Cynthia Ozick's Comic Art
Page ii
Jewish Literature and Culture Series editor, Alvin H. Rosenfeld
Page iii
...
76 downloads
738 Views
873KB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
Cynthia Ozick's Comic Art
Page ii
Jewish Literature and Culture Series editor, Alvin H. Rosenfeld
Page iii
Cynthia Ozick's Comic Art From Levity to Liturgy Sarah Blacher Cohen INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS Bloomington and Indianapolis
Page iv
© 1994 by Sarah Blacher Cohen All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The Association of American University Presses' Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.481984.
Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Cohen, Sarah Blacher. Cynthia Ozick's comic art : from levity to liturgy / Sarah Blacher Cohen. p. cm. — (Jewish literature and culture) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0253313988 1. Ozick, Cynthia—Criticism and interpretation. 2. Comic, The, in literature. 3. Judaism in literature. 4. Jews in literature. I. Title. II. Series. PS3565.Z5Z56 1994 813'.54—dc20 9313994 1 2 3 4 5 99 98 97 96 95 94
Page v
To my loving husband, Gary, with whom I laugh my way into seriousness
Page vii "All that is not Law is levity." —Cynthia Ozick, "Usurpation"
Page ix
Contents
Acknowledgments
xi
I. Introduction: Cynthia Ozick's Comic Art of TruthTelling
1
II. Trust: Comedy of Manners and Morals
21
III. "Envy; or, Yiddish in America": Elegy, Satire, and Celebration
47
IV. "The Pagan Rabbi," "Levitation," and "Usurpation'': Wry Jokes on Realism
63
V. The Puttermesser Stories: Feminist Follies
82
VI. The Cannibal Galaxy: From Caustic Humor to Midrashic Laughter
107
VII. The Messiah of Stockholm and the "Cackle of Satire"
126
VIII. The Shawl: The Tragicomedy of Revolt and Survival
146
IX. Conclusion: From Low to High Comedy
166
Selected Bibliography
175
Index
190
Page xi
Acknowledgments Writing a book on a living writer of magisterial talent who continually explores new fictional territory has been a rare joy! I have not had to content myself with imaginary conversations with a dearly departed author of another century, another country, another sensibility. I have had the privilege of knowing both the tale and the teller of the tale and have been immeasurably enriched by both. The tales have captivated my intellect and emotions while the teller of the tale has inspired me to write plays, even though it has taken time away from finishing my book on her fiction. My profound gratitude to Cynthia Ozick for her "miracles of thought" and her unwavering belief in my capacity to complete my promised book about her levity and liturgy. To Alvin H. Rosenfeld, distinguished Holocaust critic and editor of the Jewish Literature and Culture Series, and to John Gallman, director of Indiana University Press, I am especially thankful for their patience and loyalty. Their exacting standards, which I know from publishing two previous books with them, have caused me to work all the harder on this new book to meet their expectations. For released time for scholarship, editorial assistance, and travel for research, I am particularly grateful to the Lucius N. Littauer Foundation and to the University at Albany's Research Foundation. For conducive teaching schedules and ingenious sabbatical arrangements, I thank English chair Warren Ginsberg, undergraduate and graduate directors Richard Goldman and Judith Fetterley, Dean Francine Frank, and VicePresident Karen Hitchcock. I'm deeply indebted to two women who have functioned as midwives, greatly facilitating the birth of this book:
Page xii
Wilma Kahn, a recent doctoral graduate and accomplished novelist, who, as my research assistant, located and delivered all necessary articles and monographs, and Mimi Brodsky, indefatigable typist and conscientious helpmate, who was as userfriendly as her trusty computer, working many a night until 3:00 A.M. to make the fledgling manuscript as attractive and accurate as possible. Finally, to my devoted husband, Gary, I dedicate this book. I cannot imagine writing any extended work without his philosopher's rational view of things, and his humorist's capacity to make us laugh at our irrationality. How fortunate I am to have his pride in my achievement and his love, with or without achievement. The University at Albany State University of New York
Page 1
I — Introduction: Cynthia Ozick's Comic Art of TruthTelling "Can one write comically without knowing one is doing it?" Cynthia Ozick posed this rhetorical question (in Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992) but claimed to have no answer for it. Rather, she offered a tentative explanation for the uninvited presence of the comic muse intruding upon her work. She recalled the following experience from childhood: At age eleven or twelve, I read and reread a short story by Somerset Maugham called "Jane," [about] . . . a country cousin who arrives in London as a mousey and dowdy insignificance and becomes a social lioness, taking the town by storm. She is regarded as a great wit; all of London society laughs. The narrator can't understand why. The revelation at the close of the story is that Jane never sets out to make people laugh and has no notion that she is a wit. Her secret, it is finally discerned, is that she, almost alone in society, is not a hypocrite: she tells the truth.* Apparently in London *Aldous Huxley, in his essay "Tragedy and the Whole Truth," argues that Homer in the twelfth book of the Odyssey refuses to treat the plight of Odysseus and his men tragically, since he has them eating heartily and resting peacefully after their harrowing day. Nathan Scott draws upon Huxley's essay when he amends the Aristotelian definition of comedy to say, "The art of comedy is not an art that is dedicated to the ludicrous, but is rather
(footnote continued on the next page)
Page 2 society no one does such an outlandish thing as say what one really means. Truthtelling is so preposterous an act, it is such a spectacle, that Jane willynilly turns into the Oscar Wilde of her set. (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992)
Cynthia Ozick is like Jane, in that she does not intend to be a great wit. She does not "set out to make people laugh." Nevertheless, in her originally clever fashion, she tells the whole embarrassing truth, which the art of comedy is dedicated to telling.* She unhesitatingly reveals that the Emperor has no clothes and she exposes the folly of those who insist he's dressed in the finest attire. She candidly mentions the unmentionable to mock those who try to camouflage it with fancy euphemisms. Free of the hypocrisy of saying the opposite of what she believes, she depicts her characters as "not gods, not beasts, but savages of somewhat damaged but not extinguished nobility" (Bellow, "Arias" 495). In her fiction she thus refrains from using the tragic mode that assumes people have an exalted nature which, though sorely tested, will ultimately reassert itself. She likewise avoids the mode of strict naturalism which depicts humans as essentially brutish despite their struggle for selfelevation. Instead she chooses the comic mode, which does not depict individuals in either extreme. Because comedy is able to capture the subtleties of their composite makeup, Ozick finds it best suited to portray her hybrid conception of human nature. Thus she reveals we are not ethereal paragons of virtue, but earthbound, awk (footnote continued from the previous page) an art that is dedicated to telling the Whole Truth" (Scott, "The Bias of Comedy" 21). *Nathan Scott claims that the difference between tragic man and comic man lies in the way in which each regards his mortal limitations. The tragic man "would be pure intellect or pure will or pure somethingorother, and nothing wounds him more deeply than to be reminded that his life is a conditioned thing and that there is nothing absolute at all in the human stuff out of which he is made. But the comic man is unembarrassed by even the grossest expressions of his creatureliness" (19–20).
Page 3
ward creatures repeatedly committing the same mistakes and indiscretions, continually stumbling upon unforeseen obstacles, grappling with inevitable disruptions and reversals. Ozick, however, does not become overwhelmed with the same perplexity at the world's absurdity and malevolence which troubled Melville's Ishmael, who observed: "There are certain queer times and occasions in this strange mixed affair we call life when a man takes this whole universe for a vast practical joke, though the wit thereof he but dimly discerns, and more than suspects that the joke is at nobody's expense but his own" (Moby Dick 302). With the exception of Ozick's treatment of the Holocaust in her fiction, she seldom regards life as a cruel joke played upon the undeserving individual by an uncaring deity in a hostile universe. Similarly, she does not adopt the practice of recent "Gnostics and aestheticians" who, she claims, cram their fiction with "grotesqueries of despair that pass for jokes" (Ozick, "Toward a New Yiddish" 175). Like Saul Bellow, she has scant use for such peddlers of doom, such "pipsqueaks'' ranting "about Inauthenticity and Forlornness" (Bellow, Herzog 75). Through wit and wily argument she upsets their rotten pushcarts and runs them out of business. This does not mean, however, that Ozick, in her literature, is a Jewish Pollyanna, persistently optimistic, dwelling on only the smiling aspects of life. If she is cheerful, it is in the tongueincheek way Sholom Aleichem's Tevye uses the word when he says, "Let's talk about something more cheerful. What's new with the cholera in Odessa?" ("Hodl" 69). Similarly, in her fiction, physical and mental disease are rampant and, for the most part, incurable. But because she recounts them with a mock cheerfulness, we are not to assume they are but whimsical expressions of her exaggerated imagination of disaster. For to deny they exist in their contagious, lethal strength is to undermine the complexity
Page 4
of Ozick's comic vision. While there are ample grounds for pessimism in Ozick's fiction—failed ambition, corrosive envy, emotional bankruptcy, impoverishment of soul, Jewish selfhatred, futile idolatries, Holocaust atrocities—she does not capitulate to hopelessness. She still retaliates with a Jewish brand of humor "in which laughter and trembling are so curiously mingled that it is not easy to determine the relations of the two" (Bellow, Introduction, Great Jewish Short Stories 12). Her laughter, however, is not like that of Milan Kundera's "laughter and forgetting," of which Philip Roth said, "The devil laughs because God's world seems senseless to him; the angel laughs with joy because everything in God's world has meaning" (Afterword, The Book of Laughter and Forgetting). Ozick's laughter is, however, one of remembering, not forgetting. Its recollection of the wry and the woeful, the antic and the anguished in the personal and collective Jewish past does not allow her to be a devil or an angel. Rather, she allies herself with Nietzche's definition of the human as the "most acutely suffering animal on earth [who] created laughter'' (Epigraph, Cohen, Comic Relief). Thus Cynthia Ozick does not write a divine comedy with the miraculous resurrection or redemption of the human being in some remote paradise. Nor does she create an infernal comedy where a person's beginning is dust and his end stench. Instead she creates a series of secular comedies with humans in this world vacillating between recidivism and reform of their detestable practices. Her characters are not resolute pilgrims making steady progress to the celestial city, but faltering penitents unable to extricate themselves from their earthly cities and at a loss to escape from their private entanglements. Since the human stuff out of which they are made does not possess absolute purity, they cannot free themselves of their contamination. The most conspicuous comic element of Ozick's fiction is, therefore, comedy of character which exposes the
Page 5
tainted nature of her protagonists. A small number of them are mindful of their unsightly flaws and struggle to eliminate them. They are the ones who are psychically secure and verbally adroit enough to make fun of themselves at their own expense. Their selfmockery elicits Ozick's sympathetic laughter. The majority of them, however, are unaware of their own imperfections and look askance at others' failings. This impairment constitutes another source of the comic in them, for, according to Henri Bergson, an individual is "generally comic in proportion to his ignorance of himself" (71). Ozick's selfdeluded characters incur her unsympathetic laughter, much like the humor of disgust which Flannery O'Connor displays toward her morally defective characters. Just as O'Connor's sardonic perspective on life is due in part to her being a displaced person—the Catholic writer in the Protestant South—so Ozick's wry sensibility is caused by her marginal status—the Jewish writer in the Christian world. Moreover, both writers, often theological in their orientation, ridicule fallenaway characters, desecraters of the faith: O'Connor with her penchant for writing about freaks at odds with the theological "because they are far from whole" (qtd. in Holman, 100), and Ozick's mockery of emotional and spiritual grotesques because they are far from being fully realized individuals. Unlike Bellow's comedy of character, which searches for the saving nobility beneath layers of selfdeceit and accumulations of wrongdoing, O'Connor and Ozick focus on their protagonists' ugly outward selves, their ignoble exteriors. Yet they are not so merciless as to consign their damaged protagonists to ash cans or to deride them to death with the devastating laughter of the contemporary black humorists. Assuming a detached position toward most of their characters, Ozick and O'Connor jeeringly pick away at their characters' moral blemishes and cynically observe their rash of errant behavior.
Page 6
One obvious moral blemish of Ozick's characters is affectation, which Henry Fielding claims is "the only source of the true Ridiculous" (Author's Preface Joseph Andrews xxi). However, her use of affectation does not apply to the bourgeoisie who try to "ape the dignity and refinement of the leaders of society." She does not create shabby plebeians with patrician aspirations like Joyce's Leopold Bloom, the "petty individualist of common origins and gentlemanly pretensions" (Bellow, "Literature" 163–164). Rather, the pretension she uncovers in her characters is intellectual pomposity and artistic hubris. Deficient as artists and intellectuals, they cultivate their outward pose to persuade themselves and others of their distinction. If one is a lesserknown artist, like Edelshtein, and wants to call attention to his superior talents, he assumes the lofty position of a highminded critic excoriating the more acclaimed rival artist. If another is a mediocre journalist and social misfit, like Lars Andemening, he tries to elevate his position by pretending he is the son of a famous writer slain in the Holocaust. If Puttermesser, a female lawyer, is unappreciated by her legal colleagues and deemed unattractive by prospective suitors, she passes herself off as a mental giant, scornful of smallminded midgets. If Joseph Brill, a mediocre dayschool master with an aborted academic career, wants to gain respect from his teachers, he lords it over them as a cosmopolitan savant, foisting on them his rarefied dual curriculum. Since "jokes grow best on the graves of old anxieties" (Grotjahn, Epigraph, Cohen, Comic Relief), one would like Ozick's characters to have some comic relief in their lives to enable them to bury their anxieties. One would welcome their using humor "as play in which the ego constructs ambiguities and incongruities and then solves them" (Schlesinger 2). Yet her characters can't let go of their miseries. Even in America, Rosa, of The Shawl, insists on being the persecuted Holocaust survivor reexperiencing
Page 7
old brutalities. Edelshtein, of "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," masochistically delights in being the misunderstood and undervalued poet. The Feinbergs, of "Levitation," wallow in selfpity because they have been rejected by the most revered literary figures. Thus by reviving old feelings of outrage and paranoia, Ozick's characters fill their time with being injusticecollectors and painexacerbators. When Ozick's characters are not wincing at reactivated traumas, they employ their moral Geiger counters to determine the level of their depravity. Since they do not find heavy concentrations of it, they magnify it out of proportion to gain attention. The female narrator of "Usurpation" hyperbolically recounts her grand and petty larcenies of literary texts. Edmund Gate, of "Virility," is consumed with histrionic remorse for his plagiarism of his Yiddish Tante Rivka's poetry. Lars Andemening, of The Messiah of Stockholm, castigates himself for his harsh rebuff of the woman who claims to be his sister, the rival for the affection of his putative father, Bruno Schulz. Unlike Nabokov's amoral Humbert Humbert, Ozick's characters are not convinced of the nobility of their perversity, but are grievously ashamed of their sordid behavior. Yet they also derive an illicit pleasure from their exaggerated guilt feelings. Though they may want to engage in dialogue with their fellow human beings, they are so absorbed with selfscrutiny and, afterward, selfreviling that they manage to talk only to themselves. They thus suffer from what Bellow in The Last Analysis calls "the Pagliacci gangrene! Caused as all gangrene is by a failure of circulation. Cut off by selfpity. Passivity. Fear. Masochistic rage" (97). Ozick mocks her characters' defective physical appearance as well as their flawed inner life. Indeed there is a breach between their minds and their bodies which interferes with the realization of their respective goals. Their body becomes "a kind of irksome ballast which holds down
Page 8
to earth a soul eager to rise aloft" (Bergson 92). It intensifies their feelings of impermanence and destroys their notions of immortality. It compels them to accept their corporeal imperfection and shatters their romantic illusions. Puttermesser, for example, would like to transform her platonic relationship with a handsome young painter into an erotic one, but she is forced to view herself as a "hag, a crone, Estrogen dwindling in her cells" ("Puttermesser Paired" 53). In his fantasy world the thirtysix yearold body of the pagan rabbi, Isaac Kornfeld, has fornicated with a lascivious dryad in a tree, but it has caused his soul in eternity to become that of an ugly old man, "half bent over under the burden of a dusty old bag" (34). In the reveries of the old ladies of Rosa's Florida, they are "young women with immortal pillar legs, the white legs of strong goddesses" (The Shawl 28), but Ozick reminds us that ''brazen bluemarbled sinews strangled their squarish calves" and their sundresses revealed "thick collarbones" with "bluish wells above them" (28). Ozick thus reveals her characters' encumbrance by the corporeal as being tragicomic, since some of them are repulsively disfigured and suffer from varying degrees of incapacity. But she still makes sport of their being tripped up or grounded by the physical. She thus applies Bergson's formula that the comic is produced whenever the soul is "tantalized by the needs of the body: on the one hand, the moral personality with its intelligently varied energy, and on the other, the stupidly monotonous body, perpetually obstructing everything with its machinelike obstinacy" (Bergson 93). Ozick's characters "perpetually obstruct everything with the machinelike obstinacy" of their minds as well as their bodies. They stubbornly adhere to certain dominant theories or fixed beliefs which render them comic in a less immediately perceptible way. Bellow has called such dominant theories "ideal constructions" (Bellow, Dangling
Page 9
Man 140) or Pope has called them "ruling passions." Ozick refers to them as idols, which she defines as any tangible manifestation of the world we worship "as an end in itself and yet is not God himself" ("The Riddle of the Ordinary'' 207), or any beguiling series of metaphors we embrace instead of the divine essence they represent (208). And just as Bellow's characters seize upon one scheme as the only possible way to avert a troubled life, so Ozick's characters fall prey to an alluring idolatry, with its false promise of fulfillment. This dogged clinging to one ingenious strategy, one miraculous solution, along with the cavalier dismissal of every alternative approach causes them to become ludicrous, since their bodies mechanically heed the dictates of their minds. Thus Puttermesser fashions a literal idol when she creates a female golem who makes her mayor of New York and helps her realize her obsession with civic reform and urban renewal. Lars Andemening worships a dead putative father and a lost dubious manuscript to the exclusion of anything else. Edelshtein is consumed with resurrecting a dead language and his own forgotten literary reputation. He, like Ozick's other artists, the female narrator of "Usurpation," Hester Lilt, the midrashmaker of The Cannibal Galaxy, and Rosa, the letterwriter of The Shawl, are tempted to "reify and then worship the objects of the imagination" (New 289). They commit idolatry more blatantly than any other in Ozick's fictional world, since their "antic imagination deftly carves its own golden calves" (New 289). This absorption with carving golden calves bears out Bergson's view that mental as well as physical rigidity is the proper object of mirth, a view which Nathan Scott enlarges upon: The comic is a contradiction in the relation of the human individual to the created orders of existence which arises out of an overspecialization of some instinct or faculty of the self . . . in some special direction, to the neglect of the other avenues through which it ought also to gain expression. This
Page 10 predilection of the self to identify too completely with some special interest or project (cf. Aristophanes' Socrates or Jonson's Volpone or Molière's Tartuffe or Sterne's Walter Shandy or Shaw's Professor Higgins) blinds the self to the integral character of its humanity and thus throws it out of gear with the fundamental norms and orders of human existence. (30)
So, too, Ozick's comically obsessed characters swear allegiance to one exclusive policy and inflexibly execute it. Unable to maintain their protean selves, they embrace a single point of view and settle for a fixed set of values. Instead of being freethinking iconoclasts, they become slavish devotees of icons and risk degenerating into inert icons themselves. Because such icons "cannot generate history" and "can be altered by it," "fromthesublimetotheridiculous," Ozick claims, ''is the rule of every idol" ("Literature as Idol: Harold Bloom" 190). Although Ozick's psychically inelastic characters, with their unruly natures and odd features, are ridiculous in their own right, she also places them in comic situations. That is, the situations are funny, not because of the particular characters involved, but because of the comic aspects of the situations themselves. As a misnagid, a Jewish rationalist and skeptic, who in her daily life inveighs against mystery and magic, Ozick, the fiction writer, heeds at times the call of the irrational and escapes from the confines of predictable realism. Acting upon the postexistentialist impulse of inventing imaginative alternatives to this world, she creates her own special kind of wryly fantastic situations. But unlike Thomas Pynchon's zany science fiction adventures and John Barth's cheerfully nihilistic sorties into metahistory, her episodes are more of this time and of this place. Indeed, a good part of their humor is derived from the surprise appearance of the bizarre within the context of the familial and the unexpected introduction of illusion to compete with
Page 11
fact. The humor is further compounded by the nonchalant acceptance of the extraordinary as ordinary. Thus in the middle of a banal literary cocktail party, Jews, listening to the horrifying tales of a Holocaust survivor, suddenly levitate and are suspended in midair. The Christian observer accepts the Jews' outré behavior as normal and proceeds to escape into a more pagan fantasy of her own. There are, however, more painfully antic consequences in the rebellion of Rabbi Isaac Kornfeld, who spurns the advice in Ethics of the Fathers to forsake nature for study. He fornicates with a dryad in a tree whose bark proves worse than his bite and then hangs himself by his prayer shawl in a public park. More whimsical is the plight of an anonymous author in New York's 92nd Street Y, who, coveting a famous writer's story, is led astray by an articulate goat into the pagan realm of invention. Such farfetched situations created by Ozick serve not only to delight her readers with their droll surface but to enlighten them with their underlying meaning. They are the stuff of modernday rabbinic fantasies, both playful and didactic. However, the comic situation of grotesque realism is the one which best reflects Ozick's sardonic world view and the one she most frequently employs. With some qualification, it fits Stephen Leacock's Aristotleinspired definition of the comic situation: "The humor of situation arises . . . out of any set of circumstances that involve discomfiture or disaster of some odd incongruous kind, not connected with the ordinary run of things and not involving sufficient pain or disaster to overweigh the pleasures of contemplating this incongruous distress" (Humour and Humanity 79). In keeping with the dictum that "modern comedy has to do with the disintegrating of the worthy and humane self" (Bellow, "Some Notes on Recent American Fiction" 28), Ozick fashions situations which reveal disintegration in action. Thus we derive amusement from the odd and incongruous disintegration in the Puttermesser stories where the
Page 12
protagonist first appears as a precocious young lawyer eating fudge with impunity and ends up a terminated legal official of the municipal bureaucracy, seduced and abandoned by a faithless lover. Or we laugh at the errorstrewn decline of the brilliant astronomy student, Joseph Brill, into the fatuous headmaster who is both schlimazel, victim of circumstances, and schlemiel, engineer of his own difficulties. But when we consider the plight of Ozick's Holocaust victims, her portrayal of disintegration does involve "sufficient pain or disaster to overweigh the pleasure of contemplating this incongruous distress" (Leacock 79). She sees their anguish for what it is. Like Mark Twain, she believes that the "secret source of humor itself is not joy but sorrow. There is no humor in heaven" (Epigraph, Lipman, Laughter in Hell 3). Thus Rosa, who has transformed America into another Holocaust Hell, is caught up in the slapstick comedy of demolishing her New York used furniture store. Or she is the mad avenger in a travestied detective story, hunting for the fiends who stole her bloomers in an infernal Miami. Rosa doesn't realize how ridiculous she is in these farcical situations, which, in turn, augments the hilarity of them. Ozick's strength, however, does not reside in crafting fantastic and farcical situations. Since she is more skilled at generating thought than at producing action, she is especially adept at creating a comedy of ideas. This form of the comic occurs, according to Wylie Sypher, "whenever a society becomes selfconscious about its opinions, codes or etiquette," with the author acting as the "intellectual conscience" of this "selfscrutinizing society." Through ''sanity" and "verbal wit," the author is able to magnify "comedy of manners to the dimensions of a criticism of life" (211–212). Trust, Cynthia Ozick's first novel, starts off as such a comedy of manners which mocks the jaded conventions, the artificial decorum, the rigid protocol of a WASP aristoc
Page 13
racy. It holds up to ridicule those who conform and those who fail to conform to the prescribed manners and decadent mores of the elegant ruling class of the time. But during the course of the novel, Ozick switches from a flippant exposé of the aberrations of social behavior to a weighty analysis of human conduct in its large aspects. This movement from the flippant to the philosophic, from the risible to the moralistic, is present in most of Ozick's fiction and is the most prominent feature of her comedy of ideas. Unlike Philip Roth, she is not "on friendly terms with Deadly Playfulness, Playful Playfulness, Serious Playfulness, Serious Seriousness and Sheer Sheerness" (Roth, Reading Myself and Others 111). Nor does she employ a comedy that "exists for the sake of no higher value than comedy itself . . . for the fun of it" (Roth, Reading Myself and Others 76). Claiming that "outright comedy is beyond" her (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992), she, like Plato, would banish shallow comedians from her Republic. Echoing his views that "the actions performed in comedy are a frivolous and giddy experience, demoralizing to the spirit of serious citizenship'' (qtd. in Polyphemus 7), she warns Jewish writers not to submerge themselves in the depths of low comedy. In "Usurpation" she states that in Paradise "there will be a cage for storywriters, who will be taught as follows: All that is not Law is levity" (177). Thus, the observant part of her believes all that is not studying and obeying the precepts of Halachah (Law and consensus) is both a squandering and a desecration of precious time. Her involvement with Aggadah (tale and lore), serving no higher purpose than fabrication for its own sake, is, she also feels, a pagan indulgence. She is wary, notes Alvin Rosenfeld, of "the points at which craft turns over into craftiness," at which making do is "translated into the seemingly preternatural magic of making over" ("Cynthia Ozick: Fiction and the Jewish Idea" 78). Yet, drawn to producing counterfeit forms of creation, she detours from the
Page 14
path of true belief to plunge headlong into the levity of makebelieve. Fortunately, Cynthia Ozick has not banished levity or law from her writing. In response to learning that Martin Luther King claimed to "laugh his way into seriousness" (qtd. by Wall, "Eulogy of Rabbi Kieval"), Ozick jocularly replied, "It looks like I've unwittingly done the opposite. I've been serious and ended up as laughable" (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992). But we must trust the tale and not the teller of the tale which is permeated with an ideological comedy performing a higher purpose than simply to amuse. The justification for this comedy is that it serves as a profane means to realize a higher end. As a civilized intelligence whose passion is ideas, Ozick discovers what is funny about the human condition and provides us with acerbic examples of it. Unlike Philip Roth, who permits madcap satire to determine the course of his literary vehicle while violating the boundaries of good taste, Ozick scoffs at caricatured antagonists and then strikes when her irony is hot to skewer the idolatrous culprits. She favors irony, she claims, "partly to forestall sentimentality, and partly because irony is the corridor to perspective (or, perhaps, an ascent to Olympus, where one can see as the gods see)'' (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992). How astute her god's eye view is depends upon her protagonists' intellectual powers, lucid vision, and depth of insight. The less perceptive fulminate against the outward effects of their contemporaries' detestable conduct and never go beyond subjective condemnation. Even the more sagacious protagonists often cannot differentiate between their own personal difficulties and impersonal issues, since, when agitated, they superimpose one on the other. However, those who are schooled in history realize that prevailing injustices are not directed only against them, but are repetitions of the abuses which have outraged upright hu
Page 15
man beings through the ages. Nonetheless, they rail at the gap between their high expectations and the disappointing reality that exists. But such a perspective is not the only prerequisite for ideological comedy. According to George Meredith, "the higher the comedy the more prominent part women play in it." It "lifts women to a station offering them free play for their wit as they usually show it . . . on the side of sound sense" (14). Indeed, Hester Lilt, "imagistic, linguistic logician" (47) of The Cannibal Galaxy, far outshines Joseph Brill in her capacity to formulate a clearly defined set of moral norms against which to judge the deviant and in her ability to express this judgment trenchantly. With an expansive mind that has not stopped too soon, but is constantly stretched with new knowledge, she is a midrashmaker and mischiefmaker for those she upsets with her ancient, yet new, unsettling truths. Rosa of The Shawl eschews gentle irony for what Northrop Frye terms ''militant irony" (233) or satire when she lambastes phoney psychologists with their specious studies of Holocaust survivors. With an enraged mind like a grenade about to explode, she sputters venom, thinly camouflaged by wit, at everyone around her. She does not change the world at large, but she does vent her spleen. Similarly, Ozick's comedy of ideas does not accomplish the purported aim of conventional satire—the reform of the corrupt or inane status quo through ridicule. However, it does accentuate the nature of the corruption or inanity. The high degree of distortion it contains functions very much like "a dye dropped into the specimen to make vivid the traits and qualities that otherwise would be blurry or invisible to the naked eye" (Lelchuk 84). Although Cynthia Ozick is a most adept vaudevillian of the mind, she has been educated in this art by some very distinguished instructors. From her Jewish background, there are traces of the exhortative kind of satire and irony
Page 16
unique to the Prophets, especially Amos and Isaiah, and unique to the parables of Rabbi Akiva, which lay bare the weakness and folly of the Israelites for worshiping false gods (Knox 155–157). Ozick's nitpicking and circuitous distinctions in her own parables are akin to the tortuous wit found in the Midrashim, the commentaries on the Jewish Written Law. Her defiant topical satire resembles that of the "affected Jewish minority" whom Goebbels denounced for originating "jokes that cease to be jokes when they touch the holiest matters of national life" (qtd. in Goldman 6). From her American literary heritage, there are borrowings from and affinities with Henry James's transatlantic comedies of manners and morals, Bellow's "suffering joker" eggheads, Malamud's urban whimsical fantasies, Flannery O'Connor's southern grotesques. From England there is the lively "encyclopedic comedy of knowledge" of Burton, Sterne, and Joyce (Shulman 109) as well as George Eliot's legacy of feminist comedy, ''brilliantly critical, especially of the masculine gender" (Wilt 178). Despite these influences, Ozick is a comedian of ideas who strikes out on her own. In contrast to many twentiethcentury American novelists who have been ashamed to think, she has "brain on the brain," a phrase she uses to describe Bellow, which, she claims, makes him "the dissident among American writers" (Ozick, "What Drives Saul Bellow?" 55). Similarly, many of her characters are "talking heads or talking texts" so that her "best fictions are pugilistic encounters between texts" (New 291). Thus, like Bellow, she produces "miracles born of thought" (Bellow, "Where Do We Go From Here: The Future of Fiction" 144), which simultaneously reveal how ridiculous and sublime we are. In dealing with comedy of language, Bergson writes that there may be "something artificial in making a special category for the comic in words, since most of the varieties of the comic . . . are produced through the medium of lan
Page 17
guage." He goes on to distinguish between the "comic expressed" and the "comedy created by language": The former could, if necessary, be translated from one language into another, at the cost of losing the greater portion of its significance when introduced into a fresh society different in manners, in literature, and, above all, in association of ideas. But it is generally impossible to translate the latter. It owes its entire being to the structure of the sentences or to the choice of the words. ("Laughter" 127–128)
In Trust, "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," "Virility," the Puttermesser stories, "Levitation," "Usurpation," The Cannibal Galaxy, The Messiah of Stockholm, and "Rosa,'' the comedy created by Ozick's language is readily apparent. In contrast to recent minimalist fiction, whose characterization is as impoverished as its threadbare language, the "maximalist" fiction of Ozick, rife with an endless array of novel qualifiers and clever distinctions, is so engrossing in itself that the reader is tempted to lose sight of the overall plot. Or unlike the literature of the absurd, with its stylized clichés, meaningless parodies, and incoherent banter, Ozick's discourse is highly articulate and purposive. While it amuses, her language, often parabolic, "judges and interprets" (Ozick, Preface, Bloodshed 4) the world. In her fiction Ozick is an adroit juggler of many kinds of comic prose, which are often risibly juxtaposed within an individual work. She has undoubtedly derived this stylistic feature from both American and Yiddish sources. According to Richard Chase, the common denominator of Melville, Emerson, Thoreau, Dickinson, and Whitman is the "tendency of their language to shift rapidly from the homely and the colloquial to a rhetoric at once highly selfconscious, highly abstract and highly elaborate." Such shifts of ground, Chase regards as the "essence of wit" (74). Maurice Samuel makes similar observations about Jewish writing:
Page 18 "The fusion of the secular and the sacred in Yiddish . . . makes possible a charming transition from the jocular to the solemn and back again. Wellworn quotations from sacred texts mingle easily with colloquialisms and dignified passages jostle popular interjections without taking or giving offense." (qtd. in Howe 47)
Thus in Trust Ozick mingles the pseudointellectual badinage of drawingroom comedy and the tiresome puns of hypocritical Quakers with the ethical precepts of a worldweary returnee to Judaism. In "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," she employs dialect and dialectic humor in Edelshtein's character assassinations of rival authors, his fractious letters to publishers, his saccharine wooing of wouldbe translators, and his lamentations for the death of Yiddish. In "Usurpation" Ozick not only "travesties and teases and twotimes and swindles'' plot, as she accuses Gaddis of doing in Carpenter's Gothic ("William Gaddis and the Scion of Darkness" 19), but she plagiarizes and pilfers all aspects of fiction. She playfully chastises herself for doing so, while simultaneously denouncing herself for usurping God's role as creator. Like Melville, who incorporates mockpedantry on cetology within terrifying descriptions of the formidable Moby Dick himself, in "Puttermesser and Xanthippe," Ozick intersperses a mystical account of medieval golemmaking with the whimsical tale of a nubile twentiethcentury female golem. And as Ozick has done in a number of her stories, she creates the droll coexistence of philosophical obscurity and kitchentable clarity. Another stylistic device which Ozick borrows from Yiddish literature is what Maurice Samuel calls "the humor of verbal retrieval, the word triumphant over the situation." This kind of humor he finds especially prominent in the works of Sholom Aleichem: Not what happens to people is funny, but what they themselves say about it. There is nothing funny about Tevye the
Page 19 dairyman as a character, and nothing funny ever happens to him. What Tevye does is to turn the tables on tragedy by a verbal ingenuity; life gets the better of him, but he gets the better of the argument. (Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem 186)
In Ozick's The Shawl, Simon Persky, the septuagenarian Warsawborn rake, is the prime example of this humorous verbal retriever. Though he has lost his teeth, his career as a buttonmaker in America, and his wife to an insane asylum, he has not lost his comic sense. Persky, like Theodore Reik, the author of Jewish Wit, who fled his native Austria in 1938, believes that "life is often tragic, but he can transform it by making jokes about it" (qtd. in Lipman 12). For Persky's very act of mocking his lowly position elevates him above it. In contrast to Rosa, who fulminates against her oppressors, Persky shows her how to pile "sandbags of wit against the flood of anger and pain" (Wilt 192) so that she is able to experience the miracles of the ordinary which he reveals to her. Cheerful and wily, Persky is the Jewish animal ridens, the laughing creature forever rising up. Cynthia Ozick is seldom this animal ridens. Instead, she sometimes resembles the Yiddish writer Peretz, who "considered humor the kind of indulgence a Jewish writer could not afford because its impulse was to dissipate anxiety rather than harnessing it to social reform" (Wisse, I. L. Peretz and the Making of Modern Jewish Culture 29). For Peretz the comic spirit interfered with the commitment to moral rigor and responsible action. If, as Ecclesiastes states, "there is a time to laugh" and a "time to dance'' (Eccl. 3:4), Peretz would say that it is not at the altar, but in the streets. Although some of Ozick's early literature reveals Peretz's "sermonic underskirts" (Wisse, I. L. Peretz 29), her more profound later works deal with the running interplay between the humorous and the serious, between worldly jests and theological sobriety. She knows that humor hu
Page 20
manizes the inhuman and vitalizes the dreary. For, as Santayana has observed, "Where the spirit of comedy has departed, company becomes constraint, reserve eats up the spirit, and people fall into a penurious melancholy in their scruple to be always exact, sane and reasonable" (138). Thus Ozick makes sure that her most mature literature evokes laughter which can be heard not only in the streets but in "the outer courts of religion," with its echoes resounding in the sanctuary (Niebuhr 135). In both settings her levity is deftly interspersed into her liturgy, making possible the use of play to implement a genuinely prophetic seriousness. Far removed from self reflexive fiction, with its clever convolutions of form and content, or parodies, with ridiculous imitations of recognized writing styles, her hybrid liturgical literature "passionately wallows in the human reality" and exists "for the sake of humanity'' (Ozick, "Toward a New Yiddish" 175). Avoiding the prescriptive, it does not legislate how one should live or act, but is subtly "touched by the Covenant" (175). Nor is it a literature of inward selfcommuning, but, as liturgy, it is a public form of expression that becomes a link to the chain of Jewish tradition wherein "sacred assemblies" worship the "sacred myths" (Hoffman 76). But in no way is Ozick's liturgical literature hackneyed or formulaic; it is "Aggadic, utterly freed to invention" (Ozick 175). Because it does not have historical amnesia, it does not gloss over the nightmare universe or "avoid the knife of irony" (175). Indeed, Cynthia Ozick's irony, with her levity and liturgy, is a way of "putting matters right, of extending a partial perspective into a more comprehensive one, of letting light in where there was half darkness" (Knox 153). But above all, her irony, together with her levity and liturgy, is a way of telling the truth!
Page 21
II — Trust: Comedy of Manners and Morals Cynthia Ozick, in her essay "The Lesson of the Master," claims to have undergone at age twentytwo a profound comic metamorphosis. A "nearsighted" young woman "infected with the commonplace intention of writing a novel," she became the ''elderly baldheaded Henry James" (294). She subscribed to his esthetic credo, adopted his artistic practice, and appropriated his comic sense. Through the years, however, her lack of voluminous output and cosmopolitan acumen forced her to come to a comic anagnorisis: she was not the great master but his devoted pupil. In a 1981 address to the Henry James Society, she continued to express her "adoration, ecstasy and awe" for her literary mentor. She pledged her unwavering allegiance to James in this world, but also decided to convert him to Judaism in the next world, since his "impatience with idols, his moral seriousness" (293) entitled him to become one of the Chosen People. Despite Ozick's future proselytizing intentions, in the earlier stages of her career she was many times converted by Henry James. As a graduate student in English at Ohio State University, she worked as a retriever and transcriber of Jamesian trivia—all the letters James had sent to his
Page 22
London agent—for a book her alcoholic professor was writing. Her own project was more significant—a master's thesis on "Parable in Henry James,"* which she since mockingly described as her attempt to "catch up all of James in the net of a single idea" (293). For the next seven years she dutifully worshiped at the ''sacred fount" of Henry James. She completed her first Jamesian novel, with the Blakean title of Mercy, Pity, Peace, Love, and facetiously admitted to having endlessly sucked on her "Mipple," the derivative of M.P.P.L (Rainwater and Scheick, Texas Studies Interview 257). She discarded that early novel, however, as an unwieldy apprentice work. A Jacob as well as a Jacobean, she labored for the wrong bride: a "loose baggy monster" of an academic novel swelling with humorously bloated accounts of infidelities and power struggles of American and Europeanborn professors. She finished and buried a second baggy novel in six weeks. Still an undaunted Jamesian for the next six years, she completed a third novel, which in 1966 became her first major publication, Trust,** her Jamesian comedy of manners and morals. Divided into four parts—America, Europe, Brighton, and Duneacres—Trust bears the indelible imprint of the Jamesian social comedy. Adhering to the Jamesian dictum that "we know a man imperfectly until we know his society and we but half know a society until we know its manners" (Epigraph, Tuttleton), Ozick populates her novel with the moneyed leisure class whose principal occupation is jour *Cynthia Ozick's master's thesis in English at Ohio State University in 1950 was "Parable in the Later Novels of Henry James." The article she published from this thesis was "The Jamesian Parable: The Sacred Fount." Bucknell Review 11 (May 1963): 55–70. **Though Trust was largely ignored by the critics, Ozick was most laudatory in her description of it. "I do know in my deepest sinew that I will never again write so well, that I will never again have that kind of high ambition or monastic patience or metaphysical nerve and fortitude. That belongs, I suppose, to the ambition, strength, and above all arrogance of youth" (Letter to Victor Strandberg, 14 January 1982).
Page 23
neying back and forth from America to Europe, ludicrously espousing and divorcing people and causes. In whatever drawing room they happen to be, Ozick captures their manners, social customs, conventions, traditions, mores. Recording what is said and surmising what is left unsaid, she identifies the group's distinctive culture, what Lionel Trilling calls "the hum and buzz of implication . . . the whole evanescent context made up of halfuttered or unutterable expressions of values" (qtd. in Tuttleton 8). To amplify this "hum and buzz," Ozick combines her essayistic analyses with James's dramatic method. That is, she creates a series of artfully constructed scenes or playlets, which range from drolly superficial party gatherings to intimate interrogations and confessionals, to solitary epiphanies and lamentations. In these scenes, or in James's phrase, "discriminated occasions," all the elements of drama are given full play. Clever dialogue appears as linguistic precocity, as social badinage to fill silence, and as profound utterances to advance meaning. The delineation of minor characters verges on caricature for immediate comic effect, whereas the complexities of the subtly drawn major characters gradually unfold. In place of ingeniously plotted action, there is an intricately developed comedy of ideas wherein Ozick's own views are not the only ones passionately expressed but she allows opinions opposite her own to exist in full strength and complexity. Such equally matched ideological clashes sparkle with crackling wit and often end without any clearcut victor. But since James was not too successful a stage dramatist and Ozick has only recently begun to write plays, she, like James, relies in Trust upon an observer she creates to be both spectator of and participant in her fictional scenes. Functioning as what James terms "the author's deputy" (qtd. in Segal xi), Ozick's firstperson female narrator becomes the novel's guiding intelligence. She possesses the generic traits of James's lucid reflectors: a contemplative
Page 24
nature, a heightened responsiveness to the shifting dynamics of human life, a graphic imagination, articulate powers of interpretation, and a highly developed comic sense. But since the narrator is not the omniscient author, privy to all the secrets of the past and the surprises of the future, her vision is limited. Like the other characters she encounters, she is in the midst of groping for understanding, of making sense of the facts she is in the process of discovering. In other words, she shares the bafflement and insecurity of the characters she is commenting upon. Although such a probing narrator assumed the limelight in a number of James's novels, Ozick did not want her narrator in Trust to be the center of interest in her own right. She did not want the reader to become involved with the narrator's unique personality, her mental prowess, her emotional frailty. Since she made her narrator a woman, whose gender was necessary for certain fictional purposes, Ozick was afraid she would be pegged as having written a "woman's novel." "Nothing," Ozick states, "was more certain to lead to that than a pointofview seemingly lodged in a woman, and no one takes a woman's novel seriously." Therefore, she attempted to neuter her narrator, to drain her of "emotive value of any kind,'' to strip her "of everything, even a name" ("We Are the Crazy Lady" 289). Yet she made her the most polished of mirrors possible, whose attitudes toward her subjects range from the most detached amusement to the most intense emotional involvement, from the coolest irony to the deepest compassion. The firstperson narrator Ozick thought she had created was a "bloodless device, fulcrum or pivot, a recording voice, a languagemachine [which existed] for efficiency only, for flexibility, for craftiness, for subtlety, but never, never as a 'woman'" ("We Are the Crazy Lady" 289). But if we trust the novel and not the author of the novel, the narrator we encounter in Trust is, despite Ozick's intentions, very much alive, radiating with sensitivity and intelli
Page 25
gence. Adept at weaving together "metaphor and irony," which, Ozick believes, "are nearly art's everything" (Interview with Rainwater and Scheick, Texas Studies 263), the narrator is an astute registrar of impressions and assessor of facts. Fashioned in the Jamesian mold, she is that singular young woman upon whom nothing is lost. The first chapter of Trust opens with the college graduation scene of this twentyoneyearold narrator, who is both caught up with the event and detached from it. Bombarded by the merriment and hopefulness of her fellow graduates, she enviously gazes upon those who will soon marry a single mate for life or those who will be captivated by the "seductive bridegroom," the world, believing "in pleasure, in splendor, in luck, in genius, in the future, most of all in some impermeable lacquer to enamel an endless youth" (14). With no family or friends to wish her well at the commencement of her adult life, Ozick's wealthy narrator resembles Catherine Sloper, the abandoned heiress of James's Washington Square. Ozick's narrator, too, feels betrayed by the world's fraudulence, the cruel withdrawal of love and affection, the shattering of her expectations. Made to feel like an old maid though a young woman, she, too, finds herself prematurely aged. She is embittered because she must "wear the face of youth" and ''keep close that clandestine disenchantment, that private corrosion of illusion, which belong to the very old" (15). In this beginning scene of the novel, then, the narrator establishes herself as the sober reality principle wryly puncturing the romantic illusions of her classmates. She is also the cynical examiner of the outward forms of social ceremony and the emptiness which these forms conceal. In another Jamesian dramatic scene in the first quarter of Trust, where the narrator is guest of honor at a farewell party for her departure to Europe, she is no longer the morose despoiler of festivities but the lively wit in a miniature comedy of manners. She first sketches in the over
Page 26
opulent backdrop, which she sardonically describes as "a little soiled with romantic overuse" (37). Next she mocks her own appearance, since she dutifully wears the giltladen, moneyreeking gown chosen by her imperious mother, Allegra Vand. Her principal satire, however, is aimed at her guests, the unknown bevy of poets and Harvard law students who are invited to be prospective gentlemen callers. To her they resemble Dickensian caricatures, symbols of society's triviality and decadence. Through juxtaposing their disparate sensibilities and capturing their inane repartee, she finds them sorely deficient: the neophyte "attorneys are glabrous, ambitious, social and grave, the poets mendacious, flagrantly seedy, thinly optimistic, and (worst of all) poetic" (40). Like James's heiress, Catherine Sloper, who resigns herself to being suitorless, Ozick's narrator decides to dispense with both the lawyers and the poets, who are all lackluster parasites. Like the Jamesian "free spirit" (38) who does not have to curry the favor of fools for romantic purposes, Ozick's narrator relies on the corrective of comedy to maintain her autonomy in the social sphere. Her comic sense also gives her a wisdom beyond her years, so that when informing the readers about the adult figures in her life she seems like the grownup and they the child. Thus, while the subject of Trust, as in James's Portrait of a Lady, is, in large part, "the conception of a young girl affronting her destiny" (James qtd. in Segal 33), it also involves her exploring her mother's major and minor follies. By probing into her mother's idiosyncratic past, she learns of her own unconventional origins. Since she is not present before and at her own begetting, Ozick's narrator is endowed with the same power which James suggests the "truly creative writer has": the "power to guess the unseen from the seen, to trace the implications of things, to judge the whole piece by the pattern" (James qtd. in Shine 141). In a sense, then, Ozick's daughternarrator, through her
Page 27
sage preconceptions about the unknown and her astute conceptualizations about the known, is the biographer, the literary progenitor of her mother, Allegra Vand, and, in the process, the discoverer of her own very different self. In the first quarter of the novel, however, Allegra Vand, Ozick's spiritually bankrupt plutocrat, often speaks for herself, wryly informing us of the perversities of her reckless youth, her deviations from her aristocratic background. Very much a caricature of James's wealthy social reformer Princess Casamassima, Allegra Vand espouses radical causes to atone for her wealth and shame her affluent family. She confesses to having joined the Communist "Party the very season she was to have come out" so that the leading newspaper headlines read: "Debutante Puts Solvent Daddy in the Red" (26). Though inept as a proletarian, she boasts of having written an accomplished proletarian novel, Marianna Harlow, which became a bestseller in the Soviet Union, primarily because of its melodramatic plot and its author who is a disenchanted American heiress. Allegra Vand's allconsuming love affair with communism is, however, shortlived. As Ozick's comic version of the political dilettante, Allegra in her middle age has canceled her membership in the "Marxist Book Club" to become the capitalist patron of the arts. Instead of writing another socially significant novel, she subsidizes the publication of "Bushelbasket," the poetry magazine of thirdrate writers of arcane poems devoid of assonant rhyme. Along with seeking avantgarde literary fame, Allegra is bent on gaining worldly power by getting her husband a prestigious ambassadorship in some glamorous foreign country. Finding it intolerable to be ordinary, Allegra Vand is the female version of the silly American in foreign parts. She suffers from what James called the "great American disease," "the picturesque and romantic at any price" (James qtd. in Tuttleton 48). She, like James and the expatriates he creates, finds missing in America a glorious sense of the
Page 28
past, a rich overlay of culture, a firmly entrenched aristocracy, the magnetic pull of tradition. Echoing what James and Hawthorne before him found wanting in America, the narrator voices Allegra's complaints: "I will not say my mother wished to be Queen: but she wished for something America could not give her. The trouble was the middleclassness of her home country" (67). Not even good family and "much money can produce an aristocracy in America—we do not have the style, our palaces are dated nineteentwenty and our castles are imported piecemeal" (67). Therefore, to escape the egalitarian monotony of American life, she, like many a Jamesian protagonist, looks to Europe, "Where life seemed raised to a higher power, because more richly charged, more significantly composed and more completely informed" (Tuttleton 48). Idealizing cosmopolitan life, she wants her daughter to enroll in the finishing school of foreign travel, to "enlarge character through the recoupment of Europe" (Trust 75). The Europe Ozick depicts as the setting for the second quarter of Trust is actually several Europes which enlarge character in different ways. The time period is a flashback to just after World War II, eleven years before the opening American section of the novel. Gone is the flippant tone of comedy of manners. Absent are the witty thrusts and parries of civilized drawingroom talk, the faux pas of flamboyant personalities, the gala party scenes in overopulent houses. The narrator is no longer the judgmental twentyoneyearold, the archly sardonic critic of her society. She is now the innocent child, adrift in an alien place, presented with contradictory versions of it. Initially, she is exposed to her mother's exalted Jamesian view of Europe as "the fountain of the world . . . all spectacle, dominion, energy and honor" (98). She is subjected to her mother's missionary zeal to convert her into an exquisitely cultivated jeune fille and is led to worship a plethora of architectural and artistic wonders absent in America—"the spires of those
Page 29
places quick as scimitars and minarets like overturned goblets . . . icons rubbed beyond belief . . . and portraits of shallownecked ancient ladies with small ringed hands; and by the hundreds, mild madonnas suckling" (98). But her mother is not consistently reverential toward the aesthetic Europe she so extols for her daughter's benefit. At times, Allegra Vand treats Europe as if it were her amoral playground, permitting her to create scandals, cause accidents, destroy property, deny responsibility for her actions. Thus, she is one of those foolish Americans abroad whom James calls "passionless pilgrims," who treat Europe "as a vast painted and gilded holiday toy, serving its purpose on the spot and for the time, but to be relinquished, sacrificed, broken and cast away, at the dawn of any other convenience" (James qtd. in Holder 94). By virtue of her wealth, Allegra Vand assumes she can purchase Europe for her illustrious domain, where she can act the female rogue with impunity, dazzle the natives with her breaches of decorum, and vacate the premises when she is bored by them. But there is another Europe the narrator witnesses, one that is not the splendid antique or the hedonistic bauble. From her Jewish stepfather, Enoch Vand, State Department registrar of Holocaust corpses, she is alerted to the residue of deathcamp gas polluting the rarefied air. Her WASP mother, oblivious to the gas's exact nature, views it as a nimbus through which her husband "glimpsed rare and secret refractions of the Europe she desired, secret and brilliant incarnations of her illusions" (99). The young narrator, who, like James's fictional children, is precociously sentient for her age, sees what has overwhelmed her stepfather—the Goddess Europa, who had engulfed him "with her pity and her treasons and her murderous griefs and her thighs of cinders and her hair of smoke and her long, long fraud of age on age and her deathchoked womb" (99). Within the picturesque ruins effaced by leisurely age, the narrator encounters the machineravaged decay of the recent war.
Page 30
Beside the meaningless relics of the past, she discovers the senseless rubble of the present. Allegra Vand, however, refuses to acknowledge the true cause of Europe's desecration. Accusing the victims rather than the victimizers, she blames the unsightly corpses for sullying the culturally lush continent. She denounces her husband's ledgers for burying "spectacle, dominion, energy and honor in a hill of skulls" (127). "In writing Trust," Ozick says, "I began as an American novelist and ended as a Jewish novelist" (qtd. in Cole, Dictionary of Literary Biography 214). In this European section of the novel, we see the beginning of Ozick's Jewish conversion. She has artfully juxtaposed Henry James's Europe as a museum of ineffable beauty with postHolocaust Europe as a mausoleum of unspeakable horrors. She has mixed the aesthetics of higher art with the grim facts of atrocity. She has intermingled upperclass tourists, rhapsodic over guidebook treasures, with threadbare survivors, mourning over irretrievable losses. Ozick has also combined the Jamesian notion of evil with the Holocaust variant of it. She has shown the coexistence of the moral peccadilloes of heedless Americans abroad and the most heinous crimes of history. She has thus redefined the Jamesian international encounter to be the conflict between American complicity through ignorance and calculated European barbarism. Such a redefinition has enabled Ozick to expand upon the educational function of Europe which James intended for his young protagonists. In addition to having Europe heighten the cultural awareness of her young narrator, Ozick has her conscience profoundly moved. Unlike her mother, Allegra Vand, who develops the ostrich mentality toward the nameless dead, the narrator is much of the time painfully aware of them. She feels a kinship with the innocently slaughtered and a responsibility to remember their tragic fate. More than any other sensory impression,
Page 31
"the cadenced psalmings of the deathcamps" (111) remain for her the "hieroglyph of Europe" (111). Holocaustravaged Europe serves not only as the birthplace of the young narrator's moral consciousness, but she discovers it to be her actual birthplace, complete with a father she has never met. The remainder of the novel concerns her exhaustive search for this elusive father, a search which springs not only from a natural curiosity about the man who sired her, but from a strong Oedipal need to know her beginnings. Here Ozick departs from the conventional Bildungsroman's motif of sons searching for their fathers to confirm their masculinity, sponsor their worldly enterprises, and corroborate their tentatively held moral beliefs. More in the tradition of George Eliot, Ozick's daughternarrator strenuously avoids identifying with her mother, whom she perceives as lacking in significance, and, at the same time, she cannot merge with the soughtafter father, who is so fundamentally different from herself. Yet, like Sylvia Plath's persona, who has a lovehate relationship with her daddy, Ozick's narrator is obsessed with deciphering her father's meaning and finds it difficult to banish his shadow from her life. However, by telling the story of her relationship with him, that is, by acting as the selfparenting recreator of her past, she can exorcise the charismatic hold he has upon her, and claim authority as an independent young woman and not a dependent daughter. The narrator's search for her father is complicated by the fact that she encounters three men, each of whom could serve as the paternal figure in her life. But for Ozick these men are more than male reproducers of the species; they represent the major patriarchal religions and their value systems, which the narrator must accept or reject. For the first twentyone years of her life, the narrator has assumed that she was the biological daughter of William, her mother's lawyer and former husband. Just as the religion of America's founding fathers was a form of Protestantism, so
Page 32
William, the narrator's supposed founding father, is Ozick's caricature of the White AngloSaxon Protestant, a man of means and influence, the envy of the excluded and the dispossessed. Long used to wielding power, he is like an "elderly and reliable monument toward which one has patriotic feelings" (22). With his outward sobriety, exacerbated sense of duty, and unwavering probity, he evokes instant faith in his character. Ozick, however, mercilessly reveals his comic flaws as well. Though William is a firm believer in the Protestant ethic, Ozick insinuates he so religiously guards the family fortune to the exclusion of practicing any other virtue. Imagining "capitalism to be the ordained church of the economic elite," William is for Ozick "one of that diminishing honorguard of armored and ceremonial knights whose Presbyterianism is stitched into the orthodox width of their hatbands . . . and who preserve by its rites a creed which no longer exacts or enacts tenets" (76). William is also Ozick's comic embodiment of the Jamesian, fastidious male who distances himself from any untidy involvements for fear of defaming his own character. He is the overly cautious observer who keeps his sympathies under lock and key. If he must intervene into the troubled lives of others, he does so only in his capacity as a professional—the discreet, efficient lawyer. He similarly keeps a tight rein on his libido and associates only with those women who will not make too great a sexual demand upon him. Thus William can live with the dilettantish Allegra, who flits from one superficial interest to the next, never requiring an intimate connection with him. He can clean up all the messes she makes and still remain antiseptic himself. William, however, refuses to be more than a public father to Allegra's daughter. Frugally measuring out filial affection, only to those who do not need it, he is incapable of giving her the paternal love she sorely craves. Unnerved by her daughterly homage, "he withdrew in a sort of noble terror from the confidences . . . of a child not his own" (76).
Page 33
Though William the man excludes her from his loveless patriarchy, William the trustee of the family estate kindly reveals the identity of her true father and simultaneously extricates himself from this mistaken position. Employing the euphemisms of the most polite Jamesian, he informs her of the "circumstances of her birth," which is his genteel way of saying she was born out of wedlock, the product of an adulterous union between his wife, Allegra, and Gustave Nicholas Tilbeck, elusive vagabond. If William is Ozick's excessively civilized WASP, then Nick is his antithesis—the thoroughgoing pagan, the ludic version of the noble savage. Whereas William, the capitalist Protestant, worships the indoor god Mammon, Nicholas Tilbeck, as his part Greek, part Norse name implies, worships the outdoor deities of the ancient Scandinavians and Greeks. Enamored of their beauteous form and their sensuous appeal, he forsakes the urban cells of zealous radicals to take up permanent residence within nature. A creature of levity, he lures Allegra from her communist "agitating parades" to be a celebrant of Dionysus and Demeter, who yielded "wine and fertility instead of bloodless ideas like land values and commodities per capita" (392). In the presence of golden boughs with glorious dryads in them, he impregnates Allegra in England's Brighton. Later he inhabits the ruins of her American island estate, Duneacres, with its own tantalizing groves. So wedded is he to this ravished landscape, he seems metamorphosed into a woodland creature who has remained miraculously young. Ozick, however, does not depict Nick as the simple swain out of a forest idyll. Though the narrator expected her mysterious father to be the "infernal Dante" and found instead the "Virgil of the Ecologues—a green land with a shepherd in it" (531), Ozick shows him to be a demonic figure. Not only has he seduced and abandoned Allegra and made their child a bastard, but he also has threatened to jeopardize her current husband's diplomatic career. Instead of the
Page 34
blackmail money he has exacted for years, the price he now sets for his silence is seeing his daughter, though it means shattering her innocence. Allegra, in turn, acquiesces to his desires as if he were a vengeful deity. Indeed, Ozick gives him the common devil's name of Nick and refers to him in demonic terms: "Unseen, unknown, proclaiming himself with doubtful omens, like a terrible NileGod, Gustave Nicholas Tilbeck invaded, vanished and reappeared. Nothing would secure his eclipse but propitiation of the most direct and vulgar nature and my mother, as enraged as any pagan by a vindictive devil, had to succumb" (24). As Allegra has done in the past, she pays the devil his due. She sends her daughter almost as a sacrificial offering to Duneacres, a garden paradise turned into a garden hell. Here Nick functions as Ozick's JudeoChristian serpent, Canaanite fertility god, and Greek Pan, providing carnal knowledge to young nymphs. When the daughternarrator first meets Nick, Ozick describes him in lustful mythological terms. He looks "like a faun—half man, halfmotor . . . his lower half magicked into keel, meandering . . . through dark swamp pools" (534). When he passionately kisses his daughter, she smells the "floweriness of wine in his shoulder" and "breathed the minotaur" (535). Beguiled by his sexual charms the same way her mother was twentytwo years ago, she temporarily becomes her mother and loves him in a most unpaternal way. However, she is still the Jamesian observer rather than participant and does not commit incest with him. Rather, she watches Nick enact a bizarre comedy of situation whereby he commits the sexual act with the newly arrived fiancée of William's son and in doing so cuckolds William's son as he cuckolded William in the past. For the narrator, it's as if she is witnessing her own creation. She finds this primal scene vicariously thrilling, but her voyeurism does not have the transforming consequences which a recent critic of Trust ingeniously claims. Erroneously equating Ozick's view of sexuality in
Page 35
this scene ''with the teachings of Gnosticism . . . which fostered the Catherian Court of Love in the twelfth century," Victor Strandberg fallaciously concludes that Ozick, like John Updike in Couples and Marry Me, "postulates the idea of a redeeming knowledge . . . attainable only through sexual consummation" (Strandberg 288). Diametrically opposed to this view, Ozick has long subscribed to the orthodox Jewish doctrine that rampant sexuality is an expression of the human being's yetzer hara, the evil inclination, and that to ascribe such awesome powers to sexuality is to make an idol of it. The contemporary sacralizing of the sexual is for her another variation of the pagan worship of Astarte/Venus and other fertility deities. Such worship may bring temporary sensual pleasure, but it does not bring any permanent kind of redemption. The narrator, sensually taken with her father, initially regards him as a male Muse at the peak of his manhood, a "natural wonder" like the sun. When he drowns during a romantic tryst on a boat he can't propel, she experiences the antic unmasking of her illusions. She discovers he was a "tawdry Muse" who dyed his hair. In life a creative fraud, "he devised and invented himself" for both mother and daughter. In death the daughternarrator finds him stripped of his manufactured beauty: "From my father's body, green with a moss of dried vomit . . . nothing shone" (609). What does shine, however, is her aestheticizing of her vicarious sexual encounter with her father. For according to Freud's theory of seduction, "the daughter's fantasy is narrated as a story" (Sadoff 70) that greatly embellishes the actual event. With her father safely dead, Ozick's narrator weaves such a fantasy. Her inventive imagination makes him out to be more mesmerizingly erotic than he was. Similarly, she envisions him as a more mythic being than he pretended to be. Like Hawthorne's Donatello, whose perfection of form makes others see him as a peerless marble faun, Nick's boyish good looks make her remember him as a prized
Page 36
animal statue whose "eyes are agate" and who "limb by limb . . . can be pried apart and kept in a jewelled box" (610). Along with seeing Nick as this rare inanimate object, she likes to believe he is still a young Pan, very much alive and ''grinning behind a tree" (610). Unlike Ozick's Pagan Rabbi who sacrifices his life for love of a nature deity, the narrator's infatuation with her Pan is shortlived. In contrast to her twoday exposure to the pagan theories and practice of Nick, her biological father, for eighteen of her twentyone years her mind has been captivated by the Jewish world view of her mother's husband, Enoch Vand. Though Enoch does not function as the natural father who "determines his progeny's privileges, duties and properties," he does act as the narrator's father in Jacques Lacan's sense of the term (Sadoff 79) in that Enoch is the authority figure she most respects, the "author of the Law" she finds most meaningful. Enoch, however, was not always the Mosaic author of the Law, the promulgator of the Sinaitic concept of justice. Like his biblical namesake, Enoch, son of Cain, whom thirdcentury rabbinic commentators say "vacillated all his life between righteousness and sinfulness" (Encyclopedia Judaica 794), Enoch Vand in his youth was a confirmed idolator of political ideologies, caught up in the levity of party politics. A skeptic, he nonetheless ascribed miraculous powers to his own pantheon of political gods, ranging from Lycurgus to Marx, whom he most believed could right the world's wrongs. But when this latest god failed, when it had secretly allied itself with the demonic god of fascism and sacrificed the Ideal, then Enoch could no longer belong to the cult of secular meliorism. Severing his ties with the Party, he abandoned his idyll of trust in heroic governments and obliged "himself to stick to history which knew where it had been and could neither promise nor betray and was clean of hope" (426). Enoch's commitment to history, the sphere of the liturgi
Page 37
cal, marks the beginning of his commitment to the Jewish faith. At first he viewed his assignment of chronicling the Holocaust dead a bureaucratic task he must perform to advance his career. Numbing himself to the horrors he witnessed, "he took it all as simple butchery and a demeaning waste of time to poetize" (97). But, gradually, the deathcamp gas infiltrated his being; the ashes of the damned soiled his hands; "the dybbuk of the slaughtered millions had possessed him" (236). Enoch cannot exorcise this dybbuk and escape to his private realm of abstract thought. He has become like the Jewish writer who Ozick says cannot retreat to his "dream space" because history, the "terrifying melamed" or teacher, comes after him demanding that he get involved. One of the chosen, he cannot choose not to be chosen. He must ''hear and obey the Voice of the Lord of History, which tells you to succor the afflicted and to tend to the needs of the driven" ("On Jewish Dreaming," Albany talk, 19 November 1980). Enoch heeds the command of this "terrifying melamed." He does not, as Victor Strandberg claims (278), adopt the Christian flight from the world. He is not the Lutheran Nick, who, true to his Swedish ancestry, prides himself on remaining neutral during the war. Nor is he the neopagan Nick who acts as if the Holocaust never existed, merrily riding his bicycle over the unnamed dead and blithely having affairs with useful refugees. As the accountable recorder of Holocaust victims, Enoch is Ozick's Jew who consciously implicates himself in the fate of the Jewish people. Though he believes himself to be a "failed Ezekiel" who cannot transform the ashes "into flesh and sinew" (128), he looks to history to make reparations for grievous crimes committed. For history, he believes, is not merely a record of what happened, but "a judgment on what has happened" (229). Because we as individuals are too small to forgive or avenge the enormity of the Holocaust's evil, he contends we must look to history to exact vengeance.
Page 38
Enoch's devastating exposure to the Holocaust's "Lady Moloch," with her "diadem of human teeth and anklering of human hair" (125), prompts him to despair, however, of a "Superintending God of History" (Berger, Crisis and Covenant 25) to punish the wicked. Knowledge of fresh atrocities makes his pessimism resemble theologian Richard Rubenstein's bleak view that "God, the covenant, and chosenness have been murdered with the Jews of Europe'' (223). Though he, like Rubenstein, has ample evidence to believe that we live in a Godless time, Enoch is not the atheist that Strandberg accuses him of being. Echoing Martin Buber and other postHolocaust theologians who postulate the "eclipse of God" or a "God in hiding," Enoch informs the narrator: "I've always been aware of God. My complaint is that he hasn't returned the favor. . . . It's God who's the real atheist" (224). That Enoch is so intensely disappointed in God's absence is a sign of his anguished belief in God. Unlike his Christian wife, Allegra, who can "eat her God," who has manifestations of his existence through partaking of the Eucharist, Enoch is devoured by his God. With the "succubus Europe who lay crouched at his organ with her teeth in his bludgeoned tissue" (236), he is gnawed with doubts that God will come out of his eclipse and redeem the monstrous world. Yet beneath Enoch's surface apostasy, the narrator sees him as an ageold Jew, "formed at creation," a "witness at Sinai" endlessly waiting for the Messiah and the "deliverance of history" (236). The opposite of Strandberg's view of him as the Jew of bankrupt faith, Enoch heeds what theologian Emil Fackenheim terms the "Commanding Voice of Auschwitz" (70) and enacts Judaism's new "614th Commandment" (84) of remaining "Jewish even in the face of the catastrophe" (Berger, Crisis and Covenant 23). According to Ozick, Enoch "went on raptly waiting [for the Messiah] as those obsessed by timelessness always wait. He kept his bare secret vigil as devotedly as the high priest of the Temple in the moment of the
Page 39
utterance of the Name of Names within the Holy of Holies. He awaited justice for the wicked and mercy for the destroyed" (236). Enoch, however, does more than passively wait for the Messiah. Though he at times bemoans the fact that he is "the American Saviour who raises the dead without reviving them" (107), Enoch is not an exponent of Jewish powerlessness, but Ozick's champion of Judaism's strengths. Like the biblical Enoch, "who lived in a secret place as a hidden righteous man and was called by an angel to leave his retreat . . . to teach men to walk in the ways of God" (Encyclopedia Judaica 794), the contemporary Enoch instructs the narrator in the superiority of Judaism over Christianity. He draws his lines of argument from Rabbi Leo Baeck's essay ''Romantic Religion," a work Ozick claims "in some way broke open the conceptual egg" (Ozick qtd. in Strandberg 269) of her life, and "seemed to decode the universe" for her (Moyers Interview 23). Just as Christianity is for Baeck a "romantic religion" of intense feeling in which Judaism and paganism are "reconciled . . . in the world of mystery, of myth and of sacrament" (189–192), Enoch contends that Nick's form of Christianity, with its heathen nature worship, its ritualizing of sexuality, its ecstatic abandonment, is a variation of this "romantic religion." More complex in doctrine and demanding in observance is Enoch's Judaism, which Baeck terms a "classical religion" in that it posits belief in an abstract God that cannot be proved. In contrast to Christianity, which visualizes its deity, Judaism finds it blasphemous to make an idol of him. Thus, for Nick "JesusraisingLazarus was a personal happening and the greatest idea on earth" (397), and for Enoch Christ is a "villain" for his "cruelty in inventing a policy of damnation" and for "his removal of the Kingdom of Heaven to heaven" (Strandberg 278). Enoch and Nick are also influenced by their religions' differing attitudes toward justice. Because Lutheran Nick
Page 40
adheres to Luther's dictum "For those who believe in Christ, the whole Law is abrogated" (243), he does not have to actively pursue justice. It is an "act performed on man, a work of the miracle of grace, a gift, something finished—not a task involving an endless demand" (242). Moreover, since Nick believes in another of Luther's doctrines, "In all who have faith in Christ, reason shall be killed . . . for reason fights against faith'' (207), Nick is encouraged to shun the rational for the irrational. But for Enoch the Jew, who has willingly accepted the mantle of the Law, faith does not obviate fulfillment of the commandment. Without Christ as an intermediary, he alone commits himself to taxing thought and lofty action. No longer content to play Count Vronsky, the aristocratic consort fulfilling the romantic dreams of Allegra as Anna Karenina, Enoch leaves the secular atmosphere of politics. He elects to learn Hebrew from a Holocaust survivor and to study Ethics of the Fathers, followed by the entire Talmud, the most exacting commentary on the Law. Unlike Nick, who eschews morality and pursues sacred beauty, or William, who clings to property and propriety, Enoch contracts to lead a virtuous life of righteous conduct and rigorous thinking. Enoch's intellectual and ethical values are the paternal legacy the daughternarrator chooses to embrace. As the Jamesian heiress, she has looked not to the prominent members of her own class for direction, but to the pariah Jew for guidance. A nominal Christian, adrift in a spiritually bankrupt society, she clings to Enoch's aphorisms for ballast. They provide reality instruction about the way the world is and the inspiration to attempt to transform it. Though she does not become a Jew, she combines her Jamesian penchant for making fine discriminations with a Judaic moral seriousness to become a responsible chronicler of the facts exactly as they are. At the novel's end, she is no longer the dependent daughter, but the autonomous young
Page 41
woman who has incisively remembered her past and eloquently made sense of it. Trust is not only Ozick's deftly drawn Portrait of a Lady. It also contains the complex panoramic backdrop for that portrait. Executing her grandiose scheme of writing a "novel about everything, about politics, love, finance" (Ozick qtd. in Strandberg 273), Ozick has taken History for her subject; "not merely History as an aggregate of events, but History as a judgment on events" ("We Are the Crazy Lady" 289). Though cultured Germany, with its barbaric, final solution, is judged the most guilty, outwardly wholesome America is censured for its manifest and latent corruptions. For according to Ozick, Trust, the title of the novel, "was meant to be ironic. In reality, it was about distrust. . . . It told how America had withered into another Europe. It dreamed dark and murderous dreams" (qtd. in Strandberg 291). Allegra Vand's filthy lucre soils the integrity of those who seek a share in it. Nick, the freespirited faun of nature, becomes an insidious blackmailer. Her exhusband, William, pillar of Calvinist rectitude, remains her attorney out of loyalty to her millions, not her. Her current spouse, the highminded Enoch, tolerates her profligate ways because she finances his intellectual pursuits. Even the daughternarrator, who tries so hard to dissociate herself from her extravagant mother, wears her graduation gift: the opulent gown which "singed her with a blaze of gold and silver'' (36). Despite the damage to their probity, they are all irresistibly drawn by the magnetic pull of Allegra's money. And the more they receive of it, the more they feign affections, swear false allegiance, take liberties with the law, exact outrageous fees. Allegra's trust thus makes for untrustworthy relations. The original trust fund Allegra's father bequeathed to her ironically has consequences opposite to those it was intended to have. A selfish old man of the sea, who preferred watching "the spume of ocean liners" rather than the
Page 42
"circlets of spittle on his wife's halfparalyzed lip" (341), he willed that his seaside estate, Duneacres, be transformed into a marine museum. With every room "a mansion for Neptune," he wanted it to "be a History of the Origin of Life" (340). Instead, this "monstrous piece of real estate," which he had foisted upon posterity and compelled ''a hundred people to produce out of it what no one had remotely thought necessary" (341), becomes a site of death and ruination. As a failed marine museum, it is, as Victor Strandberg claims, "a metaphor for the crisis of culture that undergirds this novel" (281). The capitalistfunded American dream of science illuminating nature and nature animating science never materializes. Duneacres is first despoiled and then abandoned by Enoch, Allegra, and their band of social reformers. No longer a viable place for research, it causes a young marine zoologist to commit suicide because he is denied the job originally offered him. The once promised land is boarded up and left to rot by William, the Calvinist trustee. It finally becomes the rank habitation of the pagan Nick, who drowns in its waters and is reclaimed by the anarchic powers of nature. Because Nick prides himself on knowing nature so intimately and having godlike control over it, his hubris causes Duneacres to become his Doomacres. Just as money corrupts relationships and utopian projects, so it perverts the meaning of language. Or, as the narrator states, "there was the sick breath of money all upon us; it rushed out dirtily, as from a beggar's foul mouth . . . full of waste . . . trivial and tedious" (51). To amuse and thereby ingratiate themselves with the affluent, several of the novel's minor characters resort to punning and doggerel. They are so addicted to playing with the language that they are no longer concerned with communicating serious thought. All they concentrate on is dredging up words which sound alike but have different meanings and contriving nonsensical rhyme schemes. Craving material reward
Page 43
for their verbal ingenuity, they repeatedly demean language and the significance of its task. One such trifler of language is Euphoria Karp, the favorite poet of young debutantes, schooled in the Latin writers "Ovum and Virgin." As her name suggests, she is a scavenger of wornout language to use in newfangled ways. She is best known for her clever poem "Operation Cyst, A Gynecological Garland of Visceral Verses" with its hilarious opening lines, ''My Life isn't as interesting as Madam Bovary's. My trouble isn't lovers—just ovaries" (285). But beneath her surface levity, she is a "carnivorous fish" (292), using her bawdy jingles to bait the wealthy and parasitically feed off them. Even in the wilderness of Duneacres there exists the bastardization of language. The prime offenders are the habitual punsters, the Purses, missionaries en route to Pakistan, who "emanate a DickenscumMarx brothers comic flair" (Strandberg 285). They appear to be passionately religious individuals, but the mother of the family expends most of her passion committing adultery with Nick. The rest of the time she repairs machines and makes puns, especially those related to the family name. In answer to the question "What happens if you put a nickel in Mrs. Purse?" the narrator replies, "She brings forth . . . a child, a machine or a pun on pocketbooks" (558). The embodiment of hustling America, she prostitutes both herself and her language. Cherishing word, the engraved image, over deed, she is not compelled to employ language responsibly and, in turn, to act responsibly. Though nominally a Quaker, she does not possess that sect's lack of hypocrisy and acquisitiveness. Although she verbally dedicates herself to an austere life of service to others, her actions are just the opposite, for they display a frugality which is avarice, an altruism which is selfinterest. More enemy than Quaker Friend, she exploits Nick when alive and contributes to his death when he drowns in a boat whose engine she faultily repaired. This, however, does not prevent her from using religious
Page 44
platitudes and puns to solicit money from Nick's daughter. Once again the profit motive goads Mrs. Purse to use language speciously. Such an accusation could never be leveled against Cynthia Ozick, for in Trust she uses language with great integrity, with great precision to convey the most exact nuances of meaning. Concurring with Henry James that literature should reflect high moral seriousness, she employs language as a powerful instrument to probe and evaluate experience. She is so intent on accurately judging and interpreting the world that she also includes in Trust a large range of language, a kind of "lyric breadth and breath" (Strandberg 290). Her multifaceted prose encompasses lengthy disputations on comparative ethics and religion, lush descriptions of eros, ornate accounts of aesthetic Europe, grim catalogues of Holocaust horrors, eloquent maxims and forced puns, social badinage and earnest selfprobings. Though Trust is Ozick's first published book, it is the work of a most precocious intellect. It teems with ideas which she develops with all of the rhetorical intricacy, the exhaustive qualifications, and the involuted syntax of James's later style. It also bears the imprint of the midrashic mode of discourse, with its "constant search for alternate explanations," its intense scrutiny of seemingly insignificant details, and "its dialectical twists and turns of the Rabbinic mind" (Handelman 29). However, the richness and complexity of Trust's verbal texture have caused some critics to regard it as "mandarin: a difficult, aristocratic unrelenting virtuoso prose" ("We Are the Crazy Lady" 288). Ozick herself, in a moment of harsh selfrebuke, called the novel "unreadable" and echoed Joyce's remark about Finnegan's Wake: "I expect you to spend your life at this'' ("We Are the Crazy Lady" 288). Certainly, Trust is eminently readable and worthy of all
Page 45
the time it takes to comprehend its multiple meanings and relish its pervasive eloquence. Ozick, however, has touched upon the principal flaw of the novel. Though it resembles a leisurely nineteenthcentury novel rather than a rushed twentiethcentury one, its 639 pages are still too long for the story it tells. There are too many party scenes, too many lengthy interviews, too many extended monologues that retard the narrative pace. As Enoch Vand has remarked about Allegra's letters, "Not only endless quiescence, but also endless excitation produces the torpor of tedium . . . the most celestial hymn uncelestially prolonged will do it" (403). Despite these excesses, there is still in Trust the intellectual excitement, the captivating dance of ideas. Ozick's scope in the novel is so encyclopedic that she possesses the extraordinary acumen she attributes to Enoch: "that swiftly acrobatic turn of . . . intelligence which could all at once outrageously associate cabbages and kings" (181). This ability to make outrageous associations, to establish lightning connections between the similar and the dissimilar, constitutes the essence of wit. Also Ozick, who wrote poetry before prose, is that rare poetic novelist whose Trust sparkles with lyric intensity and verbal acrobatics. In Trust Ozick demonstrates what will become one of her greatest strengths: the ability to create contrasting fictional worlds, each with its competing values, and the articulate characters who can make the necessary distinctions between them. Accordingly, the narrator is offered one of two legacies: "a mammoth trust fund by inheritance of wealth, or a minuscule fund of trust by inheritance of nature" (631). In other words, she is asked to choose between what she has complacently been accustomed to, the material wealth of her mother, the Protestant aristocrat, and the profoundly unsettling spiritual riches of her surrogate father, Enoch the Holocaust immersed Jew. Ultimately, she prefers the Jewish legacy because it does not make her dependent upon
Page 46
the golden calf, but grants her trust in her self with the awesome freedom to take charge of her conduct and be responsible to others. Similarly, Ozick initially feels comfortable in the Jamesian house of fiction she luxuriously furnishes in the first half of Trust. But the specter of the Holocaust soon intrudes its presence, shaking the foundations of her substantially built edifice. Forced to abandon aesthetics to reckon with the grim realities of the nightmare universe, Ozick, in the second half of Trust, chooses to become the Jewish writer whom she claims judges "culture like mad, while the rest of culture just goes on being culture" ("Toward a New Yiddish" 166). Forsaking levity to embrace liturgy, her comedy of manners becomes a comedy of morals.
Page 47
III — "Envy; or, Yiddish in America": Elegy, Satire, and Celebration Satirists they call themselves, picking at their crotches. What do they know, I mean of knowledge? To satirize you have to know something. . . . Otherwise where's the joke, where's the satire, where's the mockery? . . . Yiddish! One word here, one word there. Shikseh on one page, putz on the other, and that's the whole vocabulary. . . . They know ten words for, excuse me, penis, and when it comes to a word for learning, they're impotent. (79–80)
This comic diatribe can be hurled against a goodly number of JewishAmerican authors whose storehouse of Jewish learning is empty, whose command of Yiddish is nonexistent. But it does not apply to Cynthia Ozick, a satirist who knows something, who is the most steeped in Jewish sources of American fiction writers and thus most qualified to mock those who pretend to be knowledgeable but are really ignoramuses. In contrast to those American born bastardizers of Yiddish, who pronounce it as if their parents "crawled out of a swamp" and their grandparents "were treesquirrels" (79–80), Cynthia Ozick, the matron saint of Yiddish, or, more appropriately, the Yiddishe Mama of JewishAmerican letters, has not only an intimate understanding and abiding love of mamaloshen, the mother
Page 48
tongue, but also an inspired gift for memorializing Yiddish. Rather than translate Yiddish poetry into English, which she felt would "never, never, engender the splendor and richness and dearness and idiosyncrasy of Yiddish" ("A Bintel Brief for Jacob Glatstein" 60), she wrote "Envy; or, Yiddish in America" as an "elegy, a lamentation, a celebration" (60). She also wrote it as a satire on American Jewry's abandonment of an authentic Yiddish tradition and the inflation of an inauthentic individual talent. Through an ironic twist of fate, we "live in a time when," Ozick observes, "murdered Yiddish begins to take on some of the holiness of liturgy and hallowed Hebrew becomes workaday mamaloshen . . ." (Letter to Joseph Lowin 17 September 1984). "Envy; or, Yiddish in America" takes on the holiness of liturgy for its attempts to save Yiddish. The Talmud states that if "you save a single life it's as if you saved the world." And if you save a language, Ozick implies, you save ''worlds maybe. Galaxies. The Whole Universe" (83). The comically profane character she designates to perform this holy task of rescuing Yiddish is the sixtysevenyearold poet Hershele Edelshtein, whose surname in English translation means "refined stone." The author of four volumes of Yiddish verse, he has for forty years been struggling in the American wilderness to have his "refined stones" cherished as poetic jewels by American Jews. His is a formidable task, for in his declining years he must rouse the dead in life to take interest in a dying language. Dispirited, he must be a cheerleader in a cheerless situation. Ozick's irrepressible levity, however, does not allow Edelshtein to wallow in the rueful. Nor does she permit him to be unduly cheerful, to imitate the popular conception of Sholom Aleichem as a "toothless entertainer, a jolly gleeman of the shtetl, a fiddler cozy on his roof" (Howe, Introduction, The Best of Sholom Aleichem xi). In "Envy" Ozick continually alternates from the dour to the droll, evoking Weltschmerz and then promptly dispelling it with laughter
Page 49
to chase worries away. However, when there is a pronounced demarcation between the dour and the droll, they function as a seesaw. Mirth ascends and melancholy descends, and for a short time the single emotional effect prevails and then reverses itself. Ozick, for example, playfully satirizes unresponsive synagogue audiences and the cultural depths to which guest speakers must descend to gain their attention. She makes us laugh at the prostitution of self and subject matter Edelshtein must endure to entertain the knownothing crowd. Sometimes Edelshtein "tried to read one or two of his poems. At the first Yiddish word the painted old ladies of the Reform Temples would begin to titter from shame, as at a standup television comedian. Orthodox and Conservative men fell instantly asleep. So he reconsidered and told jokes" (43). Just as Freud relied on jokes, many of them Yiddish ones, to unravel the tangled unconscious, so Ozick has Edelshtein tell two Jewish jokes which hint at the story's complex meanings. The first deals with Esperanto scholars who "came from all over the world to deliver papers on the genesis, syntax, and functionalism of Esperanto" (43), the renowned international language. Yet when these scholars relax and remove their highbrow facades, they speak an even more international language, the more basic mother tongue, Yiddish: "Nu, vos macht a yid?" (43). Thus the joke wittily expresses Ozick's view that the supposedly parochial language, Yiddish, is more universal than the reputedly cosmopolitan Esperanto, since it more authentically communicates the true feelings of people stripped of pretensions and freed of the ordeal of speaking a language essentially foreign to them. The other joke recounts the desperate straits of the city's last Yiddish daily, which must be mindful of the death of each Jew so it can economize by not printing more newspapers than there are Jews to
Page 50
buy them. Here gallows humor prevails to mask the anguish over the extinction of a once vibrant language: There were two editors, one to run the papers off the press and the other to look out the window. The one looking out the window saw the funeral procession passing by and called to his colleague: "Hey Mottel, print one less!" (43)
Edelshtein's audiences, however, not only fail to grasp the humorous and serious import of his Yiddish jokes, but they are angry at him for disturbing their sleep. The unfavorable reception Edelshtein receives is for Ozick symbolic of the hostile reaction Yiddish received from this country's assimilated Jews who had no use for its "bastard" derivations, its "vulgar" idioms, its ''hybrid" vocabulary, its "barbarous argot," its "uncivilized cant" (Leo Rosten xix). Especially for the first Americanbred generation, Yiddish was a sign of their lowly immigrant origins, the intensifier of the green in the greenhorn identity they tried to conceal. Once Yankeefied, these Jews relegated Yiddish to the bathroom and boudoir; the shameful repository for dirty expressions, Yiddish became the funnysounding fourletter words in the risqué routines of standup comedians. But Ozick has Edelshtein become not a standup comedian but a standup mourner. From one borough to the next, he conducts funerals for the untimely death of Yiddish and the world it served: "Of what other language can it be said that it died a sudden and definite death, in a given decade, on a given piece of soil?" (42). Like a griefstricken father, he laments the premature loss of a precious child: "Oh little holy light!—dead, vanished. Perished. Sent into darkness" (42). Once again, Ozick does not permit the lugubrious to prevail. She comically juxtaposes the demise of Yiddish venerability with the rise of JewishAmerican vulgarity. She has Edelshtein perform his funeral rites not in cemeteries but in synagogues transformed into Cecil B. DeMille
Page 51
amusement parlors and fancy catering halls. Outsatirizing Philip Roth's accounts of gross weddings and bar mitzvahs in gaudy settings, she captures the painfully funny incongruity of Edelshtein, a little Yiddish "rabbi who had survived his whole congregation" (44), being overwhelmed by the crass edifice complexes of contemporary Jewry and their gastronomic Judaism: The new Temples scared Edelshtein. He was afraid to use the world shul in these palaces—inside, vast mockbronze Tablets, mobiles of outstretched hands rotating on a motor, . . . prayerbooks . . . with madeup new prayers in them. . . . Everything was new. The refreshment tables were long and luminous with . . . snowheaps of egg salad . . . pools of sour cream . . . pyramids of bread . . . Hansel and Gretel houses of cream cheese and fruitcake (44)
Such lavish displays, including the "soaring" architecture with "Scripture riveted on in letters fashioned from 14karat gold molds" (44), cannot, however, distract Edelshtein from his mourner's grief. When Edelshtein is the transplanted shtetl figure, the saintly fool, failing miserably in his struggle to keep Yiddish alive for American Jews, or when he is the winsome kleine menschele (the little man) cowering before ubiquitous antiSemites, he elicits Ozick's sympathy. Comparing him to a "wanton stalk in the heart of an empty field" (70), as he declaims his Yiddish verse before a vanished audience, she makes us weep for him. But she transforms this sympathy into sardonic censure when Edelshtein becomes the supercilious Yiddish purist. Indeed, one part of the story's ironic humor stems from the incongruity of Edelshtein who, acting as the stringent critic, employs the quaint accent and quirky syntax of Yinglish in his irate letters to editors. He causes us to laugh at the fractured English of his stilted apologies for not being Yankeefied enough to stop being "inside always green" (52). He further amuses us with his ornate petitions to have the editors publish translations of
Page 52
his own Yiddish books, which he refers to as "DeepFeeling titles" and "pieces of hidden writings" or '''Buried Light'" (53). He is equally comical when he sharply rebukes the editors for their rejection of him, ridiculing the polite conventions of their friendly business letters: "You sign yourself 'Yours.' You're not mine and I'm not yours!" (53). In addition to unresponsive editors, Edelshtein has no use for anyone who has no use for Yiddish. For example, he mocks his best friends' two sons, "literary boys," who had "spit out the Yiddish that had bred them" (45) to become experts of Gentile literature, with their Ph.D. theses on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and the novels of Carson McCullers. Edelshtein is even more contemptuous of Amerikanergeboren Jewish novelists, "spawned in America, pogroms a rumor, mamaloshen a stranger, history a vacuum" (41), yet reviewers praise them for their ethnic wit and perception. With tongue in cheek, Ozick claims Edelshtein "was certain he did not envy them, but he read them like a sickness" (41). Because Edelshtein deludes himself into thinking he is not in the grip of the greeneyed monster, he evokes our "anesthesia of the heart" (Bergson 64), making him the object of our mirth, not our pity. However, Edelshtein is most envious and thus most merciless in his lampooning of Yankel Ostrover, the thirdrate Yiddish writer who enjoys national and international acclaim. Edelshtein gleefully invents ad hominem insults for the Polishborn Ostrover, whom he maliciously calls der chaser, the pig, "because of his extraordinary white skin, like the tissue of pale ham" (46) and because of his grotesquely pornographic subject matter—"men who embraced men, women who caressed women, sodomists of every variety, boys copulating with hens, butchers who drank blood for strength behind the knife" (47). But what especially infuriates Edelshtein is that Ostrover is the only Yiddish writer whose works have been saved, that is, translated into English:
Page 53 And why Ostrover? Why not somebody else? . . . Who had discovered that Ostrover was a 'modern'? His Yiddish . . . still squeaked up to God with a littleness, a familiarity, an elbowpoke, it was still pieced together out of shtetl rags, out of a baby aleph, a toddler beys—so why Ostrover? . . . Ostrover was to be the only evidence that there was once a Yiddish tongue? . . . And all the others lost? . . . As if never? (51)
To reinforce Edelshtein's sardonic character assassination of Ostrover, Ozick has Ostrover assume center stage and show what a literary faker and prankster he is. He begins his 92nd Street Y appearance by apologizing to the audience for telling a story that isn't obscene. Beneath its deceptively simple facade, however, it is a humorously hostile tale directed at Edelshtein in which a bad poet, who can write only in the language of Zwrdlish, sells his soul to the Devil to gain fame. By saying "Glup," the poet is able to write verse in all the languages of the world. But this linguistic versatility causes him to forget Zwrdlish, yet does not win him acclaim, since in Hell he must write "only for oblivion" (60). Not only must he throw his life's work of Zwrdlish poems into the fire, but he must also burn his new cosmopolitan poems, which Ostrover claims were "trash anyhow, though he did not realize it'' (61). Ostrover's comic variation of the Faust story is his form of retaliation against Edelshtein and all those unsung Yiddish writers who begrudge him, Ostrover, his fame. He suggests that even if they found translators, their Yiddish works would still lack distinction, or if they wrote in other languages, they would still not be gifted literary artists, since they lack his innate talent. They are only good butts for his jests, nothing more. As for his American public, Ostrover treats them with amused condescension as well. He responds to them in the question period as if they were nitwits. To the critic with his earnest inquiry about "the symbolic weight" (62) of his story, Ostrover's playful reply
Page 54
is: "The symbolic weight is, what you need you deserve. If you don't need to be knocked on the head, you'll never deserve it" (62). To the metaphysician who asks if he believes in God, Ostrover, with feigned reverence, claims: "Exactly the way I believe in pneumonia. If you have pneumonia, you have it. If you don't, you don't" (62). To the linguistically curious who want to know if there is really such a language as Zwrdlish, Ostrover amuses the audience with the unexpected insult: ''You're speaking it right now, it's the language of fools" (62). To the concerned Yiddishist who asks him what he thinks about the future of the language, he nonsensically remarks, "What do you think about the future of the Doberman pinscher?" (62). Ostrover is thus depicted not as a serious author committed to his subject matter and craft, but as a joke machine mechanically rattling off one wisecrack after another. Or he is hailed as a titillator of the masses with his simplistic aphorisms, "dense and swollen as a phallus," and his "naked swollen sentences with their thin little threadbare pants always pulled down" (51). Yet, ironically, he receives adulation in the same room as the pantheon of great Jewish figures—Moses, Einstein, Maimonides, Heine—whose names are emblazoned on the majestic frieze lining the ceiling of the 92nd Street Y. Because the Yiddish Yankel Ostrover has Americanized himself to become "Yankee Doodle" Ostrover and "a world wide industry" (62), "he can stand up forever and dribble shallow quips and everyone admires him for it" (63). Clearly, Ostrover, internationally heralded for his fiction about imaginary Polish villages reeking of the occult and the pornographic, is Ozick's caricature of Isaac Bashevis Singer. But rumor also has it that Edelshtein is Ozick's thin disguise for the Yiddish poet Jacob Glatstein, whose views of Singer were even harsher than those of Edelshtein. In fact, one critic, Joseph Lowin, speculates that Glatstein's unfavorable essay on Singer may have been "the impetus
Page 55
for Ozick's story" (Cynthia Ozick 23). In his essay, Glatstein censures Singer for his "tales of horror and eroticism," infected with "all kinds of spiritual and physical depravity," and populated with heroes sullied by "villainy, brutality and cynicism at every turn." Glatstein further claims that Singer, whose principal following is among American readers with no Jewish background, is not much of a Jewish writer. ''A Bashevis story has a Jewish facade," asserts Glatstein, "but paradoxically it reads better and pleasanter in English than in the original Yiddish. His stories are more attuned to the nonJewish than to the Jewish reader, to whom Bashevis' themes are a distasteful blend of superstition and shoddy mysticism" (17–18). Sharing Glatstein's views, Ozick makes a mockery of Ostrover for being a literary pretender and for perpetrating hoaxes of translation to gain fame. If reading an author's work in translation is, as Bialik notes, "kissing the bride through the veil" (qtd. in Cohen, "The Jewish Folk Drama of Isaac Bashevis Singer," 198), then so many deft hands have improved the appearance of Ostrover's bride that she scarcely resembles his flawed original. Aware that "in English he's a cripple" (55), Ostrover hires not one but a stable of linguistically agile translators to make the bride ravishing for both the avantgarde and the commercial reading public. Thus Ozick reveals that the talent Ostrover has is not for the invention of innovative fiction but for pressuring his translators to transform his lackluster Yiddish into polished English. Because he is fickle and constantly woos one translator and drops the other, he keeps them in "a perpetual frenzy of envy for each other" (55). Thus Ozick's story is a comic exposé of authorial rivalry as well as translator rivalry. Nor is there any love lost between Ostrover and his translators. Unlike the mutual respect existing between a Lowe Porter and a Thomas Mann, Ostrover values his translators only if their efforts gain him entry into the
Page 56
higher reaches of the literati. To make himself a modern, he hires a spinster hack, born in Hlusk but educated at Vassar and wellread in James Joyce. And for the honorific title of "Ostrover's translator," she dresses up his stories and "paints over them." But she satirically undercuts the extolled act of literary creation by revealing, "It's all cosmetics, I'm a cosmetician, a painter, the one they pay to do the same job on the corpse in the mortuary . . ." (56). As for Ostrover's Yiddish, she claims it is inconsequential. What makes him a success is her translation of his work. Thus both Ostrover and she possess comic affectation, for he thinks he is the only real Yiddish literary genius, and she "fancied herself the real Ostrover" (56). Yet Vorovsky, a crazed, drunken lexicographer, who is another of his translators, claims Ostrover's story has been created by several hands and that all these "hands are in Ostrover's pot burning up'' (63). In addition to burning up, Vorovsky is consumed with protracted laughter over the folly of the translating enterprise and his own wasted life. Edelshtein exposes the idiocy of the literary establishment for valuing the multiple translators' painted corpses rather than the vitality of a living language. But Edelshtein is not totally blameless. What Ozick finds most objectionable and worthy of satire is his hypocrisy. Much as he mocks Ostrover, Edelshtein also prefers to escape from the "prison of Yiddish" (47), or, for that matter, from being Jewish, if he could achieve fame. Even as a youth he longed to be the Russified Jewish child he taught, the redcheeked Alexei with his German toys and his Latin. Kissing him and dreaming about him through the years were not signs of Edelshtein's latent pederasty, but of his attempt to embrace the Western Civilization chosen for Alexei. Edelshtein even tells Ostrover he would like to be a Gentile like him, but Ostrover wittily informs him he is a "makebelieve Gentile" who plays at being a Jew to satisfy them; that is, he conforms to their stereotype of a Jew who tries to be a
Page 57
Gentile. But, like the dancing bear who tries to be a human, everyone knows he's still a bear. Edelshtein yearns to be such a dancing bear, if people will only pay attention to him. Thus he is only pretending to lament the waning of Yiddish, when he actually laments the waning of an audience to appreciate his creativity. Edelshtein's laughable hypocrisy is attacked, however, not by the author but by Hannah, a twentythreeyearold American woman, fluent in Yiddish, whom Edelshtein implores to be his translator. Initially, his attempt to woo her through his stilted letters is comical. Sounding like a melodramatic Yiddish actor, given to ornate declamation and flowery oratory, Edelshtein addresses her as the Goddess of the Future and petitions her to "Grow old in Yiddish . . . and carry fathers and uncles into the future with" (74) her. But the more desperate he becomes to win her over, the more anguished is the language he employs to depict the fate of Yiddish during the Holocaust. "A little while ago there were twelve million people—not including babies—who lived inside this tongue and now what is left? A language that never had a territory except Jewish mouths and half the Jewish mouths on earth already stopped up with German worms" (74). But Edelshtein immediately berates himself for exploiting the grisly details of the Holocaust to gain sympathy for his literary plight, for using international crisis to call attention to his personal crisis. When Edelshtein directly asks Hannah to be his personal messiah and save his poems, she refuses to give life to his dying verse. Acting as a midwife to his creativity would prevent her from giving birth to the poetry gestating within herself. To guard against being used, she indignantly lashes out at him: You jealous old men from the ghetto. . . . You bore me to death. You hate magic, you hate imagination, you talk God and you hate God, you despise, you bore, you envy, you eat people up with your disgusting old age—cannibals, all you
Page 58 care about is your own youth, you're finished, give somebody else a turn. (94, 97–98)
On one level Hannah's diatribe appears to be a legitimate feminist complaint of an emerging woman artist who wishes to develop her own talent and not waste her energies translating the oeuvre of an old Yiddish male she doesn't respect. However, the reason she doesn't respect him is not legitimate. She accuses him of being too Jewish, of clinging to suffering, of revering history, and, most damning of all, of producing works which are "little puddles," not the "mainstream" (95). The only Yiddish writer she admires is Ostrover, for being an author of many visions: "A Freudian, a Jungian, a sensibility. . . . A contemporary" (95). We are not to side with Hannah, however. Her devotion to the worldly Ostrover, who speaks for humanity, and her scorn of the ghetto poet, who speaks for Jews, shows the limitations of Americanborn Jewish youth who would readily sacrifice the parochial for the universal and in so doing lose their distinctiveness. According to the Yiddish writer Isaac Leib Peretz, Hannah is one of those who have a "garden but no gardener. . . . No one plucks the weeds. No one fosters what is good, supports what is weak, gives water to the thirsty" (Peretz 30). She longs to settle in enchanted lands, exotic hideaways, dazzling but spurious Edens, all of which will ultimately ban her from their midst. Because Edelshtein cannot find a translator, he is spared the temptation of forsaking Yiddish. He no longer has to choose between "death or death. Which is to say death through forgetting or death through translation" (75). This is also Ozick's symbolic way of saying that Edelshtein cannot forsake being Jewish. However, his encounter with assimilationist Hannah forces him to realize he's more like her than he prefers to admit. He confesses that throughout his life he, too, though more covertly than she, worshiped the idols of Western
Page 59
Civilization. He "coveted mythologies, specters, animals, voices" (96), but an accident of history prevented him from gaining access to this world. He tells Hannah, "I didn't ask to be born into Yiddish. It came on me" (96). But when she banishes him from her universalist house of fiction, claiming he doesn't interest her, he is forced to embrace his ghetto identity with pride, to view it as a blessing, not a burden. In the Jewish equivalent of a Flannery O'Connor revelation, Edelshtein has an epiphany: He saw everything in miraculous reversal. . . . What he understood was this: that the ghetto was the real world, and the outside world only a ghetto. Because in actuality who was shut off? Who then was really buried, removed, inhabited by darkness? To whom, in what little space, did God offer Sinai? Who kept Terach and who followed Abraham? . . . Suppose it turns out that the destiny of the Jews is vast, open, eternal, and that Western Civilization is meant to dwindle, shrivel, shrink into the ghetto of the world—what of history then? Kings, Parliaments, like insects, Presidents like vermin, their religion a row of little dolls, their art a cave smudge, their poetry a lust. (96)
This "miraculous reversal" which Edelshtein envisions represents Ozick's view of the superiority of the Judaic contribution to Western Civilization. The passage contains her refutation of the belief that Jews are a culturally backward people, bereft of intellectual curiosity, totally consumed with obscurantist learning. Rather, she proudly asserts that the Jews' textcenteredness and monotheism have broadened and deepened the world. Similarly, Isaac Bashevis Singer, in his Nobel Prize speech, pays tribute to Yiddish, which has "smuggled itself amidst the powers of destruction" (172) and has enriched all of humanity: Yiddish has not yet said its last word. It contains treasures that have not been revealed to the eyes of the world. It was the tongue of martyrs and saints, of dreamers and cabalists—rich in humor and in memories that mankind may never for
Page 60 get. in a figurative way Yiddish is the wise and humble language of us all, the idiom of frightened and hopeful humanity. (172)
"Envy," however, does not end with such an optimistic vision. In a random telephone call Edelshtein encounters the antiSemitic venom of a Christian proselytizer: "Christianity is Judaism universalized. . . . Our God is the God of Love, your God is the God of wrath" (100). When Edelshtein refutes his position, the caller retaliates with standard Jewbaiting insults: "Even now, after . . . how many years in America, you talk with a kike accent. You kike, you Yid." These remarks are offensive in their own right because they echo the sentiments of antiSemites through the ages. But Edelshtein finds them even more painful because many Jews themselves, unaware of the grandeur of their own heritage, accept such pejorative views of Judaism and unassimilated Jews. Such selfhatred prompts a sizable number of Jewish artists to abandon Jewish sources for creativity in pursuit of worldly fame. It also causes the majority of American Jews to abandon Yiddish for fear of being considered "kikes.'' Thus the final words Edelshtein shouts at the bigot are: "Amalekite! Titus! Nazi! The whole world is infected by you antiSemites! On account of you, children become corrupted. On account of you, I lost everything. My whole life! On account of you I have no translator!" (100). The forlorn, vulnerable Edelshtein resembles the fate of Yiddish itself, which Maurice Samuel describes as an exile language "in a double sense, with the language of the people in exile and long in exile among the elite of that people" (In Praise of Yiddish 8). Edelshtein is also bereft of supporters just as Yiddish literature is bereft of a physical territory, a supportive nation, a lengthy tradition, and a sustaining culture. Finally, Edelshtein is rejected by the Hebraists and the American avantgardists just as Yiddish literature has
Page 61
been shunned by the towering giants of the Hebraic past and the postEnlightenment present. Yet we assume Edelshtein will continue to write his bittersweet Yiddish verses and still try his utmost to get sensitive readers to savor them. Maybe he won't succeed in attracting a large audience for Yiddish because funloving American Jewry won't appreciate what Peretz described as the "language whose precious jewels are undried, uncongealed Jewish tears" (qtd. in Rosten xxiii). But there is no doubt that Cynthia Ozick has succeeded in creating a "New Yiddish" masterpiece, an artful mingling of levity and liturgy. As the title, "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," suggests, Ozick has written two stories (Lowin, Cynthia Ozick 20).* The first one, "Envy," is a ruefully amusing tale of a crotchety old man seeking translation for his sentimental poems. It regales us with the antic ruses and strategems he devises to resuscitate his expiring verse. His Yiddish, a language which has been likened to the "Robin Hood of languages," steals from "the linguistically rich'' to feed his poor talents. "Like any street gamin who has survived unnameable adversities," Yiddish is "mischievous," alternating between "shmaltz and derision" (Leo Rosten xviii). Edelshtein's character, however, is far more ludicrous than is his idiosyncratic use of language. Fancying himself a superlative Yiddish poet and pretending to champion the cause of Yiddish, not his own fame, he manifests Fielding's twin sources of the ridiculous: "affectation" and "hypocrisy" (10). Seething with recurrent jealousy, he also possesses Bergson's psy *Joseph Lowin called my attention to the dual aspects of "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," which can be read as "the story of an individual's pathos and the epic of a people's history." He is to be further credited with the insight that the "Yiddish in America" segment of the story concerns the "struggle of this liturgical culture to survive in its new secular setting." (See Lowin, Cynthia Ozick 20–21.)
Page 62
chic "inelasticity" (73), transforming himself into a comic grotesque. The more profound second story, "Yiddish in America," is about a thousandyearold Jewish language and culture, almost destroyed in a decade by the Holocaust and by its precarious fate in America. Since Yiddish poetry for Ozick has a "liturgical impulse" and is a "continuation of Scripture" ("Prayer Leader" 1), the story is about the struggle of the liturgical to find a place in the secular (Lowin, Cynthia Ozick 21). But the secular has been overrun by the pagan, and even its most learned and artistic inhabitants have had a ''memory operation" ("Envy" 97) and suffer from cultural amnesia so that liturgical Yiddish is in danger of being forgotten and doomed to extinction. But Ozick's spirited and spiritually alert fiction has roused our concern for Yiddish and stimulated a reawakened interest in it. With "Envy" as "elegy, lamentation," and comic delight,* Ozick has, for a time, saved Yiddish. *Cynthia Ozick expressed her surprise to me that sections of "Envy; or, Yiddish in America" were regarded as comic: "Imagine my amazement, years ago, when the story called 'Envy; or, Yiddish in America' was taken to be, at least in part, a funny story! I remember the first inkling I had of this, well before its publication in Commentary. I had been invited by a literary group in Connecticut to come and read some fiction . . . which happened to be some early pages of 'Yiddish in America,' as it was then called. (It was Norman Podhoretz who later gave it 'Envy' as title.) As I was reading aloud Edelshtein's letter to his publisher, the group began to laugh. The more I read the more they laughed. I felt a curious bewilderment, and secretly blamed my listeners for inattention, for obtuseness, for not quite 'getting' what I was about. Long afterward, when the story was in print, I discovered that other people also regarded parts of 'Envy' as comic writing." (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992).
Page 63
IV — "The Pagan Rabbi," "Levitation," and ''Usurpation": Wry Jokes on Realism Cynthia Ozick's fantastic fictions are forms of wry jokes on realism which playfully combine the truthful, the verifiable aspects of this mode with the magic aspects associated with myth, folktale, tall tale, fairy tale. She has misgivings about creating such hybrid jokes, such unkosher linkages, because she has dabbled in forbidden magic, which for her is akin to forbidden idol worship. For she claims that storytelling is "a kind of magic act. Or Eucharist, wherein the common bread of language assumes the form of a god" (Preface to Bloodshed, 11). Moreover, by creating these funny centaur fictions, she, as comedian with a small c, is guilty of rivaling the Divine Comedian who creates the antic universe. Yet, "mooning after magical tales," she cannot refrain from telling these highly implausible stories. But as an orthodox Jew for whom writing is a pagan activity, Ozick creates fantastic stories not to shock us with their eerie effects or to intrigue us with their provocative intrusion of the supernatural upon the natural. Rather, like many modern fabulators, she employs "ethically controlled fantasies" (Scholes 11) which see life "through ideational filters pro
Page 64
vided by philosophy or theology" (Scholes 100). But, unlike these fabulators, she is not "arbitrary and tentative." Her world, though idealized, is not "unsystematic, full of meanings but devoid of meaning" (Scholes 107). Like the rabbis of the Talmudic period who added an "interpretive texture" to a scriptural text and in so doing rewrote it (Lowin, Cynthia Ozick 92), she is a skilled practitioner of a similar kind of commentary or midrash.* Her imaginative exegesis and interpretation, however, are of narrative rather than biblical texts. Therefore, Ozick's use of enchantment, coupled with her midrashic mode, produces fantastic parables that do not simply amuse but admonish and instruct. "The Pagan Rabbi," the title work of Ozick's first collection of short stories, is her most inventive amalgam of the whimsical and the moralistic. The epigraph Ozick chooses for her story is from The Ethics of the Fathers: "He who is walking along and studying, but then breaks off to remark, 'How lovely is that tree!' or 'How beautiful is that fallow field!'—Scripture regards such a one as having hurt his own being." The story's protagonist who hurts his own being is Rabbi Isaac Kornfeld, whose first name in Hebrew means "laughter" and whose surname is natureinspired, making them comically incongruous with his weighty official title, Professor of Mishnaic History. Rather than frolic insouciantly in the open fields, he hangs himself on a tree and perishes while publishing the most brilliant reponsa. The extended suicide note, whose bizarre contents are explicated by his orthodox wife and former seminary classmate, constitutes the heart of the story. On the level of psychological realism, one could say that *James Kugel ("Two Introductions to Midrash") claims that "midrash's precise focus is often what one might call surface irregularities in the text. A good deal of the time it's concerned with (in the broadest sense) problems." Kugel employs the metaphor of the oyster to illustrate what he means: "The text's irregularity is the grain of sand that so irritates the midrashic oyster that [the midrashist] constructs a pearl around it" (92). Thus the midrashim Ozick creates are real pearls.
Page 65
Kornfeld chose to kill himself because he could no longer endure a lifedenying scholasticism, the subjugation of his sensuality to his intellect. In this respect, he is like those fictional heroes of Yiddish literature who yearned to free themselves "from the stifling repressions of Halakhah and religious inhibitions," from the narrowing confines of shtetl culture to experience the physical pleasure of the natural world (Wisse, "American Jewish Writing" 41). But nature for Isaac is not just a hedonistic playground or a welcome respite from rabbinical burnout. It is a powerful heathen force which draws him away from traditional Judaism, so that he becomes a pagan rabbi and subscribes to the dictum that "Great Pan lives," (17).* Although Ozick herself claims to be "hostile to the whole mystical enterprise," she acknowledges that there is something in her that ''is fascinated by this surrender to the mystical blur between the creator and the created" (qtd. in Interview with Ottenberg 68). She thus has Isaac surrender to this same "mystical blur" and recounts his comic metamorphosis from noble sage to noble savage. She has him progress from secretly reciting romantic poetry with exotic creatures, to creating animistic fairy tales for his daughters, to becoming a protagonist in his own supernatural tale, whereby, in the jeering description of his angry wife, he "dance[s] around a tree and call[s] Greek names to the weeds" (37). From his suicide note we learn how this transition from the real to the unreal occurs. He leaves his study, fenced *In this respect Isaac Kornfeld, brilliant Talmudist, is said to resemble secondcentury C.E. Elisha ben Abuyah, the great Talmudic sage who became an apostate. Howard Schwartz ("Notes on 'The Pagan Rabbi'") suggests that Elisha was a model for Ozick's Isaac in that both steeped themselves in Greek thought and other heretical learning. Elisha became a Gnostic just as Isaac became a pantheist. Each had a dualistic world view: Elisha, with his belief in two powers in heaven, and Isaac, with his view of two souls, the indwelling and the free. Both mens' beliefs and practices brought them ostracism which they could not reverse. As a suicide, Isaac had to be buried outside the Jewish cemetery, and Elisha, called Aher, the other, was supposedly "denied the world to come" (Schwartz 676).
Page 66
in by the Law, to wander day and night in the unfettered expanse of a park, where he meditates on the glories of nature. Unlike his biblical namesake, Isaac, son of Abraham, who, "while awaiting his bride, goes out to the field to daydream" (Lowin, Cynthia Ozick 70), Isaac Kornfeld goes out to test his philosophical premise that in nature souls can be free by communing with a freesouled woodland nymph. Here, Ozick enters the realm of fabulation and comically outOvids Ovid. The Roman mythologist had Apollo pursue Daphne, who, spurning his love, is changed into a laurel tree, which Apollo cherishes as his favorite tree. More outlandish, Ozick has Isaac fornicate with an oak tree and he has an orgiastic good time of it, since Iripomonoéià *, the fourteenyearold dryad inhabiting the tree, had a "sexual portion which was wholly visible, as in any field flower" (30). At the same time, Ozick mocks Isaac's perversity, for she has him excuse his florophilia by claiming that "Scripture does not forbid sodomy with a plant" (32). Ozick also mocks his verbal intercourse with the flower child, the embodiment of pagan aestheticism, who plays with language rather than treats it responsibly. And like those avantgarde writers who sacrifice meaning for clever experimentation, Isaac transforms his purposeful solemnity into idle levity to entertain his juvenile audience. However, Isaac, as a good masochistic Jew, cannot sustain guiltfree sex and meaningless banter for long. He must suffer painful consequences for his adultery, but, more important, for his apostasy. Thus, on a theological level, he cannot continue living, for he has forsaken his immortal Jewish soul for temporal hedonism. Too late he realizes that "The sound of the Law is more beautiful than the crickets. The smell of the Law is more radiant than the moss. The taste of the Law exceeds clear water" (36). Abandoned by his soul who, in his grave, would have sung him David's
Page 67
songs, in despair he hangs himself with his tallith and in death is rejected by his magical dryad. Roger Caillois, in Au Coeur du Fantastique, claims that "The fantastique is always a break in the acknowledged order, an irruption of the inadmissible within the changeless everyday legality," and he says that "a touchstone of the fantastic is the impression of irreducible strangeness" (qtd. in Todorov 26). Certainly, rabbis ravishing trees and fondling flora are not everyday occurrences. Similarly, a holy man hanging himself with his prayer shawl in a public park is a strange happening. Yet the theoretician Todorov would say that the way readers respond to these events determines whether they are fantastic. If they decide that "the laws of reality remain intact and permit an explanation of the phenomena described, we say that the work belongs to another genre: the uncanny. If, on the contrary, they decide that new laws of nature must be entertained to account for the phenomena, we enter the genre of the marvelous" (Todorov 40). The reaction of the narrator, Isaac's seminary friend, veers toward the uncanny, since he tends to view Isaac's suicide as the desperate act of a mad man crazed by too much claustral learning. Isaac's widow, on the other hand, wavers toward the marvelous, since she tends to believe her husband has been destroyed by the seductive powers of otherworldly flora. During the brief duration of the narrator's and the widow's uncertainty, Todorov would say they are in the grip of the fantastic. The rational narrator would vehemently deny this connection. Yet Ozick playfully undercuts his attempt to distance his enlightened self from the superstitious widow by having him at the story's end resolutely flush his "three green house plants down the toilet" (37). Ozick does not want this final note of levity to constitute the primary meaning of her fantastic tale, since it is her midrashic fantasy. In an early book review she differentiated between legend and folklore: "Folklore and legend are
Page 68
not the same. Folklore dodges reality, legend pursues it. Folklore is a dead end, legend has a use. . . . Legend teaches" ("The Uses of Legend: Elie Wiesel as Tsaddik" 16). So it is with her midrashic fantasy, "The Pagan Rabbi." It teaches us how ingrained our desire is to be creatures of nature and lead a life of ease and spontaneity. It reminds us how tempting it is to turn our backs on painful Jewish history and live in the sensual present. It warns of the dire consequences of choosing the verdant tree of beauty over the unadorned tree of knowledge. It stresses the injurious effects of choosing pagan aesthetics over Jewish ethics and spirituality. It instructs us to appreciate the marvels of nature, but not worship them "Instead of," by which Ozick means revering "the wood of the tree instead of God, the rapturebringing horizon instead of God, the work of art instead of God ("The Riddle of the Ordinary,'' 208). Thus Ozick would not have us read Isaac Babel's "The Awakening" to heed the old man's admonition to the young narrator, a studious urban Jew: "And you dare to write! A man who doesn't live in nature, as a stone does or an animal, will never in all his life write two worthwhile lines" (Babel 311–312). By standing apart from nature and differentiating between the natural and the holy, Ozick has written her liturgical worthwhile lines in "The Pagan Rabbi." The setting of Ozick's "Levitation," the title work in her third collection of short stories, is not the exotic realm of lush nature haunted by ravishing nymphs and hallucinating rabbis. Rather, it is the banal indoor sphere of an urban comedy of manners. The leading characters, the Feinbergs, are not elite members of an artificial, highly sophisticated society, but mediocre novelists, "secondarylevel people" who "were absorbed by power and were powerless" (7). Ozick initially directs her satire against their aberrations and follies as literary types. She mocks them for their smugness and pretension: for priding themselves on writing "naturally as birds" (4), for being connoisseurs of omni
Page 69
science, for fancying themselves "literary friends and lovers, like George Eliot and George Henry Lewes" (4). She makes sport of their scribbling rivalry and their page envy: "In bed they would revel in quantity . . . 'Seven pages so far this week.' 'Nineandahalf, but I had to throw out four. A wrong tack'" (4). Ozick also makes light of the Feinbergs' overriding aesthetic principle and, selfreflexively, her own practice, which is—never write about writers, because therein lies "solipsism, narcissism, tedium" (4). These qualities in abundance Ozick sardonically reveals in the Feinbergs' lives: "They pitied every writer who was not married to a writer. . . . At least we have the same premises" (6). But the principal comedy of ideas of the story is that the Feinbergs do not have the same premises about religion. On the surface, it would seem they have the ideal mixed marriage. With tongue in cheek, Ozick writes, "For love, and also because he had always known he did not want a Jewish wife, he married a minister's daughter. Lucy, too, had hoped to marry out of her tradition" (3). However, they impulsively choose members of the opposite faith out of daring and defiance, not out of true commitment. Yet their obsession to be recognized in the literary world prevents their seeing the precise nature of their relationship. To escape from their selfimposed ghettos, where Lucy writes about homebound women in New York and Feinberg depicts Jewish massacres in fourteenthcentury Spain, they throw a party to seek influence with the literary establishment. The luminaries do not show up, which may be Ozick's oblique way of saying that the establishment ignores writing about women and Jews. In this party, however, the fantastic invades the premises and causes "the perspectives enforced by the ground rules of the narrative world" to "be diametrically contradicted" (Rabkin 8). A narration about a conventional cocktail party, etched in realistic detail, turns into a story of the "antiexpected"
Page 70
where earthbound Jews suddenly levitate in a living room and are suspended in midair. The Jews' ascension is seen through the eyes of Lucy, the Gentile wife. Though she is a convert to Judaism, she is still an outsider, peering in from the sidelines, staring at the mysterious triptych that comprises the three main rooms of her party. She feels most at home in the dining room with the Gentiles and "the unruffled, devilmay care" (12) Jews: the humorists, the humanists, the aesthetes, "those who went off to studio showings of Screw on Screen on the eve of the Day of Atonement" (12). It is the "theological" Jews in the living room from whom she feels most estranged. Ozick's depiction of the vast estrangement between Christian and Jew is more unsettling than Jews soaring into space. Lucy's youthful idealization of Jews as "ancient Hebrews," venerable people of the Bible, is transformed into her adult loathing of Jews for their perpetual intensity and selfpity. She detests their obsession with the Holocaust, their "morbid cudchewing. Death and death and death" (19). Blaming the victims, not the victimizers, she "is bored by the shootings and the gas and the camps" (19). The only persecution that speaks to her is Christ's crucifixion, since the cruelty of it is left to her imagination. This imagination also becomes her haven during the Jews' tedious recital of the Holocaust atrocities. Resorting to the fantastic to escape from this unpleasant reality, Lucy has an illumination in which she is transported to an enchanted place. In an edenic park she is caught up in the erotic singing and dancing of Sicilian shepherds, goatherds resembling the god Pan. In ecstasy she, too, worships the source of their orgiastic celebration: the voluptuous Madonna and her precursor fertility deities. Lucy suddenly sees that these "gods are God" and is filled with remorse that she has "given up Jesus, . . . God entering nature to become god" (18). She realizes "how she has abandoned
Page 71
nature, how she has lost true religion on account of the God of the Jews" (18). For Ozick, Lucy is the embodiment of paganrooted Christianity, what Rabbi Leo Baeck calls "romantic religion," which makes an ideal of flight from the world. She, like it, seeks her goals in what Baeck describes as "the now mythical, now mystical visions of the imagination" (189–190). Yielding to the realm of illusion, she, like it, lacks any "strong ethical impulse, any will to conquer life ethically" (192). Immersed in its lush aestheticism, Lucy is impervious to the suffering of the Jews. She can scarcely see them or hear them as they spiral upward. And what of Feingold and his livingroom Jews? Are they Ozick's idealists, soaring above the effete earthbound? The living room contains the candlesticks of Feingold's grandmother, which are never used, and the fireplace, which is never lit. The blessing of the Sabbath candles, the hallmark of Jewish observance, does not take place in this home, nor is there a continuous light of Jewish spirituality. What gives these living room Jews a newfound sense of Jewish identity is hearing about the Holocaust atrocities from a Hitler refugee. For Ozick, such an identity is suspect because it is based only on the dire persecution of the Jews divorced from the meaningful practices of being Jewish. Like the French assimilated Jews of Sartre's AntiSemite and Jew, they are Jewish only because of the antiSemites. Their levitation is, therefore, another flight from this world. They are contemporary luftmenschen (men of the air) satirized by Ozick, not for their harebrained business schemes as in the stories of Sholem Aleichem, but for their selfescalation as secondhand witnesses of the Holocaust, carried away by its sensationalist horrors. Critic Joseph Epstein is not pleased with Ozick's ending of "Levitation." He wants to see her Jews earthbound and touching base with reality: "I may sound more like a landlord than a critic here, but I react to the story by asking,
Page 72
'Madam, what is that living room doing on the ceiling? Madam, I implore you, get those Jews down, please'" (67). Though Epstein doesn't realize it, Ozick essentially agrees with him. She casts her Jews as Bergsonian comic types whose bodies are "tantalized by their souls" which, in the grip of obsession, are "eager to rise aloft" (92). She thus ridicules, not reveres, them. The concluding lines of "Levitation" are: "Overhead Feingold and the refugee are riding the living room. Their words are specks. All the Jews are in the air" (20). The story ends fantastically, in suspension as it were, without sufficient explanation to determine whether its resolution is of the uncanny or of the marvelous. But clearly Ozick ends the story on an ironic note. She has the Jews utter minimalist language or nonsense syllables in some rarefied other world, when, in fact, she would like them to express meaningful words in this world. In "Usurpation (Other People's Stories)," the most whimsical and convoluted fantasy in Ozick's second collection of stories, her unnamed narratorprotagonist gets into trouble because she is so obsessed with expressing meaningful words in the world of fiction. She is Ozick's caricature of the envious author: nitpicker, invidious comparer, selfinflater, and detractor of other people's literary merit. Like Edelshtein, she is a littleknown author with an oversized ego who feels entitled to a larger readership and is driven to taking drastic measures to obtain it. Like Edelshtein, who characterassassinates the famous Yiddish author Yankel Ostrover, a thin disguise for Isaac Bashevis Singer, Ozick's narrator in "Usurpation" accuses the famous JewishAmerican author modeled after Bernard Malamud of committing wrongs against her. However, Edelshtein severs connections with Ozick's pornographic, occult fiction to cultivate his own artistry, whereas Ozick's unnamed protagonist gets her literary talent hopelessly entangled with the wry mythic fiction of the Malamud author.
Page 73
As with Ozick's other fantasies, "Usurpation" begins in the realm of the actual, not the supernatural. Like Edelshtein, Ozick's protagonist encounters her eminent writer at New York's 92nd Street Y. Here, she listens to him read his unpublished story, "The Magic Crown," only to discover that it was her work, that is, a work she intended to write. Rather than depict the purported theft seriously, Ozick treats it mockheroically. She has her narrator lust after another storyteller's powers of invention yet falsely accuse him of violating her powers. She charges him with premature composition and manuscript molestation: Occasionally a writer will encounter a story that is his, yet is not his. . . . But sometimes it happens that someone else has written the story first. It's like being robbed of clothes you do not own. There you sit, in the rapt hall, seeing the usurper on stage caressing the manuscript that, in its deepest turning, was meant to be yours. He is a transvestite, he is wearing your own hat and underwear. It seems unjust. There is no way to prevent him. (131)
Not only does Ozick's narrator grandiloquently claim title to the author's story as her outer garment, but she makes the preposterously funny claim that the story is as much her possession as an internal object within her body, like a tooth in her mouth: By the fifth paragraph I recognized my story—knew it to be mine, that is, with the same indispensable familiarity I have for this roundflanked leftside molar my tongue admires. I think of it, in all that waste and rubble amid good dental crowns, as my pearl. (131)
By scaling down the narrator's pompous assertions of story ownership in terms of banal dental metaphors, Ozick employs what Robert Alter terms Jewish humor's "domestication of myth" (25). With antic realism, she deflates the pretensions of vain authors who think they have a monopoly on creativity. Ozick also ironically undercuts the in
Page 74
flated notion of authorial originality. For when the narrator learns that "The Magic Crown" did not emerge fullblown from Malamud's head, but was based on a newspaper account of the crown's specious use, she berates herself for not being a more adroit scavenger of the tabloids to find material for her own stories. Since Ozick's narrator was not resourceful enough to pilfer from newspapers for her fiction, she shamelessly purloins belleslettres and rewrites other people's stories. But before she reconstructs their work, she proceeds to demolish much of what they have crafted. A carping critic, she composes in her head negative reviews of Malamud's tale. She finds fault with its predictability, its simplistic morality: A skeptical teacher purchases a silver crown from a miracleworking rabbi to heal his mortally ill father only to discover that his lack of faith in the crown's powers, together with his underlying hatred of his father, causes the ailing man to die. Ozick's narrator claims she wouldn't have written a story of such unambiguous meaning and tidy resolution, but would have "fingered out the magic parts" (134), particularly the arcane properties of the silver crown itself. Such a focus on the occult is forbidden, according to traditional Judaism. Yet Ozick's protagonist is an inveterate heretic. She confesses to being irrevocably drawn to the "preternatural—everything antiMoses, all things blazing with their own wonder" (135), whereupon she encounters a goat at the 92nd Street Y who begs her to read one of his stories. The presence of a talking, writing goat immediately pushes Ozick's "Usurpation" into the realm of the fantastic. It also temporarily transforms the story into a fable with the comic incongruity of a dumb animal acting as if he were an articulate human being. But the goat for Ozick is more than just a funny creature. He is the animal embodiment of the pagan god Pan, who, in classical mythology, assumes the guise of a goat especially when seducing unwary maid
Page 75
ens. Accordingly, he seduces Ozick's narrator by interesting her in his pagan story to the point where she embellishes it and makes it more pagan. The goat's story, "Youth and Homage," concerns the unrelenting drive for fame of an American student who comes to Jerusalem, not to study Torah but to gain recognition as a religious writer. To attain this end, he visits Agnon, the country's leading religious author, to discover how to take his place. The student is a Bergsonian comic type, endowed with a certain "mechanical inelasticity" (67), who is so fixated on his goal that he becomes a calculating envy machine rather than a spontaneous human being. The annoyed Agnon, who would like to get rid of the cocky student, tells him he must hide his ambition in shyness. He must be a ba'al ga'avah, a "selfidolator" who "subtly turns his gaze downward to the ground, never looking at what he covets" (141). At this point Ozick's narrator interrupts the goat's story and admits that she has been rewriting it. A caricature of the confessional writers of the sixties, she informs us that authors' personal obsessions often find expression in their works of fiction. Since she owns up to coveting fame more than anything else, she shamefully tells us she has projected her allconsuming envy onto the student. Because she feels guilty about her sinister trait, she has the student punished. She appropriates the magic crown from the Malamud story and has Agnon bestow it upon the student, which gives him the renown accorded to Agnon. Ozick satirically depicts the consequences of the student's sudden recognition. His literary acclaim enhances his sexual appeal, yet he is flustered by this new attention: "he is praised, honored, young women put out their hands to touch his collar, they pluck at his pants, his fly unzips and he zips it up again, oh fame!" (148). He experiences the anxiety of not measuring up to his new reputation. He has a lengthy bibliography, yet he is afraid he won't be able
Page 76
to write anything on demand. He dreads being discovered an imposter so he retreats to the alley behind the kitchen where the "old cats scavenge in the trash barrels" (150). Unwittingly, he, too, becomes an "old cat," for he has struck the Faustian bargain of exchanging his youth for celebrity. Like Isaac Kornfeld, aghast at the sight of his old soul detached from his youthful, dryadpursuing body, the student is shocked to discover that overnight he has become an old man with a bad heart. Also, he must suffer the harassment of the ghost of Tchernikhovsky, the pagan Hebrew poet, who emerges from the magic crown as its guardian. The student, unable to tolerate the oppressive burden of illgotten fame and the corrupting influence of the pagan, struggles to remove the crown, but in the arduous process dies from a heart attack. If this rewritten story marked the conclusion of "Usurpation," we could say it was a fantasy with gothic dark humor. The outwardly pious Agnon is a fiendish trickster who foists a lethal crown on a greedy though gullible student and then enlists the pagan powers of a ghost to destroy him. Villainy is rewarded, since Agnon is granted the Nobel Prize for literature in two years. But Ozick does not end her story here. The narrator proceeds to tell her own tale: a mixture of the fantastic and the midrashic. In it she functions as the hubristic protagonist who herself is in pursuit of the magic crown. She seeks out the pagan goat, who takes her to the home of Saul, the false rabbi, who is in jail for being the illicit crownmaker. But Saul, patterned after Ozick herself, is actually a holy man who writes religious parables, praised not so much for their narrative invention as for their ideational content. As a rationalist who ridicules everything, he writes about "sorcery which he denied, levitation which he doubted, magic, which he sneered at, miracles which he denounced . . . plural gods which he disputed, demons which he derided . . ." (173). Yet Ozick's narrator, like the contemptuous
Page 77
woman unwilling to translate Edelshtein's poetry for being too parochial, refuses to help publish Saul's works, dismissing them as "Trash, justice and mercy. He tells you how to live, what to do, the way to think. Righteousness fables, morality tales. Didactic stuff. Rabbinical trash" (176). However, right after Ozick's narrator lashes out at Saul's sacred writings, she is besieged by the profane. Her predicament now resembles the plight of the student in the story she had rewritten. The magic crown which the goat placed on her head also "pressed unerringly into the secret tunnels of [her] brain" (176) and the ghost of Tchernikhovsky, released from the picture frame with the false rabbi, levitated to the ceiling. But, unlike the student, Ozick's narrator does not die. Instead Tchernikhovsky asks her to choose between "The Creator or the creature. God or god. The Name of Names or Apollo" (176). Without hesitation she selects the pagan deity and immediately becomes the prolific transmitter of pagan narratives: "Stories came from me then . . . none of them of my own making, all of them acquired, borrowed, given, taken, inherited, stolen, plagiarized, usurped, chronicles and sagas invented at the beginning of the world by the offspring of giants copulating with the daughters of men" (176–177). The fate of the narrator is ultimately painful, but the narrative form containing her literary larceny is a comic patchwork of plagiarized prose. Instead of disguising the identity of the stolen property, Ozick playfully reveals telltale hints about it. She retells not only Malamud's "The Silver Crown," but accuses the goat of filching his life style from another Malamud fiction, The Tenants. She reveals the goat's story, "Youth and Homage," to be an unconscionable borrowing of David Stern's story "Agnon: A Story" before it appeared in Response. She loots sections from Agnon's parable, "Messiah," and metaphors from Tchernikhovsky's "Before the Statue of Apollo.'' Rather than camouflage these thefts, she advertizes them with perverse delight, as
Page 78
serting that "what people call inspiration is only pilferage" (160). This pilferage has caused some critics to interpret "Usurpation" as a "parable" on Harold Bloom's notion of "the anxiety of influence" (Edwards 34), or at least as a fictionalization of its premises. Ruth Rosenberg asks: Is this Bloomian intertexuality? Is this validation of his claim that the true subject of a text is its repression of prior texts? Is this an illustration of the agonistic revision of anteriority? Is the narrator asserting her power by triumphantly reversing her own belatedness? (39–44)
The answer to these questions is no, for such tonguetwisting jargon, such cumbersome theoretical baggage superimposed upon the narrative would ground the witty flights of fancy comprising the tale. If anything, "Usurpation" is a parody on the anxiety of influence. In Ozick's whimsical misprision, anxiety of influence becomes envy of influence. Weak writers covet the crowns of fame of strong writers, but uneasy lie the heads wearing the crowns, who then pass them on to weaker writers. The prophet Isaiah conferred his crown upon the medieval Jewish poet Ibn Gabirol, who bestowed it upon the nineteenthcentury Hebrew poet, Tchernikhovsky, who gave it to the Israeli writer Agnon, who pushed it on a student author, who tried to bequeath it to someone "not so fancy" such as Norman Mailer. Instead of deriving a metaliterary truth from these happenings, the ghost of Tchernikhovsky simply states: "The quality of the crown's ownership keeps declining" (155). But the most comic narrative strategy of "Usurpation" is Ozick's use of the ploys of selfreflexive fiction. Her protagonist often bursts free of the story's confines and flaunts the artifice of literary convention. She calls attention to her flawed compositional skills: her illicit reworkings of other people's texts, her faulty splicing together of disparate
Page 79
story lines. Vacating the representational mode for the presentational to address her readers, she confirms Roland Barthes's view that "there is no art that does not point a finger to its own mask" (Barthes 51). Not only does she display the ingenious external appearance of the mask, but she also provides fleeting glimpses of the idiosyncratic face beneath the mask. It is a wryly hypocritical face of an author who writes libelous fiction about actual people and then blames those libeled for hunting "themselves up in stories, sniffling out twists, insults, distortions, transfigurations, all the drek of the imagination" (133). It is also a selfcontradictory face, whose opinions about how the craft of fiction should be exercised belie humorously Ozick's actual practices. Thus her narrator states she is "against all these masks and tricks of metaphor and fable" (139), or she "hates stories with ideas hidden in them" (143), when "Usurpation'' is a treasure chest of them. Assuming the pose of a stringent literary critic, she nonetheless commits the literary offenses she, with tongue in cheek, rails against. She eruditely links Maimonides' conception of the Messiah to Theodor Herzl, the Zionist political redeemer, and then in the next breath states how she despises "writers who will stop a story dead for the sake of showing off" (158). She ironically claims the best stories are those which have "no exotic new material, no unexpected flights" (163), when in "Usurpation" her unbridled imagination runs off in uncharted fictional territory. She mocks herself for being a duplicitous mentor, since the literary advice she gives to the goat is just the opposite of what she has done: "Stay out of the yeshiva, watch out for religion. Don't make up stories about famous writers" (165). Finally, she has one of her characters unexpectedly break out of the narrative frame to rebuke the protagonist for writing the "boring, longwinded" "Usurpation": "It stank, lady. . . . Half of it's swiped, you ought to get sued. You don't know when to stop" (175). Such a condemnation is
Page 80
funny because it is Ozick's own character who berates her creator. The character's censure is also a form of Ozick's wry selfdeprecation of her work as well as her comically paranoid imaginings of what the critics will say about it. "Usurpation," however, is more than a hilarious fantasy about the confessions of a story thief who values public renown over the perfection of her craft. And it is more than a satiric exposé of fiction writing as a suspect art, relying on counterfeit experience, dubious techniques, and contrived language to achieve its lifelike effects. It is another of Ozick's midrashic fantasies, which, out of its mingling of piety and magic, preaches a higher truth. In this case it inveighs against the art of fiction on theological grounds. It maintains that Jewish writers fashioning a makebelieve reality through words are committing idolatrous acts in direct violation of the Second Commandment. But its greatest objection to storytelling is that authors are usurpers, since they appropriate from God the role of the creator. To prevent readers from missing this message, Ozick further explains it in a preface to Bloodshed, the collection in which "Usurpation" appears: "Usurpation" is a story written against storytelling; against the Musegoddesses; against Apollo. It is against magic and mystification, against sham and "miracle" and, going deeper into the dark, against idolatry. It is an invention directed against inventing—the point being that the storymaking faculty itself can be a corridor to the corruptions and abominations of idol worship, or the adoration of magical event. (11)
By the end of "Usurpation," Ozick's narrator has been thoroughly corrupted with story lust and has given birth to a plethora of bastard offspring. She is in the company of the goatlike Pan, who is also known as Alex the conqueror, "the arrogant godman" (177) who wooed the Jews with pagan Hellenism. In this world of lush aestheticism, which
Page 81
she has chosen to embrace, there is absence of meaning and desecration of things Jewish. But when Jewish storytellers choose to write about the heathen rather than the holy in the next world, then its pagan inhabitants, like Hitler in this world, will not allow them to forget they are Jews. For example, Tchernikhovsky, though he wrote his sensuous "Hymn to Apollo," is rejected by the Canaanite idols who call him, in the language of the spheres, "Kike" (178). Thus, in Paradise Jewish writers will not be able to escape their origins but will be caged and will obey the dictum: "All that is not Law is levity" (177). Fortunately, Cynthia Ozick, in her midrashic fantasies, has not been caged, for she writes about levity and law. A comedian of ideas, she transforms the farcical into the philosophical. But because of her wit and imagination, her "philosophical stories" do not "make excellent lullabies" (143). They keep her readers awake and amused.
Page 82
V — The Puttermesser Stories: Feminist Follies Cynthia Ozick, at the outset of her career, was reluctant to write comically about the activities of women for fear of evoking the same criticism that J. B. Priestley leveled at Jane Austen for being too consumed with "feminine small potatoes" (qtd. in Barreca, Introduction, Last Laughs 6). Ozick did not want to risk having her comic muse barred from the established house of mirth for anything that smacked of the trivial or the silly. She did not want to be linked to those "witless women" lacking the official credentials to explore the unofficial realm of female comedy and thus have her work judged doubly insignificant (Barreca 6).* For many years Ozick fought long and hard against having her work, comic and noncomic, consigned to the ezrat nashim, the gallery of women writers, separated from the male preserve of sacred texts. This was particularly true *According to Regina Barreca, "comedy written by women is perceived by many critics as trivial, silly and unworthy of serious attention. . . . When writing comedy, where the unofficial nature of the world is explored (to paraphrase Bakhtin), women are damned to insignificance twice over. They are the unofficial discussing the insignificant" (Introduction, Last Laughs, 3–22).
Page 83
for her first novel, Trust, where she took great pains to prevent it from being judged by "the ovarian theory of literature" ("Previsions of the Demise of the Dancing Dog" 266). She purposely avoided the literary territory allotted to female authors: the circumscribed domestic sphere, with its pointillistic intrigues of courtship and the labyrinthine entrapments of marriage. She took as her subject History, "not merely History as an aggregate of events, but History as a judgment on events" ("We Are the Crazy Lady and Other Feisty Feminist Fables" 289). Though the narrator of her first novel was a young woman, Ozick accorded her no fully fleshed female identity; nor did she even give her a name. By effacing the woman in her narrator, she hoped reviewers would regard Trust for what she primarily intended it to be: a Jamesian Jewish novel of ideas. Ozick's hope was not realized. The New York Times book review, titled ''Daughter's Reprieve," was accompanied by "a picture of a naked woman whose bottom was covered by some sort of drapery" ("We Are the Crazy Lady" 289). It contained the following misreadings: "These events, interesting in themselves, exist to reveal the sensibility of the narrator." "She longs to play some easy feminine role." "She has been unable to define herself as a woman." "The main body of the novel, then, is a revelation of the narrator's inner, turbulent, psychic drama" (Stevenson, "Daughter's Reprieve" 29). Cynthia Ozick's anger at her novel's being distorted in the procrustean bed of gender criticism prompted her several years later to write the short story "Virility," a feminist satire exposing the double standard of critical reception in the world of letters. It is her sardonic prose embodiment of the "Testicular Theory of Literature" discussed in her essay "Previsions of the Demise of the Dancing Dog" (266). In both works Ozick verges on being the "fumerist" (Marshall 172), the fusion of feminist and incensed humorist who
Page 84
fumes at and thereby illuminates the unjust treatment accorded women who are writers. The story, told in retrospect by a 106yearold Jamesian mentor, concerns the authorial hoax perpetrated by the protagonist, Edmund Gate, born Elia Gatoff from Czarist Russia via Liverpool, who tries to make his literary fortune in America. Like the Karps and Purses of Trust, he is another of Ozick's foolish bastardizers of language who contaminates the marketplace with his polluted verse. "What he struck off the page was spew and offal, and he called it his career" (242). His unbridled egotism goads him to be doggedly persistent; a caricature of the driven poet, he mails "three dozen poems a week to this and that magazine, and when the known periodicals turned him down he dredged up the unknown ones . . . devoted to matters anatomic, astronomic, gastronomic, political or atheist" (242). Nonetheless, risibly unaware of his mediocrity, he does not give up trying. The next year, however, Gate's poems miraculously improve and he publishes five volumes of them, entitled "Virility I, II, III, IV and V." The critics, more impressed with the poetry's title than with its substance, single out its masculine virtues and overpraise it with ludicrous phallic criticism: "If Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders had been poets, they would have written poems like that. If Genghis Khan and Napoleon had been poets, they would have written poems like that. They were masculine poems . . . like superbly controlled muscle . . ." (257). Gate's sexual triumphs go hand in hand with his literary triumphs. He sires sons from his adulterous union with his mentor's married sister and becomes the irresistible darling of the literary circuit, with women of all ages swooning over him. The doubly potent male poet, he seduces his admirers with both language and body. We learn, however, that Edmund Gate is not the author of these poems. They have been written by his spinster
Page 85
aunt from Liverpool, Tante Rivka, who sends them to him in her letters. Three years after her death, when he has nearly exhausted the supply of her poetry and faces artistic sterility, his Jamesian mentor convinces him to confess his plagiarism and do right by Tante Rivka. He publishes her remaining poems, which were to comprise his Virility VI, under her own name as Flowers from Liverpool. This collection contains Tante Rivka's finest poetry, yet reviewers find her book to be "Thin feminine art," "Limited as all domestic verse must be. A spinster's onedimensional vision" (226). Yet Gate's poetry they acclaimed as "Seminal and hard." "Robust, lusty, male" (254). Here Ozick subversively parodies male book reviewing to chip away at the culture's ossified misjudgments about the worth of women's creativity. Ozick echoes the book reviewer's smug authoritative voice and imitates his glib assessments, his tired clichés, his clumsy jargon. In her playful assault of camouflaged aggression against the maledominated culture, she has given her sentences "the license of carnival, the license to overturn, to mimic, to deconstruct" (Little 9) the powers that determine reputation, artistic immortality. When writing "Virility," her carnivalesque attack on male critical bias, Cynthia Ozick might well have recalled the publication of George Eliot's Adam Bede. Since the book was thought to be too good for woman's work, the critics hastily found the male whom they assumed to be the author, a clergyman named Joseph Liggins, who readily accepted credit for the book. When the real George Eliot could not abide the homage paid to the fraudulent author and revealed her identity, the reviews changed. "Where critics had previously seen the powerful mind of the male George Eliot . . . they now discovered feminine delicacy . . . a disturbing unladylike coarseness" (Showalter 476). George Eliot was not deterred by this negative criticism but went on writing and was hailed as one of the leading
Page 86
nineteenthcentury novelists. Conversely, Tante Rivka had no one to appreciate her. She was abandoned by her only living relative and died of starvation, in oblivion. Edmund Gate's poetic career abruptly ended, with his powers of creation destroyed and his masculinity in question. Thus the story's conclusion moves from parody to parable. Ozick draws the following lesson: Had Edmund Gate remained in close contact with his Yiddish cultural past, responsibly sustained it and properly cherished it, he would have been able to produce his own, original poems. Were he to have provided Tante Rivka with attentive care, she would have lived a long time and in turn prolonged his productivity. Deracinated from his origins, he is dissociated from his manhood, compelled to roam the earth masquerading as an old woman to atone for his exploitation of Tante Rivka. Similarly, the Jewish artist, cut off from his roots, is emasculated, condemned to lead a life of inauthenticity. To maintain their authenticity, George Eliot and George Sand in nineteenthcentury England and France had no choice but to retain their male pen names, especially if they exercised their mirth right. They resorted to covert means to express their humor to avoid having their books dismissed as "silly novels by lady novelists" (Barreca, Introduction 13). Certainly, they did not have Ozick's opportunity to write a story under her own name, mocking male critics' denigration of women's writing. As a "classical feminist,"* Ozick claims the freedom to explore any subject she pleases and to employ any kind of humor she chooses in her treatment of both male and fe *Cynthia Ozick regards herself a feminist, but not an adherent of the "new feminism," which she describes as "biologically based selfconfinement." Instead, she claims to be a proponent and practitioner of "classical feminism"—i.e., feminism at its origin . . . [which] rejected anatomy not only as destiny, but as any sort of governing force . . . [which] rejected the notion of 'female sensibility' as a slander designed to shut women off from access to the delights, confusions, achievements, darknesses, and complexities of the great world." (See Ozick, "Literature and the Politics of Sex: A Dissent.")
Page 87
male characters. She can create revolutionary comedy in which disillusioned and oppressed outsiders mock the hypocritical or the tyrannical in control of society. Or she can produce conservative comedy which takes the very opposite approach by directing "laughter against the outsider, against the one who deviates from the norm of . . . appropriate behavior" (Little 1). Cynthia Ozick's versatile comic muse is particularly evident in her Puttermesser narratives, in which she lampoons her female protagonist without fear of being labeled a selfhating woman writer transferring her animus against the unfriendly universe upon her own species. Her first story, "Puttermesser: Her Work History, Her Ancestry, Her Afterlife," is a benignly satiric portrait of an inconsistent woman's liberationist: Ruth Puttermesser, a thirtyfouryearold lawyer who claims to be "something of a feminist, not crazy, but she resented having 'Miss' put in front of her name; she thought it pointedly discriminatory, she wanted to be a lawyer among lawyers" (21). Ozick reveals the comic incongruity between Puttermesser's emancipated public self and her private self, an adolescent wearing furry slippers in the Bronx apartment of her youth and feeling remorseful she had not practiced her high school piano lessons. Ozick shows the equally funny gap between Puttermesser the lawyer, with her highly advanced rational powers, and Puttermesser still the teenager, with her irrational jealousy of the "Breck shampoo girl, so blond and bland and palemouthed," whom she hated "with a Negroid passion" (23). Puttermesser herself resembles a semicomic grotesque whose odd physical features Ozick describes as if she, like Bellow, were a whimsical anthropologist commenting on a rare tribal specimen: "Her nose had thick, wellhaired, uneven nostrils, the right one noticeably wider than the other. Her eyes were small, the lashes short, invisible. She had the median Mongol lid—one of those Jewish faces with a vaguely oriental cast'' (23).
Page 88
This Jewish face amid the WASP law firm of Midland, Reid & Cockleberry triggers off Ozick's humor of cultural revenge, which is ecumenical in scope. Sparing no one group, it is aimed at both Jews and Christians in the vocational sphere. It grazes external hypocrisies and lacerates deeply entrenched hostilities. Elsewhere Ozick has written about the ordeal of being Jewish in the Gentile world: "To remain Jewish," she states, "is a process—something which is an ongoing and muscular thing, a progress or, sometimes, a regression, a constant selfreminding, a caravan of watchfulness always on the move; above all an unsparing consciousness" ("On Living in a Gentile World" 168). Puttermesser, graduating at the head of her law school class, is this ''selfreminding Jew" relegated to the back office of an elitist law firm to do menial legal research. She is acutely conscious of how very different she is from the others, but she will not change her ways to blend in with them. Conversely, the three Jewish males in the firm would like to forget they're Jews and have the privileges of their WASP cohorts. But the powers of authority ghettoize them in the office, bar them from the athletic clubs the WASP lawyers attend, deny them access to WASP clients because of their Jewish accents. Thus, despite their assimilationist wishes, polite antiSemitism transforms them into conspicuous, watchful Jews whom Ozick caricatures: "The Jews, by contrast, grew more anxious, hissed together meanly among the urinals . . . became perfectionist and uncasual, quibbled bitterly, with stabbing forefingers over principles and began to look and act less like superannuated college athletes and more like Jews" (26). Ozick also holds Christians up to ridicule, but not with the same overt rancor found in her vituperative essay "All the World Wants the Jews Dead," or with the same exasperation when chastening her errant fellow Jews. The Christians, by contrast, she attacks with ironic pique for their external gentility, their pretense at amiability, their hypo
Page 89
critical appreciation for things Jewish. Thus we learn the WASP partners treat Puttermesser as a "fellow aristocrat," only because she had her speech standardized long ago by midwestern elocutionists and her grandfather hailed from Providence, Rhode Island. The partners take her out for a farewell "anthropologist's meal" where they feign interest in "the rites of her tribe'' (27). They mask their discomfort in her presence with their "beautiful manners," which "were the cautiousness you adopt when you visit the interior: Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" (27). They claim she is indispensable, but they have already hired a "clever black" to take her place. Puttermesser goes from the private patrician workplace to the public plebeian one of mostly Italians and Jews to become Assistant Corporation Counsel of the city's Municipal Building. Here the dilapidated building itself, symbolic of the debilitated body politic and Puttermesser's discomfiture in it, is the source of Hobbesian humor Ozick creates to give us that "sudden glory" at the sight of someone more wretched than ourselves (Hobbes, Leviathan, qtd. in Morreall 19). We are made to laugh at Puttermesser, ignominiously "belonging to that mean swarm of City employees rooted bleakly in cells inside the honeycomb of the Municipal Building . . . a monstrous place, gray everywhere . . . a kind of swollen doom through which the bickering of smallvoiced officials whinnied" (28). We are also made to sympathize with Puttermesser for her fall from eminence as the editor of the Yale Law Review to being one of those "amphibious creatures hanging between base contempt and bare decency" (28) in a sullied bureaucracy with "litter on the floors, grit stuck all over antiquated books," and "scavengers after spoils" (28). Ozick is tempted to rescue Puttermesser from this municipal doom and marry her off. She has even introduced a likely suitor for her, Commissioner Guggenheim, a blueeyed German Jew who loves art history and detests eco
Page 90
nomics. But Ozick refuses to transform her wry urban naturalism into romantic comedy. Because there are so many glaring imperfections in Puttermesser's world and in Puttermesser herself, Ozick can't superimpose upon the story an unpreparedfor comic "happy ending," joyous celebration and reestablishment of order" (Barreca, Introduction 8). Instead of laying the groundwork for such conventional comedy, Ozick interrupts the narrative and antically dispels the romantic illusions she's weaving. "Now if this were an optimistic portrait," she writes, ''Puttermesser would end her work history abruptly and move on to a bower in a fine suburb" (31). But she tells us Puttermesser will not marry. Thus, in place of a comic ending, suggestive of fertility and regeneration, she endows Puttermesser with a fertility of imagination which fashions a "luxuriant dream" of "gan eydn," the "Garden of Eden," "the World to Come," inspired by "her great Uncle Zindel, a former shammes in a shul that had been torn down" (31). Unlike Edmund Gate, who does not properly acknowledge his artistic indebtedness to the Jewish cultural legacy of Tante Rivka, Puttermesser is profoundly grateful to Uncle Zindel for granting her the notion of an afterlife and, more important, a usable Jewish past in the present. Puttermesser's vision of the World to Come is a comically incongruous child's view of Eden where she would eat, not forbidden apples, but an unending supply of fudge, the kind sold in her grade school. Not only would she suffer no tooth decay, the bitter consequences for her indulgence in sweets, but her fudge, like Proust's petit madeleine, would allow her to recapture the sweet innocence of times past. In her Eden she would also lead a blissful prepubertal existence, freed of bothersome sexual distractions, with "every itch annihilated, fecundity dismissed" (32). In its place she would shamelessly eat of the tree of intellectual knowledge, voraciously reading all manner of secular fiction
Page 91
and nonfiction. Like Ozick's pagan rabbi, she would luxuriate in nature and read tantalizing unholy texts. But in this world she tries to master Hebrew, which for Ozick is a higher form of learning than Puttermesser's study of great books in Paradise. For Hebrew is more than just a language for expression, it is a "code for the world's design, indissoluble, predetermined, translucent" (24). Yet her Hebrew teacher is Great Uncle Zindel, the Yiddish comic voice of antiheroism who underscores the worth of the butter knife over sharp knives which kill. He is also like Malamud's matchmaker, Pinya Salzman, the comic eccentric living in the slums, and wants to marry her off to ensure Jewish continuity. In his immigrant's fractured English, he instructs her to change her name so it wouldn't be a joke to turn away nice young men or he tells her to go to Israel to meet somebody. But when he likens Hebrew letters to the bodies of pregnant ladies, insinuating she pattern herself after them, Ozick temporarily curtails the fictional proceedings and has another narrator chastise her for introducing excessive invention into her biography. Ozick's wry selfdeprecation augments the humor already existing in her histrionic selfreflexive fiction. The narrator sheepishly tells us that Uncle Zindel was never Puttermesser's Hebrew teacher, that he died four years before she was born. He was a fantasy she created to "claim an ancestor" since a "Jew must own a past" (36). At this point Ozick calls a temporary truce in her mockery of Puttermesser, for she sympathizes with her for her depleted Jewish heritage. Instead, her satire is aimed at Puttermesser's ancestors for their headlong rush to assimilate, to alienate themselves from what they construed as their backward tradition. Ozick tells us ironically that Puttermesser's paternal greatgrandfather pretended he was a Yankee by wearing a Yankee captain's cap he sold as a peddler and then he later passed himself off as a Yankee captain of smalltime industry. Puttermesser's own father
Page 92
was "an antiSemite" who "would not eat kosher meat" because ''he had no superstitions" (37). Her mother had no memory of Uncle Zindel. He was just "a name in the dead grandmother's mouth" (37). Thus Ozick, sounding her familiar complaint against the loss of Jewish identity, finds Puttermesser's family to be an impoverished minority, since they have no gift of their own to offer the majority. Bankrupt, they borrow from their neighbor's house all their furnishings. They cannot invite their neighbor into their "own historic house" because "all the rooms are empty" (Ozick, "The Holidays: Reply to Anne Roiphe," C6). Consequently, to fill this emptiness Puttermesser invents and clings to Uncle Zindel, the embodiment of the vibrant shtetl past of years ago and the more recent teeming Jewish East Side. Just as the heart of Bellow's intellectual hero Herzog "was attached with great power" to Napoleon Street, Montreal's "toylike, crazy," little ghetto (141), so Puttermesser, the legal giant, is connected with great feeling to Uncle Zindel, the wry little man with "thorny English a wilderness between his gums" (36). However, Ozick does not permit us to have any permanent strong feelings for Puttermesser. She deconstructs her as a character and transforms her into an essence. Then, as her biographer, she breathes life into Puttermesser again and places her in another story. "Puttermesser and Xanthippe" is another of Ozick's satiric portrayals of her female lawyer, now fortysix years old and still unmarried, which centers upon her bungling attempts to be an idealist and civic reformer. A caricature of a female Bartleby, Puttermesser is still assigned to the city's Department of Receipts and Disbursements where she prefers not to work. But, unlike Bartleby, she yearns for some meaningful connection with her past. Since the tedium of her work has caused her Old World Uncle Zindel to vanish from her fantasies, she longs to have a Jewish daughter to take his place. Since immaculate conception is
Page 93
unlikely, she spends her leisure time having joyless sex with Morris Rappoport, "a married fundraiser from Toronto" (77), and reading Plato's Theaetetus. The passage she quotes to him before he jilts her is from the "Digression on the Contemplative Life" in which a maidservant scoffs at Thales, who looked up to study the stars and tumbled down a well, who was ''so eager to know what was happening in the sky that he could not see what lay at his feet" (78). Clearly, Rappoport, seeking only instant money and instant sex, is meant to be a stolid version of Plato's practical man. Conversely, Puttermesser, Ozick implies, is a female Thales, Plato's philosopher, who "is unaware of what his nextdoor neighbor is doing, hardly knows, indeed, whether the creature is a man at all," yet he "spends all his pains on the question, what man is" (78). Similarly, Puttermesser is so caught up in her lofty ideals that she is illequipped to cope with the urban chaos in her midst. Ozick then injects zany fantasy to mingle with satiric naturalism. She endows Puttermesser with the impulse to be another Rabbi Loew, the sixteenthcentury Prague rationalist who created a male golem, a creature of brute force to fight brute force.* So she has Puttermesser, a fe *The Promethean impulse, the desire to steal fire from the gods and to breathe life into dead matter, has tempted humankind from the beginning of time to the present. Paracelsus fashioned his homunculus, Albert Magnus his automaton, Roger Bacon his brazen head, Victor Frankenstein his monster, and Rabbi Jacob Loew of sixteenthcentury Prague his golem. Most of these creatures of man's cerebral parthenogenesis were offspring of secular scientists bent on revolutionizing the laws of chemistry and physiology. Only Rabbi Loew was compelled to create the golem to save his people. Ironically, this most rational of men who condemned magic had to transform himself into an ecstatic mystic to create a man from clay who would discover the secret plans to exterminate the Jews. Because the golem carried out Rabbi Loew's bidding, the Jews were able to avoid renewed persecution and survive a few more centuries.
Though no other golem was created to save the Jews of Prague and Europe in the twentieth century, the golem has been given two extremely vivid literary reincarnations during this period. Along with Cynthia Ozick's masterful recreation of the golem in her fiction, the Yiddish poet Leivick wrote a complex verse drama which combined "impassioned poetry, folk legends, (footnote continued on the next page)
Page 94
male Platonic rationalist, fittingly create a female golem of impulsive will and boundless energy to fight her battles.* However, her golemmaking is a travesty of the elaborate arcane rite of infusing life into the inanimate. Unwittingly formed out of the collective dirt of Puttermesser's house plants, Ozick's golem is linked to its Hebrew etymology ("shapeless matter") and its use in Psalm 139:16, where the "speaker, perhaps Adam, praises the Creator . . . who secretly formed his body 'in the lowest parts of the earth,' from which came his 'imperfect substance,' that is golem. Talmudic commentators have therefore designated golem to mean "something unformed and imperfect." They have even used the word "to refer to a woman who has not conceived" (Goldsmith 16). Thus Puttermesser, a woman who has not conceived, is a golem herself who, in turn, creates a golem. And so, from the outset, both the creator and the created are imperfect beings, each in her own way. Because Puttermesser is imperfect, she wants to have a perfect Jewish daughter, to whom she gives the refined biblical name of Leah. But the golem, refusing to be named (footnote continued from the previous page) biblical allusions and surrealism with philosophical and religious probing" (Goldsmith 73). Though Leivick's play has been interpreted as a political allegory in which the golem represents the Bolshevik Revolution, intended to redress inequities, yet degenerating into senseless violence, the play can be viewed in a broader, less topical sense. According to Joseph Landis, Leivick's Golem is the "tragedy of the creator whose creation does not respond in accordance with his plan: the tragedy of the social dreamer whose dreams are frustrated, who discovers that force contaminates and consumes" (quoted in Goldsmith 89). For an excellent study of the treatment of the golem in the twentieth century, see Arnold Goldsmith, The Golem Remembered: 1909–1980. *Ozick was not the first writer to create a female golem. She tells us in "Puttermesser and Xanthippe" that the eleventhcentury Spanish writer Ibn Gabirol created a woman. Ozick comically adds, however, "The king gave him a dressingdown for necromancy, so he dismantled her. She was made of wood and had hinges—it was easy to take her apart" (98). In a speech accepting a Doctorate of Hebrew Letters, awarded by Spertus College of Judaica in Chicago, Illinois, on October 6, 1991, Ozick informs us that "his socalled golem was more of a mannequin than an independent mind," and therefore she claims "credit for the invention of the first and only female golem.''
Page 95
after the woman who was not the first choice of the patriarch Jacob, prefers to call herself Xanthippe after Socrates' shrewish wife, who grudgingly managed his practical affairs so he could pursue his highminded activity, yet contradicted him when he became too authoritarian. Similarly, Xanthippe initially performs all of her mistress's domestic chores so she can lose herself in her grand abstractions. Sprung out of Puttermesser's mind, Xanthippe also gives expression to her mistress's latent ambitions, her utopian schemes. She goads Puttermesser to run for mayor against the incumbent Malachy Mavett, which is Ozick's pun for the Moloch ha Moves, the Angel of Death. Thanks to Xanthippe's charismatic campaigning, Puttermesser becomes the city's Angel of Life, with Xanthippe, the comic embodiment of the muckraker, executing her "Plan for the Resuscitation, Reformation, Reinvigoration and Redemption" (123) of New York City. True to the principles of her self created party, "Independents for Socratic and Prophetic Idealism" (128), Puttermesser, the caricature of the social meliorist, would like to have the poetic license to license such poets and writers as Walt Whitman to preside over the "Bureau of Summary Sessions, Shelley to take over Water Resource Development, William Blake in the Fire Department, George Eliot doing Social Service, Emily Bronte over at Police . . . Virginia Woolf and Edgar Allan Poe sharing Health . . ." (130). But in the absence of such noble souls, Puttermesser has to rely on Xanthippe to reform the city. Like Rabbi Loew, who became so dependent on the golem that he became his captive, so Puttermesser realizes that she is no longer the master but the "golem's golem" (136). Though she breathed life into the golem, the golem, through her cunning, made her mayor. Also this imperfect being caused her to be obsessed with creating a perfect city, so that, swelled with pride at her attainments, she becomes further imperfect herself. Thus not only is Puttermesser guilty of usurping God's role as a lifegiver, but she also
Page 96
unlawfully appropriates God's function of creating a paradise on earth. As Puttermesser overreaches herself, so does the golem. Like Loew's golem, Xanthippe grows more formidable in size and sexual desire. What was whimsically comic becomes grimly Dionysian. Libidinal orgies with Rappoport unleash her yetzer harah, her evil instinct. The city she previously redeemed, she now proceeds to destroy. "The city is diseased with the golem's urge . . . she ravishes and ravages, she ambushes management level after management level" (144). To hide Xanthippe's excesses, Puttermesser must compromise her principles, make political deals, adopt the spoils system she once condemned, become as corrupt as her predecessors. Thus not only has the golem made a fool out of Puttermesser, indeed has made her a golem, a "dummy," in the Yiddish sense of the word, but Xanthippe is clearly Puttermesser's id, her irrational, sensual half, the unruly secret sharer that she can no longer control. Therefore, Puttermesser, as Rabbi Loew before her, has no alternative but to return the golem to dust. Like the father in Goethe's Erlkonig, who must deliver his son to death, Puttermesser, the new mother, must deprive her new daughter of life and the procreation of her own daughters. Some feminist critics have argued that Ozick has Puttermesser kill her daughter, Xanthippe, because she has stolen Rappoport, her mother's lover. E. M. Broner, for example, claims that Ozick has joined the "chorus of male voices" (95) who insist that women must be destroyed when their stature increases, when they get too big for their breeches. Still other interpreters of the story are convinced Ozick has written a Judaized version of Hawthorne's Blithedale Romance which shows the tragicomic pitfalls artists confront when they try to become social reformers. No matter how earnest they are in their intentions or how profound their utopian vision, the New England transcen
Page 97
dentalists cannot make Brook Farm work, nor can the knowledgeable granddaughter of Jewish immigrants remove the tarnish from the Golden Land. Yet another reading of the story is that it is Ozick's portrait of the Jamesian artist who for a time awkwardly revels in the riot of his senses but inevitably represses his erotic rebellion. Just as Puttermesser was once content to be a "mind superfetate with Idea" (90), the Jamesian artist, like her, is filled with remorse over missed sensual opportunities. But such interpretations of the story do not do justice to its profound midrashic intent. "Puttermesser and Xanthippe" is, above all, Ozick's retelling of Paradise Lost. No matter how steeped in learning an individual is, no matter how ingenious she is at crafting golems or idols, she cannot remake the world and create a permanent Eden. For, as Ozick states in the story, "Too much Paradise is greed. Eden disintegrates from too much Eden" (156). Yet the utopian impulse still persists so that when Puttermesser at the end cries out, "O lost New York! . . . O lost Xanthippe!" (158), she mourns the impossibility of making the Messianic ideal a reality in our time. On a philosophical level, Ozick shows that the platonic rationalist cannot remain pure mind and divorce herself from the baseness of her lower faculties. Because her intellect is so luminous, she cannot avoid seeing her shadow self and assuming responsibility for the darkness it sheds. She must also show compassion toward this shadow self, this filthy mass, born without a soul, unable to speak, yearning for human love. She must try to integrate the two parts of her self or she will continue to lament the painful breach that exists. Finally the story itself is a monster which Ozick has sired. In a sense she is like Mary Shelley, who referred to her Frankenstein as a "hideous progeny," a deformed book she gave birth to in "her alienated attic workshop of filthy creation" (Gilbert and Gubar 233). Similarly Ozick as pious
Page 98
Jew regards fictionmaking as abominable idolmaking, for she is rivaling God in the act of creation. Furthermore, she believes she has joined the ranks of the infidels since she writes in English, which is "a Christian language" (Preface to Bloodshed, 10). But according to Ozick's definition of New Yiddish literature, which she describes as a liturgical literature written in English but infused with "the Jewish sensibility . . . the Jewish vision" ("Toward a New Yiddish," 176), "Puttermesser and Xanthippe'' is not a monster but a New Yiddish marvel. Ozick ends "Puttermesser and Xanthippe" on a note of lamentation, with the fortysevenyearold Puttermesser mourning the loss of her golem daughter and the impossibility of a renovated New York. In "Puttermesser Paired," Ozick transforms this lamentation into levity. She makes Puttermesser, the civicminded idealist whose ingenious stratagems for social betterment have gone awry, into a fiftyplus cartoon figure in a cartoon world of nagging Jewish parents anxious to marry off their progeny and of imperfect singles frenetically searching for the perfect mate. Earl Rovit describes this animated comic sphere as one in which "motives are reduced to single adrenal urgencies, personality is equated with unnuanced obsession, and the fluidity of normal human intercourse is grotesquely rendered in a series of collisions when a caricatured dread or desire comes into thudding impact against its immutable or immovable limit" (37). For three decades Puttermesser's caricatured Jewish mother is consumed with the "unnuanced obsession" of finding a husband for her, of reprimanding her for pursuit of civil rights, not marital rites, of engendering guilt in her for not producing grandchildren: "Ruth, Ruth (her mother wrote from Miami), there's nothing wrong with having a husband along with brains, it's not a contradiction. . . . Daddy agrees with me on this issue not only double but triple; we didn't come down here to live in the
Page 99
heat with Daddy's bursitis . . . only to break his heart from you and your brains" (40). Puttermesser's super brains also cause her to be super particular in her demands for a suitor as she scoffs at the inflated male personals from the New York Review of Books. Feeling falsely superior, she arrogantly strips away their euphemistic descriptions of themselves and exposes them to be imposters, losers beneath their winning exteriors: "'Vibrant, appealing, attractive, likeable' that meant divorced. Leftovers and mistakes. 'Unconventional, earthy, nurturing, fascinated by Zen, Sufism, music of the spheres'—a crackpot still in sandals. 'Successful achiever longing for strong woman'—watch out, probably a porn nut" (40). Clearly, the reason Puttermesser mercilessly skewers the ridiculous affectation of those male selfadvertisers is that she feels she can't measure up to their exacting standards for the desirable woman. Berating herself for her lapses, she engages in the humor of wry selfdeprecation. In response to a personal which seeks "a loyal, accomplished professional woman; wellanalyzed (Jung only, no Freud or Reich, please), sense of humor and love of outdoors a must" (40), she claims: "She was hostile to the outdoors: the country air—the peril of so many uneasy encounters with unidentifiable rodents, loud birds, monstrous insects . . . left her moody and squeamish. . . . She was no good at getting the points of jokes. . . . As for the examined life—enough!" (40). However, her deflation of self proves funnier than her ability to feign amusement at some witless male. Perhaps another reason for Puttermesser's jests at her own expense is an outgrowth of her camouflaged resentment at being suddenly viewed an old woman when deep within she feels like a young girl. Just as Bellow's Herzog mocks himself for his attempt to deny his age by wearing youthful attire and acting the young lover, Puttermesser mocks herself for assuming she is still the young piano stu
Page 100
dent of fortyfive years ago, still trying to satisfy Miss Kuntz, her piano teacher. But the ravages of age shatter this illusion. With rueful humor she admits "she has put off practicing for so long that her hair was showing signs of whitening. If alive, Miss Kuntz would be a hundred and four. Puttermesser had still not perfected the Tempo di Minuetto section . . ." (41). Puttermesser directs a more angry form of humor at society's attempts to lump older people together, transform them into dehumanized collective entities, and pseudo scientifically study their mass reactions. Her satiric animus is particularly aimed at the Women Attorney's Association and their questionnaire, "Aging and the Female Counsellor," whose mechanized language treats women as if they were feminist robots or witless females forced to acknowledge all manner of hypothetical slights and injuries. Reinforcing the double standard of aging, it asks them such foolish questions as "Do you dye your hair? Use henna? Surrender to Mother Nature? If the latter, does this appear to augment or lessen your dignity among male colleagues? Female colleagues? The public?" (41). Like Rosa in Ozick's The Shawl, Puttermesser refuses such inane attempts to categorize or define her. Much as Puttermesser tries to dissociate herself from the aging women attorneys, she can't dissociate herself from her aging apartment building. Indeed, Ozick treats it as the humorous objective correlative for the aging Puttermesser. Its state of disrepair corresponds to Puttermesser's physical disrepair: "Without warning the pipes dried up for the day; you could try to run the faucet and nothing would come out. Or the lights would fail; the refrigerator fluttered its grand lung and ceased" (41). Puttermesser, however, is not preoccupied with her damaged apartment building or her damaged body. She was concentrating instead "on the marriage of true minds," on the "wedding of like souls"
Page 101
(43), patterned after the relationship of Victorian novelist George Eliot and her literary consort, George Lewes. For many years Cynthia Ozick had her own love affair with George Eliot, scholar of Hebrew scriptures, translator of Spinoza's Ethics, devotee of Heinrich Heine and Yehuda Halevi, early advocate of Zionism, with Israeli streets named after her. Thus in "Toward a New Yiddish" Ozick lauded George Eliot for writing a "Judaized novel," for being "touched by the Jewish covenant," for writing of "conduct and of the consequences of conduct," for being ''concerned with a society of will and commandment" (164). Clearly, George Eliot wrote the kind of fiction Ozick herself has sought to emulate: works of high moral seriousness with characters torn between the pursuit of selfish endeavors and the commitment to transcendent causes. Eliot's novels preached duty and purpose and dazzled with impassioned prose. In "Puttermesser Paired," however, Ozick is interested not in George Eliot as the great Victorian writer, but as George Eliot, the woman at home in her connubial sphere with her commonlaw husband, George Lewes. In "Levitation" Ozick had briefly spoken of them as the ideal couple, "literary friends and lovers" (4) whom the Feinbergs, their direct opposite, a most unideal couple of wouldbe writers, claim to resemble. Similarly, Puttermesser, the lackluster, unemployed civil servant longs to be the distinguished, prolific George Eliot so she can share her life with the adoring, intellectually compatible man of letters, George Lewes. Ozick, however, treats Puttermesser's longing mockheroically. She initially makes her out to be a caricatured Jamesian character, a female John Marcher of "The Beast in the Jungle" who "stopped in her tracks to listen, to detect; to learn something; to study. She was holding still, waiting for life to begin to happen . . ." (46–47). Meanwhile, life passes her by, while she waits for the ideal experience to give it meaning. But unlike Marcher, she has a specific someone
Page 102
she's looking for. She histrionically laments: "No one knows lonely sorrow who has not arrived fiftyplus without George Lewes" (47). Ozick has Puttermesser find not George Lewes but a facsimile of him in the copy artist Rupert Rabeeno, who, in turn, makes facsimiles of great paintings. Though Rupert is an imitation of George Lewes, he is another of Ozick's characters incisively modeled after an actual person and cleverly smuggled into her fiction. He joins the ranks of the other renowned literary figures Ozick has kidnapped and held captive in varying states of disguise for her artistic purposes: Isaac Bashevis Singer in "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," Malamud, Agnon and Tchernikhovsky in "Usurpation," Jerzy Kosinski in "A Mercenary," and Bruno Schulz in The Messiah of Stockholm. In these works, she captures the dual identities of her reinvented borrowed characters and plays off the fictive against the factual dimensions of their personas, thereby heightening the complexity and comedy of their depiction. In the case of Rupert Rabeeno and George Lewes, Ruth Puttermesser and George Eliot, Ozick points up the humor of their eager yet strained assumption of their roles, the matching and mismatching between copy and original. When Puttermesser first meets Rabeeno, he has some of the characteristics of the Lewes she's been reading about in the biographies of George Eliot. Resembling a "Victorian gentleman," he "was not very tall; his cheeks and wrists looked thin. He was distractingly young with a blond mustache" (45). Except for her intellectual tastes and love of George Lewes, Puttermesser did not at all resemble the thirtyfiveyearold free spirited George Eliot who defied convention to live with the thirtysevenyearold Lewes. Nonetheless, Puttermesser is so intent on recreating the love affair between the two, her quixotic imagination transforms Rupert and herself into these two special beings. "If there be any one subject on which I feel no levity,"
Page 103
wrote George Eliot in one of her letters, "it is that of marriage and the relations of the sexes—if there is any one action or relation of my life which is and always has been profoundly serious, it is my relation to Mr. Lewes" (48). There is clearly levity in the pseudomarriage of Puttermesser and Rupert, in which both of them think they have each seduced the other. As they slide in and out of their illustrious roles, Ozick employs the device known as comic "universechanging"—the importing into one sphere of an entire "universe of discourse with all sorts of rich associations and all sorts of stock responses" which is ''appropriate only to an utterly different sphere" (Monro 45–46). On the one hand, Rupert and Puttermesser fancy themselves to be eminent Victorians, steeped in their world view, who read to each other "in their nighttime coziness" the avowed masterpieces of their times. Or they pretend they are comfortably situated in George Eliot's elegant home, the Priory, hosting a salon for the best minds of their generation. They vicariously go on their journeys and reexperience their discoveries. Ozick, however, points up the comic disparity between their imagined selves and their actual selves. In her cramped, brokendown apartment, not a stately parlor with "high roseate ceilings" (45), Puttermesser is not the august sybil, but "a wornout city lawyer, stunted as to real experience, a woman lately secluded, eaten up with loneliness, melancholia ground into the striations of her face" (59). And Rupert is not the multifaceted Victorian thinker, adept at science and literature, but a foppish imitator with a narcissistic philosophy of imitation. Rupert's theory and practice of imitation, however, add antic complication to the latter half of the story. Just as he insists he does not copy a work of art, but does it his own way, that is, "reenacts" it, so he insists upon reenacting the later years of George Eliot's life in his own way. He is content to be the George Lewes who is the boon companion enjoying a platonic relationship with George Eliot. But
Page 104
when Puttermesser reminds him they were lovers, he prefers to concentrate on the death of the sixtytwoyearold Lewes and Eliot's marriage to Johnny Cross, a man some twenty years her junior who he claims was infatuated with George Lewes and wanted to imitate him. Rupert, all too aware of the twentyyear age difference between himself and Puttermesser, feels a strong kinship with Johnny Cross and ultimately an antipathy to George Eliot so that in his version of the story he chooses to impersonate Johnny Cross "impersonating Lewes" (70). Though George Eliot finally gains the respectability of marriage, Johnny Cross is unable to consummate the marriage and, in a state of madness, jumps out the window on their wedding night. Similarly, Rupert grants respectability to Puttermesser by marrying her in a wedding ceremony, a makeshift civil travesty of George Eliot's church wedding. He, too, fails to consummate his union with Puttermesser. However, in full power of his sanity, he jilts her and walks off into the night. His mental seduction and abandonment of Puttermesser as George Eliot constitutes his artistic reenactment not of a painting but of a life story. On one level the story is a reworking of the Plautine comic plot "in which juvenis outwits and conquers senex" (qtd. in Weiss 280). Puttermesser at fiftyplus thinks she has conquered the heart of the young artist, ensnared him to be her ideal friend, her protector, her advocate, her lover. In point of fact, however, he has calculatedly invaded her space, used her funds, and exploited her as the subject matter for his artistic reenactment of her George EliotGeorge Lewes fantasy. In Puttermesser and Rupert's December–May courtship, Puttermesser's December has not become rejuvenated by his May. Heartbroken over his rejection, she has aged even more. "Puttermesser's shame stung. A hag. A crone. Estrogen dwindling in her cells" (53). Thus Puttermesser is not paired, that is, united with
Page 105
another human being. Rather, Ozick has her pared down, comically reduced in stature. On an epistemological level, the story is about the impossibility of knowing anything accurately and creating anything totally original. The biographies of George Eliot's life are as fictional as the fiction she writes. Perhaps dabbling in readerresponse theory, Ozick suggests there is no one George Eliot story but many versions of it by different biographers through the years and infinitely more versions of these biographical versions by different readers through the years. Nor do artists, like spiders, weave new works out of their own entrails but, to draw from Harold Bloom's antithetical criticism, they imitate precursor artists or draw from preexisting webs. The degree of their originality is determined by the extent to which they swerve from their precursors or misread their precursors. Thus artists essentially recreate rather than create. Ozick has Puttermesser describe this process of artistic replication: "Whatever had happened once, she conspired, through a density of purposefulness, to redraw, redo, replay; to translate into the language of her own respiration. A resurrection of sorts" (52). Finally, on a liturgical level, the story is a parable on the harmful effects of imitation. Rather than worshiping an inanimate object as idol, Puttermesser adores as idol a live human being, the writer George Eliot, and covets her literary fame and her total union with George Lewes. Puttermesser is like Ozick herself, who paid homage to a comparable literary idol, Henry James. But Cynthia Ozick was only twentytwo when she "believed, with all the rigor and force and stunned ardor of religious belief, in the old Henry James, in his scepter and his authority" ("The Lesson of the Master" 295). However, both she and Puttermesser at fiftyplus suffer the consequences of Emerson's warning that "imitation is suicide" (46). Concentrating all their energies on trying to be these flawless literary masters, they kill their own chances for creative work and crea
Page 106
tive living. By making giants out of these writers, they dwarf themselves in the process and fail to grow, to develop their fullest potential. They are thus prevented from engaging in the highest form of imitation: the imitatio Dei, which, according to rabbinic interpretation of the biblical admonition "And you should walk in His ways" (Deuteronomy 28:9), was meant "as a commandment to imitate God's moral attributes" (Hartman 38): "Even as God is called gracious, so be you gracious; even as God is merciful, so you be merciful; even as He is called holy, so be you holy" (Maimonides, Guide of the Perplexed 1:54. qtd. in Hartman 38). But Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik, in his work Halakhic Man, also speaks of God inviting human beings to imitate him as a creator. He not only enjoins them to change the world but to ''complete the creation of one's individual capacities" (Hartman 39). Ozick realizes the error of her ways. In her essay "The Lesson of the Master," she vows never "to worship ripe Art or the ripened artist" but to accept the primitive, the ungainly, the crude in herself and to create out of her own "stupidity or ungenius" (296). Alas, Puttermesser, as comic character, does not gain such an anagnorises. She does not confront her ungainly self and try to transform it, but escapes to the realm of fantasy. At the story's end she accuses Rupert Rubeeno, her false rebbenu, of creating only dwindling reenactments, of being a mere copyist, when she herself is guilty of the same offense. Though Puttermesser has allowed herself to be swallowed up by George Eliot and has been diminished because of it, Ozick has been beneficially influenced by George Eliot. That is, she has not been one of those weaker talents who idealize and then imitate. Rather, she has become a writer of strong imagination who has appropriated from George Eliot what she needed to develop her own voice, enabling her to make "Puttermesser Paired" and her other Puttermesser stories not predictable feminist follies, but profound original works of art.
Page 107
VI — The Cannibal Galaxy: From Caustic Humor to Midrashic Laughter In "Puttermesser and Xanthippe" Ozick's stance is primarily that of a satirist who functions as a "moral agent, often a social scavenger, working on a storage of bile" (Meredith qtd. in Feinberg, Introduction to Satire 47). Like the civically responsible muckrakers who felt dutybound to censure crimes in high places and compel the public to transform dystopias into utopias, Ozick fulminates against corrupt officials and deviant practices in American political life. But unlike the muckrakers, who were deadly serious in their injusticecollecting and redress of wrongs, she alternates between denunciation and drollery in her treatment of urban malpractice. In "Puttermesser Paired" Ozick reprimands her protagonist for crimes committed against the self through impersonation: the cultivation of superiority to mask inferiority, the elevation of aesthetics over ethics, the disdain for the ordinary. But Ozick's censure of Puttermesser vacillates between sharp ridicule for her offenses and amused compassion for her trespasses. Similarly in "The Laughter of Akiva," rewritten as The Cannibal Galaxy, Ozick chastens ineffective Jewish pedagogues and pedagogy in America with a caustic humor exposing folly, piercing sham, and underscoring inanity.
Page 108
Unlike the novel, however, Ozick has the story resemble a Dickensian lampoon aimed at a meanspirited British headmaster, vapid parents, obnoxious children so that characters lapse into caricature. And the clearcut triumph of the unappreciated pupil, defying the teachers' smallminded expectations of her, also smacks of the Dickensian sentimental ending. Though The Cannibal Galaxy cannibalizes the germ of the short story's idea and plot line, it is a more complex, fullblown novel evoking more gradations of angry laughter, turned outward and inward at the same time. The novel fleshes out the headmaster's risibly affected character, makes him an eccentric Frenchman, subjects him to early victimization, and burdens him with a conflicted interior life. But it also mocks his misreadings of reality and ridicules his ultimate capitulation to mediocrity. Ozick's treatment of him is thus more sardonic than sympathetic, since he is another of her characters who "serve too pliantly the comic morality roles of satirical target" (Rovit 12). The satirically impaled headmaster in The Cannibal Galaxy is Joseph Brill, an intellectual schlemiel who engineers his own defeat. Ozick depicts him in flashback as an impressionable Parisian boy, ashamed of his fishseller father and his teeming immigrant neighborhood. His scrubbing "the fish smell off his hands with an abrasive soap that skinned his knuckles mercilessly" (12) is symbolic of his painfully comic attempt to assimilate, to abandon his crude, parochial Jewish origins for a polished, cosmopolitan French identity. Like Potok's Asher Lev, he is seduced by the sensual enchantments of the art museum, which his orthodox Jewish upbringing condemns as a pagan hall with "throngs of sculptured unclothed women, an offense to modesty and a scandal of piety" (9). Nonetheless, at the Musée Carnavalet, he is enthralled by the nubile statue of Rachel, the French actress, whom he foolishly mistakes for the biblical "Rachel, the Mother of Israel, who weeps for her children"
Page 109
(9). Totally misled, he thinks this "stone Rachel hardly looked pensive. If alive, she would break into hilarity" (9). Here also through his "roundabout" sensual excursion into the Age of Enlightenment, Joseph Brill, the serious Talmud student, encountered the almost nude portrait of the worldly savant Madame de Sévigné, and is shocked to learn that her excess of passion in letters to her mediocre daughter produced literature of "historic treasure" (11). However, much as Joseph Brill becomes attached to these Gallic treasures, he cannot become a cultural quickchange artist. Much as he attempts to alter his diction, since "it was humiliating to be an immigrant's child and fill one's mouth with the wrong noise" (12), he is still the Jew who cannot speak an unaccented French. But even if he could, according to Sartre's AntiSemite and Jew, the native Frenchman, who has spoken the language for a thousand years and possesses Racine, believes that the Jew can ''never grasp the true import of Racine since [the Jew] . . . will always be a stranger on French soil (Sartre 24). Brill's Jewish studies teacher, Rabbi Pult, also warns Brill that he will never be welcome on French soil. Pointing to the rational Voltaire, consumed with irrational antiSemitism, he acerbically reminds Brill that "the Enlightenment engendered a new slogan: There is no God and the Jews killed him" (16). Brill comically deludes himself into thinking he is not regarded as this kind of Jew, that he is entitled to relish the most delicate nuances of French literature. His erudite pretensions are, however, deflated by the earthy Yiddishisms of his parents, who regard as narishkayt, foolishness, his immersion in Gide and Verlaine. Unwittingly, he stoops to even greater folly by befriending Claude, a young immoralist cast in their image, who entices him to broaden his literary and sexual horizons by crossing the English Channel to hear E. M. Forster read from his homosexual novel, Maurice, before an adoring homosexual audience. However, when Joseph Brill, like his biblical namesake, spurns
Page 110
the erotic overtures of the ruling aesthetes, he is falsely accused of being the enemy and is shunned. As an object of persecution, he, like the oppressed Edelshtein of "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," becomes the object of Ozick's compassion, not the butt of her satiric laceration. His victimization by antiSemites humanizes him rather than reduces his stature. Dismissed as another Dreyfus by his supposed friends, he becomes the pitiable outcast who renounces pagan art and turns his gaze upward "to learn the cold, cold skies" (16). It is ironic that Brill takes up the study of astronomy at the university for he had "without realizing it—been studying stars—covenant—with Rabbi Pult" all along. From his revered teacher, he learned that God's covenant "promises that Abraham's descendants will be as numerous as the stars of heaven" (Gen. 15:5) and later that the covenantal symbol for King David's empire was a star (Berger 129). But there is even a darker irony, since Vichy France would not permit the Jew to lose himself in the stars but uses stars only to identify and shame the Jew. The Holocaust, however, adds depth to Joseph Brill's character, preventing him at this point in the novel from becoming a caricature like his counterpart in "The Laughter of Akiva," who has no Holocaust past. If anything, it forces Joseph, who tried to deny his Jewish origins, to take pride in his heritage. Miraculously saved by the nuns, who hope to convert him, he is hidden in their convent's subbasement and instead is converted to a more traditional form of Judaism. In this equivalent of Joseph's dungeon in Egypt, where Brill is bereft of family and teacher, the Ta'anit, Rabbi Pult's Talmudic tractate, becomes his "mother, father, brother, sisters," and thus an alternative source of consolation and inspiration. The passage Ozick quotes from the Ta'anit, a compendium of catastrophic and salvational moments in Jewish history interspersed with human petition and divine re
Page 111
sponse, is in two parts. The first is an entreaty for rain in a spiritual wasteland and an immediate granting of this entreaty. The second is a narrative about a teacher's dedication and how he baits poor students to learn by giving them fish from his own pond. Joseph prefers to be such a teacher but he's too cerebral to be like the aggadic Rabbi Pult who taught him miracles of the ordinary in his father's fish store. A more fitting pedagogical model for him is the French intellectual Edmond Fleg, whose books about his reconversion to Judaism Joseph finds hidden in the convent. In the margins of Fleg's Pourquois je suis Juif (1929), an old priest had written, "Edmond Fleg brings together all his visions and sacrifices none. He harmonizes the rosette of the Légion d'Honneur in his lapel with the frontlets of the Covenant on his brow" (22). This dual set of pieties denied Joseph in his upbringing now inspires him to implement them in his own life. In fact, the more nightmarish his Holocaust straits the more Joseph dreams of founding a school based on Fleg's twin principles, exposing students to the "civilization that invented the telescope side by side with the civilization that invented conscience" (27). Ozick's essay "Bialik's Hint," published in 1983, the same year as The Cannibal Galaxy, echoes Joseph's dream of uniting Hebraism and Hellenism, Jewish beliefs and Enlightenment values. Such a synthesis is no easy task since it calls for a merging of two strongly opposed, firmly entrenched schools of thought: the grafting of "Enlightenment ideas of skepticism, originality, individuality and the assertiveness of the free imagination" onto the "Jewish language of restraint, sobriety, collective conscience, moral seriousness" (237). To make this extraordinary fusion occur, it requires, she believes, "originality, the astonishments of the unexpected, the explosive hope of fresh form. Only genius can conceive it . . ." (237). Moreover, she claims the children of Israel will not rapidly learn to commingle with the
Page 112
children of the Enlightenment, for it took over two millennia "for the Greek schools of philosophy to be reborn as the Jewish academies and for Socratic pilpul to serve Jewish moral seriousness" (239). Thus, no wonder the school Joseph hastily tries to establish after the war is a ludicrous imitation of the Fleginspired academy of Hebraism and Hellenism. No longer the fervid idealist of his Holocaust internment, Joseph, too, becomes a ludicrous imitation of the brilliant biblical Joseph, "wily dreamer and inspired dream interpreter" (236). Now the comic poseur, resting on false laurels and a contrived French accent without a trace of his father's fish store, Joseph dupes an ignorant benefactor, smitten with the French muse, to establish in the middle of America "a children's Sorbonne dense with Hebrew melodies," which he names the Edmond Fleg Elementary School. Though feeling "too shabby and too cunning" (34) to study the stars as a professional astronomer, he nonetheless takes as the school's motto Ad Astra, derived from the epigraph to Fleg's book: "We are God's people, for we will it so, the stars are our quest and truth our watchword still" (Fleg qtd. in Berger 135). In Brill's makeshift school, however, there are more falling stars than rising ones. The American firmament does not sparkle with the blaze of culture lighting up the French sky. It does not have Europe's sense of history to draw upon, or the tradition of learning to absorb, or the solemnity of the Holocaust to lend profundity to its undertakings. Rather, it has Brill's quirky dual curriculum with its humorously incongruous set of irreconcilable opposites. Upon Fleg's sophisticated "fusion of scholarly Europe and burnished Jerusalem" (27), Brill has superimposed his elementary twoTante theory of education: "Two aunties nurtured me . . . my Torah Tante and my Parisian Tante, each the heiress of an ancient line" (61). Though he tries to personify them to make their content more accessible, his required
Page 113
analysis of such disparate subject matter is so farfetched as to be funny. But most comic is that Brill's dual curriculum is paid homage in theory, but rarely applied in practice. And when it is used, the children mechanically learn its contradictory precepts but do not understand them. For example, during commencement the fifth grade choir sings verses of "Eliyahu Hanovi," "The Minstrel Boy to the Wars is Gone," and Chevaliers de la Table Ronde" without being aware of their content or connections. As one critic noted, "Brill's nononsense father might have quipped: the Dual Curriculum is nit ahin, nit aher—neither one thing nor the other. Instead it is a mishmash" (Pinsker, The Uncompromising Fiction of Cynthia Ozick 107). In addition to Ozick's wry dissection of Brill's preposterous dual curriculum, Ozick mocks the teachers of it for their smugness, their psychic inelasticity, their slothfulness, their vindictiveness, all of which creates their own school for scandal. In her satire of postHolocaust pedagogy Ozick singles out Ephraim Gorchak as the worst offender, though in the eyes of the headmaster he is considered the school's best teacher. She thus damns not with faint but ironic praise all his worst traits: Even the children felt how fair he was, especially in giving marks. It was easy for him to be fair, because his tests were all mechanical—either you knew the answer or you didn't— and all he had to do was add or subtract points. (41–42)
In contrast to Rabbi Pult, Ozick's embodiment of the saintly teacher who cherished all his students no matter what their mental capacities, Gorchak, a caricature of him, treats the bright ones with respect and looks past the dimwitted ones "as if he were affronted by the sight of" (42) them. With his emphasis on memorized lists of biblical trivia speedily recited, he is also in contrast to Rabbi Akiva, who taught his students painstaking analytic skills, fondly citing the Talmudic precept: "Not he who answers quickly
Page 114
is worthy of praise, but he who can support his views" (Pesahim, 109a). Gorchak, whose name "may be a play on the German Gor, small child or brat or" the comic antithesis of "Janosz Korczak, saintly martyr of the Warsaw orphanage" (Berger 129), presides over the Edmond Fleg classroom, the lord of misrule, the instigator of levity not learning. Lest Ozick be considered misanthropic, she also derides the most respected female teacher for her antic faults. Mrs. Seelenhol (hollow soul) never grades the papers she assigns, yet manages to feign teaching and keep order in the schoolroom. She is the crafty exponent of the studentdirected class, thus freeing her of pedagogic duties: She esteemed the glib, and rewarded fourflushers by encouraging the exercise of what she called 'student opinion,' 'independent analysis,' 'democratic airing of issues'—her real aim was to fill the hour without having to prepare for it. (73)
The loudest, the most extroverted students also receive the highest rating from the school psychologist, Dr. Glypost, whom Ozick risibly savages even more than the teachers. With her jargonridden parodies of psychological insights, Dr. Glypost is an example of Bergson's "mechanical inelasticity" (67) who holds hard and fast opinions of what constitutes the norm and inflexibly predicts the unhappy fate of those who deviate from this norm. Her incontrovertible assessment of fiveyearold Beulah Lilt is: "Shown a Rorschach card expressing ominous darkness, she responded with Storm Cloud. The popular response among children her age is Bird or Bat. Nonachiever, not recommended for Dual Curriculum." (46)
The only professional in the school who is not a Bergsonian comic robot, but a spiritual, caring human being, is Rabbi Sheskin (Rabbi Meskin is the name of Ozick's own childhood Hebrew teacher), the eighth grade teacher, who
Page 115
approaches the class with "a kind of holy ardor" (99). Unlike the rigid taskmaster Gorchak, and the indolent Seelenhol, he encourages the class to take a meditative approach to the subject matter, to be imaginatively involved with it. With his whimsical imagination, he transforms "scripture into story" (98) for his students. He thus accomplishes what the Hebrew poet Chaim Nachman Bialik advocates: the use of Halachah, or law, to bring Aggadah, or tale and lore, "in its train"; the use of Halachah, or "restraint," to beget poetry, to create a new ''realm of the fancy" (qtd. in Ozick, "Bialik's Hint" 228).* Brill, however, is totally unmindful of "Bialik's hint" (223) and fires Sheskin for being a dreamer. As in the joke about the young man who wants to be a rabbi and is told "what kind of job is that for a nice Jewish boy?" Sheskin's piety is thought to be "abnormal, unhealthy" (99). "Comedy tends to present a glass in which we glimpse ourselves (albeit distorted for humorous effect), whereas satire, as Swift wryly put it, presents a glass in which we tend to see others' failings, but seldom, willingly our own" (Swift qtd. in Stedmond 89). Thus, in addition to capturing his comically grotesque faculty in his satiric glass, Joseph Brill does not exempt the students or their parents from his withering scrutiny (39–40). Though Brill is initially committed to his "sacral cause" and buoyed by the Talmud fragment "The world rests on the breath of the children" (4), he soon discovers their bad breath, their urchin behavior, their arrested state of development, for he growls: "We *In her essay "Bialik's Hint," Ozick discusses the complex views of the Hebrew poet Bialik regarding the relationship between Aggadah to Halachah. "The value of Aggadah," he asserts, "is that it issues in Halachah. Aggadah that does not bring Halachah in its train is ineffective." This subordination of secular story to sacred Law is a traditional value. But what is amazing about Bialik is that he also reverses his position by saying that "Halachah can bring Aggadah in its train." Thus, he is saying that curtailment can give rise to creativity. (See "Bialik's Hint," in Metaphor & Memory.)
Page 116
grow pygmies here." And when their parents question his authority, he contemptuously refers to the doctor fathers as "plumbers" whose "philanthropies were rare and grudging" (39). He scornfully calls the intrusive mothers "these women," in Yiddish '''di vayber,' as if the word had long been pickled in gall" (39). These women constantly invade his privacy, plague his days with their insistent demands so that he is driven to employ the most hostile wit, the most educated insolence to describe them: The mothers came to him in committees, in troops, in adversary eddyings; they came to quarrel. . . . The mothers' voices, surly, bold, powerful; he thought of them as egrets twittering over their nestlings . . . he saw them as nature's creatures, by which he meant vehicles instinct with secretion: the pocketmouth of the uterus, motherhood red in tooth and claw. . . He saw how their anger was stimulated by the mammary glands. They were no more than antagonistic reflexes brewed in the scheme of the stars. Miniature cauldrons of solar momentum. (39–40)
But Headmaster Joseph Brill is also capable of turning his jokes and ironies inward against himself. An expert at wry selfdeprecation, he lays claim to the "bitter homonym, the notion of Principle embodied in a Principal, his own comfortless comical theory—ha!—of flawed incarnation" (5). Because he is sorely disappointed in himself as a banal educator and in the banal school which fails to live up to his idealistic vision of it, he uses banal jests to express his rancor at thwarted promise. With low selfesteem, he resorts to the lowest form of linguistic humor. He harbored a "secret pun, delivered by himself to himself for the sole consequence of a nasty cackle: the Fleg of the Edmond Fleg School, what is it short for? Answer: Phlegmatic. And what else? Answer: Phlegethon, the river of fire that runs through Hell" (5). Yet the facade he presents to the public is grand and overbearing. In this mockheroic guise he exhibits an in
Page 117
flated sense of his own worth. He believes his ruling position entitles him to special privilege and deference. However, Ozick's ridicule of him, her incongruous comparison of his paltry self to a formidable express train, topples him from the peak of vanity: Principal Brill. This title, with its syncopated engine, its locomotive rapidity, its tonguetwisting undercarriage, its lightfooted vibration, brought one to attention like an approaching express. The urgent stutter of its imperious syllables invested the air with civilization and authority. Principal Brill scared and awed. (6)
In keeping with Aristotle's dictum that comedy deals with individuals lower than ourselves, Ozick alternates between mocking Brill as a selfanointed person of high degree to mocking him as a selfpronounced person of low degree, "a royal Charlatan" (75). For during the central action of the novel, Joseph Brill is a bachelor of fiftyeight whom she drolly portrays as seeing "himself in the middle of an ashen America, heading a school of middling reputation . . . beleaguered by middling parents and their middling offspring" (5–6). With a Holocaust gallows humor, she claims he "believed in the prevalence of ash'' (5) and had retreated to live in an architectural reproduction of the hayloft he had hidden in during the Holocaust. An individual of "truncated brilliance," as his name suggests (Sokoloff "Interpretation" 240), he ceased to remember past knowledge or to glean important new information. "He no longer seriously read . . . never so much as yawned through the Times" but bought the local paper "to see which cans of vegetables were on sale at the A&P" (40–41). In the past he had steeped himself in rows and rows of Balzac, Flaubert, and Proust. Now "he dozed away nights in the shifting rays of lampless television, stupefied by Lucy, by the tiny raspyvoiced figures of the Flintstones; by the panicstruck void" (41).
Page 118
Into this void to stir Brill from his intellectual torpor and spiritual vacuum comes a parent, Hester Lilt, fellow Holocaust survivor, fellow academic, with whom he engages in a burlesqued form of romance. At first sight he felt an immediate kinship with her, since they were both "members of the same broken band, behind whose dumbshow certain knowings pace and pitch" (49). However, because her wit is too quick and unusual to be understood by him, he is fearful of lasting intimacy with her, for, as Oscar Wilde wrote: "Nothing spoils a romance so much as a sense of humor in the woman—or the want of it in a man" (qtd. in Barreca, They Used to Call Me Snow White 15). Yet Hester Lilt's mind becomes so fascinating to Brill that he regards her as an intellectual Lilith trying to seduce him with her tantalizing ideas. Sexist Brill cannot simply concede that she is an extremely intelligent woman to whom he is attracted. He must make her out to be a demonic being with whom he can consort in his wildest imagination, or he must totally defeminize her and make her into a man. He had never encountered a woman's signature that was so like a man's. . . . He had expected the usual female hand—its frivolous slanting letters . . . the cosmetic artifice of writing given over only to decoration; the trivialization of alphabet under a woman's fingertips. (50–51)
Because he sees her primarily the way Puttermesser views herself, as "a mind superfetate with Idea" (90), he cannot regard her as a mother either, fiercely attached to her imperfect offspring, like all the other mothers. Finally, because she is the scold, continually chastising him for stopping too soon, he chooses not to marry her for fear she will constantly goad him to realize his potential when he wants to give up trying. Like the pagan rabbi who leaves his observant Holocaustscarred wife to mate with Iripomonoéià *, the playful nymph of the woodland, Brill, immersed in the pagan diaspora, forsakes the Jewishly committed Hester,
Page 119
like Queen Esther, inextricably linked to her people's destiny, to spend his declining years with a much younger woman, the office secretary, Iris, a caricature of the Greek rainbow goddess.* According to Greek mythology, the other task of Iris, the rainbow goddess, is to cut the thread detaining the soul of the dying (Lempriere 300). Intent on cutting all ties to the dead and on living vitally in the here and now, Brill's flower bride, Iris, has no curiosity about his grim Holocaust past, no knowledge of history or interest in it. Conversely, Hester Lilt, the rigorous Hebraist, is so steeped in history that of all of Ozick's characters she best exemplifies Ozick's definition of a Jew as one who is "old in history . . . a member of a distinct civilization expressed through an oceanic culture in possession of a group of essential concepts . . ." (Ozick, "Bialik's Hint"). Though Ozick makes Lilt a laughable avantgarde theorist in her guise as "imagistic linguistic logician" (47), baffling us with her excessively convoluted verbiage, she also makes her a most serious incarnation of Rabbi Pult who, through her use of Judaic Oral Law, transmits Jewish values. The author of such works as Metaphor as Exegesis, Divining Meaning, and Interpretation as an End in Itself, Hester Lilt gives expression to Ozick's conception of liturgical literature and thus teaches Brill, and, by extension, postHolocaust humanity, the novel's most important lessons. To accomplish her pedagogic task, Lilt employs the midrashic mode, the interpretative stance employed by rabbis and authors to complement and amplify available facts with *Joseph Lowin incisively comments on the Greek connections associated with Brill's young wife, Iris. Not only does she bear the name of a Greek goddess, but her name is very much like Iripomonoéià, *, "the name of the dryad who entices the pagan rabbi." In addition to Iris's having lived with a family of Greeks before her marriage to Brill, she is described by Lowin as being "a pure Greek vessel" who resembles Auerbach's sense of Homeric style, which acknowledges "no background, only a foreground." Similarly, Iris is interested in ''neither background nor history" (Cynthia Ozick 86–87).
Page 120
such imaginary configurations as stories and parables to explain, clarify, and "exhibit a relation of equivalence to the primary subject" (Solotorevsky 261). And just as exceptionally illuminating midrash has been known to reanimate the prior text, so, too, Lilt's "quirky displacings of prooftexts out of original textual settings" (Sokoloff, "Interpretation" 252) have created new meanings in new contexts. Ozick describes Lilt's ideas, in their idiosyncratic retellings, as "peculiarly athwart, as if in parody" (64). Ozick observes how Lilt "mimicked—every rational scheme, but with the almost imperceptible screwturn of her malignant smile,'' with its "tightstretched mirth" (64). To protest Joseph Brill's premature judgment of her young daughter, Beulah, as dimwitted and unworthy of special consideration at the Edmond Fleg school, Hester delivers a university lecture on the hoax of pedagogy before the skeptical headmaster, telling three midrashic stories from three different spheres which indirectly point up his limitations. From the natural sciences she discusses the entelechy of the bee who mistakenly thinks it is free to alight upon the flower of its choice when in fact it is drawn without its volition by the "secret sugar compounds" in the flower. By extension Hester claims that when we, too, think we are free, we are most in bondage. And, like the bee, we don't have the patience to wait for the "playing out of prophecy" (69). "We have stopped too soon" (69). Lilt is obviously referring to Joseph Brill, who stopped too soon pursuing his taxing astronomy career in Europe to settle for the creature comforts of America. Unlike Lilt, who continues to grow intellectually, his mind atrophies so that his hackneyed public statements in middle age are parodies of the original thoughts formulated during his young manhood. From astronomy Hester tells the story of the cannibal galaxies, "those megalosaurian colonies of primordial gases that devour smaller brother galaxies" (69). This midrash
Page 121
alludes to the novel's title, suggesting that the Naziengineered Holocaust of Europe is one of those galaxies which swallowed up the lives of the Jews. It not only killed most of them, but it also ate up the lives of the survivors, such as Joseph Brill, holding them captive to the brutalities of the past, preventing them from realizing their full potential in the present. The Enlightenment is also another of those cannibal galaxies which swallowed up the Jew, stripping him of his tribal identity, his rich intellectual heritage. Ozick makes the same point in "Bialik's Hint" when she observes that the "Enlightenment, in letting the Jews 'in' . . . defined them as having been out" (233). By granting the Jews entry into European culture, the Enlightenment thinkers, oblivious to the sophisticated, textcentered nature of Jewish civilization, caused the Jews themselves to forget their indigenous culture, "with a luminousness of its own, residing in a thousand brains" (234). Similarly, Joseph Brill, paltry stargazer cannibalized by the huge galaxy, like Jonah swallowed up by the whale, is unable to fully use his innate Jewish brains. In his dual curriculum, Jerusalem is not burnished but tarnished almost beyond recognition. For as Ozick has stated: nothing thought or written in Diaspora has ever been able to last unless it has been centrally Jewish. If it is centrally Jewish, it will last for the Jews. If it is not centrally Jewish, it will last neither for Jews nor for the host nations. ("Toward a New Yiddish" 168–69)
What are still luminous and of lasting value in The Cannibal Galaxy are the midrashim of Hester Lilt, especially the final one, forming the ideational core of the novel. Most in keeping with the Jewish instruction of Rabbi Pult is Hester's retelling of the story about Rabbi Akiva's response to the destruction of the Temple (Makkot, 24 b). When seeing a little fox running in and out of the Temple ruins, she tells us, Rabbi Akiva's colleagues, Rabbi Gamliel, Rabbi Elazar,
Page 122
and Rabbi Joshua, all wept, but Akiva laughed. Unlike them, he did not permanently subscribe to the initial dire prophecy of Uriah that "Zion shall be ploughed as a field and Jerusalem shall become heaps" (68). Now that the worst had happened, Akiva placed his faith in the later, more optimistic prophecy of Zechariah: "Yet again shall the streets of Jerusalem be filled with boys and girls playing" (68). Hester respects Rabbi Akiva's approach and praises it as the best kind of pedagogy: To predict not from the first text, but from the second. Not from the earliest evidence, but from the latest. To laugh out loud in that very interval which to every reasonable judgment looks to be the most inappropriate. . . . The hoax is when the pedagogue stops too soon. To stop at Uriah without the expectation of Zechariah is to stop too soon. (68)
On one level, Hester Lilt, intellectual giant, is a latterday Madame de Sévigné, who was so enamored of her nondescript daughter that she constantly wrote her the most eloquent letters, which constituted the distinguished beginnings of French literature. Similarly, Hester Lilt is so consumed with her unremarkable daughter that the teacher's lack of appreciation for her prompts Hester to fill her midrashim with the most ingenious educational theories, the most impassioned polemics to make a case for her daughter's singularity. Hester Lilt is another Hester Prynne, protesting the poor treatment of her misunderstood child, Pearl, and championing her special nature, her unique talents. In particular, Hester Lilt castigates the pedagogues for mistaking her daughter Beulah's assets for liabilities and elevating the undeserving student, the wily fox. She accuses them of taking "aggressiveness for intelligence, and thoughtfulness for stupidity, and diffidence for dimness, and arrogance for popularity and dreamers for blockheads, and brazenness for the mark of a lively personality" (68). By the end of the novel,
Page 123
however, Beulah outfoxes the fox. Warranting her mother's early confidence in her, the lackluster daughter became such a great artist that her works appeared in many temples of art and over them "a flaming nimbus sometims spread" (162). Conversely, Naphtali, the precocious son of Joseph Brill's old age, did not realize his early promise but became a business administration major at Miami University and worshiped the sunburned golden calf. Hester Lilt's hostility toward the pedagogues is so uncamouflaged that more bitterness than amusement prevails. Such a strong reaction is more than just a fictional character's anger fueling her to avenge her daughter's indifferent treatment. It is also an expression of Ozick's own rage against those teachers who failed to appreciate her during her childhood and against the literary establishment who neglected her adult talents for many years. Just as George Orwell's cruel boyhood deprivation at Eton was the impetus for his satires of rebellion against British authority figures, so The Cannibal Galaxy is, in part, Ozick's satire of revenge against American authority figures. Discovering she is not alone in her vindictiveness, she confessed: "One reason writers write is out of revenge. Life hurts; certain ideas and experiences hurt; one wants to clarify, to set out illuminations, to replay the old bad scenes and get the Treppenworte said—the words one didn't have the strength or the ripeness to say when those words were necessary for one's dignity or survival. . . . In the end there is no revenge to be had. . . . And that's a good thing, isn't it? So that in the end one is left with a story instead of with spite." (Ozick qtd. in Teicholz 183)
More important than revenge, Ozick wrote The Cannibal Galaxy to include Akiva's midrash, which teaches us not only how to instruct our children but how to lead our lives in response to catastrophe. The laughter of Akiva tells us not to despair over the destruction in our midst, for as Shakespeare said, "The worst returns to laughter" (Epi
Page 124
graph, Cohen, Comic Relief). It cautions us not to forsake our divine comic vision or stop too soon being Godbelieving Jews. Adhering to an unfacile optimism, it encourages us to have faith in the restoration of the Temple and the renewal of a vibrant Jewish life in the not too distant future. Indeed, Akiva's own life is an example of a committed Jew whose affirmative stance prevented him from stopping too soon. Risking certain death at the hands of the Romans, Akiva continued to teach publicly well into his nineties. Even in the midst of his painful execution, he recited the Sh'ma with his last agonizing breath. How drastically different are Joseph Brill and Akiva, the former the pampered ostrich and the latter the cow slaughtered because it suckled the young and would not hide. But, of course, Rabbi Akiva was a secondcentury saint and Joseph Brill a flawed postEnlightenment man. However, Ozick also contrasts Brill's defeatism with the positive outlook of his near French contemporary, the school's namesake, Edmund Fleg, whose postHolocaust writing advocated "Jewish hope gathered in the depths of diaster: the hope of Jeremiah who in the chaotic disintegration of the world suddenly saw a Genesis rise up, but a Genesis not at the beginning but at the end—. . . a 'return toward the Future'" (Neher qtd. in Kremer, "The Dybbuk of All the Lost Dead" 264). Obviously, Brill is not one of the hopeful. At the novel's end, he retires to Florida. He leaves behind Rabbi Pult's Ta'anit and discards Fleg's book. Gorchak becomes the new principal and the school's name is changed to the Lakeside Grade School since the European experience is said to be "irrelevant to the new generation" and the name of "Edmond Fleg is opaque" to many parents (Sokoloff, "Interpretation" 249). The academy is cannibalized by the American context and is a flimsy vestige of its former self. Without Fleg, it is devoid of the rich foundation of Jewish history and knowledge.
Page 125
In conclusion, Ozick seems not very hopeful about the expression of authentic Judaism in America. Surely, she is not very sanguine about the flourishing of the Dual Curriculum in a Jewish educational system that has trouble enough transmitting one curriculum. Beulah Lilt, the overlooked gifted child, excels in spite of the Dual Curriculum, nourished more by the religion of art than by the religion of her own people. Hester Lilt leaves intellectually arid America for Paris, where her genius is more appreciated. To take liberties with Rabbi Akiva's midrash about the "Fox and the Fishes," Ozick would say that American Jewish educators and their constituents are like the fish who have been lured by the fox to leave their underwater origins and dwell together with him on dry land. The change of scenery may be interesting for a short while, but deprived of their Jewish heritage for long, they will soon lose their distinctiveness and perish. Ozick, like Hester Lilt, cannot singlehandedly reform this sad state of affairs. She cannot save the fish. As a satirist, her function is, to quote Mencken, "diagnosis not therapeutics" (qtd in Feinberg The Satirist 15). But her midrashic mockery wittily illuminates the diagnosis and the laughter of her cannibal galaxy makes us grin as we grimace.
Page 126
VII — The Messiah of Stockholm and the "Cackle of Satire" Swift has said "it is hard to satirize well a man of distinguished vices, as to praise well a man of distinguished virtues. It is easy enough to do either to people of moderate characters" (qtd. in Highet 22). Lars Andemening, the fortytwoyearold protagonist of The Messiah of Stockholm, the unread Monday reviewer for the thirdrate Swedish newspaper the Morgontörn (Morning Watch), is such a "moderate character" whom Cynthia Ozick easily satirizes. Belittling him through infantilization, she transforms him into a boyman with "the face of a foetus" (6), who spends his days napping in his apartment "no bigger than a crack in the wall" (3). She makes him into an eccentric recluse for whom a visitor was ''a biennial event" (3). She endows him with the flaws of "unripeness," of "tentativeness," of incompletion. She describes him as ludicrously unfinished, similar to the haphazardly fashioned golem, Xanthippe: "The hand of an indifferent maker had smeared his mouth and chin and Adam's apple" (4). Like Joseph Brill, Lars stops too soon and leads a misspent life. Like the lackluster Puttermesser, who tries to imitate the scintillating George
Page 127
Eliot and not develop herself, Lars listens too long to the courtly muses of Europe and does not cultivate his own muse. What most absorbs Lars is his quest for paternity. Unlike the protagonist of Trust, who searches for her elusive live father, Lars is comically obsessed with finding the "errant seed thrown back by a corpse" (4). The embodiment of Bergson's view that mental as well as physical rigidity is laughable, Lars is so consumed with immersing himself in his dead father's world that he neglects worthwhile pursuits in this world and thus becomes humorously at odds with the fundamental norms of society. He is ridiculous for overzealously committing himself "to some abortive venture beyond the precincts within which alone we can hope to win some proper understanding of our true human nature" (Scott 56). Risibly out of touch with his times and his peers, Lars believes himself "to be an arrested soul: someone who has been pushed off a track" (4). He is fixated with being the orphaned son of Bruno Schulz, the fiftyyearold Polish writer who in 1942 was shot down by the Nazis in Drohobycz, the hometown he refused to vacate. Similarly, Lars cannot vacate his reconstructed version of the Europe his putative father inhabited. Lars's head "was full of Europe—all those obscure languages in all those shadowy places where there had been all those shootings—in the streets in the forest. He had attached himself to the leavings of tyranny, tragedy, confusion" (98). Unlike Enoch Vand, the eyewitness registrar of Holocaust brutality who could not pry himself loose from those horrors, Lars is the victim of his own imagination of disaster, permeated with the Holocaust suffering he didn't observe: "He took on everyone's loss; everyone's foolish grief. Foolish because unstinting" (98). Comically deluding himself that he can rescue blighted Europe, he arrogantly supposes he can be ''Europe's savior," Europe's Messiah.
Page 128
Above all, Lars is fanatically attached to Schulz's personal and literary life, which he wittingly and unwittingly imitates. Like the reclusive Schulz, the high school art teacher who rarely journeyed from the provincial town of his birth, Lars, the solitary journalist, seldom emerges from his womblike apartment. He becomes like Schulz's character who falls into his bedclothes, sleeps away the hours, and loses himself in morbid fantasies which become his everpresent companions and driving force. Like Schulz, who never had lasting relationships with women, Lars is incapable of meeting the demands of bourgeois marriage. Because he is so absorbed with writing about the esoteric avantgarde, he cannot satisfy the needs of ordinary women in the here and now. "Chained to the alphabet, in thrall to sentences and paragraphs" (15), he cannot be a proper husband and father. Therefore he is twice divorced. Both wives detest him, complaining that there "was something irregular— undigested in his spirit" (4). Possessing an overdeveloped head and an underdeveloped heart, he is one of Ozick's comic grotesques who cannot relate to anyone except his obsession. Like Schulz, Lars is forced to function in a milieu inimical to his refined sensibility. Schulz had to confront "the street of crocodiles," the town's new commercial district, his symbol for the meretricious and vulgar in contemporary life. Outwardly, the "street of crocodiles" had a "soberly utilitarian character" (100). But beneath its shining surface reality, "everything seemed suspect and equivocal, everything promised with secret winks, cynically stressed gestures, raised eyebrows, the fulfillment of impure hopes, everything helped to release the lower instincts from their shackles" (101–102). For Lars, the equivalent of the "street of crocodiles" is the Morgontörn's literary "stewpot," seething with envy, competition, and gossip. Just as Ozick exaggerates Lars's faults to make us see the mixture of the ridiculous and the
Page 129
contemptible in him, she wryly scalds the stewpot, singeing its contents and skewering its ingredients. In so doing, she has chosen the subject preferred by satire: the "concrete, usually topical, often personal," dealing with "actual cases," describing real people unflatteringly, talking of this moment, this city, and this special "deposit of corruption" (Highet 16). The most obvious source of corruption Ozick sardonically detects is the false picturesque facade of the Morgontörn's building, which artfully camouflages the decrepit interior, "its forlorn and rickety quarters" (10), where inside was "all ingenious impediment" (10). She notes the irony that a newspaper priding itself on being modern and uptodate should be housed in a building where the plumbing was installed by an "eighteenthcentury apothecary who . . . invented in a futuristic dream, the watercloset pull chain" (10). She mocks the culture section of the newspaper for its unearned sense of superiority when in fact the topmost floor in which it is housed is overrun with rodents: "A welldisciplined regiment of mice . . . made an orderly meal" of the books stored there, ''prefaces for appetizers and indexes for dessert. Skyscrapers of nibbled volumes grew out of the floor and tilted against patched baseboards" (10). Here Ozick mockingly reveals how the "littleness of the life of letters in decrepit old Stockholm" (63) loomed large. Gunnar Hemlig, the Wednesday reviewer, is an incurable Americaholic, addicted to all forms of United States culture while neglecting the best of his own heritage, regarding it as too parochial. He is like the know nothing critics in Ozick's "Envy" who are unable to differentiate the authentic from the ersatz and who value the former over the latter. Thus, not only does he, like them, praise superficial American writers, but he also adores imitation American cheese. Modeled after Ozick's smallminded literati who lust after the glamorous universal, he tries to emancipate himself
Page 130
from his pedestrian origins by filling his reviews with catchy American expressions, which Ozick terms "velveetisms," since they are "not a natural product, but a processed, manufactured one" (Sokoloff, "Reinventing Bruno Schulz" 175). Another ludicrous detractor of his country's culture is Anders, the tipsy Friday reviewer, who, like Ozick's selfhating Jewish writers, is "a soiler and spoiler'' who "spits in his own soup" (12). Equally censorious of Swedish flat bread and flat Swedish prose, he savages every new writer since Strindberg. But Ozick's "ultimate ironic burlesque of Swedish parochialism" (63) is Olof Flodcrantz's book of original Swedish verse, which turns out to be a collection of plagiarized translations of different American poets uncovered by the reviewer, Sven Stromberg, thought to have engineered the larceny so as to create "a postmodernist plot" (63), much like Ozick's own "Usurpation," her comically candid depiction of literary thievery. The philistine Morgontörn staff admonishes Lars to dispense with his "beautiful soul" (13) when he is a daily reviewer, claiming it "leads to belleslettres, which leads to exaltation and other forms of decline" (13). Here Ozick's comic muse exercises its tongueincheek playfulness to address serious matters: the antipathy to the critic as moralist and the resistance to the critic as discoverer of recondite innovative literature. Anders and Gunnar berate Lars for reviewing inscrutable avantgarde works from Central Europe—the fiction of Kafka, Musil, Broch, Canetti, Jabes and Kundera—accusing him of being elitist, insensitive to the plebeian tastes of his readers. They sneeringly call him "Prince of the indecipherable," "Chasing after the impenetrable" (14). Lars, however, refuses to give up reviewing impenetrable exalted works, since his supposed father was also obsessed with the art of exaltation.* Schulz chose to worship the *Schulz's exalted art enabled him to transcend the profane reality of the "street of crocodiles." Especially his ethereal stories in Cinnamon Shops,
(footnote continued on the next page)
Page 131
religion of art rather than embrace the world of the Jews, an understandable choice since "his family had . . . always kept their distance from the teeming outlandish Hasidim in their long black coats" (35). Thus Schulz prided himself on being a Polish artist like his Jewish literary compatriot, Tuwim, whose mother taught him Polish songs and Polish rhymes and for whom "poetical creation would be unthinkable in any other tongue" (qtd. in Shmeruk 18). So, too, Schulz had ''thrown himself on the unyielding breast of mother Poland and nestled into the underside of her tongue. If he had ever sipped a word or two of Yiddish out of the air, it did not ride his spittle or his pen" (35). Like Ozick's Rosa, he believed that Yiddish was for the masses, not for the artists and intellectuals. For obviously the same reasons, Lars has no interest in exploring his Jewish origins. Contrary to Harold Bloom's praise of Ozick for not allowing Lars to think of himself as Jewish and for not having his "fantasy of being Schulz's son" be "a quest for . . . belonging to a people," Ozick derides Lars for his willed cultural amnesia, for exiling himself from things Jewish (36). Lars is not, as Bloom claims, "Ozick's surrogate, an emblem for her own maturation as an artist as she becomes a true daughter of Schulz, whose Jewishness, like Kafka's, is fascinatingly implicit in his writing" (36). If anything, Lars is Ozick's satiric portrait of the artist as a selfdenying Jew, consciously eliminating any explicit or implicit signs of his heritage. He purposely grounds himself in the secular world, where he has assumed the Swedish surname "Andemening," meaning "inward sense," and had "long ago thrown himself on the altar of literature" (7). The fiction of the writers of Central Europe have been his sacred texts. The exegesis of their universal meanings, and the spreading of their gospel of (footnote continued from the previous page) poetically recapturing the bliss of childhood, or those reconstructing his youthful enthusiasms for art, poetry, and imagination, or those describing his intoxication with nature, were able to free him from his dread of the sordid, temporal life.
Page 132
"existential dread" have occupied his professional time. But the god whose adoration consumed his waking and sleeping hours was, of course, his father, Bruno Schulz, whose own father, like Kafka's, was the commanding presence in his fiction, indeed, assumed center stage in the abbreviated drama of his life. Since Lars chooses to fashion himself not in the image of God but in the image of an image, that is, in his idealized conception of Bruno Schulz, he is not just Bergson's comic monomaniacal man, but he joins the ranks of those Ozick characters who commit the unpardonable sin of idolatry. Whether it be the Pagan Rabbi who yokes his Talmudweary soul to a vivacious forest nymph, or a Puttermesser who sullies her self cleaning up New York City, or a ravaged Holocaust mother fusing the identity of the shawl and the dead daughter it enveloped, they all subscribe to what Ozick calls "the single law of idolatry": "that dead matter will rule the quick" ("Literature as Idol: Harold Bloom" 189). She means that lifeless idols determine the behavior of the living. They so enthrall their devotees that they lure them into copying them and so cause them to be inert beings who lose their distinctiveness. The epigraph by Pär Lagerkvist to The Messiah of Stockholm reads: I am the star that mirrors itself in you. . . . Your soul is my home. I have no other.
Clearly, Bruno Schulz is the star mirroring itself in Lars's being and Lars's soul is the home for Bruno Schulz. Lars's idolatry, therefore, has some positive consequences, for himself and for Bruno Schulz. It has enriched Lars's impoverished inner life and, in his own quirky fashion, has perpetuated Schulz's memory and his literary reputation. Similarly, we could say that Ozick's fascination with Bruno Schulz's phantasmagorical fiction and doomed life has so consumed her that, bordering on idolatry herself, she has
Page 133
been compelled to fashion an engrossing book which, in turn, has caused her readers to be consumed with Bruno Schulz as intriguing soul and perplexing symbol. With David Grossman, the Israeli writer whose novel See Under Love (1986) has Bruno Schulz as a character, Ozick has accorded Schulz a more viable immortality than his scant corpus would ordinarily have brought him. But Lars, like Ozick's other idolators, suffers baleful consequences for his obsession. By housing Schulz in his soul, he incurs costly property damages. "On account of this father, Lars shrank himself. He felt he resembled his father" (5), who, in turn, resembled the tales' male characters, "shrinking more and more into the phantasmagoria of the mind" (5). When Lars is not learning Polish to read his father's work in the original or trying to decipher which of his father's pupils was his unwed mother, he sleeps away the afternoon, eagerly awaking to find his father's "murdered eye" staring down upon him. The perverse delight Lars feels when he reimagines the killing of his father and confronts his bulletridden body suggests that Ozick has consigned him to a new group of idolators: the Holocaust necrophiles. For after Auschwitz, there emerged a new kind of pornography titillating people: not the pornography exposing the nubile body, but the pornography flaunting the maimed corpse.* Even Heidi Eklund, the refugee bookstore owner to whom Lars confides his Bruno Schulz obsession, "cared more for his father's death than for his father's tales" (32). "It was the shooting that drew her. The shooting; the murder" (32). Clearly, Heidi and Lars represent for Ozick the postHolo *Alvin H. Rosenfeld, in his brilliant cultural and literary analysis Imaging Hitler, exposes another form of postHolocaust pornography: "countless versions of the Führer and Nazism, pandering to every conceivable taste—repulsive, comic, ordinary, lovable." What were unprecedented horrors of just a generation ago have today, according to Rosenfeld, become "a source of lighthearted amusement, popular distraction, pornographic indulgence, and antisemitic slander" (xiv).
Page 134
caust public as vultures, ravenously feeding on the gory particulars of atrocity, the bloody remains of the victims. This public is not so much in awe of the sublime art produced in the most profane conditions—in the infernal camps and abysmal ghettoes—as it is luridly thrilled by the torturestricken artists themselves. Just as some people are morbidly fascinated with the poet Sylvia Plath not because of the uniqueness of her craft but because she gassed herself in the oven, so some readers are taken with Bruno Schulz not because of the delicate intricacy of his three books but because at age fifty, before he could fully realize his talents, he was gunned down in his own street by a Gestapo officer. For Lars and Heidi, who venerate the "catastrophe of fact" (32), Bruno Schulz's tragic fate augments his art. Lars, whom Heidi scolds for "turning his father into some form of ceremonial mystification" (33), refuses to share him with anyone. When Adela, a young woman, named after the sinister maid in Schulz's Americantitled Street of Crocodiles and Sanitorium Under the Sign of the Hourglass, arrives on the scene, claiming to be Schulz's daughter and to have retrieved Schulz's lost manuscript, The Messiah, Lars disbelieves her, but violently tries to wrest the manuscript from her. The struggle for possession of this precious document, the symbol for the Holocaust itself, can be seen metaphorically as the battle waged between rival groups—the Jews, the Gypsies, the homosexuals, the Seventh Day Adventists—each claiming the Holocaust as uniquely its own, each arguing that its experience of suffering was greater than the other's. Meanwhile, as they are attacking each other for sole ownership of the Holocaust, its labyrinthine complexities elude their grasp. Furthermore, Lars's fierce insistence that he is the only child, the only legitimate heir of Bruno Schulz, the authentic Holocaust artist, implies that Lars thinks he alone can fathom the enigmatic meaning of the Holocaust and thus
Page 135
he alone can transmit its subtleties to the world at large. Lars's exclusive claim to interpret the Holocaust is, for Ozick, symptomatic of certain Holocaust survivors who claim that they alone have the right to make the Holocaust the subject matter of their art, or that they alone have the credentials of direct experience to judge the historical accuracy and aesthetic worth of a Holocaust work. They dismiss as false and superficial any artistic endeavors by those who have not been directly burned by the Holocaust but have only felt its heat from afar. But when Lars's rage of sibling rivalry subsides, he has mixed feelings about the legitimacy of the manuscript of Schulz's lost novel, The Messiah. Since he has been searching for it for years, he wants very much to believe in its existence, just as the Jews, searching for the Messiah, want desperately to believe in his existence. Yet Lars begins to realize that Heidi Eklund, who has been the willing confidante and catalyst for his Schulz mania, has ensnared him to be duped by her conartist husband, Eklund née Eckstein, falsifier of documents and identities. "They had sent him Adela with her story, to mock the fraudulent son with the fraudulent daughter. . . . He had fallen among players; among plotters" (119). However, they are not sinister conspirators, for, as Earl Rovit claims, they are "three outrageous caricatures, fully costumed and stagepropped for their roles in the animated moralitycartoon which Ozick presents" (15). Clearly more laughable than lethal are EklundEckstein, a cross between "Sherlock Holmes and P. T. Barnum," Adela, an abnormal "churning angel" (83), and Heidi Eklund, ''a round little bundle, with a girl's name" whose curly bangs "were white and sheeplike and dropped in ringlets over two serenely misplaced black moustaches that jumped intermittently above reckless eyes" (18). But the Eklund clan, beneath their cartoon exterior, are desperate and needy. Indeed, they look to Lars to be the
Page 136
Messiah of Stockholm, to be the novel's savior, to rescue it from oblivion by translating it from Polish to Swedish and to promote it in the newspaper as a phenomenal recovery of lost genius. Like Edelshtein, who begs the cynical Jewish woman translator to give life to his dying Yiddish poetry, Adela pleads with Lars to resurrect Schulz's longburied Messiah. And just as the woman refuses to translate Edelshtein's work because it is not distinctive enough, so Lars doubts the origins and the originality of the manuscript. He thinks it is a false Messiah, a composite creation of Adela, who furnishes the story line, and of Dr. Eklund, who forges Schulz's handwriting. Consequently, he levels the same accusation at them which Ozick has employed to denounce her characters and herself for their spurious creation, their violation of the Second Commandment: "You want to be in competition with God" (128). The irony of his charge is that Lars, in his monomanical desire to resurrect and recreate his dead father, is guilty of the same offense. With a surge of righteous indignation, Lars wants to destroy what he considers to be the fraudulent manuscript. Thus, conducting his own bookburning, he sets fire to it and creates his own Holocaust, his own burnt offering. For Rovit, "the cartoonaction of the novel bursts into climax in the burning of the manuscript—a scene as hilariously choreographed as a Marx Brothers (or Three Stooges) moviesequence and as painful to watch as an epileptic seizure" (46). Heidi races back and forth trying to douse the flames in the huge brass amphora with a trickle of water. Eklund frantically refills the tea kettle, functioning as her ineffective fire brigade, while he kicks Adela, crouching on the floor, to get out of his way. The manuscript is transformed into "big burned cabbage leaves . . . curling black sheets with delicately crimped ruffs glowing red" (127). But at this point, claims Rovit, the "surrealistic pitch of the novel's style has the effect of raising the satirical burlesque to
Page 137
something very close to a lyrical cri de coeur" (46). The Eklunds, overcome with anguish, accuse Lars of creating a new crematorium for them: "You've put us inside a chimney! . . . You've sizzled us!" (127). Did Lars destroy the genuine manuscript of Schulz's The Messiah of Stockholm, or its counterfeit version? The answer to that question Ozick shrouds in ambiguity. She recently claims that she purposely, and, I might add, playfully, obfuscated the conclusion so that the book "in a sense has two endings": "you can believe Adela at the end," or you can assume the manuscript is "an invention of forgers." But the Eklunds and Adela are not the only forgers Ozick has in mind. The entire book, she contends, "is about forgery.'' "Lars forged his own identity." And her decision to make the ending ambiguous is also "on the side of forgery. The imagination is always a forger anyway" (Ozick qtd. in Materassi, "Imagination Unbound" 100–101). Furthermore, Ozick claims that even a novel that has no overt forgery in it has its goodly share of falsification: "I know what fiction is. It's a kind of crookery. The writer is a liar and an impersonator and an imposter. I don't want to trust fiction" (Remarks. "Writing and the Holocaust" Conference). Her views about the illicit nature of fiction resemble lines from Schulz's Street of Crocodiles, part of a second epigraph to The Messiah of Stockholm: ". . . even if the classical methods of creation should prove inaccessible forevermore, there still remain some illegal methods, an infinity of heretical and criminal methods." Indeed, in the novel Ozick acknowledges her "illegal methods" and engages in authorial selfmockery because of her penchant for literary theft. As in "Usurpation," she filches plot lines, episodes, character types, thematic concerns, and stylistic features from a number of key writers.* *I am grateful to Lillian Kremer for suggesting some of the literary works I may have overlooked which have affinities with Ozick's Messiah of Stock
(footnote continued on the next page)
Page 138
In The Messiah of Stockholm she does not gleefully confess the actual sources of her purloined letters. More covert, she leaves it up to her readerdetectives to discover the telltale clues and identity the correspondences with the works that may have influenced her. A lifelong acolyte of Henry James, she borrows certain features of his Aspern Papers, since it deals with a scholar's unscrupulous means to acquire a dead poet's private letters, causing the exploited spinster guardian of these letters to burn them for spite. Like the unnamed protagonist of The Aspern Papers, Lars ferociously searches for The Messiah, the lost manuscript of his supposed dead father, and even resorts to physical violence to seize it from a woman as strongly attached to the manuscript as he. And in The Messiah of Stockholm, as in The Aspern Papers, intense mutual distrust leads to the burning of the coveted manuscript. Similarly, Isaac Bashevis Singer's short story "The Manuscript" has a very suggestive plot, variations of which Ozick has incorporated in The Messiah of Stockholm. Once again there is the frantic search for a vanished work of literature, but this time a Polish actress risks her life to return to Nazioccupied Warsaw to retrieve her lover's lost manuscript, only to burn it when she discovers he has been unfaithful in her absence. Her hostile actions are directed against her lover, but they also have a destructive effect on her, for she confesses, "Together with the manuscript, I burned my power to love" (Singer 216). Likewise in The Messiah of Stockholm great sacrifices of time, energy, and talent have been expended in the most adverse circumstances to present Lars the manuscript in its present form. His burning of it destroys the physical artifact, but it also destroys his capacity to love the fallible human being, in this case the imperfect artist aspiring to create the perfect (footnote continued from the previous page) holm. For Kremer's discussion of these and other literary influences I have not mentioned, see her Witness Through the Imagination, 268–270.
Page 139
work of art, the sole object which Lars finds worthy of admiration. But Ozick dedicates The Messiah of Stockholm to Philip Roth because he introduced her to Bruno Schulz's work in his "Writers from the Other Europe" series and because he shared some of Schulz's unpublished letters with her. However, Roth's "The Prague Orgy," the epilogue to his comic trilogy Zuckerman Bound, also reverberates throughout The Messiah of Stockholm. It contains what has almost become the archetypal quest for the lost manuscript, the acme of artistic creation, which entices the questor with its promise of originality, of aesthetic richness, of spiritual profoundity. Yet it is ultimately elusive, beyond the grasp of mortals. Thus in "The Prague Orgy," Sisovsky, a Czech Jewish writer, begs Roth's protagonist, Nathan Zuckerman, to be the questor, to go to Prague to retrieve from his estranged wife his deceased father's poignant Yiddish stories which he left behind. Like Bruno Schulz, his deceased father was an introverted high school teacher in a provincial town. Like Bruno Schulz, he was protected by a Gestapo officer during the Holocaust but was murdered by a rival SS officer who resented this special treatment. Like Lars, who claimed he was a fetus at the time of his father's death, so Sisovsky claimed he was born two months after the death of his father. Like Lars, who learned Polish to read his father's works in the original, so Sisovsky taught himself Yiddish to savor the stories in their indigenous language. Like Lars, who believes his father belongs in the company of the Nobel Prize winners, Sisovsky is obsessed with how great a Jewish writer his father would be regarded in America. And just as Lars cannot resurrect the buried Messiah manuscript, Zuckerman cannot take the Sisovsky Yiddish stories out of Czechoslovakia. Therefore, Zuckerman, like Lars, mourns the loss of his father's creativity: "Another Jewish writer who might have been is not going to be; his imagination won't leave even the faintest
Page 140
imprint and no one else's imagination will be imprinted on his, neither the policeman practicing literary criticism nor the meaningmad students living only for art" (Roth 782). Lamenting the death of Bruno Schulz in The Messiah of Stockholm does not prevent Ozick from pilfering his mode of fantasy in passages from her invented Messiah manuscript, or parodying his literary style. Indeed, Harold Bloom claims she "used Schulz to mediate her own transition from the mode of Bernard Malamud, the major influence on her work, to a new gusto in savage comedy that rivals the art of Mr. Roth in The Anatomy Lesson and The Prague Orgy" (36). Partly inspired by Schulz's story "Tailors' Dummies," with its "kabbalistic account of the endless demiurgic possibilities latent in mere matter" (Bloom, "The Book of the Father'' 36), the tale she tells in her fabricated text is set in Schulz's Polish hometown of Drohobycz, but it is inhabited not by people but by all manner of idols—primitive, anthropological, phallic, religious, who, at first appearance, are incongruously funny because they are ludicrous imitations of humans. It is, however, during the Holocaust, since we are told the people "had all gone on long, fatiguing journeys to other cities" (109) and all "had converted to atheism and fled" (109). In the absence of monotheism, the idols become the graven images of Fascism created by new believers instead of worshiping God. Taking on a life of their own and assuming control of the town, these graven images are proof of Ozick's "single law of idolatry": "that dead matter will rule the quick" (Ozick, "Literature as Idol: Harold Bloom" 189). While the idols of Fascism outwardly appear attractive, produced by the "inspired toil of armies of ingenious artisans" (108), they become sinister in their behavior. Vain and competitive, they ruthlessly seek worshipers. Devoid of human suppliants, the more powerful idols resort to sacrificing the weaker ones so that "more and more frequently there were sacrificial bonfires all over Drohobycz . . . and the acrid
Page 141
smokey smell of roasting metal circled over Drohobycz" (109). Thus Ozick, reproducing Schulz's animism with its "spiteful spiritforce" (Ozick, "The Phantasmagoria of Bruno Schulz'' 227), underscores what is most repugnant about idols: that they and their worshipers can "root out human pity," for in the absence of the Second Commandment, "every idol is a shadow of Moloch, demanding human flesh to feed on. The deeper the devotion to the idol, the more pitiless in tossing it its meal will be the devotee" ("Literature as Idol: Harold Bloom" 190). Into this infernal Holocaust landscape, the Messiah arrives without fanfare. It is not the Messiah, Son of David, or Gershom Scholem's idea of the Messiah, but more a "comic parody of Schulz's irrepressible inventiveness than an emblem of redemption" (Sokoloff, "Reinventing Bruno Schulz" 176). Emerging from the Drohobycz synagogue, the Messiah had no specific gender but resembled a body organ. "It was alive, organic, palpitating with wild motion and disturbance—yet not like a robot, not like a machine. It was as if a fundamental internal member had set out to live on its own in the great world—a spleen, say, or a pancreas, or a bowel, or a brain" (109). The Messiah also resembles a book which Schulz compared to a huge cabbage rose in his work Sanitorium, but it also has winglike sails in the form of flippers containing a cuneiform of minute drawings of the Drohobycz idols. Finally, creaking with "its own ancientness," the book collapses and gives birth to a bird, which, in turn, sets fire to each of the idols until the town is desolate. This Messiah, more menacing than comforting, does not offer any hope for Jewish renewal in postHolocaust Poland. In Ozick's depiction of Schulz's Messiah manuscript, she has cleverly imitated his wild transmogrifications, his bizarre imaginings, his quirky language. Yet she has also mocked the whole notion of a work of fiction inventing the Messiah. For her lampoon underscores her view that the
Page 142
Messiah is not a product of our profane imagination, but emanates from God's Sublime Imagination.* Ozick, as false imitator of Schulz, can only produce a Messiah which is a "hobbled and limited" awkward contrivance of disparate, uncoordinated parts. If anything, this fabricated Messiah is another illicit idol, for "art . . . put in competition, like a god, with the Creator, it, too, is turned into an idol" (''Literature as Idol: Harold Bloom" 191). While Ozick accepts crimes of the imagination as an irrevocable part of fictionmaking, she does not sanction the crimes in her characters' hearts. At a 1987 "Writing and the Holocaust" conference, she refers to one of the most salient of these crimes: "It's almost easy to weep over dead Jews, but I think these can become crocodile tears. There can be a price to this. It's more important to be concerned about living Jews." Lars commits such crimes. He is so consumed with weeping over the dead Bruno Schulz that he is scornful of bedraggled refugees like Heidi and Dr. Eklund, who must resort to subterfuge to eke out a living. He lavishes attention on the already famous Bruno Schulz but ignores those lesserknown Holocaust writers such as Adela, whose fiction, grounded in personal torment, cries out to be recognized. Echoing Edelshtein, Adela chastises Lars for his neglect: "You think everything is imagination. There's more to the world than just imagination" (140). Indeed Lars is so caught up with inventing a father with the proper Holocaust credentials and fabricating the proper doleful identity of the Holocaust victim's son that he blinds *Cynthia Ozick recently altered her conception of the writer as idolator. She now believes that the "idolmaking capacity of the imagination is its lower form, and that one cannot be a monotheist without putting the imagination under the greatest pressure of all. To imagine the unimaginable is the highest use of the imagination. I'm in the storytelling business, but I no longer feel I'm making idols. The insight that the largest, deepest, widest imaginative faculty of all is what you need to be a monotheist teaches me that you simply cannot be a Jew if you repudiate the imagination. This is a major shift for me." (Ozick qtd. in Teicholz. "Cynthia Ozick. The Art of Fiction XCV" 167–168.)
Page 143
himself to his Jewish identity. Thus the novel reinforces Ozick's belief that "in the absence of religious commitment and firm ties to the past, many contemporary Jews have turned to a series of unsatisfactory substitute expressions of Jewishness, including the celebration of fiction and contemporary Jewish writers" (Sokoloff, "Reinventing Bruno Schulz" 178). They have mistakenly elevated their writers to be "the custodians of the culture," entreating them to "confirm us, guide us, teach us our values, replace what has been lost" (Wisse 109). The novel expresses dissatisfaction with postHolocaust Jewry that asks "literature to do what it cannot—to constitute a Jewish culture of the mind alone, in place of law and custom and practice'' (Wisse, Afterword 109). The novel also stresses Lars's false view of Messianic redemption. Closeting himself away from society, he awaits a private visitation of the Messiah to effect a miraculous transformation of himself in his selfcreated cultural void. Gershom Scholem tells us, however, that "Judaism, in all its forms and manifestations, has always maintained a concept of redemption as an event which takes place publicly, on the stage of history and within the community" (1). Equally false is Lars's equation of the Messiah with a particular person, notably his putative father, Bruno Schulz, whose manuscript, The Messiah, he thinks will bring artistic redemption to Schulz and to himself. The fact that Ozick makes Schulz's Messiah beyond retrieving in this lifetime confirms Judaism's belief that the Messiah does not possess recognizable qualities of a particular person but reflects "everything personal only in completely abstract fashion" (Scholem 18). The failure of the dead father to reappear as the redeemer, together with the corrupt practices of the art world to create a counterfeit redeemer, causes Lars to renounce his literary Messiah, Bruno Schulz. In fact, "the most ironic turn in the novel suggests that when Lars perceives the plot
Page 144
into which he has been beguiled" and when the Eklunds as "comic victimizers" become pathetic victims, his "ascent into health is also a precipitous descent into mediocrity" (Rovit 17). For Lars, freed of his foolish monomania of the past, has given himself the new name "Baruch Lazarus," and is now blessed with a modest fame of his own and has risen from his obsession with the dead. But his new identity as a reviewer of detective novels and screen star autobiographies, Ozick implies, is even more facetious than his old. "The cackle of satire" (133) from his colleagues softened, but Ozick's grows louder than ever. Thus, just as Nilsson was automating the Morgontörn, she tells us, with tongue in cheek, that Lars was ''robotizing himself" and again becoming Bergson's ludicrous mechanical being. Finished with those "grotesqueries" of Central Europe, he now played with an even more grotesque gadget, a "word processor with a screen that showered down green letters from Japan, and an electronic printer that typed with phantom fingers at a speed equal to the fall of the sun at the world's end" (132). Ozick even wryly suggests he kept a "robot woman under his bed," who in the middle of the night "clicked herself into position," requiring Lars "to satisfy her vibrations" (132). Thus, just as Ozick mocks Lars for his singleminded pursuit of resurrecting his dead father and retrieving his lost manuscript, she mocks him for his transformation from being "priest of the original" to being practitioner of the pedestrian. As satirist, sensitive to the gap between what might be and what is, she reveals Lars's capacity to grapple with the complexities of profound avantgarde literature, yet she derides his capitulation to being the advocate of safe, facile, and meretricious books. Unlike the tragedy writer who "tends to exhibit the inadequacy of norms, to dissolve systematized values," Ozick, as satirist, "asserts the validity and necessity of norms, systematic values" (Mack 82). Through witty forays and ironic detours, she
Page 145
emphasizes how far removed Lars is from having an authentic self, of displaying literary integrity and leading a life of moral rectitude. Realizing she cannot reform him, however, she concentrates her energies on diminishing him through ridicule. Yet the novel does not end on a satiric note, with Lars the butt of contempt and amusement. It concludes with a passage of lamentation: When, less and less often, the smell flushed up out of the morning's crevices, Lars inside the narrow hallway of his skull caught sight of the man in the long black coat, hurrying with a metal garter box squeezed under his arm, hurrying and hurrying toward the chimneys. And then, in the blue light of Stockholm, he grieved. (144)
Unable to immure himself in the Morgontörn "stewpot" from the lingering smoke of the Holocaust, Lars, on occasion, grieves for his own burnedout life. He grieves for Bruno Schulz, murdered in the prime of his life, with many stories stillborn in him. He grieves for the pious Jew who, rescuing the selfdenying Jew's creativity, is swallowed up in the crematoria. He grieves for the irretrievable loss of the Messiah manuscript, its hope of redemption reduced to ashes. But Cynthia Ozick's Messiah of Stockholm is, thankfully, not reduced to ashes. While she has warned us that "storytelling can become a corridor to the corruptions and abominations of idol worship" (Preface to Bloodshed 11), her Messiah is not a false one. Emanating obvious and hidden truths, it delivers us from facile interpretations. A clever satire in which playful and punitive laughter are artfully intermingled, it simultaneously chastens and amuses us. A liturgical parable with Aggadic wit and burnished language, it rescues us from the profane and uplifts us.
Page 146
VIII — The Shawl: The Tragicomedy of Revolt and Survival Those who write about the Holocaust are admonished to obey two unspoken commandments: Thou shalt respect the monumental nature of this unique catastrophe and faithfully represent the barbarous events without manipulating the facts for artistic effect. Thou shalt in no way whimsically treat or mockingly undermine the serious nature of this subject matter which would diminish its importance or detract from its gravity. Indeed, a blithely or cynically comic attitude toward the Holocaust would be deemed sacrilegious for it would desecrate the memory of the victims and belittle the torment they suffered. Yet some have made a case for the therapeutic nature of humor in the nightmare universe. For example, Terrence Des Pres claims that even in such dire circumstances as the Holocaust, laughter had healing powers and could be restorative: "That something so slight should alleviate the burden of something so gigantic might, on the face of it, be a joke in itself" (218).* Yet *Terrence Des Pres, author of The Survivor—An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps, has also written incisively about the nature and dynamics of Holocaust humor in such literary works as Art Speigelberg's Maus, Leslie Epstein's King of the Jews, and Tadeusz Borowski's This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen. (Des Pres, "Holocaust Laughter?") As for real life, Des Pres believes that Holocaust humor "counts most in precisely those
(footnote continued on the next page)
Page 147
many jokes found their way in such documentary literature as Emmanuel Ringelblum's Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto, whose irreverent humor helped the Jews endure the worst possible adversities of the ghetto. Similarly for Holocaust theologian Emil Fackenheim, "Wit produced on the precipice of Hell was not frivolity, but psychological necessity" (Lipman 8), since it enabled him to preserve his morale in the darkest of times. It was also "a form of bravado, a kind of necessary defense mechanism, designed to articulate genuine fears and at the same time partly allay terror through humor" (Dundes and Hauschild 249). One could also posit that Holocaust humor was an expression of revolt, of camouflaged aggression turned outward against the monstrous enemy. Such humor was subversive, for it waged a guerrilla warfare against the entrenched forces of destruction. As this revenge humor gained momentum and decimated more unsuspecting foes, it became more overt than covert, more offensive than defensive. Cynthia Ozick employs both this retaliatory and restorative Holocaust humor in the "Rosa" section, the second half of her novel The Shawl. In reversal of her usual method of having levity precede solemnity, "The Shawl," the novel's opening story, avoids the jocose, since the concentration camp world is so unrelievedly grim. In strict adherence to the commandments about sober Holocaust writing, it represents Ozick's painstaking attempt to accurately reflect and do justice to the victims of the Nazi inferno. Yet shortly after "The Shawl" appeared in The New Yorker, a Holocaust survivor wrote Ozick admonishing her to stop writing about the Shoah, since she was not only falsifying the awesome event, but it was as if she were dese (footnote continued from the previous page) situation where more decisive remedies fail" (218). He convinces us that "a comic response to calamity is often more resilient, more effectively equal to terror and the sources of terror than a response that is solemn or tragic" (219).
Page 148
crating a sacred text whose ritual sanctity, historical accuracy, and literary authenticity must, at all costs, be preserved. Like Elie Wiesel, who chastises those who write about the Holocaust but have not been witnesses of it, she cautioned Ozick to postpone writing about it for at least twenty years until there are no more witnesses to find fault with her representation of the Shoah. Ozick was deeply hurt by this letter, not because she was reprimanded for making minor historical errors, but because she was treated as a stranger, as the unaffiliated American writer with a detached attitude toward the Holocaust. Ozick's reply to her was impassioned, not detached: "Every Jew," she wrote, should feel as if he himself came out of Egypt . . . The Exodus took place 4000 years ago, and yet the Haggadah enjoins me to incorporate it into my own mind and flesh, to so act as if it happened directly and intensely to me, not as mere witness but as participant. Well, if I am enjoined to belong to an event that occurred 4000 years ago, how much more strongly am I obliged to belong to an event that occurred only 40 years ago. (Letter from Cynthia Ozick to Survivor, 20 April 1983)
Indeed, in "The Shawl" Cynthia Ozick, as author, is not mere witness but the secret sharer of her protagonist's suppressed rage, her wrenching pain, her paralysing grief. In the two thousand choked yet eloquent words comprising "The Shawl," Ozick, the nonHolocaust survivor, excruciatingly creates the Shoah microcosm, the "place without pity" where neardead Rosa must disown her baby whom the Nazis are about to kill. A similar scene is depicted in the Auschwitz story "This Way For the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen,'' by the Polish survivor Tadeusz Borowski. It, however, is treated with a total absence of compassion: Here is a woman—she walks quickly, but tries to appear calm. A small child with a pink cherub's face runs after her
Page 149 and, unable to keep up, stretches out his little arms and cries: 'Mama! Mama!' 'Pick up your child, woman!' 'It's not mine, sir, not mine,' she shouts hysterically and runs on, covering her face with her hands. She wants to hide, she wants to reach those who will stay alive. She is young, healthy, goodlooking, she wants to live. But the child runs after her, wailing loudly: 'Mama, mama, don't leave me!' 'It's not mine, not mine, no.' But her captor doesn't believe her: 'Ah, you bloody Jewess! So you're running from your own child! I'll show you, you whore!" His huge hand chokes her, he lifts her in the air and heaves her on the truck like a heavy sack of grain. 'Here! And take this with you, bitch!' and he throws the child at her feet. (43)
The narrator of Borowski's story is an objective reporter, detached from the harrowing event unfolding before him: the stark climax with frantic dialogue of mother and child, hapless victims, pleading with Nazi victimizers to stay alive. What makes the event even more gruesome is that the child pleads with her own mother to let her live and that same mother, to save herself, unhesitatingly claims no kinship to the child, which, in effect, consigns her to certain death. The vilification of the mother as a bloody "whore" and her brutal murder and subsequent dehumanization as "a heavy sack of grain" by her captor are finally not as horrific as her attempt to destroy her maternal instinct. Borowski provides no background information about the woman's past or extensive details about her current predicament. He deprives her of a place of origin, a family nexus, and an extended female identity. Depicting external surfaces rather than internal depths, he makes no elaborate attempt to empathize with the mother in her desperate plight. He offers no psychological justification for an individual's behavior under extreme duress. Rather, with a minimum of figurative language, he tersely recreates an
Page 150
abhorrent situation that, as a concentration camp inmate, he had witnessed many times in real life. Ozick in "The Shawl" does just the opposite. In the brief span of seven pages she manages through her artful use of synecdoche to have the oppressive parts of her story stand for the major torments of the Shoah experience: lifethreatening marches, concentration camp pestholes, freezing, starvation, merciless selections, roaring crematoria, enemies from within and without, abject powerlessness. Yet Ozick also succeeds in presenting a highly individualized portrait of the mother, Rosa, who, in this Holocaust nightmare, uses her shawl to shield her baby, Magda, depicted with a unique identity of her own. There is a third character as well, Rosa's niece, Stella, not fully drawn, but seen through Rosa's suspicious eyes. The action of the story is swift and terrible. It begins with the omniscient narrator plunging us immediately into the bonechilling march where we witness the Holocaustdebased version of the Madonna and child. Instead of the tranquil mother gazing adoringly upon her beatific infant nursing contentedly at her breast, we see the frozen Rosa, numbly walking with "Magda curled up between sore breasts." "There was not enough milk; sometimes Magda sucked air; then she screamed" (3). To underscore the horror of the situation, Ozick employs a form of rhetorical universemingling. To the bleak, unadorned style of Holocaust documentaries she adds the unexpected figurative language drawn from daily life. At auspicious moments she injects arresting metaphors and similes, painfully heightening the gaps between this infernal world and the prior ordinary world. Thus Rosa carrying Magda is a "walking cradle." The knees of the ravenous Stella were "tumors on sticks, her elbows chicken bones" (3). Rosa's driedup nipple is a "dead volcano . . . a chill hole" (4). Yet when Ozick is describing Magda, she uses figurative
Page 151
language which transforms the barbarous into the beautiful, the painful into the whimsical. Her rhetorical camouflaging of grim reality is the verbal equivalent of Rosa's psychic camouflaging of what she cannot bear to see. Thus Magda, hidden in the shawl, is a "squirrel in a nest" (4). The shining tooth in her starving mouth is like an "elfin tombstone of white marble" (4). Magda, thrown against the electrified fence, "looked like a butterfly touching a silver vine" (9), But ultimately the camouflage is only temporary and Rosa must grapple with her baby's heinous murder. Ozick also uses figurative language to obliquely provide us with Rosa's background information and present circumstances. She indirectly suggests that Magda is the product of an illicit union with a German Gentile: "Magda had," she writes, "another kind of face altogether, eyes blue as air, smooth feathers of hair nearly as yellow as the Star sewn into Rosa's coat. You could think she was one of their babies" (4). Similarly, we know that Rosa and Magda are in a concentration camp with crematoria by the one detail Ozick casually mentions: "the stink mixed with a bitter fatty floating smoke that greased Rosa's skin" (9). To heighten the brutish realities of this charnel house, Ozick uses one line of lyrical prose to describe its idyllic natural surroundings: "On the other side of the steel fence, far away, there were green meadows speckled with dandelions and deepcolored violets; beyond, even farther, innocent tiger lilies, tall, lifting their orange bonnets'' (8). But the one example of figurative language which tells us most explicitly about Rosa, Magda, and Stella, the key to unlocking their personalities and determining their fate, is the symbol of the shawl. It is used as the ragged swaddling cloth to conceal the Holocaust Madonna's unblessed child. It's the surrogate breast she sucks on for nurturance. It's the "clown" she plays with to keep her company. It's the "little house" she lives in. For Stella the shawl is a makeshift blanket to warm her frozen body. Stealing it from
Page 152
Magda and wrapping herself in it is her way of becoming a baby again and mothering herself with it. For Rosa the shawl is her magic shield to protect the child from the Nazis. It's the pacifier she uses to mollify her child and prolong her life. It's the gag she stuffs in her own mouth to muffle her cries of outrage when the child is taken from her. Finally, it's the Magdaflavored remnant she hugs as a substitute for the electrocuted Magda. Rosa is not, however, the Christian Madonna but Ozick's Jewish mother. Alan Berger convincingly argues that the shawl is Ozick's "literary symbol of the tallit, the Jewish prayer shawl," worn primarily by men but also by exceptional Jewish women through the ages. Those who put on this ritual garment are said to envelop themselves in holiness, attain the protection of the commandments, obey the will of God and thus become members of "the covenant community" (53). Initially, the shawltallit protects both Magda and Rosa when they possess it. Bereft of it, the exposed Magda is killed, and when Rosa silences her own screams with it, her life is spared. Berger further suggests that the "peculiar smell of cinnamon and almonds" emanating from Magda and saturating the shawl evokes the scent of the besamin, the spice box, which Jews sniff at the Havdalah service to mark the end of the Sabbath and to enable them to cope with the ordeals of the weekdays. So too, Berger believes the magical aroma of cinnamon and almonds in the midst of the concentration camp inferno prevents the contagion of death from infiltrating Rosa's being (54). The imagery of the spiritually invigorating spicebox and the symbol of the redemptive prayer shawl thus cause Berger to interpret the story more optimistically than Ozick intends it to be. Rosa exists in a place where "all pity was annihilated" (5), where no possibilities for human goodness exist. As she marches in a deathlike trance, she contemplates the terrible alternatives she has for saving Magda:
Page 153 She could leave the line for a minute and push Magda into the hands of any woman on the side of the road. But if she moved out of line they would shoot. And even if she . . . pushed the shawlbundle at a stranger, would the woman take it? . . . She might drop the shawl, and Magda would fall out and strike her head and die." (4)
Rosa feels even more apprehensive about her own niece Stella's diabolical intentions. She thought the emaciated girl "gazed at Magda like a young cannibal" (5), ready to devour her at any moment. But Rosa cannot prevent the destruction of Magda. She is even denied the heroism of making a futile attempt to rescue her or publicly mourn for her. In the electrified fence she hears "grainy sad voices" (9) which could very well be the voices of innocent Jews profanely sacrificed in the Churban. They are voices of mourning and agitation spurring her on to transform "lament into a liturgical voice of triumph" (Lowin, Cynthia Ozick 103). When Rosa sees Magda from afar, a tiny doll perched atop the shoulder of the helmeted Nazi, "the voices told her to hold up the shawl, high; the voices told her to shake it, to whip it, to unfurl it like a flag'' (9). They incite her to courageously fight for what is hers. But when Magda "splashed against the fence, the steel voices went mad in their growling, urging Rosa to run and run to the spot where Magda had fallen" (10). But Rosa's buried instinct for selfpreservation weakly surfaces, narrowly vanquishing her maternal instinct. Unlike the mother in Borowski's "This Way For the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen," who experiences no conflict in forsaking her child, Rosa struggles to suppress her desire to claim her child. Knowing that "if she let the wolf's screech ascending now through the ladder of her skeleton break out, they would shoot" (10), she desperately stuffs her mouth with Magda's shawl. She now becomes the cannibal, chewing the last remains of Magda, "tasting the cinnamon
Page 154
and almond depth" of her saliva, drinking "Magda's shawl until it dried" (10). Thus Rosa, with her prayer shawl, sucked dry of any faith, and without any sweet spices to counteract the bitterness in her life, cannot be a member of the "covenant community." Her body has been saved, but her spirit is devastated. She has been condemned to live in a more horrifying version of the Haggadah's Egypt. The Nazis, latterday henchmen of Pharaoh, have destroyed her firstborn Jewish child and there is no one to lead her out of bondage. In "Rosa," the sequel to "The Shawl," the eponymous protagonist some thirtyfive years later is now in a different kind of bondage. Of her preHolocaust life she claims, "Before is a dream. After is a joke'' (58). No longer the tragic young Madonna whose child the Holocaust crucified, she has become a middleaged eccentric, a comic "madwoman and a scavenger" (13). Living with her niece, Stella, whom she still blames for the death of Magda, she runs an antique store in Brooklyn which specializes in old mirrors, decrepit furniture, and assorted junk. Like Sol Nazerman, imprisoned in his pawnshop, reexperiencing his bitter Holocaust traumas, she is immured in her store, overwhelmed with the ruins of her past. After years of having her American customers show indifference to her Holocaust reminiscences and fail to appreciate her treasured relics, her smoldering rage explodes into temporary insanity. Like the couple of Bellow's comic play The Wrecker, who smash their apartment to bits and break free of the deceptions which infiltrate its walls, Rosa Lublin "murdered her store with her own hands" (46) and commited "a kind of suicide" (46). Ozick, however, treats this suicide with wry humor. She has Rosa offer a parodic Marxist rationale for her behavior: "Property misleads, brings false perspectives" (46). With deadpan understatement, Rosa offhandedly remarks, "I had a business, but I broke it up" (26). But the way she broke it up is straight out of slapstick comedy: "Part with
Page 155
a big hammer . . . part with a piece of construction metal I picked up from the gutter" (26), but the newspaper reports that this little lady of skin and bones axed her store to pieces. While Rosa, as a onewoman demolition squad, is comic, her destructive act also has symbolic meaning. With retaliatory fury, she is striking back at all the buildings, all the camps that incarcerated her. Unlike Primo Levi, who, after the Holocaust, turned his anger inward and committed suicide, she trades "blow for blow" and lashes out at oppressive forces which have curtailed her freedom. But Stella, the circumspect Holocaust survivor who tries her utmost not to cause trouble, persuades the authorities to let her ship the crazed Rosa to Florida, warning her that "one more public outburst puts you in the bughouse" (32–33). In Miami Rosa is still the mad woman, but she is the female version of the senex iratus of Plautine Roman comedy, who evokes laughter by lashing out at the failings of others but is loath to acknowledge her own failings. Suffering from a hardening of her jocular arteries, she is not amused by the facetious creatures she meets, but rather sardonically characterassassinates them: In Florida the men were of higher quality than the women. They knew a little more of the world, they read newspapers, they lived for international affairs. Everything that happened in the Israeli Knesset they followed. But the women only recited meals they used to cook in their old lives—kugel, pirogen, latkes, blintzes, herring salad. Mainly the women thought about their hair. They went to hairdressers and came out into the brilliant day with plantlike crowns the color of zinnias. Seagreen paint on their eyelids. (17)
Assuming that "satire is the literary equivalent of tar and feathers" (Highet 155), applied to creatures of defective mind and body who violate the standards of good taste, the norms of respectable conduct, Rosa maliciously tars and feathers the aged grotesques she encounters. Since her
Page 156
renegade humor was imprisoned with her in the camps and prevented from erupting, once liberated she unleashes it in full strength against the heedless world which forgot about her. Rather than have compassion for the geriatric Floridians with their distorted physical selves and their frantic desire to escape from aging, she is wittily contemptuous of them. Instead of Northrop Frye's anatomy of criticism, Rosa employs her wickedly funny criticism of anatomy: The restaurant was like a convalescent home. Everyone had canes, dowager's humps, acrylic teeth, shoes cut out for bunions. Everyone wore an open collar showing mottled skin, ferocious clavicles, the wrinkled foundations of wasted breasts . . . [24]. [Yet] in their reveries they were again young women with immortal pillar legs, the white legs of strong goddesses; it was only that they had forgotten about impermanence. . . . They believed in the seamless continuity of the body. (28)
Fancying herself an intellectual who in her youth had wanted to be another Marie Curie, Rosa is not only scornful of these old Jews' ludicrous preoccupation with the physical, she is also scornful of Jewish materialists, members of the garment industry who judged people according to the fabrics they wore and who renamed colors to make them more exotic. Like Edelshtein who mocks his audiences of painted ladies and soporific men in reform temples, Rosa employs what Northrop Frye terms "militant irony" (Anatomy of Criticism 223) to vent her spleen against these superficial people: They knew good material. Whatever you wore they would feel between their fingers and give a name to: faille, corduroy, herringbone, shantung, jersey, worsted, velour, crepe. . . . Yellow they called mustard. What was pink to everyone else, to them was sunset; orange was tangerine; red, hot tomato. (16)
However, when Rosa identifies with the characters she's
Page 157
observing, when she witnesses a faint duplication of her own torment, she occasionally tempers her satiric disparagement with rueful humor. She captures the pathos and folly of these flawed individuals ineptly coping with misspent lives who were also forgotten by their relatives: . . . the whole peninsula of Florida was weighted down with regret. Everyone had left behind a real life. Here they had nothing. They were all scarecrows, blown about under the murdering sunball with empty rib cages. . . . One could pity them: they were in love with rumors of their grandchildren, Katie at Bryn Mawr, Jeff at Princeton. To the grandchildren Florida was a slum. (16–17)
But to Rosa, Florida "was a zoo" (17). And she herself lives like an animal in a cage "among the elderly, in a dark hole, a single room in a 'hotel'" (13). Ozick creates the grimly funny incongruity of Rosa, a writer of elegant letters, a ''parablemaker," living like a shabby mouse in squalor, or Rosa, the iconoclast who smashed her storehouse of antiques and antiquated ideas, becoming a broken woman again living in a recreation of the subhuman conditions of the camps: "Squads of dying flies blackened the rope" of the dumbwaiter "swallowing her meager bags of garbage" (13). Ozick also comically denigrates the supposed glories of Florida's climate, whereby she transforms its paradisal image into an infernal one: "The streets were a furnace, the sun an executioner" (14). She then takes the sting out of the infernal and domesticates its hellish effects by using a whimsical culinary metaphor: "The sunlight was smothering—cooked honey dumped on their heads: one lick was good, too much could drown you" (22). Rosa, however, does not drown herself in the sunlight or in the corroded fountain of youth where her elderly neighbors, preening before mirrors, compulsively go to seek rejuvenation in the immediate present. Closeted in her room,
Page 158
Rosa drowns herself in the memories of the past where she compulsively writes letters to her dead daughter, Magda, whom she resurrects in her imagination. In certain of her reactions to Magda she resembles the comic stereotype of the JewishAmerican mother whose fondest wish is that her offspring be a wealthy professional who enjoys wedded bliss yet has permanent maternal attachments. Thus her first imaginary reincarnation of Magda is as a "beautiful young woman of thirty, thirtyone: a doctor married to a doctor; large house in Mamaroneck, New York; two medical offices, one on the first floor, one in the finished basement" (35). To make Magda even more singular and to compensate for the loss of her own unrealized ambitions, Rosa, in her second letter, transforms Magda into a professor of Greek philosophy at Columbia University. Endowing Magda with such a lofty position to spite her competitors and, by extension, Rosa's own detractors, she makes Magda far superior to Stella, "that pornographer" (43), who falsely accuses Magda of being Rosa's bastard daughter, of being sired by an SS man. Rosa's third and final image of Magda is, therefore, of a chaste girl of sixteen, ''all in flower" (64), who represents the innocent virgin, the unsullied preHolocaust self which the violated Rosa yearns to reclaim. Rosa, like Lars Andemening, finds it perfectly normal to commune with the dead and is comically unaware of how crazed she is for fabricating relationships with them. Like the distraught Herzog, she is obsessed with writing letters which she never mails and devising retorts which she never utters. Yet ironically Rosa accuses Stella of possessing a "strain of dementia" (41) for failing to acknowledge the reincarnated Magda and to confront "all other reality" (41). Rosa claims Stella has nothing because "every vestige of former existence is an insult to her" (41). Rosa, on the other hand, believes she has something to sustain her, Magda's shawl, which for her is the sacred remnant of her former
Page 159
existence. What was a "swaddling cloth," a "shroud," (31) and a tallit now becomes Rosa's fetish, a magic cloth causing the dead Magda to come alive. Like Ozick's other idolators, Rosa shuts out all life and clings to the object of her veneration with a psychic rigidity bordering on the ludicrous. Stella, functioning as a Sancho Panza to Rosa's Don Quixote, tries to puncture Rosa's illusions comically. She likens Rosa's slavish adoration of the shawl to those people of the "Middle Ages who worshiped a piece of the True Cross, a splinter from some old outhouse as far as anybody knew, or else they fell down in front of a single hair supposed to be some saint's" (32). Stella, however, cannot deter Rosa from worshiping the holy relic which enveloped the saintly Magda. Only creaturely concerns of this world, like the need to wash dirty clothes at the laundromat, temporarily interrupt Rosa's communication with the spirit of Magda in the other world. In this banal sphere she meets the seventyoneyearold, bedentured flirt Simon Persky, third cousin to Shimon Peres, who claims to be a kindred soul, since he, like her, is from Warsaw. Offended by his too instant familiarity and his rank commonness, she superciliously replies: "My Warsaw isn't your Warsaw" (19). Not to be rebuffed, he roguishly retorts: "As long as your Miami, Florida is my Miami, Florida" (19). These two exchanges, one angry, the other antic, initiate Ozick's equivalent of "the great American joke" (Rubin 3), whereby the twin oppositions of highbrow and lowbrow or genteel and vernacular battle one another and in the process produce funny incongruities in thought and language.* In The Shawl Ozick produces the great Yin *According to Louis D. Rubin, Jr., the humor of the "Great American Joke" "arises out of the gap between the cultural ideal and the everyday fact, with the ideal shown to be somewhat hollow and hypocritical, and the fact crude and disgusting" (12). This brand of humor figures prominently in the comic masterpieces of such American writers as Washington Irving, Samuel Clemens, William Faulkner, and John Barth. Their works contain "the interplay of the ornamental and the elemental, the language of culture
(footnote continued on the next page)
Page 160
glish joke by presenting the risible confrontation of direct opposites: Rosa, the haughty emancipated Jew, in conflict with Persky, the unassuming ghetto Jew. Rosa's affectation is all the more ridiculous because she speaks and writes the same fractured immigrant English as Persky. Yet she feels infinitely superior to him because in school "she had read Tuwim: 'such delicacy, such loftiness, such Polishness'" (20). Like her aristocratic father and poetic mother who mockingly dismissed Yiddish as the vulgar language of the plebeian Jew, she sardonically writes Persky off as a dandy refugee who in the past must have been a crass peddler selling "cheap clothes strung on outdoor racks, signs in jargoned Yiddish" (20). Persky, on the other hand, cherishes Yiddish, using it as a way of amiably reaching out to strangers, of establishing immediate camaraderie with them. With Rosa, he employes the mamaloshen, the mother tongue, as a way of mothering her, of nurturing her with food and kindness, which, in turn, makes her recall the long repressed Yiddish lullabies of her grandmother. Rosa also lords it over Persky because her father was an extraordinary man, "directorgeneral of the Bank of Warsaw" (66), an individual of great cultivation with a library of a thousand books—Latin, French, German, Polish. Conversely, Persky is an ordinary man, a buttonmaker, a variation of the Yiddish kleine menschele, the Chaplinesque little man who barely ekes by. Yet, ironically, Rosa, with a button missing and financially dependent on Stella, condescendingly views Persky an economic failure. She berates him for being a trivial person, "no more significant than a button" (55), and is enraged at the thought of his regarding her as "another button like himself, battered now and out of fashion, rolled into . . . Miami Beach, a box for useless buttons" (55). (footnote continued from the previous page) and the language of sweat, the democratic ideal and the mulishness of fallen human nature—the Great American Joke" (15). (See Rubin, "Introduction" in The Comic Imagination in American Literature, 3–16.)
Page 161
In contrast to irascible Rosa, the selfhating Jew quick to take offense, Persky, the selfaccepting Jew, is not easily offended and, in fact, is amused by Rosa's acerbity. When she caustically informs him who she is, giving her last name first, "Lublin, Rosa," he genially mocks her: "Only why backwards? I'm an application form? Very good. You apply, I accept" (21). In response to her hostile reiteration that "Your Warsaw isn't my Warsaw," he jocosely quips: "What is this? A song with one stanza? You think I don't know the difference between generations?" (22). In opposition to Rosa's bitter designation of her residence as "cramped,'' Persky goodhumoredly calls it a "cozy place." Employing the comedy of "verbal retrieval" (Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem 186), the transforming of a painful reality through the funny reformulation of it, Persky tells her: "For everything there's a bad way of describing, also a good way. You pick the good way, you get along better" (56). Rosa, the rigidly uncompromising moralist, claims she doesn't want to lie. Persky, who has learned to be pliable and embrace the spontaneous, the comic way of telling the truth, states: "Life is short. We all got to lie" (56). Rosa, however, still has great misgivings about Persky. Not only is he a selfconfessed liar, but she suspects him of being a thief as well, the perverse pilferer of her underpants at the laundromat. Her paranoia operating at full strength, she wonders whether "her pants might be in his pants" (54), since he might be "a sex maniac, a wife among the insane, his parts starved" (34). Just as Pope makes a mockheroic fuss about the rape of a lock, so Ozick creates a ludicrous todo about the ravishment of Rosa's bloomers. With the zeal of a knighterrant in quest of the Holy Grail, Rosa, too embarrassed to interrogate Persky, roams through Miami day and night in search of her lost underpants, "nylonpluscotton, the longthighed kind" (34). From the front of the seedy deli, the Kollins Kosher Kameo, to the beach behind the glitzy Hotel Marie Louise, she
Page 162
journeys, desperately seeking her missing underwear, which is magnified in her mind to be a missing chastity belt to prevent a recurrence of her violation by the Nazis. Without her protective undergarment, she feels "like a piece of torso, a broken statue, the human groin detached, the whole soul gone, only the loins left for kicking by strangers" (48). Yet despite her exhaustive search, she doesn't find her panties and ruefully concludes that they, like her life, are lost: "All of Miami Beach, empty; the sand empty. The whole wild hot neon night city: an empty search" (53). The only startling things Rosa finds on the beach are a barbed wire fence and two homosexuals fornicating in the sand who sexually mock her for invading their premises. Like Bellow's Mr. Sammler, inveighing against the degeneration of the times, she complains to the hotel manager about the decadence she witnesses. Only she employs comic hyperbole to make her point: "You got Sodom and Gomorrah in your back yard! You got gays and you got barbed wire" (51). The mention of barbed wire, however, causes Rosa to shift from the humor of camouflaged aggression to unconcealed aggression. Reliving her nightmarish experience with barbed wire fences in the concentration camp, she angrily tells the manager, "Only Nazis catch innocent people behind barbed wire" (51). When he informs her his name is Finkelstein, she claims he should know better. As an enraged Holocaust victim forsaken by American Jews, she asks him: "Where were you when we was there?" (51) She sardonically accuses him of "dancing in the pool in the lobby" (51). A madwoman again, she jeers at him as she leaves: "Eat your barbed wire, Mr. Finkelstein, chew it and choke on it!" (51). Rosa's ire is thus directed against those American Jews who tried to deny the Holocaust ever took place. The imposter Finkelstein, with his artificial red wig, with its ''burning false hair," is for Rosa the inauthentic Jew who fails to be his brothers' keeper.
Page 163
Rosa reserves an even more intense fury for those academics and health professionals who are so absorbed with the Holocaust solely to heighten their prestige and fatten their wallets. Whereas Ozick creates a benignly humorous clash between Rosa and Persky, she launches a bitterly satiric onslaught by Rosa, the authentic Holocaust victim, against the spurious Holocaust expert, Dr. Tree. Like the perverse tree which lures the Pagan Rabbi, this Tree, a bogus, puffedup professor, is also a caricature of the Tree of Knowledge. His knowledge, distilled from mindless research "funded by the Minew Foundation of the KansasIowa Institute for Humanitarian Context," is ridiculously jargonridden, abstruse and excessive in its gruesome medical detail. What is not funny to Rosa, however, is his practice of treating Holocaust victims as "survivors," clinical objects to be studied, and not as human beings. Accordingly, her response to his longwinded project, the investigation of the "metaphysical side of Repressed Animation" (37), the minimalized response of Holocaust victims under stress, is the comically direct and laconic: "Drop in a hole" (38). To further prevent Tree from ever interviewing her to, according to his risibly inelastic language, ''observe survivor syndroming within the natural setting" (38), she burns his letter, creating her own miniature Holocaust, her own burnt offering: "Burn, Dr. Tree, burn . . ." (39). And when she receives the actual volume of Repressed Animation, she hurls it at the ceiling, whereby it smashes into Persky's halffilled teacup, nearly breaking the Jew's fragile vessel. And like Abraham, who shattered the false idols, she vows: "The way I smashed up my store, that's how I'll smash Tree" (61). Thus, ironically, this study of repressed animation causes the unleashing of Rosa's animation to retaliate against those Holocaust vampires, feeding on maimed lives and twice victimizing them. Rosa's "burning Tree also becomes the burning bush from which God spoke to Moses, who led the Jews out of
Page 164
bondage" (Kauvar, "The Dread of Moloch" 119). Similarly, the newly animated Rosa, with Persky as reality instructor, leads herself out of the bondage of worshiping the magical shawl with its resurrection of the dead Magda. She is also freed from juggling three lives, "the life before, the life during, the life after," and then clinging to the ''life during" that "was Hitler" (58). She learns from Persky, the affirmative Jew, to adopt his comic view, which requires "a little forgetting" of the tragic past "if you want to get something out of life" (58). Because he is the embodiment of the ordinary, the unpretentious aspects of life, she discovers from him how to pull down vanity and become "a regular person" (57). For "the one offense . . . which comedy cannot endure is that a man should forget he is man" (Lynch 29). Thus Rosa, who in the Warsaw ghetto was furious she had to be billeted with "old Jew peasants worn out from their rituals and superstitions, phylacteries on their foreheads sticking up so stupidly, like unicorn horns" (67), now views herself as one of the plain people, like the workingclass Polish women who rode the tramcars with their heads of lettuce. Finally from Persky, with his comic overflow of affability, she realizes the value of communicating with a live human being. At the story's end, Rosa has her phone connected, bids farewell for the time being to her imaginary Magda, and gratefully awaits the arrival of Persky. And as Sholem Aleichem tells us in one of his train stories, "Sometimes God sends you a plain, ordinary passenger, the lively sort that likes to talk. And talk. And talk. His tongue doesn't stop wagging for a minute" ("The Man from Buenos Aires" 166). Persky s waggish talk prevents "Rosa" from being the bleak Holocaust diary of the deranged. It provides Rosa Lublin with the restorative humor that affords her detachment from her predicament and, at the same time, forces her to recognize it for what it is. Instead of reenacting the role of victim, she is able to see herself as a funny crazy
Page 165
lady who does odd things in strange places. Though some criticized Ozick for making Rosa into a madwoman, her madness, which is actually a form of outrage, is a sign she is not suffering from "repressed animation," but is alive and responsive. Fueled by her anger, Rosa is able to hurl her retaliatory wit, her "educated insolence," not only at imagined but at real enemies. This is not to say that one can laugh away the traumas of the Holocaust. But as Isak Dinesen said, "All sorrows can be borne if you put them in a story." With regard to the Holocaust, I would add, if you fill the story with judicious comic relief, it can provide a momentary respite from unmitigated despair. Cynthia Ozick, in The Shawl, has done just that. She has not, like an Elie Wiesel, created a phoenix art out of the ashes he barely escaped. Rather, she has forged an art out of her metaphoric presence in those ashes. Out of a sacred duty to regard herself as if she went forth from Egypt and, similarly, as if she escaped the Nazi fire, Ozick has in The Shawl created a new Holocaust Haggadah, a record of an experience that "happened directly and intensely'' to her, "not as mere witness but as participant" (Letter from Cynthia Ozick to Survivor, 20 April 1983.) But what is especially distinctive about her Holocaust Haggadah is that it is leavened with both her healing humor and her liturgical purpose, her resolve to "assure the continuity of Torah and Covenant" in the best and worst of times (Letter from Ozick to Survivor, 20 April 1983).
Page 166
IX — Conclusion: From Low to High Comedy When Cynthia Ozick was asked to analyze her own works, she replied, "I can no more . . . perform critical acts upon myself than go over Niagara Falls in a barrel. The thought of doing either one or the other is paralyzing" (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992). Ozick has, however, unwittingly captured the essence of her own work in her description of Saul Bellow's oeuvre as a "profane and holy comedy" with "no gods of nihilism; no gods of subjectivity; no philosophy of parody" (''What Drives Saul Bellow?" 54). Similarly, Ozick has written a "profane and holy" comedy of her own. With the exception of The Shawl, her major fiction has begun with levity, her equivalent of the profane. As such it has contained a fair share of flippancy, drollery, folly, whimsicality, jest and has manifested itself in such outward forms as slapstick, farce, grotesque realism, mockheroics, irony. Thus, Trust and "Levitation" open with forced witty exchanges of Jamesian drawingroom comedy whose object is not to communicate important matters but to impress others with personal cleverness and win support for private gain. Similarly, "Envy; or, Yiddish in America" and "Usurpation" begin with old jokes and wry insults uttered sotto voce at 92nd Street Y luminaries. The stories then contain hyperbolic confessions of autho
Page 167
rial jealousies and mischievously imagined character assassinations so that the covetous Edelshtein and the female narrator of "Usurpation," with their plaintive bids for fame, resemble Leo Rosten's description of the Yiddish language itself. "Steeped in sentiment, . . . sluiced with sarcasm," swinging between "shmaltz and derision" (xviii). With the "Rosa" and the ''Puttermesser and Xanthippe" stories, Ozick leaves the shmaltz behind and follows Flannery O'Connor's grotesque lead who shocks her audience with her theological freaks, her "large and startling figures" (O'Connor, "The Grotesque in Southern Literature 34). And so Ozick draws "large and startling pictures" of Xanthippe, the gargantuan female golem, and the survivor Rosa, the giant of Holocaust rage, who, in decadent New York and Miami, raise comic mayhem with their outrageous acts. They also produce Rabelaisian carnival laughter which "attacks all rules, regulations and hierarchies," revolts against any "preeminent and fixed" order, and pulls down to earth "all things lofty, grand and solemn" (Des Pres 222). In The Cannibal Galaxy and The Messiah of Stockholm, there are skewed portraits of ostrichmen in various states of hiding and their vulture colleagues who peck away at them. Unable to deflect their attacks with self protective comedy, Joseph Brill and Lars Andemening become the whipping boys of their own and others' raillery. Such expressions of levity in the beginnings of Ozick's works do not exist merely to amuse her readers or delight them with what a clever mirthmaker she is. Nor is she interested in creating interludes of "comic inventiveness" per se, or in "lawless playfulness" for the sheer sport of it (Roth, Reading Myself and Others 76). She does not want to be the comedian as pagan reveler indulging in what Philip Roth terms the "satyric, . . . the sheer pleasure of exploring the anarchic and the unsocialized" (76). Just as Ozick believes that literature must have tachliss, a higher purpose than art for art's sake, so she believes
Page 168
that the levity in her fiction must have a higher purpose than laughter for laughter's sake. In a number of her works she thus forsakes the satyric for the satiric and in place of idle risibility enlists her levity in the service of an energetic ridicule, steeped in learning, to attack vices, follies, stupidities, abuses. See thus sharply probes into suspect creatures and incisively diagnoses their ailment: theologically weary rabbis who choose Pan over Moses, deracinated Jewish writers who subscribe to the universal instead of the parochial, crazed Holocaust survivors who cannot forsake the dead for the living, hubristic artists who would rival God in the act of creation. Ozick thus proves herself to be a master of the Menippean cerebral form of satire "dealing less with people . . . than with mental attitudes," excelling in the ability to "handle abstract ideas and theories" and presenting "people as mouthpieces of the ideas they represent'' (Frye 309). Though Ozick minimizes her ideas by saying "We imagine our thought to be sovereign, when really it is the cerebration of fleas," her ideas in her satires are not the "feeblest assaults on the cosmic riddle" (Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen, 28 January 1992). They constitute a formidable barrage of intellectual exuberance, a stockpile of erudition buttressing her themes and overwhelming culpable pedants with a flood of their own jargon. Unlike Saul Bellow's satirists, who are, for the most part, male "junkies on thought" (The Last Analysis 10), Ozick's most educated and deft practitioners of derision are her female savants, Hester Lilt, Puttermesser, and Xanthippe. Their minds, flush "with ideas as if they were passions" ("Puttermesser and Xanthippe" 99), inundate the foolish with old and new midrashim whose multiple ironies obliquely recriminate the offenders. Ozick's bluestocking scoffers are descendants of George Eliot's matriarchal comics, whose minds "are as active as phosphorous, biting everything that comes near in the form that suited it," reproducing conventional wis
Page 169
dom and criticism in an "excellent pickle of epigrams" and guarding the "continuity of the community with a hawk eye" (George Eliot qtd. in Wilt 178). In rare instances Ozick's satire loses its complexity and deteriorates into pure invective, whereby, as she said of Arthur Chester, "satire wears out and reverts to snideness and snideness to open fury" ["Reflections (Alfred Chester's Wig)" 96]. Such is the case with Sheindel, the Pagan Rabbi's angry widow who hurls jeremiads at her natureloving husband, hanging himself by his prayer shawl in a public park. Without the consolation of rueful humor, she can only caustically respond: "And what would you like me to do there? Dance around a tree and call Greek names to the weeds?" (''The Pagan Rabbi" 37). In "Levitation" Lucy Feingold, the Christian convert to Judaism, cannot mask her scorn for Holocaustobsessed Jews. Without any mitigating gallows humor, she can only reveal naked contempt for them and retreat to her imaginary pagan orgies. And Ozick, in turn, gives these women no redeeming humor of selfawareness that would cause us to temper our wholesale condemnation of them. Because of such occasions when Ozick's satire causes an undisguised "blow in the back or the face" (Meredith 47), or when her ridicule is leveled at only "our unfortunate nature instead of our conventional life" (Meredith 47), her writing has been criticized for its parochial cruelty. Earl Rovit, for example, accuses Ozick of being a "fierce moralist" who creates a "language of just deserts" in such early stories as "An Education," "A Mercenary," "Virility," "Bloodshed," "Levitation," wherein she heartlessly skewers the "world of middleclass affectation—most especially in its intellectual pretentiousness" (Rovit 37). Consequently, her readers become detached from those characters who, he claims, resemble "mechanical victims caught in the mechanical precision of . . . cartoon fates" (37), with their compulsions becoming "flagrant vices excessively
Page 170
punished or . . . shamefully exposed" (37). At its worst, Ozick's vindictive language gives the impression, Rovit contends, of "being driven by an animosity or contempt grossly disproportionate" to the offenses committed; consequently, it runs the danger of being "so heavyhanded and excessive as to be . . . tiresomely predictable" (38). Fortunately, this cartoonlike style, crude, simplistic, and merciless, does not prevail in the best of Ozick's fiction. In "Envy," "Usurpation," "Puttermesser Paired," The Cannibal Galaxy, The Messiah of Stockholm, and ''Rosa" a second, more exalted language assumes supremacy: what Ozick calls her "corona" style. Defined as "interpretation, implicitness, the nimbus of meaning that envelops story" ("Innovation and Redemption: What Literature Means" 246), it is abundant in her liturgical literature, her "literature of midrash, of parable, where there is no visible principle or moral imperative," where the tale constitutes its own "world that decodes itself" (246). Thus in "Envy" Ozick masterfully recreates the selfcontained dying world of Yiddish with its rueful past, its love of wry paradox, its stringent ironies, its forlorn writers craving recognition, its spurious authors gaining undeserved attention. And in keeping with the Talmud's dictum "If you save a single life, it's as if you saved the world," Ozick, by creating a tale which saves the language, "saves worlds maybe. Galaxies. The Whole Universe" (83). In "Usurpation" Ozick provides us with a brilliant fictional treatise on the metaphysics of midrash and on the complex process of literary creation itself. And according to her review of William Gaddis's The Recognitions, she also provides us in "Usurpation" with "a mocking recognition of the implausibility of originality . . . about the thousand faces of the counterfeit, and therefore, ineluctably, about art and religion" (17). Similarly "Puttermesser Paired," outwardly a comic romance about mismated lovers incongruously acting as famous authors, is essentially a so
Page 171
phisticated parable about the impossibility of having total originality in art. While the parable acknowledges the necessity for imitation in art, it cautions against the imitation of another's life, which destroys a human being's opportunity for personal development, for recreation of the self. In The Cannibal Galaxy satiric disparagement of Joseph Brill is at times overshadowed by the subtle meaning found in Beulah Lilt's "calculated and enameled forms out of which a flaming nimbus sometimes spread" and in the brilliant midrashim of her mother, Hester Lilt. Similarly, the original image upon which the novel's title is based implies a more complex form of meaning than the sardonic comedy of revenge waged against vapid authority figures within the novel proper. The "cannibal galaxy" suggests the voracious Western Civilization that swallows up the authentic Jewish tradition as well as the Holocaust that has consumed Joseph Brill's life. In The Messiah of Stockholm, mockeries of the mistaken life, caricatures of conspirators, and parodies of spy thrillers frequently appear. At the novel's core, however, is a complex parable about the impossibility of gaining personal and collective redemption in the postHolocaust world through reliance on Scripture or on any other text of substance. But, according to Ozick, if we remember the martyrs, we can bring on the Messiah. Thus her novel, which memorializes Holocaust victims, is not only an elegy to them, but, in its own powerful way, hastens the coming of the Messiah. Rosa of The Shawl is Ozick's most fully realized martyr, whose "life blood pulses richly," whose quirky "opinions, gestures, vices and habits control the mechanism" of the story's plot (Tame qtd. in Sypher 211). Though Rosa, whose daughter was murdered in the camps, has spent the greater portion of her life in mourning, Ozick creates a Simon Persky, a latterday garrulous Tevya, who coaxes her to choose life. In his spirited persistence, Persky is like the Yiddish
Page 172
language itself, the "tongue that never takes its tongue out of its cheek," which exhibits "immense resourcefulness, immenser resilience, and immensest determination nottodie" (Rosten xviii). Ozick objects to her masterpieces being called allegories, since in allegory "the story stands for an idea and the idea can be stated entirely apart from the story" (Rainwater and Scheick, "An Interview with Cynthia Ozick" 262). Committed to the liturgical, she prefers these works to be regarded as parables, since she has written them in such a way that "story and idea are so inextricably fused that they cannot be torn free of each other" (Ozick qtd. in Rainwater and Scheick 263). In a similar fashion her parables can be viewed as deft amalgams of Aggadah and Halachah, as the artful intermingling of tale and law, imagination and prescription. Each component stimulates and reinforces the other for, according to the Hebrew poet Bialik, "the value of Aggadah is that it issues in Halachah" and, conversely, the value of Halachah is that it can bring Aggadah ''in its train" (Bialik qtd. in Ozick, "Bialik's Hint" 228). In other words, stories can transmit moral truths and moral truths can give rise to stories. Such a symbiotic relationship also exists between Ozick's profane and holy comedy. One needs the other for the fullest realization of itself. For "laughter without faith leads to despair" while "faith without laughter leads to dogmatism" (Hyers 24).* So, too, the comic vision of the black humorist slips into cynicism and degenerates into bitter pessimism, whereas the nononsense sermonizing of the prophet and priest is ruined by arrogance and pretension. In both directions lie these negative alternatives: absurdity and nihilism *According to Hyers, "humor as a profanation of the sacred . . . is to be differentiated from that which has no basis in the sacred, from that which is not grounded in faith. Religious expression functions within a delicate dialectic between faith and laughter. On the one side is the peril of idolatry; on the other side is the peril of cynicism" (24).
Page 173
on the one hand and rigid ideology and fanaticism on the other. Fortunately, in Ozick's best work there is an agile dialectic between the comic and the sacred, a deft integration between levity and liturgy. Thus when she blows into the narrow end of the shofar, the music she produces is not shrill or strident but modulated by wry notes and playful strains. At this point she reaches the peak of "high" comedy, which castigates people "without rancor, as if human blunders were seen from a godlike distance and also from within the blundering self" (Sypher 212). Then the laughter from Ozick's liturgical literature "is qualified by tolerance" and contains a "sympathy that comes only from wisdom" (Sypher 212). Her liturgical laughter is also her distinctive version of the ''laughter of Akiva," which does not prematurely despair but circumvents the forces of destruction and conveys the power of hope. Suffused with the sages' ancient and her new midrashic wisdom, it gives strength to the people and "is heard everywhere, enlarged" (Ozick, "Toward a New Yiddish" 175). The splendor of Cynthia Ozick's liturgical laughter spreads far.
Page 175
Selected Bibliography Primary Sources 1. Novels The Cannibal Galaxy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983; New York: E. P. Dutton/Obelisk, 1984. The Messiah of Stockholm. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987. The Shawl. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. Contains "Rosa," New Yorker 21 March 1983: 38–71; "The Shawl," New Yorker 26 May 1980: 33–34. Trust. New York: New American Library, 1966; New York: E. P. Dutton/Obelisk, 1983. 2. Collections of Stories Bloodshed and Three Novellas. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976; New York: E. P. Dutton/Obelisk, 1983. Contains Preface, "Bloodshed," "An Education," "A Mercenary," ''Usurpation (Other People's Stories)." Levitation: Five Fictions. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982; New York: E. P. Dutton/Obelisk, 1983. Contains "From a Refugee's Notebook," "Levitation," "Puttermesser and Xanthippe," "Puttermesser: Her Work History, Her Ancestry, Her Afterlife," "Shots." The Pagan Rabbi and Other Stories. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971; New York: Schocken Books, 1976; New York: E. P. Dutton/Obelisk, 1983. Contains "The Butterfly and the Traffic Light," "The Dock Witch," "The Doctor's Wife," "Envy; or, Yiddish in America," "The Pagan Rabbi," "The Suitcase," "Virility." 3. Collections of Essays Art & Ardor: Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983; New York: E. P. Dutton/Obelisk, 1984. Contains Foreword, "The Biological Premises of Our Sad Earth Speck," "Cultural Impersonation: 1. Bech, Passing; 2. Esau as Jacob," "DiaryKeeping," "A Drugstore in Winter," "Forster as Moralist: A Reply to Mrs. A. F.," "The Fourth Sparrow: The Magisterial Reach of Gershom Scholem," "The Hole/Birth Catalogue," "I. B.
Page 176
Singer's Book of Creation," "Innovation and Redemption: What Literature Means," "Justice (Again) to Edith Wharton," "Justice to Feminism: 1. Previsions of the Demise of the Dancing Dog; 2. Literature and the Politics of Sex: A Dissent," ''The Lesson of the Master," "Literary Blacks and Jews," "Literature as Idol: Harold Bloom," "Morgan and Maurice: A Fairy Tale," "Mrs. Virginia Woolf: A Madwoman and Her Nurse," "Out of the Flames: The Recovery of Gertrude Kolmar," "The Phantasmagoria of Bruno Schulz," "Remembering Maurice Samuel," "The Riddle of the Ordinary," "Toward a New Yiddish," "Truman Capote Reconsidered." Metaphor & Memory: Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. Contains: Forewarning, "The Apprentice's Pillar," "Bialik's Hint," "Crocodiled Moats in the Kingdom of Letters," "Cyril Connolly and the Groans of Success," "Emerging Dreiser," "The Function of the Small Press," "George Steiner's Either/Or," "Henry James's Unborn Child," "Italo Calvino: Bringing Stories to Their Senses," "Metaphor and Memory," "The Muse, Postmodern and Homeless," "North," "Of Basilisks and Barometzes," "On Permission to Write," "O Spilling Rapture! O Happy Stoup!" "Pear Tree and Polar Bear: A Word on Life and Art," "Portrait of the Artist as a Bad Character," "Primo Levi's Suicide Note," "The Question of Our Speech: The Return to Aural Culture," "Ruth," "The Seam of the Snail," "The Shock of Teapots," "Sholem Aleichem's Revolution," "A Short Note on 'Chekhovian,'" "The Sister Melons of J. M. Coetzee," "S. Y. Agnon and the First Religion," "A Translator's Monologue," "Washington Square, 1946," "What Drives Saul Bellow," "William Gaddis and the Scion of Darkness." 4. Uncollected Fiction "At Fumicaro." New Yorker 6 August 1984: 32–58. "The Laughter of Akiva." New Yorker 10 November 1980: 50–60. "Puttermesser Paired." New Yorker 8 October 1990: 40–75. "The Sense of Europe." Prairie Schooner 30 (June 1956): 126–38 (from the unpublished novel Mercy, Pity, Peace and Love). "Stone." Botteghe Oscure 20 (Autumn 1957): 388–414. 5. Uncollected Nonfiction "All the World Wants the Jews Dead." Esquire 82 (November 1974): 103–07.
Page 177
"A Bintel Brief for Jacob Glatstein." Jewish Heritage 14 (September 1972): 58–60. "Carter and the Jews: An American Political Dilemma." New Leader 30 (June 1980): 3–23. "The Evasive Jewish Story." Midstream 12 (February 1966): 78–80. "Four Questions of the Rabbis." Reconstructionist 18 (February 1972): 20–23. "Full Stomachs and Empty Rites." Congress BiWeekly 23 January 1967: 17–19. "Geoffrey, James, or Stephen." Midstream 3 (Winter 1957): 7–76. "George Steiner's Either/Or: A Response." Salmagundi 50–51 (Fall 1980–Winter 1981): 90–95. "Germany Even Without Munich." Sh'ma 13 (October 1972): 150–52. "Hadrian and Hebrew." Moment 1 (September 1975): 77–79. "Hanging the Ghetto Dog." New York Times Book Review 21 March 1976. 48–57. "The Holidays: Reply to Anne Roiphe" New York Times 28 December 1978: C6. "Holiness and its Discontents." Response 15 (Fall 1972): 87–93. "How to Profit More from the Teachings of Clara Schacht than from All the Wisdom of Aristotle, Montaigne, Emerson, Seneca, Cicero, et al." Esquire 87 (May 1977): 92–93, 134–38. "I Call You Beloved." The Hunter Magazine 2 (September 1982): 3–5. "If You Can Read This, You Are Too Far Out." Esquire 79 (January 1973): 74, 78. "Israel: Of Myth and Data." Congress BiWeekly 15 June 1973: 4–8. "The Jamesian Parable: The Sacred Fount." Bucknell Review 11 (May 1963): 55–70. "Letter to a Palestinian Military Spokesman." New York Times 16 March 1978: A23. Letter to Joseph Lowin. 17 September 1984. Letter to Sarah Blacher Cohen. 28 January 1992. Letter to Survivor. 20 April 1983. Letter to Victor Strandberg. 14 January 1982. "A Liberal's Auschwitz." Confrontation 10 (Spring 1975); 125–29. "My Grandmother's Pennies." McCall's 106 (December 1978): 30–34. "Notes Toward Finding the Right Question (A Vindication of the Rights of Jewish Women)." Forum 35 (SpringSummer 1979): 37–60.
Page 178
"Notes Towards a Meditation on Forgiveness." The Sunflower. Simon Wisenthal. New York: Schocken Books. 1976: 183–90. "On Jewish Dreaming." Talk at the University at Albany, SUNY. 19 November 1980. "On Living in the Gentile World." Modern Jewish Thought. Ed. Nahum N. Glatzer. New York: Schocken. 1977, 167–74. "An Opinion on the Ovarian Mentality." Mademoiselle 66 (March 1968): 20, 25. "Passage to the New World." Ms. 6 (August 1977): 70–72, 87. "Pay Fair." Savvy 1 (January 1980): 80. "Prayer Leader." Prooftexts 3 (January 1983): 1–8. "Reflections (Alfred Chester's Wig)." New Yorker 30 March 1992: 79–98. "Reflections on Hanukkah." New York Times Book Review 15 November 1987: 44–45, 59–62. Remarks. "Writing and the Holocaust." Conference, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York. 7 April 1987. "A Response to Josephine Knopp's 'The Jewish Stories of Cynthia Ozick.'" Studies in American Jewish Literature 1 (1975): 49–50. "The Role an Author Plays in Jewish Communal Life." The Jewish Week 11 July 1986: 19. "Science and Letters: God's Work—and Ours." New York Times Book Review 27 September 1987: 3, 51. "Torah as Feminism, Feminism as Torah." Congress Monthly September–October 1984: 7–10. "24 Years in the Life of Lyuba Bershadskaya." New York Times Sunday Magazine 14 March 1971: 27–29 (under the pseudonym Trudie Vocse). "The Uses of Legend: Elie Wiesel as Tsaddik." Review of Legends of Our Time by Elie Wiesel, Congress BiWeekly 9 June 1969: 16–20. "We Are the Crazy Lady and Other Feisty Feminist Fables." Ms. 1 (Spring 1972): 40–44; reprinted in The Conscious Reader: Readings Past and Present. Eds. Shrodes, Finestone, and Shugure. New York: Macmillan Co., 1974. 289–92. "We Ignoble Savages." Evergreen Review 3 (November–December 1959): 48–62. "What Has Mysticism to Do with Judaism?" Sh'ma 17 (February 1978): 69–71.
Page 179
"The Young Self and the Old Writer." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 164–67. 6. Interviews Grossman, Edward. "Trust the Teller." Jerusalem Post Magazine 19 September 1986, 6–7. Kaganoff, Peggy. "PW Interviews Cynthia Ozick." Publishers Weekly 27 March 1987, 33–34. Kauvar, Elaine M. "An Interview with Cynthia Ozick." Contemporary Literature 26:4 (1985): 376–401. Materassi, Mario. "Imagination Unbound: An Interview with Ozick." Salmagundi 94–95 (SpringSummer 1992): 85–113. Moyers, Bill. "Heritage Conversation with Cynthia Ozick." Transcript, WNETTV, New York, 3 April 1986. Ottenberg, Eve. "The Rich Visions of Cynthia Ozick." New York Times Magazine 10 April 1983, 47, 62–66. Rainwater, Catherine and William J. Scheick. "An Interview with Cynthia Ozick." Texas Studies in Language and Literature 25 (Summer 1983): 255–65. Teicholz, Tom. "Cynthia Ozick: The Art of Fiction XCV." The Paris Review 29 (1987): 155–90. Secondary Sources 1. Bibliography Chenoweth, Mary J. "Bibliographical Essay: Cynthia Ozick," Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 147–163. Currier, Susan, and Daniel J. Cahill. "A Bibliography of the Writings of Cynthia Ozick." Texas Studies in Literature and Language 25 (Summer 1983): 313–21. Lowin, Joseph. Bibliography. Cynthia Ozick. Boston: Twayne, 1988. 177–83. 2. Books Bloom, Harold, ed. Cynthia Ozick: Modern Critical Views. New York: Chelsea House, 1986. Friedman, Lawrence S. Understanding Cynthia Ozick. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991. Kauvar, Elaine M. Cynthia Ozick's Fiction: Tradition and Invention. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. Lowin, Joseph. Cynthia Ozick. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988.
Page 180
Pinsker, Sanford. The Uncompromising Fiction of Cynthia Ozick. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1987. Walden, Daniel, ed. The World of Cynthia Ozick. Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987). Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1987. 3. Articles, Essays, and Parts of Books Alexander, Edward. "Cynthia Ozick and the Idols of the Tribe." Midstream 30 (January 1984): 54–55. Apple, Max. "Wresting Life from the Void." The New Leader 12 December 1983: 14–15. Bell, Pearl K. "New Jewish Voices." Commentary 71 (June 1981): 62–66. Berger, Alan. "Cynthia Ozick: Judaism As a Religious Value System." Crisis and Covenant: The Holocaust in American Jewish Fiction. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. 49–59. Berger, Alan. "Cynthia Ozick: Judaism As a Secular Value System." Crisis and Covenant: The Holocaust in American Jewish Fiction. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986. 120–137. Bloom, Harold. "The Book of the Father." Review of The Messiah of Stockholm. New York Times Book Review 22 March 1987: 1, 36. Broner, E. M. Review of Levitation: Five Fictions. Ms. 94 (April 1982): 95. Burstein, Janet Handler. "Cynthia Ozick and the Transgression of Art." American Literature 59 (March 1987): 85–101. Chertok, Haim. "Ozick's Hoofprints." Modern Jewish Studies 6:4 (1987): 5–12. Cohen, Joseph. "'Shots': A Case History of the Conflict Between Relativity Theory and the Newtonian Absolutes." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 96–104. Cohen, Sarah Blacher. "Cynthia Ozick and Her New Yiddish Golem." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 105–10. Cohen, Sarah Blacher. "The Jewish Literary Comediennes." Comic Relief: Humor in Contemporary American Literature. Ed. Sarah Blacher Cohen. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978. 177–86. Cole, Diane. Dictionary of Literary Biography. 28 TwentiethCentury AmericanJewish Fiction Writers. Ed. Daniel Walden. Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1984. 213–25.
Page 181
Cole, Dianne. "I Want to Do Jewish Dreaming." Present Tense 10 (Summer 1982): 54–57. Currier, Susan. "Cynthia Ozick Entry." Dictionary of Literary Biography, Yearbook 1982. Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1983. 325–33. Edwards, Thomas R. "Review of 'Usurpation.'" New York Review of Books 1 April 1976: 34–35. Elias, Amy J. "Puttermesser and Pygmalion." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 64–74. Epstein, Joseph. "Fiction: Cynthia Ozick, Jewish Writer." Commentary 77 (March 1984): 64–69. Farr, Cecilia Konchar. "Lust for a Story: Cynthia Ozick's 'Usurpation' as Fabulation." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 88–95. Finkelstein, Norman. "The Struggle for Historicity: Cynthia Ozick." The Ritual of New Creation: Jewish Tradition and Contemporary Literature. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. 63–78. Fisch, Harold. "Introducing Cynthia Ozick." Response 22 (1974): 27–34. Gittenstein, R. Barbara. "The Temptation of Apollo and the Loss of Yiddish in Cynthia Ozick's Fiction." Studies in American Jewish Literature 3 (1983): 194–201. Harap, Louis. "The Religious Art of Cynthia Ozick." Judaism 33 (1984): 353–63. Harris, Robert R. "The Complex Magic of Cynthia Ozick." Saturday Review 9 February 1982: 58–59. Kauvar, Elaine M. "Cynthia Ozick's Book of Creation: Puttermesser and Xanthippe." Contemporary Literature 26:1 (1985): 40–54. Kauvar, Elaine M. "Courier for the Past: Cynthia Ozick and Photography." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 129–44. Kauvar, Elaine M. "The Dread of Moloch: Idolatry as Metaphor in Cynthia Ozick's Fiction." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 111–28. Knopp, Josephine. "The Jewish Stories of Cynthia Ozick." Studies in American Jewish Literature 1 (1975): 31–38. Kremer, S. Lillian. "The Dybbuk of All the Lost Dead: Cynthia Ozick's Holocaust Fiction." Witness through the Imagination. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989. 218–78. Kremer, S. Lillian. "The Splendor Spreads Wide: Trust and Cynthia Ozick's
Page 182
Aggadic Voice." Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 24–43. Lehman, David. "Chatting with the Zeitgeist." Newsweek 30 May 1983: 91–92. Lester, Elenore. "Author Cynthia Ozick Advocates Jewish Ideas in Fiction." Jewish Week 8 April 1983. Lowin, Joseph. "Cynthia Ozick and the Jewish Fantastic." Identity and Ethos, Ed. Mark H. Gelber. Bern: Peter Lang, 1986. 311–23. Lowin, Joseph. "Cynthia Ozick, Rewriting Herself: The Road from 'The Shawl' to 'Rosa.'" Since Flannery O'Connor: Essays on the Contemporary American Short Story. Eds. Loren Logsdon and Charles W. Mayer. Macomb: Western Illinois University Press: 1987. Lowin, Joseph. "Cynthia Ozick's Mimesis." Jewish Book Annual 42 (1984–85). 79–90. Lyons, Bonnie. "Cynthia Ozick as a Jewish Writer." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 13–23. Mort, JoAnn. "Cynthia Ozick and the Future of American Jewish Literature." Jewish Frontier 52 (January 1985): 20–21, 26. New, Elisa. "Cynthia Ozick's Timing." Prooftexts 9 (September 1989): 288–94. Pifer, Ellen. "Cynthia Ozick: Invention and Orthodoxy." Contemporary American Women Writers: Narrative Strategies. Eds. Catherine Rainwater and William Scheick. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1985. 89–109. Pinsker, Sanford. "Astrophysics, Assimilation, and Cynthia Ozick's The Cannibal Galaxy." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 75–87. Rosenberg, Ruth. "Covenanted to the Law: Cynthia Ozick." MELUS 9 (Winter 1982): 39–44. Rosenfeld, Alvin H. "Cynthia Ozick: Fiction and the Jewish Idea." Midstream 23 (August–September 1977): 76–81. Rosenfeld, Alvin H. "The Education of Joseph Brill." Midstream 30 (February 1984): 58–59. Rovit, Earl. "The Two Languages of Cynthia Ozick." Studies in American Jewish Fiction. 8 (Spring 1989): 34–49. Rush, Jeffrey. "Talking to Trees: Address As Metaphor in 'The Pagan Rabbi.'" Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 24–43. Schwartz, Howard. "Notes on 'The Pagan Rabbi.'" Gates to the
Page 183
New City. Ed. Howard Schwartz. New York: Avon Books, 1983. 676. Sokoloff, Naomi B. "Interpretation: Cynthia Ozick's Cannibal Galaxy." Prooftexts 6:3 (1986): 239–57. Sokoloff, Naomi B. "Reinventing Bruno Schulz: Cynthia Ozick's The Messiah of Stockholm and David Grossman's See Under: Love." AJS Review 13 (SpringFall 1988): 171–200. Stevenson, David L. "Daughter's Reprieve." Review of Trust. New York Times Book Review 17 July 1966: 29. Strandberg, Victor. "The Art of Cynthia Ozick." Texas Studies in Literature and Language 25 (Summer 1983): 266–312. Uffen, Ellen Serlen. "The Levity of Cynthia Ozick." Special issue of Studies in American Jewish Literature 6 (Fall 1987): 53–63. Weiner, Deborah Heiligman. 'Cynthia Ozick, Pagan vs. Jew (1966–1976)." Studies in American Jewish Literature 3 (1983): 179–83. Wisse, Ruth R. "American Jewish Writing, Act II." Commentary 61 (June 1976): 40–45. 4. Miscellaneous Agnon, S. Y. "Messiah." In Ir Um'loah (The City and All That Are Contained Therein). Jerusalem: Schocken, 1973. Aleichem, Sholem. "Hodl." 1904. Tevye the Dairyman and The Railroad Stories. Trans. Hillel Halkin. New York: Schocken, 1987. Aleichem, Sholem. "The Man from Buenos Aires." Tevye the Dairyman and The Railroad Stories. Trans. Hillel Halkin. New York: Schocken, 1987. Alter, Robert. "Jewish Humor and the Domestication of Myth." 1972. Jewish Wry: Essays on Jewish Humor. Ed. Sarah Blacher Cohen. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. 25–36, 158–77. Babel, Isaac. "Awakening." The Collected Stories of Isaac Babel. Ed. and Trans. Walter Morison. 1934. New York: New American Library, 1974. 305–13. Baeck, Leo. "Romantic Religion." Judaism and Christianity. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1958. 189–292, 212. Barreca, Regina. Introduction. Last Laughs: Perspectives on Women and Comedy. Ed. Regina Barreca. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1988. 3–22. Barreca, Regina. They Used to Call Me Snow White . . . But I Drifted. New York: Penguin Books, 1991.
Page 184
Barthes, Roland. Le Degre Zero Del'ecriture. Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1953. Bellow, Saul. "Arias." Noble Savage. New York: Meridian Books, 1961. 4–5. Bellow, Saul. Dangling Man. New York: Vangard, 1944. Bellow, Saul. Herzog. New York: Viking Press, 1964. Bellow, Saul. Introduction. Great Jewish Short Stories. Ed. Saul Bellow. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1963. 9–16. Bellow, Saul. The Last Analysis. New York: Viking Press, 1965. Bellow, Saul. "Literature." The Great Ideas Today. Eds. Mortimer Adler and Robert Hutchins. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1963. 135–79. Bellow, Saul. Some Notes on Recent Fiction." Encounter 21 (November 1963): 22–29. Bellow, Saul. "Where Do We Go from Here: The Future of Fiction." To the Young Writer. Ed. A. L. Bader, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965. 142– 48. Berger, Alan L. Crisis and Covenant: The Holocaust in American Jewish Fiction. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. Bergson, Henri. "Laughter." 1900. Comedy. Ed. Wylie Sypher. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1956. 61–190. Borowski, Tadeusz. This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen. 1959 New York: Penguin Books, 1976. Chase, Richard. Walt Whitman Reconsidered. New York: William Sloane Associates, 1965. Cohen, Sarah Blacher. "Introduction: The Variety of Humors." Ed. Sarah Blacher Cohen. Comic Relief: Humor in Contemporary American Literature. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978. 1–13. Cohen, Sarah Blacher. "The Jewish Folk Drama of Isaac Bashevis Singer." Ed. Sarah Blacher Cohen. From Hester Street to Hollywood: The JewishAmerican Stage and Screen. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983. 197–212. Cohen, Sarah Blacher, ed. Comic Relief: Humor in Contemporary American Literature. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978. Des Pres, Terrence. "Holocaust Laughter?" Writing and the Holocaust. Ed. Berel Lang. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1988. 216–33. Dundes, Alan, and Thomas Hauschild. "Auschwitz Jokes." Western Folklore. 42 (Oct. 1983): 249–60.
Page 185
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. "SelfReliance." 1841. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1903. Vol. 2 of The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Centenary Edition. 43– 90. "Enoch." Encyclopedia Judaica. New York: Macmillan, 1971. 794–95. Fackenheim, Emil L. God's Presence in History: Jewish Affirmations and Philosophical Reflections. New York: New York University Press, 1970. Feinberg, Leonard. Introduction to Satire. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1967. Feinberg, Leonard. The Satirist. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1963. Fielding, Henry. "Author's Preface." Joseph Andrews. 1742. Ed. Martin C. Battestin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961. 7–12. Fleg, Edmond. Why I Am a Jew. 1828, Trans. Louise W. Wise. New York: Arno Press, 1975. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. New York: Atheneum, 1966. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Mad Woman in the Attic. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979. Glatstein, Jacob. "The Fame of Isaac Bashevis Singer." Congress BiWeekly 27 December 1965. 17–18. Glatzer, Nahum N., ed. Modern Jewish Thought. New York: Schocken, 1977. Goldman, Albert. "Boyman, Schlemiel: The Jewish Element in American Humour." Explorations. Eds. Murray Mindlin and Chaim Bermant. London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1967. 3–17. Goldsmith, Arnold. The Golem Remembered: 1909–1980. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981. Grossman, David. See Under: Love ('Ayen 'erekh 'ahavah). Jerusalem: Hakibbutz Hameuhad, 1986. Handelman, Susan A. Slayers of Moses: The Emergence of Rabbinic Interpretation in Modern Literary Theory. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982. Hartman, David. "Creativity and Imitatio Dei." S'Vara: A Journal of Philosophy and Judaism 2 (Spring 1991): 36–43. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Blithedale Romance. 1852. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Vol. 5 of The Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Standard Library Edition, 1883. 15 vols. 313–600. Highet, Gilbert. The Anatomy of Satire. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1962. Hobbes, Thomas. From Leviathan, I:6 The Philosophy of Laughter
Page 186
and Humor. Ed. John Morreall. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987. 19–21. Hoffman, Lawrence A. Beyond the Text: A Holistic Approach to Liturgy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. Holder, Alan. Three Voyagers in Search of Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966. Holman, C. Hugh. ''Laughter in the South." Comic Relief: Humor in Contemporary American Literature. Ed. Sarah Blacher Cohen. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978. 87–104. Howe, Irving. Introduction. The Best of Scholem Aleichem. Eds. Irving Howe and Ruth R. Wisse. Washington, D.C.: New Republic Books, 1979. vii–xxvii. Howe, Irving. Introduction. A Treasury of Yiddish Stories. Eds. Irving Howe and Eliezar Greenberg. New York: Viking Press, 1953. 1–71. Hyers, M. Conrad. "The Comic Profanation of the Sacred." Holy Laughter. Ed. M. Conrad Hyers. New York: The Seabury Press, 1969. 9–27. James, Henry. The Aspern Papers. 1888. Ed. Leon Edel. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1963. Vol. 6 of The Complete Tales of Henry James. 12 vols. 275– 382. James, Henry. "The Beast in the Jungle." 1903. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. Vol. 17 of The Novels and Tales of Henry James. 59–127. Knox, Israel. "The Traditional Roots of Jewish Humor." Holy Laughter. Ed. M. Conrad Hyers. New York: The Seabury Press, 1969. 150–65. Kugel, James L. "Two Introductions to Midrash." Midrash and Literature. Eds. Geoffrey H. Hartman and Sanford Budick. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. 77–104. Leacock, Stephen. Humour and Humanity. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1938. Lelchuk, Alan. "On Satirizing Presidents: An Interview with Philip Roth." Atlantic 228 (December 1971): 81–88. Lempriere, J. A Classical Dictionary. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1951. Lipman, Steve. Laughter in Hell. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson Inc., 1991. Little, Judith. Comedy and the Woman Writer: Woolf, Spark and Feminism. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. Lynch, William F. "The Humanity of Comedy." Holy Laughter. Ed. M. Conrad Hyers. New York: Seabury Press, 1969. 28–43.
Page 187
Mack, Maynard. "The Muse of Satire." Yale Review 41 (1951): 80–92. Maimonides. Guide of the Perplexed. 1:54. qtd. in David Hartman. "Creativity and Imitatio Dei." S'Vara: A Journal of Philosophy and Judaism. 2 (Spring 1991): 36–43. Malamud, Bernard. "The Magic Barrel." The Magic Barrel. New York: Random House, 1958. Malamud, Bernard. "The Silver Crown." The Stories of Bernard Malamud. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1983. 307–328. Marshall, Denise. "Slaying the Angel and the Patriarch: The Grinning Woolf." Last Laughs: Perspectives on Women and Comedy. Ed. Regina Barreca. New York: Gordon Breach, 1988. 148–78. Melville, Herman. Moby Dick. 1851. New York: BobbsMerrill Company, 1964. Meredith, George. "An Essay on Comedy." 1877. Comedy. Ed. Wylie Sypher. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1956. 3–57. Monro, D. H. Argument of Laughter. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1963. Neher, Andre. The Exile of the Word: From the Silence of the Bible to the Silence of Auschwitz. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1981. Niebuhr, Reinhold. "Humor and Faith." Holy Laughter. Ed. M. Conrad Hyers. New York: The Seabury Press, 1969. 134–49. O'Connor, Flannery. "Some Aspects of the Grotesque in Southern Literature." Mystery and Manners. Eds. Sally and Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969. 36–50. Peretz, Isaac Leib. "What Our Literature Needs." Trans. Nathan Halper. Eds. Irving Howe and Eliezer Greenberg. Voices from the Yiddish. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. 25–31. Polhemus, Robert M. Comic Faith. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Rabkin, Erie S. The Fantastic in Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976. Reik, Theodore. Jewish Wit. New York: Gamut Press, 1962. Ringelblum, Emmanuel. Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto. Ed. and Trans. Jacob Sloan. New York: Schocken Books, 1974. Rosenfeld, Alvin H. Imagining Hitler. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. Rosten, Leo. The Joys of Yiddish. New York: McGrawHill Book Company, 1968. Roth, Philip. "Afterword: A Talk with the Author." Milan Kundera.
Page 188
The Book of Laughter and Forgetting. 1979. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 229–37. Roth, Philip. "The Prague Orgy." Zuckerman Bound. New York: Farrar, Straus Giroux, 1985. 701–84. Roth, Philip. Reading Myself and Others. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975. Rubenstein, Richard L. After Auschwitz: Radical Theology and Contemporary Judaism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Rubin, Louis D., Jr. "Introduction: The Great American Joke." The Comic Imagination in America. Ed. Louis D. Rubin, Jr. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1973. 3–16. Sadoff, Dianne F. Monsters of Affection: Dickens, Eliot & Bronte on Fatherhood. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982. Samuel, Maurice. In Praise of Yiddish. New York: Cowles Book Company, Inc., 1971. Samuel, Maurice. The World of Sholom Aleichem. New York: Schocken Books, 1943. Santayana, George. Soliloquies. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1922. Sartre, JeanPaul. AntiSemite and Jew. 1946. Trans. George J. Becker. New York: Schocken Books, 1965. Schlesinger, Kurt. "Jewish Humour as Jewish Identity." International Review of Psychoanalysis 1979: 1–14. Scholem, Gershom. The Messianic Idea in Judaism and Other Essays on Jewish Spirituality. New York: Schocken Books, 1971. Scholes, Robert. The Fabulators. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967. Schulz, Bruno. Sanatorium under the Sign of the Hourglass. 1937. Trans. Celia Wieniewska. London: Picador, 1980. Schulz, Bruno. The Street of Crocodiles. 1934. Trans. Celia Wieniewska. New York: Penguin Books, 1977. Scott, Nathan A., Jr. "The Bias of Comedy and the Narrow Escape into Faith." The Christian Scholar 44 (Spring 1961): 9–39. Segal, Ora. The Lucid Reflectors: The Observer in Henry James' Fiction. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969. Shine, Muriel G. The Fictional Children of Henry James. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969. Shmeruk, Khone, ed. We Polish Jews. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1984. Showalter, Elaine. "Women Writers and the Double Standard."
Page 189
Women in Sexist Society. Eds. Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Moran. New York: New American Library, 1972. Shulman, Robert. "The Style of Bellow's Comedy." PMLA 83 (March 1968): 109–117. Silberschlag, Eisig. Saul Tchernikhovsky: Poet of Revolt. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968. Singer, Isaac Bashevis. "The Manuscript." Old Love and Other Stories. New York: Fawcett, 1979. 207–16. Singer, Isaac Bashevis. "Nobel Lecture." Yiddish SummerFall 1985: 169–72. Solotorevsky, Myrna. "The Model of Midrash and Borges's Interpretive Tales and Essays." Midrash and Literature. Eds. Geoffrey H. Hartman and Sanford Budick. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. Soloveitchik, Rabbi Joseph B. Halakhic Man. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1983. Stedmond, John M. The Comic Art of Laurence Sterne. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967. Stern, David. "Agnon: A Story" Response 17 (1973): 7–32. Sypher, Wylie. "Our New Sense of the Comic." Comedy. Ed. Wylie Sypher. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1956. 193–214. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre. Trans. Richard Howard. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975. Tuttleton, James W. The Novel of Manners in America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972. Wall, Rabbi Max. "Eulogy for Rabbi Hyam Kieval." 14 May 1991, Albany, New York. Weiss, Daniel. "Caliban on Prospero: A Psychoanalytic Study of the Novel, Seize the Day." Psychoanalysis and American Fiction. Ed. Irving Malin. New York: Dutton, 1965. 279–307. Wilt, Judith. "The Laughter of Maidens, the Cackle of Matriarchs: Notes on the Collision Between Comedy and Feminism." Women and Literature 1 (1980): 173– 196. Wisse, Ruth R. Afterword. A Special Issue: International Jewish Writing: From the Bellagio Conference. Prooftexts 4 (January 1984): 107–10 Wisse, Ruth R. "American Jewish Writing, Act II." Commentary 61 (June 1976): 40–45. Wisse, Ruth R. I. L. Peretz and the Making of Modern Jewish Culture. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991.
Page 190
Index A Akiva, Rabbi, 12324, 125 Aleichem, Sholom, 3, 1819, 164 "All the World Wants the Jews Dead" (1982), 88 Allegory: Ozick's on descriptions of works as, 172 Alter, Robert, 73 AntiSemitism: in "Envy," 60 in "Levitation," 71 in the Puttermesser stories, 88 in The Cannibal Galaxy, 109, 110 Aristotle, 117 Assimilation: and antiSemitism in the Puttermesser stories, 88, 9192 B Babel, Isaac, 68 Barreca, Regina, 82 Barth, John, 10 Barthes, Roland, 79 Bellow, Saul: worldview compared to Ozick's, 3 Ozick's characters and guilt, 7 idolatry in Ozick's characters, 89 Ozick on comedy of ideas and, 16 Puttermesser stories and, 92, 99 The Shawl and, 154, 162 Ozick's description of works of, 166 satire compared to Ozick's, 168 Berger, Alan, 152 Bergson, Henri, 5, 8, 9, 16 Bialik, Chaim Nachman, 115, 121 "Bialik's Hint" (1989), 11112, 115 Bloom, Harold, 78, 131, 140 Borowski, Tadeusz, 14850, 153 Broner, E. M., 96 C Caillois, Roger, 67 The Cannibal Galaxy (1983): idolatry in Ozick's characters, 9 female characters and comedy of ideas, 15 analysis of as comic art, 10825 low comedy in, 167 as high comedy, 171 Character: Ozick's fiction as comedy of, 410 Ozick's borrowing and reinvention of renowned literary figures as, 102 Chase, Richard, 17 Chester, Arthur, 169 Christianity: and Judaism in Trust, 3132, 3940, 4546 and Judaism in "Levitation," 7071 ridicule of in the Puttermesser stories, 8889 Classical feminism: Ozick as a feminist, 8687 Comedy: Aristotelian definition of, 12 Ozick's view of human nature, 24 of character, 410 realism and the grotesque, 1012 of ideas, 1216 of language, 1620 Trust as social, 2223 criticism of women writers of, 8284, 8586 Ozick's feminism and, 8687 Swift on, 115 Holocaust and humorous writing, 14647, 165 humor of the "Great American Joke," 15960 low and high in Ozick's works, 16673 Criticism, literary: satire of in "Usurpation," 7980 and comedy written by women, 8284, 8586 D Des Pres, Terence, 14647 Dinesen, Isak, 165 E Eliot, George: influence on Ozick's comedy of ideas, 16, 16869 narrator of Trust and, 31 critical response to women writers, 8586 and the Puttermesser stories, 101104, 105, 106 Elisha ben Abuyah, 65 Enlightenment: and Jewish identity in The Cannibal Galaxy, 109, 11112, 121 "Envy; or, Yiddish in America" (1971): Ozick's characters and selfpity, 7 Yiddish literature and Ozick's comedy of language, 18 analysis of as
Page 191
comedic art, 4862 low comedy in, 16667 as high comedy, 170 Epstein, Joseph, 7172 F Fackenheim, Emil, 147 Father: search for in Trust, 3141 quest for paternity in The Messiah of Stockholm, 12728, 14244 Feminism: Ozick on literary criticism and women writers, 8384 Ozick as classical feminist, 8687 Fielding, Henry, 6 Folklore: and legend in Ozick's fantastic fiction, 6768 Freud, Sigmund, 35, 49 Frye, Northrop, 15, 156 G Gaddis, William, 18, 170 Gender: narrator in Trust, 24 Glatstein, Jacob, 5455 Golem: symbolism of in the Puttermesser stories, 9396 Greek mythology: and sexism in The Cannibal Galaxy, 119 See also Hellenism Grotesque, the: comic situation of and realism 1012 low comedy in Ozick's works, 167 H Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 28, 35, 9697, 122 Hebrew: learning of in the Puttermesser stories, 91 Hellenism: and Jewish writers in "Usurpation," 8081 and Judaism in The Cannibal Galaxy, 11112 History: and Holocaust in Trust, 3637 as subject of Trust, 41 Holocaust: Ozick's worldview and fictional treatment of, 3, 12 in Trust, 2931, 3739, 46 in "Envy," 57 in "Levitation," 70, 71 in The Cannibal Galaxy, 110, 111, 117, 121 in The Messiah of Stockholm, 127, 13335, 14243 humorous writing and, 14647 in The Shawl, 14765 Human nature: comedy and Ozick's view of, 24 Huxley, Aldous, 1 Hypocrisy: freedom of Ozick's comedy from, 2 satire of in "Envy," 56 I Ideas: Ozick's comedy of, 1216 in Trust, 23 in "Levitation," 69 in Ozick's midrashic fantasies, 81 Identity. See Jews Idolatry: Ozick's characters and, 810 in The Messiah of Stockholm, 132, 14041 in The Shawl, 159 Imitation: the Puttermesser stories as parables on, 105106 Irony: Ozick on use of, 14 J James, Henry: influence on Ozick, 16, 105 Trust and, 2122, 2324, 2526, 2728, 29, 30, 32, 41, 44 The Messiah of Stockholm and, 138 Jews: Trust and Ozick as Jewish novelist, 30 identity in "Levitation," 71 writers and Hellenism in "Usurpation," 8081 identity in the Puttermesser stories, 88, 9192 identity and antiSemitism in The Cannibal Galaxy, 10925 identity and satire in The Messiah of Stockholm, 131, 143 See also Judaism Joyce, James, 6, 44 Judaism: Ozick's comedy of ideas, 1516 and Christianity in Trust, 3940, 4546 Yiddish language and culture in "Envy," 4862 and Christianity in "Levitation." 7071 Ozick's criticism of American, 107, 125 and Hellenism in The Cannibal Galaxy, 11012 qualities of the Messiah, 143 integration of levity and liturgy in Ozick's works, 17273 See also Jews Justice: and religion in Trust, 3940 K Kremer, Lillian, 13738 Kugel, James, 64 Kundera, Milan, 4 L Lacan, Jacques, 36 Landis, Joseph, 94 Language: Ozick's comedy of, 1620 in Trust, 4244 Yiddish in "Envy," 4862 "The Laughter of Akiva" (1980), 107108, 110, 173 Leacock, Stephen, 11 Legend: and folklore in Ozick's fantastic fiction, 6768 "The Lesson of the Master" (1983), 106 "Levitation" (1982): Ozick's characters
Page 192
and selfpity, 7 analysis of as comedic art, 6872 George Eliot's relationship with George Lewes and, 101 Ozick's satire as caustic, 169 Literature: Ozick's testicular theory of, 8384 See also Criticism, literary Loew, Rabbi Jacob, 93, 95, 96 Lowin, Joseph, 5455, 61, 119 M Malamud, Bernard, 72, 74, 77, 91 Maugham, Somerset, 12 Melville, Herman, 3, 18 Meredith, George, 15 The Messiah of Stockholm (1987): Ozick's characters and guilt, 7 analysis of as comedic art, 12645 low comedy in, 167 as high comedy, 171 Midrash: folklore and legend in "The Pagan Rabbi," 6768 and Judaism in The Cannibal Galaxy, 11925 parable as high comedy, 170 Milton, John, 97 Mother: Ozick's Jewish in The Shawl, 152 N Nabokov, Vladimir, 7 Narrator: and gender in Trust, 2327 O O'Connor, Flannery, 5, 59, 167 Orwell, George, 123 Ovid, 66 Ozick, Cynthia: explanation for comedy in own works, 12 influence of Henry James on, 2122 knowledge of Yiddish language and tradition, 4748 realism and fantastic fiction of, 6364 and critical perception of comedy written by women, 8284 as a feminist, 86 political satire of, 107 satire of revenge on American authority figures, 123 views about illicit nature of fiction, 137 authorial selfmockery and borrowing of literary texts, 13738 conception of writer as idolator, 142 Holocaust and use of humor, 165 low comedy in works of, 16667 belief in higher purpose of levity in fiction, 16768 high comedy in works of, 17073 P "The Pagan Rabbi" (1971), 6468 Parable: as high comedy in Ozick's works, 170, 172 Peretz, I. L., 19, 58, 61 Plath, Sylvia, 31, 134 Plato, 13, 93 Poetry: language of Trust, 45 Pope, Alexander, 9, 161 "Previsions of the Demise of the Dancing Dog" (1983), 8384 Priestley, J. B., 82 Protestantism, 3132 Puttermesser stories (1982): comedy of language in, 18 analysis of as comedic art, 87106 Ozick's political satire in, 107 low comedy in, 167 as high comedy, 168, 17071 Pynchon, Thomas, 10 R Realism: and comic situation of the grotesque, 1012 Ozick's fantastic fiction and, 6364 Reik, Theodore, 19 Romantic comedy: in Puttermesser stories, 90, 17071 Rosenberg, Ruth, 78 Rosenfeld, Alvin, 13, 133 Roth, Philip: Ozick's comic vision compared to, 4, 13, 14 "Envy" and, 51 dedication of The Messiah of Stockholm to, 13940 on comedian as pagan reveler, 167 Rovit, Earl, 98, 135, 13637, 16970 Rubin, Louis D., Jr., 15960 S Samuel, Maurice, 1718, 60 Sand, George, 86 Santayana, George, 20 Sartre, JeanPaul, 71, 109 Satire: Ozick's comedy of ideas and, 15 Ozick and Menippean cerebral form of, 168 Scholem, Gershom, 143 Schwartz, Howard, 65 Scott, Nathan, 12, 910 Selfreflexivity: as comic strategy in "Usurpation," 7879 Sexism: in The Cannibal Galaxy, 118 See also Feminism Sexuality: Ozick's view of in Trust, 3435 Shakespeare, William, 123
Page 193
The Shawl (1989): masochism of Ozick's characters, 67 idolatry in Ozick's characters, 9 irony in Ozick's comedy of ideas, 15 Yiddish literature and comedy of language in, 19 Puttermesser stories and, 100 analysis of as comedic art, 14765 as high comedy, 17172 Shelley, Mary, 97 Singer, Isaac Bashevis, 5455, 5960, 138 Social comedy, 2223 Soloveitchik, Rabbi Joseph, 106 Strandberg, Victor, 35, 37 Swift, Jonathan, 115, 126 Sypher, Wylie, 12 T "Toward a New Yiddish" (1983), 101 Trilling, Lionel, 23 Trust (1966) 1213, 18, 2246, 83, 127 Twain, Mark, 12 U "Usurpation" (1976): Ozick's characters and guilt, 7 Ozick's characters and idolatry, 9 Ozick on Jewish writers and comedy in, 13 Yiddish sources and comedy of language in, 18 analysis of as comedic art, 7281 authorial selfmockery in, 137 low comedy in, 16667 as high comedy, 170 V "Virility" (1971), 7, 8385 W Wiesel, Elie, 148 Wilde, Oscar, 118 Worldview: comic situation of grotesque realism and Ozick's sardonic, 11 Y Yiddish: literature and Ozick's comedy of language, 1719 Ozick's knowledge of language and tradition, 4748 in "Envy," 4862 Ozick's definition of New literature, 98
Page 194
SARAH BLACHER COHEN is Professor of English at the University at Albany, State University of New York, where she teaches drama, comedy, playwriting, and JewishAmerican literature. She is the author of Saul Bellow's Enigmatic Laughter and editor of Comic Relief: Humor in Contemporary American Literature; From Hester Street to Hollywood: The JewishAmerican Stage and Screen; and Jewish Wry: Essays on Jewish Humor. She is the author of the prizewinning comedy The Ladies Locker Room, and coauthor of the musical Sophie, Totie & Belle, about the late entertainers, Sophie Tucker, Totie Fields, and Belle Barth. With Nobel Laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer, she collaborated on Schlemiel the First, produced at New York's Jewish Repertory Theatre, and with Nobel Laureate Saul Bellow's permission she dramatized his story "The Old System," whose performance was sponsored by the New York State Writers Institute at Albany's Lew Swyer Theater at the Egg.