Методические указания по выработке навыков самостоятельного чтения текстов по профилю геолого-географического факультета для студентов ОЗО

Министерство Образования Российской Федерации

РОСТОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Методические указания по выработке навыков самостоятельного чтения текстов по профилю геолого-географического факультета для студентов ОЗО

Ростов-на-Дону 2003

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Составители: ст. преп. Николаева И.Н., ст. преп. Беляева Н.А. Рецензент: ст. преп. Белоусова М.М.

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МЕТОДИЧЕСКАЯ ЗАПИСКА Методические указания предназначены для самостоятельного дополнительного чтения текстов общенаучного содержания студентами 1-2 курсов геолого-географического факультета ОЗО. Они состоят из 10 оригинальных текстов и упражнений, направленных на снятие лексических трудностей перевода и усвоения специальной лексики по профилю факультета. Тексты затрагивают ряд ключевых проблем современной науки о земле. Они также нацелены на формирование навыков поиска основной информации и составление кратких сообщений. Все упражнения подобраны в соответствии со спецификой каждого текста.

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Contents 1. The Commonwealth of Australia ……………………………………………5 2. Canada ……………………………………………………………………….7 3. New England ……………………………………………………………….10 4. The Great American Desert ………………………………………………...13 5. Water under the Sahara …………………………………………………….15 6. Population of the U.K. ……………………………………………………...18 7. Geologic Hazards ……………………………………………………….….20 8. Changes in the Earth Crust …………………………………………………22 9. Earthquakes ………………………………………………………………...25 10. The Future of the Earth ……………………………………………………27

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Text 1 THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geography Australia is an inland continent situated south-east of Asia between the Pacific and Indian oceans. It is 2,400 miles from east to west and nearly 2,000 miles from north to south. The Australian Commonwealth occupies the whole of the continent and the island of Tasmania. It has an area of almost 3 million square miles, nearly as large as the United States. Australia is mostly a plain, with mountains in the east and south, which form the Eastern Highlands stretching from Cape York to Tasmania. In the south-east Mount Kosciusko; in the Australian Alps, 7,328 feet high, is the highest point on the continent, and around Kosciusko and in Tasmania there are snowfields in winter, much visited by ski enthusiasts. The western part of the continent forms the Western Australian plateau, which occupies half of the continent. It is the highest in the center, where it reaches over 4,000 feet in places. The Central Lowlands lie between the Western Australian plateau and the Eastern Highlands. Through these Central Lowlands run Australia’s greatest rivers the Murray and the Darling and many rivers which do not reach the sea but fall into Lake Eyre in South Australia. The lake itself is usually a dry salt plain in summers. A number of short rivers flow eastwards into the Pacific Ocean. The climate of Australia varies from warm to subtropical. Being in the southern hemisphere, Australia has summer when we in the northern hemisphere have winter, and winter when we have summer. During the summer months the north-western section of the continent has a temperature of over 26,5°C. The climate in the west is very dry, and more than half Australia gets too little rain for any farming except sheep-farming in good years. In the north the winds from the sea bring heavy monsoon rainfalls in tropical summer. In the south-west and east the winds bring rain in winter. The temperature here is lower, and Melbourne, for example, has a temperature of 20° C in January. In winter the coolest temperature is in Victoria (Melbourne has 9°C for July). The tropical forests in the north and north-east are displaced by savannah or grassland. The grasslands in the east form one of the most valuable regions in Australia and include the rich grass country of the Murray-Darling basin. The south-east is covered with forests of eucalyptus and other evergreen trees. There are two hot deserts in the central and western parts of the continent. History As early as in the 15 century it was believed that a large southern continent existed, and in the 16th century geographers showed it on their maps. In the 17th century a number of travellers, mostly Dutch, visited the continent. Captain Cook’s visits in 1770 and 1775 opened the continent for the English. The first settlers were convicts who came from Britain in 1788. Twenty th

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five years later there were 10,000 people living in the small area of lowlands near Sydney. After 1851, when gold was found in Australia, the population of the country greatly increased. Population Today there are about 13 million people in Australia: most of them are of British origin. Now there are only 40,000 aborigines. They live in the deserts and savannah, and their number is decreasing. A few men such as Albert Namatjira, one of the most popular painters in Australia today, have shown what the aborigines can do if they are given the opportunities of civilization. Half of the Australian population live in or near the coast and most of them live in the south-west of the continent. The rest of the territory is scarcely populated and the grasslands and deserts are practically uninhabited. This is also true of the tropical northern section of Australia. I. Learn to read the words: Australian Commonwealth Tasmania Cape York Mount Kosciusko Western Australian plateau Murray Darling Lake Eyre hemisphere monsoon Melbourne savannah eucalyptus convict Sydney aborigines

[:streilj«n `km«nwelT] [tQz`meinj«] [`keip `j:k] [`maunt Çkzi`Ãskou] [`west«n `plQtou] [`mÃri] [`da:liN] [`leik `E«] [`hemisfi«] [mn`su:n] [`melb«n] [s«`vQn«] [Çju:k«`lipt«s] [`knvikt] [`sidni] [ÇQb«`ridZini:z]

II. Guess the meaning of the words: Enthusiast, plateau, occupy, subtropical, section, tropical, evergreen, civilization, captain. III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. Where is Australia situated? 2. How large is Australia? 3. What part of the country does western Australian plateau occupy? 4. What are the greatest rivers of Australia?

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5. What hemisphere is Australia in? 6. What kind of climate is in the west, in the north and north-east? 7. Where are the rich grasslands found? 8. When did geographers show Australia on the map? 9. Who opened the Continent for the English? 10. Who were the first settlers? 11. When was gold found in Australia? 12. How many people live in Australia now? 13. Where does most of the Australian population live? IV. Complete the sentences by choosing the correct variant: 1. The tropical forests are displaced by … a) deserts b) grassland c) prairies d) small rivers 2. The population greatly increased after … a) many convicts came there b) new cities were founded c) gold was found d) many lands were cultivated 3. Half of the Australian population live in … a) the tropical section b) north-west c) near the coast d) near the grasslands V. Active vocabulary: Island, plain, dry, salt, grassland, rainfall, desert, map, traveller, lowland, increase-decrease, inhabited-uninhabited, monsoon, hemisphere, occupy, wind.

Text 2 CANADA Canada occupies the whole of the northern part of the continent of North America (with the exception of Alaska, a state of the USA) and a number of islands. It stretches from the forty-ninth parallel in the south to the Arctic Circle in the north and from the Pacific Ocean in the east. Canada’s only land frontiers are with Alaska in the west and with the rest of the USA in the south. Canada has a total area of nearly 10 million square kilometers and is one of the largest countries in the world. The Rocky Mountains continuing northward from the USA stretch parallel to Canada’s Pacific coast.

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Besides the Great Lakes - Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie and Ontario, which Canada shares with the USA, there are also great Bear Lake, Great Have lake, Lake Winnipeg and many smaller lakes. The Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, on the frontier between Canada and the USA are one of the most splendid sights in the world and attract tourists from all continents. Canada also has large rivers: the Mackenzie, the Yukon, the Faser and the Columbia, the River St. Lawrence. The climate of Canada varies from Arctic climate in the north, with winter temperatures as low as 50 degrees Centigrade, to moderate climate with summer temperatures up to 33 degrees Centigrade in the east and west. Winter in Canada lasts from four to five months with heavy snowfalls. Rainfalls are considerable in the east and west but less considerable in the centre. The Atlantic coast of Canada is often hidden in a thick fog. The north of the country near the Arctic is a cold tundra with great forests to the south, the central plains form prairie and are one of the world’s best wheat-growing regions. Canada has just over 22 million inhabitants more than 40 per cent of whom are of British origin, about 30 per cent of French origin, over 20 per cent of continental European origin other than French, and about 300.000 are Eskimos or Indians. The Eskimo population inhabits the arctic regions and the Indians live mostly in villages or small townships in the prairie. The most important towns in Canada are Ottawa, the federal Capital, Montreal, the only city with more than one million inhabitants, Toronto, Vancuwer, Edmonton, Hamilton, Winnipeg and Quebec. Toronto, the capital and the largest city of Ontario, is located on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. The excellent harbour has made it one of the chief Great Lakes ports. The city is an artistic and musical centre with the Art Gallery of Toronto and the Royal Conservatory of Music is especially noteworthy. The Royal Ontario Museum is renowned for its collection of dinosaur bones and for its oriental exhibits. The University of Toronto, Ryerson Institute of technology and the York University offer advanced educational facilities. Canada has coal, metal, oil and gas, and machine-building and chemical industries are highly developed. As Canada has many lakes and rivers, the hydro-electric industry is highly developed; its main centres are in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. Canada’s agriculture and fisheries provide material for the food industries: wheat, milk, and meat products and fish. Its large ports, Vancouver, Victoria, Montreal, Halifax, Quebec and Sydney are centres of export of canned meat and fish, furs, timber, metals, paper and machines to many countries. I. Learn to read the words:

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Lake Superior Huron Erie Ontario Great Bear Lake Lake Winnipeg the Niagara Falls the Mackenzie the Yukon the Fraser St. Lawrence tundra prairie Toronto Edmonton Quebec Montreal Eskimo Halifax

[`leik sju:`pi«ri«] [`hju«r«n] [`i«ri] [n`tE«riou] [`greit `bE« `leik] [`leik `winipeg] [nai`Qg«r«] [m«`kenzi] [`jukn] [`freiz«] [snt `l:r«ns] [tÃndr«] [prE«ri] [t«`rntou] [`edm«nt«n] [kwi`bek] [mntri`:l] [`eskimou] [`hQlifQks]

II. Guess the meaning of the words: Parallel, to occupy, snowfall, rainfall, tundra, prairie, per cent, machinebuilding, chemical industry, hydro-electric, dinosaur, province. III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. What part of the North American continent does Canada occupy? 2. What countries does Canada border on? 3. What is the total area of the country? 4. What lakes dominate the southern part of Canada? 5. Are rivers numerous in Canada? 6. What are the peculiarities of the climate? 7. What are specific features of the population? 8. Do you know any big cities in Canada? 9. What is the capital of Canada? 10. What are the main attractions of the Canadian capital? 11. What industries are the most developed? 12. Is Canada rich in mineral resources? 13. What does Canada export? IV. Expand on the following statements: 1. Canada occupies the northern part of the North American Continent. 2. Canada is different both in relief and climate. 3. The population of Canada is multinational.

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4. Canada is one of the highly-developed countries. VI. Active vocabulary: To stretch, to vary, moderate, tundra, origin, highly-developed, Great lakes, parallel, province, to export, total area, central plain, wheat-growing region, origin, to inhabit - inhabitant, to provide, educational facilities.

Text 3 NEW ENGLAND New England is made up of six states: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. New England is 173,000 square kilometers (66,600 square miles) in area, which is smaller than the state of Nebraska. However, the 12 million New Englanders form a market with great buying power and include a highly skilled labor force of over 5 million people. New England has less than 6 percent of America’s population, yet the region produced goods worth $54 billion a year. New England exports a large amount of its output. Its farmers specialize almost entirely in high-value crops that require intensive use of the land. Although specialties vary from state to state, New England is particularly noted for certain kinds of machinery and paper products. It also is a dairying center. New England’s History The European settlement of New England began with the arrival of the Pilgrims in 1620. By the time of the Revolutionary War, New England contained nearly a million people. During the nineteenth century, New England kept its leading place among the regions in commerce and industry. New Englanders were pioneers in many areas of American life. Inventors in that part of the country developed much of the machinery that revolutionized industry during the nineteenth century. New Englanders built Yankee clippers, the fastest ships afloat in their day. New Englanders were also pioneers in the whaling industry. In spite of the lack of mineral resources, New England was the nation’s first industrial area. Its location and its people’s energy were the keys to industrialization. Many European immigrants made their homes in New England because the factories needed more labour than the population could provide. New England became one of America’s great melting pots. The immigrants included textile workers from the British Isles, shoemakers and shipbuilders from Germany, mechanics and fishermen from Scandinavia, and factory workers from Italy. Many arrived as poor immigrant workers and later began their own businesses.

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Down to the Sea The lack of good farmland is one reason why many New England farmers turned to the sea for a living. The sea was the basis for New England’s earliest activities: fishing, shipbuilding, and trade. New England’s forests provided lumber for the shipbuilding industry. The skill and daring of Yankee skippers were known throughout the world. In the days of sailing ships, the clippers built in New England were the fastest vessels afloat. Ship owners carried on a profitable trade with the West Indies, the Far East, and Europe. Boston was the major port, and the city became a busy, wealthy commercial center. Gradually, however, clipper ships were replaced by steamships. They were not as graceful as clipper ships, but they could carry more goods and did not have to depend on the wind. Because of its more central location and easier access to the interior, New York surpassed Boston and became the leading seaport on the Atlantic coast. Nevertheless, Boston is still a great shipping center. Natural Resources New England’s most famous mineral resource is granite, which is found in Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Vermont is also noted for a high grade of marble quarried in the Green Mountains. A large number of sculptors and stonecutters work in this area. Softwood forests, including many valuable white pines, were once an important New England resource. However, much of the land was cleared for farming, and these forests were cut down. Trees were used to provide lumber for building and pulp for paper products. Today only New Hampshire and Maine carry on sizable lumbering industries. These are now cut with great care to avoid waste. Reforestation projects have been set up to ensure a good supply of lumber and pulp. A Good Place to Visit – and Live New England offers many attractions to summer and winter vacationers. A cool climate, beautiful scenery, and places of historic interest account for its popularity. Skiing, hunting, fishing, sailing and swimming attract sport’s enthusiasts from many states. The tourist business is one of the region’s most profitable activities, bringing in over four billion dollars a year. New England’s leadership in education is also well known. Yale, Harvard, Dartmouth, Clark, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.), Smith, Wellesley, and many other colleges and universities have set high educational standards for the rest of the country. In fact, education in New England’s private schools and colleges is almost as important to the income of New England as the tourist industry. I.

Learn to read the words:

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Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Connecticut Rhode island commerce entirely dairying whaling access to quarry

[mein] [nju:`hQmpSi«] [v«:`mnt] [ÇmQs«`tSu:sits] [k«`nektik«t] [r«ud `ail«nd] [`k:m«(:)s] торговля [in`tai«li] полностью, всецело [dE«riN] молочное хозяйство [weiliN] китобойный промысел [`Qks«s] доступ, проход [kwri] добывать, разрабатывать

II. Guess the meaning of the following words: Vary, machinery, immigrant, textile worker, commercial, clipper, major port, granite, sculptor. III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. What states are there in New England? 2. What percentage of the American population lives in New England? 3. Who were the settlers of the New England area? 4. What does New England produce? 5. In what three aspects of American life were New Englanders pioneers? 6. What do New England’s forests provide for the industry? 7. Is Boston still a great shipping center? 8. What is New England’s most famous mineral resource? Where is it found? 9. What projects have been set up recently? 10. What are the main attractions of the state? 11. Why is the tourist business one of the region’s most profitable activities? 12. Are there a lot of world-famous Universities in New England? IV. Use the appropriate tense forms: 1. New England (to make up / to be made up) of six states. 2. New England (to note for / to be noted for) certain kinds of machinery and paper products. 3. The skill of Yankee skippers (to know / to be known) throughout the world. 4. Gradually clipper ships (to replace / to be replaced by) by steamships. 5. Granite (to find / to be found) in Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. 6. Much of the land (to clear / to be cleared) for farming, and these forests (to cut down / to be cut down). V.

Complete the sentences using the information from the text:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

New England is made up of… New England exports… New Englanders were pioneers in… The sea was the basis for… New England’s most famous natural resources are…

Text 4 THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT The land that is known as the “Great American Desert” is an area containing 900 000 square miles of land in western USA. It is an area divided into 3 parts: on the east are the Great Plains, in the center the Rocky Mountains and farther west the part that is known as the Great Basin. It is difficult to determine exactly where the desert begins and where it ends because it establishes its own borders. However, the desert extent varies on the eastern side according to the amount of rain that falls. Many people think that a desert consists of nothing but sand. But most desert land also contains rocky places, basins surrounded by mountains and canyons. All of these kinds of land are found within the borders of the great American Desert. Many scientists think that the land receiving only 10 inches of rain a year should be known as a desert. However the land on the American Desert receives as average of about 12 inches a year. Some places receive as little as 3 inches a year and others as much as 16 inches a year. Other scientists believe that desert can’t be determined by the amount of rain that falls because so many things combine to determine what effect the rain has on plant and animal life. Often on high plains and the Great Basin the rains are sudden and heavy and do the land little good. Great amount of water run off dry hard land not sinking into it. Floods are caused which do considerable harm. The rate of evaporation is as important as the amount of rain. This process is very rapid in the Great American Desert because of the small amount of moisture in the air and the strong winds that blow. The Great American Desert is a land of great differences. The lowest land is 270 feet below sea level – Death Values in California. The highest mountains are 14 000 feet above sea level. Parts of the desert in summer may be as hot as 130 degrees and in the northern part of the desert the temperature may be 10 degrees below zero in winter. Among the important features of the southern part of the Great American Desert are the great piles of sand and vast areas of land where desert plants grow. In the distance pointed mountain tops and large formations of sharp rocks may be seen. Not many plants and sand animals can live in the very dry desert unharmed by great changes of climate. They can hold water in reserve and develop long roots near the surface of the ground. These roots can easily use the

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rain water. Cactus plants also develop long roots that extend deep into the ground to use the sources of water far below the surface. Sometimes these roots are so long that they extend thirty feet down into the ground. They may also serve to keep the plants secure in a strong wind storm. Plants which do not have long roots are usually not tall and grow close to the ground. Thus they can’t be blown away with a strong wind. Many desert plants are able to turn leaves to avoid the direct rays of the sun. Others have hard or shiny surfaces that prevent loss of moisture. Like the native plants certain animals also adapt to life in the desert. They depend on a few scattered streams for water and many go out of their shelters only in the cool of the evening. Some animals are able to manufacture water within their own bodies from their dry food. Therefore they never need to drink water. I. Learn to read the words: desert [`dez«t] canyon [`kQnj«n] average moisture degree reserve evaporation features cactus surface source secure

[`Qv«ridZ] [`mistS«] [di`gri:] [ri`z«:v] [ivQp«`reiS«n] [`fi:tS«z] [`kQkt«s] [`s«:fis] [s:s] [si`kju«]

пустыня каньон, глубокое ущелье средний влажность градус запас испарение особенности, черты кактус поверхность источник безопасный

II. Supply the following expressions with Russian equivalents: to determine exactly; consists of nothing but sand; within the borders; do considerable harm; in the distance pointed; to prevent loss of moisture; a few scattered streams III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. Where is the Great American Desert? 2. What parts does it consist of? 3. Why is it difficult to determine its borders? 4. What can be found within the borders of the Great American desert?

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5. How do most scientists determine a desert? 6. The rate of evaporation in the desert is very important, isn’t it? 7. What effect do the rains have on plant and animal life? 8. Why is the Great American Desert a land of differences? 9. What are the important features of the Great American Desert? 10. What features help desert plants to service? 11. How do desert animals adapt to living on the desert? IV. Complete the sentences using the information from the text: 1. The Great American Desert is an area… 2. The desert land contains… 3. Many scientists think… 4. The Great American Desert is a land of… 5. Plants and animals in the desert…

Text 5 WATER UNDER THE SAHARA The groundwater of the Sahara is to be found mainly in seven major basins, each virtually a closed hydrologic system. Although each of these basins has individual characteristics, the basins have much in common in their geology, in the crucial question of recharge and in the problems of development. Water occupies an aquifer under one or the other of two distinctly different conditions. If it is overlain by an impermeable stratum, it is likely to be under pressure that will cause the water to rise above the top of the aquifer when the aquifer is penetrated by a well. This is the condition described as artesian, the term is used whether or not the water rises high enough to flow at ground level. A large part of Saharan groundwater is under artesian conditions. If the water in an aquifer is not confined by an overlying impermeable stratum, it is said to be under waterable conditions. Such water is not under pressure and can be extracted only by pumping or gravitational flow through underground canals. Groundwater is seldom immobile in an aquifer. Artesian water in particular is likely to move over considerable distances from a recharge area. This movement is attributable to gravity. In the Sahara evaporation is also a powerful mechanism of vertical movement: it operates as a huge pump to lower the head of the groundwater. Evaporation, which probably accounts for the largest discharge from the aquifers, takes place in vast depressions called chotts. Under the more normal climatic conditions of the past a chott would be a lake recharged by both rainfall and the artesian aquifers. Today the chotts are dry except during periods of rain. In this connection there arises an interesting possibility of prospecting for water by zoological means. Experts in the behavior of the desert locust say that these insects need a humid environment for the laying and hatching of their eggs. In the Sahara one can observe locusts laying eggs in areas that are

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apparently dry. Evidently they are detecting the invisible outlets of the aquifers – the areas of evaporation. Close attention to the egg-laying habits of the locusts could conceivably lead to new sources of accessible groundwater. The question of recharge has to be considered in two aspects. One concerns the recharge that is occurring at present; the other, the recharge that took place long ago. Today’s recharge occurs mainly at the edge of the desert, where the rainfall increases over a relatively short distance from 100 millimeters a year to 1,000 millimeters and where the water of rivers percolates into the aquifers. As far as recovery of the water is concerned, the present recharge is immediately significant only for aquifers in which the discharge and recharge areas are close together or in which the aquifer formation outcrops (is exposed at the surface). This situation exists in the Great Eastern Erg and the Niger basin. In all other basins the present recharge moves through the aquifers quite slowly. The speed of this movement is unlikely to be more than half a mile a year; in some places it is only a yard or two a year. This means that in most of the basins the present recharge will not reach the discharge area for 15 centuries or more. In other words the water coming out of those discharge areas today is rain that fell between the last Saharan pluvial period and the time of the Roman Empire. Accordingly the question of the greatest interest in the modern exploitation of Sahara groundwater is what kind of recharge was occurring some 2,000 years ago. Thus, groundwater is the key to any development effort in the Sahara. If development is to be planned and executed soundly, it should be preceded by a survey of groundwater resources on a Sahara-wide scale. Such a survey would take into account the geographical distribution of the water and the need for equitable treatment of its users regardless of political boundaries. I. Learn to read the words: Sahara [s«`ha:r«] aquifer [`Qkwif«] impermeable artesian environment locust penetrate canal prospecting execute equitable survey

[im`p«:mj«bl] [a:`ti:zj«n] [in`vai«r«m«nt] [`l«uk«st] [`penitreit] [k«`nQl] [pr«s`pektiN] [`eksikju:t] [`ekwit«bl] [`s«:vei]

водоносный слой, горизонт непроницаемый артезианский окружающая среда саранча проникать канал разведка выполнять справедливый обследование

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II. Read the text and answer “true” or “false”: 1. A large amount of Saharan groundwater is under artesian conditions. 2. Locusts need dry environment for the laying of their eggs. 3. Groundwater is the key to any development effort in the Sahara. III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. Where can Saharan groundwater be found? 2. What problems do they have? 3. What is the difference between artesian and waterable conditions? 4. What is the prospecting for water by zoological means? 5. How is the question of recharge considered? 6. Where does today’s recharge occur? 7. Why is Saharan groundwater so important? 8. What will the Sahara survey include? IV.

List the key points to illustrate the processes in the Sahara.

V. Active vocabulary: Groundwater, major basins, closed hydrologic system, aquifer, artesian conditions, climatic conditions, insects, recharge, discharge, vertical movement, huge pump, prospecting, environment, areas of evaporation.

Text 6 POPULATION of the U.K. The population of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is over 57 million people. The population lives mostly in towns and cities and their suburbs. Four out of every five people live in towns. The distribution of the population is rather uneven. Over 46 million people live in England, a little over 5 million people live in Scotland, over 3 million in Wales and about 1,5 million in Northern Ireland. Although Britain is densely populated, there are large areas which contain fewer than 100 people per square kilometre (for example, most of the mountainous parts of the UK including much of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). Densities of more then 500people per square kilometre are only found in the main industrial areas (such as the Midlands and South-East England). London’s population is over 7 million. There are only five cities with population over 500,000 although Manchester, Liverpool and Newcastle also exceed this figure if neighbouring towns are included. The UK is inhabited by the English, the Scottish, the Welsh, and the Northern Irish, who constitute the British nation. What makes them different from each other? The British are the descendants of the different peoples who settled in the British Isles at different times.

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About 2,000 years ago the British Isles were inhabited by the Celts who originally came from continental Europe. During the next 1,000 years there were many invasions. The Romans came from Italy in 43 a.d. and, in calling the country “Britania” gave Britain its name. The Angles and Saxons came from Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands in the 5th century and England gets its name from invasion (Angle-land). The vikings arrived from Denmark and Norway throughout the 9th century, and in 1066 the Normans invaded from France. These invasions drove the Celts into what is now Wales and Scotland, and they remained, of course, in Ireland. The English, on the other hand, are the descendants of all the invaders, but are more Anglo-Saxon then anything else. These various origins explain many of the differences to be found between England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland – differences in education, religion and the legal systems, but most obviously, in language. The Celts spoke Celtic which survives today in the form of Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic. Less than quarter of all Welsh people (600,000 out of 2,800,000) speak Welsh. Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic are still spoken, although they have suffered more then Welsh from the spread of English. However, all the three language are now officially encouraged and taught in schools. English developed from the Anglo-Saxon and is a Germanic language. However, all the invading peoples, particularly the Norman French, influenced the English and you can find many words in English which are French in origin. Nowadays all Welsh, Scottish and Irish people speak English (even if they speak their own language as well), but all the countries have their own special accents and dialects, and their people are easily recognizable as soon as they speak. Occasionally, people from the four countries in the UK have difficulty in understanding one another because of these different accents. A southern English accent is generally accepted to be the most easily understood, and this accent is usually taught to foreigners. There have been many waves of immigration into Britain. Now there are many people of all the colours and races in the UK. These are mostly former inhabitants of the former British colonies. These people called “ the coloureds” came to the UK in search of better living standard as their own countries had been impoverished by centuries of the British colonial oppression. Nowadays the policy is to encourage these new immigrant communities to continue speaking their own languages as well as English. The children of immigrants are often taught their own language at schools, and there are special newspapers, magazines, and radio and television programmes for these communities. I. Learn to read the words: suburb [`sÃb«:b] distribution of population densely populated

пригород распределение населения густо населенный

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neighbouring town to be inhabited descendant invasion invade develop influence recognizable wave of immigration impoverished

[di`send«nt] [in`veiZ«n]

[`rik«gnaiz«bl]

близлежащий город быть населенным потомок вторжение вторгаться развиваться влияние признанный волна иммиграции обедненный

II. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. What is the population of Great Britain? 2. Where do most of the people live? 3. Is the distribution of population even? 4. How many large cities are there in Great Britain? 5. Who constitutes the British nation? 6. Who inhabited the British Isles 2.000 years ago? 7. Who gave Britain its present name? 8. Where did Angles and Saxons come from? 9. When did Roman invasion take place? 10. What language does English develop from? 11. What languages are spoken in the UK now? 12. What kind of people came to the UK with various waves of immigration? III.

Fill in the table, matching up the words to denote the country and the language. Example: England – English Germany – Wales – Scotland – France – Ireland – IV.

Translate in writing paragraph 5.

V. Learn the expressions: uneven distribution to exceed the figure to be encouraged in search of better living standards

неравномерное распределение превышать численность поощрять в поисках чего-либо более благоприятные условия жизни

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Text 7 GEOLOGIC HAZARDS Geologic hazards are those geologic features and events that are hazardous or harmful when they result in injuries or loss of life and property. Natural geologic processes became hazardous when people get in the way. They include such geologic phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides, tsunamis, soil creep. Throughout history, there are many examples of geologic hazards which have resulted in disaster and have greatly affected the activities of man. Ten great earthquakes in China between the 11th and 12th centuries resulting in landslides and collapse of cliffs, killed 1.5 ml. people. The list of disasters caused by “naturally occurring geologic hazards” would be long. Another category of geologic hazards is that of “man-induced hazards”. Man’s activity has helped to change the rate and place of occurrence of certain natural phenomena, resulting in hazards to himself. For example there are landslides resulting from highway construction which modifies stable slopes. Both naturally occurring and man-induced geologic hazards are merely normal geologic processes or events until man gets in the way, then these processes or events become hazards. Earthquakes are hazards when man lives too close to the active fault area, volcanic eruptions become so when man lives in close to the active fault area, volcanic eruptions become so when man lives in close proximity to the volcano and floods become hazards when man inhabits the flood plain. What can the geologist do about geologic hazards? Working with adequate knowledge he can conduct proper geologic investigations that can be used to prevent a geologic hazard at a certain locality must first be made. The urgency to avoid or prevent geologic hazards is a necessary growth of a society characterized by increasing population and urbanization. What hope do we have for eliminating disasters caused by geologic hazards? There is little hope that they can be eliminated completely, but they could be greatly reduced with an understanding of geologic aspects of the environment. Prediction and control of many geologic hazards will become a reality in the near future. I. Vocabulary and expressions to be remembered: hazard [`hQz«d] риск, опасность to result in приводить к to get in the way оказаться вовлеченным во ч-л earthquake [`«:Tkweik] землетрясение eruption извержение (вулкана) flood [`flÃd] наводнение

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landslide soil creep disaster cliff man-induced hazard highway construction slope fault in the close to prevent

оползень сползание почвы бедствие утес риск, созданный человеком строительство дорог наклон, склон [flt] разлом поблизости предотвращать

II. Read the first 3 paragraphs and: • give the definition of geological hazards • give the examples of two types of geological hazards • illustrate the results of geologic hazards throughout the history III. Say true or false: 1. All kinds of geological hazards are always normal processes. 2. Population growth and urbanization makes it urgent to avoid or prevent geologic hazards. 3. Prediction and control of many geologic hazards will become a reality in the near future. IV. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. What phenomena do geologic hazard include? 2. Is it hazardous for people to live close to the active fault area? 3. What can a geologist do about geologic hazards? 4. Is there any hope to eliminate disasters completely? 5. Where did 10 great earthquakes occur between the 11th and the 12th centuries? V.

Define to what part of speech the following words belong and translate them into Russian: geology – geologic – geologist urban – urbanize – urbanization volcano – volcanic – volcanization eliminate – eliminated – elimination inhabit – inhabited – inhabitance erupt – erupted - eruption investigate – investigator – investigation

Text 8

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CHANGES IN THE EARTH’S CRUST It is important to realize that changes are continually taking place on the surface of the earth. They are of three main kinds: a) The wearing away of the land which we call denudation. b) The removal of material from one part of the earth’s crust to another, which we call transportation. c) The laying down of this material in fresh places, which we call deposition. The chief agents of denudation are the sun, wind, rain, frost, running water, moving ice and the sea. Action of the sun. In hot countries the heat of the sun is very great during the day and the rock of the surface get very hot and expand or grow larger. This causes the rocks to burst so that cracks form. Then at night time the rocks get very cold and contract. The cracks increase in size and gradually the rock breaks up into small pieces. Wind. The wind acts in two ways. Strong wind blows loose particles of soil and dust away. There is another way too in which wind wears away the land. Strong wind armed with millions of sharp pieces of sand against a cliff or mass of hard rock, it gradually polishes the surface and begins to eat away the hard rock. Rain. The rain especially in hot countries where there is heavy rainfall, has a powerful action. It loosens and carries away the soil. Rain, too, when it passes through the air, absorbs a considerable proportion of carbon dioxide gas. Rain water with this gas in solution is able to dissolve certain hard rocks such as limestone. Much of the rain-water sinks into the ground and carries on its work of solution there, forming underground caves. Frost. The action of the frost is important in cold conditions. When rain falls, part of it sinks into the ground and forms cracks in the rocks. At night, when it gets very cold the water in the cracks freezes and expands which causes the cracks to widen. Running water. When rain falls on to the ground, some of it sinks in, but a great part of it collects together forming little streams which in their turn join up to form rivers. The streams cut for themselves little valleys, which at first are deep narrow. The rain helps to wash away the banks, so that the valley becomes broader and broader. The force of the water itself can do a lot of damage especially after a heavy storm. Moving ice. In very cold countries and high in the mountains where it is equally cold, instead of rivers we find solid masses of ice. These are glaciers. Like rivers they occupy valleys. This mass of ice moving downwards gradually scoops out its valley. The sea. The sea is a powerful agent. It wears away the land especially in time of storm. Each wave hurts a great mass of water against the shore and washes away the soft parts.

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I. Vocabulary and expressions to be remembered: crust земная кора to wear away [wE« w: w:n] (wore, worn) выветриваться denudation [Çdi:nju`deiS«n] обнажение пород (денудация) removal [rimu:v«l] удаление, перемещение to lay down класть, отлагать (laid, laid) deposition [dep«ziS«n] отложение, осадок rock скала, горная порода crack трещина to break of, up ломать(ся), отламывать(ся) (broke, broken) to loosen [`lu:sn] разрыхлять soil почва to eat away разрушать (ate, eaten) solution раствор to melt таять damage вред, ущерб glacier [`glQsj«] ледник to scoop out вычерпывать, вырывать II. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. What kinds of changes are taking place in the earth’s crust? 2. What is denudation? 3. What are the chief agents of denudation? 4. How does the sun effect the rocks? 5. When do rocks expand? 6. What is the action of the wind? 7. What causes the cracks to widen? 8. What does rain-water absorb from the air? 9. What increases the force of water? 10. What are glaciers? 11. Where do we find solid masses of ice? 12. What does the sea do in time of storm? III. Define to what part of speech the following words belong and translate them into Russian: to act – action – active – actively to expand – expansion – expending – expanded to contract – contraction – contracted – contracting

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power – powerful – powerless IV. Think of the meaning of the verbs formed from the nouns. Translate the sentences below: flood – to flood crack – to crack damage – to damage heat – to heat change – to change map – to map 1. Many rivers flood their banks every year. 2. Certain rocks crack under the load of stones and sand. 3. Heavy floods often damage crops in this area. 4. The sun’s rays do not heat the whole surface of the earth equally. 5. Changes of temperature change the density of the air. 6. The speed of sound changes with temperature. 7. The students had to map the area occupied by the glacier. VI. Sum up the text using the key points: 1. three kinds of changes on the surface of the earth. 2. action of the sun. 3. the role of the wind. 4. the action of rain (frost, running water, moving ice). 5. the sea as a powerful agent.

Text 9 EARTHQUAKES Seismic phenomena, or earthquakes, are the most terrible catastrophes occurring in nature. A strong earthquake may destroy the whole towns in the course of several minutes and even seconds. It has been scientifically proved that the majority of earthquakes are directly connected with dislocations and mountain-making processes and generally occur in young mountains which have not yet ceased growing. However, in some cases earthquakes may occur in older mountains, in which the mountain-making processes have been revived. Almost all the destructive earthquakes which have occurred within living memory belong to this class of so-called tectonic earthquakes. However, there are seismic phenomena which are not directly connected with mountain-making processes. These are known as volcanic earthquakes. Volcanic earthquakes are due to the explosion of volcanic gases, when the free escape of magna from the vent of the volcanic crater to the earth’s surface is in some way obstructed. Such shocks usually take place during the periods of violent volcanic eruptions and may be the cause of terrible catastrophes and

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destructions. But they do not spread over areas as large as those involved in tectonic earthquakes. Besides the above mentioned earthquakes there are others known as collapse earthquakes. These occur mostly in the regions of the earth’s crust where readily soluble rocks are widely distributed. Some regions contain underground caves which are sometimes very large. It is clear that if the roots of such caves are not sufficiently strong, they may give way under the weight of overlaying strata and fall down into the cave. This latter type of earthquake has a very limited range of action. The typical large earthquake starts with fracturing within the earth where rocks are subjected to increasing strain until they break. The sudden fracturing is violent enough to vibrate the surrounding rocks. These vibrations, called seismic waves, pass through the earth like waves through water: they compress and expand materials in their path or shift it from side to side. Seismic waves travel over the whole surface of the earth and penetrate to its very center. In many important earthquakes fracturing extends to the surface, where it follows established lines of weakness. The parts played-by the fracturing and the resulting waves are very different. Though heavy losses may be due directly to fault movement, most of the property damage and loss of life in earthquakes are caused by seismic waves shaking the ground. The waves originate at the fault but spread out from it with such intensity that serious damages result one or two hundred miles away. While the degree of shaking tends off with distance from the centre of disturbance it varies greatly depending on the solidity of the ground on which structures stand. I. Learn to read the words: phenomena earthquake magma collapse seismic explosion eruption destruction strata

[fi`nmin«] явления [`«:Tkweik] землятресение [`mQgm«] магма [k«`lQps] разрушение [`saismik] сейсмический [iks`pl«uZ«n] взрыв [i`rÃpS«n] извержение [dis`trÃkS«n] разрушение [`stra:t«] пласты, формации

II. Guess the meaning of the following words: catastrophe, tectonic, seismic, volcanic, magma, crater, typical, vibrate, intensity, shock, compress. III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. Why are earthquakes the most terrible catastrophes in nature? 2. What are the majority of earthquakes caused by?

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3. In what cases do earthquakes occur in older mountains? 4. What are volcanic earthquakes connected with? 5. Where do collapse earthquakes occur? 6. What does the typical large earthquake start with? 7. How are vibrations often called? 8. How far do they travel? 9. What do they result in? 10. What does the degree of shaking depend on? IV. Complete the sentences: 1. The majority of earthquakes are connected with… 2. Collapse earthquakes occur… 3. Seismic waves are… 4. Vibration of solid rocks leads to… 5. Seismic waves result from… and result in… V. Sum up the information from text using the key-points: 1) the most terrible catastrophes; 2) tectonic earthquakes; 3) volcanic earthquakes; 4) collapse earthquakes; 5) the typical large earthquake.

Text 10 THE FUTURE OF THE EARTH What does modern science have to say about the future development and fate of the earth? Any prediction, of course, can be no more than a speculation. Astrophisisits have accumulated enough information to make predictions about the future of the sun. At some time in the future the hydrogen supply of the sun will begin to run low. The sun in the far distant future will not become hotter, but will substantially expand. It is not difficult to imagine what will happen when the increasing solar radiation gradually affects the earth. First the oceans will evaporate the water vapour, together with the atmosphere, will escape into space. Then, the temperature of the surface will rise untill the surface materials again assume the liquid state. Life on earth will have terminated by that time. The next step in the development of the sun will occur suddenly, the sun will change into a completely different type of star, a white dwarf. It will be a sphere no bigger than the earth, with almost the same mass.The sun will still be able to hold all its planets in their orbits. It is quite possible that the sun will then continue to shine for some further billions of years, with a brightness much like the present.

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These thoughts have stimulated a great deal of speculation. It is possible that at that time a second act in the history of life on earth will start anew. The fantastic story of life on earth might repeat itself. All these events if they occur at all, are mostly of academic interest. They will not directly influence the fate of mankind. There is, however, the chance that, in the less distant future, other events and changes of earth will threaten mankind – for instance, natural catastrophes, such as floods or earthquakes. They occurred in the past, and they will surely occur in the future. Earthquakes and volcanic activity are closely related. Volcanic eruptions have been of great significance during the geological evolution of the earth. There would otherwise be no oceans. Earthquakes therefore, should be considered as a necessary evil, as they are among the geological processes that the earth will never be without. Still other phenomena on the earth’s surface cause catastrophes. A new ice age, for example, would be another catastrophe of the slow kind. This could occur during the next fifty thousand to one hundred thousand years. It would prevent the further rise of the sea level, but it would cause a sharp worsening of the climate all over the earth. In fact, an extensive glaciation of the planet would cause considerable lowering of the level, which in turn would uncover millions of square miles of new land in nonglaciated areas. These drastic changes would not have catastrophic consequences because mankind would have thousands of years to adapt to them. I. Vocabulary: fate prediction

участь, судьба предсказание

hydrogen supply to evaporate expand liquid state dwarf to shine (shone, shone) anew to threaten eruption evil to cause catastrophes worsening of the climate to prevent extensive glaciation drastic changes to adapt

запас водорода [i`vQp«reit] испаряться расширяться жидкое состояние [ `dw:f] карлик светить заново [`Tretn] угрожать извержение [`ivl] зло влечь за собой катастрофы ухудшение климата мешать, препятствовать обширное обледенение кардинальные изменения приспосабливаться

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II. Complete the sentences choosing the correct variant: 1. In the future the hydrogen supply of the sun will begin to… a) increase b) decrease c) change d) keep 2. The temperature of the surface will… a) become higher b) run low c) be the same d) be changeable 3. A new ice age would prevent the further rise of… a) the land b) the ocean c) the sea d) temperature III. Read the text and answer the questions: 1. Who accumulated enough information to make predictions about the future of the earth? 2. What will happen to the oceans with the increasing of solar radiation? 3. What kind of star will the sun become during the next step of its development? 4. Might the fantastic story of life on earth repeat itself? 5. How can earthquakes be considered? 6. Could a new ice age cause another catastrophe? 7. Is a sharp worsening of the climate possible in a new ice age? 8. Why would drastic changes of the earth not cause catastrophic changes? IV.

Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations: The fate of the earth, predictions about the future, the hydrogen supply, liquid state, to hold the planets in the orbits, to shine for billions of years, to be of great significance, all over the earth.

V. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Sum up the text using the key points: the future of the sun the future of the ocean natural catastrophes a new ice age and sharp worsening of the climate the possibility of mankind to adapt to drastic changes.