A Lesson Before Dying

A LESSON BEFORE DYING NOTES including • Life and Background of the Author • Introduction to the Novel • A Brief Synopsis • List of Characters • Critical Commentaries • Character Analyses • Critical Essays • Character Web • Review Questions and Essay Topics • Selected Bibliography

by Durthy A. Washington M.Ed., University of Southern California, Los Angeles M.A., San Jose State University

Editors

Project Editor

Gary Carey, M.A. University of Colorado

Kathleen M. Cox

Greg Tubach

ISBN 0-7645-8503-7  Copyright 1999 by Cliffs Notes, Inc. All Rights Reserved Printed in U.S.A. 1999 Printing

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CONTENTS Life and Background of the Author ................5 Introduction to the Novel ...............................6 A Brief Synopsis .............................................8 List of Characters ...........................................9 Critical Commentaries .................................12 Chapters 1-4 .................................................................12 Chapters 5 & 6 .............................................................19 Chapters 7 & 8 .............................................................22 Chapters 9-12 ...............................................................24 Chapter 13-15 ...............................................................30 Chapter 16 ...................................................................34 Chapters 17 & 18 ..........................................................36 Chapter 19 ...................................................................38 Chapters 20 & 21 ..........................................................42 Chapters 22 & 23 ..........................................................45 Chapters 24-26 .............................................................48 Chapter 27 ...................................................................51 Chapter 28 ...................................................................53 Chapter 29 ...................................................................55 Chapter 30 ...................................................................57 Chapter 31 ...................................................................60

Character Analyses .......................................62 Critical Essays ...............................................71 Point of view, plot, and setting ......................................71 The pre-Civil Rights South ............................................72

Review Questions and Essay Topics ..............77 Selected Bibliography ...................................79 Center Spread: A Lesson Before Dying Character Web

5

A LESSON BEFORE DYING Notes LIFE AND BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR Ernest James Gaines was born January 15, 1933, on River Lake Plantation in Oscar, a small town in Pointe Coupee Parish, near New Roads, Louisiana. The oldest of twelve children, he was raised by his great-aunt, Augusteen Jefferson, who provided the inspiration for Miss Jane Pittman, as well as other strong black female characters, such as Miss Emma and Tante Lou in Lesson. Gaines’ birthplace serves as the model for his fictional world of Bayonne and St. Raphael Parish. With the exception of his fourth novel, In My Father’s House, all of Gaines’ fictional work is set in Bayonne. Although he has spent much of his life since age fifteen in San Francisco, he writes exclusively about life in the South. He is perhaps best known for his 1971 novel The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman, which was made into a TV movie and won several Emmys. In May 1999, HBO debuted its made-for-television movie of A Lesson Before Dying. Growing up in Louisiana and attending rural schools, Gaines began working in the fields, earning fifty cents a day, when he was eight years old. In 1945, he started attending St. Augustine Middle School for Catholic African-American children, in nearby New Roads, Louisiana, and became active in staging plays for the local church. Gaines left Louisiana in 1948 to join his mother and stepfather in Vallejo, California. In 1949, he wrote an early version of his novel Catherine Carmier and submitted it to a New York publisher, who rejected it. Following high school graduation in 1951, he attended and graduated from Vallejo Junior College (1953). He then served two years in the United States Army. Gaines is a graduate of San Francisco State College (now University) and pursued advanced studies at Stanford University. He holds several honorary degrees and has received numerous literary awards, including a Guggenheim Fellowship, the Louisiana Library Association Award, the Black Academy of Arts and Letters

6 Award, and the prestigious MacArthur Fellowship, or “genius” award. He is a member of the National Academy of Arts and Letters and the Chevalier Order of Arts and Letters, France’s highest literary honor. His works have been translated into several languages, including French, Japanese, Chinese, German, Norwegian, and Russian. Although Gaines resists being categorized as a “black” or “Southern” writer, he believes that “much of our [AfricanAmerican] history has not been told; our problems have been told, as if we have no history.” Consequently, his novels provide a chronicle of American history from a black (Afrocentric) perspective. A recurring theme throughout Gaines’ fiction is the search for dignity and masculine identity in a hostile, racist environment. As he points out in an interview, “The major conflict in my work is when the black male attempts to go beyond the line that is drawn for him.” Although he consistently celebrates the pride and dignity of African Americans, he has often been criticized by black writers who feel that his works do not adequately portray the harsh realities of black life. During the late 1960s, at the height of the Black Arts/Black Power movement, Gaines was severely criticized by Black Power advocates for refusing to become emotionally involved in the Civil Rights movement. Convinced that “a writer should be as detached as a heart surgeon is from his work,” Gaines refused to be swayed by his critics. In a 1993 interview, reflecting on that turbulent era, he remarked, “When Bull Connor turned the hoses on the marchers, I just said to myself, ‘Write a better paragraph.’”

INTRODUCTION TO THE NOVEL A Lesson Before Dying is a deceptively simple novel that explores numerous complex themes. Like Albert Camus’ The Stranger, which also explores a prison experience, albeit from the prisoner’s point of view, its stark simplicity and spare language belie a complex and profound book. Gaines uses harsh (or austere) language to reflect the spiritual and personal alienation of humans in the twentieth century. Through Grant Wiggins’ emotionally detached account of Jefferson’s trial at the beginning of the book, we recognize that something about the main character is out of the ordinary. The novel chronicles Grant’s role in Jefferson’s mental and

7 spiritual transformation from a person beaten down by the system, exhibiting apathy and anger, to a man with a sense of passion and purpose, exhibiting dignity and strength. By helping Jefferson triumph over his dehumanized existence, Grant is also transformed. As a result, Grant regains his hope in humanity and his faith in his own ability to make a difference, with the promise of a future as a better teacher who can pass his hard-won lesson on to his students and more positively influence their lives. On the surface, the novel is the story of one man’s struggle to accept death with dignity while another man struggles with his own identity and responsibility to his community. But on a deeper level, it explores the process of an oppressed, dehumanized people’s attempt to gain recognition of their human dignity, acknowledgment of their human rights, and freedom to pursue their dreams. Gaines’ manipulation of time, focusing on the day-by-day struggles of ordinary people, is a definitive structural element in the novel. Unlike many black American writers, Gaines focuses on a cultural perspective of time that views history from an Eastern (Afrocentric) view, as opposed to a Western (Eurocentric) view. The primary difference between these two perspectives is the definition of time as it impacts our view of the past, present, and future. Viewed from the Eurocentric perspective, history is a series of “significant events” that document the accomplishments of “heroes.” Time is a commodity that, like money, can be spent, saved, lost, and managed. Time consists of the past, present, and future, each separated by distinct barriers; death is the end of life. Viewed from the Afrocentric perspective, however, history is a series of individual and collective stories that document the accomplishments of everyday people. According to this view, time is a continuum. Like an endless river, it cannot be controlled, contained, or manipulated. Time consists of the past and present; events that have not yet occurred exist in a separate realm of “no time.” All elements of time are interconnected; death is part of life. In this context, Jefferson’s death with dignity becomes even more of a validation of his life and the lives of his community, despite the indignities suffered while living. Some black historians point out that white male historians have too long defined history as a series of significant events (occurrences that are meaningful or symbolic for a person, group, or culture).

8 This point of view implies that the events selected for inclusion by members of the dominant culture are significant to all people. Consequently, black history has been virtually excluded from U.S. history texts because white male writers and historians did not consider the accomplishments of blacks significant. In Lesson, Jefferson’s execution is a significant event in the black community. His impending death has a profound impact on the people in the quarter — from the students at Grant’s school, to the members of Rev. Ambrose’s church, to the patrons of the Rainbow Club. By focusing on the Afrocentric view of history, Gaines emphasizes the worth and dignity of everyday heroes like Jefferson, an uneducated black field worker, and Grant Wiggins, an educated black man whose education makes no difference to the white community, which treats him the same way that it treats uneducated blacks. Grant’s education, however, makes him more aware of the disrespect toward blacks by the white community; thus, it is difficult for him to see how the education that he offers his students can have a positive impact on their lives. It is this realization that causes Grant to question his own life and fantasize a better future away from his home community rather than seek to counteract the influences that have worn it down.

A BRIEF SYNOPSIS Set in the fictional community of Bayonne, Louisiana, in the late 1940s, A Lesson Before Dying tells the story of Jefferson, a twenty-one-year-old uneducated black field worker wrongfully accused and convicted of the robbery and murder of a white man, and sentenced to death by electrocution. At his trial, Jefferson’s court-appointed defense attorney argues that Jefferson lacks the intelligence to plan a robbery, and that, even if he had been involved in the killing, sentencing him to death would be like putting a hog in the electric chair. In spite of this so-called defense, the all-white jury finds Jefferson guilty. To compound the horror of his situation, Jefferson internalizes the attorney’s racist depiction of him as a dumb animal. Determined that Jefferson will die with dignity, his godmother (“nannan”), Miss Emma, turns to Grant Wiggins, a black teacher at the local plantation school, and asks him to teach Jefferson to be a

9 man. Although convinced that there is nothing he can do, Grant reluctantly agrees to visit Jefferson in jail. Over the next several months, while Jefferson awaits execution, he and Grant forge a bond that enables both men to regain their dignity, reconnect with their community, and learn “the importance of standing.”

LIST OF CHARACTERS Jefferson A twenty-one-year-old uneducated black field worker condemned to die after being innocently involved in an armed robbery and shooting. Alcee Gropé The white storekeeper killed during the attempted robbery. Brother and Bear Two young black men killed while attempting to rob Alcee Gropé’s store. Miss Emma (Emma Glenn) Jefferson’s godmother; she is determined that Jefferson will die with dignity. Grant Wiggins The narrator. A cynical, disillusioned teacher called upon to instill a sense of pride and self-worth in Jefferson before his execution. Tante Lou Grant’s aunt and Miss Emma’s best friend. Vivian Baptiste Grant Wiggins’ Creole (mixed heritage of black and French or Spanish ancestry) girlfriend.

10 Peggy A fellow teacher; Vivian’s friend. Miss Eloise Bouie A friend of Miss Emma and Tante Lou. Estelle Jefferson’s cousin; one of Grant’s students. Henri Pichot The owner of the plantation that once employed Miss Emma and Tante Lou as cook and housekeeper. Inez Lane Henri Pichot’s maid. Inez has replaced Miss Emma in Pichot’s kitchen. Louis Rougon A friend of Henri Pichot. Rougon’s family owns a bank in St. Adrienne. Sam Guidry Sheriff of Bayonne County; Henri Pichot’s brother-in-law. Edna Guidry Sam’s wife and Henri Pichot’s sister. Joe and Thelma Claiborne Owners of the Rainbow Club, Grant and Vivian’s favorite hangout. Shirley A waitress at the Rainbow Club.

11 Irene Cole Grant’s assistant/student teacher. Matthew Antoine Grant’s former teacher, known in the black community as “the big mulatto from Poulaya.” Mr. Farrell Jarreau Henri Pichot’s yardman, handyman, and messenger. Rev. Mose Ambrose Pastor of the plantation church where Grant Wiggins teaches during the week. Dr. Joseph Morgan The white school superintendent who reinforces the white supremacy myth by being more interested in the students’ teeth and hygiene than in their access to learning materials. Paul Bonin The young deputy at the county jail who befriends Grant and witnesses Jefferson’s execution. Henry Martin One of Jefferson’s fellow inmates. Henry Louis and Amos Thomas The two old men who deliver the first load of wood to Grant’s school, marking the onset of winter. Dr. Sid Gilroy The white doctor whom Sheriff Guidry calls on to visit Miss Emma.

12 “Gruesome Gerty” The portable electric chair brought into Bayonne from the Angola State Penitentiary for Jefferson’s execution.

CRITICAL COMMENTARIES CHAPTERS 1-4 Summary The novel opens with a courtroom scene, as the narrator — later identified as Grant Wiggins, a black teacher at the local plantation school — recounts the trial of Jefferson, a twenty-one-yearold uneducated black man accused of robbery and murder. Through a series of flashbacks, we learn that Jefferson is innocent, despite the circumstantial evidence that places him at the scene of the crime. Among those in attendance are Miss Emma, Jefferson’s godmother, and Tante Lou, Grant’s aunt. During the course of the trial, held on a Friday morning, we hear three different versions of what happened the night that storekeeper Alcee Gropé was killed. First, we hear Jefferson’s story, as presented by (1) the narrator of the novel. Then, we hear the story from the perspectives of (2) the prosecuting attorney and that of (3) Jefferson’s court-appointed defense attorney. As part of his so-called defense strategy, Jefferson’s attorney refers to his client as “it” and contends that this “thing” is incapable of knowing right from wrong and lacks the intelligence to have planned the robbery. In short, he attempts to convince the jury that Jefferson is simply an animal that acted on impulse, and that executing him would be like putting “a hog in the electric chair.” Despite this very demeaning “defense,” the all-white jury finds Jefferson guilty of robbery and first-degree murder, and the judge sets Jefferson’s sentencing for the following Monday. On Monday morning, Miss Emma and Tante Lou are back in court, along with Rev. Mose Ambrose, the local pastor. When Jefferson is brought before the judge and asked if he has anything to say prior to his sentencing, he hangs his head and declines to speak. The judge sentences him to death by electrocution, with the date to be set by the governor.

13 Upon returning home from school Monday afternoon, Grant finds Miss Emma in the kitchen with Tante Lou. Hoping to avoid them, he hurries to his room and pretends to be engrossed in grading papers, but his aunt follows him and chides him for not speaking to her friend. When he goes to meet Miss Emma, Grant finds her gazing absently into space, still in apparent shock over Jefferson’s trial and angry about the attorney’s reference to her godson as a “hog.” Despite his protests, the two women persuade Grant to take them to see Henri Pichot, their former employer, hoping that Pichot will persuade his brother-in-law, the sheriff, to allow Grant to visit Jefferson. Grant tries to convince the women that their plan is futile, but they refuse to listen to his advice. Upon arriving at Pichot’s mansion, they proceed to the back door, where they are greeted by the maid, Inez Lane. While Inez is in the library with Pichot, Grant looks around the kitchen and recalls that, as a child, he used to help Miss Emma and Tante Lou as they worked in this kitchen for the elder Pichots. His reverie is interrupted when Pichot enters, followed by his friend, Louis Rougon. Miss Emma greets the men, then presents her case to Pichot, reminding him of her years of devoted service to his family. Astonished by her tenacity and persistence, Pichot reluctantly agrees to talk to his brother-in-law. Before leaving, Miss Emma assures him that she will be back the following day for his answer. That evening, Grant heads for the Rainbow Club in the nearby town of Bayonne, where he is greeted by the club’s proprietors, Joe and Thelma Claiborne. He orders a drink and dinner, then calls his girlfriend, Vivian Baptiste, and asks her to meet him at the club. When she arrives, they dance and discuss the day’s events. Vivian agrees that he should visit Jefferson. Commentary The novel’s opening line — “I was not there, yet I was there” — illustrates Gaines’ deceptively simple writing style. Although this declarative statement uttered by the nameless narrator seems to express a simple fact, it speaks volumes. The phrase introduces the ironies and contradictions that pervade the novel, in which things are not always what they seem, and “truth” is a highly subjective concept. It also gives us a glimpse into the narrator’s psyche.

14 Without knowing anything about him, we sense that he is cynical, indifferent, and detached, and that the story he is about to tell is so familiar to him, he knows the ending by heart. What’s more, we sense that the narrator’s background and experience have led him to view life as a series of routine, predictable events over which he has little or no control. Chapter 1 also introduces the reader to another aspect of Gaines’ compact writing style: his use of metaphor and allusion. For example, the narrator depicts Jefferson’s godmother as “a great stone” and a tree stump, suggesting that Miss Emma embodies the innate strength and endurance necessary to survive in a hostile environment. While the “great stone” symbolizes power and stability, the stump suggests tenacity and perseverance (someone who clings to life despite having been “cut down” and denied the opportunity to flourish and grow). But Gaines goes even further. While Miss Emma’s “immobility” implies that her movements have been severely restricted, it also alludes to the old Negro spiritual “I Shall Not Be Moved” and to the biblical image of Jesus as the “rock” of salvation. (We later discover that both Miss Emma and Tante Lou are devoutly religious.) Neither the stone nor the stump, however, possesses the power of language, a concept that is central to the novel as Grant and Jefferson struggle to find a way to connect and communicate with each other. Note, for example, that in Chapter 1 we hear three different versions of what happened on the night of Alcee Gropé’s murder: the narrator’s, the prosecuting attorney’s, and the defense attorney’s. We do not hear the story from Jefferson, who is, in effect, denied the right to speak. Like most blacks of that time, he is not given a voice in his own fate and must learn to find the words to express his humanity. (Gaines has said that he uses a narrator who reports events as others reveal them as one device to get inside his characters’ heads without his resorting to omniscient, third-person narration.) Note also that while the climax of the courtroom scene appears to be the jury’s verdict, for Miss Emma, the defining moment is the defense attorney’s reference to Jefferson as a “hog.” Who speaks, who is spoken to, and who listens to what is being said are critical aspects in learning the various lessons imparted throughout the novel. Readers should also note the use of regional dialect, blues language, and black vernacular, as well as the forms of address used to identify characters

15 (“boy,” “sir,” “Mr.” “nannan,” and “professor”), which often reveal the characters’ perceived position in the social hierarchy, identify their race or ethnicity, or provide other clues as to their status in the community. Also significant is the defense attorney’s closing argument in which he refers to Jefferson as “a boy,” “a fool,” “a cornered animal,” and “a thing to hold the handle of a plow” and urges the jury to note “the shape of this skull, this face as flat as the palm of my hand, . . . those eyes [without] a modicum of intelligence.” Jefferson not only accepts this degrading image of himself, but he internalizes it. In short, the attorney’s reference to Jefferson as a “hog” is much more than a cruel insult; it is a classic example of dehumanizing language that symbolizes the attitude of racist whites toward blacks. In his controversial book Up From Slavery, Booker T. Washington recounts a conversation with an elderly black man that illustrates the devastating psychological damage this type of language had on many enslaved blacks: “He said he had been born in Virginia and sold into Alabama in 1845. I asked him how many were sold at the same time. He said, ‘There were five of us: myself and brother and three mules.’” To justify the “peculiar institution” of slavery, racist whites often pointed to the biblical story of Ham, Noah’s youngest son. According to this story, Noah cursed Ham and his descendants to be “servant[s] of servants” because Ham saw his father naked. The Bible also lists “the swine” (pigs and hogs) among the animals designated as “unclean.” To further rationalize the enslavement of black Africans, racist whites created the myth of white supremacy, which depicts blacks as subhuman creatures without souls. Bred to be beasts of burden, blacks were noted for their brute strength and usually depicted as happy, childlike creatures of limited intelligence who needed firm discipline from whites. Perceived as devious, untrustworthy, and sexually promiscuous, they were portrayed as dirty, ugly creatures with an objectionable body odor. Viewed in these contexts, we can begin to see why being referred to as a “hog” has such a devastating impact on Jefferson and Miss Emma. We can also begin to understand why Miss Emma’s insistence that her godson be allowed to die like a man is such a

16 powerful issue. Although she has lived under the white racist devaluation of black people, she does not accept it, relying on her faith in God and in human dignity. Given this knowledge, we can readily see the blatant fallacies used in the defense attorney’s attempt to demonstrate that Jefferson does not meet the criteria of manhood. We realize that the criteria that the defense attorney cites have no bearing on Jefferson’s reality. As critic Charles E. Wilson, Jr., has pointed out, “Why would Jefferson know the size of his clothes when he cannot even try on clothes in a department store? Why would he know the months of the year, when his existence in rural Louisiana is dependent not on the calendar year, but on the generic planting season?” We realize that in a society that denies them basic human rights, both Grant and Jefferson must seek alternate ways to establish and express their manhood. In this chapter we see another defining aspect of Gaines’ writing style: his use of repetition, a defining characteristic of blues music. Note, for example, the repetition of words such as “standing,” “solitary,” “now,” and “hog,” all of which underscore key themes that resonate throughout the novel. Gaines also explores the fine line between fantasy and reality. For example, the setting, characters, and circumstances associated with the night of the shooting — the White Rabbit Bar and Lounge (an allusion to Alice in Wonderland ) and the names “Brother” and “Bear” (allusions to the Br’er Rabbit folktales popular throughout the South during the early 1900s) — create a surreal atmosphere that infuses the entire incident with an eerie, dreamlike quality. Chapter 2, which focuses on Miss Emma’s determination that Jefferson will go to his death “on his own two feet,” illustrates her stubborn pride and fierce love for her godson. (Considering that generally only members of the immediate family are permitted to visit prisoners, Miss Emma’s insistence that Grant be allowed to visit Jefferson also reflects her courage and commitment to fight for her family.) Likewise, Grant’s reluctance to get involved and his insistence that nothing can be done to help Jefferson illustrate Grant’s apathy and alienation from his community. Meanwhile, the brief conversation between Grant and Miss Emma demonstrates the difference in their perspectives. Grant is willing to resign himself to the situation and accept the inevitable outcome, acknowledging

17 what he sees as a death of black manhood — another theme in this book. “I can’t raise the dead,” he says, intimating that Jefferson has been dying over the last twenty-one years. There is also the suggestion of the death of Grant’s faith in God and in himself. Miss Emma, however, embraces life and is determined to do what she can to effect a change. What’s more, she is confident that Grant can make Jefferson a man because, as she points out matter-offactly, “You the teacher.” Here again, Gaines uses a simple, direct statement to express a complex concept. (As revealed in subsequent chapters, Miss Emma’s remark lends itself to numerous interpretations.) Note that Miss Emma assumes that the role of teacher automatically confers a measure of status and respect upon an individual and charges that individual with certain responsibilities to the community; Grant, however, sees himself as totally ineffectual in a role that provides him with neither status nor respect. In Chapter 3, Gaines uses various methods to illustrate that the past is alive in the present, and that the legacy of slavery still impacts black/white relationships. Grant is humiliated by having to enter Pichot’s house through the back door and being forced to address Pichot as “sir.” Inez has replaced Miss Emma and Tante Lou in Pichot’s kitchen, much as the new appliances have replaced the old. But although slavery has been outlawed for more than eight decades, Henri Pichot and Louis Rougon still expect blacks to be servile and subservient. No one offers Miss Emma or Tante Lou a chair or a glass of water. Pichot clearly dominates the conversation, and both he and Rougon seem astonished when Miss Emma insists on an answer to her request after Pichot signals that the conversation is over. In short, the interchange prompted by the encounter between Pichot and Miss Emma represents the uneasy relationship that remains between the races. (Miss Emma’s emphasis on all the work she has done for Pichot’s family with little of her own to show for it symbolizes all that blacks have done to help build this country without fulfillment of the Constitutional pledge of equal rights and basic human dignity.) Chapter 3 also introduces two more of the key themes that resonate throughout the novel: the language of silence and the concept of food as a source of physical and spiritual nourishment (food equals love). Much of the communication between Miss Emma and Henri Pichot, and between Grant and Tante Lou, takes place

18 through gestures, body language, and meaningful looks. (Note the frequent references to a character’s eyes; eyes are often described as “the windows of the soul.”) And when Grant tells his aunt that he’ll “eat in town,” he acknowledges that “nothing could have hurt her more when I said I was not going to eat her food.” In subsequent chapters, Jefferson’s reaction to Miss Emma’s food provides a barometer of Jefferson’s progress toward accepting his full humanity. The chapter also demonstrates Gaines’ use of humor, as he intersperses humorous incidents (such as the description of the two women taking up the entire back seat of Grant’s car) against the tragic circumstances surrounding Jefferson’s trial. One of the highlights of Chapter 4 is the description of Bayonne, with its segregated churches, schools, and movie theaters. Note that the railroad tracks form the major boundary between Bayonne’s black and white communities; consequently, blacks literally live “across the tracks” from whites, what whites would probably call “the wrong side of the tracks.” (In AfricanAmerican literature, however, trains often allude to the metaphorical underground railroad that carried runaway slaves to freedom in the North. They also suggest the great migration of rural Southern blacks seeking a better life in the urban North. Thus, railroads are a symbol of hope, representing opportunity and choice.) Also note that one of Bayonne’s major economic industries is a slaughterhouse, “mostly for hogs,” and that the primary landmark for the black community (from Grant’s perspective) is the Rainbow Club, with its “green, yellow, and red arched neon lights” (the colors of the African Liberation Flag). Chapter 4 introduces more themes and symbols and clarifies concepts introduced in previous chapters. For example, Grant’s search for a telephone emphasizes the themes of alienation and lack of communication between the black and white communities — and within the black community itself. Note that there is no telephone in the quarter. Therefore, even if Jefferson had been able to place a call from Alcee Gropé’s store, whom could he have called? Would he have been able to reach anyone? The chapter also emphasizes the difference between Grant’s and Vivian’s value systems: while Vivian focuses on commitment, Grant focuses on choice.

19 (Here and in the following chapters, difficult words and phrases, as well as allusions and historical references, are clarified.) • Keats, Byron, Scott John Keats, George Gordon Byron, and Sir Walter Scott are nineteenth-century Romantic poets. The attorney implies that since Jefferson lacks a formal Eurocentric education, he is not a “civilized” human being. This blatantly racist argument fails to note that blacks had been legally denied the right to learn to read and write, often upon threat of death or disfigurement, and that even now they were denied the textbooks and other resources that could enable them to study Western classics. Later in the book, we see the school superintendent suggest that students earn money to buy toothbrushes — not books. • We must live with our own conscience. The remark illustrates the irony of the situation: Southern whites often had no conscience concerning the fate of blacks, as illustrated by the defense attorney’s argument. • the quarter rows of cabins associated with designated plantations, isolated from the larger world. The quarter served as a home for slaves in the nineteenth century and the homes of sharecroppers in the twentieth century. The cabins had no electricity or running water until after World War II. • I need you speak for me. Miss Emma’s remark reflects the unwritten “code of silence” during the pre-Civil Rights South, when blacks were routinely denied the right to articulate their thoughts and feelings. This statement further reflects on the power of language as a recurring theme. Note the irony here, as Miss Emma seems to have no problem speaking for herself. • parish the largest local administrative district in Louisiana. A parish is the equivalent of a county in other states.

CHAPTERS 5 & 6 Summary On Tuesday, the day after Jefferson’s trial, Grant is back at work at the plantation school. Irritated by his students’ lack of discipline and motivation and his own inability to control his class, Grant dispenses his own brand of discipline. He rules with his Westcott ruler and reduces his students to tears with his physical

20 discipline and his humiliating remarks. As a final ploy, he tells them — in graphic detail — about Jefferson’s impending execution. At 2 P.M., Mr. Farrell Jarreau, Henri Pichot’s yardman, stops by to tell Grant that Pichot will meet with him at five o’clock. That evening, Grant arrives at Pichot’s mansion at ten minutes to five. He is kept waiting in the kitchen for two and a half hours and learns, through Inez, that Louis Rougon is betting that Grant can’t persuade Jefferson to “die like a man.” After enjoying a leisurely dinner, Sheriff Guidry, Henri Pichot, Louis Rougon, and a “fat man” (who remains nameless) meet with Grant to discuss Jefferson’s situation. During their talk, the white men do their best to humiliate Grant, and Sheriff Guidry tries to trick him into taking sides in an alleged disagreement between him and his wife about the value of Grant’s visiting Jefferson, but Grant deftly avoids this rhetorical trap. Finally, the sheriff tells him that he can start visiting Jefferson “in a couple of weeks.” Commentary Chapter 5, which takes place at Grant’s school and illustrates the interaction between Grant and his students, is a mirror image of Chapter 6, which takes place at Pichot’s mansion and illustrates the interaction between Grant and the white men. In effect, we see Grant treating his students the same way that he is treated by the white men. In both cases, the interactions are marked by a blatant lack of respect and by a desire on the part of the so-called superior individual(s) to humiliate their so-called inferiors. Chapter 5 opens with Grant and his students in the churchyard, reciting the Pledge of Allegiance, a ritual that is fraught with irony, given that there is no “liberty and justice” for blacks in the South. Adding to the irony is the white picket fence surrounding the church, which suggests that the church is the students’ “home.” Note the sensual language in the opening paragraph which enables us to see the smoke, hear the tractors, and feel the cold air. We then follow the students inside and listen to them recite their Bible verses, a ritual that has also become meaningless to Grant (and his students). By quoting several of the verses, Gaines expresses his respect for these short, concise statements — for example, “Jesus wept” — which convey the power he aims for in his own spare writing style.

21 Chapter 5 also introduces us to the plantation school and to the role of the black teacher. We learn that the school year consists of only five and a half months, since the children are needed to work in the fields, and that Grant has taught at the school for six years. We learn that the school is an integral part of the community, and that Grant knows the families of all his students. We also learn that he is frustrated with his life and with his role as a teacher, and that he feels he has little or no impact on his students’ lives. As we watch Grant interact with his students, we begin to question his effectiveness as a teacher and his ability to turn Jefferson into “a man.” We see that, instead of inspiring his students and instilling them with a hunger for knowledge and a respect for education, he ignites fear and hate and gives his students little hope for a better future. Although Grant is aware of the problems that the students must deal with at home, he has no empathy for them and no sympathy for their individual hardships. And although he is aware of the violent world many of them will enter after leaving his school, he beats his students, thus teaching violence by example. Instead of seeking to motivate, he seeks to control. He is cruel, impatient, and vindictive, taking out his personal frustrations on his students. In short, he perceives his students as being as insignificant as a “little red bug” and demonstrates none of the admirable qualities that Miss Emma attributes to him. Instead of seeking to change an intolerable system that kills his students’ spirits, he perpetuates the system by his apathy and his perverse role modeling. Farrell Jarreau’s visit highlights the irony of Grant’s situation. Although illiterate and uneducated (like Jefferson), Jarreau is a survivor who epitomizes quiet dignity. He respects Grant as a teacher and, like Miss Emma, sees him as a leader of his community by virtue of his profession. Jarreau’s pride in Grant as someone who has achieved a major goal is evident, and the brief conversation between Grant and Jarreau illustrates the polite, dignified behavior that one would expect to see among “civilized” men. Note that Farrell Jarreau always addresses Grant as “professor,” just as Grant always addresses the handyman as “Mr. Farrell.” Historians note that “professor” was used as a term of respect by Southern blacks for any male teacher. Sometimes, it was also used to refer to other talented or educated individuals, such as pianists

22 or preachers. Here again, the context of language is key. Note, for example, that when Henri Pichot refers to Grant as “professor,” the term is meant to mock and ridicule. Chapter 6, set in Henri Pichot’s mansion, illustrates the uncivilized behavior of the white men toward Grant. Like Farrell Jarreau, Grant is forced to obtain his information “through an innate sense of things around him.” Marked by a thin veneer of civility, the men do their best to humiliate Grant and “keep him in his place.” Seeing him in this situation, as he struggles not to appear “too smart,” we begin to understand his frustrations with his students and his cynical view of life. The men obviously take pleasure in having Grant under their control. Hoping that he will give up and go home, they force him to wait two and a half hours. When they finally meet with him, they have already made their decision. To amuse his friends, Sheriff Guidry tries to trick Grant into taking sides in an alleged disagreement between him and his wife. Like Inez, Grant is rendered invisible. As he leaves Pichot’s mansion, Grant realizes that helping Jefferson regain his manhood may mean compromising his own dignity. • sharecroppers people who worked land for a share of the crops, especially tenant farmers. In the South, black sharecroppers generally lived in extreme poverty and were treated as little more than slaves by white landowners. • I tried to decide just how I should respond to them. Whether I should act like the teacher that I was, or like the nigger that I was supposed to be. As revealed in a subsequent chapter, Grant’s bitter remark echoes one of the “lessons” he learned from his teacher while he was a student at the plantation school.

CHAPTERS 7 & 8 Summary On Thursday, Dr. Joseph Morgan, a white man who is the school superintendent, makes his annual visit to Grant’s school. In addition to drilling the students, he inspects their teeth, as if they were horses (or slaves). When Grant tries to tell Dr. Morgan that he needs books and supplies, Dr. Morgan ignores his request, focusing instead on the need for student hygiene.

23 The following week, the school receives its first load of wood, marking the beginning of winter. As he watches the men unload the wood, Grant reminisces about his own school days and thinks about his former teacher, Matthew Antoine, who advised him to leave Bayonne before it destroyed him. Commentary Dr. Morgan’s visit and the delivery of the first load of wood are two annual highlights of the school year and establish a sense of continuity for Grant and his students. The events emphasize that little has changed over the years, and that Grant’s primary role as a teacher is to follow in the footsteps of his predecessor, Matthew Antoine, and maintain the status quo. Note, however, that these rituals are set against the backdrop of the grinding season, a ritual that defines the rhythm of life for these poor Southern blacks. Note also that Grant’s visits with Jefferson and Jefferson’s impending execution are about to disrupt the day-to-day rituals of both the black community and the white community. Therefore, although Jefferson is imprisoned, he is destined to become a powerful catalyst for change. In Chapter 7, Dr. Morgan’s visit illustrates the disparity between black and white schools and the dismal lack of communication between black teachers and white administrators. It also illustrates the institutional racism rampant in the Southern educational system and the indifference of Southern whites to the plight of black students and teachers. Dr. Morgan’s approach to the school is heralded by “a thick cloud of gray dust.” Later, as Grant watches Dr. Morgan inspect the students’ teeth, he is reminded of how slave masters used to inspect their slaves’ limbs and teeth. And although Grant resents Dr. Morgan’s callousness, he realizes there is nothing he can do about it. Here again, Gaines’ humor lends a welcome sense of comic relief to an otherwise painful situation — for example, note the description of Dr. Morgan, who communicates largely in terms of grunts and groans; Dr. Morgan’s calling on the so-called worst student in the class; Dr. Morgan’s lecture on “beans, beans, beans”; and his referring to Grant Wiggins as “Higgins,” a possible allusion to Professor Henry Higgins, who turns a slum girl into a “lady” in George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion. The inability of the school superintendent to remember Grant’s name also reflects blacks’ loss

24 of identity within the white community. Dr. Morgan does not really see or hear Grant during the visit; rather, he sees and hears only what he wants to. Chapter 8 provides us with another glimpse into Grant’s background. As he watches the two old men unloading the wood and the young boys chopping and stacking it, he recalls doing the same thing when he was a student, and he wonders if there is anything that he can do to break the cycle of poverty and violence which has claimed the lives of so many of his friends. He also recalls his former teacher, Matthew Antoine, and wonders if he was wrong in not taking Antoine’s advice to leave Bayonne. Antoine, the “big mulatto from Poulaya” who despised his mixed blood and felt superior to anyone darker than he, illustrates the problem of colorism in the black community, wherein some blacks themselves have advanced their status in their own minds based on having a lighter skin color in order to counteract the effects of frequently having been conceived in rape and oppression. Because mulattos were often the children of enslaved black women who had been raped by their white masters, Antoine’s selfhatred, as well as his hatred for his own people who are unable to protect him from this racism, is another example of “the past being alive in the present” as the legacy of slavery continues to haunt black Americans. Antoine’s background and treatment of Grant enable us to identify the source of Grant’s cynicism and to understand how deeply he has internalized his teacher’s advice: “Just do the best you can. But it won’t matter.” • Hitler had his reasons Antoine’s remark exemplifies the extreme alienation of blacks in Southern white America.

CHAPTERS 9-12 Summary In Chapter 9, the focus shifts from the plantation school to the county jail as Grant and Miss Emma, for the first time, are able to talk to the captive Jefferson. In Chapter 10, we find Grant and Miss Emma going through the by-now familiar ritual at the courthouse: The deputy searches Miss Emma’s basket of food and examines the contents of Grant’s pockets, then leads them past the

25 other inmates to Jefferson’s cell. As before, Jefferson is sullen and unresponsive, and Miss Emma leaves in tears, asking the deputy to distribute the leftover food among the other inmates. The next time Grant stops by to pick up Miss Emma, she insists that she is too sick to travel. Ignoring his protests, Tante Lou and Miss Emma persuade Grant to visit Jefferson alone; they then send him on his way with a bag that — in Grant’s opinion — contains enough food to feed everyone at the jail. When Grant arrives for his first solo visit with Jefferson (Chapter 11), Sheriff Guidry is there to meet him instead of the chief deputy. After Grant’s brief conversation with the sheriff, Paul, the young deputy, escorts him to Jefferson’s cell. As Grant urges Jefferson to eat some of Miss Emma’s food, Jefferson initially ignores him. Then, as Grant watches in amazement, Jefferson gets down on his hands and knees, puts his head inside the bag of food, and proceeds to show him how a hog eats. Not wanting the sheriff to know that his visit has been unsuccessful, Grant decides to stay until the end of his allotted hour, half-heartedly attempting to engage Jefferson in conversation. Upon leaving, he tells Jefferson that he will tell Miss Emma how much he (Jefferson) enjoyed her food. As Paul escorts Grant back to the office, they talk briefly about Jefferson. Reluctant to tell Miss Emma about his visit, Grant stops by the Rainbow Club on his way home (Chapter 12). At the club, he finds Joe Claiborne and two old men discussing their current hero, Jackie Robinson. As he listens to their conversation and watches the old men dramatize Jackie’s stealing bases and sliding into home plate, Grant recalls a time when their hero was Joe Louis. He also thinks about “the little Irishman” who introduced him to James Joyce’s short story “Ivy Day in the Committee Room.” After leaving the club, Grant stops by Vivian’s school to tell her about his visit with Jefferson. Commentary These four chapters focus on Grant’s first four visits with Jefferson at the county jail. In Chapters 9 and 10, Grant and Miss Emma make three trips to Bayonne to visit Jefferson. Chapters 11 and 12 focus on the events surrounding Grant’s first solo visit with Jefferson.

26 One of the overriding images in Chapter 9 is the courthouse. Traditionally a symbol of justice and democracy, here it is a bastion of institutional racism. As indicated by the statue of the Confederate soldier and the Confederate flag in front of the courthouse, the justice dispensed here does not apply to black Americans. With its separate but unequal facilities, the courthouse symbolizes the racist white power structure of the Jim Crow South. The scene between the white chief deputy and the young black prisoner illustrates the contempt of Southern racist whites toward Southern blacks. This attitude is further exemplified by Miss Emma’s initial encounter with the chief deputy. Note that Paul saves Miss Emma from further embarrassment and humiliation when she misinterprets the deputy’s curt, one-word response — “Quiet” — as an order instead of as a description of Jefferson’s behavior. By doing so, he steps outside his official role as a white authority figure and demonstrates his compassion. As Grant and Miss Emma are led toward Jefferson’s cell, they pass by the cells of other young black inmates, who ask them for cigarettes and money. (Note that the youthfulness of the inmates, most of whom are between the ages of fifteen and nineteen, seems especially troublesome to Miss Emma, who refers to them as “children.”) Instead of hurrying past the cells and ignoring the inmates, Grant gives them the coins he has, and Miss Emma stops to talk to them and offers them food. When Grant and Miss Emma finally see Jefferson, he is sullen and unresponsive, ignoring Miss Emma’s desperate attempts to engage him in conversation. Frustrated by Jefferson’s behavior, Miss Emma is oblivious to the unspoken communication that transpires between Grant and Jefferson. As Grant and Miss Emma leave the courthouse, another silent communication occurs between Grant and Paul, who signals Grant to comfort Miss Emma. The emphasis on the legal ritual at the courthouse suggests that this ritual is just as significant as the rituals at the plantation school described in Chapters 7 and 8. Note that while both Grant and Miss Emma quickly adjust to the routine, it disrupts their normal, everyday rituals. Thus, we see how Jefferson’s imprisonment begins to impact the entire black community. Food as a source of physical and spiritual nourishment is also a key motif reinforced here. We can surmise that Miss Emma has decided that since she can’t save the “children,” at least she can feed

27 them. Food also represents independence, generosity, and love — food is Miss Emma’s gift to Jefferson, an expression of her own identity and something for which she does not depend on the sufferance of the white community. Jefferson’s rejection of her food is a rejection of her person that hurts her deeply. In Chapter 11, when Jefferson demonstrates how a hog eats, Grant is horrified at Jefferson’s behavior; he realizes how deeply the inhumane treatment that Jefferson has received has affected his psyche. As mentioned in the Introduction to the Novel section of this Note, Jefferson’s redemption and transformation are intertwined with Grant’s retaining and reasserting his manhood. Consequently, when Grant witnesses Jefferson’s humiliation, he realizes that his own manhood is threatened by this humiliation of his race. As critic Charles E. Wilson, Jr., points out in his essay “Black Manhood in Ernest J. Gaines’ Lesson Before Dying,” Grant knows that “if Jefferson, a fellow black male, behaves this way, then his own manhood is tenuous.” Wilson goes on to point out that “Gaines seems to toy with this notion of tenuity when he has Jefferson mispronounce ‘humans’ and spells it as ‘youmans.’” If one rewrites “youmans” as “you mans” or “you men,” then he discerns the irony inherent in Jefferson’s bestowing a full sense of black manhood upon Grant (despite Grant’s self-imposed detachment from the black community), especially when Grant has just spoken to his aunt about his feelings of humiliation and emotional castration. Jefferson’s behavior in this section is noteworthy for more than its symbolism and irony. It also alludes to the actual behavior of enslaved blacks in response to their inhumane treatment. In Frederick Douglass’ autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, he describes the following scene: “Our food was coarse corn meal boiled. This was called mush. It was put into a large wooden tray or trough, and set down upon the ground. The children were then called, like so many pigs, and like so many pigs they would come and devour the mush; some with oyster shells, others with pieces of shingle, some with naked hands, and none with spoons.” Note that Grant is so upset by Jefferson’s behavior, he can’t bring himself to face Miss Emma (who, we can assume, is anxiously awaiting his return). Instead, he retreats to the solace of the Rainbow Club.

28 The three old men at the Rainbow Club who are discussing their hero, Jackie Robinson, illustrate the tendency of poor, oppressed people to idolize heroes whose larger-than-life image is often created and nurtured by their own thwarted hopes and dreams. These heroes are often sports figures and entertainers whose unique talents have enabled them to achieve fame and financial success despite the racial and economic barriers that deny oppressed blacks the opportunity to achieve success in more conventional arenas. Grant realizes that, by celebrating the accomplishments of their sports heroes and claiming them as representative members of the black community, the old men are celebrating and claiming their own sense of manhood and imagining the heights to which they, too, might aspire, since their heroes have demonstrated that, despite seemingly impossible odds, success is possible. This section also explores some key issues concerning teachers and teaching. As Grant watches the old men, he recalls his days as a university student, when a lecture by a speaker whom he refers to as “the little Irishman” piqued his interest in James Joyce’s short story “Ivy Day in the Committee Room.” He recalls the speaker’s enthusiasm about the story, his insistence that it explores universal themes, and his repetition of the name “Parnell.” He recalls how his literature teacher, Mr. Anderson, helped him obtain a copy of an anthology that included the story. He also recalls that, after reading and rereading the story, he could not find in it the universality that the Irishman talked about. Years later, he realizes that the story (about a group of old Irishmen who meet to discuss politics and praise their dead hero, Parnell) is universal because it parallels the experiences of countless old men he sees who meet in bars and barbershops, on street corners, and in the quarter to talk about their heroes. As his mind drifts back to Jefferson and his impending execution, Grant recalls reading about the execution of a boy in Florida who pleaded for Joe Louis to save him as he was being dragged to the electric chair. Although seemingly unrelated, we can surmise that this story underscores a key point about hero worship: It may feed the men’s fantasies and allow them to live vicariously through their heroes, but it cannot protect them from life’s grim realities.

29 Grant’s visit to Vivian’s school illustrates the powerful impact teachers can have on their students. While Grant’s most vivid memories about his own school days revolve around the cynical Matthew Antoine (Chapter 8), his memories of “the little Irishman” and his literature teacher, Mr. Anderson, indicate that these men also had an impact on him, which he is only now beginning to acknowledge. The visit also contrasts Vivian’s teaching style — marked by nurturing and high expectations — to Grant’s disciplinarian approach, symbolized by his ever-present Westcott ruler. (Note that Vivian’s definition of a simple sentence is quite different from Grant’s definition in Chapter 5.) The fact that Vivian teaches French suggests not only that she values knowledge and culture, but that she envisions her students as having a future that transcends the limits of their impoverished physical environment. • It don’t matter. Chapter 8.

Jefferson’s words echo those of Matthew Antoine in

• clabber thickly curdled sour milk. • Jackie Robinson (1919-72) United States Major League Baseball player. In 1947, Robinson became the first African American to play in the major leagues when he signed a contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers. He was also the first black to win the Most Valuable Player award, the first to play in a major league World Series, and the first to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. For many blacks, Jackie Robinson symbolized a triumph in the fight for racial integration. • Joe Louis (1914-81) United States professional boxer. Nicknamed “The Brown Bomber,” Joe Louis, world heavyweight boxing champion from 1937-49, still holds the record for the longest reign as heavyweight champion: 11 years, 8 months, and 7 days. • Schmeling Max Schmeling, German boxer who defeated Joe Louis in 1936. In 1938, Louis regained his heavyweight title, defeating Schmeling in the first round of their fight. • Yeats, O’Casey, Joyce William Butler Yeats, Sean O’Casey, and James Joyce, Irish playwrights and poets. • Parnell Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-91), Irish nationalist leader.

30 CHAPTERS 13-15 Summary After Miss Eloise Bouie stops by to pick up Tante Lou for church, Grant sits in his room grading papers and reflecting on his conversation with Miss Emma and Rev. Ambrose the previous Friday. His daydreams are interrupted by a knock at his door, and he is pleasantly surprised to find that Vivian has come to visit. Grant and Vivian talk, have coffee and cake, then slip off to the cane fields to make love. When they return, they find that the “church ladies” — Tante Lou, Miss Emma, Miss Eloise, and Inez — have gathered in Tante Lou’s kitchen. When Grant introduces Vivian, the women, taking their cues from Tante Lou, give her a cool reception. While Grant makes fresh coffee, Tante Lou interrogates Vivian about her social and academic background and her religious beliefs. Relieved to discover that Vivian is not the snob whom she had envisioned, Tante Lou declares her to be “a lady of quality,” signaling Vivian’s acceptance into the community of women. Commentary Set in the quarter, this section focuses on the events that transpire on Termination (Determination) Sunday, the third Sunday of each month when church members “would [ritually] sing their favorite hymns and tell the congregation where they were determined to spend eternity.” One of the primary rituals in this section concerns Tante Lou’s preparation for church, as she sings her ‘Termination song. Music — in the form of spirituals — permeates this section, emphasizing the vital part that music and the black church play in the lives of Tante Lou and her friends. Spirituals are the basis of the blues, another traditionally African-American musical form, and blues are the secular equivalent of spirituals. Consequently, we begin to appreciate the powerful role of music in the characters’ lives: Music provides spiritual sustenance in times of trouble and offers a means of expressing and exorcising physical and emotional suffering, a theme that is further developed in subsequent chapters. Music is also a form of language and expression, pointing to the creative impulses of the black community that

31 could not be silenced. The selection of the song “Were You There When They Crucified My Lord” can be seen as foreshadowing Jefferson’s execution and Grant’s decision not to be a witness. This section also refers to two other rituals: the visits with Jefferson (which have disrupted the former rituals of several community members, including Grant, Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Rev. Ambrose) and the ritual of baptism. In Chapter 13, when Miss Emma asks Grant about his visit with Jefferson, he tells her what he thinks she wants to hear in order to spare her feelings. But when Rev. Ambrose asks Grant if they “talked about God,” Grant’s blunt response indicates his contempt for the reverend, even though he addresses him as “sir.” The conversation between Grant and Rev. Ambrose also reveals a major difference between the two men’s beliefs and value systems: Grant is educated, but his education has caused him to lose touch with his people and his heritage; consequently, he is not prepared for any “deep” thinking. Rev. Ambrose lacks formal education, but his innate wisdom and compassion, coupled with his spiritual faith, enable him to cope with life’s challenges. Note that Grant, who considers himself superior to both Jefferson and Rev. Ambrose due to his education, emphasizes the differences between himself and the reverend. But Rev. Ambrose, in pointing out that he baptized both Grant and Jefferson, emphasizes the similarities between the two. Note also that while Grant considers only Jefferson’s physical needs (food and clean clothes), Rev. Ambrose is concerned with his spiritual needs (the Bible). This chapter also draws attention to the universal conflict between faith and reason. Grant is an agnostic, not an atheist. Although not convinced that there is no God, Grant has been so battered by the harsh realities of life that he doubts God’s existence. This doubt — a direct result of his education — causes him to experience existential pain: What is the purpose of his life, and where can he best fulfill that purpose while staying true to himself and his heritage? For Tante Lou, the church defines her existence. For Grant, it represents white oppression. Grant’s ambivalence toward the church is revealed by his statement that, ever since his graduation from the university and a brief trip to California to visit his parents, he has been “running in place . . . unable to accept what used to be my life, unable to leave it.” Although he rejects God, a part of him

32 longs to experience the peace and spiritual strength experienced by Miss Emma and Tante Lou, as expressed in his comment, “Sunday is the saddest day of the week.” As one critic has pointed out, “The problem . . . Grant Wiggins faces is the plight of an educated man who feels trapped in his community. He could stay and be beaten down or run away and be lost.” Chapter 14 focuses on two key scenes that mark pivotal points in the novel: Grant and Vivian’s conversation in Tante Lou’s cabin, and their slipping away to make love in the cane fields. Note that instead of taking pride in his home, which, although modest, reflects his family’s background and heritage, Grant apologizes for his surroundings. Also note that while Grant describes the cabin as “rustic,” Vivian describes it as “pastoral.” Although both terms refer to a simple country life, they have very different connotations: While “rustic” connotes a lack of elegance or sophistication, “pastoral” suggests an idealized, natural lifestyle marked by peace and tranquillity. Here again, the author’s meticulous use of language and dialogue are critical to the narrative and reveal the characters’ very different perspectives of life. Also significant is Vivian’s remark concerning the cleanliness of Tante Lou’s kitchen. Through the use of this seemingly unremarkable comment (coupled with a later reference to the women’s “sweet smelling powder”), Gaines dispels the racial myth that blacks are dirty and have an objectionable body odor. This theme is also emphasized in subsequent chapters. Although the love scene between Grant and Vivian is somewhat unremarkable, the fact that it takes place in the cane field is significant, as is the lovers’ subsequent conversation. The powerful nature imagery of the cane fields establishes the relationship of black Americans to the land that made them what they are. The concept of a people intimately connected to the earth is often traced to the biblical Creation story, which states that man was created from the earth and tells the story of Adam and Eve and their sons, Cain and Abel. Following the love scene in the cane fields, Gaines uses a variety of techniques to suggest that Grant has been transformed, gaining strength from his “mother” earth, and is now better prepared to cope with life and to “go deeper” (that is, look beyond the surface). For example, as he and Vivian dream about their future family, he says

33 that he wants to name his son “Paul.” Here again, a seemingly unremarkable detail is extremely significant. Recall that “Paul” is the name of the young white deputy who has befriended Grant. Consequently Grant, who in previous chapters revealed his hatred of whites, has decidedly had a change of heart. In literature, and especially in African-American literature, names often provide insight into a character’s soul. In this novel, Gaines places special emphasis on Paul’s name. According to the Bible, Paul was the first great missionary and theologian in Christian history. As a devout Jew notorious for his persecution of Christians, Saul of Tarsus (later renamed Paul) heard the voice of Jesus and was blinded by a bright light from heaven. After several days, his sight was restored by a Christian. As a result of his profound experience, Paul became a devout Christian. He was eventually imprisoned for his faith and died a martyr. To countless Christians, Paul’s life exemplifies hope and illustrates not only the changes that can be wrought in a life based on faith, but also the profound impact that one individual can have on the lives of others. Like the biblical Paul, Grant is struck by the realization that his life has been moving in the wrong direction and that Jefferson’s transformation is necessary for his own transformation. Grant’s change of heart is also evident in his behavior upon returning to Tante Lou’s, where, for the first time, he stands up to his aunt and insists on making the coffee (thereby challenging — and breaking — another ritual). Instead of waiting to be served or simply complying with “the way it’s always been,” Grant begins to change his behavior which, in turn, affects the people around him. Chapter 15, which focuses on the women gossiping in Tante Lou’s kitchen, mirrors a scene in Chapter 12, in which the men talk about their heroes at the Rainbow Club. But whereas the men talked about the past and dreamed about the accomplishments of their heroes, the women talk about the future and the dreams they have for their families. A significant scene in this chapter is Tante Lou’s interrogation of Vivian concerning her Creole background and her religion. Tante Lou’s eventual acceptance of Vivian indicates that she is willing to see Vivian as an individual, not simply as a Catholic or a Creole. Through the women’s interaction, Gaines teaches us an important lesson that Grant has also begun to learn: Who we are is far more important than what we are.

34 This chapter, which marks the midpoint of the novel, also marks the beginning of Grant’s transformation as a man and a teacher. • Creole a person of black and French or Spanish lineage that formed the elite backbone of early New Orleans society. From the French “creole,” meaning native to the region, or born at home. • Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and Booker T. Washington men associated with the struggle for civil rights and black liberation. Douglass (1817-95), a former slave (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey), became a famous orator who spoke out against the horrors of slavery; Lincoln (1809-65) signed the Emancipation Proclamation freeing the slaves, although he admitted doing so not primarily because he believed that slavery was morally wrong but because he sought to preserve the Union; Washington (1856-1915) is best known for his conservative, conciliatory views concerning the role of blacks in America. • A swarm of black birds flew across the road. Birds are a common symbol for the soul. Grant’s sighting the black birds moments before he and Vivian pass the cemetery suggests that the birds are the souls of his ancestors. • derrick a large apparatus for lifting and moving heavy objects. • Free LaCove Vivian’s hometown, inhabited mostly by Creoles and light-skinned blacks. • Xavier University a university located in New Orleans and named for Saint Francis Xavier (1506-52), a Spanish Jesuit missionary. Xavier University is a historically black and Catholic affiliated university.

CHAPTER 16 Summary On Monday, as Grant is about to leave school for the day, one of his students informs him that Miss Emma wants him to stop by on his way home. When he arrives at Miss Emma’s, he finds that Tante Lou and Rev. Ambrose are with her. After offering him some coffee, Miss Emma asks him why he lied to her concerning his last visit with Jefferson. Instead of admitting that he lied to protect her feelings, Grant insists that he told the truth, even after Miss Emma tells him that she had to hit Jefferson.

35 Several days later, Grant overhears Tante Lou and Miss Eloise discussing Miss Emma’s last visit with Jefferson and learns that Miss Emma slapped Jefferson for repeating his degrading act of imitating a hog. The scene then shifts back to Miss Emma’s kitchen, where Rev. Ambrose and Tante Lou are doing their best to comfort Miss Emma, who insists that Grant go back to visit Jefferson. Commentary Much of this chapter focuses on the conversation between Grant and Miss Emma concerning Jefferson’s behavior. Here again, Gaines reveals some important aspects of Grant’s character through dialogue. Note, for example, that when Miss Emma tells him that she had to hit Jefferson, Grant doesn’t ask why. Instead, he remains silent, hoping to avoid further confrontation. Also note that Grant’s comment concerning Jefferson — “I do everything I know how to do to keep people like him from going there [to prison]” — speaks volumes. But does he? If anything, Grant’s use of corporal punishment and ridicule in the classroom in order to control his students helps perpetuate the system of institutional racism because he does nothing to try to motivate his students or help them transcend the brutal reality of their limited environment. By referring to Jefferson as “people like him,” Grant implies that Jefferson is “less than” or “different from” other people. He is, in effect, denying any connection between himself and Jefferson, thereby attempting to absolve himself of any responsibility in the matter. In short, he seems totally oblivious to the fact that Jefferson is not only one of his former students and a friend of the family, but he is also a fellow black man and a member of the black community — a person who has experienced the same kind of racism and bigotry that Grant himself has experienced. He feels no racial or communal kinship toward Jefferson. In essence, he sees himself as being in a totally different class. Grant’s abdication of his responsibility toward Jefferson, a fellow human being, is reminiscent of the biblical story of Cain and Abel. After Cain killed his brother Abel, God asked Cain where Abel was. Cain replied, “Am I my brother’s keeper?” The expression has come to be used in any situation in which a person abdicates responsibility for another individual.

36 The chapter also makes an important statement about the nature of truth and lies: Omitting or withholding information is equivalent to telling lies, and that kind of “truth is not accuracy.” • Mardi Gras an annual festival renowned for its lavish costumes and decadent party atmosphere, held on the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday. Mardi Gras (French for “fat Tuesday”) is also called Shrove Tuesday. Traditionally a celebration of feasting before the beginning of Lent, it has now become secularized. • roast nyers roasting ears (of corn).

CHAPTERS 17 & 18 Summary On Friday, Grant’s students begin planning their Christmas program, which puts Grant in a more charitable mood. When Grant goes to visit Jefferson, Paul Bonin, the young deputy, suggests they call each other by name. During his visit, Grant tries to impress upon Jefferson that he has a responsibility toward his godmother. This time, he refuses to let Jefferson get away with his crude, uncivilized behavior. Instead of ignoring his insults, he lets him know that his behavior is unacceptable and challenges him to act like a man. Apparently shocked by Grant’s behavior, Jefferson expresses his pain and frustration through tears and anger. As Grant prepares to leave the courthouse, Paul tells him that Sheriff Guidry wants to see him. After ignoring Grant for several minutes while he continues his conversation with his colleagues, Sheriff Guidry tells Grant that Tante Lou, Miss Emma, and Rev. Ambrose have been to visit his wife to ask if they could visit Jefferson in a more comfortable room. (Grant learns later that the sheriff’s wife had set a precedent by inviting them to sit in her living room while her maid served them coffee.) Although initially angry because he thinks Grant has put them up to it, the sheriff eventually calms down and decides to let Jefferson choose whether he wants to meet his visitors in his cell or in the dayroom. The sheriff keeps his promise, and the next time Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Rev. Ambrose visit Jefferson, they meet him in the dayroom. During his next visit, Grant also meets Jefferson in the

37 dayroom. This time, Jefferson attempts to initiate a conversation concerning his impending execution, but Grant quickly changes the subject. But when Jefferson attempts to slip back into his subhuman attitude and behavior, Grant once again challenges him, and then tries to teach him a lesson about moral obligation. Afterward, Grant meets Vivian at the Rainbow Club and convinces her that “something is changing.” Commentary Something is changing. These two chapters mark a decided change in the relationships among several characters. Note that all the changes begin with personal conversations between two individuals. Also note that although the changes ultimately take place among the men, it is the women (Edna Guidry, Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Vivian) who provide much of the catalyst for change. Chapter 17 consists of a series of conversations between Grant and Paul, Grant and Jefferson, and Grant and Sheriff Guidry, respectively. Note that all three conversations focus on Jefferson, and that each conversation not only triggers a change in the relationship between the two speakers, but it also marks a shift in the speaker’s attitude toward Jefferson. The first conversation (between Grant and Paul) marks a change in the relationship between the two men when Paul introduces himself and suggests he and Grant address each other by name. It also foreshadows a shift in the relationship between blacks and whites, manifested in the Civil Rights movement. The second conversation (between Grant and Jefferson) begins to break down the defensive wall that Jefferson has built around himself, thus leading him toward a growing awareness of himself as a human being worthy of dignity and respect. The third conversation (between Grant and Sheriff Guidry) marks a subtle change between Grant and Sheriff Guidry, and a significant change between Sheriff Guidry and Jefferson: For the first time, the sheriff ignores the advice of his colleagues when he decides to give Jefferson a choice about whether he will meet his visitors in his cell or in the dayroom. Grant is also undergoing profound changes: Despite his attempt to remain detached and uninvolved, he begins to have dreams in which he is the one about to be executed. (Through his

38 subsequent conversation with Vivian, we learn that Grant’s concern over Jefferson has also begun to affect his sex life.) Consequently, we realize that, subconsciously, Grant is beginning to identify with Jefferson and to recognize the racial and filial bonds that bind him to his “brother.” In essence, as Grant begins to undergo a process of transformation, he begins to connect with Jefferson and to influence the transformation of others. Note, however, that when Jefferson responds to his invitation to “talk” and broaches the subject of his impending execution, Grant quickly changes the subject, indicating that he is not yet prepared to deal with the real issue. In Chapter 18, Grant and Jefferson begin to communicate on a personal level. Note that Jefferson’s physical movement from the dark of his cell to the daylight of the dayroom symbolizes his spiritual and intellectual movement towards enlightenment. Having gained the freedom to choose, he begins to see himself as a human being. And as Grant continues to challenge his protests that he is not human, Jefferson begins to acquire a sense of self-worth: He asserts himself by questioning Grant, challenging his philosophical platitude that “We’re all going to die,” expressing his pain, anger, and frustration. In effect, Jefferson begins to exercise control over his mind and thoughts. Even though he is shackled and can take only small steps, he is not only beginning to stand, but to walk and move towards awareness, self-knowledge, and spiritual freedom. • plarines a mispronunciation of “pralines,” a type of candy made of pecans, brown sugar, and maple syrup.

CHAPTER 19 Summary Despite the cold, rainy weather, the people in the quarter have gathered at the plantation church/school for the annual Christmas program. Aware that this year’s program is dedicated to Jefferson, many arrive early, and Grant notes that even those who have never before attended a Christmas or graduation program are present. Among the members of the congregation are Miss Rita Lawrence and her grandson, Bok; Farrell Jarreau and his wife, Ofelia; Miss Eloise Bouie; Miss Emma; and Tante Lou.

39 Following Rev. Ambrose’s welcoming prayer, the program begins with several selections from the choir. Program highlights include Odessa Freeman’s recitation of “‘Twas the Night Before Christmas,” Albert Martin’s essay “The Little Pine Tree,” and a reenactment of the Nativity. After Rev. Ambrose’s closing prayer, the people gather in the back of the church for refreshments and conversation. Instead of joining them, Grant sits on a chair inside the pulpit, where he eats alone and looks past the talking, laughing people to the little pine Christmas tree and the lone gift for Jefferson leaning against a tub. Commentary Note that even though it was Grant’s idea to dedicate the program to Jefferson, he attributes everything — from the overwhelming attendance and the glorious children’s singing — to the weather rather than to the people’s concern over Jefferson. This chapter introduces the black community through its people and illustrates the importance of ritual and the people’s need to be part of the community. The relationship between Miss Rita Lawrence and her mentally retarded grandson, Bok, illustrates unselfish love, and Miss Rita’s insistence on contributing something to the program demonstrates the human need to contribute to the community, to feel needed and worthwhile. The others don’t have the heart to refuse her offer even though her dingy gray sheet embarrasses them. Grant stands alone; his mind is on past Christmas programs and on Jefferson. Even though he thinks that this program is like all the rest, he realizes that it is very different. The play is part of the Christmas ritual that serves to strengthen the Christian faith by retelling the story of Jesus’s birth. Even though Jefferson is not physically present, his presence is felt by others. Consequently, he is part of the community’s celebration. Grant, however, has not yet reconciled himself to his community. He still stands alone, not yet accepting his responsibility to stand for and with his community. We learn that the people are materially poor but spiritually rich. They are proud, hard-working people who love, support, and protect each other. Generous and willing to share what little they have with others, their simple needs and basic values include their

A Lesson Before Dying Character Web

Paul (a young deputy; he befriends Grant and witnesses Jefferson's execution)

emotionally act like sisters

Miss Emma (acts as Jefferson's surrogate mother)

frie

aunt

Tante Lou (acts as Grant's surrogate mother)

nds

Vivian (an elementary school teacher; unlike Grant, she believes a person can make a difference)

Henri Pichot (plantation owner)

Jefferson (21 years old; condemned to die for supposedly killing a white man) er vis d la ua t i r i sp al

d an als s riv foe

s

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lov

represents master-slave mentality toward

acts as an older brother toward Grant (a disillusioned school teacher teaches Grant how who tries to instill a sense of pride to "kneel and stand" and self-worth in Jefferson)

Reverend Mose Ambrose (chastises Grant for not being concerned with Jefferson's soul)

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42 families, their community, and their need for spiritual nourishment. They have family and relationship problems and are dealing with them as best as they can. Painfully aware of the violence and racism surrounding them, they have chosen not to allow the evil of the outside world to overshadow their joy of living. • crockersacks bags made of coarse material, such as burlap. • crackling the browned, crisp rind of roast pork; the crisp part remaining after hog fat or poultry has been rendered.

CHAPTERS 20 & 21 Summary It is late February, and Grant is at school grading papers during recess when Mr. Farrell Jarreau comes to tell him that the date has been set for Jefferson’s execution and that Grant and Rev. Ambrose have been summoned to Henri Pichot’s mansion. Leaving Irene in charge, Grant heads for Pichot’s house, where he meets Rev. Ambrose. After offering them coffee, Inez tells the two men that the sheriff is due to arrive shortly. Several minutes later, she returns to inform them that the sheriff has arrived and that he and Pichot want to meet with them in the front parlor. As soon as Grant and Rev. Ambrose are seated, Sheriff Guidry informs them that Jefferson’s execution has been set for “Friday, April eighth, between noon and three.” He then asks if Miss Emma will need a doctor and offers to send Dr. Sid Gilroy to look after her when he gets back to town. As the sheriff prepares to leave, Rev. Ambrose reminds him of this offer, and the sheriff calls Dr. Gilroy to arrange for a visit with Miss Emma. As the men leave Pichot’s mansion, Rev. Ambrose stops to comfort Inez and then offers Grant a ride to Miss Emma’s, but Grant declines and starts walking in the opposite direction. That evening, after stopping by the school to pick up his papers, Grant pays a brief visit to Miss Emma, then heads home to eat the food Tante Lou has prepared for him. After dinner, Vivian comes by. After a brief interval, the two head back to Miss Emma’s, where even more people have gathered to demonstrate their support for

43 Jefferson’s godmother, who has taken to her sick bed. After serving them coffee, Inez tells Grant that Miss Emma wants to speak to him. Miss Emma tells Grant that she doesn’t know when she’ll be able to visit Jefferson again and that she hopes Grant and Rev. Ambrose will work together. After their visit, Grant and Vivian go to the Rainbow Club, where Grant reveals his pain, anger, and frustration to Vivian and tells her that it is up to Jefferson to break the vicious cycle of hopelessness and despair plaguing the black community. Commentary In these two chapters, Gaines continues to focus on the power and cohesiveness of the black community as he demonstrates the tremendous impact that Jefferson’s impending execution has on the people in the quarter. When Mr. Farrell Jarreau arrives to tell Grant that he is wanted up front, Grant senses that someone is present, but he first finishes grading a paper, thinking that one of his students has come in from recess. (Note that the phrase “going to the front” can also allude to war.) When Grant realizes that his visitor is Mr. Farrell, he notes that his visitor looks “very small and very sad.” As Mr. Farrell leaves, Grant notices his “stoop-shouldered” walk. He also notices that, instead of going back to work, Mr. Farrell is headed home. Here again, Gaines’ use of dialogue and detail speaks volumes. In describing the scene between Grant and Mr. Farrell, we realize that Mr. Farrell has been personally affected by Jefferson’s impending death. Consequently, we begin to realize a profound truth: One man’s fate can and does affect others. Even though Jefferson seems convinced that his life is worthless, his life does have meaning and value. The two chapters also continue to develop the theme of change and transformation. Note that this time, Rev. Ambrose and Grant meet with Sheriff Guidry and Henri Pichot in the front parlor rather than in the kitchen. We can presume, therefore, that Pichot (who is obviously aware of Edna Guidry’s precedent-setting meeting with Rev. Ambrose, Miss Emma, and Tante Lou) feels obligated to follow her example, although he does not go so far as to extend

44 the traditional Southern hospitality to the two men by offering them coffee. After Grant recovers from his surprise at being invited into Pichot’s front parlor, he seems disappointed that Pichot’s furniture is old and faded, indicating that his image concerning the grandeur of the Pichot mansion does not live up to the reality. Note also that, once again, a woman has been instrumental in initiating change. We gather that Sheriff Guidry’s question concerning Miss Emma’s need for a doctor is not prompted by genuine concern for Miss Emma (whom he refers to simply as “the old woman”); he poses the question only because his wife has pointed out that Miss Emma “might need a doctor.” After offering to send Dr. Gilroy to check on her, he calls Dr. Gilroy only after Rev. Ambrose reminds him of his offer. The doctor’s main concern is not the state of Miss Emma’s health, but the road conditions in the quarter. Grant is enraged about the cold and calculated manner in which Jefferson’s death has been decided by these white men. Jefferson has not been sentenced by a jury of his peers but by a group of racist whites who have a total disregard for black life. Although Grant seethes with rage at the injustice of Jefferson’s situation, he is afraid to express his feelings openly. He is afraid to face Miss Emma, and so he leaves it up to Rev. Ambrose to tell her the news. He envisions “miles of clear blue water” compared to the reality of the muddy river. During Grant and Vivian’s conversation at the Rainbow Club, Grant explains to Vivian the tragedy of black men in America and the need for black pride and dignity, and he admits that Jefferson must be the one to break the vicious cycle of hopelessness and despair. In effect, Grant admits that, despite his education, he is helpless to bring about the required changes. It is Jefferson who represents hope for Miss Emma and the black community. Jefferson alone has the power to demonstrate the dignity, strength, and humanity of the black community and thus expose the myth of white supremacy as the oppressive lie that it is. • ragball a game in which a ball of rags takes the place of a real ball. Reference to the game underscores the crushing poverty of the black community.

45 CHAPTERS 22 & 23 Summary On Friday, Grant visits Jefferson for the first time since the date for his execution had been set. Although Paul offers to stay nearby, warning him that things might be different now, Grant assures him that he will be fine. Upon meeting with Jefferson, he finds him to be more calm and subdued. He also finds that, for the first time, Jefferson is willing to talk to him. Grant proceeds to tell him the news from the quarter. When he mentions that Gable’s wife, Stella, had her baby, Jefferson recalls that he had planned to go hunting with his friend Gable on the fateful night he ended up at Alcee Gropé’s liquor store with Brother and Bear. Hoping to divert Jefferson’s attention from his painful memories, Grant tells him that Inez is still giving her fairs (house parties), although she doesn’t allow any music. The mention of music leads to a discussion of “Randy’s Record Shop,” a radio program Grant and Jefferson used to listen to as boys. When Jefferson shows some interest in the conversation and asks if “Randy’s Record Shop” is still on the air, Grant offers to bring him a radio the following day so he can have music over the weekend. True to his word, Grant heads for the Rainbow Club, where he plans to wait for Vivian and borrow some money from her to buy the radio. But after he shares his plan with Claiborne and Thelma, he ends up borrowing the money from them and their customers. Grant then heads for Edwin’s Department Store to buy the radio and then returns to the courthouse to deliver the radio to Paul, who assures him that he will give it to Jefferson. Satisfied with his accomplishment, Grant returns to the Rainbow Club, hoping to meet Vivian. On his next visit (Monday), Paul tells Grant that the last time Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Rev. Ambrose visited Jefferson, he refused to meet them in the dayroom because he was not allowed to bring his radio. When they agree to meet him in his cell, Jefferson ignores them and continues to listen to his radio until Miss Emma turns it off. As they prepare to leave, Sheriff Guidry calls them into his office, warns them that he doesn’t want any trouble, and threatens to stop the visits or take away the radio if it’s causing any problems. Miss Emma assures him that the radio is not a problem, and Sheriff Guidry tells them to work together with Grant.

46 Later, back at school, Grant receives a message that Tante Lou wants to see him at Miss Emma’s. When he arrives, Tante Lou, Miss Emma, and the reverend accuse him of endangering Jefferson’s soul by bringing him the radio, which the reverend refers to as a “sin box.” Grant tells them that Jefferson needs the radio to help him keep his mind off his impending death, and the two men argue about the merits of saving Jefferson’s dignity versus saving his soul. The following Wednesday, Grant visits Jefferson and brings him apples, candy, and comic books, as well as peanuts and pecans from his students. He convinces Jefferson to meet his visitors in the dayroom next time and offers to bring him a notebook and pencil so that he can write down his thoughts and make notes about anything he wants to discuss during their visits. When Jefferson thanks him and shakes his hand, Grant is overjoyed. Commentary Now that the date for Jefferson’s execution has been set, Grant’s attitude toward Jefferson changes dramatically. We can surmise that he suddenly realizes that Jefferson’s death is imminent and resolves to do all he can to make his last days as pleasant as possible. We can also surmise that he is suddenly struck by the horror and tragedy of Jefferson’s situation and recognizes the brevity and fragility of life, as well as the futility and insignificance of his own life. Consequently, he develops a sense of urgency concerning his mission to help Jefferson die like a man. He accepts responsibility and recognizes the impact he can have on Jefferson’s life. In essence, Grant realizes that his visits with Jefferson are not an obligation, but a privilege: He has been given an opportunity to make a profound difference in the life of a fellow human being. He recognizes the kinship between himself and Jefferson and that, despite his own education, he could well be the one behind bars. The focus of these two chapters is Jefferson’s radio, which provides the catalyst for change in numerous characters. The radio provides a wake-up call for Jefferson that reconnects him with the community by reawakening in him his love of music and reinforcing the theme (Chapter 13) of music’s role in providing spiritual sustenance and exorcising suffering. The fact that the music is not

47 spiritual here represents the perceived dichotomy between the secular and the spiritual, or faith and reason. The radio creates conflict between Grant and Rev. Ambrose, which eventually forces the two men to communicate and share their feelings concerning Jefferson’s needs. It also highlights the changes taking place in Grant, whose determination to get the radio for Jefferson enables him to put his pride aside, as illustrated by his interaction with the white sales clerk at Edwin’s Department Store; his willingness to accept Claiborne and Thelma’s contribution with humble gratitude; and his decision to resist the urge to correct the sheriff’s mispronunciation of “batteries.” The idea of the radio originates from the conversation between Grant and Jefferson concerning “Randy’s Record Shop,” a program that they both listened to as young boys growing up in the quarter. Thus, the radio not only provides a sense of kinship and connectedness between the two men; it also provides a link to their past, in which both enjoyed the same simple pleasures of youth. By reconnecting with that past, we can surmise that Grant realizes that the only thing that kept him from ending up like Jefferson was the role that fate and circumstance played in his life, enabling him to escape the narrow confines of his limited environment and exercise a freedom of choice that was not available to Jefferson. By realizing this, he is able, for the first time, to reach out to Jefferson as a friend, instead of regarding him as one of “those people” who got what they deserve. Here again, Gaines fuses fiction with reality. He has said in an interview that “Randy’s Record Shop” was a program that he himself used to listen to as a boy, growing up in the quarter. Renowned author and literary critic Henry Louis Gates, Jr., recalls in his autobiography Colored People: “If prime time [television] consisted of images of middle-class white people who looked nothing at all like us, late night was about the radio, listening to ‘Randy’s Record Shop’ from Gallatin, Tennessee. . . . In 1956, black music hadn’t yet broken down into its many subgenres, except for large divisions such as jazz, blues, gospel, rhythm and blues.” In Chapter 23, note that Jefferson prefers mental freedom (the radio) to physical freedom (the dayroom). Also, the references to the Bible (“Let there be light”) reflect Jefferson’s enlightenment.

48 We see a change in Sheriff Guidry’s attitude toward Grant, as he accepts Grant’s leadership role in Jefferson’s care and directs Miss Emma and Rev. Ambrose to work with Grant in assuring that the radio does not become a source of disruption. CHAPTERS 24-26 Summary After stopping by the drugstore to pick up the notebook and pencil that he promised Jefferson, Grant meets Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Rev. Ambrose in front of the courthouse. In Paul’s absence, they are searched and escorted to the dayroom by the chief deputy. As soon as Jefferson is brought in, Miss Emma sets the table and dishes up her special gumbo, but Jefferson refuses to eat. Sensing Miss Emma’s disappointment, Grant asks Jefferson to walk with him. As they walk around the room, he tells Jefferson that he wants to be his friend, explaining that a friend is someone who will do anything to please a friend. He then asks Jefferson to be a friend to his nannan by eating some of her gumbo. Jefferson responds with a slight nod. Grant goes on to tell Jefferson that he wants him to be a hero, explaining that a hero is someone who does little things for others. Determined to convince Jefferson that he is a human being worthy of dignity and respect, Grant explains that the myth of white supremacy has been created by whites to subjugate blacks and urges him to look beyond the myth in order to realize and reclaim his self-worth. When Jefferson starts to cry, Grant realizes that he has finally gotten through to him. To illustrate his point, he cites the example of Mr. Farrell making a slingshot handle out of bits of scrap wood, explaining that people are like pieces of driftwood until they decide to become something better. As Jefferson continues to cry, Grant leads him back to the table to eat some of his nannan’s gumbo. Following their visit with Jefferson, Rev. Ambrose, Tante Lou, and Miss Emma return to the quarter. Grant heads for the Rainbow Club, anxious to meet Vivian and tell her about his breakthrough with Jefferson. While waiting for Vivian, he hears two mulatto bricklayers talking loudly. When he realizes that they are talking about Jefferson, he resolves to ignore their crass comments,

49 finish his drink, and walk out. Instead, he allows himself to get caught up in their trap and ends up in a barroom brawl, which stops abruptly when Claiborne knocks him out cold after Grant ignores his repeated pleas to stop fighting. When he comes to, Vivian is standing over him and convinces him to go home with her. When Vivian chastises him for his behavior, Grant insists that he “just couldn’t help it,” but Vivian points out that he had a choice: He could simply have walked out. After surveying his bruises, Vivian insists that Grant spend the night, but he objects, pointing out that his presence could cause her trouble with her job and with her estranged husband. Pointing out that she’s already in trouble, Vivian calmly continues preparing their dinner. As she works, she tells Grant about her recent communication with her husband, and Grant tells her about his visit with Jefferson. Realizing that she is still angry with him, he tries to sweet-talk her. When this tactic fails, he announces that he is leaving. This time Vivian doesn’t try to stop him; instead, she explodes, arguing that if he loved her, he would be considerate of her feelings and not endanger his life with reckless behavior. Grant heads for the door, but as he looks out into the darkness, he realizes that running away is not the answer and returns to beg Vivian’s forgiveness. Commentary These three chapters establish the basis for the evolving friendship between Grant and Jefferson. By agreeing to a joint visit with Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Rev. Ambrose, Grant indicates his willingness to comply with Miss Emma’s wishes and to do what is best for Jefferson. By stopping by the drugstore to get the notebook and pencil he has promised Jefferson, even if it makes him late for his meeting with the others, he indicates his desire to build trust between himself and Jefferson. And by addressing Jefferson as “partner” and asking him to be his friend, he indicates his willingness to talk to him man to man, thus demonstrating by his behavior that Jefferson is worthy of respect. During this visit, Grant also demonstrates two characteristics we have not seen him exercise before: patience and compassion. Instead of lecturing Jefferson about his behavior, he takes time to explain to him how his behavior is affecting Miss Emma and what

50 he can do to ease her pain. In effect, he teaches Jefferson three important lessons on friendship, heroism, and the devastating power of racial myths. But instead of merely defining these concepts in abstract terms, he defines them through example and analogy. To reinforce his lessons, he relates them to Jefferson’s life experience, thereby demonstrating how these seemingly abstract concepts apply to him personally. For example, to illustrate the concept of friendship, he points out what Jefferson can do to be a friend to his nannan; to illustrate the concept of heroism, Grant points out that a hero is not an extraordinary person, but an ordinary person who does things for others, such as taking a stand against injustice; and to point out that human beings have the power, potential, and responsibility to create their own lives, Grant reminds Jefferson of the slingshot handle that Mr. Farrell made for him out of scraps of driftwood. Consequently, as we listen to Grant, we realize that he is finally becoming a teacher in the true sense of the term — that is, he is beginning to awaken and nurture in others the desire to learn, rather than being someone who attempts to force others to learn through fear and ridicule. In effect, Grant teaches the same lesson on moral obligation and personal responsibility that he attempted to teach earlier (see Chapter 18). But this time, because Grant takes time to develop a personal relationship built on trust and respect, to establish solid connections between his lesson and Jefferson’s life experience, to use simple everyday language, and to present Jefferson with a frame of reference that makes the lesson relevant and applicable to him personally, Jefferson understands and responds. In short, by getting through to Jefferson, Grant has also “gotten through” to his own innate ability to teach through example and practical application. Unfortunately, Grant still has a few hard lessons of his own to learn, as we discover in his encounter with the two mulatto bricklayers at the Rainbow Club. Having just explained to Jefferson the merits of personal choice and responsibility, he allows his anger toward the two bricklayers to overrule his better judgment. To make matters worse, instead of admitting his mistake, he attempts to rationalize his behavior to Vivian and becomes angry when she points out that, by endangering his life through his reckless behavior, he was not being considerate of her feelings. Despite her explanation, he fails to see the connection between his behavior

51 and Jefferson’s, and to realize that, had Claiborne and Vivian not been there to defuse the situation and intercede on his behalf, he, too, might have ended up in jail for murder. • gumbo a thick, hearty stew made with a variety of ingredients, such as meat, vegetables, and fish. • Their forefathers said that we’re only three-fifths human. Grant’s comment refers to the “three-fifths compromise” in the United States Constitution. According to this compromise, designed to placate both the North and the South, it was agreed to determine representatives and direct taxes “by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.” Although the Constitution does not mention the word “slavery,” by this provision three slaves were counted for every five non-slaves (whites) in apportioning representation.

CHAPTER 27 Summary It is Sunday, and Grant is in his room, grading papers and listening to the music coming from the church. As he works, he hears Tante Lou and her friends returning from church. Minutes later, Tante Lou knocks on his door and tells him that Rev. Ambrose wants to talk to him. Grant invites the reverend in, and the two men debate the merits of religion versus education, as Rev. Ambrose tries to convince Grant to help him save Jefferson’s soul. Commentary As Grant and Rev. Ambrose debate the role of education, they reveal their conflicting views. For Grant, education means employment and an escape from the grinding poverty of his community. For Rev. Ambrose, education represents an opportunity to gain knowledge and entails a responsibility to use that knowledge to help others. The men’s opposing views on this subject are brought to a climax when Grant declares, “I went to college,” and Rev. Ambrose counters with, “But what did you learn?” As far as the reverend is

52 concerned, simply acquiring knowledge through “booklearning” does not make one an educated individual. And since Grant has made no effort to use his knowledge to enrich the lives of others, Rev. Ambrose refuses to acknowledge him as an educated man. Grant’s situation reflects the problem of many educated blacks who find that their formal education has separated them from their culture and community. Although Grant has a college degree, he lacks the intelligence (common sense) to deal effectively with everyday issues. In other words, he has been mis-educated. Consequently, instead of preparing him to teach his people, his education has taught him to look down on uneducated individuals such as Jefferson and Rev. Ambrose. By asking Grant, “What did you learn?” Rev. Ambrose voices his contempt for an educational system that fails to provide black Americans with an education that will enable them to function as educated citizens and assume leadership roles in their community. His position echoes that of historian Carter G. Woodson (1875-1950), who argued that America’s education system is designed to enslave the minds of blacks and to perpetuate the myth of black inferiority. As he contends in his groundbreaking book, The Mis-Education of the Negro, “Taught the same economics, history, philosophy, literature, and religion which have established the present code of morals, the Negro’s mind has been brought under the control of his oppressor. The problem of holding the Negro down, therefore, is easily solved. When you control a man’s thinking you do not have to worry about his actions. . . . The Negro thus educated is a hopeless liability to the race. The difficulty is that the ‘educated’ Negro is compelled to live and move among his own people whom he has been taught to despise.” Note that Woodson’s and Rev. Ambrose’s view of education differs radically from the view espoused by Jefferson’s defense attorney in Chapter 1. Recall that the attorney denounces Jefferson as uncivilized and uneducated because he is not familiar with the works of Byron, Shelley, and Keats. As a college graduate, Grant is (we can assume) familiar with these authors, yet, from a practical and humanistic perspective, he is still uneducated. Also significant is Rev. Ambrose’s candid statement that he has no qualms about lying to protect others’ feelings, which presumes that he is responding to a “higher” or “deeper” truth. Given society’s

53 indoctrination concerning the sacred value of absolute truth, we can surmise that the reverend’s revelation shocks Grant. (Consider, for example, the biblical adage that “the truth shall set you free” or Keats’ assertion in “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” that “truth is beauty.”) But we can also conjecture that because of the reverend’s comment, Grant is able, for the first time, to see Rev. Ambrose as a man and as a fallible human being. • You think a man can’t kneel and stand? Rev. Ambrose’s question takes on added significance if we recall Miss Emma’s remark to Henri Pichot in Chapter 3: “I’ll be on my knees next time you see me, Mr. Henri.” Sustained by her faith, her courage, and her fierce love for Jefferson, Miss Emma is able to “kneel and stand.” Grant has yet to learn this lesson: There is dignity and value in service and humility when there is dignity and value in the person who exhibits them and the cause that calls them forth.

CHAPTER 28 Summary On his next visit with Jefferson, Grant persuades him to talk to Rev. Ambrose. They discuss prayer and dying. Jefferson offers Grant a sweet potato. Commentary This chapter is one of the most powerful in the book as Jefferson accepts his human condition and Grant has his eyes opened to his own need to affirm the dignity of all individuals and his own complicity in the attitudes that have held his people back. In addition, we see three key “lessons” underlying this chapter: moral obligation, the value of education, and the role and responsibility of teachers. Both Grant and Jefferson accept their moral obligations. Grant does what the reverend asked him to do, but he doesn’t lie to Jefferson concerning his own beliefs. He tells him that he believes in God, but admits that he is not convinced of an afterlife and spiritual salvation. Jefferson recognizes his moral obligation to “take

54 the cross” for the whole community and to thank his nannan by giving her hope of seeing him in heaven. Jefferson’s offering Grant a sweet potato symbolizes Jefferson’s realization that he is a human being with something to offer. He can “give back” to the community. He has learned his lesson: He is a man, not a hog. Jefferson no longer blames Grant for his situation. By offering Grant a sweet potato, he demonstrates his forgiveness and his affection for Grant. The sweet potato is all he has, but he’s willing to share it because he realizes that Grant has helped him to regain his manhood. Concerning the value of education, we must reconsider what makes up basic skills: Are they reading, writing, and arithmetic, or are they skills necessary to survive in a hostile environment, which may not enable one to advance in that environment? What good are basic skills if they don’t translate into job skills and economic success? Students are generally told that they need to master their basic skills in order to get a good job. But what is the motivation for these students? If they realize that their years of education will ultimately be economically meaningless, how will they learn the intrinsic value of education? The chapter reconsiders issues that are threaded throughout this novel concerning knowledge (information) versus education (formal “book learning”) and wisdom (intuitive knowledge and “common sense”). A teacher is not necessarily a professor or someone who provides formal “book learning.” A teacher is anyone who shares knowledge and experience with another, someone who strives to help someone else enhance personal awareness. Jefferson is, in fact, teaching Grant, as Grant is teaching Jefferson. Their relationship illustrates that a person can make a difference by reaching out to just one individual — an approach expressed in the philosophy of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People: “Each one, teach one.” The chapter also reinforces the connection between Jefferson’s role in the transformation of the black community and Christ’s role in the salvation of all people, including the black community. Jefferson is scheduled to die on a Friday, recalling Good Friday. He recalls that Jesus “never said a mumbling word.” This scene parallels Christ’s agony in the garden. Jefferson realizes that he is

55 being asked to take the cross: “Your cross, nannan’s cross, my own cross. . . . You’all axe a lot, Mr. Wiggins. . . .Who ever car’d my cross?” Jefferson also challenges Grant for his complicity in the idea that Jefferson was somehow less than “youman.” Grant hangs his head, presumably ashamed, and acknowledges his fault: “My eyes were closed before this moment, Jefferson. My eyes have been closed all my life. Yes, we all need you. Every last one of us.” CHAPTER 29 Summary In his diary, Jefferson records his thoughts and feelings as he awaits his impending execution. Commentary Throughout history, letters and diaries have been important media for recording social and political history. Written primarily to record a writer’s personal feelings, activities, reflections, and observations, these documents generally demonstrate a candid honesty and openness not found in writings created for publication. Examples include Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham” (written on scraps of paper provided to King by the jail’s black trustees) and The Diary of Anne Frank. Jefferson’s diary is his legacy. Having no land, property, children, or material wealth to leave behind, his diary is the single testament to his life. By recording his thoughts and feelings as he awaits execution, Jefferson, in effect, writes himself into history. His diary is a primary source historical document that provides a personal account of his life as a young black man growing up on a Southern plantation and now as an inmate on Louisiana’s death row. Since it records his story in his own voice, Jefferson’s diary can be likened to the early slave narratives, stories written by former enslaved Africans who recounted their harrowing experiences. Examples of slave narratives include Harriet Jacobs’ Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl and Frederick Douglass’ Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.

56 Despite his grim circumstances, Jefferson focuses the majority of his entries on positive events: the routine visits from Miss Emma, Tante Lou, Rev. Ambrose, and Grant, and the surprise visits from Grant’s students and the people from the quarter. Since he has so little time left, we can gauge the significance of the events he records by the length of his entries. Consequently, we can surmise that some of his most significant events center on his visits with the children and the “old folks.” We can also surmise that he treasures his childhood memories and the little gifts he receives from others that make him feel loved, especially Vivian’s kiss and Bok’s marble. Although Jefferson is aware of Sheriff Guidry’s sinister motive for giving him “the little pearl handled knife,” he doesn’t dwell on this incident. Instead, he details his final visit with his godmother and his “last supper,” which, as he requested, is not junk food (a gallon of vanilla ice cream) but soul food (a special homecooked meal prepared by his nannan). Note that for dessert, he has a little ice cream and a moon pie (a chocolate-covered chocolate cookie “sandwich” with a marshmallow cream filling). Since these are foods he loved as a child, we realize that, although he has matured mentally, spiritually, and emotionally, he still retains a part of his childhood. We can also surmise that despite his harrowing experience, he has retained some part of his childlike love and trust. In effect, Jefferson has achieved a more balanced outlook on life that encompasses both his childhood dreams and the reality of his adult life. In his diary, Jefferson expresses intimate feelings he has not been able previously to articulate, such as his love for his nannan, his affection for Grant, and his fear of dying. Alone with his private thoughts, he is able, for the first time, to acknowledge his part in the tragic events surrounding Alcee Gropé’s murder and to accept responsibility for his actions, admitting that he had a choice that fateful night. He realizes that he was not only guilty of being “in the wrong place at the wrong time,” as his defense attorney points out in Chapter 1, but he was also guilty of relinquishing his right to choose or, alternatively, of making the wrong choice. Consequently, he realizes that there was a point in time when, had he made a different choice, his life might have taken a different turn. Once he is able to accept this fact, he is able to release his hatred toward his captors and to accept his fate with grace and dignity.

57 In reading Jefferson’s diary, we find him to be a sensitive, intelligent, introspective man (not unlike Mr. Farrell Jarreau) whose potential for a full and meaningful life has been stunted by poverty and racism. We see him not only as an uneducated, incarcerated black male, but as someone’s son and someone’s friend. We see him not only as yet another statistic of crime and violence, but as a hard-working, fun-loving young man who enjoys simple pleasures such as listening to music and reveling in the beauty of nature, someone who loves children and enjoys eating his nannan’s home cooking. We also realize the impact of Grant’s thoughtful but seemingly simple gift: By giving Jefferson a pencil and a note pad, he has also given him the gift of language and self-expression, which we have seen as an important theme in this book. Jefferson has an opportunity to leave behind him a lesson and a legacy for future generations, becoming a part of history in the lives of ordinary people. Through his diary, which documents his life as a vital and contributing member of his community, Jefferson has become an everyday hero whose story deserves to be told and who has assumed the personal responsibility for telling his story in his own words. Jefferson has not achieved the status and renown of a Joe Louis or a Jackie Robinson, but by reaching out and reconnecting with his community, he has learned to stand and to reclaim his manhood despite a dehumanizing environment bent on destroying his very soul. As a result, Jefferson’s life stands as a testament to the ongoing struggle for love, acceptance, and survival in an often lonely and hostile world. • bloodweed another name for the blood lily (native to Africa), a deep red plant of the amaryllis family.

CHAPTER 30 Summary The portable electric chair (“Gruesome Gerty”) is brought to town and townspeople react to its presence. Final preparations are made for Jefferson’s execution.

58 Commentary This chapter echoes the opening paradox of being there and not being there. Anticipation of Jefferson’s imminent execution is palpable, but Jefferson is not a major part of this chapter; Gruesome Gerty, however, is a major character as it winds its way through town in a journey reminiscent of the Way of the Cross. The execution will occur between noon and 3 P.M. on Friday, the same time-frame as that of Jesus’s crucifixion, another parallel to the Christian drama of human salvation. We can almost see the faith of Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Rev. Ambrose being played out at Jefferson’s end as he experiences death and rebirth at the same time. Note that, in portraying Gruesome Gerty as one of the key players in the unfolding drama of Jefferson’s life, the author uses personification — a linguistic device that attributes human characteristics to inanimate objects. In effect, Gerty is depicted as the personification of evil. As she is paraded down the streets of Bayonne, she strikes fear into the hearts of its citizens. We can surmise that part of the fear is due to their guilt, as Gerty forces them to admit that, by not taking a stand against a racist system that perpetuates crime and violence, they are all responsible for Jefferson’s death. Gerty’s ominous presence and the awful noise from her generator also force the reader to focus on the reality of capital punishment and to consider the mentality of the people involved in planning and carrying out the execution. Here again, fact blends with fiction: In a 1994 interview, Gaines noted that Louisiana really did have a portable electric chair that was transported throughout the state and used for executions, much as he describes it here. The executioner’s insistence that the proper procedures be followed to prepare for the execution is also significant. In the same 1994 interview, Gaines recalls a particularly gruesome case in 1947 in which a young man was sentenced to the electric chair twice because “the chair had failed to work properly the first time.” As Gaines’ research indicates, capital punishment by electrocution was widely practiced in the South during the 1940s, a fact that has been extensively documented.

59 Chapter 30 provides a sharp contrast to Chapter 19, in which the black community gathers at the plantation church/school to demonstrate their support for Jefferson. We realize that, whereas the black community mourns Jefferson’s impending execution as a tragedy, the white community generally views it as a distasteful but routine matter that must be taken care of to guarantee their safety. And while the black community views the execution as yet another instance of a defenseless black man dying at the hands of his white oppressors, the white community views Jefferson’s execution as a necessary evil. As the store clerk explains to her son, the sheriff “just had to put an old bad nigger away.” But regardless of their differing perspectives, we realize that both blacks and whites are affected by the impending execution, which is on everyone’s mind. As they perform their morning rituals, both Sheriff Guidry and Rev. Ambrose are consumed with thoughts of Jefferson, while the executioner, Paul, and the other prisoners are also forced to play their parts. Like Chapter 20, in which Mr. Farrell Jarreau seems to physically shrink after hearing that the date for Jefferson’s execution has been set, this chapter reaffirms the theme of the interconnectedness of human beings. In another foreshadowing of the Civil Rights movement, on this day of execution, it is the white deputy Paul who connects with Jefferson in his last hours, who strives to make his time easier, and who accepts the items that Jefferson is leaving for Grant and Mr. Pichot. Paul represents the impact that Jefferson’s transformation is having on the white community. Although Paul turns down Jefferson’s gift of the radio, he makes it instead a gift to Jefferson’s fellow inmates, acknowledging his shared humanity with the prison inmates. Paul does accept the gift of a marble, affirming his friendship and respect for Jefferson and revealing Jefferson’s friendship and respect for Paul. Jefferson appreciates the fact that Paul will “be there” for him as he’s executed, uniting black and white in this tragedy.

60 • a bowl of cush-cush of semolina.

a type of cereal; often spelled couscous, a kind

CHAPTER 31 Summary To show their respect for Jefferson, the people of the quarter have agreed to refrain from working on the day of his execution. While Grant waits for word from the courthouse, he has his students get down on their knees and pray silently. Finally, Paul arrives to tell Grant that the execution is over, that Jefferson faced his death with courage and dignity, and that his last words were, “Tell Nannan I walked.” He gives Jefferson’s diary to Grant and offers him his friendship. Grant accepts the diary, returns to his classroom to share the news with his students, and cries openly over his friend’s death. Commentary As Grant awaits the news of Jefferson’s execution, he thinks about his own days as a student in the little country church where he is now the teacher. He remembers playing ragball with his friends and notes that most of them have moved away and many died at an early age. He also thinks about Jefferson, silently asks his forgiveness for not encouraging his faith, and chastises himself for not having the courage to witness the execution. Suddenly, his thoughts are interrupted by an unusual sight: A yellow butterfly alights briefly on a hill of bull grass, then flies off toward the quarter. As he watches the butterfly, he realizes that the execution is finally over. Consequently, when Paul arrives to deliver the news of Jefferson’s death, he accepts it calmly. He also accepts Jefferson’s diary and Paul’s offer of friendship. This chapter contains four highly symbolic scenes that provide a poignant commentary on the events surrounding Jefferson’s execution. The first scene involves the image of the church sinking into the ground, despite repeated efforts to rebuild its foundation.

61 Note that this image is juxtaposed against the tragic image of wasted young lives and of Henri Pichot’s house, “sitting on its foundation high above the ground.” In effect, the church is literally losing ground because it lacks a firm foundation of faith. It has lost the ability to save the children of the community. Conversely, the Pichot mansion, built on a solid foundation of Southern culture and tradition, is able to withstand the elements. The second scene involves the yellow butterfly. Grant realizes that this is no ordinary butterfly, since it does not seek the fragrance of the flowers in Pichot’s yard. Instead, it alights briefly on a hill of bull grass and then flies off toward the quarter. This scene assumes profound significance when we recall that the color yellow often symbolizes enlightenment, and note, too, the repetition of the concept of “light” to describe the butterfly’s movements. Jefferson’s transformation from a hog to a man to a spiritual essence is complete. The third scene focuses on Grant’s conversation with Paul as a witness to the execution. Paul’s frequently reciting of “I’m a witness” and his telling Grant about Jefferson’s last minutes parallel the Apostle Paul’s witness to the Christian message: “Tell them he was the bravest man in that room today. I’m a witness, Grant Wiggins. Tell them so.” Grant suggests that Paul come back one day and tell them himself, which Paul accepts as “an honor.” Thus we see the impact of this event in black history on the white community, and Grant and Paul, black and white, collaborate in spreading this human story. The fourth scene focuses on Grant’s subsequent return to his classroom, where he faces his students and starts to cry openly, making no effort to hide his tears. Note that, at this point, he has relinquished his Westcott ruler, indicating that, through his relationship with Jefferson, he, too, has been transformed from a bitter, cynical man to a caring, compassionate teacher. Jefferson’s last words — “Tell Nannan I walked” — are a tribute to his godmother and a testament to the profound impact Grant has had on his life: Grant has not only enabled Jefferson to stand, but to walk. Grant’s impact on Jefferson is reflected in Jefferson’s impact on the community, which has transformed the tragedy of his death into a celebration of life.

62 • a patch of white lilies White lilies, also known as Easter lilies, are generally associated with the resurrection of Christ. • I am a slave. Grant realizes that he is still mentally enslaved. Even though he is physically free, he has not acted responsibly. When he is finally able to cry, we realize that he has gained his freedom through Jefferson’s death (Jefferson’s death is Grant’s redemption and deliverance). We also realize that he has learned the lesson Rev. Ambrose has been trying to teach him: A man can stand and kneel at the same time. • The driver drove slowly to keep down the dust. Here, dust symbolizes death.

CHARACTER ANALYSES GRANT WIGGINS & JEFFERSON Grant Wiggins and Jefferson are the novel’s dual protagonists. Their individual survivals depend on their mutual support. Although it is Jefferson’s story, it is narrated by Grant, with the exception of Chapter 29, in which Jefferson is finally able to tell his story in his own voice, through his diary. And although Grant has taken on the monumental task of making Jefferson a man, as the story unfolds, it becomes clear that Grant’s fate is inextricably bound to Jefferson’s. In order to help Jefferson “stand,” Grant must first come to terms with his own inner demons, which threaten to make him an emotional cripple like his predecessor, Matthew Antoine. In short, the two men must support each other, for neither is able to stand alone. Unlike the conventional hero who thrives on total independence, Grant can be a “hero” only through his interaction with Jefferson, and vice versa. This approach to the novel focuses on the Afrocentric perspective in which the needs of the individual are sublimated to the needs of the community. Further, although Grant and Jefferson are not blood relatives, they are connected through their common experiences as black males. Although physically free, Grant lives in a mental prison of his own making created by his hatred of whites, his arrogance, and his detachment from the black community. As an educated man, he sees himself as superior to people like Jefferson and Rev. Ambrose. Instead of preparing him to contribute to his community, his for-

63 mal education has taught him to despise his own people. Consequently, he uses his role as a teacher not to inspire and uplift his students but to humiliate and ridicule them, much as his own teacher, Matthew Antoine, humiliated and ridiculed him. Thus, instead of using his skills and talents to change the cycle of poverty and violence, Grant perpetuates the cycle by failing to challenge the system. Unlike Jefferson, Grant has had numerous opportunities to leave Bayonne and change his life, but he has decided to stay and teach at the plantation school, not because he is a dedicated teacher who cares about his students, but because he feels that as a black man living in a racist white world, he has little or no control over his life. Unlike Miss Emma, he refuses to challenge the system that keeps him in a state of mental slavery. Instead, he internalizes his rage and vents his pain and frustration on his students. Because Grant has been exposed to a different lifestyle, he is much more aware of the opportunities denied to him because of his race. Consequently, he is much more likely than Jefferson to strike out at the oppressive white community determined to keep him in his place. We can surmise that one of the reasons why Grant is reluctant to become involved with Jefferson is that he recognizes the thin barrier that separates him from Jefferson, a fellow black male who has experienced the same type of racism and discrimination. Given Grant’s pent-up frustrations, he is much more likely than Jefferson to end up in jail, as illustrated by his fight with the mulatto bricklayers at the Rainbow Club. Note that without the intercession of Joe Claiborne and Vivian, Grant would likely have been arrested for assault or murder. In a 1998 interview, Gaines notes that, according to Booker T. Washington, the newly freed slaves did three things: They left the plantation (at least temporarily), changed their names (assuming new identities), and learned to read and write. Grant has gone through all three stages, but despite his new identity as “professor” and “teacher,” he remains mentally enslaved. It is only by acknowledging his kinship with Jefferson and re-establishing his relationship with the black community that he finally achieves his freedom.

64 Grant is a disillusioned product of the black church. He is insensitive and inconsiderate, as Vivian points out (he doesn’t consider the impact of his actions on others), and he is immature (he doesn’t stop to think of the pain that his actions could cause). He is not prepared for the responsibilities of leadership. He wants freedom without responsibility. Although he sets out to teach Jefferson to “be a man,” he has doubts about his own humanity. His feelings towards Jefferson reflect Matthew Antoine’s feelings about blacks. While Antoine feels superior because of his lighter skin color, Grant feels superior because of his education, which, he thinks, puts him in a higher social class. Jefferson exemplifies the young black male who has internalized into self-hatred the hatred shown him by white racists. Because of his court-appointed attorney’s racist remark, he sees himself as a beast — not worthy of the dignity and respect due all human beings. His lack of self-worth and self-esteem is a major factor in his apathy and defeatist attitude. In order to reach him, Grant must first break through the barrier of his self-hate. In effect, Jefferson feels that he was not condemned to die like a man, but to be destroyed like a beast. Worse, he believes that he is no better than a dumb animal and that he deserves to die, since he sees his life as worthless. When he thanks Grant for the pecans, apologizes for his obscene comments regarding Vivian, offers Grant a sweet potato, and begins to write in his journal, he becomes transformed. Also note that he writes in his diary, “Man walks on two feet; pigs on four” after Grant has convinced him that the racial myth stating that his life is worthless is absolutely wrong: Jefferson’s life does have meaning. Note that Jefferson is not illiterate; he is merely uneducated. Consequently, he knows wrong from right. Jefferson has worked hard all his life. He is not the stereotypical lazy, shiftless Negro. He has grown up without a male role model, but he has been raised with love by his godmother, Miss Emma. Jefferson respects his elders and is on friendly terms with Alcee Gropé, who asks about Jefferson’s nannan. He was raised by Miss Emma and Mr. Oscar, his godparents. He likes cake, candy, and ice cream, which symbolize his yearning for fun and enjoyment. He

65 had a friend named Boo, who apparently went insane. He enjoyed going hunting with his friend Gable. He has never expressed his feelings for anyone, or had anyone express their feelings for him. He knows his Bible. He is quiet and generally keeps to himself, much like Mr. Farrell Jarreau. He likes music. He is naive, passive, and easily influenced. Note that he still refers to Miss Emma as his “nannan,” suggesting his naivete and childlike innocence. MISS EMMA & TANTE LOU Miss Emma and her lifelong friend, Tante Lou, are virtually inseparable. At times, they seem so close that it is difficult to tell which one is speaking. The women support each other and give each other the courage to continue on despite the hostile circumstances that surround them. Each has hope for the future and a deep, abiding faith in God that is nurtured and supported by their friendship. And each is determined to help Jefferson, believing that he represents an opportunity to provide a sense of continuity for the community. Although both women are outspoken, heavyset, and deeply religious, they are not portrayed as the stereotypical “mammy” or “Aunt Jemima” types of black women; instead, they are hard-working, dignified women who command respect. Miss Emma and Tante Lou are decidedly strong black women who love their families and care about their community. Miss Emma provides the catalyst for changing an unjust and inequitable system. Although Grant is the “hero” figure who enables Jefferson to die with dignity, it is Miss Emma who sets things in motion. She is the one who persuades Grant to accompany her and Tante Lou to Henri Pichot’s mansion, where she convinces Pichot to speak to his brother-in-law, Sheriff Guidry, to allow Grant to visit Jefferson. And in the end, although the men (Grant and Rev. Ambrose) get most of the credit for Jefferson’s redemption and transformation, we know that it was Miss Emma’s bold act that triggered the sequence of events culminating in Jefferson’s ability to “stand.” Likewise, it is Tante Lou who has always kept Grant on the morally straight and narrow path of life. In a 1994 interview, Gaines pointed out that Miss Emma’s years of service to the Pichot family is “symbolic of what the blacks have given to the South.” Note that although Pichot is initially irritated with Miss Emma’s insistence that he owes her a favor because of all she has done for his family, he reluctantly

66 complies with her request because he realizes that she is telling the truth. Consequently, we can surmise that he feels obligated to help her since he cannot dispute her argument. If we look at Miss Emma’s role from a historical perspective, we can draw some interesting parallels between the fictional Miss Emma and the real-life activist, Rosa Parks. Like Rosa Parks, who set a precedent by refusing to relinquish her seat on a bus to a white passenger, Miss Emma sets a precedent by being the first black person to have coffee in Edna Guidry’s living room. While Rosa Parks’ defiant act sparked the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955-56, which led to a series of challenges to segregation laws throughout the South, Miss Emma’s act also sets in motion a series of events that have a profound impact on the entire black community. And while Rosa Parks’ action sets the stage for the Civil Rights movement, which propelled Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., into a leadership role, Miss Emma’s action — supported by Tante Lou — sets the stage for Grant to assume a leadership role in his community. Neither woman sets out to make a political statement. She simply stands up for her rights and refuses to be intimidated or to accept injustice. Consequently, these women’s actions illustrate that the personal is political (that true change must begin with personal commitment), and that one person willing to take a stand can have a profound impact on others. Their actions also provide a testimonial to Dr. King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” in which he argues against those who would counsel blacks to wait patiently for change. As King points out, we cannot afford to wait while our brothers and sisters suffer. VIVIAN BAPTISTE & MATTHEW ANTOINE Vivian Baptiste, Grant’s girlfriend, and Matthew Antoine, Grant’s former teacher at the plantation school, have much in common. Both are teachers; both are Creole; and both have a tremendous impact on Grant. But while Vivian embraces her culture and heritage and identifies with the black community, even though she could “pass” for white, Matthew rejects his culture and heritage and attempts to identify with the white community, a futile task that ultimately destroys him.

67 Although she is not as outspoken and overbearing as Miss Emma and Tante Lou, Vivian is definitely a strong black woman. In many instances, her strength emphasizes Grant’s weakness. She has defied her family by marrying a dark-skinned black man, even though her action causes her to be ostracized from her family. In contrast, Grant is afraid to become involved with Jefferson, lest he be identified with him. Although she loves Grant, she does not hesitate to point out his shortcomings, tactfully, without challenging his male ego. Vivian is a lady, refusing to let Grant take advantage of her. After nursing his wounds following his barroom brawl, she gives him an ultimatum: Unless he is willing to show her some consideration, she will leave him. Grant’s relationship with Vivian appears to be rather onesided. Grant expects her to be there for him, but he thinks of her only in terms of his wants and needs. Vivian is there to satisfy his need for sex and conversation. She is there to support him and to nurse his wounds. We never see him reciprocate. While Vivian is willing to accept her responsibilities as a mother, teacher, and lover, Grant is unwilling to assume the responsibilities that accompany his roles as nephew, teacher, and lover. For him, being a teacher means having a steady job and a measure of status in his community. For Vivian, it means being a leader and role model. While Grant’s attitude perpetuates the cycle of poverty and racism, Vivian takes an active role in trying to change the status quo. And while Grant is content to go through the motions of teaching, Vivian challenges her students and gives them hope for the future. Vivian’s goal is to instill hope in her students for a brighter future and a life outside the limited plantation community. She does this by building their self-esteem and helping them become contributing members of the community, while Grant — as evidenced by his ever-present Westcott ruler — is primarily concerned with control and discipline. A classic example that illustrates their divergent approach to teaching is their method of teaching students to write a simple sentence: While Grant ridicules and humiliates his student who can’t write her simple sentence in a straight line, Vivian encourages her students, who are learning to write simple sentences in French. By

68 teaching her students French, Vivian is embracing her Creole heritage. By helping her students transcend their cultural boundaries by learning a foreign language, she is also teaching them to transcend their geographic boundaries and their perceived personal limits. As she points out to Grant, “We’re teachers and we have a commitment.” Note that Vivian is a graduate of Xavier University, a Catholic university in Lafayette, Louisiana. She has learned that the illusion of status and class is empty and meaningless. She has been disowned by her family for marrying a dark-skinned man, who eventually deserts her and her children. But Vivian is not bitter and disillusioned. Instead, she has learned to cope with her problems and move on, unlike Matthew, who allows others — and ultimately his own self-hatred — to destroy him. Ultimately, Vivian has a greater influence on Grant than does Matthew. While Matthew appealed to Grant’s baser instincts, Vivian brings out the best in him. She gives him love and support, whereas Matthew was so blinded by his hatred that he could not see beyond it in order to help develop his students’ better selves. REV. MOSE AMBROSE Rev. Ambrose defies the stereotype of the black preacher so obsessed with preaching the gospel and extolling the virtues of life in the hereafter that he ignores the immediate needs of his people. Although Rev. Ambrose believes he has been called by God to lead his people out of the darkness of despair into the light of salvation, he has not lost sight of their everyday needs. Rev. Ambrose exemplifies a minister who is truly dedicated to serving others. Like the proverbial shepherd, he is out in the community, tending his flock. It is Rev. Ambrose who stands by Miss Emma, offering moral support as well as spiritual guidance. It is Rev. Ambrose who confronts Grant concerning his lack of faith. And it is Rev. Ambrose who stands by Jefferson during his final days and witnesses his execution. Rev. Ambrose realizes that Grant looks down on him as being an uneducated man, but he is not afraid to stand up to Grant and put him in his place. As symbolized by his name, Rev. Ambrose is a leader (like Moses) who is bent on delivering his people from the bondage of mental slavery and seeks to provide them with spiritual

69 food (ambrosia). Like Miss Emma, Rev. Ambrose does not allow pride to stand in his way when it comes to getting his work done. He is also willing to overlook his personal needs in order to meet the needs of others. For example, while Grant steadfastly refuses Inez’s offer of coffee, Rev. Ambrose accepts the coffee and joins her at the kitchen table, perhaps sensing that she needs some company. Similarly, while Grant is furious at being forced to enter the Pichot mansion through the back door, Rev. Ambrose ignores this insult and focuses on the issue at hand: obtaining visiting privileges for Grant. To some, the reverend’s quiet, deferential behavior might label him as a stereotypical “Uncle Tom.” But as we watch him interact with whites, we realize that his prime motive is survival and getting what he wants for his community, even if it means enduring humiliation. Although he is uneducated, he is wise and compassionate. He is supported by his faith. He has the courage to face reality. He is a simple, humble man who provides a counterpart to Grant’s pride and arrogance. PAUL BONIN Although not directly involved with Grant and Jefferson, Paul is one of the key characters in the novel. Along with Miss Emma, Paul symbolizes the hope of the Civil Rights movement, which promised to transform the social, political, and economic relationships between blacks and whites. As noted in the Introduction to the Novel section, the theme of transformation pervades the novel. To understand Paul’s pivotal role in the transformation process, we must analyze three key aspects of his character: the symbolism and allusion surrounding his name; his role as a white authority figure; and his attitude toward Grant, Jefferson, and Miss Emma. In literature, and especially in African-American literature, names often provide insight into a character’s soul. In this novel, Gaines places special emphasis on Paul’s name. Recall that even before Paul invites Grant to call him by his first name, Grant tells Vivian in Chapter 9 that he dreams of naming his future son “Paul.” Keeping in mind Grant’s ambivalent attitude toward religion, as demonstrated by his confrontation with Rev. Ambrose, it is significant to note that the biblical Paul is one of the most influential figures

70 of the New Testament. The story of his miraculous transformation from Saul of Tarsus, a persecutor of the early Christians, to the Apostle Paul, a devout Christian and disciple of Jesus Christ, is often cited as one of the most inspiring testaments to the power of Christ. To countless Christians, Paul’s life exemplifies hope and illustrates not only the changes that can be wrought in one individual’s life based on faith, but also the profound impact that one individual can have on the lives of others. At the end of the book, as Paul Bonin bears witness to Jefferson’s “death and resurrection,” we see Paul accepting the same role as the biblical Paul in bearing witness and spreading the truth. In the novel, Paul Bonin’s role as a white authority figure is also significant. Although he takes his work seriously and performs his prescribed duties, such as inspecting the food brought into the jail and searching Jefferson’s visitors, he makes an effort to break down the barriers between him and Grant and demonstrates his concern for Miss Emma. He also jokes with the prisoners and does what he can to treat them as men rather than as caged animals. Just as Miss Emma signals Vivian’s acceptance into the community of women (Chapter 9), Grant signals Paul’s acceptance into the community of men by encouraging Jefferson to trust Paul. (Note that, on numerous occasions, Miss Emma refers to Paul as being “from good stock,” indicating that, like Vivian, he is “quality” folk.) Jefferson accepts Grant’s judgment, since he trusts Paul with his diary and offers him the radio, his most prized possession. Since Paul personally delivers the diary to Grant, we realize that Jefferson’s trust has not been misplaced and that Paul genuinely values his friendship with Grant and Jefferson. Paul’s role is also significant in that it challenges the stereotype of the racist white Southern law officer. In this capacity, Paul’s role is comparable to that of Gil Bouton, a character in Gaines’ fifth novel, A Gathering of Old Men. Like Paul, Gil, a young white male, also demonstrates his respect and commitment to his black friend, Cal Harrison. MR. FARRELL JARREAU Mr. Farrell Jarreau is the only black male in the novel who is consistently addressed as “Mr.” Even though Mr. Farrell Jarreau is employed as Henri Pichot’s yardman and messenger and has been

71 subjected to the same indignities and humiliations as the other men in the quarter, he has been able to transcend his physical environment and retain his dignity and self-respect. As a messenger, Mr. Farrell Jarreau is the bridge between the black and white community, which is indicated by his being sent to deliver numerous messages to Grant at the plantation school. But he is much more than that. He is also a loving husband to his “little Creole wife,” thereby dispelling the stereotype (held by Vivian’s parents) of the poor black man who vents his frustrations by abusing his wife. Through Grant’s conversation with Jefferson in Chapter 24, we also discover that Mr. Farrell Jarreau is noted for his fine wood carvings. Even though he is unable to develop his artistic talent, he enjoys creating things with his own hands. Ultimately, this quality is what sets him apart from other men, such as Matthew Antoine, who have become victims of the racist society in which they live: Mr. Farrell Jarreau has refused to become an object to be acted upon; in his own quiet, unassuming way, he has taken control of his life and retains his role as a human subject who creates his own life out of the scraps he has been given. Through his initiative and creativity, he is able to fashion something beautiful out of something ordinary. Although he is a minor character, Mr. Farrell Jarreau plays a major part in defining black manhood. In essence, he demonstrates that, as Rev. Ambrose points out, a man can kneel and stand at the same time.

CRITICAL ESSAYS POINT OF VIEW, PLOT, AND SETTING Although Gaines uses first-person narration (the story is told from Grant’s perspective), readers are not limited to Grant’s point of view. Gaines has said that using a narrator who reports events as others reveal them (note Grant’s oft-repeated remark, “I learned later . . .”) is one of the narrative devices he uses to get inside his characters’ heads without resorting to omniscient (third-person) narration. Much of the action in the novel occurs on a psychological rather than a physical level. Although we “hear” Grant’s voice, the novel is ultimately Jefferson’s story.

72 While the story of Lesson focuses on Jefferson’s trial and execution, the plot focuses on the struggles of poor, oppressed people to gain a measure of pride and dignity within a hostile, racist environment. The novel begins with Jefferson’s trial, moves briefly back into the immediate past to reconstruct the events surrounding Alcee Gropé’s murder, and then moves relentlessly forward, culminating in Jefferson’s execution. Along the way, we witness life in the black, segregated community of Bayonne, which, although it appears to go on without interruption, is deeply affected by Jefferson’s impending death. Consequently, we realize that Jefferson’s execution, which is generally perceived as a distasteful but necessary task by the majority of the white community, is an occasion for much sorrow and grief for the black community. Setting — both physical and psychological — plays a key role in Lesson. The novel is set in the fictional community of Bayonne, Louisiana, in the pre-Civil Rights South. Much of the beauty and power of Gaines’ writing derives from his ability to re-create a sense of place and to transport his readers back to life on a Louisiana sugar cane plantation during the pre-Civil Rights era. Although Gaines rejects all efforts to label him as primarily a black writer, a Southern writer, a California writer, and so forth, he seems comfortable with the title of regional writer. As he points out in an interview, “All the great writers are regionalists. Faulkner wrote about Mississippi, Homer about Greece, Balzac about Paris, Shakespeare about a kind of England. But that doesn’t mean they’re not universal. People write about what they know best, and readers respond to that wherever they happen to live.” Gaines works his magic in several ways: through his meticulous attention to detail, his focus on “local color” (such as regional language, culture, and foods), and his faithful rendition of conversations. He has said about himself that he is not a storyteller; he simply records conversations. THE PRE-CIVIL RIGHTS SOUTH The pre-Civil Rights era bridges the gap between the end of the Civil War (1865) and the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement (1955). For African Americans, it spans the turbulent years between the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation (January 31,

73 1863), which marked the beginning of the end of slavery, and the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which guaranteed the rights of African Americans as full-fledged citizens. For black Americans, the pre-Civil Rights era was a time of danger and turmoil, as they set out to claim their rights as U.S. citizens in a hostile country that refused to grant them those rights. As Gaines illustrates in depicting the lives of the people in the quarter, many blacks lived in poverty, denied the right to earn a decent wage by white landowners who kept them in a virtual state of slavery as sharecroppers. Although the Emancipation Proclamation abolished slavery in the Confederate states, it was not until the passage of the thirteenth amendment to the U.S. Constitution two years later (December 18, 1865) that slavery was abolished throughout the country. To mitigate its effect, the Ku Klux Klan, founded in Pulaski, Tennessee, began its reign of terror against newly enfranchised blacks, marking the beginning of a series of events geared toward keeping blacks “in their place.” Following the passage of the fifteenth amendment (March 30, 1870) granting all male citizens the right to vote, Southern states took immediate steps to prevent blacks from exercising their voting rights. These included establishing poll taxes, literacy tests, property and registration requirements, and the “grandfather clause,” which allowed an individual to vote only if his grandfather could vote as of January 1, 1866. (The poll tax would finally be outlawed by the twenty-fourth amendment, adopted in 1964.) In 1875, Tennessee’s “Jim Crow” laws legalized the segregation of public facilities. In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Plessy vs. Ferguson, decreed “separate but equal” accommodations for African Americans. And in 1918, the end of World War I launched a renewed wave of violence against blacks when, as U.S. soldiers, they had experienced a respite from racism overseas and returned to their homes and demanded their civil and human rights. Hundreds were lynched, some still in uniform. The violence culminated in the Red Summer of 1919, when race riots erupted in July in the District of Columbia, and twenty-five major American cities. The post-World War II years saw a continuation of the black struggle for equal rights, which held little hope. According to a report from the Southern Regional Council, in 1947, only 12 percent

74 (around 600,000) of African Americans living in the South were eligible to register to vote. In 1948, President Truman signed Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the U.S. armed forces, but integration was not officially “completed” until six years later (October 1954). In the following chronology, events in the novel are presented within the context of historical events (italicized) that had a critical impact on the lives of African Americans and their ongoing struggle for civil and human rights. The frame of reference is provided by two major historical eras: the end of World War II (September 2, 1945) and the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement (December 5, 1955). Note: (1) Since Gaines does not cite specific days or dates, all times are approximate; (2) Numbers in brackets [ ] indicate chapter numbers. The events in the novel span approximately six months — from October 1948 to April 1949 — the period between Jefferson’s trial and execution. These six months correspond to the “grinding season” and to the academic school year at the plantation church/school. 1939-1945

World War II

1946

Joe Louis successfully defends his world heavyweight boxing championship for the twenty-third time.

1947 April

CORE (The Congress of Racial Equality) sends the first Freedom Riders into the South to test the 1946 Supreme Court ban on segregated interstate buses.

April 11

Jackie Robinson signs a contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers, becoming the first African American to play professional baseball in the major leagues.

1948 June

A. Philip Randolph forms the League for Nonviolent Disobedience Against Military Segregation.

July 26

President Truman signs Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the U.S. armed forces. Six years later (October 1954), integration is officially “completed.” Attempts by African Americans to vote stir a wave of violence in the South.

October

Friday. Jefferson’s trial. The all-white jury finds Jefferson guilty of robbery and first-degree murder. Monday morning. The judge sentences Jefferson to death by electrocution. [1]

75 Monday afternoon. Miss Emma, Tante Lou, and Grant go to Henri Pichot’s mansion to ask about prison visiting privileges for Grant.[3] Tuesday. Mr. Farrell Jarreau tells Grant that Pichot will meet him at five o’clock. [5] Tuesday evening. Grant is kept waiting in Pichot’s kitchen for 2 1 ⁄2 hours. The sheriff tells Grant that he can start visiting Jefferson in “a couple of weeks.” [6] Thursday. Dr. Joseph Morgan, the white school superintendent, makes his annual visit to Grant’s school. [7] The following week. Two old men — Henry Lewis and Amos Thomas — deliver the first load of wood to Grant’s school, marking the beginning of winter. [8] November

Grant and Miss Emma make three trips to the county jail to visit Jefferson. [9] Friday. Grant makes his first solo trip to the jail. On his way home, Grant stops by the Rainbow Club, where the men are discussing Jackie Robinson. [10-12] ‘Termination Sunday. Vivian meets the “church ladies.” After inquiring into her background, Tante Lou declares Vivian to be “a lady of quality,” signaling her acceptance into the community of women. [13-15]

December

Monday. Miss Emma tells Grant about Jefferson’s rude behavior during her last visit. Grant tries but fails to convince her to discontinue the visits. [16] Friday. Grant visits Jefferson, and Paul Bonin, the young deputy, suggests they call each other by name. [17] Grant learns that Tante Lou, Miss Emma, and Rev. Ambrose have asked Sheriff Guidry’s wife to see if they can visit Jefferson in a “more comfortable” room. After ascertaining that Grant had nothing to do with their scheme, the sheriff lets Jefferson choose whether he wants to meet his visitors in his cell or in the dayroom. [18] Christmas Day. People from the quarter gather for the annual Christmas program. [19]

76 1949

Grant and Rev. Ambrose are summoned to Henri Pichot’s house, where Sheriff Guidry tells them that the date has been set for Jefferson’s execution. [20-21] Friday. Grant visits Jefferson and they talk for the first time. Afterward, Grant stops by the Rainbow Club, where he borrows money to buy Jefferson a radio. [22] Monday. Grant learns that Jefferson refused to meet his visitors in the dayroom because he was not allowed to bring his radio. Tante Lou, Miss Emma, and Rev. Ambrose accuse Grant of endangering Jefferson’s soul by giving him the radio. Grant tells them that Jefferson needs the radio to help him keep his mind off his impending death. Wednesday. He convinces Jefferson to meet his visitors in the dayroom and promises to bring him a notebook and pencil. [23] Grant talks to Jefferson about being a hero. That evening, Grant goes to the Rainbow Club and gets into a fight with two mulatto bricklayers. [24-26] Sunday. Rev. Ambrose confronts Grant about his lack of faith. The men debate religion, education, and the value of saving Grant’s soul versus saving his pride. [27] Grant persuades Jefferson to talk to Rev. Ambrose. They discuss prayer and dying. [28]

April

Jefferson records the final days of his life in his diary. Paul tells Grant about Jefferson’s death and presents him with the diary. [29-31] Jackie Robinson receives the National League’s Most Valuable Player award. Joe Louis retires as World Heavyweight boxing champion, after holding the title for a record 11 years and 8 months.

1954 May 17

The Supreme Court outlaws school segregation in Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka, overturning the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling that established “separate but equal” facilities for blacks and whites.

77 1955 Dec. 5

The Montgomery Bus Boycott in response to Rosa Parks’ arrest on Dec. 1 for refusing to give up her seat on a bus launches the Civil Rights movement.

The movement has since made impressive gains with the adoption of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the 1990 Civil Rights Act, which addressed the most egregious discriminatory practices. However, issues such as the lack of good legal counsel for impoverished African Americans charged with crimes (resulting in a disproportionate number of AfricanAmerican men in prisons and on death row) and inadequate representation of African Americans among the professional classes indicate the continuing need for attention to equal opportunity and civil rights.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ESSAY TOPICS (1) Explore one of the following topics presented in the novel: Redemption/Transformation Blacks and the Criminal Justice System The Pre-Civil Rights South The Myth of White Supremacy The Concept of Heroism Bonding Between Black Men The Role of the Black Church The Legacy of Slavery The Role of Education in the South The Role of Teachers The Black Family and the Black Community Racism Racial Pride/Racial Consciousness The Search for Black Male Identity The Concept of Manhood The Plantation System (2) Discuss the significance of one of the following symbols: food as a celebration of life the plantation school the white picket fence surrounding the plantation school the statue of the Confederate soldier and the Confederate flag outside the St. Raphael courthouse

78 the Pledge of Allegiance the dayroom the radio Jefferson’s diary Henri Pichot’s plantation (3) Gaines has said that listening to the blues and jazz “has had as much of an impact on my writing as the works of other writers.” Cite specific passages in the novel that demonstrate this influence and discuss their impact on the story. (4) Read James Joyce’s “Ivy Day in the Committee Room.” Why do you think Gaines included a discussion of this short story in his novel? What lessons does Grant learn from the story? From his professor? (5) What role do Creoles play in the novel? What is Grant’s perspective of them? Why? (6) Some critics contend that Grant perpetuates the system of racism and exploitation. Write an essay to support or refute this argument. (7) Throughout the novel, characters learn various “lessons.” Discuss the lessons learned by one of the following characters: Grant Jefferson Rev. Ambrose Grant’s students Paul Sheriff Guidry (8) Explore the role of language in the novel. Consider the use of Standard English versus black vernacular and regional dialect; body language; and the language of silence. (9) Gaines has said “All my works deal with the black male attempting to exceed his limits.” Explore this theme in one of Gaines’ earlier novels or short stories.

79 (10) Gaines’ work has been criticized for his use of “passive” characters who don’t fight back against the injustices of their environment. Based on your reading of A Lesson Before Dying, write an essay to support or refute this theory.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY GAINES’ MAJOR WORKS Novels Catherine Carmier. 1964. New York: Vintage Books, 1992. Of Love and Dust. 1967. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman. 1971. New York: Bantam Books, 1972. In My Father’s House. 1978. New York: Vintage Books, 1992. A Gathering of Old Men. 1983. New York: Vintage Books, 1992. A Lesson Before Dying. 1993. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. Short Stories Bloodline. 1968. New York: Vintage Books, 1997. Children’s Book A Long Day in November. New York: Random House, 1971. CRITICAL WORKS ABOUT GAINES BEAVERS, HERMAN. Wrestling Angels into Song. The Fictions of Ernest J. Gaines and James Alan McPherson. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995. “Ernest Gaines.” African American Writers. Valerie Smith, et al., eds. New York: Collier Books, 1993: 105-120. “Ernest Gaines.” The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and Nellie McKay, eds. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1997: 2180-2182.

80 “Ernest Gaines.” The Essential Black Literature Guide. Roger M. Valade III, ed. New York: Visible Ink Press, 1996. [Published in Association with the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Literature.] ESTES, DAVID C., ed. Critical Reflections on the Fiction of Ernest J. Gaines. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1994. FERRIS, WILLIAM. “I heard the voices ... of my Louisiana People: A Conversation with Ernest Gaines.” Humanities. July/Aug. 1998: 5-7; 46-51. GAUDET, MARCIA, and CARL WOOTEN. Porch Talk with Ernest Gaines: Conversations on the Writer’s Craft. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990. GLOVER, MICHAEL. “To Kill a Hog.” The Angolite. Sept/Oct 1993: 38-39. LOWE, JOHN, ed. Conversations with Ernest Gaines. Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi, 1995. WILSON, CHARLES E., JR. “Black Manhood in Ernest J. Gaines’ A Lesson Before Dying.” Journal of African American Men. (Vol. 1. Issue 1) Summer 1995: 99-112.