Boat Watching

Boat Watching

Edmund W. Jupp intellect

Boat Watching

Edmund W. Jupp

intellectTM Bristol, UK Portland OR, USA

First Published in Paperback in UK in 2002 by Intellect Books, PO Box 862, Bristol BS99 1DE, UK First Published in USA in 2000 by Intellect Books, ISBS, 5804 N.E. Hassalo St, Portland, Oregon 97213-3644, USA Copyright © 2000 Intellect Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission.

Consulting Editor: Masoud Yazdani Production and Cover Design: Vishal Panjwani Production Assistant Peter Singh

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-84150-809-8

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Cromwell Press, Wiltshire

Contents Preface

iv

Basics

1

The Boat

14

Water

25

Types of Boat

37

Propulsion

46

Miscellaneous

56

Glossary

67

iii

Preface Like the other books in the "Watching" series, "Boat Watching" is written for people who like to look at things, perhaps for those who haven't looked at things before. It doesn't set out to teach you how to design a boat, build a boat, or even how to use a boat. I hope it will help you to look at boats, though, really look at them, and to enjoy doing so. When I say "boats", I mean "boats and things", for boats have things on and about them, and they are all interesting. If you are looking at boats, you can't help seeing all the other things, too. Boats are truly lovely things, from the humblest to the noblest. Given a bit of time, you can lounge against a wall, or a post, or stretch out in a chair, and just drink in the happiness of looking. Looking at things is one of the great free benefits of being alive. You don't have to be an expert, but a little knowledge does help to enjoy the details. Here, then, are some points to add to your pleasure. Boat watching doesn't cost anything; it is environmentally friendly; it doesn't call for expensive equipment. (You can even do it when there are no boats about, if you have a good imagination). You don't need anyone else with you, though you can, if that somebody is of like mind, content to pause, and not rush about in that dreadful way that some bodies have. An extensive glossary, in which further information is given on some aspects, can be found at the end, so that the general flow of the text is not interrupted in interest formation . I do hope you will make good use of this. You will find additional comment on many of the aspects points raised in the text, sometimes covering points I have overlooked. This treatment doesn't set out to turn you into a mariner or boat designer. It isn't meant intended for that kind of person. It is chiefly for idlers, loafers, those who have time to like stand and stare, or who can make such time, taking life at a reasonable pace, and enjoying it, even if only between bouts of frenzied exertions. In case you would like to find out how well you are absorbing the content of paragraphs, I have appended a few questions at the end of each chapter, just for encouragement. You don't have to read these if you don't want to, of course. The answers may be found in the relevant text, or in the glossary, or perhaps somewhere else.† I don't reckon to have covered everything. If it sends you to the library, so much the better. There are lots of enthralling books on boats. I hope you will award yourself suitable and appropriate prizes each time you score well. If your answers are wrong you can always thump your head on the table, of course. It helps the memory enormously. Or you can just shrug, and self-commiserate, and pour yourself another glass.

iv

Boat Watching Go to it, then, and may you find much happiness watching these lovely attractive creations, as many others have done before you, are still doing so now, and will do so in the future. Finally, if you want to make suggestions or comments, send then to <[email protected]>. I don't undertake to answer them, for I may be too busy, looking at boats; but I will shall read them, honest.

v

Boat Watching

vi

Basics We shall have to make clear from the beginning that the words boats and ships are not quite the same thing. Boats are little things and ships are big things, generally speaking. You may find it helpful to tell yourself that boats are carried on ships, but ships cannot be carried on boats. This is not strictly true. For example, a submarine vessel is usually called a boat. A German submarine is called a "U-Boot", an abbreviation for "untersee boot" or undersea boat. Usually, though, you are unlikely to hear a submariner refer to his vessel as a ship. For our purposes, however such craft are not included in our treatment of boats. Well, most of the time submarines slink about below the surface, anyway, where we can't watch them. We shall not look at ships, then, in what follows. This is not to say that ships are not in themselves, worthy of our attention. Far from it; but the subject of boats alone is quite enough to fill many volumes. Here we shall restrict ourselves accordingly, and skim lightly over the whole subject. Looking at the basics, we are interested in those floating objects that operate at the dividing surface between air and water, carrying goods and people in (generally) dry conditions. They may be for commercial or leisure purposes, and are of many types. There are so many types, in fact, that we shall have to limit our choice in what follows.

With some of them, there is some difficulty in deciding whether or not they are in fact boats. Where do you put a surf-board, a canoe, a fun inflatable, a water-bike, and so on? It does become a little hard to decide, as it is so hard to define a boat.

1

Boat Watching Then there are all those model boats, some of them truly magnificent, with fine details, lovingly and precisely reproduced, and in which fanatical adherence to scale is evident. It is tempting to go back to the beginning of things, and look at the early primitive efforts of man to move about on the water surface. This is not really necessary, for small boys do things on water in much the same way as our early ancestors. They get very wet in the process too; though fortunately, it is usually in shallow water, and somewhere there is a long-suffering mum to dry them out. Small boys, like early man, soon discover that there are certain physical laws governing the successful movement on water. There are two aspects of vital importance; these are buoyancy, and stability. Deficiency in either of these leads to dampness of those on board, who get dunked in the welcoming water. We shall look closely at these in a later chapter, to see how they control the design of our boats. When we look carefully at boats, of any kind, we can often see how these two desirable qualities of being both stable and buoyant are achieved. We may sometimes notice, too, the effects of the lack of one or other, from whatever causes. Watching Looking a boat is a very satisfactory occupation, made the more fascinating if we understand some of the reasons for the things we see in them, and on them, under, and even around them. Looking too closely at the details of a flower, we can lose sense of its the beauty; but with a boat, the more we see and understand the more fascinating does it become. Looked at from a distance, or close up, peering at the details, we can find pleasure. It is soon immediately obvious that most boats have a sharp end and a blunt end, the front and the back, or the bow and the stern. This is not invariable, for some boats have neither. Small boys have been known to make daring great voyages of vast imaginary distances across a puddle or small stream, squeezed into a bathtub, which is rounded at both ends, or a box, blunt at both ends. So Coracles, too, are noticeably lacking in wavepiercing bows, though not all are circular. Some are long and "boat-shaped". One old guide about boat design is that it should have a cod's head and a mackerel tail. This makes a lot of sense when you think about it; but the principle is not always invariably followed. Different boats have different needs. Not only do various people have all kinds of requirements when they go afloat in their boats, but all over the world conditions call for a special approach to shaping the craft. Shallow water, fast currents,strea breakers, rocks? All these and many other factors shape the boat-builder's thoughts. Boats that are sharp at both ends are referred to as "double-enders". Oddly, the term is not used about boats that are blunt at both ends, like river punts and lighters. Just think of the difference between a river punt and a small dinghy. One is designed for smooth water, and the other for rougher conditions. This is reflected in the overall shape. We shall look into the reasons for these differences in a later chapter. It will help 2

Boat Watching us to find pleasure in our watching, to know something of the thinking behind the shapes. Buoyancy is a pretty obvious requirement for a boat. If it isn't buoyant, then it won't stay on the surface, but will sink below the surface, to the dismay of those on board. The principal of buoyancy is simple, and we need to understand two terms only, displacement and density, in order to grasp the principles of buoyancy.

Buoyant aircraft, like balloons and airships, are completely immersed in the fluid that supports them, air; but boats are only partly immersed, unless they sink altogether, when they are justifiably considered as being not buoyant. When a boat is lowered into the water, it starts to sink as it penetrates the surface, and pushes to one side the water surrounding the hull, the bit under the surface. This water has to go somewhere, so it rises and flows outward and this raises the level elsewhere. The amount of water thus displaced moved is, quite reasonably, called the "displacement." It can be measured by volume, or by weight. The weight of water displaced by a floating boat is the same as the weight of the boat itself; so the push of the water, trying to get back to fill the hole made by the boat, exactly balances the boat's efforts to go under, i.e. its weight.

3

Boat Watching

During the action of hauling out a boat, by a crane, or pulling it up a slipway, (a sloping hard surface to take a launching trolley or road trailer,) the level falls, as the displaced water finds its way back into the hole left by the boat. You are unlikely to notice the difference, though, unless you are experimenting with a model boat in a small container, or a big model in the bath. Any object that stays on the surface is said to be buoyant. A boat, then, is a buoyant object. If, for some reason, the weight of the boat should exceed that of the displaced water, then the craft will descend, and the occupants will be very wet. This increase of weight, or decrease of buoyancy, can arise from over-loading with goods or passengers, or too much water sloshing about inside the bottom, (the bilges). We shall look at buoyancy more closely later, when we discuss stability, for it is of obvious importance to those who like to stay comparatively dry. For now, let us remind ourselves once more that when we see a boat afloat, it is displacing a weight of water equal to its own weight. There is, then, below the surface a bit of boat that has pushed enough water out of place to exactly balance its own weight. The shape of this mass of water doesn't matter, from the point of view of supporting the boat; it is just the actual mass. In clear water, you may be able to see this under-water part, and fascinating it is, too. It is shaped to move through the water with little reluctance, so that the propelling power is used efficiently. When a boat moves, it warms up the water, though you are unlikely to notice it. This is where the energy power goes, whether it comes from sails, an engine, or a pair of biceps. The density of a fluid is how heavy a given volume of it is. That is, if you take a bucketful of the fluid, in our case water, and weigh it, denser water will weigh more. You might not think there would be much difference between one lot of water and another; but you would be very wrong. The density varies with temperature, for one thing; and in the tropics the water is much warmer than in the polar arctic regions, and hence less dense. The salt content, too, is 4

Boat Watching not the same everywhere. Ocean water is denser than pond water, for it holds more dissolved salt.

One way of measuring density is to put a graduated glass float, called a hygrometer, in a sample, and read off the density on a scale on the float. The higher the density, the higher it floats. There are other, methods, but that is the easiest. When a boat sits in the water, the volume it displaces depends upon the density of the water. Where the density is high, less volume is needed to provide the upthrust. You will not normally notice the effects of this in your boat watching. Small boats don't notice the minute difference in draught when they sail out of an estuary into the sea. I point out this fact just so that you know the whole story, and can talk knowledgeably about it. If you go to the tropics in a ship, or happen to see a ship that travels to the tropics, you may observe the white lines painted on the sides of the hull, near the waterline, showing where the water line should be in tropical and temperate climates. You can read about this in marine textbooks. Look up "Plimsoll line". The line round the boat, level with the surface separating air and water, is called the water-line. You will usually see a change of colour here, because below the surface special paint is applied, anti-fouling paint, to discourage the growth of weed, and the ever-present barnacles. This paint is an expensive plant weed and animal killer. You will normally see this more clearly when the boat is aground, or ashore for maintenance. The manufacturers can supply it in a limited choice of colours. Privately-owned boats are very personal items, and owners are inclined to be proud, and a little choosy, when enjoying the greatest of all pleasures, messing about on their beloved vessels. Colour is of great importance. As you look around a harbour you will see many different colours of the topsides and the anti-fouled bottoms.

5

Boat Watching Earlier wooden ships had copper sheeting on the hulls, as this is a metal not much liked by the weeds and barnacles. So copper was used in the anti-fouling paints for many years. Then other lethal materials were found. The paint is designed to dissolve slowly in water, and the deadly effect on fish and other aquatic creatures can be considerable. In confined waters, such as harbours and marinas, where the water doesn't change much, the authorities, some years ago, began to realise that the slowly dissolving anti-fouling paint from many boats was beginning poisoning the water, and the fish in it, to an unacceptable extent. Laws were passed, requiring boat owners to apply anti-fouling paints that were kinder to the environment. Eventually the use of many of the earlier such compounds was banned. The manufacturers then turned to other materials for making the paint, and the price of a can of anti-fouling paint rose dramatically. Boat owners watched the steep rise in costs with puckered lips, bristling whiskers, and indrawn breath. Yet they just had to protect their hulls against those evil little beasts, the barnacles, and the all-pervading weed. With forced smiles, they paid up, and are still paying. The old fishermen scorned the use of such expensive things, and just daubed tar liberally on the hulls of their boats. This was cheap, and easily applied between tides. Those are advantages not to be ignored, and in some areas tar is still used. Barnacles don't like tar very much, though it is not so readily come by these days. At one time you just went round to the gas works and got a bucketful for a few coppers. Well, I expect fishermen are a little wealthier nowadays, so they don't mind quite as much. Still, the price of a pot of anti-fouling is rather staggering, and you can't thin it down, or it won't do its job. You may occasionally see a boat with no waterline, and no anti-fouling paint. These are boats that are hauled out of the water when not in use, and spend most of their time away from the marauding creatures that crowd onto immersed hulls. They may never go near salt water.

6

Boat Watching Many fast motorboats are hauled out onto trailers when not dashing around on the water. They may be taken home until they are next required. Since they don't spend a lot of time at moorings, in the weed-growing and barnacle breeding environment, antifouling treatment is not needed. Owners often find an outlet for their artistic cravings by painting the topsides with fanciful designs. You may sometimes see a line of paint of a different colour separating the hulls antifouling paint from the topsides. This is the boot-topping, and if this is not painted with an anti-fouling paint it collects long strings of green weed. This is highly decorative, but and costly in power, for when the boat has to drag these long streamers through the water it is a painfully slow business. Another notable feature of boats, which you will should notice as you look at them, is the appearance of the surface of the hull itself. Some are very smooth, and these are the carvel-built hulls. A carvel hull has the planks laid edge to edge, instead of overlapping, producing a smooth surface. Small plywood boats are smooth-sided, too. On the other hand, you will see some boats with the outlines of the planks running along the hull, the clinker-built boats. This appearance is sometimes moulded into the skin of plastic boats, to improve appearance and give added strength to the hull. The Owners of true clinker jobs often refer somewhat disparagingly to such craft as "Tupperware boats". On the other hand, the GRP types (glass reinforced plastic) call for less maintenance, and they have become increasingly popular.

Under this general heading of "Basics", we can look briefly at the rig, the way the sails are handled on a sailing boat. They make use of a mast, held aloft usually by stays, or in a socket in the deck leading to a firm base below. The mast may carry spreaders, or cross-trees, so that the tays are held apart high up the mast; and such fittings lend an elegant air to the boat. Halyards run down the mast from the top, (the truck) to sheaves or cleats near the deck. People who seek enemies leave their halyards flapping against the mast at night when at moorings, so depriving their neighbours of sleep. 7

Boat Watching

When the sails are hoisted, a sailing boat looks quite different. It seems to come to life. On motor boats, on the other hand, the mast, if there is one, is stubby, and normally carries no more than an ensign or a club burgee.

Other points to notice are the deck fittings, such as cleats and fairleads, hawse pipes, and anchor chocks. We shall refer look to these later in more detail. For now, the boat watcher may note that on all boats there are various items, plain, galvanised or plated, of interest.

8

Boat Watching Boats may be examined more closely, as when ashore or alongside in docks. When they are more distant, perhaps in the middle of a river, or at sea, some distance offshore, a pair of binoculars is a great help. If you consider buying a telescope or field glasses, there are one or two points to be borne in mind.

You may find it useful to discuss with a friend the sort of specification that will best suit you. Here are some tips, and in any case, do try out before you buy. Small affairs like opera glasses fit easily into your pocket, but they are pretty well useless for boat watching. A high magnification is fine if you can hold the telescope or glasses steady, say resting on a wall or tripod. If you are watching from aboard a small dinghy, though, you may find it impossible to keep the object in view. Generally speaking, you won't want a magnification greater than 8x. The capacity for light gathering is indicated by the size of the object lens, the bigger of the lenses, farthest from the eyes. A small lens may not gather enough light to enable you to see the object clearly. So, go for a large object lens, and a magnification of about 8x. 7x is better if you anticipate much movement, and up to say, 12x if you are able to use the device on a rigid base. You will do well if you can get hold of an ex-Admiralty equipment. The glasses are excellent. Years ago, you could pick up a splendid pair of glasses, with a set of coloured shades, and a stout leather case to boot, for very little. Those halcyon days are past, but there are still some bargains to be had. Keep an eye open for them. Glasses or a telescope could be all that you need for boat watching, and you can even do without either. You may be carried away and want to sketch or paint the boats you see, or perhaps take some striking photographs, for they are very photogenic objects. Regard all this, though, as something extra to the basic enjoyment of just looking at the craft. Your boat watching will usually take place near water; but some people lay up their boats for the winter in their gardens or drives. Again, there are plenty of boats to be 9

Boat Watching seen in boatyards and on brokers' premises all over the country. It doesn't cost anything to look at them, and the owners may even be flattered. From time to time, it might even lead to a chat; and talking about boats is good for the soul. Before leaving this chapter on basics, we should take a quick look at the spars that you might notice. The most obvious, of course, is the mast, on a sailing boat. There may be more than one, depending upon whether the boat is a sloop, with one mast, a ketch, a yawl, or one of the many other sorts, though small boats don't usually carry more than a couple of masts.

On some of those beautiful Nile boats once seen on the Nile and the Tigris and elsewhere, with lateen sails, the mast is rarely vertical, and often bends over in an entrancing curve. Such craft are slowly being displaced, though, by the faster noisier outboard-engined boat. Many feel this is a pity, a smelly noisy pity at that. The mast, then is usually the biggest spar you can see. At the lower end, nearer the deck, a long spar called a boom is attached and, on a sloop, stretches aft towards the counter. This carries the foot of the sail, and is controlled by a piece of line called a sheet. Before the wind, this spar is allowed to go right out over the side, but on other points of the wind, when close-hauled, it is pulled in closer to the centre-line.

When the boat is ashore, the boom is usually lashed down to a support, the boomcrutch, just aft of the cockpit, or thereabouts, with its sail tied down to it, and perhaps a cover over all. 10

Boat Watching On some sailing boats you may see another spar, at the top of the sail, stretching the sail either up the mast (Gunter rig) or aft, (gaff-rigged). These are moveable spars, but there are two fixed ones that you might notice occasionally. One is the bowsprit, sticking out forward of the bows, sometimes carrying a bob-stay joining the outer end to the bows, lower down. The other is a kind of after-bowsprit, sticking out astern, known as a bumpkin. You are most likely to see these on small yawls. Boats are equipped with some loose other items like boat-hooks, bailers, buckets, paddles or oars, often of wood or plastic, and associated fittings like rowlocks, cleats and fairleads.

You may see a variety of rowlocks, (sometimes pronounced rollocks), or crutches. The oldest kind, perhaps, consists of a pair of wooden pegs fixed in the gunwale, between which the oars swing. Cheap, strong and efficient, they were much loved of the earlier economically-minded fishermen. A variant of this is the single strong peg that stuck up through a hole in the handle or inboard end of the oar. A superior rowlock is the galvanised standard type, that pivots in a galvanised socket screwed to the gunwale. Even more superior, and much more expensive, is the bronze rowlock. These are rarely seen except on the more costly boats, which are always under close surveillance. There was a tendency at one time to produce plastic rowlocks, but many sailors found these too unreliable. A broken rowlock is more than an irritant when trying to row ashore in half a gale. Where you see rowlocks, they are usually attached by a line to the boat itself, so that they cannot escape when they come out of their sockets. Their use is not confined to dinghies. A spare crutch is a handy item to have aboard a sailing boat or motor boat, in the transom. There are times when it is useful, and pleasurable, to propel the craft by an oar over the side or stern, sculling.

11

Boat Watching

Given the chance, it is always well worthwhile to poke your nose into a cockpit. (Do make sure the owner knows, or you might be mistaken for someone hoping to purloin a bit of the boat.) This is the "office" or control centre of the boat. In here you will see all sorts of goodies, the tiller or wheel for steering, the sheets for controlling the sails, if it is a sailing boat, perhaps a compass, a log, an echo sounder, and various useful items for handling the vessel. The modern increase in electronic gadgetry can fill the cockpit with all kinds of dials, for speed, course, depth, position and so on. Many sailors steer clear of things which need a battery, though. Batteries are generally reliable, but if they do go, they go altogether, and the skipper has to do some quick thinking. In shallow water a boat-hook is as good as anything for sounding, that is, measuring the depth. It is not unknown for an unfeeling skipper to send his crew overboard to see how far up the water comes.

12

Boat Watching Some people might even have cushions, for guests, but many sailors usually scorn such comforts, since a cockpit can be a wet place at times, and drying-out the cushions is a miserable job. Attached to the stern, by a short rope called a painter, or lashed alongside, there may be a small pulling boat, the dinghy, used for getting out to, and returning from, the mooring. It is normally a stable little flat-bottomed affair, for it has much load-carrying to handle. Some owners tend to overload their tenders most cruelly. Larger dinghies are popular as leisure and racing boats, some with oars, some with sails, and some with an outboard engine.

Feedback 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

How do you know whether you are seeing a ship or a boat? Where would you expect to find a rowlock? What is the difference between a bowsprit and a bumpkin? How would you choose binoculars? Name a couple of spars on a sailing boat. Why do boat owners use anti-fouling paint on the hull? Where would you find a halyard? Name two deck fittings. What is a slipway? Where do you look to find the truck? How would you recognise a gaff-rigged boat? What is the meaning of "buoyancy"? How would you recognise a double-ender? What do we mean by "displacement"? Where can you see an anchor chock? Why do some boats have no anti-fouling paint applied? What might you find in a cockpit? Where might you see find a dinghy? If you see a man sculling, where exactly would he be? What is a painter (other than an owner with a brush in his or her hand?

13

The Boat The simplest kind of boat you are likely to see is a straight-sided flat-bottomed plywood dinghy, made from a couple of sheets of marine ply, screwed, glued, or stitched together. Modern glues are reliable, and stitching methods provide strong joints. A couple of thwarts will keep the sides apart, and the whole thing can be made in a morning. You may find a few of these scattered around the beach or cluttering up the slipways at sailing clubs. The hull, particularly the topsides, is the most visible part of any vessel. Here is where the proud owner can slosh on the colour of his choice, and polish everything so that in the sun it causes a general and respectful lowering of eyelids. The topsides often carry the name of the boat, too. From the guard rails a festoon of fenders may indicate the care of the owner for his paint work and varnish. On some working dinghies, there may yet remain a few smears of the original paint; but usually they are shamefully and comfortably neglected, dragged up the beach, and just dumped until wanted again. The topsides of any boat are worth more than a cursory glance. If the sides run in towards the deck at the top, the word "tumblehome" is applied. Boats with tumblehome have a comfortable look about them, but there are some disadvantages. The deck is not so roomy, and boarding from a dinghy can be chancier. They are not so readily built, either, in from plywood or GRP. Most people like the look of a bit of tumblehome, though. With such a vast choice, it is difficult to pick a starting point. Further, what is the best way to classify them? By size, shape, popularity? I shall start by going back in time, to look at the earliest craft, those that succeeded the simple log or raft. I suppose that before our limited ancestors had ideas about boats they just swam along side a hunk of wood, maybe a tree trunk. In South America, the balahoo is perhaps one of the more primitive types of boat. It is found elsewhere, too, though not so often nowadays. It is simply a large log, with the bark removed, roughly hollowed out log, and sufficiently buoyant to support a man, or perhaps two. On occasions it may even carry the whole family. It looks rather unstable, for the whole thing is often hacked out of the trunk of a greenheart tree, that timber being very strong, and it doesn't mind getting wet. It is actually denser than water. It doesn't rot, and some of those balahoos have been handed down for generations, carrying their mostly naked skippers over some dangerous waters on their hunting and fishing expeditions. Since the ends are rarely pointed, they are not speedy vessels, and there is no smooth finish either inside or outside. They are, however, excellent for their job. They demand 14

Boat Watching no special maintenance, cost nothing but a few days or weeks of labour to acquire, and lie around happily without attention when not wanted. The waters where they are used are often frequented by piranhas, and it is not unusual to meet a cayman, an electric eel, or other nasty; those who use them must know what they are doing. The point about the balahoo is that it is typical of the earliest sort of boat. It is a true boat, for it floats, and carries people and cargo, hither and thither. Features like speed and appearance, which would be advantages elsewhere are of no account in the places where they are used. I must mention those reed boats that have been made famous by the hardy souls who have sailed them across oceans. They are true boats, and surprisingly seaworthy. Their construction involves a great deal of labour, but little else, and should you get a chance to see one, perhaps at a museum, I think you will enjoy the look of it. It has such a friendly appearance, and looks perfectly trustworthy.

As we move on from the ancient types we find boats made from more of the new materials; and the shapes have changed, too. Special needs have resulted in the development of special shapes. The Venetian gondolas, for example, with their high decorative prows, and platforms for the men who punted them along the malodorous waters of the canals were very suitable for Venice, but not for the rough seas of say, the English Channel. Things have changed since the early development of the gondola, and the state of the canals has changed too, for which we should be thankful, if we have a keen olfactory sense. The ancient shape is still a tourist attraction, but the very word "gondola" is more likely to be associated with the growing production of modern airships than with languorous trips in Venice.

15

Boat Watching The use of timber, happily, is not over. There are still many superb boat-builders who ply their ancient craft of turning trees into beautiful boats. However, excellent boats can now be built from metals, especially aluminium and steel. Special techniques have been developed to suit the demands of these materials. Metal can be riveted or welded, and treated against corrosion. It is not always easy to determine the materials used, just by looking at a boat. A good old-fashioned clinker boat is easily recognised, of course, and so is a reed boat; but the smooth hulls of moulded boats, and welded metal varieties can look pretty much alike. Some boats, of marine ply, are carefully varnished to bring out the beauty of the timber, and are readily recognised in the dinghy park. Some moulded GRP hulls, too, stand out for what they are. So when you are enjoying a look at boats, in general, you may not always be able to sort out which are in wood, which in metal, and which are in glass fibre. There are boats made from rubber, or neoprene, (the inflatables, and the rigid inflatable boats known as RIB's). Canvas, too, is useful. With a decent wooden skeleton or framework, canvas can produce a lightweight boat, readily folded up for easy transport. A sheet of plastic can be folded round a few sticks in an emergency. It won't win a race, but it might get you out of a sticky situation.

Aluminium boats enjoyed a vogue for some time, and there are still plenty of them about. They are fairly indestructible. They have to be, for they are left around in all weathers, and bashed from time to time in collisions, and while they are ashore. They do tend to make a bit if a clang when hit, but people don't seem to mind. Young boys have been known to produce a sort of boat from hardboard, liberally daubed with paint. Fortunately, they are not expected to last very long. (The boats, not the boys. Small boys are indestructible.) The paint is not bump proof, and once hardboard is wet, it tends to turn into a soggy mess, rather like yukky porridge, not in the least buoyant. 16

Boat Watching So, all in all, you can make a boat of pretty well anything, except pink blancmange. Perhaps you can use even that, if you are prepared to eat it and not sail in it, I suppose. After all, boats of icing often appear on the top of birthday cakes, and they appear to give complete satisfaction. Considering the wide choice, then, we can turn our minds to the possible shapes. However, more important than the shape are the qualities of buoyancy and stability. Earlier boats were built on the "suck-it-and-see" principle, where you do something and, if it doesn't work, do something a little different, or perhaps a lot different. Boats that are not sufficiently buoyant just sink, and those that are unstable turn over. It is really very quite simple. You don't need a degree in hydrostatics for that. The shape of a boat can be very complicated and attractive, as are most things that are fit for their purpose. Try drawing one, seen from three-quarters ahead, to see what I mean. Much depends upon the use to which the boat is to be put. In nearly all cases, the length is to be greater than the breadth, so that it has a direction. From the ends, the bottom can be flat, rounded, or sharp-edged. Flat bottoms provide stability when at rest, and good planing surfaces when driven at high speed, as in speedboats. In plan, the bow is normally pointed, to provide a good entry, and the stern so shaped as to lead away the water as it passes round the boat. Though the stem may be steep, the after end usually slopes up gently to the transom, or to a counter. The waves made by the passage of a boat demand energy from somewhere, the engine or the sails or the rower. So the less the strength of the waves in a wake, the more efficient is the conversion of power into thrust. Hence, the design of the underwater parts is of great importance. The width must of course be adequate, to accommodate the crew, though they may sit beside or behind one another. The ratio of length to breadth is an important one. You will notice that square boats are unusual. Having roughed out the general overall shape, the designer has then to consider the hydrodynamic features, the flow of the water past the hull. It might be as well to say something here about that misunderstood word "stream line". The uninformed, and the advertising world, are apt likely to apply the word to everything from feminine form to a bar of chocolate. Consider a body of water, flowing gently along, and imagine a speck of dust on the surface. If you trace out the path of the speck it will follow a path in the stream which is a continuous straight line or curve. Such a line is called a "stream line" or "streamline".

17

Boat Watching The obvious feature of a streamline is that there is no flow across it. A particle cannot go in two directions at once. For someone on one side of the streamline there is nothing on the other side. It could be solid, for all the person could tell. If, then, we have a shape which is like that of a streamline, then theoretical water will gently flow past it without disturbance. A streamlined shape is one whose outline that follows the course of a streamline. We shall look at this more closely in the chapter on water, when we deal with the movement of water in general.

The next thing in planning a boat is to think about the sides and ends above water. The bows are of great interest to the boat-watcher. They can be elegant, like the clipper bows of expensive yachts, or blunt like the front end of a Mirror dinghy. In between, the stem generally runs down and aft to the water-line in a smooth satisfying curve, on sailing boats. The bows of motorboats vary from an impressive sweep of complex curves forming a set of wave-turning shapes, to a simple straight nononsense stem, depending upon whether the boat is a planing or a displacement craft.

18

Boat Watching If you consider the bows as comprising the stem and the foredeck, you have a fascinating variety. Look carefully at the arrangement of the shapes, the way the deck takes over from the stem, the cut away beneath the prow to slice cut into the approaching water, the rubbing strakes, the foredeck fittings, fairleads cleats and hawse pipe, sometimes an anchor winch, a Samson post, a pulpit. The foredeck can stamp the personality of the owner. At the after end, we have the transom, or a cutaway counter stern, and the rudder. The rudder itself is often worth careful inspection. It can be a great lump of wood like a barn door, or a fine deep member with a tapered trailing edge. It might carry a trim tab, perhaps connected to an automatic steering device, to help reduce the load on the selfsteering gear. Sometimes the rudder has a hole cut in the forward part to accommodate a propeller. It may be attached to the aft end of a skeg, which is a fixed bit of keel ahead of the rudder, or hang down on a shaft through the after-deck. There are many varieties, each striving for some virtue. An inadequate rudder is a menace, making for poor handling. On the other hand, too much rudder surface is hard work for the helmsman. Just look at them and see how different they can be, and how they are suited to the boat. Dinghy owners sometimes take out the rudder and the helm when ashore. Their rudders are usually hung on pintles and gudgeons on the transom. The blades are finely tapered and efficient, and often held down by a piece of elastic cord or bunjee. Bunjee is a word of indifferent spelling, that is referred to in more depth in the glossary. It is applied to the material used in early aircraft as shock-absorbing devices on the undercarriage. The rubber material was used to open parachutes, and was taken up with gusto by small boat sailors, who use it for ties, and retainers in many places. You can but it in several different sizes nowadays, sometimes with a hook on each end. It is a good idea to have a few bits about the place. If you look at a small boat, you may spot some used for ties round the mainsail, when folded down onto the boom Sometimes, on the transom, you can see holes for the discharge of bilge water, tubes fitted with echo-sounder transducers, a bracket for the ensign, a sculling notch, and other goodies. It is here too that you frequently find the name of the boat and the initials of the club. Altogether the stern is full of interest.

19

Boat Watching

The cockpit is not always at the stern. It is more convenient on some sailing craft to have the cockpit in the centre, with an after cabin astern of it. The cockpit itself is the control centre, where, in sailing boats, crew and passengers are at work, or just lounging, glass in hand, as the boat creams along in a gentle breeze. In motor boats there may be deck chairs, and other fancy stuff. The cockpit has coamings around it, some seating, and various controls for sail or engine handling. Instrumentation can be found here, too. In most motor craft there is a cuddy or cabin for crew and passengers; but a scow, for example, has no cover for the personnel to protect against sun and rough weather. Neither has a pulling dinghy, though you may sometimes see a dodger, some protective canvas fitted against the worst of the elements. Small open boats normally stay ashore in bad weather, if the owners are wise. There are many hardy souls, though, who take advantage of the modern foul-weather sailing clothing to venture out in what might be discouraging conditions for others. If the weather is not too cold, rowing in light rain is not unpleasant. Well, rowing at any time can be enjoyable. In any case, anglers don't seem to mind the weather. Perhaps they think the fish like rain. The bits of a boat that separate the waterline from the deck are the most seen parts of a boat. These are the topsides. They receive take most of the paint at fitting-out time, and produce much of the perspiration when rubbing down the surface to take the paint. Some tenders are beautifully varnished, with moveable thwarts, neat rope fendering, and fine bronze fittings. They are a joy to behold, but too expensive for most watermen. They are usually protected by covered with spotless white canvas covers, and are very tiddly, in the parlance of the sailor. You are more likely to see these at expensive marinas.

20

Boat Watching For blue water sailing or motoring, a large boat is essential. Great ocean voyages have been made in little vessels, but the people who managed them were of a special breed, not the ordinary man-in-the-street kind. The foregoing is a quick look at the main parts, bottom, topsides, bows, stern, and deck, that you will see when you look at a boat. On sailing boats there is more to see, above the deck, than with the other kinds of boat. With sails set or stowed, a sailing boat of any kind is a pleasing sight. The rigging is cunningly contrived to afford the greatest amount of rigidity and strength with the least amount of material. It uses material in compression (spars) and tension (stays) to the optimum effect. Down through the centuries this has been the case; but modern materials have given us stainless steel, Kevlar, and nylon. With these new materials, we have been able to produce masterpieces of engineering. The old hemp, sisal, canvas and wrought iron have given way to some truly wonderful materials, with very attractive properties. The old cordage was rough on the hands, altered its length unduly, and failed unexpectedly. It was made from natural fibres, and which was not consistent. A fibre has natural would have weaknesses here and there. A bundle of such fibres was twisted together so that the weaknesses in some fibres would lie alongside strong parts of other fibres. In this way any weaknesses were distributed throughout the rope. Then these ropes would be twisted with other ropes, with the same intent. In this way, a strong rope would be produced. The twists were not all in the same direction, and the result was a fairly dependable product. Modern ropes are made from fibres of uniform section, and may be twisted or braided. They are quite rot-proof, and last for years. Kind to the hands, they can be used with confidence, spliced easily, and stowed readily. They don't mind a bit of ill treatment, either, within reason. Some are immensely strong, such that a line may be chosen for its diameter rather than its strength alone. A thin line is not very kind to hands when under stress. Ancient mariners would doubtless look askance at the small diameters of some of the modern cables, hardly able to believe that such light lines could carry the loads expected of them. The advent of nylon and Kevlar transformed the maritime scene. The old ropes had to be whipped at their ends, or just knotted in am emergency, to minimise fraying. The traditional old fisherman's guide to this was "Worm and parcel with the lay; turn and serve the other way". Thus, one wormed with the lay, feeding light line to lie between the strands. Then a piece of canvas (parcelling) was laid over this, again with 21

Boat Watching the lay. Finally, the serving of small stuff was laid on in the opposite direction. You won't see much of this now. Some old shellbacks may still cling to the old ropes, but they are diminishing in numbers. Modern lines can be sealed at the end with a lighted match or hot iron. The old laborious task of splicing, with marline spike and mallet, has been lightened by the ease of splicing of the modern lines. The old methods of splicing are still of interest, though, and it is a pleasant task to sit down with a piece of a wire stay, and splice an eye in the end, round a thimble. Sitting in a floating dinghy, or on the idlers' bench ashore, on a sunny day, with enough breeze to just raise a ripple, is as near to heaven as some people wish to be. At the upper ends, the stays are shackled to holes in vangs, metal plates on the mast. At the lower end, near the deck, they are attached to chain plates by adjustable bottle screws. These are usually locked with wire, to prevent their coming undone. You can see this when you are close to a boat. Note how the ends are free to move, so that there is no bending stress on the plate or the bottle-screw. Failure to allow for this can lead to a fracture here, and consequent dismasting, which is a rather upsetting experience, and expensive, too. At the lower end of the forestay you may see a little wheel, with a line wrapped round it, which leads aft to the cockpit. This is the furling line, and the little wheel is a Wykeham-Martin furling gear. This is a most useful invention scheme, for with it the helmsman can furl and unfurl the foresail without leaving the cockpit. Superficially it is a simple device, but when it was invented it soon came into use all over the place. If, at some time, you should see the foresail on a boat wind itself up on the forestay whilst sailing along, it will be because the helmsman has pulled on the line leading to the Wykeham-Martin gear. Many a skipper has had cause to be beholden to the inventor this simple device, when the sea has been rather lumpy, and the foredeck has been awash with sleet, rain, and heavy seas.

The safety rail round the foredeck is called the "pulpit", for what are perhaps obvious reasons. Aft, a similar guard rail is known as the "pushpit", almost universally, although there was an attempt to call it a stern guard rail. These are normally of 22

Boat Watching stainless steel. Galvanised ones are sometimes seen, but they corrode rather easily, and are a poor investment. You may occasionally come across boats where stout cables run from pulpit to pushpit, passing through stanchions on the way. If such stanchions are too low they are a hazard, and ready to tip a crew member overboard. So they are usually long enough to reach above the knee. Note how firmly the stanchions are fitted to the boat. A life may depend upon their strength. This is no place to skimp on dependability. The cables are thick enough to suffer handling without cutting in to the hand, for wet hands become soft, and vulnerable to concentrated loading. If a light cable is used, it may be covered with plastic, for comfort. When your eyes travel up the mast, they may pass a series of steps on the larger boats, facilitating ascent to reach the truck. Some way up you may find cross-trees or spreaders, horizontal members that serve to spread apart the shrouds. At the very top you might see a mast-cap, lighting, a wind indicator, perhaps a lightning conductor. There may be a spike to discourage gulls from perching their bottoms on the top and squirting their visiting cards over the deck, and crew, below. On larger, more opulent boats, there is often, well up the mast, a radar affair, encased in a capsule, but you will not find these on the smaller craft. Radar is an excellent navigational aid, penetrating fog and showing on a small screen the position of objects round the boat; but it can be misleading at times, and he who puts his whole faith in his radar is not as wise as he who uses it with care. A prudent sailor interprets the readings accordingly. On small boats that go to sea, you may spot a radar reflector hung aloft. This is often made from sheet metal, in parts that fold up when not in use. The idea is that other vessels, fitted with radar, will see the reflections on their radar screens. Complacent reliance upon this is not to be recommended. When fog thickens, and vessels are groping their way in crowded waters, nail-tingling alertness is the best policy. A large ship can run down a small boat without feeling a bump. More effective reflectors have now been developed. On a motor boat, with only a stubby mast, it isn't possible to put up a radar reflector very high. Further, the noise of the engine may drown out the sound of another motordriven vessel. Motor boats need to proceed with extreme caution in murky conditions. Running along the coach roof, on sailing craft and motor boats alike, you can find grabrails. These are useful safety features, but they do need to be very firmly fixed. Pretty little fancy grab rails which are insubstantial may look attractive, but are dangerous and misleading, fit only for hanging up fenders.

23

Boat Watching The coachroof itself not only protects the cabin or cuddy from the weather. It often carries fairleads and cleats, sometimes an upturned tender. Children like to ride there, too; but on a sailing boat the boom, along the bottom of the mainsail, is likely to come across and deliver a resounding thump, perhaps tossing overboard the unfortunate recipient of the thump. So the coachroof is not really a place for idling. People are better off in the cockpit, or on the foredeck.

Feedback 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

What does a balahoo look like? Where would you look for grab rails? How would you know if a boat had a radar reflector? What can a radar set do for you? Where can you find crosstrees? Name three modern materials used in boats. Where would you find a cuddy? What is bunjee? How would you know if a boat had a skeg? Whereabouts on a sailing boat can you find a Wykeham-Martin gear? Name some parts of a sailing boat that are in compression. Where can you find a pushpit? Why might you find a spike on the masthead? How can you find a sculling notch? What is a trim tab, and where is it? Where is the transom? Where is the main boom? What is a streamline? What is tumblehome? 20. What are the pros and cons of a large rudder?

24

Water What a fascinating fluid this is! With too much of it we suffer. Without it, we die. There is plenty of it all over the globe, except for some arid areas. As far as boats are concerned, water actually isn't essential. Some years ago, a group of enterprising young men in Egypt people found that if you mounted a mast and sails on a wheeled trolley, you could sail across the desert in great style, using all the skills of sailors. This was perhaps the beginning advent of modern sand-yachting, an exciting sport for people deprived of sailing water suitable for boats. The trolley needs a large beam, with the main wheels very wide apart, and the weight must be kept low, to minimise capsizes. Turning over at speed on a hard surface is not quite the same kind of thing as a capsize in water, and a crash helmet is worn nowadays. Early sand yachtsmen had no such protection, but they soon learned... On ice, too, sailing "boats" fitted with skis have been developed, and give fine sport, though whether or not they count as "boats" is open to debate. With a boat in water, we have a very different state of affairs. The water yields easily, at low speeds, but is very hard unyielding at high speed. In general, the behaviour of water is very complex, but we shall simplify things in what follows. † Looking at water that is still is called "hydrostatics", and the study of the forces water on the move is known as "hydrodynamics". We need to know a little about both if we are to get full enjoyment from our boat watching. †We shall start by a look at still water, a little hydrostatics. There are two things that we should know first: -† 1. 2.

The pressure at any point below the surface is the same in all directions. The pressure depends upon the depth. The letter "h" is often used to indicate depth, meaning "head". Head is used for pressure, since the pressure is caused by a head of water.

26

Boat Watching Both of these are fairly obvious when you think about it. Consider a point somewhere below the surface of still water, and think of a particle at that point. Since it is not moving, both the vertical and horizontal forces on it must be balanced. In other words, there is no resultant force on the particle; and the forces in all directions are the same. So at any point in the water the pressure is the same in all directions. Where the water is in contact with a surface, the pressure is at right angles to that surface. On the hull of a boat, then, the water pushes directly against the boat. The pressure on the sides, below the surface, balance, so that there is no sideways push; and the pressure on the bottom provides the lift, the buoyancy. Next, imagine a hollow vertical tube, with the bottom end closed by a thumb† holding a plate against the end. If a little water is poured into the tube, and there is at once a pressure on the plate. As more and more water is poured into the tube, so its weight increases, and the pressure builds on the plate. It becomes more difficult to hold the plate in place. So the pressure of water depends upon how far below the surface we measure it. In other words, pressure increases directly as the depth. There we have it then, pressure is the same in all directions, in still water, and that pressure depends upon the depth. A simple demonstration of this can be seen if you punch a few small holes in the side of a can, in a vertical row, and then fill it with water. The water comes out following pretty little parabolic curves. You will see the water flowing out with increasing energy throw as you look at the jets further and further down. When a boat is afloat on still water, that with no tide running, and no relative movement between boat and water, there is a pressure all round the hull pushing inwards, and this pressure is greater as we go further below the surface. Any leak into the hull is more serious if it is low down, since the pressure there can produce a more vigorous inflow. A leak near the water-line can sometimes be reduced by leaning† the boat away from that side, but, unless the hole is large, the amount of water coming in is likely to be small. People unaccustomed to boats can sometimes be unduly alarmed by the sight of water under their feet inside a boat. In general, though, this is no cause for serious concern. The flow can be reduced by listing the boat away from the side which is holed, using the weight of passengers and crew. This has the effect of gathering the bilge water to one side, where it may be easier to operate a bailer, using a bucket for greater effect, and perhaps stuffing a rag or one's foot into the hole, to reduce the flow. Again, if the hole is near the surface, not only is the flow less intense, but it may be possible to reach it, and place a patch over it. Since the pressure is at right angles to the surface, the crew can lay a patch, a piece of canvas perhaps, over the outside, and the hydrostatic pressure will keep it in place. If you see a boat limping into harbour with a lump of canvas on one side of the hull, this will probably be the reason.

26

Boat Watching A leaking boat is not necessarily a cause for panic. The old wooden boats and ships leaked copiously and the pumps were kept working regularly. In a modern boat, when she springs a leak, the first job is to start bailing and/or pumping, and then to seek the source of the leak. For a small leak, steady pumping may keep up with the inflow. A bigger hole might need action to stop the flow. If this requires the lifting of the cabin floor it does demand rapid action; but a leak is rarely a cause for serious alarm, and most boats will float when water-logged. The wooden ones are made from buoyant material, and the plastic ones usually have builtin buoyancy tanks. Clinker boats require some water in the bilges, to keep them more or less water-tight. If such boats dry out they will leak like sieves till the timbers are soaked, and take up. Tenders usually have some water sloshing about in them, from rain, leakage or splash; and a modern tender, in GRP or plywood often has these built-in buoyancy tanks, which will keep the boat afloat, even when the water level inside the boat is nearly up to the gunwales. Unwanted holes in the hull arise from collision or grounding. In the former case, the hole will be near the bows if the holed boat is at fault. If hit by another boat, unless the damage may be along the topsides, where damage is more readily handled. Unless the boat has been hit, usually Grounding may cause damage under the boat, less readily accessible, especially if between the bilge keels. Repair is normally straightforward, except where the damage is really serious. Plywood or GRP boats can be dealt with in an hour or two. A temporary repair is often made by tacking a tingle, a small patch, over the damage, and you will often see such a repair on small plywood boats, perhaps several. Look out for them when you see praams and small sailing dinghies ashore. Frequently damaged by carefree treatment, they lead a rough life, but seem to survive it all.†

When we think about hydrodynamics, we consider movement, relative movement between boat and water. First, we look at the behaviour of a perfect fluid, one without viscosity or treacliness or resistance to motion. 27

Boat Watching Imagine a thin sheet of this perfect fluid, moving slowly and uniformly over a smooth plate. If we drop a speck of dust into the water at the upstream end, it will move along a straight line to the downstream end. If we put a puff of powder onto the surface, the particles will trace out a series of straight lines, or streamlines. This is called "streamline flow", steady and tranquil. Such conditions are easily disturbed. An obstruction, like a finger, thrust into the surface, causes the lines of flow to bend, and perhaps the streamlines will break up. For the present, however, we shall stay with these smooth conditions. We shall go farther, and look at a theoretical state, on dry paper. On a piece of plain flat paper, draw a series of straight parallel lines, to represent the lines traced by the particles in our streamline flow. If we take the lower edge of the paper as the edge of a channel, the point of zero flow, we can assume a flow of say one cupful per second, between the edge and that first streamline. We can number that line F1, to indicate that it is the first streamline, and there is a flow of 1 cupful per second between it and the base line.

Now draw another line, parallel with top the first, at the same distance from the first as that one is from the base, and number it F2, because between it and the base the flow is 2 cupfuls per second. Then you can draw some more lines, the same distance apart, all the way up the paper, numbering them from F1 onwards. I do hope this doesn't sound too complicated. Once you have it on paper, it will look easier. On the base line, mark a point, labelled A. Then, straight across on the first streamline, mark another point, B. The rate of flow across the line between A and B is clearly one cupful per second. Now make another mark, C, further along streamline F1, in either direction. Since by definition the flow cannot break through cross a streamline, what crosses the line AC is what crosses the line AB, also one cupful per second. You can draw a line from A to any point on the streamline F1, straight or wriggly, and the flow across it will be just the same, one cupful per second. If you now mark a point, say D on streamline 28

Boat Watching F1, and draw any line to connect A and D, the flow across that line will be, again, just 1 cupful per second, whatever the shape of the line AD. From this I hope you can see that, for a point E, anywhere on streamline F3, the flow across the line AE will be 3 cupfuls per second. The shape of the connecting line doesn't matter. The streamline F3 is the bounding line between the base line and the extent of a flow of 3 cupfuls per second. The same reasoning applies to all the other streamlines. Continuing like this, we shall have a chart of the flow, where the numbered streamlines indicate the rate of flow between the base and that streamline.

Similarly we can see that between any pair of streamlines, say F1 and F4, the flow rate is 4 - 1 = 3. If we have a plot of the streamlines then, we can take any two points in the chart and see the flow taking place between them. Our streamlines are straight ones, for we have thought of them as representing uniform steady flow across the paper. However, the same principles apply whatever the shape of our streamlines. If we have a plot of the streamlines for any conditions, the number on a particular the line represents the rate of flow between that line and the base. The base line may be the outline of a solid object, or another streamline. That line may be marked as streamline F0. Lines further out can have labels F1, F2, F3, and so on. Scientists use the Greek letters for charts like this, and if you are not familiar with them, you can soon get used to it. For us, though, we shall stick to our usual English letters. Now let us look at the other aspect of our chart. If we travel along one of our streamlines, we must be going "downhill", so to speak. Put another way, the water must be flowing from a region of high pressure to one of lower pressure. We can mark points along each line at intervals showing this gradual loss of† "head" or pressure. If we choose to call one such point P1 say, and succeeding ones P2, P3, and so on, we can see how the pressure falls as we move along the line. We can do this with all the lines.

29

Boat Watching Joining up all the points with an equal value of P, we then have a sort of mesh, each little rectangle being bounded by two streamlines and two pressure contours or equipotential lines, as they are called. This is a most interesting kind of chart, as we shall see. Our chart thus far represents a steady smooth flow from left to right, the lines of potential being straight across the streamlines, making little square panels; Sometimes this is referred to as an orthogonal mesh. A chart mesh like this always represents a simple steady flow; but we can alter the mesh if we introduce other factors. If a pair of potential lines moves are closer, then the "steepness" of the flow is increased, and the relevant streamlines must close up, for the streamline spacing has to accord with the new situation. With a slight leap of the imagination, think of a tiny hole in the paper, and some water welling up through it. Dismissing for the time being the former streamlines, consider what kind of flow would result from this source of water. It would spread out evenly in all directions, and the streamlines would be straight lines radiating out from the tiny hole. If we look at one of these lines, and call it, say, F0, we could then go round, say anticlockwise, numbering the others in the same way, F1, F2, and so on, dividing up the whole flow into a number of equal sectors. Just as in the case of the straight streamlines of the former flow, we can mark our lines with points of diminishing height or potential, say P1, P2, and so on, and join up points of equal values, which will be on circles round the hole. In this way, we would draw a mesh of radiating and circular lines representing the flow from a source in the paper. As we move out from the centre, the circles will be further apart, since the flow will be slower, due to the wider path for the water. The mesh will consist of keystone-shaped areas. Now we come to the cunning bit. Let us superimpose the two flow patterns, so that the total flow at any point is the sum of the two original flows. We can do this by noting where the streamlines cross, and adding their values. So, if the line F1 of the radial flow crosses F3 of the parallel flow, we have a new point, of 1+3 = 4, which we can call F4, shown in our figure in green.

30

Boat Watching

Don't feel discouraged at this point. We are nearly there. All we do now is to join points of equal values of our green points. Then these lines will represent the streamlines resulting from both flows together. Notice how the lines approach, and are deflected turn outwards as they get nearer to the source. Some of the lines spring from the source itself, and are bent downstream by the oncoming steady flow. You will see on the chart a line in black, which goes right round the source. This is of great interest to us. Since it is a streamline, it can be replaced by a solid without affecting the flow. So if we use a solid of the shape shown by the black line and all the lines inside it, we have the flow round a solid of that section. Now our chart shows us what to expect if we put an obstacle in the steady flow. We can change our chart by adding other sources, and perhaps sinks (where the water flows away down a tiny hole). If you experiment with this, you may use up a lot of paper, but you will learn a lot about streamline flow. Try a plot with a couple of sources, in line with the steady flow, at various distances apart. If you are ambitious, you might like to try putting a vortex in the flow, or an inflow at some odd angle. The possibilities are numerous. Since no flow can take place across a streamline, nothing can cross that line round the hole. In fact, that line could well be replaced by a solid shape. If we do so, the remaining streamlines show us how the water would flow round a shape like that. There are other ways in which we can change the pattern of flow, and so provide a means of studying the movement of the water. All of this, you will recall, is based on a perfect fluid. With real water, the patterns will be modified; but the networks we have drawn give us an insight into actual conditions. You will see that the solid shape in our drawings is indeed a streamlined shape, for the outside surface conforms with a streamline. 31

Boat Watching †If you imagine a tiny hole in the plate that drains away the fluid, this is referred to as a "sink". This is an important concept when dealing with the theory of flow. Just as with a source, the flow lines for into a sink are radial lines, pointing inwards this time; and the lines of potential are again circles, centred on the sink. We now have three patterns of flow, one straight and two radial, one inwards and one outwards. As we saw with the source and straight flow, we can combine any of these to see other patterns. Of special interest is the combination of a source and sink, the mesh for which looks like the lines of force round a bar magnet. If we put together a source, a sink and a straight flow in various strengths, we can develop many fascinating flow patterns. You can should experiment, yourself, with different combinations, and various strengths. If you become hooked, you may find yourself wandering in the realms of complex numbers, and z-planes. It is a mathematician's field of delight. However, you need not flounder in too deeply. There is a lot of fun using the drawing methods outlined above. †All of the foregoing concerns steady streamline flow. There are turbulent flows, too, and they demand a different approach. Before we leave this part of the treatment of water flow, perhaps I should mention spiral flow, the eddy, or whirlpool. The importance of this is evident behind a boat, in the wake. When a boat drifts idly in slack water, there may well be streamline flow round the hull; but when it moves faster such flow breaks up. Now when you look at what is happening along the waterline, instead of the water lazily sliding past, it seems to bubble and foam, and make a bit of a fuss. This is where the energy of driving the boat is busily converting itself into heat. It doesn't raise the temperature of the water very much; but the energy has to go somewhere, and that is where it is dissipated. As the boat goes faster, it begins to make waves. The water ahead of the bows begins to swell up in a little wave, and this gets bigger as the speed builds. All the time, the boat is trying to climb this wave, and finding it harder to do so. If you look carefully, you will see the surface of the water begin to dip about halfway along the waterline. The boat is now approaching its maximum speed if it is a displacement boat. The power demand to push the boat up the hill of water suddenly increases, and she will go no faster with the available sails or engine. However, if the boat is flat aft, it may rise, and plane. High-speed motor boats are designed for this, so that their maximum speed is not limited in the same way. You may indeed see some racing craft with nearly the whole hull out of the water, only the propeller seeming to be actually below the surface. 32

Boat Watching If you slowly draw a stick, or the blade of an oar, through some water, and watch the surface, you may see a series of little whirlpools trailing behind the stick. Careful inspection should show you that the eddies occur in two rows, one lot twirling one way, and the other in the opposite direction, like a street of small little whirlpools. This pretty little series of eddies is an energy thief. It is the production of these vortices eddies that causes the resistance when you pull the stick through the water. They arise from the way in which the water flows round the back of the stick, shedding vortices from each side alternately. If you slow down they diminish, and vanish at very low speed. You may feel the stick pulling to one side, and then the other, under the influence of the eddies. In jungle streams, where large bamboos poles stick up out of the water, you can see them lashing about all the time, due to the eddies are shed from alternate sides, as if there were some ogre beneath the surface shaking them. A vortex is a mass of spinning water, causing a dimple in the surface. There are two kinds, the free vortex and the forced vortex. Sometimes both can occur at one place, blending into one another.† This occurs inside a centrifugal pump.

If you stir your tea, you produce a forced vortex, in which the surface is cup-shaped, sloping up steeply at the outer limits. If you pull out the plug, in the sink, you will see a free vortex, in which the surface is rather like a trumpet, vanishingly small at the centre. As a point of interest, in the northern hemisphere, the water in a free vortex rotates in an anti-clockwise direction. In the southern† hemisphere it goes the opposite way.† You may care to check this when you pull out the plug in your bath. This is due to the Coriolis effect, which you may like care to examine in the literature. It is very simple, and won't tax your mathematical skills unduly. † You may well feel that this is irrelevant to boats in general. This is not so, though, for whenever a boat produces an eddy, it uses up some of the energy supplied by the engine, sails or paddles. The design of the underwater shape of a boat aims to produce the minimum of vortices. 33

Boat Watching When water moves, it is driven by wind and gravity, or other objects. We shall look at some of the wind effects first, since the wind is the driving force for many boats, and what it does to the water affects our view of a boat. When wind moves over the surface of water it can produce ripples, depending upon the relative speed of water and wind. If the wind is in the same direction as the flow, the relative speed is low, and modest ripples may be produced. When the tide turns against the wind the relative velocity is increased, and the waves are higher. A boat battling against the tide, when the wind is with it, can encounter some lively waves, as you can see when you are watching the progress of boats. The waves brought about by wind depend upon the fetch, that is the distance over which the wind has been pushing the waves. This accounts for some of the differences between wave heights when the wind blows across an estuary and when it blows into it. Those waves which have travelled across oceans can reach terrifying heights, almost as high as the mountains reported by sailors, in the clubhouse, towards closing time. When a boat is travelling down the slope of a wave, a sailor, looking along the sloping deck, and then up to the crest of the wave, may well take the (sloping) distance from deck to crest as the wave height. This gives a false impression of the actual height, but makes for some hair-raising tales over a full glass. †When you watch a boat dipping and rising in a swell, you may see the foam at the bows change rhythmically. The wake, too, alters as the attitude of the boat changes. A boat is said to have "a bone in its teeth" when the waves at the bows are white. In a long smooth swell, a boat rides easily and pleasantly comfortably. However, there are some conditions when things are not at all comfortable. Generally, the waves arrive in steady lines, and if a boat is pointed across into the lines, rising and falling with the waves as they arrive, the motion is easy. If one set of waves crosses another, then the result is an unhappy set of pyramidal lumps of water. The boat doesn't know which way to turn next, and flounders about all over the place. Such are nasty conditions. They occur frequently off capes and headlands, where the wave train coming from one side of the land meets another train from the other side out of phase. The experienced sailor avoids such areas at certain states of the tide.† When waves approach shallow water, the drag of the sea-bed slows down the lower layers, and the surface overtakes, causing the rollers which then break. These conditions are much loved by surf-boarders, but are viewed with some distaste by the small boat sailor. The breaking water doesn't support the boat properly, and may tumble it out of control.

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Launching through heavy surf is difficult and at times dangerous. It is sometimes possible to choose a time between waves and then act quickly to get the boat beyond the danger zone. Watching such action from the shore can be fascinating. The bubbles in foam are not very supportive, since the density is less than that of "solid" water. As a boat proceeds, the hull moves passes through the water with pretty much the same effect as if the boat were still, with and the water passing along the hull. In studying the flow round a hull, we can look at how the water moves against a fixed solid surface, or think of a solid surface moving against still water. Where the water touches the hull it is relatively stationary. It is as if a very thin layer of water stuck to the surface. This is called the "boundary layer", which may extend along the hull for some distance, before breaking away into a generally turbulent flow towards the stern. You can see this if you lean over the side and watch the waterline on a slow-moving boat. With a pair of binoculars, you can look at the bow wave and the wake of boats moving at various speeds offshore. When you see a sailing boat well heeled, she is close hauled, heading upwind, and when you see the sails out to one side she is reaching, and perhaps then making her best speed. If she is running before the wind, the main, and perhaps the foresail will be well out catching as much wind as she can. Look at the water surface at the bow and the stern, and notice the kind of wake she leaves. There is no need to be afloat to find pleasure in boat watching; but if you should go aboard, try to see the motion of the water round the waterline, as well as watching the nature of approaching wave patterns. This can tell you much about the behaviour of boats under different weather conditions.

Feedback 1. 2. 3. 4.

What do we mean by a streamlined shape? Where would you look for a tingle? Why should a clinker-built boat be prevented from drying out? What is meant by "hydrostatics"? 35

Boat Watching 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

What is a sand-yacht? How does water pressure vary with the depth? Describe the flow from a "source" onto a flat plate. What is the direction of hydrostatic pressure on the hull of a boat? How would you deal with a large hole in the hull, just below the waterline? How does the density of water vary? Why is a leak well below the surface likely to be of more concern generous than one near the waterline? How would you tackle a small leak in the hull? How would you draw an equi-potential line? What is a "sink" in a flow mesh? What is the difference between a free and a forced vortex? How can you produce a forced vortex? What do you know about Coriolis? What is the shape of a free jet of water? How would you measure the density of a sample of water? Given the volume displaced by a boat, how would you calculate its weight?

36

Types of Boat There are so many types of boat that I wasn't sure how to begin this chapter. After much thought, I felt thought it might be a good idea to start with small ones and work up to the larger kind. So we look first at tenders, little boats used for getting out to a moored vessel. At one time, a yacht's tender was a very tiddly affair, clinker built, with shiny with well varnish and white rope fendering, bronze fittings, and a pair of beautiful oars with leather cuffs to quieten the sound of oar against rowlock, all scrupulously maintained by a paid hand. Only the rich could afford such luxuries, but less well-endowed people could enjoy looking at them. They still can for that matter, though there are few to be seen now.

Some tenders are praams, (or prams, both spellings being used) flat-bottomed athwartships, and hence of shallow draft, with blunt ends fore and aft. A bow transom is helpful to give fullness forward, to increase load-carrying capacity. A pulling dinghy, i.e., one for rowing, or a stem dinghy, one with a distinct stem instead of a bow transom, has a stout stem, and often a sculling notch in the stern. You may sometimes see a rower standing up in the boat, sculling with an oar over the stern; but the more cautious among us never stand up in a small boat. It is only too easy for it to roll over should an unexpected wash strike it from a passing vessel. The era of the lovely little clinker tender is nearly over, and if you see one it will be unusual. Paid hands can no longer be had for a pittance. The modern use of plastics has changed the situation, for they require practically no maintenance, and indeed are usually sadly neglected. Many people no longer have the time to enjoy giving loving care to a little boat. However, there are still plenty of nice little plywood tenders about, and some of these are well treated. Making one is a very satisfying task, especially if made from a kit. They last for years, too. One particular design with bow and stern transoms, the YW dinghy, has been made in thousands. 37

Boat Watching It is an excellent design, by a genius, and you should see them in and about sailing places all over the world. They can carry a sail, as well as being good pulling dinghies, take a good load, and are safe and stable. You will probably see more of these than any other ply tender.

When GRP, glass reinforced plastic, came on the scene, it made a big hit. The material consists of a glass mesh immersed in a gel, and is very strong. Glass little strength when bent, but when used as reinforcement in another material is excellent. A moulded boat of this stuff can stand up to rough treatment at the hands of the incompetent or careless, and lasts for years, unless it gets a serious wallop, or is not made properly, so that it suffers from osmosis, a seepage of water into the skin. You can easily recognise a dinghy of this sort, for the sides are smooth, and the curves run sweetly. They are usually dumped on the beach, upside down, or stored in racks, in some sailing clubs. If they are left up the right way, they will take a lot of rainwater. For this reason there is often a hole in the bilges or the transom, with a bung, for draining the boat (ashore!). Failure to replace this bung before setting out can be a cause of much hilarity merriment to those watching. Plywood boats need rather more careful treatment than the plastic job, for there is the threat of rot, starting in odd corners. Marine plywood is splendid stuff for boats, and is used even on larger boats, one humorist even calling his plywood yacht "Maid of Pligh", a pun appreciated by the cognoscenti only. The other popular type of small boat is the inflatable sort, made from some flexible material, usually neoprene. There has been much development with this type, and the large ones have rigid boards in them These are called RIB's, rigid inflatable boats. They can be driven by oars or outboard engines, and the large ones are considered good enough to be used by those indomitable heroes, the Lifeboat men.

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Boat Watching

Some inflatables can have a wooden transom outboard engine, and moulded rowlocks to take a pair of short paddles. Most people find they are pigs to row, though, for the shape is all wrong, and the paddles too short. Still, they do have the advantage of being readily deflated and rolled up for putting into the boot of a car. So they suit the weekend sailor who lives some distance from the water. You might see one on a car roof rack now and again. Inflatables and Rib's are interesting to watch, especially on rough water, providing you are watching from ashore. You can see them carried on the coach-roof of small yachts sometimes, well lashed down, or being towed on a short painter. Note the word "short". Long painters are liable to wrap around a propeller, or catch on a buoy when passing too close. If there isn't enough air inside, inflatable boats are apt to fold in the middle, in a disconcerting fashion. They need to be pumped up to the proper pressure, though the little bellows affair used is a fiddly affair, best handed over to a bystander, or a junior member of the family. They are often neglected rather more than they deserve, but they are tough, and can take stand a lot of punishment. One of their good points is that they don't damage boats when they collide. This makes them appreciated as a tender, coming alongside. The wooden transom is to take the outboard engine, clamped onto it. The clamping screws should be tightened and locked, so that they cannot loosen and invite disaster. A safety line attaching engine to tender is good insurance. Small boats are often made at the whim of an owner, and sometimes leak prodigiously, though this doesn't matter very much, for they are not used for ocean voyages. Many of those using them are either bare-footed or in battered old footwear that doesn't mind getting wet. In most cases, the tender is not considered to have aesthetic value. It doesn't get a lot of tender loving care. For this reason the boat watcher may see a multitude of shapes and sizes around and about, all kinds in all sorts of conditions. The older the owner, the more likely is it that 39

Boat Watching the boat will be in good condition, for he or she (most often he) has more time to spend tinkering. Little pulling boats provide a most satisfying relaxation for people who like pottering about. Oars, sometimes called "sweeps", or "paddles" (which are, strictly speaking not quite the same thing), are simple but wonderfully efficient. Once you have the rhythm, you can settle down to effortless smooth progress. It is a highly therapeutic exercise. It is like punting, something that suits the human need for the pleasure of motion. Some rowers make the mistake of pulling too hard. Some forget to turn the blades, so that the oars skid up out of the water, "catching a crab" as this is popularly known. Rowing should be smooth and pleasurable. A paddle can be single-bladed, or a two-handed affair, used without rowlocks, digging deeply into the water alongside; but an oar rests in crutches or rowlocks, through which the thrust is transmitted to the boat oarsman. The oar is a lever, and the rowlock the fulcrum. On racing boats, the crutches are carried on outriggers , which place the fulcrums (fulcra?) well out from the sides. It is unwise for a rower to set off down tide on the ebb; though and those who do have a long hard pull on their return. The guiding principal is to set out on the flood, and go with the stream. This will give the oarsman a chance to rest on his your oars occasionally, and enjoy a pleasant drift. Should he find himself becoming getting a little weary, he you can ship oars and lay back while the current takes him you back home. Given appropriate weather, this is an excellent exercise for the soul. You will often see oars leaning against a wall, blades on the ground. Some people would never do this, (well not with their own oars,) for the ground is not kind to the delicate blades. Oars should be stood up on the other end, the "handle end" which can put up with this more rough treatment. Naturally, it depends upon what value you put on the appearance of your oars. Ragged worn blades look objectionable and lead to rapid deterioration. Sometimes small tenders are called "punts", and sometimes they are punted That means that they are propelled by pushing, with a pole or an oar on the bottom of the brook or shallow water. True punts are longer, flat-bottomed craft with raised ends and a platform at each end on which the punter may stand. The pole is long, and very effective when handled with some dexterity. It may have a metal fitting on the lower end. When not handled with skill punting poles are a cartoonist's delight. The old comic postcards were fond of showing a punter clinging to his pole while the punt drifted 40

Boat Watching away, carrying his pretty little companion, unaware of the loss of her hero in his boater, i.e. straw hat and blazer. The boats themselves are usually the property of hire firms, who do well when the weather is hot and sunny. They are well built, and most have been in the families of the owners for generations. You won't come across punts at sea, of course. They are strictly for the smooth waters of lakes and rivers, and would shudder at the sight of a wave. A duck punt is not quite the same thing, and not necessarily square in the bows. Some are relatively sleek, though they do have to provide a steady platform for the gun. The gun may be a long-barrelled job with sufficient recoil to send the boat back further than you might expect. You won't see many of these, but the picture may help.

In the class of small boats, we have canoes of various kinds. They are usually double ended, making it easy to reverse, and providing a sweet flow for the water. The variety is so wide, that it becomes difficult to define a canoe exactly. The canoe has been well developed by the so-called "primitive" people, like the happy dwellers on Pacific islands. They are very shallow draught craft, and will float, as they say, "on a heavy dew", though this may not be so for some of the very large ones, whose draught is nevertheless only comparatively small. Manned by one man, they are driven by doubleended paddles, the blades being at right angles to one another. As one blade is lifted from the water, the paddle is turned through ninety degrees, and the other blade is then immersed. A good canoe man, or woman, can achieve remarkable speeds in one of these craft. Is it still a canoe when a mast and sail are fitted? It is hard to say. Such a craft is sometimes referred to as a sailing canoe. In some cases, lack of centreboard, or dagger board, and lateral stability, render such craft suitable only for "downhill" sailing. If you don't mind getting wet, it's fine, in warm water. The "white water" canoeists are men and women of skill as they fight their way down ravines filled with tumbling foaming water. The canoes are often fragile, and the people aboard have only a paddle; but they are well worth watching. Capsizes don't seem to 41

Boat Watching worry them unduly, for they quickly get the boat upright again. It may not be isn't boating, in the strictest sense, but it is good fun. You can see inflatables used for this sport, carrying a number of people in one boat. There are large canoes, too, some very large indeed, manned by a numerous crew. Some of the old war canoes of the South Sea Islands and elsewhere are impressive boats capable of high speed. You may yet come across some of these on your travels, nowadays used for ceremonial occasions. The largest ones hardly come within the purview of someone looking at small boats. They cope with the sometimes large combers one meets on tropical beaches, and can achieve high speeds with a good crew. In these large canoes, which are best seen in the cinema epics nowadays, the paddles are usually spear-shaped, and dig deeply into the water, thrusting the boat forward under the exertions of young muscular men with muscles as big as melons. You might see something like this at fun events on the river near you. Small motorboats are very popular with many some people, especially those who like to rush about on the water. They usually have a large outboard engine on the stern, and can be seen towing water-skiers behind them. Water skiing is now a well-established growing sport, though it is often confined to a special area so as not to interfere with the activities of those who sail, or who like a little peace. The sailor tends to object to the noise as much as anything, and high-speed motorboats dash around like flies. They find this distracting. In most areas, rules have been adopted to keep both parties happy and co-operative. Small racing boats with engines have fine bows, and flat lines aft. The helmsmen are called drivers, and wear crash helmets. They tear about at very high speed, and leave great swathes of foaming water in their wakes. Some of them hardly come under the heading of "small" boats, for the larger ones are long and powerful, with engines of sufficient capacity to fly an aeroplane. We should not end our look at small boats without reference to the coracle, that strange product of the ingenious Welshmen. On a light wicker frame, a canvas or hide is stretched, and made water-proof with tar or some other water-repellent substance. Super-light, it can be slung across a man's back, and readily popped in to the water where needed. You may not find it easy to see one nowadays, but it is worth a try. The smallest boats of all are of course the model craft. Some of these are purely for enjoyment in the making, and display; but there are others used in testing laboratories. These latter are accurate below the water-line, and can be towed at speeds corresponding to that of the real boat. Model boats for the laboratory are often built to some linear scale, so that each dimension on the model is some fixed fraction of the corresponding one on the actual boat. Scale modelling is not as simple as that, though. 42

Boat Watching If the linear scale for length, breadth and depth are all, say, 1/20, then the scale of areas is 1/400, and the volume scale is 1/8000, according to the so-called "square-cube law". If we fix the linear scale, we at the same time determine the scale of displacement, sail area, and so on. Many model boats are built for the sheer pleasure of building them, and they are not always models of some particular full-sized boat. They may be sailing or motor boats, and carry out manoeuvres on some pond or lake. Some are built to rest permanently on a rack as an elegant ornament. It is difficult to rig model sailing craft with lines such as halyards and sheets to scale. They are much enjoyed by people of all ages. The drag on a boat depends upon several factors. When scaling, due account must be taken of these factors. So, when you see a model boat in a laboratory it may not look quite like the real vessel. You may find it interesting to look up the literature on the subject of hydraulic scaling. The theory is fairly easy to follow, and may help you to understand the business of tank testing of vessels, modelling of rivers and so on. As we look at boats of increasing size, we see the popular little cruisers and dayboats. The sailing cruisers are mostly sloops, with one mast and a mainsail and foresail, though there are a few yawls and ketches to be seen. The dayboats are normally open boats with an inboard engines, often referred to as "thumpers", for Diesel engines have a characteristic knock. There was a time when paraffin engines were popular for these, but there are few about now. They are mostly powered by Diesel engines, or use petrol. A good dayboat has no shelter as a rule, though some may sport a little cuddy, a cabin with no stern. They are, or should be, like other small craft, well equipped with anchor and line, fire extinguisher, oars and, if going to sea, flares, with life jackets for all aboard, preferably worn at all times. A buoyancy aid is something that will provide some buoyancy, but a life-jacket does the job of keeping a person afloat, right way up, with the mouth above water, even when unconscious. In the old days, buoyancy aids were considered sufficient, as they were not so cumbersome as the old life jackets. There is no virtue in not wearing a lifejacket, now that modern ones are so comfortable. The old life jackets were great cumbersome lumps of cork, but the modern ones are neat and unobtrusive, with automatic inflation and a whistle, perhaps a light too. There is a special responsibility on the skipper to wear proper gear, for should he fall overboard his passengers may not be capable of handling the boat. Holiday makers can be a risky proposition if they have no knowledge of boats, and set forth in blissful ignorance. The ones who will not listen to sound advice are the most to be feared. These are usually townies with a condescending attitude to locals. When you see a dayboat then, look for these points, and praise or criticise accordingly, (under your breath of course.) Enjoy the smooth progress of a long dayboat with a quiet 43

Boat Watching diesel, as she glides forth from her moorings. The smaller dayboats usually carry a little outboard engine on the stern; or they may be rowed, if not going far. The small sailing cruisers are often the backbone of a club, apart from the class dinghies, raced by the members. The cruisers, too, often race, over a longer course. Racing is a good way of knowing your boat, and adjusting it for maximum performance. Try to get hold of the programme of your local sailing or yacht club, or, better still, join it if they will have you. These little cruisers are usually Bermudan rigged and have two or more berths in a small cabin with a galley and with, possibly, some toilet facilities. They provide modest accommodation for two or three people. Some have made ocean voyages, but you have to be a special type to do that in so small a vessel. On a sunny weekend of settled weather, you may see shoals of little cruisers, both sail and motor versions, venturing forth from seaside resorts for a day's fishing, or a family outing. You will usually find Dad at the helm, and the children popping about, safely clipped onto the boat with safety-harness. Cups of tea and fizzy drinks are handed around, and away they go enjoying themselves. It is all very civilised and praiseworthy. As we move up further in size we come to the larger vessels, some ketches and yawls, even schooners, and the very expensive motor boats referred to as "gin-palaces" by those who can't afford to own these expensive toys. They draw a lot of water, so cannot steam up river very far, and have to follow the channel in an estuary. Small sailing cruisers are often of shallow draught, and you will find them exploring rivers and creeks well inland. They can take the ground at low water, and sail or motor back downstream when the tide serves. Some have retractable keels, enabling them to manage happily in very shallow water. Bilge keels, too, are useful when taking the ground. Creeks may have a small channel, meandering between steep mud banks, so caution is advised when grounding, lest one is stranded, listing on the steep edge of a bank. The skipper needs to sound carefully all round the boat before settling on his spot for spending a while aground. Otherwise he may become an object of leisured interest to the locals. Similarly, when anchoring in a creek, on a falling tide, attention is to be paid as to where the boat will swing as the tide takes her. A boat with her bows on a mudbank, and stern in deep water can be in a precarious, maybe even an embarrassing, position. Small Sailing cruisers of modest scantlings These are to be found in marinas, alongside their larger brothers. A marina is a modern development for the more opulent. Some of the boats never leave their moorings, but stage many cheerful parties. A marina provides safe mooring, often alongside a pontoon, and facilities such as fuel, showers, perhaps a restaurant, and shops, chandlers, newsagents, and so on. Here you 44

Boat Watching may find a good variety of boats of all kinds, from the tiny tender to the imposing large motor cruiser. If we go on much longer we shall stray into the subject of ships, rather than boats, so we shall stop here. Ship watching is altogether a different field. We do not pretend to have covered all kinds of boat, only to glance at some of them. I do hope you will go forth and discover many more for yourself.

Feedback 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

How would you recognise a canoe? What distinguishes a punt? Why may you sometimes find a notch in the top of the transom? What is the difference between an oar and a paddle? What is "white water" boating? What is GRP? What is the purpose of a tender? What takes place in a marina? How do you prepare an inflatable boat for use? Where on a boat would you find a painter? What kind of boat are you likely to see in creeks and rivers distant from the mouth? Name two items of equipment for a dayboat. How is an outboard engine attached to a boat? How can you recognise a RIB? What buoyancy aids should there be on a boat? Where would you find a bulb keel? What is a stem dinghy? What precautions should a prudent skipper take when anchoring in a creek? What is the difference between a life jacket and a buoyancy aid? What preparations would you make for taking out the family for a trip round the bay?

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Propulsion The simplest way to propel a boat is to walk along the sea bed and push the vessel. This, naturally, applies only to shallow water. When the water level is above the waist, it is time to get aboard. This method is handy when getting a boat onto its road trailer, in smooth water. It is not a good way to tackle it when there are surges up the slipway of more than modest height. Trying to control a boat bouncing on a road trailer is not a comfortable experience, and may lead to useful practice sessions for the first-aiders. Walking a boat like this calls only for firm ground and smooth water. You can tow a boat like this, too, with a line attached to the stem, though you must take precautions with a heavy craft, especially when there is more than a capful of wind, lest it overtake you and give you a thump where you don't want one. It is better if more than one person is involved. As a boat watcher, you may find lots of innocent pleasure, leaning on a rail, watching critically the antics of those struggling with a heavy recalcitrant boat. To get a boat across a modest waterway, for passengers and light goods, some ferries are moved by manpower, the ferryman pulling on a rope or cable stretched across from bank to bank at shoulder height. This is effective and cheap. In some places, the ferry itself is fixed to the boat, so that it can be hauled across by an intending passenger. This is cheaper still, as the passenger supplies the manpower. There are still plenty of these to be seen. The next step up from this is the use of a horse or small tractor, with a line on board, towing a barge along a canal, or a man pulling a boat along a pontoon or dockside, by a line. To the onlooker, the former seems the most idyllic way of living, and there doesn't seem much wrong with it when you look at the curious life led by people who live in cities far from water. The canal systems world-wide are not being used to their maximum potential, more's the pity. They are excellent for handling heavy and bulky loads The old draught horses who used to pull the barges† along canals came from were a friendly, philosophic breed, steadily plodding along to the next stop, and a chance to push their faces into a nose-bag. They did no damage to the countryside, and led a comfortable, uneventful life. Even when it rained, they were usually provided with a little coat over their flanks. They weren't coddled, but they were well looked after, for they were worth a lot to the barge operator. Some of the old workmen became very fond of their charges. These lovely old Dobbins often worked a fixed length of canal, and knew when they had reached the end of their stint. They would then stop, and wait for refreshment. When you are in the country, watching the water traffic, you may find some of these old barges, still pulled by horse, for the tourist trade. However, you will probably find 46

Boat Watching most of them driven by engines nowadays, less romantic, but perhaps more economic by today's criteria. We now turn our attention to propulsion by paddles. This is one of the most efficient methods of pushing a boat along. It is a method used by some fish, flipping their fins, though not the fastest of them. The fish that swim most swiftly do so by just wagging their tails. The dolphin is a fine example. They are magnificent, and have no difficulty in finding and keeping up with fast ships. Man hasn't so far managed to copy this method to any significant extent, though there is some resemblance in the use of the variously spelled yullo, a kind of oar leading aft over the stern with a supporting line, and wagged to and fro to propel the boat. Some men, and ladies, too, use the method when diving, flapping their feet, to which are attached flippers. You may occasionally see someone with flippers using this method when inspecting the under parts of the vessel, afloat, perhaps trying to unwind a rope that has wound itself round the propellor shaft, or investigating some other aspect without putting the boat ashore. † The use of paddles does vary in different places. Basically, the paddle, which may be either single ended or double-ended, paddle consists of a ended pole, with spade shapes at the ends, operated over the side. Though mainly confined to canoes, they are often carried aboard other craft. In calm conditions, you may see a skipper deftly paddling his craft into a berth with a single paddle. A paddle should always be carried somewhere aboard a boat, just in case. Having a couple handy is even better. Children usually love pushing a paddle, though it is wise to attach the paddle by a piece of line to some part of the boat. The art of using a single paddle is to ensure that the after part of the stroke is outwards. Otherwise, the boat swings to one side with each stroke, and progress follows a curiously contorted path, to the great interest of the critical gallery on the club verandah.† Slow steady strokes made properly on one side of the boat will drive it in a straight line quite comfortably, if you do it properly. The double-ended paddles, used by the solo canoeists, is twisted as it is transferred from one side to the other, the blades being set at right angles to one another. They are efficient, and in the right hands a very powerful method of propulsion. Light canoes present very little drag, and they zip along beautifully in smooth water. The paddle should be dug in deeply, and not pulled too hard, to avoid bad cavitation and consequent loss of power. Cavitation occurs when the water is passing from the front of the blade to the other side, when the pressure falls so far that the water boils at low temperature. This saps the energy from the moving paddle.

47

Boat Watching The efficient paddles of tropical islanders are often spear-shaped, like the half-wing of a Spitfire fighter aircraft. These are efficient, as they dig deep, and are said to shed their tip vortices with less loss. You may see paddles mounted on wheels, on paddle steamers. The stern wheeler has one large paddle wheel at the stern, and has been made famous by the old sternwheelers on the Mississippi. They have very little freeboard, and a high smoke stack, for they burn wood, or used to. There was usually a fanciful little brass crown at the top of the stack, and the whole vessel was a delight, especially in the days of prohibition. A bar could be a great attraction. There is still a chance that you might see one, or at least pictures of one, in your travels. Other paddle steamers had a paddle wheel each side, amidships. These were driven direct from a slow speed steam engine. The paddles were very efficient. I use the word "were", because they are rarely seen in action now. They used to operate along the coasts at seaside resorts, carrying day trippers on short sea voyages of a few hours. For many of their passengers, the rolling tendency of these vessels provided them with a graphic experience of sea-sickness, especially after heavy consumption of whelks and beer, with fish and chips. Some of them had famous names, and they may one day return to cheer up our seaside piers and docks. So, even if only in a maritime museum, do keep a lookout for them. They are wonderful old ladies. Another place to see paddle wheels is in the amusement pools, where children can wind handles to make the paddles turn and thus propel their little boats across the pool. This is a good way of using up some of the excess energy that children seem to have. From paddles, we move to consider oars or sweeps. These are long poles with thin blades at one end, sometimes curved. They have an honourable history, from ancient times. The old biremes and triremes, with respectively two and three banks of rowers, were fast and appropriate for their purpose. It is supposed that the rowers were slaves; but if they wanted the best results it is probable that the rowers were well fed and well treated, so as to develop good muscles. After all, the muscles and well-being of the slaves determined the speed of the boat and their and endurance, too.† Taken gently, one can row a boat for miles without fatigue. Many people find it a relaxing experience. There are those, too, who row competitively. What lovely craft are those shells with the outriggers to carry the oars, and well-trained men and women concentrating on steady pulling. A boat can be rowed well or badly, and you will see examples of both in your boat watching. You may have the unkind pleasure of seeing a rower "catch a crab". This is when the oar comes out of the water before completing its stroke, often throwing the 48

Boat Watching rower into the bottom of the boat. Beginners often suffer this, till they have got the knack. The correct way to use an oar is to lower it into the water with the blade vertical, stationary relative to the water, but already moving relative to the boat. As the oar descends into the water, it must be turned so as not be tilted forward, or it will come up to the surface. It should tilt be slightly forward at the bottom edge, so that that the scooping action tends to keep it down. At the end of the stroke, the blade is turned again, and the blade leaves the water smoothly. Pushing down on the inboard end with a slight twist, the blade is then swept forward and lowered for the next stroke. All this may sound very complicated; but in practice once you have the knack of handling an oar like this, twisting it as it swings to and fro, it will become second nature, and you will enjoy the sheer smooth pleasure of good rowing. As a boat watcher, you may not do any rowing, of course; but there will be times, probably, when you just can't resist the temptation to take a dinghy round the harbour. Watching a good rower has its therapeutic aspect, too. In racing boats there may be sliding seats, but normally one sits on a thwart set just ahead of the rowlock plate. Many find rowing one of the best of all things to do on the water. Short boats are not so satisfying though. A tubby† boat doesn't carry its way as a longer vessel does. Rowing an inflatable can be a wretched business, especially in a chop. The next step in considering methods of pushing a boat along is the use of sails. These can provide the boat watcher with much to discuss. The simplest of all sails is a triangular piece of cloth, with the apex hoisted to the top of the mast, one of the lower corners tied to the bottom of the mast, and the third point held by a line controlled by the helmsman. This is the start of sailing for many a small boy, and some little girls, too. This kind of sail will pull the boat downwind fairly well, but off the wind it can't do much. This is why small boys so often sail off merrily down wind on their home-made "boats", and are unable to get back until rescued. Experienced parents know all about this. A sailing boat will travel s ail downwind with almost any kind of sail, but will go sideways on other points, unless it has some form of lateral resistance. This may be a drop keel that swings down below the boat, a dagger board that drops down through a slot amidships, bilge keels, lee boards, or a straight deep keel of some kind. A simple sail plan using one sail is the cat rig, a simple squarish sail with a boom and a gaff (an upper boom). This is a good rig fine for small dinghies, and a fine starter boat. 49

Boat Watching It is easy to handle, and for a small boat gives quite enough push. You may see lots of these in the junior section of a sailing club.

The commonest sail plan is a Bermudan sloop with a triangular foresail ahead of the mast, and a larger triangular mainsail aft of the mast. You can see hundreds of these, on dinghies and on small cruisers, for they are efficient and easy to handle. When sailing close hauled, the sails are pulled in close to the centre of the boat, and the boat heels to the lee side. A sloop makes a fine sight when she is creaming along like this, the crew sitting up on the windward side to lessen the heel. It is very enjoyable sailing, and good to watch, too. It is not the fastest point of sailing, but it often feels like it. When she pays off a little she is on a broad reach, with the sails a little out to leeward. Turning more off the wind, she will be on a broad reach, with the sails well out to one side, slalet out to leeward a little out to leeward decked going great guns in a stiff breeze, a fine sight indeed, the sheets tight and the foresail in a sweet curve. As the boat turns more and more off the wind she may set her foresail on the other side from the main, and run before the wind, perhaps with her foresail boomed out so as to collect more puff. This is known as running wing-a-wing, and is a comfortable point of sailing provided the skipper keeps an eye on things. Should he wander off course, the wind may get behind the mainsail and whip the boom across the boat with potentially dangerous effect. A low boom can do a fair amount of damage to a head that doesn't duck in time. This is known as a gybe, and when done in a controlled manner is a quick and effective method of putting the boat on the other course, running approximately in the same direction, with the mainsail on the other side. When you see a boat gybing it can be a pretty sight, or a daunting one. It is easy to sort out the experts from the beginners.† Off the wind, the sails are fuller, and with a good breeze the boat moves well. Look at the water line, and if the boat is approaching its maximum speed you will see a distinct dip in the water amidships, so that the boat appears to be floating on a couple of wave crests, one at the bows and one under the stern. The maximum speed for a displacement boat, as distinct from a planing boat, depends directly upon its water-line length. 50

Boat Watching The sloop uses one mast only. If there is another mast, a shorter one, aft, with a mizzen sail, the boat is probably either a yawl or a ketch. If the shorter mast is forward it is a schooner, though the term is used loosely by some. A Bermudan sail is triangular, but if the sail carries a spar called a gaff, along the top, it is gaff rigged, a line from about the midpoint of the gaff running to the mast. Where the spar is hauled upright along the mast we say it is Gunter-rigged, and the sail is almost triangular. It is so called after a chap called Edmund Gunter, who thought of this splendid idea calculator. The lower end of the gaff slides along the mast, much as the cursor on a slide rule, supposedly. It is easy to reef by simply dropping the gaff. You may care to look up the word "scandalise" in a decent dictionary, as a point of interest. Reefing a Bermudan sail is carried out either by pulling down part of the sail onto the boom with ties, or rolling the sail round the boom. On some boats the sail is rolled round inside the mast. You can see if a Bermudan sail is reefed because the top corner is then below the mast head. A cutter has two sails ahead of the mast. When the luff, (the leading edge) of a sail is attached to a stay it is called a staysail, usually pronounced "stays'l", and a cutter has a staysail in addition to the jib. The sides of a triangular sail are the luff, the leech (after edge) and the foot. The lower after corner is called the clew, and the forward one the tack. The top corner is the head. On a gaff sail the luff is vertical, and the after corner at the top is called the peak. You may find this a formidable list of terms, but they will help you with your boatspeak, if you use them properly. They are all lovely words with an ancient tradition behind them. I provide these terms so that not only can you can recognise the parts of a sail, but you can perhaps show off a little now and again, in the nicest possible way, when commenting on the watery scene before you. If you see a lugger, it will have a lugsail set, a four-sided sail sagging off to leeward, partly before the mast, a balanced lug, or a standing lug. To get the sail over to the other side of the mast, the spar is dipped across, and the rig is called a dipping lug. It is a handy kind of rig, much favoured by the leisurely, and was once used widely by fishermen You may see on your travels, that lovely sail, the lateen, short on the luff, with the yard set obliquely across the mast. Found mainly in exotic locations, it has a romantic air about it; but it is efficient too, even though the sail cloth may sometimes seem rather dubious. 51

Boat Watching Sails were at one time used as the commonest method of propulsion, and have never been overtaken by engines, except for commercial traffic, which has no soul, anyway, in the eyes of sailing people. When nearto, take a good look at the sails, for they are expensive items and the sailmaker is an expert. Look carefully at the pockets for the battens, which stiffen the trailing edge, the leech. Note how the luff is fitted with a rope or slides, to hold the sail to the mast. The reefing cringles are eyelets, and the reefing pennants short lines for tying down the sail to the boom when reefed. Note the skill with which the panels are assembled and stitched. Sometime you may see coloured or tanned sails, and these can give a boat a handsome air of charm. We could spend a long time on sails alone; but now we shall turn our attention to that other popular means of propulsion, the engine, either inside the boat, the inboard engine, or hung on the transom, the outboard. Boat watchers can't see inboard engines, for they are buried in the depths of the boat. There are exceptions, in open boats, where they are encased in a kind of box in the middle of the cockpit and where those people sit who like to have a warm bottom. The fuel may be paraffin, (less widely seen nowadays), petrol, or Diesel fuel. Paraffin leaves behind a pleasantly nostalgic not unpleasantly nostalgic whiff of thin smoke as the boat proceeds; but Diesel fuel smells more strongly, and the smoke is thick and black if the injectors are not properly maintained. You can tell by the thumpy sound when a boat is using a Diesel engine. They don't need sparking plugs, and the accompanying magnetos, so are free from electrical faults. So long as the filters are looked after, they will go on cheerfully thumping away for years, and never seem to wear out. The word "Diesel" is used loosely for any compression ignition engine, whether it operates on air blast injection or solid injection. It doesn't really matter, and Herr Diesel, I'm sure, would not object. His was a worldstirring invention. Those pesky sparking plugs can be a nuisance afloat. A little damp on the top, a weak spark, wrong gaps, and they sulk. They are splendid as long as they work and a pain in the neck when they don't. Petrol is a more hazardous fuel, and is commonly used in outboard engines. You can watch an exasperated owner pulling repeatedly on the starting cord of an obdurate outboard engine that just will not start. This is usually due to poor maintenance. Many now use an electric starting gear, so depriving the idle boat watcher of his innocent sympathetic entertainment. Although much has been done by the use of modern metals and careful design to lighten outboard engines, some outboard engines are truly enormous, beyond the carrying capacity of one man. The little ones on the back of dinghies are handy and easily carried ashore, but a trolley is needed for those over 20 horsepower. Isn't it odd 52

Boat Watching that we still express the power in terms of draught horses? Occasionally the electric units are used though, at the rate of 760 watts to the horsepower. On boats with the larger outboard engines you will probably find electric starting, and remote steering. This is fine, but one does have to make sure that the batteries are well charged. Should they fail, pulling over a large outboard by hand is a dispiriting process. Small outboard engines sport a tiller, by which the engine can be turned, and in this way the boat can be steered. Further, in some cases the engine can be swung right round, for reversing. Big outboards have a neutral and reverse gear built in, and a remote steering wheel. Whatever the kind of engine, the power must be transmitted to some form of propulsion unit, and this is usually a screw propellor, either in the water or in the air. Airscrews are used in weedy waters, where a submerged propellor would soon clog. The boats themselves are of shallow draught, and wide, for extra stability to cope with the tall cage containing the airscrew.† This cage is a necessary safety fitment to avoid chopping up the crew and passengers. The design of an airscrew differs form that of a water screw, because of the difference in density between air and water, and the space available to accommodate the screw. The blades are longer, and slimmer. Under water, the blades are shorter, and have to be squeezed in beneath the hull, with sufficient clearance to avoid digging holes in† the boat. Although most propellors are of bronze, some of the smaller ones have been produced in plastic, a great advantage. Cheaper, lighter, and tough, they are much welcomed by boatmen. They are not subject to electrolytic corrosion, that bane of those who work in salt water. Electrolytic corrosion arises from the presence of different metals in an electrolyte, salt water. Just as in an electric battery, the metal further down the scale is eaten away, unless a lump of zinc, called a sacrificial anode, is attached in the vicinity to take the brunt. This anode has to be replaced at intervals as it diminishes in size. An unprotected bronze propellor is soon pitted as de-zincification proceeds. The rotating unbalanced mass sets up unacceptable vibrations, and the efficiency drops. Look under the hull near the stern to see the lump of zinc, roughly streamlined in shape when new but soon eaten away raggedly. For inboard engines, the power is transmitted to the propellor via a shaft, using a universal coupling to handle misalignment. The shaft passes out through the hull using a water-tight gland, and the propellor is retained by a nut, usually locked with a split pin to avoid the embarrassment of the propellor winding itself off from the shaft. 53

Boat Watching The principal vulnerability of the screw propellor arises from floating or partsubmerged lines and nets. If one of these menaces gets near the propellor, as it floats half-submerged about the sea, it is immediately wound on tightly in a solid knot like some shrunken woollen pullover straight out of the laundrette. Getting the stuff off is no easy task. Because of this risk, some cutting devices are fitted just ahead of some propellors itself, and are reasonably effective. The inboard engine is not always coupled to a screw. It may drive a pump, which squirts a jet of water out from the stern. These are not much used, but they do exist, and you might come across one now and again. They are safer when water skiers and others are about in the vicinity. The existence development of nasties who steal other peoples' property has necessitated the production of locking devices for outboard engines. They are otherwise readily portable. Special locking fitments can be bought or made, to make it harder for these horrors to get the engine off the boat.† To save the cost of a new propellor, when a grounding has occurred, the drive from the shaft is taken via a small pin. This pin is soft, and will shear when unduly loaded. It is wise to carry a spare shear pin or two somewhere about the engine, usually wrapped in with the spare sparking plugs and plug spanner. The skipper who pushes off without these items may be rather late home for tea. Inboard engines rarely give trouble if the filters are kept clear. They usually turn over more slowly than the outboard variety, and thump away cheerfully all day on very little fuel. The modern lightweight Diesel can be turned over by hand for starting, should the battery fail. The battery is not needed once the engine is running. Often, there is a decompression device fitted. This is held open, so that it is easy to get up to speed when turning over the engine. Once the engine is up to speed, release of the decompression line or lever causes the engine to cough twice and start at once. When you watch someone board a motorboat with a Diesel, you will see how quickly he or she can get away. Another enemy of the screw is cavitation. When a blade travels through the water one side of the blade is pushed against the fluid, and on the other face there is a lowering of the pressure. At some points, the pressure may be so low that the water boils, i.e., bubbles of vapour arise. When such a† bubble gets into a region of higher pressure, it may suddenly collapse, with a consequent sudden high rise in pressure, smacking the metal with a considerable force, and knocking bits out of it. †This is called "cavitation" and can be very serious. The design of the screw, and the speed at which it is run, are important factors. If you inspect a screw which has been subject to serious cavitation damage you will find deep pitting of the surface. Such a blade is inefficient, and won't last long. Galvanic corrosion and cavitation damage can soon put an end to the usefulness of a propellor. 54

Boat Watching In a sailing boat, using an auxiliary engine, the propellor can be a source of drag. To minimise this, some two-bladed propellors can be set vertically, so as to lie behind the skeg, the fin ahead of the rudder. A more effective and more expensive approach is offered by the folding propellor, whose blades turn so as to be aligned with the direction of the boat. They are beautifully made, and work well. As soon as the engine starts, the blades automatically fly out into the position for driving. The cooling system for an inboard engine can be one which circulates the sea water through a heat exchanger in the engine cooling system; or it can be one that takes the sea water in and through the engine directly. Sea water is a corrosive fluid, and there is an advantage in not pumping it through the engine itself. Again, one scheme is to mount a kind of radiator on the hull, through which the coolant is pumped. So you may sometimes see tubing under the hull on some displacement motorboats, to carry the coolant water. In that position it is, of course, vulnerable, so it is usually of stoutly built. Should it be punctured, the engine will overheat, and have to be shut down.

Feedback 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Where would you find crosstrees? How many masts are there on a Bermudan sloop? What is meant by electrolytic corrosion? State the chief advantages of Diesel engines. How would you recognise a ketch? What is a staysail? Where would you find a dagger-board? What is a gaff? How is a mainsail furled? How is a Diesel engine started? Where would you look for a paddle wheel? How does a man with a paddle keep the boat on a straight course? What is a folding propellor? How can you reduce sail on a gaff sloop? What is a Gunter rig? Where would you look for a skeg? When is an airscrew used on a boat? If you saw a boat sailing "wing-a-wing", what would she look like? What is a shear pin? 20. Where might you see a horse involved with a boat?

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Miscellaneous In this chapter we shall look at a few odds and ends, things to notice during your boat watching. We shall start by considering those pieces of what the uninitiated call "ropes", or even string. There are many names for these flexible items, and we shall look at all of them. We buy cordage as rope but, when put into use, new names are found for the pieces. If you get it wrong there are plenty of pedants to jump in and set you right. It matters, for were it not so there could be confusion aboard. "Catch hold of that rope" doesn't differentiate, and might produce the wrong result.† "Catch hold of that hawser" is different from "Catch hold of that sheet". Each defines the particular piece of gear to be grabbed. Getting hold of the wrong item can lead to astonishing gains in vocabulary and warm ears. First, then, to be pedantic, there are only two actual ropes to be found aboard a boat, the bell-rope and the buoy-rope. The bell-rope is a thing of beauty aboard a ship of the Royal Navy, and perhaps others. It is not very long, but much intense labour will have gone into its construction. Every little twist and turn in the complicated pattern will have been the subject of much concentrated thought. The result is a matter for much pride. Smaller vessels do try to emulate their superior craftsmen, and achieve some good results; but they cannot approach the perfection of the experts. On a small boat, not subject to the same regime as her more important sisters, the ship's bell is but a piece of fancy gear; but some owners feel it gives their vessel a certain something; and it does nobody any harm. The other piece of rope to be found either on board or at the mooring, is the buoy rope. This vital link between the buoy and the ground tackle, has a loop spliced in at each end, the upper end attaching to the buoy itself, and the lower end to a shackle on the riser of the ground chain. It need not be a very stout rope, for its duty is only to hang in the water, attached to the ground tackle. When picking up a mooring, the buoy is grabbed with a boat-hook, and hauled on board, till the chain is within reach, and fed round the bitts or held by the gypsy. There are no other ropes, and some boats don't have even these. Let us look next at the lines that are on the mast. First, there are the halyards, which you may spell halliards if you like, or even haulyards, for they are freely and indifferently used. On the other hand, if you speak the word only, and don't write it, it doesn't matter one bit.

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Boat Watching The halliards are lines that run from the top of a them sail or boom, round a sheave at the top of the mast, and down to a cleat or winch near deck level. If the mast is hollow, the halliard may be brought down inside, and round a sheave built into the mast. Halliards not in use are wrapped around the mast, when at moorings, so that they cannot flap in the wind, to the annoyance of everyone, especially those poor souls trying to get some sleep in nearby vessels. † Because halliards are pulled by hand, owners don't skimp on the size. Skinny lines cut into one's hands, especially when they are wet. Further, when the halliards are swigged down, or tightened, they take a heavy load. They may be used to heave someone out of the water, too, and a water-soaked person is surprisingly very heavy. Swigging is carried out by taking a turn with the free end, pulling across the line, and shifting the fast end. In this way, it can be made truly taut. Another way of ensuring tight main halliards is to bear down on the boom at the inboard end, and lock it there. Running through another sheave at the masthead you may see another line, the topping lift, one end of which runs out to the end of the boom. This is for taking the weight of the boom when the sail is lowered, before it is laid in the boom crutch. Sometimes this is of heavier material than might seem warranted, for the topping lift is sometimes called upon to fulfil the role of a derrick, to lift things other than the boom, perhaps a crate of the necessary, when stowing below. In these days of plastic bottles such crates are not so heavy as they once were; but when you have visited a country with more relaxed prices on vital juices, you tend to buy in bulk, much bulk.† You may find a light line running down the mast, for raising and lowering a burgee, and similar ones from the cross-trees, for courtesy flags. Light SiLight milar line is used for the ensign staff at the stern. Modern light line is strong, and long-lasting, and doesn't cost a bomb. So you may find a reel of the stuff in one of the lockers. It is kept on a reel rather than in a hank, to reduce the temptation of such line to form itself into impossible tangles. Life-lines, between the stanchions, are made †of heavier line, or wire cable. They may have to take the load from a heavy human body being thrown against them in a heavy sea. On some boats the space between gunwale and life-line has netting, a useful precaution of particular value when small children are aboard. These latter should in any case be clipped to the boat with a line of sufficient strength to cope with all emergencies. A tethered child is a safer child. The prudent skipper and father will take great pains to ensure that all lifelines and connected lines are of the best quality, and properly fitted, and that he wears the appropriate gear himself at all times. One doesn't take chances with safety equipment, ever. 57

Boat Watching There should be plenty of lines of various lengths and strengths in the lockers, for modern line doesn't rot like the old stuff did, and in most boats there are odd lengths that have been there for years, waiting the day when they are† bound to be needed.† When lines are to be joined, there are special knots to do the job properly. There are knots for joining pieces of equal size, and knots for joining those of unequal size.† Making the wrong choice can lead to more than embarrassment. Take a book of knots with you when you have time, and browse among its delights. You may well find things you haven't even seen even in your dreams. There are some basic knots that all should be able to tie. These are the reef knot, the bowline, the clove hitch, and round turn and two half hitches. Consider these as essential. There are others which, though not essential, you will find of interest. For example, there is the Hunter knot, invented by Dr. Hunter, which joins together two lines in a neat and satisfying manner.

Then there is the knot for producing a pair of loops in the middle of a line, without access to the ends. This was invented by me, I think; and which you may name it after me if you like, or after yourself, for that matter. It's a good knot, with many uses. A heaving line is a line weighted at one end, that can be thrown ashore, where some kind fellow, maybe one of the crew who has previously jumped onto the pontoon or jetty, will take a turn round turn a bollard. The one taking the line may be you, of course, or another boat watcher, so you ought to know how to handle this. If the thrower hasn't formed a monkey's fist in the end of the line it may not reach you, and he/she will have to try again.

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There is an art in throwing a line. The loops of a carefully arranged coil, are divided into two parts, the throwing part, in one hand, and the part that follows, in the other hand. If you cast throw all of it at once it will probably fall together into the water, and provide entertainment for the idlers ashore. Another sure way of raising a laugh is to forget to make the end fast to the boat before you throw the other end.† When the line reaches the shore and is taken up, it is quickly taken round a bollard or large cleat, and crossed over to prevent it from undoing itself when you are not looking. Never, ever, try to tie a knot in the end you receive. It may jam and be impossible to undo. This is unlikely to increase your popularity with the owner very much, and being attacked with a boat-hook by an enraged skipper is an unnerving experience. Always take a turn round something right away. A full turn will increase your pull more than six times. Making a monkey's fist on the end of a line is not difficult, but may call for some patience. It is useful to make it round a ball, a golf ball or tennis ball. You lay the line round the ball and weave it to and fro till it completely encloses the ball. Then you gradually work it tighter and tighter, so that it doesn't come undone. If you do it properly it will be a source of pride to your great-great grandchildren. When it is finished, you carefully coil the line and stow it in the locker within easy reach. Coiling a line can be satisfying to yourself and to others if done properly. Done badly, it can also result in a horrible mess, at the very sight of which people recoil with shudders. To make a decent coil, you take one end in your hand, and slide the other hand thumb under, the line along the line a suitable distance, depending upon how large the coil is to be. Then, with the other hand, you slide the thumb along, under the line, as far as youíre the end of the coil. Continue in this way, making sure that you put the thumb under the line each time. If you have done it aright, you will now have a number of loops, like figures of eight, 59

Boat Watching which will neither twist nor tangle with one another. Now take the bit of line you have left, and take a couple of turns round the hank near one end. Leave enough to form a bight, which you poke through the end of the loops and back over the top. Pull on the free end till it is tight, and you have a lovely non-tangling hank which you can hang up by one of the loops, or toss into a locker with confidence. This may sound complicated, but once you have the hang of it you will never make a hank in any other way. When you need it, you just pull the loop over the end, and then pull out the end itself. It will turn into a smooth run of line ready for use, the envy of the incompetent. The anchor warp is a stout line which must be firmly attached to the anchor, either with an eye, complete with thimble (a metal insert in an eye), or tied on with a decent knot. There is a ring on the anchor, and the warp is attached to it by a full turn first, so that there are two pieces of line running through the ring, and then a couple of hitches, preferably with a whipping of light line to hold it to the warp. A warp parting from the anchor is an invitation to disaster. The inboard end of the anchor warp must always be made fast to a strong point on the boat. Failure to do this will set a man among the many others who have made fortunes for the makers of anchors. A man's life may depend upon an anchor warp, so it should be inspected from time to time to make sure all is well. A painter is a length of fairly reliable line running from the bows of a tender to a cleat on a dock wall or the stern of a boat. Towing a tender does call for some care in a seaway, as tenders are apt to show an affection for the mother boat and butt it firmly in the stern. You may find a skipper wise to the ways of tenders fitting a plastic funnel in the painter, narrow end foremost. This ensures that when the tender tries to overtake, the funnel reverses and the wide end offers enough resistance to stop that manoeuvre.† Some inflatables are carried with their bows aboard, lashed in a cocked-up attitude, only the stern in the water. It is not a pretty sight, but some skippers find it convenient. Fenders are hung over the sides on light strong line, and these lines are often adjustable, to meet the needs of the pontoon or dock where the boat is to lie alongside. It is usual to keep some line in a locker to repair such items as required. Reference has yet to be made to one other type of line considered essential on some boats. This is the fishing line, light nylon stuff on a reel, or something heavier, depending upon what degree of optimism consumes the skipper or his family. It has other uses, too, but one has to be careful not to let it stray near the propellor, for it can wrap it in a loving embrace. 60

Boat Watching Anchors come in many different types and sizes. The simplest of all is of course a big chunk of rock, or a bag of smaller pieces. The metal ones for small boats may be no more than a grapnel, though small anchors are made. The aspect that affects principle holding power most, apart from the weight of the anchor itself, is the line of action of the pull, which should be as near horizontal as possible. For this reason, a length of chain should run from the anchor to the anchor warp or chain, keeping the pull low and near the sea bed, before the catenary shape of the warp as it goes up to the surface. It can help to get a horizontal or near horizontal pull, if a weight is shackled onto the chain and allowed to slide at least half-way down. The well-established type known as the fisherman's anchor, consists of a stock with a curved cross member having flukes at each end. At the other end of the stock there is another cross member, which is set at right angles to the other one. When the anchor meets the ground, therefore, it is turned so that the flukes can dig in. It holds well in most conditions. Sometime it is made with a loose cross member which can be locked with a little wedge on a small chain. Many boats carry one as a kedge, an auxiliary anchor used to help out the main one. The plough type is built like a plough share, so that when it is dragged along it ploughs into the sea bed to get a grip. Then we have the Bruce type, and the CQR ("secure"?), the Delta, grapnels, mushroom, and many others, all to be found in a chandler's catalogue. With all of them the aim is to produce a firm hold in mud, among rocks, in sand, and weed, an impossibility to meet all conditions. Well, there is always room for hope, and they look fine in the catalogues. Good boat watchers browse though the lists of chandlers to learn their craft. It doesn't cost anything. There are many well-illustrated fine catalogues issued free. They are full of interest. You might even be tempted to buy something, even if you don't intend to use it. If you get an anchor to hold firmly, you must at the same time have some means of getting it out again. If there is likely to be any doubt, you can have a tripping line attached to the head of the anchor, so that a pull on this end will withdraw it, hopefully. You might see a tripping line now and again, marked by a small buoy. One way to get a good heave on an anchor, to get it up, is to weigh down the bows, take a turn with the warp or chain, and then nip back aft, using the boat as a long lever to exert more oomph. A dedicated boat watcher is bound to have a chance of seeing this kind of effort being made, from time to time. It can pass an odd hour or so. The buoy for a tripping line doesn't need to be a large one, and a fender is suitable, or even a couple of empty plastic cartons. Fenders come in all shapes and sizes, and prices, too. The use of old car tyres is fine if the skipper doesn't mind a few marks on his topsides. The rubbing strake, along the top of the gunwales, is there to protect the topsides, and the fenders are there to protect the 61

Boat Watching rubbing strakes and the topsides. Sometimes a crew may need more fenders than you have in the lockers. By snatching up a couple of cushions, or plastic buckets, and the paint work may yet be saved. A well-found boat will normally carry emergency equipment like flares, life-saving gear, drinking water and emergency rations. This does not apply to the small dinghy, of course; but an owner taking a small party out in a little small boat may well have to reckon with what to do if he runs aground in the middle of an estuary on a falling tide, with a scorching sun, or a sudden torrential rain storm. We don't have to be pessimistic, of course, but children and wives can be singularly lacking in understanding, and unforgiving, too, in some conditions. You may sometimes come across a boat, usually a run-about, with a horn, a horror that makes dreadful noises, especially when ill-behaved children get hold of it. Boats that find it necessary to make a noise, in fog, or to signal their intentions, use a foghorn. Some of these are operated by gas, in aerosol form. A better idea is to get hold of one of the old shunting horns, used in railway yards. They are effective, cheap, and easily stowed. An old bugle is even better, and can be used with effect to announce one's presence with a suitable tune You may see a life-belt on the guard rails at the after end of some little cruisers, ready for instant action should a person go overboard. Whatever the sex of the unfortunate person in the water, it is an event always described as MOB, i.e., man overboard, ladies being awarded the courtesy title on a vessel. Some skippers like to buoy skippers to have a Dan buoy attached, as it isn't always easy to see a head bobbing about in the waves. A Dan buoy is one with a rod or staff sticking up far enough to be easily seen. It sometimes carries a flag at the upper end. The lower end is weighted, to keep the staff vertical. If you see one on a boat it will indicate a careful and thoughtful skipper. There should be a bucket or two on a boat. They are such wonderful things. Now that they come in plastic, they are useful for all kinds of things, including bailing, holding the catch, emergency toilet, and anything else your imagination may produce. There should be at least one with a line attached to the handle. The handles are inclined to be weak, though, so some people cut a hole near the rim, and feed a piece of suitable line through that. Available in various colours, the gash bucket can be distinguished from the others. You may come across one with the bottom removed and replaced by a piece of clear plastic. This is for looking down through the water at the bottom, very popular with children. You might also see one with a piece of lead clipped to the rim on one side. This is to tip it up on entering the water, making it easier to fill.

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Boat Watching On barges, the buckets are, or used to be, wonderfully decorated with colourful pictures of floral marvels. They were of galvanised iron, and seemed to be too good to use for mundane tasks. The boat-hook is one of those essentials that you should see on every boat except the very smallest. They vary a little, but commonly have a hook on the end of a pole. The old ones were galvanised iron hooks, evil gadgets, but the modern plastic ones are kinder to paint and varnish. The old wooden hafts, too, have been replaced by stout plastic ones. The hook end has a blunt point for fending off, and a hook to grip a mooring ring or a line. It is advisable to have a long line on a boat-hook, with one end made fast inside the boat. It should be weak enough to break if over loaded, and buoyant so as to float if let go. You will see a few different types around, but nowadays there is a tendency to standardise. One important feature is the name of the boat carved or otherwise permanently marked on the haft. If the name or initials of the club, also, are also marked, it makes it easier for the finder to return it. Nothing has been said so far about the electronic and electric gear that you may find on a modern boat. There seems to be a lot of it these days. You won't see many alidades, sextants, and so on; but you may well see marine radios, and GPS sets. A flick of a switch, and you can see just where you are on the surface of the earth, or water. They are truly magic. However good these gadgets are, though, he who sets out without a compass is not a very wise kind of sailor chap. There is no substitute for a compass. Well, that isn't quite true. If you can pick out where the sun is hiding, then you have a good guide. Boy Scouts used to be taught how to look at a watch. Pointing the hour hand at the sun, and south the direction of south is midway between the figure 12 and the hour hand. You have to make sure that the watch is keeping good time, of course. Another way of finding direction is by using a small disc of ply with a peg at the circumference. If the disc ply is held horizontally so that the peg casts a shadow across the ply, the tip of the shadow can be marked at different times of the day. This will produce an arc on the ply. Then, when the device is used in the sun, it is turned until the tip of the shadow rests on the arc. Then the compass directions are read off the edge of the disc, south being at the peg. This is not very accurate, but better than nothing, you might say, and not pricey. It is a treasured possession of the impecunious. Besides the main compass, mounted well away from iron and steel fittings, there may be a hand bearing compass aboard. It seems like stating the obvious to say that this is a small bearing compass, held in the hand. I mention this because you often hear the two first words put together, instead of the last two, which is odd to say the least. 63

Boat Watching You poke your thumb through the ring for steadiness, and look through the prism, the with sighting device, to take bearings of distant objects. It is a very good thing to have aboard. You may see some canny skippers with one of the government surplus instruments, a rare find nowadays. An alidade is an instrument for measuring vertical angles, and is usually kept near the chart table. You can make one by sticking a sighting strip onto a graduated disc, with a plumb line to show when the disc is upright. Then one can adjust the sighting strip to find the sun or other heavenly body, and read off its altitude, or angle with the horizontal. No, not very accurate, but it might give you a better idea than guesswork, in an emergency. You might find such items aboard a well-found cruiser. So one need never be entirely lost. It can be used, too, for finding the distance off a prominent object on a cliff Some owners have their little foibles about what to carry aboard, and what to leave ashore.† Many like to carry a Handy Billy, a useful device for increasing the force you can exert between two points. This is further described in the glossary. Then there is the folding cone, to be hoisted in the rigging as a signal. Only the larger yachts are likely to carry a full set of international signalling flags. They are expensive, and rarely used on small vessels. You may find out by careful watching, or perhaps in conversation, the kind of things to be found aboard a boat. Few carry parrots, but you might see a dog on some boats, the family pet. Dogs seem to like boating. Although not to be seen on the very small boats, you may notice some rather oddlooking thin panels on the coachroof of some of the larger vessels, more and more these days. These are solar panels, cunning devices for getting power from the sun directly, by a photo-voltaic method. They are part of a modern development, and are getting better and better. You can get curved ones now, to fit the shape of the coachroof. They just sit there, soaking up the sun and pumping electrical energy into the boat's system. Sheer witchcraft, some say. Look out for them; they are unmistakable. Another source of power is the windmill, mounted on a post aft. They run day and night if you like, turning wind energy into electrical energy to charge the batteries. Wind-driven generators are not as mysterious as solar panels, to most people. They are more easily seen on a boat. You can't miss them. Even in a small pulling dinghy there is usually a bailer of some sort, though you may not always be able to spot it. Some people use their hats to great effect if the water in the bilges seems rather deep. Tilley hats are good for this, though they do leak through the vent holes. Old paint cans do well, but they soon corrode. Owners have their individual fancies, from cut-down detergent flasks to plastic bed-pans.

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Boat Watching If a boat boasts a bilge pump it will be either a cylindrical affair, with a handle that goes up and down, or a diaphragm type, where you waggle a lever to and fro, producing a gush of water overboard through a pipe in the side of the hull. It is mounted somewhere handy in the cockpit. This is a good occupation for bored and fractious children, if you are good at making up some yarn to make it interesting. It is important to ensure that the outlet pipe does go overboard, or the bilge water will just go back into the bilges. Somewhere, hanging around, you may see a piece of light line, perhaps wound round a piece of wood, with a weight on one end. This is for sounding, finding the depth of water under the boat. It is simple and reliable, needs no electricity, and costs virtually nothing, a virtue dear to the heart of many impoverished boat owners. Such a line will have knots at intervals of a fathom, so that the depth is read off readily. The most obvious thing about any boat is of course the paint and varnish. Every boat watcher will be alive to this aspect. Boat owners usually take a great pride in the general appearance of the vessel. When fitting out, they can be seen industriously rubbing down, and scraping away, and repainting and re-varnishing, and probably whistling at the same time. The varnished parts of a boat are known as the "bright-work", and bright they should be. A single coat of varnish is a waste of time and effort. To get a proper finish you need seven coats, rubbing down between each. This slowly builds up a beautiful hard coat with a lovely sheen and deep satisfying colour. Those who can't see their own face reflected in the varnished surface ought to scrape it all off and do it again. Many of them do, too. When you look at a well-varnished surface you can find it deeply attractive. Its purpose is to protect the wood, and to beautify the boat. If you see some poor quality varnished items you will soon appreciate this. Oars should never have the inboard ends varnished. These should be left bare wood for the hands to grasp. Neither should they be stood on their blade ends, lest the blades be worn by contact with the ground. You will see some oars treated disgracefully, but they seem to put up with looking tatty, and do their job just as well. At the point where they fit into the crutches, oars often have leather or plastic cuffs, to protect the loom, the inboard end. Paint work demands good preparation. Applying the paint itself is the least part of the work. Rubbing down the surface with great care, the careful owner can produce a smooth glossy surface on the hull that will reflect his patience and ability. Looking around the boats in the harbour, you will soon separate the splendid from the shabby. Owners like to see an onlooker pause and admire their handiwork. If you get a chance, tell them how good it looks. They will burst with pride, and might even invite you to discuss it further, at the bar.

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Boat Watching Under the heading of "Miscellaneous" we could go on for ever; but there has to be an end sometime, and I shall end now. You can go off and find out about all the other things yourself. You should have much joy in doing so. I might even bump into you leaning on some convenient rail somewhere. You won't recognise me, of course, but I wish you good boat watching, wherever you go.

Feedback 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

What is meant by sounding? Name two items of equipment on a boat that require electrical supply. How would you recognise a solar panel? What is a Handy Billy? Where would you look for an alidade? How would you hold a hand bearing compass. What is brightwork? Where might you see a horseshoe lifebuoy? What is the purpose of a bilge pump? Why would a boat carry a folding cone? What is the loom of an oar? Where can you find a bailer? Using a watch, how can you find the direction of the boat's head? Where might you see a boathook? What is so special about a bucket? What might you infer from the sight of fenders hanging over the side of a boat? If you saw a Dan buoy on a boat, where would it be?†††††††† Where would you find a tripping line? Where are the rubbing strakes? What is a kedge anchor?

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Glossary This glossary is not intended to be comprehensive, because of limitations of space. I do hope it will help you to identify many of the features of the boats you see. And Perhaps it will stimulate further search in the literature. You will find boaty people friendly, on the whole, and outwardly tolerant of those who don't know much. Some of them don't know as much as they would like us to believe, anyway. Aground A vessel is said to be aground when part or the whole of the hull is touching the sea-bed. Amidships The central part of a boat, measured either lengthwise or athwartships. Also used of the helm when it is centralised. Anchoring† When a boat is to stay in one place, away from its mooring, it can be fixed, relative to the ground, by a line or chain from the bow to an anchor, of which there are many types. A cheap anchor for a small boat is a heavy stone. This will not hold in rough weather, but is effective in calm water. Anemometer At the masthead you may see a set of cups buzzing round a short rod. This produces a signal, which is transmitted to a dial showing the speed of the apparent wind. There are hand-held versions, too. They are important to racing boats, who want the last squeeze of speed; those who sail along contentedly with whatever the elements bring them don't sport such expensive items. Anode† For protection against electrolytic corrosion, a lump of† metal is attached to the hull, as a sacrificial anode. This is gradually eaten away, to be periodically replaced. An anode is not needed on a wooden or fibreglass boat with no metal parts below the surface. Athwart Across the boat, at right angles to the centreline. Boaty people don't usually pronounce the "w". Awning† A cover which is spread over the cockpit, or sometimes the whole boat, for protection against weather. Usually off-white, they look very sporty when striped. Backstay †The stay that runs from the top of the mast to the stern, to take the forward load on the mast. This is sometimes divided near the transom to give clearance for the tiller. Baggywrinkle† Old rope or rags or other padding fitted on stays to protect the sails from chafe. Bailer A scoop for removing bilge water from a boat. Anything that will hold water will serve, a bucket, a hat, a funnel with a finger held over the bottom, anything handy. In a 67

Boat Watching well-organised boat you will find a bailer of plastic, (to minimise damage to the paint and varnish), with a line attaching it to the boat to avoid loss overboard. Balanced rudder A rudder blade with some of the area ahead of the pivot, to make it easier to turn when under way. You may notice this on some rudders, when the boats are aground. Even on some small boats, a balanced rudder is often to be seen. Bank Sandbanks or mudbanks are areas of shallow water, to be avoided by boats which draw a lot of water, i.e., boats that reach down a long way below the water line. You can often see these banks at low water. Even when covered, their positions may affect the colour or nature of the water that lies over them. Shallow water has a different hue, and waves may be seen breaking over them. Marks are often used to mark them, buoys, perches, or withies, and they are shown in charts of the area. Barge A flat-bottomed craft of shallow draft, sometimes powered, designed to transport heavy loads. The old Thames sailing barges were a wondrous sight, though sadly diminished in numbers now. You may be able to see some pictures of them in their heyday, and savour their looks. With all sail set, and the leeboards down, they would put their shoulders into the sea and move with stately disregard for the lumpy seas. What a joy to watch! Barnacle† A pestilential little shell creature that attaches itself in great numbers to the hull of the boat, creating a heavy drag, with consequent loss of speed and increased power demand. The scientific name is cirripedes, but you'll never hear that word among boat owners as they industriously scrub away at the wretched things. Beach As a noun, this is an area adjacent to the water. As a verb, it means to run a boat aground on the beach. Pleasure boats at the seaside often do this to embark passengers. Such boats are motor driven now, but in the days of sail, the sailors showed great skill in beaching their craft, through big waves sometimes, in such a way that they could readily sail off again when the passengers were aboard. At places like Brighton, on the south coast of Sussex, the Skylark was a famous old clinker-built boat that gave pleasure (and some sea-sickness!) to thousands of trippers. Beam† The breadth of a boat. A boat with a large beam, relative to the length, is said to be "beamy". Beam makes for lateral stability, but is not helpful if speed is the aim. For speed, you need long slender shapes, like the racing boats rowed along rivers in calm water. However, you can see some very fast boats that look very beamy. These are boats that ride on the surface, rather than in the water, deriving their lift from hydrodynamic forces instead of buoyancy. Again, a trimaran or catamaran is effectively beamy, though the individual hulls are long and narrow. Bilge keels Twin keels that project below the hull either side of the centreline. These enable a boat to stand upright or with only a small angle of heel, when aground, and are easier to manage onto a road trailer. Short ones are often fitted to small craft that have to be dragged across the beach, to protect the hull. 68

Boat Watching Bilges† The lowest part of the boat, inside the hull, where loose materials and items such as dropped spanners, oil rags, water, fuel, old sandwiches and so on accumulate. The turn of the bilge is where the topsides turn inward under the boat, giving it its shape. Binnacle The housing for the compass. Not often seen on small craft. Here the compass is often mounted inside the cuddy. Bitts† †You can see these items usually on the foredeck, where they stick up through the deck. They are to take mooring lines. On some sports boats they are chrome plated. The end of the line attached to the bitts is called the bitter end, an expression often used by people who don't know the origin. Boathook This is a most useful piece of equipment, and you may see it in use for fending off, for picking up a mooring, grabbing the dinghy, and a host of other purposes. You will see it in a handy position in the cockpit or in a clip just inside the gunwales, ready for instant use. Boom† A boom† is a spar that is attached to the lower end of the mast, running aft, carrying the bottom of the sail. Bobstay† This is a short stay running from the outer end of the bowsprit to a point lower down on the stem. It takes the load imposed by the upward pull of the forestay on the end of the bowsprit. Bottlescrew An adjusting device on a stay, sometimes called a rigging screw, or a turnbuckle. When you see one, notice how it is locked with wire to prevent it undoing under stress. Bow The forward part of the boat, the area aft of the stem, as far as amidships. On the foredeck you find the anchor chocks, perhaps a windlass, and various fairleads and cleats. Inside, the mooring chain is usually stowed, and perhaps a locker for warps. Bow fender A protector for the bows, in the form of a soft resilient fender in the shape of a sausage draped round the stem. Bowline †You will see plenty of these on boats. The bowline is perhaps the most important of all knots. You can make a large or small loop in a line with it. Quick and easy to tie, it doesn't slip, yet is readily undone when necessary. You can get hold of a short piece of line, and practice tying it with your eyes shut. It is bound to come in useful one day. You may be glad you learned how to do it. Bow wave† As a boat moves through the water, it pushes up waves, and as it increases speed, a comparatively large wave appears at the forward end. This is the bow wave, and as the boat goes faster so the size of this wave increases, till the boat is trying to climb up a watery hill. At this speed the power demand is very large, and the boat† 69

Boat Watching cannot go faster without unacceptable power increase. If the boat is not a displacement vessel, though, but a planing one, it can rise, and ride on the after part of the hull, usually flat. A high speed planing boat may have most of the hull out of the water, with no real bow wave and a comparatively flat wake. Bridge deck This is the part that runs across the boat, between the cabin and the cockpit giving strength to the whole structure. The engine is usually tucked under here on most sailing boats with an auxiliary engine. Bucket This humble piece of equipment is one of the essentials. It should have a line attached to the handle, with the other end fixed to an eye or cleat. If one lip is weighted with a small piece of lead it is easier to scoop up water when required. At one time buckets were of galvanised iron, but nowadays most are of plastic. This is kinder to the paintwork, though but plastic buckets lack the strength of the iron ones, and a heavy chap can't sit on a plastic bucket with complacency, as he may sometimes wish to do. No boat should be without at least one bucket. If you shop around, you may be able to get half a dozen at a discount. They tend to be lost or not returned when lent to someone, or damaged, or even stolen, and a few spare buckets about the place are always useful. It's not a bad idea to paint the name of the boat on each. Should you fall overboard, grab a bucket on the way. Inverted, with your arms clasped round it, the bucket is a comfortable buoyancy aid. Bulb keel When you look at a keel boat aground, you may sometimes see that the lower end of the keel is swollen, a streamlined torpedo shape at the lower end of the fin. This is to provide extra weight well down, to increase stability. Bunjee You can find other spellings of this word which, it is believed, came originally from India. However you spell it, it is Good Stuff. Although originally it meant only rubber, the bunjee you see on boats consists of a bunch of thin rubber strips covered in a woven material. Usually it is made up with hooks on the ends, and it is hooked between two points to provide tension there. Buoy† † Almost any floating object may be used as a buoy. Its purpose is to mark the position of something on the sea bed, an obstruction, the edge of a channel, a racing mark, and so on. As you enter a channel from the seaward side, you will see red buoys with flat tops (port hand buoys) on your left, and green conical ones (starboard hand buoys on your right. There are other types, and you may find yourself sufficiently interested to look up these kinds in the literature. Buoyancy The upward force which keeps a vessel afloat. It is equal to the weight of the boat, or the volume of water displaced multiplied by the water density. Buoy rope† † Mooring buoys are connected to the river bed by rope and chain. To minimise wear in the chain, which is very expensive, the rope is usually of such length that the chain lies on the floor of the river, only the rope waving around in the water as the currents move it. 70

Boat Watching Burgee† A small triangular flag at the top of the mast, indicating rank or club. If the burgee is swallow tailed, it indicates that a flag officer is aboard. If you can see small discs or balls on the burgee, then you may like to know that one ball is for the vice commodore, and two for the rear commodore. Cabin† †A cabin may be a simple covered space or a commodious room below decks. On a larger boat it may be fitted with comfortable berths, a galley, a chart table, and so on, perhaps a drinks cabinet. On a small fishing boat it may provides standing room only at the wheel. Cam cleat †A cunning device for gripping a line. The line is released by pulling it a little and yanking it upwards. You will probably see several of these on boats, within reach of the helmsman. They are not cheap, but they do seem to last forever. Canal effect† If you see a couple of boats moving† passing closely alongside one another, you may notice that the level of the water between them falls, sometimes quite considerably, and the boats tend to drift towards one another. In canals, slowing down may avert a heavy collision. This is due to what is known as the "Bernoulli effect". The flow of water between the hulls is speeded up as the width narrows, and the level falls.†Bernoulli showed us that when a flow speeds up, there is a reduction in pressure. Look him up if you would like to know more. You should find it worth doing. You can dodge the mathematical bits if they are not to your taste. Canvas† Old ships had sails made from heavy canvas, tough to withstand the weather, and tough on the hands, too. Sometimes they were tanned, and looked lovely when set; but they were horrors to handle. With a bit of canvas and a needle an old sailor, and some of the modern ones, too, could make anything from a bailer to a bucket, and it would last for years. Modern canvas is not used for sails, but for covers and bags. Today's modern sails are made from synthetic fabrics, smooth to the touch, easily bundled, and available in many colours. A big bellying spinnakergespinnakernoa, in several colours, stomping off downwind, is a stately sight indeed. Yet it can be hauled down and bagged in a trice. Capsize†† If a boat suffers a capsize, it turns over, usually ejecting the occupants, who don't like it much, unless they are dedicated young dinghy sailors cutting it fine. They don't mind anything. Capstan †This is a kind of windlass, a simple but effective machine to haul a heavy boat up a steep beach, when there are a few sturdy men about. It consists of a stout vertical spindle of timber, mounted in a very strong frame, with means for turning it. At the top of the spindle or axle, four long strong arms stick out horizontally. A cable is wound round the axle, leading from the boat to be hauled. When your lusty young men apply themselves to the ends of the handles, and tramp round and round, up she comes, on rollers or greasy planks. In the old days they would sometimes sit a fiddler on the top of the axle, and a merry tune soon got things going. The men would sing, often to traditional chants. Those were the days of simple pleasures. Well, you can still see 71

Boat Watching some, and they are in use, too. You probably won't have a fiddler, but you can hear the crunch of the beach stones beneath the heavy boots. †They have mainly been replaced by other, less strenuous, apparatus, but they are sturdy beast affairs,, and may yet be around when other gear has broken down. Look along some of the steep pebbly beaches. Capstans on ships are daintier, for they are used for hauling up the anchor; but we are not concerned with ships. Carbine hook† This is a spring-loaded snap-on hook. It is fitted on the end of a line, and serves to clip on to another line or a stay. You will probably see it on safety harness. Careen † When a boat is careened, it is tilted over so that work can be done on the bottom. The old sailing ships, after crossing the oceans, picked up so much weed and marine growth generally, that they needed to beach their ships, careen them, and scrub the bottom, before tackling the return voyage. Modern small boats may be careened to facilitate anti-fouling. Catamaran For stability, some boats are built with two hulls, thus increasing the beam. They are readily recognised, and they move very quickly. Centreboard or centreplate† † You will see a centreboard sticking out of the bottom of a dinghy when inverted. It is useful for righting the boat after a capsize. The wet crew stand on it to lever the boat into an upright position. Its other use, the designer's intention, is to reduce leeway, the tendency of the boat to slide sideways when the wind tends to blow the boat to one side. Chainplate† †The fitting on the side of the hull to which the shrouds are attached. Galvanised ones are a waste of time, for they don't take long to corrode. For that matter, some "stainless " ones, do, too, though not so badly. Chine† † When the bottom of the boat meets the topsides at an angle, instead of a smooth curve, we have a hard chine. On some boasts, there may be more than one. Chinese gybe† † When a boat is running before the wind, mishandling can cause the mainsail to flip over to one side of the boat, and the boom to the other, causing dismay to the crew and hilarity among the onlookers at the club. It is unfairly attributed to the Chinese. Class boat† † If you see an emblem high up on the mainsail of a† sailing boat you are looking at a class boat. The symbol identifies it as one of a class of identical boats. The mark may be the initial letter of the name of the class, or some symbol. For example, the Optimist class has the letter "O", and the Signet a hollow square. Cleat† † A fitting, usually with two horns, round which a line can be belayed. On a well-found boat, you will see these at convenient points, so arranged that the pull is parallel with the base. 72

Boat Watching Clinker-built† † A hull built up from a series of narrow planks, overlapping. The planks are nailed together with copper nails and washers, and there are lighter ribs inside. It is an immensely strong form of construction, and such boats can take hard knocks. The better class of pulling dinghy is clinker-built, and a clinker-built boat seems to last forever, handed down from father to son and grandson. Some Even glass-fibre boats can be seen with a kind of imitation clinker effect, giving added strength to the hull, and improving the otherwise bathtub appearance. Code flags† † You may see small boats wearing a code flag, either of one colour, or several. They are quite different from the other flags, burgees and ensigns. It might be useful to have with you a copy of the list of flags when boat watching, so that you can understand what they are trying to convey. You will soon get to know the commoner codes, like the plain yellow square flag, the Q, for instance, indicating that the boat is from another country and asks for clearance, claiming to be free from infection. Courtesy flag † If you see a national flag flying from the† starboard cross-tree,† you are looking at a boat from some other country. This is called a "courtesy flag", and you can brush up your foreign languages before you approach the skipper. Close-hauled† † When you see a boat with her sails hauled in tightly, she is sailing close-hauled, making to windward. The crew will probably be sitting out towards the windward side, to help keep her more nearly upright. They will be enjoying themselves immensely, for beating up channel in a good wind can be thrilling. Cone† † A cone shape is hoisted, usually on the forestay to convey information to other boats. For example, hoisted with the point downwards it indicates that a sailing boat is using her engine. Conical buoys These are green buoys on the starboard or right hand, when approaching from seaward, with conical tops. The port hand buoys are red, with flat tops. Counter† †The overhang of the deck beyond the rudder stock. It makes a good diving platform. Cross-staff†† You may not see a cross-staff very often, outside of a museum, for it is a very old navigation instrument for taking sights of the sun. If you care to make one yourself, you might find how accurate you are at finding your latitude. It is easy to make. You mount a moveable cross member on a graduated rod. In use, you look along a line from the end nearest your eye to the outer end of the cross staff and so to the heavenly body. Then you slide the cross staff along till the lower end touches the horizon. The latitude of the body is then read off the graduated rod. You might want to use sunglasses if looking at the sun. You can graduate the rod for the range over which you expect to use it. It won't be very accurate, but it will be fun. If you try to find your position with it, you may be within a hundred miles of your actual position. The ancient mariners used this instrument with a fair amount of skill, and some luck, quite a bit of luck I should imagine. 73

Boat Watching Cuddy † An open boat can be uncomfortable in hot sunshine, or pouring rain. A cuddy is a little shelter ahead of the cockpit. It may be long enough to lie down. Davits† Small cranes mounted at the stern of some vessels for hoisting a tender from the water. They are usually fitted in pairs, to keep the tender level balanced when hoisting. They will also handle a crate of the necessary, too. Diamonds †These are shrouds that pass over the ends of the upper spreaders and then to the lower spreader fittings on the mast, instead of going down to the deck level. These are to be found only on the taller masts. With these, the mast itself can be lighter. Dodger†† A canvas screen fitted to the lifelines round the cockpit to provide shelter against to the elements. Dory†† A small flat-bottomed boat, with sloping topsides so that several can be fitted into one another. These were, and still are, used by fishermen, put overboard from a mother ship, and collected later. They are easily made from a couple of sheets of ply, and are surprisingly seaworthy. They make good cheap tenders. Dressed overall† †A set of International code flags is strung from the stem to the top of the mast and down to the stern at times of celebration. There is a special etiquette for this, though private clubs are apt to use bunting. Drogue† You may not often come across this sea anchor in action. It is an open-ended canvas cone streamed aft in heavy weather, to slow down and keep a boat's head to wind and waves. You might see one taken aboard by a boat making ready for sea. Ensign† The national flag, worn near the stern of a boat. Even keel† When a boat is neither heeling nor down by the head or the stern, she is upright, and said to be on an even keel. Eye plate †A stout metal plate with an eye, strongly attached to the boat, for taking a line. You may find several of these about the boat. Fairleads† †These strong metal or plastic fittings appear in several different varieties, all with the same purpose, to change the direction of a line. Some are open at the top, and some (bulls eye types) are closed. On some, the arms are crossed over to help retain the line. They should not be used to turn a line through too sharp an angle, or the line may be damaged. Feathering† Used to denote the act of turning the blade of an oar on the backstroke, so that it slips easily through the air. It is used also for the tapering or thinning of an edge of a piece of wood, and for the action of a folding propellor, when the blades are turned so as to lie along the line of travel. 74

Boat Watching Fender† A pad, usually a hollow plastic shape, hung over the sides to protect them when coming alongside. They come in all shapes and sizes, and in different colours, too. When you see them on a boat it usually means either that the boat is about to come alongside, or that the skipper has forgotten to take them in. Fiddle block†††A double sheave, where the larger one is fitted† in line with the lower smaller one, on a separate pin. Fife rail Fitted round the base of the mast, this useful and decorative item carries belaying pins for taking the ends of lines. You won't see them much on modern yachts, but they look fine on the older vessels, cheap and practical as they are. Fisherman's anchor† A standard old anchor with good holding powers in most grounds. It has two flukes and a fixed or folding stock set across at right angles. This is sometimes called an Admiralty pattern anchor. Often found on cap badges and blazers, it is, oddly, nearly always shown fouled by a piece of rope. Flags† †Much could be written about flags, and the etiquette regarding them, far too much for this simple treatment. So as not to appear too negligent, the reader may like to know one or two of the basics. Small racing dinghies usually wear a little small square flag at the masthead, when racing. The red ensign may be is worn at the stern by all British vessels. It is a handsome red flag with a miniature union flag in the top corner nearest the staff, and on a small motor vessel looks very tiddly. Strictly speaking, the ensign should be lowered in salute when meeting a ship of H.M. Navy. The blue version of this ensign is restricted. When you see a small boat with this, it indicates the presence of a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron. Similar rulings apply to boats and ships of other countries. Grockles are known to fly the Union Flag upside down and to call it a Union Jack. It doesn't do nay harm, and gives the pundits something to talk about. There just isn't space for a fuller treatment, but the reader may find the subject fascinating; and there are plenty of good books on the subject. W hen it is too wet and windy for forays to look at boats, you can curl up with one of these, so that the next time you are out you may understand the meaning of what you see. Flotsam† † This should apply to cargo and other items that float on the surface after a vessel has foundered, or stuff that has fallen overboard. Usually, though, it is loosely used to describe any of those oddments that float about the waters. Often coupled with jetsam, floating material thrown overboard, much loved by seagulls, who have very funny taste buds. Fly† That part of a flag farthest away from the hoist, i.e. near the flagstaff. Fore-and-aft rig† †The setting of sails in line with the boat, as opposed to square rig, when the sails are set on yards across the craft. Was once used in a slightly derisory manner of peaked caps.

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Boat Watching Forecastle † Always pronounced as two syllables, fo'c's'l, except by grockles. This is the forward part of the accommodation, below the foredeck, traditionally set apart for the lower ranks. Forestay † A stay running from the masthead, or sometimes from the crosstrees, to the stemhead or the outer end of the bowsprit. This carries the staysail or jib, but it is also a most useful thing for hanging on tightly when working on the foredeck in a rough sea. Frape † An endless line running round a pair of sheaves set apart, one on shore, to which a boat may be moored. By pulling on the line the boat may be hauled in to the shore for boarding, and hauled out into deeper water after landing. Froude † A British engineer who made valuable contributions to our knowledge of the flow of water. He carried out tank tests at Torquay in Devon, and the value of his work cannot be over estimated. It is the Froude number, v/(gd)1/2† which determines the maximum speed of a displacement boat. Here v is the boat's speed, g the gravitational acceleration, and d the length of the boat. You may come across it in slightly different form, but it means the same thing. Froude was dealing with waves in his tank, and his researches had wide-reaching effects. He was in all respects a Good Chap, if can follow the mathematics. Gaff†† A spar at the top of a quadrilateral sail. The gaff is usually supported by a line, perhaps with a purchase, midway along it taken to the top of the mast and thence down to the deck. Gallows† A form of boom crutch, to support the boom when lowered. It may extend across the cockpit, and have offset grooves to keep the boom clear of the cockpit headroom. Gammon iron † A lovely old word for the† iron band which clamps the bowsprit to the stem. Genoa † A large sail overlapping the mainsail, which brings added area in a light breeze, splendid when in full flower, but a screaming headache when it misbehaves. Well known for improving the vocabulary of the skipper. Gypsy † A kind of winch or windlass, set on the foredeck, with the wheel shaped to take the links of the anchor chain. It may be operated by a lever or an electric motor. Gooseneck † The fitting on the mast to take the end of the boom, arranged so that the boon can move up or down or swing round. Granny knot † A sad knot about which the less you know the better. Never use it, in any circumstances.

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Boat Watching Grating†† A grill of wooden, preferably teak, strips used as a flooring in cockpits. When well made can enhance the look of any cockpit. Ground tackle The gear used for mooring or anchoring, comprising †chain, swivels, and blocks. Gudgeon† The eye fitting, into which the pintle of a rudder is fitted. Gunter rig † In this rig the gaff slides up the mast, and is then hauled into an upright position, so that the sail sets almost like a Bermudan sail. Gunwale The upper edge of the sides, usually with some kind of railing tidying up the edge. Half-decked † Said of a boat that is not fully decked over, having a foredeck and perhaps side and stern only, leaving a large opening in the middle. Half hitch† Taking a turn round the standing part of a line produces a half hitch, a simple and not very reliable knot. Normally used with another knot or hitch. Halliard † A line for raising a sail. Cleated or otherwise made fast at the foot of the mast, or led aft to the cockpit, it runs over a sheave at the head of the mast and is shackled to the head of the sail. Hand bearing compass † A small compass that can be held in the hand, to take bearings. The old army type was fitted in a leather case, with a sling, so that you could put it over your shoulder. They had only one fault. They could develop a bubble. If this was small it didn't matter much. If it were a big one, it had to be removed, by opening the chamber and pouring in a drop of gin, or some other suitable fluid. Some people have had one for years, without trouble. The old army ones were robust. You can get copies now, in plastic, which are a little more tender, but much lighter in the pocket. Handy Billy †A useful little gadget, consisting of a single and a double block, both having hooks. With this, you can exert a hefty pull. Headboard † A triangular piece of wood or plastic at the head of a triangular sail, to strengthen it at this point. Heaving line †A light line for throwing ashore, one end being made fast to the boat. It should have a monkey's fist at the thrown end, or some weight to help it to carry. If it is too light, it can be hard to make it carry. It can be used either to moor, or to take over a heavier cable tied to its end. Highfield lever A rapid tensioning device used chiefly on stays.

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Boat Watching Hitch † A knot for attaching a line to a solid object, such as a ring, a shackle etc. Examples are half hitches, clove hitches, and timber hitches. Holiday An area that has been overlooked when painting, of great interest to one's friends, who hasten to point out any such on your topsides after you have put away paint and brushes. Horseshoe lifebuoy These are, as the name suggests, lifebuoys that don't form a complete ring. They are easier to handle than the circular type, as you don't have to pull them over your head, or duck under one side. Hove to †When a boat heaves to, you will see the foresail backed, and the boat making almost no headway. It will usually be set on the starboard tack, i.e. with the boom out over the port side. This gives her right of way over a boat on the port tack. Boats are hove to at times to give the crew a respite for tackling certain tasks, and sometimes just to have a rest. Hull † The main part the of the boat, on which systems of propulsion are mounted, and wherein the goods and passengers placed. Idlers' seat† This may be a single seat, or a bench, or even a plank resting on oil drums, for the benefit of those who love to idle and pass comments on the weather, the incompetence of the government, the prospects of the local football team, or the antics of people in the harbour. They are a splendid race, often ancient mariners themselves. Maybe you will be able to join them one day, and in time be permitted to utter an occasional approving "Oh ar". The idlers' seat is essential, for making sure that the tides regularly ebb and flow. Impeller † You are most likely to see an impeller on the bottom of a hull. It is a sort of miniature paddle wheel. This is turned by the water as it flows past the hull, and is connected magnetically to a cunning affair inside the hull which translates the pulses into data for speed and distance. If weed manages to get a round it the skipper you may have some surprising distances recorded. There is also an impeller in the engine, too, for driving the coolant round, but you are unlikely to see this unless the engine has been giving trouble. Then you may see the owner disconsolate in the cockpit, with the end plate off the pump, and the impeller in his hands, wishing he had been wise enough to pack a spare. Inglefield clip†† A small metal plate with a hole in one end and a c-shaped opening at the other end. A pair of these can be used to join a couple of lines, usually the ensign halyard to the ensign hoist. In irons † When you watch a sailing boat try to tack, but fail to get right round, she will probably end up "in irons", head to wind, and sails flapping. This happens only when there is an audience of unsympathetic onlookers. The next time you see it, you may smile knowingly, to give the impression that if ever you went to sea it would not happen to you. 78

Boat Watching Inside ballast † You won't normally see this, since it is heavy material laid down inside the boat, over the keel. It has more effect than a similar weight outside the vessel. Outside ballast has less effect since it is displacing water, and thereby losing weight. Insulators You might see a pair of these on the backstay,† if it is used as an aerial, to insulate that part of the stay from the rest of the rigging. Jack † A much misused word, whose true meaning is the flag worn at the jackstaff, in the bows of a naval vessel. The union flag is often called a union jack by the less well informed. There is sometimes a mechanism under the mast, also called a jack, but you won't see many of these. Jetsam† See "flotsam". Junk rig † You may occasionally see a boat with an unstayed† mast, and a fully battened sail more or less square.† It is a popular rig with some people, for it has many advantages, being particularly easy to handle, simple easy to maintain, and readily stowed. Jury rig If you see a boat with a rather stumpy broken mast she will possibly be juryrigged. This means that some emergency form of set-up has had to be used. Ketch † A vessel with two masts, the after one, the mizzen, being shorter. The mizzen is stepped forward of the waterline. It is similar to a yawl, though usually a yawl has a smaller mizzen sail. It makes a good picture. Kicking strap† To prevent the boom from rising, a tackle is run from the mast to the underside of the boom, a short way along. By pulling down on the outer end of the boom, the kicking strap can be made to exert a considerable force on the boom. If there is no kicking strap, the boom may fly up during a gibe, producing a funny face on the skipper. Knot † Maritime unit of speed, one nautical mile per hour. The term "knots per hour" raises eyebrows among mariners. Don't say it. It is used for certain ways of arranging a piece of line. Lacing eye †A small metal or plastic eye to take a lacing line,† which holds down an awning or cover. Lagan In a way, this word goes with flotsam and jetsam; but in this case the material is the gear thrown overboard from a sinking ship, and buoyed for later recovery. It is unlikely that you will see this kind of thing, but I put it in for your general information, and because it is really a very interesting nice word. Lanyard †A short length of line for attaching some object to the person or the boat. Lanyards are used also instead of turnbuckles to secure shrouds to chain plates. Some 79

Boat Watching people prefer them, for they are cheap, readily replaced, and look very good. They never corrode. Further, making lanyards is a pleasant job. You start by tying one end to the eye in the bottom end of the shroud or stay. And then you feed it through the hole in the chain plate, back up through the end of the stay, back down again through the chain plate, and so on, till you have enough turns. †It is finished by taking a turn or two round the middle of the loops, after tightening it all, and putting a hitch on the completed job. All in all, it is very most satisfying. If you see lanyards like this, rejoice, for they tend to be swamped by plated and stainless fittings that, though usually sound, have been known to fail. Lanyards don't mind if the shrouds are not perfectly aligned, and never seem to fail. Lateen sail You won't see many of these outside some exotic locations, but they look lovely on a calm river. The sail is triangular, on a long boom that runs up from somewhere near the stem, crossing a comparatively short mast at about 45 degrees. If you visit a maritime museum you may find examples there. Lazarette †A common term for an after locker. All kinds of gear finds its way into this glory hole, to remain unseen throughout the season. Leeboards †You won't often come across these. They are stout boards hanging down the leeward side of the boat to counteract leeway. Those lovely old Thames barges had them, great lumps of thick timber, pivoted near the gunwales, they looked wonderful as those beloved vessels sailed in their stately fashion through waves that didn't dare slow them. Lee-oh † If you are near enough, you may hear the helmsman shout this when he is about to put down the helm to go about. This warns all on board that the boom is about to go over, and the sails will take up station on the other side of the boat. It is usually preceded on the best-run boats with the cry shout "Ready about".† Leech This is the trailing edge of a the sail. It perhaps came down from "lee edge", as the old men of the sea had a habit of shortening words for more convenience. Leeward Downwind, towards the downwind side of the boat. It is pronounced "looard" by most boaty people. Leeway† When a boat moves through water, its wake is a good indication of the amount of leeway, the amount downwind deflection from its heading. In strong winds, even motor boats can be blown off course a little. In sailing craft without plenty of lateral resistance from keels, the leeway can be considerable, and allowance must be made in navigational calculations. You can sometimes see the effect from the shore. Life raft† † Although you may not recognise it, because it is in a case, or under a cover, the life raft is a sensible item to have aboard when a boat is offshore. The modern liferaft is a well-thought-out seaworthy inflatable well equipped with the things one needs when suddenly bereft of the boat. A wise skipper will inspect this lifesaver at regular intervals. 80

Boat Watching Lighter † A barge without means of propulsion. It is towed by some other vessel, a vehicle or a horse, ashore. Lignum vitae †† You are unlikely to see a bit of this these days, but it is a wonderful timber, grown in Central America. It is very dense, and seems to put up with anything. On some old boats there may be an odd piece used in a block or sheave. Look on it with awe. Limber holes † These are really drain holes, along the bottom of a boat, to let bilge water run to the lowest part of the bilges, where the pump can deal with it. You can see them most readily in small rowing boats. It is advisable to keep them clear, or you may find one end of the boat deeper in water than you might like, and you'll have to change your socks. Lock † A lock is a good place for boat watchers. It is used for moving a boat between two water levels. Boats going into and out of a canal use locks, and the boat watcher can see a good variety of boats at these places. The operation of the lock is a mystery to some people, too. They wonder whence comes the water, and where it vanishes. Log † Modern logs are not so much in evidence as the old type, the famous Walker trailing log. That type, of which there are still some prized specimens still around, had a trailing spinner connected to a dial mounted on the taffrail. If you see one, take a good look, for they won't be around for much longer. In tropical waters they give sharks indigestion. Loudhailer A megaphone, sometimes using an† electrical system to provide amplification.† Cupped hands do help, but are no substitute for a big cone or dedicated instrument when the sea decides to be noisy. Lugsail† A four-sided sail on a lugger. It has a spar along the top. Mainsheet The sheet, i.e., the controlling line, running from the main boom to the helmsman, via sheaves. Make fast † This is boatspeak for secure. A line can be made fast to some part of the boat or a point ashore. Marina† A harbour with powerful cash-absorbent qualities, packing in as many boats as possible. It can be quite a day out to wander round a marina, but it will pay you to park your car some distance away, where the parking fees are less draconian. Of course, there are some marinas (marinae for the purist?) that are reasonably modest in their charges; but a marina is a business concern, and business concerns have to make money, to keep going, so they say. Mizzen† The shorter mast set aft of the mainmast on a yawl or a ketch. 81

Boat Watching Mooring This word can mean a fixed place where a boat can be tied up, or the act of tying it to some fixed point. A boat at mooring is attached by a warp or chain, from the bow, and swings into tide or wind when it is not aground, unless moored at both ends. When the tide has the most effect, it is said to be tide-rode. If it weathercocks into the wind it is wind-rode. When you look at a moored boat, in calm weather, you may in this way tell whether the tide is flooding or ebbing. Morse code† Those who should know better have decided to phase out this most useful method of communicating, after some 150 years of useful existence. Pay no attention, and learn it. It is easy to learn, demands no special equipment, and can be used to convey information rapidly. When all the super modern equipment fails, Morse is always available. The code has only dits and dahs, and you can send this by lamp, arm position, thumping something, foghorn, and whatever else comes to mind. Opening and closing the fist, you can send messages across a crowded bar with none but the recipient being any the wiser. Raising and lowering the arm partly or fully, you can talk to someone from one end of the boat to the other when there is too much noise for shouting. The series of three dits, three dahs and three dits was devised as a signal asking for help. It does not really represent the letters SOS, for there is no pause between the groups; but all over the world this signal has become recognised, and is remembered as "Save our souls" , an aid to remembering it. Mousing † To prevent a line slipping out of the mouth of a hook, you may find a few turns of twine taken across the mouth of the hook. It is called mousing. Mushroom ventilator † You can see these, usually forward. They are flat domes that let air in and out to keep the cabin sweet, without presenting a snag to lines. National letter On the mainsail or spinnaker of international boats you may see a large letter, denoting the nationality of the boat, e.g. K for boats of the United Kingdom,† J for those of Japan,† TK for Turkey. Navel pipe A bent-over pipe sticking up out of the foredeck, to guide the anchor chain into and out of the chain locker. Sometimes it has a small flap on it to keep out the spray. Navigation lights†† The lights on the mast and sides to show the position and attitude of a boat at night. That on the port side is red, and that on the starboard green. If, then for example, you see a green light, you know that you are looking at the starboard side of a boat, and she is moving to your right. You may find the lights combined at the masthead, in one light. Even little motor boats use them for safety at night. A collision after dark is no joke. Oilbag A bag of oil or detergent, hung over the bows, to smooth breaking seas when hove to. It is surprisingly efficient, and smoothes quite violent seas. Wise skippers don't use a plastic shopping bag, as it doesn't leak properly. The bag has to be of some fabric that lets through the oil inside it.

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Boat Watching Osmosis † This is a word that can strike fear into the heart of the owner of a GRP boat. It occurs when tiny holes in the gel coat admit water, which then develops blisters in the surface of the hull.† If you see such blisters on a hull then you know the owner has some hard work ahead of him if he ever wants to sell the boat. Outhaul This is a tackle for pulling the clew of the mainsail out along the boom to tighten the foot of the sail. Over-canvassed Canvas hasn't been used on the majority of boats for many years, but this term is still in use for a boat which is carrying too much sail. When you see it happening, you can see the poor boat struggling unhappily with the situation. The cure is to reduce sail, which at once cheers up the boat and all on board. Overhang The ends of a boat that extend beyond the waterline, either forward or aft. Long overhangs provide more room on deck. Palm† Not much seen nowadays, for there is little material on board that needs stitching with palm and needle. The palm is a stout leather protector for the hand, and is used for pushing the needle through heavy canvas. It makes a good ornament on the sideboard, at home, as a conversation piece. Parbuckling † A handy way of rolling a heavy item up the side of a dock or any slope. One end of a line is made fast at the top of the slope or wall, and the other end is passed round the load and back to the hand of the man doing the hauling. It is a simple but effective way of doubling one's effort, when dealing with a cylindrical object like a barrel or mast. Pelorus † A sighting device on a circular plate graduated in degrees. You may find this on the coachroof, for measuring horizontal angles. With the zero mark ahead on the centreline of the boat, bearings can be taken relative to the boat's heading. Adding or subtracting these from the boat's heading will then yield the bearing of he object. You can use a pelorus for taking vertical angles, too. Perch To mark the channel in shallow waters, a vertical pole with a top mark is often used, called a perch. The topmark is flat if the perch is on the port side of the channel, going with the incoming tide, and triangular for a starboard perch. Pile A stout wooden stake driven into the bed, for mooring or shoring up the sides of a dock or pool. Usually in pairs or rows, for moorings, boats are moored between them, fore and aft. Sometimes you may find a little group of them, forming a dolphin. Pinch When a boat is sailed too close to the wind she cannot get going, and is said to be pinching. When you see this kind of poor sailing thing you can look very superior, as though you would never do a thing like that. You probably would, though, trying to stretch a tack across a narrow river. 83

Boat Watching Pintle A rudder fitting, which, with a gudgeon, forms a hinge on which the rudder turns. Pitchpole If you see this, you are watching a disaster. It occurs when a the boat is pitched stern over bows by following wind and wave. Horrible. People have been known to survive this experience, but it is a very nasty thing to happen to anyone. Planing Displacement boats sit in the water, but any vessel which planes rises, and travels on a flat underside. This permits greater speed, and is popular with motor boat skippers towing with dishy young ladies on skis. Pontoon Watertight tanks or floating platforms for mooring, or for lifting immersed objects. You will see them at marinas and in shipyards. Poop The afterdeck. The place that gets very wet when the boat is pooped, i.e., when the sea pops over the stern. Port† The left-hand side of the boat, looking forward. The port navigation light is red, and port-hand buoys are red with a flat top. Port hand perches have a flat top. Pounding The crashing down of a boat on the water or ground, when let down by a big wave. It feels horrible, and can often lead to extensive damage. Praam or pram A stable little boat with a transom at bow and stern, bottom nearly flat or with a slight rise at each end. They are handy little beasts. Propeller † The screw, mounted aft behind the skeg in a vessel with only one engine. Propeller design is a fine art. The restriction on size, required for giving clearance to the hull, imposes limits on the designer, who must blend the pitch (amount of forward advance per turn of the screw) with the speed of rotation. It is worthwhile to look at the propellers on outboard and inboard engines to note the differences. You may see some made of plastic, and this seems a bright idea. Pulpit † A term which has caught on for referring to the guard rail at the bows. Nobody preaches from it, but those who have stood there and have been are dunked in lumpy seas have been known to utter a few carefully chosen words. Pushpit The after guard rail. An unofficial term that is pretty well universally used. It goes round the after deck or cockpit. Safety lines run from the pushpit to pulpit, and the dodgers are usually fitted on these. Quanting † Pushing a boat along in smooth waters by a long pole carrying a fork at the bottom end. Used mainly on punts.

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Boat Watching Racing flag † When racing, a square flag to the owner's design is flown at the masthead. It is a courtesy to give way to boats wearing this flag; but in general, a skipper will not let a fleet of them drive him you aground. Radar reflector † Usually three square plates slotted together to form an octahedral. Hung as high up as possible, it can help to make a boat visible to a radar operator, hopefully. Rake † The angle made with the vertical by the mast and other nominally vertical line on a boat. If the upper end is aft of the lower end it is said to rake aft. Ratlines † Pronounced "rattlins", these are like †rope steps, between shrouds, for getting aloft. They are not seen on small craft, but look very impressive on larger boats. Reefing † To reduce the amount of sail, the prudent skipper reefs the sails in good time. There are various ways of doing this, but they all take a little time, sometimes a lot of time. Leaving it till the weather has started to stir up things more than somewhat can deteriorate badly make the task less than comfortable. Modern furling methods on some boats avoid the business of easing the main halliard, dropping the boom into its crutch, pulling down the reefing lines and tying them round the boom, taking up the halliard again, and getting under way under reefed main. Much practice can speed up the process, but if you see someone reefing down before venturing forth you will see what is involved. Reefing cringle The little eyelet set in the sail through which the reefing pendant is passed, with a hitch each side of the cringle to stop it coming out. There is usually a set of these, perhaps a couple of sets, along the bottom of the mainsail. Reef knot A simple knot known by everyone, even if they don't know its official name. "Left over right and right over left", the old sailors were taught. It does call for a little care lest the unfaithful granny knot is formed, which is a horror beyond all horrors. Reeve To pass a line through e.g. a block or a hole. When it is rove through a block, the task is made easier if the end of the line is whipped or sealed. Frayed ends are an abomination on a boat, except for the bell rope, which is permitted to have carefully contrived frayed end. Relieving tackle A small tackle connecting the helm or wheel to one side of the cockpit, to relieve the load on the helmsman. You won't see this on a very small boat; but in the larger boats the pull of the tiller or wheel can be tiring after a while. Reverse sheer If the freeboard amidships is higher, so that there appears to be an upward curve, the boat is said to have reverse sheer. This can provide more headroom in the cabin, though some people don't much like the look of it.

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Boat Watching Reynolds number - You need not bother your head about this, unless you get really interested in the scientific side of things. It is one of the dimensionless numbers, (qvd/µ, where q is the density, v the velocity, d a typical length, and µ the viscosity). Dimensionless quantities which are fascinating if you dig into them a bit. However, there are some first rate skippers who wouldn't know a dimensionless number from a German sausage, and they manage well. So there. Ring bolt † A bolt with a ring at one end. You'll usually find one on the stern somewhere, for towing a smaller boat or an inflatable. Ashore, there may be one or two scattered around on the slipway or dockside, for mooring, or attaching a snatch block. Sheet† † Sheets are lines attached to sails, by which the sails are controlled. The mainsheet comes to the hand of the helmsman via a series of pulleys, or sheaves, of some sort, from the boom. If the mainsheet uses several pulleys to increase its power, a great length of line wriggles around the cockpit. The sheets for the foresail come down each side of the mast to cleats within easy reach, and are sometimes led aft. Solar panel All our power comes from the sun, most of it indirectly, like wind and wave power, and coal, and so on on. Solar panels derive energy directly from the sun. They do need a fairly large area, not easy to find on a small boat, but don't demand much attention once fitted. A panel of modest size will keep the batteries topped up. Some boats rely heavily upon their batteries for the increasing load of electronic gadgetry. Apart from navigation lights, there is the radio, the GPS navigational instrument, echo sounder, lights for the instruments, cabin, and so on, all demanding their share. Sounding† As a noun it means a depth. As a verb, it means finding the depth of water, either with an electronic device or, in shallow water, by pushing a paddle or boathook over the side. In deeper water, a heavy weight, perhaps a bit of lead, on the end of a light line, is a convenient depth sounder. Snap shackle† A useful shackle, with a spring-loaded plunger to retain a hinged bow. You will probably see plenty of these, attaching lines to this and that. A little expensive, perhaps, they are handy to have around. Snatch block† † A block which can be opened to remove or admit a line. You might spot one lying around both afloat and ashore, in different sizes. Snubbing winch† † It They may not look very different, but this type of winch is a oneway affair, turning easily in one direction and not at all in the other. The crew takes a turn, and hauls in, and the winch holds it. If he takes a turn the wrong way it is as useful for snubbing as a pickled walnut. Sounding pole† A graduated pole that is dipped into the water, to touch bottom and thus find the depth. Many people make suitable marks on the boathook for this. In a rowing boat an oar serves the purpose. 86

Boat Watching Spade rudder† A rudder which is unsupported at the bottom end. Good for getting fouled by a rope passing up in front of the blade. Spanish windlass Simple, but very effective, this is a method of twisting a line with a short stick, which lets you exert an enormous force easily. You can force two pieces of material together, or shift a recalcitrant boat or road trailer, single handed, and astonish your friends. It is for short distances only, but you can always repeat the process for longer hauls. Spinnaker† † A splendid sail that billows out ahead of the ship like some prima donna. When haring along down wind, the boat steams over the waves with impressive dignity. Spinnakers are often brightly coloured leap† and the sight is enough to cheer the heart. If they get out of control, however, they serve to dismay the crew and entertain the onlooker. Splicing The joining of lines by splices is an agreeable lovely† occupation. Learn to do a few simple splices. You'll like it, and a good splice is one good to admire, especially if you've† done† it yourself. Then you can look critically at splices you see on boats. Some of the modern stuff can't be spliced properly. Springs † There are all kinds of springs, but the sort of most interest to the boat watcher is the set of lines used when mooring alongside. A head spring is a line from near the bow to a point ashore, well aft; and an after spring is taken from somewhere near the stern to a point well forward ashore. These form the springs that prevent the boat swinging, keeping her parallel with the dock or pontoon. It is instructive to watch a competent skipper slip the springs as he casts off. Properly done, it looks simple and effective. It is no less educative to hear eye a screaming skipper with incompetent crew making a mess of it the air filled with naughty words. Stability A boat can turn about a vertical axis, (yawing) or a fore-and aft axis (rolling). It can also revolve about an athwartships axis, (pitching). A stable boat should be selfrighting about each of these axes, but the stability is usually judged by the tendency to roll.†If she rolls readily, she is said to be tender, and not a very comfortable vessel. If she rolls right over she is unstable about the rolling axis. A boat that is not tender is said to be stiff. Too much stiffness can strain the gear. As the boat moves, its centre of gravity doesn't alter its position, much; but the position of the centre of buoyancy can move so that the upthrust through this point forms an overturning couple with the weight, which tips her over and moistens the occupants. Starboard The right- hand side, looking forward. It is usually pronounced "starb'd". The navigation light on that side is green, and the buoys left to starboard on entering a channel are green, too, with pointed tops. Steerage way† A boat that is moving too slowly will not answer her helm. There is a minimum speed at which she has steerage way. Boats which lose steerage way when approaching a jetty or mooring are closely watched by onlookers. When a perfect approach is made there is nobody about to applaud. Motor boats with outboard 87

Boat Watching engines sometime have no means of steering when the engines are shut down, and a hasty paddle may have to be put over the side with some haste. Sternboard† When a boat goes astern she is said to be making a sternboard. Control is rather dodgy then, for the rudder action is reversed. Storm jib A small sail set in place of the jib to deal with heavy weather. It helps the boat to behave more reasonably when the wind pipes up. It is sometimes called a spitfire. Stretch Materials under tension increase in length. At the same time they may diminish in width, stay the same, or decrease. When the material exceeds its elastic limit it yields plastically, and will not return to its original length when the load comes off. Certain lines are sold as "non-stretch", but don't expect them to have a really zero stretch, only a little. Strum box† A strainer or filter on the inboard end of the pipe leading to the bilge pump. A bunged up strum box is not a pretty thing. Surfboard† A board with mast and sail, on which some hardy soul will stand, in high wind, and skate across the water with amazing, exhilarating speed. Not really for the geriatrics, but good for the boat watcher of every age. Sweating or† swigging† Tightening a line. Swigging is done by taking a turn round a cleat, and pulling sideways on the line, taking up the slack as it is gained. Sweeps† † Another term for long oars. Swinging† † If you see a boat going round apparently aimlessly, pausing on various points, she is probably swinging the compass. Putting the boat on the different headings, by a bearing compass held well clear of magnetic material in the boat, the boat's steering compass is read and noted. The errors are then adjusted by using little bar magnets under the compass. When complete, a deviation card is drawn, from which the compass deviation can be read off for any heading. Boats have to be swung at regular intervals' Tabernacle † It seems a funny sort of word to describe a fitting that takes the bottom end of the mast. It is of wood or metal, and in some cases allows the mast to pivot on a bolt when raising or lowering. The bolt is removable, so that when the mast is down it can be moved forward to lie along the boat evenly. This makes things better for towing and stowing a boat. Tacking† When a sailing boat is making to windward she cannot go straight into the wind. She must wriggle her way by a series of tacks, each at an angle to the wind direction. This is called tacking. Watch the experts in a narrow river squeezing the utmost out of each tack without running ashore or getting into irons. 88

Boat Watching Tackle† † Apart from the common use for bits of gear in general, the word is used for a set of lines and pulleys to increase the pull between two points. It is pronounced "taykle" among the cognoscenti. Teak† † A lovely timber, at a price to make one sigh. It is a heavy wood, about 9/10 the density of water. It resists rot and those pesky little devils that eat wood. A laid deck or a grating in teak is a joy to behold. Tell-tales† † Short pieces of light line or wool attached to the leech of a sail to indicate the flow of the air over the sail. Teredo navalis† Much too good a term word for those horrible little devils that bore into the hull of a boat. The outside of a hull attacked by teredo worms looks fine at first glance, for they don't eat the paint. Inside, there may be nothing but dust. They flourish in the tropics. They won't touch metal, so copper sheathing is a good protection. They don't fancy GRP either, fortunately. Toe-rail† † A low rail running along or just inside the gunwales, to stop feet from slipping over the edge of the deck. It is either continuous, with occasional holes to let out the water sloshing about the deck, or with one or two breaks for the same purpose. Toggle† † A small piece of wood which, when inserted length-wise into† a hole in a sail say,† won't slip out because to turns across the hole. The line passes through a hole in the middle. Look for one at the top of the hoist of an ensign. If you have a toggle switch you push it once for on and again for off. Topping lift† † A line running up to the top of the mast and down to the end of the boom or spinnaker pole is used to top up or lift those items. Trampoline† † This is the netting that is stretched across the gap between the hulls of a catamaran or trimaran. Without this, the deck would be a risky, or anyway riskier, sort of place. Traveller† † A sliding ring or fixture, for example the one for the main sheet or the one on each side deck for the foresail sheets. Tricolour † The French national flag, three vertical strips of red white and blue.† It also refers to a light showing the three colours at the masthead, combining port, starboard and stern lights economically in one. Trolley † † A wheeled frame for trundling wheeling an outboard engine or a dinghy about the place.† Distinct from a trailer, which is for conveying a boat on the highway. You may occasionally see a trolley on a trailer, with a the boat on the trolley. This is probably an owner trailing his boat down to, or away from, a launching site.

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Boat Watching Trot A row of mooring buoys. A boat skipper can moor fore-and-aft between adjacent ones. Truck † The top of the mast, usually a circular block of wood with sheaves for halliards. On the old sailing ship, when the crew was ordered to man the yards, the cabin boy or smallest member of crew, was sent up to stand on this vertiginous spot. Trysail † A small strong triangular sail set in place of the mainsail, when the going is really tough. Tubular cleat † A neat idea, a short length of metal or nylon tubing with a triangular notch in one side. The line has to be put through the tube, which can sometimes be advantageous, as it retains the line if a knot is tied in the free end. You'll find these on sailing dinghies and small motor boats. Tumblehome† † The attractive narrowing of the beam towards the top of the topsides. It isn't very much, but it does look good on a boat. It reduces the deck space, and does little to help one board the vessel. Turk's head† This is a decorative way of putting a stop on, say, a tiller. It consists of a number of interweaving turns of line pulled very tight so as not to slack off, with the ends tucked away where they cannot be seen. If you make one satisfactorily you will be proud of it. Try it first on a broomstick, where it doesn't matter too much. A good one on any boat shows somebody cares. A Turk's head is but one of many interesting pieces of fancy rope-work. Some of the old mariners knew dozens of many ways of making an odd length of line look attractive. Turnbuckle † An adjuster consisting of a threaded barrel into which two threaded rods of opposite hand are fitted, which† carry eyes on their ends. The middle of the barrel has a hole to take a spike for turning it. They can exert a powerful pull on the stay, easily too much if one is not careful. Sometimes the barrel is replaced by an open frame. Turnbuckles should always be locked with wire, even if they do have lock-nuts. If they slack off, the results can bring much unhappiness and expense. Some skippers prefer to use lanyards. They are cheaper, and very reliable. Twelfths rule† † This is a rough and simple guide to the height of the tide between high water and low tide.† You assume the rise or fall to be divided into twelve equal parts. These correspond to the six hours, roughly, between high and low. Then you consider the change of level to accord with 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1† twelfths† in each succeeding hour. It is a surprisingly accurate approximation to the sine curve. Una rig† † Just one mast, and one sail on a small sailing dinghy, the mast usually being not quite so far forward as in a cat rig.†

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Boat Watching Under-canvassed † A sailing boat will not do well if she doesn't carry enough sail. Sometimes, to slow down, reduction of sail area is deliberate, perhaps for the easier performance of some task aboard. Under way† † Once cast off, the boat is under way, even† if not under control. Unseaworthy † If a boat is not† fit to put to sea, don't go aboard, or you may regret it, even if you are intending to go no further than along the pontoon to the next berth. Unseaworthy doesn't mean just unfit to go to sea, but liable to behave in a manner not becoming a boat. Upstream In the direction from which the water is flowing. A boat moving upstream is going slowly over the ground. This is how to approach a mooring, unless you are rowing. Then it is advisable to find a counter-current to take you where you want to go, before crossing the current. Upwind See previous entry, and put in wind instead of stream. When a sailing boat points upwind the sails flap, and she tends to drift backwards. Vane gear† † If you see a large vane at the stern of a sailing vessel, you are looking at a self-steering gear. On course, the vane trails in the wind. When the boat veers, the wind pushes the vane over, and operates the trim tab on the rudder to bring back the boat onto course. Veer† † A term used for paying out, for example, anchor cable. It also means turning to the right, as when the wind veers. Wind turning to the left, i.e. anticlockwise, is said to back. Ventimeter† A kind of anemometer. If you should see a member of the crew holding up what looks something like an ice cream cone, then and he is licking it, it probably is an ice cream cone. If he isn't licking it he is without doubt looking at a ventimeter, a small instrument for indicating wind speed. They are not much used, for your average mariner can judge the speed of the wind by feel, or looking around at what the wind moves, like waves, trees, and so on. Wall knot† † If you want a kind of knob on a line, then a wall knot is the answer. It is so much better than a simple knot. When you see one on a line aboard a boat you know that the owner knows a thing or two about knots. Waterline† The line round the boat, when afloat, following the water surface. Water sail † A triangular sail attached to the under side of the main boom, used in light airs to catch the wind passing below the boom. Waves† † Whole books could be written about waves. Many have been, too. For our purposes, we need only know that a wave is a big ripple on the surface of the water. 91

Boat Watching Basically, the shape is something like a sine curve, if you remember any of your trigonometry, but modified by combinations of waves, formation of spume, and so on. Boats making their way over wave systems do bob up and down a bit, but are not unhappy unless the tops of the waves start to break, or the boat broaches, that is turns sideways on, in steep waves. A wave can travel across vast distances without the water itself travelling at all. The farther a wind-assisted wave goes, i.e., the longer the fetch, the larger does it become. Waves are lovely if you don't suffer from sickness. Swooping up and down in a well-found boat can be exhilarating. Watching a boat, from the shore, handling the waves, or the chop at the entrance to an estuary, you can see how the bows deal with the plunge. Watertight cockpit†† † A cockpit that is to be kept reasonably free of water has a couple of drain pipes let into it. These are crossed over, so that when heeled they don't accept water aboard. If there are no pipes, then the cockpit itself must be sealed against leaks. Water coming aboard is then contained. This is useful for washing one's footwear, but it has to be bailed out later. Weather forecast† † Always to be treated with great caution. Meteorologists haven't quite got it right yet. There is an old Arabic motto, "Trust in God but tie up your camel". It might well be translated as "Trust the meteorologist, but be prepared for the worst". If you know the area, you may do well to forecast things for yourself. Some say that a wind in the east is good for neither man nor beast. Watch that weathercock on top of the church tower. He will give you more help than most other portents and forecasters. Weather tide† When the tidal stream runs against the wind you may see short steep waves, even in sheltered waters. At the turn of the tide things may be much quieter. Whipping Twine bound round and round a stranded line to stop fraying. There is a right way and a wrong way to do this. Done properly, the ends of the twine are hidden, and it all looks very neat and ship shape. Take a careful look at some of the whipping you come across. Whipstaff A vertical tiller, in effect. You won't often see these, but when you do you will notice that it takes up little room in the cockpit. Whirlpool† An eddy or vortex, like the dimple arising when you dip an oar into the water. Very large natural ones can be a menace in either air or water. Whisker pole† This is a light spar for holding the clew of a headsail out from the mast. A sheet is attached at one end, the sail end, and the inner end pivots on the mast fitting. Wind sock† † This is a little open-ended tapering cone, used in airfields to indicate the direction and strength of the wind. Small versions are often seen at the head of a mast. The larger end has a wire loop to hold it open.

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Boat Watching Wishbone† † A boom which envelops the sail, in two parts, curved to take the shape of the sail. Worming Laying small stuff along the grooves in a rope. This provides a smooth surface to take the parcelling and the serving. Yachtsman† † Somebody of either sex who sails in a yacht. In earlier times a yachtsman was smartly dressed, with a fore-and-aft peaked cap. The modern yachtsman is more likely to have a floppy on his head, an open-necked shirt under his life-jacket, and a pair of tatty denims or shorts. Yankee† † In light winds, you may see one of these, a very large† foresail with a high clew, set forward of the staysail. Yard A long spar set across the mast. It can be moved up and down the mast, and tilted, cock-a-bill, being held on a parrel.† Looks pretty when carrying a lateen sail. Yaw† A boat can turn about three axes, lateral, longitudinal and vertical. When it turns about a vertical axis it is said to yaw, whether intentional or not. Yawl† A two-masted boat, the after or mizzen mast being shorter,† carrying the mizzen sail. An attractive rig, which you can sail without the main if the wind pipes up rather more than you fancy. Yuloh †The spelling of this word is open to debate, for it has come from a word in another language. The device itself is a long sweep hung over the stern with a line supporting it toward the forward end. By wriggling the end nearest the cockpit the boat is driven forward, much like a fish waggling its tail. It is impressive when you watch an expert. Zinc This is a metal at the end of the galvanic series which is the least noble. This means that it is eaten away speedily by the flow of electricity between it and copper, for example.†You will find a lump of it, perhaps more than one piece, on the hull below the water, near the propeller, on boats that float in salt water, where the effect is most seen. Zogging† A useful word with which to end this glossary. It is a method of signalling developed originally for communicating between open cockpit aircraft in a formation without wireless. Using Morse code, you could send a dit by slapping patting the fist on the side of the cockpit, and a dah by extending the arm down outside. It didn't take long to get work up a good speed, and it worked very well. In boats, we can use zogging to communicate under otherwise difficult conditions. Using binoculars, you can send messages across the water to be legible at quite a distance. An alert boat watcher who spots someone using the method, can read what is being said. If you learn Morse, which you should do in any case, this may prove helpful one day, especially if the message is a call for help. It will usually be sent slowly enough for you to read it, whether by zogging or light. 93

Boat Watching Edmund W. Jupp The aim of the "Watching" series is to draw attention to some of the very interesting items around us, things that perhaps we don't notice as much as we might. The first was "Bridge Watching", and when this was put "on the Net" it produced, to the surprise of the author, such a pleasant flood of e-mail that another was written, called "Water Watching". This, too, was kindly received. So it was tempting to continue with the theme. “Boat Watching” doesn't set out to teach you how to design a boat, build a boat, or even how to use a boat. I hope it will help you to look at boats, though, really look at them, and to enjoy doing so. When I say "boats", I mean "boats and things", for boats have things on and about them, and they are all interesting. If you are looking at boats, you can't help seeing all the other things, too. Boats are truly lovely things, from the humblest to the noblest. Given a bit of time, you can lounge against a wall, or a post, or stretch out in a chair, and just drink in the happiness of looking. Looking at things is one of the great free benefits of being alive. You don't have to be an expert, but a little knowledge does help to enjoy the details. This treatment doesn't set out to turn you into a mariner or boat designer. It isn't meant intended for that kind of person. It is chiefly for idlers, loafers, those who have time to like stand and stare, or who can make such time, taking life at a reasonable pace, and enjoying it, even if only between bouts of frenzied exertions. Author Edmund W. Jupp (BSc (Eng), FIMech E) was born during the First World War in Sussex, England and received his early education at Brighton. After service in the 1939-45 war he worked in engineering and education, and travelled widely. He was appointed Principal of the Technical Institute in Guyana.

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