very likely that this specification is easily obtained. Thus, in a survey conducted in France in summer of 1989 on 22 samples, the traces of lead observed were always less than 2.5 mg/l, except in one case, where they reached 3.2 mg/l.

3.2. Chemical composition We are going to examine the distribution of components by hydrocarbon family (paraffins, olefins, aromatics) and its possible influence on catalyst effectiveness. This subject is still not perfectly understood, and merits a further investigation. However, we can recall the main conclusions of a study carried out recently at Institut FranGais du PCtrole1 in an engine bench test, equipped with a three-way catalyst and tested with 12 motor fuels covering a very wide range of compositions. 1- M.F. PRIGENT, B.C. MARTIN and J.C. GUIBET. Engine Bench Evaluation of gasoline composition effect on pollutants conversion rate by a three-way catalyst. SAE 900153. Detroit, 1990.

99

It was demonstrated that the light-off temperature (corresponding to 50 % conversion) tends to decrease with an olefin-rich fuel, such as a catcracker

gasoline, and to increase with an aromatic fuel, such a reformate. The differences of 20 to 25°C shown in Table 7 are significant. The tendencies observed have been confirmed on commercial fuels which differ by their olefins and aromatics content (Table 8). Moreover, the presence of oxygenated components does not appear to have any clear effect on the activation temperature of the catalytic converter. Table 7 : Light-off temperatures for CO, HC and NO, on a three-way catalyst. Comparison of behaviour of a reformate with a catcracker gasoline.

Table 8 : Light-off temperatures for CO, HC and NO, on a three-way catalyst. Comparison of behavior of two unleaded gasolines of different chemical compositions.

Given the tendencies shown here, it may be interesting to examine the ranges of variation in the olefins and aromatics contents of European unleaded gasolines. Table 9, related to products of the Eurosuper type (RON 95, MON 85), shows relatively narrow dispersions. On the average, the olefins content ranges between 6 and 9 % in the different countries, and the aromatics content between 35 and 39 % (42 % in Scandinavia).

100

Table 9 : Olefins and aromatics contents of European unleaded motor fuels. (Eurosuper grade, RON 95, MON 85)

If we compare, for Europe, the chemical composition of unleaded fuels as a function of their classification (regular, Eurosuper, Superpremium), a very logical increase in the aromatics content is observed and a reduction in the olefins content, when going from regular grade to Superpremium (Table 10). The higher aromatics content is explained by the need to meet an increasingly higher RON requirement (93 + 95 + 98) and the drop in the olefins content results from growing constraints on the MON (83 + 85 + 88). The variable addition of oxygenated products may slightly disturb these tendencies, but without significantly affecting them. Table 10 : Comparaison of European unleaded motorfuels as a function of classification.

3.3. Sulfur content

The small amounts of sulfur present in the gasoline can be stored in the form of sulfates on the three-way catalyst, in normal operation, and then discharged in the form of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) when vehicle runs on a rich mixture, as in starting up period. The unpleasant odor of the exhaust gases is a significant drawback, and the car manufacturers wish the sulfur content of the fuels to be as low as possible. For Eurosuper, the maximum permissible content is 1000 ppm today. However, French manufacturers, for example, in their quality label,

101

recommend average and maximum values, not exceeding 200 and 300 ppm respectively. Table 11 : Sulfur content of unleaded motor fuels (superpremium) distributed in France in 1989.

A survey conducted in France in the summer of 1989 on Superpremium type fuels revealed very low sulfur contents, as shown in Table 11. Generally, much lower sulfur contents are found in Superpremium gasolines (RON 98) than in Eurosuper (RON 95). This is because the Superpremium products usually contain a high proportion of reforming gasoline, which is practically sulfur-free, whereas the Eurosuper products contain a certain proportion of cracking gasoline, which is richer in sulfur. Table 12, which compares the sulfur contents of several samples of Eurosuper and Superpremium type products, clearly illustrates this tendency.

Table 1 2 : Comparison of sulfur contents of two types of unleaded gasoline pool. (France Spring 1990)

-

3.4. Oxygenated compounds The main oxygenated component of gasoline in Europe is MTBE. Table 13 shows the average percentage of unleaded fuels which contained it in 1989, as well as the average and extreme contents found. Some samples of Superpremium contained up to 11 % in France, and 15 to 16 % in West Germany.

102

Table 13 : Estimation of MTBE contents in European unleaded gasolines. Country

Type of Gasoline

Benelux Eurosuper France Superpremium* West Germany Superpremium** West Germany Eurosuper** West Germany Regular United Kingdom Eurosuper Italy Eurosuper

* : Summer 1989

Share of Fuels containing MTBE (%)

100 64 100 42 42 25 50

Contents Observed (%weight) Min Average Max 0.8 2.1 4 .O 1.0 6.8 11.4 1.3 9.6 15.9 0.7 1.1 1.6 0.1 0.5 1.1 4.4 2.2 4.0 6.2

** : December 1988

It is important to note that MTBE may be found in all types of product conventional leaded premium-grade gasolines, unleaded regular-grade (in West Germany), Eurosuper (many countries) and Superpremium (France). Methanol and tert butanol were still found in 1989 in West German fuels, leaded and unleaded. The average contents were about 1.2 % for methanol and 1.4 % for tert-butanol. These compounds could be present in the fuels together with MTBE. In the operation of catalytic converters, the presence of oxygenated components does not appear to have any substantial effect. However, car manufacturers do not wish an excessively wide range of concentrations of oxygenated products. This is because, in developing the inlet system, they have to consider the possible extreme compositions for motor fuels, and obtain satisfactory combustion in all circumstances. For example, the discrepancy of equivalence-ratio due to the variation of MTBE contents could modify the emission of unburnt products (carbon monoxyde and hydrocarbons), in the starting up period where the catalyst is not completely effective. CONCLUSION.

The market for unleaded gasolines will certainly grow rapidly in Europe in the early 1990's. These products will continue their penetration, first in a large proportion of present vehicles in circulation not yet fitted with catalytic converters, and then on new vehicles equipped with catalysts to meet future European pollution standards. Around these two extreme situations, illustrated by unleaded regulargrade gasoline (West Germany) and Superpremium (RON 98) which is very

103

widespread in France, the conventional Eurosuper type fuel (RON 95) is the most widespread product in Europe, with relatively minimal variations in grades and characteristics from one country to another. An examination of the main properties of motor fuels likely to alter the operation of the catalyst fails to reveal any disturbing situation or development. The residual lead contents are very low. The sulfur contents are relatively low and can be further improved. Interest in the future will be focused on the growing share of Superpremium in the overall unleaded gasoline pool, and on relationship between the chemical composition of the products (content of aromatics, olefins, oxygenated components) and exhaust emissions, incorporating the operation of catalytic converters in this examination. Institut FranGais du PCtrole, which is engaged in this type of study, hopes to contribute in its way to further progress in motor fuels, vehicles and high-performance catalysts in order to reach a better protection of the environment.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

105

SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF PRECIOUS METALS FOR AUTOMOTIVE AND OTHER USES Dr M.C.F. Steel

Johnson Matthey PLC, London, United Kingdom

Introduction The three precious metals used in automotive pollution control are platinum, palladium and rhodium. These three metals form part of the platinum group, are closely related in terms of chemical and physical properties, and occur together in nature. Their geological abundance, detailed applications and supply/demand fundamentals are, however, significantly different and this paper will outline and discuss these differences.

Platinum G r o w Metals (PGM1 The platinum group of metals consists of six elements: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum. The metals are all quite rare and occur only in a few comparatively concentrated deposits.

G r o w Ib

Groun VIII Ru 0s

Rh 1

I

I

Au

I

These invariably contain all six metals but in varying quantities depending upon the mineral source. Separation of the platinum metals is a long and difficult process owing to the marked chemical similarities between both the metals and their compounds. As table 1 shows, the platinum metals occur in the same group of the periodic table as the ferrous metals. Although chemically the resemblances between them are slight they do tend to occur together in nature. The platinum metals are often referred to as precious metals along with gold and

106

silver. Although they share some properties, such as the nobility of gold and PGM, and applications, for example as jewellery and investment media, the PGM are much more important as industrial metals.

The sources of platinum group metals in the world that are suitable for economic exploitation are few. Figure 1 shows where these resources are located. The principal source is the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa. Other significant mining for PGM occurs in the USSR, Canada and the USA. China is believed to produce same PGM but is still a net importer of the metals. Small amounts of PGM are also recovered elsewhere in the world either as placer deposits or as by-products of base-metal mining, but the contribution of these to world supplies is insignificant.

USSR

Figure I :World sources of platinum group metals

Although there has been much exploration in recent years for PGM in such countries as Australia and Canada no significant economically viable deposits have been found. In Zimbabwe, however, a well established but relatively low grade PGM deposit known as the Great Dyke is once again receiving attention as a possible source of platinum metals.

107

Table 2 : Reserves of platinum, palladium and rhodium (million 0 2 )

I I

Pt

Pd

Rh

333 437 160

141 365 175

17 83 12

CANADA, Sudbury

3

4

1

URSS, Noril'sk,

50

142

6

USA, Stillwater,

7 ------

------

------

850

120

Origin SOUTHAFRICA Merensky UG2 Platreef

23

3

As table 2 indicates, the proven reserves of platinum, palladium and rhodium in South Africa, the USSR, Canada and the USA are considerable and sufficient to last for between 250 and 400 years at current rates of consumption. The Bushveld Igneous Complex contains overwhelmingly the largest reserve of PGM (Refs 1,2). Although adequate reserves of PGM exist, the mining of these metals will always be expensive because of the enormous mechanical and human resources needed to mine the ore (it takes approximately 10 tonnes of ore to yield 1 oz of platinum in South Africa) and the complexity of chemically separating and refining the six platinum group metals to the high purity required in the market place. The relative mix of the six PGM - the 'mine mix' - is important, with the deposits in the northern hemisphere showing a preponderance of palladium whereas in South Africa platinum is the principal metal. Although the deposits in South Africa are mined principally for PGM, those in Canada and the USSR are essentially nickel and copper deposits with PGM being produced as by-products. This means that the output of PGM from Canada and the USSR is inelastic as far as PGM supply/demand fundamentals are concerned.

1 i (Ref 3) Automotive pollution control is a major application for PGM but the relative importance for the three autocatalyst metals differs considerably as Table 3 shows. In 1989 same 42% of the western world demand for platinum was for the manufacture of autocatalyst, whereas for palladium the

108

corresponding figure was only 8%. For rhodium, the market for which is only one-tenth the size of those for platinum and palladium, autocatalyst usage accounted for a massive 81% of total demand.

Table 3. Western World Demand for PGM in 1989.

In 1989 demand for platinum reached 3.425 million 0 2 . Figure 2 shows that autocatalyst accounted for 37% of demand (after allowing for recovery of spent autocatalyst), with jewellery taking 38%, investment 5% and a number of important industrial applications the remaining 20%. Industrial uses for platinum include petroleum reforming catalysts for gasoline production, ammonia oxidation catalysts for nitric acid production, bushings for glass fibre and high purity glass production, and thick film pastes and sputtering targets for the electronics industry. Supplies of platinum in 1989 are shown in Figure 3 and came from South Africa (77%), the USSR (16%), Canada (4%) and other miscellaneous producers (3%) . The relatively small shortfall of newly mined supply compared with demand was met from industry stocks held around the world.

Figure 2 :Platinum demand in 1989. Total demand = 3,425,000 oz

109

SOUTH AFRICA 77%

USSR SALES 16%

OTHERS 3% CANADA 4%

Figure 3 :Platinum supplies in 1989. Total supplies = 3375,OO oz

Demand for palladium of 3.31 million oz also exceeded newly-mined supplies by a similar amount. Figure 4 shows that for this metal the USSR was the principal supplier (51 %) with South Africa contributing 35%, Canada 6% and others 7%. Half the western worlds palladium was used for the electronics industry in 1989, with 30% going into dental alloys, 6% into autocatalyst (net), 5% jewellery and the remaining 9% a variety of industrial applications mainly in the chemical industry. Figure 5 shows the breakdown of palladium uses.

SOUTH AFRICA 35%

CANADA 6%

OTHERS 7%

Figure 4 :Palladium supplies in 1989. Total supplies = 3,205,000 oz

The market for rhodium is approximately one tenth that of platinum and palladium and in 1989 supply and demand were in balance at 0.33 million oz. As stated earlier, same fourth-fifths of demand was for autocatalyst, with other chemical catalyst uses accounting for a further 9%, electrical uses 4%, and miscellaneous applications the residual 8%. Supplies were from South

110

Africa (56%), the USSR (39%) and Canada (5%). Figures 6 and 7 show, respectively, demand and supply of rhodium in 1989. ELECTRICAL 50%

DENTAL 30%

AUTOCATALYST 6%

Figure 5 :Palladium demand in 1989. Total demand = 3,310,000 oz AUTOCATALYST(net) 79%

CHEMICAL 9%

GLASS 1% OTHER 7% ELECTRICAL 4%

Figure 6 :Rhodium demand in 1989. Total demand = 330,000 oz

CANADA 5%

Figure 7: Rhodium supplies in 1989. Total supplies = 330,000 oz

111

A significant difference between the markets for platinum and palladium and that for rhodium, in addition to their absolute size, is the relative liquidity of these markets. Platinum and palladium are widely traded around the world with futures markets existing in both New York and Tokyo and a well established spot market in London and Zurich. This and the wide spread of applications for each metal has led to the accumulation of stocks of metal around the world that can be used either to satisfy supply shortfalls or to absorb occasional surpluses. For rhodium, however, there are no formal spot or futures markets, the total market is much smaller and dominated by a single application, and industry stocks are therefore significantly lower than for platinum and palladium. In addition, supply of rhodium is rather inflexible due to the fact that rhodium is essentially a byproduct of platinum mining and that it takes six months or more from the mining of ore to the emergence of pure rhodium from the refinery.

PGM in Autocata lVsl When considering the outlook for the use of platinum, palladium and rhodium in automotive pollution control, it is important to consider the ratios of the metals in exploitable ore deposits and in autocatalyst formulations. The requirement for platinum, palladium and rhodium in autocatalyst is determined principally by the reactions that the metals are present to catalyse (Ref 4). These are shown in Figure 8.

Fig 8 Autocatalyst Reactions

HC

co

oxidation

H20 + CO2 + oxidation ---

---+

co*

In the early days of autocatalyst the principal requirement was to oxidise unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). To do this catalysts of platinum, palladium, or a mixture of these two elements, were chosen. As legislation has become stricter and has focussed on additionally removing nitrogen oxides (NOx) the role of rhodium to catalyse the reduction of NO, to nitrogen and water has become critical. In the early nineteen-eighties dual bed systems were used containing a reduction catalyst (usually Pt/Rh) followed by an oxidation catalyst (usually PtPd). Modern engine technology employs sophisticated control of air-fuel ratios by using electronic fuel injection and sensors and has enabled the auto industry to converge on the use of a single catalyst to remove all three pollutants in one unit. Such 'three-

112

way' catalysts almost invariably contain platinum and rhodium, in a ratio of 5:1, as the active metals. N AMERICA 50%

JAPAN 24%

1- 1 W EUROPE 21%

Figure 9 :Platinum demand for autocatalyst by region in 1989 Total demand (gross) = 1,450,000 oz Figure 9 shows that the demand for platinum in autocatalyst in 1989 was 1.45 million oz and this is expected to grow substantially through the current decade. Initially the focus is on Western Europe, where by 1993 all new cars are expected to be fitted with catalysts. The use of catalytic converters in several Eastern European countries now also looks probable. In Brazil and Mexico legislation is in place that will result in catalysts being used in the next five years, and other countries with severe pollution problems may be expected to follow suit. In addition, the US Congress is currently progressing a new Clean Air Act which will contain tighter emission standards that will set a new world standard that other countries can be expected to adopt in years to come. This progressive tightening and geographical widening of automotive pollution control will lead to a growth in PGM consumption for autocatalyst. The question that follows is whether the necessary PGM will be available and from which sources.

Given the reserve base existing in the Bushveld Igneous Complex (Table 2) and the flexibility there of mining principally for platinum metals it is clear that South Africa must remain the prime source of PGM. Considerable expansion is already underway to satisfy the expected demand for autocatalyst production. A feature of the Bushveld Complex is that the PGM are contained in three different mineral formations. These are the Merensky Reef, the UG2 reef and the Platreef. As table 4 shows, the mine mix of PGM in these formations is significantly different, with the UG2

113

providing a mix that is closest to the current favoured autocatalyst ratio of Pt:Rh at 5:1. Table 4 : South African Ore Ratios

UG2

I Platreef I

14.0

I

15.3

I

1

I

Given the certainty of the growth of the market for autocatalyst during the remainder of this decade, it is not surprising to find that the main thrust of current expansion plans in South Africa is for greater exploitation of the UG2 reef (table 5). In 1988 some 92% of South Africa's platinum production was from the Merensky Reef and only 8% from UG2. Table 6 indicates that by 1996 it is expected that 70% will come from Merensky. 27% from UG2 and 3% from the Platreef.

Table 5 : PGM Production in South Africa Present Mining

Expansion

Ru stenburg Lebowa Potgietersrust

MNG2 M

UG2>M M P

Impala Messina

M / UG2

UG2 / M UG2>M

Western Eastern Karee

M / UG2 UG2 (new) M / UG2 (new)

UG2 UG2 M / UG2

Crocodile River Kennedy's Vale

UG2 (new)

UG2 UG2

Northam

Merensky UG2 Platreef

M

1988 92% 8% 0%

1992 80% 20% 0%

1996 70% 27 % 3%

114

Conclusion The market for platinum metals in automotive pollution control is expected to grow substantially over the next ten years, particulary for platinum and rhodium. To meet this growth mining companies are investing in new mines and in the expansion of existing mines to provide extra PGM. In making these investments attention is being focussed on the particular requirement for extra rhodium. This should ensure that the demands of the auto industry for PGM are satisfied as the market for automotive pollution control using PGM catalysts grows.

References 1

D L Buchanan, "Platinum Group Metal Production from the Bushveld Complex", (1979)

2

J R Loebenstein, "Mineral Facts and Problems", US Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 675, (1985)

3

J S Coombes, "Platinum 1990", Johnson Matthey, (1990)

4

M C F Steel, "Changing Patterns of Platinum Group Metals Use in Autocatalyst" SAE International Congress Paper 880127, (1988)

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control I1 Q 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

115

THE VALUE OF SPENT EXHAUST CATALYSTS

W. Fierain MHO, BU HOBOKEN, BELGIUM

Abstract There is some logic in scheduling this paper at the end of the session since it deals with spent catalysts which, by definition, have reached the end of their useful life. Yet, the ultimate stage in life for a spent catalyst is a very valuable one since it becomes then part of the largest secondary source of platinum group metals worldwide. This paper will explain how and why and will indicate the obvious relationship between the development of this source and all the key elements governing the use of autocatalysts, meaning: - the environmental legislation planned or in place - the currently available technology - future new car sales - supply, demand and prices of the platinum group metals. INTRODUCTION.

Before going any further, a rapid sketch of MHO's activity might help understanding why we do consider spent exhaust catalysts as a "rising star" material. MHO, a Division of ACEC-UNION MINIERE, has two production sites in Belgium, one at Olen and one at Hoboken near Antwerp. Highly specialized in the treatment of complex precious metals bearing raw materials, the Hoboken Plant uses hydro and pyrometallurgical processes for the refining of - precious metals: Ag - Au - Pt - Pd - Rh - base metals: Pb - Cu - Sb - Sn - special metals: Se - Te - In - Bi On a yearly basis, the Hoboken Plant receives from all over the world more than 300,000 tonnes of various types of non-ferrous and precious metals bearing raw materials in the form of concentrates, metallurgical and chemical byproducts, spent petrochemical catalysts or industrial discards from the electronic industry. In addition to that and since the early 803, it has refined several thousand tons of spent catalysts from the automotive industry, mainly

116

of North American origin. With almost a decade of experience in the field, MHO is still actively pursuing its marketing and metallurgical research efforts with the aim of extensively implementing the optimal recycling scheme for a device which is or will be part of day-to-day's life for a vast majority of individuals in the industrialized world. THE VALUES

Different values can be associated with the spent exhaust catalysts market: strategic - ecological - industrial -economical. Let us examine each of these.

The strategic value ("putting something by for a rainy day): Biginning in the mid-70s, it has become a general concern to reduce the level of exhaust emissions from motor vehicles. Both Japan and the USA were the first to adopt tight standards for carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbon and nitrous oxide emissions. The fitting of platinum group metals catalytic converters became the only efficient tool to achieve these standards. A similar package of standards applies or will soon apply in Europe and the installation of the so-called 3-way catalyst, which is mainly a platinum rhodium catalyst with a ratio 5 to 1 P m h , seems unavoidable. Because of public pressure and tax incentives, some European countries have been ahead of the EEC legislation: this is the case of Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden. Likewise early this year, 80 % of the motor cars sold in Germany were already fitted with catalysts. This growing use of automotive catalytic converters has had a tremendous impact on the demand for PGM's. Starting from nil in the early ~ O ' SPt , demand from the automotive industry reached 40 % of total Western world platinum demand in 1989, as shown by Metals and Minerals Research Services. This is very much in line with the figures issued by Johnson Matthey in the 1989 Platinum review. For the same year 1989, platinum recovered from autocatalyst recycling was estimated at about 5.5 tonnes, equivalent to approximately 5 % of the total demand for platinum in the Western World. This is far from being an insignificant figure: indeed this secondary supply is, for instance, three times the estimated platinum output of the Stillwater Mine in Montana, the sole primary producer of platinum group metals in the United States Those 5.5 tonnes Pt are equal to the production of Canada, third largest supplier of platinum in the world, with Inco and Falconbridge producing

117

platinum as a byproduct of nickel smelting and refining. As a third comparison, this secondary supply is no less than the total US platinum demand from the chemical, electrical and glass industries all together. And last but not least, these 5.5 tonnes represent 50 % of the 1989 European platinum demand from the autocatalyst industry. Japan and United States together represent 75 % of the gross demand for platinum from the automotive industry i.e. about 34 tonnes; by comparison recycled platinum worldwide represents 16 % of their combined consumption in autocatalyst during 1989. The strategic value becomes obvious when remembering that more than 70 % of the western world supply originates from South Africa and that Soviet Union supplies more than 10 % of the Western market requirements. No doubt all producers have substantial quantities of PGM in the pipeline; no doubt PGM consumers own security stocks against possible disruption at mines or refineries due to political events or technical failures: pipeline and stocks altogether represent about one year of demand. In this respect, there is no doubt either that recycled PGM is definitely an hedge against any impediment in primary shipments or temporary tight supply. This has not escaped to Japan which is gearing up to import more platinum group metals derived from spent converters from the United States and has established its own collection network locally. In a similar approach, some German car producers are already today organized to have the spent catalysts collected by their dealers, decanned and the PGMs recycled and returned to the fresh catalyst producers. Palladium is showing a lesser strategic sensitivity in this context because regulations on emission standards are leading to the preferred use of platinum rhodium catalysts. By contrast, rhodium undoubtedly exceeds by far the strategic value of platinum because with a platinum/rhodium consumption ratio of 5 to 1 and a mine production ratio of 15 to 1, rhodium stocks are gradually vanishing in an already tight market.

The ecological value (Recycling the product): An article issued by John Griffiths in the Financial Times of May 22, 1990 announced that a major German car manufacturer was designing a pilot plant to search for and experiment the best way to achieve complete car recycling; the pilot facility will be used to disassemble and process a total of 1,500 cars over the next 12 months. One of the most important objectives of this project is to apply knowledge learned from the disassembly process to the design of future cars so that they can be specifically developed to be much more easily recycled than it is the case today.

118

After the pilot phase, a permanent recycling plant capable of processing

250,000 cars per year could be build within the next two years. The hope is that such plants would become a norm for the motor industry with the farreaching idea of recycling 100 % of every car built. Recycling of spent catalysts perfectly matches this valuable objective and a close cooperation should exist between collectors/refiners and catalysts producers/car manufacturers. Indeed, optimizing the complete recycling circuit still presents a lot of handicaps and challenging aspects. The next 2 topics will clarify what we are speaking about but before proceeding let me point out that the recycling industry is presently deeply concerned with two enhancing trends in environmental regulations: first, to classify all recyclable and secondary material as waste and second to prohibit the international transport of waste. We are very much worried by such a possibility which ignores the fact that the inherent value of precious metals bearing secondary raw materials already commands such careful management that it is inevitably protective of the environment.

The industrial value: The extensive process of recovering autocatalysts involves many different steps and players: - pipes and canisters removal: - car dismantling yards - car shredders - muffler shops - car dealers - garages - pipes

and canisters collection - sorting:

- scrap dealers - specialized collectors

- opening of the canisters (decanning): sorting of the catalysts lot preparation (possible crushing and pre-sampling)

- specialized collectors and consolidators

- sampling :

- refiners

- smelting and refining :

- refiners

The first part of the chain: the scrap collection network includes: - pipes and canisters collection - catalysts unloading

119

- catalysts sorting - catalysts defining - catalysts decanning - catalysts packinglstoring - catalysts empty shells The second part of the chain starts after receipt of the material at the refining plant; at MHO the sampling procedure for spent auto catalysts can be shortly described as follows, auto catalysts being delivered in the form of honeycombs (crushed, partly broken or fresh) or beads. Pretreatment Uncrushed or partly broken honeycombs are crushed with a hammer-mill to obtain a fine product that can be sampled in the sweeps automatic installation. Primary sampling The precrushed honeycombs or the beads are sampled with the automatic sweeps sampler. This unit has been especially designed to weigh, empty and sample fine materials packed in drums or big bags. The drums or big bags are unloaded in 2500 1. hoppers. Two of these hoppers are emptied in a 8000 1 biconical blender. After 15 min blending, the blender is unloaded over a rotary divider, which takes a 10 % sample. This 10 % sample goes in a 500 1. hopper, which is emptied in a 1000 1. biconical blender. After 15 min blending, the second blender is unloaded over another rotary divider, which takes a 1 or 2 % sample (i.e. 0.1 or 0.2 % of the original input). Final sample preparation The samples from the successive blending operations are transferred to the final sampling area where they are recomposed into a 3 kg sample with due proportion taken of their individual weight. This 3 kg sample is blended by means of a small biconical blender. After blending, it is crushed in a vibrating ring mill and screened on a 130 mesh screen. The fine material is then blended in a turbula blender and divided into analytical samples by means of a rotary splitter. The analytical sample-bags are sealed and sent to the analytical laboratories of the supplier and of MHO. Sealed bags are kept for possible umpire analysis. The final assay results will be determined by exchange of the figures determined on the official samples by the supplier and by MHO.

120

The so-determined final assay results will govern the settlement of the delivered material either by payment or by return of refined metals to the suppliers. Refining

The third part of the chain concerns the refining. Several flowsheets have been developed. These include: -hydrometallurgical technologies like: substrate dissolution with sulphuric acid or sodium hydroxide resulting in a PGM residue suitable for conventional refining -or selective dissolution of precious metals in a hydrochloric acid solution containing an organic oxidant plus proprietary chemicals -dry chlorination at 400/1000 "C followed by recuperation and refining of the volatile PGM chlorides: this process is not yet commercially proven. -pyrometallurgical technologies like: melting of spent autocatalysts in a plasma arc furnace or an electrical furnace using iron or copper as collector: the iron alloy contains 2 to 4 % PGM and can either be granulated and leached to produce PGM concentrate suitable for conventional refining or the iron or copper alloy at 2 to 4 % PGM can be directly sent to a refiner for further processing. or direct melting and refining of spent catalysts through the conventional nickel, copper or lead refining circuits. Each process has its own economical, ecological and metallurgical constraints. However, up to now, the pyro-metallurgical circuits seem to be the most efficient processes as they are the final outlet for more than 75 % of the spent automotive catalysts available on the market. Why is it so ? We all know that autocatalysts consist of a refractory oxide carrier such as alumina or cordierite (Al2O3, Si02, MgO) on which two or three PGM are spread in low concentration. The monolith type catalyst (honeycomb) is typically made of cordierite and the bead type (pellets) is made of gamma alumina. Average assays of the catalysts received by MHO from the USA during the past 10 years show the precious metals concentrations (drnetric ton) given in the following table and thus, as you can notice, very low PGM concentrations.:

121

In addition, the spent catalysts also pick up other metals from gazoline or motor additives like Pb, Mn, S, P or carbon and eventually stainless steel (nickel) or even dirt during the decanning. Furthermore, catalysts batches do not reach the refiner on a regular basis throughout the year. In order to cope with these unstable parameters we have chosen, at Hoboken, to load the spent catalysts after sampling at the sintering plant, together with a large variety of other raw materials such as concentrates, lead sulphate, dust or slimes for instance. The aim is to achieve a stable composition of the mix for sintering, therefore optimizing the recovery rates of the non ferrous metals including the PGMs. Another advantage of the Hoboken operations is to avoid the generation of by-products which would be economically or environmentally burdensome. Alumina, silica and magnesia are tapped from the blast furnace as a neutral slag while precious metals including the PGMs are collected in the lead bullion, the copper matte or the nickel speiss, which intermediate products are then further refined.

The economical value: With such strategic, ecological and industrial values associated to it as major driving forces autocatalyst recycling should have reached the "cash cow" stage. This is not yet the case, as shown hereunder. Justifications for low recycling rate in the USA are: - the anti-converter attitude on the part of many vehicle owners who remove and simply discard the converters in order to save money by using leaded rather than unleaded fuel and to possibly gain engine performance; the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) did estimate that in 1984, 7 % of cars were running without converters. - the reconditioning of old converters as replacement equipment after quick cleaning and painting: this accounted for 10 to 20 % of the catalyst market in the.early 80s - the lack of an organized scrap collection network - the loss of PGMs due to mechanical attrition during use coupled with loss in the collecting and decanning process - finally, the difficulty for consolidators to maintain a regular feed flow because of price fluctuations arising from competition or PGM's price volatility. Nevertheless, there is now a definite trend for improvement in the reclamation rate thanks to: - the phasing out of leaded fuel and better campaigns promoting the merits of converters.

122

- the enforcement of EPA performance standards since November 1986 limiting the sale of reconditioned converters - the EPA legislation stipulating that dismantling yards must remove spent catalysts before scrapping vehicles because of the residual lead contained in some of them. Consequently, quantities of spent catalysts made available in the USA have developed as follows: 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

3,600 4,500 5,000 6,000 7,500

tons tons tons tons tons

In Europe our forecast of theoretical availability of PGM in spent autocatalysts is as follows, based on: - trend in new petrol powered car sales - existing car exhaust emission legislation - an actual average of 1.8 g of PGM to be recovered per vehicle - disposal of spent catalyst 8 years after the first registration of the vehicle What does it mean in view of economies ? The total recovery of PGM from spent autocatalysts will reasonably reach 20 tonnes at the end of the decade as we have some room for improvement in the USA and as the collecting system in Europe is more developed and probably more cost efficient than it is in the United States. At the level of 20 tonnes, the primary producers will see a substantial part of the market requirements already filled up and this might possibly delay or cancel the development of the most expensive mines for which cost of production could reach US $ 350/oz. Such a scenario means that spent automotive catalyst recovery would be a determinant factor for the floor price of platinum. On the contrary, should the market be oversupplied, the platinum price would fall preventing recovery from being profitable; indeed at prices below US $ 450/oz, recovery becomes quickly unprofitable: in the US collectors buy for cash at prices between US $10 and 20 per unit depending on the type of catalyst, the PGM prices and the overall availability of scrap. However, in such a case, and contrary to what happened in the early 80s when the prices of platinum and palladium fell to levels which were so low that they discouraged any risky position, we are convinced that salvage companies will not throw catalysts away but will simply stockpile them for a time.

123

The result will be that at some future time the so-freezed PGMs will flow back onto the market anyway. This is commonly observed in the copper, lead, zinc, silver and gold market and it will apply to PGM as well. At MHO we have learned to live and operate with these realities and not to believe that the world is other than it is.

SOURCES Automobile catalyst and the PGM market by Jeffrey M. Christian, CMP Group Metal Bulletin 3rd Platinum Seminar 1987. Platinum 1990, Johnson Matthey PLC May 1990 Financial Times, Tuesday May 22, 1990 Charles E. Cunningham, A1 Specialized Services and Suppliers Inc One decade of commercial recovery of platinum group metals from autocatalyst: some change and implication New York Copper Club, March 1990. Francis Van Bellen - Sampling strategy for precious metals bearing materials at MHO IPMI, San Diego 1990 Platinum Lake Technology process for recovery of precious metals from automotive catalyst Recycling of Metalliferous Materials Platinum the way ahead - Metals and Minerals Research Services Ltd July 1990

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 0 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

125

CERIUM OXIDE STABILIZATION: PHYSICAL PROPERTY AND THREE-WAY ACTIVITY CONSIDERATIONS J. E. Kubsh, J. S. Rieck and N. D. Spencer W. R. Grace & Co.-Conn. Research Division Columbia, Maryland U.S.A.

Abstract Improved cerium oxide surface area stability in high temperature oxidizing environments has been demonstrated for stabilized cerias containing La, Nd or Y dopants. BET areas in excess of 30 m2/g can be achieved after a one hour, 980 O C calcination for a ceria stabilized with 10 mole % La. Three-way activity comparisons between catalysts promoted by stabilized and unstabilized cerias show significant activity penalties for La and Nd-stabilized ceria-containing catalysts after air oxidations for four hours at 980 "C. X P S characterizationof La- and Nd- stabilized cerias has revealed significant surface enrichment of ceria by La and Nd under high temperature oxidizing conditions. This ceria encapsulation is believed responsible for the observed loss in activity. INTRODUCTION

During the last five years, much of the focus of automotive exhaust catalysis research has been on catalyst thermal stability. This emphasis stems in part from the increasing number of vehicle applications that utilize closecoupled catalyst locations, in order to minimize vehicle emissions during cold starts. At high speeds and high loads, these close-coupled locations subject catalysts to temperature extremes that can often be in excess of 900 "C. Operation of three-way catalysts at these high temperatures can result in significant activity losses due to the large scale sintering of the alumina support, sintering of the noble metals, and sintering of other catalyst components including the cerium oxide promoters. Numerous recent studies have characterized this thermal deactivation process in terms of support surface area loss, or noble metal and cerium oxide crystallite growth [I-41. Improvements in three-way catalyst thermal stability have resulted from the incorporation of stabilized aluminas and high levels of cerium oxide promoters. Alumina stabilization has been the subject of several studies with La203 stabilization being generally preferred [5-81.

126

The increased levels of ceria present in three way catalysts have focused some attention on ceria physical properties and thermal stability in these systems. Both the patent literature [9-121 and the scientific literature [13,14] contain references to the synthesis of high surface area Ce02 or the stabilization of ceria for auto catalyst applications. In one recent study Miyoshi et al. [ 131 provided evidence for improved three-way catalyst thermal stability by incorporating lanthanum oxide in both the alumina support and in the ceria promoter The high ceria loadings currently used in three-way catalyst formulations are most readily achieved by physical mixing of bulk cerium oxide with alumina. In order to maximize the catalytic properties of the ceria additive, a high surface area is clearly desirable. On the other hand, the ceria should be resistant to sintering under high temperature conditions. In this paper we discuss the sintering characteristics and surface chemistry of stabilized and unstabilized ceria, and the performance of stabilized ceria in three-way catalysts.

Experimental Details Stabilized cerium oxides were prepared by co-precipitating aqueous solutions of cerium nitrate and the corresponding nitrate of the stabilization agent with a dilute NH40H solution. Precipitations were performed at 85 "C and at a constant pH=9. Stabilization agents investigated included La, Y, Nd and Al. After precipitation, the resulting mixed hydroxides were washed with deionizing water, dried at 120 "C and then calcined for one hour at 540 "C to yield a cerium oxide composite. Stabilized cerium oxides were also prepared by an incipient wetness impregnation of a commercially available high surface area ceria obtained from Novamet Specialty Products Corp. [Wyckoff, NJ U.S.A.] with nitrate solutions of either lanthanum or neodymium. After impregnation, the powder was dried at 120 "C and then calcined for one hour at 540 "C to yield the mixed oxide. XPS characterization of materials was carried out using a Perkin-Elmer 5400 Series ESCA instrument, operating with 300 W of Mg K a radiation. A hemispherical electron energy analyzer was used, giving an energy resolution of 1 eV [on Ag 3d5/2] at a pass energy of 18 eV. The spectrometer energy scale was calibrated with respect to the Cu 2 ~ 3 ~Au 2 , 4f712, and Ag 3d5/2 core levels at 932.7 eV, 84.0 eV, and 368.3 eV, respectively. Powder samples were examined by dusting them onto double-sided adhesive tape, mounted into a stainless steel sample stub. Charge correction was performed using the (CH), peak at 284.6 eV. Surface concentrations were calculated using PHI sensitivity factors.

127

Three-way activity measurements were made using a simulated exhaust gas reactor system described elsewhere [ 151. This simulated exhaust stream contained 20 vppm S2, 400 vppm hydrocarbons (3/1 molar ratio of propene/propane) , 1850 vvpm NO, 10 ;ol.% H20, 14,5 vol.% CO2, and appropriate levels of CO and 0 2 to cover the stoichiometric range of interest. The reactor system included provisions for oscillating the feed gas stoichiometry at 1 Hz to simulate closed loop operations typical of vehicle conditions. Conversion levels of hydrocarbons, CO and NO, were measured at 480 "C over a range of air/fuel ratios using a gas hourly space velocity of ca. 40,000 hr-1 (at STP). In these activity studies three-way catalyst washcoats were prepared by adding bulk cerium oxide or bulk stabilized cerium oxide to a La203-stabilized alumina that contained Pt and Rh (introduced by impregnation). This mixture was wet ball milled and then coated onto a corrugated 0.05 mm metal foil (Allegheny Ludlum, Alfa IV alloy). The coated foil was then spirally wound and inserted into a thinwalled stainless steel tubular case to form a sample 2.54 cm dia. x 2.54 cm long (total catalyst volume of 12.9 cm3). Noble metal concentrations on the washcoat used for these samples were chosen to yield 0.71 g/liter loadings with Pt/Rh=5/1 by weight. CERIASTABILISATION Stabilized cerias made by the standard co-precipitation process described in brief above were subjected to a high temperature calcination (one hour in air at 980 "C) to determine the surface area stability of these materials relative to a precipitated ceria containing no additives. Table 1 compares BET surface areas of these oxides as prepared (with 10 mole % stabilizer, calcined to 540 "C) and after the high temperature calcination. Included in this table are also surface area results for a commercial, high purity ceria. As indicated by the data in Table 1, the precipitation process used here was successful in producing ceria and mixed oxides with surface areas in excess of 70 m2/g after a 540 "C calcination. The second important result is that the incorporation of La, Nd and Y into the ceria matrix significantly improved the high temperature stability of the mixed oxides in comparison to the pure ceria made by precipitation or the commercial ceria. In all three cases La-, Nd- and Y-doped cerias exhibited surface areas in excess of 25 m2/g after this severe calcination. A1 incorporation into the ceria matrix resulted in some improved thermal stability relative to pure ceria but not to the same extent as La. Nd or Y stabilization.

128

TABLE 1 - BET Surface Area Data for Stabilized Cerias

* - including La and Nd Since the L a 2 0 3 / C e 0 2 composite provided the highest degree of surface area stability for the dopants examined here, a more detailed study was made of the effect of lanthana content on the thermal stability of this mixed rare earth oxide. Figure 1 compares BET surface areas for La203/Ce02 made by this constant pH precipitation as a function of the La content of the mixed rare earth oxide. The 10 mole % La level used in the initial investigations is close to the optimal stabilizer level for maximizing thermally aged surface area. This maximum, however, does not appear Mole 56 La sharp, with La levels between 5 and Figurel: BET areas for La203-Ce02 20 mole % yielding BET areas in co-precipitated mixed oxides excess of 25 m2/g after calcination at 980 "C. As-prepared surface areas also appear to track with thermally aged areas, with the highest surface area after 540 "C corresponding to about 10 mole % La. In the composition region between 0 and 20 mole % La, the two rare earth oxides form a solid solution, with Ce02 being the only crystalline phase present in the X-ray diffractograms of these solids, even after air calcinations to 980 "C. Both pure ceria and pure lanthana made by precipitation exhibited poor thermal stability relative to the stabilized La203/Ce02 composite.

129

THREE-WAY ACTIVITY Washcoats were prepared using the stabilized La203/Ce02 material described above in order to determine if the improved sintering characteristics of this material resulted in improved catalyst thermal stability as measured by three-way conversion levels after high temperature aging. As described previously, a standard washcoat formulation was used in these studies. In comparative evaluations, all washcoat ingredients were kept constant except the nature of the bulk ceria additive. The amount of ceriabased additive was also kept constant at 25 wt% on a washcoat-only basis. Before proceeding with - any high temperature treatments, the activities IConversion at Stoich. Conditions of all samples were evaluated at our 100 standard three-way conditions in the as-prepared state which included a Activity measured at 48OOC 80 mild calcination in air at 500 "C. All samples gave equivalent fresh conversion levels with respect to 60 hydrocarbons, CO and NOx. In the first thermal stability comparison, catalyst activities were 40 compared for a washcoat containing a relatively pure commercial ceria and 20 a coating containing a lanthanastabilized ceria (10 mole % La) made by co-precipitation. Catalyst samples 0 CO NOx Hydrocarbons were aged for four hours at 980 "C in air to simulate a severe high Unstabilized ceria La-stabilized ceria (,o La, co-precip.) temperature oxidation in a lean exhaust. Figure 2 compares threeFigure 2: Three-way activity way conversion levels for these two comparisonfor PtlRh washcoats after samples in a stoichiometric simulated 980 "C calcination ( 4h ). exhaust after this high temperature calcination. In all cases the catalyst prepared with the stabilized ceria showed lower conversion levels. Activity comparisons of these two catalysts were also made over a wide range of aidfuel stoichiometries typical of the range found under normal vehicle operations and again in all cases the stabilized ceria washcoat exhibited performance below that observed for the unstabilized ceria washcoat. Based on this result a more detailed study was undertaken to investigate stabilized ceria performance in high temperature environments after both lean and stoichiometric aging schedules. In these experiments both lanthana~

130

stabilized ceria and neodymia-stabilized ceria additives were compared against the commercial, high purity ceria-containing standard catalyst. In the case of stabilized ceria-containing catalysts, several levels of lanthana and neodymia stabilizers were evaluated. In each case the stabilizer was added to the high purity ceria by impregnation using an appropriate aqueous nitrate solution. Although not detailed here, this stabilizer impregnation scheme resulted in similar improvements in ceria surface area stability in high temperature calcinations as reported for the co-precipitation scheme. Figure 3 compares CO conversion levels in a stoichiometric simulated exhaust of the stabilized and unstabilized ceria-containing% CO Conversion at Stoich. Conditions catalysts after a four hour calcination ' O 8 1 at 980 "C. Both the lanthanastabilized and neodymia-stabilized ceria catalysts show performance Activity measured at 480% drop-offs with increasing levels of 60 stabilizer, confirming the poor Nd-Ceria Promoter performance observed for the coprecipitated L a 2 0 3/CeO2. CO 50 conversion levels for catalysts with about 10 mole % ceria stabilizers 40 were only about one-half those of the standard catalyst with unstabilized La-Ceria Promoter ceria. Conversion levels for hydrocarbons and NO, showed similar trends to the CO data of 20 8 IO 12 Figure 3. Mole % La or Nd A similar comparison was made using lanthana and neodymiaFigure 3 : co activity ComParisonfor stabilized cerias after heat treatments PtIRH washcoats after 980°C in a stoichiometric gas mixture calcination ( 4 h . ) . containing CO, 02, N2 and H20.

In these experiments, catalyst samples were treated for 95 hours at 960 "C in this flowing gas mixture and then evaluated for three-way activity. Figure 4 compares stoichiometric conversion levels for stabilized and unstabilized ceria-containing catalysts after this stoichiometric high temperature treatment. Unlike the air calcined samples, stoichiometrically treated, stabilized ceria-containing catalysts performed on a par with their unstabilized counterparts.

131

YO Conversion at Stoich. Conditions

80 I

Activity measured at 480°C

60

40

20

0

co

Hydrocarbons

=

Unstabilized c e r i a

: ,L

1 La-stabilized

ceria ( 6 mole % L a )

N Ox N d -s t a b i Ii ze d c e r Ia (5 mole Yo N d )

Fig.4: Three-way activity comparisonfor PtlRh washcoats afer 960 “C stoichiometric aging ( 9Sh ).

980 960 940 920 900 880 860 840 820 800 780 Binding Energy (eV)

Fig 5: Ce 3d and La 3d XPS signals for La-stabilized ceria (ca.10 mole% La)

132

XPS CHARACTERIS ATION In an effort to explain the poor three-way performance of the lanthanaand neodymia-stabilized ceria-containing catalysts after high temperature calcinations, these additives were characterized by XPS for relative surface compositions. The stabilized cerias containing approximately 10 mole % La or Nd (made by impregnation of the commercial ceria) and the high purity, commercial ceria were analyzed as-prepared (following calcination for 1 hr at 540 "C) and after a four hour calcination at 980 "C. Cer ia- 10% - Neod y mia h

v) c .-

C

3

2

v

x c .-

cn

K a, C

c

K

.-0 v) v)

._

5

0 0

Ce 3d

c

r

a

hv

1253.6 eV

= I

,

I

,

I

,

I

,

I

.

I

,

I

,

I

~

I

.

1030 1014 998 982 966 950 934 918 902 886 870 Binding Energy (eV)

Fig. 6: Ce 3d and Nd 3d XPS signals for Nd-stabilized ceria (ca.lOmole% Nd) Figures 5 and 6 compare signals in the 3d region for the lanthana- and neodymia-stabilized cerias, respectively. Both the stabilized cerias show significant surface enrichment of the stabilizer oxide relative to Ce02 after the 980 "C calcination. In both cases the Ce 3d signals have decreased and the La or Nd 3d signals have increased relative to the as-prepared oxides after the severe thermal treatment in air. An even more striking indication of this surface enrichment is shown in Figure 7a. In this figure the 0 1s signal for the lanthana-stabilized ceria is compared for the as-prepared oxide and after calcination at 980 "C. After the high temperature calcination the oxide exhibits a significant enlargement of the higher binding energy oxygen signal centered around 531.5 eV. A similar behavior was observed for the neodymia-stabilized ceria.

133

Ceria-10%-Lanthana

0 Is hv = 1253.6 eV

0 538 536 534 532 530 528 526 524 522 520 Binding Energy (eV)

Fig. 7a: 0 I s XPS signals for La-stabilized ceria (ca. 10 mole% La ).

Ceria

0 1s hv = 1253.6 eV

I

,

I

,

I

,

I

,

I

.

I

,

I

,

I

.

I

,

0 538 536 534 532 530 528 526 524 522 5: 0

Binding Energy (eV)

Fig. 7b: 0 I s XPS signals for a commercial, high purity ceria.

134

Figure 7b shows 0 1s signals for the commercial ceria after the same two calcination treatments. In contrast to the stabilized ceria data, these spectra do not show an increase in the higher binding energy oxygen signal. This higher binding energy oxygen signal is consistent with the more reactive nature of lanthana and neodymia than ceria towards C02. Both lanthana and neodymia readily form surface carbonates in the presence of C 0 2 181 and the higher binding energy oxygen signal is indicative of a surface carbonate species. As the ceria surface becomes enriched with either lanthana or neodymia, these carbonates become more abundant in the presence of C02, and the higher binding energy oxygen signal increases.

0

Binding Energy (eV)

Fig. 8: 0 I s X P S signals for La203 and h2(co3)3reagents. Confirmation of this carbonate assignment comes from XPS scans of reagent La2O3, reagent La2(C03)3, and La203 heated to 900 "C in low-CO2 air and transferred to the spectrometer under nitrogen. 0 1s signals for these materials are summarized in Figure 8. The oxygen signals of the two reagents are nearly identical with a peak at about 531 eV (similar location as the higher binding energy oxygen signal in Figure 7). This suggests that the lanthana is covered with a carbonate overlayer. The heated lanthana, on the other hand, shows a reduced carbonate band at 531.5 eV due to the decomposition of the carbonate overlayer and a lower binding energy oxygen signal that can be assigned to oxidic surface oxygen.

135

D IS c US SIO N The results of this investigation indicate that additives such as La, Nd, Y and to some extent A1 are capable of retarding ceria surface area loss after high temperature oxidations. The mechanism of this stabilization was not specifically addressed by this study but some inferences can be made about the ceria stabilization process. In the case of co-precipitated, lanthana-stabilized ceria, surface enrichment of the lanthana was observed by XPS even after drying and calcining the mixed hydroxides at mild temperatures (540 "C). La/Ce surface atomic ratios obtained from XPS for Ce02 containing 10 mole % La were about 70% higher than the levels associated with the bulk composition of this material. The La/Ce surface ratios were even larger for samples made by impregnation. TABLE 2 - Bulk and Surface Atomic Ratios for La-Stabilized Ceria

Co-precipitated La203/Ce02 Impregnated La203/Ce02

La/Ce, Surface

La/Ce, Surface (after 980 "C)

0.1 1

0.19

0.25

0.12

0.25

0.71

Table 2 summarizes La/Ce ratios for these materials. This lanthanarich surface phase may be associated with ceria grain boundaries or reactive ceria surface sites that initiate the sintering process. The lack of any discernable La-containing phases by X-ray diffraction before or after calcination to 980 "C is also consistent with a highly dispersed stabilizer phase. The presence of the lanthana-rich surface phase is then postulated to impede the growth of ceria particles at high temperatures. Similar surfacestabilizing phases such as LaA103 have been characterized as being responsible for the stabilizing effect of La on aluminum oxide [7,8]. Although effective at retarding ceria surface area loss, the rare earth stabilizers appear to drastically alter the promoter action of ceria in threeway catalysts following severe oxidations such as the 980 "C calcinations used in this study. The poor activity observed for the stabilized ceria-containing catalysts after high temperature calcinations appears directly related to the significant enrichment of non-cerium oxides on the surface of the bulk ceria additives that also occurs under these conditions. As shown by the XPS results, the resulting stabilized ceria surface becomes more like neodymia or lanthana in composition and reactivity. For comparison, a catalyst sample was prepared with a pure, low surface area lanthana in place of the ceria or stabilized ceria (all other catalyst details kept constant, including noble metal

136

content and total rare earth loadings). After a similar four hour calcination at 980 "C the lanthana-only promoted catalyst had almost no measurable conversion (<5%) for hydrocarbons, CO, or NO, under our standard activity conditions. Both this result for a pure lanthana promoter, and the results of Figure 3 that show a clear correlation between reduced activity and increasing levels of stabilizer, are consistent with the loss of ceria promoter action with increasing surface concentrations of the non-ceria stabilizer. A likely contribution to the poor promoter action of lanthana- or neodymia-enriched cerias is the fact that both these oxide surfaces are most likely covered with an unreactive carbonate overlayer, similar to those observed in Figure 8, given the large C02 partial pressure found in the exhaust stream. Results reported by Miyoshi et al. [ 131 and Ihara et al. [ 141 also discuss the impact of lanthanum and an unnamed rare earth additive, respectively, on three-way catalyst performance. Both these studies claim La or other rare earth additions to both the alumina support and ceria are beneficial in improving catalyst thermal stability. Besides retarding surface area loss of alumina and ceria, evidence is presented that supports enhanced oxygen mobility for La203/Ce02 promoters and improved Rh activity with La additions. Activity comparisons were made after aging catalysts in a stoichiometric engine exhaust in the case of Miyoshi et al. and after air oxidations in the case of Ihara et al. In both cases these studies showed benefits for samples containing La or the other unidentified rare earth additives. Catalyst preparation details are very sketchy in these studies and therefore a detailed comparison of the catalyst compositions with the formulations used here cannot be made. The present study focused only on rare earth additions to bulk ceria. The results of the two Japanese studies contain comparisons between catalysts that contain no rare earth stabilizers and catalysts with rare earth stabilizers added to both the alumina and the ceria by unspecified means. As such these results would appear to contain much broader effects than those discussed here. Both temperature and excess oxygen are important in facilitating the surface enrichment discussed above. This is evident from the fact that both fresh activity after a mild calcination (540 "C) and activity after high temperature treatments (960 "C) in a stoichiometric environment were equivalent for stabilized and unstabilized ceria-containing catalysts. The activity debit observed for stabilized cerias after a high temperature calcination was found to be reversible with reductions in hydrogen at moderate temperatures (500 "C). After a hydrogen reduction, stabilized and unstabilized ceria-containing catalysts showed higher and nearly identical three-way activities than the same samples calcined at 980 "C and tested under the standard conditions. Subsequent reoxidation of the reduced samples in air at 980 "C resulted in the large activity debit for the stabilized ceria-containing catalysts detailed previously.

137

100

% CO Conversion at Stoich. Conditions Activity measured at 480%

80

60

40

20

0 98OoC Oxidation ( 4 h in air) Unstabilized ceria

500°C Reduction (2 h in 5% H,/N,)

i zLa-stabilized ceria (6 mole 7' L a )

98OoC Reoxidation ( 4 h in air) Nd-stabilized ceria ( 5 mole % N d )

Fig. 9: CO activity comparisonfor PtlRh washcoats following oxidation and reduction treatments. Figure 9 details this reversibility with respect to CO performance for a catalyst containing ceria stabilized with 5-6 mole % La or Nd. Similar trends were observed for hydrocarbon and NO, performance in oxidation and reduction cycles. This reversibility implies that the stabilized ceria surface has been returned to a more ceria-like surface by the reduction. XPS experiments are in progress to further characterize stabilized ceria surfaces in reducing atmospheres to compliment the results presented here. CONCLUSIONS

1. Surface area loss of cerium in high temperature, oxygen-rich atmospheres can be retarded by the use of stabilizers such as La, Nd, or Y . These stabilizers can be incorporated by co-precipitation or impregnation. 2. The stabilization mechanism appears to involve formation of stabilizerrich surface phases that impede ceria crystallite growth in severe oxidizing environments. 3. The use of stabilized cerias containing lanthana or neodymia results in poor three-way activity relative to unstabilized ceria after high temperature oxidations.

138

This poor three-way performance is the result of significant enrichment of the stabilized ceria surface with lanthana or neodymia in high temperature, oxygen-rich atmospheres. The resulting promoter surface does not retain the same promoter action as Ce02. 5. The enrichment of the ceria surface is facilitated by high temperatures and excess oxygen. The resulting activity debit can be reversed by reduction in H2. The implications of these results for stabilized ceria applications in catalytic washcoats appear mixed. Although successful at reducing surface area loss in excess oxygen atmospheres, the resulting activity penalty observed here would present a serious disadvantage. This penalty might be expected to be short-lived in real service, however, due to the reversibility in performance reported here after reduction. The activity debit observed here may also only be associated with mixed rare earth promoters. Additional studies are required to determine catalyst performance over a wider range of conditions than detailed here, and the effect of non-rare earth stabilizers such as alumina. In this way the relative merits of stabilized ceria use in three-way catalysts may be better assessed.

4.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Nicole Ashley and Keith Halle for their assistance in sample preparation and testing, and W. R. Grace & Co.-Conn. for their permission to publish these results. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

R.H. Hammerle and C.H. Wu, SAE Paper No. 840549, 1984. L.L. Carol, N.E. Newman and G.S. Mann, SAE Paper No. 892040, 1989. L. Loewendahl and J.-E. Otterstedt, Appl. Catal., %,89, (1990) B. Stenbom, G. Smedler, P.H. Nilsson, S. Lundgren and G. Wirmark, SAE Paper No. 900273, 1990. H. Schaper, E.B.M. Doesburg and L.L. van Reijen, Appl. Catal., 211, (1983) M. Machida, K. Eguchi and H. Arai, J. Catal., 385, (1987). F. Oudet, P. Courtine and A. Vejux, J. Catal., 114,112, (1988). M. Bettman, R.E. Chase, K. Otto and W.H. Weber, J. Catal., 117,447, (1989) C.-Z. Wan and J.C. Dettling, U.S. Patent No. 4,717,694, 1987. J.-Y. Chane-Ching and J.-Y. Dumousseau, U.S. Patent No. 4,661,330, 1987. C. David, C. Magnier and B. Latourrette, U.S. Patent No. 4,859,432, 1989. T. Ohata, S. Terui and E. Shiraishi,U.S. Patent No. 4,708,946, 1987. N. Miyoshi, S. Matsumoto, M. Ozawa and M. Kimura, SAE Paper No. 891970, 1989. K. Ihara, K. Ohkubo and Y. Niura, Proceedings of the 4th Int. Pacific Conf. on Automotive Eng., PaDer No. 871 192, Melbourne, Australia, 1987. M.V. Ernest an; G. Kim, SAE Paper No. 800083, 1980.

m,

z,

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 0 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

139

THE ROLE OF CERIA IN THREE-WAY CATALYSTS A.F.Diwell, R.R.Rajaram, H.A.Shaw, T.J.Truex Johnson Matthey Technology Centre, BlountS Court Sonning Common, Reading RG4 9NH, UK

ABSTRACT The role of ceria in three-way catalysts (TWC) for the control of gaseous exhaust emissions has variously been described as: (a) oxygen storage under transient conditions; (b) catalytic promoter of precious metals for certain reactions such as water gas shift; (c) structural promoter for the stabilisation of precious metals and alumina against particle growth. However, it would appear that the interaction of ceria with the precious metal can significantly affect activity depending on pretreatment conditions and the precious metal involved. In this paper, we shall consider the role of the individual precious metals in TWCs and how their interaction with ceria affects performance. Catalysts containing Pt or Rh, with or without ceria, dispersed on alumina, have been prepared and pretreated in different atmospheres before characterisation and activity measurement in a simulated exhaust environment. Under oxidising conditions, a Pt-ceria complex is formed which maintains F’t stability against sintering. The complex fixes Pt in a high oxidation state and produces sites of lower activity than on alumina under lean conditions. However, mild reduction of a ceria-containing Pt catalyst produces sites which are highly active for the removal of CO and NO. Such sites are sufficiently stable to allow characterisationby XPS, TEM etc. but, following mild oxidation treatment, the high activity is destroyed. It is believed that the active sites are formed by surface Pt crystallites at the metal-support interface, inducing changes in the surface properties of ceria through the formation and oxidation of anionic vacancies. The presence of ceria also modifies the activity of Rh-containing catalysts by promoting the reduction of Rh.

1. INTRODUCTION Ceria has been traditionally applied as an additive in automotive catalysts because of its abilities to store oxygen [l-41 and to improve dispersion of noble metals [3,5,6].Its role as an oxygen storage component is manifested in the ability of ceria-containing catalysts to store oxygen under lean operating conditions - thus promoting conversion of oxides of nitrogen - and release it under rich conditions by reaction with carbon monoxide, hydrogen or hydrocarbons. Ceria has also been noted to promote a number of catalytic reactions on noble metal particles, including the water gas shift reaction [7,8].

140

It has gradually become recognised that cerium oxides and the noble metals are subject to mutual interaction, which is a function of the particular noble metal, ageing temperature and gaseous environment [9]. An interesting example of this interaction is the strong enhancement in catalytic activity of PtCe02 catalysts after reduction [2,10]. The exact nature of this interaction is not well understood, although several hypotheses such as: (a) formation of platinum-Ce alloys [11,12]; (b) promotion of redox reactions over ceria [2]; and (c) the involvement of anionic vacancies in ceria, either for stabilising Pt dispersion [ 131 or as partial catalytic sites [ 141, have been postulated. The purpose of this paper is to review the traditionally perceived role of ceria in autocatalysts and discuss, more specifically, how noble metal-ceria interactions can influence catalyst performance. 2. EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 Materials Catalysts were prepared by impregnation using standard platinum and rhodium precursors. The supports used were y-Al203, Ce02 or 75 wt % A1203 - 25 wt % Ce02. 2.2 CO Chemisomtion CO chemisorption was performed on Pt catalysts in a pulse injection system using a thermal conductivity detector. The samples were reduced at 300 "C for 30 minutes and cooled to room temperature before injection of pure CO in the H2 gas stream. From the amount of CO consumed, COP t values were calculated as a measure of the average Pt dispersion of the catalyst samples, assuming a C0:Pt stoichiometry of 1:l. CO chemisorption on the reduced ceria surface was found to be negligible. 2.3 Temuerature Programmed Reduction Temperature programmed reductions (TPR) were performed in a conventional apparatus (10% H2/N2. flow rate 40 cm3 min-1). The sample was heated to 900 "C at 10 deg min-1 in the reactive gas mixture. 2.4 XPS Analysis The XPS data were obtained on a Kratos XSAM 800 using A1 K alpha radiation at 65W and 40eV pass energy. The XPS binding energies were referenced to the adventitious C 1s level at 284.8 eV.

141

2.5 Activitv Measurement Catalysts were evaluated by studying their light-off behaviour in simulated exhaust gas mixtures, with a constant flow rate of the model gas, from 150 "C to 600 "C at a heating rate of 5 deg min-1 and a GHSV of 50,000. The conversion efficiencies of the catalyst were measured by continuously monitoring the outlet gases after the catalyst. The composition of the simulated exhaust gas to achieve either a lean mixture ( h = 1.02) or a rich mixture ( h = 0.98) is shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Components of simulated exhaust gas mixture in activity tests (Balance N2) Units % %

I h = 1.02

h = 0.98

15 9.2 1500 20 370 123 123 0.23 0.97 0.70

15 9.2 1500 20 670 223 223 0.43 0.72 1.30

PPm PPm PPm PPm PPm % % %

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Stabilisation of Pt Dispersion bv Ceria The presence of ceria in a TWC formulation is known to stabilise Pt dispersion [3,5,6]. The effect is illustrated in F i g . ] , where percent Pt dispersion is plotted versus ageing temperature (air for 2h) for 0.9 wt % pt on A1203 and 0.9 wt % Pt on A1203-Ce02. In the case of the A1203 support, substantial sintering of Pt occurs at temperatures greater than 600" C. Addition of Ce02 results in a reasonable stabilisation of the Pt dispersion up to temperatures of 700 "C - 800 "C, indicating significant Pt-Ce02 interaction, most probably through the formation of a surface complex involving Pt2+-02-Ce4+ [15,16]. The structural stabilisation of Pt by Ce02 is due to a stronger Pt-CeO2 interaction than that which exists between Pt and Al2O3. However, the

142

reduction of the platinum component of the Pt-Ce02 complex is more facile than that of platinum oxide dispersed on Al2O3, as indicated by the TPR profiles of 0.9 wt % Pt/A1203 and 0.9 wt % Pt/A1203-Ce02 samples calcined at 500 "C (Fig.2.) The reduction peak at 200 "C for the Pt/A1203-Ce02 sample is associated mostly with the surface reduction of Ce4+ with a contribution from the platinum (shoulder at c. 100 "C). The main Pt reduction peak for 0.9 wt % Pt/Al2O3 has a maximum at 220 "C and is comparatively broad.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Effect of Ce02 on Dispersion Stability Of WA1203 Temperature Programmed Reduction Traces for

0.9wt% Pt/A1203and 0.9wi% Pt/AI2O3-CeO2Catalysts

iI 50

b

100

zoo

500

400

600

1EMPERATURE't

3.2 Effect of Pt-Ce02 Interaction on Lean Activitv ( h = 1.02) The effect of these Pt-support interactions on CO and C3H8 oxidation activity under lean conditions is shown in F i g s . 3 - 4 , where turnover frequencies (ToF s-1) are plotted versus fraction of exposed metal for 0.9 wt% Pt/A1203 and 0.9 wt % PtIA1203-Ce02. The results show that the Pt on A1203 catalyst has much higher activity than the Pt on A1203-Ce02 catalyst. In addition, the ToF of Pt on A1203 increases significantly with decreasing fraction of metal exposed (increasing particle size), such that the atomic rate (rate per mass of Pt) is approximately constant as a function of dispersion. The atomic rate for the Pt on A1203-Ce02 decreases with decreasing dispersion. For catalysts containing the same mean Pt particle size, the specific activity is higher on A1203 than A1203-Ce02.

143

Figure 3

Figure 4

Turnover Frequency vs Fraction Exposed for CO Oxidation on Platinum

Turnover Frequency vs Fraction Exposed for C3Hs Oxidation on Platinum

8

I 0.01 0.01

.

p"*44-?

.\

I

0400.10 0 0 4 1 . 0 FAACTION EXPOSED

Kinetic studies of alkane [17-191 and CO [20] oxidation on Pt/A1203 have shown that, under conditions of excess 02, these reactions are demanding. The structure sensitivity of these reactions has been explained by changes in the Pts-0 bond strength [19], (small Pt particles have higher tenacity for 0 and are less active). The interpretation of the results is that, while Ce02 interaction with Pt aids dispersion, it does so by maintaining Pt in a higher oxidation state of lower activity. 3.3 Effect of CeO7 - on Rh Stabilisation, Reducibility and Activitv The thermal deactivation of Rh when dispersed on y-Al2O3 has been widely reported. The cause of this deactivation has been associated with theformation of a surface or subsurface spinel [21] or detrimental Rh-yA1203 interaction at grain boundaries [22]. The incorporation of Ce02 into a threeway catalyst decreases this detrimental Rh-Al203 interaction with substantial improvement in thermal stability and reducibility of Rh [23]. The beneficial effect of Ce02 on Rh activity is demonstrated in F i g 3 in the form of light-off curves for NOx conversion at h = 0.98 for 0.18 wt % Rh/y-A1203 and 0.18 wt % Rh/y-A1203-Ce02 catalysts which had been calcined in air at 800" C. A simiEar effect for CO oxidation under lean conditions is noted Fig.6. The detrimental Rh-y-Al203 interaction affects

144

especially the low temperature activity of the catalyst. The incorporation of Ce02 in the catalyst maintains the same low temperature activity even after thermal ageing. Figure 6 Figure 5 EHect of Ce02 on Rh for NOx Conversion at h- 0 98

Effect of CeOp on Rh for CO Conversion atA= 1.02

--- 0 1 M W l RhlALp-C.% 20

INLET TEYPEAATURE

%

0 l 1 r I S Rhl-

INLET TEMPERATURE

%

3.4 Role of Ceria as a Catalytic Promoter for Water Gas Shift and Steam Reforming Reactions The incorporation of ceria in TWCs has been noted to result in an improvement in CO performance at and rich of stoichiometry. This was originally ascribed to an oxygen storage and release mechanism as outlined below [7].

Lean

1/2 0 2 + Ce203

+ 2Ce02

Quantitative laboratory experiments subsequently showed that this simple mechanism could not account for the degree of enhancement in CO performance and that a major role of ceria was to enhance the water gas shift activity of Pt-Rh three-way catalysts [8]. The origin of this improved CO performance is demonstrated in Table 2. CO conversion was measured under rich spike conditions with and without water present. 1.08 wt% Pt-Rh [5,1] catalysts with 1.5, 4.0 and 8.0 wt % cerium levels were tested after a 900" C hydrothermal ageing treatment in 1% 02/10% H20/89% N2 for 4 hours. Cerium loading does not affect CO performance when H20 is absent from the feed gas stream.

145

When H20 is present, CO conversion is higher and increases with increasing cerium loading.

1.5 wt 96 Ce 4.0 wt % Ce 8.0 wt % Ce

Rich spike CO Conversion (%) with H2O 54 64 70

Rich spike CO Conversion (%) without H 2 0 49 49 49

The results are consistent with a PGM/Ce02 interaction resulting in enhanced water gas shift activity. Steam reforming of hydrocarbons, to produce CO and H2, provides an attractive route to curtail HC emissions under oxygen deficient conditions. The CO produced could be further removed by the water gas shift reaction. Promotion of the steam reforming reaction has been noted by the inclusion of ceria in TWC containing Pt-Rh, even in the presence of S02. The effect is demonstrated in Table 3, which gives propane conversion on Pt-Rh/A1203 catalysts, with and without ceria, and in the presence or absence of water. SO2 (20ppm) was present in the feed. When H20 is present, propane conversion is higher on the ceria-containing catalyst. The steam reforming reaction, however, is severely depressed by the presence of SO2 in the exhaust mixture at temperatures greater than 300" and under steady state rich conditions. The effect is illustrated in Fig.7,which gives the light-off curves for propane and hydrogen at h = 0.98 in the presence and absence of S02. Propane conversion is higher in the absence of S02, whilst the reverse applies for H2 conversion. The inhibition effect has been associated with the formation of reduced sulphur species which strongly adsorb on the active sites and has been observed [24] to be less severe under cyclic rich-lean conditions.

TABLE 3 The Influence of H 2 0 on Propane Conversion on Ceria and Non-Ceria Containing Catalysts (SO2 present) C3H8 conversion (%) at 350°C h = 0.98 with H 2 0 without H 2 0 Pt-Rh/y-A1203 Pt-Rh/y-A1203+Ce02

12 35

10 18

146

Figure 7 Effect of SO2 on Steam Reforming Reaction for P1-Rh/Al2O3-CeO2 Lbht-oll .I Lambdo 0.98

100,

1

90

10

* f

'O'

00 60

%

40

30

ao

K/

lo

'$60

200

260

300

380

400

4

INLET TEYPERITURE

%

3.5 Enhanced Pt-CeO7-Interaction Following Reduction Yu Yao [2,10] has reported the effects of in-situ reduction of Ce02A1203 supported Pt, Pd and Rh catalysts on CO and HC oxidation. All three catalyst systems exhibited enhanced activity after pretreatment in -1 % CO at temperatures greater than or equal to 300 O C. The effects are reported to be larger for CO than alkane oxidation and are transient in nature with a return back to the original activity state after exposure to oxidizing conditions. The short-term, transient nature of these effects with Pd and Rh catalysts precluded characterization or detailed kinetic studies. However, the high activity reduced Pt-Ce02-Al203 state was stable enough for kinetic measurements. A 1 to 2 order-of-magnitude increase in reaction rate for CO oxidation was observed after the reducing treatment. Based upon analysis of the kinetic parameters and comparisons with the kinetics of CO oxidation over Pt wire and Pt-Al203, which did not show a similar enhancement after a reducing treatment, Yu Yao concluded that the enhanced activity was due to a simple reduction of the Pt to a more metallic state on the CeOpA1203 support. This phenomenon has been investigated further in our laboratories. Specifically, three-way catalyst activities measured slightly rich of stoichiometry ( h = 0.98) and characterization data are presented for Pt-Ce02 catalysts after air calcination and H2 reduction treatments. Catalyst activity data measured at h = 0.98 for Pt-CeO2 catalysts after 500 "C calcination in air and subsequent reductions in 1% H2 at 900 "C and 600 "C are presented in Fig 8,9,10 . The reaction gas mixture was that shown in Table 1 which included SO2 in the gas stream. Fig. 9 and 10 show that prereduction of the Pt-Ce02 catalyst results in a dramatic improvement in CO, NO and propene conversion at low temperatures. The pre-reduction results in

147

an associated drop in propane and methane activities. Comparison of results in Fig.9 (900 "C reduction) and Fig. 10 (600 "C reduction) show that the effects are larger at the lower reduction temperature. It is interesting to note that the major activity changes are only observed at temperatures c c.400 "C. The high activity state decays slowly with time at reaction conditions and reverts back to the initial state (observed after the original 500 "C calcination in air) when the prereduced catalyst is subsequently aged in air at >500 "C as is shown in Fin.1 - I. These dramatic changes in low temperature activity are not entirely consistent with those previously observed by Yu Yao [2,10]. It may be the case that our use of H2 as a reducing agent results in an enhanced or different activation than that reported previously after CO reduction. The low temperature CO and NO activity combined with low alkane activity do not seem consistent with the simple reduction of Pt to a more metallic state. In particular, Pt is known to exhibit generally poor (relative to Rh) NO activity [25,26] which has been associated with CO inhibition [26,27] and SO2 poisoning [26]. The activity results presented here imply an induced Pt-Ce02 interaction which greatly affects the nature and activity of the catalytic sites. Table 4 summarizes the BET surface area and CO chemisorption (expressed as CO/Pt ratio) data for the Pt-Ce02 catalysts after various pretreatments. The initially high surface area Ce02 results in well dispersed Pt (0.71 COPt) after the initial 500 "C calcination in air. Upon reduction in H2 there is a decrease in BET surface area and CO uptake. Subsequent treatment of the reduced sample in air at 500 "C has minimal effect on the BET surface area but increases the CO uptake.

TABLE 4

- BET and CO Chemisorption

Pretreatment Air 500 "C Air 500 "C 4 H2 600 "C Air 500 "C 4 H2 900 "C Air 500 "C + H7 600 "C + Air 500 "C

I

of 0.9 wt 9% Pt/Ce02

I BET SA m2g-1 I

125 75 7 73

I

Copt 0.7 1 0.21

::"0

I

Recent TEM and preliminary EXAFS [28] analyses indicate that the reduced Pt-Ce02 catalyst still contains small Pt particles (cl0nm) and therefore the observed decrease in CO uptake cannot be accounted for by a Pt sintering process and associated growth in Pt particle size. An alternative explanation is that the changes in CO chemisorption result from an induced metal-support interaction. TPR results appear to confirm a significant change in Pt-Ce02 interaction associated with the H2 reduction treatments. Fig. 1 2 presents TPR profiles for the Pt-Ce02 catalysts after

Figure 8

Figure 9

Light-off curve atA= 0.98 for Various Gaseous Components on O.W%WCeO, Calcined in Air at sooOC 100.

00'

-Hz

t 00

........ ............

.-.co

-

Light-off curve atA= 0.98 for Various Gaseous Components on 0.9wt% WCe02 Calcined in Air at 5OOOC then Reduced in Hydrogen at 9oooC

....................

00

- - - NO.

10

1

,,,-' r.7

I'

40. 30'

I'

I'

'0

0160

INLET TEMPERATURE %

I'

........ .............. 260

200

------

.-

._._.-.-.

100

300- 9 6 0 460 460 INLET TEMPERATURE %

I

cI(,

..... w*

,,-I

80

660

Figure 11

Figure 10 Light-off curve at& 0.98for Various Gaseous Components on 0.9wt% PVCe02Calcined in Air at 5OOOC then Reduced in Hydrogen at 6OOOC 100

1 -n. I

.....

..

;

Light-off curve atA= 0.98 for Various Gaseous Components on O . M % WCeO, Calcined in Air at 5OOOC then Reduced in Hydrogen at 6oooc then re-calcined in air

:

:

'

..y.........;............ /-

10

_.',

1 'O

. . L _ .

.....,,' ,/;/

/@ 400 450 600 INLET TEMPERATURE %

co

--

I'

/'

20

I'

-HZ

---NO.

560

100 '!SO

200

26;

300

350

400

460

INLET TEMPERATURE %

600

660

16

149

initial air calcination, subsequent high temperature reduction with exposure to air at room temperature, and after a 500 "C air calcination of the reduced sample. The two samples which have Figure 12 received the air calcination prior to running the TPR show similar Temperature Programmed Reduction Traces features. A peak centred at -230 "C for O.W% Pt/Ce02 Catalysts is assigned to reduction of Pt and surface oxygen shared with cerium. A shoulder observed at -350 "C appears to be associated with surface CeO2 not in close proximity to the Pt, and the peak + centred at -800 "C is assigned to fa 6 ' reduction of bulk Ce02. The increase in the ratio of the bulk to surface peak ratio featured in the sample calcined after the high temperature reduction is consistent . . 0 (00 200 300 400 100 800 7 0 0 800 900 with the loss of BET surface area, TEMPERANRE % observed after the high temperature treatment.

.. ..

c.*M n r.blSM t M rr.*M in

n

The TPR of this sample first indicates that a reoxidation has taken place upon room temperature exposure to air since overall H2 consumption is similar to that for the calcined samples. The most interesting feature of the TPR profile of the prereduced sample is the existence of a low temperature reduction peak at -50°C that is not observed in the calcined samples. Although this reduction peak cannot definitively be assigned, it is speculated that it arises from a strong Pt-CeO2 interaction, since no similar low temperature peaks are observed either for Pt/A1203 or for ceria alone following the same pretreatment sequence. XPS results after initial air calcination and subsequent high temperature reduction are summarised in Table 5. After calcination in air, Pt is identified as being present as Pt2+; whereas, in the reduced sample, only Pt is observed. Cerium is present in the plus four oxidation state for both the air-calcined and reduced samples although, in the latter case, ambient oxidation in air has been shown to occur. The above results cannot consistently be explained by a simple increase in the metallic character of Pt, which was proposed to explain the enhanced activity of Pt-Ce02-Al203 catalysts after a milder reduction with CO [2,10]. Indeed, it would appear that the effects reported in this present paper may be

150

different in degree and/or nature from those previous studies due to the more severe reducing treatments used.

TABLE 5. Results of XPS Studies on Pt/CeOz

Air 500 "C Air 500 "C -+ H2 900 "C

Pt I1 0

Ce

Iv

IV*

* after ambient oxidation in air At present, we do not have a single model which will explain all of the results obtained, although the following appears to account for most of the observations. It is proposed that ionised vacancies are the active sites for NO reduction and the re-oxidised vacancies are active for CO and H2 oxidation. Lattice vacancies are formed during the reduction of surface lattice anions via the formation of hydroxyl groups. Subsequent ionization and stabilization occurs by electron transfer to the metal. A partial encapsulation of the metal by the support or partially reduced oxide could account for the low CO chemisorption [30,34]. This is consistent with the fact that only small metal crystallites are observed by TEM. Pt promotes the formation of the anion vacancies but may not be the active sites because increased electron density at the metal centre would promote stronger CO adsorption and inhibition of low temperature activity. It has been proposed [3 11 that similar anionic vacancies stabilized by electron transfer to metal crystallites may be the active sites in methanol synthesis. The reduction treatment may be inducing a Pt-CeO2 interaction causing an enhancement of the redox reaction on ceria oxidation of ionized vacancies by NO (or H 2 0 or 0 2 ) and reduction of oxidized vacancies by CO - with the metal particles acting as an electron donor and sink. The lower alkane activity would result from the encapsulation of the metal particles. At present, however, such a model does not appear to account for the increased low temperature alkene activity. It must be emphasized that, at present, the above represents a working hypothesis to help explain the experimental results, and that further work is in progress to assess its validity. Other models which can partially explain some of the observations include: (a) the formation of Pt particles with cationic character, arising from their interaction with oxygen ion lattice vacancies [13,32], or at the metal-metal oxide interface [ 3 3 ] ; and (b) active sites comprised of surface Pt atoms situated at the metal-support interface close to anionic vacancies in the support. The latter has previously been used to explain

151

CO-NO reaction over Rh/Ce02 [23] and enhanced CO-H2 reaction over Ni/CeOz[ 141. It is difficult to assess the extent to which the low temperature active state observed here is contributing to actual three-way catalyst performance on a vehicle. These laboratory experiments were designed to enhance the transitory condition observed so that it could be studied in detail and, as a result, the pretreatment conditions used are relatively unrealistic. However, it does seem feasible that, after high temperature rich operation on a vehicle, at least some of the effects observed in these laboratory experiments would be found. 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

It has been demonstrated that ceria plays a wide variety of roles within three-way catalysts. It stabilises Pt dispersion by maintaining the metal in an oxidised state. This has an adverse effect on catalytic activity under oxidizing conditions. However, under reducing conditions, ceria promotes the reduction both of platinum and rhodium to the metals, and this leads to enhanced activity for water gas shift, steam reforming and NO reduction. The high activity state which has previously been reported to result from in situ reduction of Pt supported on Ce02-Al203 has been studied in more detail. Pt/Ce02 catalysts have been pre-reduced in hydrogen and tested and characterised. Dramatic improvements in the low temperature conversion of CO, NO and alkene (propene) have been observed, while alkane (methane and propane) activity is adversely affected. However, after subsequent ageing in air, this enhanced low temperature activity is lost. Although, at present, no single model explains all of our observations, the following appears to account for most. It is proposed that, during the reduction process, a strong Pt-Ce02 interaction occurs involving the encapsulation of Pt by the partially reduced oxide. Ionised vacancies in the Ce02 lattice are formed and these are the active sites for NO reduction. We must emphasize that the above is a working hypothesis and that further research is in progress to assess its validity. It is difficult to assess the likely influence of the low temperature active state on actual TWC performance on a vehicle. However, high temperature rich operation may induce its partial formation.

152

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. G.P. Ansell, Mr. C.M. Brown, Dr. J.A. Busby and Mr. J.F. Pignon at Johnson Matthey Technology Centre. Thanks for their helpful comments are also due to Dr. S.J. Roth, Mr. R.A. Searles, Dr. D.E. Webster and Dr. M. Wyatt of Johnson Matthey Catalytic Systems Division.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34.

Gandhi H.S., Piken A.G., Shelef M. and Delosh R.G., S A E Paper No.760201, Warrendale PA (1976) Yu Yao Y.F. and Kummer J.T.,J. Catal., 106,307, (1987) Yao H.C. and Yu Yao Y.F., J. Catal., 86,254, (1984) Shyu J.Z., Otto K., Watkins W.L.H., Graham G.W., Belitz R.K. and Gandhi H.S., J. Catal.,lJ& 23, (1988) su E.C. and Rothschild W.G., J. Catal., B,506, (1986) Su E.C., Montreuil C.N. and Rothschild W.G., Appl. Catal.,U, 75, (1985) Truex T.J., Presentation at 4th International Conference on the Chemistry of the Platinum Group Metals, July 1990 - to be published Kim G., Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev., 2,267, (1982) Engler B., Koberstein E. and Schubert P.,Applied Catalysis&. 71, (1989) Yu Yao Y.F., J. Catal., 152, (1984) Summers J.C. and Ausen S.A., J. Catal., 58, 131, (1979) Meriaudeau P., Dutel J.F., Dufaux M. and Naccache C., Metal-Support and Metal Additive Effects in Catalysis, ed. B. Imelik, Amsterdam 1982 Sanchez M.G. and Gazguez J.L., J. Catal., 104,120, (1987) Henmann J.M., Rameroson E., Tempere J.F. and Guilleux M.F., 117,(1989) Applied Catalysis, Shyu J.Z. and Otto K., J. Catal., U, 16, (1989) Jawarska G.Z., React. Kinet. Cat. Letter, 19. 1-2,23, (1982) Hicks R.F., Qi H., Young M.L. and Lee R.G., J. Catal., 122, 280, (1990) Yu Yao Y.F., Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev.& 223, (1980) Briot P., Auroux A., Jones D. and Primet M., Applied Catalysis,5p, 141, (1990) McCarthy E., Zahradnik J., Kuczynski G.C. and Carberry J.J., J. Catal, 3 , 2 9 , (1975) Yao H.C., Stepien H.K. and Gandhi H.S., J. Catal., 61, 547, (1980) Wang T. and Schmidt L.D., J. C a t a l . , X 187, (1981) 73, (1988) Harrison B., Diwell A.F. and Hallett C., Platinum Metals Review, Joy G., Lester G. and Molinaro F., SAE 790943, 1979 54, (1972) Bauerle G.L., Service G.R. and Nobe K., I. EC Prod. Res. Develop., Summers J.C. and Baron K., J. Catal., 51,380, (1979) v. d. Bosch-Drierbergen A.G., Kieboom M.N.H., v. Dreumel A., Wolf R.M., v. Delft F.C.M.J.M. and Nieuwenhuys B.E., Catalysis Letters, 2,235, (1989) Beagley B., Private Communication Shyu J.Z., Weber W.H. and Gandhi H.S., J. Phys. Chem., 92, 4964, (1988) Belton D.N., Sun Y.M. and White J.M., J. Phys. Chem., 88, 5172, (1988) Frost J.C., N a t u r e a m , 577, (1988) Yao H.C., Gandhi H.S. and Shelef M., Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal.,U, 159, (1982) Bell A.T., Catalyst Design Progress and Perspective, John Wiley 1987 Henmann J.M., J. Catal., & 404, (1984)

a

a

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control ZI 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

153

CHARACTERIZATION OF OXIDATION CATALYSTS BY CO-TPR AND SELECTIVE CARBON-CARBON BOND RUPTURE.

Ch.Serre1, F. Garid¶*, G. Belotl, G. Maire2, R. Rochel 1: Peugeot S.A. I E.R. I 8 rue des Fauvelles 92250 La Garenne Colombes. FRANCE. 2: Laboratoire a2 Catalyse et Chimie des Surfaces, URA 423 CNRS-Institut L.e Bel, ULP 4 rue Blaise Pascal 67070 Strasbourg Cedex. FRANCE. *: To whom all correspondance should be addressed.

Abstract The results obtained with TPR tests under CO/He are discussed. For ceria and Pt-Ce catalysts, they are well correlated with those of the literature. The reaction of methylcyclopentane hydrogenolysis is used as a chemical probe to study Pt, Pd and Ce catalysts. It is found to be a very sensitive test for the study of surface modifications.of exhaust catalysts These studies indicate that, under dynamic conditions, the catalyst surface is subjected to permanent evolutions.

INTRODUCTION.

Heterogeneous catalysis is extensively used for industrial application where the working conditions are mild and almost constant. The particularity of automotive exhaust catalysts is that, contrary to others, they are subjected to (i) high temperature, (ii) numerous poisons and (iii) gas composition fluctuations. In order to remain efficient in this hostile environment, the catalyst requires a quite complex formulation composed o f many precious metals (Pt, Pd, Rh [1,2]), additives (principaly ceria [1,2]) and a stabilized support (y-Al203 dopped with La [3,4]), where all ingredients are more or less in interactions. A lot of studies has already been devoted to understand the behaviour of these catalysts. A large range of test methods including, on one hand, physical characterisations and, on the other hand, chemical characterisations is available. In this study, we try to develop new in situ methods aimed to study the surface state of the catalyst. Two approaches are used. The first one consists of a temperature programmed reduction (TPR) performed under CO diluted in He. Compared with the classical TPR under H2, the main difference is that CO does not diffuse into the bulk of the particles. Thus, the reduction occurs via a chemical pump effect which causes the oxygen diffusion up to the surface. Moreover, working under CO atmosphere brings additional advantages. It enables to get a TPR spectum of Pd

154

catalysts, which is difficult with H2 because of hydrogen dissolution in Pd [ 5 ] and in terms of oxygen disponibility, it better simulates real working conditions under rich mixture, since the exhaust gas contains about 3 volumes of CO for 1 volume of H2. The second method is performed under H2 and uses the methylcyclopentane (MCP) hydrogenolysis reaction which is structure sensitive [6-81. Therefore, it enables us to follow the modifications of the surface state induced by different high temperature treatments.

EXPERIMENTAL. Catalysts preparation. The catalysts studied are composed of various combinations of Pt, Pd and Ce, deposited on y alumina pellets (table 1) by successive impregnations of each metal in the order: Ce, Pd, Pt for multimetallic catalysts, using the following procedure: the pellets are immersed in water containing the desired amount of precursor salt (Ce(N03)3, Pd(NH3)4C12, or H2PtC16 ). After l h contact, the solution is slowly evaporated ( = 80°C ) and the sample is calcined in air at 400°C for 2h. For each sample, the metal contents are determined at the “Service Central de Microanalyse du C.N.R.S.” (Vernaison - France) by atomic absorption.

Table 1 : Characteristics of the y-Al2O3 (Reference : GCO 64 purchased from Rhone-Poulenc)

Experimental procedures. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus used for all the tests performed in this work. The carrier gas (He or H2) flows through the reference side of the thermal conductivity detectors (TCD), whereas the test gas flows successively through the first TCD, the catalyst (C), the second TCD, and the I.R. carbon monoxide analyser (I.R.). The traps (TR) may be connected to the system, either for H2O trapping (in TR1) or for hydrocarbon injection (TR2), and the sampler (S) enables subsequent chromatographic analyses of the outgas. The flow rates are monitored by mass flow controllers (FC). The catalyst is heated by a regulated furnace and its temperature is measured by a thermocouple located in the pellets bed. All experiments are performed on 4.7 g of catalyst, at atmospheric pressure. All gases (>99.995%) are used without any further purification.

155

* Light-off - TPO - TPR. These tests are performed under helium at a flow rate of 100 cc/min (VVH=2350 h-1). First of all, the fresh catalyst is heated in He up to 700°C (10"C/min) for l h in order to dehydroxylate [9] the alumina support (H2O is trapped in TR1) and to avoid formate formation during the subsequent CO treatment [lo], then it is cooled at room temperature (R.T.), reduced in l.S%CO/He from R.T. up to 700°C (lO°C/min) plus l h isothermal at 700"C, purged in He and cooled back to R.T..

T W

FI

Figure 1: experimental apparatus. FC: mass flowcontroller TRi,TRz : traps TCD: thermalconductivity detector c:catalyst F furnace S : sampler I.R.: CO analyser F1: flow meter

After this pretreatment procedure, the catalyst surface is expected to be "clean and in a reproducible reduced state". The catalyst is then subjected to a sequential temperature programmed oxidation/reduction procedure, as shown in figure 2.

Two types of oxidation are performed, depending on the oxidizing atmosphere composition. The first one, referred as "light-off', is carried out

156

under a gas mixture containing 1.5%CO-1.5%02/He, i.e. in excess of oxygen according to the stoichiometry of CO oxidation. The second type of oxidation (noted "TPO") is simply conducted under 02/He (under various Po2). The thermal treatment is the same for both oxidations: after getting, at room temperature, a stationary outgas composition, the temperature is rised up to 700°C at a constant rate of 10"C/min, and kept l h isothermal at 700°C. The oxidative atmosphere is then sweeped out by pure He before catalyst's cooling. At the end of the oxidation step, the catalyst surface is more or less covered by different kinds of adsorbed oxygen atoms, which are characterized by a subsequent thermo-programmed reduction (see fig. 2). The TPR is performed under a flow of lS%CO/He, by the same procedure as for the previous oxidation: (i> stabilisation of the CO level at R.T., (ii) heating (10"C/min) until 7OO"C,(iii) l h isothermal at 700"C, (iv) purge with He, and (v) cooling back to R.T.. After this first oxidation /reduction cycle, the catalyst can be subjected to another cycle, similar to the leadrich atmospheres in the exhaust pipes, either to test the reproducibility, or to study the influence of the oxidative atmosphere ( Po2, presence of CO ) on the TPR results. Considering the widely used catalytic test of light off, let us stress the fact that, in our particular conditions, it is not possible to take into account this activity characterisation. Indeed, because of our very low space velocity, the temperature at which 50% of CO is oxidized into C 0 2 is in the range 100140°C for all catalysts, i.e. almost within the experimental error of the temperature determination. Furthermore, our apparatus is not equipped either with C02 nor with 0 2 detectors, and the advancement of the reaction is only followed by the desapearence of CO in the effluent gaz. Consequently, our light off curves consist of the superposition of two phenomena: (i) CO oxidation and (ii) CO adsorption on the catalyst surface. For these two reasons, the oxidation step of the procedure is not studied by itself, but our attention is focussed on its influence on the TPR results.

* Hydrogenolysis of Methylcyclopentane. This molecule is used as an "in situ" chemical test as this hydrocarbon reaction is structure sensitive. The aim of this study will be to point out the possible surface modifications that may occur during high temperature treatment (700°C) under various atmospheres: He, CO/He or 02/He. Therefore, the hydrogenolysis investigations are undertaken by reproducing the successive steps of our oxidation/reduction cycle i.e.: 1. fresh catalyst 2. neutral treatment: in He, RT+70OoC, 10"C/min + l h isothermal at 700°C " 3. reducing treatment: in 1.5%CO/He 4. oxidative treatment: in 5%02 /He '6

'6

157

After each step, the catalyst is reduced overnight with H2 at 300”C, and then tested using the methylcyclopentane (MCP) hydrogenolysis reaction. This catalytic test is also investigated with the apparatus described in figure 1,but with pure H2 as carrier gas and a flow rate of 71 ml/min. 10 pl MCP (puriss: >99.5%) are injected in TR2 which is maintained at -38°C in order to get a constant vapor pressure of MCP in the H2 flow. The reaction temperature is fixed at 200°C. After the passage of MCP on the catalyst (detected with the 2nd TCD), 5ml of the products are sampled in S and analysed on an independant FID chromatograph apparatus (DC 200 column).

Physical characterization. - The Pt catalysts’s dispersion is determined by H2 chemisorption at R.T. using a pulsed technique on prereduced catalysts (450°C under 10%H2 /Ar). - The mean Pt particle sizes are measured by the Pt line broadening of X-ray diffraction spectra. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. TPR results. As mentioned previously, the temperature-programmed reductions are performed under a mixture of lS%CO/He, therefore they reflect the ability of the different type of surface oxygen to be reduced by CO. Generally speaking, the TPR spectra are reproducible and do not evolve with the number of the oxidatiordreduction cycle (for some catalysts, up to 10 successive cycles have been performed). This means that after our pretreatment procedure, the catalyst has reached a stable state. The effluent composition is analysed by two methods: (i) the %CO is measured by the IR detector and (ii) the second TCD gives a global composition of the gas. These data are entered in a computer and converted to plots versus temperature. Moreover, the TCD scale is recalculated knowing that after the stabilization of the effluent composition at R.T., both detectors are measuring 1.5%CO. As a result of this computer treatment we get two curves noted respectively “CO by IR” and “TCD” (for example on Fig.3). Assuming that the only reaction occuring during the TPR is the oxidation of CO in C02 , the difference between the two curves corresponds to the level of CO2 in the effluent. This calculated signal (noted “TCD-CO”) is represented on the graphs (see Fig.3 for example) but one must keep in mind the assumption that no parasite reaction will occur, and that this curve is drawn in arbitrary units.

158

Catalvsts without ceria. *0.2%PtIA1203. Platinum oxide is known to be unstable at 700°C even under an oxidative atmosphere [ 111, therefore under our experimental conditions this catalyst does not exhibit any reduction peak in the range 25400°C after the oxidation step either under 0 2 /He or under C 0 + 0 2 /He. The only CO consumption is very small and occurs after 600°C. Therefore we can exclude CO disproportionation as an important reaction below this temperature, probably because of the low CO% used. *1.06%Pd/A1203.In contrast with platinum, PdO is stable at 700°C in an oxidative environment, and the TPR spectra presents many peaks depending on the previous oxidative treatment as shown in Fig.3(a and b). At present, we do not have a proven assignment for the oxygen species associated with each one of the peaks, but it is worth noting that the relative peak intensities are affected by the presence (Fig.3.a) or the absence (Fig.3.b) of CO in the oxidative atmosphere. On the basis of this observation, adsorbed CO is thought to induce a surface restructuration of palladium particles [ 121 leading to a modification of the oxygen species distribution. Fig.3.b TPR of 1.062Pd/AlZOS (aft- dW0n 15202)

Jooad 2JQM)

“

8

rk

- w by 1 3 . --

‘b

.......... .iW

- CO bylR

21%

Gu

-- TCD -.‘“m-co

st&

so0

7bo

lc3 ‘V .(.=\cpCO

*0.2%Pt-l.7%PdIA1203. T h e data are presented in Fig.4 which have to be compared to the equivalent Pt-free spectra of Fig.3.a. One can notice that the peak positions in Fig.3.a remain almost unchanged by the addition of 0.2%Pt but that their intensity decreases markely. This effect is attributed to the existence of an interaction between the two precious metals and points out the real bimetallic character of the catalyst.

159

8

B

Catalysts containing ceria. *14S%CeIA1203. The shape of the spectrum (Fig.5) indicates a wide peak between 300 and 550°C accompained by an unresolved peak on the high temperature side. These results are very close to those obtained by using the classical TPR performed under hydrogen [4,12-131. *0.52%Pt-13.3%CelA1203. As previously mentioned, platinum reduction does not occur during our TPR experiments. The spectra in Fig.6 is thus only representative of ceria reduction. By comparing Fig.5 with Fig.6, the presence of platinum appears to promote the reduction of “capping oxygen” of ceria [12] (shift of the first peak from 500°C down to 350°C).In the case of TPR under H2, the same effect is observed [4,12-131 and could be attributed to H2 spillover on Pt particles, as proposed by Boudart [14] for the reduction by H2 of W 0 3 catalysts containing Pt. Taking into account this explanation, one might expect Pt to have no effect on ceria reduction by CO, which is not the case. Therefore, and in agreement with Yao [13], the results reported here are explained in terms of an interaction between Pt and ceria leading to the destabilisation of the Ce-0 bond. *I .51 %Pd-9.8%CelA1203. This W.7 TPR Of 1.51md-Q.BzCe/U203 catalyst exhibits many unresolved (it* an) TPR peaks as sketched in Fig.7. From 50000Fig.3.a (1%Pd/A1203) and Fig.5 2soOo. (14.5%Ce/A1203), one can deduce that the low temperature side of the spectra (T<300”C) is mainly representative of the precious metal reduction whereas the high temperature side is due to both - IXJbyIR -- TCD -.(?\CD_co reduction of the precious metal and ceria. For 1%Pd/A1203 (Fig.3.a), it

160

appears that the first reduction peak (visualised on the curve “TCD-CO” around 150°C) occurs without apparent consumption of CO (curve “CO by IR”). Therefore, this reduction is attributable to CO initialy adsorbed on the surface at R.T.. When ceria is added (Fig.7), the opposite effect is observed and the first TPR peak is accompagnied by an equivalent CO consumption. As a conclusion of this comparison and in accordance with Summers et al. [16], the addition of ceria is thought to inhibit CO chemisorption at room temperature on palladium particles which indicates that palladium and ceria are interacting. Others experiments have been performed on Pd-Ce/A1203 in order to study the effect of Po2 during the oxidative treatment. This study has revealed that an increase in the oxygen percentage (02%/He: 0.8, 1.5, 5 % ) has no influence on the subsequent TPR peak position, but it does globaly increase their intensity. This evolution is ascribed as an increase of the amount of oxidized Pd as the 0 2 percentage levels up, the metallic particles being not totally oxidized in the bulk. This result is consistent with the conclusion published by Shyu et a1 [17] on Pd-Ce02/A1203 where they observed a decrease in propane oxidation rate when increasing the Po2of the feed gas. Concerning the coadsorption effect of CO and 0 2 previously observed on the TPR profile of 2%Pd/A1203 (Fig.3.a and 3.b) it is difficult to say if it is still present when ceria is added because the peaks which were modified in Pd/A1203 are now in superposition with the reduction of ceria. +0.2%Pt-2%Pd-l3%CeiA1203.The TPR spectra of this catalyst does not exhibit additional points of interest. Similarly to the effect already observed for Pd/A1203, the addition of ceria to 0.2%Pt-2%Pd/A1203 appears to inhibit the CO chimisorption at RT.

Results of MCP hydrogenolysis. Previous studies performed in the laboratory [6-81 pointed out that the MCP ring opening is structure sensitive. In particular, for Pt catalysts, the probability for each C-C bond rupture in the C5 ring was found to depend on the metal particle size: for well dispersed catalysts, the C5 ring is statisticaly opened; for badly dispersed platinum catalysts n-hexane is not formed. This effect enables to correlate the Pt particle size and the “selectivity ratio”: M3P/nHex (3methylpentaneh-hexane) which corresponds to CII-CII / CII-CIII bond rupture. Within the scope of this article, we only discuss the results obtained for the fresh catalysts and after the whole series of high temperature treatments (the last step being the catalyst oxidation). Those results enable to investigate the global modifications that occur during our TPR pretreatment (i.e.

161

thermodesorption, reduction, oxidation) as mentioned in the experimental procedure.

Table 2 Physical characterization D: Dispersion; dia: diameter of Pt particles (1) for more details,see the experimental part

Catalvst

Treatment

(*I 1-fresh 4-Ome

Treatment

D

dia

(1) fresh

81%

<20A

02me

13%

908,

fresh

95%

<208,

02me

15%

160A

Conversion %

%

crack r.o.(I) 11.4 62.2 0

3.0

*13%CelA1203. This catalyst has no activity at this temperature of reaction (200°C). Therefore, when interpreting the following studies of PM-Ce/A1203 catalysts, one must keep in mind that the reaction always occurs on the precious metal (PM), which is more or less modified by the presence of ceria. * 2 % P t l A 1 2 0 3 . The data are presented in table 3. The fresh catalyst exhibits a very high activity and low particle sizes as shown by the M3P/nHex ratio which is around 0.5 [6] (i.e. statistical rupture of all C-C bonds of the cycle).The high temperature treatments lead to a tremendous decrease of activity and an increase of the Pt particle sizes (M3P/nHex =2.5).

2MPW 3MPW nHex(4) CycloP(5) 3MP/nHex +c1 37.0

27.6

31.7

3.7

0.87

70.9

20.9

0

0

2.5

162

* I .51 %Pt-12.5%CelAl203. The most stricking feature of table 4 is the relatively high selectivity for cyclopentane formation over Pt-Ce/A1203. On the oxidized catalyst, we have performed two MCP hydrogenolysis tests: (i) one before the night reduction under H2 at 300°C (noted "hexed.") and (ii) a second after a one-night reduction (noted “afxed.”). As shown in table 4, the cyclopentane percentage is well correlated to the oxidation state of the surface. This effect is attributed to a dipole-like interaction between platinum and ceria [18-191 resulting in a more or less positive charge on the precious metal and depending on the oxidation state of cerium. This electron deficient Pt is thought to promote the selective adsorption of the exocyclic carbon of MCP (slightly negatively charged [20]) which leads to the formation of cyclopentane and methane. Table 4: 1.51%Pt-12.51%Ce/AI203. Conversions in cracked products and isomers 1 and distribution in isomers for the MCP hvdrogenolvsis at 200°C.

Treatment

(*I 1-fresh 4-0fle be.red af.red

Conversion %

%

crack r,o.(l) 0.6 35.2 0.2 0.3

18.0 28.5

2MPW 3MP(3) nHex(4) CycloP(5) 3MP/nHex +c1 28.8

21.8

40.9

8.4

0.53

29.7 32.5

18.5 23.6

28.1 34.4

23.6 9.5

0.66 0.68

*For more details see the experimental part. (1) ring opening; (2): 2methylpentane; (3): 3methylpentane; (4):n-hexane; (5): cyclopentane.

Concerning the meaning and the value of the M3P/nHex ratio, 2methylpentane isomerisation tests where undertaken [21]. For this reaction, 3MP/nHex ratio have values very different from those obtained with the MCP hydrogenolysis. These discrepancies show that 3MP/nHex ratio from MCP reaction couldn’t be anymore related to the Pt particle size in the case of PtCe/A1203. This observation was confirmed by the physical analysis of the used catalyst (see table 2) which indicates that a Pt particle growing had occured although the M3P/nHex remains constant. A third point of interest emerges from table 4: compared with the results on Pt/A1203, the activity of the fresh Pt-Ce/A1203 catalyst is lower but it remains almost constant after the high temperature treatments in spite of the growth of the Pt particles.

163

Table 5: 2%PdlA1203. Conversions (in cracked products and isomers). and distribution in isomers for the MCP hydrogenolvsis at 200°C

*For more details see the experimental part. (1)ring opening; (2): 2methylpentane; (3): 3methylpentane; (4): n-hexane; (5): cyclohexane.

Table 6: 1.51 %Pd-9.80%Ce/A1203. Conversions (in cracked products and isomers), and distribution in isomers for the MCP hydroeenolysis at 200°C

*For more derails see the experimental part (1) ring opening ; (2): 2methylpentane; (3): 3methylpentane; (4):n-hexane; (5): cyclohexane.

*2.0Z%PdlA1203. The fresh catalyst exhibits a quite low activity (see Table 5 ) compared to that of platinum (Table 3). This result is consistent with previous studies obtained in the laboratory [22]. The hydrogenolysis test performed just after the oxidative treatment (“be.red.”) shows a large increase of activity which goes back to a small value after a one-night reduction under H2 at 300°C (“afxed.”). Following Hicks et al. [12], Pd particles are subjected to a surface roughing when treated under oxygen at high temperature. After our oxidation step, this “rough PdlzO surface” is thought to be reduced into a “rough Pdo surface” during the hydrogenolysis test (200°C under H2). This Pd restructuration may increase the number of accessible Pd atoms ( compared to

164

the fresh catalyst) and leads to a higher activity. The low activity detected after the night reducing treatment (“af.red.”) is tentatively attributed to a surface smoothing of the Pd particles induced by H2 at 300°C. *I 5 1 %Pd-9.8%Ce/A1203.By comparing Table 5 (Pd/A1203) with Table 6 (Pd-Ce/A1203), it emerges that ceria enhances the catalytic activity of Pd, but only for the fresh catalyst, In fact, Pd-Ce/A1203 is found to become totaly inactive after either the neutral (under He) or the reducing (under 1 .5%CO/He) high temperature treatments (those intermediate results are not reported in Table 6). This drastic evolution is ascribed to a partial coverage of Pd by rare earth oxide as already proposed by some authors [23-241. Following these authors, the coverage of Pd is suppressed by a subsequent exposure under 0 2 . Therefore, the 3.7% conversion exhibited by the reoxidated catalyst gives an additional evidence for this interpretation. Furthermore, the addition of ceria does not seem to modify the subsequent restructuration of Pd induced by the night reduction, as shown by the decrease of MCP conversion.

CONCLUSION. Our TPR results obtained under carbon monoxide can be correlated with those obtained by others authors under hydrogen. The hydrogenolysis of MCP is found to be a very sensitive test for the study of surface evolutions, starting from fresh catalyst. This chemical test may give informations about the state of the catalyst during the catalytic gas exhaust conversion. Nevertheless, complementary investigations are required in order to confirm our interpretations. These two approaches indicate that surface modifications of the catalyst occur when working under dynamic conditions. The following points have been underlined: - state changes in the surface of metallic particles during oxidation/reduction cycles - particle growing at high temperature - modification of mutual interactions for PM and ceria (decoration or electronic transfer) - changes in the oxidation state of the various catalyst components. All these electronic and geometric effects are involved in determining the activity and the selectivity of the catalyst. Finally, the fresh catalysts appear to age very quickly at high temperature, as shown by the hydrogenolysis results. Then, the catalysts reach a more stable state, as shown by the reproducibility of the successive oxidation/TPR cycles.

165

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The authors are indebted to Dr. L. Hilaire for helpful discussions. We thank Dr. P Wehrer (chemisorption measurements) and Dr. G. Meunier (XRD) for their contributions.

REFERENCES: J.C. SUMMERS, W.B. WILLIAMSON and H.C. HENK,SAE Paper 880281 (1988) L.L. HEGEDUS, J.C. SUMMERS, J.C. SCHLElTER and K. BARON, J. Catal. 56 321-335 (1979) M. DAUZAT, M. PIJOLAT and M. SOUSTELLE, J. Chim.Phys. 85 (9) 865-869 (1988) B. HARRISON, A.F. DIWELL and C, HALLET, Platinum Metals Rev. 32 (2) 73-83 (1988) H.LlESKE, G.LIETZ, W.WANKE and J.VOLTER, Z.Anorg.allg.Chem. 527 135-149 (1985) F.G. GAULT, Advan. Catal. 30 1-95 (1981) F. GARIN, 0. ZARHAA, C. CROUZET, J.L. SCHMIlT, G. MAIRE and F.G. GAULT, Su$. Sci. 106 466-471 (1981) J.M. DARTIGUES, A. CHAMBELLAN, S. COROLLEUR, F.G. GAULT, A. RENOUPREZ, B. MORAWECK, P. BOSCH-GIRAL and G. DALMAI-IMELIK, Nouv. J. Chim. 3 591-601 (1979) B.C. LIPPENS and J.J. STEGGERDA, in: Physical and chemicals aspects of adsorbent and Catalysis. Ed. B. G. LINSEN (Academic Press, New York, 1970) 171-211 P.G. GOPAL, R.L. SCHNEIDER and K.L. WATTERS, J. Catal. 105 366-372 (1987) T. HUIZINGA, I. VAN GRONDELLE and R. PRINS, Appl. Catal. 10 199-213 (1984) R.F. HICKS, H. QI, A.B. KOOH and L.B. FISHEL, J. Catal. 124 488-502 (1990) H.C. YAO and Y.F. YU YAO, J. Catal. 86 254-265 (1984) H.C. YAO, Appl. Su$. Sci. 19 398-406 (1984) R.B. LEVY and M. BOUDART, J . Catal. 32 304-314 (1974) J.C. SUMMERS and S.A. AUSEN, J. Catal. 58 131-143 (1979) J.Z. SHYU, K. OTTO, W.L.H. WATKINS, G.W. GRAHAM, R.K. BELITZ and H.S.GANDHI, J. Catal. 114 23-33 (1988) Y.F. YU Y A 0 , J . Catal. 87 152-162 (1984) F. Le NORMAND, L. HILAIRE, K. KILI, G. KRILL and G. MAIRE, J . Phys. Chem. 92 2561-2568 (1988) R. H O F F M A “ J. Chem. Phys. 39 1399-1412 (1963) Unpublished results M. HAJEK, S. COROLLEUR, C. COROLLEUR, G. MAIRE, A. O’CINNEIDE, and F.G. GAULT, J. Chim. Phys. 71 1329-1336 (1974) J.S. RIECK and A.T. BELL, J. Catal. 99 278-292 (1986) W. JUSZCZYK, Z. KARPINSKI, J. PIELASZEK, I. RATAJCZYKOWA and Z. STANASIUK in “hoceedings, 9* International Congress on Catalysis, Calgary, 1988” (M.J. Phillips and M. Ternan, Eds.), vo1.3, pp 1238-1245. The Chemical Institute of Canada, Ottawa, 1988.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 0 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

167

DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL CATALYSTS

R. G. Silver, J. C. Summers and W. B. Williamson Allied-Signal Automotive Catalyst Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74158

ABSTRACT The performance of a series of single noble metal automobile emission catalysts was determined as a function of washcoat composition and aging conditions. The use of catalysts containing individual noble metals allowed the contributions of each type of noble metal to be identified, and revealed the role of the alumina supports containing cerium. Each noble metal was found to have a washcoat which optimized its performance under a given set of conditions. Addition of Ce to Pt and Pd-only catalysts improved performance after aging, but Ce did not improve Rh performance at 450 OC. The individual contributions of Pt, Pd, and Rh for aged three-way performance indicate significant advantages of using Pd-Ce over Pt-Ce, however when they are combined the predominant contribution to TWC activity comes from Rh. The influence of CO concentration in the feedstream on the light-off activity was determined for single noble metal catalysts on an alumina/ceria washcoat. Increasing the CO content of the feedstream led to an increase in light-off temperature for all three noble metal catalysts. The light-off characteristics varied with the noble metal, and are thought to be related to the stability of the noble metal oxides.

INTRODUCTION

Advanced automotive emission control technology coupled with sophisticated vehicle emission systems will be critical in helping to achieve improved global air quality. Improving the activity and durability of catalyst technologies are paramount to alternative catalyst control strategies such as increasing platinum (Pt) or rhodium (Rh) noble metal content or increasing catalyst volumes. Factors such as high Pt and Rh prices, noble metal scarcity, low recycling recovery rates for Rh, and increased global usage of noble metals make the latter a costly approach for improving the performance of automobile catalysts. Significant performance improvements in Pt/Rh three-way catalyst (TWC) formulations have been previously achieved by incorporating base metal promoters such as cerium (Ce) into TWC formulations. Cerium significantly enhances NOx and CO performance near stoichiornetric aidfuel

168

(A/F) ratios [1,2,3]. Increasing Ce levels in Pt/Rh TWCs substantially improves NOx and CO durability against thermal deterioration with only slight improvements in HC oxidation [4]. The increased use of palladium (Pd) containing catalysts for three-way emission control [5-91 could lower converter costs, and provide potential durability improvements. Recent Pd/Rh TWC technologies rival current high performance Pt/Rh technologies for a variety of vehicle applications [9]. In order to advance the design of automotive catalysts for maximum durability performance, the present study determines the relative individual contributions of Pt, Pd, and Rh in current high performance ceria-alumina catalyst formulations. This will allow future washcoats to be tailored to optimize each noble metal's contribution. Of course, these types of single component studies preclude any considerations of beneficial effects of noble metal synergism or deleterious effects of metal-metal interactions (e.g. Pd-Rh alloying [lo]). Noble metal durability performance over a variety of Cealumina supports are compared. The influence of exhaust CO concentration on CO and HC light-off activity over the individual noble metal catalysts has been determined, by comparing fresh, laboratory hydrothermal aged and engine aged catalysts. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Catalyst Preparation Catalysts were prepared using 1.2 s/L Pt, 1.2 g/L Pd, and 0.24 g L Rh (33, 33, and 6.7 g/ft3, respectively) either alone or in combination with each other, adding the noble metals to washcoats containing varying amounts of calumina and cerium, and impregnating on monolithic cordierite substrates with 64 square cells/cm2 (400 cells/ i d ) . Cylindrical cores used for laboratory tests were 2.5 cm in diameter by 5 cm in length, the length being composed of four 1.25 cm segments taken from various locations down the monolith bed to minimize sampling errors. For engine dynamometer testing, the catalysts were sectioned into quarters. Eight quarters were cemented together to make two full-size catalyst pieces.

Laboratory Aging and Evaluation For the CO light-off study, fresh and hydrothermally aged samples were preconditioned at 590 OC in a simulated automotive exhaust gas [6] containing either 0.3, 1.43 or 2.0 mole% CO (corresponding to a lean, stoichiometric or rich automotive exhaust, respectively) for 15 minutes, before ramping in the unmodulated preconditioning gas (with a 90,000 h-1 gas space velocity) from 90 to 565 OC at 15 OC/ min. The conversion of CO and hydrocarbon during the temperature ramp was determined as a function

169

of temperature using an automated exhaust system analyzer. The samples were then cooled in nitrogen to 90 OC and then the ramp was repeated. This procedure was continued until duplicate results were obtained. Sample cores were hydrothermally aged by heating at 1000 OC for 4 h in a gas stream of 10% water in air in a Lindberg 3-zone tube furnace.

Engine Aging and Evaluation

The catalysts for the noble metal and washcoat durability studies were aged and evaluated using conventional automotive emission test methods which have previously been described [ 111. Two aging cycles of differing severity used gasoline containing 4 mg Pb/L and 0.5 mg P/L. The less severe aging cycle operated at the stoichiometric point with an inlet temperature of 760 OC during a cruise mode and included a lean fuel-cut mode with bed temperatures of 850 OC. A more severe aging cycle operated at the stoichiometric point with a higher inlet temperature of 850 OC and with lean fuel cuts having 910 OC bed temperatures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Noble Metal Durability Study The relative durability performances of Pt/Rh and Pd/Rh catalysts, and the individual noble metals Pt, Pd and Rh on Ce containing alumina washcoats were determined after 100 hours of engine aging (850 OC inlet, fuel cut). Catalyst performances at 450 O C are shown in Figure 1 as integral conversions about the stoichiometric point (A/F = 14.56 k 0.15) [12]. The most noteworthy result is the poor durability performance of the Pt-only catalyst. The Pd-only catalyst has significantly higher conversions. The Rh catalyst at a lower loading generally has poorer HC conversion than the Pd catalyst, but both catalysts perform similarly for CO and NOx. Figure 1 indicates a major weakness in three-way Pt/Rh catalysts at high temperatures: Platinum alone is very susceptible to performance loss on state-of-the-art washcoats. This is due to sintering of the Pt-particles during aging to form large crystallites, leading to a lower dispersion and lower surface area of the noble metal [13]. This in turn results in a smaller number of active sites and, therefore, in a loss of performance. In contrast, Pd remains dispersed under normal operating conditions [ 141, and performs well after aging relative to Pt. The Pt/Rh and Pd/Rh catalysts have comparable durability performance, except for a slight advantage in rich side NOx for the Pt/Rh TWC. Since Pd alone is much more durable than the Pt, these results suggest that there is a counterbalancing loss of performance due to probable alloy formation of Rh with the Pd. The slight rich side advantage in gross NOx

170

conversion for Pt/Rh suggests that Pt does a slightly better job of activating Rh than Pd. Platinum is also known to be less selective for NO to N 2 formation and therefore results in more ammonia [6].

s

HC Evaluated at 450 C, 30000 S.V.

co Emission

NOx

Fig. I . Noble metal catalysts on an alumina-ceria washcoat evaluated at 450 O C afer aging 100 h at 850 O C .

These results indicate that Pd/Rh catalysts can have TWC performance comparable to Pt/Rh commercial catalysts. Significant advantages exist for Pd over Pt in Ce-alumina catalysts for CO and HC oxidation and NOx reduction. Even though the Rh is at a much lower loading than either of the other noble metals, it makes the predominant contribution to three-way performance. Based on the performance of the individual nobel metals, Pt/Rh might be expected to have lower conversions and Pd/Rh to have better conversions, than are shown in Figure 1. Since Pt/Rh is similar to Pd/Rh in performance after aging, it is possible that Pt and Rh interact to improve catalytic activity, while Pd and Rh interact in a manner which decreases activity.

Pt-only and Rh-only Durability Study Durability studies were carried out using Pt-only and Rh-only catalysts over various washcoat formulations containing increasing amounts of Ce. Two additional samples were made. One contained zirconia and the other did not. These latter catalysts explore the effect of Zr on Rh performance. The catalysts are listed in Table 1. The catalysts were aged for 100 hours in

171

quadrant reactors on a 760 OC inlet, fuel cut engine aging cycle, and then for an additional 50 hours on a 850 OC inlet, fuel cut engine aging cycle. For Pt-only catalysts, improved performance was obtained with increasing amounts of Ce in the washcoat. Figure 2 shows the promotional effects of Ce on Pt performance as a function of aidfuel (A/F) ratio, evaluated at 450 OC and a space velocity of 30,00O/h after 100 hours of the milder aging. Hydrocarbon and CO conversions improved in going from rich to lean conditions. The addition of Ce to the c-alumina washcoat results in improved HC, CO and NOx conversions, especially at stoichiometric conditions (A/F = 14.56). Table 1 Ce concentration Noble Metals Washcoat A1 0 Pt Al, Ce 1.3X Pt Pt Al, Ce 2x Pt Al, Ce 4x A1 Rh 0 Rh 1.3X Al, Ce Rh 2x Al, Ce Al, Ce Rh 4x Al, Ce with Zr Rh 2.4X Al, Ce without Zr Rh 2.4X

*

NoCe HC Conversion l

o

80

o

1.3XCe

-A-

2XCe 0

CO Conversion

-*

4XCe

NOx Conversion

! !

m

I I k’’

> c

0

?42

144

146

14d

Evaluated at 450 C, 30000 s v

144

146

148

1 2

144

146

148

I

AIF Ratio

Fig. 2. Effect of Ce content on Pt-only catalyst pe$orrnance as a function of AIF ratio, evaluated at 450 OC, after aging 100 h on the 760 OCfuel cut

cycle.

172

Figure 3 shows the effect of aging time and severity of aging conditions on conversions (450 OC inlet) over a Pt catalyst at the stoichiometric point versus the amount of Ce in the catalyst washcoat. Without Ce in the washcoat, the catalyst is essentially deactivated after 50 hours of mild aging (Figure 2). At this point, high stoichiometric conversions are seen with a 2X addition of Ce, and additional CO/NOx benefits are evident after doubling the Ce content (to 4X). After 100 hours of 760 O C fuel cut aging, the catalyst requires twice the amount of Ce (4X) to attain the same high conversions seen earlier with the 2X Ce loading. After an additional 50 hours of relatively severe aging (850 OC fuel cut), the catalyst with the 4X Ce loading shows some activity for CO conversion, but otherwise all Pt catalysts are severely deactived. Thus, increasing the Ce loadings resulted in improved catalyst performance after aging over the Ce range studied. 50 hours aging

150 hours aging -0-

100 hours aging

-8-

%

HC Conversion

Conversion

CO Conversion

0

1x

2x

3x

4x

0

:

w

3x

4x

Ce Content

Fig 3. Effect of aging time on Pt catalyst conversion at the stoichiometric point as afunction of Ce content, evaluated at 450 O C . Catalysts were aged 50 and 100 h using the 760 OC fuel cut cycle and then an additional 50 h on the 850 OC fuel cut cycle. As noted earlier, Pt loses significant activity during aging due to thermal deterioration. The above results suggest that Ce prevents the Pt from sintering, probably by keeping some of the Pt in a partially oxidized state [ 131. Increasing the Ce content of the washcoat may increase the amount of partially oxidized Pt, which in turn is harder to sinter than metallic Pt. In addition, ceria likely improves the performance of the Pt by acting as an oxygen source for CO conversion. Similar studies were performed in our lab using Pd/ Al, Ce catalysts. Although not included here, results obtained over

173

Pd-only and Pd/Rh catalysts show that Ce promotes Pd activity in a manner similar to its promotion of Pt [6]. HC Conversion

Evaluated at 450 C, 30000 S.V.

NoCe

1.3XCe

WCe

8

-A-

0

CO Conversion

-*

4XCe

NOx Conversion

NF Ratio

Fig. 4. Effect of Ce content on Rh-only catalyst performance as a function of AIF ratio, evaluated at 450OC, after aging 100 h on the 760 OCfuel cut cycle. For Rh-only catalysts, the conversion performance was not as sensitive to cerium content as for Pt-only catalysts. Figure 4 shows the effect of Ce content on Rh performance as a function of A/F ratio for catalysts aged 100 hours on the 760 OC fuel cut cycle, after evaluation at 450 O C (space velocity = 30,000 hours). Hydrocarbon and CO conversions were improved by making the A/F ratio leaner, and NOx conversions were improved by making it richer. The best hydrocarbon conversions occured with no Ce in the calumina washcoat, while the best CO and NOx conversions occured with the highest amount of Ce. Furthermore, these performance differences were much smaller than for the Pt-only catalysts. The 4X Ce loading catalyst also contains a separate, pure c-alumina phase in addition to the Ce-alumina, which probably accounts for the improved HC conversion [15] over the other Cecontaining catalysts. The results suggest that Rh is relatively less affected by the addition of Ce for COpNOx conversions at 450 OC, and that Ce may actually be detrimental to Rh hydrocarbon conversion under these conditions. However, a recent study suggests that Ce may enhance NO reduction over Rh at temperatures lower than those used here [ 161. Figure 5 shows the effect.of aging time and severity on Rh catalyst conversions at the stoichiometricpoint versus the amount of Ce in the catalyst

174

washcoat. After 50 hours of aging, HC conversions are not affected by Ce content, while CO and NOx conversions show some improvement with increasing Ce. At 100 hours of aging, the HC conversion initially deteriorates with increasing Ce content, but improves at the 4X Ce level as described above. A small improvement is seen in CO conversion with increasing Ce, but NOx conversion appears to be unaffected. After an additional 50 hours of the more severe aging, HC, CO and NOx conversions show a pattern similar to that seen with HC conversion after 100 hours of aging. While adding Ce to the washcoat may aid in CO and NOx conversion initially, Rh ultimately provides the best activity when it is not in contact with Ce. 50 hours aging --Ft

100 h z a g i n g

150 hours aging -€-

NOx Conversion

CO Conversion

0

1x

2x

1

3x

4x

0

IX

2x

3x

4x

Ce Content (g/cf)

Fig 5 . Effect of aging time on Rh catalyst conversion at the stoichiometric point as a function of Ce content, evaluated at 450 O C . Catalysts were aged 50 and 100 h using the 760 O C fuel cut cycle and then an additional 50 h on the 850 O C fuel cut cycle. The effect of zirconia on Rh durability performance is illustrated in Figure 6. After 50 hours of 760 OC fuel cut aging, the results obtained show performance advantages at 450 OC for the non-Zr containing catalyst, for HC and NOx. After 100 hours of aging, the two catalysts are nearly equivalent, due to minimal deterioration of the Zr-containing catalyst. After an additional 50 hours of the more severe aging, the situation is reversed with distinct advantages seen for the Zr-containing catalyst for HC, CO and NOx conversions under all conditions. Zr stabilizes Rh by preventing it from interacting with aluminum when it is exposed-to high temperatures [17,18,19].

175

co-

760c loo 8502 w 760c loo 850Cl5 Aging Time (h)and Inlet Temperature

Fig 6. Effect of Zr on Rh catalyst catalyst conversion at the stoichiometric point as a function of aging time and temperature, evaluated at 450 O C . Catalysts were aged 50 and I00 h using the 760 OCfuel cut cycle and then an additional 50 h on the 850 O C fuel cut cycle. Results at 350 OC indicated that the alumina-only catalyst had the best low temperature activity. This suggests that the Rh may light off more easily on an alumina washcoat surface, than on a more stabilized washcoat. Adding Ce to an alumina washcoat greatly improves the activity and durability of the Pt catalysts. In contrast, the Rh catalysts seem to perform the best over blank alumina, or alumina stabilized by zirconia. By testing the noble metals in this way, an environment can be designed for each of them which optimizes their durability and performance. Nevertheless, it still appears that high temperatures are detrimental to Pt performance.

CO Concentration Effects The effect of CO concentration on the light-off performance of Pt, Pd and Rh-only catalysts was determined for the single noble metal samples used in the Noble Metal Durability Study. All of these samples contained cerium. Catalysts were tested fresh, after lab aging in air with 10% water at 1000 O C for 4 hours, and after engine aging for 100 hours using the 760 OC fuel cut aging cycle. Figure 7 shows the performance of the fresh catalysts. Over Pt-only catalysts, increasing the amount of CO in the feedstream led to higher lightoff temperatures for both CO and hydrocarbons. The steady state conversion of CO and hydrocarbon also decreased. CO is converted via reaction with 0 2 to form C 0 2 . If the reaction is assumed to occur on the surface between

176

adsorbed species, and if CO competes for adsorption sites with 0 2 , then it seems plausible that increasing the amount of CO in the feedstream would lead to a decrease in CO conversion and an increase in CO light-off temperature. Since more of the 0 2 is used up in CO conversion, a decrease in hydrocarbon conversion occurs as the CO content in the feed is increased. CO light-off occurred before hydrocarbon light-off, due to the well-known CO poisoning effect on Pt. A similar pattern is seen over fresh Pd-only catalysts, except there is a much smaller difference between the hydrocarbon light-off temperatures at lean and rich conditions (Figure 7). Both CO and hydrocarbon light-off occurs at lower temperatures than over the Pt catalysts [6] for each test condition. Decreasing hydrocarbon conversion under rich conditions above 450 O C may be due to decreasing CO conversions via the water-gas shift (WGS) reaction [20]. The lower WGS conversions mean that CO must then compete directly with hydrocarbon for available oxygen. An inflection point is also seen in the hydrocarbon light-off curves at about 60% conversion. This corresponds to the point where the reaction is switching from conversion of unsaturated hydrocarbons to saturated hydrocarbons, which were present in the feedstream in a ratio of 67% propylene/ 33% propane. In another experiment (not shown here), the inflection point in the light-off curves was seen to change when the ratio of saturated to unsaturated hydrocarbons was changed. Under lean conditions, steady state hydrocarbon conversions for Pt are greater than those for Pd. At stoichiometry conversions are equal, and under rich conditions conversions are greater for Pd than for Pt. This might be explained by assuming that there are two competing rate limiting steps: hydrogen abstraction from the hydrocarbon and oxygen adsorption on the catalyst surface. Under lean conditions there is an abundance of oxygen which can adsorb on the surface to react with the hydrocarbon, and therefore the limiting reaction is hydrogen abstraction from the relatively rare hydrocarbons. Pt is proposed to be more efficient at abstracting hydrogen from hydrocarbons than Pd [21], therefore Pt should give better conversions under lean conditions. Under rich conditions there is a shortage of oxygen molecules, which must compete with the more numerous CO molecules for surface sites. Since more hydrocarbons are available for hydrogen abstraction, the rate limiting step in this case could be oxygen adsorption. Oxygen is more readily adsorbed over Pd than over Pt, so Pd would be expected to give the higher conversions under rich conditions. The light-off curves in Figure 7 over fresh Rh catalysts show several interesting features. In this case, increasing the amount of CO in the feedstream appears to have little effect on the CO light-off temperature. This may be due to Ce enhancement of the NO-CO reaction over Rh [16]. The hydrocarbon light-off is also different from that seen with Pt or Pd, as

Hydrocarbon

Hvdrocarbon

100

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide

] ’ / - : ’

80 60 40 20

100

100

Lean

’

8 0 -

,

Rh 0

200

400

-0

2.40

4tm

Inlet Temperature (OC)

Fig 7. Hydrocarbon and CO lightoff curvesfor single NM catalysts as a function of the amount of CO in the feedstream. Lean = 0.3% CO, Stoich.= 1.45% CO, and Rich = 2.0% CO.

0

200

400

600

200

400

600

Inlet Temperature fC)

Fig 8. Hydrocarbon and CO lightoff curves for NM catalysts aged I00 h on the 760 OCfuel cut cycle as afunction of the amount of CO in the feedstream. Lean = 0.3% CO, Stoich.= I .45% CO, and Rich = 2.0% CO.

178

conversion starts at a lower temperature under stoichiometric and rich conditions, than under lean conditions. This may be because the oxidation of hydrocarbons over Rh is known to be inhibited by excess oxygen [22]. Clearly, the Rh-only catalyst on a cerium containing washcoat is very inefficient at converting hydrocarbons, with a maximum conversion of less than 70%. Like Pd, CO and hydrocarbon light-off over Rh occurs at lower temperatures than over the Pt catalysts for each test condition. The differences in light-off between the three noble metals may be related to the stability of their oxides. Assuming that the reaction occurs between adsorbed species on the catalyst surface, rapid adsorption of gas phase oxygen, as well as CO and hydrocarbon, is a critical step. Both Rh and Pd have more stable oxides than Pt and can therefore more readily adsorb oxygen to react with adsorbed CO and hydrocarbons. The relative stability of the oxides, and thus the relative surface coverage of oxygen anions, would also explain why Pt was most affected by higher CO levels and Rh was affected the least. Light-off evaluations were repeated after laboratory aging the catalyst samples at loo0 OC for 4 hours with 10% water in air. Lightoff temperatures were higher than for fresh catalysts, especially over Pt catalysts, where aged CO/HC lightoff could be as much as 100 OC higher than fresh light-off. Light-off temperatures over aged Pd and Rh were about the same under lean conditions. Light-off over Rh occurred before Pd under stoichiometric and rich conditions, and Pt was last in all cases. Aging the catalyst may result in a reduction of the number of sites where oxygen can adsorb on the surface, because of sintering of the noble metals. This would tend to affect Pt more than Pd or Rh, due to the relative stability of the noble metal oxides. Oxide stability, in turn, may be related to the sintering resistance of the noble metal, with the more stable oxides being more resistant to sintering. When CO feedstream content is increased in addition to aging, differences between Pd and Rh appear: Pd is more affected since its oxide is not as stable as that of Rh. Figure 8 shows the results of testing the catalysts which were engine aged using the milder aging cycle for 100 hours. A commercially available Pt/Rh catalyst was included in the evaluation as a reference point. Compared to the fresh catalysts, the engine aged samples had higher light-off temperatures and sometimes had lower steady state conversions, just as with the lab aged catalysts. Pt catalysts were again the most affected, having 135 O C higher rich-side HC lightoff temperatures than when fresh. Engine aged Pd had the lowest light-off temperature under lean conditions. Pt/Rh and Rh had the lowest light-off temperature under stoichiometric and rich conditions. Pt-only catalysts had the poorest light-off under all conditions. As expected, light-off occurred the fastest under lean conditions, followed by stoichiometric and then rich conditions, except for hydrocarbon lightoff over

179

Rh. These results suggest that lower light-off temperatures can be achieved using certain Pd-only catalyst technologies under lean conditions. The Pt/Rh catalyst appears to behave just like the Rh-only [23] catalyst for CO conversion, suggesting that most of the CO catalytic activity in aged catalysts is primarily due to Rh. Hydrocarbon conversion is initiated at temperatures similar to those of pure Rh, but Pt improves lean and stoichiometric steady-state conversions in this case. Compared to the laboratory aging done in this study, this engine aging cycle appears to be more severe for light-off of Rh under all conditions, more severe for Pd under stoichiometric and rich conditions, and more severe for Pt under rich conditions. Lab aging is more severe than engine aging for Pt light-off under lean conditions, and the two agings provide similar results for light-off over lean Pd and stoichiometric Pt. CONCLUSIONS

A careful study of single noble metal catalysts can reveal ways in which the design of automotive emission control catalysts can be modified to improve conversion performance. Increasing the Ce content in an alumina washcoat greatly improves the activity and thermal durability of Pt-only catalysts. The high temperature durability of Rh-only catalysts is improved via the addition of Zr to the washcoat, which has been attributed to decreasing Rh interaction with the alumina component in the washcoat. Pd-only catalysts are the first to light-off under lean conditions, while Rh-only catalysts provide the earliest light-off under stoichiometric and rich conditions. Significant durability and light-off advantages of Pd-only over Pt-only TWCs are indicated as well. However, the possible beneficial effects of Pt-Rh synergism or the detrimental effects of Pd-Rh alloying were not considered. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

D. G. Linden prepared the catalysts used in this study. J. R. Coopmans and R. J. Shaw made the stand dynamometer tests. J. H. White coordinated the engine testing. D. M. Thomason and D. H. Whisenhut performed the laboratory agings and evaluations. L. A. Butler typographed the manuscript. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.

L. L. Hegedus, J. C. Summers, J. C. Schlatter and K. Baron, "Poison-Resistant Catalysts for the Simultaneous Control of Hydrocarbon, Carbon Monoxide, and Nitrogen Oxide Emissions", J. Catal. 1979, 56, 321. G. Kim, "Ceria Promoted Three-Way Catalysts for Auto Exhaust Emission Control", Ind. Ene. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev., 1982,21, 267. B.J. Cooper and T.J. Truex, "Operational Criteria Affecting the Design of Thermally Stable Single Bed Three-Way Catalysts", SAE Paper 850128, 1985.

180 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18.

19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

W.B. Williamson, J.C. Summers, and J.F. Skowron, "Catalyst Technologies for Future Automotive Emission Systems," SAE Transactions Paper 880103, 1988, 97, 341. H. Muraki, H. Shinjoh, H. Sabukowa, K. Yokata and Y. Fujitani, "PalladiumLanthanum Catalysts for Automotive Emission control", Ind. Ene. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 1986, 25, 202. J.C. Summers, W. B. Williamson and M. G. Henk, "Uses of Palladium in Automotive Emission Control Catalysts", SAE Paper 880281, Transactions 1988,97, 158. J.C. Summers, J.J. White and W. B. Williamson "Durability of Palladium-Only Three-Way Automotive Emission Control Catalysts", SAE Paper 890794, 1989. R. Heck, K.S. Patel and J. Adomaitis, "Platinum Versus Palladium Three-Way Catalysts -Effect of Closed-Loop Feed-Back Parameters on Catalyst Efficiency", SAE Paper 892094, 1989. J.C. Summers, W. B. Williamson and J.A. Scaparo, "Role of Durability and Evaluation Conditions on the Performance of Pt/Rh and Pd/Rh Automotive Catalysts", SAE Paper 900495, 1990. G. W. Graham, T. Potter, R. J. Baird, H. S. Gandhi, and M. Shelef, "Surface Composition of Polycrystalline Pd- 15 Rh Following High Temperature Oxidation in Air" J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 1986, 44, 3. J.F. Skowron, W. B. Williamson and J.C. Summers, "Effect of Aging and Evaluation Conditions on Three-Way Catalyst performance", SAE Paper 892093,1989. W. B. Williamson, J.C. Summers and J.A. Scaparo, "Automotive Catalyst Strategies for Future Emission Systems", AIChE 1990 Spring National Meeting, Paper 52F, March, 1990, Orlando FL. Engler,B., Koberstein, E. and Schubert, P., "Automotive Exhaust Gas Catalysts: Surface Structure and Activity" , ADDIied Catal. 1989,48,71. Schlatter, J, and Taylor, K., "Platinum and Palladium Addition to Supported Rhodium Catalysts for Automotive Emission Control", J. Catal. 1977,49,42. H. S. Gandhi and W. L. H. Watkins, U. S. Patent 4,782,038, Nov. 1, 1988. Oh, S. H., "Effects of Cerium Addition on the CO-NO Reaction Kinetics over Alumina-Supported Rhodium Catalysts", J. Catal. 1990, 124,477. H.C. Yao, S. Japar, M. Shelef, "Surface Interactions in the System Rh/AI203", J1977,50, 407. H.C. Yao, H. K. Stepien and H.S. Gandhi, "Metal Support Interactions in Automotive Exhaust Catalysts: Rh-Washcoat Interaction", J. Catal, 1980,61, 547. H. K. Stepien, W. B. Williamson and H. S. Gandhi, "Development of ThermalResistant Rhodium catalysts", SAE Paper 800843, 1980. G. Lester, G. Joy, and F. Molinaro, "Water-Gas-Shift and Steam Reforming Ability of Group VIII Metals in Simulated Automotive Exhaust", paper presented at the 6th North American Catalysis Society Meeting, 1979. A. Schwartz, L. L. Holbrook and H. Wise, "Catalytic Oxidation Studies with Platinum and Palladium", J. Catal. 1971, 21, 199. J. T. Kummer, "Use of Noble Metals in Automobile Exhaust Catalysts", J. Phvs. Chem, 1986, 90, 4747. W.B. Williamson, H. K. Stepien and H. S. Gandhi, "Poisoning of PlatinumRhodium Automotive Three-Way Catalysts: Behavior of Single-Component Catalysts and Effects of Sulfur and Phosphorus", Environ. Sci. & Tech, 1980, 14, 319.

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control I1 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

181

INFLUENCE OF Rh AND C e 0 2 ADDITION ON THE ACTIVITY AND + NO SELECTIVITY OF A Pt/A1203 CATALYST IN THE AND C o + NO + 0 2 REACTIONS

co

G. Leclercq, C. Dathy, G. Mabilon* and L. Leclercq Laboratoire de Catalyse He'te'rogene et HornogZne, U.R.A. C.N.R.S. N o0402, Universite' des Sciences et Techniques de Lille Flandres-Artois F - 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex (France) *Institut Francais du Pe'trole, 4 et 6, rue de Bois Prkau, F - 92506 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex (France) ABSTRACT Four catalysts were prepared by impregnation of y-alumina :lwt% WAl2O3, lwt% Pt 0.2 wt% Rh/A1203, lwt% Pt -12wt% Ce02/A1203 and lwt% Pt - 0.2wt% Rh -12wt% CeOgA1203 and characterized by their activities and selectivities in CO + NO and CO + NO + 0 2 reactions in temperature programmed experiments from 100 to 550°C at a space velocity of 25000 h-l. In the reaction between CO and NO, at low temperature, NO gives mainly N20 the percentage of which in the products decreases when the temperature and the conversion increase. On the contrary for reactions CO + NO + 02, at low temperature and low conversion, the selectivity of NO transformation into N20 is low when oxygen is present in the gas phase because of a better adsorption of 0 2 than that of NO. Rhodium and ceria have a promoting effect on both CO + NO and CO + NO + 0 2 reactions, but the promoting effect of ceria manifests itself mainly in the presence of oxygen. During the reaction between CO + NO, besides its oxidation by NO, CO is oxidized in another process which is likely to involve the supports (alumina or ceria). INTRODUCTION

The CO-NO reaction is a major reaction pathway for removal of nitrogen oxides from automobile exhaust. This reaction has to be selective for N 2 formation which is favored at high temperatures. But at low temperatures, the formation of N 2 0 as a primary nitrogen-containing reaction product occurs as it has been reported in previous studies over supported Rh catalysts (1-4). Moreover, McCABE and WONG ( 5 ) have recently shown that N 2 0 formed during the CO-NO reaction can undergo further reaction with CO to produce N2. Owing to the noxious character of N 2 0 which is well-know as an "ozone killer" and can also contribute to the green house effect, it seems important to understand the conditions of N 2 0 formation from a fundamental

182

point of view related to the CO-NO reaction mechanism. In this paper we have first examined, in laboratory feedstreams, the conversion and the selectivity in the CO-NO reaction, with and without oxygen over an alumina-supported Pt compared to the bimetallic Pt-Rh on the same support. In a second part, we have studied the modification involved in the activity and the selectivity of the reactions by the addition of cerium oxide. EXPERIMENTAL

Catalvsts Four catalysts were prepared by impregnation of y-Al2O3 with solutions of hexachloroplatinic acid and rhodium trichloride. Their composition are as fOllOWS : 1 wt% Pt/A1203, 1 wt% Pt-0.2 wt% Rh/A1203, 1 wt% Pt-12 wt% CeOdA1203, 1 wt% Pt-0.2 wt% Rh-12 wt% Ce02/A1203. The y-Al2O3 had a surface area of about 100 m2/g and a total pore volume of 1.15 ml/g. It was used in the form of a powder with particle size between 80 and 124 pm. After impregnation with 12 wt% Ce02 the surface area of the support was 128 m2/g The dispersion of the metals was about 0.55 for Pt/A1203 and 1.00 for 1 wt% Pt-0.2 wt% Rh/A1203. It has not been possible to measure the dispersion of metals on CeOdA1203 either by hydrogen or oxygen chemisorption because of the large amounts stored on Ce02. Catalvtic testing The catalytic tests were performed in a plug flow reactor at a constant space velocity of 25.000 h-1 (gas flow rate per volume of catalyst) with 0.2g of catalyst diluted with 0.8g of a-AI203. The catalyst was heated following a temperature program at a constant heating rate of 1K per minute from 100150°C to 500-550°C. For the CO+NO test the reactant mixture contained 0.5 mole% CO and 0.56 mole% NO in helium. For the CO+N0+02 reaction the composition of the feedstream was 0.75 mole% CO, 0.28 mole% NO and 0.26 mole% 0 2 in helium. The analysis of the gas mixture at the inlet and at the outlet of the reaction was performed by gas chromatography using a column CTRl provided by ALLTECH and which is composed of two concentric columns : the inner one filled with Porapak Q and the outer one with molecular sieve 5A. By this way we were able to separate N2, 0 2 , NO, CO, N 2 0 and C02 in a single analysis and to calculate separately the conversions of CO and of NO. The detailed procedure of this analysis will be described elsewhere. Before being submitted to a catalytic run, the samples of catalysts were heated at 500°C in flowing helium (heating rate 3K per minute), then activated in the CO + NO reactant mixture at the same temperature and rapidly cooled down to room temperature.

183 RESULTS

1 - 1 wt% Pt/Al&& Reaction CO + NO The variations of the conversions of CO (TCCO) and of NO (TCNO) as a function of the reaction temperature are shown in figure 1a. One can see that while the stoichiometry for CO + NO reactions :

(1) (2)

2CO+2NO CO+2NO

+

+

2C02+N2 C02+N20

only allows TCCO/TCNO ratios comprised between 0.5 and 1, at low temperatures between 100 and 400°C the conversion of CO is consistently higher than that of NO. Moreover, starting from about 220°C, both CO and NO conversions level up, or even slightly decrease until about 300°C is attained, then the conversions increase again at higher temperatures. For this catalyst, the light off temperatures (at 50% conversion) are roughly the same for CO and NO - 410°C -. The selectivity of NO reactions has been characterized by the percentage of NO transformed into N 2 0 ( S N ~ O) the changes of which as a function of the reaction temperature are shown infig. I b . At low temperature (and conversion) S N ~ Ois 100% then it decreases slowly as the temperature is increased before decreasing drastically at the light-off temperature. Reaction CO + NO + 0 2 In the presence of oxygen the reaction rates together for CO oxidation and for NO reduction are much higher than without oxygen as seen infigure 2a , the light-off temperatures being respectively 290°C and 330°C for CO and NO conversions. The depletion of oxygen in the gas phase is indicated on the curve TCCO = f(T) by the presence of a small shoulder (marked with an arrow on fig. 2a ). As long as oxygen is present in the gas phase, the conversion of NO is very low and its start being noticeable only when oxygen is depleted in the gas phase. This is due to the well-known inhibiting effect of oxygen on NO chemisorption. Let us note that the levelling effect between 220 and 300°C observed for the CO + NO reaction is not observed here in the case of the CO + NO + 0 2 reaction. The selectivity S N ~ O(jig. 2b) is very different here than in the absence of oxygen since, at low temperature, when oxygen is present in large amounts in the gas phase, S N ~ Ois very low, then it increases when the 0 2 concentration decreases and when all 0 2 has been consumed then S N ~ Ois the same as for reaction CO + NO before, of course, decreasing when NO conversion is high.

CO (0,5%) - NO (0,5670)

CO (O,75%) - NO (O,28%) - 0 2 (0,257%)

TC CO - TC NO = f (T'C)

TC CO- TC NO = f (T'C) 100

100

e

60

60

40

40

20

20

- 80

8 E

-60

0

- 40 - 20

CO (0,5%) - NO (0,56%)

-ae

5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 200 250 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 T ("C)

CO (0,75%) - NO (0,28%) - 0 2 (0,257%) TC NO - S N 2 0 = f (T'C) 100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

100

r 100

1

w

4

e

0 0

0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 200 250 300350 400 450 5 0 0 5 5 0 600

T ("C)

F i g . 1. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t y ( b ) of Pt/A1203 i n CO t NO r e a c t i o n s .

4 2

YO

0

TC NO - S N20 = f (T"C) 100

3

w

0 5 0 100 1 5 0 200 250 300350 400 450 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 T ("C)

0

100

-6

80

8

r

0

5 0 100 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 600

T ("C)

F i g . 2. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t y ( b ) of Pt/A1203 i n CO t NO t O2 r e a c t i o n s .

185

2- Influence of Rh : 1 wt% Pt - 0.2 wt% Rh / A1202 Reaction CO + NO The presence of Rh greatly enhances the activity for reaction between CO and NO since the light off temperatures are 130K lower than on Pt/A1203 (280°C for both conversion). The curves TCCO and TCNO versus the temperature start not very differently than for Pt/A1203 (fig. 3a) at low temperature but here the levelling of conversion was not observed. The conversion of CO is still slightly higher than that of NO. Concerning the selectivity, S N ~ Ois high at low temperature and low conversion ( f g . 3b) then it decreases and becomes very low after the light off temperature. At a given temperature, S N ~ O seems to be lightly lower on Pt-Rh than on Pt alone, however since the conversion of NO is not the same for the two catalysts one has to be careful in comparing selectivities of the two catalysts. Reaction CO + NO + 02 In the presence of oxygen in the gas phase, the curves TCCO and TCNO versus T Ifis. 4a) are shifted towards lower temperatures for Pt-Rh than for Pt, but the shapes of these curves are qualitatively the same. The differences in the light-off temperatures in the presence of oxygen compared to those of the reaction without oxygen is less for Pt-Rh than for Pt as evidenced in Table I where the light-off temperatures for Pt-Rh and Pt with and without oxygen are recalled. TABLE I

Light-off temperatures (at 50% conversion)

Moreover, the difference (AT) in these light-off temperatures for CO and for NO conversions is lower on Pt-Rh/Al2Og (AT = 30K) than on Pt/A1203 (AT = 40K). Hence the difference in reactivity of CO and of NO in the presence of oxygen is less on Pt-Rh than on Pt. This is also shown infigure 4 a where it can be seen that at low temperature the slopes of the two curves TCCO and TCNO = f(T) are less different than on Pt/A1203 (Jig. 2a). To illustrate better this assessment, when the conversion of NO is 5%, the

CO (0,5%) - NO (0,56%) TC CO - TC NO = f (T'C)

CO (0,75%) - NO (0,28%) - 0 2 (0,257s) TC CO - TC NO = f (T'C)

100

100

80

80

h

8

8

-z

u

v

'

60

60

4

40

40

e

20

20

0

0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 450 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 650 7 0 0 T ("C) CO (0,75?0 ')

- NO (0,28%) - 0 2 (0,257%)

TC NO - S N20 = f (T'C)

A

100

-

80

-

g

-

.

-

4 602

40

-

+ TCNO(%) Q

20

-

0-

:4o

S N20 (%)

- 20

u)

pa9

6o

60

2

40

40

20

20

0 . . . 01 0 0 I 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 6 5 0 700

T P'C)

F i g . 4. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t y ( b ) o f Pt-Rh/A1203 i n C O t NO + O2 r e a c t i o n s .

8

*

187

conversion of CO is 19% on Pt-Rh, but it is 28% on Pt. On Pt-Rh the selectivity SN2O is higher at low temperature than on Pt (fig. 4b) and it does not start from zero at low conversion and low temperature. 3- Influence of CeOZ

3a.- I wt%Pt-12wt%Ce02lA1203 For the reaction CO + NO, at low temperature, the activity of PtCe02/A1203 is higher than that of Pt/A1203 and when the temperature is increased the activity goes through a maximum at about 250°C (fig. 5a), followed by a minimum at about the conversion of CO is always higher than that of NO, to varying extents at various temperatures. The light off temperatures are 380°C both for CO and NO reactions (with a gain of 30K compared to Pt/A1203). In the presence of oxygen such a minimum in activity does not occur (fig. 6a). The activity of Pt-Ce02/A1203 is higher than that of Pt/A1203 both for the oxidation of CO and for the reduction of NO. As with Pt/A1203 the conversion of NO remains low in the presence of 0 2 in the gas phase and becomes important only when 0 2 disappears from the gas phase; the depletion of 0 2 corresponding to a slower increase in CO conversion versus temperature is indicated by an arrow on figure 6a . Before the depletion of 0 2 , the curves TCCO and TCNO vs T have very similar shapes for the two catalysts with and without Ce02 (however with CeO2 the curves are shifted of lOOK towards lower temperatures). But after all 0 2 of the gas phase has been consumed, these two curves rise much more slowly for PtCe02/A1203, this result in a AT between the light off temperatures for CO oxidation and NO reduction of 70K, substantially higher than for Pt/A1203 or Pt-WA1203 (Table I). The selectivity S N ~ Oin the reaction CO + NO (‘jig. 5b) is not very different with and without CeO2. In the presence of oxygen, the curve S N ~ Ovs T (fig. 6b) has the same shape with Pt-Ce02 as with Pt alone, starting from zero at low conversion as a results between the competition of adsorption between 0 2 and NO. 3b. I wt%Pt-O.%wt%Rh12wt%CeOzlAlz03 Finally, the addition of 0.2 wt%Rh to Pt/CeOa results in a higher activity with curves TC CO and TC NO vs T qualitatively similar to those obtained with Pt/CeO2 but shifted towards lower temperatures vig. 7a and 8a and Table I). For the selectivity S N ~ O(‘fig. 7b and 8b), the curves are similar in shape to those obtained without Ce02, however it is difficult to compare the results without Rh or without ceria since both temperatures and conversions were different.

CO (0,75%)- NO (0,2870) - 0 2 (0,2577)

CO (0,5%)- NO (0,5670)

TC CO - TC NO = f (TOC)

TC CO - TC NO = f (TOC)

100

100

80

80

8

60

60

P

40

-ae

100

Y

Q

TCCO(7)

20

20 0

.

0

0

.

50 100 150 200 250 300350 400 450 500 550 600

0

50 100 150 200 250 300350 400 450 500 550 600 T ("C)

T ("C) CO (0,5%)- NO (0,567) TC NO - S N20 = f (T'C)

CO (0,7570) - N O (0,2870) - 0 2 (0,25770) TC NO - S N20 = f( T"C)

100

Iae

b

loo

-80

Y

l60

Q TC NO(%) + S N20 ("A)

20 0 0

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 T ("C)

F i g . 5. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t y ( b ) of Pt-Ce02/A1203 i n CO + NO r e a c t i o n s .

0 T ("C)

F i g . 6. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t y ( b ) of Pt-Ce02/A1203 i n CO t NO t O2 r e a c t i o n s .

- 40 - 20

f? z u)

CO (0,5%) - NO (0,56%) TC CO - TC NO = f (T”C) 100

-ae 8 2

CO (0,75%) - NO (O,28%) - 0 2 (0,257Y) TC CO - TC NO = f (T”C) 100

80

80

60

60

40

40

-c

P

Q

20

Q

+

0 0

TCCO (Yo) TCNO(%)

20

TCCO (Yo)

+ TC NO (“A)

0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 200 250 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 50 600

0

5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 200 250 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 450 500 550 600

T (“C) CO (0,75%) - NO (O,28%) - 0 2 (0,257Y)

T (“C) CO (0,5%) - NO (0,56%)

TC CO - S N 2 0 = f ( T T )

TC NO - S N20 = f (T”C) 100

ae

100

80

Y

8

e

60 40

TCNO (Yo) + S N 2 0 (%) Q

20

. 0

.

.

.

.

.

5 0 100 1 5 0 200 250 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 T (“C)

Fig. 7. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t y ( b ) of Pt-Rh-Ce02/A1203 i n CO + NO r e a c t i o n s .

- 40 .

u)

20

0 0

0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 200 250 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 600 T (“C)

F i g . 8. A c t i v i t y ( a ) and s e l e c t i v i t ~ y( b ) of Pt-Rh-Ce02/A1203 i n CO + NO + O2 r e a c t i o n s .

e

00

W

190

DISCUSSION

For the CO + NO reactions on Pt/Al2O3 we have seen that an unusual curve TCCO vs T was obtained and that in a temperature range of 100 to 400°C the conversion of CO was always higher than that of NO which is not allowed by the stoichiometry of reactions (1) and (2) between CO and NO. Hence CO is also oxidized by "extra oxygen" other than oxygen coming from NO. Of course, the first explanation that comes into one's mind is that CO disproportionation occurs leading to CO2 and to carbon deposit on the catalyst: 2 co 4 c02 + c . But the temperatures at which this phenomenon was observed seems too low, since CO disproportionation usually does not occur at such low temperatures on this metal (6). Moroever, CO disproportionation would result in a carbon deposit on the catalyst and consequently in a deficit of carbon in the gas phase. However the carbon balance which was measured from the peak areas corresponding to CO and C02 in the chromatograms throughout the experiment was constant all over the temperature range as shown in Table 2 where some values of the carbon balance on Pt/Al2O3 at various temperatures are given. TABLE 2

Carbon Balance on Pt/A1203 a t various Temperatures T("C) I 1 0 5 1 1 5 6 1 1961 2491 2891 3421 4051 438 Cbalance (arb.units)l2487]245512442] 243712418123871 23911 2 4 0 9 The only remaining explanation is that this extra oxygen comes from the catalyst and probably from the alumina support at the vicinity of the metal particles. Such a participation of the oxygen of the support has already been proposed by Harrison et al. (7) for the reactions between CO with NO and H 2 0 on Rhkeria and by Otsuku and Kunitumi for the oxidation of CO over praseodynium oxides (8). Hence we have used the model proposed by Harrison et al. that we have slightly modified (fig. 9) and tried to explain with it most of the features observed here. It is assumed first that carbon monoxide adsorbs on the metal (step Mi), then in the absence of oxygen in the gas phase it migrates towards the limit between metal particles and the support where it can be oxidized by oxygen atoms of the support leading to oxygen vacancies on the support (step S i ) . We will not specify the nature of oxygen atoms, they could be oxygen atoms of the alumina itself or of hydroxyl groups or of water adsorbed at the surface or of water of cristallisation of transition alumina the formula of which being

191

Al2O3, xH20 (x < 1). Of course in the presence of 0 2 , CO adsorbed on the metal could react with 0 adsorbed on the metal according to step M7. NO first adsorbs on the metal (step M2) then dissociates on the metal (step M5) or migrates towards the support and is dissociated by reaction with an oxygen vacancy (step S2). Oxygen vacancies could also be refilled by reaction with NO in the gas phase as suggested by Harrison et al. (7) or by oxygen atoms migrating from the metal where they were previously adsorbed (step S3). The balance between steps S2 and M5 will depend on the ability of the metal to dissociate NO. It is already well-known that Pt has a poor activity in the adsorption and in the dissociation of NO, at least at low temperature (9, lo), while Rh is a better catalyst for this reaction (1 1, 12). Fig. 9 :HarrisonS Model (modified) METAL

(M1) (M2) 043) (M4)

(M5)

046) (M7)

co + * + co* NO + * + NO*

I

SUPPORT

(Sl)

co + "0"+ c02 + 0

(S2)

O+{

NO*

N+ + "0"

NO+* 2N* + N 2 + 2 * N* + NO* + N20 + 2" N20 + CO + C02 + N2 NO* + * + N* + 0" 0 + o*+ "0"+ * (S3) 0 2 + 2" + 2 0 * c o * + o*+ c02 + 2*

*

= Adsorption site on the metal "0"= Mobile oxygen on the support, at the vicinity of the metal particles

0 = Oxygen vacancy on the support Then N atoms adsorbed on the metal can either react with another Nads leading to dinitrogen via step M3 or react with NO adsorbed leading to dinitrogen oxide N20 (step M4). Hence the selectivity of NO reduction into N2 or into N20 will be controlled by the relative rate of steps M3 and M4, that is of course by their relative rate constants but also by the concentration of N* and of NO*. When the concentration of N* will be high, then the selectivity of NO transformation will be in favor of N2 formation (low SN,O ). Now coming back to our results on Pt/A1203 the shape of the curves TC CO and TCNO versus T in f i g u r e l a can be explained by the above mechanism, if, at low temperature the rate of step S1 is higher than that of

192

steps S2 and M5. This would result in a reduction of the support, hence to a decrease of the activity of the catalyst explaining the levelling of the CO conversion. The high selectivity in N 2 0 formation of N O conversion is well explained by the low NO dissociation leading to low concentration of N* compared to NO*. In such conditions step M4 which leads to N 2 0 formation is favored compared to step M3. In the presence of oxygen, the leveling effect was not observed probably because : -(I) steps M6 and M7 occur on Pt -(2) the filling of oxygen vacancies rapidly takes place via step S3. Here the zero selectivity in N 2 0 at low conversion and low temperature is well explained if 0 2 adsorption is much favored on Pt than that of NO. At low temperature, in the presence of large amounts of oxygen, 0 2 adsorption prevents NO adsorption, hence the concentration of NO* is very low and consequently the rate of step M4 is low. When 0 2 is consumed by CO oxidation, the adsorption of NO progressively increases explaining why S N ~ O increases. When all 0 2 has disappeared from the gas phase, NO adsorption occurs like in the CO + NO test and S N ~ Ois the same as in the absence of 0 2 like we have already mentionned. Pt-Rh/A1703 - - : influence of Rh With Rh the amount of CO oxidized by another oxidant than NO is much less important than on Pt alone. And the levelling effect mentionned for Pt/A1203 does not exist anymore. These two observations can be rationalized within the frame of Harrison's model : NO is adsorbed and dissociated more easily on Rh than on Pt as it has already been established by some authors (11). Since, both the concentrations of NO* and of O* are higher than on Pt alone, steps S2 and S3 of refilling of oxygen vacancies are faster on Pt-Rh than on Pt explaining why the "reduction" of the catalyst is less with Pt-Rh than with Pt. The concentration of N* resulting from steps M5 and S2 is also higher and the rate of step M3 is enhanced compared to that of step M4 explaining the slight lowering of S N ~ Oobserved for Pt-Rh in comparison with Pt. In the presence of oxygen, the slightly lower difference in the light-off temperatures for CO and NO conversions on Pt-Rh ( AT = 30K) than on Pt (AT = 40K) together with the lower difference of the slopes of the curves TCNO and TCNO vs temperature at low temperature can also be accounted for by the model, if the adsorption of NO is less unfavored compared to that of 0 2 on Rh than on Pt. In these conditions the difference between the rates of the 2 reactions CO + N O and CO + 0 2 is less than on Pt alone.

193

- - : influence of ceria Pt-CeO?/Ab03 - - - and Pt-Rh-CeO/Ah03

The higher activity for catalysts containing ceria is well explained by a better availability of oxygen atoms from ceria which has better oxidoreduction properties than alumina. The minima of activity at about 300°C are probably related to reaction rate lower for step S2 than for step S1 leading to a lack of oxygen atoms available from ceria hence to a slowing down of step S2. In conclusion, our results have shown that : (1) in CO + N O reactions

- C02 is produced in another process in addition with the oxidation by NO. We think that oxygen from the support in the vicinity of metal particles could be involved in this process leading to partial reduction of the support at temperatures between 250 and 300°C. - at low temperature the conversion of NO gives mainly dinitrogen oxide the addition of ceria increases the reaction rate at low temperature because of the better availability of "0"in Ce02, when the temperature is increased, the activity decreases, probably as a result of partial ceria reduction. At higher temperature, catalysts with or without ceria do not have very different activities.

(2) In the presence of oxygen :

- on Pt/A1203, with or without ceria, the conversion of NO is low until oxygen has disappeared from the gas phase, because of the much better adsorption of 0 2 compared to that of NO. This is also the reason why the selectivity of N 2 0 formation is significantly lowered, specially at low temperature when oxygen is present in the gas phase. - the adsorption of NO is less unfavored compared to 0 2 adsorption when rhodium is added. - finally, the promoting effect of ceria is particularly important (light off temperatures lowered by lOOK for CO oxidation and by 70K for N O reduction). Most of these observations can be explained by the model proposed by Harrison et al. that we have modified and generalized.

194 REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6a.

6b. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11. 12.

HECKER, W.C. and BELL, A.T., J. Catal. 84, 200 (1983). CHO, B.K., SHANKS, B.H. and BAILEY, J.E., J. Catal. 115,486 (1989). PRIGENT, M. and DE SOETE, G., SAE paper nx 890.492 (1989). OH, S.H., J. Catal. 124, 477 (1990). McCABE, R.W. and WONG, C., J. Catal. 121,422 (1990). POUTSMA, M.L., ELEK, L.F., IBARBIA, P.A., RISCH, A.P. and RABO, J.A., J.Cata1. 52, 157 (1978). RABO, J.A., RISCH, A.P. and POUTSMA, M.L., J. Catal. 53, 295 (1978). HARRISON, B., DIWEL, A.F. and HALLETT, C., Platinum Metal Review 32,73 (1988). OTSUKA, K. and KUNITONI, M., J. Catal. 105, 525 (1987). VAN SLOOTEN R.F. and NIEUWENHUYS B.E., J. Catal. 122,429 (1990). SOLYMOSI, F., SSRKANY, J. and SCHAUER, A., J. Catal. 46,297 (1977). ALTMAN, E.I. and GORTE, R.J., J. Catal. 113, 185 (1988). UNLAND, M.K., J. Catal. 31, 459 (1973). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was carried out within the "Groupement Scientifique Pots Catalytiques" funded by the "Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique", the "Institut Fraqais du PCtrole" and the AFME (Agence Francaise pour la Maitrise de 1'Energie).

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control 11 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

195

INFLUENCE OF WATER IN THE ACTIVITY OF CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

M. Weibell , F. Garinl,* , P. Bemhardtl, G. Maire1 , M. Prigent2 1:Laboratoire de Catalyse et Chimie des Surfaces, URA 423 CNRS-Institut Le Bel, ULP, 4 rue Blake Pascal 67070 Strasbourg Cedex. France. 2: Institut Francais du Pe'trole,B.P. 3 I I , 1 et 4 avenue de Bois-Prkuu, 92506 Rued Mulmaison Cedex. France. *: To whom all corresponhnce should be addressed.

Abstract Because the exhaust composition in closed-loop emission fluctuates about the stoichiometric point, an investigation of the behavior of catalysts in this environment seems to be necessary. In laboratory testing of RNA1203 and Rh-Ce/A1203 catalysts, it is demonstrated that cycling effects appear on the one hand when ceria is added to Rh/Al2O3 catalyst, and on the other hand when the catalysts work in presence of water. The participation of the water gas shift reaction in the transient response of these two catalysts is demonstrated in step change experiments. It is shown that following the lean-rich transition, an enhancement of the WGS reaction appears. This reaction occurs following the formation of Rh oxide. The Rh-Ce/A1203 catalyst shows higher WGS activity than the Rh/A1203 but the stability of the Rh oxide decreases more rapidely when ceria is added.

INTRODUCTION

Reviewing the literature concerning the automotive exhaust catalysts it seems that a lot of things has been undertaken (1,2,3) . This subject is very wide and very complex. For example as far as we know, in reforming catalysis supported bimetallic systems are widely used but their catalytic behavior is always under study (4) and about metal-support interaction, always more or less present in these catalysts, works are still in progress to understand their influences ( 5 ) . In automotive catalysts we are faced to all these problems together: (i) supported bimetallics or trimetallics are used, (ii) additives are added to the support to stabilize it and also to promote the reactivity. In addition these catalysts never operate under steady-state conditions (6): (i) catalyst temperature increases rapidly when the engine starts,(ii) flow rate and composition fluctuate rapidly under all modes of operations. Finally a large number of reactions occur on these three way catalysts: (i) oxydation reactions,(ii) reduction reactions,(iii) water gas shift reaction: to mention only the most important ones (7). In a such complicated situation we are going to focus on the catalytic behaviour of low-loaded Rh/A1203 and Rh-Ce/A1203 catalysts working under

196

transient conditions with and without water. CO and NO conversions are measured at various cycling frequencies and step change experiments are performed to follow the reducibility of Rh and Rh-Ce under various atmospheres. This study will give some informations about the state of the Rh under the working conditions. It is an approach to the study of the active sites. Our results are compared to those already obtained in such a way to understand the synergetic phenomena observed under dynamical conditions EXPERIMENTAL

Catalysts : The characteristics of the two catalysts used are listed in table I. They are prepared by wet impregnation of alumina powder,purchased from Rh6nePoulenc, with aqueous solutions of RhCl3 and Ce(N03)3. After drying the catalysts are calcined in air at 450 "C for 2 h and reduced in H2 at the same temperature and for the same time. Table I. Catalysts properties. 3

Metal loadings (wt %) support (A12031 Diameter pm 250-425 Catalyst Rh loading Ce loading Density g.cm-3 0.69 ~ ~ 1 2 0 3 0.003 Surface area m2.g-1 100 Rh-Ce/Al203 0.003 1.02 Total pore volumes ml-g-1 1.15 Apparatus : The design of the laboratory system we developped is similar to the one used by Schlatter et a1 (8). In this apparatus, three sections can be distinguished, the blending section, the reactor section and an analytical train. The blending section includes eight mass flow controllers and is duplicated in two blending systems independent of one another. The two feedstreams can be as simple as binary mixture or as simulated exhaust gases containing only CO, NO, HC, HC 0 2 and N2. We have for this work omitted to use H2 because we want only to study the CO reducing power on the alumina supported Rh and Rh-Ce catalysts. When working in presence of water vapor the feedstreams flow through two water evaporators in order to have 10 % water vapor in the feedstreams. This apparatus allows us to vary the following parameters: - The frequency: This gas mixing frequency is obtained by switching two electrovalves between the two gas streams. Their operating range in our apparatus is comprised between 0.075 and 1 Hz.

197

- The amplitude: This term is related to the gas composition. For example, if switching is operated between the two streams with respectively an A/F ratio equal to 14.25 and 14.75, the amplitude is equal to k 0.25 A/F around the mean A/F ratio equal to 14.5. - The mean A/F ratio from 14 to 15.25. The amplitude and shape of the composition arriving in front of the catalyst bed as a function of the oscillations frequencies determined in our laboratory set up is reported in figure 1.

0.075 Hz

0.2 Hz

1HZ

Figure 1. Catharometer output when electrovalves are cycling at different frequencies. Horizontal lines reflect the signal for separate streams. This gauging is done with a flow of N2 in the first gas section and a mixture of half N2 and half H2 in the second section. The shape of the composition encountered at the front of the catalyst is obtained with a catharometer sensitive to changes in the gas thermal conductivity. The total flow rate is about 250 ml./mn for each stream. The horizontal lines represent the catharometer responses to individual flows in steady state conditions. When the oscillations frequency is about 0.075 Hz the catalyst is exposed alternatively to each feedstream without blending. When the frequency increases the amplitude of the oscillations declines up to 1 Hz where the catalyst is exposed to a steady stream whose composition is the average of the two blends being cycled. The reactor section is composed by an oven and a quartz reactor (inlet diameter = 10 mm). Before flowing through the analytical train, the stream is homogenized in a mixing tank in order to analyse an average composition. The analytical train is composed by two infrared analysers (CO, C3Hg, C02), by one paramagnetism analyser (02) and one chemiluminescence analyser (NO). All the apparatus are connected to a computer in order to drive the different sections and to collect the data.

198 TEST CONDITIONS AND RESULTS

A. Cycling frequency experiments : These experiments consist in an investigation of the conversion efficiency of the three pollutants as a function of our oxidant/reducing ratio which may be named as our simulated A/F ratio. The oscillation frequency has a constant gas composition amplitude o f f 0.25 APF ratio. In this paper we report the catalyst performance for CO and NO conversions at two frequencies : 0.075 Hz and 1 Hz. The composition of the streams versus the A/F ratio is that already published by Schlatter et a1 (8). The NO and HC compositions are constant in the full A/F area and are equal respectively to 2050 and to 900 ppm. The experiment temperature is kept constant at 450 "C. The space velocity is about 100 000 h-1. In each case the catalyst is first stabilized under rich conditions for 30 minutes.at 450°C. 100 -

-

-sc 0 .Lo

-

50C 0

1

14.2

14.4

'

.

1

I

14.6

14.8

NF

. '

I

15.0

.

14.2

14.4

14,8

14.6

15.0

NF

(a) Figure 2 (b) CO and NO conversions measured at 0.075 H z and I H z cyclingfiequencies. Oscillation amplitude is f 0.25 AIF ratio around the mean value. RhIAl20.3 catalyst (a) Rh-CelA1203 catalyst (b). Experiments performed without water. The catalyst performances as a function of the simulated A/F ratio are plotted in figures 2 (a) and (b). As shown in these figures and in the work of Schlatter et a1 (8,9) it appears clearly that the catalyst needs to operate close to the stoichiometric point to convert simultaneously the pollutants. On the rich side the limiting factor is the CO conversion and on the lean side it is the NO conversion. It is noticeable that the catalyst efficiency for CO and NO conversion decreases at the stoichiometric point with cycling. On the other hand under cycling conditions the NO conversion is enhanced on the lean side. This last effect is not observed for CO on the rich side with the low loaded

199

catalysts but other experiments performed on high loaded catalysts (0.5% Rh) show this effect (10). In fact transient effect on catalyst efficiency can be observed in comparing experimental transient curve at 0.075 Hz with the expected theoretical curve if no memory effect will occur. This expected theoretical curve is calculated from the stationnary curve knowing that the catalyst spends half of the oscillation period under lean conditions and the other half of the period under rich conditions with an amplitude o f f 0.25 A/F. la) Rh catalyst : On the Rh catalyst the difference between the expected theoretical curve and the experimental curve is quite small for CO and NO conversions. A little transient synergetic effect is noticeable for NO conversion, on the contrary for CO a poisoning effect is observed which could be due to co-adsorption influences, these two molecules being electron acceptors (11). (b) Effect of ceria added to Rh :

When ceria is added to Rh catalyst no modification for NO conversion occurs, on the contrary a better one is observed for CO, comparison between figures 2(a) and 2(b). At this stage we can expect an influence of the oxygen storage capacity of ceria during the lean excursion and an enhancement of the CO conversion in cycling due to the reduction of ceria by CO on the rich side (12). But the conversion is always smaller than the theoretical expected one.

-

/.

L

0 14.2

14.4

14.6

14.8

AIF

15.0

14.2

.

.

,

'

14.4

.

,

.

.

14.6

I

A

.

14.8

L

.

,

.

15.0

AJF

(a) Figure 3. (b) CO and NO conversions,in presence of water, measured at 0.075 H z and 1 H z cycling frequencies on Rh-CelAl2Oj catalyst (a). CO conversionin presence of water, at 0.075 H z and theoretical curve on the Rh-Ce catalyst (b).

200

(c) Influence of water vauor on the activity of Rh-Ce/A12Q3 _ - : (Figure 3) The transient curve shows a decrease of NO conversion due to a poisoning effect of the water vapor (fig. 3(a) compared to fig. 2(b)). For CO conversion,the influence of the water gas shift reaction is evident,there is a better CO conversion: compare on the one hand to the results obtained on RhCe/A1203 catalyst without water and on the other hand to the expected theoretical curve (fig. 3 (b)).

Table 11. From these last four figures we Feedstream composition, vol 9%. have pointed out the effect of the ceria and the importance of the water (Balance N2) gas shift reaction. These two effects brought together may explain the presence of a synergetic effect due to transient operating. To try to confirm Rich 1 110 or 0 0 these points we have performed step change experiments.

I

I

B) Step change experiments : These experiments are undertaken in order to isolate features of catalyst response to cycling conditions. The feedstreams only contain C0,02,N2 and water vapor if necessary. The experiment consists in three steps respectively rich, lean and rich. The compositions of the two streams are given in Table IT. Step 1

i

Step 2

I

1%

-

co

i 4

1 Yo

0 2

10 % H 2 0 if present

Step 3

-

1%

long time

co

1

Figure 4 : Step change experiment This test is performed at the same temperature, 450 "C, than the cycling frequency experiments, with a space velocity of 100 000 h-1. The catalyst is first stabilized under rich conditions for 30 minutes, and the experiment starts with a rich step for 2 minutes, then the lean stream is directed through the

20 1

reactor for a time (t) which will vary from one experiment to another, after which the feed is changed back to the rich composition (see figure 4). We studied the following oxidizing times (t = 1 s-6s-20s-lmn-6mn-15mn-1 lh). The composition values of the different gases are collected each 3 s and we follow especially C 0 2 formation. la, Ce effect without water : Experiments are done with several oxidation times (lean stream). The catalyst, after the 30 minutes under rich conditions, is well reduced. No C 0 2 is formed. Then the experiment starts with the first rich step (the 2 minutes step under 1% CO). After the lean step ( 1 % 0 2 ) for a time "t", the gas composition is switched to the rich step (1% CO). Instantaneously a C 0 2 peak is formed.The area of the difference of the amounts of C02 formed following the lean step for Rh-Ce/A1203 and RWAl2O3 catalysts is related to the amount of 0 2 stored by ceria. Figure 5 reports the oxidation state of Ce as a function of lean step time, keeping in mind the fact that all the Ce IV is converted to Ce 111 under CO atmosphere. Two kinetic regims for ceria oxidation appear. A fast oxidizing rate occurs in the first 20 s where 51% of ceria is oxidized thanks to the interface Rh-Ce where dissociation of 0 2 and oxygen spillover occurs from Rh. For oxidizing times greater than 20 s, 78 % of ceria is oxidized after 15 min. under lean conditions, the rate of ceria oxidation becomes slower due to cerium oxide reaction with 0 2

80

-e

60

2

40

v

s

20

0 0

200

400

600

800

1000

oxidation time (s)

Figure 5 : Oxidation state of Ce following different oxidation times. Remembering the works of Herz et a1 (13) and Le Normand et a1 (14) who showed that the reduction of ceria in presence of Rh is quite fast, we can explain the enhancement of CO conversion in the frequency test when ceria is added to the Rh catalyst. In fact with a frequency of 0.075 Hz the half period is

202

*

about 6 s which means that 45% of ceria is oxidized under lean atmosphere, then after the other 6 seconds this surface is able to oxidize CO under rich conditions. These step experiments demonstrate the oxygen storage of ceria.

9h 30r

-

a

(a) Figure 6. WGS.activity following &era1 oxidation time at 450‘”Cfor RhIA1203 catalyst ( a )and Rh-CelAlZOj catalyst (b). fb) Influence of water . As already mentionned by Herz (16) and by Dictor (15) the water gas shift reaction is enhanced on Rh catalyst. First, following the same experimental procedure than in section (a) but with gases containing 1Oii water, we may note for the two catalysts a negligible activity under the 2 minutes of 1%C0/10%H20 following the 30 mn reduction under the same gas composition (part A of the curves in figures 6 (a) and 6 (b)). After the lean step, not mentioned in the figures, the gas composition is switched to the rich conditions (it corresponds to the time zero on the figures). It may be seen from figure 6 that oxidized Rh/A1203 and Rh-Ce/A1203 catalysts have significant WGS activity, but there is no proportionality between the oxidation time of the catalyst and the WGS activity. On the other hand the Rh-Ce/A1203 catalyst shows higher activity following the lean step compared to the Rh/A1203 catalyst, but the activity decreases more rapidely when ceria is present. The figures therefore suggest that oxidized Rh is active for WGS reaction, and that the catalyst deactivates as a result of reduction by the CO rich environment. As we have seen that the oxidation time has no direct proportionality with the WGS activity,we may ask the question: which is the best oxidation time to get the highest WGS activity and stabilityjn an other word it means which is the most favorable oxidation state of the surface?

203

I

oxidation time ( s )

(a) Figure 7. (b) Catalytic WGS activity following different oxidation times (a). Stability (tll2) of WGS activity following several oxidation times (b). RhIAl203 catalyst ( ) and Rh-CelAl203 catalyst ( ).

Figure 7 (a) represents the WGS activity following several oxidation pretreatments. As already mentionned, the activity is higher in presence of ceria. For each catalyst the curves suggest that there is some intermediate oxidation treatment which gives the greatest activity to the WGS reaction. An intermediate oxidation time of ca. 4 mn provides the greatest WGS activity for the Rh-Ce/A1203 catalyst and about 9 mn for the Rh/A1203 catalyst under the reaction conditions specified. In figure 7 (b) is reported the time it takes for the C 0 2 signal to decay to half of the greatest value observed immediately following the lean step (t112). It appears that whatever the oxidation time, ti12 is greater for the Rh/A1203 catalyst than for the Rh-Ce/A1203 catalyst. It means that the rate of reduction of Rh oxide is faster when Rh interacts with ceria (13). However according to Dictor's work (15), an intermediate treatment of ca. 15 mn provides the greatest stability for the WGS reaction when ceria is absent. On the other hand it appears that the decreasing rate of WGS activity is not influenced by oxidation times higher than 4 mn when ceria is present. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

WGS reaction is enhanced when Ce is added to Rh/A1203 catalyst. A " one second oxygen pulse" is enough to enhance the activity (a "11 hours oxygen pulse" does not increase the activity). At this point we may think that (Rh H Ce) interactions regulate the formation of an "active Rh oxide" entity which is intantaneously formed, the 0 2 in excess is not adsorbed.

204

(Rh-Ce)

+

1 second 0, pulse

This surface oxygen formation and removal are easy and the adsorbed oxygen acts as a promoter. Following the proposed mechanism by Tinkle and Dumesic (17) and discussed by Chinchen and Spencer (18), our results lead us to this mechanism, we explain the decrease of C 0 2 formation versus time: 0

I

Oxygen vacancies are introduced into ceria lattice at sites near noble metal crystallites as suggested by Harrison (3). Reactions 1 and 2 are reversible, then an anion vacancy is formed as proposed by Kubsh et a1 (19) and the reaction 3 is irreversible. The water adsorption occurs (reaction 4) and we may think that there is a competition between reaction 5(1) (regenerative mechanism) and 5(2) where hydroxyl groups appear, in order to explain the fast decrease of WGS reaction when Ce is added to Rh catalyst. We know that the heat of adsorption of water on Rh is very high (20) thus the hydroxyl groups are adsorbed more strongly by Rh which means that reaction 6 is forbiden, Rh would more easily catalyse the formation of water which then leaves the metal surface. For Rh/A1203 catalyst, the interaction between Rh and the support promotes the formation of a stable oxide, an associative mechanism between CO and H 2 0 will occur which is slower than the above one, due to the fact that the surface oxygens are difficult to remove. Finally to try to understand the effects of oxidation-reduction treatments we may think that catalyst particles are submitted to microstructural changes as suggested by Schmidt et a1 (21). Adsorption of reactants and promoters will alter catalyst shapes and these redox treatments will lead to oxides formation

205

which spread over the support in the contrary to metals which do not "wet" the support. This dynamic of the catalyst particles has to be taken into account during these reactions; this reconstruction may also be induced by adsorbates as proposed by Somorjai (11,22) and G. Lindauer et a1 (23,24). In that complex situation, some EXAFS experiments are going to be performed to try to understand the environment of the metallic particles of the catalyst. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was carried out within the "Groupement Scientifique Pots Catalytiques" funded by the "Centre National de la recherche Scientifique", the "Institut FranGais du PCtrole" and the "Agence FranGaise pour la Maitrise de 1'Energie". 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

22. 23. 24.

REFERENCES H.S. Gandhi and M. Shelef, in: Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control, 199,1987 A. Crucq and A. Frennet (Editors)-Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. Amsterdam "Catalysisand Automotive Pollution Control",1987,CAPOCl. A. Crucq and A. Frennet (Editors)-Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. Amsterdam B. Harrison, A.F. Diwell and C. Hallett, Platinum Metals Rev. 32,(2),73 (1988) F. Garin and G. Maire, Acc. Chem. Res. 22,(3),100 (1989) In "Metalsupport interactions in catalysis,sintering and redispersion" edited by S.A. Stevenson, J.A. Dumesic, R.T.K. Baker, E. Ruckenstein, Van Nostrand Reinhold Catalysis Series (New york, 1987) R.K. H e n in "Catalysis under transient conditions" (1982), p.59, A.T. Bell and L.L. Hegedus (Editors) A.C.S. Symposium Series 178 K.C. Taylor in Catalysis: Science and Technology",5 , 119 (1984) J.R. Anderson and M. Boudart (Editors) - Springer - Verlag J.C. Schlatter, R.M. Sinkevitch and P.J.Mitchel1, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev., 22,51 (1983) J.C. Schlatter and P.J. Mitchell, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. ,19,288 (1980) M. Weibel, unpublished results (PhD work) G.A. Somorjai, J. Phys. Chem. ,94,1013 (1990) H.C. Yao and Y.F. Yu Yao, J. Catal. ,86,254 (1984) R.K. Herz and J. A. Sell, J. Catal. ,94,166 (1985) Le Normand, C. Prieto, J. El Fallah, J. Majerus and 0. Touret, submitted in XAFS6 (York, 8,1990) R. Dictor, J. Catal. ,106,458 (1987) R.K. Herz in "Catalysisand Automotive Pollution Control", p.427 (1987), A. Crucq and A. Frennet (Editors) - Elseviers Science Publishers B.V. Amsterdam M. Tinkle and J.A. Dumesic, J. Catal., 103,65(1987) and references therein G.C. Chinchen , M.S. Spencer, J. Catal. ,112,325 (1988) J.E. Kubsh and J.A. Dumesic, AIChE J., 28,793 (1982) G. Zakumbaeva, Geterog. Katal, 4,( 1),241 (1979) L.D. Schmidt and C.P. Lee in "Catalyst deactivation",p. 297 (1987), E.E. Petersen and A.T. Bell (Editors) - Marcel DekkerJnc. New york G.A. Somorjai and M.A. Van Hove, Prog. Surf. Sci. ,30,201 (1989) G. Lindauer, P. LCgar6 and G. Maire, Surf. Sci., 126,301 (1983) G. Maire,P. LCgarC and G. Lindauer, Surf. Sci., 80,238 (1979) "

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysisand Automotive Pollution Control 11 0 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

207

THE ROLE OF THE OXYGEN VACANCIES AT THE SUPPORT IN THE CO OXIDATION ON Rh/Ce02 AND Rh/Ti02 AUTOCATALYSTS. G. MUNUERA, A. FERNANDEZ and A.R. GONZALEZ-ELIPE

Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales (CSIC-Univ. Sevilla) and Dpto Quirnica Inorgcinica., P.O.Box 1115., 41071-Sevilla (Spain).

Abstract The interaction of 0 2 , CO and C0/02 at 400K with Ce02 and Ti02 supported rhodium (ca. 2.5-3% Rh by weight) has been studied combining XPS and TPD-MS. CO oxidation occurs on the metallic rhodium as well as on the support and, in particular, at the metal-support interface where oxygen vacancies at the support are involved and rhodium is readily oxidized up to Rh3+. Hydrogen incorporated to these oxygen vacancies during the reduction of the catalysts suppress CO adsorption on all three type of sites due to SMSI effects and vacancies filling. Ar+ sputtering on a Rh/Ti02 catalyst, to generate oxygen vacancies at the support, confirms their role in the oxidation of the rhodium in contact with CO/O2. In these type of catalysts a mechanism is proposed for CO oxidation at T>773K.

INTRODUCTION

In a series of papers (1-4) we have previously examined the RhRi02 system from the point of view of the interaction of the noble metal with the reducible Ti02 support after reduction with hydrogen at ca. 773K what leads to a "Strong Metal Support Interaction" state (i.e. SMSI), a phenomenon first described by Vannice et al. ( 5 ) more than a decade ago. In principle, this SMSI-state greatly enhances the selectivity of Rh/Ti02 catalysts to give oxygenates in Fisher-Tropsch synthesis (i.e.COLH2 reaction) (6,7) as well as their catalytic activity for NOx reduction (i.e. NOx/CO reaction) (8). From this previous work on Rh/Ti02, we have concluded that hydrogen is incorporated into the Ti02 support during the reduction step in the preparation of the catalysts (2,4) producing, in a first stage, a partially reversible (upon outgassing) SMSI-state, which prevent H2 and CO adsorption on the metallic rhodium. The transfer of such hydrogen involves "spillover" from the metal to fill the oxygen vacancies mainly generated at the metal-support interface during reduction, thus leading to the formation of hydride-like species (i.e. TiH3+). In a second stage at higher temperatures, these species also promote a great mobility of the support favouring the decoration of the metal particles with TiOx(H) moieties which strongly

208

interact with the rhodium probably through the same hydride species (9). In principle, Ce02 is a much easily reducible oxide than Ti02 and it is well known (10) that when heated in hydrogen at T<600 K, incorporates considerable amounts of hydrogen leading to bronze-like compounds while, the generation of SMSI in Rh/Ce02 catalysts reduced at 773K has been reported in the literature (11). On the other hand, ceria is an important component in modem autocatalysts (three way catalysts), which include Pt-Rh on an alumina stabilized support. The promoting effects of ceria in these type of catalysts is now well established, being generally accepted that oxygen vacancies, probably at the metal-support interface, play an important role on it (12). In this work the interaction of CO and C0/02 mixtures with CeO2 and Ti02 supported rhodium has been studied combining XPS with TPD-MS to assess the role played by oxygen vacancies at the two oxides in the activity of these catalysts for CO oxidation.

EXPERIMENTAL The Rh/Ce02 catalyst precursor was prepared by incipient wetness impregnation of Ce02 (Rhone-Poulenc, 109 m2/g) with a Rh(N03)3 solution, to get a loading of 3 % in weight of rhodium. The impregnated precursor was dried in air at 383K for 24 h. and then calcined at 673K in an oxygen flow for 4h and finally stored in a desiccator until its use. The preparation of the RhlTi02 samples (2.5% of Rh by weight) used in this work has been reported in our previous papers (1-4), together with a full characterization by TEM, EPR, NMR, XPS, TPR/TPD and H2 adsorption. XPS spectra were recorded in a LHS-10 spectrometer (from Leybold) working with pass energy constant at 50 eV and stored in a HP-1000-E computer on line to the spectrometer. B.E. reference was taken at the spurious carbon C(1s) peak taken as 284.6 eV. The samples, as pressed pellets, were placed on a Mo holder that could be heated resistively while controlling the temperature by a thermocouple spot-welded at the rear of the holder. All the treatments were carried out in the pretreatment chamber of the spectrometer (base pressure
209

outgassed (hereafter sample Rh/Ce02-H) or directly outgassed at 773K up to reach the base pressure (sample RWCe02-HV). Adsorptions of H2 (10 torr), 0 2 (0.1 torr), CO (1 torr) or C 0 / 0 2 mixtures (1 and 0.1 torr respectively) were carried out by contacting the samples with these gases for 30 min. at the appropriate temperature (400K unless otherwise stated) in the preparation chamber, prior to XPS and/or TPD recording. TPD were carried out in the analysis chamber of the spectrometer (base pressure
RESULTS R h / C e 0 2 reduction with H2 Fig. 1 shows XPS spectra of Rh(3d) and Ce(3d) of the calcined precursor and the two Rh/Ce02-H and RWCe02-HV samples reduced in hydrogen as previously stated, together with the TPD profile up to 973K for the Rh/Ce02-H sample and for the same sample after this first TPD experiments, once cooled down to room temperature (300K) and a new adsorption of H2 at this temperature was carried out. As can be seen in this figure, the XPS spectra show that the treatment in hydrogen at 773K produces a total reduction of the rhodium to its metallic state (B.E. 306.9 f 0.2 eV) while the Ce02 support becomes partially reduced as deduced from the new peaks in the Ce (3d) spectra at 885.1 and 903.4 eV due to Ce3+ (13). The intensity of these peaks being very sensitive to traces of water in the gas phase. Outgassing at 773K up to 10-8 torr of sample Rh/Ce02-H, to remove hydrogen and generate sample Rh/Ce02-HV, does not produces any appreciable change either of the Rh(3d) or Ce(3d) peaks of XPS spectra (except for a small broadening in the former), though the TPD-profiles show a strong desorption of hydrogen from the H-sample with a sharp maximum at ca.570 K. Removal of this hydrogen during the TPD run allows the adsorption at 300K of a new form of hydrogen on the same sample, with a TPD maximum at ca. 410K that should be ascribed to desorption from the rhodium particles. In principle, these results are similar to those we have previously reported for Rh/TiO;! samples (7) and can be explained as a loss of the SMSI interaction after the removal of the hydrogen incorporated to the support. A similar treatment for the Ce02 support leads to slightly lower reduction as detected by the new XPS peaks due to Ce3+.

210

I

, .

315

311 307

I

I

1

a) 1

913 901 889

B. E. /eV

Fig.1.- Right: TPD of hydrogen: (a)porn RhlCe02-H ; (b) after H2 readsorption of hydrogen at 300K at the end of (a). -Left: Rh(3d) and Ce(3d) XPS-spectra: (a) calcined RhlCe02 (b)RhlCe02-H; (c) RhICe02-HV.

Interaction of Rh/Ce02 with 0 2 Interaction with oxygen of both Rh/Ce02-H and RWCe02-HV occurs in a rather similar way. Fig. 2 shows XPS spectra for Rh(3d) and Ce(3d) for the HV-sample exposed to 0 2 in different conditions. It should be noted that even under the milder conditions used in these experiments (i.e. 0.1 torr 0 2 , 300K, 30 min.) the Ce02 support was fully reoxidized and the rhodium was also partially oxidized to Rh+. This behaviour of the metal contrast with what we had previously observed for Rh/TiO2 (14) where reoxidation under similar condition did not produce any change in the Rh (3d) spectrum. When the temperature was raised up to 400K a net increase in the intensity of the XPS peak corresponding to Rh+ species occurs, while Rh3+ was now clearly detected as a shoulder in the spectrum This corresponds, again, to an oxidation of the rhodium much more effective than in R h R i 0 2 samples, treated under similar conditions (14). Only under more severe conditions (i.e. 1 torr, 473K) Rh3+ becomes the main species, though no further change

21 1

could be observed in the Ce(3d) spectra once all the Ce3+ had been oxidized at the early stages of the experiment under milder conditions. _-_ Wl/CeO,,tfJ (Ads. 0,)

Rh ( 3 d ) Rh3+ 1 torr

I

, ! '\'

\

.,

I

,

.

ce_L?2

-,v 7. *J4$\,

\

F+

v\,

0.1 t o q ,

d)

\ \%

I

4

b#'

t

J

r; ;\ J 0 \

1

F \,c)

. , /: :*I

I

S$.&/

;

-.

Fig.2.Rh(3d) and Ce(3d)XPS-spectra: -(a)RhlCe02 -HV; -(b-d)after contact with 0 2 for 30 min. at the indicated conditions.

I

I I.

I \

?I

original!I

*

; I\ ; ;\

: . 1

7

-

7

.

'.-

r

315 311 307 B . E . /PV

1

\, a) -

1

r

1

,

913 901 8R9

B.E. /eV

R h / C e 0 2 interaction with CO and C 0 + 0 2 A set of experiments were (carriedout combining TPD-MS with XPS to get information on the interaction of CO and 0 2 with our samples. Once reduced and outgassed the excess of hydrogen (either at 300K or at 773K to generate H or HV samples), the samples were contacted with ca. 1 torr of CO at 400K for 30 min. XPS spectra were then recorded before starting the TPD run, and once the sample was cooled down "in vacuo". The same type of experiments were repeated using, ca. 1 torr of a mixture of C 0 + 0 2 (C0/02 ratio ca. 20) under similar conditions. Fig. 3 and 4 show the corrected TPD profiles for CO (m/e=28) and C02 (m/e=44). TPD profiles recorded after the interaction with CO, of the two samples H and HV, in Fig.3(A), suggest that the presence of hydrogen incorporated into the Ce02 support prevents in some way the adsorption of CO on this RWCe02-H catalyst though a small desorption still occurs at very high temperatures (>800K) while H2 (m/e=2) and traces of CH4 (m/e=15) cou1.d be detected in the gas phase during all the TPD runs.

212

ADS :co sample _ _ _ -m/e= 28

0

Rh/CeO 2-H

ADS :co

A

B

Sample m/e=28 ~-

/-

-

/

-

+

m

+

Y

Y

i

i

h

m

/

m

m

/

B

B

/ /

.rl

*rl

/

vl

v)

/

vl

z

\

P

a

H

.

&\

400

.

.

600

. 800

.

. lo00

400

600

800

lo00

T/OK

T/OK

Fig.J.-(A) TPD from RhlCe02-H and HV samples after interaction f o r 30 min. at 400K with CO. -(B) The same f o r Ce02-HV. ms :co+02 Sample

400

600

T/OK

800

B

ADS :co+02

A m/e=28,44

Sample Ce02-HV

1000

400

m/e=28,44

0 0

600

800

lo00

T/OK

Fig.4.-(A) T P Dfrom RhlCe02-H and HV samples crfter interaction f o r 30 min. at 400K with C0+02 -(B) The same f o r Ce02HV.

213

However, the previous removal of hydrogen greatly enhances the amount of CO desorbed from sample HV, which gives now a well defined peak at 525K and a very strong increase in the CO pressure from T>800K. The new peak at 525K should be ascribed to CO adsorption on the metallic rhodium, which appears now enhanced by the removal of hydrogen from the support (loss of the SMSI state (7)) However, the other form of adsorbed CO in this Rh/Ce02-HV sample is very different from that recorded for a similarly reduced Ce02 support, shown in Fig.3(B), where only a sharp single peak at 800K occurs. When the above TPD-profiles for CO are compared with those obtained after interaction with the C0/02 mixture in Fig.4(A), several new features appear. First at all, TPD desorption profiles of CO are now very similar for both samples, indicating that the presence of 0 2 (0.1 ton-) in the gas mixture has removed the SMSI-state induced by the hydrogen incorporated in sample Rh/Ce02-H. Secondly, besides the CO, a considerable amount of C02 is now also desorbed from both samples. However while for sample Rh/Ce02-H this C02 appears as two well defined maxima at ca. 525K and >900K, for sample HV a third broad peak centered at ca. 730K is observed. The position of this peak coincides with that of the single one recorded in the TPD spectrum of the Ce02 support which had been under CO/O2 under similar conditions, as shown in Fig. 4(B). Finally, the comparison of the intensities of the TPD-profiles after adsorption of CO and C0/02 indicates that, as a whole (i.e. evolved as CO+CO2), the presence of a small pressure of oxygen has greatly enhanced the adsorption of CO, which is now being desorbed either as such or as C02 during the TPD experiments. XPS spectra for sample HV, corresponding to the two set of TPD experiments described above, are shown in Fig.5 and were very similar to those recorded for sample H. In this figure we can observe that adsorption of CO does not modify the Rh(3d) and Ce(3d) peaks. However, when the samples have been in contact with the C0/02 mixture a total oxidation of Ce3+ readily occurs while the rhodium is almost completely oxidized to Rh+/Rh3+, the amount of Rh3+ being somewhat higher for sample HV than for sample H. By comparing data in Fig. 5 and Fig. 2, we can conclude that, in the case of Rh/Ce02-HV, a deeper oxidation of the metal to Rh3+ occurs when CO is present together with 0 2 , in spite of the much less oxidizing conditions (i.e.C0/02 vs 02). This suggests that CO plays a certain role in the stabilization of this oxidation state of the rhodium in our Rh/Ce02 catalysts.

214

315 311 307 B.E. /eV

913 901 889 R . E . /eV

315 311 307 B.E./eV

913 901 B . E . /eV

FigS.-Rh(3d) and Ce(3d) XPS-spectra of RhICe02-HV: -Right: after interaction with C0+02.-43:with CO (see text).

Rh/Ti02 interaction with 0 2 and C 0 + 0 2 In order to try to go further in the comparison of these RhKe02 catalysts with the R W i 0 2 samples, previously studied by us (1-4), a similar set of experiments with 0 2 and C0/02 were carried out using the same Rh/TiO2 catalyst (either in its H and HV state). TPD experiments show in this case a single broad peak with maxima at ca. 625 and 675K for CO and C02 respectively for both samples. Meanwhile, as shown in Fig. 6, reduction of the Ti02 support after heating with hydrogen at 773K cannot be detected by XPS (though Ti3+ ions can be recorded by EPR (3)).This fact indicates the lack of a massive reduction at the surface layers of the Ti02 support in our conditions, in contrast with the observed reduction of the ceria support. On the other hand, the Rh(3d) XPS-spectra in the same figure show that, while for sample Rh/TiOz-H oxidation of the metal does not occur either with 0 2 or with C0/02, a small amount is oxidized by the C0/02 mixture in sample Rh/Ti02-HV, thus suggesting again that removal of hydrogen from the Ti02 support leads to a somewhat easier oxidation of the metallic phase. To check further the role played by oxygen vacancies in this process one experiment was made using sample Rh/TiOa-H and doing a very soft

215

sputtering with Ar+ ions (30 s.,0.5 Kv) to generate a small amount of oxygen vacancies at the Ti02 surface by differential sputtering of oxygen (9). As we can see in Fig. 6 , this very soft etching produces Ti3+ (i.e. TiVo3+ sites) at the uppermost layers of the Ti02 surface. When 0 2 was introduced at 300K in contact with this sample, a broad shoulder corresponding to Rh+/Rh3+, could be clearly observed in the Rh (3d) XPS spectrum, while the small shoulder due to Ti3+ disappeared from the Ti(2p) spectrum. Furthermore, when the same experiment was made using the C0/02 mixture a much deeper oxidation of the metal into Rh3+ occurs, as shown in the same figure thus clearly indicating the promoting effect of the CO in the oxidation of the rhodium up to Rh3+. _ Rh (3d) Rh (-1 Ti ( 2 p ) a) m:02

1 b) ADS:CO+02 /I

I!

c) REDUCED

(hr+-aichd)

312

304 B . E . /eV

316

312

308

304

B . E . /ev

B . E . /eV

Fig.4.-Rh(3d) and Ti(2p)XPS-spectra of RhlTi02: -(a)after interaction with 0 2 ; - ( b )after interaction with CO +02; -(c) effect of Ar+ etching on the Ti(2p) spectrum. DISCUSSION The comparative assessment of the results for Rh/Ce02 above with those obtained for RhfTi02 in our previous papers indicate differences in the behaviour of the two systems which can be ascribed to the degree of reducibility of both supports and their further interactions with 0 2 and CO. One of the most important differences observed is in fact the partial

216

reduction of the surface of the Ce02 support at 773K in H2 as compared with the lack of such deep reduction in the Ti02 (i.e. compare XPS in Figs. 1 and 6). We had previously found (9) that hydrogen reduction of Rh/TiOz is accompanied by an enhanced ionic mobility of the oxide lattice leading to Ti3+ migration toward the bulk while oxide ions diffuse backward to the surface, thus reaching a rather oxidized steady-state at the surface. Since, in principle, oxide mobility in Ce02 should be faster than in Ti02 its rate of reduction with H2 should be much higher to exhaust the surface ,thus leading to a deeper reduced steady-state within a thick layer at the surface of the oxide. As it is well known, TPR of ceria (12) gives two reduction peaks, one at ca. 773K ascribed to surface reduction while the other at 1073K is due to reduction of the bulk with formation of lower oxides of cerium. The addition of rhodium seems particularly effective in promoting the surface reduction of Ce02 down to ca. 625K (12). So, in our experimental conditions a deep surface reduction should be expected as found by XPS. Meantime, in our reduction conditions hydrogen must be incorporated to the reduced oxide as previously found by Fierro et al. (10). Part of this hydrogen is probably incorporated by spillover to oxygen vacancies (Vo) near Ce3+, as we have previously found in Rh/Ti02 (4), according to: (CeVo)3++ Rh-H

**

(CeH)3+ + Rh

(1)

many of them remaining close to the interface with the support. XPS spectra in Fig. I show that removal of this hydrogen does not produce any noticeable change in the Rh(3d) or Ce(3d) peaks except for a small broadening of the former what is also observed for the Rh/Ti02 catalyst in Fig. 6(C). Nevertheless, as we had previously found for R m i 0 2 (7) its loss leads to an increase in the capacity for H2 and CO adsorption on the metal due to a partial recovery of the non-SMSI state. This fact is actually observed in Figs.1 and 3 where TPD profiles indicate the existence now of peaks at ca. 410K and 500K for H2 and CO, respectively, due to the adsorption of these two species of the rhodium particles. The reduced state of the support in RWCe02 (H and HV) is completely removed in contact with a small amount of 0 2 at 300K as shown in Fig. 2 for the sample HV. It is worthy of note that even at 300K the Ce3+ becomes completely oxidized while simultaneously an important amount of the rhodium is oxidized to Rh+ what contrast with the stability of this metal under similar conditions in Rh/Ti02 (14). This fact suggests that oxygen should be incorporated to the reduced ceria according to:

217

ce4+-0;-m+

(3)

in fact, formation of 0;and 0; has been observed on reduced Ce02 by EPR (10) and m - I R (15) after 0 2 adsorption showing a great reactivity even at T<373K. On the other hand, the interaction of only CO with the sample Rh/Ce02-HV (see Fig.3A) indicates that, besides the adsorption on the rhodium, a new type of adsorption of CO occurs when the metal is present leading to a TPD-peak at T>800K. This new form of adsorption does not occur in the Ce02 support where only a single sharp peak at 800K is observed (see Fig.3B) which is less intense in sample H where oxygen vacancies should be filled by hydrogen. These two facts suggest that the presence of rhodium generates a new type of very stable adsorbed CO which, in principle, might be tentatively ascribed to CO interacting with both Rh and CeVo3+ sites at the metal support-interface, as previously suggested by Burch et a1 (16) for NiRiOz catalysts and recently by Lavalley et al. (17), to explain the broad i.r.-band centered at ca. 1725 cm-1 which appears when Rh/Ce02 catalysts are contacted with CO. XPS spectra in Fig.5 indicate that the interaction of CO with these two types of sites occurs without redox exchange since both Rh(3d) and Ce(3d) peaks remain unchanged in these spectra. The absence of the TPD-peak of CO characteristic of the CeO2 support at ca. 800K in the two Rh/Ce02 samples deserves some further comment. Since, in principle, a deeper reduction should be expected in the later (12) it is likely that oxygen vacancies far from the metallic particles would rearrange either forming "shear planes" or migration toward the metallic particles thus reducing their number in sample HV, while they will remains filled with hydrogen in sample H. So, they will not be ready to adsorb CO in our deeply reduced RhKe02 Catalysts. However, when the two Rh/Ce02 samples have been in contact with the C 0 / 0 2 mixture , TPD profiles in Fig.4B first indicate that oxygen is able to remove the SMSI-state of the metal in sample H, which now adsorbs CO on the rhodium (TPD-peak at 500K) as well as on the sites at the metal support interface as also does sample HV. In addition a certain amount of this CO is now oxidized to C02 in these two types of sites giving TPD-peaks at 525 and 900K. However, it is worthy of note that a third TPD-peak of C02 appears at ca. 730K only for the sample Rh/Ce02-HV in these conditions. This peak would correspond to the one observed for the oxidation of CO on the reduced Ce02 support. This fact suggest that in sample H CeH3+ sites far from the metallic particles cannot be activated by C 0 / 0 2 in our experimental

218

conditions while sites CeVo3+ in sample HV are activated by the 0 2 . Looking at the XPS spectra in Fig.5 we can see that the COIO2 mixture reoxidizes all the CeVo3+ at the support while part of the rhodium is also oxidized mainly to Rh3+. A comparison of the XPS spectra in this figure with those included in Fig2 indicates that, after interaction with 0 2 at 400K,oxidation of the metal to Rh3+ is much more important when CO is also present in spite of the much less oxidizing atmosphere in this case. This suggests a promoting effect of the CO in the stabilization of this oxidation state, though, as shown by the XPS spectra recorded after the TPD runs, the initial reduced state of the Rh/Ce02 surface is completely restored as could be expected in the cyclic catalytic process. This fact can be explained assuming that, in the presence of CO, the reaction (3) above progress according to:

the initial state of the catalysts being restored, at high temperatures, according to: A Ce4+ O= O= Rh3+(C0)2 (CeVo)3+ + Rh + 2C02 (5) TPD The importance of oxygen vacancies at the support (i.e.CeVo3+ sites) close to the rhodium particles in the redox processes involved in the oxidation of CO with 0 2 at high temperatures can be better observed on Rh/TiO2 due to the greater stability of Ti02 for deep hydrogen reduction. In fact, the results in Fig.6 confirm that 0 2 alone is much less efficient than the C0/02 mixture to partially oxidize the rhodium particles and that the presence of CO stabilizes mainly Rh3+. Moreover, the presence of Ti3+ in the Ti(2p) spectrum of the Ar+ sputtered sample, which indicates the formation of oxygen vacancies ( i.e. TiVo3+ sites), enhances considerably the oxidation of the rhodium to Rh3+ particularly in the presence of CO. In our view these results gives a clear evidence of the important role played by oxygen vacancies at the metal-support interface in the redox chemistry of the rhodium, and probably other noble metals, in these type of catalysts under CO oxidation conditions.

...

*

Acknowledgements Authors thank the CICYT project nr.MAT88-223 for financial support.

219

REFERENCES 1 -G.Munuera, J.C.Conesa, A.Muiioz, V.Rives, JSanz and J.Soria, Stud.Surf.Science and Catalysis.,l7 (1983) 149 2 -G.Munuera, J.C.Conesa, P.Malet, A.Muiioz, M.T.Sainz andJ.Soria, Proc. 8th Intern. Congress on Catalysis 5 (1984) 217,Elsevier,Amsterdam 3 -G.Munuera,J.C.Conesa, P.Malet, J.Sanz and J.Soria, J.Phys.Chem.,SS (1984) 2986 4 -J.Sanz, J.M.Rojo, P.Malet, G.Munuera, M.T.Blasco, J.C.Conesa and J.Soria, J.Phys.Chem.89 (1985) 5427 5 -M.A.Vannice and R.L.Garten, J.Catal.,SO (1977) 228 6 -A.F.Solymosi, A.Erdohelyi and T.Bansangi, J.Catal.,68 (1981) 371 7 -A.Muiioz, A.R.GonzBlez-Elipe, G.Munuera, J.P.Espinos andV.Rives-Amau, Spectrochimica Acta (Part A),43 (1987) 1599. 8 -G.Munuera and V.Rives-Amau, Appl.Surf.Science., 6 (1980) 122 9 -G.Munuera, A.R.Gonz6lez-Elipe, J.P.Espinos, J.C.Conesa, J.Soria and J.Sanz, J.Phys.Chem.,91 (1987) 6625. 10 -J.L.G.Fierro, J.Soria, J.Sanz and J.M.Rojo, J. Solid State Chem., 66 (1987) 154 11 -J.Cunningam, S.OBnen, J.Sanz, J.M.Rojo, J.A.Soria andJ.L.G.Fierro, J. Mol. Catalysis.,57 (1990) 379 12 -B.Harrison, A.F.Diwel1 and C.Hallett, Platinum Metals Rev.,32 (1988) 73 13 -F.Le Normand, L.Hilaire, K.Kili, G.Kril1 and G.Maire, J.Phys. Chem.,92 (1988) 2561 14 -A.Muiioz, G.Munuera, P.Malet, A.R.GonzBlez-Elipe andJ.P.Espinos, Surf. Int. Anal.,l2 (1988) 247. 15 -C.Li, K.Domen, K-1.Maruya and T.Onishi, J.Cata1.,123 (1990) 436. 16 -R. Burch and A. Flambard, J. Catalysis 78 (1982) 389 17 -J.L. Lavalley, J. Saussey, J. Lamotte, R. Breault, J.P.Hindermann and A. Kiennemann. J. Phys. Chem.94 (1990)5941.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control II 0 199 1 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

22 1

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF Ce-CONTAINING THREE-WAYCATALYSTS AND THE EFFECT OF Ce ON CATALYST ACTIVITY

John G. Nunan, Heinz J. Robota, Michelle J. Cohn? and Steven A. Bradley?

Allied-Signal Research and Technology t UOP Research Center 50 East Algonquin Road, P. 0.Box 5016 Des Plaines, Ill., 60017-5016 ABSTRACT The activity of Pt,Rh,Ce/y-A1203 and Pt,Rh/CeO2 catalysts has been studied in a full complement synthetic exhaust gas mixture consisting of H2, CO, C3Hg. C3H8, NO, 0 2 , N2, C02, H20 and S02. Direct interaction between Pt and Ce02 was shown to lead to large improvements in catalyst performance after activation of the catalyst in the synthetic exhaust gas. Catalyst activation was shown to be due to reduction of the noble metals and surface Ce and this state of the catalyst was found to be particularly effective for CO oxidation. The key component responsible for activation was shown to be H2, even at the low level present in the exhaust gas (0.26 vol.%), reduction is shown to be very facile. The degree of Pt/Ce interaction and thus activity after catalyst activation could be controlled by controlling the Ce02 crystallite size. Decreasing the Ce02 crystallite size led to greater Pt/Ce interaction as shown by TPR and STEM analysis and resulted in greater activity for both fresh and laboratory aged catalysts. Direct Pt/Ce interaction was also shown to lead to a synergistic reduction of Pt and surface Ce andthis feature of the catalyst was shown to qualitatively correlates with catalyst performance after activation.

INTRODUCTION

The effectiveness of Ce02 in three-way-conversion catalysts is well established. However the detailed role of Ce02 in activity enhancement is still a subject of competing hypotheses. Ce02 has been reported to act as an oxygen storage component [ l , 21, to stabilize "/-A1203 [3], to promote water gas shift activity [3,4], and to stabilize noble metal (NM) dispersion [5].Ce02 has also been proposed to promote CO oxidation activity. Several mechanisms have been proposed to account for this selective promotion. These include retardation of CO inhibition during oxidation and a reduced activation energy f o r CO oxidation [6,7]. Ce02 has also been proposed as a direct source of oxygen during CO oxidation [ 7 ] , and reduced Ce has been linked to the formation of highly reactive 0 2 - radical anions[8,9] that are very effective in oxidizing CO.

222

Several authors have also described synergistic interactions between NM and CeO2. Some investigators have observed that reduction of Pt, Pd and Rh is more facile when in contact with Ce02 [3,10]. Also coupling of NM and CeO2 reduction was observed with reduction of both components at lower temperature than when they are not in contact. Yao et al [lo] proposed that such synergism enhances oxygen storage by the catalyst. Previous work has focussed primarily on model reactions involving limited reactants using carefully activated catalysts. The present work addresses the performance of Pt,Rh,Ce/y-A1203 catalysts in a full complement synthetic exhaust gas. Further the catalysts studied were not initially activated by reduction before testing. We attempted to correlate some of the physicochemical properties of our catalysts with conversion performance in the synthetic exhaust gas. We describe the impact of exhaust gas composition and the degree of NM/Ce interaction on the light-off activity of fresh, calcined catalysts and laboratory aged catalysts. Attempts were made to systematically vary the extent of NM/Ce interaction during catalyst preparation by using catalysts of varying CeO2 loading and Ce02 crystallite size. We show that direct interaction between CeO2 and Pt leads to dramatic improvements in catalyst light-off activity after activation in the exhaust gas.

EXPERIMENTAL A wide range of catalysts was prepared where the Ce loading, its method of introduction and the CeO2 crystallite size were varied. Table 1 describes the catalysts studied, including Ce loading, NM content and the Ce02 crystallite size as measured by x-ray diffraction (XRD). The NM and Ce contents were measured by inductively coupled plasma - atomic emission analysis. Different routes were followed for different Ce02 sizes. Fresh catalysts having Ce02 sizes in the range 60 - 110 A were prepared by impregnating a y-Al2O3 support with various Ce salts and by using colloidal Ce02. Samples with Ce02 crystallite sizes of 110 -350 A were prepared by air calcining Ce(N03)3 and Ce(OAc)3 before milling the resulting Ce02 together with y-Al203. A highly sintered reagent Ce02 powder was used to prepare samples 10 and 12. Samples 12-16 were laboratory aged before testing in 10%H20/90%air at 900°C for 4 hours and the CeO2 crystallite sizes are given after aging. Following Ce02 introduction, supports were sized to 425-850 pm with wire screens. Pt and Rh were introduced by impregnation with aqueous solutiuons of H2PtC16 and RhC13, the catalysts were oven dried and finally calcined in air at 600°C for 6 hours. Pure Ce02 supports were prepared by precipitation of Ce(N03)3 using

223

(NH3)2C03 followed by filtration, drying and calcination at 600°C for 6 hours. NMs were added as described. TABLE 1 Summary of catalyst compositions used in testing.

iample

Catalyst Description

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Pt ,Rh/y-A 1203 6% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,6% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,6% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,6% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,6% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,6%Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,6% Cely-Al203 Pt,Rh,6% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,24% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,25% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,25% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,25% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh,25% Ce/y-A1203 Pt,Rh/y-A1203

Metal content

Ce02 Crystallite Size(l11) A

Pt wt % Rh wt% Ce wt % 0.045 0.745 61 k 2 5.52 61 zk 2 5.52 0.044 0.7 1 0.80 0.033 72f 2 5.60 0.76 0.040 113 f 3 5.67 0.76 0.04 1 145 f 4 5.67 0.76 0.040 213 k 7 5.70 0.79 0.04 1 332 f 16 5.62 0.78 0.040 =1000 0.79 4.99 0.048 24.1 0.066 65 f 5 0.343 22.6 =1000 0.82 0.043 22.2 270 f 5 0.034 0.50 130 k 5 21.5 0.042 0.77 120 f 5 21.2 0.83 0.048 0.80 0.033

Finished catalysts were evaluated in a full complement synthetic exhaust gas consisting of H2, CO, C3H6, C3H8, NO, 0 2 , N2, CO2, H20 and S02. Catalysts were tested in a tubular reactor using l g of catalyst and a flow rate of 5 l/min. Catalysts could be exposed to rich (equivalence ratio (ER) 2.0), lean (ER=0.5) or stoichiometric mixtures. Different testing cycles were used with or without S02. Without S02, catalysts were heated at 5"C/min in the stoichiometric mixture to 450°C (Rise-1), held at 450°C for 0.5 hour, cooled to 5O"C, then reheated to 450°C in the stoichiometric mixture (Rise-2). Testing with SO2 was similar except that the maximum temperature for Rise-1 and Rise-2 was 600°C which was held for 1 hour. During the hold and drop between Rise-1 and Rise-2, catalysts could be exposed to various combinations of rich, lean, and stoichiometric exhaust gas mixtures.

224

The catalysts were characterized using XRD, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and temperature programmed reduction (TPR). Both TPR and XPS measurements were carried out on fresh samples and on samples that had been treated in the synthetic exhaust gas. Samples analyzed after pretreatments in the exhaust gas were removed from the reactor in N2 (02 content = 50 ppm) and the TPR was carried out without further pretreatment. RESULTS

Testing of the Pt,Rh,Ce/y-A1203 catalysts showed that they were subject to large activity changes following exposure to exhaust gas, especially when Pt, Rh, and Ce were all present. Some activity change was expected as the catalysts were not initially activated by reduction. However, the considerable variation in catalyst activity related to exhaust gas composition was unexpected. The nature of the activation and the experimental factors that control its onset were studied in detail over sample 11. This was done by exposing the catalyst to varying combinations of rich, lean and stoichiometric gas after Rise-1 and studying the effect on the Rise-2 light-off. The effect on CO oxidation during Rise-2 light-off is shown in Figure 1. It is evident that Rise-2 light-off activity is very sensitive to the exhaust gas composition seen by the catalyst prior to Rise-2. The lowest Rise-2 activity occurs after a lean hold/lean drop whereas the highest activity occurs after a rich hold/rich drop and, after a lean hold/rich drop. Clearly, catalyst activation is associated with exposure to rich exhaust gas. Activation of the catalyst after a lean hold by the rich drop further showed that the drop is critical in the activation. Further, a rich hold followed by a drop in N2 resulted in activation equivalent to a rich hold/rich drop. Thus, the rich drop can either activate the catalyst or maintain the catalyst in the activated state. The drop between Rise-1 and Rise-2 takes about 10 minutes indicating that activation is accomplished rapidly. The gas components contributing to activation were determined by removing various components one at a time from the rich drop, followed by another ramp in the full complement gas. Removal of CO, hydrocarbon (HC) and 0 2 had no effect on catalyst activation. However, subsequent removal of H2 was found to have a dramatic effect. Figure 2 compares Rise-2 light-off for CO oxidation with C02, NO, H 2 0 and H2 present during the drop to the case where only C02, NO, and H20 remain. Clearly, removal of H2 leads to complete loss of activation. Similar changes in catalyst performance were observed for HC and NO conversion. Apparently, catalyst activity can be dramatically altered by a low concentration of H2 (0.26 ~01%)in a relatively short time period.

225

0

Leon Hold / Leon Drop

0 Rich Hold / Lean Drop

lean @'dJ_Ric_h W E .

0

A Rich Hold / Stoich. Drop

RichHold(-~~~~~?~--.

100

90

80

c0

70

t

.3

v) 60

k

$

u8

50 C

1

I

I

'

40

30 20 D

0

100

I50

200

250

300

350

400

450

Inlet Temperature,"C

Figure 1 :Effect of varied in-situ conditioning in the SOz-free synthetic exhaust gas mixture on the Rise-2 light-off activity for CO. Catalyst: PtRh,24wt.%Cel yAl2O3; Pt = 0.343wt.%; Rh = 0.066wt.% Stoich.Hold / Rich Drop 0

GO5 N_Oo,&O,H~

is d

p

0 Con,

NO, H.0 in drop

~

110

100 90 80

fi

0

70

.4

L1

p

50

u

40

t g

so 20 10

0 -10

I 100

'

'

'

uo

200

250

300

350

400

450

Inlet Temperature,' C

Figure 2 :Removal of H2 during the drop results in degraded Rise-2 CO conversion activity. Catalyst: PtRh,24wt.%Cel yAl2O3; Pt = 0.343wt.%; Rh = 0.066wt.%

226

The effect of Ce02 crystallite size on catalyst performance was studied both with and without S02. Fresh catalysts 4-10 were tested without S02. Rise-1 and Rise-2 activities are compared in Figures 3 and 4 . The catalysts were exposed to a stoichiometric mixture after Rise-1. Relative activities are compared using the temperatures at 25% CO, HC and NO conversion plotted vs CeO2 crystallite size. Ce02 crystallite sizes shown were determined by XRD line broadening of the (111) reflection. As evident in Figure 3, Ce02 size has no effect on Rise-1 activity. However, this is clearly not the case for Rise-2. Figure 4 reveals dramatic improvement in light-off activity for all three exhaust gas components with diminishing Ce02 crystallite size, especially for sizes less than 250 A. It is also observed that the activity of the Pt,Rh/y-A1203 sample is less than that for the Ce containing samples. Further a comparison of Figures 3 and 4 shows that performance improvement is not the same for all components. The promotion of CO conversion (AT =: l5O0C) is appreciably greater than that for HC (AT = 100°C) or NO (AT = 100°C>. Since Ce02 size has essentially no effect on Rise-1 activity, it is also clear that Ce02 size is affecting the degree of catalyst activation. TABLE 2

Rise-2 light-off activity over a series of aged Pt,Rh, 25wt. % Ce/y-A1203 samples having varying CeO2 crystallite sizes. Activity expressed as the temperature for 25% conversion. Pt nominal loading = 0.77wt.%; Rh nominal loading = 0.04wt.%

Laboratory aged samples were tested with S02. Catalysts were exposed to stoichiometric exhaust during the hold and drop following Rise-1. Rise-2 light-off activities are summarized in Table 2. Also shown are the CeO2 crystallite sizes after aging and testing. Clearly, large improvements in Rise-2 activity are observed for all three componets with decreasing Ce02 size. An approximately 80°C reduction in CO, HC and NO 25% conversion temperature accompanies the reduction of CeO2 size from 270 A to 120 A.

221

250

I

o

100

zoo

300

IOO

500

600

700

CeO, Crystdlite Size

800

(A)

900

ma

ttoo

Figure 3 :Rise-1 activity as afinction of Ce02 crystallite size tested in a stoichioinetric S02-fiee exhaust gas mixture. Activiry is expressed as the temperature needed for 25% conversion. Catalyst: Pt,Rh,6wt. %Ce/ y-Al2O3; Pt = 0.77wt. %; Rh loading = 0.04wt. %

0

100

200

300

400

SO0

600

700

CeO, crystallite Size

800

$00

lo00

llDD

(A)

Figure 4 :Rise-2 activity as aJicnction of CeOz crystallite size tested in a stoichiometric SO2-free exhaust gas mixture. Activity is expressed as the temperature needed f o r 25% conversiorr. Catalyst: Pt,Rh,6wt. %Ce/ y-Al203; Pt = 0.77wt. %; Rh loading = 0.04wt. %

228

Several fresh samples with varying CeO2 size were analyzed by scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). It was observed that a larger fraction of the Pt was associated with Ce02 than expected based on the relative surface area exposed by Ce02 compared with y-Al2O3. Further, the fraction of Pt associated with CeO2 increased with decresing Ce02 size. Thus, for maximum Pt/Ce02 interaction, we need supports with the smallest Ce02 size. This observation suggests that the effect of Ce02 crystallite size is related to increased Pt/Ce interaction. In order to test this hypothesis, Pt was supported separately on Ce02 and y-Al2O3. The temperatures required to achieve 25% conversion are reported in Table 3. Unlike the previous tests, these catalysts were exposed to the rich exhaust during the hold and drop following Rise-1. It is evident that Pt alone supported on pure Ce02 undergoes large activations when exposed to the rich exhaust gas following Rise-1. It is further evident that the Rise-2 activities of the Pt/Ce02 samples are much greater than those for the Ptly-Al203 samples. Thus, the results shown in Table 3 and Figures 3 and 4 clearly demonstrate the beneficial effect of Ce02 in promoting catalyst activation in stoichiometric or rich exhaust gas. Further work showed that activations in the stoichimetric/rich gas mixtures were reversible upon exposure to lean exhaust gas conditions and could result in a net deactivation. TABLE 3

Effect of varying the support composition on Rise-1 & 2 light-off. Activity expressed as the temperature needed for 25% conversion. Testing was done in a stoichiometric exhaust gas mixture with a rich hold/rich drop following Rise-1. Pt = 0.6wt.%

Since activation of the Ce02 containing samples was clearly associated with exposure to H2 in the exhaust gas, several of the above catalysts were characterized using TPR. These included samples 1-3, 5, 8 and 10. The purpose of the analysis was to determine the effect of both Ce02 introduction and CeO2 crystallite size on catalyst reduction, Figure 5 shows the TPR spectra of the y-Al2O3 support, Pt,Rh/y-A1203, Cely-Al203, and Pt,Rh,Ce/yA1203 (samples 1-3). Quantitative H2 uptake values are tabulated in Table 4 .

229

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Temperature, OC Figure 5 :Comparison of the TPR spectra for: (a) 3cAl203; ( b ) Pt,Rhl yAl2O3; (c) 6wt.%Cel y-Al20.3; (d) Pt,Rh,6wt.%Cel yAi2O3. Pt = 0.77wt%; Rh = 0.04wt.%. TABLE 4

Summary of quantitative H2 uptake as determined by TPR for: (a) y-Al2O3; Pt,Rh/y-A1203; (b) 6wt.%Ce/y-A1203; and (c) Pt,Rh,6wt.%Ce/y-A1203 Sample Description y - A1203 Support Pt, Rh/y - A1203 6 wt % Ce/ y - A1203 Pt, Rh, 6 wt % Ce/ y - A1203

Temperature Range 37 - 797 29 - 481 481 - 794 33 -439 439 - 560 560 - 736 736 - 795 35 -235 235 - 407 407 -790

Temperature Maximum 710 260 672 36 1 490 690 795 175 280 720

H2 Uptake m mole/g 0.064 0.085 0.069 0.06 1 0.034 0.070 0.090 0.099 0.030 0.184

230

The ?-A1203 substrate takes up some H2 at about 700°C. This feature is present in Pt,Rh/y-A1203 and Ce/y-A1203 over a similar temperature range. One broad, low temperature reduction, centered at 260"C, is assigned to reduction of Pt and Rh in the Pt,Rh/y-A1203 catalyst. Since the Rh content of these samples is very low, distinct features of Rh reduction were not distinguishable. The 0.085 mmoles of H2 consumed is consistent with the amount required for complete Pt + Rh reduction (0.083 mmoles). H2 uptake by the Ce/y-A1203 sample is shown in Figure Sc. Distinct peaks centered at 360°C and 490°C and a broad feature above 600°C are observed. The low temperature peaks have been previously assigned to surface Ce reduction[lO,ll] and the feature above 6000 is probably due to both H2 uptake by y-AI203 and some bulk Ce reduction. The TPR spectrum of Pt,Rh,Ce/y-A1203 is shown in Figure 5d. The spectrum is clearly not a superposition of thc previous two, but instead, has completely new features consisting af a sharp low temperature peak centered at 175"C, a shoulder at 280°C and a broad peak centered at 720°C. The shoulder at 280°C is likely due to reduction of the Pt,Rh on the y-Al203 component of the catalyst. We see no evidence for the surface Ce reduction peaks below 500°C and the Pt,Rh/y-A1203 peak is clearly attenuated, as shown by comparing H2 uptakes in Table 4. Further, the H2 uptake in the low temperature peak is greater than expected for exclusively Pt,Rh reduction. The absence of a distinct surface Ce reduction feature suggests that the extra reduction at low temperature is associated with surface Ce. Thus, this low temperature reduction feature appears to be a synergistic reduction of Pt,Rh + some surface Ce. Such a synergistic reduction in NM/Ce containing catalysts has been observed previously [3,10]. Again, we attribute the high temperature uptake to reduction of bulk Ce and uptake by y-Al2O3 The influence of Ce02 crystallite size on catalyst reducibility was also examined. Results for samples 5 , 8 and 10 are shown in Figure 6. Sample 1 is also shown for comparison. Changing the Ce02 crystallite size has a large impact on the TPR spectra, especially at lower temperatures. Decreasing the CeO2 size leads to a systematic increase of the low temperature peak at 175"C, which has been assigned to the synergistic reduction of Pt,Rh + surface Ce. The appearance of this peak and its growth with decreasing Ce02 size, follows the previously observed trend of improved light-off for smaller Ce02 size. The effect of catalyst preconditioning on the TPR spectra was studied in detail for a Pt,Rh/Ce02 sample. TPR was run on a fresh sample and after conditioning in rich and lean exhaust at 450°C for 0.5 hours. Results are summarized in Figure 7 and Table 5. Clearly, conditioning in rich or lean exhaust has a large impact on catalyst reduction. For the fresh sample we see a single sharp H2 uptake at 180°C which is about 4.5 times greater than that

23 1

100

0

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Temperature, O C

Figure 6 :Effect of Ce02 crystallite size on the TPR spectra for a series of Pt, Rh, 6wt.%Cel y-Al20.3 samples. Pt = 0.77wt.%; Rh = 0.04wt.%. 7.5

-0.5

,

I

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Temperature,'C

Figure 7 :Comparison TPR spectra for fresh, rich, and lean conditioned (450°C for 0.5 hours) Pt, Rhl Ce02. Pt = 0.6wt.%; Rh = O.lwt.%.

232

needed for Pt,Rh reduction. This suggests that most of the H2 uptake is associated with the CeO2 support. There is no evidence for distinct surface Ce reduction between 300-500°C as reported by other authors [3,10,11]. However, above 500"C, there is additional gradual H2 uptake. The H2 uptake in the temperature region between 500-650°C may be associated with some high temperature surface Ce reduction and uptake above 700°C with bulk Ce reduction. In the lean and rich treated samples, H2 uptake above 500°C is very similar to that of the fresh sample as seen by comparing the spectra in Figure 7 with the H2 uptake values in the temperature ranges 250-700°C and 700-800°C in Table 5 . Lean conditioning results in a moderate decrease in low temperature reduction with a distinct shift to 100°C. In contrast, rich conditioning causes a net decrease in uptake centered at 80°C. Thus, under rich gas conditions, extensive catalyst reduction occurs. As for Pt,Rh,Ce/yA 1 2 0 3 samples, we see no evidence of separate Pt and Rh reduction, suggesting that reduction of both noble metals occurs under the low temperature peak. TABLE 5 H 2 uptake determined by TPR for a fresh, rich, and lean

conditioned Pt,Rh/CeOz catalyst. Conditioning was done in the rich or lean synthetic exhaust gas at 450°C for 0.5 hours. Pt = 0.6wt.%; Rh = O.lwt.%

Pt loading : 3.08 10-2 mmole/g ; Rh loading : 1.00

mmole/g

Pt,Rh/Ce02 and Pt,Rh,Ce/y-A12Og samples were characterized using XPS after rich and lean conditioning in the exhaust gas at 450°C for 0.5 hours. The samples were removed under N2 and transferred to the XPS instrument. During the XPS measurements sample charging was compensated by using a low energy electron flood gun. The binding energies were then

233

internally referenced to the 01s peak located at 528.84 eV. Some of the XPS peak intensities were weak due to the low levels of NM present and only the peak positions for more intense peaks are reported The reported peak positions are accurate & 0.2 eV Peak positions and their assignments are summarized in Table 6. The lean conditioned Pt,Rh/Ce02 sample has peaks located at 75.79 eV (Pt4fsp) and 72.52 eV (Pt4f712) indicating the presence of oxidixed Pt [12] and at 74.53 eV (Pt4f5/2) and 71.26 eV (Pt4f712) following rich conditioning, indicating the presence of Pto [ 121. Also shoulders at 76.03 and 72.6 eV following rich conditioning indicate the presence of some oxidized Pt. The observed binding energies for the Pt4d peaks are also given in Table 6. The peak locations are consistent with oxidized Pt following lean conditioning and Pto following rich treatment. Pto peaks are expected at 314315.5eV whereas for oxidized Pt, the Pt4d5/2 peak occurs above 315.5 eV 1131. Rh was not detected by XPS in these samples. This may be due to coverage of highly dispersed Rh by Ce02. Both Pt/Ce02 [14] and Rh/CeO;! [ 151 have been reported to exhibit strong metal support interaction whereby the dispersed metal becomes covered by the support. TABLE 6

XPS analysis of Pt and Rh oxidation states for fresh, rich, and lean conditioned Pt,Rh,6wt.%Ce/y-A1203 and Pt,Rh/CeOz samples. For Pt,Rh,6%Ce/y-A1203; Pt = 0.6wt.%, Rh = 0.2wt.%.

x

SAMPLE PRETREATMENT

Pt,Rh 6 wt % Ce/ ')-A1203

Calcined

PEAK RATIOS

I

-

-

I -

Lean Rich

I 316.8 I 310.3

I

I

I

I

I 317.0 I 309.9

-

315.5

Pt,Rh/Ce02

Lean

72.5

75.8

315.7

Pt=0.60wt% Rh=O.lOwt%

Rich

71.3 72.6

74.5 76.0

314.2 316.5

308.0

I 0.074 0.053

+:I: 0.037 0.062

Results for the fresh Pt,Rh,Ce/ y-Al2O3 sample and after exposure to the rich and lean gas are also summarized in Table 6. For this sample the Pt loading was 0.6wt.% and the Rh loading was 0.2wt.%. The approximate Ce02

234

crystallite size was 60 A. Again evidence for oxidized Pt in the fresh and lean conditioned samples is provided by Pt4dgl2 peaks located at 316.84 and 3 17.01 eV respectively. Following rich conditioning, evidence for Pto is shown by a Pt4dgl2 peak at 315.5 eV. In this sample, Rh was also detected. Like Pt, it is oxidized in the fresh and lean treated samples. This is supported by peaks at 310.25 eV (Rh3d512) and 315.0 eV (Rh3dy2) for the fresh sample and at 309.9eV and 314.7eV for the lean treated sample [13]. Following rich treatment, Rh was found as reduced Rh with peaks at 308.0 eV and 312.8 eV [13]. The Pt/Ce and Rh/Ce peak ratios were also measured, and reveal a decrease in the Pt/Ce ratio but no change in the Rh/Ce ratio following gas treatments. Assuming no change in Ce02 dispersion which is supported by extensive STEM analysis, this indicates partial Pt sintering during the rich and lean treatments while Rh remains highly dispersed.

DISCUSSION We have found that catalysts formulated with CeO2 are very sensitive to their exhaust gas environmant and can undergo facile activation in a rich gas. The key components responsible for activation are Pt and Ce02. This is shown clearly by comparing Rise-1 and Rise-2 activities in Table 3 for Pt/Ce02 and Pt/y-A1203. We see that the Pt/Ce02 catalyst is less active during Rise-1 than Pt/y-A1203, whereas after activation the opposite is true. The light-off temperature for CO oxidation decreases 37°C over Pt/y-A1203 between Rise-1 and Rise-2, while over Pt/Ce02, the change is 250°C. Similar results were observed with S02, where, after activation, the Pt/Ce02 catalyst shows light-off advantages of 267°C for CO, 170°C for HC and 178°C for NO conversion to Pt/y-A1203. This demonstrates that Ce02 can be a far more effective support for Pt than ?-A1203 after exposure to rich or stoichiometric conditions. Activation of the catalyst is also very facile. This is shown clearly in Figure I where full activation of the catalysts was shown to occur during the rich drop after a lean hold at 450°C for 0.5 hours. During the rich drop the catalyst is exposed to 0.26vol.% H2 for a very short period of time. Figure I also shows that these catalysts can exhibit varying activity depending on their immediate exhaust gas history. Both the effect of Ce02 crystallite size on activity and the physicochemical properties of the catalysts suggest that Pt selectively migrates to CeO2 during catalyst preparation. Thus the Ce02 crystallite size effect reflects increasing Pt/Ce interaction with its subsequent improvement in catalyst performance. Direct evidence for this conclusion comes from STEM studies where Pt was found selectively associated with the CeO2, even though most of the catalyst surface area is y-Al2O3, Indirect evidence comes from

235 noting that performance features of the Pt/CeOz catalyst are most similar to the Pt,Rh,Ce/y-A1203 samples having the smallest Ce02 crystallite sizes. This is clearly seen by comparing performance results for Pt/Ce02 in Table 3 with the activity results in Figures 3 and 4. We see the same activation features in catalyst performance as observed for Pt/Ce02. Further evidence for extensive Pt/Ce interaction comes from the TPR studies outlined in Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 indicates that direct Pt/Ce interaction leads to a synergistic reduction of Pt and surface Ce. This synergistic reduction was shown to be a function of CeO2 crystallite size in Figure 6 and to be very extensive for samples having small Ce02 sizes as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The results from the present work suggest that Ce02 is not an inert support but instead undergoes physico-chemical changes similar to the NM and that these changes relate to the catalyst achieving its optimum active state. These changes include reduction of the NM as observed by TPR and XPS and surface Ce reduction as suggested by TPR. NM and Ce reduction is coupled and appears related to the light-off performance of the catalyst after activation. This is supported by a comparison of Figures 4 and 6. The exhaust gas component responsible for bringing about catalyst activation is H2, which is present in low levels in the rich exhaust gas. These correlations suggest that NM in contact with reduced Ce plays a key role in catalyst performance and may represent the most active state of the catalyst. Direct evidence for the nature of the catalyst's active state comes from XPS and TPR. The XPS results in Table 6 indicate that the NM in fresh and lean conditioned catalysts are in oxidized states. Rich conditioning clearly leads to reduction of the NM. Since both fresh and lean conditioned catalysts exhibit low activity while rich conditioned catalysts have high activity, it appears that fully reduced NM result in the most active state of the catalyst. Evidence for reduced Ce was not found by XPS of the rich treated samples. This may have been due to partial reoxidation of the catalyst during sample handling or that insufficient reduced Ce was present for detection by XPS. The XPS peaks of Ce3+ tend to overlap with those of Ce4+ [ 13,161. Evidence for facile re-oxidation of Ce3+ in the N2 used for sample handling was obtained from in-situ reduction experiments in the XPS instrument. Clear evidence for Ce3+ could be obtained in the Pt,Rh/Ce02 sample following reduction at 300°C in 1 torr of H2. However, exposure of the reduced sample to the glove box N2 for 2 days at room temperature led to complete loss of Ce3+ features.(O2 concentration was found to be much greater than the 50 ppm values present during sample handling in the TPR). Since the XPS sample handling was done in N2 having higher 0 2 contents than for the TPR experiment, reoxidation of the reduced Ce could easily occur in preparation for the XPS measurement.

236

The TPR results provide further evidence for the nature of the catalyst's active state. TPR results in Figure 5 show that Ce not only promotes reduction of the NM but also undergoes a synergistic reduction with the NM. The fraction of Ce02 that couples with the NM reduction seems to be selectively the surface Ce component. This is supported by: (i) the dissapearance of the peaks assigned to surface Ce reduction when the NM are present; (ii) direct evidence for reduced Ce was observed by XPS following reduction at 300°C; and (iii) bulk Ce reduction is thermodynamically unfavorable at the low temperatures observed for synergistic reductions [ 171 A number of authors have reported H2 uptake by CeO2 [18] where H2 consumption was not necessarily associated with Ce reduction. However, the evidence here favors surface Ce reduction as the source of H2 uptake in TPR. It was further found that decreasing the Ce02 size led to greater coupling of NM/Ce reduction as shown in Figure 6, The TPR studies of the Pt,Rh/Ce02 before and after treatment in the exhaust gas give further insight into the nature of the NM/Ce interaction and its relation to the active state of the catalyst. For the fresh and lean conditioned catalyst we again clearly see evidence for synergistic reduction of the Pt and Ce. This is supported by the volume of hydrogen uptake in the low temperature reduction peak, as shown in Table 5, and the absence of surface Ce reduction peaks below 5OO0C, as reported by other authors [3,11]. After lean conditioning, less H2 is consumed by the fresh sample, along with a shift to lower temperature. A similar temperature shift is observed for the rich treated sample. The shift to lower temperature indicates more facile reduction after exhaust gas treatment. This may be explained by partial noble metal sintering in addition to removal of residual chloride. Sintering is supported by lower Pt/Ce XPS ratios following rich and lean conditing than observed in fresh sample in the case of the Pt,Rh,6%Ce/y-A1203 sample. It has been reported that reduction of partially sintered Pt is more facile than highly dispersed Pt [19]. The lower H2 uptake following lean gas treatment may be due to a combination of less Pt reduction and poorer coupling with CeO2 resulting from partial sintering. In contrast, the rich conditioned sample showed much lower H2 uptake indicating that considerable reduction of the catalyst had occurred. The small H2 uptake by the rich conditioned sample may have been due to reduction of surface 'PtO' species or incompletely reduced surface Ce. These observations suggest that the most active state of the catalyst after rich conditioning is reduced noble metal in contact with partially reduced Ce. This study shows that direct interaction between Ce02 and Pt leads to dramatic improvements in catalyst light-off activity. Since catalyst performance was measured under stoichiometric non-oscillating conditions, the impact of Ce02 cannot be explained by oxygen storage. Further

237

explanations such as promotion of the water gas shift reaction, promotion of NM dispersion, stabilization of the support cannot explain the large beneficial effect of Ce02 under the present testing conditions. An interesting feature of Ce02 promotion is the enhanced conversion of all the exhaust gas components. Also, fresh catalysts show exceptional CO light-off activity after activation. This is clearly seen by comparing Figures 3 and 4 and from the data presented in Table 3. Further, CO light-off is promoted to a greater extent than HC or NO light-off, especially in tests without S02, as seen by comparing light-off temperatures in Figures 3 and 4 and Table 3. Since CO can inhibit oxidation reactions over reduced Pt and Rh, the removal of CO via its effective oxidation at low temperatures may lead to more effective HC and NO conversion. In summary, our results indicate that the most active state of the catalyst is reduced surface Ce in contact with reduced NM which is particularly effective in CO oxidation. These conclusions are in general agreement with the proposals of Sass et a1 [8] and Oh et a1 [7] where the impact of CeO2 was on CO oxidation. For testing under more severe conditions, such as high temperature and in oscillating richDean exhaust gas mixtures, other factors, such as water-gas shift promotion or oxygen storage, may become important in catalyst performance. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are indebted to their respective organizations for financial support, encouragement and provision of facilities. We acknowledge the following colleagues for their assistance at both Allied-Signal and UOP: Mark T. West for catalyst testing; David E. Mackowiak for catalyst preparation; Jeffry T. Donner and Sharon G. Varga for XPS analysis; Mary A. Vanek and Judy A.Triphahn for XRD analysis; and Tomatsu Imai for helpful discussions and encouragement. REFERENCES 12345-

678-

Gandhi, H. S., Piken, A. G., Shelef, M., and Delosh, R. G., SAE Paper No. 760201, 1976 Su, E. C., Montreuil, C. N., and Rothchild, W. G., Appl. Catal., 17, 75 (1985) Hamson, B., Diwell, A. F. and Hallett, C., Platinum Metals Rev., 32, 73, (1988) Kim, G., Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. and Dev., 21, 267 (1982) Sergeys, F., J., Masellei, J. M., and Ernest, M. V., W. R. Grace Co., U.S.Patent 3,903,020 (1974).; Hindin S. G., Engelhard Mineral and Chemical Co., U.S.Patent 3,870,455 (1973) Yao, Y. Y.-F., J. Catal., 87, 152 (1984) Oh, S. H., and Eickel, C. C., J. Catal., 112, 543 (1988) Sass, A. S., Shvets, V. A., Savel'era, G. A., Povova, N. M., and Kazanskii, V. B., Kinet. Katal., 27, 894 (1986)

238 91011121314-

1516171819-

Tarasov, A. L., Przheval'skaya, Shvets V. A., and Kazanskii, V. B., Kinet. Katal., 29, 1181 (1988) Yao, H. C. and Yao, Y. Y.-F., J. Catal., 86, 254 (1984) Johnson, M. F. L. and Mooi, J., J. Catal., 103, 502 (1987) Kim, K. S., Wingrad, N., and Davis, R. E., J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,93, 6296 (1971) Handbook of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, Muilenberg, ed., Perkin-Elmer Corp., 1979 Meriaudeau, P., Dutel, J. F., Dufaux, M., and Naccache, C., in "Metal-Support and Metal Additive Effects in Catalysis", B. Imelik et al., Eds. Vol. 11, p.95, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1982) Cunningham, J., OBrien, S., Sanz, J., Rojo, J., M., Soriao, J., A., and Fierro, J. L. G., J. Mol. Catal., 57, 379 (1990) Shyu, J. Z., Weber, W. H., and Gandhi, H. S., J. Phys. Chem., 92, 4964 (1988) Bevan, D. J. M., J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 1, 49, (1955) Fierro, J. L. G., Soria, J., Sanz, J., and Rojo, J. M., J. Catal., 66, 154 (1987) McCabe, R. W., Wong, C., and Woo, H. S., J. Catal., 114, 354 (1988)

A. Crucq (Editor), Catalysis and Automotive Pollution Control 11 199 I Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

239

STUDIES TO THE FUNCTIONING OF AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST CATALYSTS USING IN-SITU POSITRON EMISSIONTOMOGRAPHY

K.A. Vonkeman, G. Jonkers and R.A. van Santen",

KoninklijkelShell-Laboratorium,Amsterdam, ABSTRACT Studying the reactions in an automotive exhaust catalyst is complex as the exhaust gases contain many components of which the composition constantly varies and the catalyst contains different active components. To elucidate reaction kinetics in exhaust catalysis, the application of a technique stemming from nuclear medicine, i.e. Positron Emission Tomography, has been developed. Short lived positron emitting nuclides 11C (t1E = 20 min), 13N (tin = 10 min) and l5O (tin = 2 min) have been used to synthesise actual reactant molecules such as 11C0, llC@., llCHq, 13N2, 1500,C'5O and C1500. The labelled reactants could be monitored in a catalyst bed right through the reactor wall using a Positron Emission Tomograph, with a resolution of 1 cm in place and 1 s in time. Hereby, a large amount of information on the residence time of the reactants is obtained directly from the catalyst surface under actual reaction conditions. The mechanism and the rate limiting step in the carbon monoxide oxidation on platinum under cold start conditions of a car was studied. A strong interaction was found between gas phase C 0 2 and CeO2 at the catalyst surface, whereby the oxygen atoms contained in lamce Ce02 exchange rapidly with the oxygen atoms of the adsorbed C02

INTRODUCTION Automotive exhaust gases contain carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen, various hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides and a number of components in trace amounts, such as lead oxide and phosphorus oxides [ l ] . The composition of engine exhaust gases depends on many factors, such as type of engine in the car, lubrication of the engine, state of service of the engine, driving behaviour of the driver and, to a lesser extent, the type of fuel used. The main ingredients of most commercial automotive exhaust catalysts are platinum and/or palladium, rhodium and ceria [e.g. 2,3]. For these reasons the study of the functioning of automotive exhaust catalysis is complex. Here we report studies on the kinetics of CO oxidation catalysed by ceriumpromoted platinum.

240

Positron Emission computed Tomography (PET) is a relatively new 3D imaging technique emerging from nuclear medicine and is capable of mapping quantitatively the concentration of a positron-emitting tracer [4,5]. The application of positron-emitting nuclides in reactant molecules is a useful technique to study automotive exhaust catalyst kinetics both in-situ and noninvasively. The Positron Emission Tomography technique is in essence an extension of the transient techniques as it does yield direct information on the degree of occupation of the surface sites by reacting components. This information can be used to obtain the reaction rate parameters of the individual adsorption, desorption and reaction steps. The reactants or reaction products are labelled with positron emitting nuclides, in particular 11C, 13N and 1 5 0 . With the advent of Positron Emission computed Tomography as a research tool in nuclear medicine, the utilisation of short-lived positron emitting nuclides like 11C (ti12 = 20.39 min; 100% positron yield; Emax = 1.0 MeV), 13N (9.965 min; 100%; 1.2 MeV) and 1 5 0 (2.037 min; 100%; 1.7 MeV) has increased considerably. The positron is the anti-matter counterpart of the electron, which implies that upon their encounter the positron and the electron annihilate, i.e. they are converted into electromagnetic radiation. To conserve momentum two y-photons are emitted in opposite directions in this conversion process.(see Fig.1). The energy of the y-photons is dictated by the energy conservation law and is almost completely determined by the conversion of the mass (m) of the positron/electron pair into electromagnetic radiation according to E = mc2 = 51 1 keV.

INCIDENT POSITRON

Figure I :Schematic drawing of a positronlelectron annihilation event.

Owing to this annihilation process the distance over which a positron travels in the catalyst matter (p = 1 g/cm3) is very limited (ca. 1.6 mm for positrons with Emax = 1 MeV). However, the resulting y-photons may travel through a catalyst over elongated distances (half thickness value in catalyst

24 1

matter approximately 7.5 cm). The detection of positron emitters occurs indirectly by the registration of the 51 1 keV annihilation photons. This can be carried out using 3"*3" NaI(T1) scintillation detectors and with a positron emission tomograph equipped with Bi4(Ge04)3 (BGO) detectors. The use of positron emitters such as 11C in kinetic studies offers the following attractive aspects: - (1). Nuclides such as 11C, 13N and 150 can be incorporated into the actual reactant molecules and the resulting positron-labelled molecules are chemically not distinguishable from unlabelled ones. Isotope effects in the pre-exponential factors of adsorption and desorption rates are very small and will be neglected in this study. - (2). The state of the catalyst surface can be studied both in-situ and noninvasively, since the indirectly emitted radiation can be easily detected through a reactor wall (half thickness value in steel ca. 11 mm), thus yielding direct information on reaction kinetics. With another radioisotope of carbon, such as 14C, the product stream can be monitored, as the P--radiation originating from 14C cannot penetrate reactor walls. On the other hand, many surface science techniques can only yield direct information about the status of the catalyst surface at very low pressures. - (3). The utilisation of scintillation detectors as detection system for the annihilation photons offers the possibility of detecting coincidences and hence acquiring absolute positron emitter concentrations at a well-defined time and location.[4,6]. - (4). An advantage related to the use of short-lived radionuclides is their high specific activity, resulting in a high sensitivity of measurement with very small quantities of the labelled molecules (order of magnitude picomoles) in comparison with the amount of reacting molecules. Because of the short halflife of these radionuclides, there are relatively few problems with waste, product or environmental contamination. For more general information on the properties of positron-emitting nuclides we refer to Knoll [7]. EXPERIMENTAL

The Platinum-Ceria-Alumina Catalyst A standard highly dispersed platinum catalyst was synthesised on a y-alumina carrier containing highly dispersed ceria at the surface. This catalyst formulation is a simplification of a commercial automotive exhaust catalyst as it only contains one type of noble metal. The preparation and the characterisation of the catalyst is reported elsewhere.[8]. In Table 1 the characteristics of the platinum catalyst are summarised.

242

T

m

: Catalyst characterisation parameters. 3.9 g cat. in cat. bed.

Parameter support Particle size BET surface area Pore volume Ceria loading Ceria surface Noble metal loading Noble metal dispersion Maximum CO/Me ratio at surface CO ads. cap. of noble met. Noble met. surf. in cat. bed C02 ads. cap. of Ce02 of carrier C02 ads. cap. of CeO2 of cat.

A1203 / Ce02 30 - 80 mesh 111 m2/g 56 ml/g 3 0.6 %w highly dispersed on A1203 surface 12 %w 84% 1 2.4.10-5 mol/m2 1 m2 5.6.10-5 mol 3.1.10-5 mol

Positron-emitter-labelled Molecules The experiments have been carried out at the Institute for Nuclear Sciences (INW) of the State University of Ghent, Belgium.[9]. At the INW a cyclotron was present with which positron emitting nuclides could be produced. Expertise and equipment were available to synthesise gas molecules containing these positron-emitting nuclides, with a radiochemical purity greater than 99.9%. These purities were confirmed by means of (radio)gas chromatography. At the INW a NeuroECAT positron- emission tomograph (PET-camera) was available, which was used as detection system in the experiments described in this paper. At the INW the application of PET to the visualisation of industrial processes has successfully been explored for oil displacement in model reservoir rock and dehydration of water-in-oilemulsions using the NeuroECAT tornograph.[ 101. In this study the positron emitters 11C, 13N and 1 5 0 were used. With these nuclides the molecules 11C0, ClSO, 11C02, ClsOO, 1 5 0 0 and 13" synthesised, which were used in the pulse experiments. Details on the production of positron emitters and the synthesis of the positron-emitter labelled molecules has been reported elsewhere. The Experimental Set-up with the Reactor Oven Svstem Fig. 2 shows a schematic representation of the equipment in which the transient radioisotope experiments were carried out. The experimental set-up was identical to that described in our previous paper in this series.[8], apart

243

from the fact that an aluminium oven block was used and that the complete reactor oven system was now placed in the field of detection of a positronemission tomograph.(Fig. 2). INLET PULSE DETECTOR

I

;I

I

I '

I

I '

I

u

I

o

m

PULSE DETECTOR

II I/

r-/

xi

L RCC

i

]

I 11-Bank T O M O C W E

Fipure 2.: Schematic drawing of the experimental set-up.

The main features of the set-up and the experiments carried out are summarised below: - (1). Amounts of less than 0.1 nanomol of CO containing ca. 0.15 picomol (or 50 MBq) of 11CO or l l C O 2 in argon, were extracted from a leadshielded container. - (2). These amounts were taken up into a gas mixture, which was continuously flowing through the catalyst bed in the reactor, without disturbing the pressure or the chemical composition of this gas flow (ca. 0.3 pmol CO/s). - (3). The total gas flow of 40 mVmin STP, containing 1.0% CO, 0.5% 0 2 and 10%C02 was led over 3.9 g crushed catalyst, sieve fraction 30-80 mesh. This catalyst sample was placed in a 3/8-inch reactor tube (Hoke stainless steel, internal diameter 7 mm; catalyst bed length 14 cm). Under these conditions (100°C c T < 170°C; ambient pressure) the reaction rates were limited by kinetics and not by transport phenomena. 10% C02 was present in the gas mixture to suppress the effect of the strong adsorption of C02 to the ceria present at the catalyst surface, as described in the previous paper in this series [81.

244

- (4). The chemical composition of both reactant and product stream was determined using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. - (5). At the outlet, samples taken from the effluent stream were sent to a CO/C02-separating gas chromatograph equipped with a proportional counter for the detection of radiation. This counter was placed behind the Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD). After separation of CO and C02 the amounts of 11CO and 11CO2 could be quantified so that the distribution of labelled l 1 C 0 and " C 0 2 in the effluent stream from the reactor outlet could quantitatively be determined in the course of an experiment. - (6). To ensure that complete steady state was reached at the moment the pulse experiments were carried out, the catalysts were submitted to the gas flow for at least 12 hours in advance. The Positron Emission TomograDh Positron emitters are detected indirectly by the recording of the 511 keV annihilation photons. For the photon detection Bi4(Ge04)3 (BGO) scintillation detectors are utilised, which are placed in detector banks in a positron emission tomograph. This tomograph was used for detection of radioactivity directly from the catalyst bed, while norma1.(3"*3") scintillation detectors were used for an accurate characterisation of the labelled reactor inlet pulse and reactor outlet signal.(Fig.2). For product identification of the labelled compounds a gas chromatograph equipped with a proportional radioactivity counter was employed. At the INW a NeuroECAT positron emission tomograph was available, which was used in this study. The utilisation of a NeuroECAT positron emission tomograph has the following advantages: - (1). A temporal resolution of about 1.2 s can be achieved in a detection mode, in which the scanning gantry is kept in a fixed position. - (2). A spatial resolution of about 8 mm Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) along the flow tube axis can be achieved, if the scanning gantry is kept in a fixed position. - (3). Twenty one measuring locations are equally spaced over the total length of the reactor tube. Furthermore, there is no detection sensitivity profile over the catalyst bed. Both characteristics of a positron tomograph are in contrast with those of the experimental method in which NaI (Tl) scintillation detectors were utilised, as reported in a former paper.[ 131. - (4).The pair of detectors, which records a coincidence event, determines the location of the centre of the volume from which the signal originates. This sensitive volume is determined by the spatial resolution and the radial cross-sectional area of the flow tube. - (5). A line source calibration of the tomograph determines a quantitative relation between the radioactivity in the sensitive volume (Bq/cm3) and the

245

response of the tomograph (counts/s). This allows us to obtain quantitative information on the concentration of labelled compounds in the catalyst bed. - (6). The presentation of the data as a 'reaction image' provides direct information on the distribution as a function of time and place of the labelled compound on the catalyst bed in the reactor. From this information, kinetic parameters can be derived with the help of simulations of the experiments by a mathematical model of the catalyst kinetics.

MODEL OF THE REACTION MECHANISM Reaction Mechanism of CO Oxidation bv 0 2 over a Pt/CeO~/Y-A17Q3 - - Catalvst

To simulate the reaction of CO oxidation by 0 2 over noble metal catalysts, a mathematical model of the reaction mechanism was constructed. Details on this mathematical model were reported in previous publications .[ 8,141. The model contai