An Overview of Online Learning, Second Edition

An Overview of Online Learning Second Edition

Saul Carliner

HRD Press, Inc.

Amherst

Massachusetts

Published by: HRD Press, Inc. 22 Amherst Road Amherst, MA 01002 (800) 822-2801 (U.S. and Canada) (413) 253-3488 (413) 253-3490 (Fax) http://www.hrdpress.com

Second Edition, First Printing Copyright © 2004 by VNU Business Media All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without permission in writing from the publisher. All inquiries should be addressed to HRD Press, Inc., 22 Amherst Road, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002. Published in the United States by HRD Press, Inc. ISBN 0-87425-740-9 Typesetting by Pracharak Technologies (P) Ltd., Madras, India Cover design by Donna Thibault-Wong Editorial work by Suzanne Bay and Sally Farnham Printed in Canada

Table of Contents Preface .............................................................................................. vii About This Overview ................................................................. vii Who Should Read This Overview ............................................. vii Primary Users .............................................................................vii Secondary Users .........................................................................vii How the Overview Is Organized .............................................. viii Changes in the Second Edition ................................................... ix Acknowledgments ............................................................................ xi Chapter 1: An Introduction to Online Learning ........................... 1 Online Learning: A Definition ..................................................... 1 What Does Online Learning Look Like? .....................................2 How Does Online Learning Compare with Distance Learning? .................................................................... 4 How Does Online Learning Compare with E-learning, Web-based Training, and Computer-based Training? .......... 4 Is Online Learning More Effective than Classroom Learning?.....................................................................................6 Will Online Learning Replace the Classroom? .......................... 7 What are the Key Considerations in Planning an Online Learning Program? ................................................................... 7 Consideration 1: Learning Goals ................................................8 Consideration 2: Technology .....................................................11 Consideration 3: Project Issues ..................................................13 Chapter 2: Learning Goals ............................................................ 15 About Learning Goals ................................................................ 16 Starting at the End .................................................................... 16 Moving Beyond the Boundaries of the Classroom .................. 18 Formal Learning Online ............................................................ 19 Learning through Online Education ......................................... 19 Learning through Online Training ............................................ 25 Adapting Formal Learning to the Computer ............................ 28

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Informal Learning Online .......................................................... 29 Learning through Knowledge Management ............................. 30 Learning through Electronic Performance Support .................. 33 Blending Different Types of Learning ...................................... 36 Learn More about the Contexts of Learning Online ................ 38 Chapter 3: The Technology of Online Learning .......................... 39 Technology for Developing Online Learning Programs ......... 41 A Background .............................................................................. 42 Consider the End Product First ................................................ 44 The Storyboard: A Tool to Visualize the End Product ............. 44 The User Interface: A Central Element of an Online Learning Program ................................................................. 46 Characteristics of a Good User Interface ................................. 47 The Components or Building Blocks of the Learning Program .................................................................. 49 Productivity Tools for Simple Text and Graphics ................... 51 What Productivity Tools Are .................................................... 51 When to Use Productivity Tools ............................................... 52 Issues to Consider When Using Productivity Tools ................. 53 Media Production Tools for Creating Complex Images ......... 53 What Media Production Tools Are ........................................... 53 When to Use Media Production Tools ..................................... 57 Issues to Consider When Using Media Production Tools ........ 58 The Tools Needed to Integrate Individual Components in a Single Program ................................................................. 62 Tools Needed to Prepare an Asynchronous Learning Program ................................................................. 62 Tools Needed to Prepare a Synchronous Learning Experience: Virtual Classroom Software............................... 70 The Technology for Managing Online Learning ..................... 73 Learning Management Systems ................................................ 74 Hybrid Systems ......................................................................... 79

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Learning Content Management Systems .................................. 80 Specialized Software...................................................................83 Standards.....................................................................................83 The Technology for Delivering Online Learning ..................... 85 Choosing Technologies to Assist with Delivery on a Network ........................................................................ 86 Delivering the Learning Program ...............................................91 What Does this Mean to Someone Developing Online Learning Programs? ................................................................95 Consider the Hardware and Software Available to Individual Learners .................................................................96 What a Learner’s Configuration Means to Someone Developing Online Learning Programs ................................ 98 Learn More About the Technology for Delivering Online Learning .................................................................... 99 Chapter 4: Project and Learning Considerations ..................... 101 Overview of Project and Learning Issues .............................. 101 Issues Associated with a Strategy for Moving to Online Learning ................................................................................. 103 Issues Associated with Designing and Developing Online Courses ................................................................................... 107 Similarities with Design for the Classroom and Workbook ................................................................................108 Differences between Online Course Design and Traditional Course Design ................................................... 109 Analysis Issues......................................................................... 110 Design Issues .......................................................................... 120 A Case Study in Needs Analysis ......................................... 133 A Case Study of an Online Community of Practice............ 135 A Case Study of a Simulation Learning Experience ........... 136 A Case Study of Advanced Professional Training............... 137 Developing the Components.................................................... 137 Developing Your Skills............................................................ 140 Managing the Process .............................................................. 144 Producing the Learning Program............................................. 145 Testing the Components............................................................147

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Maintaining and Supporting the Online Learning Program ................................................................. 148 Distributing and Marketing the Learning Program ................. 148 Supporting the Learning Program ........................................... 149 Maintaining the Learning Program.......................................... 150 Evaluating the Learning Program............................................ 152 Purchasing Software and Services ........................................... 157 Types of Services Purchased ................................................... 157 Issues to Consider When Purchasing....................................... 158 To Learn More About Online Program Development............. 159 Appendix ........................................................................................ 161 Glossary of Terms Used in Online Learning ...............................205

Preface About This Overview An Overview of Online Learning introduces the reader to online learning and addresses the key issues that should be considered before developing or participating in online learning. Specifically, this overview •

Describes what online learning is and identifies its major uses.

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Identifies the four major types of online learning.

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Outlines the technology needed to make online learning work.

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Lists the project issues—that is, the management considerations and design challenges—that need to be addressed before developing materials for online learning.

Note, however, that this book is intended only to introduce you to online learning. It is not intended to provide you with detailed instructions on how to develop an online learning program or use online learning technology.

Who Should Read This Overview This book has been re-written to address the needs of four different audiences:

Primary Users People with education or training backgrounds who have little experience with online learning

Secondary Users •

People with backgrounds other than training who will play a role in online learning

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People who have experience developing online learning, but are interested in having a framework for understanding its complexities People who have read the earlier version of this book and want to familiarize themselves with the updated content

How the Overview Is Organized The book has been organized into four chapters: 1. An introduction to online learning. The chapter starts with a quick introduction to online learning and moves on to identify the topics that are addressed in-depth later in the book. 2. Learning goals. This chapter provides detailed information on each of the major types of online learning—knowledge management, performance support, and training and education. 3. Learning technology. This chapter provides a simplified overview of the technology needed to create, deliver, and manage online learning. More than anything, the goal of this section is to familiarize you with the technical issues that must be considered, rather than provide you with a detailed listing of all the available technologies. Supplying such a list would be an admittedly futile effort; within a few months of writing the list, the technology would have changed anyway. 4. Project issues. The chapter discusses several issues that must be considered when planning any online learning project. These issues include project issues, people management, and learning issues. This new edition also includes sample designs for two online learning lessons: one module from a compliance-training course, and one module from a product training course. A glossary of helpful terms and definitions appears in the back. When appropriate, related resources, especially those that are available online, will be listed.

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Changes in the Second Edition The general structure of the second edition of An Overview of Online Learning has not changed since the first edition. There are, however, important changes to the content. These changes result from two trends: a growing maturity within the field and of online learning and the emergence of a new class of technology. Specifically, the following areas in this second edition reflect new understanding: •

Learning Goals (chapter 2). The distinction between formal and informal learning has been clarified as interest in informal online learning has grown. Learning goals are now grouped according to whether they are formal or informal, and the description of online collaboration has been dropped because online collaboration usually happens within the context of some other form of learning. This chapter also includes an expanded discussion of “blended” learning, which has become more popular since the first edition was published. (Blending mixes online and classroom learning and formal and informal learning into a single learning program.)

•

Learning Technology (chapter 3). The classifications of technology for developing and delivering learning have remained remarkably stable, but there is now a new class of technology for helping organizations administer learning programs (referred to as learning management systems). Another new class of technology, which is also described in this chapter, has emerged to help course designers and developers use content that has already been developed for other purposes: learning content management systems.

•

Project Issues (chapter 4). This chapter addresses the same types of issues covered in the first edition, but also reflects the wisdom of additional years of collective experience with online learning. In addition to explaining how instructional design and development vary for classroom and online learning, this chapter also covers how to develop a strategy for moving learning online, issues to consider when purchasing technology and services, and how to support and maintain an online learning program.

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Acknowledgments Several people have helped me prepare the technical content for this edition of the Overview. Huge thanks goes to Gloria Gery, who provided much of the intellectual backbone of this book. I would also like to thank Clark Aldrich, who clarified my understanding of LMSs and LCMSs, and Margaret Driscoll and Patti Shank, who provided sanity checks on the content from time to time. I would like to thank the folks at HRD Press and VNU Business Media for their leadership and publishing support. At HRD Press, a thank you goes to Chris Hunter for patiently waiting for the draft version and suggesting changes that would make the content most useful to readers; Bob Carkhuff, who shepherded this book through production; and Debra Draper and colleagues for marketing the book. At VNU Business Media, thanks go to Phil Jones for his enthusiastic executive sponsorship of this book; to Julie Groshens for suggesting that I write it (and for countless other opportunities and hours of conversation); to Steve Dahlberg for feeding me the latest industry news and providing technical support for the Web version of this book; to Marc Hequet and Sarah Boehle for feeding me information and providing succinct weekly words of wisdom in the various electronic newsletters from VNU; and finally, to Leah Nelson for general support of online learning events and, in particular, for support for the “live” versions of this content. I would also like to thank the people who assisted me with screen shots and other graphics: Geoff Cox and John Kruper from Cardean University; Kevin Oakes and Karen Peck from Click2Learn; Bob Mosher and Bob Voelker from Element K; Maurice Heiblum from Elluminate; Jennifer Hofmann of InSych Training Synergy; Julius Edlavitch from International Pediatric Chat; Heather Holleander from Macromedia; Chris Maxwell from Ojala.com; and my former student, Cesira Daukantas.

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Chapter 1: An Introduction to Online Learning Before you consider how online learning can be used in your organization and which investments in technology you will need, you must first know: •

What online learning is.

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What you should consider when planning an online learning program.

Online Learning: A Definition Simply put, online learning refers to learning and other supportive resources that are available through a computer. In an online lesson, the computer displays material in response to a learner’s request. The computer prompts the learner for more information, and presents appropriate material based on the learner’s response. The material can be as simple as lessons from a classroom course and accompanying tests that are transcribed into a computer program, or as complex as a program that tracks user input and suggests appropriate learning material. It can be a work session that occurs on a computer, in which case the learning is a byproduct of the experience, or it can be designed for purposes other than learning, in which learners go through it with a goal of extracting particular content.

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The material can be presented as text, graphics, animated graphics (that is, graphics that move), audio, video, or a combination of any of these. At the end of this topic, you can link to examples of simple and complex online learning materials, each of which makes use of a variety of media.

What Does Online Learning Look Like? For starters, online learning looks like the screen in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: Example screen from an online course.

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Figure 1-1 (continued): Example screen from an online course.

This book is designed as a reference rather than a course, but it has an educational purpose. In its online form, it is all about the most basic form of online learning: some text, simple graphics, and a limited amount of interaction. More-complex online learning will involve a larger amount of intentional interaction than hyperlinks. This interaction might include drills such as those used to teach rote mathematics skills or make sure that workers know and follow safety procedures when working with toxic chemicals. More-complex systems include simulations such as aircraft simulators or fictitious situations involving medical patients or management challenges in the workplace. Computers offer so much flexibility and variety, making online learning versatile and flexible, as well. Examples of more-complex forms of online learning courses are regularly scheduled lectures by videoconference on the Internet; a Web page with supplemental materials such as

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videos of previous lessons; discussions outside of class by electronic mail; and online tests whose results are automatically recorded in student records. Finally, online learning can be used to teach any subject. Subjects such as technical training and lower-order thinking skills (such as memorization) lend themselves most easily to online learning. But imaginative course designers have successfully taught all sorts of other subjects online: courses on compliance with equal opportunity laws, screenwriting, leadership skills for business managers, how to make scientific and technical presentations, and delivering courteous customer service, to name a few.

How Does Online Learning Compare with Distance Learning? People often use the term distance learning to refer to online learning. Actually, online learning is just one form of distance learning. According to the United States Distance Learning Association, distance learning is any type of educational situation in which the instructor and students are separated by time or location. Correspondence courses and courses by television are forms of distance learning.

How Does Online Learning Compare with E-learning, Web-based Training, and Computer-based Training? People often interchange online learning with the terms e-learning, Web-based training, computer-based training, computer-based instruction, and technology-based instruction. Actually, each of these is a form of online learning, and each term has a specific meaning, but some terms are synonymous.

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•

Online learning in its broadest form refers to all types of learning that takes place via computer.

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Ε-learning is often used to refer to online learning, but learning expert Marc Rosenberg contends that it is only e-learning if the computer is connected either to the Internet or to an intranet or extranet (private forms of the Internet that limit access to authorized users). Because learning materials are available through the Internet, they can be linked to resources outside the learning program, such as references, electronic mail, and discussions. Because they do not require that the computer be connected to the Internet, learning programs on CD and DVD are technically not forms of e-learning, although they are forms of online learning.

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Web-based training is a synonym for e-learning.

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Computer-based training (also called computer-based instruction) is an older term (used before the widespread availability of the Internet) and refers to courses presented on a computer. The course does not provide links to learning resources outside of the course. Often, learners take a computer-based training course on a computer that is not connected to a network.

•

Technology-based instruction has a broader meaning; it refers to learning through any medium other than the classroom. This includes computers, but also refers to television, audiotape, videotape, and print.

Not surprisingly, the term online learning confuses people because it refers to a broad range of approaches and involves new and complex technology that people in the industry enthusiastically advocate and at times even hype. Terminology and concepts become confused ( just look at the confusion over the terms online learning and e-learning), and project proposals become muddied as people equate delivery mechanisms with program structure and focus on technical issues, sometimes to the oversight of content.

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Is Online Learning More Effective than Classroom Learning? That depends on how you define the term effective. If you define effective as faster then, in some instances, online learning is more effective. Some studies show that online courses taught exclusively asynchronously (that is, the instructor and learner are not online at the same time) can reduce learning time by about a third. One of the reasons for this is that learners can skip material they already know; in the classroom, learners must sit through such material. If you define effective as students learning the material better than in the classroom, no conclusive answer exists. Some enthusiasts of online learning argue theoretically that learning is more effective online because it engages more senses. The more senses involved in learning, the higher the retention of the material. In reality, this view assumes that every online course actually engages all of these senses. Many existing online courses are electronic page turners, and do not engage the senses. Research on online reading suggests that reading online is less effective than reading printed materials: reading speeds are 25 percent slower online. Learners also tend to skim online material rather than to read it carefully. That might suggest, then, that online learning is less effective than the classroom or workbooks, but studies have not found that to be the case. Instead, most studies that compare classroom and online versions of the same material suggest that online learning is as effective as classroom learning—no more, no less.

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Will Online Learning Replace the Classroom? Absolutely not. Admittedly, some of the early advocates of online learning suggested that the computer might replace the classroom, but most people dismiss this point of view. Instead, designers have learned that the best online learning complements classroom learning. In fact, some of the most effective online learning programs are blended with classroom programs, letting each medium do what it does best. For example, IBM’s management training program combines online and classroom segments. Online segments introduce learners to the rote content and are available for reference when learners need the material on the job. This type of material is primarily fact-based. Classroom segments focus on real world application of the concepts discussed in the online segments. This type of material is primarily judgment-based; learners must make assessments of when and how to apply rules.

What Are the Key Considerations in Planning an Online Learning Program? The most central consideration in designing online learning programs is the same as that for programs intended for the classroom or presented as workbooks: the content. Course designers and developers must choose, sequence, and present content so that learners can master it most effectively in the least amount of time. But the computer imposes a number of new opportunities and challenges. On the one hand, it allows you to present content in radically different ways than were previously possible. On the other hand, computer technology is ever-evolving, and courses must be developed within organizational and educational constraints. Many considera-

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tions need to be addressed when planning an online learning program. The next several sections will explore three of them in more detail: 1. Learning goals 2. Technology 3. Project issues

Consideration 1: Learning Goals Is online learning a more efficient way of placing students in seats, or is it a new kind of learning experience? Part of the answer depends on the learner’s ability to master the technology. Think about how writers, directors, producers, and performers mastered a related communications technology: television. The first television shows were radio shows, in which viewers could see pictures of the performers. Instead of performers standing around a microphone and talking, they sat on a stage set and talked. Then Lucille Ball came along. Because she had recently given birth to her first child, Lucy did not want to work evenings, when comedies were broadcast live. So the show was recorded before it was televised, the first prime-time comedy series to do this. The production team saw an opportunity to experiment. Freed from some of the restrictions of live television, the production team could use three cameras to record the show, and edit the film afterwards. This three-camera approach effectively showcased Lucy’s trademark physical comedy (some say it is responsible for her success) and became the standard production technique for decades following Lucy’s series.

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As an unanticipated byproduct, the recordings could be sold again as reruns. Lucille Ball and Desi Arnez not only invented television comedy, they invented the rerun business (or, as we like to call them in the learning world, reusable learning objects). Television took another leap forward in the early 1980s with the arrival of Hill Street Blues, which told stories primarily through pictures, rather than through dialogue. As a result, television became more like film. As screenwriting author Syd Field describes it, film represents stories told through pictures, supported by words. Over time, online learning, too, will move from the “just off of radio” phase through an I Love Lucy phase and into a Hill Street Blues phase. Online learning programs vary from “off the radio” phase (replacing the lecturer with the computer) to the “Hill Street Blues” phase, a fundamentally different learning experience that breaks the boundary of the classroom and creates radically new ways of learning specifically suited to the computer. More fundamentally, the answer depends on the goals of the learning program. One of the key questions to consider is whether your goal is to make the learning intentional, or to let it be a byproduct. In the classroom, people always assume that the learning is intentional, but computers let people store and review a variety of information anywhere. As a result, learning can happen unintentionally. For example, an individual browsing through a reference on heart valves might stumble onto information about diets for healthy living, and retain the material. In other instances, the computer performs work for the learner; learning is not necessary. An example of this is the use of online calculators to compute loan payment schedules so people will not have to learn how to calculate them on their own. In other words, online learning can be more than just an intentional, sit-and-study type of learning. But that other type of learning only happens if you intentionally plan for it.

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As you develop the objectives for an online learning program, you can choose the context that best supports the learning you hope to achieve: •

Formal learning, in which the course designers and developers identify the intended outcomes long before the course begins and learners are considered to have successfully completed the learning program only when they can demonstrate successful mastery of the intended outcomes. Formal learning takes two forms: — Education—a structured learning event whose outcomes are intended to have a long-term benefit to learners. — Training—a structured learning event whose outcomes are intended to have an immediate benefit to learners.

•

Informal learning, in which learners define what they want to learn and the learning is considered successful when learners believe they have mastered their intended objectives (whether or not the course designers believe that the learners have or have not demonstrated mastery). Informal learning takes two forms: — Knowledge management—work environments that capture, store, and organize the knowledge and experiences of individual workers and groups, and make that content available to others in the organization. Organizational learning is intentional, individual learning is a by-product. — Performance support—work environments that are designed around a software application; performers receive assistance with tasks or in completing work from a computer. The learning resources are built into the software. Performance—not competence—is the goal in these contexts: The goal is to help learners perform the task, whether or not course designers feel that learners have mastered the task.

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Chapter Two, Learning Goals, describes each of these contexts in detail, and offers samples of materials prepared for each of these contexts.

Consideration 2: Technology Does technology drive teaching, or does teaching drive the technology? Before you can consider this question, you must have a good understanding of which technology is needed to support online learning. Three types of technologies support online learning: •

Technologies for managing learning programs. Primarily software, this type of technology performs the tasks of a registrar: It enrolls learners in courses (not just online courses, but also classroom courses), tracks their progress through courses (such as “attendance,” and progress on tests and other assessments), records completions, sends notification of completions and certifications to other systems, and provides reports on learning.

•

Technologies for developing learning programs. The hardware and software technology can help you create the learning materials, prepare them for “publication,” and exchange materials with other learning programs. The standards you might have heard about primarily affect the technology for developing and managing online learning programs.

•

Technologies for delivering the learning program. These technologies include the computer hardware (most often a PC) and the software installed on it (such as the operating system that controls the computer) that lets learners use the learning materials. These technologies can also include specialized hardware and software for playing video and audio and for handling complex interactions between the student and the computer, the cables and software that connect the computers in a network, the protocols and

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standards or “smarts” that help computers accurately read information transmitted on the network, as well as specialized software such as database programs. In an ideal world, you would choose the technology for managing, developing, and distributing online learning materials after you have set objectives and determined the most appropriate learning context. The technology you choose would most likely bring about the intended results. In the real world, that doesn’t happen. Much of the technology used for online learning is already installed and used for other purposes, such as processing orders, managing computer networks, and storing customer records. It is probably already used by most other departments in the organization, such as finance, customer service, human resources, and manufacturing. In fact, the needs of these groups often drive the choice of technology. You often have to “inherit” the selection. If that is the case, make sure you understand the technology infrastructure available in your organization and its compatibility with your learning objectives and context. Then you can adapt it to your needs and make sure that additional technology investments harmonize with the technology already available. As you and your organization become more familiar with online learning, you will no doubt seek a more active role in choosing hardware and software to make sure that the technology is compatible with the goals for online learning in your organization. Chapter 3, The Technology of Online Learning, describes the elements of a technical infrastructure needed to support online learning, identifies choices that might have been made already, and suggests the choices yet to be made.

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Consideration 3: Project Issues Once goals are established and technical issues are addressed, you need to consider how to adjust your existing processes for developing and delivering learning materials and which skills you need to make the most effective use of the medium. These are project issues, because they pertain to the project processes of designing, developing, launching, evaluating, and supporting online learning programs. These issues include •

Project management. No solitary effort, developing online learning materials involves a team of people with diverse skills, ranging from course design to acting, graphic design, and programming. Orchestrating and harmonizing these efforts requires specialized processes; tracking them benefits from specialized software for project management.

•

Strong needs analysis and well-defined objectives. These two “musts” are the starting point for effective classroom and workbook materials, as well as effective documentation. The need for strong analysis and well-defined objectives does not change just because the end product is online. However, the analysis must explore issues about the learning technologies and their acceptance by various types of users in the organization.

•

Unique repertoire of teaching skills. Teaching online involves a different repertoire of teaching techniques—some similar to those used in the classroom, others rarely seen in the classroom. It also involves designing the user interface (the look and feel of the software that users interact with) and considerations for re-use (using materials from the course elsewhere in the organization). Online instructors might have to adapt classroom presentation skills and workbooks to the computer screen.

•

Development for the computer screen. At the least, this involves programming and testing. If the online learning program includes audio, video, and animated segments, this involves extensive production. If the online learning programs make use of other information elsewhere in the organization, programming and permissions will be necessary. (By the way, if your

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needs are generic, consider purchasing or tailoring an off-theshelf learning program before developing your own.) •

Launch, marketing, support, maintenance, and administration. Just because you publish an online learning program doesn’t mean that the intended learners will find it, much less use it. Just because learners are out-of-sight does not mean that they will not have questions and concerns that need to be addressed. And just because the online learning material has been published does not mean that it won’t need to change. In other words, your online learning project is not complete if you have not considered how to get materials to intended learners, how to keep records of learner participation and performance (particularly if your organization needs this information), how to address problems that arise as learners go through the course, and how to update the course on a timely basis.

Chapter 4, Project and Learning Issues, explores each of these concerns in detail.

Chapter 2: Learning Goals Planning for online learning begins at the end, with the goals you hope to achieve. This chapter explores the different types of learning goals that you can achieve with online learning—many that you cannot achieve in a classroom. Specifically, this chapter covers the following: •

About learning goals — Starting at the end — Breaking beyond the boundaries of the classroom

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Planning for formal learning — Learning through online education — Learning through online training — Adapting formal learning to the computer

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Planning for informal learning — Learning through knowledge management within an organization — Learning through electronic performance support — Adapting informal learning to the computer

•

Blending different types of learning

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About Learning Goals Starting at the End Planning for online learning starts at the end, with the outcome or results to be achieved. The results will vary: •

From a learner’s perspective, the learning outcomes are tied to personal goals. In some cases, a learner can easily define his or her goals, such as “processing an insurance claim,” “preparing a detailed work plan for a client,” “troubleshooting a piece of equipment,” or “describing the management issues faced in a particular business situation.” Sometimes the goals are less defined, such as when a worker for a medical device manufacturer wants to understand how the devices he or she works on affect a patient’s quality of life. Similarly, a participant on a team might want to understand all the job tasks in a development process or a student in a college-level art appreciation course might like to “better understand art.”

•

From a manager’s perspective, the learning outcomes are tied to business issues driving the manager. In some organizations, management seeks financial results, which can usually be achieved through the reduced cost of delivering online learning programs compared to classroom courses. In other organizations, management seeks performance results—improved work performance promised by training, such as a decreased time to performance (that is, the time needed for a new worker to perform like a more experienced one) or increased accuracy.

•

From a programmer’s perspective (also called a developer), the learning outcome is to produce a flawlessly running program. A flawless program: — Runs quickly and does so because it uses the fewest system resources. One group of resources might facilitate communication among computers. The wires that transmit information from one computer to another (as well as wireless channels) carry a finite amount of information. The more information you try to send, such as graphics, audio, and video, the more likely you are to reach the capacity of the system.

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— Runs without errors. Do all of the links identified in the program really link to the material indicated? Do the answers displayed after learners respond to questions match the answers given? (That is, if someone enters a correct response, does the system respond with “Incorrect”?) In the process of running, does the program cause the system to crash because it inadvertently caused a problem in another program? — Can be developed and delivered with the technology that’s available. For example, suppose you are developing materials that are available only on the Internet, yet users do not have easy access to the Internet. The course might be great, but if learners have no access to it, the online program in this case is useless. •

From the designer’s perspective, the learning outcomes or results will depend on the learning objectives—those statements indicating the visible and measurable skills learners should master as a result of using the online learning materials. In some situations, the learning is intentional; the learners must master the objectives, including training and education. In other situations, learning is a coincidental outcome, and learners will acquire new skills and knowledge as they work on more familiar tasks, such as knowledge management and performance support. Whether learning is intentional or coincidental affects the way in which people design online learning experiences and the way these people plan for learners to acquire new skills.

The next several sections describe learning goals from this last perspective: intentional or coincidental learning. By taking this perspective, the people who design and develop online learning programs can assess which approach best helps learners achieve their goals and create experiences designed to promote learning in the most effective manner.

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Programmers support learners in this effort through use of efficient, effective programs. Finally, if learners achieve their goals, management should achieve the business results it seeks.

Moving Beyond the Boundaries of the Classroom Because the primary package for training in the classroom is the course, we educators and trainers naturally gravitate to the idea of delivering learning material online as courses. In fact, the processes and systems used by most training departments and educational institutions are designed for developing and delivering courses. It’s the unit in which we deliver content, and it’s the primary deliverable for our efforts. For many training organizations, it’s also the unit for which we charge for our services, as well as the unit on which we measure our effectiveness. Most training departments and educational institutions assess the effectiveness of their work by assessing the effectiveness of their courses. Classroom courses represent a type of learning called formal learning because the learning has stated objectives and is supposed to yield pre-determined results. Some types of online learning re-create the formal learning experience online. Formal learning online takes the form of education and training. Other forms of online learning move beyond formal learning to provide learning when, where, and how learners need it. Such learning does not have stated objectives, because each learner has a different goal, though many can achieve their goals through the same learning material. This type of learning is called informal learning, because it does not identify outcomes that learners should achieve. Learners determine these outcomes for themselves, often after taking the course. Informal learning online takes the form of knowledge management and performance support. The next several sections describe these two broad categories of online learning, and the specific forms of learning within them. And the following figure represents the different categories and types of learning.

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Types of Online Learning Formal Learning

Informal Learning

• Education • Training • Blended with classroom and printed versions of the same

• Knowledge management • Electronic performance support • Blended with related materials in other media

Formal Learning Online The first type of online learning to be discussed is formal learning. As mentioned earlier, formal learning is intentional: The learning materials begin with specific objectives that have been identified by the course developer in conjunction with the sponsors and subject matter experts. Learning is assessed as the extent to which learners achieve those objectives. This learning is characterized by a level of control by the course designer over the learner, because the learner must meet the designer’s goals before he or she can officially complete the learning experience. Formal learning online takes two forms: online education and online training.

Learning through Online Education What is “online education”? Education is a structured event specifically intended to develop durable knowledge and skills—skills that have long-term use. When the event occurs in a classroom, the instructor is a person. When the event occurs online, the computer becomes the instructor. At least two types of education are considered to be online: •

Virtual classrooms—classroom-like events in which students and instructors are separated by geography, but they do their work at the same time.

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An Overview of Online Learning

At the least, instructors and students interact with one another by “chatting” online—typing in messages that all of the people connected to the event can see. The chat might be a formal one in which an instructor “lectures” first, and follows up with an online conversation. At the most, the event includes an Internet broadcast of the instructor and a simultaneous presentation of a related visual (perhaps a whiteboard on which instructors can write notes so all participants can see them). Students respond with oral or written questions. Because the instructor and learners are online at the same time, the instruction is called synchronous. •

Online courses—structured learning experiences presented on a computer, in which the instructor and the learner are separated by time and geography. Materials are organized into courses, which can include a combination of formal teaching sequences and exercises, such as problems to solve and simulations to experience. Individual learners directly interact with the computer to proceed through the courses. Ideally, these courses engage students through meaningful interaction and allow students to direct their own learning. These courses often include assessments (testing). Because learners and the instructor do not need to be online at the same time, this type of online training and education is called asynchronous.

Participants usually take virtual classes and online courses in the academic style: a few hours a week over a period of several weeks or months. Between class sessions, participants usually have homework assignments such as assigned readings, papers, and even group assignments. To facilitate a sense of community outside the regularly scheduled synchronous classes and help students who take

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courses asynchronously, many instructors facilitate ongoing discussions outside of class. Many online courses also provide extensive resources online, including •

Textbooks, which can be created by assembling readings from a variety of sources into a single text, with instructor’s notes.

•

Supplementary readings.

•

Remediation (that is, an alternate presentation of course content that helps learners who did not master the material on the first try).

•

Enrichment exercises.

•

Worksheets.

•

Interesting links.

Organizations often provide tutors for online courses that learners take asynchronously. Tutoring might be available by telephone or e-mail. One institution even has “beeper” tutors: tutors are paged when a learner has a question, and must respond to the page within two hours. Because the learning has formally stated objectives and is supposed to yield specific results, the learning is said to be formal. This is not the case with online training. Also note that, although it is not technically online education, the most common use of online learning in higher education is to supplement classroom courses with course Web sites. These course Web sites are usually administered with special software such as Blackboard and WebCT, which also lets instructors give tests online, keep grade books, and facilitate communication among members of the class. But the actual learning occurs in a classroom. How are organizations using online education? Uses of online training and education are as varied as the organizations themselves. Consider these varied educational uses:

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An Overview of Online Learning

•

Basic skills training. Online education provides adults who have limited literacy skills with a safe place to develop those skills at an individualized pace. Some of the courses are adapted from similar programs that teach children basic reading and mathematics skills; others are developed specifically for adults.

•

Online degrees. Established universities offer individual courses, certificate programs, and degree programs online. For example, San Diego State University offers a certificate in educational technology online.

Screen copyright 2002 by Cardean University. Used with permission. Figure 2-1: This is a screen from a finance course in the MBA program at Cardean University. Notice the different parts of the window: the left-hand side informs students of their location in the course; the central part of the screen presents a case; the upper pop-up window shows an interactive visual calculator; and the lower pop-up shows a video of Nobel laureate Merton Miller telling a “war story” related to the teaching material.

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Management education. Some major corporations conduct part of their management education online. Participants are assigned to work groups who “meet” online a few hours per week for several weeks preceding a classroom course. During their online collaboration, participants first read policies and background material, and then work through cases of actual management problems.

•

Technology Needed for Online Education Synchronous courses To develop courses, the following technology is needed: •

Virtual-classroom software, which lets the instructor “connect” with learners and manage the online discussion (examples include Centra and WebEx).

•

Office productivity software, for creating visuals and documents (software like Microsoft PowerPoint and Word).

•

A browser.

•

A microphone.

•

A Webcam (optional), so the instructor can transmit an image to learners.

•

Other software applications that the instructor would like to demonstrate in a class session.

To deliver courses to learners, the following technology is needed: •

A sound card, to hear students’ comments.

•

A computer that is capable of connecting to the Internet.

•

A browser.

•

Virtual-classroom software (learners generally use a limited version of this software and can download it from the instructor’s or the educational institution’s Web site).

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An Overview of Online Learning

•

A microphone (optional), for speaking with the instructor (most groupware also includes chat software so that learners without a microphone can still communicate with the instructor).

•

Additional software for playing audio, video, and other types of specialized media (“plug-ins”).

Asynchronous courses To develop courses, the following technology is needed: •

A computer capable of handling large graphics and video files.

•

A word processor for preparing the text of the learning program.

•

Authoring tools (software for creating interactive material), such as Click2Learn’s ToolBook or Macromedia DreamWeaver. Course management software, such as Blackboard and WebCT, also lets you author material.

•

Presentation software for preparing slides and visuals, if any, such as Microsoft Powerpoint or Macromedia Flash.

•

Software for retouching photos, such as Adobe PhotoShop.

To deliver asynchronous courses to learners, the following technology is needed: •

A computer.

•

If sound is to be used, sound card and speakers.

•

Software for playing the course material.

•

Software for reading the course material on the Internet.

•

Software for playing sound bytes.

•

Software for playing video sequences.

To supplement classroom courses: •

Course management software, such as Blackboard and WebCT.

•

HTML editors for creating course Web sites.

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Learning through Online Training What is online training? Like online education, training is a structured event specifically intended to develop knowledge and skills. What distinguishes training from education, however, is that the skills and knowledge taught in training are expected to be used immediately. Online training takes the same forms as online education: • •

Synchronous Webcasts Asynchronous courses

Unlike online education, learners in online training courses usually take them start-to-finish, with minimal interruption, and rarely have homework between classes. For example, a learner might take an online training course in a single two-hour session. Because the skills taught might be needed at any time, online training courses are usually asynchronous so that learners can take them whenever they need them. In fact, online training courses are often referred to as just-in-time training because of their anytime-anywhere availability. To provide online learners with a sense of community and a feeling that their learning is not anonymous, some organizations also provide online discussion groups for courses so that learners can interact with one another. Similarly, some organizations provide tutoring services so that learners have someone to contact if they have questions or need tutoring on challenging course material. Because online training courses have explicitly stated objectives and often have tests to assess whether students mastered these objectives, the learning is considered to be formal. How are organizations using online training? Although the trade press might make online training seem like a new concept, corporations have been using it since the 1960s. At about

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An Overview of Online Learning

that time, the Control Data Corporation developed PLATO, software for creating and delivering training courses (called an authoring tool). Since then, uses of online training have become as varied as the organizations themselves. Consider these uses: •

Teaching the use of common business applications, such as WordPerfect, Microsoft Access, and Lotus Notes. See Figure 2-2 for an example.

•

Teaching quality control, especially topics like statistical process control.

•

Orienting new employees. Organizations especially like to place routine and technical content online, such as safety procedures. Most organizations still present material that communicates

Screen copyright 2002 by Element K. Used with permission. Figure 2-2: This is a sample screen from an asynchronous training course on Excel. Notice that the background of the screen shows an actual Excel worksheet, and the pop-up explains how to use formulas.

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corporate culture in a classroom setting, however, because they feel that this kind of content benefits from human presentation. Providing training required by regulators, such as an annual refresher course on the procedures used to protect information within the company from inappropriate and unauthorized use.

•

The Technology Needed for Online Training Synchronous courses To develop courses, the following technology is needed: •

Virtual classroom software, which lets the instructor “connect” with learners and manage the online discussion (examples of virtual-classroom software include Centra and WebEx).

•

Office productivity software, for creating visuals and documents (software like Microsoft PowerPoint and Word).

•

A browser.

•

A microphone for speaking to learners.

•

A Webcam (optional), if the instructor wishes to transmit an image to learners.

•

Other software applications that the instructor wants to demonstrate in a class session.

To deliver courses to learners, the following technology is needed: •

A computer capable of connecting to the Internet.

•

A browser.

•

Virtual-classroom software (learners generally use a limited version of this software and can download it from the instructor’s or the educational institution’s Web site).

•

A microphone (optional), for speaking with the instructor (most groupware also includes chat software so that learners without a microphone can still communicate with the instructor).

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An Overview of Online Learning

Asynchronous courses To develop courses, the following technology is necessary: • • •

• •

A computer with the capability of working with large graphics and video files. A word processor for preparing the text of the learning program. Authoring tools (software for creating course interactive material), such as Blackboard, Click2Learn’s ToolBook, or Macromedia DreamWeaver. Newer authoring tools like Macromedia, Breeze, and RoboPresenter let designers create online learning programs from PowerPoint files. Presentation software for preparing slides and visuals, such as Microsoft Powerpoint or Macromedia Flash. Software for retouching photos, such as Adobe PhotoShop.

To deliver asynchronous courses to learners, the following technology is necessary: • • • • • •

A computer. If sound is to be used, a sound card and speakers. Software for playing the course material. Software for reading the course material from the Internet. Software for playing sound bytes. Software for playing video sequences.

Adapting Formal Learning to the Computer Formal learning online resembles its classroom counterpart in many ways. Like classroom training, formal online learning also has stated learning objectives. It challenges designers to create an interactive and supportive learning environment, uses tests and other types of assessments to evaluate learning, and involves extensive record keeping. Learners receive credit for a formal learning experience only if they complete the course and pass a test (or some similar type of learning assessment).

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A computer simplifies parts of this effort. It can automate testing and record keeping. Computers complicate other parts of this effort. For example, instructional designers must make sure that learners have the necessary software on their computers and that the courses run without errors. Even if these parts work, the connections with computers can fail while the student is supposed to be taking the course. Students can also “cheat” by having someone else do the work or take the tests. A more significant complication, however, is that computers are impersonal devices. Self-enrollment and not being in a physical classroom can make online learning an anonymous experience. That anonymity de-motivates learners. Interactivity, already a challenge in the classroom, becomes a more significant challenge online. Conversations that instructors can easily initiate in the classroom become impossible in asynchronous classrooms. Interactive simulations and exercises, popular forms of interaction with learners, often require complex programming to appear fully engaging. So many designers of online instruction rely heavily on text. Turning endless pages of text (perhaps mixed with some ornamental clip art) can be dreary, but doing so online presents an additional complication: Reading text online is less “accurate” than reading print. Designers must address this reality when presenting information.

Informal Learning Online Formal learning is often necessary in the workplace, but just as frequently, people learn without the direction of learning professionals. In some instances, workers identify what they need to learn, determine where the content exists, and continue to work on their learning until they master the topic. In other instances, workers learn unintentionally. They serendipitously encounter useful content that they choose to retain.

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An Overview of Online Learning

This type of learning is called informal learning, because it does not begin with objectives that were initially established by learning professionals. Instead learning occurs at the instigation of learners, rather than as a requirement by management or with the anticipation of any outside recognition. Its measures of effectiveness vary with the needs of the learners. The classroom primarily limits learning professionals to formal learning. E-learning, on the other hand, allows us to explore the potential of informal learning. Informal learning online takes two forms: knowledge management and electronic performance support.

Learning through Knowledge Management

What is knowledge management? Knowledge management is capturing, storing, transforming, and disseminating information within an organization, with goals ranging from promoting efficiency to promoting innovation and competitive advantage. More specifically, the goal of knowledge management is to provide access to the following types of information to all who need to know it: •

Formal corporate information, such as policies, procedures, and product information

•

Informal information, such as documents, reports, presentations, and proposals

•

Expertise recorded in documents, but also available through direct interaction, such as lessons learned, stories, and case histories.

The recorded information is stored in a special database called a knowledge base. Because the knowledge base is a large reference, it is sometimes called an online reference. Because users have access to

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information and the resulting learning whenever they need it, knowledge management promotes just-in-time learning. People interact with the knowledge base when they need information from it, and learning occurs. This learning occurs in ways that are meaningful to the users, much as learning occurs from an encyclopedia. Such learning is asynchronous. Knowledge management can also include online chats, discussions, and symposia. Participants can exchange tacit knowledge—content that exists within an individual or organization but that has not yet been recorded or exchanged. Because participants are online at the same time, the learning is synchronous. See Figure 2-3 for an example.

Copyright 2003 by International Pediatric Chat. All rights reserved. Used with permission. Figure 2-3: This is a screen from the International Pediatric Chat, a Web site devoted to exchanging knowledge among pediatricians internationally. The site includes regularly scheduled learning sessions for formal learning (such as those named in the screen above), and live chats and links to resources and people for informal learning.

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An Overview of Online Learning

How are organizations using Knowledge Management? Many of the pivotal developments in knowledge management come from the Information Systems (IS) community. Thomas Davenport and Lawrence Prusack, for example, have written a number of books about the value that can be gained from corporate information. Consulting firms lead the way when it comes to applying knowledge management. Although each of the clients served by these firms has unique needs, the problems are somewhat similar. When consulting firms find these similarities, they can use previous proposals, work plans, programs, and other materials prepared for clients who faced similar challenges. Consultants can re-use these materials, adapt them to a unique situation in a second client’s environment, and change those elements of the materials that didn’t work in the first client’s environment to avoid repeating mistakes. These knowledge bases often include information about lessons learned in a particular situation and contact information so that a consultant on a second account can get more information about the earlier experience. To make sure that employees contribute to the company knowledge base, some consulting firms assess contributions to it as part of the employee appraisal process. Organizations have learned that employees will not contribute to the knowledge base unless their performance appraisals reflect this contribution. Technology Needed for Knowledge Management • A network •

A database program

•

A well-designed database that uses terms and categories familiar to all users

•

Groupware programs that encourage people to share information

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Learning through Electronic Performance Support What is Electronic Performance Support? Electronic performance support refers to a work environment on a computer in which performers receive assistance with tasks or in completing work. For example, with the help of performance support, a customer service representative at an e-tailer might be prompted to ask if a customer wants to purchase the matching scarf when buying a knit hat. The software that provides performance support is often called an electronic performance support system (EPSS). This software system provides the information, training, coaching, and monitoring needed to promote effective human performance in the workplace. They’re part online help, part online tutorial, part database, part application program, and part expert system. They can be separate programs or included as part of existing programs. In a learning context that is focused on performance support, performance—not competence—is the goal. If the system can perform the task for users, then the system does so and users learn to do the task, not the whys and whats underlying the hows. Learning is therefore coincidental, and performers may or may not develop specific skills and achieve domain learning. The learner is not directly connected to a live instructor or coach when performance is supported, so the learning is asynchronous. Figure 2-4 shows an example screen from an EPSS. How are organizations applying electronic performance support? AT&T first developed the concept of performance support; Gloria Gery popularized it in her 1991 book, Electronic Performance Support Systems.

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An Overview of Online Learning

Organizations are using performance support in almost every aspect of corporate life. Consider this example from customer service: A customer calls, asking if the customer service representative can extend the credit limit. After requesting an account number and security information, the customer service representative looks at the caller’s record on the computer. The representative asks the computer to evaluate the caller’s credit history and to recommend whether an increase is appropriate (and, if so, the extent of the increase). In this situation, performance support lets a relatively inexperienced customer service representative perform work that, in the past, had been performed by a more experienced and specialized credit analyst. Electronic performance support systems are used in medicine. One of the most significant problems with prescribing medicine is the effects of the interaction of one medicine with another. But

Copyright 2003 by the Success for All Foundation. Used with permission. Figure 2-4: Example screen from an electronic performance support system (EPSS) to support volunteers who tutor children in reading skills.

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predicting the effects isn’t easy: Experts estimate that doctors trying to keep up with new developments in drugs have to spend an average of seven hours a week reading the background material. A performance support system was developed to allow doctors to enter a patient’s medical history into the system, list the drugs currently taken, and name the ones they would like to also prescribe. The system responds with a list of potential interactional effects. Based on this information, doctors can determine whether or not to prescribe a given medicine to a patient. Performance support helps experts make better-informed decisions than was previously possible without the system. Figure 2-4 shows an example of an EPSS.

Technology Needed for Electronic Performance Support To prepare informative text, the following technology is necessary: • • • •

A word processor Help authoring tools Course authoring tools HTML authoring tools (or other tools for preparing information to be read online)

To prepare databases of needed information, the following technology is needed: • •

Programming language to monitor work performance To automate tasks: — Programming language — Course-authoring tools — HTML authoring tools

•

Optional: Connection to a network

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An Overview of Online Learning

Blending Different Types of Learning Some people are concerned that online learning might spell the end of classroom training or that it is inferior to classroom training. The history of introducing new media suggests otherwise. If the impact of radio on newspapers and that of television on radio are any indication, then the arrival of online learning will cause an adaptation of the traditional classroom, rather than its demise. Rather than replacing the classroom, online learning will ultimately complement it. Training and performance improvement professionals will use classroom training for what it does best, and do likewise for online learning. Online learning is outstanding for teaching rote skills: It has infinite patience. With the privacy of the computer, slower learners can have the extensive remediation they need, while fast learners can speed through a course, unencumbered by their classmates. Online learning is also an excellent tool for teaching prerequisite material. Instructors can require learners to study prerequisite material and pass a pre-class test before coming to the classroom. In that way, the instructor can begin the classroom course at a higher level, confident that each learner has completed the prerequisite learning. As a result, the classroom course can provide either a more in-depth learning experience, a shorter learning experience, or both. In contrast, the classroom provides an opportunity to develop higher-order thinking skills and simulate interpersonal exchanges. These can be accomplished online through simulations and synchronous learning, but they often have more impact with learners in the classroom. In some cases, the online learning can complement a classroom course. For example, because instructors must focus classroom courses on the middle-of-the-road learner, they can rarely meet the needs of individual learners. Instructors can develop course Web sites with remedial material, which provides slower learners with

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additional opportunities to master the content. If learners need to adapt the material to specific needs or want to continue with the material, instructors can use a Web site for enrichment material. Similarly, some online learners have difficulty with the material, even though it might have been extensively tested with prospective learners. Others need gentle reminders to motivate them to complete courses. In such cases, personal coaching provides assistance. The coach is a person with whom the learner interacts, whether it be in person, online, or by telephone. When a learning program involves a combination of classroom and online components, the learning is said to be blended. Ultimately, blending classroom and online learning and formal and informal learning can help learners transfer the new skills. A typical online learning program ideally encompasses more than an isolated learning program. It encompasses a series of related learning products that, together, create a campaign for improved learning or performance. Some of these products are intended to introduce a topic and inspire interest among prospective learners. Most frequently, these are informal learning products, such as demonstrations and marketing materials. Some of these learning products teach people how to apply new skills and knowledge and assess their mastery of them. These are usually formal learning products, such as classroom and online courses. Some learning products are intended to help people apply the skills back on the job and extend their use of the skills. Frequently, these are informal learning products such as job aids, coaches (software that monitors performance and provides feedback), reference material, and databases with answers to questions not raised in the course.

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An Overview of Online Learning

Learn More about the Contexts of Learning Online To learn more about the different contexts of online learning, visit the Web site of the online version of this book at www.vnulearning.com/ wp/2-links.htm.

Chapter 3: The Technology of Online Learning Technology is a tool. Tools help extend people’s capabilities by doing things that they cannot easily do or do as efficiently as the tools can. In the case of online learning, technology serves these purposes: •

Developing: the software used to prepare the learning materials for presentation online, such as the elements of a database used to manage knowledge; modules in online tutorials; lessons in courses broadcast on the Internet; or tools to monitor a worker’s performance and provide relevant coaching.

•

Managing: the software used to oversee the administration of online learning and related development efforts. Software assists with such administrative tasks as registering learners, tracking progress, recording completions, tracking skills, and providing reports. Software also helps manage the content that was developed so that it can be efficiently used again in other programs.

•

Delivering: the hardware and software needed to store learning materials and transmit them to learners when and where the learners need them.

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An Overview of Online Learning

The technology of online learning poses two key challenges to most people: There is an abundance of choice—almost to excess.

One of the key features of all technology is its flexibility; it offers several ways of achieving the same goal. In some cases, one choice is clearly superior to others. More often, however, any of the options will help you achieve your goals. Often, the financial costs are similar. The result is choice paralysis, sometimes leaving even the most-experienced online learning professionals with confusion about how to proceed.

There is a high degree of intimidation, especially for people with less experience.

Much available technology is unfamiliar to people who develop online learning materials because it is expensive and requires complex skills to use. Because it changes so frequently, dealing with technology can be intimidating to many learning specialists. As a result, many people give preference to technological considerations when designing online learning programs, sometimes at the expense of learning. For example, when developing online learning materials, some people choose to show off technological capabilities such as video and audio, even when they do not add value to a course. In other cases, video and audio might augment the learning experience, but not all learners will have access to computers that can play sound.

(continued)

Chapter 3

There is a high degree of intimidation, especially to those with less experience (concluded).

41

In other instances, people making choices do not fully understand the technology they are purchasing and might make an inappropriate purchase. The mistake can be costly.

The following topics provide you with an overview of the technologies for developing, managing, and delivering courses.

Technology for Developing Online Learning Programs After you determine the type of online learning program that you need (such as an online training course or electronic performance support system), you then determine the type of content you plan to include (such as text, illustrations, video, animation, and interaction). Once these two things are done, you can prepare the content to be presented on the computer: This is called developing the online learning program. A variety of software can help you with this task, each assisting with a different task. The table that follows shows you the categories of software available. The following section describes each type of software in detail.

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An Overview of Online Learning

For producing animation: animation tools such as Flash

For producing audio sequences: audio production tools

For producing graphics: graphics tools

For adapting photography: photo-editing software

For composing text and simple graphics: The productivity tools that most of us use every day will work, such as word processors (such as WordPerfect and MS Word) and presentation programs (such as PowerPoint and Freelance)

For producing related printed materials: desktop publishing tools

For producing simulations: simulation authoring tools

For producing video: video editing software and other production tools

For authoring courses: Authoring tools such as ToolBook and DreamWeaver, and conversion tools such as RoboPresenter.

A Background One of the key challenges in developing online learning programs is to choose the technology that will help you develop them. To do so, you need to consider the following: What should the end product look like?

Only with an image of the end product in mind can you best determine which tools you need to create that product.

What are the components or building blocks of the learning program?

Specifically, you would consider: • The material in each component. • The media used in each component. • The complexity of representing the information in each component. (continued)

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What are the components or building blocks of the learning program? (concluded)

For example, does the learning program include an online reference that includes text, graphics, and video clips on several topics? How would users get to a particular entry? Would users have to scroll through every previous entry? Type a term and instruct the computer to search?

Which tools help you prepare the individual components of the learning program?

When preparing the material, do you use common productivity tools such as a word processor and a presentation graphics program that you use in your everyday work? Or do you use specialized media production tools, such as animation software?

Which tools help you bring together the individual components into a single course?

The tools vary, depending on the type of learning experience you are creating. • If you are creating an asynchronous course (such as a Web-based training course), you might use specialized software called authoring tools to create the course materials. • If you are creating a complex simulation (such as a simulation of the control station in a nuclear power plant), you might use a programming or authoring language. • If you are creating a synchronous course such as an online lecture, you would use virtual–classroom software.

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An Overview of Online Learning

The following sections explore each of these issues.

Consider the End Product First The technology of learning begins with an end—your learning goals—just as the technology of developing online learning materials begins with an end—what the finished product looks like. A tool called storyboard helps you visualize the end product.

The Storyboard: A Tool to Visualize the End Product Many developers of online learning programs prefer to first develop a working image of the completed product before choosing production tools, just as people who commission buildings first like to develop an architectural plan before deciding whether or not to use construction techniques. Many people have difficulty visualizing an end product that has not yet been created, so many developers of online learning products create storyboards. A storyboard is the same basic tool used to visualize films and videos before they’re shot. For online programs, storyboards visually represent proposed screens and shots from video and animation sequences. A storyboard typically includes the following elements: • • • •

An identifier for the screen or visual image A drawing of the visual image where it should appear Text of any narration or words that appear on the screen Production instructions, such as “fade to the next scene” and “Link this screen to screen 141”

Figure 3-1 shows an example of a storyboard.

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Screen 1-23 Screen 8 of 10

OOOOOOO O OO

Overview of Research Strategies for Business Library Research Objective covered: Describe the purpose of library research in business. How the content will be presented: Start with a continuation of the example about a new product. Then, explain how the worker would find useful information in the library—and why that information is not available on the Internet. Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions • • •

Increment the screen counter to 8. Create an illustration of a business person in a library. Continue to use the standard layout grid for presenting information.

Programming instructions • • • • • • •

Update links at the top of the page to show that it is Screen 8. Glossary opens the Glossary in a pop-up window. Help opens the Help menu in a pop-up window. Exit goes to the Exit screen, without indicating that the lesson is complete. Menu goes to the Main Menu, without indicating that the lesson is complete. Back (<) goes to Screen 7. Next (>) goes to Screen 9.

Figure 3-1: Example of a storyboard.

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An Overview of Online Learning

The User Interface: A Central Element of an Online Learning Program The central element of a storyboard for online learning materials is the user interface. User interface refers to the parts of the program that learners interact with. It includes a variety of elements: •

Appearance of the screen also called look and feel. Some aspects of the look and feel are aesthetic, while others have an impact on learners’ ability to find information. For example, depending on where you place related links on a screen, users might have a harder or easier time finding them.

•

Navigational elements, which help users move among parts of an online learning program. Specifically, navigational elements guide learners forward and backward, to the glossary, to help, to the menu, and to exit the learning program. Note the use of these navigational elements in the storyboard in Figure 3-1.

•

Icons, which are visual symbols that users can click to perform actions, such as moving backward and forward, and jumping to particular sections. In Figure 3-1, the links to other pages in the lesson are indicated by the symbol “o” in the upper left corner. Backward and forward are indicated by the symbols “<” and “>” respectively in the lower right corner.

•

Requests for information, such as the choice of questions and responses on forms that users complete online. For example, you might use radio buttons to present learners with a small number of choices, but a drop-down box when the number of choices is larger.

•

Text. Some aspects of text are creative and left to the writer, but technical terms and instructions must often be consistent with other parts of an online course and their use must be coordinated. Therefore, designers of many user interfaces also include terminology and standard phrases as part of their design plans.

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Characteristics of a Good User Interface An ideal user interface is intuitive—that is, learners can figure out their way through the program without instructions. Learners should be able to understand terms without the use of a glossary, and understand icons without the use of an interpretation guide. Learners should easily find the buttons to move them forward, backward, and to other sections within the program. If those buttons are shown on the bottom of one topic, they appear at the bottom of all topics. See the example of a user interface in Figure 3-2. The most common type of interface is called a graphical user interface (GUI; it is pronounced as the word “goo-ey”). A graphical user interface incorporates a variety of media, especially text and graphics. Windows and the Mac Operating System (OS) are examples of programs that have a graphical user interface. Often, graphical user interfaces make extensive use of visuals and have icons that represent actions the system can perform. Figure 3-2 shows a screen with callouts to elements of the user interface. Contrasting with the graphical user interface is a character interface, in which the system can only interact with users through text. Character interfaces, developed before graphical ones, are common on mainframe and UNIX computers. The DOS command prompt in Windows and programs that only run under DOS are examples of programs using a character interface. Typically, users interact with systems that have a character interface by typing commands or choosing options on menus. Once you prepare a preliminary design for the user interface and identify the type of content you would like to include, then you will be ready to consider the components or building blocks of the course.

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An Overview of Online Learning

Menu bar (states the title of the screen): In some instances, additional menus and buttons might appear. Screen title (so learners can verify their location) Cueing area (the center of the screen, where learners look for content)

Navigational elements (which tell learners how to move between screens)

Instructions (which tell learners how to respond to the question)

Feedback box (which displays the answer to the question)

Status bar (where messages from the system appear)

Screen from an asynchronous training course by Element K. Screen copyright 2002 by Element K. Used with permission. Figure 3-2: Components of the user interface. Note that the interface looks different from program to program; the components of the interface will also vary.

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The Components or Building Blocks of the Learning Program Once you have visualized the end product, you can begin to identify the individual components needed to build it. First, determine the content of each component. For example, a learning program for writing sales proposals might include several tutorial modules, a database of successful and unsuccessful proposals, and a step-by-step guide for creating a new proposal. In contrast, a learning program for a college course on physics might include a syllabus, a series of readings, lecture notes, exercises that learners perform offline (that is, apart from the online learning program), online labs that simulate classroom experiences, online lectures (and recordings of previous lectures), and an online discussion board (where learners can post questions and comments about the readings, exercises, and labs). Next, identify the types of media needed to create each of the components. Specifically, you need to determine which of the following media you intend to include, and the complexity of each: Medium

Issues to Consider

Text

Do you plan to include paragraphs and headings with occasional lists, or do you intend to use tables and other forms that require more-complex formatting? Or do you intend to let users find information in a database? Does the database already exist, or must it be created?

Graphics

Do you intend to use stock images from a clip art gallery, and do you plan to customize these images? Or do you plan to commission a designer to prepare illustrations for your learning program? Also, must the graphics be of high quality (which will take a long time to appear on the computer screen), or can low-quality graphics do the job? (continued)

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Photographs

Do you intend to use stock images from a photo CD? Do you plan to customize these photos, or do you plan to commission a photographer to take specific photographs for your online learning program? At what level of quality do you intend to display photos? (The higher the quality the more time needed to load.)

Animation

Do you intend to show moving graphics as part of the learning program? If so, do you intend to use simple animations to add visual variety to an online program, or do you intend to create complex animations that simulate a real-world situation, such as a flight simulator?

Audio

Do you plan to include narration, background music, or sound effects? If so, do you intend to include a few sound cues either to gain learners’ attention or to amplify (literally) learning material (such as the sounds of particular types of warnings)? Do you intend to provide extensive narration? Similarly, does the sound need to be theatrequality, or just good enough so that people can understand it?

Video

Do you intend to show moving images in the learning program? If so, do you intend to include simple clips taken from a home video camera, or do you plan to include staged segments? At what level of quality should the video be? Must it mimic commercial television, or would users tolerate the jerks and “snow” symptomatic of low-quality video?

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After you identify the media that you intend to include in the online learning program and the complexity of the images you intend to include, choose the tools to help you develop them. The next several sections describe what is used to develop an online learning program: productivity tools for simple text and graphics; media production tools for creating complex audio and visual images; and authoring tools to bring the entire learning program together. Each type is defined, uses are explained, and considerations regarding the use of various kinds of software are identified.

Productivity Tools for Simple Text and Graphics What Productivity Tools Are The term productivity tools refers to a category of software used in everyday work to prepare drafts and other pieces of learning materials. This software includes •

Word processors such as Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro, and WordPerfect, which many people use to write drafts of scripts and additional resource materials.

•

Presentation programs such as Microsoft PowerPoint and Lotus Freelance, which let you create slide shows that include simple animation (though they do not let you include interaction).

•

Database programs such as Microsoft Access, FileMaker Pro, and Oracle, which let you store source material for learning programs that you can “mix and match” as needed, or live databases that users might consult within an online learning program.

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Personal organizers such as Microsoft Outlook and Lotus Organizer that let you keep track of appointments and manage to-do and contact lists, and project management software such as Microsoft Project. This information is a helpful resource during the development of the online learning program.

When to Use Productivity Tools You might use productivity tools in a variety of situations such as these: •

To prepare draft text of online course materials. Later, you would import this text into another program to create a course. (Importing text is copying it from one program to another.) Most likely, you would use a word processor, but you might use a database program.

•

To prepare storyboards of online courses. Most likely, you would use a presentation program, but you might use a word processor to prepare storyboards. Later, you would create the actual screens from these storyboards.

•

To prepare databases of business information, which learners would check during an online learning program. You would link to these databases in the program.

•

To quickly prepare course materials. Much of the software needed to prepare online learning programs requires special skills; productivity tools generally do not. If you already know how to use productivity software, you can quickly prepare a simple course without additional training on specialized software.

•

To oversee the development process and to manage the progress of projects. Personal organizers are especially helpful in scheduling appointments and placing deadlines on calendars and to-do lists.

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Issues to Consider When Using Productivity Tools Use software that easily exchanges content with other application programs. Most likely, you will use productivity tools to prepare draft materials. At some point, you will need to import the material into another program with an authoring tool (software used to create screens for online learning programs). If the software does not easily exchange content with the software you use to prepare the final draft of the online learning program, you might have to enter all the information again. (Although this is less of a problem than it once was, problems still occasionally arise.)

Media Production Tools for Creating Complex Images What Media Production Tools Are The term media production tools refers to software that lets you produce complex segments in specific media, such as a video clip or an audio clip. The clips are intended to be shown at a different time than the time they are produced. Because the media are varied, the nature of the work performed by the software varies. The general categories of media production tools are summarized in the following chart.

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Types of Media Production Tools Animation programs

These tools let you create animated sequences, such as showing the flow of materials through a manufacturing process or an animated short about a conversation between a manager and a worker. You might create the visual images in the animation program, import the images from an illustration program, or scan in the images from another source. Animation programs let you alter the original image (for example, you might change colors), and rotate and move the image so that it creates the sense of movement. An example of an animation program is Macromedia’s Flash.

Audio editing programs

These tools let you record and edit narration and music, drop in sound effects from other sources, and transfer the program to disk.

Illustration software and other graphics applications

These tools let you prepare illustrations and other types of graphics. Illustration and graphics software also let you prepare images that were created elsewhere (such as graphics from a course manual, entered into the computer through a scanner). Graphics software lets you change the images, such as rotating the image so it appears from a different perspective, cutting out part of the image, adding visual effects, and changing colors. Adobe Illustrator is an example of illustration software. In addition, specialized applications let you create special types of images. (continued)

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These include • Three-dimensional imaging software, which lets you create life-like environments (for example, Adobe Atmosphere) • Moving heads software, which lets you scan in a photograph of a person and create a moving image of that person. The “moving head” can then narrate an online learning program, thus saving the expense of shooting video.

Photo editing programs

These tools let you prepare photographs for use in other programs. Specifically, photo editing programs let you capture photos or use photos that were scanned into the system or transferred from a digital camera, and then re-touch the images. Graphics removing packages let you remove blemishes and red eyes from faces, remove extraneous visual material, change the proportion of the image, change colors, and add effects (such as half-tones needed for printing). Adobe Photoshop is an example of a photo editing application.

Simulation tools

These tools let you prepare a simulation. Specifically, simulation tools let you create an online situation in which users can try their hands at something and see the implications of their actions. Some simulation tools let you simulate only specific tasks or events, such as the simulation capabilities built into the authoring tools for computer-based and Web-based training. Other simulations that re-create an entire environment can only be created with a programming language. Examples of simulation tools include Abobe Atmosphere, XHLP, and eHelp’s RoboDemo. (continued)

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Video editing programs

These tools let you perform on a computer many of the functions of video editing systems. Video editing software lets you edit separate video clips into a single program, retouch video images, add video transitions such as wipes and fades, add titles and credits, and transfer the images back onto videotape or onto disk for use in your online learning program. Adobe Premiere, Apple FinalCutPro, Apple iMovie, and Avid XPress DV are examples of video editing software.

Publishing programs

These tools let you prepare text for publication. You might want to include articles in an online learning program yet not want learners to copy text, or you expect learners to print out copies and read the material off line. In other instances, you need to prepare printed materials that accompany an online learning program (i.e., workbooks) or the printed material on the package of a CD, DVD, or diskette. Desktop publishing programs let you design and lay out this material. Although word processors let you prepare pages for printing, they have limited options for doing so. For example, word processors do not let users easily integrate graphical elements into a page design or let you “drop in” boxes with related information on a page (you are often limited to placing such information on a separate page or at the end of a section). That’s why many professionals prefer desktop publishing programs. (continued)

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QuarkXpress, Adobe PageMaker, and Microsoft Publisher are examples of publishing programs. In addition, Adobe Acrobat lets you “publish” the printed material online so that learners can view it as they would see a printed page. Acrobat works like a printer—that is, you would prepare text on a word processor or desktop publishing program, and “print” it using Acrobat. Rather than printing on paper, however, the system saves the Acrobat printout in a file, which you can post on the Web.

Figure 3-3 shows a sample screen from Flash.

When to Use Media Production Tools Use media production tools whenever you need to produce specialized segments, such as video, audio, and simulations. You first create a graphical image or prepare a video clip in the specialized program, and then import the file with this image in your learning program. Most authoring software has procedures for using these specialized files. One tool deserves special mention. The learning program might be online, but you might still need to use publishing tools. You would use them to prepare a package for programs distributed on DVD or CD-ROM. Specifically, you would use publishing tools to prepare the master copies of DVD or CD jackets, disk labels, and any other packaging used for the learning program. Similarly, if you distribute printed learning materials such as workbooks with your online courses or quick references for performance

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Screen copyright 2002 by Macromedia Corporation. Used with permission. Figure 3-3: Sample screen from the animation tool Flash.

support programs, you would prepare the master copy with a publishing tool.

Issues to Consider When Using Media Production Tools Here are some general issues to consider when using media and publishing tools. How much training and specialized knowledge do you need in order to use this tool? Because they usually assume that the person using the tool has expertise in production of the particular medium, most media and publishing tools require specialized training. They use specialized terminology and assume a basic understanding of production in the medium.

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For example, photo editing programs assume that the users have knowledge of photography and photo production terminology, such as half-tone and crop. If you do not have such knowledge, you will need training in that medium, in addition to training on the software. For the more popular media tools such as certain publishing tools and photo editing tools, training is readily available, often through community and continuing education programs. For more specialized software, especially video and production tools, finding training is more difficult. It is usually available through the software publisher and professional art schools. What formats can the program produce—and can your authoring system or other teaching software use media in those formats? To make sure that media clips produced on one system can be read by programs on another, software publishers have developed a few common formats for recording media. Most software publishers honor these formats. Although each format has a specific use, if you’re just moving into online learning, what’s most important is making sure that the media produced by your tools can be widely used on other systems. The following chart lists these formats and the file extensions used with them (the file extension is noted by the three letters that follow the period in a computer file name, such as course.doc and picture1.jpg): Common Formats in General

Medium Animation

• • • •

.avi Executable (.exe) Quicktime (.mov) Windows media (.wmv)

Common Formats Used on Internet • • • •

Flash (.swf ) motion picture (.mpeg) Quicktime (.mov) Windows media (.wmv)

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Medium

Common Formats in General

Common Formats Used on Internet

Audio clips

• audio information format (.aif ) • MP3 (.mp3) • Wave (.wav)

• • • •

audio (.au) real audio (.ram) Midi (.mid) MP3 (.mp3)

Graphics and photos

• bitmap (.bmp) • graphic interchange format (.gif )

• graphic interchange format (.gif ) • Jpeg file interchange format (.jpg) • Vector format (.swg)

Text

• rich text format (.rft) • MS Word format (.doc) • plain text (.txt)

• Hypertext (.htm) • ASCII (.asc or .txt) • Acrobat (.pdf )

Video

• .avi • QuickTime movie (.mov)

• motion picture (.mpeg) • QuickTime movie (.mov)

If the program does not produce images in a commonly used format, you might not be able to easily incorporate the media clip in your online learning materials. What is the quality of the images? The quality of photos varies among newspapers and coffee-table books, so the quality of media images will vary among graphics, sound, and video online. The more information that the media production tool records about the image, the higher the quality of the image. For example, systems can record sounds at various quality levels; the higher quality levels have less distinction among tones. The extra quality comes at a cost: slower performance. The higher the quality of the image, the more information the system needs

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to transfer when using it. And the more information the system needs to transfer, the longer the learner must wait to see or hear an image. For example, a photo saved in the TIF file might take 2 megabytes of space, while the same photo saved in the JPG format might only take 200 kilobytes (approximately 90 percent less space needed). How much storage do the images need? As just mentioned, the files with higher quality images contain more information about an image than a lower quality image. Not only do these images take longer to paint on the screen, but they also need more storage space. A learning program with many images might need more disk storage than the learner’s system has or a CD-ROM can hold, or more than you want to store on the server. What is the life of the image? If you intend for your course to have a long shelf life, you might consider using graphics and animations, rather than photographs and video clips; fashion and hair styles of people in photographs and videos look dated within a couple years. How easily does the image transfer to a different delivery format? Some video and audio clips do not cleanly transfer from CD-ROM to the Internet. Others convert easily if you use conversion software like CleanerPro. How does the choice of a medium affect the learner? Before you make a commitment to a media production tool, make sure that the media image enhances the learning experience. Depending on the delivery medium, the format of the media clip, and the software installed on learners’ computers, the clip might not play well. For example, video stored and played in certain formats appears snowy (full of white flakes in the image) or the movements are jerky. This is uncomfortable for learners to watch. Similarly, mini-movies in Flash take a long time to load on learners’ computers. Impatient learners might not wait for the movie to load before surfing to another screen.

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The Tools Needed to Integrate Individual Components in a Single Program Which tools help you bring together the individual components into a single course? The software used to compile the individual pieces into a coherent program varies depending on whether you are producing an asynchronous or synchronous learning program. For an asynchronous learning program • Authoring tools • Programming languages

For a synchronous learning program Internet broadcasting tools

The following sections explore each type of software.

Tools Needed to Prepare an Asynchronous Learning Program When creating an asynchronous learning program such as a module of a computer-based course or as part of Web site supporting online learning, you need to use one or both these: •

Authoring tools, which combine elements into a single learning program.

•

Programming and authoring languages, which let you handle complex interactions and simulations not permitted by the authoring tool.

Authoring Tools Authoring tools are software applications specially designed to let you create modules that bring together all the components of an online learning program: text, audio visual presentations, and graphics, as well as program in exercises and test questions; link learners to appropriate material based on their responses; and track the performance of learners.

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Some authoring tools also let you create simulations of tasks performed on a computer, such as a simulation of order-entry software. Authoring tools also let you add materials created in other software applications, such as video and audio clips, photographs, specialized graphics, and animations. When to Use Authoring Tools. Use authoring tools to create self-study learning materials, which learners use at their own convenience. (If you are creating a Webcast [program broadcast on the Web], use tools for synchronous learning programs.) Issues to Consider When Using Authoring Tools. You need to consider a variety of issues when using authoring tools. Here are some of the most fundamental: What does the authoring tool do—and is it what you want it to do?

An authoring tool is supposed to simplify development of the program, but it can only do so if the authoring system can create the kind of program that you want. Most authoring tools let you easily (or relatively easily) present information, incorporate graphics and video and audio clips, ask questions, and provide appropriate feedback. But exactly what types of media does the authoring tool let you include—and with what restrictions? For example, some authoring tools let you include video clips, but the clips always begin running when the screen first appears. You cannot control the video sequence to start after a certain period of time. Similarly, authoring tools let you quiz learners during a course, but what kinds of questions can you use? Are these the types of questions that you want to ask? Most only let you ask objective questions, such as multiple-choice or true-false.

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How widely is the authoring tool used?

The more widely used the tool, the more likely that you will find assistance with questions and the more likely that the software will be supported in the future. The most commonly used authoring tools are AuthorWare, Dreamweaver, and ToolBook. Newer authoring tools work with PowerPoint and let you add learning material and quiz questions. These tools include Breeze and RoboPresenter.

How easily can you import information into the authoring tool?

Each course developer has a particular working style. Some like to prepare material exclusively in the authoring tool. Others like to first work in a productivity tool. Only after subject matter experts and others have reviewed it do such course developers prefer to work in an authoring system. The ease with which these developers can move draft materials into the authoring system can affect their productivity. In an ideal situation, the authoring tools link directly to word processors and other productivity tools, or can read files prepared in those productivity tools without special conversion procedures.

How easily can you learn the authoring tool?

Complex products require training to use. Authoring tools are complex products. For example, they let you perform complex tasks (asking questions and then linking learners to appropriate material based on their responses, etc.). But how much training is needed? You should be able to master the basics of an authoring tool— preparing basic presentations and multiple choice and true/false questions—in a short period of time (no more than one day and often only a couple of hours, depending on your software experience) so that you can feel an early surge of success.

(continued)

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More-complex tasks, such as asking open questions (questions that have one or more words as answers), and producing simulations require more extensive training, but should be easily mastered. In addition, how readily available is formal training? Find out whether training is available in your community and how frequently it is scheduled. Some thoughts to consider: • Some software publishers certify the people who provide training on their authoring tools. • Some universities offer continuing education courses on certain authoring tools. One last thought to consider: to be easy to use and learn, does the authoring tool sacrifice “power”? That is, does the authoring tool let you create only a basic learning experience because the more-complex elements might be hard to create?

What does the final product look like?

Authoring tools are designed to support online learning. Although they let you include graphics, animation, and video and audio clips, the quality of these materials and your ability to control their appearance on the screen are usually not as good as might be expected in presentation software, such as with Macromedia Flash or Director. In exchange for the lower quality and decrease in control, you can easily include questions and other types of interaction, and easily link learners to appropriate material based on their questions. Although you can include interaction in presentation programs, it requires specialized programming skills that are not usually needed in authoring tools.

(continued)

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Finally, many of the authoring tools provide templates or control the appearance of screens to some extent. Make sure that you like the templates or that the aspects of screen design that are out of your control are acceptable to you.

Figure 3-4 shows an example of a screen from the authoring tool Dreamweaver, which can be used to develop online learning programs.

Screen copyright 2002 by Macromedia Corporation. Used with permission. Figure 3-4: Sample screen from the authoring tool Dreamweaver.

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Programming and Authoring Languages What are programming and authoring languages? Programming and authoring languages are software that let you develop interactive content exactly as you planned it. When should you use programming and authoring languages? Use programming and authoring languages when an authoring tool does not have the capability to develop the program as you designed it or you might compromise your course to make it work within the limitations of the authoring system. For example, suppose you want to ask multiple-choice questions that have several correct answers, yet your authoring tool only lets you write multiple-choice questions with one correct answer. You could either rewrite all the questions so that they have one correct answer, or write special programs that let you ask multiple-choice questions with several correct answers. Generally, developers use languages to write a series of instructions to the computer that perform a task. This set of instructions is called a program. For example, you might write a program to test a learner before placing him or her in an online course. A programming language is a language used to write any type of program. An authoring language refers to commands and statements that are used with a particular authoring tool, such as special statements used with Flash, ToolBook, or Authorware. In addition, most authoring tools let you include programs written in common programming languages within a learning program. Some of the more common programming languages are: •

ActiveX, which is a language to write programs that run on the Internet. Learners link to these programs through home pages on the World Wide Web.

•

C++, which is a language used to write applications that run under Windows. Learners usually start these applications from the Program Manager.

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•

Java, which is another language used to write programs that run on the Internet. Learners link to these programs through home pages on the World Wide Web.

•

Visual BASIC, which is one of the languages most commonly used to write programs for Windows-based systems. Learners usually start these applications from the Program Manager.

Issues to Consider When Using Programming and Authoring Languages

Specialized skills

Programming requires specialized skills, yet a programmer skilled in one programming language might not be able to write programs in another because (1) different languages have different instructions (called commands) and (2) different types of languages use different approaches to programming, which means that the entire process of structuring programs in one language differs from that in another.

Capabilities of learners’ computers

Just because someone can write it does not mean that the program will actually run on the system that learners use. Before writing programs, make sure that they can run on the systems that typical learners have. To be safe, design programs so that they run on the most basic equipment that users are expected to have, rather than the most elaborate equipment. The more basic systems often cannot run programs intended for more elaborate systems. For example, some older systems cannot run certain recent graphics programs. (continued)

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Nothing is more frustrating for a learner than receiving an error message when he or she expected to see meaningful content. To prevent such occurrences, all programs need to be tested before they are made available to learners. Programs should be tested in several ways to make sure that: • They work as intended. • All links display the intended information. • Messages and other feedback that appear are appropriate for the situation. • They do not cause problems with other programs (sometimes, when two programs are running, instructions in one might interfere with instructions in another, and cause the system to stop working).

Documentation

Because programmers are a highly mobile group of people and because each program has a cryptic quality that’s difficult to decipher, you should make sure that programmers write descriptions inside their programs that explain what the different sections of the program do. If the original programmer leaves the project, the next one would have guidance in following the logic of the program and completing or maintaining the work. Documentation seems like an easy thing to do— and it is, if programmers document their work as they write the programs. If programmers wait until after the program is complete, the task of documenting the code will seem daunting and will likely be left undone.

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Tools Needed to Prepare a Synchronous Learning Experience: Virtual Classroom Software What Virtual Classroom Software Is Virtual classroom software is software that lets you transmit a live presentation over the Internet, such as a class or a meeting. This type of software usually lets you include one or more of the following: •

Video image, such as the image of the instructor or a video that’s played. (Those systems that cannot transmit a video image let you broadcast a photograph of the instructor.)

•

Audio (often a live discussion or lecture).

•

Whiteboard, which lets a person write something on the screen in one location, and others can view the writing in another.

•

Computer images, such as a series of slides in a PowerPoint file or text from a word processing file. Computer images might also include media clips produced in a media production tool.

•

Polling tools, which let instructors ask multiple-choice and true/false questions and receive aggregated responses, such as “40 percent chose option A, 20 percent chose B, 30 percent chose C, and the rest chose D.”

•

Classroom management tools, such as “electronic hand raises” and private chats between learners and the instructor, which let learners and instructors interact with one another during the class.

Examples of Internet broadcasting tools include Centra, Placeware, vClass, and WebEx. Figure 3-5 shows a sample screen from a synchronous lesson.

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From the virtual classroom software vClass. Screen copyright 2002 by Elluminate, Inc. Used with permission. Figure 3-5: Example of the whiteboard from a virtual classroom. Notice how the instructor has circled certain items and written on the screen.

When to Use Virtual Classroom Software Virtual classroom software has two primary uses: •

To create an online classroom for synchronous online learning. Virtual classroom creates a traditional class in the sense that all people participate at the same time, but it does so through their computers, not a classroom, and can be geographically dispersed throughout the world. They are especially popular for corporate training and distance degrees.

•

To collaborate. Virtual classrooms let people working in different locations—whether across the building or across the world—meet together without ever leaving their offices. Virtual classrooms

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usually let people see the same material at the same time, so people can make substantive changes to designs and reports while they are meeting and can ensure that everyone understands the revisions. Issues to Consider When Using Virtual Classrooms Capabilities of the receiving equipment

When planning an Internet broadcast for a virtual classroom make sure that the systems at the receiving location can view the entire learning program. For example, to use some virtual classroom software, users must have special software called “plug-ins” to view the audio and video sequences. In other instances, learners must be connected with a broadband connection to fully participate in the learning experience. For example, many systems require broadband connections for learners to share files with others in the class session.

Quality of the broadcast

Usually, the broadcast of computer files works well. But because of the limited capacity of the Internet to send data (called bandwidth), video images often come across with blips, snow, and jerky movements.

Administration

Essential to the success of virtual class is effective administration. Most systems require that all learners pre-register for the broadcast and download special software to view the session. An administrator usually manages the (continued)

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enrollments and provides directions to learners. The more quickly the administrator replies and the clearer the instructions, the smoother the broadcast. Similarly, the administrator usually trains instructors in using the system. Instructors need training to manage the broadcast, conduct polls, control interaction with learners during the broadcast, and prepare files (such as PowerPoint slides and Excel spread sheets) for viewing during the broadcast.

Limits

Most systems limit the number of people who can simultaneously participate in the broadcast. The limits result partly from the limitations of the software, but also from the terms and conditions of the license for the software. These terms and conditions state the maximum number of participants.

The Technology for Managing Online Learning Designing and developing online learning programs involve only one set of tasks with technology. The next set of tasks pertains to managing courses. Technology can handle enrollment and tracking of learners (for both online and classroom programs), oversee testing and scores, and provide reports. Specifically, these types of software affect management: Learning management systems, which act as online registrars

Hybrid systems, which are partly learning management systems and partly authoring tools

Learning content management systems, which track content that your organization has developed

Specialized software, which handles specific tasks, such as checking for plagiarism

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Because learning management systems must work with a variety of software, the issue of standards is related to the consideration of learning management systems. Standards also apply to re-using content, called re-usable learning objects. The next several sections explore software for managing online learning.

Learning Management Systems What Learning Management Systems Are The term learning management systems (LMSs) refers to software that performs administrative tasks. Learning management systems perform some or all of the following tasks for online as well as classroom courses: •

Registration

•

Tracking of participation (classroom attendance, and sign-ons, and sign-offs for online courses)

•

Tracking of completions (including final scores or grades, if any)

•

Testing

•

Providing aggregated reports, such as the numbers of people registered for particular courses

•

Sharing information with other systems, such as with human resource information systems

•

Suggesting curricula for learners

•

Tracking skills of individuals and groups of people within an organization

•

Providing learners with a one-stop place to go for their learning needs (especially online programs) and their personalized information, such as a customized learning page that includes recommended paths through learning material

Over 100 learning management systems are on the market at the time this book was written. Among them are Aspen, Docent, Ingenium, LearningSpace, Plateau, and Saba.

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Figures 3-6, 3-7, and 3-8 show various views of the learning management system Aspen. Figure 3-6 shows how the LMS appears from the student’s perspective. Figure 3-7 shows how the LMS appears from the administrator’s perspective, and Figure 3-8 shows a sample of a report that might be generated by the LMS.

Screen copyright 2002 by Click2Learn Corporation. Used with permission. Figure 3-6: Sample screen showing the learning management system Aspen from a student’s view.

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Screen copyright 2002 by Click2Learn Corporation. Used with permission. Figure 3-7: Sample screen showing the learning management system Aspen from an administrator’s view.

When to Use Learning Management Systems Use learning management systems to automate some or all of the administrative tasks of an educational operation.

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Screen copyright 2002 by Click2Learn Corporation. Used with permission. Figure 3-8: Sample management report provided by the learning management system Aspen.

Issues to Consider When Using Learning Management Software An expensive purchase

Analysts in the online learning industry comment that learning management systems are often the most expensive investment in learning made by organizations. Costs can easily range from half a million to several million U.S. dollars. Learning management systems are also difficult to implement, which is why many organizations place the purchasing decision in the hands of the information technology staff, rather than the training or academic staff. (continued)

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A changing technology

The technology used for learning management systems is changing rapidly. Therefore, when choosing one, plan on replacing it within two years (three at most).

Ease of tailoring

Each organization has unique issues in administering its learning operations, and learning management systems are designed to address this broad range of needs. Tailoring them to meet the unique needs of your organization thus poses a technical challenge. Most organizations require the expertise of programmers and system analysts to do so.

Interoperability with other learning material

Because learning management systems are supposed to provide a one-stop shop to learners as well as track all learning activities, these systems should easily provide links to all online learning programs and easily share tracking information, test results, and similar material with courses. Unfortunately, this does not work easily in practice. These exchanges and tracking do not always work and should be verified before those courses are made available within the organization.

Interoperability with other applications

Just as learning management systems are supposed to exchange information with individual courses, they are also supposed to easily exchange information with other systems, such as human resource information systems. For example, many employers keep training records in an employee’s personnel file, and universities keep grades in an official transcript. Learning management systems should easily exchange information with other software that uses this information, so the data does not have to be entered twice.

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Hybrid Systems What Hybrid Systems Are The term hybrid system refers to software for online learning that exhibits qualities of authoring tools as well as learning management systems. They are like authoring tools because instructors can use hybrid systems to prepare material for presentation online. The primary difference is that instructors can use material prepared in Microsoft Office. They do not need to convert it to a Web format. Hybrid systems exhibit qualities of learning management systems, too, because instructors can use the systems to track student attendance, test learners, keep online grade books, and communicate with learners. Learners use a central page to gain access to all of their courses, and instructors and administrators use the system to receive reports. Examples of hybrid systems include Blackboard and WebCT. When to Use Hybrid Systems Hybrid systems are especially useful in these instances: •

When instructors do not know how to use authoring tools nor have an interest in learning them.

•

To support classroom learning, by providing a Web site where learners can see a course syllabus or description, class notes, and exercises.

Hybrid systems are especially popular in colleges and universities, where they are primarily used to help instructors provide course Web sites and to help with the management of classroom courses.

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Issues to Consider When Using a Hybrid System Ease of use

The popularity of hybrid systems stems in large part from the ease with which people can use them. Many instructors begin providing online learning materials by converting materials they already use in the classroom to an online format. Hybrid systems let instructors use existing materials in MS Word, MS PowerPoint, and MS Excel without learning HTML or an authoring system. Instructors merely need to learn how to upload the material. Similarly, the features for managing interactions with students between class sessions are easy to learn and are popular with instructors.

Limited flexibility in course design

To remain easy to use, hybrid systems do not provide instructors with much flexibility in designing courses. They usually come with standard sections that instructors must provide, and the section names are not easily altered. As a result, when instructors want to provide multimedia learning experiences or specially designed units, they generally link to another learning program. Unfortunately, the results of any tests conducted in the second learning program cannot be easily exchanged with the hybrid system.

Learning Content Management Systems What Learning Content Management Systems Are The term learning content management system (LCMS) refers to software for creating, storing, retrieving, changing, and reusing material intended for use in an online learning program. Such a system also

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stores test questions and can be used to track activities in developing content for online learning programs. Finally, an LCMS can format the same content for presentation online and in print, and with a number of word processors. Examples of LCMSs include Aspen, Centra Knowledge Server, OutStart, and TopClass. Figure 3-9 shows an example of a screen from Aspen, a learning content management system.

When to Use a Learning Content Management System Consider using a learning content management system when you have already developed a large number of courses and would like to use the same content in several additional courses. Also consider using a learning content management system when you plan to use

Screen copyright 2002 by Click2Learn Corporation. Used with permission. Figure 3-9: Sample screen showing the learning content management functions of Aspen, as seen from a developer’s perspective.

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sophisticated testing to assess learners. If you are just starting to use online learning in your organization, you probably do not need an LCMS. Issues to Consider When Using a Learning Content Management System A learningobject approach

An object is a part of a learning program, such as a lesson or each of the questions in a bank of test questions. Taking an object-oriented approach assumes that materials developed separately can be mixed and matched as needed, according to the needs of the learner or of the context of learning. For example, to create a training course on a new product, the system might automatically assemble a course for sales representatives from general information about the new product and sales strategies for the product. In contrast, training for the technical staff might include the same general information about the new product, but also a lesson about the underlying technology. Similarly, tests can be automatically generated from the test questions an instructional designer prepares for a single objective. No two learners would receive the same test, minimizing the likelihood of cheating.

Interoperability

The term interoperability refers to the capability of learning content management systems to exchange data with other systems, especially learning management systems (LMSs). Because an LCMS is only used to develop content, it must easily exchange content with systems that display material for learners and that manage the learning process.

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Specialized Software Specialized software helps with specific tasks in managing learning activities. Usually, the software is designed for use in particular environments, and most of the software assists with essays and reports. Examples include the following: •

Software to assess the likelihood of plagiarism. Instructors submit electronic copies of learners’ papers and essays, and the software assesses whether or not the material came from an online source.

•

Software that grades essay tests. Instructors provide key points and terms, and the software assesses how well learners have addressed these issues.

•

Language software, which assists learners in acquiring language skills by assessing their ability to speak in a given language.

Standards What standards are. The term standards refers to rules that have been set up by various professional and trade organizations to address the following aspects of online learning programs: •

Content sharing among authoring, learning management, and learning content management systems

•

Testing (re-using test questions and providing learners with specialized paths through the content)

•

Finding content

•

Accessibility of online content to persons with disabilities

•

The quality of online learning programs

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How to implement standards. Here are some tips on implementing standards: Standards for software

Software standards are invisible to you. The standards work when you can use learning programs created with a chosen authoring tool with the learning management system of your choice. Your only responsibility is to choose software that complies with the standards, much as you might choose Windows-compatible software if your computers run the MS Windows operating system.

Standards for content

Standards for content have to do with using certain keywords to find material, designing for accessibility, and assessing quality. Meeting these standards requires special design efforts, but not special technology or programming skills.

The standards that apply to online learning Examples of standards for using and sharing content prepared on a variety of platforms

• Shareable Courseware Object Reference Model (SCORM), which is an initiative led by the U.S. government to define standards that let systems exchange learning materials, especially test questions and scoring information. • Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC), which is an initiative within one industry to define standards so that organizations can share learning materials. Much of their work has fed into the more recent SCORM standards. • Instructional Management System (IMS), an initiative led by developers of online learning programs to define interoperability. Their efforts are overshadowed by SCORM and AICC standards. (continued)

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Standards for writing tests

SCORM and AICC. The idea is to develop a bank of questions that can be exchanged among users, as well as information about student performance on the questions.

Standards for finding content

IMS. The organization is trying to define common terms (called metadata) that can be used to classify learning programs, much as the Dewey Decimal System provides a common set of terms for classifying books in a library. Other efforts are under way to define metadata, but the IMS effort is one of the few that are directly focused on online learning.

Standards for developing accessible content

Section 508 of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Definitions and guidelines for making online resources available to persons with visual, hearing, and other impairments. Although only those who provide materials for the U.S. government are required to follow the guidelines, doing so is considered a thoughtful business practice. The guidelines have been adopted by governments, non-governmental organizations, and businesses around the world.

Standards for the quality of online learning content

American Society for Training and Development’s e-learning standards. For a fee, organizations can submit learning programs for evaluation. Those courses that conform to standards will receive a formal certification, which can be mentioned in promoting the program.

The Technology for Delivering Online Learning DVDs. Bluetooth. WAPs. T1 lines. The terms alone intimidate, as do the complexity of the technologies. But the bottom line of delivering technology is actually straightforward: getting learning materials to users in the most effective and efficient manner.

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To determine the most effective and efficient way to deliver the learning, first answer these questions: •

What type of learning goals are you trying to achieve?

•

Which technologies assist with delivery on the network?

•

How do you intend to deliver the learning program?

•

What type of computers do learners have or have access to?

The following sections address the questions just asked.

Choosing Technologies to Assist with Delivery on a Network If you are delivering a program on a network, chances are that you’ll use a network that your organization already installed to connect its computers. But the hardware and software that make up that network affect your ability to exchange information. So here’s a crash course in networks. Basic Components of a Network Figure 3-10 shows computers in a computer network. Client Client

Client Server

Server Connection between Computers Client

Client

Client

Figure 3-10: Overview of a computer network.

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The following are the hardware components of the network. • Server computers. Central computers that most users within the organization have access to. Organizations typically store such commonly used data and programs on servers, price lists, employee directories, and training courses. • Client computers. Individual computers in learners’ offices • Connections between Computers. Here’s where things get tricky: The connections involve hardware. The hardware varies, depending on the size and location of the network. If linking the client and server computers does not require that any wires cross a street, they are linked in a local area network (LAN). In such cases, an organization installs wires in the building that send information back and forth among the computers. The wires are like telephone wires, except they connect computers and do not involve the telephone company—as long as no wires cross a street. If linking the client and server computers involves crossing a street, then the telephone company (or another telecommunications vendor) needs to get involved. The organization can still have a LAN within its building, but the connections that cross the street involve telecommunications. In some instances (such as home users), users connect to the network directly through a telephone line. Most home users do this each time they connect to the Internet. In other instances, especially in large organizations, the individual computers are linked into a LAN, and one computer on the LAN is connected to the larger network. This connected computer offers a “gateway” and all of the computers in the building have a connection to it. In some organizations, the gateway is connected through an ordinary telephone line. Ordinary telephone lines don’t carry much information, so when you want to use storage-hungry media like video and audio, you are likely to need more capacity than a typical telephone line can offer.

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Some organizations choose a premium type of line called broadband that has more capacity than a typical telephone line, because it can carry a significantly higher amount of data than typical telephone lines. Examples of broadband include T1 and ISDN lines. Cable lines (also an example of broadband) have even higher capacity, so some organizations connect their networks through their television cable company. If privacy is important, organizations can arrange for private telephone lines to carry their traffic, or use satellite connections. Some satellite connections are operated by telephone companies; some are operated by other organizations. To make online resources available to people who travel, you can connect to networks using an infrared connection, rather than a cable. No wire is needed, though there must be equipment to receive the infrared signal from the computer in the area (called a wireless connection). Wireless connections can have speeds that are similar to those of phone and broadband lines, because ultimately the signals are sent through them. Most telephone lines send analog signals (sound waves that are converted to electrical power) and computers operate digital signals (flashes of light that represent the symbols 1 and 0, the basic element of all computer work). Computers need a special device to convert the digital signal to an analog signal when going over the telephone lines and also to convert the analog signal back into a digital signal at the other computer. The device that handles this conversion is a modem. Connections also involve software. The software includes the following: — The learning program, such as a unit of information in a course, an e-mail message that’s part of an online discussion, or a transmission of a video image. To make sure that the computer receiving the information can process the information sent to it, many software publishers use some common formats. For example, files containing graphics, video clips, audio clips, and

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photographs are stored in a certain format. Similarly, some programming languages, such as Java and Active X, run with the most common Internet browsers. — Tools to transmit this information most efficiently. a) In some instances, the software “compresses” the information (removing unnecessary information so that there’s less to send over the telephone wires) and adds back the information at the other end. b) In other instances, the software sends information in small units so that learners can begin working as soon as the first part of the material arrives at the learner’s computer (and while the system continues to transmit information). That’s the concept behind “streaming” video and audio signals. — Another set of software prepares packets of information to be transmitted over the network, identifies its destination, sends it, and unpacks the information at the other computer. The postal service follows certain conventions in addressing and delivering surface mail, so computers follow certain guidelines called protocols to exchange information for addressing and delivering information on networks.

Software for Using the Internet The Internet is the most widely used network. It is a public network that any user can connect to. What follows are some of the most common elements of the Internet that affect online learning.

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Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

People make the connection through a server that is a direct gateway to the Internet. Large organizations have their own private gateways. Smaller organizations and individuals use the gateways of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and connect to their ISPs through their own telephone or broadband connection.

Browsers

On the Internet, users view information and use programs from the network through special software called a “browser.” Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Explorer are the two most commonly used browsers.

Intranets and extranets

Intranets and extranets are variations of the Internet. Both use the same software as the Internet, but limit access to certain users. Access to an intranet is limited to people within an organization as the “intra” in its name suggests. Access to an extranet is limited to key customers and suppliers of an organization. Organizations limit access by requiring that users enter a password when they connect to the network and limit access to files and programs to those authorized to use them.

Firewall

The software that keeps unauthorized users from accessing information on intranets or extranets and stored on hard drives.

Server

When organizations provide information to be used on the Internet or on an intranet or extranet, they store it on an Internet server.An Internet server is intended to be available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

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Delivering the Learning Program When planning to distribute online learning programs to learners, you need to make one of these two key decisions: •

If you are distributing the learning program on the Internet, will the learning programs be distributed to learners through your computers, or on space rented on another organization’s computers?

•

If you are not distributing the learning program on the Internet, which medium will you use to deliver the program (such as a DVD)?

The following sections explore these issues. Options Available for Distributing Learning Programs through a Network When you distribute learning programs through the Internet, you can store them and make them available on the computers in your organization or through someone else’s. The computer to which learners connect to receive a learning program is called a server. Storing and related maintenance needed to make an online learning program available on a server is a service called hosting. Many considerations affect this decision about hosting your own program or contracting with an outside service: Security

As it relates to the distribution of learning programs, security primarily refers to the sensitivity of content. In many instances, the learning material is about sensitive subjects (trade secrets or other similarly sensitive material). By keeping information on your server, you have direct control over the access to it, as well as records of access. This is usually a concern with internal training. In other instances, the learning (continued)

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Security (concluded)

material is about general subjects that are not confidential, but your organization’s servers also contain sensitive information. In these instances, you might consider using a hosting service so that learners do not accidentally find their way to more sensitive material.

Staffing

Staffing primarily refers to the staff available within the information technology group to provide technical support to the online learning program. These services include posting programming and content changes, backing up material, printing and reviewing reports, and administering any learning management software. If your organization has staff available, then you might consider hosting the online learning program on your own server. If not, you would use a hosting service. Support is one of the services that a hosting service provides.

Ownership of course content

In some instances, your organization owns the copyright to all the content in its online learning programs. In other instances, your organization either shares copyrights with another organization or has a license to use material to which others hold the copyright. If your organization owns the copyright, you might consider hosting the course on your own system. If your organization does not own the full copyright, the license agreement might state whether or not you can host content on your own system.

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Delivery Media Other than the Internet to Deliver Learning Programs You do not have to distribute online learning programs through the Internet. As mentioned in the previous section, the other options include the following: Diskette

A diskette is a device on which you can record a learning program stored on one computer. You can then take the diskette to another computer, and copy the learning program onto the hard disk drive of the second computer. Because users can easily copy information onto a diskette and because diskettes easily fit into shirt pockets, they have remained a popular means of distributing online learning materials. However, diskettes hold the least amount of information of any of the methods of distributing information. Still a viable means of recording data, diskettes are considered old technology and on their way out. Their capacity is often lower than needed to store storage-hungry video, audio, and animated images. If you deliver online learning materials on diskette, as you might do for performance support and asynchronous training and education, you need to make sure that learners have a diskette drive installed on their system. Increasingly, new systems do not have diskette drives installed.

Compact disk (CD)

A computer CD is just like an audio CD, except that it can also contain text, video, and other computer images in addition to sound. Both audio and computer CD players use the same technology: They record information on a disk that is read by a laser. Hence, CDs are sometimes called laser disks. CDs hold over 400 (continued)

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times more information than diskettes, and thus offer a more efficient means of recording and distributing information. However, most CDs are “read only” (ROM—read-only memory); you cannot easily record information on them (a process called writing). Until recently, organizations had to go to special production houses to record and duplicate CDs. Equipment is now available that lets organizations record and duplicate CDs in-house. Also, the PCs in many corporations are not equipped with CD players. Those learners cannot use CDs, even if they are provided. If you deliver online learning materials on a CD as you might do for performance support and asynchronous training and education, you need to make sure that learners have a CD player installed on their system or have one available on a network that the learner’s computer is connected to.

Digital virtual disk (DVD)

CDs offer significantly more storage capacity than diskettes, but DVDs offer significantly more storage capacity than a CD. A CD can hold 30 minutes’ worth of video; a DVD can hold an entire 2-hour movie. DVD players can read CDs and DVDs are quickly replacing CDs. If you deliver online learning materials on DVD (as you might do for performance support and asynchronous training and education), you need to make sure that each learner has a DVD player installed on their system (most likely in organizations that have installed equipment since 2003). However, if you distribute online learning materials on CD, learners who have a DVD player can still use the CDs.

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Issues in Choosing a Delivery Medium When you choose the method for delivering the learning program, you want to choose one that most quickly transmits the information, but is also available to all learners. For example, suppose you are developing an electronic performance support system. If you install the program on a network, users always have the most current version of information available because you can update it at one central location. Users get the new version each time they work with the information. However, if users do not have modems on their computers or the network is available only at certain times, you might distribute the performance support system on a diskette, CD, or DVD so that users can install the program on their own computers. Furthermore, whenever you update the program, you must prepare all new diskettes, CDs, or DVDs, and make sure that each user not only receives a copy, but also installs it. Make sure that users are all working with the most current version of information, too.

What Does this Mean to Someone Developing Online Learning Programs? On a good day, most of the efforts to transmit information over a network are invisible to users. However, you can design online learning programs to make the transmission most efficient. Multimedia touches, such as graphics, audio, and video clips enhance an online learning program, but they require a lot of information to be sent with them on the network. This is why they are slow to transmit given current technologies. Using these images sparingly speeds transmission of the course. However, if all of your users have high-speed connection to the Internet, the network has a much larger transmission capacity (called bandwidth) and can easily transmit these images.

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Consider the Hardware and Software Available to Individual Learners The last consideration in delivering online learning programs is the type of computer that each user has. The setup of an individual computer is called a configuration. The configuration describes both the hardware and software on the computer. Specifically, consider the issues raised in the following sections. What type of hardware do learners have? Typically, the hardware of a PC configuration consists of the following: •

Α processor, which is the center of all action on the computer. Processors are defined by their type, such as a Pentium processor, and then speed, stated in megahertz.

•

Main memory, also called Random Access Memory (RAM), whose capacity is usually mentioned in megabytes (MB)— millions of bytes. A byte is one character of information, such as a letter.

•

Storage capacity for each type of storage device: — A hard disk, whose size is usually mentioned in megabytes (MB—millions of bytes) or gigabytes (GB—billions of bytes). — A diskette drive, whose size is assumed to be 1.44 MB. — A CD drive, whose size is usually stated in speed (such as 10X or 20X) because all CDs have the same storage capacity. — A DVD drive, whose size is also usually stated in speed.

•

Α monitor, which is usually identified by the type of technology running it (such as XGA). On notebook computers, the monitor is also identified by the type of screen. Active matrix offers a more vivid image.

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Α network connection. Common options include — An Ethernet card, which connects to a network using the Ethernet technology. This is only used within large corporations. — A modem, usually stated in speed per second, such as 56 kilobytes (KB) per second. — A wireless card, which lets learners connect to the Internet or an intranet without using a cable. Other options are available, and a system can have several types of connections simultaneously. For example, one PC might have a modem and an Ethernet card.

•

Multimedia capabilities, such as sound cards, digital cameras, and similar equipment. Even though this equipment is widely available on home computers, some business organizations purposely leave them off to avoid problems with sound in the workplace or to prevent misuse of equipment.

What type of software do learners have? When considering the software configuration of the learner’s PC, specifically consider the following: •

An operating system that controls the overall operation of a computer, such as Windows or Mac OS.

•

Personal productivity programs, including word processors, presentation programs, and spreadsheets.

•

Communications software, including: — Software for connecting to the network — An Internet browser, such as Windows Explorer or Netscape Navigator, as well as plug-ins

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— Specialized software (plug-ins) to play various media, such as software that lets learners play audio CDs, play Flash demos, and view video clips.

What a Learner’s Configuration Means to Someone Developing Online Learning Programs When designing online learning programs, be sure you consider the capabilities of the computers that learners have. On the one hand, you want to take full advantage of all the capabilities available to learners that make sense within the learning context. On the other hand, you do not want to design online learning programs that use capabilities that some of the learners do not have. Typically, the equipment available to learners varies. If you are designing programs for use within a given organization, you can work with your Information Systems (IS) group to determine what this variance is and define a minimum configuration that the course runs on. For example, you might decide that learners must have at least a Pentium III processor to use the program. Learners who try to use the learning program on a Pentium II processor will not be able to do so, but you planned it that way. When designing programs for use over the Internet, you do not have any way of knowing the variance among systems. Many organizations therefore have decided that they will design their courses to run on certain versions of Internet browsers. If users cannot run the browsers on their system, they cannot use the program. Typically, organizations design their online learning programs to support the most current versions of the common browsers, as well as the version before that.

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Learn More About the Technology for Delivering Online Learning To learn more about the technology of online learning, visit the Web site of the online version of this book at www.vnulearning.com/wp/ 3-links.htm.

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Chapter 4: Project and Learning Considerations The last of the major issues surrounding online learning pertain to the business and creative aspects of designing, developing, and administering an online learning program. This chapter addresses these issues. Specifically, it addresses the following: •

An overview of project and learning issues

•

Establishing a strategy for moving learning online

•

Designing and developing courses

•

Maintaining and supporting online learning programs

•

Purchasing software and services

Overview of Project and Learning Issues Success at delivering online learning is directly linked to more than just the technology. It also involves the following: Establishing a strategy for appropriately moving learning online

One of the challenges of online learning is the endless choices available. A strategy provides a framework for managing the choices. It gives you specific issues to consider at appropriate (continued)

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Establishing a strategy for appropriately moving learning online (concluded)

points along the way, and a framework for moving courses online on a timetable that is comfortable for your organization.

Designing and developing courses

Although the general process of instructional design for online learning is the same as for classroom learning, many different issues arise at each phase. Some of the issues are technical, while others focus on ways to compensate for the lack of face-to-face contact in most online learning.

Maintaining and supporting courses

As people participate in online learning courses, questions and technical issues are likely to arise. Also, the technical content could change. Maintenance and support activities address these concerns.

Purchasing software and services

Learning management systems and libraries of online courses can be among the most costly software purchases that an organization makes. Similarly, services for developing online courses can be expensive. Doing your homework in advance of a purchase can result in a more satisfactory business deal for all parties involved.

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Issues Associated with a Strategy for Moving to Online Learning In the first moments of enthusiasm for online learning, some professionals make earnest proclamations that a significant percentage of their corporate or university learning will move online within a short time, such as a year. Others, in an effort to launch an online-learning program, feel compelled to choose learning management software and move entire curricula online, even though they do not feel that they fully understand online learning or that their organization can readily adapt to it. Such learning professionals, overwhelmed with the amount of choice in online learning, make hasty selections and end up making costly errors. Strategic planning is a process where you plot out how you can integrate online learning into your organization and introduce it at a comfortable rate. A comfortable rate is one that lets you first learn about options before you are required to make choices and one that lets the organization adequately prepare for the move online. Implementing online learning generally goes through these phases: Phase in the Strategic Planning Process

What Happens at This Phase

Phase I: Advance Notice (as you prepare to implement online learning)

This phase precedes the implementation of online learning in organizations. During this time, the people who will introduce, develop, and manage online learning become knowledgeable in these areas. Specifically, people do the following: (continued)

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• Get an overview of online learning. This is the time to learn what online learning is and to become familiar with the technology and project issues—the types of topics addressed in this book. • Find executives and managers who are interested in championing the first online learning projects in your organization. Those projects have a much higher likelihood of success if an executive strongly supports the effort. • Develop strategic relationships with other groups in the organization whose help you launch online learning. The most important is the Information Systems group, because it can help manage some of the complicated technology. • Take e-learning courses. People cannot adequately advocate for online learning if they do not understand the experience of being an online learner. During this phase, the people who are leading the online learning effort take courses, if they have not done so in the past.

Phase II: Getting Started (the first 6 to 12 months)

Start small, and build for success. Set yourself up for success by choosing to implement just one or two projects. Choose those that have a high likelihood of success. Some suggested projects: • Develop one or two online courses. • Sign a trial contract to use a small library of off-the-shelf online courses, and promote their use and success in your organization. (continued)

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• Pilot the use of a learning management system (LMS), even if its primary use is to manage classroom courses. Also during the pilot: • To ensure success, make sure that you promote the pilot program to the intended audience. Also limit the amount of software that you purchase. Because the pilot is a trial of sorts, you might find that you are not comfortable with choices of some software. By limiting your purchases now, you leave your options open for later phases of the strategy. • Plan to build your skills in the areas of course development and learning management. Record the lessons learned so that others in the organization can benefit from your experience. • Evaluate the pilot to determine what worked and what did not. Use these lessons to formulate later strategy.

Phase III: Building Up (the next 12 to 18 months)

During this phase, you apply the lessons learned in the pilot to significantly increase the use of online learning in your organization. Issues to consider fall into three categories: • Content. During this phase, you transfer curricula online, one at a time. You also experiment with other forms and formats of online learning. For example, you might replace a quiz-based program with a simulation program. Or you might replace a tipsand-techniques course with a knowledge management site and a Webzine. (continued)

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• Technology. During this phase, you increase your use of course development tools—you learn new things to do with the tools you already have, and you begin purchasing specialized software like Flash to polish the appearance of online content. You also introduce an LMS (if you have not done so already) and expand its use. Last, you explore the possibility of re-using content, especially if you find that the content you are developing can be used in manuals, marketing materials, and other print and online publications. • Management. You improve the “human” management of online learning by refining the methods for marketing it to potential learners and by building stronger business cases for creating online learning programs.

Phase IV: Fully Integrated (the long-term)

During this phase, online learning becomes fully integrated into the organization. Using the lessons learned in the earlier phases, you design increasingly more effective learning programs and make more efficient and effective use of the technology. Issues to consider fall into three categories: • Content. You begin designing integrated online learning programs, and design various courses and related materials so that they interconnect with one another. For example, rather than designing a quality course, you might design an entire quality program. You also overhaul entire online courses to more effectively teach material online. You develop strategic partnerships, using content from other sources when it (continued)

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makes sense. Working with other contentdevelopment groups such as marketing and technical communication departments, you start sharing content (that is, developing material once and using it over and over in other types of communication products). • Technology. During this phase, you expand the use of Learning Management Systems (LMSs). For example, in addition to managing enrollments and recording completions, you might begin using the ability of an LMS to track skills within the organization. You also experiment with software that can help you develop more effective learning programs, such as simulation tools. Finally, you might begin using content management or learning content management systems to make it possible to re-use content within your organization. • Management. You use the reports from LMSs and similar systems to find out what’s effective and what’s not, and improve your processes and techniques. Instructors build their repertoire for teaching online, as well as their skills.

Issues Associated with Designing and Developing Online Courses The next set of issues to consider pertain to designing and developing courses. Specifically, consider the following: •

The process and how it compares to the instructional design process for classroom courses and workbooks

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•

Issues associated with analysis

•

Issues associated with project design

•

Issues associated with project development and implementation

Similarities with Design for the Classroom and Workbook In many ways, designing, developing, and administering online learning programs is the same as designing, developing, and administering classroom courses and workbooks. The general process is the same: 1. Conduct a needs analysis. 2. State objectives. 3. Design the evaluation. 4. Choose the medium. 5. Develop the course (or choose an off-the-shelf course). 6. Conduct a formative evaluation. 7. Revise the course. 8. Produce the course materials. 9. Distribute the course materials. 10. Conduct post-course administration (testing, enrollments, record keeping). 11. Maintain the course.

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Like their more traditional classroom counterparts, online learning programs emerge from a well-researched analysis, which yields clear objectives. The best way to meet those needs is with a strong course design that is developed on time, within budget, and at the desired level of quality. After the course is complete, it must be efficiently distributed within the organization. Student participation must be tracked and recorded and, when content changes, the course must be revised.

Differences between Online Course Design and Traditional Course Design Although the process is similar to what you would use when developing classroom and workbook programs, the considerations you address at various phases of online learning program development differ. The following sections identify these considerations: During Needs Analysis Assess a business case for online learning, determine whether the learning environment supports this approach, and identify any technology requirements (such as an LMS that must be used). During the Design Phases Online learning presents many possibilities for teaching—many are not readily available in the classroom or in workbooks. Specifically, you can: • • •

Address a broader range of learning styles and issues than is possible in a classroom or a workbook, where one size must fit all. Use a broad range of media, including video, animation, and graphics. Develop content once, and use it again in a variety of different learning materials (either as-is or with minor modifications).

As a result, you need to adapt your teaching repertoire when moving online.

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During the Development Phases Course development becomes more complex online than for other media. It usually involves •

A large team of people with diverse skills.

•

Extensive testing, including (a) pilot tests to make sure that students understand the content without assistance from anyone and that the software operates as intended; and (b) functional tests to make sure the software functions as planned.

After Development Because the bulk of the effort involved in online learning occurs in analysis, design, and development, the distribution and maintenance require a different set of activities than those used for classroom and workbook courses. These activities include: •

Making extra efforts to receive feedback on learning materials (more than what is needed for workbook or classroom courses).

•

Developing a plan to manage updates (always a problem with software, often a problem with courses).

•

Making sure that learner participation is tracked and recorded.

In addition, because online learning programs are software applications, some aspects of the design process are adjusted to reflect a software development process. The next several topics describe each of these project issues in detail, as well as one more issue: using software to manage the development of online learning.

Analysis Issues If you want to consider online learning as an option for your organization, you need to think about it from the very beginning of a project— during the analysis phase.

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When conducting an analysis, ask questions to determine whether online learning is feasible for the organization you are serving, and under what constraints. Specifically, consider: •

Assessing the feasibility of an online learning project.

•

Determining the constraints affecting an online learning project.

The Feasibility of an Online Learning Project When assessing the feasibility of online learning for an organization, you need to look into the following issues: Financial feasibility

Online learning programs are often more costly to develop than traditional programs currently in use. They tend to justify themselves in the reduced cost of delivery. Often, proponents of an online learning program in an organization do not thoroughly identify all the development costs, nor do they attempt to identify the delivery costs of the alternative and prepare a comprehensive business case. The worksheet later in this section helps you prepare working figures to compare development and delivery costs for classroom and online learning programs.

Access to computers

Online learning happens on computers; learners must have access to them. Most desk-bound workers have computers at their desks. Many other types of workers do not, such as production workers in manufacturing plants, retail workers, security staffs, and hospital staffs. Some of these workers might have limited access to computers through a central work area (continued)

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(such as a nurse’s station or back office of a store) or through a learning center (a specially equipped area where students can take self-study courses). If computer access is not presently available, you’ll have to make provisions for the computers before the program will be feasible.

Environmental issues that promote or hinder use of the program

Some online learning programs are intended to be used on the job. Others are intended to be a specialized learning event. Whatever the intended use, consider how distractions, noise, and work spaces affect use of the program. For example, although many sales people have access to notebook computers, they are easily distracted by e-mail and telephones when studying at their workplace, and often do not finish the courses they start. Similarly, people working in large call centers have access to computers, but noise from a multimedia program distracts their co-workers.

Previous experience with computers in general

People cannot use online learning if they don’t know how to use the computer. If you want to use online learning with learners who have no previous computer experience, you probably need to include computer literacy training as part of the effort.

Previous experience with online learning in particular

Like anything in life, past experience predicts future behavior. If people have a positive previous online learning experience, they’ll more readily accept an online course than if the previous experience was negative. Similarly, managers who have had unsatisfactory experiences with online learning in the past often resist future efforts.

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The Constraints Affecting an Online Learning Project When identifying the constraints under which you would develop an online learning program, consider these issues: Budget and schedule

Certain aspects of online learning are relatively quick to develop (such as text and simple graphics). Others require more expense and time (such as extensive interactions, videos, simulations, and animations). How much is the sponsor (internal or external to your organization) willing to pay to produce the program? If you cannot get a firm time frame and budget figures, at least get relative ones. Classify the project as one of the following: • McDonald’s (low cost, fast service) • TGI Friday’s (moderate budget, leisurely service) • Morton’s (high budget, time for full traditional dining)

Quality

So many organizations have limited experience with online learning, so investigate the prevailing notions of quality online learning within the organization you are serving. For example, some organizations have difficulty with the transition from classroom to computerbased training and become overwhelmed when discussing the possibilities of performance support. (continued)

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Quality (concluded)

Use this information to determine whether the internal or external sponsors’ expectations of quality are realistic, given the budget and schedule you have to work with.

Staff

Who’s going to work on this program, either in a development capacity or as an advisor on the content? More specifically, what’s their experience with online learning?

General technology infrastructure

Determine what types of equipment, networks, and software are available in the organization, and find out where they are headed so that you can determine the configuration of the computers on which your programs will be used.

Available technology for online learning

Determine which software and hardware are specifically already available in the organization for online learning. Chances are, executives will want you to use the technology that’s already available to develop and deliver learning, rather than to purchase new technology. If you are unfamiliar with any of the available technology, learn the functions and features.

Justification required

Will management require you to present a business case justifying the move to online learning?

Worksheets for Determining Constraints on an Online Learning Project About these Worksheets Use the worksheets that follow to uncover some of the issues you’ll need to address when implementing online learning in your organization. You’ll certainly need to add questions about the content you’re working with. Use the space provided for brief notes.

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Worksheet 1: Planning Considerations for Online Learning About the Subject Matter • Are computers an integral part of the subject matter? •

Can the team designing the learning program play a role in developing the aspect of the subject matter that is performed with the computer?

•

What opportunities are there to integrate learning resources into the computer?

Access to Computers • Does every learner have their own PC? If not, which groups of learners have their own PCs? Which groups don’t? •

If not, does every learner have access to a PC? If not, which groups do not have access to PCs?

•

Does your organization have a learning center or similar facility where learners can take online courses? If not, which groups do not have access to PCs?

Environmental Issues that Promote or Hinder Learning • In what physical location will learning occur? •

Will learners have access to their telephones, the Internet, and other sources of interruption? If yes, are learners likely to allow themselves to be interrupted?

•

How much privacy will learners have?

— Much. They’ll learn in private rooms with doors. — Some. They’ll be in private cubicles, but will likely be affected by noise from cubicles that are nearby.

— Little.

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Worksheet 1: Planning Considerations for Online Learning (continued) •

How much physical space is available in the learning area for other materials, such as workbooks?

— Much. Desk areas near the learning station are large and empty.

— Some. Desk areas near the learning station have some space, but some of it is used for work information and supplies.

— Little. Desk space is at a premium in this area. Previous Experience with Computers in General Can learners do the following: •

Turn on the PC?

•

Start programs using Windows or a Mac?

•

Type input on a keyboard?

•

Use a mouse?

•

Use specialized application programs, such as a hotel reservations system?

•

Use general application programs, such as a word processor or a spreadsheet?

Previous Experience with Online Learning in Particular • Do learners in this organization have previous experience with online learning? •

On average, how many online programs have learners participated in?

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Worksheet 1: Planning Considerations for Online Learning (continued) •

What is the general feeling toward online learning?

— Fine — Intimidated by technology. — Comfortable with technology, but believe that classroom learning is the most legitimate form of learning. Constraints Can you assess the budget for this project? •

Yes. What is the approximate budget for this project (either a firm dollar amount or a range)?

•

No. Determine the relative budget for this project:

— McDonald’s — TGI Friday’s — Morton’s of Chicago Capabilities of Existing Staff for Producing and Managing Online Learning For the chart on the next page, assess each staff member according to the following criteria: 1 = has heard of the term 2 = can describe key concepts 3 = has tried or has used this skill 4 = regularly uses this skill 5 = expert that others in and out of the company seek out

Worksheet 2: Staff Resources for the Online Learning Program Instructor

Course Designer/ Developer

Programmer

Manager

Sponsor

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Staff person Classroom course design Classroom course instruction Video design and scripting

Computerbased training design Computerbased training development Workbook instruction

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Audio design and scripting

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Worksheet 3: Technology Infrastructure Identify the minimum configuration of computers to each of these areas. Minimum configuration of typical workstation

In a manufacturing area

In an office

Minimum main memory Minimum disk storage Minimum operating system Office applications that are installed (such as MS Office) Other applications that are installed as standard Web browsers (types, levels supported) Sound card DVD or CD drive Printer access

• • • •

Attached to the PC On a LAN within the facility Within the building No available printer

In a technical group

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Worksheet 3: Technology Infrastructure (continued) Additional Questions about the Technology Infrastructure • How frequently are PCs replaced? •

If the I/S group plans to replace PCs in the next year, what is the configuration of the new PCs?

•

Does the I/S group have any long-term projects that might affect any program to implement online learning?

Standardized Development Tools or Standards for Online Learning, If Any, in These Areas Does your organization already have standards for the following? If so, what are they? •

Learning Management System (LMS)

•

Computer-based training authoring tools

•

Word processing tools

•

HTML development tools

•

Graphics software

•

Video and audio production tools

Design Issues The Creative Opportunities in Online Learning Designing an online learning program is an exciting challenge. If you’re looking for creativity, online learning offers it. Here’s how: •

Online learning programs that replace classroom courses can be more flexible and offer more opportunities for enrichment and review.

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Online learning programs based on workplace applications provide a more comforting level of support for work activities than is possible with traditional software applications.

Whatever brings you to online learning, you have more design issues to consider than the type of materials you previously developed. By addressing these issues, you can design a single program that meets a broad range of learning needs. If you’re looking to expand your teaching and communication repertoire, online learning offers unique opportunities, too. You can explore a number of different teaching techniques. If they’re already a part of your teaching repertoire, you can adapt them to the computer. These techniques include gaming-simulation, discovery learning, experiential learning, personalized remediation—even software application design. Finally, if you’re looking for complexity, online learning offers many design challenges. Online programs offer flexibility to learners, so course designers must consider each possible path that a learner might take and design it appropriately. Doing so complicates design. Similarly, you can design one learning program, and re-use it in a variety of contexts.

Design Issues Online learning offers flexibility so that you can design programs that are: Tailored to individual learning and working styles

You can provide alternative presentations of material based on a user’s preferences. For instance, some users prefer to learn first, and then try. Others prefer the opposite. By giving users a choice, you address the needs of each. (continued)

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Through simulations of real-world experiences, you can design learning situations that let users try out various approaches and see the implications of their actions. In her book Designing Games and Simulations, Cathy Stein Greenblat defines a simulation as “an operating model of central features or elements of a real or proposed system, process, or environment.” When learners interact with the simulated environment, they experience the consequences of their choices.

Participatory

Many online learning programs look like electronic page turners. Others let users fully participate in the learning experience. Synchronous courses (courses in which participants are all online and communicating with one another at the same time, like a chat room) can include question-and-answer sessions with experts and online discussions. Asynchronous courses (ones in which participants are not necessarily online at the same time) can include interactive case studies and simulations. Participants receive information about a problem one piece at a time and make decisions about how to proceed.

Patient

Through effective design of exercises and quizzes, you can pinpoint the most likely problem that learners have in mastering the material, and provide them with alternative explanations and exercises until they master it. Such “attention until mastery” is not possible in a classroom.

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Purchasing Off-the-Shelf Courses Before you begin a project to develop an online course, make sure that you really need to do so. The number of courses available offthe-shelf in most subject areas grows each day. The options include PC application training (such as training on MS Word and MS Excel), business management, grammar, and Web design. You might be able to use an off-the-shelf course as-is or with some minor changes, and save development costs. Many off-the-shelf courses are available through the Web. Users enroll in these courses or organizations purchase a subscription (which lets a designated number of learners take courses over a particular period of time). Other off-the-shelf courses are available as DVDs and CDs. You purchase and use them like you would purchase and use any DVD or CD. But if you determine that you need to design and develop a new course, then do so. The next several sections prepare you for this. Adapting the Repertoire of Teaching and Communication Techniques In a classroom, if a student gives an “I’m confused” look or starts nodding off, you can quickly adjust your teaching. You can check for understanding or insert a “wake-me-up” activity. In most online learning situations, you will not have such an “adjust by sight” system. Instead, you will need to adjust your repertoire of teaching techniques to anticipate potential points of confusion and provide students with clarifying information. You will also need to use different techniques to engage students. Many online instructors find that they can create engaging, effective lessons if they use specific techniques and incorporate as broad a range of media as possible within the budget, schedule, and technology limitations available.

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Here is an alphabetical list of teaching and communication techniques that the designers of many online learning programs use. Case Study

A description of an actual or fictional situation. Learners describe how they would respond. Case studies have been used effectively to: • Introduce new concepts. Learners first respond to a case study to become familiar with the characteristics of a situation, and then work through the case to learn which issues they should address. • Review concepts. Learners might test whether they can actually apply the material taught in a class by responding to a case.

Coaching

An online tool that assists users with cognitive (intellectual) tasks. Examples of coaching include the use of: • Online assistants that prompt customer support representatives who are requesting information from customers to take advantage of potential marketing opportunities • Online assistants that tell customer service representatives at credit card companies whether or not they can extend a customer’s credit limit • Online tools that help workers choose a personalized curriculum of training courses A coach provides partial or full assistance with a decision. It includes prompts with scripts to be read when appropriate. (continued)

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Provide a brief overview of a subject area in 10–15 screens (or a self-running animation that takes no more than 3 minutes). Rather than transferring skills, effective guided tours whet learners’ appetites for in-depth material, such as online courses and references. Figure 4-1 shows an example of a guided tour.

Copyright 2002 by Ojala, Inc. Used with permission. Figure 4-1. Example screen from a guided tour of Ojala.com. Prepared by Cesira Daukantas.

Online References

Encyclopedic listings of all major topics on a particular subject. A telephone directory is a reference. So is the Physician’s Desk Reference, and so are the programming references provided with software. (continued)

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References promote self-directed learning. Learners look up specific pieces of information. The subject might be broad, such as all the commands used for copying information, or all the medications used to treat influenza. The subject might be tightly defined, such as the use of global characters with the DOS command diskcopy, or the side effects of a certain influenza vaccine on patients with pacemakers. Users generally do not read references in their entirety. Learners expect the following in references: • Comprehensive coverage of a subject, with every major topic listed and thorough descriptions within each. For example, if a programming language has 118 commands, users expect listings for each. If doctors have access to 1,089 drugs, they expect the reference to describe all 1,089 of them. • Alphabetic listing. Users expect the reference to begin with A and continue to Z. • Everything about the topic. If, for example, a particular command has seven options, users expect the reference to describe all seven. Similarly, if a drug has six side effects, users expect the reference to describe all six. • Examples and illustrations to explain concepts. Figure 4-2 shows an example of an online reference: a page from the online Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. (continued)

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Online References (concluded)

Copyright 2002 by Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Used with permission. Figure 4-2. Sample from the online Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology.

Simulation

An experience that replicates the central characteristics of complex situations (that’s the simulation) and that lets users experience the consequences of decisions made in that situation (the gaming aspect). Examples of simulations include: • Aircraft and nuclear simulators, which re-create disaster situations that can be used to train pilots and operators. • Training courses on software that let users try tasks as if they were really using the software, but users only use simulated versions of the software so that their actions will not affect the valuable data used to run the organization. • Training courses in interpersonal relations (such as sales and management) that give students an opportunity to try out new skills. (continued)

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Quick electronic advice about something that is not required for basic use, but whose knowledge could increase the productivity of learners. Tips are usually displayed when learners start a program. They usually cover a single point and focus on secondary information, rather than the most essential information. Online course developers use tips to supplement basic knowledge and skills. For example, when users first start the program, Quicken displays tips for more effectively using the software, as well as general tips for managing finances. Similarly, Day-Timer Organizer displays tips on various aspects of time management. Most of the tips are general, but tips occasionally include suggestions on how to use the online Day-Timer to implement these suggestions.

Tutorial

A “traditional” lesson with lecture-like sequences, followed by opportunities for practice and are intended to develop a skill that learners can immediately use. Some tutorials are required, such as a tutorial about a new company policy or to fulfill a legal requirement (the reason for most safety training). In some instances, learners consult a tutorial to learn how to perform a task in a more-instructive way than is explained in a procedures manual or through online help. Examples include users consulting commercial books about software such as Windows for Dummies (continued)

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to learn how to back up systems, and tutorials provided with spreadsheets that teach users how to use formulas. In other instances, users take tutorials to learn about an entire subject, such as career management or how to prepare tax returns.

Web-based seminar

A Web-based seminar (sometimes called a Webinar) taught using synchronous learning technologies. A Web-based seminar addresses a well-defined topic (such as synchronous teaching techniques) and is intended for an advanced audience. It typically lasts about 90 minutes, with questions. Figure 4-3 shows an example of a screen from a Web-based seminar about a software application. Notice that participants can see the application in the center of the screen. A transcript of a concurrent chat with participants appears in the left-hand margin.

Screen copyright 2002 by Elluminate, Inc. Used with permission. Figure 4-3. Example of a screen from a Web-based seminar using the virtual classroom software vClass.

(continued)

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An online “magazine” that contains a collection of articles and provides ongoing communication with a target group. For example, a product Webzine provides ongoing contact with the customers who have already purchased a product and provides tips and tricks for using that product, as well as sample programming code (or scripts) and case studies of applications. Figure 4-4 shows an example of Online Learning e-News, a weekly newsletter about design and development that explores technical issues in online learning. The newsletter is mailed weekly to subscribers.

Copyright 2002 by VNU Business Media. Used with permission. Figure 4-4. Example of Online Learning E-News, an online newsletter.

(continued)

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Online “agents” that automatically perform a task for users, only prompting users when they must make a decision. The wizard literally steps users through the decisions one at a time, and tells users when they have finished the task. A wizard lets users perform a task without understanding that task. For example, Microsoft Word uses wizards to help users quickly prepare common forms of business correspondence and presentations.

Other Issues Two other issues that designers of online learning programs address are the length of online learning programs and how to re-use learning materials. Small Packages. MTV influenced the attention span for material on television, and the Web culture is influencing the attention span for material online. People can surf the Web for hours, but they generally do not spend a significant amount of time at any single Web site. Instead, they read a brief topic and move onto the next. Similarly, one of the challenges of learning online is how to package the material in units that are sufficiently small so that they can hold learners’ attention for the entire length of the learning unit. Although the attention span for any set of material will vary by learner, by topic, and by learner motivation to learn the topic, generally learners prefer shorter topics (less than 10 minutes). By keeping learning units brief, learners can better use the material for reference at a later time (if that’s an issue). Also, learners have difficulty searching long units to find information of interest. The Gifts That Keep on Giving. Re-use refers to the practice of taking content developed for one purpose and using it for another purpose. In some cases, you can use the information “as is,” with no

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changes. In others, you must make changes. Using a set of information as course material in one instance and as reference material in another is an example of re-use. Three factors limit the re-use of learning content: 1. The first is your imagination. The possibilities are limited only by your ability to picture the new application. For example, organizations have re-used information in these ways: •

Using learning material as user’s guides or references.

•

Using materials designed for one course in another course.

•

Adapting materials designed for one audience for use with another audience. For example, an organization might develop a telephone etiquette course for the customer service representatives of a flower shop, and then create a similar course for the customer service representatives for an airline reservations unit.

•

Adapting materials designed in one medium for another. For example, how often has a best-selling book been recorded as a book on tape?

2. The second is the law. You can only re-use information if you own the copyright or have received permission from the person or organization who owns it. In principle, this seems clear enough. In practice, this becomes a problem because nearly all software programs let users cut and paste material from one place to another—even copyrighted material. Our ability to use the material exceeds our effort in securing the rights. One area that presents special difficulties for designers of online learning programs is clip art. Although clip art—as well as clip photos, sound clips, video clips, and animation clips—is intended to be cut from one program and used in another, many publishers intend for the clip art to be used only in personal documents or documents that are distributed among a small group of people.

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Because learning materials have a large distribution, you must often obtain special rights to use clip art. When in doubt, contact the publisher of the clip art. 3. The last is technology. The original materials must be technically compatible with the technology used to publish the new materials. For example, if the original materials are produced in a proprietary authoring system, you might not be able to easily adapt the materials for a Web site. The next section explores how real organizations have responded to design challenges in e-learning.

A Case Study in Needs Analysis Background: In Joseph’s company, no employees are allowed onto the production line until they have completed the technical training portion of the new-employee orientation course. The course is offered only once a month in a classroom. With a major hiring spurt going on, the company cannot afford to limit training to once a month, but it does not have the instructors available to offer it more frequently. The company wants to convert the course to one that can be taken online, but it has no experience with online learning. Issues Assessed in the Analysis: • Access to computers •

Workplace distractions

•

Previous experience with online learning that people might have from previous jobs

•

Budget and schedule

•

Quality

•

Technology infrastructure

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Information Learned: Online learning is definitely feasible, from a technical viewpoint. Seventy percent of the workers have computers at their desktop. Many work in a “bull-pen” atmosphere, however, and are distracted by ambient sounds. Ambient sounds from the computer would a let distract others. The other 30 percent of the workers do not have access to computers in their workplace. Some sort of room for online learning will need to be created to accommodate them, but management understands that this is a necessary expense. The company has no experience with online learning, but some members of the training staff have worked with it in previous jobs. Also, management has funds available to hire people with extensive experience developing online learning. The company expectation is that the course will teach the same material as the classroom course, but do so in less time and be available at any time. More than anything, availability is the area with the highest level of expectation, because the classroom course has such limited availability. The company has a firm deadline; it intends to complete the project within eight months, but its relative budget is in the TGI Friday’s range. The company is in the process of upgrading its intranet, and within the next 12 months, it will be replacing all PCs to meet a new minimum configuration. The new configuration is based on the Pentium VI processor, and includes PCs with DVD drives and sound cards. Conclusions: The project must include construction costs for learning stations that will be used by learners who do not have access to PCs at their desks. To assure management that learning has occurred, testing will be important, as will record keeping to provide documentation that learners completed the course.

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A Case Study of an Online Community of Practice Purpose: To provide pediatricians around the world with an opportunity to get advice on treating patients at any time of the day. Also provide pediatricians with an opportunity to learn about current issues in pediatric care. Challenges: No technical staff; the founders of the service were pediatricians who did not have significant technical experience with PCs. In parts of the world, access to PCs is limited and the equipment is older and has limited capabilities. Brief Description of the Design: The International Pediatric Chat, created by pediatrician Julius Edlavitch, became a site on the World Wide Web in the late 1990s. This online “community of practice” is an example of knowledge management. The site has three components: •

Ongoing real-time chats. Because the Webmasters could not assume that users have access to specialized software or the ability to easily download plug-ins, they created a feature called “Instant Chat” that lets users join the chat without purchasing or downloading software.

•

Scheduled educational sessions. The Webmasters schedule weekly learning sessions online. Working with several universities, the Webmasters arrange for each to provide lecturers according to a schedule. In advance of the lecture, lecturers post guiding questions on the Web site. One of the Webmasters indicated that by presenting the guiding questions as multiple-choice questions, the interactive discussion has more focus and more people tend to participate.

•

Community building material. Because the pediatricians who participate in the chat do not have access to one another in person, the Webmasters provided an area where pediatricians can post their biographies and their photographs, as well as contact information so participants can get to know one another and

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contact each other outside of the chats. When traveling, some of the pediatricians contact colleagues from the Web site and meet them in person, facilitating further exchange. Want more information? Check the Web site at www.pedschat.org.

A Case Study of a Simulation Learning Experience Purpose: To teach equal-opportunity lending policies and procedures. The law requires banks to take special measures to make sure that members of certain minority groups have equal access to loans. (In the past, some people have been denied loans because of their ethnic or racial backgrounds.) The policies themselves are somewhat dry, but the implementation of those policies is ripe with challenges for the typical loan officer. Challenges: • Reduce the amount of time needed to teach the course. •

Provide consistent training for over 1,000 loan officers in the bank.

•

Make sure that participants not only understand the policies and laws, but appropriately implement them in practice.

The project has a large budget, and the designers can use interactive video and similar media. Design: Rather than create an electronic page turner, the designers created a simulation of a typical bank loan officer’s work environment, and used experiential learning to uncover the learning points. The course is an electronic-gaming simulation in which the learner “works” as a loan officer whose goal is to see six clients during the course and earn a set commission. Depending on how they apply equal opportunity lending procedures, learners might extend a loan to an unworthy applicant or fail to give a loan to a worthy candidate.

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To determine worthiness, the learner “interviews” the applicants. Both appear as characters in an interactive video sequence. Some of the questions are appropriate, but some are not. If the learner asks an inappropriate question, a lawyer later appears to provide feedback. Similarly, if the learner fails to ask questions that should be asked, he or she receives feedback on that.

A Case Study of Advanced Professional Training Purpose: To provide professionals with an opportunity to develop their skills in handling emerging concepts and technologies, such as usability testing, calculating return on investment, and techniques for synchronous learning. Challenges: Many professionals do not have travel budgets and have only limited work time to attend a seminar. Design: Using the concept of Webinars, bring the sessions to the learners. Many professional societies are scheduling ongoing professional training sessions that use synchronous learning technologies. They invite an expert to address a topic for 90 minutes and provide participants with an opportunity to enroll at a reasonable cost. Some organizations offer these programs monthly; others offer them weekly.

Developing the Components A basic online learning program provides the graphics and text of a course, exercises and testing, and record keeping such as recording test scores and bookmarks (an indicator of the place where a learner interrupted an online learning program so that the learner can resume studies at the bookmarked point). A more complex program includes animations, simulations, audio sequences, video sequences, and links to material on a corporate

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intranet or the World Wide Web. These programs also exchange information with corporate education records. Skills Needed Rarely does a single person have all the skills needed to produce a basic program, much less a complex one. Most online learning projects involve a team of people who possess some or all of the following skills. (The exact skills needed will depend on the program in production.) Role

Responsibilities

Project manager

Acts like a general contractor for the project— determining which skills are needed, hiring team members, tracking and reporting progress, making sure that team members adhere to designs and guidelines, and making sure that the project is completed on time and within budget.

Instructional designer

Acts as the architect of the project. Defines the problem and develops a blueprint for a solution (an online learning program or a series of related programs) that is sufficiently complete so that others can develop the program.

Writer or information developer

Writes the text of the online program. When needed, expands upon the design provided by the instructional designer.

Graphic designer

Prepares the visual designs for the course (including its look and feel) and specific graphics within the course. Also assists with preparing animated sequences. (continued)

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Programmer

Prepares the interactive sequences of the course that cannot be prepared with the authoring tool. For example, with most authoring tools, people who are not programmers can write and program multiple-choice questions, but cannot prepare a simulation of complex software.

Human factors or usability engineer

Reviews the designs of online programs to identify possible barriers to use by the intended audience, and coordinates tests of the usability (ease with which typical learners can take the course).

Editor

Reviews the entire online learning program for consistency and adherence to guidelines, and provides any directions needed in final preparation of the course.

Tester

Reviews the entire program to make sure that it operates properly and does not cause problems when running with other programs. For example, the tester makes sure that each link identified in the course actually works.

Video production team

Produces video sequences. The team includes the director, actors, lighting specialist, and other equipment specialists.

Audio production team

Produces audio sequences. The team includes the sound engineer and narrator (also called “voice talent”).

Subject matter experts (SMEs)

Assist with choosing content for an online learning program, and review the content for accuracy.

Executive sponsor

Initiates the request for the online learning program and has ultimate financial liability for its success.

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Individuals in any of these roles need to develop specific skills in each of the three areas of online learning: the contexts of learning, the technology of learning, and project issues. To determine more specifically the skills you need to develop them, see the section Developing Your Skills.

Developing Your Skills One of the challenges of online learning is figuring out what you need to know about it. There are three main components to online learning: •

Learning goals (such as performance support and training)

•

Technology (such as authoring systems)

•

Project details (such as online course design and course administration)

This section explores the level of skill you might need in each of these areas. It covers these task steps: 1. Identify your job role. 2. Classify the possible levels of skill in each of the three main areas. 3. Determine the level of skill that you need.

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Step 1: Identify your job role. Although few jobs in online learning are identical to one another, they tend to fall into these general categories: Manager

The manager typically assumes one or all of these responsibilities: • Oversees the development of online learning materials within schedule and budget. • Develops an overall strategy for online learning. • Purchases services and products for online learning. • Makes sure that workers actually benefit from online learning.

Course developer (programmer)

The course developer assumes these technical responsibilities of online learning: • Chooses appropriate technologies for online learning. • Integrates online learning into the existing technology infrastructure of an organization. • Produces online learning programs that run without errors.

Instructional (course) designer

This individual designs and writes the learning materials to meet the learning objectives, and uses the available authoring resources.

Instructor

The instructor teaches and develops courses that make use of interactive conferencing technologies and video.

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Step 2: Classify the possible levels of skill in each of the three main areas. Level

Description

A

Can recognize the name of the skill or product and explain what it means or does. For example, when confronted with the term authoring system, a person with a Level A skill can explain that it is software used to develop courses.

B

Can define the key features of the concept and explain when to use it. For example, a person at Level B of a skill can explain the key features of authoring systems (such as answer analysis and branching) and explain that authoring systems should be used when the course developers have limited programming experience.

C

Has used or applied the concept. For example, a person at Level C of a skill has used one or more authoring systems to create a course.

D

Is a power user of the concept, often assisting others. For example, a person at Level D of a skill has installed and customized an authoring system and has perhaps taught another person to use it.

E

Can address challenges with the concept that are not documented. In other words, a person at Level E of skill with authoring systems might be able to solve a problem that is not discussed in the troubleshooting guide.

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Step 3: Determine the level of skill that you need. What follows are generic recommendations for skill level, based on your role in the development of online learning. Only you know the actual level of skill needed to succeed in your particular job. Manager

Course Designer

Course Developer

Instructor

B or C

D or E

B or C

D or E

Development technology

B

C or D

D or E

C

Delivery technology

B

B or C

C or D

C or D

Teaching techniques

C

D or E

C

D or E

Course management

C or D

B or C

C

C

Maintenance

C or D

C or D

C

C

D

C or D

B

C

Learning goals

Marketing

Step 4: Use this information to choose learning experiences. Using these guidelines, you can choose readings, sessions at conferences, and organizations that help you develop or maintain skills at an appropriate level. For example, suppose you are a course developer. Our charts recommend that you have Level D or Level E skills in developing technical issues. But suppose your organization is considering desktop videoconferencing, and you have only Level B of skill; you have not actually used this technology. You might choose training that helps you develop Level C and perhaps Level D skills.

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Step 4: (continued) Similarly, suppose you are a course designer and need to develop Level D or Level E skills in learning goals. You have designed only classroom training courses and are not familiar with development of online learning programs that support other types of learning goals. You might consider participating in developmental sessions that increase your knowledge of the learning goals of performance support, knowledge management, and online collaboration.

Managing the Process Managing an online learning project is much like conducting a symphony. It involves a diverse set of skills and a large group of people whose work must be deftly coordinated if the result is to be in perfect harmony. Some of the most important issues involved in coordinating such a large project include the following: Scheduling enough time

You must estimate the time needed to develop an online learning program separately for each project, but these are broad estimating guidelines that can help you make sure that your estimates are in an appropriate range. • Synchronous: 40–80 hours of development for a finished hour of instruction. Note: A finished hour of instruction refers to final, approved content. Note: The hours reflect the time invested by all team professionals, not just the course designer or developer. • Asynchronous: 225–450 hours of development for a finished hour (depends on media used: the more multimedia, the more development hours). • If this is a first project, add as much as 50 percent to these estimates as learning time. (continued)

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Scheduling people when you need them

An online learning project involves many skills, but they will not all be needed at the same time. For example, a video production team is not needed on a full-time basis until after the writer completes the script; the writer is not needed full-time during production. One important part of developing an online learning project is making sure that the right skills are available when they’re needed.

Communicating

Different people will be working on a project at different times (and, perhaps, in different places). The challenge is to communicate the status of a project and decisions made about its guidelines so that people have the information they need to do their jobs when they need that information.

Producing the Learning Program Producing the learning program involves preparing its diverse components for duplication and distribution. The exact activities vary, depending on the types of components in the learning program and the way in which they’ll be distributed to learners. Here is a sample of activities: 1. Final copyediting of text. Copyediting involves identifying and correcting misspellings and variations from the agreed-upon editorial style. Variations usually affect the designation of headings, the labels on tables and figures, and consistency in terminology. Because copyediting should be done only on approved text, no major rewrites should be done during copyediting. 2. Conversion of word processing files to another format. People usually prepare scripts for online learning programs in a common word processor, such as Microsoft Word or Lotus WordPro, and then convert them to the HTML, ToolBook, or another authoring tool during the production phase.

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3. Preparation of graphics. During production, graphic artists prepare the icons, illustrations, and other graphics described in the design and development phases. 4. Photography. Photos that have been indicated but have not been taken or selected from stock photos would be chosen, scanned into the system, retouched, and inserted into the appropriate place in the learning program (if used in your program). 5. Videography. Directors will prepare for, shoot, and edit video sequences, and then prepare them in a digital format that can be integrated into the learning program (if used in your program). 6. Audio recording. Sound engineers record and edit the sound, and then prepare it in a digital format that can be integrated into the learning program (if used in your program). 7. Programming. Sometimes, groups save complex programming sequences (such as simulations and complex questions) for the production phase. 8. Integration. All of the components are brought together into a single program. For example, if the online learning program includes video, graphics, and text, a single program containing the text and graphics that links to the video would be prepared during the production phase. 9. Preparation of golden code. “Golden code” is the final version of the learning program that has been tested. (See the next section for more information about testing.) If the software is intended to be duplicated on CDs or DVDs, the golden code is copied onto a master disk. 10. Duplication. If the learning program is going to be distributed on CDs or DVDs, then the programming is copied from the master disk onto the disks (a process called pressing a CD). Labels and covers are also produced at this time. If the learning program is going to be published on the Internet, it is loaded onto the servers at this time.

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Testing the Components Learners must generally be able to use and understand the online learning programs without outside assistance. The development process thus must include several tests to ensure the quality of the finished product. Four types of tests should be included: Usability tests

These tests assess the ability of learners to find and understand material without assistance, as well as their speed in doing so.

Assurance (functional) tests

These tests assess whether the programming works as intended. For example, during an assurance test, testers would check each of the links and menu options to make sure that the material that appears is the material described by the icon or link. They try each response to multiple choice questions to make sure that the appropriate response appears, and see how the material looks on different hardware and, if appropriate, under different browsers.

Component tests

These tests assess whether the online learning program inadvertently causes operational problems with other programs that run at the same time. Such tests are only necessary if the online learning program is part of a larger program. For example, if the online learning program is a wizard that runs in a hotel reservation program, the component test would determine whether running the wizard will cause a problem to any other part of the reservation program.

Load tests

These tests assess the number of people who can use the learning program at the same time, without problems occurring. Load tests are only performed with courses that run on the Internet.

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Organizations usually look for people outside the regular development team to conduct tests. Because these people have not played a central role in the day-to-day activities of designing or developing the online learning program, they are less likely to overlook key issues.

Maintaining and Supporting the Online Learning Program Managing the distribution, use, and maintenance of an online learning program is different than managing classroom courses. The general issues are the same, but the specific issues differ. These issues pertain to •

Distributing and marketing the learning program.

•

Supporting the learning program.

•

Maintaining the learning program.

•

Evaluating the learning program.

Distributing and Marketing the Learning Program Organizations that host classroom courses must publish course catalogs, schedule classrooms, and provide enrollment services. Organizations that sponsor online learning programs must also provide these or comparable services. Specifically, consider these issues: Promoting the Availability of Courses Online learning programs require no travel plans and have a limited impact on schedules, so they are somewhat invisible. Promoting courses is more than simply announcing the availability of new ones—it must be an ongoing promotion effort. Organizations produce regularly published catalogs, occasional notices, and displays to promote their courses.

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Record Keeping Participants in online learning are entitled to credit for their learning, just like participants in classroom courses, and the technology is best at tracking online courses. Most learning-management systems let you track student progress in a course and indicate completion. At the least, learning management systems track individual student progress, record scores of quizzes and tests within an online learning program, and track course completions. At the most, learning management systems transfer this information to other record management software, such as PeopleSoft, so that permanent educational records reflect progress in online learning. Crediting learners who participate in informal programs, such as online knowledge management and performance support, is nearly impossible. The most common ways of tracking participation in these efforts is through employee appraisals. For example, one major consulting firm evaluates its employees on whether or not they have contributed to the company’s knowledge base.

Supporting the Learning Program Many online learning programs are intended to be run by users without assistance, but they will need assistance on occasion. Assistance usually falls into one of these categories: •

Technical assistance, which refers to the smooth running of the course. Sometimes the software does not operate as intended, sometimes links or related software do not work, and sometimes learners do not properly follow instructions for using the online learning program. Technical assistance helps learners with these issues. Most organizations have a help desk that provides technical assistance.

•

Content assistance, which refers to questions and issues with the content. For example, learners might not understand passages or might seek out enrichment. E-coaching addresses

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this issue. An e-coach is a tutor for an asynchronous online learning program who is available by e-mail, online chat, or telephone. •

Recognition, which refers to a manager’s awareness that a learner has completed a program and his or her informing the learner of this completion of the program. Online learning is anonymous, so many learners will not complete courses that should be completed so in addition to maintaining records about participation and completion, keep learners’ management informed about their employees’ progress with online courses and ask managers to mention this in person to employees. This personal recognition motivates learners.

Maintaining the Learning Program Many people enthusiastically report the launch of online learning programs, but few enthusiastically report that they have maintained them. Maintaining online learning programs is an ongoing task; as the technical content changes, so the learning content must change. Making the change can be simple or complex, depending on its nature. Most text changes are relatively simple. Changes that affect graphics and programming (such as the addition of new topics) are more time-consuming. Changes that affect video and audio sequences require you to re-tape the original and are relatively time-consuming and expensive. The management techniques described in the following sections suggest how to manage this revision process. Schedule Maintenance Online publishing seems instant (especially for courses distributed on the World Wide Web and other networks), so some people will feel that changes can be made whenever they are needed, even daily. This becomes unmanageable, especially when the course development team has moved onto other projects.

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If they plan for maintenance, course development teams can provide timely service without the maintenance tasks becoming unmanageable or interfering with other work.

Classify the Scope of Change The extent of the work effort can be assessed if you classify the scope. Maintenance work generally falls into one of these categories: •

Minor revisions. Pieces of technical information are changed but the online learning program structure remains intact. Minor changes are almost exclusively in the text or graphics.

•

Major revisions. New sections can be added and changes can be made to technical information elsewhere in the course. The general structure of the online learning program remains the same, with the exception of the new sections.

•

Overhaul. The entire structure of the online learning program is changed. The look and feel of the program might also be changed.

Distributing the changes also poses challenges. If the course is distributed over a network such as the World Wide Web, distribution is relatively instant. If the course is distributed on disks, these must be updated, duplicated, and sent to each participating group. If the extent or impact of the changes warrants it, an announcement should be made that the course has been updated.

Design for Easy Maintenance If you take certain measures when you first develop a course, you can more easily find and update material and make sure that new material matches the look and feel of existing content.

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•

Develop templates for common types of information, such as procedures and reference entries. In this way, entering new sections becomes a fill-in-the-blank exercise, and minimizing inconsistencies in style and format among similar types of material.

•

Use an easy-to-decode method of naming files. The naming system should be documented so that people do not need to rely on instinct to decode it. For example, if files were named Gloria 1 and Saul 2, others would have difficulty figuring out where to find the information on Web technology that will need to be updated. If they are named IV-A-1, other people might be able to determine that the file contains the material in section IV, topic A, subtopic 1. They can match that against the content to determine which file to update.

•

Document unusual programming. Many complex learning programs require specialized programming, but without documentation, even bright programmers have difficulty understanding what the programmer was trying to accomplish and how he or she did it. Documenting the programming (usually written as comments inside the program) helps others decode the mystery.

Evaluating the Learning Program The Kirkpatrick model of evaluation is used as a framework for evaluating other types of courses, and it can serve as a framework for evaluating formal online courses. For those of you who are unfamiliar with it, a summary of the Kirkpatrick model follows in this section. Tracking some of the measures is more difficult than in the classroom; tracking others is easier. The following chart explains how technology can be used to help collect and compile evaluations of online learning programs according to the Kirkpatrick model.

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Issues in Tracking this Measure Online In a classroom, instructors usually request that students complete an evaluation form before leaving the room. Getting that information from students in a self-study online program is more difficult. Forms can be included in Web-based programs and learners can be asked to complete the form before they leave the course. For programs distributed on CD-ROM and diskette, students must make a special effort to complete the survey. They must either print it out and mail it, or cut and paste it into an e-mail message. Also, rather than tracking “donuts and coffee” issues (that is, issues about the classroom experience), the survey should address bits and bytes issues—issues about the online learning experience. These questions might address • The ease of finding information online. • The clarity of information. • The speed at which learners believe they learned. • Perceived learning (that is, how well learners felt they knew the material before taking the course and afterward).

Level II: Learning

The learning management components of most authoring tools let you include tests within courses, and record and report their scores. One exception is the software for managing online teleconferences. Although many of these (continued)

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Level II: Learning (concluded)

programs allow instructors to include test questions, the results are often reported in aggregate (that is, something like 66 percent of students responded A, while 34 percent responded B), as opposed to individual record keeping.

Level III: Transfer of behavior

Push technology—software that sends timely information to users—simplifies some of the effort in administering Level III evaluations. If learners have e-mail capability, the system can automatically send them follow-up surveys, tests, and other materials at a pre-determined time. Other types of technologies also assist in collecting transfer data. If most of the skills to be tracked are performed with a computer, you can monitor the way that learners perform tasks online to assess how they are performing these tasks and whether they are applying the skills taught in the online learning program.

Level IV: Impact

Because issues with the methodology for conducting this type of evaluation, the use of technology to assist with Level IV evaluations are beyond the scope of this book.

But not all online learning is formal. In those cases, the conditions do not exist to measure according to this methodology. No formal methodology is available for evaluating informal learning, but the following data provide some insight into its effectiveness: •

Learner-satisfaction surveys

•

Number of visits to sites with learning materials

•

Number of completed units or courses

•

Feedback from learners

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The Kirkpatrick Model: A Summary Donald Kirkpatrick first proposed this four-pronged approach to evaluating training programs in his 1959 doctoral dissertation. Since then, it has become so widely used that trainers can typically talk about it in shorthand. For example, when one trainer says to another, “What are you doing about Level IV?” the other knows that the first trainer wants to understand how the second evaluates the impact of training. Here is a summary of the model: Evaluation Level

Name

Issues Assessed at this Level

I

Reaction

Assesses participants’ initial reactions to a course. This, in turn, offers insights into participants’ satisfaction with a course, a perception of value. Trainers usually assess this through a survey, often called a “smile sheet.” Occasionally, trainers use focus groups and similar methods to receive more-specific comments (called qualitative feedback) on the courses. According to TRAINING Magazine’s annual industry survey, almost 100 percent of all trainers perform “Level I” evaluations.

II

Learning

Assesses the amount of information that participants learned. Trainers usually assess this with a criterion-referenced test. The criteria are objectives for the course: statements developed before a course is developed and that explicitly state the skills that participants should be able to perform after taking a course. Because the objectives are the requirements for the course, a Level II evaluation assesses conformance to requirements or quality.

(continued)

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III

Transfer

Assesses the amount of material that participants actually use in everyday work, six weeks to six months (perhaps longer) after taking the course. This assessment is based on the objectives of the course and assessed through tests, observations, surveys, and interviews with co-workers and supervisors. Like the Level II evaluation, Level III assesses the requirements of the course and can be viewed as a follow-up assessment of quality.

IV

Impact

Assesses the financial impact of the training course on the bottom line of the organization six months to two years after the course (the actual time varies, depending on the context of the course). For many reasons, Level IV is the most difficult level to measure. First, most training courses do not have explicitly written business objectives, such as “This course should reduce support expenses by 20 percent.” Second, the methodology for assessing business impact is not yet refined. Some assess this measurement by tracking business measurements, others assess by observations, some by surveys, and still others assess by qualitative measures. Last, after six months or more, evaluators have difficulty solely attributing changed business results to training when changes in personnel, systems, and other factors might also have contributed to business performance.

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Purchasing Software and Services The technology is complex, and it often requires skills not available in-house; this is why most organizations purchase products and services to assist with some or all of their online learning programs. The following section addresses what you should consider when purchasing products and services for online learning.

Types of Services Purchased Specifically, organizations seek outside assistance with the following: •

Products — Software for developing courses. Most of these products can be purchased off-the-shelf, but might require some customization so that the courses look and work exactly as you would like to design them. — Off-the-shelf courses. So that limited resources can be directed at developing proprietary material, you might buy general courses off-the-shelf. — Learning management software. Most experts agree that this is usually the most-complex software purchase for online learning because it must be able to meet your needs, exchange information with your human resource information system (and other systems, if needed), and work with all your online courses.

•

Services — Developing an online learning strategy. If you do not feel comfortable doing this, you might hire a consultant to walk you through the education process and assist you with developing a strategy for moving material online.

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— Implementing learning management. As mentioned earlier, learning management systems are probably the most complex purchase made for online learning, so you might hire outside professionals to help install, customize, and support these systems. — Designing and developing courses. Online courses require different instructional design skills that might be available in-house, so you might need to hire experienced professionals to assist you with the first few. — Hosting courses. As mentioned in the discussion of technology (Chapter 3), you might not want courses to be available to people through your systems. In such instances, you “rent space” from another organization.

Issues to Consider When Purchasing When purchasing products and services for online learning, consider the following: •

Before making any purchase, take the time to learn what online learning is. Take a sample course (just one or two), and acquaint yourself with the terminology. The more knowledgeable you are, the better your purchases will match your needs.

•

Include your Information Systems (I/S) department in any software-related purchase. They can provide you with unbiased technical advice and make you aware of corporate technology issues that might affect your purchase.

•

When purchasing development software, make sure that it produces files in standard formats. By using standard formats, the material can be easily exchanged with other systems, and if needed, you can update the files with other software.

•

When writing requests for proposals (RFPs) for learning management software, make sure that the services you request are those you

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really need. Many organizations that are new to online learning use templates provided by outside sources when writing their RFPs. The result is unnecessary cost for you, and confusion for your vendors. •

When purchasing professional services, hire them in much the same way that you would hire an employee. Check out their references. Ask to see a portfolio. Most of all, make sure that the contractor or organization can work well with the rest of your staff.

To Learn More About Online Program Development To learn more about what is involved in developing and delivering online learning, visit the Web site of the online version of this book at www.vnulearning.com/wp/4-links.htm.

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Appendix: Sample Plans for Online Courses To give you an idea of what is involved in designing a course for online delivery, check out the design plans for modules of two asynchronous online courses in this appendix. One course provides training to comply with regulations that protect hearing. The other course teaches sales representatives how to qualify prospects for a new copier. These examples are provided for illustrative purposes only. The technical content might or might not be accurate. Note: The design materials are copyrighted by Saul Carliner. They are being used with permission.

Example 1: Instructional Design for an Online Module in a Compliance Training Course One common place to launch an online e-learning program is to deliver compliance training. Online learning offers many benefits for this type of training. The training is often required by law, particularly for large numbers of employees. Online learning lets organizations train these employees without tying up resources in the training department. Furthermore, laws often require that employees receive refresher training annually or bi-annually, even though the content has not significantly changed or changed at all this could drain training department resources if online learning were not available. Finally, organizations are required

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to keep strict records of who took compliance training and when, and how they performed. Learning management software lets organizations keep these records with a minimum of effort. The sample module described in the following plans introduces responsibilities for hearing protection in the workplace. Because the training is intended to fulfill legal responsibilities, the module follows a traditional design.

Objectives Main objective: Describe the purpose of a hearing protection program in the workplace. Supporting objectives: To achieve the main objective, participants should be able to •

State the purpose of regulations regarding hearing protection.

•

Identify the types of organizations required to comply with hearing protection regulations.

•

Name the three groups of workers in an organization who have responsibilities for ensuring compliance.

•

Describe the general plan for ensuring compliance.

•

Describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance.

Criterion-Referenced Test Because online testing works best with objective questions, many courses rely on this type of question for testing learning. This example shows one test question for each objective (note that a complete instructional design might include several questions). The learning management system could randomly generate one of the questions for each objective to ensure that different learners take different tests.

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Objective: State the purpose of regulations regarding hearing protection. 1. Which of the following statements best describes the purpose of regulations for hearing protection in the workplace? a. Because the law requires it. b. Because workers could lose some or all of their hearing as a result of prolonged exposure to noises in the workplace above 80 decibels. c. Because companies are liable for damages caused by hearing losses that result from employees’ exposure to dangerously loud noise levels in the workplace. Responses: b. Correct. a. Not correct. The law does require hearing protection programs in certain instances. The question already assumes this. c. Not correct. Organizations are liable for hearing losses, but they are primarily responsible for those arising from prolonged exposure—the type of exposure that the regulations attempt to address. Note: The objective uses the term state. Because of the challenges in analyzing essay responses, the objective was tested with a multiple-choice question. Some instructional designers would change the wording of the objective to match the criterion in the question. 2. Of the following, which types of organizations are required to comply with hearing protection regulations? Choose one. a. All workplaces located at airports and construction sites, because of the loud noise.

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b. Any workplace that exposes workers to sound exceeding 60 decibels in the course of their job. c. A and b. Note: Responses are not provided in these design plans for questions 2–5, but normally would be provided. 3. From the following list, choose the groups of workers in an organization who have responsibilities for ensuring compliance with hearing protection laws (choose all that apply): a. Senior management. b. Supervisors in departments covered by the regulations. c. Employees in departments covered by the regulations. d. Human resources. e. Corporate health and safety departments. 4. Describe the general plan for ensuring compliance by moving the following items into proper sequence, starting at step one. •

Conduct annual hearing test.

•

Conduct pre-work hearing test.

•

Conduct employee training.

•

Develop a plan for compliance.

•

Conduct management training.

•

Report results to workers.

•

Report results to Environmental Protection Agency.

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5. From the following list, note all of the things the company does to comply with regulations to protect hearing in the workplace: a. Providing training to managers and workers on hearing protection. b. Requiring that all workers wear hearing protection in noisy areas. c. Fining managers whose employees do not use hearing protection. d. Conducting annual hearing examinations. e. Reporting results of hearing examinations to the EPA.

Screen 1-23 O OOOOOOOOO

Screen 1 of 10 Title

Objective: Title screen Text: Overview of Measures to Protect Hearing in the Workplace

Visual: Picture of a man and a loud machine.

Also include the following administrative information: • One-paragraph description (with the heading “About this Lesson”) (continued)

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• Intended audience (with the heading “Who Should Take this Lesson”) • Objectives (with the heading “What You Should Learn”) • Estimated length of the lesson (with the heading “Length”) Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Use “opening screen” template.

•

Keep content to one frame.

•

At the top, use the navigation bar to visually indicate that this is the first screen. One possibility is to use 10 circles, making each circle “hot” (so that learners can quickly move among screens in a lesson if they know which screen they want), and highlighting the circle indicating that this is the first screen.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (second circle goes to screen 2, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the first (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

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Screen 2-23 O O OOOOOOOO

Screen 2 of 10 Title

Objective: Motivational screen Text: Letter explaining the importance of preserving hearing; mention that the company is committed to this program. Draft bullet points for the Senior VP, but let her write the actual text of the letter so it reflects her voice.

Glossary Help

Visuals: • Letter from the senior vice-president of operations stating the importance of hearing protection • At the top of the letter, a photograph of the senior vice-president • At the end of the letter, the signature of the senior vice-president Exit Menu < >

Production instructions • • •

Prepare the text so that it looks like a letter. Get senior vice-president’s portrait in a JPG format. Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the second (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 3-23 OO O OOOOOOO

Screen 3 of 10 Title

Objective: Identify the types of organizations required to comply with hearing protection regulations.

Visual: Pictures of our workers in uniform on the airfield and in a trucking center.

Text: State that any organization that exposes workers to 60 decibels or more of noise as part of their work must be included (only those departments where this actually happens). In our company, this includes the department at the airport and in the trucking center. Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Photographs of workers in uniform on an airfield and in a trucking center. Check with site communications before taking new photographs.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

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Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the third (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Screen 4-23 OOO O OOOOOO

Screen 4 of 10 Title

Objective: Name the three groups of workers in an organization who have responsibilities for ensuring compliance. Text: Explain how each of the following groups plays a role in protecting hearing in the workplace. • Management: Identifying noisy work areas, providing training for employees, ensuring compliance with regulations. • Health and safety: Making sure that noisy areas are measured and regularly checked, providing effective equipment, providing audio tests once a year to make sure that hearing has not been affected by exposure. • Workers: Wearing hearing protection. Notifying management when risks occur. Visual: Circles, each with an image inside of it (one of management, one of workers, one of health and safety staff) Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

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Production instructions •

Prepare shaded line drawing of the three different groups— management, workers, and health and safety—each working with hearing protection equipment in an appropriate way (management giving to workers, health and safety conducting hearing tests, workers wearing the equipment).

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the fourth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

Screen 5-23 OOOO O OOOOO

Screen 5 of 10 Title

Objective: Describe the general plan for ensuring compliance. Text: Present this as an illustrated flowchart, with the following text in the boxes: •

Visual: Present as an illustrated flowchart (that is, each step in the process is represented with a visual image and an arrow to the next step, rather than as shaded boxes).

Identify noisy areas.

• Develop a plan for compliance. (continued)

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• Conduct pre-work hearing test. • Conduct management training. • Conduct employee training about hearing issues. • After 12 months, conduct the annual hearing test. • Report results of hearing tests to workers. • Resolve any problems identified. •

Begin the process again.

Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Prepare a visual flowchart. Rather than merely providing shaded boxes with text inside of them in this flowchart, make each step a visual in its own right. As a suggestion and an example, the first step might have a picture of someone in an area with an airplane.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the fifth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 6-23 OOOOO O OOOO

Screen 6 of 10 Title

Objective: Describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance. Text: Show a series of icons that users can click on to read more. When users click on the icons, descriptive text appears. Also provide instructions on the screen that tells learners to click on each icon to see what this item has to do with ensuring compliance. • Icon—audiometer. When users click it and the pop-up appears, define the term and explain that this is what’s used to conduct the pre-work and annual hearing tests. • Icon—calendar. When users click it and the pop-up appears, explain that the tests must be conducted annually to make sure that hearing is not affected. • Icon—instructor. When users click it and the pop-up appears, explain that training is intended to alert workers to potential risks. Advise on ways to avoid them. • Icon—file folder. When users click it and the pop-up appears, explain that before any work begins, a plan must be developed that includes check-in points to make sure that workers are being properly protected. • Icon—instructor with manager’s button. When users click it and the pop-up appears, explain that management is behind the effort and is looking out to protect workers. • Icon—test report. When users click it and the pop-up appears, explain that workers will receive the results of their tests, and if they indicate that some hearing has been lost, issues will be discussed to prevent further loss. (continued)

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• Icon—EPA logo. When users click it and the pop-up appears, explain that the EPA occasionally checks the company to make sure that it complies with regulations. Visuals: Prepare the following icons, and make them hot so users can click on them: •

Audiometer.

•

Calendar.

•

Instructor.

•

File folder.

• Instructor with manager’s button. •

Test report.

•

EPA logo.

Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Prepare the following icons: — Audiometer. — Calendar. — Instructor. — File folder. — Instructor with manager’s button. — Test report. — EPA logo.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

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Programming instructions •

Make each of the icons hot, and link to a pop-up: — Audiometer icon—link to pop-up 6-23-a. — Calendar icon—link to pop-up 6-23-b. — Instructor icon—link to pop-up 6-23-c. — File folder icon—link to pop-up 6-23-d. — Instructor with manager’s button icon—link to pop-up 6-23-e. — Test report icon—link to pop-up 6-23-f. — EPA logo icon—link to pop-up 6-23-g.

•

At the bottom of each pop-up, provide instruction to “close window,” and link that instruction to the javascript command to close a window.

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the sixth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 7-23 OOOOOO O OOO

Screen 7 of 10 Title

Objective: To describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance. Text: Show transcript of an interview with an employee who talks about involvement in the hearing protection program.

Visual: Portrait of the employee who’s quoted on the screen. A background behind the text to indicate that it is a quote.

Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Photograph of the employee in JPG format.

•

Shading under the text, perhaps a different font for the quote.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the seventh (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 8-23 OOOOOOO O OO

Screen 8 of 10 Title

Objective: To describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance.

Visual: Portrait of the health and safety specialist who’s quoted on the screen.

Text: Show transcript of an interview with a health and safety specialist who talks about the importance of participating in the hearing protection program (and who is wearing hearing protection).

A background behind the text to indicate that it is a quote.

Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Photograph of the health and safety specialist quoted, in JPG format.

•

Shading under the text, perhaps a different font for the quote.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the eighth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 9-23 OOOOOOOO O O

Screen 9 of 10 Title

Objective: Describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance. Text: Show transcript of an interview with a manager who talks about the importance of the hearing protection program and his or her commitment to making sure that employees’ hearing is protected. Glossary Help

Visual: Portrait of the manager who’s quoted on the screen. A background behind the text to indicate that it is a quote.

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Photograph of the manager quoted in JPG format.

•

Shading under the text, perhaps a different font for the quote.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the ninth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 10-23 OOOOOOOOO O

Screen 10 of 10 Title

Objective: Summary.

No visuals.

Text: A descriptive summary (that is, naming the key points that learners should remember). Also, a link to the quiz (which is in the LMS, not produced as part of this lesson). Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Use template for Summary screen.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Provide a link to the quiz in the LMS in the center of the screen, immediately below the last line of the summary.

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the tenth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Example 2: Instructional Design for an Online Module in a Product Training Course for a Sales Force Another common use of online e-learning is in product training for sales forces. Online learning offers many benefits for this type of training. Some of the most commonly cited benefits include •

Consistency. Everyone on the sales force hears the same message about the product, not with variations introduced by different presenters.

•

Efficiency. The training is available to all sales representatives on the same day, so they do not need to wait until their schedules coincide with an available presentation, thus speeding “time to knowledge” (that is, the time needed to learn the subject).

•

More efficiency. Because the materials are self-paced and can be taken at the sales representatives’ convenience, they minimize time out of the field (time in the field is time that sales representatives can generate revenue).

•

Effectiveness. Testing, which is handled online and tracked by learning management software, lets management know whether learners took the course and, if they did, how well they mastered the material.

The sample module described in the following plans introduces the models of a new copier and suggests how to match the models with the needs of customers. Notice that it is more interactive than the other sample lesson. Notice that the production and programming instructions become more elaborate, explaining not only what appears when users click on parts of the screen, but where the material is stored.

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Also notice that the screens in the module described below use a similar design to those described in the other sample. This means that the same basic design can be used for different course content and is probably produced for use in the same organization.

Objectives Main objective: Given characteristics about a particular customer, match that customer with the model of the YZ Copier that best meets the customer’s needs. Supporting objectives: In support of the main objective, learners should be able to do the following: •

Name the different models of the YZ Copier.

•

Given a model of the YZ Copier, match it with its functions and features.

•

Describe the differences among models.

•

Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted.

Criterion-Referenced Test 1. Over the next three screens, you will be shown three of the seven models of the YZ Copier. Correctly type the name of the model. a. Correct answer to Screen 1: Model LS. b. Correct answer to Screen 2: Model OSX. c. Correct answer to Screen 3: Model Y.

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2. This model of the YZ Copier has the following functions and features: size enlargement and reduction, darkness and brightness controls, automatic collating of up to 10 copies, and 10 MB of memory. a. Model LS. b. Model GS. c. Model CS. 3. Choose the statement that best describes the primary differences among models. a. Some are intended for personal use, some are intended for business use. b. Some are intended for businesses with limited copying needs, some are intended for businesses with extensive copying needs. c. Some are intended for businesses with limited copying needs, some are intended for businesses with moderate copying needs. d. Some are intended for personal use or small businesses, some are intended for corporations. 4. Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted. The Model OSX offers the following features: size enlargement and reduction, darkness and brightness controls, automatic collating of up to 30 copies, four paper sizes, and 30 MB of memory.

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Which of the following customers would be best suited to it? a. A small shipping business, whose primary copying need is to make copies of receipts and to prepare monthly audit reports for the accountant. b. A home-based research business, whose copying need is to make copies of large reports for sale to corporate customers. c. A department of a community college, whose primary copying need is to make copies of handouts to distribute to students. d. The product development department of a medium-sized manufacturer, whose primary copying needs are making copies of blueprints and other product plans to distribute to the design and manufacturing staff.

Screen 4-1 O OOOOOOOOO

Screen 1 of 10 Title

Objective: Title screen. Text: Matching Models with Customer Needs Also include the following administrative information:

Visual: Photo of the seven models of the YZ Copier, with a sales representative and customer standing over one of those models, apparently choosing it over the others.

• One-paragraph description (with the heading “About this Lesson”). (continued)

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• Intended audience (with the heading “Who Should Take this Lesson”). • Objectives (with the heading “What You Should Learn”). Estimated length of the lesson (with the heading “Length”). Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Use “opening screen” template.

•

Keep content to one frame.

•

At the top, use the navigation bar to visually indicate that this is the first screen. One possibility is having 10 circles, making each circle “hot” (so that learners can quickly move among screens in a lesson if they know which screen they want), and highlighting the circle indicating that this is the first screen.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (second circle goes to screen 2, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the first (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

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Screen 4-2 O O OOOOOOOO

Screen 2 of 10 Title

Objective: Name the different models of the YZ Copier. Text: After an introductory paragraph (no more than 50 words) stating that the YZ Copier has seven models, each intended to meet the needs of a different consumer with special copying needs and budgets, show pictures of the seven models of the YZ Copier, with their names and a one-sentence description (max 15 words) underneath as a caption. Visual: Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. Get from Marketing. Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. They are available from Marketing; you should not need to re-take them.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the second (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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185

Screen 4-3 OO O OOOOOOO

Screen 3 of 10 Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, match it with its functions and features. Text: Explain that the company markets several models of the YZ Copier, each intended to meet the copying needs of a different type of consumer. To make sure that consumers purchase the copier that best meets their needs in the lifetime of the product (3–5 years), it is essential that marketing reps become familiar with the functions and features of each model, and appropriately match them with the needs of the customer. Visual: Photos of two models of the copier in use in real customer accounts. The backgrounds should be of very different office environments. Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions Photographs of two models of the copier in use in real customer accounts, with backgrounds of very different office environments. Get from Marketing.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the third (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 4-4 OOO O OOOOOO

Screen 4 of 10 Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, match it with its functions and features. Text: Instruct learners to click on a model to receive more information. On the left-hand side, have pictures of the seven models of the YZ Copier (along with a caption that has their model number only).

Visuals: • Images of the seven models (smaller versions of the photographs on screen 4-2). • Create charts about each model, as described in the Production Instructions below.

When users click on an image, the following information should appear on the righthand side: • Repeat the one-sentence description of the model. • Name the kinds of intended uses. •

State the price range.

• State the copying speed in pages per minute. • Indicate with a checkmark whether it has the following features (except as noted): (continued)

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—

Maximum number of copies per image (in pages).

—

Memory size (in RAM).

—

Collating.

—

Stapling.

—

Copying of double-sided originals.

—

Double-sided copying.

—

Brightness control.

—

Page size control.

Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. They are available from Marketing; you should not need to re-take them.

•

Create a chart that can be used to present material about the models. It might look something like this: Model Name About the Model

Repeat the one-sentence description.

Name the types of intended uses

List.

State the price range

$ XXX–$ X,XXX.

State the copying speed in pages per minute

XX pages per minute.

(continued)

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Indicate with a checkmark whether it has the following features (except as noted):

(Production note—do not include this row).

Maximum number of copies per image (in pages) Memory size (in RAM) Collating Stapling Copying of double-sided originals Double-sided copying Brightness control Page size control

Programming instructions •

Make all the photos on the left side “hot.” Their captions should also be “hot.”

•

Link as follows: — Photo and caption of the LS Model – link to file LS-Info-4-4. — Photo and caption of the NS Model – link to file NS-Info-4-4.

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— Photo and caption of the YS Model – link to file YS-Info-4-4. — Photo and caption of the CS Model – link to file CS-Info-4-4. — Photo and caption of the QS Model – link to file QS-Info-4-4. — Photo and caption of the FS Model – link to file FS-Info-4-4. — Photo and caption of the GS Model – link to file GS-Info-4-4. •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the fourth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

Screen 4-5 OOOO O OOOOO

Screen 5 of 10 Title

Objective: Describe the differences among models. Text: Explain that the first three models are intended for light copying needs, the next two are intended for medium copying needs, and the last two are intended for heavy copying needs. Define light, medium, and heavy in terms of number of copies per day. Glossary Help

Visual: Photos of three models in use in office environments—one that requires light copying, one for medium copying, and one for heavy copying.

Exit Menu < >

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Production instructions Photographs of three models in use in office environments—one that requires light copying (LS Model), one for medium copying (CS Model), and one for heavy copying (GS Model). Get photos from Marketing.

Programming instructions •

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the fifth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

Screen 4-6 OOOOO O OOOO

Screen 6 of 10 Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted. Text: Display an introductory paragraph saying that the marketing representative’s job is to match a model with an organization’s copying needs (not just for now, but for the next 3–5 years, the anticipated life of the copier).

Visuals: • Images of the seven models (smaller versions of the photographs on screen 4-2). • In the description of the model that appears in the right-hand column, also include a photograph of the model in an appropriate office environment. (continued)

Appendix

On the left-hand side, display the same photos of the different models used on Screen 44. Make them and their captions “hot.” When users click on an image, information about the appropriate customer match appears on the right-hand side.

191

• Create charts about each model, as described in the Production Instructions below.

Specifically, make the following: • LS Model: Ideal for customers who make occasional copies of a small number of sheets, primarily for documentation (such as for receipts). • NS Model: Ideal for customers who make occasional copies of a small number of sheets, as well as an occasional report. • YS Model: Ideal for customers who make occasional copies of reports that do not need heavy collating. • CS Model: Ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs, but who do not make many copies. (continued)

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• QS Model: Ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs, and occasionally need to present material to customers. • FS Model: Ideal for customers who make numerous copies of medium- and larger-sized reports. • GS Model: Ideal for customers who make numerous copies of medium- and larger-sized reports, and who often need to present material to customers. Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. They are available from Marketing; you should not need to re-take them.

•

Create a chart that can be used to present material about the models. It might look something like this: Model Name Intended customer

Describe the intended customer in a couple of sentences.

Photograph of the model in an office setting. Summary of copying needs

List.

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193

Programming instructions •

Make all the photos on the left side “hot.” Their captions should also be “hot.”

•

Link as follows: — Photo and caption of the LS Model – link to file LS-Info-4-6. — Photo and caption of the NS Model – link to file NS-Info-4-6. — Photo and caption of the YS Model – link to file YS-Info-4-6. — Photo and caption of the CS Model – link to file CS-Info-4-6. — Photo and caption of the QS Model – link to file QS-Info-4-6. — Photo and caption of the FS Model – link to file FS-Info-4-6. — Photo and caption of the GS Model – link to file GS-Info-4-6.

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the sixth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 4-7 OOOOOO O OOO

Screen 7 of 10 Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted.

Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background to distract learner.

Text: Present learners with a description of a customer who has light copying needs, and whose needs are not likely to change in the next few years. Instruct user to choose the most appropriate among the four models listed (click on their answer). LS QS YS GS (Feedback appears at the bottom of the screen). Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background to distract learner. Get from Marketing.

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Programming instructions •

When users click on an option, the following response should be displayed at the bottom of the screen: If learners choose this model:

Display this response at the bottom of the screen:

Then go to

LS

Correct. The LS Model is ideal for customers who make occasional copies of a small number of sheets, primarily for documentation (such as for receipts).

Screen 4-8

QS

Not correct. The correct model is the LS Model. The QS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs and occasionally need to present material to customers. This customer does not have such heavy copying needs.

Screen 4-8

YS

Not correct. The correct model is the LS Model. The YS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who make occasional copies of reports that do not need

Screen 4-8

(continued)

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YS (concluded)

heavy collating. This customer does not have such heavy copying needs.

GS

Not correct. The correct model is the LS Model. The GS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who make numerous copies of medium- and larger-sized reports, and who often need to present material to customers. This customer does not have such heavy copying needs.

Screen 4-8

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the seventh (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 4-8 OOOOOOO O OO

Screen 8 of 10 Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted.

Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background to distract learner.

Text: Present learners with a description of a customer who has light-to-heavy needs, whose needs are not likely to change in the next few years, and who does not need to prepare materials for customers. Instruct user to choose the most appropriate among the four models listed (click on their answer). CS QS FS GS (Feedback appears at the bottom of the screen). Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background to distract learner. Get from Marketing.

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Programming instructions •

When users click on an option, display the following response at the bottom of the screen: If learners choose this model:

CS

QS

Display this response at the bottom of the screen: Not correct. The correct model is the FS model. The CS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs, but do not make many copies. This customer’s copying needs are not heavy enough to require the FS model and are not projected to grow.

Not correct. The correct model is the FS model. The QS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs and occasionally need to present material to customers. This customer’s copying needs are not heavy enough to require the FS model and are not projected to grow.

Then go to

Screen 4-9

Screen 4-9

(continued)

Appendix

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FS

Correct. The FS Model is ideal for customers who make numerous copies of medium- and larger-sized reports.

Screen 4-9

GS

Not correct. The correct model is the FS model. Although the GS Model that you chose is similar, it’s ideal for customers who make numerous copies and who often need to present material to customers. This customer does not.

Screen 4-9

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the eighth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 4-9 OOOOOOOO O O

Screen 9 of 10 Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted.

Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background to distract learner.

Text: Present learners with a description of a customer who has medium copying needs and presents material to customers, and whose needs are likely to grow in the next few years. Instruct user to choose the most appropriate among the four models listed (click on their answer). CS QS FS GS (Feedback appears at the bottom of the screen). Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background to distract learner. Get from Marketing.

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201

Programming instructions •

When users click on an option, display the following response at the bottom of the screen:

If learners choose this model:

Display this response at the bottom of the screen:

Then go to

CS

Not correct. The correct model is the GS model. The CS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs, but do not make many copies. This customer’s copying needs are not heavy enough to require the FS model and are not projected to grow.

Screen 4-10

QS

Not correct. The correct model is the GS model. Although the QS Model that you chose is ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs and occasionally need to present material to customers, this customer’s copying needs are going to grow in the next few years. The FS model can handle the additional capacity.

Screen 4-10

FS

Not correct. The correct model is the GS model. Although the FS Model that you chose can handle the volume of copying

Screen 4-10

(continued)

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FS (concluded)

that is anticipated as the customer grows, the GS model is the only one that can prepare in the large-capacity range and can prepare reports for presentation to clients.

GS

Correct. Although its capacity is a bit larger than what the customer needs right now, it has the capacity to grow with the customer. The GS Model is ideal for customers who make numerous copies of medium- and larger-sized reports and who need to prepare reports for presentation to clients.

Screen 4-10

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the ninth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Screen 4-10 OOOOOOOOO O

Screen 10 of 10 Title

Objective: Summary.

No visuals.

Text: A descriptive summary (that is, naming the key points that learners should remember). Also, a link to the quiz (which is in the LMS, not produced as part of this lesson). Glossary Help

Exit Menu < >

Production instructions •

Use template for Summary screen.

•

Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.

Programming instructions •

Provide a link to the quiz in the LMS in the center of the screen, immediately below the last line of the summary.

•

Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goes to screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the tenth (this screen).

•

Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to help file), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner to menu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and > (forward one screen).

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Glossary of Terms Used in Online Learning A animation. A sequence of graphics that appears to users as if the images move. See also animation programs. animation programs. Software that lets users create sequences of moving graphics. Animation programs let users alter the original image (for example, you might change colors) and rotate and move the image so that it creates the sense of movement. assurance test. Assesses whether the programming in an online learning program works as intended. asynchronous. In online learning, an event in which people are not logged on at the same time. For example, the instructor might publish a lecture on a Web site; learners would read it when their schedules permit. Contrast with synchronous. audio editing program. Software that lets users record and edit audio images, drop in sound effects from other sources, and transfer the program to disk. audio production team. The people who produce audio sequences. The team includes the sound engineer and narrator (also called voice talent). authoring language. See authoring tool. authoring systems. Software that is specially designed to let people create online learning modules that include all of the key learning elements: text presentations, graphics, questions, as well as links to appropriate learning material based on learner responses, and track student performance. Sometimes called authoring tools.

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authoring tools. Software applications that are specially designed to create online modules that bring together all the components, program in exercises and test questions, link learners to appropriate material based on their responses, and track performance of learners. Sometimes called authoring systems, though tools lack the tracking functions.

B bandwidth. The physical capacity of the transmission equipment in a network. Bandwidth refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted at a time, usually in bits per second. blended learning. A program for education or training in which some parts are available online and the others are presented in a classroom. The program is said to blend online and classroom learning. bookmarks. An indicator of the place at which a learner was before interrupting a course. The learner can resume studies at that point when he or she returns to the online learning program.

C character interface. A type of interface in which users can interact with the system only through text instructions, such as typing commands and menu options. Common on mainframe and mid-range computers, and also used in DOS and UNIX. See also user interface. Contrast with graphical user interface. chat. A discussion that occurs online when all the participants are simultaneously signed on. A form of synchronous online communication. See also synchronous. client computer. The computer in a learner’s office, the one that a typical learner uses for online learning. Contrast with server computers.

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collaborative learning online. Technologies that link together people in several locations so that they can interact with one another. compact disk (CD). A plastic device that can contain video, audio, text, and graphics images. Information is recorded in an analog format on a CD. A CD can hold up to 30 minutes of a video program. A CD for a computer is just like an audio CD. component test. Assesses whether the online learning program inadvertently causes operational problems with other programs that run at the same time. computer-based collaborative learning. See collaborative learning online. computer-based instruction. See computer-based training. computer-based training. Courses presented on a computer. Usually not connected to a network when the course is in use. Also called computer-based instruction. configuration. The setup of an individual computer, consisting of the hardware and software.

D digital virtual disk (DVD). A plastic device that can contain video, audio, text, and graphics images. Information is recorded in a digital format on a DVD. A single DVD can hold up to a 2-hour movie. DVD is the technology intended to replace compact disks (CD). discussion list. An online conversation in which one person sends a question or comment to a list of people who have signed up for discussions on that topic (hence the name discussion list). Respondents view the messages at their convenience and send replies to everyone

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on the discussion list. A form of asynchronous online communication. See also asynchronous. diskette. A plastic device on which users can record information stored on one computer, and copy it onto another. distance learning. Any type of educational situation in which the instructor and students are separated by time or location (or both).

E e-coach. A tutor for an asynchronous online learning program who is available by e-mail, online chat, or telephone. editor. The person who reviews the entire online learning program for consistency and adherence to guidelines, and to provide any directions needed in final preparation of the course. electronic performance support systems (EPSSs). Software applications that provide performance support. See also performance support. executive sponsor. The person who initiates the request for the online learning program and has ultimate financial liability for its success. extranet. A World Wide Web–like network that is only available to people chosen by the organization, inside or outside (hence the term extra-). Usually preferred suppliers and customers have access to the extranet.

F file extensions. The three letters that follow the period in a computer file name, such as course.doc and picture1.jpg. formal learning. A type of education or training program in which course designers and developers identify the intended outcomes long

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before the course begins and learners are only considered to have completed the learning program when they demonstrate successful mastery of these outcomes. Contrast with informal learning.

G graphic designer. The person who prepares the visual designs for the course (including its look and feel) and specific graphics within the course. Also helps to prepare animated sequences. graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced goo-ey). An interface that incorporates a variety of media, especially text and graphics. Graphical user interfaces often have icons that represent actions the system can perform, and make extensive use of visuals. Windows and the Mac Operating System (OS) are examples of programs that have a graphical user interface. See also user interface. Contrast with character interface. graphics program. Software that lets users prepare illustrations and graphical effects. Specifically, graphics programs let users draw images or use images created elsewhere (such as graphics that were printed elsewhere and entered into the computer through a scanner) and then lets users add colors, rotate the images to see them from different perspectives, and add visual effects. groupware. Software that promotes synchronous and asynchronous online collaboration by letting users send e-mail, share work files, conduct online chats, and so on.

H hosting. A service in which one organization stores courses on their server computers for another organization and provides related maintenance and technical support. human factors engineer. The person who reviews the designs of online programs to identify possible barriers to use by the intended

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audience, and coordinates tests of the usability (ease with which typical learners can take the course). hybrid system. Software for online learning that exhibits qualities of authoring tools as well as learning management systems. In the sense that instructors can use hybrid systems to prepare material for presentation online, they are like authoring tools. The primary difference is that instructors can use material prepared in Microsoft Office and make it available online. They do not need to convert it to a Web format. In the sense that they keep records about enrollment and grades, hybrid systems are similar to learning management systems.

I informal learning. A type of education or training program in which learners define what they want to learn and learning is considered successful when learners feel that they are able to master their intended objectives (whether or not the course designers believe that the learners have or have not demonstrated mastery). Contrast with formal learning. information developer. See writer. instructional designer. The person who acts as the architect of an online learning project. Defines the problem and develops a blueprint for a solution—an online learning program or series of related programs— that is sufficiently complete to allow others to develop the program. Internet broadcasting tools. Software that lets users transmit a live presentation over the Internet, such as a class or a meeting. Also called virtual classroom. Interoperability. The ability to exchange data with other systems. An issue to consider for learning management systems, learning content management systems, and authoring systems. intranet. A World Wide Web–like network that is only available to people working internally to an organization.

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K Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation. A series of four evaluations for individual training courses that was developed by Donald Kirkpatrick and assesses (1) student reaction to a learning program, (2) the amount of learning that occurred, (3) transfer of learning outside of the classroom, and (4) impact of the training on the organization that sponsored it. knowledge management. Work environments that capture, store, and organize the knowledge and experiences of individual workers and groups, and make that knowledge and experience available to others in the organization.

L learning content management systems (LCMSs). Software for creating, storing, retrieving, changing, and re-using material intended for use in an online learning program. An LCMS also stores test questions and can be used to track activities in developing material. Finally, an LCMS can format the same content for presentation online and in print, and with a number of word processors. learning management systems (LMSs). Software that acts as an electronic registrar. Learning management systems can track individual student progress, record scores of quizzes and tests within an online learning program, and track course completions. They can also do more complex things, such as transfer this information to other record management software (such as PeopleSoft) so that permanent educational records reflect progress in online learning. learning object. A section of a course that can be stored and used again in another communication or learning product. learning objectives. Statements indicating the visible and cognitive skills learners should master by the end of a course. Learning objectives have three parts: an observable, measurable behavior; the conditions under which the behavior should be performed (such as

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with the assistance of a manual); and the extent to which learners must master the behavior (such as “9 out of 10 tries”). Also called behavioral objectives.

M media production tools. Software that lets users produce segments in specific media, such as a video clip or an audio clip. The clips are intended to be shown at a different time than the time they are produced. Because the media are varied, the nature of the work performed by the software varies.

N network. Computers connected in several locations through wires, and telephone, cable, or satellite connections.

O online learning. Educational material that is presented on a computer.

P performance support. Work environments that are designed around a software application and in which workers (performers) receive assistance with tasks or in completing work from a computer. Results—not competence—is the goal in these contexts. photo refinishing program. Software that lets users prepare photographs for use in other programs. Specifically, photo refinishing programs let users capture photos or use photos that were scanned into the system, and re-touch the images (for example, removing blemishes from human faces), alter the images (for example, crop a photo differently), change colors, and add effects (such as half-tones, needed for printing).

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213

productivity tools. Software that people use in everyday work that would be used to prepare drafts and other pieces of learning materials. This software includes word processors, presentation programs, database programs, and calendar programs. programmer. The person who prepares the interactive sequences of the course that cannot be prepared in the authoring tool. For example, with most authoring tools, people who are not programmers can write and program multiple-choice questions, but cannot prepare simulations of complex software. programming and authoring languages. Software that lets users develop interactive content exactly as they planned it by preparing a series of instructions in a specific language that tells the computer how to perform a particular task. project manager. The person who acts like the general contractor for an online learning project—determining which skills are needed, hiring team members, tracking and reporting progress, making sure that team members adhere to designs and guidelines, and making sure that the project is completed on time and within budget. publishing program. Software that lets users prepare pages for printing.

R remediation. The process of reviewing and reinforcing content that learners did not successfully master on the first try. Remediation is usually initiated when learners incorrectly answer questions on a test or within a practice session.

S server computers. Central computers that most users within the organization have access to. Organizations typically store widely

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used data and programs on servers, such as price lists, employee directories, and training courses. Contrast with client computer. simulation. “An operating model of central features or elements of a real or proposed system, process or environment” (Greenblat, C.S., Designing Games and Simulations: An Illustrated Handbook, published by Sage in 1988). storyboard. Used as a planning tool for multimedia, a storyboard is a visual representation of a finished screen or of a shot in a finished video. A storyboard typically includes a drawing of the visual image, as well as the text of any narration or words that appear on the screen, and production instructions, such as “Fade to the next scene” or “Link this screen to screen 141.” subject matter expert (SME). The person who assists with selecting content for an online learning program and reviews it for accuracy. synchronous. In online learning, an event in which all of the participants are online at the same time and communicating with one another. For example, an instructor might schedule a guest lecturer to take questions at a particular time; all interested people would connect with the lecture when the guest is online. Contrast with asynchronous.

T technology-based instruction. Training through media other than the classroom: includes computers, but also includes television, audiotape, videotape, and print. Encompasses all forms of online learning. tester. The person who reviews the entire online learning program to make sure that it operates properly and does not cause problems when running with other programs. For example, the tester makes sure that each link identified in the course actually works.

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time to performance. The time needed for a new worker to perform like a more experienced one. training. A formal and structured learning event specifically intended to enhance knowledge and skills immediately.

U Universal Resource Locator (URL). The indication of an address on the World Wide Web. Usually stated as www.URL.EXTENSION, such as www.trainingsupersite.com. usability engineer. See human factors engineer. usability test. Assesses the ability of learners to find and understand material without assistance and their speed in doing so. user interface. The elements of the computer screen that users interact with. It includes a variety of elements, such as visual appearance, icons, navigational elements, requests for information, and text. See also character interface and graphical user interface.

V video editing program. Software that lets users perform many of the functions of video editing systems on a computer. Video editing programs let users edit separate video clips into a single program, retouch video images, add video transitions such as wipes and fades, add titles and credits, and transfer the images back onto videotape or onto disk for use in an online learning program. video production team. The people who produce video sequences. The team includes the director, actors, lighting specialist, and other equipment specialists. virtual classroom. A synchronous online session, primarily intended to simulate a classroom.

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virtual classroom software. Software that lets users transmit a live presentation over the Internet, such as a class or meeting. Also called Internet broadcasting tools.

W Web-based training. Courses available on an intranet, an extranet, or the Internet and that are linked to resources outside the course. word processor. Software used to type and format documents, such as letters, reports, and books. writer. The person who composes the text of the course. When needed, the writer also expands upon the design provided by the instructional designer.