Developing Radiation Emergency Plans for Academic, Medical or Industrial Facilities (Report Series, No 111)

NCRP REPORT No. 111

DEVELOPING RADIATION EMERGENCY PLANS FOR ACADEMIC, MEDICAL O R INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES Recommendations of the NATIONAL COUNCIL O N RADIATION PROTEC'TION AND MEASUREMENTS

Issued August 30, 1991 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 7910 WOODMONT AVENUE 1 Bethesda, MD 20814

LEGAL NOTICE This report was prepared by t h e National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and useful information in its reports. However, neither the NCRP, the members of NCRP, other persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this report, nor any person acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information contained in this report, or that the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this report, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq. as amended 42 U.S.C. Section 2000e et seq. (Title VZZ) or any other statutory or common law theory governing liability.

Library of Congress Catalogim-in-PublicationData National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical, or industrial facilities : recommendations of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Meawrements. p. cm.-(NCRP report ;no. 111) Prepared by Scientiic Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness, under the auspices of Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety. "Issued 30 June 1991." Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-929600-20-7 1. Radiation-Safety measures. 2. Nuclear facilities-United Statessafety measures. 3. Emergency management-United States. 4. Laboratories--United States--Safety measures. 1. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Scientific Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness. 11. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. ScientiRc Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety. 111. Title. IV. Series. [DNLM: 1. Disaster Planning. 2. Emergencies. 3. Radiation Injuriesprevention & control. 4. Radiation Protection. WN 650 N277dI TK9152.N37 1991 363.17'99--dc20 DNLMDLC for Library of Congress 91-23659 CIP

Copyright O National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 1991 All rights resewed. This publication is protected by copyright. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or utilized by any information storage and retrievaI system without written permission from the copyright owner, except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews.

Preface This report is part of a series prepared under the auspices of Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety. It provides guidance on developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical or industrial facilities. Information on preparing and implementing an effective plan is provided. An approach to classification of radiation emergencies is developed and examples are provided in the Appendices. Practical considerations in handling an emergency are discussed with emphasis on recovery, restoration and preventing a recurrence. These recommendations are not intended for use at power reactors or other major nuclear facilities. Five reports have been published in this series: NCRP Report No. 59, Operational Radiation Safety Programs, NCRP Report No. 71, Operational Radiation Safety-Training,NCRP Report No. 88, Radiation Alarms and Access Control Systems, NCRP Report No. 105, Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel and NCRP Report No. 107, Implementation of the Principle of as low as Reasonably achievable (ALARA) for Medical and Dental Personnel. Under preparation a t this time are reports treating radiation safety in the mineral extraction industry, survey instrument calibration and radiation protection records. In accordance with the recommendations of NCRP Report No. 82, SI Units in Radiation Protection and Measurements only SI units are used in the text. Readers needing factors for conversion of SI to conventional units are encouraged to consult Report No. 82. This report was prepared by Scientific Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness which operated under the auspices of Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety. Serving on Scientific Committee 46-7 were: George R. Holeman, Chairman Yale University New Haven, Connecticut

David E. Drum Brigham and Women's Hospital Boston, Massachusetts

Martha M. Malter University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California

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PREFACE

Ronald L. Frederickson Kenosha, Wisconsin Daniel B.Howell Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey

Kenneth W. Price University of Connecticut Farmington, Connecticut Gerald T. Lonergan University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa

Scientific Committee 46 Liaison Member

Robert G. Wissink Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company St. Paul, Minnesota

NCRP Secretariat Robert T. Wangemann (1986) James A. Spahn Jr. (1986-1991) Serving on Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety were:

Charles B Meinhold, Chairman Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York

William R. Casey (1983-1989) Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York

Thomas D. Murphy GPU Nuclear Parsippany, New Jersey David S. Myers Lawrence Livermore Laboratories Livermore, California

Robert J. Catlin University of Texas Houston, Texas

Keith J. Schiager University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah

William R. Hendee Medical College of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Ralph H. Thomas Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Livermore, California

Kenneth R. Kase University of Massachusetts Worcester, Massachusetts

Robert G. Wissink Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company St. Paul, Minnesota

Ernest A. Belvin (1983-1987) Tennessee Valley Authority Chatanooga, Tennessee

PREFACE

James E. McLaughlin University of California, Los Angeles, California

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Paul L. Ziemer (19&1990) Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana

The council wishes to express its appreciation to the committee members for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of this report. Warren K. Sinclair President, NCRP Bethesda, Maryland 7 February, 1991

Contents Preface .......................................... 1 Introduction .................................... 1.1 Scope and Objective of this Report ................ 1.2 Development of a Plan ......................... 1.3 Types of Facilities ............................. 1.4 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel ....... 2 Preparing a Radiation Emergency Plan ............ 2.1 Introduction .................................. 2.2 Emergency Plan Development .................. 2.3 Management Support and Assignment of Responsibility ................................ 2.4 Emergency Organization Structure ............... 2.4.1 Emergency Coordinator ................... 2.4.2 Emergency Director ...................... 2.4.3 Other Members of the Emergency Response Team .................................. 3 Preparing Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures ..................................... 3.1 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) . . 3.1.1 Contents of Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures .............................. 3.2 Emergency Facilities. Supplies and Equipment . . . . . 3.3 Emergency Organization Personnel ............... 3.4 Maintaining Emergency Reparedness ............ 3.4.1 Maintenance of Emergency Plan ............ 3.4.2 Training ................................ 4 Classification of Radiation Emergencies ........... 4.1 Sources of Radiation ........................... 4.1.1 Sealed Sources ........................... 4.1.2 Unsealed Sources ........................ 4.1.3 Machine Produced Radiation ............... 4.2 Emergencies for Which a Plan May Be Necessary ... 4.3 Associated Hazards ............................ 4.3.1 Biohazards (Infectious Agents) ........ : ..... 4.3.2 Toxic and Flammable or Explosive Materials . . 4.4 Emergency Planning Guidelines and Classification . . 4.5 Using the Emergency Classification System ........ 4.5.1 Incident ................................ 4.5.2 Level One Emergency .....................

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CONTENTS

4.5.3 Level Two Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.4 Precaution in Applying Classification Schemes

5 Practical Considerations in Handling an Emergency 5.1 Personnel Notification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Evaluation of Emergency ....................... 5.3 Plan Activation Levels ......................... 5.4 Emergency Response ........................... 5.4.1 Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Level One Emergency ..................... 5.4.3 Level Two Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Recovery and Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 Exposure Control During Recovery and

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Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 5.5.2 Dose Assessment ......................... 37 5.5.3 Restoration Management .................. 37 5.6 Preventing a Recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 5.7 Documentation and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 5.8 Media Releases ............................... 39 5.9 Other Considerations .......................... 39 5.9.1 Management Involvement ................. 39 5.9.2 Training Aids ........................... 39 40 6 Implementation and Evaluation of the Plan 6.1 Plan Approval ................................ 40 6.2 Testing and Modification of the Plan .............. 40 6.2.1 Elements of the Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6.2.2 Initial Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6.2.3 Review of Exercise ....................... 42 6.2.4 Unannounced Exercise .................... 42 6.3 Exercise Scenario ............................. 42 6.3.1 Scenario Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 6.3.2 The Roles of Controllers and Evaluators 44 6.4 Evaluation of the Exercise ...................... 45 6.4.1 Analyses of Deficiencies and Weaknesses ...... 45 6.4.2 Implementation of Solutions ................ 46 7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 APPENDIX A Glossary ............................. 48

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APPENDIX B Sample Emergency Plan for a n Industrial Research Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 APPENDIX C Sample Emergency Plan for a Medical Facility .............................. 74 APPENDIX D Emergency Classification Examples ....... 97 References ....................................... 106 The NCRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 NCRP Publications ..................................116 INDEX ...........................................126

1. Introduction The widespread use of radioactive materials and ionizing radiation in education, research, medicine, and industry has made it essential to prepare in advance for potential radiation emergencies. Radiation emergencies may vary from minor contamination to significant whole body exposures, and it is important for managers and administrators to ensure that appropriate, effective procedures are in place to cover the range of possible radiation emergencies. A viable plan designed to minimize the impact upon patients, employees, visitors, and the public should be available to managers and administrators. Offsite emergency planners and offsite emergency response personnel are an integral part of any viable plan, and effective interface between facility personnel and offsite personnel in the planning and emergency phases is extremely important in order to protect the health and safety of all involved. An effective radiation emergency plan will be an integral part of a facility's or institution's overall emergency plan covering all types of emergencies. An effective radiation emergency plan will also match appropriate available resources to control the consequences with the emergency's potential effects. The response of the radiation safety personnel must be planned to correspond to the potential impact of the emergency. It is not intended that the entire plan be activated for each emergency and provisions for a graded response should be included. For example, the full emergency plan will not need to be invoked for every minor spill of radioactive material where there is no potential for significant personnel exposure or the spread of contamination. There is considerable emergency planning literature available for major installations such as nuclear power plants and major government facilities. However, there is minimal guidance for academic, medical and industrial facilities. Hospital accreditation groups, such as the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), require hospitals to have emergency plans which detail management of, and acceptance criteria for, accident victims exposed to radiation or contaminated with radioactive material. The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) has issued several related reports, such as Report No. 65 Manugement of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides,

(NCRP, 1980) which gives guidance in managing patients. This report has been written to provide generic guidance for development of a plan and implementing procedures to respond to a radiation emergency which may occur in these facilities. It is not intended for emergency planning at power reactors or other major nuclear facilities.

1.1 Scope and Objective of this Report

In recognition that the requirements for radiation emergencyplanning a t academic, medical and industrial facilities have not been well defined, this report has been prepared to assist a planner in: defining a range of credible emergencies that could develop at these types of facilities; determining the radiological impact for a potential range of emergencies; and developing the implementing procedures to prevent, mitigate and remedy the adverse consequences of the emergencies. This report is intended to assist in preparing plans t o cope with emergencies having a potential for exposure to radiation. In assessing local circumstances, factors other than radiation may dictate a more intensive response than may be required by the radiation emergency alone, e g . , a life-threatening traumatic injury of a radiation contaminated worker. Terms used in the report are defined in Appendix A. Two terms used in the report have a special meaning as indicated by the use of italics: 1) Shall and shall not are used to indicate that adherence to the recommendations is considered necessary to meet accepted standards of protection. 2) Should and should not are used to indicate a prudent practice, exceptions to which may occasionally be made in appropriate circumstance.

1.2 Development of a Plan

To develop a plan, several questions must be addressed: What types and quantities of radioactive material or radiationproducing devices are actually being used, and what procedures are likely to lead to serious accidents?

1.3 TYPES OFFACILlTIES

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What are the associated procedures, facilities, and equipment and their complexity? Are the status, education, and experience of the workers appropriate to the tasks being performed? Which emergencies involving radiation have previously occurred a t this or similar facilities? Which procedure or failure of equipment may lead to significant radiation exposures or radionuclide releases? Which are the most severe emergencies likely to occur which would have an impact on workers, the public andlor the environment? Information is presented in this report for use in the classification of emergencies based solely on radiological exposure and designed to be conservative, i.e., prevent under-classification of an emergency involving radiation. The tables represent condensed versions of the guides and limits in the literature and therefore should be used with caution in determining emergency classification. Extreme caution should also be used in applying these values to actuul dose assessments, without further supplemental data.

1.3 Types of Facilities This guide is applicable to academic, medical, and industrial facilities. Academicfacilities may range from a single radionuclide laboratory in a small college to extensive radionuclide receiving, storage, dispensing, and research laboratories in major universities. Larger academic facilities may also have onsite particle accelerators andlor research reactors. Medical facilities may range from small community hospitals with a clinical laboratory and a small nuclear medicine section to a multi-hospital medical school complex. Some medical facilities may operate small accelerators and/or research reactors. Industrial facilities include manufacturers or users of sources and irradiators, radiochemicals, and operators of accelerators and research reactors. Industrial radiography is included within this tzroup. The purpose of emergency planning is to anticipate potential problems and devise a plan and its implementing procedures that will successfully prevent or remedy adverse consequences. Different emergencies require varying levels of response. This report has been developed as a guide so that an effective plan can be formulated to suit the needs and requirements of each individual facility, large or small.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.4 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel

Academic, medical and industrial organizations which use radioactive materials and radiation-producing devices are required both by statutes and sound judgement to provide for the radiation protection of employees and to minimize exposure of the general public. The magnitude and sophistication of the radiation protection program are dictated by the potential risk associated with the use of radioactive material or radiation-producing equipment, the operations involved, and the regulatory requirements (NCRP, 1978). A Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) is generally appointed by the management of an institution ta oversee the radiation protection program. The training and experience of the RSO should be commensurate with the potential radiation risks. The RSO should be a health physicist or have an academic degree in the physical or biological sciences or engineering with appropriate training and experience in radiation health sciences. The RSO's professional experience should include application of this training to management and administration of a radiation safety program. The RSO should be designated by management in the emergency plan as the individual responsible for the functional area ofradiation protection. The existing radiation protection program should form the core of the emergency response preparedness. If adequate emergency radiation protection expertise is not available on site, then the emergency plan should make appropriate provisions for obtaining such expertise on a timely basis.

2. Preparing a Radiation Emergency Plan 2.1 Introduction The emergency plan must be brief. Specific actions required by the plan are as described in the Emergency Plan Implementation Procedures. The body of the Plan should describe the emergency organization. The emergency plan should clearly address the range of emergency conditions that could occur at the facility. The purpose of the emergency classificationsystem is to provide a basis for defining the level of response based on the potential for radiation exposure (See Section 4).

2.2 Emergency Plan Development An emergency plan provides a framework for immediate response to a wide range of emergency conditions. The degree of development of each implementing procedure specified in the plan will depend on the potential consequences of &hehazard as well as the availability of resources. The following subjects need to be considered in the development of an emergency plan: evaluation of accident potential management support emergency organization emergency facilities and equipment implementing procedures emergency training and retraining coordination with outside agencies public relations legal assistance termination of the emergency restoration of the facility testing and critiquing the plan.

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2. PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

All institutions, whether academic, medical or industrial should develop some type of plan for responding to emergencies. The degree of planning necessary for each institution can be determined only through careful evaluation of the potential for an emergency, as well as its severity.

2.3 Management Support and Assignment of Responsibility At any institution, the level of management that makes the decisions necessary to implement policy and commit resources must ensure that there is an appropriate level of emergency preparedness a t the institution. An individual should be appointed as the overall coordinator of the emergency preparedness program. This should be a formal appointment, and appropriate authority should be granted to the Emergency Coordinator (see Section 2.4.1) to perform assigned duties. Coordination between the institution and outside assistance organizations, such as fire, police, the public, and the news media, is the responsibility of management. Management should appoint a contact person to interact with offsite planning and response organizations. This would probably be the Emergency Coordinator. All such coordination must be clearly documented. Criteria must be established for selection of personnel assigned to emergency preparedness positions. A mechanism should be provided for input to the emergency preparedness program by all employees who will have an active role in the plan. Professional development training should be made available to emergency personnel to maintain state-of-the-art knowledge in emergency preparedness planning. Such training is available through a number of universities, government laboratories and private consulting firms.

2.4 Emergency Organization Structure

A necessary part of any emergency preparedness plan is to define the lines of authority and functions of all individuals that will be involved. The emergency organization should account for absences and be flexible enough to handle a wide range of events. Duties of key personnel should be designated so that the required level of response to an emergency can be determined quickly. Decisions regarding when to escalate the response must be made as quickly as

2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

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possible. The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for developing the emergency plan. The emergency preparedness organizational structure should specify by title or position the individuals who will be assigned to various functions. For example, the Chief Administrative OfEcer for a medical institution might be the Emergency Director (See Section 2.3.2). In the case of an industrial organization, the plant manager might be designated as the Emergency Director. All or some of the following functional units should be included in an emergency response team: radiation safety security and traffic control public information fire, safety and hazardous substance control physical plant services medical services legal counsel. In certain situations it may be appropriate to involve operations personnel (personnel associated with operation of the affected area) as members of the emergency response teams. At the time of an emergency, the manager or director of each of the functional units listed in the emergency plan should report to the Emergency Director (See Section 2.4.2). These individuals, together with the Emergency Director, will comprise the emergency organization depicted in Figure 2.1 and may be physically located in one central area during the emergency response. The introduction to the emergency plan should contain concise statements which describe: the type of facility the address or location the purpose and objectives of the emergency plan management's commitment to the purpose and objectives of the plan, and delegation of authority to key personnel. 2.4.1 Emergency Coordinator

The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for developingan emergency plan, for maintaining the document and related distribution lists. The Emergency Coordinator should be included in all routine matters that have an impact on emergency planning, such as budget meetings, facility planning, modifications and procedural changes. The Emergency Coordinator may or may not be assigned a role in responding to an emergency. The duties of the Emergency Coordina-

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2. PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN ADMINISTRATION

RADIATION SAFETY GROUP

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EMERGENCY DIRECTOR

MEDICAL GROUP

I OFFSITE COMMUNITY AGENCIES

PUBLK: INFORMATION OFFICER

SECURINIGROUP TRAFFIC CONTROL

LEGAL COUNSEL

1:;:: 1 1 EEZ;: 1 FIRE. SAFETY AND

Fig. 2.1 Concept of an Emergency Organization.

tor shall be detailed in an Emergency Plan ImplementingProcedure (EPIP).Section 3 discusses in detail the format and content of specific EPIPs. It is possible, and may be desirable, that the functions of Emergency Coordinator and Emergency Director will be performed by the same person. 2.4.2 Emergency Director

The Emergency Director exercises command and control over all of the institutional emergency response personnel in the event of a declared emergency and works in close liaison with the offsite response agencies. The position carries the responsibilityand authority to initiate any emergency action within the emergency plan necessary to correct or mitigate hazards created by the emergency situation. The Emergency Director should provide a point of contact between the offsite and onsite response personnel to assure coordination. It is essential that offsite emergency response personnel are not prevented from performing their normal legal responsibilities to protect the health and safety of the public and to assure that these personnel have the proper information to perform their responsibilities safely and in the best interests of the public.

2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

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The individual designated as the Emergency Director may not always be immediately available when an emergency arises. Hence, it is essential that the call list for initial contact and the levels of responsibility be clearly defined. The initial responder will be the person in charge until the Emergency Director or the designated alternate arrives, at which time the leadership will be transferred and responsibilities appropriately divided. In many smaller institutions, the supervisory security personnel or the individual assigned to the position of night supervisor could be the designated Emergency Director until properly relieved. The emergency plan should clearly specify the lines of authority, not only for the Emergency Director's position, but also for the team leader of each functional unit shown in Figure 2.1. The duties of the Emergency Director shall be detailed in an EPIP.

2.4.3 Other Members of the Emergency Response Team

In addition to the Emergency Director, the emergency response team should include a radiation safety officer, an institutional security officer, a plant services or facilities operations supervisor, fire marshal, and public information officer. The team may also include other safety professionals, such as an industrial hygienist, biohazards expert and a physician or allied health care professional. The duties of each member of the emergency response team shall be detailed in an EPIP. Any one of these individuals may also be the Emergency Director. The radiation safety expert may be the institutional radiation safety officer or a consultant health physicist. Many of the above responsibilities and individuals may overlap in their job functions. In a small facility many responsibilities might be borne by one individual. The team may also include operational personnel, when needed. The type of emergency, location or time of day of the emergency would dictate who would first assume the responsibility of Emergency Director. The Radiation Safety Officer and other radiation safety staff should be available to respond to the radiological aspects of any emergency. The Radiation Safety Officer is responsible for immediate assessment of actual or potential exposure to radiation, in order to determine the appropriate level of emergencyresponse. The Radiation Safety Officer should determine requirements for dosimetry, bioassay and environmental monitoring activities as required to assess the radiation exposure potential and to activate special assistance teams as rapidly as possible.

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2. PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

The experience and general knowledge of the institutional Security Officer can provide an essential capability in the control of most emergency situations. Among the emergency response functions often assigned to the security department are evacuation of personnel, establishment and control of assembly areas, personnel accountability, access control, rescue and f i s t aid, provision of transportation and communication for emergency teams and liaison with local law enforcement agencies and medical facilities. The responsibility for ensuring the availability of essential services, such as electricity, water, ventilation, heating, and cooling is commonly assigned to Physical Plant Services. The provision and maintenance of such services normally requires an around-the-clock availability of personnel familiar with these operations. The Plant Services Director or Supervisor should be designated as one of the emergency response team members. Among the emergency response functions of Plant Services are facility damage assessment, repair work, technical support and liaison with public utilities suppliers. Plant services personnel provide the emergency director with an essential first response capability for the Emergency Organization. In addition, they are a trained and experienced resource for repair of facilities and equipment throughout an emergency situation. Most institutions do not have a full-time fire marshal or fire department and must rely on response from local fire departments. Whatever the degree of development of this function within the institution, the individual assigned the responsibility for fire protection must be included among the primary advisors to the Emergency Director. This individual will provide broad knowledge of the institution's fire potential, facility layout, engineered fire protection systems and availability and capabilities of equipment and personnel. The training and experience of the fire protection personnel can also be useful in coordination with local governmental fire protection agencies. The role of the offsite support agencies, such as fire and police, may vary considerably and should be factored into the emergency plan. Frequently, an emergency involving radiation would also involve other hazardous substances, such as chemical, biological and infectious agents, carcinogens and cytotoxic substances. Many institutions have an industrial hygienist on staff who would be in charge of hazardous substance control, and could provide valuable assistance to the Emergency Director. The institution's Public Information Officer is responsible for timely release of all information to the media and public. A community's perception of radiation often creates anxiety and it is essential that accurate information be given to the media. All contacts with the news media should be reviewed and released by the Public Infor-

2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

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mation Officer. It is important that this individual is aware, and keeps the media apprised, of all current information. The Public Information Officer must have a basic understanding of radiation and its terminology. All information should be transmitted to the Public Information W c e r by the Emergency Director or designee. The public information responsibility should not be left to staff members who are dealing with the emergency or providing emergency medical care. The Public Information Officer should be considered an indispensable member of the Emergency Director's staff in any emergency and should be involved in all preliminary emergency preparedness planning. A health professional is a valuable member of an emergency response team. If medical facilities are not available within an institution, it is of paramount importance to set up arrangements with a hospital designated to accept patients that might be involved in a radiation emergency. It is the institution's responsibility to ensure that the hospital staff members are provided training and are included in drills. The duties of each member of the emergency response team shall be detailed in an EPIP.

3. Preparing Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures 3.1 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs)

If the emergency plan is complex, it shall be implemented through the use of emergency plan implementing procedures (EPIPs). EPIPs are documented instructions which describe the actions necessary to achieve the emergency plan objectives. The EPIPs should be written to cover the range of emergency classifications (see Section 4). These procedures should be attached to the plan and available for reference during an emergency. Sample EPIPs are contained in the sample plans in Appendices B and C. Implementation of simple emergency plans, for example, a plan appropriate for a small manufacturing concern using small amounts of radioactive materials of low potential for radiation exposure, do not require the use of EPIPs. The EPIPs should address the actions needed during restoration of the facility, as well as during the emergency. In this respect, certain routine administrative, radiation protection, and maintenance procedures should not be restated as EPIPs, but merely referenced in the emergency plan. The EPIPs should be developed using input from the individuals who will be using the procedures and should not be placed into service until they have been thoroughly tested. It is also necessary that the EPIPs be compatible with existing documents, such as an institution's existing plan to deal with any type of emergency. The EPIPs should identify individuals and their designated alternates by title and assigned responsibilities.

3.1.1

Contents of Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures

The following should be considered in developing each EPIP: description of the purpose of the EPIP

3.2 EMERGENCY FACILITIES, SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

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identification of the individual or the organizational unit which has both the authority and responsibility for implementing the EPIP identification of appropriate means of communications including telephone numbers description of the action sequence to achieve the purpose description of any prerequisites to the performance of the specified actions specification of the precautions and limitations to be observed during the performance of the prescribed task(s) specification of guidelines to be followed in the exercise ofjudgment on the part of an individual, either in the interpretation of results, action levels, or recommendation of protective actions specification of training requirements reference any routine procedure in an EPIP and make available to the user of the EPIP attach copies or examples of forms to be used in carrying out tasks to the EPIP include sign-off sheets, checklists and/or data sheets to document completion of the actions prescribed in the EPIP.

3.2 Emergency Facilities, Supplies and Equipment

The institution should make available to the emergency response teams the facilities and equipment necessary as required in the EPIPs. The facilities and equipment should be supplied only to the extent required by the most serious credible emergency classification. Adequate emergency equipment, such as radiation detection instrumentation, sampling equipment, personnel dosimeters, personal protective equipment, decontamination supplies and communication systems should be readily available and operable. Measurement and sampling equipment must be calibrated and consistent with the requirements described in the emergency plan. Following is a listing of recommended items that should be available for dealing with radiation emergencies: copies of the emergency plan and EPIPs space for Emergency Director and staff communication links between team members cummunication links with outside public agencies personal protective equipment radiation detection equipment air sampling and counting equipment

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data display modes, such as status boards, and maps facility floor plans reference material computer or calculator. The communication system must be able to maintain communication between members of each response team and the control center, as well as communication with outside emergency forces such as police, fire, hospital, health department and public information officials. Communication equipment should include as a minimum a dedicated telephone and two-way radios. It may be advisable to install some type of restricted communication system, such as telephones dedicated for emergency use only. The use and installation of such equipment and communicationnetworks must be appropriate for the level of emergency deemed credible for the facility. Data display, such as message boards, maps and status boards are necessary to indicate facility, radiological and meteorological conditions. Copies of pertinent regulatory agency licenses and regulations and a listing of regulatory reporting levels should be maintained and readily available. The configuration of facilities and buildings a t many medical, academic and industrial institutions may mean that the radiation protection office is not centrally located. Consideration should be given to either preparing an emergency response kit for transport to the emergency site or the establishment of an emergency supply locker in a more central location. In particular, a separate radiation emergency supply locker should be prepared and located for use in the emergency room of a hospital.

3.3 Emergency Organization Personnel EPIPs should be prepared for each of the following functional positions. emergency director security/police personnel radiation safety officer public information officer plant services director institutional fire marshal medical officer legal counsel. The Emergency Director must make an immediate assessment of the situation and make the decision that there is an emergency

3.4 MAINTAINING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

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situation. If there is a true emergency situation, the Emergency Director's responsibilities are to bring the emergency situation under control as effectively as possible and to institute remedial action to permit safe return to routine operations. When an emergency occurs, the designated representative of each functional unit should report to the Emergency Director to provide consultation and information to the Emergency Director and other officials as necessary (Figure 2.1). Individuals should be in direct communicationwith their own hnctional unit. The radiation protection staff should normally be alerted and directed to report as required by the EPIP. Similarly, all other units should report as required by their EPIPs. The emergency plan should define each responding group and indicate by title the individuals responsible for directing each group. This listing should provide the Emergency Director with a selection of capabilitieswhen structuring a specific emergency response team. The composition of each team should allow specificemergency tasks to be accomplished ranging from initial assessment to preparation of the incident report. Each individual assigned to an emergency response team should: be thoroughly familiar with the institution's emergency plan know the elements of radiation protection in practice at the facility be aware of assigned functional group assignments be knowledgeable of emergency site procedures be trained in performance of assigned tasks be familiar with appropriate protective equipment be involved in plan rehearsals, drills and exercises know when to involve offsite emergency response agencies.

3.4 Maintaining Emergency Preparedness The emergency plan should describe how emergency preparedness will be maintained and how the effectiveness of the emergency plan will be routinely tested.

3.4.1 Maintenance of Emergency Plan The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for updating and maintaining the emergency plan, as well as scheduling and documenting drills and exercises. The emergency plan should provide for periodic update of the emergency plan, EPIPs, and agreements with offsite

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3. EMERGENCY PLAN IMPLEMENTING PROCEDURES

support organizations and agencies. This should include reviews by those responsible for emergency planning, the incorporation of modifications resulting from drills or changes in the facility or environment, and the distribution of amendments to the plan. 3.4.2

Tmining

Emergency situations can cause changes in reporting pathways, in the scope and nature ofduties and in the perceptions of individuals, particularly when radiation is involved. When under stress, individuals may exhibit counterproductivebehavior. Proper training helps establish acceptable behavior patterns and minimizes abnormal response. The objective of an emergency plan training program is to ensure that all personnel assigned emergency response tasks are trained to perform their respective duties. The EPIPs should describe initial training and periodic retraining programs for all individuals who could be involved in response to an emergency, including backup personnel. The training should include familiarity with each individual's role in the overall response plan to an emergency. Response team members requiring training include those persons responsible for: decision making communications accident assessment radiation safety first aid and rescue medical support police, security, ambulance and fire fighting services public information hazardous substances control (chemical, biohazards). The training should include demonstrations and actual hands-on use of equipment, as well a s classroom instruction. The emergency plan training program should also include training, as needed, for those outside agencies which may be required to respond to an emergency, such as police, fire, ambulance and emergency medical personnel. This training should include specific instruction in the institution's procedures for notification, basic radiation protection, site access and the expected role(s) of the trainees. After emergency personnel are trained to manage radiation accidents, continuous positive feedback must be provided for their learning experience.Photographs and videotapes ofactivities during drills are valuable aids in accomplishing this objective.

4. Classification of Radiation Emergencies An emergency is an event which results in an actual or potential threat to the safety of personnel and/or the facility and which requires immediate response. The Emergency Director is placed in the position of deciding the level of action required, which must include the avoidance of overreaction to trivial situations. In order to assist the Emergency Director, a method for classifying radiation emergencies according to the potential for radiation exposure is discussed in this section. It should be emphasized that this information is provided as guidance for the Emergency Director, and that professional judgment plays an important role in the final emergency planning for a specific facility.

4.1 Sources of Radiation

To assist in planning for the consequences of an emergency, it is appropriate to categorize and identify the location of sources of radiation as follows: sealed or encapsulated sources unsealed sources machine-produced radiation. Classificationof the source in this way aids considerably in evaluating the type of radiation hazard which may exist in the event of an emergency. The individual responsible for each source should be identified. 4.1.1

Sealed Sources

Sealed sources of radioactive material generally meet strict performance tests. Such source evaluations are conducted on sealed source designs and ensure source integrity when source is subjected to specified temperatures, external pressure, impact, vibration, and puncture stresses. Consequently, sealed sources should maintain their integrity for most accident conditions. However, they may pose

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4. CLASSIFICATION O F RADIATION EMERGENCIES

a significant external exposure hazard. If sealed sources are subjected to unusual stresses, (i.e., stresses beyond those for which they were designed) radioactive material may be released. 4.1.2

Unsealed Sources

Many facilities use radioactive materials that are in a solid (e.g., powder), liquid or gaseous state. Such facilities include hospitals, universities, and manufacturers of radionuclide products. Unsealed sources of radioactive material are more easily dispersed into the facility and the environment than are sealed sources. Contamination by, and ingestion or inhalation of, radioactive material must be considered in planning for emergencies involving unsealed sources. 4.1.3

Machine Produced Radiation

This category includes x-ray machines, x-ray fluorescence equipment, x-ray diffraction equipment, particle accelerators, and any other electronic equipment which may produce ionizing radiation. Except where activation of components is possible, the radiation exists only while the machine is operating. Emergencies associated with radiation-producing equipment usually involve a limited number of individuals.

4.2 Emergencies for Which a Plan May Be Necessary

Radiation emergencies are unplanned events which reduce the level of radiation safety for individuals working in the facility or for the general public. Unexpected events which have the potential for release of radioactive material beyond the bounds of a facility or have the potential for exposure or involvement of the general public should be considered in constructing an emergency plan. All potential emergencies require a plan of action. There is a large variety of potential emergencies which may occur. In planning for these, it is important that plans not go beyond a credible worst case situation to ensure an appropriate level of response. This section provides information which the emergency planner can consider in constructing an emergency plan. A number of emergency situations are discussed in Section 4.5. These are presented as typical and are not intended to include all possible emergencies.

4.2 EMERGENCIES FOR WHICH A PLAN MAY BE NECESSARY

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19

Emergencies may result from equipment malfunction andlor human error. The failure of exposure limiting devices or mechanisms used for controlling sources of radiation may lead to significant partial or whole body irradiations. Failure of devices such as interlocks and source positioning mechanisms should be considered in emergency planning. Sealed source rupture should be considered if a source of radiation can be associated with a fire, explosion, flood, or mechanical damage. Theft, vandalism, unauthorized use and civil disorder should be considered when assessing the possibility of radioactive source dispersal or loss. Such events may involve the general public and local emergency personnel such as fire fighters, police, and emergency areas of local hospitals. The potential for release of radioactive material outside the bounds of a facility mandates the development of an emergency plan. Radioactive materials transportation accidents should be considered if they are "credible" for a given facility. For these and other similar situations, potential exposures for both employees and the general public should be evaluated and plans developed to mitigate these exposures. The most common cause of a radiation emergency is human error. Such errors are the result of fatigue, lack of training, complacency, substance abuse or carelessness. Although it is difficult to identify conditions which may lead to such emergencies, they can be identified in terms of the radiological effects to be expected. For example, accidents can be assessed in terms of the potential for: external whole or partial body exposures due to point or area sources of radiation exposures due to skin contamination internal exposures due to ingestion or inhalation internal exposures due to puncture, lacerations, or skin contamination internal and external exposures due to submersion in a radioactive medium. Radiation emergencies involving unsealed radioactive materials may be more likely to occur than those emergencies involving sealed sources. Emergency plans must be in place to deal with events ranging from a minor skin contamination to the potential for exposure of the general public. It is important to consider the exposure pathway as listed above, rather than each condition which may lead to an accident. Two examples of such emergency classifications (for a cosmetics manufacturer and a university) are provided in Appendix D. Emergencies are classified in this report only on the basis of the potential for radiological exposure.The Emergency Coordinator shall include the radiological emergency plan within a broad emergency plan. An event which may be radiologically insignificant may be

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4. CLASSLFICATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

serious from the point of view of other hazards, or if the public is involved. 4.3 Associated Hazards

Any emergency may be accompanied by life threatening medical emergencies such as wounds, burns, fractures, or other trauma. Within the facilities considered in this report, biological and chemical hazards, in addition to hazards resulting from malfunctioning equipment may be present. The risks Erom these associated hazards, alone or in combination with radiation exposure, may be greater than those from the exposure to ionizing radiation itself and must be considered. Laboratory equipment is subject to malfunctions. Simple failure of controls, a minor problem when nonhazardous materials are involved, could be critical in units employing hazardous materials. 4.3.1 Biohazards (Infectious Agents)

The manufacture and use of radionuclides for analytical purposes (e.g.,radioimmunoassays,cell labeling, and DNA hybridization)may

lead to combined radiological and biological hazards in a single procedure. Where such agents are known to be present together, the advice of a qualified biohazard control specialist should be integrated with that of a health physicist. For example, the choice of decontaminating materials used in cleaning an area containing both biological and radiological contaminants is important. The disinfectant used must be effective against the infectious agent and any impact on radiological characteristics must be evaluated (Sehulster et al., 1981). Many decontaminating materials are toxic and irritating, and the advice of a qualified industrial hygienist should be obtained in planning for their use. This planning should include consideration of respiratory and skin protection, as well as training for emergency response personnel. Autoclaving of biologically contaminated wastes is normally the preferred procedure because of its effectiveness in killing the biological material, however, the possibility of volatilizing some of the radioactive material must be considered. 4.3.2

Toxic and Flammable or Explosive Materials

The presence of highly toxic chemicals and flammable or explosive materials should be known to the emergency planner and to the

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES

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emergency response team. Emergency plans should reference procedures for safe handling of these materials. Information about safe handling of hazardous materials is usually available from the manufacturer in the form of a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). If the MSDS is not provided when the material is purchased, it should be obtained from the manufacturer. In general, the information provided describes the hazards involved, the means to use the materials safely, and actions to be taken if an accident occurs.

4.4 Emergency Planning Guidelines and Classification Planning for an emergency involving radiation requires evaluation of potential external dose equivalents and internal committed dose equivalents to the exposed population. After determination of potential exposures, an assessment of the potential seriousness of different exposure conditions should be used to develop appropriate response plans. The classification of an emergency is essential to the development of an acceptable response plan, although the process of establishing an emergency classification scheme based on potential radiation exposure is difficult. Exposure to intense external radiation fields can produce relatively high doses and these doses may produce severe clinical effects. Situations involving contamination and intake of radioactive material usually result in a low rate of dose accumulation and generally produce no immediate clinical effects. Emergency planning is concerned with response to both types of exposure conditions. It is prudent to classify the most serious emergency as one which may produce nonstochastic effects. Nonstochastic effects are those for which the severity of the effect in affected individuals varies with the dose, and for which a threshold may therefore occur (NCRP, 1987). Nonstochastic effects include cataract induction, nonmalignant damage to the skin, hematological deficiencies, and impairment of fertility (BEIR, 1980; NCRP, 1987). Emergencies which would have the potential for producing serious nonstochastic effects require planning for medical treatment of the exposed individuals. Within the scope ofthis report, accident classificationsare based on potential dose, with the classification increasing with potential dose. This report is based on the assumption that facilities in which radiation emergencies could involve large numbers of individuals will have emergency plans in place. Therefore, the scope of this report does not include consideration of facilities where exposure to

,

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4. CLASSIFICATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

a large segment of the population is likely. Although collective dose (person-sieverts) may be a significant factor in assessing the risk from a large accident, such situations are considered to be outside the scope of this report. If potential exposures are below nonstochastic thresholds, the major emphasis of the emergency plan should be to limit stochastic effects in exposed individuals. Stochastic effects are those in which the probability of occurrence (rather than its severity) is a function of dose without threshold. Radiation induced cancer is the major stochastic effect (BEIR, 1980; NCRP, 1987). Special care shall be taken to protect the embryolfetus (NCRP, 1987). Situations involving radiation exposure are characterized in this report as Incidents Level One Emergencies Level Two Emergencies An Incident is a situation which results in any unplanned exposure or any unplanned release of radioactive material. Level One Emergencies occur when exposures in excess of applicable effective dose equivalent limits are possible (NCRP, 1987).Level Two Emergencies occur when exposures high enough to produce nonstochastic effects in those exposed are possible. Table4.1 provides threshold doses for effects in various organs (UNSCEAR, 1982; ICRP, 1984a; NCRP, 1987; NRC, 1989) This is a planning document and the individuals responsible for preparing emergency plans need to be realistic in assessing the potential for radiation exposure and subsequently placing into Incident, Level One or Level Two Emergency Categories. In evaluation of emergency classifications it is clear that an exposure potential within any applicable effective dose equivalent limit should be considered as an incident. If any limit may be exceeded, the classification may be a Level One or a Level Two Emergency, depending on the magnitude of the estimated dose equivalent. If the dose equivalent exceeds any of the threshold doses for nonstochastic effects listed in Table 4.1, the emergency must be classified as a Level Two. It should be noted that the NCRP has recommended, as an effective dose equivalent limit for an individual member of the public, 5 mSv TABLE4.1-Threshold doses for effeets Tissue exposed

Skin (erythema) All other organs (eg., bone marrow depression, lens opacification)

Dose equivalent >3 Sv >0.5 Sv

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES

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for infrequent annual exposures from any given radiation source (NCRP, 1987). If a member of the public could be exposed to a dose in excess of 5 mSv this could be considered a Level One Emergency. It should be emphasized that an exposure of 5 mSv to a member of the general public may indeed be considered significant. The NCRP recommends as a limit for continuous or frequent exposure of members of the public an annual limit of 1mSv. The NCRP recommends that only when an annual effective dose equivalent is less than 0.01 mSv should it be considered as representing a negligible individual risk (NCRP, 1987). Therefore, all involved with the control of potential exposures to workers or the public should maintain exposures as low as reasonably achievable during the recovery period. Tables 4.2 to 4.5 are intended to assist the Emergency Director in the classification of potential emergencies involving radiation. They provide the means for the estimation of internal and submersion committed dose equivalents for skin or external dose equivalents produced by exposure to various radionuclides. The committed dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the most highly exposed tissue in the body that will occur over a period of 50 years after the intake of a radionuclide. The data presented in Table 4.2 are taken from ICRP Publication 30 and its supplements (ICRP, 1979a; 197923; 1980; 1981a; 1981b; 1982a; 1982b)and may be used to approximate the most conservative committed dose equivalents resulting from ingestion, inhalation and absorption from wounds that may occur during emergencies involving the radionuclides listed. The data of Table 4.2 are maximum dose equivalents for adults and should be used only for emergency planning purposes for the categorization of potential emergencies. The maximum committed dose equivalents reported are for the one body organ that -would receive the largest dose equivalent due to a hypothetical accident scenario. Such a scheme was adopted in order to simplify the classification process and to ensure that the most conservative committed dose equivalent is used, regardless of organ. The reader is referred to ICRP Publication 30 for radionuclides not listed in Table 4.2. The committed dose equivalent indicated for oral intakes is that body organ that would receive the maximum committed dose equivalent due to an ingestion of the radionuclide indicated. When using the data of Table 4.2 for determination of the committed dose equivalent it should be remembered that the dose is delivered over a time period which depends on the effective half-life of the radionuclide in the body. This time period should be considered when assessing the possibility of nonstochastic effects. Use of Table 4.2 requires an estimate of the potential oral intake, the intake

24

1 4. CLASSIFICA!I7ON OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES TABLE4.2-Maximum committed dose equivalent to any organ for adults per

Radionuclide 3H (as 3H20) 3H (elemental) 14C =Na "Na 32P 3% 36~1 45Ca "CO wFe

becquerel of intake Route of intake Oral Punctureb

(SvIBq)

(SvIBq)

Inhalation (SvIBqf

1.7 x 10-l1 1.7 x 10-l1 1.7 x lo-" 9.9 x lo-g." 5 . 6 10-lo ~ 5.6 x 10-lo 5.6 x 10-lo 5.5 x lo-9 3.5 x 10-9 5.5 x 10-9 1.2 x 10-9 1.2 x lo-9 1.0 x 102.6 x 8.1 x lo-g 9.5 x 10-11 5.1 x 1 0 - ~ 2.2 x 8 . 0 10-lo ~ 4.6 x 1.1x lo-g 1.7 x 9.7 x 105.2 x 1.5 x 10-9 1.7 x 1.3 x 10-9 8.4 x lo-9 1.8~ 1.4 x sDc~ 1.1x lo-8 4.3 x lo-8 3.4 x 10-7 1.6 x lo-1 5.7 x 10-lo 67Ga 1.6 x lo-g 1.4 x 2.9 x lo-= 90Sr 4.2 x 1.1x 10-lo 5.0 x lo-" -Tc 8.5 x 10-I1 2.1 x 107.1 x 10-lo lllIn 2.0 x lo-g 4.4 x 10-9 2.2 x 10-9 1231 4.4 x 10-9 1251 3.4 x 1 0 - ~ 2.2 x 10-7 3.4 x lo-1 1311 2.9 x lo-7 4.8 x 4 . 8 lo-1 ~ 133Xe 1.9 x 1.4 x 9.1 x lo-g la7Cs 1.4 x l 4 7 h 3.2~ 3.3 x lo-' 1.0x lo4 19~1~ 1.3 x LOX 1 0 - 7 5.2 x ZolT1 2.7 x 10-lo 2.7 X 10-lo 1.7 X 10-lo WI 4 . 6 10-9 ~ 4.6 x 1 0 - ~ 2.9 x 10-9 "From Publication 30 and supplements (ICRP, 1979a; 197913; 1980; 1981a; 1981b; 1982a; 1982b) with appropriate corrections for intakes due to puncture or injection. Dose indicated is the maximum organ dose to the organ most sensitive to the particular mute of intake. Does not include skin as an organ. bComputed from oral and fl values of Publication 30 (ICRP, 1979a) Wnits are Sv-cma/Bq-h. Air concentration in Bq/m3times value gives maximum S v h while immersed in 3H.

due to inhalation, and the fraction. of activity injected or absorbed through the skin. Consideration should be given to the chemical nature of the radioactive compound prior to assigning a percent uptake through the skin. Table 4.3 may be used to evaluate the potential committed dose equivalent to the skin due to surface contamination on the skin. The dose equivalent rate to the radiosensitive layer of the skin in mSvcm2/MBq-his tabulated for several radionuclides.The factors are for infinite plane and point sources at a depth of 7 mg/cm2 in water. These factors are taken from Cross et al. (1982) and are essentially identical to the data of Berger (1971). Kocher and Eckerman (1987)

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TABLE4.3-Skin contamination dose equivalent rate fdetors at a depth of 7 mglcm2J' Radionuclide

14C 22Na 24Na 32P 35S 36~1 45Ca 57C0e 59Fe oC@ ' 67Gae 90Sr-90Y(equilibrium) 99mTce 1111~~ 123Ie 1251' 1311

137Cs-137Ba(equilibrium) lr%

zo~n

Infinite area so~rce~,~ (mSvcm2/MBq-h)

305 1870 2357 2397 332 2178 884 78 1283 1146 324 4272 243 376 365 417 1694 1941 612 1592 343 1803

Point sourced (mSvlMBq-h)

2.45 x 106 3.3 x lo6 2.3 x 106 2.2 x 106 2.4 x lo6 2.8 x lo6 3.6 x lo6 nP

3.6 x lo6 3.7 x lo6 nVe 5.4 x 106 n+ n+ n+ n+ 3.01 x 106 3.5 x 106 3.0 X 106 3.2 X lo6 n+ 3.0 x 106

2WT1 "From Cross et al. (1982). bAppropriate for sources with average radii larger than the range of the radiation in water. cMultiply by 3.7 to obtain the dose equivalent rate in rad-cm2/mCi-h. dMultiply by 3.7 to obtain the dose equivalent rate in rad1mCi-h. 'See text for application of table. Values from McGuire and Dalrymple (1990). Recommended value from Johnson and Lamothe (1987). =NOvalue provided.

have published values for the dose equivalent rate a t depths of 4,7, 8, and 40 mg/cm2in tissue for a large number of radionuclides. These values are also in general agreement with the above authors. The doses determined very near the skin surface for energetic beta sources would tend to be overestimates because of the assumption of an infinite homogeneous medium (Berger, 1970; 1974). The dose equivalent rates for area sources are applicable if the source radius is greater than the range of the maximum energy beta particle in tissue. For areas of skin contamination with radii less than the range of the maximum energy beta particle, electron point source kernels and numerical integration may be required. The maximum committed dose equivalent can be computed using the point source factors given in Table 4.4. However, interpretation of such calculations

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4. CLASSIF'~ATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

TABLE4.4-Maximum external photon and electron dose equivalent fnctors for any organ for selected mdionuclides for point and infinite area sources.*b Area sourcebL Area sourceb$at Point sourc+ at 1md-photon 1 md-electrons Radionuclide (mSv-cm2/Bq-h) (rnSv-m2/Bq-h) (mSv-cm2iBq-h) q a 3.1 x 8.5 x 5.1 x %Na 4.8 x 1.4 x lo-' 2.1 x lo-' 3T nvf nv 2.7 x lo-' 51Cr 4.2 x 1.7 x 0 57Co 2.3 x lo-? 8.1x lo-6 0 59Fe 1.7 x 4.5 x 10 - 5 5.3 x lo-' oC@ ' 3.4 x lo-G 9.3 x lo-5 7.7 x lo-& 67Ga 2.9 x lo-? nv nv (equilibrium) nv 2 . 4 10-lo ~ 1.1x lo-' -Tc 1.5 x lo-' 8.7 x 0 lllIn 5.1 x lo-? nv nv '=I 1.9 x lo-' nv nv 1311 5.8 x lo-? 1 . 9 lo-5 ~ 6.2~ 137Cs-137Ba(equilibrium) 8.6 x lo-? 2.5 x 3.9 x lo-5 lszIr 1.3 x nv nv 2.1 x nv nv "Point source factors from Jaeger et al. (1968) bArea source factors from Kocher (1980). 'Specific gamma factors were multiplied by the factors for converting from roentgens to rads in water given in NCRP Report No. 69 (NCRP, 1981) and assuming a Q of 1. TOobtain mSv/h, multiply by activity in Bq and divide by the square of the distance in cm. %lue is maximum a t 1 meter above contaminated surface. To obtain mSv/h, multiply by the surface contamination in Bq/cm2. "Value is a t 70 pm. Dose calculated to basal layer. Assume bare source dispersed on ground. 'nv indicates no value has been provided.

may prove difficult and may lead to unrealistic committed dose equivalents. Use of Table 4.3 for the determination of a skin dose resulting from an area source on the skin would require knowledge of the average activity per unit area (MBq/cm2)on the skin for an assumed time in hours. In using Table 4.3 for determination of skin dose due to a point source on the skin, the activity present in MBq and the time of exposure in hours is required. The skin dose factors for point sourcesmust be used with caution as these factors are very dependent on geometry and the self absorption characteristics of the source. Improper application of these factors may lead to significant overestimates of skin exposures and overresponse in an actual emergency. See Report No. 106 (NCRP 1989)for a discussion of the "hot particle" problem. Information provided in Table 4.4 may be used to approximate the maximum external dose equivalent rate to body organs for a point

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES

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TABLE4.5-Maximum photon dose equivalent mte conversion factors for any organ and electron dose equivalent mte conversion factors for skin for submersion in contaminated aira Radionuclide

Photon dose equivalent rateb (mSv-cmS/Bq-h)

14c

o

?Na MNa

4.5 x 10-I 9.2 x 10-I 0

Electron dose equivalent rate' (mSv-cm3/Bq-h)

7.8 x 1 0 - 4 4.0 x 1.2 x 10-I 32P 1.6 x 10-I 3 5 ~ o 9.5 x lo-' 57Co 3.9 x lo-z 1.5 x 59Fe 2.4 x lo-' 2.0 x lo-2 "Co 1.5 x 3.9 x "Kr 4.8 x lo-' 4.4 x lo-2 1.4 x lo-' 2.5 x 10-I %r-$OY (equilibrium) -TC 3.2 x lo-' 3.9 x lo-2 1311 3.0 x 9.0 x lsaXe 1.2 x lo-z 9.6 x lo-= 137Cs-1"Ba (equilibrium) 1.2 x lo-' 4.3 x lo-a 147Pm 1.1x 6.0 x lo-3 "From Kocher (1980). Berger (1974) or Kocher and Eckerrnan (1981). bValue is the maximum over all organs, excluding skin, semi-infinite cloud. 'Value is for infinite medium dose to basal layer, 70 p+mdepth and does not include the photon skin dose. Photon skin dose is approximately equal to the value in the photon dose column.

source or an infinite area source of radioactive material. It should be noted that attenuation in air or in encapsulation material of the source was neglected in determining the values presented in Table 4.4. The area contamination dose equivalent factors are taken from Kocher (1980) and are valid at a distance of 1 m from the surface contaminated. The point source factors were taken from Jaeger et al. (1968) and have been adjusted by multiplying by the factors of absorbed dose to exposure given in Report No. 69 (NCRP, 1981).Use of the area contamination factors in Table 4.4 requires a knowledge of the activity per unit area (Bq/cm2)of the surface contamination present, and the use of the point source factors requires a knowledge of the distance in centimeters and the activity in becquerel of the radionuclide. Finally, the information in Table 4.5 may be used to estimate the dose equivalent rate to an individual immersed in a semi-infinite cloud of radioactive material. The data were compiled from Kocher (1980), Berger (1974), and Kocher and Eckerman (1981). The dose equivalent rate for photons is the maximum expected to any organ in the body (except skin). The electron dose equivalent is for the skin a t a depth of 7 mg/cm2,and does not include the contribution from

photons. An estimate of the photon contribution may be obtained from the photon column. The dose equivalent rate may be determined if the concentration in air in Bq/Cm3is known. As stated previously, information given in these tables should be used for planning purposes only. In an actual emergency situation, measured data, such as wound burden measurements and bioassay results, would be utilized for dose determination and subsequent impact. Publications such as Report No. 83 (NCRP, 1985b), Report No. 84 (NCRP, 1985a), Report No. 65 (NCRP, 1980), Report No. 54 (NCRP, 1977), Technical Report No. 152 (IAEA, 1974),Publication 41 CICRP, 1984a), and Publication 30 with supplements (ICRP, 1979a; 197923; 1980; 1981a; 1981b; 1982a; 1982b) may be helpful in actual evaluation of emergency conditions, evaluation of dose equivalents, and initiation of emergency treatment.

4.5 Using The Emergency Classification System

The emergency plan should describe several types of emergency conditions and provide an appropriate classification and response for each. Once the emergency planning reference level is selected using the guidelines suggested in Section 4.4, an appropriate sequence of responses may be placed into an emergency plan. The flow chart shown in Figure 4.1 may be of use in the classification of radiation emergencies a t various facilities and in the construction of an emergency plan. The plan should include a mechanism for escalating or reducing the emergency classification as conditions change. Use of the classification scheme may help the Emergency Director in determining actions to be taken. It may also help some of the assistance groups in responding to an accident involving radioactive material.

4.5.1 Incident Situations that have been classified as incidents may require the interruption of normal operations but are unlikely to lead to significant exposures of individuals or more than a trivial release of radioactive material. Such incidents may also impose regulatory requirements on the facility or institution. Situations which fall into the incident classification would usually be confined to the facility. Potential incidents include, but are not limited to: radioactive contamination in laboratories radioactive contamination of personnel

4.5 USING THE EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

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IDENTIFY RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS. QUANTITIES AND LOCATIONS

REVIEW RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS USE BY LOCATION AND SELECT CREDIBLE EMERGENCY CONDITIONS

DETERMINE AFFECTED GROUPS, PATHWAYS OF

ESTIMATE DOSE EQUIVALENTS FOR APPROPRIATE TISSUES AND CONDITIONS-TABLES 4.2.4.3,4.4.4.5

INCIDENTS

LEVEL ONE EMERGENCY

CONSTRUCT EMERGENCY PLAN

LEVEL TWO EMERGENCY

J

Fig. 4.1 Emergency classification flow chart

ingestion or inhalation of radioactive material loss of radioactive material external exposures of individuals. 4.5.2

Level One Emergency

Level One Emergencieshave the potential for exposing individuals in excess of the applicable effective dose equivalent limits. Protective evacuations or isolation of certain areas within the facility may be necessary. Releases of radioactive material outside the confines of the facility would not be expected to occur, but if such releases did occur, exposures to the general public would need to be considered. Such a situation would interrupt normal activities and one or more elements of the emergency organization might be activated or noti-

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4. CLASSIFICATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

fied. Such a situation may require the notification of governmental agencies and offsite emergency response organizations. Emergencies which would be classified as Level One Emergencies could include but would not be limited to: facility multi-laboratory contamination admission of an injured and contaminated patient to a medical treatment facility involvement of non-facility personnel such as fire fighters and police floods or fires in low-level radioactive waste areas loss or theft of radioactive material.

4.5.3

Level Two Emergency

Level Two Emergencies are the most serious. Normal operation of the facility would be interrupted and a potential for escalation of the radiation hazard exists. Response is required as soon as possible to reduce the potential for significant radiological hazards. Emergencies would be placed in this classification only if potential for radiation exposure exceeded the Level One limits. It should be recognized that an emergency so classified may result in nonstochastic effects in exposed individuals. Protective actions such as evacuation of both the facility and offsite areas may be necessary, and the emergency plan should incorporate such contingencies. Situations which could be categorized as Level Two Emergencies include, but are not limited to: a situation which has the potential for the release of a large quantity of radioactive material emergency personnel entering areas which are significantlycontaminated an accident involving serious injury and extensive personnel contamination and exposure any situation which may result in radiation exposures above the reference levels of a Level One Emergency. 4.5.4 Precautions In Applying Classification Schemes

The Emergency Director should understand the limitations of the emergency classification scheme presented here. The classification system categorizes emergencies based solely on their potentiul for radicrtion exposure to individuals. This report includes only the vital components of general emergency planning based on potential radio-

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logical harm. The Emergency Director must consider and evaluate all unique problems or circumstances, many of which have not been discussed here. Figure 4.2 is an example of a worksheet which should be available to the Emergency Director as a guide in the evaluation of potential emergencies a t specific locations within a facility. For each location, radioactive materials or radiation sources should be identified and classified. Various conditions should be considered. Each exposure category should be evaluated and the highest classification determined using the appropriate tables provided in Section 4.4. A classification would be associated with each potential emergency. All'situations not classified at higher levels would be Incidents. Such worksheets should be included in the emergency plan. The "Amount to Classify" column would represent the activity assumed for the classification indicated. Conditions assumed in determining the classification should be indicated in the "Mechanism" column. The use of this worksheet is illustrated in Appendix D. Instead of classifying as suggested in Figure 4.2, the Emergency Director may wish to determine the ranges of activity which would be required to classify a t each level for the radioactive materials and forms used at a facility. Once these activities are determined, the quantities on hand a t each location may be compared to the range and potential incidents classified. This approach is also illustrated in Appendix D for source classification a t a university. Many assumptions and approximations may be necessary in classification of radiation emergencies. The Emergency Director should be as judicious as possible while maintaining a practical approach to assessing the risks to health. Emergencies are unexpected events which occur even though established procedures are in place. It should be remembered that the classification scheme is based solely on potential radiological impact. A h e or explosion would be classified as a serious emergency irrespective of the radiological conditions.

Facility:

-r

Location: Nuclide

a %"

Route of exposure

Amount b classify

external skin internal, oral injectlpuncture inhalation other

Highest accident classification

Mechanismb

Q

5' g2

C)

2; 8 z

-

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. g external skin internal, oral injectlpuncture inhalation other "Type is S for sealed, U for unsealed, M for machine, 0 for other bMechanismKey:

F ............fire FL ..........flood X ............explosion IR ..........irradiation

Fig. 4.2 Facility emergency classification worksheet

SP ..........spill GA .........gas or vapor LO ......... loss IJ ...........injury

Bs 2 ?2

5. Practical Considerations in Handling an Emergency It is important that each individual feels comfortable and confident with any assigned task; therefore, emphasis should be placed on the training of all participants for the role they are expected to play in an emergency. However, other factors need to be considered when developing an emergency preparedness plan, such as personnel notification, guidelines for evaluation of an emergency, plan activation levels, integrated response of all support groups, actual classification of an emergency, restoration, recovery, documentation and media releases.

5.1 Personnel Notification Notification of a radiation emergency in a medical, academic or industrial institution will probably be directed by telephone to the switchboard operator, or to personnel in the Security Office or Police Department, who should immediately contact members of the emergency response team. EPIPs should be reviewed frequently to ensure that they are current and that the individuals listed are aware of the expected responses. An Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure (EPIP) should address the steps to be taken for notification of an emergency condition. The EPIP for notification should describethe sequence ofactions required to alert, mobilize or augment the emergency response forces of the institution and other supporting organizations. If planned messages, announcements or alarm signals are used in the initial notification, the content of such messages and clear descriptions of alarms or signals used should be included in the relevant procedure. All individuals and agencies or organizations who are part of the plan should be listed, including current telephone numbers and radio frequency and call letters. If any authentication scheme is required by outside support groups (e.g.,fire, police, hospital), the methods of contact should be included.

34

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5. CONSIDERATIONS IN HANDLING AN EMERGENCY

5.2 Evaluation of Emergency Among the first tasks following notification of a radiological emergency is the assessment of the magnitude of the event. The initial radiological assessment may be made by inexperienced personnel and procedures to be followed must be simple and concise; emphasis should be placed on the priority of actions. The Emergency Director is responsible for activation of the emergency plan and determining the necessary level of activation. Ideally, there will be time to confer with various members of the response teams before doing so. However, time or circumstances may not always permit a joint decision and the director or alternate may initially need to decide the level of response. As soon as possible, radiological assessment teams should be formed and assigned specific duties.

5.3 Plan Activation Level Emergency action levels are not intended to preclude independent judgment on the part of an individual regarding whether an emergency really exists. They are merely upper limits beyond which no doubt should exist that the emergency procedures should be initiated. Careful consideration of the various classifications of emergencies listed in Section 4.4 will determine the level of notification and state of the emergency. The initial assessment and evaluation of the situation will assist in this determination.

5.4 Emergency Response Notification, assessment, corrective action and protective action guides should be designated for each of the emergency classifications described in Section 4.4. 5.4.1 Incident The Radiation Safety Officer should be notified and be able to resolve the situation using available personnel, equipment and facilities. Survey meters should be used to survey all potentially contaminated areas and individuals to confirm the presence or absence of radiological hazards. Protective action in the event of an Incident is

5.4 EMERGENCY RESPONSE

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35

mostly to ensure that no escalation occurs. Action which could promote release of radioactivity or elevate any radiation level must be avoided. Persons should not be allowed to leave the facility unless monitored adequately for contamination. If contamination exists, established methods should be used to control its spread. Evaluation may make it evident that it is necessary to raise the level of the emergency to a higher classification. The basic components of an emergency plan for an Incident should include: immediate notification of the Radiation Safety Officer, responsible supervisor or consultant evaluation of associated hazards access to appropriate and calibrated radiation detection i n s k mentation controlling the incident scene restoration of the facility.

5.4.2 Level One Emergency The Emergency Director, Radiation Safety Officer and the Public Information Officer should be notified immediately. The Level One Emergency is unlikely to create an offsite hazard, but it may require full emergency organization response and may require substantial modification of the facility operating status. Provision should be made in the plan for authority to control radiation exposures, and offsite agencies may be placed on alert as soon as the decision is made that a Level One Emergency exists. The basic components of an emergency plan of this classification may include written procedures covering the following: immediate notification of the radiation safety group or consultant evaluation of associated hazards use of appropriate and calibrated instrumentation incorporation of EPIPs involving: call lists first aid and rescue emergency care offsite emergency personnel entry personnel and facility decontamination handling of contaminated patients dose assessment a t facility dose assessment offsite efluent sampling and downwind monitoring

36

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5. CONSIDERA!t'IONS IN HANDLING AN EMERGENCY

partial or full facility evacuation public relations legal counsel facility security verification of call lists, a t least annually annual drills as may be necessary for an emergency care facility notification of regulatory agencies and possibly local authorities restoration of facility. 5.4.3 Level Two Emergency

Although a Level Two Emergency may not ever occur at an academic, medical or industrial facility, the emergency planner must determine the likelihood for such an event at each individual institution. The basic componentsof an emergency plan of this classification would be similar to those for a Level One Emergency, with the following additional factors: immediate notification of regulatory agencies and local authorities annual drills should be considered immediate facility and community evacuation availability of outside expert assistance.

5.5 Recovery and Restoration An important part of an emergency plan is the recovery phase. This phase begins when the radiation emergency no longer exists and when the initial conditions leading to the emergency cease to dominate. However, other emergency factors may remain. Emergency control can be discontinued for radiation protection purposes when the radiological problems have been reduced to a level manageable by normal operational procedures. 5.5.1 Exposure Control During Recovery and Restoration Planning for exposure control should include provisions for the management of both external and internal exposures during the restoration phase. Good contamination control techniques insure minimal intake and distribution of radioactive materials. Access control is appropriate in all types of emergencies involving radiation. The primary duty of an access control team is to limit

5.5 RECOVERY AND RESTORATION

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37

access to and from the emergency site to those individuals involved in management of the emergency. The duties of the access control team should be coordinated with those of police and fire fighters and should be outlined in an EPIP.

5.5.2 Dose Assessment Planning for the recovery from an emergency should include the estimation of both internal and external doses that may be received during the emergency by recovery workers. Appropriate references and essential data sources should be collected and kept readily available for emergency use. Dose calculations should use individual specific information gained from the exposed individuals. Tables 4.2 to 4.5 are designed for classification purposes and should not be used alone for definitive dose assessments. Dose assessments shouZd be planned for and may include provisions for reenactments. Essential data will includephysical, chemical, and biological data and the dose assessment plan should anticipate the collection and use of such data. The dosimetric calculations will determine the types of data to be collected. Necessary data may include a combination of physical, chemical and biological information. Planned investigations may include calculations in addition to, or a s a substitute for, the reenactment.

5.5.3 Restoration Management Restoration management requires an organizational structure to return the facility to normal operation. Several planning items are of specific concern during the restoration phase, such as available resources, personnel, public relations, decontamination, etc. The resources available, including supplies, equipment and personnel should be clearly identified in the plan. Public relations activities may cover a range of responses. The potential magnitude of the effort should be estimated for the plan and means of accomplishing suitable public relations should be specified. Typical press releases containing general information should be prepared in advance. The legal ramifications of an emergency can be wide and far reaching. Plans should include considerations of the legal aspects of cleanup activities and documentation problems (See Section 5.7). The restoration team or cleanup crew has many of the same problems as an initial response team and may include the following:

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5. CONSIDERATIONS IN HANDLING AN EMERGENCY

correct or mitigate safety hazards that could interfere with cleanup and restoration activities package spilled material decontaminate the accident area to acceptable levels provide for the disposal of associated wastes. The restoration team must have access to equipment appropriate to the recovery effort. The following equipment and supplies should be considered: anti-contamination clothing respiratory protection devices @ bioassay sample kits air sampling equipment radiation barricades and warning signs color coded tape or rope survey instruments personnel dosimeters notebooks building floor plans references waste containers pens, pencils and flashlights and batteries tape recorder camera and film wiring diagrams and specifications heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems drawings and specifications.

5.6 Preventing a Recurrence An integral part of the restoration is an investigation into the cause of the event, its ramifications, and the prevention of its recurrence. The investigation team should understand in advance all of its duties and responsibilities. The investigation team should be instructed by the Emergency Director based on the circumstances of the emergency.

5.7 Documentation and Reports

The raw data should be preserved as collected and the details of the event clearly documented as soon as possible. A file of an emergency should include the details of the restoration efforts and the results.

5.8 MEDIARELEASES

/

39

Guidelines for retention of records should be established for the various levels of emergencies. Reports should include a full description of the event, including evaluation of dosimetry and environmental monitoring measurements. Any planned exposure must be fully documented. A report of the emergency should be documented in accordance with local administrative procedures.

5.8 Media Releases

The provision for public relations and associated media releases during all phases of the emergency and recovery must be included in the plan to facilitate the smooth and uninterrupted flow of information. Close contact should be maintained with the Public Information Officer. Media releases should be cleared through the Emergency Director during all phases of the emergency.

5.9 Other Considerations 5.9.1 Management Involvement

The interest and support of top management in planning for radiation emergencies is of utmost importance. This should be encouraged by regular, concise, informative reports. Management should evaluate whether the occurrence of minor violations or incidents tends to be a precursor to major accidents. Consultation with the Radiation Safety Officer about physical plant alterations which might impinge on, or compromise, radiation safety should be a matter of policy. 5.9.2

Training Aids

Verbal communications are frequently the weakest link in emergency response. Training should focus on communication techniques and meaningful terminology. Some helpful aids might include: a portable tape recorder poster-size checklist data display boards. a video recorder photographs.

6. Implementation and Evaluation of the Plan Once the radiation emergency plan has been drafted, it must be reviewed, evaluated and tested. If there is a master emergency plan at the facility, the radiation emergency plan should be incorporated into and function within that plan. To be effective, the completed plan must be explained to all leaders of functional groups, and their advice and input should be solicited on the section of the plan in which they will participate. Safety must be a principal consideration in testing the plan, i.e., the test should not increase the potential for worker injury, or injury to the public, nor compromise general safety. For further information concerning scenarios, critiques, and evaluations, the reader is referred to this section's primary reference (Jamison et al., 1987).

6.1 Plan Approval A draft of the plan should be approved through the organizational structure, including top level management. All external agencies, organizations, and institutions required to support the plan should be given copies of appropriate sections of the draft and asked for comments on their roles. When the plan has been revised on the basis of the comments on, and evaluation of the draft, the final document should be approved. Instructions specific to each leader of a functional group should be sent with the final document. In most cases, this should include a requirement that all persons who may have to respond under the plan be properly advised and trained and that such training become a future requirement in performing that job. If there are formal job descriptions for employees, the descriptions should include the responsibilities and functions for emergency response.

6.2 Testing and Modification of the Plan It is essential that facility management is aware well in advance of the intent to test all or part of the plan. With the proper internal

6.2 TES!l'ING AND MODWICATION OF THE PLAN

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41

and external approvals, the plan should then be tested to determine its effectiveness. Individuals participating, and outside agencies, should be informed that a "test" of the plan is in progress.

6.2.1 Elements of the Exercise

An emergency exercise should evolve through the following seven steps: develop objectives for the exercise based on potential events, onsite needs, and offsite agency needs prepare a scenario to fulfill the objectives select exercise controllers and evaluators, and provide them with appropriate training implement the scenario and evaluate the exercise analyze performance and identify deficiencies plan and implement corrective solutions for less than adequate performances develop objectives to test the effectiveness of program changes.

6.2.2 Initial Exercise

It may be appropriate to conduct limited tests of portions of the plan prior to a full scale exercise. Testing functional groups individually may be a valuable aid in determining needs for more training or revisions in sections of the plan. Internal limited tests should precede those involving non-facility resources. After the readiness of each facility functional group is demonstrated, limited testing or evaluation of the readiness of each non-facility group is necessary. It may be counterproductive to test the entire emergency plan prior to ensuring the readiness of each functional area. This is especially true prior to a first full scale exercise. A full scale exercise should be a mock emergency that is scheduled with the participation of all internal and external functional groups and agencies with the express purpose of testing the communications network, logistics, and actions of the participants. Knowledgeable evaluators should be selected to observe and comment on the test. All participants should be instructed to document the strengths and weaknesses observed during their participation in the exercise. Video recording andlor photographs of portions of the exercise may be useful for future training aids.

42 6.2.3

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6. IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION OF THE PLAN

Review ofExercise

Shortly after the exercise is complete, the comments of the participants and observers should be collected and evaluated to determine the need to modify or amend the plan. It may be useful to schedule a critique session involving all participants immediately following the exercise. Problems with various components of the plan should be discussed and appropriate revisions made. All functional groups will need copies of appropriate revisions to the plan. 6.2.4

Unannounced Exercise

Ideally, an unannounced exercise is the ultimate test of an emergency plan. However, the decision to conduct unannounced exercises should be made with care. Depending on the size of a facility and the number of non-facility agencies involved, unannounced exercises may not be practical or possible. If the exercise involves outside agencies (eg., ambulance services, hospital emergency room staff, the fire department, federal, state, and local officials, the police department, etc.), an unannounced exercise may not be wise. If the exercise involves facility personnel only, then an unannounced exercise may be conducted provided top level management approves. A test or exercise may be as elementary as initiatingonly the communication component of the plan. The extent of an emergency plan exercise should be directly related to the complexity ofthe plan itself. A group of technically qualified people who have no responsibility or involvement in the exercise should be organized to observe all activities during the emergency exercise. Comments should be provided by the participants and observers and the plan should be adopted, amended and re-tested as appropriate. See Appendix B for an example of testing a plan-EPIP # EC-1.

6.3 Exercise Scenario

An exercise scenario is a written sequence of events, injuries, and radiological conditionswhich simulate an emergency condition that could exist a t a facility. A scenario must be constructed to challenge all emergency plan components, especially the communications systems and response times and performance of the functional groups. A scenario should include a detailed schedule of times and events with specific instructions to be given to participants if expected actions are not taken. These instructions provide a mechanism for

6.3 EXERCISE SCENARIO

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43

keeping the exercise in motion. Specific individuals should be given the responsibility of implementing and controlling the scenario. Such individuals should be identified clearly to all participants in the exercise. Strict adherence to the timing of scenario events may be necessary from a management viewpoint but tends to remove the element of realism from an exercise. The most successful scenario would be conducted with regard for timing of events but would also permit changes in timing due to actual actions of functional group participants. The basic framework for the emergency scenario should: be specific provide a true test of the emergency response plan and the emergency organization include specific activities that will facilitate the evaluation and review of the adequacy of the plan recognize and incorporate the objectives to be accomplished by off-site participants address all regulatory requirements take cognizance of applicable guide documents and established criteria stress the elements of the emergency response plan and organization that have been identified as needing improvement list the actions of participants that will be demonstrated and not simulated be within the scope of the potential emergency classification levels test the communication network require timely involvement of functional groups and equipment provide data and conditions to alter the emergency classification level test the level of training of emergency response teams. An exercise scenario should be within the scope of the emergency classification levels that have been deemed likely in the plan. In addition, the scenario should not require decisions of participants for which they are not qualified or trained. It should be a reasonable test. It may be too disruptive to have all the necessary functional groups and equipment respond to a simulated emergency. If such problems exist, functional groups should be contacted according to the plan and their assistance should be simulated. 6.3.1 Scenario Preparation

Scenario events can be described with data tables, computer printouts, and messages that are given to the participants to simulate

44

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6. IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION OF THE PLAN

the information that they would receive from survey instruments, alarms, and first-hand observations. It is imperative that exercise controllers be made aware of acceptable responses to scenario events in order to prevent incorrect decisions by participants. Such incorrect decisions may lead to unrealistic and disastrous exercises. A scenario should not necessarily follow a predictable pattern. It should unfold so that it forces the participants to be creative and innovative in their approach to problem-solving but should allow for corrections to actions deemed inappropriate by exercise controllers. One such approach is to escalate the accident severity rapidly before the participants get one set of conditions firmly in mind. Forcing relocation of one of the onsite emergency response facilities, or failure of a key communication link or computer, are other means of prompting creative or problem-solving measures. Scenarios should also be written so that more than one functional group participates. To increase participation, the scenario may be scheduled to include a shift turnover during the exercise. Key persons can also be taken out of action before the exercise, giving an alternate an opportunity to participate. When a single scenario gives multiple opportunities for staff members to perform various operations, it can provide evaluators with a very broad look at emergency capabilities and provide more participants with learning experience.

6.3.2 The Roles of Controllers and Evaluators

The role of the controller is to provide the pace and flow of the scenario by injecting messages and providing data at predetermined times and when requested. Controllers also remediate incorrect actions that would adversely affect the continuity or the flow of the exercise. Controllers should be technically competent in the areas to which they are assigned. At times they are required to interpret data, respond to participant requests, fabricate additional data, or explain why corrective actions were not effective. They must be readily identifiable to all participants in order to avoid confusion during the exercise. The evaluator's role is to observe and evaluate the effectiveness of the responses to the scenario; they must also be technically competent in the areas to which they are assigned. Usually, the same individual is assigned the function of controller and evaluator at a given location. The ideal controller/evaluator should be an experienced person selected from within the emergency response organization. To ensure that maximum training value and performance improvement are derived from each exercise cycle, evaluators must

6.4 EVALUATION OF THE EXERCISE

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45

provide a totally objective and critical evaluation of the performance of their coworkers.

6.4

Evaluation of the Exercise

Immediately following the exercise, it is appropriate to conduct a critique involving the participants. The primary purpose of this critique should be to acknowledge superior performance, boost morale, and give participants a sense of how they performed. It is important that controllers and evaluators meet as soon as possible after the exercise to discuss their observations and to compile comments. This step should not be omitted or poorly addressed. Evaluators must take time to discuss and reflect on what they saw and heard and to listen to the other evaluators observations before they attempt to assess fully the overall quality of the exercise. These verbal exchanges on specific deficiencies and general observations are essential to the evaluators' understanding of how their observations provide the comprehensive picture of the exercise. Frequently, events that were overlooked entirely by an evaluator in one location will be called to mind by the discussion of the events that occurred in another location. This can lead to recognition of improper performance, poor communications, misleading procedures, and other deficiencies that might otherwise have been missed. Similarly, a minor but inappropriate decision or action by one person may, with input from other evaluators, be recognized as a symptom of a basic flaw in the plan or its performance. After the evaluators have reached a consensus on their findings, they should discuss them with the participants and management in a way that encourages participant input. 6.4.1 Analyses of Deficiencies and Weaknesses Exercise weaknesses can be caused by deficiencies in the plan itself, poor communicationssystems, personnel error, improper organization, inadequate staffing, inadequate training, procedural deficiency, equipment deficiency, and errors of offsite support groups. After the critique has been completed, a list should be compiled of the weaknesses that were identified in the evaluation process. The Emergency Plan Coordinator should be responsible for modifying the plan to correct the list of weaknesses. Further, the Emergency Plan Coordinator should be responsible for assuring that only basic problems, not symptoms of basic problems, are identified and cor-

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6. IMPLEMENTATION AM) EVALUATION OF THE PLAN

rected. This may require the assistance of many of the participants. Weaknesses that have been identified should be tracked until a subsequent exercise demonstrates that corrective actions have been effective.

6.4.2 Implementation of Solutions In most cases, correction of exercise weaknesses requires additional training. Therefore, it is essential that the Emergency Coordinator work closely with those responsible for training to identify the additional training that is needed to prepare for a proper response during the next exercise or during an actual emergency.

7. Summary The objective of this report is to provide emergency response planners guidance in the preparation and development of an effective plan to manage accidents involving radiation. The type of facilities addressed are academic, medicaI and industrial. Information on preparing and implementing an effective plan is provided. A scheme for classification of radiation emergencies is developed and examples of the classification approach are given in the appendices. Numerical guidance is proposed to assist in the classification process. The classification scheme is intended for use in the planning process and is not a substitute for accurate dosimetry following an actual emergency. Practical considerations in handling an emergency are discussed with emphasis on recovery, restoration and preventing a recurrence. Advice is included on the testing of the plan and evaluation of exercise scenarios.

APPENDIX A

Glossary absorbed dose: The energy imparted to matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass of irradiated material a t the point of interest; The special name for the unit of absorbed dose (J kg1)is the gray

GY). accident: An unintentional or unexpected happening that is undesirable or unfortunate, especially one resulting in injury, damage, harm or loss. acute radiation exposure: Radiation exposure received during a short time period (e.g., 24 hours). ALARA: A principle of radiation protection that encourages the limitation of radiation exposures to values which are "as low as reasonably achievable", economic and social factors being taken into account. alpha particle: The nucleus of a helium atom which is ejected from some radionuclides during radioactive decay. becquerel (Bq):SI unit of radioactivity. 1 Bq = llsecond (Read as 1 nuclear transition or disintegration per second). beta particle: An electron, of either positive or negative charge, emitted by an atomic nucleus during a nuclear transformation. biohazards: Micro-organisms or viruses which cause disease, or substances such as toxins or venoms produced by living organisms. committed dose equivalent:The dose equivalent to any tissue in the body that will be accumulated over a period of 50 years a h r the intake of a radionuclide. contamination (radioactive):A radioactive substance dispersed in materials or places where it is undesirable. decontamination: The removal or reduction of radioactive, chemical or biohazard contamination from surfaces by cleaning and washing. Biohazard decontamination may also be accomplished by chemical or thermal (e.g., autoclaving) treatment to destroy the biological activity. dose equivalent:A quantity used for radiation protection purposes that expresses on a common scale for all radiations the irradiation

GLOSSARY

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49

incurred by exposed persons. It is defined as the product of the absorbed dose (D)in gray and the quality factor (Q).The unit of dose equivalent is the sievert (Sv). dosimetry: The measurement or calculation of the energy absorbed by matter from ionizing radiation. electron: Subatomic charged particle. Negatively charged particles are parts of stable atoms. Both negatively and positively charged electrons may be expelled from the radioactive atom when it disintegrates. See beta particle. electron volt (eV): A unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy gained in a vacuum by a particle having one electronic charge when it passes through a potential difference of 1volt; l e v = 1.6 x 10-l9joule or 1.6 x 10-l2erg. emergency: A sudden, urgent, usually unforeseen occurrence or occasion requiring immediate action. emergency coordinator: The individual within an institution or facility who is assigned the responsibility for developing an emergency plan, and maintaining the plan and its distribution lists. emergency director: The individual designated in the emergency plan to exercise command and control over all emergency response personnel for the duration of the emergency. EPIP: Acronym for Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures. exposure: A quantitative measure of x or gamma radiation at a certain place, based on its ability to produce ionization in air. The former special unit of exposure was the roentgen (R). l R = 2.58 x Clkg. In the international system (SI), the special unit is coulomb per kilogram. ("Exposure" also is frequently used as a synonym for irradiation). functional a r e a manager: The manager of any of the functional groups responding to the emergency director during a radiation emergency (see Figure 2.1). gamma radiation: Electromagnetic radiation emitted by an atomic nucleus as a result of a nuclear transformation. gray (Gy):The SI unit of absorbed dose. 1gray = 1Jlkg = 100 rad. health physicist: A person qualified by training and experience to be professionally engaged in the practice of health physics. health physics: The profession devoted to the protection of humans and their environment from potential radiation hazards, identifying potential beneficial effects of radiation and assisting in the development of beneficial effects of ionizing and nonionizing radiation thus providing for the utilization of radiation for the benefit of mankind. incident: An occurrence or situation of seemingly minor importance. MeV: Symbol for million electron volts. See electron volt.

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APPENDIXA

non-stochastic effects: In radiation protection, those health effeds for which the severity of the effect in the affected individuals varies with the dose, and for which a threshold may therefore occur. For example, cataracts of the lens of the eye. nuclide: A species of atom characterized by the constitution of its nucleus and hence by the number of protons, the number of neutrons, and the energy content. personnel monitoring: Periodic or continuous determination of the exposure received by a person, or the measurement of personal contamination levels. photon: An energy quantum of electromagnetic radiation. See gamma radiation. point source: Any radiation source measured from a distance that is much greater than the linear size of the source. In this report, a source whose linear dimensions are less than 10%of the measurement distance may be considered a point source. . quality factor(&):A multiplying factor used with absorbed dose to convert to dose equivalent and therefore to express the radiation's effectiveness in causing biological effects. radiation: Propagation of energy through space. In the context of this report, it is electromagnetic radiation (xrays or gamma rays), or corpuscular radiation (alpha particles, electrons, protons, neutrons) capable of producing ionization. radionuclide: Any nuclide whose atoms are radioactive. radioactivity: The spontaneous decay or disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus, usually accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation. reference man: A hypothetical person with the anatomical and physiological characteristics defined in the report of the ICRP Task Group on Reference Man (ICRP 1974). RSO: Acronym for Radiation Safety Officer. A person qualified by training and experience to be designated as the individual responsible for the safe use of radiation a t a facility. scenario: An account or synopsis of a projected course of action or events. sealed source: A radioactive source sealed in a container or having a bonded cover, in which the container or cover has sufficient mechanical strength to prevent contact with, and dispersion of, the radioactive material under the conditions of use and wear for which it was designed. Other radioactive sources are unsealed. SI: The International System of Units. At the 15th General Conference of Weights and Measures in 1975, special names for some units used in the field of ionizing radiation were adopted. The gray (symbol Gy) has been adopted as the special name for the SI unit

of absorbed dose, absorbed dose index, kerma and specific energy imparted. The becquerel (symbol Bq) has been adopted as the special name for the SI unit of activity (of a radionuclide). The special name sievert (symbol Sv) was later adopted for the SI unit of dose equivalent in the field of radiation protection. sievert (Sv):The SI unit of dose equivalent. The dose equivalent in sievert is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in gray multiplied by the quality factor. One sievert = 100 rem. stochastic effects:In radiation protection, those health effects (e.g., malignant or hereditary disease) for which the probability of an effect occurring, rather than its severity, is a function of dose without threshold.

APPENDIX B

Sample Emergency Plan for an Industrial Research Facility This Appendix contains a sample emergency plan and appropriate Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) for all individuals involved in the plan. The cosmetics company discussed in Appendix D will be used as the example facility. This company uses 14Cand 3H-labeledcompounds for product testing. The assumptions and calculations used in classifying emergencies for the plan are also presented in Appendix D. The total amount of each isotope present in the facility is 370 MBq. Routine testing never involves the use of more than 18.5 MBq of either nuclide. Use of radioactive materials is restricted to one laboratory which has dimensions of 15 x 15 x 3 meters. This plan is for illustrative purposes only, and should not be applied directly to other facilities without careful consideration. It is intended as a guide for the reader in constructing such a plan for another facility. Assumptions and designated responsibilities may be considerably different for other facilities.

Background Information ABC Cosmetics is located in a medium sized city, USA, and is authorized to use 14C and 3H. ABC Cosmetics is permitted to have on hand a total of 370 MBq of each radionuclide. All use of radioactive material is confined to one laboratory, 117 W, in the facility. ABC research does not use infectious agents. The facility has no off-hours central operator, but does have a 24-hour security service. The facility has a plant services maintenance and repair group. The following

EMERGENCY PLAN FOR AN INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH FACILITY

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individuals have been designated as members of the radiation emergency team: General Manager Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) Radioisotope Laboratory Technician Security Officer Plant Services Director Maintenance Technician. ABC Cosmetics has no formal facility emergency plan in place for other non-radiological emergencies.

ABC COSMETICS EMERGENCY PLAN The ABC Cosmetics Company, is a commercial corporation duly licensed and authorized to use the radioactive nuclides 14Cand 3H. ABC Cosmetics is committed to the testing and development of products for sale to the general public. The purpose of the ABC Cosmetics Emergency Plan is to provide the organization with an adequate and timely response in the event of an emergency involving radioactive materials. The objectives of the emergency plan are to prevent or mitigate the harmful effects resulting from those events classified as radiological emergenciesthat may occur within this facility or which may impact on outside agencies. The management of ABC Cosmetics has approved the emergency plan and pertinent procedures, and is committed to the support of those individuals named in the plan as being responsible for its development, implementation, and maintenance. See the attached Emergency Plan Organizational Chart.

Emergency Plan Instructions for Personnel This Emergency Plan was developed to aid the employees of ABC Cosmeticsin dealing with a declared radiation emergency. The emergency plan will become activated when an emergency condition is declared. The Emergency Director or designated alternate will declare all emergency conditions.

General Instructions For Emergency Plan 1) provide first aid 2) do not use elevators or telephones except for emergency needs or activities related to the emergency

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APPENDIXB

3) direct all questions to the Emergency Coordinator 4) follow appropriate Emergency ~ i a Implementing n Procedures (EPIPs) 5) make no changes in the Emergency Plan without approval of the Emergency Coordinator 6) review the Emergency Plan on an annual basis (to be done by the Emergency Coordinator) 7) make requests for changes, such as telephone numbers and personnel, to the Emergency Coordinator.

Emergency Plan Organizational Chart

ABC Cosmetics President -phone Emergency Coordinator -phone Emergency Director -phone FACILITY GROUPS

OFF-SITE GROUPS

Radiation Protection -phone

Anytown Fire Department -phone

Emergency Medical -phone

Anytown General Hospital -phone

Security

Anytown Police Department -phone

-phone Plant Services -phone

Anytown Health Department -phone

Fire ~rotect'ion -phone

State Health Department -phone

Public Information -phone

National Agency -phone

Consultant -phone

EMERGENCY PLAN FOR AN INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH FACILITY

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Organizational Responsibilities Emergency Coordinator (EC)

,General Manager of ABC Cosmetics is the ABC Cosmetics Emergency Coordinator. The EC is responsible for the overall coordination of ABC7sRadiological Emergency Preparedness Plan, as detailed in EPIP #EC-1, to include: 1) developing and maintaining the Emergency Plan, and implementing procedures (EPIPs) 2) advising management on the selection and training of individuals assigned to key emergency plan positions 3) providing for training and exercises for facility personnel and outside agencies 4) providing for equipment and supplies as required by the Emergency Plan 5) providing information and news items for the general public and acting as the Public Information Officer 6) providing a critique of any drills or exercises for the purpose of updating the plan.

Emergency Director (ED) Radiation Safety Officeris the ABC Cosmetics Emergency Director. The ED is in charge of classifying and directing the activation of the Emergency Plan as detailed in EPIP #ED-1. The authority of this position includes: 1) classification of an emergency; upgrading and downgrading 2) activation of the Emergency Plan 3) exchanges of information with authorities responsible for offsite emergency measures 4) initiating response and directing restoration 5) providing for a final report on the emergency with revisions to the Emergency Plan if necessary Other individuals are also assigned to the position of ED (as alternates) with the same responsibilities and authorities described above. This assures the immediate availability of an individual to respond if the Emergency Director is not available.

,Radioisotope Laboratory Technician ,Security Officer

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APPENDIX B

Emergency Medical Manager (EMM)

,Security Officer is assigned the position of ABC Cosmetics Emergency Medical Manager. The EMM is responsible for providing advice and consultation to the Emergency Director on medical first aid aspects of the emergency until expert advice and service is available. The Security Officer and staff shall be trained in first aid response at least once a year. See EPIP #SEC-1 for detailed instructions. Other individuals are assigned to the position of EMM as alternates with the same authority if the primary EMM is not available. ,Staff Officer

,Staff Officer

Emergency Radiation Protection Manager (ERPM)

, Radiation Safety Officer, is the ABC Cosmetics Emergency Radiation Protection Manager (ERPM). The ERPM is responsible for the initial assessment of actual or potential radiation hazards, and is responsible for all health physics aspects of the emergency. The ERPM has the authority and responsibility for providing all radiation protection services within the provisions of the emergency plan. The ERPM is also the Emergency Director. Other individuals may act as ERPM if the primary ERPM is not available.

,Radioisotope Laboratory Technician

, General Manager

Emergency Security Manager (ESM)

,Security Officer, is the Emergency Security Manager (ESM). The ESM is responsible for assessment of actual or potential security aspects of all radiation emergencies and shall provide advice and consultation to the ED on all matters relating to security and trafficcontrol upon activation of the Emergency Plan. The details of the ESM's responsibilities may be found in EPIP #SEC-1. The ESM shall provide personnel and /or supervision for the accomplishment of: 1) rescue of injured individuals 2) first aid

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3) orderly evacuation of affected area 4) control of access to site 5 ) activation of Emergency Plan in event of fire, explosion, serious injury, or facility threatening event 6) coordinating access of non-facility agencies. Other individuals may act as ESM if the primary ESM is not available.

, StaffOfficer , StaffOfficer

Emergency Plant Services Manager (EPSM)

,Plant Services Director, is the Emergency Plant Services Manager (EPSM). The EPSM shall provide the Emergency Director advice and assistance on those aspects of any emergency situation directly involving or having impact on those services and utilities maintained and/or supplied by the Plant Services Department. The duties of the EPSM are described in EPIP #SERV 1. The EPSM is responsible for: 1) damage assessment and control 2) repair and/or corrective action 3) technical support 4) liaison with utilities suppliers. Other individuals are assigned the responsibility of EPSM if the primary EPSM is not available.

,Maintenance Technician

Emergency Fire Protection Manager (EFPM)

, Security Officer, is the Emergency Fire Protection Manager (EFPM). The EFPM shall provide the Emergency Director advice and assistance on those aspects of any emergency situation directly involving or having impact on those services or equipment required for fire protection or response. The EFPM may activate the Emergency Plan based on a catastrophic event which results in an immediate threat to the facility. The EFPM will assume the manager position until expert assistance is available. Details are provided in

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APPENDIX B

EPIP #SEC-1. In the absence ofthe delegated EF'PM, other individuals will assume the responsibility of acting EFPM:

,StaffMember Emergenq Public Information Manager (EPZM)

,General Manager, is assigned the position of Emergency Public Information Manager (EPIM). The EPIM shall provide the public and media information as provided by the Emergency Director, and release such information at hidher discretion. He shall act as primary spokesman for the Emergency Diredor and the corporation, ABC Cosmetics. The EPIM and the Emergency Coordinator are one and the same, and specific procedures may be found in EPIP #EC-1. In the absence of the duly appointed EPIM, the Radiation Safety Officer shall act as temporary EPIM: ,Radiation Safety O@er OffsiteAgencies Certain offsite agencies have agreed to respond and supply support in specified emergency situations occurring a t ABC Cosmetics. The decision to use such agencies will depend on the decisions of the Emergency Director or alternate. Agreements have been reached with: Anytown Volunteer Fire and Rescue, Contact Person Phone Anytown General Hospital, Contact Person Phone

Notification of Emergencies Individual Employee Responsibility To report an accident or emergency situation Call Immediately: Building Security 111 An emergency is considered to be any condition which exists or appears imminent which would result in a threat to the health and

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safety of ABC Cosmetics Employees or others or which may cause serious damage to the facility. Be certain to include the following information when reporting an emergency: Your name: Phone calling from: Location: Describe Emergency: Fire Explosion Flood Spill Other: Injuries: -Yes -No. If yes describe Number of Injuries or persons involved: Potential Radiation Exposure Radioactive Contamination: -Yes -NO Radionuclides: Activity: Medical Assistance Required: -Yes 20 Stay on line until instructed otherwise.

Facility Telephone Operator Responsibilities The facility telephone operator is on duty only during normal working hours and is not a functional unit of the Emergency Response Plan. The duties of the Facility Telephone Operator are detailed in EPIP #OPER-1, which essentially requires a call transfer to the Security Officer.

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APPENDIX B

Sample Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) The following pages contain sample EPIPs. The sample EPIPs provided here cover ONLY a limited number of tasks or functions which may be required to support a specific emergency plan. Each emergency plan will require the development of those EPIPs necessary to accomplish the desired response. The following EPIPs are provided as examples of form and content. The ABC Cosmetics Company is continued as an example institution.

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EPlP #EC-1 Page 1 of 2 Revision #Date

EMERGENCY COORDINATOR PROCEDURES

Purpose This Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure(EP1P) details the actions required by the Emergency Coordinator.

Responsibilities The overall responsibilities of the Emergency Coordinator (EC) are as follows: 1. Development and maintenance of the Emergency Plan and EPlPs 2. Appoint individuals to assume major responsibilities in the Emergency Plan 3. Provision for training of pertinent individuals 4. Provision for plan exercises and critiques 5. Provision of all necessary supplies and equipment 6. Action as Public Information Officer in the event the emergency plan is activated 7. Dissemination of revisions and appropriate information to the Emergency Director and managers of functional areas.

Specific Instructions Development and Maintenance: Review the Emergency Plan at least annually with the Emergency Director and the managers of functional groups. Make appropriate revisions and reissue revised plan and EPIPs. Training: Training shall be provided to the following groups at least annually. The EC will provide the qualified individuals to do the training.

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APPENDIXB EPlP #EC-1 Page 2 of 2 Revision #Date

GROUP

SUBJECT MATERIAL INSTRUCTOR

Security Services

First Aid Radiation Safety EPlP #SEC-1 Plant Services Radiation Safety EPlP #SEW-1 Anytown Fire Department Radiation Safety Anytown General Hospital Radiation Safety General EmployeeNotification of Emergencies EPlP #OPER-1 Facility Telephone Operator

American Red Cross ED ED ED ED ED General Mailing of Notification, EC ED

Testing the Plan: Testing the EmergencyPlan is defined asactivating the Radiological Emergency Call List. The purpose is to verify telephone numbers and individual responsibility. Such exercises will be conducted at least quarterly, and will be scheduled by the EC. The Emergency Director is responsible for testing the plan according to EPlP #ED1 by conducting exercises as prescribed by the EC. Public Information: The EC will release information provided by the Emergency Director to the public and news media at an appropriate time. Dissemination of Revisions: As revisions to the general plan or any EPlP or attachment to the plan are made, the EC will provide the Emergency Director and the managers of the functional areas copies of such revisions. Approved by Approved by Approved by

Emergency Coordinator

Date

ABC Cosmetics President

Date

Emergency Director

Date

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EPIP #OPER-1 Page 1 of 1 Revision #Date

FACILITY TELEPHONE OPERATOR Purpose This Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure (EPIP) details the actions required by the ABC Cosmetics general telephone operator in the event a call is received indicating that an emergency exists. Responsibilities If a call is received by an employee indicating that a radiation emergency has occurred or may occur, the following actions should be taken: 1. Obtain name of Caller: Phone from which call is made: Nature of Emergency: Location of Emergency: 2. Tell the caller that the call will be transferred to security office. Give the caller the security phone number: 111 Instruct caller to call security if cut off. 3. Transfer call to security. 4. Call individual back to confirm that a call was made to security. 5. The person responsible for news releases or interaction with non-facility agencies is

, General Manager Home and work phone numbers , Alternate Home and work phone numbers Approved by Emergency Coordinator

Date

ABC Cosmetics President

Date

Emergency Director

Date

Approved by Approved by

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APPENDIXB EPlP #SEC-1 Page 1 of 3 Revision #-

Date

SECURITY OFFICER PROCEDURES

Purpose This Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure (EPIP) details the actions required by the Security Officer in the event of a radiological emergency and activation of the Emergency Plan. Responsibilities The responsibilities of the Security Officer or designated alternate are as follows: 1. receive incoming emergency calls from employees 2. contact appropriate emergency services as detailed in this EPlP 3. respond and provide first aid 4. respond and secure access to effected area 5. report significant events and updates to the Emergency Director or alternate

, RSO Phone: ,Alt

Phone:

, Alt

Phone:

Work

Home

Work

Home

Work

Home

6. Refer media representatives and non-facility agencies to: , General Manager Phone: Work Home Specific Instructions Receipt of Emergency Calls: In the event a call is received indicating an emergency involving radioactive materials 1. Obtain following information Name:

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EPlP #SEC-1 Page 2 of 3 Revision #Date

Phone from which call is being made: Location: Fire Explosion Flood Spill Injury Type of Emergency: Radiation Exposure Radioactive Contamination Other Radionuclide: Activity: e s N o Medical Assistance Required : Y Nature and severity of injuries: Number of injuries or persons involved: 2. Instruct person to remain on line if possible. 3. Dispatch Security Officer to scene. Contact Emergency Services: 1. Fire, Explosion, Serious Injury, etc. a. Call Anytown Fire Dept. Phone: and Rescue b. Call Emergency Director

,RSO

Phone:

,Alt

Phone:

,Alt

Phone:

Work

Home

Work

Home

Work

Home

2. Other Emergencies a. Call Emergency Director or alternates as in 1 above.

Respond and Provide First Aid: Upon receipt of emergency notification call, dispatch a Security Officer to the scene to provide emergency first aid. Security Officer will provide first aid and life saving measures until more expert assistance arrives. Respond and Secure Access: Security Officer will go to accident scene. Upon arrival 1. provide first aid 2. restrict area to prevent further injuries andlor contamination to personnel or facility 3. direct medical and fire assistance teams to area

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APPENDIXB EPlP #SEC-1 Page 3 of 3 Revision #Date

4. provide assistance and security as directed by the Emergency

Director 5. provide the Emergency Coordinator with changes in personnel or phone numbers or responsibilities. Approved by Emergency Coordinator

Date

ABC Cosmetics President

Date

Emergency Director

Date

Approved by Approved by

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EMERGENCY PLAN M)R AN INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH FACILITY EPIP RSERV-1 Page 1 of 1 Revision #Date

PLANT SERVICES MANAGER PROCEDURES Purpose This Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure (EPIP) details the actions required by the Plant Services Manager in the event the Emergency Plan is activated. Responsibilities The responsibilities of the Plant Services Manager. are to 1. remain available to perform services 2. respond to requests from the Emergency Director should services be required 3. provide damage reports only to the Emergency Director or designated alternate ,RSO

Phone:

,Alt

Phone:

,Alt

Phone:

Work

Home

Work

Home

Work

Home

4. Refer media representative non-facility agencies to: General Manager Home phone: Work:5. Provide the Emergency Coordinator with changes of personnel and phone numbers immediately after such changes are made.

-

,

Emergency Coordinator Approved by

, General Manager

Emergency Coordinator

Date

ABC Cosmetics President

Date

Approved by

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APPENDIXB EPIP #ED-1 Page 1 of 4 Revision #Date

EMERGENCYDIRECTOR PROCEDURES Purpose This Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure (EPIP) details the actions and responsibilities of the Emergency Director in the event a notification of emergency has occurred. Responsibilities The responsibilities of the Emergency Director are as follows: 1. classification of the emergency 2. notification of proper functional area managers or agencies 3. revision of the emergency classification in relation to events and radiological hazards and termination of the emergency 4. consultation with functional area managers and Emergency Coordinator after termination of the emergency to plan for restoration and recovery 5. provision of training of appropriate individuals as instructed by the Emergency Coordinator 6. provision of an evaluation of the emergency response team members to the Emergency Coordinator after the emergency is terminated 7. provision of assistance to Anytown General Hospital should an injured and contaminated victim be transported there 8. conduct quarterly exercises of the Emergency Plan as required by the Emergency Coordinator. Specific Instructions Classification of the Emergency: The Emergency Director will classify the emergency situation using attachment #1 to this EPIP (EPIP #ED-1-#I). This classification scheme relates solely to potential for radiation injury Incident Classification: Not a significant hazard Level One Emergency Classification: Not life threatening or immediately damaging to body but has potential for risk of delayed effect

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EPlP #ED-1 Page 2 of 4 Revision #Date

Level Two Emergency Classification: May be life threatening or cause serious damage to body organs Notification: The individuals or agencies listed in the attachment to this EPlP shall be notified as required by the Emergency Director (EPIP #ED1-#2). Emergency Reclassification: The Emergency Director will evaluate the emergency condition and reassess the classification. 1. The ED will dispatch personnel or personally visit the emergency scene and perform radiation surveys as necessary. 2. Based on data gathered, the emergency may be downgraded or upgraded depending on potential radiation doses, using the attachment to this EPlP and reference material available to the Emergency Director. 3. The emergency may be terminated when a. radiation exposures or potential exposures are within the Incident range of doses, and potential radiation exposures are ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable), b. an event such as fire, etc., has been brought under complete control and (3a) is true. c. conditions contributing to and/or causing the emergency are under control and access to the emergency area is appropriately controlled by security. Recovery and Restoration: After the emergency phase has been terminafed, all functional area managers shall meet with the Emergency Director to review the emergency. 1. Instruct all functional area managersto meet in the Emergency Coordinator's office. 2. Construct recovery and restoration plans as appropriate. 3. Document any problems with the Emergency Plan, and present the Emergency Coordinator with revisions to the plan. Training: The Emergency Director shall provide radiological safety training as appropriate to the following functional groups once a year.

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APPENDIXB EPlP #ED-1 Page 3 of 4 Revision #Date

1. Training outlines shall be submitted to the EmergencyCoordinator 2. Groups requiring training Security Plant Services Anytown Fire and Rescue Anytown General Hospital Facility Operator 3. Training course outlines, individuals attending, dates, and instructors shall be documented. Flow of Information: The Emergency Director shall keep the Emergency Coordinator informed during the emergency such that accurate and timely information may be released to the public andlor news media, if appropriate. Anytown General Hospital: Should the need arise to transport an injured and contaminated patient to Anytown General Hospital, the Emergency Director shall 1. provide for a qualified individual to accompany the victim to the hospital 2. provide assistance to the emergency room staff and hospital administrator in dealing with the radioactive material 3. provide appropriate instrumentation to assess the hazard 4. supervise the decontamination of the emergency area, if required. Quarterly Exercises: The Emergency Directorshall be responsiblefor conductingquarterly exercises of the Emergency Plan. Such exercises will be limited to utilization of the call list in EPlP #ED-1-#2. 1. On the scheduled date, call the manager of functional unit areas and outside agencies listed in EPlP #ED-1-#2. 2. Verify that the proper contact has been made. 3. Ask manager of functional area to review the EPlP which is appropriate to his duties. 4. Note any changes which may be necessary in the plan.

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EPlP #ED-1 Page 4 of 4 Revision #Date

5. Provide written report to the Emergency Coordinator concerning exercise results.

Approved by Emergency Coordinator

Date

ABC Cosmetics President

Date

Emergency Director

Date

Approved by Approved by

72

1 APPENDIXB EPlP #ED-1-#1 Page 1 of 1 Revision #Date

73

EMERGENCY PLAN FOR AN INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH FACILITY EPlP #ED-1-#2 Page 1 of 1 Revision #Date

RADIATION EMERGENCY CALL LIST Responsibility

Individual

Emergency Coordinator or alternate Emergency Director or alternate Security Officer or alternate Plant Services Director or alternate Anytown Volunteer Fire Anytown General Hospital Anytown Police Department Anytown Health Department State Health Department National Agency Consultant

WorklHome Phone

A I

A

Approved by Emergency Coordinator

Date

ABC Cosmetics President

Date

Emergency Director

Date

Approved by Approved by

APPENDIX C

Sample Emergency Plan for a Medical Facility This appendix contains a sample emergency plan for a large medical facility and several associated Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) for individuals involved in the plan. This plan is for demonstration purposes only, and should not be applied directly to other facilities without careful consideration and considerable revision. It is intended as a guide to the reader to be used in constructing such a plan for another facility. Assumptions and designated responsibilities may be significantly different for actual facilities.

Background Infirnation

The XYZ Medical facility is a large medical center serving a sizable metropolitan area. It consists of a medical school, biomedical research facilities and a teaching hospital with a full range of diagnostic and therapy clinics. The facility has a broad research license and a broad human use license for the use of radionuclides issued by the appropriate regulatory agency. The medical facility is fully staffed with security, plant maintenance, legal and public relations personnel.

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XYZ MEDICAL FACILITY EMERGENCY PLAN 1. Introduction The XYZ medical facility is an institution committed to the health care and treatment of humans and the conduct of medical research. The XYZ Medical Facility is located a t (give complete address of primary management offices eg., 100 College Street, State Capitol, Any State) with auxiliary facilities located a t (give exact addresses of each facility as applicable e.g., 101 Medical Science Park, Capitol Annex, Any State). The purpose of the XYZ Medical Facility Emergency Plan is to provide the organization for an adequate and timely response for employees and associated support agencies designed to cope with radiation emergencies. The objectives of the emergency plan are to prevent or mitigate the harmful effectsresulting from those events classified as radiation emergencies which occur within this institution's facilities or those occurring elsewhere, which impact on this institution or its services. The management of XYZ Medical Facility approves the radiation emergency plan and pertinent procedures, and is committed to the support of those individuals named in the plan as being responsible for its development, implementation and maintenance. This emergency plan is designed to provide a framework to respond effectively to an emergency involving radiation whether the event occurs within the facility or a t another location. All reports ofemergencies received by the XYZ Medical Facility involving radiation will be routed to the Emergency Director or a designated alternate. Based on the initially reported information the Emergency Director will classify and declare an emergency in accord with the approved emergency plan radiation classification system.

2. Instructions and Responsibilities 2.1 General Instructions for all Employees in the Event of a Radiation Emergency In the event of a radiation emergency, the following instructions are applicable to all employees: Employee a t the scene of the emergency should provide general first aid, warn other people to leave the area, and isolate the area.

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APPENDIX C

Report the event to appropriate emergency response contact. Take actions designed to minimize radiation exposure and radioactive contamination. Do not use telephone or elevators except for emergency needs or activity related to emergency. Follow emergency plan guidance. Be cognizant of assigned emergency plan duties. Have available pertinent portions of emergency plan for ready reference, such as call lists, Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs), reference data (radiation handbooks). Direct all requests from media representatives to the designated Emergency Public Information Manager. Keep your Functional Area Manager or Emergency Director apprised of your location, actions and the conditions affecting your assigned area of response. Use sound radiation protective measures, proper radiation monitoring equipment, and be alert at all times for any hazards, such as physical, chemical, biological, fire or explosion.

2.2 Organization and Responsibilities

The following duties are applicable to designated emergency personnel. 2.2.1 Emergency Coordinator (EC)

,Vice President for Research, is assigned the position of XYZ Medical Facility Emergency Coordinator in accordance with Job Description # . The EC is responsible for the overall coordinationof the total XYZ Medical Facilities Emergency Program to include: the development and maintenance of the emergency plan, positions, implementing procedures, and advising management on the selection and training of individuals assigned to key emergency plan positions. The EC shall be responsible for the conduct of training, drills and exercises as required for both employees and outside agency personnel. The EC shall report to and provide assistance to the Emergency Director in the event of a declared emergency. 2.2.2 Emergency Director (ED)

,Vice President for Research Support, is assigned the position of XYZ Medical Facility Emergency Director in accord with

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Job Description # . The ED is responsible for directing the emergency response upon activation of the emergency plan. The ED has the authority and responsibility to initiate any emergency actions within the provisions of the emergency plan to include the classification, upgrading, downgrading and termination of the emergency and the exchange of information with authorities responsible for coordinating and implementing off-site emergency measures. The following individuals are also assigned to the position of ED (as alternates) with the same responsibility and authority as described above in order to assure the immediate availability of an individual to respond as ED in the event the individual named above is not available. ,Radiation Safety Officer alternate ,Deputy Radiation Safety Officer alternate

2.3 Emergency Managers of Functional Areas The Chief (Department or Service Head or overall Supervisor) of each of the functional areas listed in the emergency plan is designated as emergency manager of that functional area upon activation of the emergency plan. The Manager of each functional area upon activation of the emergency plan, shall report to the Emergency Director at the designated location and be available to provide advice and consultation on all aspects of the emergency having impact on the functional area. Each emergency functional area manager has the authority and responsibility for providing all the services of the pertinent department contained in the provisions of the emergency plan. In the absence of the chief of the functional area, the individual onsite who is exercising the highest level of supervision of the pertinent department or service, shall assume the duties and responsibilities of emergency manager of that functional area until relieved properly. [If the above broad statement approach for defining the authority and responsibility of emergency functional area managers is inappropriate, the following are examples describing individual emergency functional area manager positions.]

2.3.1 Emergency Medical Manager (EMM) ,ChiefofEmergency Medicine is assigned the position of XYZ Medical Facility Emergency Manager in accord with Job

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APPENDIXC

Description # . The EMM is responsible for providing advice and consultation to the Emergency Director on all medical aspects of the emergency upon activation of the emergency plan. The EMM has the authority and is responsible for the provision of medical services within the provisions of the emergency plan. The following individual is also assigned to the position of EMM with the same responsibility and authority as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an individual to respond as EMM in the event the individual named above is not available. , Chief Resident, Emergency Medicine 2.3.2 Emergency Radiation Protection Manager (ERPM)

,Radiation Safety Officer is assigned the position of Emergency Radiation Protection Manager in accord with Job . The ERPM is responsible for the initial Description # assessment of the radiological aspects of the emergency (actual or potential) and to be available to provide advice and consultation to the ED on all radiation protection aspects of the emergency prior to and upon activation of the plan. The ERPM has the authority and responsibility for provision of all radiation protection serviceswithin the provisions of the emergency plan. The following individual is also assigned the position of ERPM with the same authorities and responsibilities as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an ERPM in the event the individual named above is not available. ,Radiation Safety Officer 2.3.3 Emergency Safety and Security Manager (ESSM)

, Chief of Security is assigned the position of Emergency Safety and Security Manager (ESSM) in accord with Job Description # . The ESSM is responsible for assessment of actual or potential general safety and security aspects of all emergencies, and shall be available to provide advice and consultation to the ED on all matters relating to general safety, security and traffic control upon activation of the Emergency Plan. The ESSM shall provide personnel andlor supervision for the accomplishment of rescue of injured individuals, conduct of personnel accountability, orderly evacuation of affected areas, control of access to the emergency site as well as within the affected areas of the facility. The ESSM shall provide for control of vehicular traffic on hospital prop-

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erty and coordinatethe activities of activated offsite agencies having similar responsibilities. The following individual is assigned the position of ESSM with the same authority and responsibility as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an ESSM in the event the individual named above is not available. ,Asst. Chief of Security

2.3.4

Emergency Plant Services Manager (EPSM)

,Manager of Plant Services, is assigned the position of the Emergency Plant Sewices Manager (EPSM) in accord with . The EPSM shall provide the Emergency Job Description # Diredor with advice and assistance on those aspects of any emergency situation directly involving or having impact on those services and utilities supplied andlor maintained by the Plant Services Department. The following emergency response functions are among those provided by the EPSM: damage assessment and control, repair andtor corrective action, technical support, liaison with utilities suppliers. The following individual is also assigned the position of EPSM with the same authority and responsibilities as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an EPSM in the event the individual named above is not available. ,Asst. Manager, Plant Services 2.3.5

Emergency Fire Protection Manager (EFPM)

, Fire Chief, is assigned the position of Emergency Fire Protection Manager (EFPM) in accord with Job Description # The EFPM shall be available to provide the Emergency Diredor advice and assistance on those aspects of any emergency situation directly involving or having impact on those services or equipment supplied or maintained by the fire protection department. The following emergency response functions are among those provided by the EFPM: fire control, damage assessment, rescue and first aid, liaison with off-site fire protection organizations. The following individual is also assigned the position of EFPM with the same authority and responsibilities as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an EFPM in the event the individual named above is not available. , Asst. Chief Fire Protection

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APPENDIX C

2.3.6 Emergency Public Information Manager EPIM.

,Public Information Officer, is assigned the position of Emergency Public Information Manager (EPIM) in accord with Job Description # . The EPIM shall be available to provide the Emergency Director with advice and assistance in development, preparation and timely dissemination of factual informationpertaining to the emergency situation directly involving the institution and its impact on the institution and the general public. The following emergency response functions are among those provided by the EPIM: act as the primary spokesman for the Emergency Director in the development, preparation and release of information regarding the Emergency to all outside news media representatives; respond to media and public inquiries pertaining to the emergency and maintain active rumor control. The following individual is also named to the position of EPIM with the same authority and responsibilities as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an EPIM in the event the individual named above is not immediately available. ,Asst. Manager, Public Information 2.3.7

Communications Manager (ECM)

, Communications Manager is assigned the position of Emergency Communications Manager (ECM) in accord with Job Description # . The ECM shall be available to provide advice and assistance in the provision of communication equipment and service required for use by emergency response personnel. The following emergency response functions are among those provided by the ECM: make available appropriate operating communication equipment in areas designated by the Emergency Director, provide a means of maintaining a record of communications, provide and maintain status boards in the Emergency Control Center. The following individual is assigned to the position of ECM with the same authorities and responsibilities as described above in order to ensure immediate availability of an ECM in the event the individual named above is not available. ,Asst. Manager, Communications 2.3.8 Offsite Agencies The following offsite agencies have agreed to respond and supply support in specified emergency situations occurringa t the XYZ Medi-

EMERGENCY PLAN FOR A MEDICAL FACILITY

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cal Facility. The decision to use such agencies and the extent of support provided by offsite organizations will be in accord with provisions of this emergency plan and the letters of agreement currently in effect. Municipal Fire and Rescue Service (Chief) Municipal Police (Chief) State Police (Commander) City Hospital (Chief Administrator).

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APPENDIXC

EMERGENCY PLAN ORGANIZATIONAL CHART XYZ Medical Facility

Director Emergency Coordinator Ext. Emergency Director Ext. Emergency Functional Area Manager Emerg. Medical Manager.

Offsite Agencies (Support) Municipal Fire & Rescue Service

Ext. Emerg. Radiation Protection Manager

Municipal Police Ext. State or Province Police

Ext. Emerg. Safety and Security Manager

Ext. Alternate Nearby Hospital(s) City Hospital Ext. (Regulatory) Local, State or Province Regulatory Agency State Health Department Ext. National Regulatory Agency Regional Regulatory Office Ext. (Others) e.g., Radioactive Materials Users Ext. Consultants Ext.

Ext. Emerg. Fire Pmtedion Manager -

-

Ext. Emerg. Public Information Manager Ext. Emerg. Communications Manager Ext.

EMERGENCY PLAN FOR A MEDICAL FACILITY

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3. Notification

3.1 Individual Employee Responsibility To report an emergency: By Phone Dial #: 999 Radio Use Call Letters: XYZ An emergency is considered to be any condition which exists or appears to be imminent which would result in a threat to the health and safety of employees, patrons or the general public or cause serious damage to the facilities and/or equipment of this organization. Any employee recognizing an emergency should report it immediately.

3.2 Emergency Operator Responsibilities The Emergency Operator is the person who answers all calls to the designated emergency number. Upon receiving a call reporting an emergency, the Emergency Operator shall obtain from the caller and record on an initial notification form (See example on page 4 in attached EPIP #NE-1) as much information as possible pertaining to the emergency. Following receipt of the initial report of the emergency the Emergency Operator will complete the notification of the XYZ Medical Facility in accord with EPIP # , entitled: Notification of Emergency.

4. Emergency Control Center (ECC) The ECC is located in Room # o f the XYZ Medical Facility. This room is commonly known as the Trauma Center Conference Room. The ECC is the room to which the Emergency Director and pertinent emergency functional area managers report upon the declaration of a Level One or Level Two Emergency. It is in the ECC that the ED and emergency functional area managers conduct their operations designed to control the emergency. The ECC is equipped with the quantities and types of equipment and materials as listed in EPIP # -entitled ECC Equipment. Activation of the ECC is initiated by the first member of the emergency response organization to arrive. That individual will act as ED until the ED arrives.

5. Emergency Support Centers (ESC) Emergency Support Center (ESC)is the designation given to each of the primary operational offices of those functional area managers designated to respond to the ECC. These areas or facilities are designated as ESC to ensure their ready access in the event of a declared emergency. Upon declaration of an emergency the entire staff of the designated ESC for a functional area will be made aware of the emergency classification and will prepare to respond to the emergency at the direction of the ED or their functional area manager.

6. Training

All individuals assigned to primary, alternate andlor backup emergency response positions by name shall be trained in accord with the position training requirements outlined in the XYZ Medical Facility Training Manual. Individuals assigned position in the emergency response organization (ERO)must have satisfactorily completed the specified training for the positions to which they are, or may be, assigned prior to being allowed to respond in a declared emergency.Training and retraining of ERO position personnel will be accomplishedapproximately annually, but not to exceed 15months. All general employeesmust receive the basic emergency response training outlined in the XYZ Medical Facility Training Manual during their initial employee orientation. Records of all training provided will be maintained by the XYZ Medical Training Department. Individual training documentation shall include as a minimum: name of attendee date of training lesson title instructor's name results of any tests or evaluations.

7. Emergency Plan Exercises

Emergency exercises shall be conducted by the following Emergency Functional Area Managers in accord with the following schedule: Medical-annually

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Public Information-annually Radiation Protection-semiannually Plant Services-semiannually Fire Protection-semiannually Safety and Security-semiannually Communications-quarterly Exercises shall be accomplished at periods so as to provide for training and evaluation of all shifts of the affected functional groups at least annually.

8. Recovery The recovery phase begins when the conditions leading to or resulting from the emergency have been reduced to a level manageable by normal operational personnel and procedures. The recovery phase will end at the direction of the Emergency Director when: 1) operation of the facility is returned to the normal operational organization and; 2) the equipment, facilities and supplies required by the XYZ Facility Emergency Plan have been reconstituted.

8.1 Responsibilities

The Emergency Director will be responsible for the initiation of the recovery phase activities. The Emergency Director will be responsible for the thorough transfer of information from the emergency response organization to normal operational personnel regarding conditions leading to, during and existing at the termination of the emergency.

8.2 Concept of Operation The Emergency Director will, at the initiation of the recovery phase, arrange for smooth transfer of information and control from the emergency response organization to normal operational personnel. Special emphasis will be placed on the provision of information and records of unusual conditions resulting from the emergency, such as, radiation levels, contamination, chemical hazards, physical hazards, biological hazards, fire hazards and ventilation changes.

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APPENDIX C

8.3 Reestablishment of Emergency Facilities

The Emergency Control Center will be returned to its normal operational use. Emergency functional area managers will be assigned the tasks of ensuring that all equipment, supplies, forms and documents used during the emergency a t the Emergency Control Center and the Emergency Support Centers are returned and are restored to the required pre-emergency level.

8.4 Reports

The Emergency Director assisted by the Emergency Coordinator will determine the documentation and reports required by the XYZ Medical Facility management and the regulatory agencies. Following the determination of such documentation and reports the Emergency Director will assign subtasks to the pertinent emergency response personnel, setting deadlines appropriate to meet management and regulatory requirements.

9. Review, Revision and Distribution of the

Emergency Plan The XYZ Medical Facility Emergency Plan with all applicable EPIPs and appendices to include letters of agreement with support agencies shall be reviewed and revised as needed. Revised portions of the plan and appendices will be distributed immediately. The Emergency Coordinatoris responsible for review, revision and distribution of the plan and appendices. The Emergency Coordinator shall be assisted in this review and revision by affected functional area managers.

9.1 Revisions

All required revisions of the plan, EPIPs and appendices shall be conducted in accord with EPIP # -entitled: Revision of Emergency Plan Documents.

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9.2 Distribution

Following approval, all revisions will be distributed to all official recipientsof the plan in accord with EPIP # entitled: Distribution of Emergency Plan Documents.

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APPENDIX C

Sample Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) The following pages contain sample EPIPs. The sample EPIPs provided here cover ONLY a limited number of tasks or functions which may be required to support a specific emergency plan. Each emergency plan will require the development of those EPIPs necessary to accomplish the desired response. The following EPIPs are provided as examples of form and content. The XYZ Medical Facility is continued a s a n example institution.

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EPlP #NE-1 Page 1 of 5 Revision #Date

XYZ MEDICAL FACILITY

Notification of Emergency

1. Purpose

1.1 This procedure provides instruction for notifying the emergency response organization and offsite agencies of the declaration of an emergency condition at the XYZ Medical Facility.

2. Applicability 2.1 This procedure applies to the Emergency Operator, the Emergency Director and other specifically designated members of the emergency response organization upon declaration of an emergency condition.

3. Responsibilities 3.1 The Emergency Operator 3.1.1

Receives and records initial report of emergency (see page 4 of this EPIP-XYZ Notification Form). 3.1.2 Directs all reports of events (actual or suspected) to the Emergency Director 3.1.3 Accomplishes notification of emergency response organization for emergencies as directed by Emergency Director 3.2 Emergency Director 3.2.1

Based on initial information obtained from pertinent functional area managers or others classifies the emergency in an expeditious manner in accord entitled: Classification of with EPlP # Emergency

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APPENDIX C EPlP #NE-1 Page 2 of 5 Revision #Date

3.2.2 Directs that the notification of emergency response organization be accomplished by the Emergency Operator (see page 5 of this EPlP for call list) 3.2.3 Directs that the notification of off-site support and regulatory agencies be accomplished as appropriate by the Emergency Coordinator 3.3 Emergency Coordinator 3.3.1 Accomplishes notification of offsite agencies as directed by the Emergency Director 3.3.2 Provides assistance in ensuring complete notification by contacting and verifying notification calls as necessary. 3.4 Emergency Functional Area Managers Emergency functional area managers who are contacted shall accomplish notification of pertinent groups within their respective departments

4. Instructions

4.1 Emergency Director and Emergency Coordinator shall report to the predesignated Emergency Center. 4.2 All emergency functional area managers shall report to the predesignated Emergency Control Center.

5. References 1. Facility Emergency Plan 2. EPlP # , Classification 3. Facility License Conditions

6. Attachments

1. XYZ Notification Form 2. XYZ Medical Facility Emergency Organization Call List for emergencies outside the hospital which impact on the hospital

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EPlP #NE-1 Page 3 of 5 Revision #Date

Approved by Approved by

Emergency Coordinator

Date

Facility Director

Date

Emergency Director

Date

Approved by

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APPENDIX C EPlP #NE-1 Page 4 of 5 Revision #Date

Notification received by Reported: Date Occurred: Date Reported by: Phone Number: A C l Address:

Time Time Title

AM/PM AMIPM

lncident Location Building Room Other Area Town : County if known Exact Location Type of lncident Fire, Explosion, Injury, Auto Collision, Other Injuries Involved Number: TYpe Description of Materials Involved What type of material is involved? -Chemical: NAME Form: Liquid -Solid -Pwdr. -Other Volume: -Radioactive Material: NAME: I s o t o p e : , Contamination, Exposure--Internal or External Form: Liquid -Pwdr. -Sealed Source Quantity: ( ) Curies ( ) millicuries ( ) Other lncident Mode M o t o r Carrier R a i l r o a d P i p e l i n e S t o r a g e A i r c r a f t Manufacturing Other Elaborate here and on back of this form if necessary: Local Officials on Scene Fire Sheriff Hwy Patrol Other Emergency Operator Signature

Police

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EPlP XNE-1 Page 5 of 5 Revision #Date

XYZ MEDICAL FACILITY FOR EMERGENCIES WITHIN HOSPITAL Emergency Call Tree Emergency Report Typically Received By Designated Emergency Operator Who Notifies Emergency Director # Classifies Emergency and Directs. Emergency Coordinator # notifies Pertinent Offsite Assistance As Designated By Emergency Director (See Attached Phone List) Emergency Operator Call Functional Area Managers Medical # Radiation Protection # Fire Protection # Security # Emergency Coordinator # Communication # Public Information # Plant Service # Special Hazard # Others-as appropriate

-

Hospital Director # Administrator on Call # Medical Departments # Nursing Supervisor # Senior Emergency Medicine Resident # Senior Surgical Resident # Anesthesia Resident on Call # Internal Medicine Resident on Call # Orthopedic Resident on Call # Radiology Resident on Call # Pediatric Resident on Call # Blood Bank Technologist # Pharmacy Director #

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APPENDIXC EPlP #RM-1 Page 1 of 3 Revision #Date

RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING

1. Purpose This procedure provides instructions for performing radiological monitoring activities during an emergency to include determination of habitable areas, facility radiological monitoring and post-emergency monitoring.

2. Applicability 2.1 This procedure is applicable to the Emergency Director, Emergency Radiation Protection Manager, radiation protection personnel and other individuals involved in onsite radiological monitoring. 2.2 This procedure should be implemented for emergencies classified as a "Level One Emergency or Level Two Emergency; however it may be implemented at the discretion of the Emergency Director for a "Incident".

3. Responsibilities 3.1

Emergency Radiation Protection Manager (ERPM) 3.1.1 Provide advice and direction to the Emergency Director regarding radiological monitoring activities to be conducted and protective measures to be implemented for facility personnel. 3.1.2 Keep the Emergency Director informed of radiological conditions, protective measures to be implemented during evacuation of assembly areas or the facility as required, and provide the results of the post emergency sampling. 3.1.3 Determine the need for post emergency sampling, identify the samples obtained and to be obtained, and evaluate the results of such sampling activities.

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EPlP #RM-1 Page 2 of 3 Revision #Date

3.1.4 Organize and dispatch the onsite (facility) radiological monitoring personnellteams, direct the activities to be accomplished and evaluate the results of monitoring activities. Emergency Director 3.2.1 Based upon radiological conditions, authorize reclassification of the emergency. 3.2.2 If recommendedby the ERPM authorize evacuation of selected buildings or areas or total facility. 3.2.3 Based upon recommendations of the Emergency Radiation Protection Manager,authorize increased personnel exposure limits, as required.

4.

Radiological Monitoring

4.1 Radiological monitoring inside the facility shall be conducted to support required response actions. 4.2 At least one radiation protection representative should accompany each rescue, repair and reentry team upon initial entry into an area where an actual or potential radiological hazard exists. 4.3 Prior to dispatch of personnel into an actual or potential radiological hazard area. 4.3.1 The ERPM shall ensure that required protective apparel and devices are used properly. 4.3.2 Respiratory protection equipment, if required, should be checked and determined to be operable, and the user should be aware of equipment limitations. 4.3.3 Dosimetry of sufficient range should be worn to adequately monitor whole body and extremity doses where applicable. 4.3.4 Equipment and supplies anticipated to be required for the tasks should be available and checked to insure operability as necessary. 4.3.5 Appropriate primary and backup communications means should be assigned and checked prior to departure.

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APPENDIX C EPlP #RM-1 Page 3 of 3 Revision #Date

4.3.6 Briefings of team members should be conducted to the extent necessary to ensure team personnel are aware of the task assigned as well as methods and special precautions to be observed. 4.4 After dispatch of team the radiation protection representative assigned to the team should in addition to monitoring dose rates and total exposures: 4.4.1 Provide guidance to team members pertaining to exposure control. 4.4.2 Inform and advise the ERPM or ED of unanticipated radiological conditions encountered. 4.4.3 Upon completion of team assignment and return from radiation areas the radiation protection representative should provide guidance in removal of protective clothing and equipment and monitoring and decontamination of personnelexiting theemergency area. 4.4.4 Upon completion of assignment, the radiation protection representative will provide all pertinent radiological information during a debriefing of the team. 4.5 The ERPM shall advise the ED of necessityfor, accomplishment of and results of analysis of post emergency sampling. 4.6 Documentation of onsite radiological monitoring activities and post-emergency sampling results should be recorded appropriately with copies being made and supplied to: 4.6.1 Incident log 4.6.2 Emergency Director 4.6.3 Emergency Radiation Protection Manager 4.6.4 Appropriate control points or agencies

Approved by Emergency Coordinator

Date

Emergency Director

Date

Emergency Radiation Protection Manager

Date

Approved by Approved by

APPENDIX D

Emergency Classification Examples The information which follows is intended to aid the Emergency Director in the implementation of the emergency classification scheme presented in this publication. Classification examples have been provided for two hypothetical facilities. Assumptions made in the dose equivalent calculations may not apply to actual facilities using similar isotopes.

Cosmetics Manufacturer A cosmetics manufacturer uses 14C-and3H-labeledcompounds for product testing. The total amount of each isotope present in the facility is 370 MBq. Routine testing never involves the use of more than 18.5 MBq of either radionuclide. Use of radioactive materials is restricted to one laboratory which has dimensions of 15 x 5 x 3 meters. Assume that during routine use of either radionuclide the maximum activity involved in a spill resulting in skin contamination andlor ingestion would be 18.5 MBq. Any absorption through the skin should be included in the injection or puncture route. In the event of a fire or explosion assume the entire laboratory inventory is dispersed into the laboratory volume, and that a laboratory worker m3/s(ICRP, 1974).Numerical or rescue worker breathes at 3.0 x results have been rounded off in many cases for ease of presentation an in consideration of the accuracies involved. An approach to a facility classification could be accomplished as follows: a. external Tritium poses no direct external exposure hazard. If elemental tritium is present, a lung dose can be assessed using the appropriate value from Table 4.2. In the present example, elemental

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APPENDXD

tritium is not used. Tritium vapor (3H20)is readily absorbed through the skin. This exposure route is discussed in e. below. Carbon-14 may pose an external exposure hazard if released into the room. Assuming a total of 370 MBq is released into the room with a volume of 225 m3the average air concentration would be 1.6 Bq/cm3. Referring to Table 4.5, the beta dose mSv/h. If a stay equivalent rate to the skin would be 1.2 x time of an emergency worker or laboratory worker is assumed to be 30 minutes, then the committed dose equivalent to the skin is 6.2 x lo-"mSv. This would be classified as an Incident. b. skin Tritium poses no direct exposure hazard to the basal layer, but may be absorbed. This is included in the puncturelinjection route. Carbon-14 if deposited onto the skin surface may expose the basal layer. Assume that the maximum amount spilled onto the skin is 18.5 MBq and that this amount of activity is deposited onto a 1 cm2 area. The area activity is then 18.5 MBq/cm2.The expected maximum dose equivalent rate to the skin using Table 4.3 would be 5600 mSv/h. If it is assume that in such an emergency a response and significant decontamination may be accomplished within 112 hour, a total maximum dose equivalent to the skin within this period may be estimated as 2.8 Sv. Such an accident would be classified a "Level One Emergency". Such an accident may not be considered by some to be a Level One Emergency. However, the level ofemergency is based solely on the potential for exposure. Implicit in the dose calculation is the assumption that the nuclide remains confined to 1cm2on the skin surface. If the area is larger or the skin is decontaminated, the classification would be reduced. c. oral An upper limit to the committed dose equivalent due to this route would be the ingestion of 18.5MBq of either radionuclide. For tritium, this would also include absorption due to skin contamination. From the information presented in Table 4.2, the committed dose equivalent for 3H would be 3.1 x lo4 Sv. For 14C it would be 0.01 Sv. Both would be classified as Incidents. d. puncture Assume the maximum amount deposited is 18.5 MBq of either radionuclide. The committed dose equivalents would be identical with the "Oral" route in c. above, and such accidents would be classified as Incidents. A puncture may be accompanied by personnel contamination in which case skin exposure must be considered, as discussed in b. above.

EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES

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99

e. inhalation Assume a fire or other catastrophic event occurs and releases the total inventory into the laboratory. A total of 370 MBq of 3H and 370 MBq of 14C are released into the laboratory volumeof 225 m3. The air concentration would then be 1.6 Bq/cm3 of each radionuclide. If a stay time of 30 minutes is assumed, and a breathing rate of 3 x 10" m3/s, the total intake due to inhalation would be estimated at 0.9 MBq of each radionuclide assuming no dilution of the laboratory air volume during the exposure period. It is assumed that the air concentration remains constant during this period. Based on Table 4.2, the Sv for 3H and committed dose equivalents would be 1.5 x 5 x 10" Sv for 14C.The total committed dose equivalent would be approximately 5 x lo4 Sv. This would be categorized as an Incident. It should be remembered that the classification scheme is based solely on potential radiological impact. A fire or explosion would be classified as a serious emergency irrespective of the radiological conditions. The analysis would also indicate that minor radiological concern would exist for non-facility emergency personnel entering the facility not wearing protective equipment clothing. The facility emergency classification is summarized in Table D.1. Such a table may be included in the emergency plan for determining at what level the plan should be activated.

Facility:

TABLED.l-Completed facility emergency classification worksheet ABC Cosmetics, Inc.

Location:

Lab 117 W

Nuclide

3H

%Fa

U

% Route of exposure

Amount to classify

external skin internal, oral inject' puncture inhalation

U

external skin internal, oral inject' puncture inhalation "Type is S for sealed, U for unsealed, M for machine, 0 for other.

14C

F ............fire X ............explosion IR ..........irradiation IJ ...........injury cBased solely on potential radiation exposure to skin.

bMechanism Key:

.

Highest accident classification

3

Mechanismb

370 18.5 18.5 18.5

None None Incident Incident

SP,LO,LJ SP,LO,LJ

370

Incident

F,X,GA

3 70 18.5 18.5 18.5

Incident Level Onec Incident Incident

F,X,GA SP,LO,IJ SP,LO,IJ SP,IJ,X

370

Incident

F,X,GA

SP ..........spill GA .........gas or vapor LO .........loss or theft OTHER .

354 U

EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES

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University

A university is authorized to use a variety of radionuclides. The radiation safety officer wishes to classify the severity of potential emergencies a t the university by radionuclide and quantity. This is a different approach than the ABC Cosmetics example, and is included to encourage the reader to adapt the classification scheme to particular facility requirements. For simplicity, assume 3H, 32P, and 1311are used and all are unsealed sources. The following methodology may be used to classify emergency situations at this institution based solely on the potential for radiation exposure. The general method is to determine the activities of each radionuclide that would classify a radiation incident in each category as defined in Section 4.4. For each radionuclide, routes of exposure are placed into five categories as follows: external exposure due to irradiation and submersion in contaminated air skin exposure due to skin contamination or submersion in contaminated air oral intake injection, puncture, or transport through the skin inhalation of contaminated air. In the calculations that follow, exposures due to skin contamination are evaluated for a 1cm2area for an assumed exposure time of one-half hour duration. The assumed room dimensions are 15 x 5 x 3 meters resulting in room volume for assessing submersion and inhalation exposures of 225 m3. A floor contamination area of 5m x 15m (75 m2)is assumed for calculation of external exposures due to spills of radioactivity. Smaller areas with the same deposited activity would result in radically different dose estimates. Numerical results have been rounded off in many cases for ease of presentation and in consideration of the accuracies involved. It is important to realize that the above parameters may be different when the reader evaluates a particular facility. Classification for 3H

Activities required to classify as an Incident, or Level One or Level Two Emergency are summarized in Table D.2. This radionuclide poses no direct external or skin contamination exposure hazard. Other classifications are determined as follows: a. external An external hazard does not exist.

CI

0 h3

TABLE D.2-Activities of nrdionuclides required to classify as Incidents, Level One or Level Two Emergencies Example University Emergency Classification Worksheet Nuclide

QP

3H

Us

3T

"U is unsealed.

U

Route of expwure

Incident

skin oral puncture inhalation

<3000 <3000 <1 x 106

-

Activity to classify (MBq) Level One

>30,000 >30,000 >I x lo7

>1 x lo6 >3 x lo8 >2 >70 >70 >7000 >3 x lo6 >3 x lo9 >2 x lo7 >3 >1 >1 >700


1 x 1 0 ~- 1 x 1 0 ~ 3x107 - 3x10' 0.1 - 2 6 - 70 5 - 70 800 - 7000

submersion floor point source skin oral puncture inhalation

<3 x 106 <4~108 <2 x lo6 <0.2 <0.1 <0.1 <70

3x106 - 3x106 4x108 - 3x10' 2x106 - 2 x 1 0 ~ 0.03 - 3 0.1 - 1 0.1 - 1 70 - 700

<5

%

Level Two

3000 - 30,000 3000 - 30,000 1 x 1 0 ~- 1 x 1 0 ~

submersion floor skin oral puncture inhalation

. I R U

EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES

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103

b. oral The committed dose equivalent factor for oral intakes from Table 4.2 is 1.7 x lo-" SvIBq. The Level Two limit of 0.5 Sv is taken from Table 4.1. An intake of 2.9 x 101° Bq (30,000 MBq) or more would result in a dose of 0.5 Sv or greater. A Level One Classification would require a committed dose equivalent of 0.05 (assumed for this example) to 0.5 Sv or an activity of 2.9 x. lo3to 2.9 x lo4MBq. An Incident classification would be less than 2.9 x lo3 MBq (3000 MBq). c. puncture The committed dose equivalent factor from Table 4.2 is the same as above and therefore the limits are identical. d. inhalation Assuming a room volume of 225 m3, a breathing rate of 3 x lo4 m3/s, an exposure time of 30 minutes, a dose factor from Table 4.2 of 1.7 x 10-l1Sv/Bq, and the same dose equivalent limits a s above, the activities given in Table D.2 may be determined.

Classificationfor 32P a. external External exposures to 32Pare due to beta radiation and expose the skin and lens of the eye. Contamination of floors or surfaces are assumed to be in a 75 m2 area. Doses are evaluated for a 30-minute exposure time 1meter above these surfaces allowing for no attenuation due to clothing or the depth of the lens. External exposures may also result from submersion in contaminated air. Using the limits in Table 4.1 for all other organs (lens of the eye) and the dose equivalent factors from Table 4.4 for an area source of 32P,the activities in Table D.2 may be calculated for floor contamination. External exposure to the lens may also be of concern for an airborne release into the room volume. Again, assume a room volume of 225 m3 and an exposure time of 30 minutes. From the values in Table 4.1 and the submersion factors in Table 4.5, the activities given in Table D.2 may be determined. The activities for external exposure to the lens are overestimates as no correction is made for the increased depth of the lens (0.3 mm). b. skin The activity is assumed to be deposited in a 1cm2area of skin for an exposure time of one-half hour. From the fadors in

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APPENDIX D

Table 4.3 and the value for skin given in Table 4.1 the activities presented in Table D.2 may be determined. c. oral The committed dose equivalent conversion factor is given in Table 4.2 and the Level Two classification value may be selected from Section 4.4. The values given in Table D.2 may be determined using the dose factor and the limits for each classification. d. puncture As in the oral route above, the dose equivalent factor is obtained from Table 4.2 with the same limits applying. e. inhalation Assuming a room volume of 225 m3, a breathing rate of 3 x lo4 m3/s, an exposure time of 30 minutes, the dose equivalent factor from Table 4.3, and using the Level Two organ threshold value in Section 4.4 the activities in Table D.2 may be determined.

Classification for

1311

a. external External exposuresare calculated from Table 4.4 due to irradiation from floor contamination and a point source. Dose due to submersion in contaminated air is calculated from Table 4.5. The Level Two dose equivalent threshold values are taken from Table 4.1. Applying the appropriate dose equivalent conversion factors for an exposure time of 30 minutes allows for the determination of the values given in Table D.2. b. skin Use the dose equivalent limits for skin, a 1 cm2 area of skin contamination, an exposure time of 112 hour, and the dose equivalent conversion factors from Table 4.3 to obtain the values in Table D.2. c. oral The dose equivalent conversion factor from Table 4.2 and the classification limits from Section 4.4 may be used to obtain the values in Table D.2. d. puncture The calculation is the same as for "Oral".

EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES

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105

e. inhalation Use a room volume of 225 m3,a breathing rate of 3 x lo4 m3/s, and an exposure time of 30 minutes. From the dose equivalent conversion factor given in Table 4.2 and the Level Two classification threshold value in Table 4.1 the activitylimits in Table D.2 may be determined.

References BEIR(1980). Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation, The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: 1980 (National Research Council, Washington). BERGER, M.J. (1970). "Beta-ray dosimetry calculations with the use of point kernels," pages 63 to 86 in Medical Radionuclides: Radiation Dose and Effects, United States Atomic Energy Commission, CONF 691212, AEC Symposium Series 20 (National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia). BERGER,M.J. (1971). "Distributions of absorbed dose around point sources of electrons and beta particles in water and other media,", J. Nucl. Med., Supplement No. 5, Vol. 12, Pamphlet No. 7 (Society of Nuclear Medicine, New York). BERGER, M.J. (1974). "Beta-ray dose in tissue-equivalent material immersed in a radioactive cloud," Health Phys. 26, 1-12. CROSS,W.G., ING,H., FREEDMAN, N.O. AND MAINVILLE, J. (1982). Tables of Beta-Ray Dose Distributions in Water,Air, and Other Media, AECL-7617 (Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Chalk River, Ontario). IAEA (1974). International Atomic Energy Agency, Evaluation ofRadiation Emergencies and Accidents, Selected Criteria and Data, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 152 (International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna). ICRP (1974). International Commission on Radiological Protection, Report of the Task Group on Reference Man, ICRP Publication No. 23 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1979a). International Commission on Radiological Protection. Limits for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers,ICRP Publication No. 30, Part 1 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1979b). International Commission on Radiological Protection. Limits for Intakes ofRadionuclides by Workers ICRP Publication 30, Supplement to Part 1 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1980). International Commission on Radiological Protedion. Limits for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers, ICRP Publication 30, Pafi 2 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1981a). International Commission Radiological Protection. Limits for Intukes of Radionuclides by Workers,ICRP Publication 30, Supplement to Part 2 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1981b). International Commission on Radiological Protection. Limits forlntakes ofRadionuclides by Workers,ICRP Publication 30, Supplement to Part 3 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1982a). International Commission on Radiological Protection. Limits forlntukes ofRadionuclides by Workers,ICRP Publication 30, Supplement A to Part 3 (Pergamon Press, New York).

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ICRP (198213). International Commission on Radiological Protection. Limits forzntakes ofRadionuclides by Workers,ICRP Publication 30, Supplement B to Part 3 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1984a). International Commission on Radiological Protection. Nonstochastic Effects of Ionizing Radiation, ICRP Publication No. 41 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1984b).International Commission on Radiological Protection.Protection of the Public in the Event of MajorRadiation Accidents:Principles for Planning, ICRP Publication No. 40 (Pergamon Press, New York). ICRP (1988). International Commission on Radiological Protection Limits for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers:An Addendum ICRP Publication 30, Part 4 (Pergamon Press, New York) JAEGER, R.G., BLIZARD, E.P., GROTENHUIS, M., HONIG,A., JAEGER Th.A. AND EISENLOHR, H.H. Eds. (1968). Engineering Compendium on Radiation Shielding, Volume I, Shielding Fundamentals and Methods, IAEA (Springer Verlag, New York). JAMISON, J.D., MOEUER,M.P. AND MARTIN, G.F. (1987). Closing the Loop: Using the Emergency Preparedness Exercise for Self Evaluation andPerformunce Enhancement (Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington). J.R. ANDLAMOTHE, E.S. (1987). "Dose to the basal layer of the skin JOHNSON, from lZ6Iskin contamination," Radiat. Protect. Dosimetry 20,253-256. KOCHERD.C. (1980). "Dose-rate conversion factors for external exposure to photon and electron radiation from radionuclides occurring in routine releases from nuclear fuel cycle facilities," Health Phys. 38,543-622. K.F. (1981). "Electron dose-rate conversion KOCHER, D.C. AND ECKERMAN, factors for external exposure of the skin," Health Phys. 40,467-476. KOCHER, D.C. AND ECKERMAN, K.F. (1987). "Electron dose-rate conversion factors for external exposure of the skin from uniformly deposited activity on the body surface," Health Phys. 53, 135-141. MCGUIRE, E. L. ANDDALRYMPLE, G.V. (1990)."Beta and electron dose calculations to skin due to contamination by common nuclear medicine radionuclides," Health Phys. 58,399-403 NCRP (1977).National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Medical Radiation Exposure ofpregnant and PotentiallyPregnant Women, NCRP Report No. 54 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1978).National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Opemtional Radiation Safety Program, NCRP Report No. 59 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1980).National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Management of Persons Accidentally Contaminated With Radionuclides, NCRP Report No. 65 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1981).National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Dosimetry ofX-Ray and Gamma-Ray Beams for Radiation Thempy in the

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REFERENCES

Energy Range 10 KeV to 50 MeV, NCRP Report No. 69 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1985a). National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. General Concepts for the Dosimetry of Internally Deposited Radionuclides, NCRP Report No. 84 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1985b). National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. TheExperimental Basis forAbsorbed-Dose Calculations in Medical Use ofRadionuclides, NCRPReport No. 83 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1987). National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Recommendations on Limits for Exposure to Ionizing Radiation, NCRP Report No. 91 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NCRP (1989). National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Limits for Exposure to "Hot Particles" on the Skin, NCRP Report No. 106 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland). NRC (1989). Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Health Effect Models for Nuclear Power Plant Accident ConsequenceAnalysis. Low LET Radiation Part IZZ: Scientific Bases for Health Effect Models. NUREGICR-4214, SAND85-7185, Rev. 1, Part I1 (Superintendent of Documents, Washington). F.B., DREESMAN, G.R. AND MELNICK, J.L. SEHULSTER, L.M., HOLLINCER, (1981). "Immunological and biophysical alteration of Hepatitis B Virus antigens by sodium hypochlorite disinfection," Appl. Environ. Microbial. 42, 762-767 UNSCEAR (1982). United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Ionizing Radiation: Sources and Biological Effects (United Nations, New York).

The NCRP The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements is a nonprofit corporation chartered by Congress in 1964 to: 1. Collect, analyze, develop, and disseminate in the public interest information and recommendations about (a) protection against radiation and (b) radiation measurements, quantities, and units, particularly those concerned with radiation protection; 2. Provide a means by which organizations concerned with the scientific and related aspects of radiation protection and of radiation quantities, units, and measurements may cooperate for effective utilization of their combined resources, and to stimulate the work of such organizations; 3. Develop basic concepts about radiation quantities, units, and measurements, about the application of these concepts, and about radiation protection; 4. Cooperate with the International Commission on Radiological Protection, the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, and other national and international organizations, governmental and private, concerned with radiation quantities, units, and measurements and with radiation protection. The Council is the successor to the unincorporated association of scientists known as the National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements and was formed to carry on the work begun by the Committee. The Council is made up of the members and the participants who serve on the over sixty scientific committees of the Council. The scientific committees, composed of experts having detailed knowledge and competence in the particular area of the committee's interest draft proposed recommendations. These are then submitted to the full membership of the Council for careful review and approval before being published. The following comprise the current officers and membership of the Council: Ofjkers President Vice President Secretary and Treasurer Assistant Secretary Assistunt Treasurer

CHARLESB. MEINHOLD S. JAMESADELSTEIN W. ROGER NEY CARLD. HOBELMAN JAMESF. BERG

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Members DADEW. MOELLER R. J . MICHAELFRY A. ALAN MOGHISSI THOMASF. GESELL LESTERJ. PETERS ETHELS. GILBERT JOHN W. POSTON ROBERTA. GOEPP ANDREWK. POZNANSKI JOEL E. GRAY NORMANC. RASMUSSEN ARTHUR W. GUY CHES~ER R RICHMOND ERICJ. HALL GENEVIEVE S. ROESSLER NAOMIH. HARLEY MARVINROSENS~EIN W w R. HENDEE LAWRENCE N. DONALDG. JACOBS LEONARDA. SAGAN A. EVERET~E A M JE ,S JR. KEITHJ. ~ H I A G E R BERNDKAHN ROBERTA. SCHLENKER KENNETHR. KASE ROY E.SHORE HAROLDL. KUNDEL PAULSLOVIC CHARLESE. LAND RICHARD A. TELL JOHN B. LPITLE WILLIAM L. TEMPLETON RAYD. LMYD THOMASS. TENFORDE HARRYR. MAXON Joop W. THIESSEN ROGER0.MCCLELLAN RALPH H.THOMAS BARBARAJ. MCNEIL JOHN E. RLL CHARLESB. MEINHOLD MORTIMERL. MENDEUOHN ROBERTL. ULLRICH ARTHUR C. U ~ N FREDA. MET~LER MARVINZISKIN WILLIAMA. MILLS Honomry Members LAUIUSTONS. TAYLOR,Honomry President EDWARDL. ALPEN JOHN H. RUST EUGENEL. SAENGER VICTOR P. BOND REYNOLD F. BROWN WILLIAM J . SCHUU A u m M. BRUES WARRENK. SINCLAIR RANDALLS. CASWELL J. NEWELLSTANNARD FREDERICKP. COWAN JOHN B. STORER JAMES F. CROW ROYC. THOMPSON GERALDD. DODD GEORGEL. VOELZ MERRILLEISENBUD EDWARDW. WEBS~ER ROBLEYD. EVANS GEORGEM. WILKENING HAROLD0.WYCKOFF RICHARDF. FOSTER HYMERL. FRIEDELL

Currently, the following subgroups are actively engaged in formulating recommendations: SC 1

Baaic Radiation Protection Criteria SC 1-1 Probability of Causation for Genetic and Developmental Effecta SC 1-2 The Assessment of Risk for Radiation Protection Rvposes SC 13 Collective Dose

THE NCRP SC 16 SC 46

SC 57

SC 59

SC 63 SC 64

SC 65 SC 66 SC 67 SC 69 SC 71 SC 75 SC 76 SC 77 SC 78 SC 79 SC 80 SC 83 SC 84 SC 85 SC 86 SC 87

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X-Ray Proteetion in Dental Offices Operational Radiation Safety SC 46-2 Uranium Mining and Milling-Radiation Safety Programs SC 46-4 Calibration of Survey Instrumentation SC 46-5 Maintaining Radiation Protection Records SC 46-8 Radiation Protection Design Guidelines for Particle Accelerator Facilities SC 46-9 ALARA a t Nuclear Plants SC 46-10 Assessment of Occupational Doses from Internal Emitters SC 46-11 Radiation Protection During Special Medical Procedure8 Internal Emitter Standards SC 57-2 Respiratory Tract Model SC 57-6 Bone Problems SC 57-8 Leukemia Risk SC 57-9 Lung Cancer Risk SC 57-10 Liver Cancer Risk SC 57-14 Placental Transfer SC 57-15 Uranium Human Population Exposure Experience Radiation Exposure Control in a Nuclear Emergency SC 63-1 Public Knowledge About Radiation Environmental Radioactivity and Waste Management SC 6 4 6 Screening Models SC 64-16 Uncertainties in Dose Assessment Quality Assurance and Accuracy in Radiation Protection Measurements Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria for Ultrasound Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields Efficacy of Radiographic Procedures Radiation Exposure and Potentially Related Injury Guidance on Radiation Received in Space Activities Effects of Radiation on the Embryo-Fetus Guidance on Occupational and Public Exposure Resulting from Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine Procedures Practical Guidance on the Evaluation of Human Exposures to Radiofrequency Radiation Extremely Low-Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields Radiation Biology of the Skin (Beta-Ray Dosimetry) Identification of Research Needs for Radiation Protection Radionuclide Contamination SC 8 4 1 Decontamination and Decommissioning of Facilities SC 8 4 2 Contaminated Soil Risk of Lung Cancer from Radon Hot Particles in Eye, Ear and Lung Radioactive and Mixed Waste

Ad Hoc Committee on Comparison of Radiation ExposAd Hoc Group on Nuclear Medicine Misadministration Ad Hoc Group on Plutonium Ad Hoc Group on Radon Ad Hoc Group on Video Display 'Terminals Study Group on Comparative Risk %sk Force on Occupational Exposure Levels

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In recognition of its responsibility to facilitate and stimulate cooperation among organizations concerned with the scientific and related aspects of radiation protection and measurement, the Council has created a category of NCRP Collaborating Organizations. Organizations or groups of organizations that are national or international in scope and are concerned with scientific problems involving radiation quantities, units, measurements, and effects, or radiation protection may be admitted to collaborating status by the Council. The present Collaborating Organizations with which the NCRP maintains liaison are as follows: American Academy of Dermatology American Association of Physicists in Medicine American College of Medical Physics American College of Nuclear Physicians American College of Radiology American Dental Association American Industrial Hygiene Association American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine American Insurance Sewices Group American Medical Association American Nuclear Society American Occupational Medical Association American Podiatric Medical Association American Public Health Association American Radium Society American Roentgen Ray Society American Society of Radiologic Technologists American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology Association of University Radiologists Bioelectromagnetics Society College of American Pathologists Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors Electric Power Research Institute Federal Communications Commission Federal Emergency Management Agency Genetics Society of America Health Physics Society Institute of Nuclear Power Operations National Electrical Manufacturers Association National Institute of Standards and Technology Nuclear Management and Resources Council Radiation Research Society Radiological Society of North America Society of Nuclear Medicine United States Air Force United States Army United States Department of Energy United States Department of Housing and Urban Development United States Department of Labor United States Environmental Protection Agency

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United States Navy United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission United States Public Health Service

The NCRP has found its relationships with these organizations to be extremely valuable to continued progress in its program. Another aspect of the cooperative efforts of the NCRP relates to the special liaison relationships established with various governmental organizations that have an interest in radiation protection and measurements. This liaison relationship provides: (1)an opportunity for participating organizations to designate an individual to provide liaison between the organization and the NCRP, (2) that the individual designated will receive copies of draft NCRP reports (at the time that these are submitted to the members of the Council) with an invitation to comment, but not vote; and (3) that new NCRP efforts might be discussed with liaison individuals as appropriate, so that they might have an opportunity to make suggestionson new studies and related matters. The following organizations participate in the special liaison program: Australian Radiation Laboratory Commissariat a 1'Energie Atomique (France) Commission of the European Communities Defense Nuclear Agency Federal Emergency Management Agency Japan Radiation Council National Institute of Standards and Technology National Radiological Protection Board (United Kingdom) National Research Council (Canada) Omce of Science and Technology Policy Office of Technology Assessment Ultrasonics Institute of Australia United States Air Force United States Army United States Coast Guard United States Department of Energy United States Department of Health and Human Services United States Department of Labor United States Department of Transportation United States Environmental Protection Agency United States Navy United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

The NCRP values highly the participation of these organizations in the liaison program. The Council also benefits significantly from the relationships established pursuant to the Corporate Sponsors Program. The program facilitates the interchange of information and ideas and corpo-

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rate sponsors provide valuable fiscal support for the Council's programs. Current NCRP Corporate Sponsors include the following: Agfa Corporation Eastman Kodak Company Landauer, Inc. 3M Co. Picker International Inc.

The Council's activities are made possible by the voluntary contribution of time and effort by its members and participants and the generous support of the following organizations: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Alliance of American Insurers American Academy of Dental Radiology American Academy of Dermatology American h i a t i o n of Physicists in Medicine American College of Medical Physics American College of Nuclear Physicians American College of Radiology American College of Radiology Foundation American Dental Association American Hospital Radiology Administrators American Industrial Hygiene Association American Insurance Services Group American Medical Association American Nuclear Society American Occupational Medical Association American Osteopathic College of Radiology American Pediatric Medical Assaciation American Public Health Association American Radium Society American Roentgen Ray Society American Society of Radiologic Technologieta American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology American Veterinary Medical Association American Veterinary Radiology Society Association of University Radiologists Battelle Memorial Institute Center for Devices and Radiological Health College of American Pathologists Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Defense Nuclear Agency Eastman Kodak Company Edison Electric Institute Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr. Foundation EG&G Idaho, Inc. Electric Power Research Institute Federal Emergency Management Agency Florida Institute of Phosphate Research

THE NCRP

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Health Effects Research Foundation (Japan) Health Physics Society Institute of Nuclear Power Operations James Picker Foundation Martin Marietta Corporation National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Association of Photographic Manufacturers National Cancer Institute National Electrical Manufacturers Association National Institute of Standards and Technology Nuclear Management and Resources Council Radiation Research Society Radiological Society of North America Richard Lounsbery Foundation Sandia National Laboratory Society of Nuclear Medicine United States Department of Energy United States Department of Labor United States Environmental Protection Agency United States Navy United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission Victoreen, Incorporated

To all of these organizations the Council expresses its profound appreciation for their support. Initial funds for publication of NCRP reports were provided by a grant from the James Picker Foundation and for this the Council wishes to express its deep appreciation. The NCRP seeks to promulgate information and recommendations based on leading scientific judgment on matters of radiation protection and measurement and to foster cooperationamong organizations concerned with these matters. These efforts are intended to serve the public interest and the Council welcomes comments and suggestions on its reports or activities from those interested in its work.

NCRP Publications NCRP publications are distributed by the NCRP Publications' office. Information on prices and how to order may be obtained by directing an inquiry to: NCRP Publications 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 800 Bethesda, Md 20814 The currently available publications are listed below.

Proceedings of the Annual Meeting No. 1 2 3 4

5 6

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Title Perceptions of Risk, Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting, Held on March 14-15,1979 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 3) (1980) Quantitative Risk in Standards Setting, Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting, Held on April 2-3, 1980 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 4) (1981) Critical Issues in Setting Radiation Dose Limits, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting, Held on April 8-9, 1981 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 5) (1982) Radiation Protection and New Medical Diagnostic Procedures, Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting, Held on April 6-7,1982 (IncludingTaylor Lecture No. 6)(1983) Environmental Radioactivity, Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting, Held on April 6-7, 1983 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 7) (1984) Some Issues Important in Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting, Held on April 4-5, 1984 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 8) (1985) Radioactive Waste, Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting, Held on April 3-4, 1985 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 9) (1986)

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Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation and Ultrasound, Proceedings of the Twenty-second Annual Meeting, Held on April 2-3,1986 (IncludingTaylor Lecture No. 10) (1988) New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Its Implications for Risk Estimates, Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Meeting, Held on April 5-6, 1987 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 11)(1988). Radon, Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting, Held on March 30-31,1988 (IncludingTaylor Lecture No. 12) (1989). Radiation Protection Today-The NCRP at Sixty Years, Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting, Held on April 5-6,1989 (Including Lecture No. 13) (1989). Health and Ecological Implications ofRadioactively Contaminated Environments, Proceedings of the TwentySixth Annual Meeting of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Held on April 4-5, 1990 (Including Taylor Lecture No. 14) (1991). Symposium Proceedings

The Control of Exposure of the Public to Ionizing Radiation in the Event of Accident or Attack, Proceedings of a Symposium held April 27-29, 1981 (1982) Lauriston S. Taylor Lectures No. 1 2 3 4

5

Title and Author The Squares of the Natural Numbers in Radiation Pmtection by Herbert M. Parker (1977) Why be Quantitative About Radiation Risk Estimates? by Sir Edward Pochin (1978) Radiation Protection-Concepts and Trade Offs by Hymer L. Friedell (1979)[Availablealso in Perceptions of Risk, see abovel From "Quantity of Radiation" and "DoseJ' to 'cExposure" and "Absorbed Dosey'-An Historical Review by Harold 0.Wyckoff (1980)[Availablealso in Quantitative Risks in Standards Setting, see abovel How Well Can We Assess Genetic Risk? Not Very by James F. Crow (1981)[Availablealso in Critical Issues in Setting Radiation Dose Limits, see abovel

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Ethics, Tmde-offs and Medical Radiation by Eugene L. Saenger (1982)[Available also in Radiation Protection and New Medical Diagnostic Approaches, see abovel The Human Environment-Past, Present and Future by Merril Eisenbud (1983) [Available also in Environmental Radioactivity, see abovel Limitation and Assessment in Radiation Protection by Harald H. Rossi (1984) [Available also in Some Issues Important in Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, see abovel Truth (and Beauty) in Radiation Measurement by John H. Harley (1985) [Availablealso in Radioactive Waste, see above] Nonionizing Radiation Bioeffects: Cellular Properties and Interactions by Herman P. Schwan (1986) [Available also in Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, see abovel How to be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates by Seymour Jablon (1987) [Available also in New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and its Implications for Risk Estimates, see abovel How Safe is Safe Enough? by Bo Lindell(1988) [Available also in Radon, See abovel Radiobiology and Radiation Protection: The Past Century and Prospects for the Future by Arthur C. Upton (1989)[Availablealso in Radiation Protection Today-The NCRP at Sixty Years, see abovel Radiation Protection and The Internal Emitter Saga by J. Newel1 Stannard (1990) [Available also in Health and Ecological Implicationsa t Radioactively Contaminated Environments, see abovel NCRP Commentaries No.

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Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere-With Specific Reference to the Public Health Significance of the Proposed Controlled Release at Three Mile Island (1980) Preliminary Evaluation of Criteria for the Disposal of Tmnsumnic Contaminated Waste (1982) Screening Techniques for Determining Compliance with Environmental Standards (19861, Rev. (1989)

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119 Guidelines for the Release of Waste Water from Nuclear Facilities with Special Reference to the Public Health Significance of the Proposed Release of Treated Waste Waters at Three Mile Island (1987) A Review of the Publication, Living Without Landfills (1989) Radon Exposure of the U.S. Population-Status of the Problem (1991) NCRP PUBLICATIONS

NCRP Reports

No. 8

Title Control and Removal of Radioactive Contamination in Laboratories (1951) MaximumPermissible Body Burdens and Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Radionuclides in Air and in Water for Occupational Exposure (1959)[Includes Addendum 1 issued in August 19631 Measurement of Neutron Flux and Spectra fbr Physical and Biological Applications (1960) Measurement ofAbsorbed Dose of Neutrons and Mixtures of Neutrons and Gamma Rays (1961) Stopping Powers for Use with Cavity Chambers (1961) Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials (1964) Radiation Protection in Educational Institutions (1966) Dental X-Ray Protection (1970) Radiation Protection in Veterinary Medicine (1970) Precautions in the Management of Patients Who Have Received Therapeutic Amounts of Radionuclides (1970) Protection Against Neutron Radiation (1971) Protection Against Radiation from Brachytherapy Sources (1972) Specifications of Gamma-Ray Brachytherapy Sources (1974) Radiological Factors Affecting Decision-Making in a Nuclear Attack (1974) Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere-Accuinulation, Biological Significance, and Control Technology (1975) Alpha-Emitting Particles in Lungs (1975) Tritium Measurement Techniques (1976) Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X Rays and Gamma Rays of Energies Up to 10 MeV (1976)

NCRP PUBLICATIONS

Environmental Radiation Measurements (1976) Radiation Protection Design Guidelines for 0.1-100 MeV Particle Accelerator Facilities (1977) Cesium-137 from the Environment to Man: Metabolism and Dose (1977) Review of NCRP Radiation Dose Limit for Embryo and Fetus in Occupationally Exposed Women (1977) Medical Radiation Exposure of Pregnant and Potentially Pregnant Women (1977) Protection of the Thyroid Gland in the Event of Releases of Radioiodine (1977) Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods for Radiation Protection (1978) A Handbook of Radioactivity Measurements Procedures, 2nd ed. (1985) Operational Radiation Safety Program (1978) Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties ofRadiocerium Relevant to Radiation Protection Guidelines (1978) Radiation Safety Training Criteria for Industrial Radiography (1978) Tritium i n the Environment (1979) Tritium and Other Radionuclide Labeled Organic Compounds Incorporated in Genetic Material (1979) Influence of Dose and Its Distribution i n Time on DoseResponse Relationships for Low-LET Radiations (1980) Management ofPersons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides (1980) Mammography (1980) Radiofreqency Electromagnetic Fields-Properties, Quantities and Units, Biophysical Interaction, and Measurements (1981) Radiation Protection in Pediatric Radiology (1981) Dosimetry of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Beams for Radiation Therapy in the Energy Range 10 keV to 50 MeV (1981) Nuclear Medicine-Factors Influencing the Choice and Use ofRadionuclides in Diagnosis and Therapy (1982) Operational Radiation Safety-Training (1983) Radiation Protection and Measurement for Low Voltage Neutron Generators (1983) Protection i n Nuclear Medicine and Ultrasound Diagnostic Procedures in Children (1983)

NCRP PUBLICATIONS

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Biological Effects of Ultrasound: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications (1983) Iodine-129: Evaluation of Releases from Nuclear Power Generation (1983) Radiological Assessment: Predicting the Transport, Bioaccumulation, and Uptake by Man ofRadionuclides Released to the Environment (1984) Exposures from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon and its Daughters (1984) Evaluation of Occupational and Environmental Exposures to Radon and Radon Daughters in the United States (1984) Neutron Contamination from Medical Electron Accelerators (1984) Induction of Thyroid Cancer by Ionizing Radiation (1985) Carbon-14 in the Environment (1985) SI Units i n Radiation Protection and Measurements (1985) The Experimental Basis for Absorbed-Dose Calculations in Medical Uses of Radionuclides (1985) General Concepts for the Dosimetry of Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1985) Mammography-A User's Guide (1986) Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria for Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (1986) Use of Bioassay Procedures for Assessment of Internal Radionuclide Deposition (1987) Radiation Alarms and Access Control Systems (1987) Genetic Effects of Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1987) Neptunium: Radiation Protection Guidelines (1987) Recommendations on Limits for Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1987) Public Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Power Generation in the United States (1987) Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States (1987) Exposure of the Population in the United States and Canada from Natural Background Radiation (1987) Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources (1987) Comparative Carcinogenesis of Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals (1989)

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Measurement of Radon and Radon Daughters in Air (1988) Guidance on Radiation Received i n Space Activities (1989) Quality Assurance for Diagnostic Imaging Equipment (1988) Exposure of the U.S. Population from Diagnostic Medical Radiation (1989) Exposure of the U.S. Population From Occupational Radiation (1989) Medical X-Ray, Electron Beam and Gamma-Ray Protection For Energies Up To 50 MeV (Equipment Design, Performance and Use) (1989) Control of Radon in Houses (1989) Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel (1989) Limits of Exposure to "Hot Particles" on the Skin (1989) Implementation of the Principle ofAsLow As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA)for Medical and Dental Personnel (1990) Conceptual Basis for Calculations ofAbsorbed-DoseDistributions (1991) Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Aquatic Organisms (1991) Some Aspects of Strontium Radiobiology (1991) Developing Radiation Emergency Plans for Academic, Medical or Industrial Facilities (1991) Binders for NCRP Reports are available. Two sizes make it possible to collect into small binders the "old series" of reports (NCRP Reports Nos. 8-30) and into large binders the more recent publications (NCRP Reports Nos. 32-111). Each binder will accommodate from five to seven reports. The binders carry the identification "NCRP Reports" and come with label holders which permit the user to attach labels showing the reports contained in each binder. The following bound sets of NCRP Reports are also available: Volume I. NCRP Reports Nos. 8,22 Volume 11. NCRP Reports Nos. 23, 25,27, 30 Volume 111. NCRP Reports Nos. 32,35,36,37 Volume IV. NCRP Reports Nos. 38,40,41 Volume V. NCRP Reports Nos. 42,44,46 Volume VI. NCRP Reports Nos. 47,49,50,51 Volume VII. NCRP Reports Nos. 52,53,54,55,57

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Volume VIII. NCRP Reports No. 58 Volume IX. NCRP Reports Nos. 59,60,61,62,63 Volume X. NCRP Reports Nos. 64,65,66,67 Volume XI. NCRP Reports Nos. 68,69,70,71,72 Volume XII. NCRP Reports Nos. 73,74,75,76 Volume XIII. NCRP Reports Nos. 77,78,79,80 Volume XIV. NCRP Reports Nos. 81,82,83,84,85 Volume XV. NCRP Reports Nos. 86,87,88,89 Volume XVI. NCRP Reports Nos. 90,91,92,93 Volume XVII. NCRP Reports Nos. 94,95,96,97 Volume XVIII. NCRP Reports Nos. 98,99,100 Volume XIX. NCRP Reports Nos. 101,102,103,104 (Titles of the individual reports contained in each volume are given above). The following NCRP Reports are now superseded andlor out of print: No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Title X-Ray Protection (1931).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 31 Radium Protection (1934).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 41 X-Ray Protection (1936).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 61 Radium Protection (1938).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 131 Safe Handling of Radioactive Luminous Compounds (1941).[Out of Print] MedicalX-Ray Protection Up to TwoMillion Volts(1949). [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 181 Safe Handling of Radioactive Isotopes (1949). [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 301 Recommendations for Waste Disposal of Phosphorus32 and Iodine-131 for Medical Users (1951).[Out of Print1 Radiological Monitoring Methods and Instruments (1952).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 571 Maximum Permissible Amounts of Radioisotopes in the Human Body and Maximum Permissible Concentrations in Air and Water (1953).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 221 Recommendations for the Disposal of Carbon-14 Wastes (1953).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 811 Protection Against Radiations from Radium, Cobalt-60

NCRP PUBLICATIONS

and Cesium-137 (1954).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 241 Protection Against Betatron-Synchrotron Radiations Up to 100 Million Electron Volts (1954).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 511 Safe Handling of Cadavers Containing Radioactive Isotopes (1953).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 21.1 Radioactive Waste Disposal i n the Ocean (1954).[Out of Print] Permissible Dose from External Sources oflonizing Radiation (1954)including Maximum Permissible Exposure to Man, Addendum to National Bureau of Standards Handbook 59 (1958).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 391 X-Ray Protection (1955).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 261 Regulation of Radiation Exposure by Legislative Means (1955).[Out of Print] Protection Against Neutron Radiation Up to 30 Million Electron Volts (1957).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 381 Safe Handling of Bodies Containing Radioactive Isotopes (1958).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 371 Protection Against Radiations from Sealed Gamma Sources (1960).[Superseded by NCRP Report Nos. 33, 34,and 401 Medical X-Ray Protection U p to Three Million Volts (1961).[Superseded by NCRP Report Nos. 33,34,35, and 361 A Manual of Radioactivity Procedures (1961).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 581 Exposure to Radiation in an Emergency (1962).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 421 Shielding for High Energy Electron Accelerator Installations (1964).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 511 Medical X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies up to 10 MeV-Equipment Design and Use (1968). [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 1021 Medical X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies Up to 10 MeV-Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation (1970).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 491 Basic Radiation Protection Criteria (1971).[Superseded by NCRP Report No. 911

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Review of the Current State of Radiation Protection Philosophy (1975). [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 91.1 Natural Background Radiation in the United States (1975). [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 941 Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 1051 Radiation Exposurefrom ConsumerProducts and Miscellaneous Sources (1977). [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 951 A Handbook on Radioactivity Measurement Procedures. [Superseded by NCRP Report No. 58,2nd ed.] Other Documents

The following documents of the NCRP were published outside of the NCRP Reports and Commentaries series: "Blood Counts, Statement of the National Committee on Radiation Protection," Radiology 63,428 (1954) "Statements on Maximum Permissible Dose from Television Receivers and Maximum Permissible Dose to the Skin of the Whole Body," Am. J. Roentgenol., Radium Ther. and Nucl. Med. 84,152 (1960) and Radiology 75, 122 (1960) Dose Effect Modifying Factors In Radiation Protection, Report of Subcommittee M-4 (Relative Biological Effectiveness) of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Report BNL 50073 (T-471) (1967) Brookhaven National Laboratory (National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia). X-Ray Protection Standards for Home Television Receivers, Interim Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Washington, 1968) Specification of Units of Natural Uranium and Natural Thorium (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Washington, 1973) NCRP Statement on Dose Limit for Neutrons (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Washington, 1980) Control ofAir Emissions ofRadionuc1ide.s (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, Maryland, 1984) Copies of the statements published in journals may be consulted in libraries. A limited number of copies of the remaining documents listed above are available for distribution by NCRP Publications.

Index Analysis of Deficiencies and Weakneeses, 45 emergency plan coordinator. 45 Associated Hazards, 20 hazardous materials, 20 life threatening medical emergencies, 20 malfunctions, 20 Biohazards (Infectious Agents), 20 autoclaving, 20 combined radiological and biological hazards. 20 decontaminating materials, 20 qualified biohazard control specialist, 20 training, 20 Classification of Radiation Emergencies, 17-31 guidance. 17 immediate response, 17 potential for radiation exposure, 17 professional judgement, 17 Development of a Plan, 2.3 classification of emergencies, 3 Documentation and Reports, 38,39 administrative procedures, 39 planned exposure, 39 retention of records, 39 Dose Assessment, 37 internal and External doses, 37 planned investigations, 37 planning for the recovery, 37 reenactments, 37 Elements of the Exercise, 41 controller and evaluators, 41 objectives, 41 scenario, 41 training, 41 Emergency Classification Examples, 90-97

emergency classification worksheet, 93,95

implementation of the emergency classification scheme, 90 Emergency Coordinator, 7, 8 emergency plan implementing procedures (EPIF's), 8 Emergency Director, 8,9 authority, 8 declared emergency, 8 EPIF's, 9 initial responder, 9 offsite response agencies, 8 point of contact, 8 Emergency Facilities, Supplies and Equipment, 13, 14 communication systems, 13, 14 decontamination supplies, 13 emergency classification, 13 emergency response kit, 14 radiation detection instrument, 13 regulations, 14 Emergencies for which a plan may be necessary, 18,19 broad emergency plan, 19 credible worst case situation, 18 emergency - - coordinator, 19 emergency planner, 18 equipment malfunction, 19 exposure pathway, 19 human error, 19 interlocks, 19 radioactive source dispersal or loss. 19

sealed source rupture, 19 skin contamination, 19 source positioning mechanisms, 19 transportation accidents, 19 unauthorized use, 19 Emergency Organization Personnel, 14,15

emergency plan, 15 E P P s , 14 emergency response team, 15 offsite emergency response agencies, 15 radiation protection staff, 15

INDEX rehearsals, drills and exercises, 15 safe return to routine operations, 15 Emergency Organization Structure, 6-11 authority, 6 emergency coordinator, 7 emergency reaponse team, 7 functional units, 7 Emergency Plan Development, 5 accident potential, 5 emergency equipment, 5 emergency organization, 5 EPIPs, 5 legal assistance, 5 management support, 5 public relations, 5 restoration, 5 termination of the emergency, 5 testing and critiquing the plan, 5 training, 5 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs), 12,13 emergency claeeifications, 12 emergency plan, 12 radiation exposure, 12 restoration, 12 Emergency Planning Guidelines and Classification, 21-28 accident scenario, 23 bioassay, 28 collective dose, 22 dose equivalent factors, 23-27 embryo/fetus, 22 emergency classification scheme, 21,22 emergency treatment, 28 hot particle, 26 incidents, 22 level one emergencies, 22 level two emergencies, 22 non-stochastic effects, 21 recovery period, 23 response plans, 21 stochastic effects, 22 threshold doses for effects, 22 wound burden measurements, 28 Emergency Response, 34-36 assessment, 34 corrective action, 34 notification, 34 protective action guides, 34

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127

Emergency Response %am, 9,10 EPIPs, 9 valuation of Emergency, 34 activation of the emergency plan, radiological assessment teams, 34 Evaluation of the Exercise.. 45.46 . controllers and evaluators, 45 Exercise Scenario, 4 2 4 emergency classification level, 43 written sequence of events, 42 Exposure Control During Recovery and Restoration, 36,37 access control team, 36,37 external and internal exposures, 36 management of the emergency, 37

Fire Marshall, 10 engineered fire protection system, 10

Implementation and Evaluation of the Plan, 40-46 functional Groups, 40 Implementation of Solutions, 46 training, 46 Incident, 28,29,34,35 protective action, 34 radiation Wety Officer. 34 Industrial Hygienist, 10 carcinogens, 10 cytotoxic substances, 10 hazardous substances, 10 Initial Exercise, 41 knowledgeable evaluators, 41 mock emergency, 41 testing functional groups, 41 training aids, 41 Level One Emergency, 29,30,35,36 effective dose equivalent limits, 29 emergency director, 35 notification, 30 public information officer, 35 radiation safety officer, 35 written procedures, 35 Level Two Emergency, 30,36 annual drills, 36 evacuation, 30,36 non-stochastic effects, 30

128

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INDEX

notification of regulatory agencies, 36 outside expert assistance, 36 potential for escalation of the radiation hazard, 30 Machine Produced Radiation, 18 emergencies, 18 particle accelerators, 18 Maintenance of Emergency Plan, 15, 16 amendments to the Plan, 16 drills and exercises, 15 emergency plan, 15 EPIPs, 15 Maintaining Emergency Preparedness, 15 routine testing, 15 Management Involvement, 39 policy, 39 reports, 39 Management Support, 6 criteria, 6 emergency coordinator, 6 training, 6 Media Releases, 39 emergency director, 39 public information officer, 39 Other Considerations, 39 Personnel Notification, 33 alarm signals, 33 authentication scheme, 33 EPIPs, 33 emergency response team, 33 Plan Activation Level, 34 classifications of emergencies, 34 initial assessment, 34 Plan Approval, 40 Planner, 2 Plant Services Director. 10 liaison with public utility suppliers, 10 technical support, 10 Practical Considerations in Handling an Emergency, 33-39 training, 33 Precautions in Applying Classification Schemes, 30,31

limitations of the emergency classification, 30 potential for radiation exposure, 31 worksheet, 31 Preparing a Radiation Emergency Plan, 5 emergency classification system, 5 emergency organization, 5 emergency plan implementation procedures (EPIPs), 5 radiation exposure, 5 Preventing a Recurrence, 38 Public Information Officer, 10, 11 Radiation Emergencies, 1 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel, 4 radiation safety officer (RSO), 4 Radiation Safety Officer, 9 Recovery and Restoration, 36-38 Restoration Management, 37,38 public relations, 37 restoration phase, 37 restoration team, 37,38 Review of the Exercise, 42 Roles of Controllers and Evaluators, 44,45 Sample Emergency Plan for an Industrial Research Facility, 52-70 classification worksheet. 69 classifying emergencies,' 52 emergency coordinator, 55 emergency coordinator procedures, 59 emergency director, 55 example facility, 52 emergency plan implementing procedures (EPIPs), 52 emergency plan organizational chart, 54 notification of emergencies, 58 organizational responsibilities, 55 sample emergency plan, 52 Sample Emergency Plan for a Medical Facility, 71-89 emergency coordinator, 73 emergency director, 73 emergency managers of functional areas, 74

INDEX emergency plan exercises, 81 emergency plan implementing procedures (EPIPs), 71.83 emergency plan organizational chart, 78 instructions for employees, 72 notification of emergency, 79,83 organization and responsibilities, 73 training, 80 Scenario Preparation, 43,44 Sealed Sources, 17, 18 accident conditions, 17 external exposure hazard, 18 Security Omcer, 10 Sources of Radiation, 17 Testing and Modification of the Plan, 40-42

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129

external approvals, 41 facility management, 40 n x i c and Flammable or Explosive Materials, 20, 21 accident, 21 emergency planner, 20 material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 21 'l'raining, 16 a a i n i n g Aids, 39 Types of Facilities, 3 academic, medical, industrial, 3 Unannounced Exercise, 42 test of an emergency plan, 42 Unsealed Sources, 18 Using the Emergency Classification System, 28