Bell Watching (Watching S.)

Bell Watching

Edmund W. Jupp intellect

Bell Watching

Edmund W. Jupp

intellectTM Bristol, UK Portland OR, USA

First Published in Paperback in UK in 2002 by Intellect Books, PO Box 862, Bristol BS99 1DE, UK First Published in USA in 2002 by Intellect Books, ISBS, 5804 N.E. Hassalo St, Portland, Oregon 97213-3644, USA Copyright © 2002 Edmund Jupp All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission.

Consulting Editor: Production & Cover Design: Production Assistant:

Masoud Yazdani Vishal Panjwani Peter Singh

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-84150-808-X

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe, Eastbourne

Contents Preface

iv

The Bell

1

The Sound

8

Kinds of Bell

18

Making Bells

25

Tower Bells

33

Ringing and Chiming

41

Glossary

51

Bibliography

54

iii

Preface The aim of the "Watching" series is to draw attention to some of the very interesting items around us, things that perhaps we don't notice as much as we might. The first was Bridge Watching, and when this was put "on the Net" it produced, to the surprise of the author, such a pleasant flood of e-mail that another was written, called "Water Watching". This, too, was kindly received. So it was tempting to continue with the theme. Accordingly, Brick Watching and Tunnel Watching were produced. Writing about interesting subjects can become addictive. Before you know where you are you find yourself caught up with enthusiasm. You can't stop. So here is something else to watch. Bell Watching is an offering about bells in general. Many people know very little about bells, and some, sadly, know nothing at all. This is a pity for, large or little, they can be engaging objects. You might think that "Bell Hearing" might be a better title; but looking at bells has its own attraction, too. In England, church bells are well known, because of the sounds they make, though many people have not seen the bells themselves. The bell chamber is normally at the top of the tower, not readily accessible.

Church Tower They are to be seen in other countries often, in the case of carillons, in large open frameworks, though they have a special place in English churches, as will be explained later. Doorbells, too, are familiar items in many houses, but are rarely regarded with any particular interest. Some of these are not what is popularly imagined as bell-shaped, and are more properly chimes. Then there are bicycle bells, cowbells, and many other kinds, too, all well worth a thought, and these will be referred to in a later chapter. iv

Bell Watching

Cow Bell Things that are free are doubly attractive. It costs nothing to enjoy the pleasures of getting to know these interesting objects. Learning a little about the fascinating qualities of bells in general can be an enjoyable occupation, and can start a lively curiosity about them. The more you know about them, the more interesting do they become. So I do hope that what follows will encourage you to find out about them, and go forth to look and listen, with new eyes and ears. The biography has been deliberately kept short, with the expectation that it will help to open other sources of information, and there is no end to the tantalising lines of discovery.

v

Bell Watching

vi

1. The Bell The shape of a bell is well-known, in general, and the expression "bell-shaped" is applied to such items as the pretty little blue-bell that grows in the woods, bellbottomed trousers, the bell-tent, and so on. A broad description is “a hollow vessel, often cylindrical or approximately conical, open at one end, with the closed end held fast”. Something like the peculiar sound of a bell can come from other shapes, such as a steel rod, supported at one end, and struck with a hard metal object. However, in such cases the distribution of the sound is not that of a true bell. Neither is the sound so complicated. We intend to look at only those bells that meet the definition given above. The large bells hung in church towers are shaped according to most peoples' ideas of what a bell should look like. There are many varieties of this shape though. Greetings cards usually depict them like this, albeit with some embellishments not seen on actual bells. Such representations appear on iced cakes, wall-papers, fabrics, and many other places, too. The shape is a pleasing one, and popular. The curves are smooth and elegant. The weight of a bell is usually expressed in hundredweights, and will probably continue to do so, in spite of attempts to make all measurements conform to the restrictive metric system. The hundredweight is a twentieth of a ton, another term well known in foundry work. Those involved with large bells are conservative people, and unwilling to change, especially when there appears to be no advantage in so doing. A bell of, say, 10 cwt. seems strange to a ringer if quoted as one of 508 kilos. English bell founders and ringers have been using Imperial measurements for centuries. All the bells in English churches have been made to those units. Many of those exported, too, over the centuries, have been designed using the old measurements. A hundredweight is about 51 kilograms, and an old rule for roughly assessing the weight of a bell is to use the formula W = D3/n, where D is the rim diameter in feet, and n is a number between 2 and 3. So a bell with a rim diameter of 2 feet would weigh about 3 cwt. For those unaccustomed to the old measurements, which have been hallowed by centuries of happy use, the formula would become W = 1.4D3/n kilograms, when D is measured in metres. A typical English church with a ring of six bells will have something like fifty hundredweight of bell metal in the tower. This represents a valuable asset, an important proportion of church property. The tower itself needs to be strong not only to support its own weight, and that of the bells, but to handle the forces arising from the ringing.

1

Bell Watching Church towers are part of the glories of England. A theory has been expressed that these towers are aligned along what are known as "leigh lines", invisible lines across the countryside. The pursuit of these lines has been a hobby happily enjoyed by some amateurs. The position of these towers is such that the sound patterns from the bells do seem to overlap across the land. When Britain was a Christian country churches were built in every parish, and bells were mounted in nearly all of them, providing a wonderful heritage.

Cow Bell At the other end of the scale, cowbells are not usually cylindrical, but somewhat squashed or flattened in appearance. These may be made of sheet metal sometimes, instead of being cast. Tiny bells, such as those found on toys, may be ball-shaped or spherical, with cruciform slots cutting across the ball, "to let the sound out" so to speak. This is the kind of item sometimes put round the neck of a cat, or other domestic animals, to indicate their whereabouts. The cutting of the slots forms a number of tongues, normally four, whose tips can vibrate, and thus produce sound, when struck by the bead or pea set freely inside. Rattling or shaking the bell causes it to sound, producing a short-lived tinkling. As might be expected such bells produce a rather "tinny" sound, compared with larger examples. Indeed, the little bells are often made from tinned plate, or tinplate as it is known. They provide enjoyment for children when mounted inside their playthings. With all the variations in shape, the common feature of all bells is a vibrating rim and some means of attachment, with an arrangement for striking the rim, to set it in movement. The sound made by the bell depends upon the shape, but in general it is a many-note sound, that is a note with harmonics. We shall look at this a little more closely in the next chapter. Depending upon the type of bell, it may be produced as a casting, or a pressing, in metal, porcelain, glass, or any material with high elasticity. Substances with high elasticity spring back into shape when distorted a little, like rubber. However, a bell of 2

Bell Watching rubber would not produce a pleasing bell-like tone, for it deforms too readily. A high elasticity implies a high stress to deform the material, and a rapid return to the unstressed state. The elasticity of a substance is the value of the stress theoretically needed to stretch a rod of the material to twice its original length. In practice, materials deform elastically up to a certain limit, and then deform plastically, i.e. they retain the distorted shape when the stress is removed, rather like a piece of putty might behave. A bell made of lead would not produce much of a note, for lead is not sufficiently elastic. If you bend a piece of lead it remains bent when you stop. Lead is more plastic than metals like steel; that is, it deforms readily under low stress, and holds its deformed shape instead of returning to its original shape when distorted. When you strike a lump of lead you will hear a "clunk" rather than a "ping". There will be a negligible sound of reverberation following the strike. This quality of elasticity is what enables a bell to produce the sound which we recognise as a ringing one. The rim, having been struck, alters shape a tiny amount and then springs back, overshoots, comes back to its original shape again, and thus continues to vibrate to and fro until the energy is changed into heat and sound, and thus dissipated within the material and so the environment. We shall look into this more closely when we consider the action of the bell. The old-fashioned bicycle bell is an interesting object. It has been with us for a long time, for it is an example of a well-designed instrument. Easy to operate, by pushing the thumb onto a short lever, it is simple to maintain, and cheap to produce. It is impressive in operation. When the lever moves, a toothed segment engages with a quadrantal pinion and causes it to rotate. Attached to the pinion is a short shaft carrying a cross member. On the ends of the cross member are two loose strikers, like washers. These are thrown outwards by the rotation, and strike a lug on the inside of the bell, causing it to vibrate. What an ingenious mechanism this is. Many thousands, perhaps millions, of these devices have been produced, and fitted to the handlebars of cycles all over the world. It is worth taking one to bits to see what a clever little device it is. They are usually easy to take apart, and just as easy to put together again. The bell part, or sounding component, is usually screwed straight onto the base, with a right-hand thread, unscrewed anticlockwise from above. A cowbell depends upon the movement of the animal's head to swing the bell, causing a pendulum, or clapper, hung inside the bell to move. The bell has a natural period of swing, which differs from that of the clapper. That is, the natural time of swing of the clapper differs from that of the bell itself. So as the bell swings, the lower end of the clapper occasionally strikes its inside surface, producing the characteristic and charming ting-ting indicating the whereabouts of the beast. This type of bell is sometimes fitted also to goats, and other domesticated animals.

3

Bell Watching

House Bell Although the type is less common now, domestic bells were at one time mounted on spiral springs, operated through a series of wires connecting bell-crank levers concealed within walls and under floors. A bell-crank lever is one that swings about a central pivot, and where the two parts of the lever are at right-angles. So a pull on the end of one leg makes the end of the other leg move, at right angles. Bell-cranks are used elsewhere, but this is the origin of the name. With this ingenious idea, the tug on the bell-pull is transmitted under the floor, through walls, and up and down stairs, to the bell mounting board. It was a wonderful system. Once fitted, it never gave any trouble, being independent of a power source. It was operated by a knob or tassel at a convenient spot remote from the bell itself, a completely fail-proof system. The pull of the wire displaced the bell, which then bounced to and fro on its spring, causing a short clapper within to strike the rim and thus produce a jangling note. One could even transmit a sense of impatience, and often did, by making a series of violent pulls. A set of bells consisted of several, of different sizes, so that each produced a recognisably individual sound. In some installations there was a panel with little glass windows, behind which swinging tell-tales indicated which bell had been sounded. Thus, the attention of the servants was called by sound and sight to the appropriate bell-pull. It was altogether a splendid system. In some older houses it is still possible to find these gems, often impressive in their mahogany cases, with gold rings round each of the little windows in the black front. The bells themselves are usually delightful little brass affairs, with a pure note. 4

Bell Watching The craft of bell-hanger was an interesting occupation, and it is clear that bell-hangers must have been wiry, flexible men of some ingenuity, to route the wires most effectively in the house. Theirs was a highly specialised craft. Often they were itinerant, travelling round the country from town to town, and to the large houses away from the cities, installing, extending, and repairing bell systems. The modern door-bell is often not a bell at all, but one or more metal strips, struck by a springy hammer operated electrically. The electric supply may be from the mains or a battery, and the circuit is made by a button-switch near the door. Compared with those lovely creations of yesteryear they are uninspiring.

Electric Bells At one time, the bell itself was dome-shaped, and mounted on a suitable board. Some of the earlier ones were true bells in shape, producing a noble sound of some magnitude, more satisfying to some ears than the thin kind of chime emanating from the metal strip. Alas, there are few to be found now. In Britain, a peculiar system of ringing large bells has been developed over the centuries, and this will be dealt with when we come to look at tower bells. In other countries the large bells in churches and other special buildings appear to be rung without system, producing a jangling sound much scorned by the true English bellringer. Large bells are often richly decorated with ornamental bands and inscriptions. Some are truly massive in their proportions, producing deep notes when struck. The most magnificent example of this is the Kolokol, or King of Bells, cast in 1734 for Nicholas II. It can be seen and approached, for it stands at ground level, and is a magnet for bellwatchers. This great bell will be referred to in a later chapter. The smallest type of bell is perhaps the kind that was at one time found on typewriters, to tell the typist that she (they were nearly always ladies) had reached the end of the line. The typewriter was entirely mechanical in the early days, and was hard work, noisy too, compared with the modern word processor. 5

Bell Watching The sound of the little bell, usually dome-shaped, was not very loud, and you can imagine what noisy uncomfortable things they were. In those days, employers didn't have to worry much about noise in the office, and what it might do to the efficiency of the typists. It might be, even, that the little occasional tinging sound could have been some guide as to the assiduity with which the typist was working! As mentioned above, some bells are purely decorative, such as those in ear-rings and other ornaments for ladies. They are bell-shaped, but have no clapper within. So strictly speaking I suppose they aren't bells at all, just look-alikes. You may find these in Christmas crackers, too, and even on the top of wedding cakes. They are of interest here only as far as they may demonstrate the strange ideas that are about, concerning the bell.

Hand Bell Although not true bells, the little wind-operated gadgets hung on trees in some gardens do make a thin kind of bell-like sound. The sound depends upon the construction of the device. Usually the “bells” are more decorative than acoustically functional. The central clapper may be spherical, or shaped fancifully, as may the little pieces that hang by strings from the frame. These may be of bamboo, or glass, or any of many different materials. They are not really bells at all. Some bells are made to be held in the hand, and rung by swinging to and fro. Hand bells come in many varieties. The smaller ones may be of silver, suitable for the use of a lady. Some are of brass, decorated with intriguing and curious mouldings or engravings. You may find some like this in churches, where they are used during the service. Pretty little ceramic bells, too, are made, dainty and often beautifully decorated. 6

Bell Watching Larger hand-bells were at one time widely used in schools. With attractively turned wooden handles, and a heavy brass body, they were rung by a member of staff, or a privileged pupil, as time signals. This was before the days when so many children began to own accurate electronic watches. Many schools boasted a bell in a little structure, a campanile, on the roof, operated by a rope which passed down through the roof to a classroom below. Sets of a special kind of hand bell are used by bands of hand bell ringers. These are carefully tuned, and have a leather strap by which they are held. Usually, each ringer has two bells, and they are rung in such an order as to produce melodies or particular sequences, called "methods". This will be mentioned again in a later chapter. A set of hand bells can be expensive. A full set consists of any number upwards from a dozen or so instruments, depending upon the number of ringers and the musical works to be attempted. The pitch of each bell is usually stamped on the leather handle. This chapter does not pretend to be exhaustive, and you will find all kinds of bells if you look for them, sometimes in unexpected places. Wherever you hear the sound of a bell, it is worth finding the source. It may be on a locomotive, in a drawing room, or on the beach, on an ice-cream van, or in the nursery. Bells are everywhere.

7

2. The Sound Sound reaches the ears of the listener in the form of vibrations of the air. To hear a bell, therefore, the metal must be set into vibrationary movement to cause the air round it to move. This is done by striking the bell by means of a clapper, in the case of a tower bell, and by pieces of metal in small bells, or external hammers as in door bells. The blow causes the metal to deform, and the elastic nature of the material produces the resultant vibration. This pushes and pulls the air in contact wit the metal, sending waves of pressure and rarefaction through the medium Although a bell might be made from any of several materials, the essential quality is elasticity. This means that when the material is deformed a little by some stress, it will regain its shape when the stress is removed. A simple way of understanding the way in which elasticity is measured is to consider a strip of soft rubber being pulled so that, provided it did not break, it would stretch to twice its original length. The stress that would be needed to produce this deformation is a measure of the elasticity of the rubber, and is called the "elastic modulus", or measure. For rubber, it is not very high; but for most metals, and substances like glass and porcelain, it far exceeds that of rubber. A rod of cold steel could not be extended so far, of course, without failing. It would stretch elastically up to a certain point only, called the elastic limit. After that it would start to deform plastically, like putty, and break. So materials behave elastically only within the limits peculiar to that particular material. Thereafter it is no longer elastic, and cannot regain that quality. It is said to have exceeded reached its elastic limit, which is expressed as a stress. So, if a substance is to perform suitably for a bell, the stresses arising when struck have to be kept within this figure. Bell metal is never stressed so highly, nowhere near its elastic limit. The elastic modulus is easily found by experiment. A specimen is stressed, slowly increasing, and noting corresponding values of stress and strain (proportional deformation). When these are plotted the points lie on a straight line, up to the limit of elasticity. The slope of this line then provides a useful measure of a substance's stretchability, so to speak. This is the elastic measure, or modulus. When the line starts to bend over, we have reached the elastic limit, and movement after that is plastic, the stress-strain line following a curve, till it stops abruptly when the material breaks. Plastic deformation is permanent.

8

Bell Watching

Although a bell can be produced from a variety of substances, a good quality bell is usually made from an elastic material called "bell metal" which is an alloy of copper and tin, in the approximate ratio of one to four. It has a direct elastic modulus of about 110 Giganewtons per square metre, written Gn/m_. This means that if it were possible to stretch deform a piece of bell metal elastically to twice its original length, then, the required stress would be 110 Gn/m_. It would fail, i.e., deform plastically at a stress far below this. A piece of the bell under stress it deforms elastically, and returns to its former shape when the stress is removed. The displacement follows Hooke's Law, that is, the higher the stress the greater the distortion, in proportion. We deform the metal by striking it a sudden blow with the clapper or some other arrangement. The movement of the metal when the blow is struck is of course very tiny, and the clapper is in contact with the sound bow for only a fraction of a second; but the metal is knocked out of shape. It is important that the metal be free to regain its original shape, as it might otherwise crack; so the hammer or clapper must bounce off the bell. At the end of the movement, it reverses direction, returning to its original shape, and overshoots, until it again stops and reverses. The motion is then repeated again and again, and the result is a vibration, or oscillation. This vibration is a very complicated matter, and one which has been the subject of close much considerable investigation. In what follows we shall try not to be too fastidious about accuracy, so as to appreciate the complexity of the motion. Explanations that are more precise are available in the literature.

9

Bell Watching

Parts of bell As the clapper hits the sound-bow, near the rim, pushing the metal out of shape, the circle distorts into an oval, with maximum diameter through the point of striking; and the diameter at right angles shortens as the sides are pulled in. At the end of this movement the distorted band of metal begins to return to its former circular shape under the action of the elastic forces. It reaches its circular, unstressed condition, but overshoots, to distort into an oval with the major axis at right angles to the previous one. Again, due to the elasticity, this oval is pulled back; another overshoot takes place; and so it continues. In this way the rim changes from being squashed one way to being squashed the other way. There are thus four stationary points, or nodes, where these oval outlines cross. Between each of these nodes there are the four arcs of metal bending to and fro, setting into vibration the layers of air beside them. Here then is the source of the sound. This sounds straight forward, but it is not as simple as that. As the quarter-circles of the rim of our simplified bell bend to and fro, they pull with them the pieces of metal farther up the bell, so that they too bend in the same way, that is with four nodes and four anti-nodes, or points of maximum movement. So we can imagine four lines running up the bell, along which the metal is pretty well stationary, (the meridional nodes) and four lines of maximum movement, (the meridional anti-nodes). So parts of bell would appear stationary, whilst the other parts vibrated.

10

Bell Watching

We now have a picture of a kind of inverted funnel of circular cross-section, which distorts into one of oval section, squashing first one way and then the other. Although this book treatment is intended to be about bell watching, it is not usually possible to actually see the displacements with the naked eye. They are far too tiny. We may, then, imagine a bell to respond to a blow as described above. These movements cause the metal to heat up and, as the temperature rises, it radiates this heat to the surrounding air, which it is pushing to and fro. In this way, the energy is transferred to the air, and so dissipated. The amount of heat, and the movements of the metal, are tiny, very tiny, but significant. As the heat energy is lost, the vibrations die away, for there is nothing to sustain them. As the metal moves, it communicates its vibrations to the adjacent air. The movements of the air are thus transmitted as sound waves, and we say that the bell "speaks".

11

Bell Watching It is a little more complicated than that, as we have considered only one piece of the bell. The movements of one part affect the whole bell. If you think about a shape, which pulsates like this, you will see that there is a pair of points, between the ovals, or ellipses, where there are no movements. These are the called "nodes". So there are two nodal lines, running up the bell, one on each side. When the bell speaks, it distorts in a series of alternating ovals, one above the other, with stationary points where each pair crosses, as described above. This, again, however, is not the whole picture. When a strip of metal vibrates, bending first one way and then the other, it produces what is called the "fundamental" note. At the same time, however, nodes are produced at other points along the strip, producing other notes, called harmonics. The two halves vibrate at their own natural frequency, the three thirds, and so on, producing a range of harmonics, of higher and higher frequency, though smaller and smaller in amplitude. Theoretically, there is an infinite number of harmonics; but in practice only the first few are heard. The combination of the fundamental note with its harmonics determines the kind of sound we hear. If the amplitude, or loudness of the frequencies are plotted on squared paper, the resulting curves indicate the curiously complex pattern of sound issuing from a bell. Returning now to the simple picture of the bell, we see that, superimposed upon the pattern of nodes and anti-nodes already considered there will be other lines. For a narrow strip of metal running from the rim to the crown, we see that it is not a simple matter of a node at the upper end and an anti-node at the lower end. There will be other nodes at various levels above the rim. These will lie on lines running round the bell. So the picture becomes one of a sort of mesh, a network of lines, some running round the bell and some up and down, an orthogonal network of nodal lines. These lines define little squarish pieces of bell metal which pulse in and out at various frequencies. The vibrations of these metal pieces produce a range of notes of different pitch, intensity and duration. The interact upon one another, and the whole bell is in a state of restless fidgeting. This is not a precise picture of what is happening when the bell speaks; but we hope it can indicate the complexity of the movements. You can see why the sound of a bell is recognisably different from other musical instruments, i.e., why a bell sounds like a bell.

12

Bell Watching The kind of bell hung round the neck of a cat is of thin plate shaped like a slit ball, to form small tongues of metal. These tongues vibrate with a small number of harmonics, and the sound dies away rapidly. The pitch is high, and we hear a tinkling sound, unlike the deep sonorous notes of a tower bell. Although many of the higher frequency vibrations are of such tiny amplitude as to be inaudible, the sound of a bell is a blend of several notes. If we ignore the higher partials, normally unheard, we have nevertheless to consider the following: • • • • •

Hum note Fundamental, or strike note Tierce, or minor third Quint, or fifth Nominal, or octave.

Higher partials may be more variable; but we might include the sixth and seventh partials, i.e., the harmonic third and the octave quint. This is discussed in the literature. It is seen that every blow upon the bell produces a number of notes; but they all vary in several ways: • • • •

Frequency Initial amplitude Attenuation, or dying away Direction of greatest intensity

Clearly, this is a very complex affair. The frequency depends not only upon the size and design of the bell, but also upon where it is struck. So also does the initial amplitude. The attenuation is controlled by the material from which the bell is made, as well as the construction of the instrument. Little bells produce sounds that die away quickly, but large bells can store large amounts of energy, and may sound for many seconds.

Partials 13

Bell Watching The intensity of the sound is not uniform in all directions. It varies around the bell, in the vertical and horizontal planes. The literature contains some interesting figures produced during experimental work by, in particular, Van Heuven. Among moveable bells, hand bells are swung towards the audience, and tower bells are swung towards the louvres, the open slatted windows. In carillons, they are usually hung vertically, and the maximum volume is then heard directly beneath them. In houses, domestic bells can be mounted on sounding boards, to increase the range. Summing up what we have discussed about the acoustic properties of the bell, and considering only the radial movements of the metal, we see that complex elastic deformations take place when the bell speaks. Thus, we have producing a number of notes of various intensities, decaying at different rates, and sounding differently in different directions. Lord Rayleigh, who did so much work on bells, had something to say on the matter, which is worth repeating: "When a bell is sounded alone, or with other bells in a comparatively slow succession, attention is likely to concentrate itself upon the graver and more persistent elements of the sound rather than upon the acuter and more evanescent elements, while the contrary may be expected to occur when bells follow one another rapidly as in a peal." The language may sound a little old fashioned, but the meaning is clear enough. It might be helpful to mention here the ways of making a bell speak. For most bells, there is no choice; but for tower bells there are three ways, clocking, chiming and ringing, each producing different sounds from the same bell. These are discussed more fully in the chapter on chiming and ringing. When the hammer is arranged to strike the rim momentarily, the sound, though not necessarily very loud or well dispersed, is agreeable. This is the note for church clocks, and chiming during a service. The word "chiming" is applied to devices which, though not true bells, produce sounds similar sounds. In clocks, the "bell" is often a coil of wire, wound in a flat spiral. This is struck by a little hammer. So it is not actually a bell at all in the normal sense. Nevertheless, the timepieces are referred to as "chiming clocks". The chime is usually sweet and bell-like, though it may not carry very far. Larger instruments, like grandfather and grandmother clocks, usually produce more solemn and sonorous chimes. Some of them have sets of metal tubes, struck by hammers. Carillons are sets of bells, often hung in open towers, and are not designed to be swung. The hammers are usually operated electrically, from a key-board, so that melodies can 14

Bell Watching be played. The bells are chimed, and cannot be rung. The sound does not carry as far as rung bells, and is designed to entertain those in the immediate neighbourhood. True ringing, as practised by English bell-ringers, is an art that has been developed for over least two centuries. The crown of the bell is fixed to an axle that is carried on bearings, so that the whole bell can rotate through a full turn. On the end of the axle is a large wheel, with a groove round the rim. A rope is led through a hole in the rim and tied to one of the spokes. The other end is wound round the wheel, and passes down through a hole in the floor of the bell chamber, to the ringing chamber below. When the rope is pulled, the wheel and bell rotate. The natural time of swing of the bell differs from that of the clapper within, so that at some point the clapper strikes the bell. As the bell continues to rotate, it reaches a point nearly upside won, with the mouth uppermost. It then swings back down and up the other way so as to be nearly inverted again. This swinging of the bell and the striking of the clapper on each swing produces the sound known as ringing, quite different from chiming. The sound is distributed over a wide area, the intensity varying with the direction and distance from the bell.

Sound pattern The distribution of the sound has been the subject of very careful research by scientists, who have produced diagrams showing how the intensity of the sound varies according to the position of the listener. The intensity of sound has been measured in both horizontal and vertical planes, and the diagrams are instructive and intriguing.

15

Bell Watching Stationary bells have been used for these measurements, and the bells in towers are moving while they speak. So the distribution curves move with them. Church bells send forth their music over a wide area. In villages they were much prized for conveying not only the time, each quarter of an hour, but news, too. For those who understand, the bells are informative. Before a church service they may be rung to advertise to everyone that a service is to be held shortly. Those in the know can differentiate between chiming and ringing; and from a distance one may tell when a wedding may be taking place, or a funeral. Practice nights are recognisable by the sometimes irregular ringing, and by hearing single bells raised and lowered. In most communities where church bells are rung for Sunday services, there is a practice night during the week, when learners are instructed, and peals are practised. Before ringing commences, the bells are "raised", i.e. swung to and fro till they rise to the uppermost positions and rest on the stays. During this period, the sounds are quieter than when they are ringing normally. The listener can hear the bells ringing closely together at first, and gradually moving farther and farther apart as they rise, till they are ringing at their normal rate, about two seconds for each swing. At certain times during the service a bell may be tolled so that those unable to attend can follow what is happening. In some village communities the sounds can be heard by all. They are tolled for funerals, and rung at for weddings. They are sounded at times of national rejoicing, and when the nation is in peril. Church bells are dependable and powerful as a means of communication, unaffected by power cuts, fuel shortages, and so on. During the 1939-45 war in Europe, all church bells were silenced in Britain, so that in the event of invasion they might ring out a warning. Only when the threat of invasion was past were the ringers again free to pursue their ancient craft. At one time the ringing of bells in reverse order, i.e., starting with the lowest and going up through the other bells, was used a warning of peril or distress. One might compare the sound of a bicycle bell and that of a tower bell as the difference between a tiny "ting" and a resounding "dong". Yet even the smallest of bells can produce a sound that travels well. The old bell systems in larger houses rang out clear and loud, though the bells themselves rarely measured more than a few inches or centimetres across the sound bow.

16

Bell Watching If you have an opportunity to see the traces, on a cathode ray tube, of the sounds from bells and other instruments the distinctions between the various sources are unmistakable. Let bell watching then, be accompanied by very attentive bell listening. There is much to hear.

17

3. Kinds of Bell Bell-like sounds can be produced from unlikely-looking pieces of metal or ceramic material. As mentioned elsewhere, one or more flat plates may be used inside doorchimes, for instance. Again, the row of suspended metal tubes in an orchestra, struck by hammers, doesn't look like a collection of bells. They produce a sweet chiming sound, which persists for a while, and are particularly effective in works such as that enduring piece, Ketelbey's "Bells Across the Meadow". Careful analysis shows that the sounds are not quite like those from a "bell-shaped" instrument. The tubes are of different lengths to produce the various notes, and are arranged in the frame so that the player can know which note will proceed from each tube. This is looked at more closely in another chapter. There are many instruments that are very near to being bells. For example, a gong is not what one would refer to as "bell-shaped". It is a shallow metal dish suspended by a string, and struck in the centre with a kind of padded mallet; but it does produce a sustained reverberating sound. The rim gives rigidity to the disc, and distinguishes the gong from cymbals, which are dished.

Cymbals Cymbals are closely related to bells, though the action is quite different. They are made to sound by clashing them together instead of being struck by a clapper as in a true bell. Another type of gong is a stout metal rod, sometimes bent into a triangular form, beaten by a rod of wood or metal. (A wooden striker produces a softer sound than one of metal). Even a short length of steel girder can give forth a reverberating "clang" which can carry over a long distance. Such a "bell" can sometimes be seen in use in a 18

Bell Watching workplace, or on a ranch or farm, to call the hands to refreshment. It is normally struck with enthusiastic vigour and has an immediate effect upon those who hear it. The tambourine is primarily a kind of hand drum, carrying a series of small bells round the rim. The bells are not very large, and are caused to sound by shaking, so that the parts strike one another. They can be surprising effective in capable hands.

Tambourine The devices on a tambourine only just qualify as bells, really. They are tiny metal discs, with a central depression, and there is no clapper. They simply jangle against one another, making a cheerful tinkling. All these variations have in common the ability to produce a sound that reverberates, that carries, and has several harmonics. The sound is readily distinguishable from that issuing from a wind or string instrument, because of these harmonics. Sounds from wind instruments such as oboes, and flutes are usually pure single notes. Strings have harmonics which are weaker than the fundamental note. In large bells the harmonics are strong and readily identified. The harmonics are the result of complicated elastic deformation of the substance of the bell. Indeed, there is no sound from inelastic materials. Striking a pat of butter is unlikely to produce much of what we recognise as a harmonic response! Similarly, a lump of lead is quite unsuitable for producing a ringing tone. As explained elsewhere, bell material vibrates, in contact with the ambient air, and so alternately squeezes and pulls apart the air, causing a series of wave fronts to travel away from the bell. These compression and rarefaction waves eventually die out through friction, heating the air through which they pass. While they persist, they produce the sensation of hearing when they strike the ear. Whatever the kind of bell, it must have the potential for moving the air around it in a series of vibrations at audio frequency. The larger the bell, the more air is displaced, and the louder is the sound. As you look at a bell, the size will give you some indication 19

Bell Watching of the duty it is to perform. A tiny bell is heard over a small area only, but a very large one produces a wider distribution of the sound. When you look at a tower bell it is clear that it is meant to be heard widely. On the other hand, a tiny bell in a boudoir is for local application only.

The material of the bell itself, as it vibrates, distorts the shape in some fashion, and the design of the bell accommodates this. The mechanical energy of movement is converted into heat energy, and the surface of the material must radiate this to the surrounding air. In every kind of bell the material and the shape have to take care of this. The design of the bell will affect the pitch of the notes produced, and the persistence of the sound. Examining a bell, you may notice how the designer has achieved this, bearing in mind that other considerations like economics of manufacture, aesthetics, and availability of labour and materials may influence the decision. Again, the design will be guided by the quantities to be produced, and the methods of manufacture. The principal methods of production are casting, for large instruments such as tower bells, and pressing, for the smaller types of hand bells.

20

Bell Watching

Small bells may be cast in brass, which lends itself admirably to batch casting, and demands little cleaning up after withdrawing from the mould. Fancy patterns may be incorporated in the outer surface, as exemplified in the little bells used in churches during services, and the hand bells to be found in houses to summon help. Little bells of silver and other precious metals were at one time widely used in lady's boudoirs, and were often the work of jewellers. They were beautifully decorated, and may still be seen in shops that deal with old objects. Silver responds readily to the tiny distortions required to produce a ringing sound. Some of these bells may be of brass, silver plated, to reduce the cleaning tasks, so that superficially they look like silver. Porcelain, too, is a material having the desirable properties, and is easily made into a bell shape. It can be decorated and glazed, and some pretty designs of porcelain or china instruments are still to be found. Glass is an elastic substance and amenable to shaping in elegant forms. Little bells in glass, of various colours, and pottery, are to be found in gift shops and elsewhere. They make attractive presents, and do not cost very much. The clapper itself is often of the same material as the body of the bell. Manually-operated bicycle bells, now largely displaced by battery-operated instruments, were usually of brass or steel, plated with chromium to improve appearance and to protect against corrosion. There are fewer to be seen nowadays, though they are simple instruments that demand little maintenance and do their work reliably. The sounding part is dome-shaped, with one or more internal lugs against which the rotating discs strike. The dome is usually screwed to the frame of the bell by a threaded 21

Bell Watching lug in the centre of the top. The mechanism for striking is ingenious, and unique to the bicycle. If you haven't seen the inside of a bicycle bell, it is worth while to unscrew the dome and admire the simple mechanism neatly mounted inside. A toothed rack is rotated by the thumb lever, and as it engages with the pinion fixed to the spindle, turns it rapidly. On the spindle is an arm, carrying at its ends loose washers, which are flung outwards as the arm swings round. These washers strike the lugs inside the dome as they fly past. It is a simple and effective device. The domes are normally cast, and it is probable that the same moulds are being used today that have been in use for many, many years, especially in those models made in the Far East. The use of old patterns helps to keep down the price; and the original designs have proved their worth over the decades. You can see that although the outside of the dome is smooth and polished, the inner face is usually left rough, for it is never seen in normal use. Some cowbells have been in use for generations, and are made with a lug for the strap to go round the neck of the animal. The sound has a somewhat lugubrious character, which serves the purpose for which the bell is designed, to indicate the whereabouts of the beast. Almost invariably of brass, cowbells have to withstand the weather and resist corrosion. Some fine bells were made for use on locomotives, in the United States of America, Canada, and elsewhere. These were mounted on a suitable frame, and swung fore and aft to produce the familiar sound. Modern locomotives in the Americas tend to carry sirens of some kind instead of bells, and their haunting sounds are a familiar feature of the open spaces. On ships, robust bells are to be seen, usually bearing the name of the vessel engraved on the side. They are of brass, splendidly polished, perhaps occasionally plated. These are rung by a short rope attached to the clapper. Most of these ropes are beautifully decorated by cunning rope-work, whose secrets are known to only to the experts. The bell is a traditional feature for marking the passage of time afloat. Fire engines and ambulances are among the vehicles which at one time used bells as approach warnings. The smaller vehicles sometimes carried fixed bells on the roof, with a clapper operated electrically by the battery of the vehicle. Sirens have largely replaced such instruments, and these are perhaps more readily heard among the penetrating noises of modern road traffic, although the old bells were strident and effective. Specialised vehicle museums can be good hunting grounds for the bell enthusiast. 22

Bell Watching Large bells are still in use on certain marine buoys. Here the movement of the water causes the buoy to oscillate, and thus make the bell sound. Such buoys are of special application in fog. The chime is mournful and eerie in thick fog, when the source is not seen. They were easily heard when sails were the only means of propulsion; but the high-speed launch carrying a roaring outboard engine on the transom might find it difficult to make out the comparatively quiet sound of a bell on a buoy. They have the advantage of requiring pretty well no maintenance, and no driving mechanism. They are large bells with a deep and penetrating note. They dwell in open water, and must be able to withstand the corrosive effects of the sea . Moving around, noting the many different types of bell, you may be struck by what seems to be an infinite variety of size, material, and to a certain extent, shape. However, whatever the kind of structure, the basic principles remain the same. These are: • • •

a shape broadly like a cup of an elastic substance suitably supported, so that the rim has free movement.

When you look at any bell, note first the material from which it is made. Most bells are of metal of some kind, brass being popular for the smaller ones, and bell-metal for the larger instruments. Cast iron has been used, and there are still some school bells of this material in Britain. It had the advantage of ease of manufacture, and was a cheap metal. Should it crack, though, there was no alternative but to melt it down and re-cast it, for the sound of a cracked bell is short and ugly, and does not carry well. Cast iron bells are often painted, which, though it may discourage corrosion, does little to help the sound. You will find examples in some of the older villages. In towns, a school bell would hardly be heard above the noises of the neighbourhood, nowadaysÖ Nevertheless, in small villages some schools still have these delightful little bells, mounted in a campanile on the roof of the school, the rope passing down through the roof. The duty of ringing the school bell was, and in some places still is, a privilege bestowed upon one of the more worthy senior pupils. When you examine the shape of a bell, the principal points of interest are the fixing, and the rim. The fixing of most bells is effected at the centre, by a bolt or pin screwed through the metal. The rim must be free to vibrate, or the sound would be dull. Hand bells, for ringing tunes and changes, are attached to leather loops which are held by the ringers. These are very special instruments, and a full set is a valuable asset, prized by the bands that possess them. In most bands, each ringer handles two bells at a time, and a competent team can produce splendid music.

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Bell Watching In these notes it is clearly not possible to cover every kind of bell that you are likely to find. I hope you will go out and about with a watchful sense of anticipation, and discover for yourself the delights of not only seeing, but understanding what you see.

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4. Making Bells Smaller bells lend themselves to a variety of methods in their manufacture. Hand bells of porcelain, for example, are simply cast or moulded and thereafter painted and glazed, for they are usually more decorative than practical. You may come across some delightful examples designed for use by the ladies of past centuries. The little clapper suspended inside, sometimes by a silken cord, strikes the bell itself with a discreet tinkling sound which can be nevertheless penetrating. Pottery bells can be made, or "thrown", on a potter's wheel. A skilled potter can produce these at an astonishing rate. They are usually stocked at novelty shops in seaside towns, often with the name of the resort marked on the outer face. Dependent upon the material from which they are made they may or may not make much of a sound. Fine china or porcelain, however, is a good material, with high elasticity, and can produce a good clear note. Some of the earlier models were beautifully decorated, and can fetch a high price at sales. Mass production methods are applied to the making of small metal bells such as cowbells, and bicycle bells. These are often made of brass or plated steel, and can be conveniently made by automatic machinery. Cowbells are sometimes cast in brass, with a lug to take the leather strap for attaching to the necks of the beasts. The shape is not of great importance, though traditionally they are often elliptical in section, to lie against the throat. Although not often found in Britain, the home of true ringing, they have been popular in places like Switzerland, the very sound of these little bells being evocative of the country.

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Bell Watching Bells for bicycles, too, may be of brass, though the complete device is more complicated. The mechanism requires loose washer-shaped pieces to be fitted to the rotating arm, and a threaded central member to carry the bell itself, and the bracket for attaching the whole arrangement to the handlebars. Making the bell involves the manufacture and fitting to the dome of a threaded rod to screw into the short pillar of the mechanism, or a female threaded boss to fit the central male pillar. There is the complication, too, of making and fitting the other parts of the mechanism. There may be nearly a dozen parts, if the attachment to the handle-bars be included. Generally speaking, the processes of casting, drilling, polishing, stamping, drilling, and threading may be required in the manufacture of a bicycle bell. It is perhaps more demanding in this sense than any other type of bell, except the church bell, with all the parts required for ringing it. It might seem surprising, then, that so many have been, and still are being, made. It is possible that the explanation lies in the cheapness of labour in some parts of the world, where labour-intensive products are economically produced. Further, the means of production are comparatively simple, and long-lasting. Once the basic machinery has been set in place, a minor industry can be family based, and handed down to succeeding generations. Strangely, bicycle bells never seem to wear out. Those that meet their demise prematurely usually do so through ill treatment and neglect. Young cyclists, especially young boys, are not noted for taking care of such items. This type of bell is not nowadays as popular as it once was, being displaced by new kinds; but there are still plenty to be seen. They last a long time, never seem to require replacement or repair, and don't seem to mind putting up with exposure to the elements, as they are often expected to do. They demand no maintenance, and cheerfully cope with quite a lot of neglect. The bicycle bell has the advantage over some other types of bell that a simple movement of the thumb on the operating lever can produce a nearly continuous set of notes. This satisfies the needs of young riders. Compared with the electric bell, batteries are not required, a convincing reason for using the hand-operated type. The common electric domestic bell is made on an assembly line, and the dome is usually a pressing. Often, there is no dome, but a pair of plates, so that the assembly is a chime rather than a bell. These are more popular nowadays, and are often made to produce more than one note. It is easy to examine these, for it is usual to fit a little plastic cover over the working parts, and sometimes over the whole thing. This is screwed or snapped into place, and is easily removed for inspection. They used to be operated by a battery, but are more often fed from the mains through a small transformer now. Some of them are mounted 26

Bell Watching on a door or the door jamb, and are mechanically rung, so obviating the need for electricity. The operating device may be a flat plate that turns. The domes of these bells are usually a simple pressing or casting, plated for appearance when exposed, but some times enclosed in a little wooden or plastic box, perforated to "let out the sound". The modern doorbell is sometimes not a bell at all, and indeed is often referred to as a set of door chimes. In some ways, then, it is outside the scope of this treatment. However, it may be noted that when the chimes are simple metal plates they are usually stamped from a ribbon or sheet of metal, often brass or plated steel, and suspended inside the box. The type of door bell that is hung on a spiral spring is rarer nowadays, and the bell itself is normally of thin brass, pressed or spun to the proper shape. The suspension for the clapper is riveted or bolted to the closed end. The sound produced from such a thin piece of material lacks the persistence of a heavier bell, but this is unimportant because such bells have an indicator which continues to swing for a while after the bell has ceased ringing. When we turn to the larger instruments we are concerned principally with tower bells. These are in a class of their own, and are dealt with separately. However, there are some differences between the tower bells of England, where they are specialised, and those in other countries.

There is a wide variety of bell to be seen in countries other than England. In some remote areas where Christianity has been introduced, small churches have been constructed, and in some kind of token to churches elsewhere have had a rudimentary bell hung above the roof. Such a bell may be no more than an inverted metal pail or a petrol can, capable of being swung to and fro, with a clapper inside. There is little that is complicated about making such an instrument. These contrivances are true bells, though, by definition, and they perform their duty satisfactorily. The 27

Bell Watching community they serve is usually a small one, concentrated around the church building within earshot of the gentle sound made by such a bell. Elsewhere, we can find large bells hung in churches and campaniles all over the world. The majority of these are cast, and the procedure is pretty well uniform. In England, where the art of bell-ringing has been practised and perfected over the centuries, rings of bells are to be found in churches everywhere, and some in the other parts of the United kingdom, too. Methods of making them have not changed basically. To produce a tower bell, large quantities of a special alloy are needed. This material, known as "bell-metal" consists of approximately 20% tin and 80% copper, i.e. a 1 in 5 alloy of tin and copper. Small changes in the proportions affect the tone of the bell. It is, of course, an elastic substance, with an elastic modulus of about 110 Gn/m_ . This implies that a stress of that value would, theoretically, double the length of a rod of bell-metal under tension. When a new bell is cast, or an old one re-cast, the ingots are placed in a furnace and heated to about 2,000º C. When all is ready the molten metal is then poured into a pit, in which are placed the cope and core to give shape to the outside and interior surface respectively of the bell. It is a delicate operation, and a time-consuming one, for the process cannot be hurried. Carelessness in pouring or cooling can result in costly cracks, rendering the bell useless. The old bell founders excavated holes in the ground, to accommodate a larger bell, and there are one or two places in the country where these can still be traced. A good example is that by the church of St Mary Major in Exeter, Devon, for the bell cast in 1150, a homely link with the past. When some of the ancient bells were cast there were no modern furnaces or transport available, and it is a matter for admiration, how they managed to smelt such large quantities of bell metal. Even the lighter bells in a ring weigh several hundredweight. There are few records of their methods, but the heating alone of such large masses must have been a formidable task. Although the basic process has not changed, modern founders have at their disposal large furnaces (often electrical) and special equipment to facilitate the smelting and pouring. If you can arrange to visit a bell foundry you will find much of interest in the ancient craft. There are few bell founders nowadays, but one or two of the older firms have been in existence for centuries. These older firms can manage very large bells, and they usually seem to have full order books. Their names are known world-wide among ringers. Making and baking a core and cope, for the inside and outside of the bell, for a large bell, was a daunting undertaking. We cannot help but admire their industry and great skill. After pouring, the metal must be cooled very slowly and uniformly, so that the 28

Bell Watching bell is not distorted or cracked. Should that occur, the casting is useless. Then the whole exercise must be repeated, a costly undertaking, even in those days of cheap labour. After removal from the mould the bell is tuned, the most demanding part of all. It requires great skill to remove metal from the rim and get the bell to ring true. A cutting tool is held against the rim while the bell revolves, trimming a swathe from the material. This is a highly skilled job, for errors can be expensive. If you can arrange to see this being done you will find it impressive, and highly instructive. Even when the bell is tuned the work is not ended. If it is a new bell, there is the headstock to be made, and attached. Unless it is a replacement, the wheel, the bearings, and the stay have to be made. Then the whole lot has to be transported to the site. The clapper is nowadays made from spheroidal graphite cast iron instead of the wrought iron once used. It is hung from an independent staple bolted through the bell and headstock, and often swings on a stainless steel pin in self-lubricating plastic bushes. In some cases, the problem of transport can be tricky. A smaller bell can be carried in the back of a van or lorry; but the very large ones require special flat loaders, and in some cases police escort through difficult places. In ancient times the bells were cast close to the tower, and were then swung over to the tower itself with tripods, or sheerlegs, with rope and tackle. For sheer legs, a couple of stout poles sufficed, lashed together at the top, with their bases connected by a rope to stop spreading. The procedure was to raise the bell clear of the ground, and swing the sheer legs over, to lower the load to the ground, further away. Then the process was repeated several times until the bell reached the desired position. Before the days of the heavy crane this was an ingenious method for dealing with heavy loads generally. It is still an excellent set-up when other means are not available. A tripod needed three poles, and was not so handy for moving the load horizontally. It could be used to lift the bell and place it on a heavy trolley. The heavy bells had to be manoeuvred through the door of the tower, perhaps on rollers or a trolley, and hoisted to the belfry by tackles, with manpower. Here again, one can but be impressed by our ancient forebears for their achievements in this field.

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Bell Watching

The floors of the chambers in the towers can be lifted to allow the passage of bells. They then pass up from the ground through the ringing chamber and the clock chamber to the belfry itself, where they are moved to the frame where they are to be hung. In some towers, the frame may be a long way from the ground. The potential energy possessed by a heavy weight such as a bell, at that height, is considerable, and failure of the tackle could have disastrous results. All of this is no mean feat, even in modern times. How much more so when one realises for how long this has been happening. Modern methods of pattern making, smelting, tuning and casting have made bell-founding a very different task in many ways, but the basic skills remain the same. Turning now to the other end of the scale, little bells like those hung around the necks of cats are usually of tinplate, and are formed in two hemi-spherical parts. They are then seamed together, after the small pea or ball has been inserted. They are of necessity very light in weight, and for that matter make very little sound, pleasing the owners rather than the animals. The fixed part carries the attachment, whilst the other part has slots formed in it so there are (usually four) tongues of metal to vibrate when struck. The whole process of manufacture is largely automatic, on quantity production lines. These little bells are fitted in some toys, such as toy bears, and in children's rattles. Although there is some objection nowadays to the use of sharp pieces of metal in toys, plastics are not sufficiently elastic to produce the right kind of sound. Children who are apt to place everything in the mouth should not, of course, be given such bells. There are good plastic alternative noise-making devices.

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Bell Watching For many centuries, hand-bells have been made, all over the world, though more recently principally in Britain, and the United States. Many of the earlier British ones were lost in the Reformation. It was not until the year 1954 that the American Guild of English Handbell Ringers was founded, but firms have been making sets with enthusiasm long before and since. They are cast in bell-metal, like their larger brothers, but do not, to the careful listener, sound like carillon bells. There is a predominant twelfth overtone, adding to their charm. They are tuned to A-440. This is important, if they are to work with other sets or part sets. A full set consists of five complete chromatic octaves, from C below middle C upwards. You may, rarely, come across a sixth octave above this, with very small high-pitched bells. All of these demand precise tuning. When the bell itself is made, the clapper is fitted, with leather pegs or strikers in the ball and small pieces of felt attached, with small springs to prevent unwanted contact during movement. In this way the bell will speak only when properly jerked. A leather cap or handguard is fitted over the crown, and the leather handles attached. Then, the pitch is stamped on both sides of the leather handles. Thus, the manufacture of hand bells is a very different task from that of making the large tower bells, or the tiny toy bells. Sets of hand bells are attractively finished. They may be polished only, but often are plated, too, and the leather handles made supple and comfortable to the hand. The number in a set will depend upon the opulence of the ringers. Even a half set can produce good entertainment in the hands of skilled performers. These sets are very valuable, and carefully handled by the ringers. The thickness of the bell material is surprisingly small, just enough to provide the necessary rigidity to the shape. They are thus vulnerable to rough handling and knocks. In use they are picked up and put down frequently, as some ringers handle four bells, picking up and putting down as necessary. The table is often covered with a soft blanket or similar material. To give some idea of the size of a hand bell, the one for middle C, (261 vibrations per minute) weighs a little over three pounds (1.36 kilogrammes) and has a rim diameter of some 6 inches (about 170 mm.). They range in weight from about nine ounces (255 grammes) to about two pounds (907 grammes). The Imperial measurements are stated because this was the system used by bell founders, and is still used among the cognoscenti. When a set of hand bells is made, special containers are made too, often padded with green baize, for hand bell ringers travel from place to place, to provide entertainment. 31

Bell Watching Should a bell be dented or otherwise damaged it would not ring true, and the repertoire of the band would then be reduced. So joiners or cabinet-makers may be employed by the founders, or the work let out to other firms. Sometimes the carrying cases are of metal, supplied from outside contractors. Thus, the manufacture of hand bells is a specialised undertaking having little in common with that for tower bells, though the same firms sometimes deal with both. When a set of hand bells is made, special containers are made too, often padded with green baize, for hand bell ringers travel from place to place, to provide entertainment. Should a bell be dented or otherwise damaged it would not ring true, and the repertoire of the band would then be reduced. So joiners or cabinet-makers may be employed by the founders, or the work let out to other firms. Sometimes the carrying cases are of metal, supplied from outside contractors. Thus, the manufacture of hand bells is a specialised undertaking having little in common with that for tower bells, though the same firms often deal with both.

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5. Tower Bells Here we have a separate chapter allocated to tower bells, for they are in a class of their own. Generally speaking, towers contain the largest bells, either in church buildings or in carillons. They are usually hung in groups of up to twelve in the larger churches and cathedrals, and in larger numbers for carillons. Most parish churches in Britain and former British colonies have a ring of six bells.

In other countries, where "true" ringing is not heard, that is, where bells are not rung according to the English method, towers may have any number from one upwards, and the bells are usually rung in what appears to be a haphazard order. Frequently, they are hung in open campaniles, unlike the English method of fitting them into a frame inside the tower. In such cases, the bells are often rung by means of a rope attached to a lever on the headstock, the whole affair being open to view. They may even be rung with a lever, operated beside the bell itself. The bells swing through a small angle, not more than about a quarter of a revolution, so the sound does not carry very far. Carillon bells are hung not for ringing, but for chiming. In England, the home of bellringing, church bells are in general arranged for "true" ringing; that is, they are free to swing full circle, in fact a little more than 360, as we shall see. Before we describe the method of hanging, a word of caution is needed. The chamber where the bells are hung can be a very dangerous place. You should never enter without prior consultation with the tower captain, to ensure that the bells are "down", and no ringing is to take place till you have left the chamber. A large bell is a very heavy object and, when it is in motion, it stores a large amount of kinetic energy. The energy stored varies as the square of the rotational speed, so at the bottom of the swing, when it is moving at maximum speed, it packs a powerful punch! 33

Bell Watching The bell itself is attached at its upper end, the closed end, to a horizontal cross member, the headstock, which is carried in bearings. The size of the bell, and its height relative to these bearings determines the natural period of swing. It swings as what is called in engineering circles a "compound pendulum". The higher the bell, the nearer is the centre of gravity to the axis of rotation, and the shorter the natural time of swing, just as with ordinary or "simple" pendulum. Since tower bells in England are rung in certain patterns, all the bells in one set are required to have the same natural frequency of swing. Accordingly, a ring of bells is arranged to comply with this by suitably designing the headstock. When you look at a bell in a church tower, you will see that the piece of wood is cut away in the centre to accommodate the crown of the bell. By so shaping it, the time of swing is shortened. Usually the time is about two seconds. The headstocks of the different bells are shaped differently, for this reason, and the bell itself is strapped to the headstock with metal bands. This is best seen when the bell is at rest, with the mouth downwards. As referred to in an earlier chapter, the raising of a bell is accomplished by pulling on a rope which is wound round the groove in a large wheel. With the bell down and at rest, the ringer wraps several turns of the rope round his or her fist before starting the bell swinging. When raising in peal, the conductor will call something like "Treble's going. She's gone." This starts the process, treble pulling treble's sally, followed by the others in turn. At this stage the ringing is quick, for the movements of the bells are small. As the bells rise the ringer gradually releases more rope from his or her hand, the swing is longer, and the rate slows a little, till they are all going at their normal rate. The rope passes up from the ringing chamber via smooth guides, and is wrapped round part of the wheel before being attached to one of the spokes. Thus, a pull on the lower end of the rope causes the wheel and hence the bell, to rotate. As it swings back it winds up the rope, and is ready to be pulled again. Each successive pull increases the displacement of the bell, until it is swinging through a large angle. During this process, the "sally", a length of coloured tufted rope, dances up and down as the bell swings to and fro; and the ringer pulls on the sally each time it comes down. With increasing amplitude of displacement, more and more of the rope is taken up, the ringer releasing the turns gradually from the hand holding the coils, till all the coils are unwound from the fist, and as the bell reaches its upper position the sally goes right up away from the ringer, so that the end of the rope comes to hand. 34

Bell Watching Pulling on the rope end is known as the "back stroke". That on the sally is called the "hand stroke". So the ringing proceeds with alternate hand strokes and back strokes, the bell rising more and more till it is inverted. As the bell rises towards the inverted position a wooden rod attached to the headstock on the side opposite to the bell strikes a horizontal "slider", pivoted at one end, pushing it against its stops. As the bell goes "over the top" the stay is held by the slider, and the bell is stationary. A good ringer will so adjust the pull that the bell passes slowly over the top, and comes to rest gently as the stay takes the slider against the stop. It is then said to be "up". In this position either the rope end or the sally is roughly level with the face of the ringer. To commence ringing, the bell, after it has been raised, is always pulled off on the hand stroke, that is, with the sally. The ringer then pulls alternate hand strokes and back strokes with an even rhythm, but making tiny adjustments to maintain position with regard to the other bells. Ringing a bell is one of the few musical arts where the operator doesn't see his instrument. When you watch him at work, though, you will be able to picture what is happening, right up at the top of the tower. Although we have referred to "him" we do not imply that females are not involved. Far from it. There are plenty of young ladies, and older ones too, throughout the country who are dedicated ringers. Some like to form bands of their own sex. The tower is usually placed at the west end of the church, and is the most prominent feature of the building. The principal function of the tower is to provide suitable accommodation for the bells, though it usually also serves to display a clock, a weathercock, and a flagstaff. In villages, since ancient times, the church tower has always been the centre for the dissemination of information. The clock displays the time, and sounds the hours and quarters. The weather cock shows the wind direction, from which the knowing local resident can predict the kind of weather to be expected in the short term. The flag staff proclaims certain days, and at half mast can inform the parishioners of a death. Normally flying the flag of St. George, there are occasions when the union flag is more appropriate, such as the birthday of the monarch. The major stresses for which the tower must be designed arise from the movement of the heavy bells. In some towers, where the ringing chamber is not on the ground, one can feel the tower sway, by leaning against the wall. The movement is small, but easily detectable. When you look at the outside of the tower you can see the buttresses that help the tower to cope with the loading. The tower is effectively a cantilever structure, whose fixed end is in the ground, with the free end at the top. Nearly always built from stone, 35

Bell Watching the tower is an attractive structure, and perhaps the most expensive building in the parish. The loads due to ringing tend to bend the tower, just as any other cantilever bends under transverse loading. When the tower bends, one face is under tension, causing the joints in the stonework on that side to open and close with the variation in the loading. This can be serious if water enters the joints, of course. In the ringing chamber itself you can see the ropes soaring up through the ceiling, and sliding down again, each in its appointed order, as the ringers work their ancient craft. If you get a chance to have some instruction, do take advantage of this; but be warned that bell ringing can become addictive. Chat with some of the more senior ringers. You may find that they have been ringing since they were children, and still enjoy it. Ringers like to visit other towers, to try out their bells, and these visits are pleasant social occasions. In carillons, the bells do not swing as in church towers, so that their mountings are simpler. Also, in places other than England, churches may have more than one bell, yet be hung without regard to their times of oscillation. To the ears of an English ringer, the resulting sounds are unattractive. Carillons are often installed in open towers all over the world, the bells being visible from outside. These towers may be have attractive architectural features. Control of the hammers that strike the bells is effected by keys, and the tunes are produced by a player seated at a large keyboard. It is even possible to play a chord, which cannot be done with the usual tower bells. The bearings for church bells are substantial, for they carry some heavy static and dynamic loads. That is to say, the substantial weight of the bells bears down on their supports even when at rest, (static loading). When in motion, the forces due to movement, (dynamic loading) are outwards, so that the direction relative to the frame varies as the bell turns. In other words, the direction of the dynamic forces rotates with the bell, whilst the static forces are always downwards. The combination of these two forces acts upon the frame when the bells are being rung. At the top of the swing the dynamic loading falls to zero as the bell comes to rest, then rises to a maximum as it swings down to the lowest point in its travel. This is added to the static load arising from the weight of the bell, so that the total can be considerable in the case of the heavier bells. The maximum loading occurs as the bell passes through the bottom of its swing, varying rhythmically in both magnitude and direction while it is being rung.

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Bell Watching The dynamic loading is transferred to the frame in which the bells are hung, and is always in the plane of swing. It can be large enough to cause the tower to move, swaying in the plane of the bell. If all the bells were so mounted as to swing together in the same plane serious damage might result. Hence, they are mounted round the frame in such a manner that their planes of swing do not all coincide. Further, the bells do not all swing together, at the same moment. Thus the dynamic loading resulting from the sum of the loads from the bells is distributed directionally and varies with time in a complicated manner. Even so, there may arise times, particularly when call changes are rung (see below), that bring together swaying forces which augment one another. This is taken into consideration when designing a ring for a tower. In the past there have been some cases of serious damage to the stonework of towers. Many of these ancient structures were built in mediaeval times, when knowledge of loading was perhaps less well understood. Some ancient towers have been reinforced by building a steel frame within the tower, to which the bell system is attached. Such erections are not visible from outside the tower, and not readily seen from inside the church. They carry all the ringing loads, and free the actual tower from such damaging stresses. There are two ways of ringing changes, usually referred to as Call Changes and Method. It is of interest to consider these, to understand the imposition of loads on the structure. When bells are pulled off in turn, starting with the lightest, or treble, and running through all the other bells, to the heaviest, or tenor, they are said to be ringing "rounds". When you listen, you can readily recognise rounds, with the lightest bell, the one with the highest note, leading and the notes successively lower, running down to the tenor, the lowest of all. When well-struck, that is when the intervals between successive bells are even, rounds make a pleasant sound, though rounds are not usually continued for long, lest they sound monotonous. Some are rung with an "open lead", which includes a little pause between repetitions. Thus, a ring of six will have twelve sounds at a time, then another twelve, and so on. On special occasions, the bells are muffled, leather pads being attached to the clapper of each bell on one side. With this arrangement, the clapper makes a softer sound on one stroke, so that the sequence of normal notes is followed by a muted series of notes. This produces a spectral effect, and is often heard when ringing out the Old Year in England. The custom is to ring the bells, muffled, before midnight, and then take off the muffles so that on the stroke of twelve the bells ring out with full voice, heralding the New Year. 37

Bell Watching You may be shown these muffles, which are usually kept in the ringing chamber or the bell chamber. Many are as ancient as the tower itself. The two ways of ringing tower bells apply, too, to hand-bell ringing. The two ways, "call changes" and "method", are readily recognised by the attentive listener. For call changes, the positions of the bells are altered by calls made by the conductor. For example, should the conductor call "One to two" or "Treble to second", the second bell is moved up one place, while the treble is slowed by holding it up a little. This brings the treble in behind the second, so that the order of the bells is altered. The changes are accomplished smoothly by experienced ringers. After each call change, the order of the bells remains unaltered until the next call. So when you are listening to the bells you will hear a particular sequence repeated a few times before a new sequence, slightly different, occurs. Note that for call changes, only one pair of bells changes places at any one call. Call changes are regularly rung at many churches. In some parts of the country this is the only way in which the bells are rung. Newly-trained ringers find it relatively easy to handle the bell for call changes. Well struck, they can produce a pleasing series of sounds. When you hear call changes, listen for the lightest, highest bell, the treble. With some practice, you will be able to follow it as it moves through and among the other bells. When it leads, i.e., when it immediately follows the tenor (the lowest, heaviest bell) and the others follow in descending order, then rounds are being rung. You will hear rounds at the start and finish of a peal, or a "touch", (a short part of a peal), and when they are being raised or brought down. The conductor must know the order of the bells at any time, so that his calls can be readily obeyed. He must avoid trying to call a bell to move more than one place. Only two bells are involved at each call, and they simply change places. If you watch a band of ringers in action, you may note that for each call three ringers are involved, whilst the rest continue to pull steadily. For example, if the conductor calls, say, three to four, then bell number four must move ahead of number three, while number three drops back. The bell which was following number four must now direct attention to number three. The other bells are not affected by the call, and maintain their positions. You can see this happening in the ringing chamber if you watch carefully when ringing is taking place. A conductor will normally work the bells through a series of changes, perhaps taking the treble to the back, followed by the second travelling the same route, then the third, and so on, eventually bringing back the bells back into rounds. He may bring the bells into a particular pleasing order, and hold that for a while. The art of call changes is to produce attractive and interesting patterns.

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Bell Watching As an example, consider a ring of six bells, with call changes being rung. They might be called like this: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 2 3 4 5 6(rounds) 1 2 3 4 5 6 (rounds) "Treble to second" 213456 213456 213456 "Treble to third" 231456 231456 231456 231456 231456 "Treble to four" 234156 and so on.

See how the treble follows a path among the other bells, and that the intervals between successive changes are not necessarily constant. Some of the orders have special names (e.g. "Tittums", "Queens") and the conductor may hold such an order for a while so that it might be enjoyed. You may find an opportunity to discuss this with a tower captain. He will usually be glad to explain the language of his ancient art. Good call changes demand precise positioning, the intervals between each bell being strictly maintained, even and exact. Poor ringing, with ill-struck bells, i.e. positioning being inexact, may make a good ringer shudder, even though such may not always be apparent to the uninitiated. When you visit a tower, pay close attention to these points. Many towers pride themselves on their call changes. Watch the concentration on the faces of the ringers. We turn now to the other way of handling the bells, Method ringing, or Scientific ringing. This is practised in many parts of the country, and makes special demands upon the skill and knowledge of each participant. The art of Method Ringing is a matter of knowing where in the order one's own bell is, and where to move next. There are many "methods", each with a distinguishing name, for example, "Grandsire", "Stedman", and so on. For each of these, the order of the bells follows a defined sequence of changes. The methods are published in ringing manuals, which you are recommended to study. You may well find the origin of some of the names of methods fascinating. The number of bells taking part in these changes is indicated by the full name of the method, e.g., Grandsire Doubles, the second word showing the number of working bells, i.e. bells that change their position in the order. 39

Bell Watching When a method is being rung, the order is constantly altering. If, for example, there were six bells, they might change from •

1 2 3 4 5 6 to 2 1 4 3 5 6

Note that in method ringing there can be more than two bells involved in each change, unlike call changes, where only two bells change places at each call. Each ringer must know not only where his bell is at any time, but where it is to move. Except as required to make certain alterations to the sequence from time to time, there is no guidance from the conductor. Each ringer weaves his path among the other bells according to the method. This is treated more fully in the chapter on chiming and ringing. The tower bell is a special kind of bell. It is an expensive instrument, and requires a particular skill that has been nurtured over centuries in England and hardly at all elsewhere. When permission has been obtained for access to the tower and the bells themselves, they are worth careful study. From time to time replacements and repairs are needed, such as replacement of ropes, or turning end for end; but for the most part bells in English church towers are ancient, and carefully maintained. After a while, the clapper having struck the inner surface many times, and bell metal being a comparatively soft material a dent is produced. When the dent deepens, the bell may be turned, usually a quarter turn or an eighth, to bring into position a fresh undented part. Wear on the bells in carillons is not so severe, for the blows from the hammers are usually gentler. In the chapter on "Chiming and Ringing" reference is made to that great bell, the Tsar Komokol. A tower to take such a monster would have had to be an impressive structure. It was cast in 1734, for Nicholas II, and your bell-watching will not be complete till you have seen it, or a picture of it. It is 22 feet (just under 7 metres) in diameter at the base, and contains over 200 tons (about a thousand kilogrammes) of metal. (It may be observed that in Britain, the cradle of change ringing, the weights of bells have always been stated in hundredweights.) As mentioned earlier, a large piece broke off that magnificent casting, and it can never be rung. It sits forlorn upon a plinth in Moscow, where it has stood for over two centuries. It is unlikely that such a bell will ever be cast in the future. Bell ringers can only dream about it, imagining what it might be like to ring. Heavy bells require more than one strong man to raise, and the Tsar Komokol would certainly present a problem. The broken piece could of course be welded back, though this would not be an easy task. Further, it could not produce a truly agreeable sound. 40

Bell Watching

6. Chiming and Ringing Although, to the uninitiated, the differences may not be apparent, there are three recognised methods of making a large bell speak. These sounds are readily distinguished, once you understand what is happening. For some types of bell, there is no choice. For example, a bicycle bell of the old type is operated by pressing a thumb lever, which returns under the action of a spring when released. This produces the familiar repeated tinkling sound. The sound is transient, and does not carry far. The thumb lever can be repeatedly actuated, and usually is by small boys, to draw attention to the approach of the rider. It is not a very penetrating sound, even when thus rung. However, the law requires all bicycles to have some "audible warning device". Some riders declare that their own voice satisfies this requirement, but usually the bell is so cheap that most cyclists have them. The point about this type of instrument is that the method of producing the sound is by striking the dome, or a lug on the inner surface of the dome, by a piece of metal. This kind of action is technically "ringing". Again, a ship's bell is always struck by a clapper attached to a rope, and a resounding note is heard. Since the bell itself does not move, i.e. it does not swing; the action is one of chiming rather than ringing. A cowbell operates by a small clapper within the bell tapping against the metal in the kind of inverted cup as the head of the beast moves. This can be considered as a ringing action. For tower bells the choice is wider, for we can choose clocking, chiming, or ringing, each producing different sounds from the same bell. Clocking is really a misnomer, for it has nothing to do with the clock, which sounds by "chiming". It is carried out by striking the bell with a hammer which does not bounce; that is, it is held where it strikes, and prevented from bouncing back. This is not good for a bell. Quite apart from the risk of damage, the sound is abrupt, and there are few harmonics, since the movements of the metal are restricted. On a large bell, clocking is an action to be avoided, lest it result in a crack. A cracked bell never sounds properly, and the only real cure is to melt it down and re-cast it. It is virtually making a new bell, with all the attendant processes of removing it from the tower, transporting it to the foundry, casting, tuning, taking it back and re-hanging it. This is a laborious and skilled process, and costly in both time and money. Churches may find it difficult to raise funds for this. There are so many other calls on their money. 41

Bell Watching One famous case of a cracked bell is the Tsar Komokol, or King of Bells, that truly giant bell, mentioned earlier, which met a worse fate. A very large piece broke off before it was hung, and the bell was then unringable. Among bell-ringers there is a wistful feeling that the ringing world has lost a noble sound through that unfortunate accident. The sheer size and weight of that bell would have ensured a deep reverberation of impressive magnitude. At the time of writing it stands on a plinth, forever silent, just a magnificent, though mute, tourist attraction. It is unlikely that it will ever be recast, or that another of similar size will be made. Further reference to this is made in the chapter on tower bells. As mentioned above, clocking is not to be confused with the action of a striking clock, where the hammer bounces off the sounding coil or other sounding device, and the sound is pure. Clock sounds are, strictly speaking, chimes, for the bells are chimed and not rung. The distinction is important, and this is discussed later. When a bell is chimed, it is struck with a hammer while it hangs freely. A common example of a chimed bell is the one carried aboard ships, used for informing all on board of the passage of time, for changing watches. In relatively small vessels the sounds carry well everywhere on board, and if a microphone is sited nearby, the sounds can be broadcast throughout a larger ship. The ancient division of the day into "watches" has for centuries been marked by the sounds from the ship's bell. Ship's bells are made to speak by means of a short rope hanging down from the clapper. The bell is not made to rotate, but hangs still while the clapper strikes the inner face. So it is really chiming. The rope is often a fine example of the art of rope decoration. A beautifully polished bell, with a fancy piece of rope-work shining white beneath it, is an impressive sight. With modern electronic devices now available the ship's bell may be coming to the end of its useful life. Tradition is strong, though, among sea-faring people, so perhaps many will survive. Look out for them. They are splendid sights, beautifully polished, and usually with the name of the ship boldly cut into the surface. The bell is usually supplied and mounted at the shipyard, before commissioning. In English churches, where ringing is controlled by ropes, chimes are usually produced by short snatching pulls on the ropes, the bells moving only enough to cause the clapper to strike the inside of the rim. The clapper has a natural period of oscillation differing from that of the bell, so when the bell is jerked you can imagine it "catching up with" the clapper. It is as if the bell strikes the clapper, rather than the other way round. Some English churches have special arrangements for chiming. The device known as "Ellacombe chimes" was invented by the Rev. Henry Thomas Ellacombe. He was rector of the small village of Clyst St. George, in Devon, from 1850 to 1885. The device is widely used, and well-known among ringers everywhere. 42

Bell Watching It is a simple practical solution to what was a nagging problem. The Rev. Ellacombe devised the scheme so that the bells could sound without having a team of ringers present. Clyst St. George is a small village in Devon, England, and the church itself is a little gem, worth a visit. Although it is not far from the city of Exeter, Devon, it has retained its quiet character. (There is probably little truth in the rumour that the ringers at that time were a cantankerous bunch, and fell out with the rector, refusing to get up and ring early) Whatever the reason, the device has found favour in many churches. The arrangement consists of a sturdy wooden frame set up on a wall, usually in the ringing chamber, with a moveable horizontal bar. Ropes from the bell-chamber are led down through holes in the upper frame member and tied to the lower bar. At their upper ends, they are attached to hammers, which can strike the rims of the bells from the inside. When the lower bar is released, the ropes are slack, and the hammers are clear of the bells, which can then swing freely. This is important, as the bells swing pretty well full circle when being rung. Were they to strike the chiming hammers serious damage could result. Pulling down the lower bar and fixing it with a steel peg tightens the ropes, leaving a sufficient length of the ropes exposed between the bars, so that they can be grasped and pulled to sound the chimes. The ringer can thus pull the ropes in a sequence to produce any required pattern of chimes. Both hands are used, and the skilful ringer can chime hymn tunes, restricted only by the number of bells in the tower. Six is the minimum for popular hymn tunes, and eight provides for a wider repertoire, covering most needs. Pieces of plastic tubing are usually fitted over the ropes between the frames, so as to be kinder on the hands of the ringer. The ropes are numbered from left to right. Series of numbers, with appropriate pauses, are usually written out on a card exhibited near the frame, for the guidance of those operating the chimes. This enables an inexperienced ringer to sound hymn tunes on the bells. You can find the Ellacombe chimes in a church by looking in the ringing chamber, or sometimes on the ground floor. The wooden frame is usually fixed to the wall, with the ropes running through the frame from above. You should not touch the chimes unless with permission. The tower captain will usually be pleased to demonstrate how they are operated. You might even be allowed to try your hand, at a convenient time.

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Bell Watching It should be remembered, though, that although chimes do not carry as far as properly rung bells, they can be heard locally, in the roads and lanes leading to the church. Unskilled hands on the ropes do not usually produce an agreeable sound. The clock chimes use hammers operated by the clock mechanism. These vary, but generally provide quarters and hours. Quarter hours in England are sometimes denoted by a series of notes called "Westminster chimes". This is rather long, particularly the three quarter chime, and many churches and other public clocks use a shorter series. Newcomers to a village may enjoy the sounds, or perhaps find the chimes distracting; but those living within hearing of the chimes usually become accustomed to the sounds, and find them pleasant and helpful. Perhaps Dorothy L. Sayers had the best comment: "From time to time complaints are made about the ringing of church bells. It seems strange that a generation which tolerates the uproar of the internal combustion engine and the wailing of the jazz band should be so sensitive to the one loud noise that is made to the glory of God. England, alone in the world, has perfected the art of change ringing and the true ringing of bells by the rope and wheel, and will not lightly surrender her unique heritage." In older times few had watches, and people depended more upon the church clock for time. Even today, villagers like to hear the clock chimes, when walking, or working in field or garden. (You can't hear much in a carÖ.) When the hammer is arranged to strike the rim momentarily, the sound, though not very loud or well dispersed, is pleasant to the ear. This is the note for church clocks, and for chiming during a service. The word "chiming" is often applied to devices which, though not true bells, produce similar sounds. Door chimes are often not bell-shaped, but consist of plates or tubes of metal, freely suspended. They operate on the same principle as true bells, but lack their harmonics and duration. True ringing requires the bell to be mounted on bearings, so that it can swing freely. At one end of the axle on which the bell moves there is a large wheel, round the rim of which is wound a rope. This rope is attached to one of the spokes, offset from the lowest point, taken round the rim and thence down to the ringing chamber below through holes in the floors. Grommets in the holes provide smooth passages for the ropes. A pull on the rope thus causes the bell to rotate a little from its static position. As it turns, the end of the rope descends, and is then pulled up as the bell overshoots its position of rest. It then returns, and successive pulls on the rope, properly timed, gradually increase the angle through which the bell turns. This is referred to again in the chapter on tower bells. 44

Bell Watching As the bell reaches its upper position, just over the vertical, the stay pushes the slider against one of its stops, preventing the bell from moving further. In this position, the bell is at rest, and stays there till it is "pulled off". An inexperienced ringer, pulling too hard, can cause a bell to move too far and too quickly, swing violently "over the top", and break the stay. If this happens, the bell's movement is not limited properly, with possible unpleasant results. The rope is wound up round the rim of the wheel, and the lower end flies up towards the hole in the ceiling of the ringing chamber. The wheel is a large one, and the length of rope considerable. An unwary ringer can be lifted from the floor easily by the momentum of the bell, and a nasty fall may ensue. Some fatalities have been recorded due to this sort of accident. Fortunately, such events are rare. The action of the bell-ringer, then, when raising the bell, is to so adjust the strength of the pulls as to gradually increase the angle through which the bell swings, till it comes to rest gently on the stay. When all the bells are "up", they are resting in positions just over the vertical, with the clappers against the inside of the bells. Usually the tower captain, or the treble ringer, gives the order "Look to. Treble's gone" or something similar as he pulls off the first bell, the treble. Each ringer then pulls off his or her bell in turn, and the bells swing down. It is possible for an inexperienced ringer to put up a bell "wrong", that is for the clapper to be resting the wrong way against the bell. Then, when the bell is pulled off, the clapper strikes at the wrong time, different from the other bells. The only cure is to lower the bell, and raise it again. Each rope is marked for some part of its length, with a coloured tufted part, called a sally, some way along from the end. When the bell is up, the sally is at about eye level. When the bell has turned full circle, and is up on back stroke, with the rope wrapped round the rim of the wheel, it is the end of the rope that is at about eye level, the sally being well above the ringer. When pulling off the bell from rest the sally is grasped, and pulled down firmly. As the bell rotates it winds up the rope until, in its upper position, the end of the rope is where the sally was previously. The ringer can then pull on the end of the rope for the "back stroke". So the bell is pulled one way and the other in turn, by grasping the sally and the rope end alternately. The ringer stands close to the rope, which falls before his face. New ringers are taught how to handle a bell with the instructor standing alongside, until he or she is competent to keep the bell ringing without help. 45

Bell Watching There are two ways of ringing, usually referred to as call changes and method. It is of interest to consider these, to understand the imposition of loads on the structure. Further reference is made to this in the chapter on "Chiming and Ringing". When bells are pulled off in turn, starting with the lightest, or treble, and running through all the other bells, to the heaviest, or tenor, they are said to be ringing "rounds". When you listen, you can readily recognise rounds, with the lightest bell, the one with the highest note, leading and the notes successively lower, running down to the tenor, the lowest of all. When well-struck, that is when the intervals between successive bells are even, rounds make a pleasant sound, though rounds are not usually continued for long, lest they sound monotonous. Some are rung with an "open lead", which includes a little pause between repetitions. Thus, a ring of six will have twelve sounds at a time, then another twelve, and so on. On special occasions, the bells are muffled, leather pads being attached to the clapper of each bell on one side. With this arrangement, the clapper makes a softer sound on one stroke, so that the sequence of normal notes is followed by a muted series of sounds. This produces a spectral effect, and is often heard when ringing out the Old Year in England. The custom is to ring the bells, muffled, before midnight, and then take off the muffles so that on the stroke of twelve the bells ring out with full voice, heralding the New Year. You may be shown these muffles, which are usually kept in the ringing chamber or the bell chamber. Many are as ancient as the tower itself. The two ways of ringing tower bells apply, too, to hand-bell ringing. The two ways are "call changes" and "method", readily recognised by the attentive listener. For call changes, the positions of the bells are altered by calls made by the conductor. For example, should the conductor call "One to two" or "Treble to two", the second bell is moved up one place, while the treble is slowed by holding it up a little. This brings the treble in behind the second, so that the order of the bells is altered. The changes are accomplished smoothly by experienced ringers. After each call change, the order of the bells remains unaltered till the next call. So when you are listening to the bells you will hear a particular sequence repeated a few times before a new sequence, slightly different, occurs. Note that for call changes, only one pair of bells changes places at any one call. Call changes are regularly rung at many churches. In some parts of the country this is the only way in which the bells are rung. Newly-trained ringers find it relatively easy to handle the bell for call changes. Well struck, they can produce a pleasing series of sounds. When you hear call changes, listen for the lightest, highest bell, the treble. With some practice, you will be able to follow it as it moves through and among the other bells. When it leads, i.e., when it immediately follows the tenor (the lowest, heaviest bell) and the others follow in descending order, then rounds are being rung. You will hear rounds at the start and finish of a peal, or a "touch", (a short part of a peal), and when they are being raised or brought down . 46

Bell Watching The conductor needs to know the order of the bells at any time, so that his calls can be readily obeyed. He must avoid trying to call a bell to move more than one place. Only two bells are involved at each call, and they simply change places. If you watch a band of ringers in action, you may note that for each call three ringers are involved, whilst the rest continue to pull steadily. The order in which the bells sound is determined by whether call changes or a method is being rung. As noted above, a call change causes a pair of adjacent bells to change places. Thus, we might have the following: • • • • •

123456 "Three to four" 124356 "Two to four" 142356

In this way, bells can be moved about in the sequence. In the example, two calls have shifted three bells into new positions. Some sequences have special names among ringers. You may find it interesting and instructive to discuss this with an experienced ringer. The bells are normally brought back into rounds before lowering. Method or Scientific ringing, as distinct from call changes, and as practised in England, involves movement among the bells in accordance with laid-down patterns. The various methods are known by name familiar to ringers, the second word in the name indicating how many bells are involved. A few typical names are Grandsire, Plain Bob, and Cambridge Surprise. The word added to the name of the method indicates how many bells are involved in the patterns. Thus, for example, Grandsire Doubles involves 5 bells. The other numbers are shown in this list: • • • • • • • • • •

Singles 3 Major 8 Minimus 4 Caters 9 Doubles 5 Royal 10 Minor 6 Cinques 11 Triples 7 Maximus 12

If the conductor calls, for example, "Go Grandsire Doubles" everyone knows that there will be five bells working the method. Then at the next hand stroke, the treble moves down behind the second bell, the second moves into the lead, and the other ringers move their bells accordingly. 47

Bell Watching On the next stroke they move again, and the order of the bells changes continually, each bell weaving a pattern among the others. As an example of some method ringing, we can consider the Plain Hunt, the basis of all other change ringing, using six bells: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

123456 214365 241635 426153 462513 645231 654321 563412 536142 351624 315264 132546 123456

If you trace the path of the treble, (1), you will see that it moves steadily, one place at a time, from leading, to the back and returns to lead again. Note that it strikes two blows at lead and two at the back. Now follow another bell, and you will find that it does the same thing, two blows at the front, and two at the back, moving one place at a time in between. If you write out the lines, and pencil in the path of a bell, you will see that each bell follows the same pattern. After ringing all those changes, the bells end up in rounds again. As you can see, the Plain Hunt has not used up all the possible ways in which the six bells could be rung. When a particular method, therefore, is rung it is necessary to alter the order during some part of the hunt, so as to bring about another sequence of changes. The conductor calls a "bob" perhaps, though the non-ringer may find it hard to recognise the word. The members of the band do, though, and shift accordingly. A whole book might be written about Method Ringing, and indeed if you look in the literature you will find some. It has always been a happy hunting ground for mathematically minded people. Get hold of a book, dip in, and see what you findÖ. Method ringing demands not only a knowledge of the way in which the order of the bells must change, but powers of concentration, and some stamina, as well. To ring a peal, or even a quarter peal, takes time, even on a small number of bells. 48

Bell Watching One false move, and the peal falls apart, and must be re-started. For example, the ringer of the treble, in Grandsire, has to take his bell down step by step, to the back, and then up again to the lead, holding up a little on the way down, and speeding up slightly on the way back. The pace must be steady all the time, so that all the ringers are in time and in place. Should he miss his place the smooth change of order is lost, and the order "Stand" brings proceedings to an end. It is not the intention in this book to teach the art of ringing. It aims only to whet the appetite. The esoteric language of the art has a charm of its own, and its study can be pleasantly satisfying. You can learn much from the numerous books on the subject, but participation is better. The number of changes involved in ringing a peal, that is going through all the changes and coming back into rounds, is considerable. No order is to be rung twice in succession. On twelve bells, a full peal is a test of skill, concentration, and endurance. The total number of different changes possible on a given number of bells can be found by multiplying together the numbers of the bells. After one bell, say number 1, there is a choice of five for continuing, then a choice of four, and so on. Thus, for example, for 6 bells the total is 1x2x3x4x5x6 = 720 possible changes. On 8 bells the number is 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8=40320; and for 12 bells we have the staggering total of 479,001,600! This latter would take about 27 years to ring at the normal rate. Much has been written on Method Ringing, and the art has been much studied by many interested parties, eminent scientists and mathematicians, too. There is more about this subject in the chapter on tower bells, to which this applies. The principal point to grasp is that when a bell is rung, as distinct from being chimed, the sound is recognisably different. As the bell swings, the sound distribution is such that it passes out through the louvres of the tower and over the surrounding countryside for several miles under favourable conditions. On a calm evening, or if the wind is in the right direction, tower bells can send a message into the next parish. Bell-ringing is an absorbing hobby for many people. There are local organisations for the promotion of the art, and a central council for its regulation. So the ringing of bells provides not only a means of communication between church and people, but a leisure activity, too. Hand-bells are rung by bands of people of all ages and occupations as a diversion and entertainment. The sets of bells are carefully maintained, and bands ring them 49

Bell Watching principally for tunes. The bell is grasped by the leather strap, and jerked from the wrist to make the clapper strike. The tone is good, and audiences are enthusiastic. Bands often perform in public, at concerts and other events. Call changes, methods, and tunes are all suitable for hand bell ringers. The bands frequently tour locally to give performances. In this chapter we have encroached a little on what we shall say in the chapter on tower bells, since they are the ones chiefly concerned with true ringing, as well as their use for chiming. It is hoped that the chapters may inspire you with some interest in taking up bell-ringing yourself. It could certainly enrich your life if you live in England.

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Glossary Belfry The chamber where tower bells are hung, in their frame. This is the highest room in the tower, and gives access to the roof, where the flagstaff and weather vane are situated. Bell A percussion instrument, consisting of a hollow body of metal or other highly elastic substance, expanded at the mouth, and fixed at the centre, which emits a clear ringing sound when struck. Campanile A structure within which a bell or several bells may be hung. Change ringing This term is applied to the ringing of bells where the order or sequence changes. Call changes involve changes as and when called by the conductor. In Method or Scientific ringing the changes occur in each line. Churches There are over 5,000 English churches with rings of bells. Next comes Wales, with about 160, whilst Ireland has 35, and Scotland only 15. For this reason the references to ringing tower bells apply mainly to England, the home of change ringing. There are a few churches in other countries where bells are rung, where the English language is spoken. Clapper A rod which hangs from the crown, inside the bell, with an enlargement at its lower end. This rod is free to swing, and its period of swing differs from that of the bell itself. As the bell rotates, the clapper strikes the inner face, to produce the sound. Campanology This word is supposedly derived from the time, in AD 44, when Paulinus was bishop of Nola, in Camponia. He is said to have referred to the large bell in the tower as the "campan", and the small hand bell as the "nola". Thus, the words came to be used together, leading to the term "campanology". However, too much credence should not be given to this. English bell-ringers, with centuries of practice behind them, rarely use it, preferring the term "bell-ringing" to designate their ancient hobby. Dodge A step "out of line" when ringing a Method, so as to bring the bells into a new sequence, and thus allow the full extent of changes to be rung. Even Bell Method A Method rung on an even number of bells: • • • • •

Minimus...4 bells Minor...6 bells Major...8 bells Royal...10 bells Maximus…12 bells

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Bell Watching Exercise English ringers sometimes speak of "the Exercise", when discussing their expertise. The origin of the term is unknown, but dates back for at least two centuries. Founders The men who cast large bells. At one time they were itinerant, travelling to the places where new bells were needed. They would prepare the pit, and fashion the cope and core, (the outer and inner forms). They built the fire, melted the bell-metal, and poured the molten metal, an undertaking demanding skill and dexterity. In some places, near churches and cathedrals, traces of those old pits may still be discovered. Nowadays, with modern transport, heavy loads like large bells can be conveyed by road or rail, so bell foundries in several places are available, and the men no longer have to travel to the site. This does deprive the local inhabitants of some exciting and fascinating side-shows. Frame Tower bells are mounted in sturdy timber or steel frames which convey the weight of the bells and the thrust as they swing, to the fabric of the tower. Headstock The headstock is, effectively, the axle to which the bell is attached, and it turns in bearings, at one time plain, but more often nowadays ball or roller bearings. Hunting Taking a bell through the positions when ringing a peal or a touch (part of a peal). Methods The best known methods are Grandsire, Stedman and Cambridge, but there are many others, with variations, e.g. Cambridge Surprise. Odd Bell Methods These are methods rung on an odd number of bells, thus: • • • •

Doubles…5 bells Triples...7 bells Caters...9 bells Cinques…11 bells

Peal A peal consists of a non-stop succession of changes, without repetition, in a recognised pattern. Quarter peals are sometimes rung, too, taking about three quarters of an hour. Rounds When a set of bells is rung with the lightest leading, and the others following down the scale in succession they are said to be ringing rounds. All peals start with this. Sally The tufted length of rope in bell-ropes of towers, seen also in the rope of a school bell. It is the part of the rope held by the ringer on "hand stroke". Slider For tower bells, designed to be rung full circle, a wooden horizontal slider, pivoted at one end, is struck by the stay (q.v.) on each stroke, swinging from side to side, and it is against this that the stay rests when the bell is "set". 52

Bell Watching Stay Large bells, designed to be rung neary full circle, have a stay, usually of ash, which protrudes from the crown side of the bearing, moving with the bell. It rests against the slider when the bell is "up", to prevent it turning further. Tenor The heaviest bell in a set is the tenor, which rings last when the bells are rung in rounds. The average weight of a tenor in English towers is about half a ton. There are heavier ones, going up to over four tons. The bells in a set of hand bells are named similarly, though individual hand bells are known by the notes they produce. Tower Captain The man or woman appointed to organise the ringing for a particular tower. Treble This is the lightest bell in a set or ring of bells, and in rounds is rung immediately after the tenor. Turning Repeated blows on the inner surface of a large bell can produce a dent, of gradually increasing depth. It then becomes necessary for the bell to be "turned", i.e. rotated about its vertical axis, to bring another part of the rim into play. It may be rotated a quarter turn or an eighth, and in this way the life of the bell may be extended for a very long time. Wheel Heavy bells are caused to swing by a rope passing round a large grooved wheel which moves with the bell. The wheel is usually of elm. The rope is attached to one of the spokes, passes out through the rim, and wound round the groove. It then passes down through a guide to the floors below.

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Bibliography Nobody who looks into bells should fail to read that masterpiece by Dorothy L. Sayers, The Nine Tailors. Although written in 1934, it is still fascinating reading. The "exercise", as the world of ringers is sometimes called, is well represented in The Ringers' World, a periodical for bell-ringers. Copies of this will usually be found in ringing chambers, in English church towers. These references refer chiefly to tower bells, and their operation. Little has been written about other types of bell, but it is worth looking in the reference libraries for an occasional reference to the manufacture of e.g. bicycle bells, and the larger bells used on early locomotives and aboard ship. Many references may appear rather dated. It doesn't matter. Bells stem from ancient times, and little has changed over the centuries. When you have exhausted the local library, you would do well to approach the members of your local ringers associations. They will have copies of some of the publications relevant to our subject. Most will deal with tower bells, and you will enjoy the search for the information you seek on other types. This list is by no means exhaustive, but perusal of the following books and papers may well encourage you to pursue the subject in other publications. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Theory of Sound, Lord Rayleigh, pub. Macmillan & Co 1944 Acoustical measurements on Church Bells and Carillons, E.W.Van Heuven, pub. SGraven hage/De Gebroeders Van Cleef 1949 Bell-ringing, John Camp, pub. David & Charles. The History of Cholera in Exeter in 1832, by Thomas Shapter MD, pub. 1949 by Adam Holden, High Street, Exeter. Change Ringing , Wilfred G. Wilson, pub. Faber 1965. The Art of Handbell Ringing, Nancy Poore Tufts, pub. Herbert Jenkins. The Bell, Its Origin, Histpry, and Uses, A. Gatty. 1847 The Bells of England, J.J.Raven .1906

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Bell Watching Edmund W. Jupp The aim of the "Watching" series is to draw attention to some of the very interesting items around us, things that perhaps we don't notice as much as we might. The first was "Bridge Watching", and when this was put "on the Net" it produced, to the surprise of the author, such a pleasant flood of e-mail that another was written, called "Water Watching". This, too, was kindly received. So it was tempting to continue with the theme. Many people know very little about bells, and some, sadly, know nothing at all. This is a pity for, large or little, they can be engaging objects. You might think that "Bell Hearing" might be a better title; but looking at bells has its own attraction, too. In England, church bells are well known, because of the sounds they make, though many people have not seen the bells themselves. Doorbells, too, are familiar items in many houses, but are rarely regarded with any particular interest. Some of these are not what is popularly imagined as bell-shaped, and are more properly chimes. Then there are bicycle bells, cowbells, and many other kinds, too, all well worth a thought. Things that are free are doubly attractive. It costs nothing to enjoy the pleasures of getting to know these interesting objects. Learning a little about the fascinating qualities of bells in general can be an enjoyable occupation, and can start a lively curiosity about them. The more you know about them, the more interesting they become. Author Edmund W. Jupp (BSc (Eng), FIMech E) was born during the First World War in Sussex, England and received his early education at Brighton. After service in the 1939-45 war he worked in engineering and education, and travelled widely. He was appointed Principal of the Technical Institute in Guyana.

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