Cosa V: An Intermittent Town
in Rome Memoirs oftheAmerican Academy
Supplementary VolumeII
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Cosa V: An Intermittent Town
in Rome Memoirs oftheAmerican Academy
Supplementary VolumeII
CosaV: AnIntermittent Town, Excavations 1991-1997
ElizabethFentress with John Stefano Bodel,T.V.Buttrey, Fernanda Camaiani, LauraCerri, Cavari, EnricoCirelli, Sergio Fontana, Elisabetta Gliozzo,Katherine Gruspier, Elisa Gusberti, Michelle Hobart, Valentina Lolini, Francesca Lunghetti, Alex Moseley, SilviaNerucci, AdamRabinowitz, Alessia Rovelli, RabunTaylor, C. J. VeravonFalkenhausen Simpson,
PUBLISHED
FOR THE AMERICAN
ACADEMY
IN ROME
by TheUniversity ofMichigan Press AnnArbor, Michigan 2003
Copyright(C by the Universityof Michigan2004 All rightsreserved Published in the United Statesof Americaby The Universityof MichiganPress Manufacturedin the United Statesof America ePrinted on acid-freepaper 3 2 4 2007 2006 2005 2004
1
No part of thispublicationmaybe reproduced,stored in anyformor by in a retrievalsystem,or transmitted anymeans,electronic,mechanical,or otherwise,without the writtenpermissionof the publisher.
Library. A CIP catalogrecord forthisbookis availablefromtheBritish Data Cataloging-in-Publication Library ofCongress Fentress,Elizabeth Cosa V: an intermittent town,excavations1991-1997 / Elizabeth Fentress withJohn Bodel ... [et al.]. p. cm. - (Memoirsof the AmericanAcademyin Rome. Supplementaryvolume; 2) Includes bibliographicalreferencesand index. ISBN 0-472-11363-1(cloth: alk. paper) 1. Cosa (Extinctcity) 2. Excavations (Archaeology)-Italy.3. Italy-Antiquities,Roman. I. Title: Cosa 5. II. Bodel, JohnP., 1957- III. Title. IV. Series. DG70.C63F46 937_.5-dc2l
2004 2003055996
To thediggers
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
ix
1
ElizabethFentress
PART I: THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
1 2 3 4 5 6
Cosa intheRepublicandEarlyEmpire withJohnBodel,AdamRabinowitz, andRabunTaylor ElizabethFentress betweentheThirdandtheFifthCenturies A.D. Settlement ElizabethFentress The Sixth-Century Settlement withKatherine and VeravonFalkenhausen ElizabethFentress Gruspier The EarlyMedievalSettlement withKatherine ElizabethFentress Gruspier oftheTwelfth Ansedonia:The Settlement theFourteenth Centuries through MichelleHobart AnIntermittent Conclusions: Settlement ElizabethFentress
13 63 72 92 120 138
PART II: THE STRATIGRAPHY
ElizabethFentress andAdamRabinowitz Thissectionappearson theWorldWideWebat http://wwx.press.umich.edu/webhome/cos PART III: THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
The WallPaintings andtheDecorativePavements StefanoCamaiani,FernandaCavari,ElisabettaGliozzo, Valentina andSilviaNerucci Lolini,Francesca Lunghettzi andFurniture Sculpture RabunTaylor Terracottas ElizabethFentress
145 191 214
viii
CONTENTS
PART IV: THE FINDS
Terracottas fromTempleE in TrenchForumVI RabunTaylor RomanMinorObjects,1990-1997
223
LateRomanandMedievalMinorObjects,1948-1997
242
The GreekandRomanCoins T V Buttrey The MedievalCoins AlessiaRovelli andGraffiti Inscriptions ElizabethFentress andAlexMoseley La CeramicadellaCasa di Diana e dellaForumCistern LauraCerri,SergioFontana,andElisa Gusberti The MedievalPottery EnricoCirelliandMichelleHobart The HumanSkeletalRemains Katherine Gruspier
250
C.J.Simpson C.J.Simpson
217
260 266 269 320 353
BIBLIOGRAPHY
363
INDEX TO PEOPLE AND DIVINITIES
393
INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS
395
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures INTRODUCTION
1
Farms,cities,and sanctuariesin the thirdcentury: data fromthe AlbegnaValleySurvey.
2
Cosa: town plan.
3
Cosa: excavations1990-1997.
2 4
5
PART I
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
The House of Diana: excavatedstructures(foldout). The House of Diana in theRepublicanperiod. Perspectiveview fromthe fauces. Axonometricreconstruction of the garden. Reconstructionof the builders'layout. The forum:reconstruction ca. 180 B.C. Reconstructionof the plan of the colony. The plan of the northeastquarter.
12 PlanofTempleE on theEasternHeight. 13 Domuson theArx. in theAugustan 14 The insulaeresettled period.
The House of Diana in the Augustanperiod. Axonometricreconstruction of the tricliniumand gardenin the Augustanperiod. Axonometricreconstruction of roomC as an Augusteum. The House of Diana, A.D. 20-40. The House of Diana, A.D. 50-60. Axonometricreconstruction of the gardenwiththe shrineto Diana. Sectionof the house, A.D. 50-60. Axonometricreconstruction of the house, A.D. 50-60. Area occupied in the thirdcenturyA.D. The forumin the thirdcentury. AfricanRed Slip ware,percentageof totalsupplyper decade, comparedto thatrecoveredin the AlbegnaValleyand thewestern Mediterraneanmean. 26 Reconstructionof thebuildingson the Arx in the mid-sixthcentury. 27 The forumin the sixthcentury. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
15 16 17 18 22 24 27 28
31 33
35 37 38
39
40 41 42 42 64 65
70 73 76
x
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
ILLUSTRATIONS
Reconstructionof the buildingson theforumbasilica in the sixthcentury. Cosa in the sixthcentury. Settlementin theAlbegnaValley,600-1000. The firstphase of the cemeterysoutheastof TempleB. showingburialcut by ditch. The second phase of the cemetery, The thirdphase of the cemetery. Grave orientations. The churchon the Arx. Reconstructionview of the hutin P5, withrelatedbuildingsand, to the rear,the EasternHeight. and timberbuildingson the EasternHeight. Sunken-floored Earthworksaroundthe EasternHeight. The towerand relatedstructures. Axonometricdrawingsof the cistern. of the towerand its precinct. Axonometricreconstruction Graffitiand paintingson the innerwalls of the cistern. Reconstructiondrawingof thetrebuchet. Settlementin the AlbegnaValleyca. 1300.
foundat http://www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/) PARTII (all PartII figures 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Trencheson theArx. Arx I, tracesof theRepublicanhouse. ArxII, top plan. IV G, plan. Trencheson theEasternHeight. EH, the trebuchetplatform,plan and section. EH I, plan and elevation. EH I, cistern,sectionand plan. EH II, plans, beforeand afterthe constructionof the outerwall of the castle. EH II, sections,and the elevationof the outerwall of the castle. EH III, plan and section. EH IV, plan and section. EHV,plan. X C, plan and section. Trenchesin the forum. ForumII and III, the ditches,postern,and defensivewalls. ForumII and III, sections. ForumII, the timberstructureoverlyingthe ditches. ForumV, firstphase of the Republicangarden. ForumV, second phase of theRepublicangarden. ForumV, thegardenafterthe Augustanreconstruction. ForumV, thehorrea. buildings. ForumV, the gardenplots,ditch,and sunken-floored Forum VI, theRomanwalls. Forum VI, thehorrea. ForumVI, thelaterhorrea.
77 79 93 101 102 103 104 107 110 111 114 121 123 125 127 129 142
ILLUSTRATIONS
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
xi
Buildings on thebasilica. The breadovens,plan,section,andelevation. The churchon thebasilica. ofthebasilica. IX D North,Republicanwallscutbytheconstruction IX D North,third-century walls. IX D North,theroadandthecemetery. IX D North,thecollapseofthebasilicaor churchwall. J4,planand section. K5,planandsection. L4, planand section. M3,planandsection. M6,planandsection. N4, planandsection. N5, planandsection. N7, planand section. 04, planand section. ofwall3, andsection. 04.5,plans,elevation P4.5,planand section. P5, plansandsection,withsectionsofpostholes. P8,plansandsection. Q5, planandsection. R6,planandsection. R7,planandsection.
PARTIII
94 RoomC, mosaicpavement. 95 RoomC, preparation, mosaicpavement. Room 96 C, detailand analysisofmosaicpavement. 97 RoomC, reconstructed wallplaster. 98 RoomC, thedesignoftherearwall,reconstructed. 99 RoomH, preserved ofthesocle,reconstructed fragments design. 100 RoomJ,mosaicpavement. 101 RoomJ,detailsand analysis ofmosaicpavement. 102 RoomK, mosaicpavement. 103 RoomK, detailsand analysis ofmosaicpavement. 104 RoomQ, reconstructed wallplaster. 105 RoomQ, suggested positionofthereconstructed fragments. 106 The garden,paintedplasteron thenortheast wall. 107 The garden,reconstruction ofthedecoration oftheaedicula. 108 The composition oftheplastersamples.
148 149 149 151 153 163 164 165 168 169 173 176 179 182 188
PARTIV
109 Objectsforpersonaladornment, loomweight, andspindlewhorl. 110 Articles associatedwithtextiles, clothing, fishing, andwriting.
111 Mattock.
225 229
233
xii
ILLUSTRATIONS
112 Moldforrhomboidal tiles. 113 Furnishings, fastenings, andfixtures. 114 Furnishings and articlesassociatedwithleisure. 115 Moldedplaster, weaponry.
Late Roman articlesforpersonaladornment,ligulae,firedog,and handle. Medieval articlesforpersonaladornment. and fixtures. Medieval furnishings, fastenings, Graffitoin the cistern. ForumV, phase I-IIIA, black glaze potteryand coarsewares. ForumV, black glaze potteryfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). 127 ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). 128 ForumV, black glaze fromtabernaC (271). 129 ForumV, finewaresfromtabernaC (271). 130 ForumV, finewaresfromtabernaC (271). 131 ForumV, cookingwaresfromtabernaC (271). 132 ForumV, amphoraefinewaresfromtabernaC (271). 133 ForumV, black glaze potteryand finewaresfromtabernaD (266/269). 134 ForumV, coarsewaresand amphoraefromtabernaD (266/269). 135 ForumV, phase IV,potterysmashedon floors: contextsrelatedto the collapse of the house: 80, 140. 136 ForumV, phase IV, potterysmashedon floors: contextsrelatedto the collapse of the house: 154, 352. 137 ForumV, phase V,potteryfrom349. 138 ForumV, phase V, smallamphoraefrom349. 139 ForumV, phase VII, coarsewaresfrom223. 140 Forum Cistern,AfricanRed Slip. 141 Forum Cistern,amphorae. 142 ForumCistern,coarsewares(afterDyson FC 1-23). 143 ForumCistern,coarsewares(afterDyson FC 24-38). 144 Forumware fromtheArx and elsewhere. 145 Glazed pottery:underpaintedlead glaze and jugs in archaicmaiolica. lusterware and archaicmaiolica. 146 Glazed pottery, 147 EH, coarsewares(acromadepurata)types1-3. 148 EH, cookingwarestype4.01-4.08. 149 EH, cookingwares type4.09-4.16. 150 EH, cookingwarestype5. 151 EH, cookingwarestype6. 152 EH, cookingwarestype7. 153 EH, cookingwarestype8. 154 EH, cookingwares,lids type9. 155 EH, coarsewares type10.
116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126
234 236 238
240
243 245 248 267 272 278
282 282 283 283 284 285 286 289 290 291
292 293 295 298 299 304 304 306 310 312 314 315 322 325 328 333 337 339 341 343 345 347 347 349
ILLUSTRATIONS
xiii
Plates PART I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
TrenchL4, earlywall visiblebeneathRepublicanwalls. The House of Diana fromthe forum. TempleE. Rear wall, TempleE. House of Diana, the mosaic of the tablinum. House of Diana, the mosaic of the triclinium. fromroomN. House of Diana, the buildingsof the sanctuary, House of Diana, Campana plaques and otherdecorativeelements fallenin frontof the fountain. The dedicatoryinscriptionof the aedicula. lyinginsidethe shrine,as excavated. The marblefragments House of Diana, table leg lyingamid the fallenplasterin the loggia. Tile stampof L. TitiniusGlaucus Lucretianus. Arx,BuildingI. Arx,thewall of the Capitolinetemple. rampart. Arx,constructiontrenchforsixth-century The churchon the basilica. The altarof the church. The bread oven on the basilica. The inscriptionC67283.
19 forchancelscreen(?). 20 The churchon TempleB, altarandfoundation 21 The churchon TempleB. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
ForumV, sunken-floored buildingoverthe destructionlevels of the garden. TrenchP5, post-trenchforthe timbersof a substantialhut. buildingpartiallyexcavatedon the EasternHeight. Oval sunken-floored TrenchesForumII and III, fromthe air. The outerditchin ForumII. A sectionof the Romanwalls cut awayin conjunction withthe ditcheddefensesof the EasternHeight. EH VI, parallelrowsof postholessuggesta timber"long house." The cisternon thewest side of the tower. The bermand the outerwall of the castle. EasternHeight,showingterracing.Balloon photograph.
PART II
(all PartII platesfoundat http://www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/)
Arx II, stakeholesin the floorof BuildingII. IV G, fromthe air. EH, photographedfromtheRoman citywall. EH I, the southernchamberof the cistern. 36 EH I, theinletbasin. 37 EH I, the interiorof the cistern,showinginletpipe. 38 EH II, the outerwall of the castle,showingblocked gate. 32 33 34 35
14 16 29 30 36 36 43 44 44 50 50 59 74 74 75 76 77 78 82
98 98
109 110 112 115 115 116 116 123 129 133
ILLUSTRATIONS
xiv
39 EH III, buttressing wallon northsideoftower.
40 EH VI, sunken-floored Building1, lookingsouthtowardthe Republicantemple. 41 EH VI, post-builtBuildings3 and 4.
42 EH VI, theloweredroominBuilding4.
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
X C, showing thescarpcutintoRoman levels. Forum I, showing diagonal pathacrosstheforum. II, ditch38. Forum Forum III, walls3 and5. Forum II, ditch50. Forum V,cesspit177. theatrium. Forum V,thecistern under inroomN. Forum successive floors V,thethree Forum V,tilepaving overthecesspitinroomC. Forum V,thefountain attherearofthegarden. Forum V,therectangular trench 375cutintogarden soil372. Forum V,garden soil372,showing path. R. Forum V,corridor Forum andwellhead. V,impluvium inalaI andtheservice Forum V,thecupboard rooms. Forum seenfrom thepodium V,thesanctuary oftheaedicula. Forum V,layer ofcollapsed plaster covering thefallen pottery 80. ofsculptural Forum elements V,collection found piledintheaedicula. Forum formed V,thehollow wallsintheareaofthegarden. bythecollapsed Forum the in sunken-floored V, building roomD. Forum earth V,burialcutintothedisturbed ofthedestruction deposit. Forum thesanctuary, V,thestructure covering designed byMarkWilson Jones. D IX,thecollapse ofthebasilica walls.
PARTIII
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
RoomC, themosaicpavement. RoomC,fragmentary anarmholding a lance. stucco, showing RoomC, themoldings ofthevault. from RoomC, stuccoes thevault. Cubiculum G, thesigninum pavement. Cubiculum G, detailofthesigninum pavement. AlaH, detailofthesigninum pavement. Tablinum J,emblema. Tablinum ofreedsonthebackoftheceiling J,traces plaster. Triclinium K,emblema. LoggiaQ, detailofthesigninum pavement. of detail the trellis Aedicula, pattern. StatueofDianaC9603. thestatue ofDianaC9604. Dog,from from a late orclassicizing Head classical Greekstatue ofa goddess C9674.
149 156 156 157 160 161 162
165
166 169 172 183 192 192 193
ILLUSTRATIONS
xv
81 Head C9674. 82 Head C9674, fromthe rear. 83 Columnarpedestal C9601. table supportC9605. 84 Goat-griffon 85 Basin supportsC9610 and C9611. 86 Brace C9664. 87 Base of hermmonopod table C9675. 88 Stretcherof tripodprotometable C9713. 89 Leg of a tripodprotometable C9715. 90 Fragmentof decorativewaterbasin C9708. 91 Fragmentof decorativewaterbasin C9676. 92 Headless draped hermC9617. 93 Headless draped hermC9618. 94 Fragmentof hermC9687. 95 Headless hermbust C9673. 96 Oscillum in the formof a silenushead C9613. 97 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9662 and C9663. 98 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9662 and C9663. 99 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9688. 100 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9688. 101 Suovetaurilia reliefC9615. 102 AltarvoluteC9623 and C9685. 103 ColumnaraltarC9689. 104 Small supportin the formof a felineleg C9670. 105 Fragmentof vegetalreliefC9718. 106 Decorative architectural frieze,C9671 and C9710. 107 Fragmentof maenad Campana plaque C97 11. 108 Fragmentof maenad Campana plaque C9717. 109 Fragmentof MinervaCampana plaque C9660.
193 194 194 195 196 197 198 199 199 200 200 202 202 203 204 205 206 206 207 207 208 210 210 211 212 212 215 215 215
PARTIV 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121
Open crestingC9504. Open crestingC9507, C9508, C9545, and C9580. Revetmentplaques C9577 and C9578. Amberringstone,engravedwitha ship. InscriptionC95103. Graffito. Lamps. Lamps. Maiolica dish fromEH. Maiolica jug fromEH VII. Maiolica jug fromTempleB. fromEH VII. Pignatta
218 218 220 226 266 268 280 288 326 326 329 329
xvi
ILLUSTRATIONS
ColorPlates Followingpage 158 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Cosa: false-colorair photograph. Frescoes fromroomC: exedra. Room C, panel decoration. Room C, detail: architraveand column. Room C, detail,exedra and griffon. Room C, detail,griffon. Room C, detail,diademedhead. Room C, detail,border. Room C, detail,framewithovoli. Frescoes on the portico,reconstruction drawing. Wall paintingat the gatehouseof the Abbeyof S. Salvatoread Aquas Salvias. The CarolingianLegend. 12 Wall paintingat the gatehouseof the Abbeyof S. Salvatoread Aquas Salvias. The castlesof the territory of Ansedonia.
INTRODUCTION ElizabethFentress
TheExcavation:EndsandMeans THE QUESTIONS
M\ /[y introductionto the Maremma,at Andrea Carandini's excavations of the villa of
in 1977, took place almostliterallyin Cosa's shadow.Both physicallyand Settefinestre metaphoricallyit was the one fixedpoint on a stillhazy ancientlandscape. Frank Brown's excavationshad givenus its plan, its history,and its pottery.In subsequentyears,Stephen Dyson's surveyof theCosan landscape, completedand expanded by our own AlbegnaValley Survey,'broughtinto sharperfocus the rural contextof the colony:the empty,"ethnically cleansed" landscape of the thirdcenturyin whichit was built (fig.1),2the dense networkof forwhichit servedas politicalcenterand market,and the smallfarmsof the second century, and exportedit through first-century villassuch as Settefinestre thatgrewwinein itsterritory Cosa's port. New publicationsand excavationsclarifiedimportantdetailsof the landscape: Maria Grazia Celuzza and Edina Regoli'sexcavationof a Republicanfarmat GiardinoVecchio, McCann's publicationof thePortusCosanus,and muchworkon the Cosan Anna-Marguerite amphoraeof Sestius.3 The medievalperiod, however,remainedarchaeologicallyobscure: apart fromDyson's workat thecastleof Capalbiaccio (Tricosto),summarily published.4No siteswereexcavated, and our limitedknowledgeof the potterymade themdifficultto discernin the field.The lacuna came to the foreduringthe finalwriting-upof the AlbegnaValleySurvey.As theRoman settlementpatternthathad been establishedin the firstcenturyB.C. graduallydisappeared,whatbecame of thepopulation?Was theMaremmasimplyabandoned? Werepeople stilltherebut archaeologically invisible?Or had they,as Giulio Ciampoltrini and Paola Rendini suggested,removedthemselvesto the hilltopsafterthe barbarianinvasionsin the middle of And whathappened then?Our surveyseemed to suggestthata new patthe fifthcentury?5 ternof small sites emergedin the course of the seventhcentury:were therecentralplaces associatedwiththesenew sites?And, ifso, where? All of a sudden Cosa became the obvious interlocutorforthe new questionsposed by the ruralcontext.The clarityof the pictureforthe Republicanperiod (fig.2) was on closer 1 Dyson 1978; Carandini, Cambi, Celuzza, and Fentress,eds. 2002; Cambi and Fentress1989; Attolini et al. 1991.
I
Celuzza 1985; McCann 1987; Manacorda 1978; 1980; Lyding-Will1979. 4
For the thirdcenturyin the territory of Cosa Celuzza in Carandiniet al. 2002, 103-113.
Dyson 1985.
2
5Ciampoltrini and Rendini 1988.
*
Fanmorsmallhouse(IV-11B.C.)
*
Farnorsmnal hoe. Vllbg (IV-111 B.C.);
o *
/
(newfoundion)
Vllage(newfoundaton) Destoyed enbtr Vill
(IV-lIlB.C.) withkiln
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5KIIn(newunston) A Cemetey(IV-lIl B.C.)
* AreaSurveyedIntensively
/
/
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\
?
Smallgroupoftofbs (IV-illB.C.)
?
Smallgroupoftombs(illB.C.)
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INTRODUCTION
3
foundtobe lackingforthelaterperiods.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.When examination Cosa wasexcavated, lateRomanandmedieval wasverypoorlystudied.Thewatershed pottery marked byJohnHayes'spublication ofLateRomanPottery in 1972cametoolatefortheCosan and Dyson's 1976 publicationof the coarsewares,althoughvaluableforthe early stratigraphy,
periods,washandicapped basedexclusively on thecoins.In recentyearsour byassumptions oflateRomanandearlymedieval knowledge coarsewares hasincreased to a pointwheremuch finerdatingis possiblethanitwaseventenyearsago.6ThismakesCosa'stestimony farmore eloquentthanit was in thepast.Not onlynewexcavations, but also theexamination of its splendidly makeitpossibleto understand keptarchives, newphasesinitshistory. entirely THE STRATEGY (FIG.3)
The 1990 excavationwas originallyplanned fora singleseason, directedby the authorwith the assistanceof Michelle Hobart and Teresa Clay. We feltthatthe Arx,withits obviously laterwalls and medievalchurch,would provideall the stratigraphy necessaryto answerour questions.It was the obvious defensivepositionon the hilltop,and its medievalfortification was easy to identifyas the castle of Ansedonia referredto in medievaldocuments.7If there had been continuousoccupationon the site,it would be foundhere,if anywhere.A further smalltrenchwas used to investigatethe "structureon theEasternHeight."This was a crude, circularstructurereusingRomanblocks and abuttingtheperimeterwall. We had plannedto complementthese excavationswith a gridded collectionof potteryfromthe whole site to examinethe expansionand contractionof settlementduringtheRoman period. Our models were the gridded collectionsof the Etruscantown of Doganella and the Roman colonyof Heba, carriedout duringthe course of the Albegna ValleySurvey.8However,this proved impracticablein view of the dense vegetation. Althoughour expectationswere in part justifiedby the discoveryof a group of sixthcenturybuildingson the Arx,it soon became clear thatthe questionwas farmore complex than we had firstassumed. First,medieval stratigraphy was almost entirelyabsent on the Arx, even in those areas not touched by Brown. Examinationof the materialfromearlier excavationsalso showed thattherewere large depositsof sixth-century potteryin the forum area, and the find-spotsof medievalcoins fromthe same area showedthatnot all late settlementwas concentratedon theArx. This last pointwas confirmedby the datingof the structureon theEasternHeightto the late thirteenth or earlyfourteenth century, and itsinterpretationas the base fora catapultor trebuchet.9It was at thispoint thatthe projectwas expanded, and a moreintensiveapproachwas adopted. In orderto get a generalview of the historicaldevelopmentof the town as a whole,we decided to substituteforthe griddedcollectiona seriesof systematicsample trenches,measuring2 x 2 m, and to use theseto date the destructionlayersthroughoutthetown.Trenches were located on the basis of the knownplan of the town,the easterncornersof the insulae being preferred.The schemewas based on Brown'sobservationthatthe earliesthouses were built along the southeastsides of the insulae,and on the assumptionthatsitesat streetintersectionswould be favoredand would probablyhave been the last to be abandoned. A few 6 Mostrecently bytheconference on sixthandseventh- 8 Perkinsand Walker 1990; Celuzza and Fentress1990.
century pottery; Saguled. 1998.
7
Belowp. 135.
9 Clay,Hobart in Fentresset al. 1991; Hobart 1991,where
themedievalpotteryfrompreviousexcavationswas also examined.
:
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CosaIII). Fig.2. Cosa:tOWnlplan(after
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6
INTRODUCTION
trenches wereplacedat themidpoints oflargerinsulaeto increasecoveragenearthetown center, whileoccasionally practical considerations (e.g.,vegetation, erosion)dictated thechoice ofwhichcornerofanintersection toexcavate. Thesampleis therefore probabilistic andaimed at maximizing thechancesoffinding settlement in an insulaat a givenperiod.Thisproject wascompleted between1991and 1992,underthedirection first ofNicholasChurchill, then witha singleadditionaltrench(P8) excavatedin 1993in orderto of MirandaRichardson, A side-benefit of thesesmalltrenches testa possibleroadintersection. was thattheyprovidedideal experience forfirstyearstudents, whowereresponsible forall aspectsoftheir andwriting-up. excavation, including recording Generally theytookaboutoneweekto dig and creating and anotherfewdaysfordrawing, thearchive. pottery washing, A secondseriesoftrenches was plannedfortheforumareain 1991.One, ForumI, in themiddleoftheforum wasexcavatedbyTeresa plaza,nexttoBrown's"ShortAxisTrench," likethatofLuna,thesixth-century settlement at Cosa occuClayin orderto testwhether, piedtheforum plaza.'0The other, ForumII, occupiedthewholeareabetweenTempleB and thelineoftheRomanpublicbuildingsalongthenortheast streetQ, continuing sideofthe Thiswasan areawithseveralextantwallsthatwererunning skewtothealignment of forum. which with it. This and therefore not theRomantown probably contemporary largetrench, tooktwoyearstoexcavateandgaveustheclearest coveredpartofan earlymedieval cemetery, ofthesite.Particularly wasthecemetery, viewoftheearlymedievaldevelopment important excavatedbyMatildaWebband studiedbyKatherine Gruspierand GrantMullen.On the otherhand,ForumI quicklyprovedbarrenof all but a sixth-century surface,and it was in orderto see whether withbrambles, itwas decidedto cleanthebasilica,nowovergrown there.We wereluckyenoughto findthemakeup possibleto dateanyofthelatestructures butthechurchhad beenexcavatedbelowitsfoundalayerforthebreadovenundisturbed, a trench(IX D) was openedup behindthebasilicato thenortheast, to tionlevels.Finally, ofthisprovedinteresting, latewalls.The stratigraphy check,again,on someapparently parin-viewof thefallenbasilicawall thatsealeda partof it,and its excavation was ticularly ofJoannaHambly.Theyear1992wasalso devotedto in 1992underthedirection continued Forum oftheexcavation tothenortheast, ofForumII, expandedbya trench thecompletion on themedievalearthworks thatringedtheEasternHeight concentrated III. Theexcavation ofan adequatesampleofthemedievalcemetery. andthecompletion a rampthatranup through In 1993,afterwehadidentified thecuriaandintotheforum road the forum to the we decided that ForumI, whichlaydias a Byzantine linking Arx, ofsixth-century in the in itspath,had beenan invalidtestoftheexistence settlement rectly ForumIV and V, wereopenedto makesure.In fact,they forum,and twonewtrenches, ofbuildings as ForumI, andourattention shifted to twooftheAtrium provedjustas empty foundaroundtheedgesoftheforum, Brown'sABV andABII (ForumV andVI). Buildings andWilliamBowden.The former ThesewereexcavatedbyAdamRabinowitz initially gave ofthisareaand forthesettlement us good evidencebothfortheprecociousabandonment intheMiddleAges,whilethelatterallowedus to redateandexaminea buildneartheforum barnforsheep. ingidentified byBrownas a fourth-century to studythelayoutofthecastleon the At thesametime,MichelleHobartundertook EasternHeight,whoseexistencewas bynowsuggested thatsurrounded bytheearthworks it.In viewofthedensemacchia thatcoversthehighest partofthecastle,foursmallslittrenches 10On thesixth-century settlement at Luna, WardPerkins1981.
INTRODUCTION
7
were excavatedin orderto delimitits plan (EH I, III, IV, V). A smallcisternwas also excavated (EH VII-cistern), as an initialattemptto date the castle'sabandonment.Subsequently, a testtrench,EH II, opened by a mechanicaldigger,was placed outsidetheouterwall of the castle and excavated by Miranda Richardson.A furtherarea was opened up on the large leveled area to the south of the EasternHeight,under the directionof Nicholas Churchill. This lattertrench(EH VI) was suggestedby Riccardo Francovich,who feltthat,if there were earlymedievalsettlementon the height,it would be best looked foroutsidethe castle. Indeed, an anomalous earlymedievalhut was foundtherein the last days of the 1993 campaign,and the trenchwas returnedto in May 1994 in orderto finishits excavation. By the summerof 1994 workwas completedon much of the publication,but the early medievalsequence was stillentirelyunclear.It was thus decided to devote a finalseason in 1995 to the two areas that had revealed apparentlyearlymedieval structures,EH VI and ForumV. EH VI was greatlyextendedunderthe directionofJoannaHamblyand Elisabetta Gliozzi. An extensionto the northeastwas made towardthe end of the season, under the supervisionof NancyProctorand Daniel Roschnotti.Tom Dawson opened EH VIII outside the citywall just east of the castlewiththe hope of findinga medievalrubbishtip,both for thepotterysequence and forthe environmental and faunalevidence.Excavationwas discontinued afterthreedays,however,as the trenchwas entirelyblocked by the fallenblocks of the citywall. Finally,Dawson laid out a long trench,X C, betweenthe castleand theRoman, or northeast,gate in the citywalls. This was designedto examinetheearlymedievalfortificationsin thatsectorof the site. Diggingwas resumedin trenchForumV in the rearhalfof AtriumBuildingV, an excavationthatproved so fruitful thatit was continuedduringSeptemberof the same yearand was onlycompletedwiththe excavationof the gardenin 1996 and 1997. These excavations were carriedout by a core team composed of Ali Ait Kaci, StefanoCamaiani,Laura Cerri, Silvia Nerucci,and Luca Passalacqua, underthe supervisionof Adam Rabinowitz. The spectacularfindsand the excellentstateof preservationof AtriumBuildingV, rechristenedthe House of Diana, led us to propose thatit be conservedand presentedto the public. To thisend Tom Robystartedworkingwiththe archaeologistsin 1995,leadinga team of studentsin subsequentseasons. He was joined in 1996 by FernandaCavari,of theUniversityof Siena, who took over the conservationof the wall plasterthat remainedin situ. At Siena,thewall plasterwas cleanedand studiedbyFernandaCavari,ValentinaLolini,Francesca Lunghetti,and Silvia Nerucci. The conservationcampaignscontinuedeach yearfrom1997 through1999, concentratingon the wall plasterand the threemosaics. In a finalseason in 1999 Fernanda Cavari, Cecilia Bernardini,and Roberto O'Caso supervisedalmost20 studentsfromtheUnited Statesand Siena, completingthe consolidationof thewall plasterand the reseatingof two of the threemosaics. These maynow be seen on the site in the summer months.The sanctuaryin the gardenwas coveredwitha structuredesignedby MarkWilson Jones,and the non-mosaicpavementswere sealed withwaterproofedearth. METHODS
The excavationfollowedthe techniquesof singlecontext,open area excavation.Aftertopsoil was removed,the underlyingcontextswere cleaned witha trowel,defined,and planned on polyesterdrawingfilmat 1:50 (1:20 in the case of the sampletrenches),withsufficient levels takento recordchangesin slope. The processwas repeatedwitheach subsequentstratigraphic
8
INTRODUCTION
unit,and all were numberedin a unique sequence foreach trench.The methodwithwhich unitwas removeddepended on itsnature.Topsoil,hillwash,rubblemakeeach stratigraphic ups, and pise destructionlayerswere removedwithpicks and shovelsand the potterycollected by hand. Midden deposits and those crucialfordatingwere sieved if theyappeared sufficiently rich,and a sample was floatedfor seeds and botanical material.Animalbones were kept onlyfromsieved contextsbut proved too few to provide significantresults.No pollen samples were taken because of the highlycalcareous natureof the soil. In general, however,our lack of environmental samplesis due to thelack of post-Romanmiddendeposits: findsfrommedievallayerswere generallypoor and even animalbones rare.This is perofmedievalsettlement neartheRomanwalls,overwhichhousehaps due to theconcentration hold rubbishcould be conveniently thrown. Fallen wall plasterin the House of Diana was excavated using the techniquesworked Individualspreadsof plaster,representing out duringtheexcavationof Settefinestre.1' single momentsof collapse, were carefullycleaned and planned. These were generallyface down, as theyfellfromthewall. Theywere thendividedintosmallgroupsthatcould be easilycontained in a singlelayerin a storagebox. The outlinesof the individualpieces were traced withmarkingpens onto plasticfilm,and thegroupwas lifted,withcare beingtakento mainThe positionof each "box" tain the positionsand relationshipsof the individualfragments. was markedon theplanofthewholespread.Backing,fixedwitha 3 percentsolutionofParaloid, was used in thecase of moldedstuccoesor wheretheplasterwas particularly fragile. under came the direction of Andrew Graphic recording general Wixom,who had the formidabletask of placing our far-flung trenchesonto the 1:500 plan, findingthe positions for the sample trenches,and recordingthe whole area of the Eastern Height with a total haveprovedinvaluableforour understanding station.His reconstructions ofindividualbuildings and theirillustration.Graphic recordingof individualtrencheswas generallythe reofthesupervisor.Sectionsand planswererealistic,withlayerdistinctions marked sponsibility by a firmline wherepossible. The initialfindsprocessingand findsillustration weretheresponsibility ofMatildaWebb and, in 1995-1997, of Silvia Nerucci.All finds,includingthe osteologicalmaterials,are now storedat Cosa, bagged by context,trench,and year,and smallfindshave been incorporated intotheCosa catalogue.The potterywas washedand thendividedroughlybyclass. All sherds were thencountedand recordedon DBase III by class, fabric,and knownformif available. AfricanRed Slip was generallyidentified;black glaze and otherRomanfinewareswere not, unless theirdatingwas crucial to a context.Coarsewarebody sherdswere thenjettisoned, usuallyat thetimethatthetrenchtheycame fromwas back-filled.Featuresherdsweresaved, and all werebagged by class. No medievalpotterywas (knowingly)jettisoned,and representativecoarsewareswere all drawnand, ifpossible,restored.In ForumV all stratified Roman findswere saved and studied:the sieved contextsare publishedherein full.
Documentation and Publication The documentation fortheexcavationis foundat threelevels.First,in thearchives.These consistofvolumes,storedat theAmericanAcademyinRome,intowhichall relevantinformation for "1Fentresset al. 1981.
INTRODUCTION
9
is bound:a summary a giventrench written a matrix, all plans(generally byitssupervisor, reducedto 1:100),a listofall thepottery foundin theseparatecontexts or stratigraphic units (referred to as US, aftertheItalianconvention), andthecontextsheetswritten at thetimeof theexcavation. Databasesforthecontexts in eachtrench, as wellas theirmaterials, existon DBase III andcouldbe suppliedon request.Thepottery is storedinthemuseum atCosa. The secondlevelis thedetailedstratigraphic ofeachexcavation. description Although itwasoriginally written as thesecondsectionofthevolume,a decisionwasmadelateinthe publication processthatitwouldbe farbetterservedwitha website,whichwouldallowthe interested readertocheckthestratigraphy anditsdocumentation-figures andphotographswithout downthevolumeas a whole.The website,createdbyAdamandNicholas weighing Rabinowitz (http://www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/), containsa planofCosa withall trenches (as fig.3) fromwhichitis easyto passto thewriteup ofeach,withfullillustrations. In thissection,stratigraphic unitsarereferred to inboldtype.We haveavoideda mechanistic mentionof all contexts, but all contextsthatcontainpottery or otherwise providerelevantinformation havebeenmentioned. Alsoon thesitearedetailedlistsofthepottery from theHouse of Diana and theosteologicalcatalogue.The websiteshouldbe consideredan integral partofthepublication in partii ofthetableofcontents, (henceitslisting itsoriginal position), withitsmaintenance guaranteed bytheUniversity ofMichiganPress. The thirdlevelof documentation is thehistorical essaythatformspartI ofthiswork. Here six sectionscoverthesettlement oftheterritory in theRepublicanperiod,the history Republicanandearlyimperialperiods,theSeveransettlement, thesixth-century settlement, theearlymedievalsettlements and cemetery, and theCistercian and Aldobrandeschi castle. In thissectionwe attempt toplacetheinformation fromtheindividual trenches intoitswider bothwithinthecityandwithintheperiod.Important context, orfeatures, structures suchas thecastleon theEasternHeightor theearlymedievalcemetery, are describedin detail.In thesechapters onlythenamesofthetrench ortrenches from whicha particular context comes arementioned: further detailcan be foundbychecking thestratigraphic recordoftherelevanttrenchon thewebsite.Illustrations arelimitedto synthetic plansand reconstructions. Forthelazyor hurried, eachofthechapters beginswitha briefsummary ofthedatarecovered.Translation ofcontributions in Italian,hereas elsewhere, is myown. Partsiii andiv containanother typeofinformation, thecatalogues containing individual In partiII arefoundthedecorative classesofmaterial. elements totheHouseofDianarelating themosaics,frescoes, andterracottas. sculpture, Discussionofthedecoration proceedsroom thanseparating byroom,rather outcatalogues oftheindividual In partivarefound techniques. theotherfinds, bothfromthathouseandfromelsewhere on thesite.Ourpolicyon thepublicationofthematerials hasbeenfairly restrictive: Cosa hasprovidedtype-series formuchRomanpottery, and it seemsparticularly pointlessto publishRomansherds,whichare,in any residualin context. case,mostly WhereRomanpottery is important fordatinga context, the relevant formsare listedin a footnote. The House of Diana, however, providedsufficient stratified material to warrant a completepublication, coordinated byElisa Gusberti. Within thisseveralcontexts wereselectedforextensive illustration: thelatesecond-century B.C. fill ofthecesspitsoftheHouse ofDiana,thefirst-century filloftherearcistern, andthelayers associated withthecollapseofAtrium Building V inthe60sA.D. Becauseofitsimportance as a the"forum cistern" context, in 1973andpublished groupexcavated byDysonhasbeenreexaminedbySergioFontana,withtheadditionoftheamphorae foundwiththerestofthepot-
tery.All themedievalmaterialhas been studied,and thesummaryresultsare publishedhere.
10
INTRODUCTION
Othercatalogues include theterracottas from andmeTemple E, thecoins,bothRoman material from previous excavalateRomanandmedieval dieval,thesmallfinds(including andtheosteological material. tions), theminor inscriptions, thisoutinthe isunambiguous, andwehavetriedtobring Very little ofourinformation to completeness, wherenecessary, alternative hypotheses. Wecannotpretend text,giving, butsomeanswers tomany ofthequestions weposedcannowbe offered. A NOTE ON THEILLUSTRATIONS
thattheyillustrate. onsitebythesupervisors ofthetrenches Mostoftheplansweredrawn Theywereredrawn bytheauthorand,in manycases,werethenscannedontoAdobe Formoreelaborate drawings I turned toJeffrey BurPhotoshop fornumbering andlettering. theHouseofDiana,andto Andrew whose illustrate Wixom, den,whosereconstructions ofthetext. thosesections ofthelateRoman andmedieval buildings illustrate reconstructions inRomebetween 1998and2000, assistant attheAmerican Academy Shawna Leigh,research forseveral oftheAutoCADreconstructed plans.Objectsweredrawnby wasresponsible Enrico andMatilda Webb. Anne Cirelli, Sergio Fontana, J.Demers, pottery byElisaGusberti, butphotographs bySamFentress, takenbytheauthor, Thephotographs weremainly inthevolume, andTomShawarealsofound AdamRabinowitz, Michelle alongwith Hobart, oftheAcademy. offigures oldphotographs from thearchives Where authors orphotographs namesappearinthecaptions; otherwise eachillustrawerenotpartoftheCosateam,their tionisfollowed ofitsauthor. bytheinitials Acknowledgments ofvolunteer amount laborbythestaff is duetotheenormous Thatthisresult waspossible thatoftheassistant Michelle who director, Hobart, members particularly already mentioned, andherpersisherconsiderable skillstothedailylifeoftheproject contributed diplomatic All ofthecastleontheEastern inthemedieval tentinterest Height. periodtothediscovery atlength between us.Theexcavation wasphysically oftheexcavation werediscussed aspects whowillingly andrelations carried outbythemany putup students, archaeologists, friends, The Comuneof in thesun,getting turnscooking. withpicking up at dawn,andtaking uswithbeds,cookPresenti andGianpiero Roberto Sagin,provided Orbetello, particularly a permission that tosleepintheScuolaElementare andpermission Neghelli, ingequipment, The small "off-season" teams were torenew somehow very kindly every year. theymanaged housedbyMariadiMaria(May1994)andMr.andMrs.Mabo(September 1995).Theexcaandequipment, camefrom a numwhichtookcareoffood,gas,somefares, vation budget, a Thefirst was made from the British berofverygenerous sources. year possibleby grant from theresearch funds ofthedirector oftheAmerican AcadSchoolatRome, a contribution theloanofvansfrom bothinstitutions, andthewillingness ofthesmall emy, Joseph Connors, Connors's enthusiastic fortheproject teamtoeatshortrations. wasechoedbythe support nextdirector, Caroline andwearegrateful tobothofthem. Bruzelius, From1991to 1993,andin 1995,generous from theSamuelH. KressFoundation grants thosefrom theBritish of Oxford Committee andtheCraven School, University supplemented fromthe AmericanAcademy'sSummer while in 1992, 1993, and 1995 tuitioncontributions
INTRODUCTION
11
takingpartin theexcafromthatprogram thestudents supported in Archaeology Program theHouseofDiana, undertaken tocomplete in 1996and1997,essentially vation.Excavations season The conservation Academy. budgetoftheAmerican werepaid forbytheexcavation from JamesMarstonFitch,wholenthissupportinhonor of1998tookplacethanksto grants Thatof 1999 ofCleo RickmanFitch,and fromThe David and LucilePackardFoundation. ofSiena The University Institute. bybothFitchandthePackardHumanities wassupported providedvitalcollaborationduringthisphase,lendingus theirexpertin conservation, whotookpartintheconofSienesestudents a largenumber FernandaCavari,andsupporting fortheproject. support forhisunfailing toDanieleManacorda seasons:wearegrateful servation backedthispublication. hasmunificently W.MellonFoundation theAndrew Finally, Excavationsare notsimplya questionof moneyand logistics.Supportfromthelocal Here community. to oursuccess,as wasthatfromthescientific wasfundamental community we wouldliketo thanktheownersofthesite,Gianserioand GiorgioSan Felice,whoseunreas wellas thosedirectly tradition, continuesa family and generosity failinghospitality Francesco ofTuscany, forthearchaeology sponsiblefortheRomancity,theSoprintendente for inspectors GabriellaPoggesi,and PamelaGamboggi, Nicosia,and GiulioCiampoltrini, Gianni Benemei, Graziano Cosa Bannino, of the museum, The custodians thesiteofCosa. whileLuigi and StefanoSpagnoli,watchedoverus withconstantkindnessand attention, all theearthexcavatedby theexcavationteam(thoughhe Coccia replacedsingle-handed forthesitefortheAmeriofa bulldozer).RussellT. Scott,co-responsible hadtheadvantage jr,whoexcaandadvice.LawrenceRichardson withinformation wasgenerous canAcademy, wasan invaluablesourceofinformation. vatedtheforum, supportincludeMalcolmBell whogavebothmoraland scientific Otherarchaeologists III, GraziellaBerti,MariaGraziaCeluzza,VincenzoFiocchiNicolai,RiccardoFrancovich, QuiliciPieroGuzzo,OttoMazzucato,LidiaParoli,Stefanella RichardHodges,AnnKuttner, JamesFentress andCharlesK. Williams. AndrewWallace-Hadrill, Gigli,thelateTimPotter, this forall themonthsI was diggingand has readand improved tookcareof ourchildren thebiblioginJuneof2000,subediting text.ElienneLawsonactedas myresearchassistant themanuPressgreatly improved ofMichigan readersoftheUniversity Theanonymous raphy. of attention to detailtothesubediting donatedhisremarkable generously script.TedButtrey process. thepublication themanuscript through thevolume,whileElaineGazda shepherded Louriemeoncetheywerein press,andMargaret MelanieGrunowlookedafterthefigures to theAmericopy.To all ofthese,and,in particular, ticulously preparedthecamera-ready we areverygrateful. andstaff, in Rome,itstrustees, president, canAcademy
PART I
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
andEarlyEmpire 1 * Cosa in theRepublic ElizabethFentress
andRabunTaylor withJohn Bodel,AdamRabinowitz,
Summary (EF)
The
chapterbeginswitha summaryof the evidenceforthe pre-Romanperiod recovered fromvarioustrenches.It thenmovesto an importantRepublicanbuildingthatemerged in the course of the late Roman and medievalproject.This is the house and its gardenexcavated on the side of the forum,the House of Diana, so named afterthe dedicationof the is discussedin detailin partII,12 the nasmall shrinein its garden.Althoughits stratigraphy tureand phasingof the buildingwill be summarizedhere,as its historysheds some lighton thatof the town itselfduringthe Republic and throughthe Severanperiod. Afterthe summaryof each phase of the House of Diana followessayson relatedthemes:the planningand constructionof theRepublicanhouse, theplan of the colony,the decorationof theAugustan house, the changesmade in themiddleof thefirstcenturyA.D. and theircontext,and, finally, a possible ownerof the house.
Pre-Roman Evidence Evidencefortheoccupationofthesitepriorto theRomancolonyis slight,confirming Brown's There were severalscraps of impastopotteryin the red layeroverlyingbedobservations.13 rock on much of the hill (Forum II, M3, N4), while one fragmentof seventh/sixth-century B.C. "olla a rete"fromthe sample trenchK5 suggeststhe presenceof archaicburialsin that contexts.In the same partof the area, as it is a typeof potterycommonlyfoundin funerary underlying site,the sampletrenchL4 revealeda probable wall runningroughlynorth-south, the mortaredwall of theRepublicanperiod (pl. 1). The north-south wall was partiallybased on cut bedrock, and no contemporarysurfaceswere reached because of the limitedspace available forexcavation.Again, only a few sherdsof impastowere foundin the layersthat abuttedthiswall, and anyprecisedatingwould be entirelyfanciful.It is possible thatit representsa small farm,perhaps of the archaic period, but this hypothesiswould have to be testedby furtherexcavation.
12
ForumV. Thediscussion oftheHouseofDiana Trench
recontainssome materialand ideas froma preliminary port,Fentressand Rabinowitz 1996, and froma paper on FrankBrownand theIdea ofa RomanTown (Fentress
13
2000),wherethegenesisofBrown'sideasaboutCosa is discussed. 13
1980, 8.
14
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate1.Trench L4from thenorthwest, early wallvisible beneath walls(EF). Republican
-
The Colonyof273 B.C. No evidenceforthethird-century colonywas recovered.Althoughexcavationreportsin general commenton what theydid findinsteadof what theydid not, the factthatno domestic buildingof the thirdcenturyis knownfromCosa is indeed remarkable.So far,the onlycertain constructionsof the thirdcenturyare the walls, the curia, the small enclosureto the southeastof it, and the carcer.'14Now, bedrockwas reached onlyin a limitednumberof the trialtrenches,and the bedrock at the House of Diana was cut away forthe constructionof thesecond-century house. The factremains,however,thattheexistenceofa substantialsettleCosa is as yetunproven. ment,or cityplan, in third-century
The Colonyof197 B.C. THE HouSE OF DIANA, PHASE1.
The Plan of theHouse (AR). The house, knownin previouspublicationsas AtriumBuilding VI is located on the southwestside of theforum,adjoiningtheforumannex (figs.4 and 5, pl. 2).' On the faqade were found two tabernae,whose pavementswere level withthatof the forum.At least one of the tabernae (room C) seems to have been a wine shop, as a lateB.C. fillof its cess pit,containingmanyalmostintactcups and bottles,would second-century suggest.Amphoraein the fillsof the other,room D, indicatethatit mayhave sold wine as well, but the plates foundin its cess pit mightindicatethatcooked food was sold thereinstead (below p. 294). The house was enteredthrougha narrowvestibulebetweenthetwotabernae.Here traces on the signinumpavementsuggestbenches on eitherside. The vestibuleis separatedfrom 14
CosaIII, 11-56.
This space is interpretedas a fishmarket:Cosa III, 103.
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16
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate2. The House of Diana fromtheforum (EF).
viewfromthefauces(JB). Fig. 6. Perspective
thefaucesby a gap thatindicatestherobbingof thethresholdblock. The fauces,A, slope up steeplyand thenopen intoa rectangularimpluviateatrium(fig.6). Substantialfallsof ceiling plasterand the raindamagewithintheimpluviumleave no doubt thatthe atriumwas roofed 16 A large cisternlies in the tuscanic style,with the main beams runningacross the atrium. under the rearthirdof the atrium,fed fromthe impluvium.Waterwas drawnfromthe cisternthrougha puteal on the southwestend of the impluvium. 16 Carbonized traces of one of these were observed lying along the floorin the lowest destructionlayersnext
to the impluvium.
COSA IN THE REPUBLIC AND EARLY EMPIRE
17
Fig. 7. Axonometric ofthegarden(jB). reconstruction
0
To the rightof the atriumare two cubiculaof equal size, G and F. On the latersigninum pavementofroomG thepositionofthebed is clearlyindicatedin therearoftheroom,flanked by two cupboardsin the corners.To the leftthe single,largeroom,E, seemsto throwoffthe but its blocked doorwayindicatesthe earlierdivisionof thisspace into two corresymmetry, spondingcubicula.At theback of the atrium,to bothleftand right,extendalae, H and I. The latteris shortenedto inserta roomflooredin beatenearththatwas probablyintendedforstorage,perhapsthecupboardinwhichtheancestralmaskswerestored.'7The lineofsightcontinues K, whileto throughthe atriumto thetablinum, J. To therightof thetablinumlies a triclinium, theleftofthetablinumis theopeningofan andron,M, thecorridorthatconnectstheatriumand occuhouses.The space to theleftof the andronwas originally gardenin manysecond-century pied bya singleserviceroom,L. Thatthiswas probablya kitchenand washingroomis suggested bya depressionand a drainleadingintoa soak-awaypitat therearofthehouse. To therearofthehouse lay a garden(fig.7), cut down intobedrockto maintainthesame level as the restof the house. It was certainlysurroundedwitheven higherwalls,protecting its usersfrombeing seen by those on the streetbehindthe house, whichlies at 1.60 m above the level of the garden.Afterconstructionwas completed,thebedrocksurfaceto the rearof the house was filledto a depthof about 0.5 m withfineloam, broughtin fromelsewhereon thehillside.Into it were cut plantingpits along theback wall, apparentlyfortreesor bushes. Slightlylater,a large rectangularcut, filledwithrich,apparentlysiftedearth,suggeststhat 17
Flower 1996, 206f.
18
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY ofthebuilders' Fig.8. Reconstruction
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thegardenwas used as a kitchengarden,witha pathrunning and arounditssouthwestern in southeastern This to the of the that would have been edges. part garden pathcorresponds A manureheapfoundinthesouthconstant shadowfromthestreetwallandthebathhouse. erncornersuggests therusticnatureofthespace.Somewhat laterin thelifeofthegardena a mortared nichewas cutin therearwall,containing basin60 cm deep. How thiswas fed visiblein thewallaboveit connecting remainsa puzzle,as no inletis currently to a channel inthestreet.However,thestreetis certainly to fillthe highenoughto haveprovidedrun-off fromthecistern in roomS. basin.Alternatively, watermayhavebeenbrought
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
19
The smallbuildingoccupying sideofthegardenwas probablya baththesoutheastern house.It wasbuiltovera soak-away pit.RoomN waspavedwithsmallsquaretiles,laidflat in a bed ofmortar. A carefully builtdrainwasfoundin thisfloor, leadingto thepit.RoomS foundedon bedrockthatwasnotcutawayliketherest was almostcertainly a raisedcistern, ofthegardenareaand fedfromtheroofofthelittlestructure. Laterreworking has leftus unclearabouttheexactnatureof theinternal butwe mayperhapsimagine arrangements, or bronze,filledwithwaterheatedin the thatroomN containeda bathmadeofterracotta in thebuildingitself, kitchen. Although thesmall we cannotexcludeheatingarrangements areaexcavatedto thisphaseshowedno traceofthem. ofthe Theblackglazepottery foundintheearliestlevelsofthegardenincludesmaterial middleofthesecondcentury ofthegardensoilmay B.C.18However, thecontinuous churning haveintroduced latermaterial, andit seemspossibleto acceptBrown'sdatingofthewhole groupofhouses,whichhe placedintheyearsimmediately following theseconddeduction of colonists to Cosa. Otherwise we haveto imaginea forum that,evenafterthearrivalof1,000 newcolonistsandtheirfamilies, remained vacanton threesides. TheConstruction andLayoutoftheBuilding (EF) (fig.8). Thereseemsto be littledoubtthat at thesametimeas theotherhousesaroundthe thebuildingwas laid out and constructed forum. Each has an equal streetfrontage, Withthe measuring justlessthan60 Romanfeet.'9 inthesebuildings ofAtrium seemto correspond tothose exception Building I, wallsobserved ifnotidentical. in theHouse ofDiana. We mayguessthattheplansweresimilar Evenmore oftheplanoftheHouse ofDiana to Republican is thecloseresemblance striking housesat in theirplanssuggest thatsimilar Pompeii.The regularities wereusedto laythem techniques out.Working it seemspossibleto arriveat thetechniques backfromtheseregularities, the buildersofthehousesusedto laythemoutandbuildthemto a standard In thisreconplan.20 struction ofthebuilders'practice, whichis ofcoursecompletely I amgoingto hypothetical, maketwoassumptions. werelaid outwithchainsor cordsmarkedoffin First,thatdistances five-foot intervals. As I knowofno certainevidenceforsurveyors' I shall chainsin antiquity, I referto theseas measuring cords.2'Second, proposethatpegswereusedto markpointsas andthatthesewerejoinedbystring orthincordinordertoestablish theywereestablished the In mostcasesmeasurements basiclinesofthebuilding. seemto havedetermined theedgesof thewalls,rather thantheirmidline. Thiswouldhavesuitedthebuilders, whowerethusableto construct theirwallsalongthelinedetermined bythecords. The widthofapproximately 60 feetfoundin theHouse ofDiana seemsto occurfairly oftenin Romanhouses.22 The number60 is,ofcourse,idealto workwith.Halfan actusof See below p. 209.
The House of Sallust measures16.80 m, which,using theOscan footof28 cm,correspondsto thesamewidth. 19 The frontof the house measures17.25 m. Using a Ro- Similardimensionsare found in the paired Houses VI manfootof29.5 cm,whichseemsto be standardat Cosa, 13,1-3.21and VI 13,5.6.9,whose combineddimensions the measurementin Roman feetis 58.7. are justtwofeetless thanan actus.In theHouse ofPansa and theHouse oftheSilverWeddingthemoduleremains 20 The followingdiscussion is the resultof a conversa- 60 feet,but a Roman footseems to have been used. For tion withAndrewWallace Hadrill and Anne Laidlaw: I the plans of these houses I am relyingon those reproam gratefulto both fortheirobservationsand ideas. duced in Dickmann 1999, whichformsan excellentinfortheiranalysis.For theHouse ofSallustmost strument 21 The well-known tendencyofcordsto stretchovertime recentlyLaidlaw 1993, 217-233. may account for minor inconsistencies between one house and another. 18
22
20
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
120 feet,it is divisibleby 2, 3, and 5, as well as by theirmultiples4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30. This means that any simple proportioncan be easily derived fromthe width of the building. Once the streetfrontagealong the forumwas divided up into actus,furtherdivided into individual house plots of half that length,the second step must have been to ensure that the side walls were perpendicularto the frontand rear of the building. The simplestway to set up a rightangle is, of course,to use Pythagoras'stheoremto createa 3If 60 feet representsthe longerside, 4-5 trianglebased on the baseline along the street.23 the hypotenusewould measure75 feetand the otherside 45. In order to findthe perpendiculars,it is fairlyeasy to imaginethatthe builders could have stretched45- and 75-foot cords fromthe frontcornersof the building.Pegs would have markedthe points at which the cords met. Now, 45 feetfromthe frontcornersare found the near cornersof the two alae (c and cl). Pegs at thispositionseem to have been used forestablishingthe plan of the restof the house.24 Like the hypotenuseof the originaltrianglea-al-cl,the depth of the whole house is 75 Romanfeet.The rearcornersof thehouse would have been establishedby layingout the75foot cord along the line betweenthe frontpegs and the 45-footpegs and markingthe back corners(d and d'). The next points to be establishedwere the rear walls of the tabernae, whichare quite distinctfromthemainblock of thehouse,beingcutintobedrockat thesame level as the forum.The corners(b and bl) fall 20 feetfromthe frontcorners.The space between the tabernae and the 45-footpegs c and cl was divided in half to formthe two cubicula, 12.5 feetwide. The cubicula themselvesare just over 15 feetdeep, includingboth walls. It seems fairlyclear thatmeasurementswere takenfromthe northwestwall, as they seem to assumethatthehouse is exactly60 feetwide, and thewidthof thesoutheastroomsis consistently slightlyshorter,allowingforthemissingfootin thewidthof thewhole. The tablinumitselfis a square measuringroughly20 feeton a side. Again it is placed slightlyoffthe centralaxis of thehouse, whichcan be explainedby a measurementof20 feet wall. The frontofthesuite,whichincludesthetablinum,triclinium, takenfromthenorthwest and servicerooms,lies 20 feetfromthe rear wall. The atriumoccupied the space that remained aftertheseoperationshad been carriedout. It was 27.7 feetwide and slightlyunder 33.8 feetlong. These anomalous dimensionscan be explained by the way in which it was made, by a process of subtractionafterthe walls of the otherrooms had been fixed.The impluviumlies in the centerof the space, slightlyoffthe centralaxis of the tablinum,while the faucesis centeredon the impluviumand the atrium.What we seem to see hereis a process by which the centralaxis, whichwas probablyassumed to be regularby the planners, was thrownout of line by the buildingprocess itself,more ad hoc and empiricalthan the planningprocess,whichprobablyassumeda perfect60-footwidth. Underneaththe atrium,the frontedge of the large cisterncorrespondsto the line between the 45-footpegs, c and cl, while its rear edge correspondsto the frontwall of the tablinum,10 feetfartherback. The excavationof this cisternwas probablythe firststep in the construction of thebuilding,servingthe dual purposeof creatingnecessarywaterstorage Fig. 10. This is the waymanyexcavationtrenchesare laid out to thisday.My own experienceof thispractice is, of course, what has stimulatedthis reconstruction. However,it is entirelypossible thatthe perpendiculars were establishedwitharcs laid out frompointsequidistantfromthe cornersof the building. 23
24 Although thePompeianevidenceconfirms theim-
portanceofa 5-footmodule,theuse of3-4-5triangles is lessinevidencethere.In manyinstancesatPompeii the baselineseemsto have been set back fromthe to compensatefortheirregularity streetfrontage of theblock.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
21
for largeblocksofbedrocktoprovidefoundations sufficient andofcutting undertheatrium lie at thewalls.The tabernaewouldhavebeencutoutat thesametime,fortheirpavements some50 cmbelowthoseofthemainbodyofthehouse. thesameheightas thatoftheforum, pitcutintothe Like all thetabernaeexcavatedat Cosa, theyeachhad a squaresoak-away usedforwastedisposalbytheoccupierofthespace.The areatobackcorner, presumably wardthebackofthehousewherethefloorlevelbeganto cutintothehillwouldalso have downthebedrock in thebedrock,rather thancutting beencutout.Walllineswerereserved itwithnewfoundations. and replacing pit soak-away Tenfeetfromtherearofthehouse,intheareaofthegarden,a rectangular createdto disposeof wasexcavated.It layunderthelittlebathbuildingandwaspresumably fromthedrain,whichmusthaveservedas a latrine.Waterfromthesoutheast wastewater hollowbetween slopeoftheroofdrainedintoitas well,as canbe seenfroma largeirregular wallofthecess pit.Whatis curiousis the theback cornerofthehouseand thenortheast bya holewitha lodgingfora metaltopjustoutofaccessto thecesspit,formed provision thatmay sidethebathhouse.Thismayhavebeenused foroccasionalcleaningoperations25 forthegarden. haveprovidedfertilizer walling in Cosa oftheRepublicanperiod,thefirst-phase buildings Likeall thedomestic soclesor directly ontothecutbedrock. rammed earthsetontodry-stone wasinpisede terre, wallofthe includethenorthwest fora fewcentimeters Wallsin thistechniquestillsurviving as wellas thoseofthetablinum cubiculaandthetriclinium, thoseofthenorthwest building, instoneabovethislevel: ofthecubiculawereconstructed andandron.26 Onlythedoorframes its throwing we haveevidenceforthisfromoneofthesedoorsthatcollapsedintotheatrium, witha limeplaster,and the The wallsweremadewaterproof linteltowardtheimpluvium. on a gabledtruss.We haveno evidenceforan upperstoryin themain roofwas constructed butstairsin thetwotabernaesuggestthattheywereequippedwithlofts,forstorbuilding, age or sleeping. Atrium Houses.The housefitswellintothegenerally TheHouseofDiana andContemporary Similarplanscanbe foundin withhortus."27 classifies as "atrium which Pesando earlyplan, housesat contexts:besidesPompeiione thinksof thethird-century manysecond-century is unusual. thata privatehouseopeningontoa forum The centralpointremains Fregellae.28 as theCosanforumseemsto havebeenplannedwitha modularapproach,with Moreover, identicalbuildingson threeofitssides,thiswouldimplythattheHouse ofDiana is notthe onlyhouseon theforum.Indeed,whatwe knowoftheplansoftheotherhousesseemsto thisidea (fig.9). AB II corresponds closelywiththeplan of theHouse of Diana confirm We know (ForumVI), whileAB VII, excavatedin 1972,has clearevidenceforcubicula.29 we first Given theCosan reluctanceto wasterainwater, thoughtthatthispit would have been used forwaterfor the garden.However,observationdemonstratedthatno waterwas retainedby it, even afterthe heaviestrain.
25
of Romanbuildingin thatit is theobviousprecursor like opus incertum. The detechniques caementicium ofveryclean struction levelsleftbythepisewallsconsist lying belowandabove withwallplaster deposits ofearth, ofthisstratigraphy Fentress et them.Fortheformation al. 1981.
No tracewas foundofmud brickson thesite,eitherin destruction deposits or in situ. Other pise walls are 1997,167f. known fromthe territoryof Cosa, particularlyin the 27 Pesando This construcexcavationsof the villa at Settefinestre. tion technique, which employs wooden panels as 28 Ibid.,fig.59. formworkbetweenwhichthe earthis pounded, is fundamentalforthe understandingof the developmentof 29CosaIII, fig.30. 26
f
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COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
23
tobe certainoftheirplans,although thetemptoolittleabouttheotherfiveatrium buildings theinformation tationarisesto extrapolate fromtheHouse ofDiana to theotherstructures. The idea of a forumsurrounded by privatehousescertainly appearsbizarre,but thereis evidencefromtheRomanforumitselfforprivatehousingpredating thegreatbasilicas.Livy assertsthatTarquiniusPriscusdividedup the area aroundtheforumintoprivatelots,30 while
the BasilicaPorciawas constructed afterCato had acquiredthe "AtriaMaenianumand whichseemto havelainon thewestendoftheforum. Titium," Now,whileBrownandothershavearguedthatthesewerepublicbuildings, itseemsmoreplausibleto methattheterm "atrium"referred, to thehousesof Maenianusand Titius.Indeed,pseudoby metonomy, Asconius, ofthefirst apparently compiledfromcommentaries toMaenius's century A.D., refers " buildingas a domus."31 It maybe thattheplanofCosa'sforum thatof does,afterall,reflect theearlierphasesoftheForumRomanum. The dimensions of AB V fitverycloselyto thoseprescribedin the first-century Lex MunicipiiTarentini, whichstatesthatthetownhouses ofthedecurions had to be coveredby 1,500tegulae,apparently usedinthiscontextas a stand-in fora measurement ofarea.32 Ifwe use a Cosantegulaof1.5x 2 Romanfeet,thiswouldgiveexactly 4,500squareRomanfeet,or 60 x 75 Romanfeet.The similarity ofthesemeasurements to thoseofourhousecannotbe coincidental. Whatwe findat Cosa mustbe thestandardtypeofthehouseofthepotential member oftheordoofa colony, probably chosenfromamongtheequites.The consequences ofthishypothesis willbe examinedin thenextsection. THE PLAN OF THE COLONY
andtheCityPlan (fig.10). Thepresenceoftheselargehouseson threesidesofthe Hierarchy forumis in directcontrast to whatRussellScott'sexcavations haveshownaboutRepublican housingelsewherein Cosa.3 Near themuseum,thelonginsulaeweredividedintohouse plots8.5 m wide,or 29 Romanfeet.Thisis justunderhalfthewidthofthoseon theforum plaza.On thesoutheast sideofeachplotwerebuiltsimplehouses,witha courtyard oratrium atthecenter. A roomsimilar to a tablinum andatleastone cubiculum openedoffthisspace. Behindthehousestheplotswereterraced at a lowerlevel,withstepsleadingdownto a gardenandserviceareas.Thebasiclayouthereis similar towhatwe haveseenon theforum but on a smallerscale.The housesmeasurehalfthewidthofthoseon theforum. We aredealing, almostcertainly, withhousesfortwoclassesofcolonists, someofwhomreceivedplotstwice as largeas theothers.The smaller housesarethoseoftheordinary colonists, withclearparallelsatPompeiiandelsewhere.34 30LivyI, 35, 10.
34 For Pompeii, the work of Salvatore Nappo on insulae I, xiv and elsewhere seems to reveal two or three 31 For commentson these texts see Palombi 1993 and standardplans forhouses of thistype.He suggeststhat Coarelli 1993, who assumesthatthe structuresare atria the central court was not covered and that the roof publica but whose evidence relies on Brown'sinterpre- sloped away fromthe blocks at the frontand back totationof the forumof Cosa. I am gratefulto Shane But- ward the outside (Nappo 1994; 1997). This was also ler for his comments on the dating and accuracy of the opinion of F. E. Brown on the Cosan buildings, pseudo-Asconius. althoughRichardson and Scott consider that the central court constituteda testudinateatriumwith a sort 32 Crawford 1996, 310. I am grateful to Daniele of dormerarrangementin the roof (Richardson 1988, Manacorda forbringingthispassage to myattention. 382-383; Scott in Cosa IV, 28f. and figs. 11 and 12). The uncovered court would of course be a plausible 33 Scott in CosaIV, 13-63. reconstructionof the houses at Cosa and would solve
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COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
25
Now,ifwe examinetheplanofthecity,itbecomesclearthatthishierarchy is inscribed inthestreets streets are6 mwide.However, thestreetleadingfromthe as well.Theordinary forum to theArxandthestreetthatleadsfromthesouthwest gateto theEasternHeightare and certainly 9 m wide.Browncalledthese"processional" streets, bythemiddleofthesectheirextrawidthmayalsoindicatethathousondcentury theybothled totemples. However, ingofa higherstatuslayalongthem.Ifwe pursuethishypothesis, theplaninfig.10 results, whilethoseoccupiedby withtheareasoccupiedbythelargerhousescoloreda darkergray, ofthenumbers is 24 largerhouses,with thesmallhousesarea lighter color.Thebestestimate ones.Thehousescouldhavebeenallotted to258 ofthe1,000newcolonists, about224 smaller andtheproportion between housesis slightly largerandsmaller largerthan1 to 10. Thesefigures beara closeresemblance to thosefora seriesof coloniessentoutin the B.C. AtThurii/Copia, of193B.C.,300 equitesreceived first twodecadesofthesecondcentury plotsof40 iugera,while3,000peditesreceived20. Again,thisrepresents a proportion of 1 to 10,withtheequitesreceiving twiceas muchlandas thepedites.AtVibo,in 192B.C., there were300 equitesand3,700pedites,andagaintheequitesreceiveddouble-sized allotments.36 Similarproportions is strikappliedat Bononiaand Aquileiain 190 and 181.37The pattern inglysimilarto theone we findat Cosa and suggeststhattheLatincoloniesoftheperiod following the SecondPunicWarfolloweda consistent withcoloniesdesignedto pattern, accepttwoor threeordersof colonists, withplotsassignedby rank.Boththeseconsiderationsand thedatingoftheHouse ofDiana suggestthatthedetailedplanofthesettlement at Cosa datesnottothethirdcentury buttothefirst decadeofthesecond,orprecisely tothe seconddeductionof colonistsin 197 B.C. The settlers, as we knowfromLivy,weredrawn fromthealliesofRomein theSecondPunicWarand werein all probability veterans. The withitstwoordersofstreets settlement, andtwoordersofhouses,clearlyreflects thedifferencein rankofitssettlers.38 At Thamugadi, almostthreehundredyearslater,a cleardivisionbyrankintothreeordersofhousesis visible,andhereagainthehousesoftheuppermost class(thecenturions?) flankthecardoleadingto theforum.39 Themilitary originofthecolonyanditsimperial date makethismappingofrankontothefabricofthecitymoreintuitively obvious,butthereis no reasonnotto see thegenesisof sucha schemein thecoloniesof theRepublic.In both coloniesthelargerhousesaredrawnup alongtheprocessional waysliketheofficers oftroops on review, withthecommonsoldiersin orderly ranksbehindthem.Polybius'sdescription of theproblemofthetotallackoflightthata testudinate atriumwouldimply.In orderto resolvetheproblem, muchwould dependon thecarefulrecordingof the positionofrooffallsduringexcavation.Similarsmall houseshavecometo lightin F. Coarelli'sexcavations at Fregellae. " Livy35, 9, 7-8. 36Livy 35,40,5-6. 37
Livy40,34,2-4.
Hesberg1985,127-151andZanker2000,fig.1 on the coloniae maritimaeincluding Cosa. For Carthageand Corinth, Rakob2000andRomano2000. 39 Fentress, ibid.An interesting parallelto thisplanis WilliamPennand ThomasHolme'splanforPhiladelphia.Although thecityblocksareofregularsizes,the houselotsalongthemainstreet(MarketStreet,called HighStreet ontheplan)areplannedas largerthanthose on thesmallerstreets. A curiousblindnessto thisdistinction is foundinthecatalogueentry to a recentexhibition,whichrefers to "houselotsofuniform size"(Enfrom A LetterfromWilliamPennProprietary graving and
Reconstructions of the originalplans of Roman GovernourofPennsylvaniato theCommitteeoftheFree coloniaeareregrettably rare:see forexampleLohmann Society,London1683,reproduced in Schaeret al. eds. 1980,167-187,on Timgad,Laur-Belart 1963,69-74, 2000,125). Fentress2000, fig.3 p. 17; on AugustaRauricaVon
38
26
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
offers clearparallelsto suchan arrangement.40 Ala marching campin thesecondcentury waslaidout thoughmanydetailsofthisplanremainobscure,itis clearthattheviapraetoria weredrawnup alongit.Behind at rightanglesto theforumandthatthetentsofthecavalry and auxiliaries. thesewerefoundthetentsofinfantry Centurions werefoundat theendsof themaniples, whichranalongthesideoftheforum.4" Thisscheme alongtheviaprincipalis, However,ratherthandehas beensuggested byKeppieto derivefromciviliansettlements. we shouldlookat bothas products riving thecityfromthecampor thecampfromthecity, inwhichsocialor military areinscribed in an orderly ofthesamemindset, hierarchies fashofthechosenground. ionontothenaturaldisorder to Brown'sScheme.On thewhole,thesampletrenches conTheStreetPlan:Modifications justhowaccurate firmed thestreetplanreconstructed byBrown.Indeed,theydemonstrated itwas.However,somechangesto theproposedstreetgridcannowbe made,basedbothon andon anextraordinary airphotographic ourexcavations elaboration byMarcelloCosci(color pI. 1).
ofAtriumBuildingI, did notcontinuealongthe Street7, a streetexcavatednortheast ofthecuriaand comitium. The corneroftheRepublicanbuildingexcasamelinesoutheast of thecarcer,leavingspace onlyfora narrow vatedin ForumII lies just2.5 m northeast in passagebetweenthem.On theothersideofstreetQ, a largebuildingseemstolie directly thepathof thisalleyand,indeed,overthelineof street7 as proposedbyBrown.It thus 0 andP. A further road seemspossibleto concludethatstreet7 existedonlybetweenstreets is theproposedstreet8,whichstandsoutwellon theairphotograph. northeast oftheforum ca. 8 m closerto the Northwest ofstreet0 theairphotograph (colorpl. 1) showsitrunning a seriesofinsulaeofexactlythesamedimensions as thosebetweenstreets 4 gate,creating and5, whichmeasure82.4m,or ca. 280 feet(fig.11). northeast ofthecuria,seemsto have StreetP,whichon Brown'splandoesnotcontinue Thisis suggested beenreplacedbya decumanus14.5m to thenorthwest. bytheplanofthe earliestphaseofIX D North,wherea clearcornerofone buildinglies exactly5.5 m,or 20 withrespectto the Romanfeet,awayfromthewall of thenext.Although it is off-center P' the interstreet runsdowninto forumalongsidethecomitium, centralaxisoftheforum, of theforumand forthearea northeast sectingwithstreet7. It was thusbothfunctional to therelationship subtlety logicalin termsoftheoverallplanofthetown.It adds a further oftheforum's planto thatofthetown. Othernewroadsvisibleon theairphotograph includestreetI, at a distancefromstreet K thatexactlyallowstheplacement oftwoinsulaeplusa centralstreet, J,forwhichwe have no otherevidence. 40 Polybius VI, 27-30. For commentaryKeppie 1984, 38f.
e trattato con speciali luminosita, resainnegativo-positivo) filtridi diversaefficaciaal finedi ottenereuna migliore esaltazione delle risposte cromatiche fornite dalla 41 Ibid. VI, 30, 5. superficie esplorata. E, poiche le immaginioriginali registratein bianco nero contengonoinformazioniche 42 J am verygratefulto Dr. MarcelloCosci forpermission l'occhio, come e noto, riescea percepiresolo in minima to reproduce this image,which derivesfroman EIRA parte mentree in grado di separare piu facilmentele flightof the Regione Toscana, strip105B, number234. combinazionidi una immaginea colori,e risultatoutile He writes"II fotogramma e statosottopostoad elabora- tradurreelettronicamente i livellidi grigioin livellidi colzione computerizzataed analizzato allo schermo con ore. Il colorefinaleadottatoe quello che sembramettere " operazioni di resa ottica (variazioni di contrastoe di inmaggiorerisaltole anomalievegetazionaliinterpretate.
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One finalproblem,whichhas neverbeen posed, is thatof the sinkholenortheastof the forum.Today,it is a greathole,over 10 m deep, whichseemsto have sunkintothehillside.We see it as a naturalfeatureof the topographyof the hill,part of the karsticstructureof Cosa, wherecracksand hollows are naturaland wherehot vapor is visiblein the winteremerging
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
7,7&
29 E Plate3. Temple (TS).
fromcracksin frontof the sanctuaryon the Arx.43But we have, in fact,no real evidencefor the momentwhen the groundhere collapsed, except insofaras the sinkholeis incorporated into the medievaldefenses.However,the positionof streetP' mightsuggestthatit was alreadythere,forit would explainwhystreetP' was not planned as a continuationof themain cardo P. B.C. Duringthefirst halfofthesecondcentury Changesto theCityPlan duringtheSecondCentury a new seriesof publicbuildingswas put up. These includeTempleD on theArx and TempleB on theforum,as wellas a newtempleon theEasternHeight,TempleE (fig.12 and pl. 3).44 Here thewholetop ofthehillwas leveledoffto createan open space measuringca. 30 m (perhaps100 Romanfeet)by a littleover23 m. Althougha squareof 100 Romanfeeton a side is possible,it seemsmorelikelythatthe sanctuarycontinuedsoutheastup to the citywalls,givingthetemple wallswerevisibleon twosides.The northwest wall an unimpededviewofthesea. The sanctuary was builtof drystone,0.60 m wide,and ran alongtheline of rearwall of thetemple,whichit abuts.On thenortheastside theedge ofthewallwas justvisiblein section.Outsideit,at 3.20 m bedrock.This is almostcerfromtheinneredge,is a steepcut,0.60 m deep, downto flattened tainlya road,6.20 m wide.A houselies on theotherside ofthisroad (EH VI, ext.NE). TEMPLE E. The templewas sited in the centerof the northwestedge of the sanctuary, its axis exactly14.78 m (or 50 Roman feet) fromthe innerface of the northeastsanctuary wall. Its identificationas a templeis based on the polygonalmasonryof its foundation,its positionin an otherwiseemptyarea on top of the EasternHeight,identifiedas a sanctuary, and on the fewarchitecturalterracottasfoundnearby.However,the medievalrobbingand destructionof the structure,whichseemsto have included its reuse as a hutor house, leaves us no clear idea of its plan, apart fromits outer dimensionsof 6.25 x 11.25 m, or 21.1 x 38 That particularhole mayexplain thelack ofvotivedepositsfromtheArx: whatbetterplace to consecrateold votivesthan a hole witha directconnectionto the centerof the earth?
4
Fentress and Rabinowitz 1996, 221-227. For the stratigraphy see EH VI.
44
30
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate4. Rearwall E (TS). Temple
Roman feet.It is smallerthaneitherTemple D (11.03 x 14.43 m) or the port temple(width 8.80 in). The masonrytechnique appears directlycomparable to that of Temple D on the Arx. The podium was built of isodomic blocks of limestonewhose maximumdimensions 4; rangedfrom0.60 to 1.00 m, withfour-sidedoutlinesgreatlypredominatingover polygonal ones (pl. 4). Even the orientationof thetempleis uncertain,althoughcuts in the bedrock 7 m to the southeastmightbe interpretedas seatingfor an altar (fig. 12, 190). This would imply that it faced the sea ratherthan the center of the town. A few fragmentsof the terracottaornamentationof the temple survived(below p. 217) but not enough for any hypothesisto be made about the dedication. Evidence forthe date of the templecomes froma fragmentof a Greco-Italicamphora whichseem to comparewell foundin the podium filland fromthe architectural terracottas, withthose fromthe originaldecorationof Temple B, built around the beginningof the second centuryB.C.(below p. 217f.). It is veryuncertainwhetherthistempleformedpart of the originalplan of the colony. StreetR, at 8 m, is unusuallybroad-Brown referredto it as a "processionalstreet"-and it mayalwayshave been to lead up to a sanctuary.However,the stub of a wall to the northeast of the templeand the domesticdebris in the podium fillsuggestthattherewere priorconrelastructionson the site of the temple,even thoughwe cannotbe sure of the stratigraphic tionshipbetweenthe temple and the wall stub. Taken together,however,theysuggestthat the area was used for domesticbuilding,at least fromthe time of the refoundationof the yearslater. colonyin 197 B.C. The sanctuarywould have been laid out some twentyto fifty TEMPLEsB ANDD. The constructionof the othertwo smalltemplesin the city,as well as thatof theextensionto thecuriaand thebasilica,4seemsto have entailedthe removalof several privatehouses. One or two houses along streetQ were removedforthe constructionof Temple B at the end of the second quarterof the second centuryB.C. (Forum II). There is just enough room betweenthe southeastside of Temple B and streetQ fora normalCosan house 22 m deep. Only the southeastwall of thisinsula and a fragmentof pavementwere Frownplaces the constructionof the basilica slightlylater,in 150-140 B.C. (Cosa III, 207f.).
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
P /
31
wiF ,,h 8~~~ioninum
Fig.13.DomusontheArx(EF).
preservedalong streetQ, which it mighthave servedto terrace.Inside the area of the old insula the structurewas cut away to well below its foundationsand the land graded down fromstreetQ towardthe templepodium (Forum II). Footingsof Republican houses were also cut by the basilica, and, probably,by the extensionto the curia (IX D North)*46 The constructionof the curia extensions,Temple B, and, in the middle of the century, the basilica thus entailedthe destructionof at least 0.27 ha. of housing,creatingan empty space aroundthepublic buildings.47 Southeastof TempleB thisspace was presumablyoccupied by a garden,althoughlater disturbancesobliteratedall trace of planting(Forum II). Behind the basilica and curia,however,the Republicanfootingswere preservedabove their contemporarygroundlevel, which suggeststhatin this case the area became a wasteland: indeed,it was used forrubbishdumpingin a subsequentperiod (IX D North). On the Arx the situationis farless clear.In Arx I the cornerof a buildingwas revealed, some 18 m northeastof TempleD and orientedaccordingto the citygrid (fig.13). This was Althoughthe stratigraphicrelationshipbetweenwall 35 in IX D Northand the curiawas not examined,there seemsto be too littlespace betweenthe two forthemto havebeen contemporary, especiallyin that35 was almost certainlythe outerwall of the building.
46
47
I am assuming an open area at least 17 m deep be-
hind the temple,the curia, and the basilica: this is the extentof trenchIX D North,in which all the Republican walls were destroyed.It is, of course, a minimum depth. However, measured fromthe forumedge, it is just slightlylargerthanthe depthof the insulae around the forum:possiblythe houses destroyedhad the same dimensions.
32
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
probablydomestic,as itssigninumfloorand quarter-round coverjointssuggest.We haveinterpretedit as an atriumhouse,partoftheseriesthatrunsup streetP. However,likethebuildings in thefirstquarter nearTempleB, itmayhavebeen destroyedwhenTempleD was constructed of the second century. The truncatedstratigraphy, cut down almostto bedrock,suggeststhat thisdestruction formedpartof theterracingthatcreatedthefrontwall ofthesanctuary. Thus by the end of the firsthalfof the second centurytheremayhave been a slightcontractionof privatehousingin favorof a new emphasison public buildings.The construction of houses like the House of the Skeletonin the earlyfirstcentury,48 whichoccupied the gardens of earlierbuildings,may have compensatedfor some of these losses. However,elsewherewe can see the combiningof adjacent smallhouses to make singlelargehouses, such as the House of the Treasure.49 These would be naturaladjustmentscontingenton the individual proprietors,and it is hard to see anyconsistentpatternin them.
TheAugustan Resettlement (fig.14) THE DATEAND FoRM OF THE SETTLEMENT
There is evidencein variouspartsof Cosa forwidespreaddestructionand perhapsabandonmentaround 70 B.C. Brown suggestedthatRepublican Cosa was sacked around the end of the 70s B.C.50 The best date forthiseventderivesfromthe hoard foundin the House of the Treasure,5'and Brown'ssuggestionthatthesackwas an attackbypiratesstandsunchallenged.52 We have no evidenceas to whetherthe site continuedto stand emptyforthe nexthalf-century:Indeed, Scott has noted thatthe site was probablygarrisonedagainstSextus Pompey from40 B.C.53 Our own excavationscast littlelighton thematter:it is certainthattheHouse of Diana was destroyedat some point,alongwithitsnext-doorneighbor,but we have no way of datingthis,as the rebuildingand cleanup of the area wereverythorough.It is not impossible thatthehouse continuedin occupationthroughoutthefirstcenturyB.C.,but thereis no materialfromthe excavationwitha certaindate between70 and 20 B.C. The originsof theAugustanresettlement remainsomewhatobscure.Browndatesit to the yearsaround40-30 B.C., althoughtheevidencefromthepotteryand coinsis hardlyconclusive.54 observesthatthereis a gap in thecoinevidencefortheHouse ofDiana between70 and Buttrey evidencesuggestsa dateforitsdecorationbe27 B.C. (belowp. 251), whilethe (mainlystylistic) deductionof tween20 and 10 B.C. (below pp. 154, 177). We have no evidencefora triumviral veteransto thearea,althoughone has been suggestedfornearbyHeba, wherethereis evidence forthe settlement of thethirty-ninth otherconlegion.55 Apartfrombeingconveniently empty, siderationswould have influencedthe choiceof Cosa forveteransettlement. At thetimeof the town'sinitialdesertion(70-60 B.C.) newvillaswerebeingbuiltat a greatrate,culminating in the IV, 99f.
49Cosa IV, 79f.
most a decade later,in 63 and 62 B.C., and centeredon Faesulae. The rebellioncontinuedafterCatiline'sdefeat: Dio Cassius 37.33.2; 41.1; Orosius 6,6.7.
50CosaIII, 237-23 8.
53CosaIV,161.
48Cosa
51
CosaIV, 79, 147.
Myles McDonnell makes the suggestiveexplanation thatthe persecutionsfollowingthe Catiline conspiracy mighthave played a part,althoughthese took place al-
54Potteryfromthe constructionof a drainin the House
of the Birds suggestsa constructiondate of 40-20
52
55 Fentress1991.
B.C.
COSA IN THE REPUBLIC AND EARLY EMPIRE
l
33
l~~~~~~0
O
50
100
in theAugustanperiod. Fig. 14. The insulaeresettled insulaeon whichrefusewas dumped(AW). Grayareasrepresent
Le Colonne,and La Provinca,put up in mid-century enormoussitesat Settefinestre, or soon after.56 These dependeduponthePortusCosanusfortheexportoftheirwine,and theport'sstructuresseem to have been littleaffectedby whateverdisasterovertookCosa itself.As thesevillas grew,thelastofthesmallerfarmsdisappeared.57 Bytheprincipate, onlyfivesurvivedwithinfive km of the town,althougha numberof otherssubsistedon theouteredges of theterritory. The probableAugustanrebuildingofCosa can be seenin thislight.The disappearanceofthemunicihad lefttheremaining farmers withoutservices,a market,or a politicalbase. Furpal structures fora new colony.The new ther,the town'sextensivepublic lands were an obvious attraction housesin thetown(and theywerenotnumerous)mayhaveservedthosefewlandlordswhowere not absentees,or theymayrepresentan entirely new groupof settlers, willingto takeup allotin contrastto the situationat Heba, thereis no traceof new mentsin the territory-although, decade of the buildingoutsidethe town.The datingof theHouse of Diana to thepenultimate firstcentury B.c.58shouldgivea terminus antequemto thesettlement as a whole. The sample trenchesdemonstratethatthe Augustanrebuildingof the townwas limited to the public buildingsand to a square of nine insulae around the forum(fig. 14). As the 56Settefinestre; Carandini,ed. 1985; Quilici and Quilici
57
Attoliniet al. 1991, 149.
58
Belowp. 177.
Gigli 1978.
34
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
excavationoftheHouse ofDiana shows,theinsulaethatwererebuiltweresolidlyconstructed, withmasonrywalls and floorsrelaid above theirpredecessors.The townplan was retained, althoughin some cases streetswerewidened (street0: 04.5). Public monumentssuch as the Capitolinetemplewere restored. Houses weremoreconcentratedthanin theRepublicantown:in some cases theyseemto have frontedboth on thesoutheastand thenorthwestsides of theinsulae,althoughtheymay have had yardsbetweenthe two,as is the case in the House of the Birds.Perhaps theinhabitantsof the new settlementused thelarge areas withinthewalls thatwerenow desertedfor theirgardens:tracesof pens or thewalls of a kitchengardenwerefoundovertheruinsof the House of the Skeleton,59 while the House of Diana apparentlyused the ruin of the house next door,AB VI, as its kitchengarden.Even in the towncenter,however,large areas were abandoned: middendepositscoveredtheRepublicandestructionlevelsof insulae east of the forumand northwestof the Arx (R6, R7, 04). Althoughthe area immediatelysurrounding Temple B was not used fordumping,rubbishdepositswere foundon streetQ, just overthe wall (ForumII) and behind thebasilica (IX D North). THE HOUSEOF DIANA,PHASE 2 (AR)
Althoughexcavationsat the House of Diana can neitherconfirmnor rejectthehypothesisof fromtheground destructionaround 70 B.C., it is certainthatthebuildingwas reconstructed up in the last quarterof the firstcenturyB.C. (fig. 15). Most of the socles of the walls were rebuiltwitha lime mortar,leavingonly a few of the originalpise walls in place. The pavementswereredone (pls. 5 and 6), thewallswerereplasteredand decorated,and some signifiof thebuilding.The mostsignificant of thesewas cant changesweremade to thearchitecture the blockingof the door leading fromthe atriumto the tricliniumand the opening of the rear wall of the tricliniumtowardthe outside. This openingup of the tricliniumturnedit into a summerdiningroom (fig.16, room K). A new winterdiningroom was thencreated out ofthetwo cubiculato theleftoftheatrium,whichwerejoined and paved witha signinum was built floor.A new portico,Q, with fourcolumns,two engaged and two freestanding, It is not impossiblethat along theback of thehouse, behindthetablinumand thetriclinium. a windowwas constructedlinkingthetablinumto the porticoas well: however,theevidence of thewall plasterseemsto argueagainstthis(below p. 179), and in anycase thewindowwas The decorationwas overallof a hardlyas substantialas contemporary Pompeian examples.60 motifsof the porticoshow (color pl. 8). highquality,as the elaboratearchitectural The servicecorridorwas extended,withan extraroom added on at the end. Part of the servicesuite continuedto be used forwashing,as is demonstratedby the constructionof a moldseparatespace (room0) witha low wall joined to a signinumfloorby a quarter-round ing. The whole block was then linked to the bath buildingacross a narrowcorridor.This corridorled to a small door in the outerwall, whichmayhave led to a furthergardenof the house, laid out overthe remainsof AtriumBuildingVI. This idea is based on an observation of Brown,whose excavationsin the frontof the buildingseemed to show thatthe tabernae and fauceswere replacedby beaten-earthsurfaceswithtroughsforfarmanimals.6' For the old kitchengarden we do not have much evidence. The old square bed was 59
Cosa IV, 163.
60
E.g., the House of the Menander,I, 10, 4.
61
Cosa III, 241.
s
N R Q
P
K
L M
J
0 H
I
B
C T
Ai
F
D
Fig. 15. The House ofDiana in theAugustanperiod(EF).
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
36
Plate5. Houseof Diana,themosaic ofthetablinum thenortheast from
.
_
_
_
(EF).
iqs ! It1jj}.!.r.. .
j 1
were the
found
against
:of/jJW #li|.. the.
back
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the
walls.
space
However,
with
ever
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iis|-
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s
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.
o
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we .
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t
ti. processat thesame House ofSallustwentthroughan identical cousentraloItaly:f whatere6 themosaic t v Diana, a chng iv e t r u ofthetriclinium the o to the.utimpria (; 17 a bw from northeast F
were~~ fon
agis
trnfrmto the~~~~~~|
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alhog
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th
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walls.
Hoee,in
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:ftewl
eemvstwr
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oelxrosonmn.I
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h
e
anigmgtsget a.ifrn
wreplaced Thithne cagareinvsoilvead the reeontrutio peuably reeoaione
tAbfernatrees ofithfoers
although the thergodifessnForunalitorftthe (fig.est an difelownt wallperintin might ptublctuhrie,
62
Laidlaw 1993. For the social contextof thischange,e.g., Zanker 1998, 192f.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
37
Fig.16.Axonometric reconstruction ofthe andgarden in tricinium theAugustanperiod JB).
withmotifs together 156f.).The wallplasteris ofexceptionally highquality, usingcinnabar, closelyparalleledbythoseoftheVillaoftheFarnesina(colorpls.2-6 and belowp. 150f.). The roomwas coveredwitha stuccoedvault,decoratedwithpanelsrepresenting, among othermotifs, a Nike,a figure witha veiledhead,anda seateddeity. On thefloor, a newblack andwhitemosaicreplacedthebeatenearthofthetaberna.A plausibleexplanation forthe of thisspace is a connection withtheimperialcult,and thisfitswell elaboratedecoration in importance ofthecultofAugustus withthegrowth duringtheperiod.63 aswillbe discussed Wecandatethisphaseprimarily below,seems byitswallpainting, which, 20 and 10 B.C. If thehousewas to datefromthefirst yearsofthethirdstyle, perhapsbetween at thesametimeas therestofthetown,thiswoulddatethereoccupation rather reconstructed in laterthantherestofAugustan colonization central thereis no realreasonto Italy.However, ofthecolonymayhavestarted thetwo,andtherebuilding a decadeorso earlier. connect Withonesubstantial thebuilding retained itsnewdecoration andplanformore exception, ofthehouse,theportico thanfifty Atsomepointafter thereconstruction totherearofthe years. wasblockedoff(fig.18).Evidently thefashionable triclinium newarrangement had notsuited owners ofthehouse,as itwouldhaverendered thetriclinium toocoldforuseduring subsequent thewinter months. Thenewwallsin thetriclinium wereplastered andpainted, without much Below p. 156f.J. Collins-Clintondiscussed the evidence fortheimperialcultat Cosa in a paper at the 1987 meetingsof the AIA (abstractin AJA 1988). This consistsof 1: a fragmentof a Lares altarpreservingpart of
63
thesymptomatic laurelbranchortree,C7338,foundin 2: CIL XI, 2631,a dedication thereservoir; toAugustus bya magister Augustalis, saidtobe fromCosa andnow lost:see Manacorda1979,95 no.2; see alsono.3.
38
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
Fig.17.Axonometric reconstruction ofroomC as anAugusteum (JB).
to matchthedecorative schemeoftheold room.The porticoitselfretained itsmural attempt a newandhighly decoration, although decorated wasinstalled. ceiling Outside,thegardenwas frescoed withplantmotifs. Thisisentirely inkeeping withcontemporary practice atPompeiiand maybe seenas partofthetransformation ofthegardenintoa highly decorative space.Thestyle ofthepainting a dateforthisphasebetween A.D. 20 and40.64 suggests TheClaudian Period THE HOUSE OF DIANA,PHASE3: THE SANCTUARY OF DIANA(FIG. 19)
TheBuildings oftheSanctuary. The houseitselfremainedunchangedduringtheClaudian period,theexception ofa lowwallaroundtheimpluvium, beingtheconstruction whichmay 64
Belowp. 182.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
-
39
Fig.18.TheHouseofDiana, l
J
S
A.D.
20-40 (EF).
N R
0~~~
Q~~~~
H
B~~~
0
5
IOM
have transformed it into a shallow pooi. The technique employedfor this constructionis characteristicof all the Claudian-periodwork in the house. It was built of tiles laid flange The same technique upward and mortaredtogether,the whole being coveredwithplaster."5 A similar change to the impluviumis found in the House of Octavius Quartio at Pompeii (II 2,2), whereit was transformed into a decorativepool surroundedby 65
plants. Curiously,this house is also a fine comparison forthe buildingof a shrinein the garden.
40
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
Fig.19.TheHouseofDiana, A.D. 50-60(EF).
s
N
Q
P
I
~~~~H
G F
0
_
5
oM
blockofftheportico from toonly40 thegarden. Thiswallispreserved wasusedtopartially beena pluteus andthe cmandmay, ofcourse, havesimply between thesurviving column inthedesign itaccompanies a majorchange andfunction of wallofthetriclinium. However, built in a little shrine was the northwest wall. This was the thegarden. clearly against Here, form withthreestepsrising twocolumns toa cellaconofa miniature up between temple, stoodona lowmasonry thestatue ofthedeity. Thecultstatue base,40 cmhighand taining
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
41
Fig.20.Axonometric ofthegarden reconstruction toDiana(JB). withtheshrine
withwhitemarble, 5 cmthick.A molding inform.Thebasewasrevetted trapezoidal slightly thatthepieceusedwasspoliafromanother suggests running downonesideoftherevetment ofa statueofDiana We wereluckyenoughto findthetorsoand otherfragments structure. foundin oftheshrineon theinscription, thededication lyingoverthisbase,whichconfirms fixedoverthecelladoor.Less obviousis theinterpretathesamedeposit.Thiswasprobably ofthebase ofthestatue,set tionofthecircular plaqueofgialloanticomarblefoundinfront in a decorative fashionofa the recycling intotheredplasterfloor.It maysimplyrepresent oftheshrineas a smalltemple The reconstruction smallelementofspoliafromelsewhere. thecolumnsthemselves doesnotseemto be in doubt,although witha projecting pediment motifdesignedto decorated with a cancellum havedisappeared(fig.20). The podiumwas (belowp. 45) suggests matchtheAugustan-period paintingin thegarden.The inscription at a guess,we mightsuggestthepedion thestructure: thatantlerswerefixedsomewhere mentas themostobviousplace forthese.In frontof theshrinethedrumof a travertine columnseemsto havebeenusedas an altar(pl. 2). In thewestcornerofthegardena narrowstaircasewas built,leadingup to thestreet. havThisimpliesthata doorwas openedat streetlevel,givingaccessto thegardenwithout having without theownerwithaccesstothestreet thehouseorproviding ingtopassthrough to pass throughthe forum.This staircasewas clearlyplanned and constructedat the same
WW
-|l -u: 's
g
w
.
Fig.21. Sectionofthehouse,A.D. 50-60 (JB).
Fig. 22. Axonometric ofthe reconstruction house,A.D. 50-60 (JB).
.~~~~~~~~~~~0
lo
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
43 Plate7. Houseof of Diana,thebuildings thesanctuary, from roomN (EF).
.
~_ ...
. ... .
.
timeas the shrine,forthe shrineitselfis centeredto thespace betweenthe stairand theback wall of the building Facingtheshrine,theold bathbuildingwas transformed (figs.21 and 22). A new signinum floorwas laid overthewholeof thespace ofroomN, whilea wide door was cutintothenorthwestwall directlyoppositetheshrine.Its thresholdwas wellmade,withbronzesettingsforthe doorposts.The view fromthe door centeredthe shrineexactly(pl. 7). Two stepsled down to the garden.To theleftof these,a masonrybench,coveredwithplaster,was builtbetweenthe stairand the rearwal of the garden.Again,this faced the shrine.In frontof it, a piece of a low barrierbetweenanyonesittingon reusedmarble185 x 60 cmwas seton itsedge,forming thebench and the restof the space. There are no tracesof plantsor plantingbeds duringthis period,and the compactsurfacesuggestsbeatenearth,althoughgrasscannotbe excluded. In frontof the altar/column werefoundtwo smallpits,no morethan15 cm deep, filledwithash and fragments ofburntbone. These mayrepresentthe remainsof sacrificesat thealtar. and a numberof herms(below Decorative elementswere thenadded: marblefurniture A in focus was the old niche the rear wall of the garden.Here, the basin 51). p. particular was blocked by a deposit containingpotteryof the middleof the century. The bottomof the nichewas flooredwithirregularpieces ofwhitemarble,includinga fragment of an anthemion friezefromthe Capitoline temple.Its walls were covered with a revetmentof cowryshells mixed withfragmentsof vitrifiedkiln debris,givingit the air of a miniaturegrotto.From here,watermay have dripped onto the marble surfacebelow. Two fragmentsof Campana maenads were foundunder thisniche (pls. 8, 108, and 109), and it is plaques representing probable thatthey,too, formedpartof its decoration,perhapsfixedto thewall outside.The niche mayhave been purelydecorative,or it mayhave servedas a lararium,providinga second sacredfocusforthe garden. These changesrepresenta majorshiftin the use of the garden.Plants no longerseem to have been partof its decoration,althoughthe old wall paintingssurvived,and thenew trellis paintedonto theoutsideof thepodiumof theshrineclearlycontinuedtheirtheme.The main axis now ran acrossit fromsoutheastto northwest, ratherthanfromfrontto back. While the
44
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate8. Houseof Diana,Campana plaquesandother
decorativeelements
ofthe fallen infront fountain(EF).
~~~~~~~~~~~~~t.
z_
:1,
Plate9. Thededicatory ofthe inscription aedicula(SF).
viewfromtheporticowas at least partiallyclosed off,thenew roomin theold bathsseemsto have been giventhe privilegedview of the space. It may,indeed,have servedas a triclinium, focusedon thelittleshrineacrossfromit.Now,whilegardenshrinesare commonin Pompeiiof thatin theHouse of Queen Carolinegivesa close parallelto our own-this rearrangement the garden seems to be nearer to a genuine sanctuarythan a decorativefeatureto amuse guestsat dinner.The openingup of a separateaccess to the street(fig.22) seems to pointin thatdirection,as does the use of an inscriptionwith a verypublic air in what should have been a privatecontext.The whole may representan attempton the part of the owner to introducea particularcult of Diana into the town-or, at least, to selected membersof it.
thatdecoratedthe itselfandbythesculpture on thisbytheinscription Morelightis thrown newgardensanctuary.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
45
TheDedicatory Diana Recepta66(JB)(C9602:pl. 9). Twocontiguous Inscription: of fragments a rectangular whitemarbleslab cutdiagonally andfinished the left finished along and side; squaredalongthebottomand rightside;squared,finished, and smoothly roundedtoward thefrontfacealongthetop; and partially finished acrossthelowerhalfof the diagonally backside(to a heightof3.5 cmfromthebottomofthestoneattherightside,up to a height of 8.0 cm at theleftside). At thejoin,themissingtriangular piecesarenowreplacedwith modernplaster(57.9 x 16.6x 2.9-3.2 cm;lett.2.2-2.9 cm).Tracesofplasteralongtheleft, andloweredgesarepreserved right, fromtheoriginalsetting; threenailholes(ofan original four,thelastlostwiththemissing upperpiece)evenlydisposedandsetvertically intothetop edgeofthestoneindicatehowtheslabwas heldin placefromabove.To judgefromitssize and shapeand theplace of discovery, theslab was probablyoriginally installedabovethe cella doorin thearchitrave of theminiature shrinebuiltagainstthenorthwest wall at the back ofthegardenin whichtheright-hand sectionoftheinscription, thetorso,and other partsoftheroughly halflife-size marblestatueofDiana werefound.The left-hand fragment was foundat thebase ofthesteps.The inscription is currently housedin a storeroom adjacentto theantiquarium on thesite,whereitwasexaminedon 30 May2001. hisAugusta Cornib[us] sacris
Diana recepta Ad sua testatur templa patereviam. Withthesesacredhornsendowed Diana Augusta bearswitnessthatthepathto hertempleliesopen.
Line 1: tallIs in his (3.2 cm) and sacris(3.4 cm);S infine(1.8 cm),roundedG inAuin freehand gusta,as commonly in stoneinscriptions lettering ofthefirstcentury A.D. from theneighborhood ofRome.67 Line3: pronounced apicesoverA in testatur andthefirst E in patere;AM in ligatureat theend of theline.The lettersarewellcarvedand regular, with comparatively lightshadingandheavyserifs.Longobliquestrokesfromupperleftto lower rightinA, V, andM (butnotin N) arelightly incisedand oftenonlyfaintly visible.Raised triangular interpuncts regularly betweenwordsand at theend of line2. The secondline, halfthelengthoftheothertwo,is approximately roughly centered betweenthem.Nothing in thecharacter ofthelettering, theformoftheslab,orthewording, prosody, andformulationofthetext(see below)is at oddswiththeClaudiandateproposedfortherestructuring ofthegardenandtheconstruction oftheminiature shrineto Dianawithwhichitwasfound. The textrecordsan elegiaccoupletofmodestliterary pretensions, in whichtheconsistentuseoftallIs (inline1 andprobably alsoinline2 inDiana) andapices(inline3) to mark longvowelscorrectly a notablerefinement.68 represents Theweakcaesurainthethirdfootof thehexameter, as usual,bystrongcaesuraein thesecondand fourth offset, feet,conforms 66In September 1997, when this inscriptionwas first broughtto myattention,I had the pleasure of sharing a photographof it withepigraphistsgatheredin Rome forthe Eleventh InternationalCongress of Greek and Latin Epigraphy. On that occasion learned opinions were offeredin convivialsettingsbyJ. Gomez Pallares, G.-L. Gregori, N. Horsfall, M. Kajava, W. D. Lebek, and S. Panciera. For subsequent helpful advice I am
indebted to E. Fentress,J.Gomez Pallares, R. T. Scott, D. E. Trout (who sharedwithme his thenunpublished manuscript on the Feriale Campanum), and T. P. Wiseman. 67
See Gordon and Gordon 1977, 103-104.
68
Ibid., 148; cf.E. Galletier1922, 291-292.
46
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
withthelayoutofthetextto setoffthewordsDiana recepta inthemiddleline.The emphasis thusfallingon theparticiple hereunderstood in themiddle-passive sense"to be in recepta, receiptof" (OLD s.v.6b) but perhapssimply"received"(sc. intomygarden),and on the his... sacriswithwhichit is construed, openingablativephrasecornibus thatthe suggests enhancement ofDiana witha setofantlers(see below)mayhaveprompted theinscription andperhapsalso theconstruction oftheshrineitself. Theepithet as appliedtoDiana,is first Augusta, ina dedication attested bya blockcaptain (magister vici)atRomein7 B.C., theyearAugustus themagistri vicorum withcultivatcharged ingtheLarescompitales alongwiththeLaresAugustiand hisownGenius.69 In thattextthe epithet refers evidently tothefamousTempleofDianaon theAventine restored recently byL. Cornificius (PIR2 1503;Suetonius, Aug.29.5),a shrine whosebirthday, celebrated throughout Italy,fellin themiddleofthenewlynamedmonthofAugust.70 Subsequently, duringthefirst century A.D., private dedications to Diana Augustaturnup in centraland northern Italy-at Aricia,Capena,Aquileia,andMilan-andeventually intheprovinces as well.71 Ourinscription belongsinthatgroup.Cornuaandtempla requiremoredetailedexplanation. RomanDianawasassociatedwithhorns(cornua)ofvarioussorts:as goddessofthehunt, witha bow madeofhorn,whichourstatueevidently heldin thelefthand,72 or as ArtemisSelene,crowned witha headdress from whichthecuspsofa supinecrescent moonprotruded like horns.73 sprouting Theheadofourstatue, apparently a Greekoriginal, probably oftheearly fourth
a largerectangular century B.C., exhibits holeofunknownpurposeattheback-possiblythemountingforsucha lunatecrown.ButthemostcommontypeofcornuafoundwithDiana aretheliving hornsborne by animalsof the woods, particularlythe stag. In posing the question whythe
hornsof cattleweredisplayedat theTempleof Diana on theAventine, Plutarchtellsus thatit was customary to nail up stags'antlersin sanctuaries of Diana (Quaest.Rom.4 =
Mor. 264 C), and a varietyof evidence-literary,visual, and epigraphic-bears him out.74 When Propertiusvowedto put aside theworshipofVenusand to cultivateDiana byhangingwild animals'hornson pine trees,he was drawingon a literary traditionthatreachedback at least as faras Leonidas ofTarentumand theHellenisticepigrammatists culledbyMeleager, but he appealed also to a livingpracticein the real world.75Q. Tullius Maximus,a Libyan 69
CIL VI, 128; cf. CIL VI, 129,130 (A.D. 241), 30864. For the reorganization of the magistrivicorum,see Wissowa 1912, 172-173.
73See, e.g., Stat,Theb.X, 369, Lucan I, 218, IV, 60; Gury
1994, 713. R. T. Scott suggeststhat cornuain our text perhapsrefersto thephysicalsettingin whichthe statue was housed (between the two columnsin frontof the 70 For theTempleofDiana on theAventine, see Venditelli cella): Diana is "embraced" (recepta)between two ar1995, 11-13, and forthe Augustanpreservationof the chitectural"horns"(cornuaas architectural elementsare originaldateofdedication(thesameas thatoftheTemple attestedin inscriptionsand literature, e.g., thecomitium of Diana at Aricia), 13 August,see Gros 1976, 34 and in Rome; cf.PlinyXXXIV, 26, statuesofPythagorasand note 131. Alcibiades place in cornibuscomitiitribunal,theaters,a triclinium,a portico,a road). 71 CIL V, 771, 772, 8216, Suppl.Ital.157(Aquileia); CIL V, 7633 (in agro Saluzzensi); V,5765 (Mediolanum);XI, 74Plut. Mor. 264 C, ALd TL TOLS 0XXLo; APTERLTiOL9 3859 (Capena) XIV, 2156 (Aricia); furtherDiehl 1900- ETrLELKIO EXd4WV KEpaTa TpOIJ1TTaXEVOVUL, TO & EV 1906, 1395.2-30; Cesaro 1900, 1728-1752 at 1742-1746. AfEVT(VW oCov. Note also thescholionon Aristoph.Plut. 944, E`O liVTOUS 0npWVTCg TLVa tuypav [tEpOg TI TOV " 72See, e.g., Ovid, Met. XI, 324, Stat. Silv. II, 3.28 (Virg. OTlPCO4EVOV,T1V KE4aXfV ] T68a, TrpOaTqXOUV 1TaTTQX Aen. XI, 857, Ciris299); Simon 1984, 811 no. 55 (wall (TI TLVOS 6EV3POV ElS aVTfTV TfV tXflV 1TpOS TL[IflV TTS painting,Ostia), 812 no. 62 and pl. p. 600 (marblealtar APT6[IL8O9 withAymard1951, 511-512. relief,Via Ardeatina);814 no. 91 and pl. p. 603 (bronze statuette,Herculaneum); 818 nos. 135 (marble relief, 75Prop. II, 19.17-20, ipse egovenabor:iam nuncmesacra Rome) and 137 (funeraryaltar,Rome) and pl. p. 607. Dianae /suscipereet Venerisponerevotaiuvat./ incipiam
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
47
commanderof the seventhlegion Gemina Felix in Hispania Tarraconensisduringthe early in thewoods aroundthelegionarycamp(modernLeon), 160S A.D., hopingforsuccessin hunting erecteda shrinethereto Diana and, withthe fulfillment of his prayers,dedicatedtrophiesof his prowess.Amongthe spoils his killsand a monumentinscribedwithversecommemorating werethehornsof "lofty-headed" deer,cervomaltifrontumcornua.76 In centralItaly,too, huntofan inscription found ersdedicatedtrophiesoftheirkillsto Diana. The authenticity reportedly the decorationof a shrineof Diana witha set of by Rycquiusat Hispellum commemorating hornswas doubtedby Orelli and Biicheler,77 but therehas neverbeen anyquestionabout the of theversesinscribedby a certainLaetus withthesignum Delmatius(and thereauthenticity foreprobablyof the timeof Diocletian or later) at the famoussanctuaryof Diana at Mons Tifatanear Capua. There Laetus recordedin indifferent hexametershow he set up in Diana's temple"thesemarvels"(haec miracula, line 2):78
5
/ IncolaTifatae, ve/natibus inclutavirgo, / haec,Latona,tuisstatu/it miracula templis cunctis notushomo,sil/varum cultoretipse,/ laudibusimmensis vitae/ qui servathonorem, / Delmatius signo,prisco/ de nomine Laetus./ Credoquidemdonumnul/lishocanteanatum/ / collibusautsilvis;/ tantum umbris caputexplicat
(sic)
Inhabitant ofTifata,maidenfamedforhunts, thesemarvels, Latonianone,a manknownto everyone, he tooa dwellerinthewoods,whomaintains esteemwithunlimited praisefor hislife, captareferaset redderepinu / cornua.... Cf. Verg.Ecl. VII, 29-30, saetosi caputhoc apri tibi,Delia, parvus/ et ramosaMicon vivaciscornuacervi;Ovid, Met. XII, 26667, dixeratExadius telique habet instarin alta / quae fuerantpinu votivicornua cervi;Anth. Pal. VI, 110 (= Leonidas 96 Gow/Page), VI, 11 (= AntipaterofThessalonica 46 Gow/Page). Of thelatterGow and Page 1965 remarkthatwhile Antipater'spoem clearlylooks back to Leonidas's, "it commemoratesalso a real event or echoes a second epigram which did so" (vol. 2.70). Diana was not the only deityhonored with such trophies: cf. Anth. Pal. VI, 112 = Perses 1 Gow/Page (Apollo), Anth. Pal. VI, 96, Erucius (Pan), Anth. Pal. VI, 115 = Antipater47 (Heracles); also VI, 114, 116. Pausanias saw an elephant'sskullat theTempleofDiana at Tifatain Campania (Paus. V, 12.3), and elephanttusks were dedicated to Liber Pater in NorthAfrica(e.g., AE 1942-1943; 1953, 186 = Courtney1995, nos. 137-138; cf. Brouquier-Redde1992, 286).
quosvicitinpa/ramiaequore/vectusferoci /sonipede/ "Sacred to Diana. Quintus TulliusMaximus,imperialcommanderof the seventhlegion Gemina Felix.... Tullius dedicatesto Diana theantlersoflofty-headed deerwhich he overcameon thelevelplateau (?), carriedon his highspiritedsteed." The othertrophiesincludedboars' tusks and a hide. For Maximus,see RE VII A, 2, 1315-1316, s.v. "Tullius" no. 44 (Groag); Alf6ldy1969, 121. Cugusi 1985, 106 doubts thathe composed the poems himself, but thereis no reasonto denyMaximustheabstruseand idiosyncraticdictionto whichthe authoris prone. For the altar and its inscriptions,see Pefia 1990, 329-339 (withphotos). CIL XI, 5262 = CLE 1800 = Courtney1995 no. 142, munerete hoc dono,Latonia sanctavirago:/ cornigeram cepi virtuteet laude potitus/ exuvieisqueeius templum tuumdecoravi."I bestow upon you thisgift,holyheroic daughterofLeto. I caughtan antler-bearing animal,earning praise for my courage, and I have adorned your templewiththe spoils of it."
7
II, 2660 (Hiibner) = ILS 3259-3260 = CLE 1526 = Courtney 1995 no. 141, whose felicitous translation 78CIL X, 3796 = ILS 3261 = CLE 256 = Courtney1995 "lofty-headed" I borrow (139): Dianae / sacrum Q. Tullius/ Maximus / leg(atus)Aug(usti) / leg(ionis) VII no. 139. Laetus'sdedicationis thelatestevidencewe have Gem(inae) / Felicis. (Carved on the leftside of the al- forthe cult of Diana at Tifata: see Heurgon 1942, 301 cornua/ dicatDianae / Tullius/ and De Franciscis1956, 52. tar):Cervomaltifron/tum 76CIL
48
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
calledDelmatius, withtheformer nameLaetus, has setup in yourtemple. I do believethata giftsuchas thishasnotbeforebeenborn in anywoodsorhills:so greata headspreadsoutwithitsshadows...
Whatwerethe"marvels"(miracula) thatprompted Laetus'sdedication? To judgefrom inthelastwordson thestonestilllegibleto Mommsen, thereference, to a hugeheadcasting shadows;in viewof thewell-documented practiceof dedicating stags'hornsin shrinesof Diana, it seems likelythat Laetus set up a stag's head with a massivepair of antlers.The
secondverseofhispoem,withthedemonstrative adjectivein a stronginitialpositionand callingattention to theestablishment of (statuit) a marvelous giftat Diana'stemple(thepluralis poetic,as evidently also in ourtext),reflects thestructure ofourcouplet,whichlikewiseemphasizes a connection betweenthededicatedhornsand a templeofDiana. How weresuchhuntingtrophiesdisplayed?Propertius(2.19.19-20)and Ovid (Met. 12.266-267)speakofantlers dedicatedto Diana fixedon pinetrees,andvisualevidencesuggeststhatanimalheadsweregenerally mountedhigh,abovetheshrinestheyadorned.79 A tondoreliefofHadrianicdatefromtheArchofConstantine depictsa sceneofsacrifice on an open-airaltarbeforea statueofDiana mountedon a base,witha largeboar'sheadwith tusksaffixed to a treeoverhanging thescene.80 At theHouse ofDiana at Cosa a fewtrees foundalongthebackwallofthegardenareassociatedwiththesecondphaseofthebuilding (abovep. 36), but theseseemto havebeen eliminated by thebeaten-earth surfaceof the whenthegardenwasreorganized sanctuary to accommodate theshrineto Diana,andin any case thesurviving nailholesandtracesofplasterindicatethatourinscription was setintoa masonry construction. Theaffixing oftrophies directly totemples was,ofcourse,traditional; as theelegiacsof CorneliusGallus fromQasr Ibrimmakeclear,templeswereseento be enrichedbythem:multorum templadeorum/fixalegamspolieisdeivitiora tueis.8'At Cosa, then,a setofstag'santlers wasperhapsaddedas an enhancement tothepediment ortheroof ofthelittleshrineitself, abovetheinscription thatcommemorated thededication. The secondlineofourcoupletsetsthededication ofhornsin relation to theopeningof a way(via) to Diana'stemple.What"way,"andwhat"temple"?Twoavenuesofinterpretationlie open.The first wouldtakevialiterally, thesecondfiguratively. Paterewas thecorrectverbto describethefreedom of accessand passagethatpublic streets(viae)weremeantto provide,and at Capua an honorific inscription commemorates thepavingofa via Dianae fromtheportaVolturni to a suburbanvicus,in all likelihood, as Mommsen thatofthesanctuary suggested, ofDianaon MonsTifata.82 Did a similar viaDianae 79
Cf. Meuli 1976, 159-160 (letterto Karl Schefold).
80 See Simon 1984, 812 no. 64 withpl. on p. 600. A famous wall paintingfromthe House of Livia on the Palatine shows the heads of a stag, a boar, and an ibex mountedon a baitylosbeforean exedrasupportingthree statuettesof Diana, witha large pine tree risingup behind (810 no. 39 withpl. 597).
Cons. ad Liv. 284-288), as in our case. For trophieson temples,see, e.g.,Prop. III, 4.6; Hor. Epist.1, 18.56,Odes IV, 15.7-8; furtherLammert1939, s.v. TpO7TalOv, 668.
82 CIL X, 3913 = ILS 5380, G. Lart ... / Gabinio Pf / Pal. Fortuito/ dictatoriLan(uvi) / II vir Capuae / quod viamDian(ae) / a portaVolturn(i)/ ad vicumusq(ue) sua / pec(unia) silice straver(it)/ ob munific(entiam) eius / d(ecreto)d(ecurionum)."To Gaius Lart( ) Gabinius For81 p. Qasr Ibrim inv.78-3-11/1(L1/2) lines 4-5. In the tuitus,son of Publius, of the Palatine tribe,dictatorat editioprinceps,Anderson,Parsons,and Nisbet 1979 take Lanuvium,duovirat Capua, because he paved thestreet legam to mean "read about (in histories)." Courtney of Diana fromthe gate of Volturnusall the way to the 1993, 265-266, more plausiblytakes it to mean "read village,on account of his generosity(this is dedicated) (the inscriptionson temples)" (cf. Prop. III, 4.13-16; by decreeofthetowncouncil." See Mommsen'sremarks
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
49
wallofthegarden,behindthe lead to a templeofDiana at Cosa?Justoutsidethenorthwest fromtheforum to theArx,where, shrineto Diana,a widestreet, miniature P, ransouthwest it passedby,on theright, a compact ofthefinalascentto theCapitolium, at thebeginning squaretemple(D) facingtheSacraVia (fig.2, abovep. 4). On thebasisofthediscovery near statue of a life-size terracotta female and thistempleoffragments ofthetorso freestanding, Brownattributed theshrineto ofa terracotta friezedepicting dolphinsandmarineanimals, Thefragmentary MaterMatuta,inherraremanifestation as thesea goddessIno-Leucothea.83 remainsof thecultstatueare equallycompatible withan imageof Diana, and theepithet betweentheDiana ofCosa andDiana on "Augusta"inourinscription pointsto a connection ofa sortcharacteristic ofRomancoloniesoftheearlyEmpire,severalofwhich theAventine modeledtheirlocalcultregulations on theso-calledlex (and apparently onlythey)explicitly araeDianaefromthegreatfederalsanctuary at Rome.84 Could Augustan Diana havejoined Ino-Leucothea in representing MaterMatutato thecitizensofCosa? If an earthquake had indeedshakenthetownin A.D. 51 (see belowp. 55), accessto theCapitolium by streetP couldhavebeenobstructed byfallenrubble,in whichcase theclearingofdebris-possibly in partwithspoilsfromthe bytheownerofthehouse,whodecoratedhisgardensanctuary andperhaps Capitolium(see belowp. 61f.)-wouldsurelyhavegivencauseforcelebration, also fora privatededicationofantlerson a smallgardenshrineto Diana,signaling thatthe routeto hermaintempleonceagainlayopen. Againstthishypothetical and admittedly fragilereconstruction, each elementofwhich restson uncertain foundations, itmaybe notedthatwhereasthereexistsat Cosa sometenuous evidencefora publiccultofMaterMatuta(intheformofreferences to a localcollegium ofmatronae headedbymagistrae) forthepublicworshipofDiana thereis none,apartfrom theinconclusive reference to Diana Augustainourinscription, whichderivesfroma private context.85 Better, then,ifviais takenliterally, tounderstand itinitsmoregeneral sensemeaning "way"or "passage,""opportunity or facility forgoing"(OLD s.v. 8-10) and to see in it a reference tothesmallstaircase builtintothenorthwest cornerofthegarden,whichpresumablyled to a doorproviding accessto thestreetandin relation to whichtheshrinewassymmetrically centered alongthewestwallofthegardenfromthebackofthehouse(see above in thiscase,wouldreferto thelittlegardenshrineitself.The modesty p. 43). Templa, ofthe structure posesno obstacleto thisview,sincesimilarly humblerusticshrines werenotinfrequentlydignified, withpoeticlicense,as templa.86 in CIL X, 667. For via patere cf., e.g., CIL 12585 = Crawford1996 I no. 2 (lex agraria)28, [. . . quae viae publicae p]er terramItaliam P Mucio L. Calpurniocos uerint,eas aciuntopateantvacuaequesien[t] with Crawford'sremarks(p. 167) ad loc.
or in thevicinity ofthetemple.The configuration is found notablyat Pisaurum associated with the cult of Mater Matuta:CIL 12,372, 379; cf.elsewhereCIL X, 4650, 4660 [Cales], 6511 [Cora]; XIV, 2997, 3006 [Praeneste].
Cf., e.g., CIL V, 2803 = CLE 861= Courtney1995 no. 154 = Priapeum1 (Trankle1990,500), vilicusaerariquondam, nunc cultoragelli / haec tibi perspectustempla, 84 So at Narbo (CIL XII, 4333 = ILS 112), Salona (CIL Priape,dicowithTrinkle 1990, 341 ad loc. CIL XI, 6314 III, 1922 = ILS 4907), and Ariminium(CIL XI, 261) see = ILS 3581, Faustus VersenniP. servus) priapum et Beard, North,and Price 1998, 330 and note 50. templumd(e) s(uo) peculi[o] f(aciendum)c(uravit);and esp. Mart.X, 926, evidentlyof a statueof Diana withan 85 For Cosa's collegiumof matronaeheaded by magistrae aediculaat Martial'sNomentanfarm:dominamquesancti Brown(Cosa II, 46, 61, note6) adduced threefragmentary virginemdeamtempli.For templain referenceto private inscriptions fromCosa (CIL XI, 2630 = 12, 1994andunpub. tombs,cf.,e.g., CIL X, 7574 = CLE 1551E; XIV, 480 = Cosa cat.nos. CB 580/693and CE 108),nonefoundinsitu CLE 1255; XIV, 510 = CLE 1186. 86
83
Cosa II, 45-46; cf. id. 1980, 47-49.
50
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate10.Themarble inside fragments lying theshrine, as A. excavated (AR).
| | | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i-j. , _S4 . ;
Plate11. Houseof Diana,tableleglying amidthefallen plaster intheloggia(EF).
via can be understoodfiguratively, as indicatinga wayor method(cf. OLD Alternatively, s.v. via) of reachingthe templaof Diana, of pursuingher worship.The expressionvia patere was used commonlyto describea courseof conductor behaviorleadingto an abstractgoal.87 In this sense, the displayof a set of antlerswould signifythe course of action (dedicating spoils of the hunt) appropriateto the proper cultivationof Diana. The inscriptionwould declare thataccess to the littleDiana of the gardenshrine,now in receiptof such a worthy lay open. dedication,metaphorically Betweentheselast two interpretations, each takingtemplato referto the gardenshrine itself,thereis perhapslittleto choose. In dedicatinga set of antlersto Diana and in gracing 87 Cf.,e.g., Cic. Font.24 noluerant ii, qui iudicabant,hanc patereinimicitiis viam;Balb. 54, hancLatinis... viamad
civitatem ... paterepassisunt;LivyIX, 26.11,pateatvia ad honorem;further TLL s.v."pateo" Ic #658.68-73[Kruse].
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
51
themwithan inscribed couplet,thededicator(presumably theownerofthehouse)meantto drawattention to thelittleshrinethathad nowbecomethecenterpiece of thegarden.In and displaying theevidenceofhis prowessin thehunt,he borewitnessalso,anonymously The conjunction modestly, to his pietyand to his literary sensibilities. of associations was itselfa signofcultural sophistication. As theYoungerPlinywouldwritetohisfriend Tacitus non a generation later,in advisinghimto takenotebookswithhimwhenhunting, experieris inerrare Dianammagismontibus quamMinervam (Ep. 1.6.3). The Cult Statueand OtherDecorationin Stone88(RT). The 1995-1997excavationsreof marblesculptureand furniture scatteredaroundthe garden vealed manyfragments in situ,but and heapedin and aroundtheshrineofDiana. Somemayhavebeen roughly of the space. Inside the shrinewas mostapparently had been movedto the periphery and sculpture,includingthestatuette founda depositoffurniture base, torso,rightleg, ofher and twohandsofthecultstatuette of Diana, alongwithfragments rightforearm, dog and partof the accompanying inscription (pl. 10) The head and secondinscription fragment werefoundjust outsidethe shrine.89 Tossed in withDiana's torsowas a goatA griffin protomesupport.90 numberofthehermfragments, all lackingtheirheads,were foundin and aroundthe shrine;91 also in the shrinedepositweretwobasin supports.92 foundin theexcavations, twowereinsidetheshrineand Of threealtarvolutefragments wall of thehouse.93Withintheshrineand in the one nearthefountainin thesouthwest collapselayerof the southwestwall werefoundpartsof threeoscilla.94Onlyone fragmentof furniture was foundin the restof the house,a table leg foundin the portico amidstthefallenplasterofthewalls(pl. 11). The reasonswhytheseobjectswereamassed in the shrineare unknown:possiblytheywerebeingselectedforuse elsewhereor for limeburning. The tablebase ofblackmarblewithgialloanticoinlaywasjustto therightofthefountainniche.95 Thetwobasinfragments werefoundinthesamearea.96 The stretcher andlegof a tripodprotome tablewerefoundinandnearthegardenrespectively.97 Othermiscellaneous inlimestone; findsinthegardenincludetwosmallpedestaltablesupports andinwhitemarble, a largerunfluted columnar tablesupport;a smallornament intheformofa felinepaw;anda of a vegetalreliefpreserving fragment twoivyleaves.98 Fragments oftwoofthesix known Cosa Campanarelieftypeswerefoundbythefountain niche(belowp. 214).99 In itsNeronianphase,thissculpture gardenwas conceivedin a familiar Pompeianstyle. AtleastthreegardensinPompeiiweredominated bystatuesofDiana,andone ofthem,the 88
A fullcatalogueofthesculpture is foundon p. 191.
Base: C9683;torso:C9603;limbs:C9606-9609;dog: C9604;head:C9674.
89
90C9605.
95
C9675.
96
C9676, C9708.
97
Stretcher: C9713;leg:C9715.
Smalltablesupports:C9631,C9689; columnar support:C9601;felinepaw:C9670;ivyleaves:C9718. 98
91C9612,C9687,C9617-9618,C9673,C9680,C9687. 92
C9610-9611.
93
C9623,C9685,C9709.
94
C9613,C9662,C9663,C9688.
99C9660,C9711-9712.Thesearetypes2 and5 in Cosa II, 296-300,pls. LV,LVIII. Twofragments depictthe upperpartofthemaenadin Type2, andone preserves theheadofAthenainType5.
52
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
featuring a smalladdorsedshrineanda arrangement House ofQueenCaroline,had a similar hermson eithersideofitssteps.'00 pairofsentinel playedan environment oftheRomandomesticgarden,furniture In thequasi-religious fromthoseof domestic are notalwaysdistinguishable part.Gardenfurnishings important sacrarium on thewestsideofthegreatperiforexample,theroughly contemporary shrines; styleat theVillaoftheVolusiinearLucusFeroniaeincludedbenches,a smallaltar,herms, Tablesoftenwere sculpture."0' table,in additionto muchfreestanding and a tripodprotome some or eveninand carried for votive images in or offerings, nearshrines, perhaps setup scriptionsassociatingthemwithcult.102
A defining in Romangardenswasaesthetic. property ofRofunction Buttheirprincipal This is symmetry. comesin sculpture, as opposedto freestanding mangardenfurnishings, is designedto be seenfrom threemanifestations: frontal, axial,and radial.Frontalfurniture invitesexfromtwoopposingsides.Radialfurniture furniture one side;axial,or bifrontal, fromall sides.The House ofDiana gardenhasexamplesofall threetypes. amination butalways A favorite radialtypeis thetripodprotometable.It comesin manyvariants from ananimallegwith ofa headprojecting consists withseveralconstants. First,eachsupport Ya horizontal, ruff attheknee.Second,thetabletopis alwaysround.Andthird, an acanthus beenfound,evenwhen bracedthelegsbehindeachknee.Thesehaverarely shapedstretcher tableinthecourtoftheHouseof thewell-known tripodprotome therestofthetablesurvives; The tableat Cosa evidently forexample,is lackingitsstretcher.'03 theStagsin Herculaneum, legwerebrokenat one bothit andthesurviving to theveryend,although keptitsstretcher wasfound, in Thetablemayhavestoodnotfarfrom wherethelegfragment timeandrepaired. of intersection of two visual axes. the outside the thecolonnade tablinum, point furniture As an exampleof a bifrontal type,we havethebasin(s)withtheirtransverse supports.The gardenoftheHouse of theVettiiin Pompeiihas basinsofthiskindplaced Therethebasins' underthe eaves on all foursides of the gardenperistyle.104 centrally whenone alignsthemvisuallyalongeitherof is used to good effect, especially bifrontality sucha Basinsof thissortseemdesignedforprecisely thetwomainaxes of theperistyle. wawheretheycanbe seenfromthecolonnadeor fromthegardenwhilecatching position, at theHouse ofDiana wereclearlynot terfromtheeaves.The variousbasincomponents undertheeavesoftheroof;and sincethe foundin situ.Theywereprobablysetsomewhere positioned byroofedspacesonlyon twosides,theyweremostprobably gardenwasflanked '00Dwyer1981,62-63. On theHouse ofQueen Caroline, plan see Jashemski1993, 211, no. 421 and bibliography, 79; Boyce 1937,75, nos. 350,351. Richardson1970 identifiestheDiana statuetakenfromtheshrineofthishouse in 1760, and believed to have been lost when the site was reexcavatedin 1910, as an archaisticstatuenow in theMuseo Nazionale in Naples; see also Fullerton1990, 22-29. On Artemis/Dianasculpturein Roman villas at Anzio, Aricia, Marino, Tor Paterno, and Torre Annunziata, as well as the villas of the Quintilii, Acquatraversa,Tor Angela, and Settebagninear Rome, see Neudecker 1988, cat. 2.6, 4.1, 25.24, 39.44, 39.52, 45.19,54.7, 56.2, 69.14,71.18. On thepositionofa Diana statue in the garden of the House of the Moralist see Spinazzola 1953, 40, 728-73 1; Jashemski1993, 102, no. 157,fig.117; Zanker1998, 163-165; MacKendrick1983, 252; and bibliographies.More generally,numerousRo-
man villasin Italyhad peristylesarrangedto accommodate a presidinggod in a centralposition on one side; see Neudecker 1988, 34-39 and the accompanyingcatalogue entries;Zanker 1998, 232, note 86 and bibliography.On theFondo BottarovillanearPompeiisee Winkes 1982, 13-22. I thankAnn Kuttnerforgenerouslyaugmentingthisbibliography. 101
Neudecker1988, 157-158 and bibliography, Taf.26.1.
102
Moss 1988, 243-249.
See Jashemski1993, fig.293. The metalreplacement is modern. 103
104Jashemski1979,35-38; Jashemski1993, 153-155 and bibliography.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
53
along one or both of thesesides. The presenceof a continuousstonedrainagechannelalong the singlecolonnaded side of the gardendoes not eliminatethe possibilitythata basin was set directlyon top ofit,whereit could be seen frombothsides.But an equallyplausible,ifless axial, positionis along the southeastgardenwall betweenthe stairwayand the house proper. This area had no gutterto collecttheeavesdripfromtheroofof theold bath complex. Frontalfurniture, designedto be seen fromone direction,is placed againstwalls or along highlydirectionalroutesofpassage. Amongthistypemaybe countedthetwomonopodtables were foundin the House of Diana. The hermtable withthe (cartibula)forwhichfragments base decoratedin giallo anticomayhave stood not farfromwhereitsbase was found,nextto the wall niche. The loose fragments of the shaftstillin the socketcould indicatethatit had not been moved farfromthe place where its superstructure had been crushed.As a table witha frontalorientation,it was best set againsta wall, and as quite possiblythefinestpiece in theentirehouse, it deserveda focalpositionby thewall niche directly of marblefurniture opposite the approach to the gardenfrominside the house. also helped to focusattentionon the shrineof Diana. The bench Sculptureand furniture alongthesoutheastwall facingtheshrinehas alreadybeen mentioned(above p. 43). In a fashion popularizedduringtheJulio-Claudianperiod,themarblealtarto whichthevolutesbelong mayhave been set directlyin themiddleof theminiaturestairwayleadingup to the shrine.A poorlypreservedmass of mortarin thislocationcorrespondsroughlyto the reconstructed dimensionsof thealtar.Otherpedestalaltarsmayhave been scatteredaroundthegarden. Some of the hermsmayalso have drawnattentionto the shrine.The frequentinclusion of hermsor mythologicalcreaturesin liminaland permeablespaces pointsto apotropaicorigins. By earlyimperialtimes,the magico-religioussignificancethat hermshad enjoyed in earliertimeswas a thingof the past, except to the extentthattheylent a vaguelynuminous accent to a popular aesthetictopos of the age, the sacral-idyllicenvironment. But physical practicesurvivedevenwhenmuchof themeaningwas lost. Garden herms,as exemplifiedat theHouse of the Gilded Cupids in Pompeii,were sometimesarrangedaroundthe periphery, looking out into the garden as if to ward offnuminousintrudersof the hypaethralrealm fromthe privateareas in the interior.105 Even in less schematicarrangements, such as the gardenoftheHouse ofM. Lucretiusin Pompeii,theyoftenappearin symmetrical pairsflanking a centralelement;but thestricthieraticstructuredissolvesin a crowdofincidentalsculptureplaced casuallyabout the space forvisual effect.106 The hermsand gardenfurnishings at the House of Diana mayhave been arrangedin a dichotomousway:twomatchingpillarhermssetto eitherside oftheshrineofDiana; similarly otherherms,pedestals,and miscellaneousobjects arrangedinformally aroundthe garden. Since thereare threeintercolumniations in the portico,and fragmentsof threeoscilla were found,it stands to reason thatall of the latterwere displayedconcurrently in the canonical way,hangingfromchains attachedto the soffitof the architrave.This maynot have been the case, however.Dwyerhas arguedthatoscilla were popularizednot in theAugustan period, as is oftenassumed,but onlyin the mid-first when theysuddenlybegan to century, In A.D. 79 it would seem that only a few of the most appear in fourth-style paintings.107 105 Photographs of thereconstituted peristyle garden bibliography. takenbeforetheftsforcedthepermanent removalof thesculpture reflect accurately theoriginalplacement 106Dwyer1982, 19-23, 38-48; Jashemski1993,23 1-233. of thesculptureas it was excavatedby Sogliano.See Jashemski 1979,38-41;Jashemski 1993,159-163and 107 Dwyer 1981.
54
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
fashionable housesin Pompeiihad realoscilla.If Dwyer'sreasoning is right,it presentsa problemforthechronology oftheHouse ofDiana.108 Allthreeoftheidentified oscillacould nothavebeenhangingin theporticoduringtheClaudio-Neronian phase,whenthenorthernmost intercolumniation-and possiblythecentralonetoo-seem to havebeenwalledin. Thereis no certainresolution to thisproblem, butvariousscenariossuggestthemselves, thatsomeofthegardendebrismigrated to thishouse including theever-present possibility fromothersitesin town.However,theunusualnumberof "orphan"objectsfoundin this house-marblecomponents thatseemnevertohavebeenfullyassembled-suggests thatthe ownerhad a tastefor,and accessto,miscellaneous or "factory remainders, disiectamembra, frommarbleworkshops. Thereis littlereason,then,to insistthatthe seconds"emanating oscillawereallusedas intended. Themaskinparticular wouldhavesuffered no lossofeffect frombeinghungon a wallor in someinterior space;'09 likewisethelittlefelinepaw,which fora marblecandelabrum orsomesimilar mayhavebeenmanufactured object,seemstohave founda placewhereit couldstandalone.The samecan be said forthelittletablebracein or theflat-backed hermbustwithouta head,or thesinglecircularplaque of pavonazetto, gialloantico(castofffroman opussectileatelier?)setintotheflooroftheshrine. Conclusion. The furniture and sculpture findsfromtheHouse of Diana presenta familiar ofstyleandmaterial Pompeianimagecharacterized byeclecticism buta limitedensemble of thesepiecesweremadeinworkshops overseasor in Italyhasnotbeendetertypes.Whether minedforcertain. Butmanyoftheobjectsmadeoffine-tomedium-grain whitemarbleprobItissuggested theLunaquarries. thatthehousebelonged toL. Titinius Glaucus ablycomefrom Lucretianus (belowp. 61). Lucretianus's highstatusatLunaandhisconnections withthebuildof the ingtrade(we knowthathe owneda figlina,whichhe employedin therestoration thatsomeofthepieces,eventhosemadeofforeign belowp. 59) suggest Capitolium: marbles, marbleworkshops andwereabandonedwhenhe accepted werebrought toCosa from directly in Cosa. Theyalso could as praefectus an appointment fabrumconsulisafterhis assignment andmiscellaneous natureofsomeoftheobjectsin thehouseexplaintheoddlyincomplete andwasters, thenleft objectsofa sortthatwouldhavebeencollectedon thecheapas castoffs behindwithfewregrets. EventheSuovetaurilia fits well into Lucretianus's activities fragment on theArx. atCosa,as itagainwouldhavederivedfromhisactivities we cannotpositively orownership ofanyofthe Thisis purespeculation; tracetheorigins piecesat hand.Whileit has longbeenpresumed thattheLuna regionmusthavehad major inthelocalwhitemarbleandstreaked finished officinae producing products gray-blue bardiglio inthetownas well),untilrecently coloredmarblesappearin quantity therewasno (imported Nowevidenceis comingto lightat thequarriesthemselves directevidenceoftheirexistence. of workshopsproducingarchitectural elementssuch as columnbases and capitals.1"0 Skepticism persists on Dwyer's dating. Pensabene 1999, 261, no. 500, pls. 103, 145 dates to the Augustan period a fine terracottacompluvium frieze segment that clearly depicts two oscilla hanging in a peristyle colonnade. More generally,it is to be noted that the depiction of oscilla in Pompeian painting,like that of garden sculpture,is likelyto be an internalcharacteristic of the fourthstyleand not a reflectionof the evolution of taste in the architecturaldecoration of peristyles. Few would deny that statuary existed in 108
Pompeian gardens of the Augustan period, even though it does not appear in Augustan frescoes depictinggardens. I am verygratefulto Ann Kuttnerfor these observations. 109On the displayof mask reliefssee Cain 1988. 11
Frova 1986, 223-250; Formige1953, 204-206; Dolci 1986, 405-463; Dolci 1995, 361-370.
COSAIN THE REPUBLICANDEARLYEMPIRE
55
and sculpturewerealso workedin theLuna region,a manlike Whetheror notfurniture Lucretianus-theforemost citizenfroma marble-producing town,a manwiththemeans to rebuildCosa-would havehad littledifficulty marblefromfurand connections getting nitureand sculptureproducers. On thewhole,thepiecesfoundinthegardenoftheHouseofDiana canbe placedwithin to thetenureofLucretianus at coherent timeframethatconforms a relatively comfortably ofmarbletableswithprotome andherm forItalianconsumption Cosa. Themassproduction andmanyof supportsseemsto havecommenced onlywellintotheJulio-Claudian period,111 A.D. PompeiiandHerculaneum as well. thepieceshavecloseparallelsinfirst-century ofDiana appearsatfirst to be ofmoreprovincial The cultstatuette origin.Littlecanbe itsqualitydoes notmatchthatof or stylistic said hereaboutitstypology manner;certainly inLuna marble.Once again,however, thatthis we mustadmitthepossibility mostsculpture is a castoff froman ateliercapableof betterwork.It maysimplybe an unfinished waster thenitis also discardedbecauseonehandwas carvedtoo small.Ifwe acceptthispossibility, possibleto concludethattheimprovisational head,perhapsacquiredfroma GreekorHelleoftheshrinephase. nizingmonument, was affixed to Diana'sbodyfromtheveryinception However,we shouldnotehowunusualis thepresenceof a pieceofclassicalor classicizing in thisveryprovincial context. sculpture An imageemergesof a patronwhohopedto achievemaximum effect at minimalcost, in remained behind hishometown, to which perhapsbecausehisfinestpersonalbelongings histaskin Cosa. The extensive he fullyexpectedto returnafteraccomplishing evidenceof breakageand repairin thebodyof Diana and in piecesofmarblefurniture mightsuggest in thehousebutalsobetokensthehardtimesto whichCosa reverted habitation subsequent aftertheJulio-Claudian period. THE TowNATMID-CENTURY: ANEARTHQuAKE,THE EMPEROR, AND HIs AGENT(EF)
TheEarthquake. The collapseofthebasilicaat Cosa was carefully in the1953 documented excavations."2 AlthoughBrownsuggeststhatit had been slowly"moldering," thereis no evidenceforthis,andthenorthwest wallappearsto havefallenin a singlepiece,burying in itscollapsetworoomsoftheAtrium BuildingI. A terminus postquemforthiscollapsewas established by twocoinsfoundin theserooms,assesof A.D. 15-16 and of 34_37.113Now, whilewallscanfalldownforanynumberofreasons,themortar ofthebasilicais verystrong, and it is hardto imaginewhatthrustcouldhavecauseda suddenoutwardcollapse,espeis correct, ciallyas,ifBrown'sreconstruction thewallwasonlyonestory highatthispoint.114 The basilicawas nottheonlybuildingto suffer damageduringthisperiod.Brownobservesthatthe curiahad "somehowbeen shakenand shifteda bit,as appearsfromthe layersoffillunderthecuria."1"5Although thedisappearance ofthisfillhas leftthemeaningofthispassageslightly obscure,itis clearthatthenorthwest wallofthecentralroomof thecuriais badlybowed,and severalofitshugeblocksofpolygonal masonry aredisplaced outward.Thismayexplainthethreebuttresses putup behindthebuilding,presumably to checkanyfurther movement. 111
Moss 1988, 206-224.
112 Cosa III, 241 and excavationnotebooks.The following analysis,shared withJacquelynCollins-Clintonin 1997, was anticipatedby her in Collins-Clinton2000.
113
Buttrey1980, CE1201 and CE1050.
114
Cosa III, 225, fig.70.
115
Cosa III, 244.
56
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
byfire,of is also themostlikelyperiodforthedestruction, halfofthecentury The first inthe andnolaterpottery muchItalicsigillata Richardson jr.remembers TempleB,forLawrence from thematerial fromthisdepositwasnotsavedseparately debris;unfortunately, destruction sideofthetempleseveralpois possible.On thesoutheast so no greater precision laterlayers, a lateralshock(pl.21,p. 98). as muchas 20 cm,suggesting blocksarepushedoutward lygonal basilica,thecuria,andthetempleIndeed,all thedamageto thethreepublicbuildings-the thattheywere thanat therear,suggesting ornorthwest on thesoutheast sides,rather occurred discussedbelow,whichwerecarriedouton the therepairs, shakenfromsideto side.Finally, butnolesionsarevisible. thatthis,too,wasdamaged, the50ssuggest templeduring Capitoline damageto atleastfivebuildings. contemporary Thuswe havesomeevidenceofroughly theJulio-Claudian thatallthesebuildings collapsedduring Thescantdatingevidencesuggests postquemofA.D. 36.116Thisdoes notin itselfmakean earthquake, period,witha terminus ofthoseofthecuriaandTemple thecollapseofthebasilicawallandthedistortion although B arecertainly suggestive. ofan inscription werefoundin thenaveofthebasilica,from NeroandCosa.Twofragments the beenreported byBrown, thecuria.Although texthasalready theareaofthewallflanking seemsnecessary. 17 a fullerpublication is carvedon a largepanelof 1. CD 259a-b, CD 260, and CC 879 a-h.118The inscription Lunamarble,in elevenfragments, joinedin twogroups. white,fine-grained [NeroCaesa]rTi. [Claud]iC[aesar]isAug(usti) p(atris)p(atriae)]f(ilius) [Germ]anic[i [sua]pec[un]iarestit[uit]
due to the as Brownsuggests, Line 1: The R is almostcertain,as is itserasure-probably, of Nero.'19This seemsto ruleout Britannicus as thesubjectoftheindamnatiomemoria scription.
"[p(ecunia)p(ublica)]f(ecit)."Thereis no evidence Line3: ratherthanBrown'ssuggestion, andfilius.In anycase, "pecunia publica forthep. p. exceptthespace betweenGermanici fecit"wouldmakeno senseat all with"suapecuniaresituit." by thebreak.Brownemendsthewordodeumat the Line 4: The top of thec is suggested a symmetrical oftheline,and assuming layout,therewouldbe roomforthis. beginning wasputup beforehis impliesthattheinscription As inILS 224,Claudius'sfulltitulature to clearlyrefers deathin A.D. 54 and aftertheadoptionof Neroin A.D. 51. The inscription thebuildingin whichit was found,whichwas rebuiltin thisperiodas an odeum,and is almostcertainly whata laterinscription refers to as a hodium.120 116 Verylittlepottery was foundunderthecollapseof 118 Bace 1983,II A2; Bace and Harveyforthcoming. This thebasilicawall,apartfromtwoscrapsofitalicsigillata, and subsequentreconstructions are all those of Bace. whosedatingis notprecise.Recently S. Dysonhas sugvillaofLe Colonnewasdestroyed 19 Cosa III, 243 and pl. 252. gestedthatthenearby in an earthquake at thesametimeas thebuildingsat 120For thereconstruction Cosa (Dysonforthcoming). oftheodeum Cosa III, 241f.It 117CosaIII, 243. Thisanticipates thefullpublication of
thisinscription in Bace andHarveyforthcoming.
is cited on an inscriptionof MaximinusThrax dated to 235: Bace 1983, IIA2; Bace and Harveyforthcoming; Scott 1981, 309-314; AE 1982, 325.
A.D.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
57
endofthebasilica.Fragment 2. CC 875.121Fromthesoutheast ofLuna marbleplaque,brokenon all sides.Largemonumental letters(6.5 cm),guidelines visible. [NeroniCaesa]ri[Ti(beri)] [Claudi]Ca]esa[ris] [Aug(usti)Ge]rm[anici p(atris)p(atriae)f(ilio)]
it The letterstyleis verysimilarto thatof 1, andtherestoration is basedon thatinscription: is hypothetical. mustbe stressed ofcoursethattherestoration Line3: Thebreakinthestonefavorstherestoration ofR (witha slantedhasta)rather thanP, whichwouldin anycasebe difficult to explain. Possiblya dedication to Nero,perhapsputup bythedecurions or,possibly, bythepersonin It is apparently a pendantto number1. chargeoftherebuilding. Theseinscriptions, however oftheadolescent theinvolvement fragmentary, suggest Nero, and possiblyoftheemperorClaudiusas well,in therebuilding ofthebasilicaas a covered theater. Nero'sinvolvement withthetownis plausiblyexplainedbyBrownas basedon the inthearea.We knowthatL. DomitiusAhenobarbus, family properties consulin54 B.C. and Nero'spaternalgreat-grandfather, ownedconsiderable estateson thecoastnorthof Cosa, and thefleetmannedbyhis coloniand tenantshad sailedfromTelamon.'22 Thisproperty wouldhavecometo Gaius and to Nero.He mightthushaveheardof thecollapseof the basilicathrough themanagers ofthefamily estates.123 On closerexamination in Cosa is moreunusual.The odeumis infactthe Nero'sinterest onlymunicipal withhim.In spiteofhisruinousprodigality in building, buildingconnected almostall of his buildingswerein Rome,withtheexceptionof giganticschemeslikethe canalacrosstheIsthmus ofCorinth. Whatcouldhavearousedhisinterest inthepublicbuildingsofa smalltowninEtruria, however nearhisfamily estates? Thereis notmuchinformation abouttheseearlyyears,but all threeauthorswho do discussthemmentionthe earthquakethatwas feltin Romein A.D. 51.124 Tacitusmentionsa seriesof earthquakesthatyear,and Dio Cassiusalone places a singleearthquake on the day on whichNero assumedthe togavirilis.Now,it is easyto imaginethatthe earthquake,or earthquakes, wereattachedto Nero'scomingof age bypopularmemory: bad emperor, bad portent.Buttheease withwhichsucha conjunction wouldbe invented is justwhatmighthaveled Nero,or his advisors,to intervene on behalfof a towndamaged by the earthquake.Could Cosa have suffered fromthisearthquake?As we have seen,theterminus postquemgivenbya coinforthedestruction ofthebasilicais A.D. 36, and none of therelevantpotteryis significantly later.Thereis, however,verylittledatable material,and thereis nothinginherently unlikelyin datingthe collapse 15 years aftertheminting ofthelatestcoin.Tacitusspeaksofsomebuildingscollapsing, but,apart fromthesuggestion thata smallshrinewas restoredin RomeaftertheearthquakeofA.D. 121
Bace 1983, IIB1; Bace and Harveyforthcoming.
122
Caesar bel.civ.1.34.
123 We cannot follow Brown's suggestion(op. cit.) that Nero builtthetheaterto performin. CatherineEdwards has recentlyemphasized how an emperoron stage was
an "outrageoustransgressionof codes of imperialpropriety"(1994, 83-97). We can hardlyimagineClaudius, not to mention his tutors,encouraging Nero in this habit. 124 SuetoniusClaud. 22; TacitusAnn. 12.43.1;Dio Cassius 61.31.
58
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
51,125 thereis no
trace of other destructionthere,and it seemslikelythattheepicenterwas elsewhere.Would an earthquakewithits epicenternear Cosa be feltin Rome? The answeris almostcertainly yes,althoughwe have no earthquakesin therecentpast forcomparison.With an epicenter35 milessoutheastof Cosa, theTuscaniaearthquakeof 1975 producedclearlyfelt shocksin centralRome,126as did thatofNorciain 1980. However,thereis littleseismicactivity on the coast itself,127 originating and an epicentertowardthe Appeninessoutheastof Cosa is perhapsmorelikely.There it could have caused seriousdamagein Cosa whilestillprovoking panic and possiblybuildingcollapsein Rome. That the earthquakeof A.D. 51 feltin Rome was the same as thatwhich caused damage at Cosa is thus not impossible,but the strongestargumentforassociatingthe two eventsis Nero's own behavior.It is generallyagreed thatNero got offto a good start.'28According to Suetonius,on his firstappearance in the forumhe announced a largesse and a donative and thanked his adopted father.He pleaded the causes of Rhodes, Ilium Apamea, and Bononia.'29The case of Bononia, destroyedin a great fire,is instructive.The town may have maintaineda relationshipwithNero's family,as it had followedMark Anthonyin the civilwar.130Seizing the excellentopportunityto do well by doing good, Nero represented Bononia in court,with the resultthat 10,000,000 sesterceswere grantedto the town. He made sure thathis aid was remembered:amongotherbenefactionswe can probablycount the restorationof the baths.'3' Thus if Nero was indeed responsibleforthe restorationof the basilica, it could be seen in the contextof disasterrelief,witha verypublic hand lent to the semi-destroyedcity.The curia was probablybuttressed,and the basilica was rebuilt, in the fashionable guise of an odeum. On the new building were mounted statues of Claudius, Nero, and Agrippinathe Younger132
ThePrefect: L. Titinius GlaucusLucretianus 3. C68.307 and C68.479.133 Two joiningfragments of white,medium-grained Luna marble. From the Arx,west slope: L(ucius) Titin[ius GlaucusLuc]reti[anus]
4. C69.47.134 Bottomleft-handcornerof a slab of whitemarble,fromthe southwestside of the forum,in the southeastcistern. L(ucius) Titin[ius GlaucusLucretianus?] 125 Panciera 1980, 202-213; AE 1980, 5. Two inscrip'Tacitus XII, 58,3; Suetonius Nero7. tions froman aedicula, the first,recordingthe building, of A.D. 45, the second, the restorationof the same, 130 For thisrelationship Levi 1949,104f.He suggests in A.D. 52. The mentionof an earthquake is a restora- thatthehelpafterthefirewas partofa deliberate eftion. forton thepartof Claudiusto maketheyoungNero 126
Pers. comm.Ulderico Imperatore.
See the map of seismic activity since 1600 in Guidoboni ed. 1989, 520.
popular. 131
CIL XI, 720.
132
Collins-Clinton 2000.
133
BaceIIIB; Bace andHarveyforthcoming.
134
Bace IIIB3; Bace andHarveyforthcoming.
127
128 Wheneverthe quinquenniumNeronis is placed: on thissee Elsner 1994, 113 note 5, withpreviousbibliography.
COSA IN THE REPUBLIC AND EARLY EMPIRE
59
Plate 12. Tile stamp ofL. Titinius GlaucusLucretianus (EF).
5. Lower left-handcornerof a slab verysimilarto numbers3 and 4. From the northside of the Capitolium.GB 1542, 18.2 x 17.7 x 4.2 cm. Letterheight3.5 cm. L(ucius)
.---I
The similarityof the stones leads us to overcomeour naturalhesitationat reconstructing TitiniusGlaucus as the subjectof the inscription. 6. Three nonjoiningfragmentsof white fine-grainedLuna marble fromthe basilica. Back rough-picked.CD 1059, fromthebasilica oven,preservesa top centralportionwitha molding;CD 320; CE 333. L(ucius) Ti]tin[ius Glaucus Lucretianus] [---
-p(atronus)]c(oloniae?) ---
[--- lac[----I
A] ug(usti)[--Vflam(en)
of crownmoldingin travertine. One of threejoiningpieces of theleftend 7. Large fragment of a statuebase, built into the northwestwall of the tribunalin the basilica. Die originally 42.5 cm thick.The moldingprojects22.0 cm. Trace of originalstucco coatingon overhangof molding above die. 39.0 x 29.0 x 27.0 cm, letterheight6.0 cm. A fourthanepigraphic was foundoutsidethe northcornerof thebasilica. nonjoiningfragment L(ucius?) T[---]
8. Twelvetile stampsfromthe Capitolium(pl. 12) L TITINI GLAUCI LUCRETIANI
60
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
The singlecopyofthisstampin theCorpusis fromLoriumandlacksthefinalI ofthefirst line,suppliedbythethreecopiesfoundbetweenLuniandCarrara."' fromLuna,is wellknown,the Although his career,recordedon twomajorinscriptions GlaucusLucretianus inscriptions published herearethefirst evidence fortheworkofL. Titinius 16 of workatCosainvolved thereconstruction atCosa. ThetilestampsshowthatLucretianus's andtheinscription foundon theArxseemsto confirm that. theroofoftheCapitoline temple, in theodeumsuggest in thatstructure Theotherinscriptions thathe wasinvolved as well:the thathisstatuemayhavesharedthespacewiththat datesfit,andno. 8, a statuebase,suggests oftheimperial ButwhatwasthiscitizenofLunadoingatCosa? family. careerthatprogresses frommunicipal offices His is an exemplary case ofan equestrian careerwiththepersonalsupportof theemperor. Thereis throughan equestrianmilitary He was duumvir four wereheld.'37 on theorderin whichhis offices substantial agreement the He then served as and was under by emperor. times, quinquennalis Claudius,promoted sevir ofNeroandwasmadepatronofthecolonyofLuna.Imperialpostsfollowed: praefectus curator sacrorum fabrumco(n)s(ulis).He was equitumRomanorum, faciundorum, praefectus beforebeginning hisequestrian servicesometime alsoflamenofRomeandAugustus military as trib(unus) militum XXIIPrimigeniae atMogontiacum aroundA.D. 60.138He started leg(ionis) aspraefectus inGermania A.D. 63),139 continued prolegatoinsularum Baliarum, Superior (before in HispaniaCiterior. and finished as tr(ibunus) The dateof mil(itum) leg(ionis)VI Victricis fromtheinscriptions as betweenA.D.63 and65.14" thelastpositioncanbe established to theemperor thanto We findherean imperialofficial, clearlymorecloselyconnected thetowninwhichhe is acting,takingpartin theaffairs ofthecity.It seemspossiblethathe was appointedbyNeroor Claudiusto carryout a specificseriesoftasks,probablyin A.D. careeratLuna andbeforethepostofpraefectusfabrum 51-52,aftertheendofhismunicipal career.'4' Thepositionofthepostinhiscursuscorresponds andan equestrian closely military createdto dealwithtemporary to thatofthelatercuratores. Thisposition, emergencies, may havecomeaboutas earlyas Titus,who,in reactionto theeruptionofVesuvius, appointed 135
CIL XI, 2,2 p. 1402 ad 6689, 240).
136 On his careerCIL XI, 6955 = ILS 8902; CIL XI, 1331 = ILS 233; CIL XI, 1332+ p. 1254;CIL XI, 1349a + p. 1254; tile stampsC XV, 6689, 40.
137
PIR 111,328;Demougin1992,no.589;Devijver, 1977,
786-787. Ciampoltrini(1989, 295-296) has recentlysuggested thathe was broughtto the attentionof the emperorand givenequestrianrank,as well as his firstmilitarytribunatethanksto his fellow citizensat Luna, P. Sulpicius Scribonius Proculus and P. Sulpicius Scribonius Rufus,legatesrespectivelyin GermaniaSuperior and Inferiorin the early 60s. However, M. G. Angeli Bertinelli (1990, 541-542) effectivelydismantlesthis suggestion, showing that there is no proof that the SulpiciiScriboniicamefromLuna, norevidencethatthey were in Germania as earlyas A.D. 60. The new inscriptions supporther affirmation thatthe relationshipwith the emperorswas directand dated to an earlierperiod. 138
The positionof the flaminateis uncertain:it appears
firston ILS 233 but is likelyto be relatedto his periodin Rome. 139 It is unclear whetherthe phrase beneficio Caesaris creatuson ILS 8902 refersto his role as flamenor to this tribunate. 140 On the first,ILS 8902, which both the mentionof Poppaea as "Augusta" and of Claudia, Nero's daughter, date with certaintyto A.D. 63, the tribunatein the VI Victrixis not mentioned,althoughthe other two are. However,it is mentionedon thesecond inscription,ILS 233, dated to 65 bytheconsulshipofLiciniusNerva and dedicated to Poppaea and Nero pro salute. This was erectedin fulfillment of a vow made while he was prefectoftheBalearics,and it is probable thatthisvow was made at the timeof the conspiracyof Piso: Demougin 1992, 482, note 8. 141 Jacques 1984, 153f.pointsout thatthepraefectiregularlycome froma successfulcareerin municipaladministration.
COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE
61
two curatoresrestituendae Campaniae,of senatorialrank,142but it is generallyagreedthatthe systematicuse of curatoresto deal withmunicipaltroublesdates fromTrajan.'43Beforethis such as the sendingof Lucretianusto Cosa to deal withthe earthtime,ad hoc arrangements quake damage mayhave been more common. The Cosan evidence thus bringsL. TitiniusGlaucus Lucretianus'scareer into sharper focus.If AngeliBertinellirightly objectsthatwe have no directevidenceforhis involvement in the managementof the marblequarriesat Luna,'44such an involvementremainsthe easiest explanationforhis initialpromotionby Claudius,perhapsat theend of the40s. It is hard to imagineanothermeans by which the duumvirof a distanttownwould have come to the attentionof the emperor.His connectionwith the quarriesmay have led to his choice as builderforthe odeum-probably by his patronClaudius, althoughNero signedthe inscription.In anycase, afterA.D. 54 Nero was actingin his own rightas well,and his client'ssubsequent careerwas informedby constantimperialpatronage.145He expressedhis gratitudefor thispatronagewiththe threeor moreimportantdedications,whilethe statuebase fromthe basilica suggeststhatthe Cosan decurionseventuallyexpressedtheirgratitudetowardhim. What became of himafterthe deathof Nero is unknown,but it seemsthatthefamilycontinued to play a majorrole at Luna.146 What is strikingabout the Cosan evidence,then,is thatLucretianusseemsto have acted withconsiderableautonomyand thathis responsibilitieswent farbeyond simpleoversight. There is no trace of an agent,or of municipalcompetitionforthe gloryof rebuildingthe town.The Italian experienceof the last thirtyyearswould suggestthatgovernment contractors involvedin earthquakereconstruction would make substantialprofits,and it is likely thatLucretianusdid too, but thereis no directevidenceforthis.'47What is interesting, however,is thatforonce it can be shownthatthe supplierof the raw materialswas the builder, and probablythe agentof the emperor.As MargaretaSteinbyhas recentlyargued,the dominus of an officinaacted both as the producerand the merchant.148In this case, he was also the contractor.The verticalmonopolywas complete. A Possible Owner of the House of Diana. Only one individualis known fromCosa in the Claudian period: L. TitiniusGlaucus Lucretianus.To associatethispersonwithour house is, at firstsight,gratuitous,in spite of the inscriptionfoundin the cisternnextto the building (no. 3 above). This inscriptioncould, of course,have come fromanywhere.However,various seem to point to Lucretianushimself.For one aspects of the redecoratedsanctuary/garden thing,thebuildingsin thegarden,and thestrayfinds,includefivefragments of an Augustanperiod anthemionfriezethatmusthave come fromthe Capitolinetemple(pl. 106). One of 142 Suetonius Titus8, Dio Cassius 66.23. Anothermodel is suggested by T. Suedius Clemens, militarytribune at Pompeii, who acted as the agent of Vespasian after the earthquake of 62 (Castren 1983, 117).
143
Jacques 1984, 3.
144Angeli Bertinelli1990, 542; the suggestionis thatof Ciampoltrini1989. 145 On the directinvolvementof theemperorin imperial appointments,Millar 1977, 287f.
146 L. TitiniusL. F. Petrinianuswas also a municipalbenefactorat Luna, althoughhis date is disputed:Ciampoltrini 1989 believes him to have been late Republican, whileAngeliBertinelli1990 suggeststhattheabsence of a praenomenon one of his dedicationsand the abbreviationof the cognomenon anothermustplace him as late as the thirdcenturyA.D. 147 On the probable speculationafterthe earthquakeat Pompeii, Andreau 1973, 381-383. 148 Steinby 1993, 141. For a more complex view, Manacorda 1993.
62
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
thesefragments was used to pave thefloorof thegrotto-niche. Also decorating theniche weretwofragments ofCampanaplaquesthatcertainly camefromthetemple(pl. 8 and p. cutoutheadsofMaenadsderivefromplaquesofRichardson's 214f.).The carefully type2.141 Foundin a medievalcontextwithinthehousewas a largefragment ofa Suovetaurilia frieze, whichmatchesa similar piecefromtheArx(belowp. 208). Bothpieceswerealmostcertainly altar.It is clearthatwhoeverbuilttheshrinehad accessto the partoftheAugustan-period ofthetemple.The othermarblesculpture decorative fragments andfurniture was,as Rabun a curiousassemblage Taylorhassuggested, ofpiecesfromtheLunaworkshops, andwe must remember thatLucretianus was an important citizenofthattown.The eclectictasteofthe and theacquisitionof a classical-period collection, head in Greekmarbleforthestatueof Diana,suggesta closeacquaintance withmarble-producing regions. ofthegrotto-niche thedecoration However, providesan evenbetterlinkto Lucretianus. Likemanysuchniches,itsinterior wasmadeto resemble a grotto bytheapplication ofshells and irregular, to thewalls.However,thisis theonlygrottoI have glittery greenmaterials been able to tracein whichthegreenmaterialis not theusualpastavitreabut insteadis kilndebris,takenfroma kilnaftermultiple composedofvitrified The use ofthis firings.'50 novelmaterial seemsto linkthegrottoto a tileor ceramicproducer, andLucretianus's productionoftilesfortheCapitolium to mind. springs immediately IftheownerwereLucretianus, a numberofthechangesmadeto thehousecanbe easily ofthelittleshrinetoDiana,oneofwhoseforms explained,suchas thededication wasthatof Luna,thepatrongoddessofhisnativecity, orthedecoration ofthesanctuary withfinefurnitureall carvedinLunamarble.Thepositionofthehouse,on thecornerofthestreet thatled the to from forum the natural up Arx,was a placefora mansuchas Lucretianus, easilythe mostpowerful manin townat thattime,to choose.The presenceoftheprobablesanctuary oftheimperialcultin frontofthehousemightalso haveinfluenced hischoice.Ratherthan one of thetown'sdecurions, thenewownerof one of theprimesiteson theforumwould havebeen an imperialagentfromanothertown,involvedin construction. thecolFinally, lapse of thehouseverysoon aftertherebuilding'51 wouldfitwithan ownerwho quickly movedoffto betterthings. SuchlinkingofRomanhousesknownfromarchaeology to Romanpeopleknownfrom textsis a common, andoftencriticized, It is clearthatthearchaeology practice. is notchanged bytheadditionofa name,that"Horace'svilla"wouldnotbe materially ifitwere different not,afterall, thevillaof Horace.The persistence withwhichthissortof identification is madereflects ourowndesiretopeopletheplaceswe excavatewith"real"peoplerather than withcardboard"Romans."The truth, ofcourse,willcontinueto escapeus. Thissortofreconstruction-or historicalnovel-shouldbe judgedby whether it works.The house,of butthehistorical course,remains unaffected, reconstruction givesus another instance ofthe ofthehouseweavesintothatofthetownitself. wayinwhichthehistory
Cosa II, pl. LV.
mentofitsabandonment comprised analmostcomplete vesselof Italiansigillataand severalpieces of thin150 I am gratefulto Leslie Rainer,who is studyinggrotwalledwaredatingto theClaudianperiods:an almosttoes fromall periods in Italy,forher observationthat complete exampleofGoudineauform43(A.D. 20-25+) thisis the onlyuse of thismaterialshe knowsof. and twoexamplesof Marabini-Moevs formLXI. See potteryreport,belowp. 297, fortherestof thisde151 The pottery thathad fallenonto the floorat the mo- posit. 149
2 * Settlement A.D. betweentheThirdand theFifthCenturies ElizabethFentress
Summary Jmperial intervention duringthe reignof Caracalla signaledsome revivalof settlementon Ithe site. The forumwas restored,althoughthe onlypublic buildingsin use seem to have been granariesand, later,the odeum. Two smallshrineswere constructed,one to Liber Pater ofthe curia.The settlement (withHercules?) and theothera mithraeumin thesubstructures did not survivethe end of thethirdcentury, however,and onlythe shrineto Liber continued in use in the fourthand fifthcenturies.
TheRes PublicaCosanorum(fig.23) The collapse of the House of Diana in the 80s appears to have been part of a more general littlesecond-century abandonmentof the city.Extraordinarily potterywas found,although some occupationclearlycontinued,as occasional sherdsin the gardenshow.This decline in theoccupationofthetownmatchesthatseen in Heba, in thelowerAlbegnaValley,and seems to have been partof a moregeneralphenomenonof the abandonmentof the smalltownsof In the beginningof the thirdcentury, centralItaly.152 however,thereare signsof revivedactivity.Imperial dedications erected by the res publica Cosanorumrun fromCaracalla to Aurelian.'53Our excavationsconfirmthispicture.Two insulae,abandoned in thefirsthalfof thesecond century, seemto have been rebuilt,and middendepositsovertheabandonedbuildingsattestincreasedactivityon the site.In thearea behindthepublic buildingsof theforum new housingwas built (IX D N). The curiawas buttressed,the centralcolumnsof the southwestporticoof theforumwererestored,and the ruinedbuildingsbehindit maskedby a continuousblank wall.154By now, however,the focus of settlementseems to have shiftedaway 152 On Heba, Celuzza and Fentress1990; on theAlbegna Valleyin thisperiod Fentress1996. For a counteropinion (ruralItalycontinuedto flourish)Patterson1987.
The firstpart of thissectioncloselyfollowsFentress 1994.
153
154 This wall, whose mortarand buildingtechniqueindicate thatitsvarioussegmentsare of one build,was interpretedby Brownon a house-by-housebasis, generallyas partoftheAugustanconversionoftheforumatriumbuildings into houses. This explanationis not possible for a numberof reasons. First,in manycases it blocked off
63
rooms theold tabernae-for whichtherewasno other access:no doorswerecutthrough to themfrominside thebuildings, andtheirfloorsweregenerally lowerthan thoseoftheatria(ForumV andVI). Although thestratigraphic connections between thesewallsandthedestructiondeposits ofthebuildings wasgenerally cutawaybya rather unfortunate "isolation trench," remains ofa cutin thedestruction depositscouldbe tracedin ForumV, thatthewallwaslaterthanthebuilding's deshowing struction inthefirst century A.D. Finally, therestored porticohadtobe backedbysomething, especially inviewof theruined housesbehindit,andthiswallprovides thebest candidate, eventhough directdating evidence is lacking.
64
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
inthethird A.D. (AW). century Fig.23.Areaoccupied
gate.No rubbishis foundon the fromtheforumtowardthePortaRomana,thenortheast freeofthird-century pottery. Arx,andtheinsulaesouthoftheforumareentirely Besidestheodeumand thecuria,onlythreenewpublicbuildingsareknownfromthis side of theforum, althoughit probably period(fig.24). The firstoccupiesthenorthwest byfairly masopenedontostreet0. Thisis composedofthreelong,narrowroomsseparated sivecontinuous walls(ForumVI). Although therearesomeproblems abouttheconstruction buildingon thissite.Thereare sequence,itseemsclearthatthesereplacedtheearlieratrium no tracesoffloors,andthetilecollapseliesdirectly on topofthedestruction depositsofthe earlierbuilding,a situationthatsuggestsa woodenfloor,foran earthenpavement would The rarepottery havebeenattheveryleastcompacted. thedestruction overlying depositsof theearlierbuildingcan be datedaroundthemiddleof thecentury Red Slip Cl (African of similar fabrics).In a subsequentphasethisbuildingwas replacedby a singlestructure occupiesthenorthwest entrance to proportions, whosewallsremainstanding. Thisstructure theforumand uses thesouthwest of theFornicesas itsentrance. Again,theonly archway stratified wasthirdcentury in date,andno laterpottery intopsoil. waspresent pottery The buildingwas identified but the lack of any by Brownas a stableforsheep,155 and theextremely narrowentranceargueagainst trampledsurface,or organicdeposition, 155
Cosa III, 249.
SETTLEMENT BETWEEN THE THIRD AND FIFTH CENTURIES A.D.
65
khousing
0l
0
kil; workshop... sanctuary of LiAer
horrea?L0
hor7
~-
II4
L'horrea
H
0
25
(EF). Fig. 24. The forumin thethirdcentury
this hypothesis.The absence of a floorsuggeststhatit,like itspredecessor,was flooredwith wood,156 and the long, thinrooms of both buildingsmightbest be interpretedas granaries. This interpretation would also suitthelongwalls foundcrossingthe constructiondepositsin theHouse ofDiana, whichlies in an identicalpositionat the southwestentranceto theforum (Forum V). There is also evidence forthe constructionof two religiousbuildingsduringthe first half of the thirdcentury.One of these is the mithraeumin the easterncella of the curia. thisseemsveryearlyin Althoughits excavatorsdate it to the middle of the second century, termsof the diffusionof the cult. Five coins, rangingin date froMA.D. 164 to A.D. 241 were "in or on the earthfloor."1157 Even if onlythe earliestof thesewere actufound,conifusingly, allyin the earthfloor,it would merelyprovidea terminus post quem forthe constructionof 16The lack ofevidentbeam slotsarguesagainstthis,but the floormighthave been supportedon thewalls of the earlier atriumbuilding,which are all preservedto the
same level, or on wooden chocks. 157
Cosa III, 245.
66
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
thebuilding. AtOstia,mithraea ofthesecondcentury inprivate arefoundexclusively houses, and it is notuntilthethirdcentury thattheybeginto be constructed intopublicbuildings a second-century dateis unlikely in viewoftheabsenceof any likeCosa's curia.158 Finally, on thesiteduringthatperiod. otheractivity A secondshrine, whichmayhavebeenbuiltduringtheSeveranperiod,is thatofLiber on thebasisofa largegroupofcoins Pater.The excavators datethisto thefourth century foundin thedestruction whichrunfromA.D.317 to A.D.425-455.Now,itis clear material, from derived a fallencollection thatthisgroup,whichCollins-Clinton suggests box,canhardly be usedto datetheconstruction ofthebuilding. Moretelling is thededication toLiberPater byZoe Mater,whosepaleography The phraseD(onum) placesitin theearlythirdcentury.159 P(osuit)on theinscription ofthe"Mater"impliesa giftto a shrineofLibersomewhere at thisshrinewiththe exedrathatclosesoffthe Cosa, and it seemsreasonableto identify southeastern entrance to theforum, wherethebase wasfoundandwherethesanctuary itself The dateofthisexedrais unknown, wasto be rebuiltin thefourth butitsmortar is century. andthesinglecolumnatitsentrance identical tothatofthemithraeum. Itssigninum pavement ofthesecondphase,butthededication werecutawayduring theconstruction wasretained. thehypothesis ofa Severandateforthismonument. Otherconsiderations support Among thesculptures foundinsidetheshrinewas a marblehead ofHercules.In the1991excavationsa fragment of"serpent ware"similar tothosefoundintheshrinewasdiscovered, decoratedwitha relief ofHerculescubans, studdedwithfragments ofpastavitrea toindicate stars.160 LiberandHerculesweretheDii PatriiofLeptisMagnaandhenceoftheSeveranhouse.The fortherevivalofactivity atCosa,wasparemperor Caracalla,whowasprobablyresponsible devotedto bothgods and was fondof drivingchariotspulledby elephants,in ticularly The construction imitation bothofAlexanderandofLiber.16' oftheshrinewouldthushave formed oftheforum. partoftheSeveranrestoration Cosa thusconsisted ofa mithraeum anda shrine, therestored odeumand Third-century a forumwhoseporticomaskeda blankwallhidingtheruinedhouses curia,twogranaries, behindit,a fewshops,and,atmost,fourinsulae,one ofwhichseemstohavebeenoccupied inlargepartbyfarmbuildings (IX D North).Formally, theforum seemstobe a well-planned on theshrineto theDii Patriioftheimperial houseattheend.However, structure, focusing itsfunctional werereducedto granaries, buildings withthepossibleexceptionofthecuria. The rebuilding oftheodeumoccurredlaterin thecentury, whichsuggests thatitwasstandinginsomeformatthetimeofthereoccupation. Imperialdedications weremadebycuratores ofdecurions is impliedbytheabbreviation reipublicae, and,thoughtheexistence "d(ecreto) thereis no othertraceofthem.Whatsortofmunicipalstructure d(ecurionum)," was this? Andwhywasitcreated? No matter howramshackled anddeserted, Cosa inthesecondcentury had continued to serveas a fiscalbasefortheorganization ofitsterritory. Thisextendedoverabout500 square 158 On Ostian mithraea,Becatti 1954; the point about the public buildingsis made by Schreiber1967.
161 Cassius Dio LXXXVII,7,4, citedby Bruhl 1953, 192. On Caracalla's devotionto the cult of Hercules, Bayet 1926, 203. In a Severan-period shrine to Liber at 159Collins-Clinton 1977,56-57 and fig.30; AE 1979,225; Lambaesis he is referredto as the geniusdomus,probI am gratefulto Daniele Manacorda forhis comments ablyof the Severanhouse: Fentress1984. Twinbases of on the paleography. Liber/Liberaand Hercules were dedicated at Cuicul in 198 or 237, the latterwitha reliefof Hercules cubans: 160Scott 1992b. The sherdwas foundin a medievalconAE 1955, 156-157. textsome 20 m northof the shrine.
SETTLEMENT BETWEEN THE THIRD AND FIFTH CENTURIESA.D.
67
km,ofwhichalmosta thirdwasprobably pascuapublica.162 Thisis indicatedbytheabsence of anyRomansitesin thenortheastern of quarterof thearea,whichformsthehinterland AgerCosanusanditsborderwiththeAgerSaturninus (abovefig.1). The magistrates would havecollectedrentson itslandandassignedleaseson it.Theywouldalsohavebeenresponsibleforthe collectionof thevicesimahereditatum and themaintenance of archives.It is thesefunctions thatwe mayperhapssee beingcarriedoutin theAtrium BuildingI, theonly in use through thesecondcentury. One of theroomsdebuildingto remaincontinuously stroyed bythecollapseofthebasilicain theJulio-Claudian period,room25, containedseveralbronzefittings thatcouldbe interpreted as scrollends,numerous bronzenails,andstrips thatmighthavebeenusedto bindwoodenboxes.Thereis also one probablefragment ofa tabulaaenea.'63It seemspossibletointerpret thisdepositas deriving froman archiveorother office.The roomsalongstreet7 mayeasilyhavebeen used as officesfromthebeginning, giventheirpositionnextto thebasilica.Whenthelattercollapsed,thewholeoftheAtrium I mayhavebeenconverted Building tosucha use.Itsofficial natureina laterperiodis stressed bythefactthatone ormoreofthelaterimperialdedications wasfoundinsideit.164The conofthisofficeinthecontextofwhatwasapparently tinuity a ghosttownbythesecondhalfof thesecondcentury thissituation showsjusthowartificial was,andthismayhavebeenoneof inthetown. thereasonsforSeveranintervention The firstoftheinscriptions wereerectedbya delegateofa datingto thethirdcentury senatorialcuratorappointedby Caracalla.165As Jacques'sstudyof theofficehas shown, 166Among curatores wereappointed tooverseecivicfinances insituations ofmunicipal disarray. theirjobs werethereorganization ofthepubliclands,especially thoseoccupiedillegally by local landlords, and thereerection ofpublicbuildings. Theymightalso forceurbanhouseholdersto rebuildand restoretheirproperties andto fulfill anypromises madebutnotcarriedout. Theircharge,in sum,was therespublica,and it is in thatnamethatthevarious imperialdedications at Cosa weremade.WhatwastherespublicaCosanorum? The question is noteasilyanswered. thecurator r.p. wasin chargeofproperty, Although property byitself cannotmakea dedication, so thetermmustreferto a groupofpeople.However, respublica can referto anygroupwithitsowntreasury,167 Babcocksuggested thattheabsenceof any settlement at Cosa itselfimpliedthattherespublicaCosanorum significant was to be found elsewhere, perhapsat Succosa.168Yet twofull-scale surveys oftheareahavefailedto locate thislateRomanmansio.Although itdoubtless itcannothavebeenonanurbanscale.169 existed, We areleftwithtwopossibilities. Eithertherespublicarefers to thefreeinhabitants of thewholeterritory, or therewas a realattempt to resettle thesitewithnew,freeinhabitants. inthethirdcentury therevivalofimperial interest an attempt torevivethe Certainly suggests townitself, a revivalshownnotonlybythewiderdispersion ofpottery ofthesecondquarter of thethirdcentury but also by theerectionofprivatehousingin theinsulaenorthofthe 162
Celuzza 2002, 103-113.
167
Jacques 1984; Gascou 1979; Camodeca 1980.
163
CF 694, withplasteron the back.
168
Babcock 1962.
164 Bace II B 10, to Caracalla; Bace and Harvey forth- 169 It cannot have been located near San Biagio, as sugcoming. gested by Babcock, as the fieldsaround the churchare entirelydevoid of anythingbut mausolea. The imperial 165 CIL XI, 2633. villa oftheTagliatamightbe a candidatebut would representa significantdetourfromthe via Aurelia. 166 Jacques 1984.
68
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
wouldbe thepowerof the forum(IX D North).A legalcontextforsucha reoccupation offallenbuildings fromthepublicpurseandto recover r.p. to payforthereerection curator Themostlikelymoment forsucha refoundation theexpensesbysellingthebuilding.170 might
be in A.D. 213, the date of the firstcertaindedicationand of the firstknowncurator,Porcius Severinus. Direct imperial inspirationof the refoundationis suggested by the fact that Caracalla's name is in thenominativeon one of theseinscriptions.'7' Cosa was not the onlytownin the area in thissituation.An intensivesurveyof nearby Heba revealed a similarlack of potterydatingto the middle of the second centuryand a revivalof activityin thethird,a revivalthatis underlinedby a dedicationto JuliaMamaea by the respublica.'72 Both citiesthusbenefitedfromthe generalSeveranbeliefthatflourishing municipalitieswerea signof a healthyeconomy,as well as fromthefactthattherewereprobManyof theestatesof theAgerCosanus ablya numberofimperialestateson theirterritories. were imperialby the end of the firstcentury-e.g., the villa of TorreTagliata.173 The estates of the Domitii passed to Nero, while Vespasian,too, probablyinheritedestatesthroughhis mother.'74 Imperialprocuratorswould thushave keptRome informedof thestateof thearea and of the growingdisarrayof the countryside. It is notable thatthe revivalof the citycoincidedwitha generaldecline in the occupaas a whole. Manyvillasin thevicinityof Cosa wentout of use beforeA.D. tionof theterritory of Cosa's territory was probablylowerthanin thepast: no trans230,'75and theproductivity the are known from and we have no indicationof otherexports.The port amphorae area, absence of new small sites suggeststhatslaves were not being replaced by freecoloni,for, althoughthose could have resided in the huge villas, thereis no evidence for the kind of rebuildingthatthatwould have entailed.The absence of freelabor and the kind of village wherepeasantrycould be foundmusthave been the chiefobstacle in anyeffortto bringin cultivationby tenantfarmers.An echo of the same anxietyabout the collapse of maritime Etruriais found in the biographyof Aurelian.'76Here it is proposed thatthe huge, fertile tractsof abandoned land "perAureliamusque ad Alpes maritimas"should be givento barbarian captivesto cultivatewithvines,whichwould, among otherbenefits,supplythe Roman plebs with a wine dole. There is no suggestionthat this was ever carriedout, but it echoes whatapparentlywas happening50 or 60 yearsearlier. The reoccupationof Cosa mustbe seen in thislight:it mighthave been intendedto attractfreelabor to take up tenancieson the estates,echoingin a new economic contextthe traditionalformsofRomancolonization.'77 Such an effort would havefitintoa generalpolicy 170
Camodeca1980,467.
175
Cambi and Fentress1989; Attoliniet al. 1991.
171
Bace II B 13; Bace and Harveyforthcoming; Saladino 1977, 142-143.
176 SHA Aurelian,XLVII, 2: the passage is discussed in Cracco Ruggini1963.
172 A briefaccount of thissurvey is foundin Celuzza and Fentress1990. For the inscription,Eck and Pack 1981, 145-147 = AE 1981, 349.
177 An alternative explanation,suggestedto me byRussell Scott,is that the whole refoundationmay be seen in a military context,thegranariesservingto supplyanytroops movingup the Via Aurelia. The solutionis not impossible,especiallyas thewallsseemto have been refortified at thistime.He writesthatthe creationof the granaries "was partof the Severanschemeto organizestretchesof Italian territory into districtswithreferenceto the road systems thatshapedand connectedthemforvariousneeds: theannonaand cursusp. This can be verywell seen from CIL XI, 31338a,31369,31370at thetimeof Caracalla."
For the villa of TorreTagliata at the PortusCosanus, Ciampoltriniand Rendini 1990. 173
174 Manacorda 1979, 87-89. Property of a Domitia Lucilla, possiblythe motheror grandmotherof Marcus Aurelius;praedia of Vespasian: Suet., Vesp.2; see also Cosa III, 243-244.
SETTLEMENT BETWEEN THE THIRD AND FIFTH CENTURIESA.D.
69
of encouragementto the sortofbonusagricolathathad become a fixedidea of the dynasty.178 to those SeverusAlexanderis said to have lentstatemoneyat 4 percentor even interest-free Rentswere to be paid in who wished to bringuncultivatedpublic land into cultivation.179 kind,whichmightexplain the granaries-althoughthe contractionof the northwestgranary mightsuggestthatthe policywas less thanprofitable. Four insulae,however,do not make a town,and thereis no indicationthatthe experiCosa was thusa simulacrumof a normalRoman town,an mentwas a success. Third-century imaginaryspace whose real functionswere reduced to a littlemarket,horrea,severalshops, and some offices.The fictionwent on formore than fiftyyears.Direct imperialattention continuedwithMaximus and Maximinus,when anothersenatorialcuratororganizedthe reThis was done withtown buildingof the forumportico,the odeum, and otherbuildings.180 fundsbut was orderedby the emperorsthemselves.Dedications by the respublica continue in an almostunbrokenseries down to Aurelian.Althoughthereis no furtherevidence for repairs,we finda rathersophisticatedattentionpaid to thenuances of imperialpropaganda: whichwould be echoed byJulian,is theonly sacrorumet libertatis, Decius's epithetrestitutor knownexample.18'This seriesof dedicationsis the most completefromcentralItalyin the thirdcenturyand is remarkablein view of the epigraphic"wasteland"thatEtruriawas becoming182and of the generalemptinessof the townitself.
DesolataCosa AtriumBuildingI and the sanctuaryof Liber Pater were the On the evidenceof the pottery, onlystructuresto surviveinto the fourthcentury.By then,littlewas leftof Caracallan Cosa. The privatehouse builtbehindthebasilica/odeumwas abandoned well beforetheend ofthe century(IX D North).The granarieswere abandoned beforetheintroductionof the fourthcenturyAfricanRed Slip wares,as weretheotherinsulaetowardthePorta Romana.There is no traceof thevillageor estatecenterproposed in Cosa III:183 the potteryfromthe curia and comitium,the forumcisternand the bread ovens is all sixthcentury(below p. 307f.), that fromthe granariesin ForumVI is all thirdcentury.In spite of the continuousoccupationin AfricanRed pottery, theAtriumBuildingI, whichhas lefta certainamountoffourth-century Slip ware of the fourthand fifthcenturiesis rare at Cosa (fig.25),184in contrastto its conIn the fourthcentury, when AfricanD wares were tinuingsupplyelsewherein the territory. of Cosa in large quantities,the town has floodingthe marketand arrivingin the territory again fromthe AtriumBuildingI and aroundthe shrineof Liber yieldedonly 18 fragments, Pater.The coins followthe same pattern:withthe exceptionof two coins fromForumV, all "78Mazza1970, 220f.
usewhenthetemplewasrebuiltas a church.
179 SHA Alexander Severus,XXI, 2, to be taken,naturally,witha grainof salt. Mazza (1970, 228) points out thatthisfitsinto the toposof the good prince.
182Jouffroy 1986, 390.
Scott 1981,AE 1982, 325.
183
Cosa III, 247f.
184 The graphwas first publishedin Fentress1994, with fig. 6: the technique with which it was created is de81Julianhas the same epitheton ILAig II.2, 4674, from scribed in Fentressand Perkins 1988. The mean is that Thibilis.It is unlikelythatthe phrasehas a local signifi- ofall westernMediterraneansamplesstudiedtherewith, cance, such as the rebuildingof a temple: indeed, the in addition, the material from the British School at presenceof the inscriptionin Temple B is due to its re- Rome's South Etruriasurvey.
180
70
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
6 Cosa
5
Albegna
Mean 4
Y63
2
0* YEARS AD Fig. 25. AfricanRed Slip ware,percentageoftotalsupplyperdecade, mean(P. Perkins). comparedto thatrecoveredin theAlhegnaValleyand thewesternMediterranean
of the fourth-and fifth-century coins come fromthe shrine(below p. 251). If not entirely deserted,Cosa had almostno contactwiththe wider market.Only at the beginningof the sixthcenturydo North Africanproductsappear to increase,especiallywhen comparedto the low numbersin the restof the territory. The shrineof Liber Pater remainsa puzzle. As Collins-Clintonhas shown,it was rebuilt, and the coins foundwithinit testify to its continuinguse.185But whatformdid thisuse take? As she has suggested,the numerouslamps suggesta nocturnalceremony, while the "magic" vessels,decoratedwithsnakes,wereobviouslypartoftheritual.Indeed,Prudentiusdescribes the Bacchantesgnawingon live serpents,an interesting late associationbetweenthe cult and the decorationof the pottery.'816 Do we imaginea weeklyceremonyforthe inhabitantsof the hilltop?It seems morelikelythatthe festivalwas annual,withthe coins foundin the shrine havingbeen dedicated on theseoccasions. Such an annualfestivalis knownfroma shrineto Liber northof Rome, wbere an inscriptionrefersto the SacrariumLiberiPatris/ In Praedis '5' The ruined and overgrowntownwould / OmnibusAnnis / Celebrantur. Constantinorum have providedan ideal settingforthe Bacchanalia decriedby Christianpolemicists,and the findsof coins as late as 425-455 withinthe sanctuarydemonstratejust how long the cult managedto hold out. 185
Collins-Clinton 1977.
186
Liber contraSymmachum I, 122-145.
187AE 1927, 103. This shrinealso containeda statueof Hercules cubans:Gatti 1925, 394.
SETTLEMENT BETWEEN THE THIRD AND FIFTH CENTURIESA.D.
71
wherelifecontinued,ifon a reduced Its adepts presumablycame fromCosa's territory, scale. No new farmswere built,and morevillas disappeared,althoughthereare signsof renewed investmentin the greatmaritimevillas such as TorreTagliata,where new tanksfor RutiliusNamatianusinprocessingfishwere constructedat the end of the fourthcentury.'88 forcoastal traffic.189 replacing the old civic ports how these villas were, dicatesjust important Their principalactivityseems to have been the productionof fish,exploitingthe coastal lagoons in the same manneras had RepublicanCosa. In the inlandareas,however,population was certainlymuch lower thanin the past, even if not enough to justifyPope Gelasius's remarkthat"thereis nobody at all in Tuscany."190 Thus, fromitsdestructionin thefirstcenturyB.C. onward,Cosa's fortuneswereinversely relatedto thoseof its countryside.Two seriousattemptsto revivethetownweremade,under Augustusand Caracalla, and it is hard not to view themin the lightof the colonial tradition-as attemptsto settleor encouragefreecitizensinto an area in which theywere rare. But the necessaryconditionforthe town'ssurvivalwas absent-an organicrelationshipwith its countryside.There is no traceofwhatCracco Rugginirefersto as the "compenetrazionee Far frombeing a place whereagriculla sostanzialeaffinitafrai cetiurbanie quelli rurali."'191 tural profitswere consumed,Cosa fromthe late Republic onward was bypassed by them. Paradoxically,as withso manyothercentralItalian towns,Cosa's failurewas tied to the iniof itsterritory farmed,slavetial success of its agriculture.The transformation by intensively whose rootsin managedvillas'92made it all themoreappetizingforthesenatorialaristocracy, the old townwere eithernonexistentor quicklyshriveled.This situationwas exacerbatedby the growthof imperialpropertyin the area, exemplifiedby thegreatestateofTorreTagliata. When thevillasthemselvesbecame less profitable,therewas no readysupplyof peasanttenants to fallback on, whetherin the countryor in the townitself.It is impossibleto imagine that farmerscould have been created ad hoc fromthe poor of the capital, and Columella (1.7.3) warnsagainsttheuse of thecolonuswithurbanorigins.It is thislack offreelabor that makes the colonate of the late Empire so conspicuouslyabsent in centralItaly.We cannot show thatslave labor was no longerused, but the evidentlack of investmentsuggeststhatit was notveryproductive.In Africa,withitsmoreflexibleeconomicbase, theSeveranmuniciwas successfulin thelong term,in spiteofthe disruptionof thesecond halfof pal investment in thecounis reflectedin continuousinvestment This successof Africanfarming thecentury. tryside.In centralItaly,revivalssuch as thatof Cosa were doomed to failure.
188
andRendini1990. Ciampoltrini
189
De redituI, 285f.; vivariaI, 377. One villamentioned 191Cracco Ruggini1992, 257.
alsoexploitedsalinae, I, 475f.
messes,Sources Chretiennes65, Paris 1959, p. 172.
192 such villas See, e.g., Attoliniet al. 1991. Thirty-nine 190"hominumpropenullusexistat."Gel. Adv. Andr.,ed. were foundin theAger Cosanus alone. G. Pomares,Lettre contre les Lupercales et dix-huit
3 * TheSixth-Century Settlement ElizabethFentress
withKatherine andVeravonFalkenhausen Gruspier
Summary (EF)
E
xcavationson the Arx in 1990 revealed a hithertounsuspectedcomplex of buildings thatreusedearlierstructuresto createa smallfortified settlement, possiblyintendedfor a farmor,in a laterperiod,a smallcastrum.Reexaminationof evidencefromearlierexcavationsin theforum,and a trenchbehind theforumbasilica,revealeda smallByzantinesettlementthereas well. A bread oven,a cemeteryin whichwomenand childrenwereburied,and a fewhouses suggestthatthislittlesettlement was occupied by civilians.The name and function of the site duringthisperiod are unclear,but an inscriptionfoundin 1967 suggeststhat it mighthave been "Neapolis" or,perhaps,"Ansedonia." In an appendix to the chapter,the evidencethatCosa was the originfora Greek inscriptionof the eighthcenturyis examined, and discarded,by Vera von Falkenhausen,who also suggestsa new interpretation of thepassage of the propertyto the abbey of S. Anastasioad Aquas Salvias in Rome.
TheExcavations THE BUILDINGS ON THE ARX (FIG. 26)193
The complexon theArxfallsintotwophases(Arx2). In thefirst ofthesewereconstructed a granarybeside TempleD and a complexincludingstablesand a barnbuiltagainstthe Capitolinetemple.Thesetwobuildings wereseparated bya roadthatled up fromtheforum throughthe old Romangate of theArx. The road was edged by a wall thatservedto createa triangularyardnextto the Capitolium.To the rightof the road, the granaryflankedTemple
D (pl. 13). It waswalledin stone,and alongthelongaxisofthesingleroomrana seriesof five column drums.These were evidentlyused to supporta floorof woodenplanking, to
keep the grainfreeof damp and rats. Two smallerrooms next to this structuremay have formedpart of the complex,but theyappear to have been excavatedto bedrock duringthe
so chronological 1948-1951excavations evidenceis missing. On theothersideoftheroada rampled up intotheyard.To therightofthisweretwo theentirelengthoftheCapitolinetemple(pl. 14).Thelowerofthese longrooms,stretching reusedthecutbedrockas partofitsfoundations. It waspavedwitha plasterfloor, intowhich linesofpostholeswerecut,forming rowsperpendicular to thewalls.Theseseemto suggest theuse of thebuildingas a stable,thepostholesseparating thestallsforthehorses.The 193 This summarizesthe detailed report presented in Fentresset al. 1991.
72
THE SIXTH-CENTURY SETTLEMENT
73
ofthebuildingson theArxin themid-sixth Fig.26. Reconstruction century (AW).
upper room had no visible floorat all, but a ledge cut along the side of the temple again suggestswooden planking.Above thisroom a line of beam holes on the outsidewall of the templedemonstratesthe heightof the timberroof.We can suggestthatthe structureserved as a haybarn,conveniently connectedto the stables. At the top of the rampwas found a small porch lyingin the angle betweenthe "barn" and the podium wall. Next to the porch a stairled up to the templepodium. We have little clue as to what eitherof the ruinedtempleswas used for,althoughTemple B was certainly repaired,and Brownreportedevidenceof a churchin thecella of theCapitolinetemple.194 It mightplausiblybe suggestedthat the ruins of the Capitoline temple also served to lodge thosewho mannedthe complex along withoccasional visitors. At some point in the sixthcenturythe granaryburned down, leavinga rich deposit of burntgrain,wooden planks, amphorae,and meat hooks. The destructiondeposit and the wallsofthegranary werecutbytheconstruction trenchofa thickdefensivewall (pl. 15),which completedthecircuitoftheArxthathad remainedpartiallyopen sincetheRepublicanperiod. 194
Cosa II, 4-5.
74
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY Plate13.Arx, I (EF). Building
Plate 14. Arx,thewall
oftheCapitoline temple beamholesfor showing theroofofthebar. In front ofitarethe forthewooden cuttings floor(EF).
A small posternwas created at the junctionof the wall and the road, which probablyled down to the port of the Fenilia. The stables/barncomplex does not seem to have been affectedby the fire,as the defensivewall turnsto avoid it. Probablyin thisphase a gate was built at the main (north)entrance.It is at thispointthatthe site can be accuratelydescribed as a castrum(fig.26). Occupation debris fromthe site is not plentiful,partiallybecause most of the deposits wereexcavatedin 1950. Fromthoseexcavationscomesa distinctive equal-armedfibula,which is probablymilitaryin type and is paralleled by a second fibula found in 1990 in a small occupationlayerin Arx I (fig. 116 no. 2). Neitherof these can be associatedwithprecision withone or the otherof the phases, but theydo seem to indicatea militarypresencein the castrum.The chronologyof thesetwo phases is not tight.Althoughthelatestsherdfoundon
THE SIXTH-CENTURY SETTLEMENT
U
3
75
W
Plate 15. Arx, construction trenchfor
sixth-century rampart,
wallofgranary ~~~~~~~~~~~cutting
-.
(EF).
,,
t
-:--
.....
. ..-.-
the Arx (Hayes 91D) dates to the end of the sixthcentury,the datable materialfromthe constructiontrenchis not necessarilylaterthanthe beginningof the sixthcentury.'195 TE
BUILDINGS IN THE FoRum (HGS. 27, 8)
The majorityof the sixthcenturybuildingsin the forumwere constructedamid the ruinsof the basilica, usingits substantialpodium and plentifulbuildingmaterial(The Structureson the Basilica). The largestof theseis the church,built along the back of the structureand lit by a largewindowthatpiercedthe basilica tribune(pl. 16). The churchis dated to the sixth centuryby its cubic altar(pl. 17).196 To the south of the church,on the platformformedby the foundationsof the basilica, was an open space surroundedby otherstructures:twolargebread ovens (pI. 18) and several houses, built along the edge of the forum.The forumitselfwas roughlyresurfacedin this area with cobbling derivedfromthe cleaning-outof the basilica, althoughthis surfacedid not extend as faras the middle of the forum.However,new beaten earthsurfacesdatingto thisperiod were found over all the excavated area of the forum,and therewas no trace of buildingswithinit. Other structuresare suggestedby one or twowalls plannedby Brownon the southwestside of the forum,but we can say verylittleabout these. Two otherfeatures recordedbyBrownin thearea remainwithouta cleardate.The firstoftheseis a circularthreshingfloorfoundovertheold curia,and thesecond is a largebarnlyingnearthewesterncorner of theforum,close to the reservoir.'97 The old cisternin thefishmarketprovidesthebest evidence foroccupationon the southwestside of the forum:here a large dump of occupation refuseappears to date to the firsthalfof the sixthcentury(below p. 307f.). 195 Fentress et al. 1991, 215, where, however,Hayes form99 is dated some 20 years too early.There is no good evidence for the occurence of this formbefore A.D. 500. 196
This type of altar does not appear before the sixth
century:Fiocchi Nicolai 1985, lOlf., and his bibliographyin notes28 and 41.We do not knowifthewindowin the tribunalwas originalor constructedat thispoint:no moldingssurvive. 197
Cosa II, 249f. and fig.79.
to
---read'porta roffana' 4
cemetery ita
s
{
bousiniB7
_
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\
,
t
\
to southeast gateN\ ~~~~~~~~~~road
. . I
\
\
o eroadtoarx
I I f
Ij
I
X
0
thesixthcentury (EF). Fig. 27. The forummn
~
-A
~
ll I
Plate
-
,
_.
16. T
Plate 16
. The chur
um n inthe b sifi xrmthe "wentury (EF).
~~~~~~~20
of Fig.28. Reconstruction thebuildingson theforum basilicain thesixthcentury (AW).
/
5
Sz,~ Plate 17. The altarof thechurch(EF).
A1111k~~~~~~~~
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
78
Plate18.Thebread ovenonthebasilica
TECET
RY) is
Thmstsriineaure
AN_H THEk _oADS
CMTR
ti
t
l-me
re
n
i
or Romangate,towardthecuria(fig.29, IX D N, ForumII). Here it divided,withone branch runningup throughthesoutheastroomofthecuriaovera substantialramp,and thenthrough floorseems thecomitiumand acrosstheforumtowardthecomplexon theArx.The threshing to have respectedthe retainingwall forthisroad and is thuslaterin date. The second branch of the road ran aroundTempleB and thenturnedeast towardthe southeastgate. It appears to have been flankedby a wall throughoutmuchof itslength(ForumII). Both of theseroads were extremelywell made and seem to have representeda substantialinvestmentin labor and manpower.Theylinkthe littlesettlementon the forumwiththatof the Arx,althoughit is not entirelyclear how the settlementrelatesto the two phases presenton the Arx. A smallcemeteryfoundlyingbelow the churchto the northeastwas clearlyrelatedto it (IX D N). Here six bodies wereexcavated,fourlyingwiththeirheads towardthechurchin a northeast-southwest alignment,and the sixth,an infant,lyingparallel to the churchand cut by an adultburial.Smallbronzepins in all thegravessuggestthatthesebodies werewrapped in shrouds,but thereis no evidenceforcoffins,nor anyotherdatable material.We have no evidence forthe extentof the cemetery, except thatit seems to have been bounded by the road runningjustto thenorthofit.Richardsondid notrecordburialsin the "isolationtrench" of the basilica, but the cemeterymayhave extendedalong theback of the structure.'98
(KG). Almost all of the burials were complete and well preserved. PhysicalAnthropology The two adults (US 23 and US 31) were in stone-linedcists,withhead and footstones; one had some sealing stones in situ.One of the children(US 29) was also buried in a stonelined cist with sealing stones,but the grave structureand its contentswere partiallydisturbed by the later intermentof one of the adults (US 23). The orientationof the burials varied. 198
notebooks1953. excavation Unpublished
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
79
Fig.29.Cosainthesixthcentury (AW).
The burialsrepresenta cross sectionof a populationand are aged and sexed as follows: context
31B: 33: 29: 22: 28: 31: 23:
9 lunarmonths to birth birthto 6 months 6 to 18 months 7.5 to 9.5 years 8 to 10 years male,20 to 30 years female,25 to 40 years
The livingheightof individual31 was 162 cm, and for individual23 it was 160 cm. The female(23) comparesto the mean forthe later medievalsample fromForum II, while the shorterthanthelatermale mean (170 cm). These heightsrepresent male (31) is substantially individualvariationonlyand should not be takenas reflectiveof thepopulationas a whole. Pathologicalchangesseen on theseindividualsare similarto thoseof themedievalsample and the adultshave periosteal (below p. 106). All the childrenexhibitporotichyperostosis, changesto the lowerlegs. The two older juveniles(22 and 28) both exhibitdiaphyseallength ages thatlag behindthedentalages. In thecase of22, it is a deficitofmorethantwoyears.This
80
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
as discussedin partIV. The infant couldindicatepoorhealthand/ornutrition, (29) exhibits severeperiosteal andendocranial ofa systemic infectious changesthatcouldbe indicative disoftheduracovering thebrain.The endocranial surface oftheskullof ease,withinvolvement notas grossly affected. Theinfectious andhemopoietic theinfant 33 is similarly though changes fromthisareaaremoreseverethananyseeninthemedieval seenon thejuveniles sample. is thedentaldiseaseon skeleton23, whichis similarto theolder interest Of particular toothlossdueto caries,abscesses, malesintheForumII sample,withextensive antemortem diseaseexacerbated first toeofburial andperiodontal bycalculusbuildup.Theosteomyelitic 31 (see descriptive catalogue)was probablytheresultof a woundor a footulcer.It may Thisis a bacterialorfungalinfection represent a caseofmaduromycosis. ofbonethatoccurs in tropicalandsubtropical ofthefoot. lacerations regions, through The samplefromthiscemetery is small,butthepopulation from appearstohavesuffered someofthesamebiologicalinsultsas thelatermedievalpopulation.Further excavation of thisareawouldprovidemoreinformation on thegeneticandpathological ofthe constitution individuals andwouldoffer a comparative sampleforgeneticcontinuity studieswiththeForumII skeletons. Toponymic andEpigraphic Evidence (EF) The preliminary oftheresultsfromtheexcavation publication oftheArxarousedsomeusefuldebate,199 anditis necessary to reviewherethealternatives to theviewproposedin 1991. First,however, twoimportant elementsshouldbe added to thedossier:thenatureof the nameAnsedoniaanda certainly fromthesite. sixth-century inscription THE NAMEANSEDONIA
theproblemofthechangeinthenameofthesitefromCosa toAnsedoniahasbeen Although raisedon a numberofoccasions,no satisfactory answerhasso farbeenproposed.Theuseof thenameAnsedoniato referto Cosa does notoccuruntiltheeleventh century.200 However, atthattimetherewasclearlyan activetradition to a Carolingian referring intervention atthe siteofAnsedonia(belowp. 94f.),whichmightsuggestthatthechangehad alreadyoccurred bytheninthcentury. One possibility is a derivation fromtheGreekverb'avoE&"toflower" orfromthenoun'avoq&uv, whichwouldgivethetoponym "Anthedonia," "theflowery one," knownfromtwocitiesin theeasternMediterranean.201 thenamecouldhave Alternatively, Ciampoltriniand Notini 1993.
European language and that thereforeAnsedonia cannot have been derivedfromAnthedonia(pers. comm., 200 S. Paolo 1,belowp. 135. to Nicholas Horsfall,who kindlyasked his opinion and who workedon aspects of the "Gothic" alternative).It 201 This hypothesis was publishedsomewhatprematurely could, however,be noted that the contextof the d in by Carlo Citter(1993), who adds thesuggestionthatthe Ansedoniamightcause problemsifthenormalGermanic sense is "place ofbees, or nespoli." The easternsitesare shiftfromthetato deltawereto operate,as "Andedonia" in Euboea and Judea,thelatterknownto have been still is euphonicallyunacceptable and would have sounded functioningin the Byzantineperiod (George of Cyprus as if the speakerhad a bad cold. It mightalso be noted 1011: Anthedon).An inscriptionfromRatiariain upper thatthereis a second occurrenceof the toponymat the Moesia givesthesame sense ofgood augury:Anastasiana old RomantownofPeltuinum,wherethereis no known Ratiaria semper floreat (AE 1985, 723). However. Byzantineoccupation.This does seem to argueagainsta Giuliano Bonfanteobservesthatthe shiftbetweentheta Greek derivation(PrincetonEncyclopediaof Classical and sigma is phonetically impossible in any Indo- Sites,s.v. "Peltuinum"). 199
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
81
Theterm is from term orsemigod. beenderived from anse/ansis,a Gothic meaning goddess It has sedsemideos id estAnsisvocaverunt."202 knownfromJordanes:"nonpuroshomines leaderslikeTheoderic.203 thatansiswasstillbeingappliedtocontemporary beensuggested Inthe Thiswouldgiveusa Gothictoponymn meaning something like"placeofthehero."204 control couldbe related totheByzantine caseofa Greekderivation, then, thenamechange wemight thatthesettlement overthesite,whileinthecaseofa Gothicderivation imagine in bothcasesthemoment ofthe itsnameduring a periodofVisigothic control: changed be surethatthe wecannot changeofnamewouldbe fixedin thesixthcentury. However, from namebasedontheelement nameisnotderived a personal ansis,suchasAnsilaorAnsa, Desiderius.205 Sucha namechange couldthushavetaken thewifeofthelastLombard king, thelatefifth aretwoor from placeatanymoment century onward, and,aswewillsee,there three other moments whena renaming ofthesitewouldhavebeenappropriate. possible THE INSCRIPTIONC67283
(PL. 19)206
Theinscription, found onthewestslopeoftheArxin1968,isinscribed ona medium-grained, gray-streaked white marble plaque10.5cmx 9.5cmx 2.1cmthick, broken onthetop,botThebackis smooth andencrusted. Guidelines tom,andleftsides.Theright sideis intact. Theletters arevisibleon thefront. areneatly carved2 cmhigh,withan interspace ofbetween 0.7and1.0cm.It reads: -IRDO JAPOLI -AE PALES
Thepaleography is characterized bydropped crossbarsontheAs,andbylambda-like Ls. Theletter forms areslightly elongated andcarry serifs, although theOs areveryround. thedroppedcrossbarson theAs areknownfromthelatefourth onAlthough century ofthelineuntilmuchlater.TheLs areparticularly ward,theydo notreachthebottom characteristic ofsixth-century in NorthAfrica, epigraphy wheretheinscription findsits closestparallels.207 firm areso closeas to suggest a datefortheinIndeed,theparallels after scription 500. Getica78. The suggestionhas been made by Giuliano Bonfante.I am verygratefulto Samuel Barnishforthis and the followingobservations.He adds that the men are the "apocryphalancestorsof the Amal house, who, in a Cassiodorian travestyof history,had led the Goths to defeat Cornelius Fuscus (!). Note firstthat Cassiodorus/Jordanesputs the termas somethingbelonging to a remote,heroic past, not to contemporaryGothic society;but also that it is being used in contemporary Ostrogothicideology."
202
stemrather thanfromthesuffix-thesingleexception to thisrulebeingthetoponym "Anthedonia" itself. 205
Again,I owethisobservation to SamuelBarnish.
Thisinscription was studiedbyE. Bace (no. IIIB13 ofhiscatalogue). He readitasthededication bytheordo ofCosatoApolloandtheRepublican divinity Pales.See Bace andHarveyforthcoming. 206
Thereseemto be twoperiodswhenthelambda-like Ls wereusedwitha veryorthogonal script.Thefirst of theseis towardtheendoftheVandalperiod,anda close 204 This interpretation has its own linguisticproblems: parallelfortheletterforms ofourinscription is found thereis no apparentreasonwhythe suffixdoniashould in thecommemorative inscription ofthemartyrs Felichave been added to the name; the d, whenit occurs in a ity, andothersfrom Perpetua, thebasilicaofSt.Monica, name like Posidonia or Guidonia, is derived fromthe datedbyEnnablito theperiodbetween523 and 530 203
Heather 1991, 60.
207
82
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate19.The C67283. inscription
Line 1: Of the firstletteronlythe tip of the leg is preserved:the angle is much sharper thanthose of theAs but at a similarangle to thatof the Ls. However,the onlyattestationof LD thatI know of is thatof theMoorishrebel Gildo, whichseemsimpossiblein the context. are possible: the word if, as seems probable, the firstletteris an R, threeinterpretations (ordo," whichseemsimprobablein the sixth-century context;a (ratherrare) Germanicpersonal name such as "Burdo," or two words,one endingin R and the second beginningwith DO. Now, on an inscription from Theveste is found "piisimor(um) dominor(um) nostror(um),"0whichwould fitverywell in thiscontext;no otheralternativesare immediatelyobvious. It mightformpartof a date. Line 2: APOLI can onlybe read as formingpartof a word endingin -apolis/imli.Now, althoughmanytoponymsare formedwiththe suffixopolis-in our period Theodoricopolis and VisigothicReccopoliS209-apolisoccursonlyin Neapolis and Hierapolis. If thename is in the nominativeor accusative,it is hard to understandwhythe break occurs afterthe i rather than afterthe 1. The alternative,thatit is in the dativeor ablative,mightsuggestthatit was partof the cursusof someone fromone or the otherof thesecities. Line 3: Here again the interpretation is ambiguousat best.AE PALES[. . . , broken,this has severalalternativereconstructions. First,it could derivefromthe name time,correctly, of one of the provincesof Palaestina: Prim]ae Pal(a)es[tinae (or secondae or tertiae).The mentionof the provincewould again be in the contextof the cursusof the officialsettingup the inscription.Second, it could referto the constructionof a Nov]ae Pal(a)esftrae:odd but not impossible.An inscriptionfromAphrodisiasrecordsworkon a palestra,probablyin the 10Roueche'suggeststhatthetermrefersto a place oftraining,a lecturehall mid-fifth century.2 (Ennabli 1975, no. 1). The second is ratherlate in the Byzantineperiod in Africa,e.g., Durliat 1981, no. 27; fromthe reignof Tiberius, or Ennabli 1982, 24f. The Inscriptiones Christianae Italiae: Septimo Saeculo Antiquorumshows nothingsimilar.
208
CIL VIII, 1863; 16507; ILS 831.
Again,I am endebted to Samuel Barnishforthisand some of the followingobservations
209
210
Rouech6 1989, no. 42.
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
83
ground:Barnishnotesthat or a school.The termmightapplyto a military weapon-training Palescouldbe usesgymnastic Finally, Cassiodorusoccasionally languageforsuchactivity.2"' or simply Femin]aePales[tricae], a personalname,e.g.,Cl(aris)s(im)ae Pales,whichappears inlateantiquity as a man'snameandperhapsalso as a woman's. and there withuncertainty, wouldbe fraught Discussion.It is clearthatanyreconstruction both the meticulous and one. too few letters to are paleography theeleattempt However, mentson all threelinessuggestthattheinscription is officialor refersto someonein an ofthecastrum One possibility is thatit refers to thefoundation itselfand official capacity. in theforum.Although itssixth-century dateconcurswith possiblythenascentsettlement oftheofficials involved.A it does notgiveus anyclueas to theidentity thatofthepottery, whowouldhavebeena former consularis wouldbe impliedifPal(a)es[tinae] Byzantine official is accepted,butwe cannotbe sureofthis.213 Heirapolisor Neapoliswouldreferto another nearPalestine.Thereis alsoa oneoftheplaceshe had served,bothHeirapolieis beingfairly slimmer thatNeapolismightreferto thesiteitself.The case makesthisdifficult, possibility as thewordto be eitherthesubjectofaedificata estor theobjectofaedificavit. However, BarnishnotesthatILS 1279gives"lococuinomenTheopoliest."The useoftheterminreferas in theofficiallanguageof ence to a smallcastrum wouldnotbe altogether surprising, and thiswas Ostragothic Italyworksoffortification couldbe describedin urbanterms,214 thecaseinByzantine esta fundamentis huicci / Africaas well.On onefortwe find"aedificata valuationofa newfortivi[tasniovaiustiniana Zabi,"215 an exampleofthesameoverblown Italy.216 Besides fiedsite.The Greektermwouldbe at homebothin Africaandin Byzantine theCampaniancity, the in twoothersiteswith samenamewerestillactive thesixthcentury, oneon CyprusandtheotherinSardinia.217 GeorgeofCyprusalsoincludesa Neapolisamong ofRome.218 thecentersinthedistrict The listhasno obviousorder(ofnameswhoseidentity withNeapolis is certain, theorderrunsLuna,Albintimilium, Genua,Portus,Centumcellae, and includescenterscertainly outsideofthedisfallingbetweenLuna and Albintimilium) butthefactthatNeapolisis also listedin thedistrict ofCampania20 trict,suchas Amalfi, 211Var.V.23, IX.23.3. Barnishadds thata contemporary Thus PLRE III's Stephanus7 and Athanasius8 had held
of Cassiodorus, Ennodius, uses palestra (sic) as a synonymfor a rhetoricalauditorium(85.6). Palestrae annexed to baths are knownfromSitifisin the fifthcentury(Fentress1989).
Palestrica/Palaestricais fairlycommonin Rome, occurring14 times,but rare elsewhere(no citationsfrom Africa). For Pales, a comes in Egypt,PLRE III; Palis,
courtor ministerial postsbeforetheirproconsulargovernorships;Hephaestus had held provincialposts before becomingPraefectusPraetorioOrientis;whilethecareers of curatoresd.d. are not fullypredictable." Cassiodorus Var. V.9. "In Tridentinaigiturregione civitatemconstruinostrapraecepitauctoritas."
212
214
CIL XV,7583.
215
CIL VIII, 8805; Durliat 1981, no. 27 comes froma smallfortification at HenchirSguidan,a sitethathas no pretentionsto urbanstatusbut thatis neverthelessgiven the name Anastasiana(A.D. 578-582).
Barnishcomments,"I wouldbe a littlesurprisedto find a formerconsularisofthatprovinceservingwithhighrank (perhaps exarch,curatordomus divinaeper Italiam,or prefectofItaly),butwouldnotruleitout.Wherewe know 216 In Africaa Latin inscriptionrefersto the construcanythingof them,governorsof Palestine seem to origi- tion of a p[yr]g[us] (Durliat 1981, no. 14). Christie nate in Syriaor Palestine (similarlyproconsularsof Ar- 1988, 258f. gives teichos-Teco and phulacteriameniain Armenia,ofAsia in Asia), exarchsin Armeniaor Fillateria. Italy,prefectsof Italyin Italy.Exarchs have pasts in eitherthe courtor military hierarchies,praetorianprefects 217 PrincetonEncyclopediaof ClassicalSites. in thebig ministries, proconsulargovernorsin provincial There are,however,exceptions. 218 530f. postsor cityprefectures.
213
84
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
linesdowndoes seemto suggestthattheyarenotthesameplace.Lambogliaidentified the NeapolisoftheUrbicarialistas Noli,whichis certainly possibleinsofaras itwas knownin butthisdoesnotexcludethepossibility thetwelfth as Naboli,219 thatAnsedoniawas century of thelettergroupas partof a topknownas Neapolisas well.However,theexplanation namedis perhapspreferable. onymin somewayconnectedto thecursusoftheofficial The closenessoftheletterstyleto African parallelsmightbe explainedbythenumerous African in theByzantine elements army.220 TheNature oftheSettlement CHRONOLOGICAL ISSUES
Whereasin 1991theinterpretation ofthearchaeological remains ofthesixth-century settlementwasbased exclusively on thesettlement on theArx,a newinterpretation willhaveto takeintoaccounttheforumsettlement as well.Here we are somewhathamperedby the lack of pottery fromtheArx:theonlystratified depositsthatwe haveare thosefromthe construction trenchofthefortification wallofthesecondphaseand thematerialfromthe burntgranary excavatedin 1951.Apartfroma fewscrapsofAfrican Red Slipwaredating fromthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury, theprincipalclassofpottery was a seriesofstorage jarsand cookingpotsin a fabriccharacterized inclusionsofvolcanicsand,as bynumerous well as some Pantelleriawares.221 The burntgranarycontainedeasternMediterranean amphorae,whichare clearlyrelatedto thosein the forumcistern.In the forumcistern itself,however, thedepositprovidesclearerevidence,foralongwiththeAfrican Red Slip, numerousamphoraeand otherimportedpottery werefound(belowp. 307). The ovenof theforumsettlement is datedto theearlysixthcentury bya fragment of a spatheionamphorafoundin itsmakeup. DISCUSSION
In thepreliminary publication ofthesettlement on theArxitwasarguedthatthefirst phase ofthesiterepresented a lateRomanmansio,followedbythefortification ofthesitein the middleofthesixthcentury, possiblyin responseto theLombardinvasions. The identificationofthemansiowasbasedon thepresenceofthegranary andstablesandon thefactthat theArxwas undefended at thatdateexceptbytheRomancitywalls.The mansiones ofthe lateEmpire,likethoseofearlierdays,regularly includedstabling, andfromthethirdcentury wereexpectedto storea minimum offifteen days'supplyofvinegar, grain,andbaconas well as hay:quae totiusanniin aceto,frumento et laridoatquehordeoetpaleiscondita.222 They seemto havebeen intendedfarmoreforgovernment officials and to havebeen in effect smallmilitary Thedestruction outposts. layerofthegranary, withitsburntgrain,meathooks, and amphorae, suggests justsucha combination offoodstuffs. The stableswouldhavehad spacefortento fifteen horses.The itineraries suggestthata mansioexistedat Cosa,butas it 2191970, 150; the identification is accepted by Christie
221
Hobart in Fentresset al. 1991, Fabric A.
222
SHA Vita Gord. III, 28.
as well (1988).
220
On thissee Fentresset al. 1991, 100.
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
85
The moveto thetop wascalledSuccosa,itmusthavebeenfoundatthebottomofthehill.223 ofthecounthe thePortusFeniliae,wouldreflect increasing insecurity ofthesite,overlooking ofcommunications butalso thecontinuing alongtheVia Aureliaduring importance tryside thelateantiqueperiod. of a numberofvillasin and Rendinihavearguedthattheabandonment Ciampoltrini They towarddefendedsites.224 coincideswitha movement themiddleofthefifth century in thearea: a hoarddatingto the associatethiswitha certainamountof Gothicactivity therenewalof someofthevillae timeof Theodoricfoundneartheportof theFenilia,225 maritimae,and the findnear Magliano of the clupeusof Flavius ArdapurAspar.226 on theArxas a Ciampoltrini suggestedthatwe shouldsee thefirstphaseofthesettlement On thishypothesis, thegrafortified farmoftheGothicperiod,ratherthanas a mansio.227 collectionpointsfromtherentsof thefarmsor estates naryand stableswouldrepresent inthearea,whichwouldbe due to theownerofthefortified farm.The owner stillsurviving ifwe imaginethattheimperialestateat Torre could,in fact,havebeen thekinghimself, positionand passed Tagliataat thePortusCosanushad simplymovedto a better-defended dwellingdoes seemto argue intoTheodoric'shands.However,thelackof anysubstantial we thatthesitewas,at best,an estatecenter, withouta residencefortheowner.Although do notknowexactlyhow theCapitoliumwas used,anyluxuriousdwellingwouldsurely moreoccupationdebris,thanwe have.Whatwe have leftmoretraces,and particularly certainly impliesa higherlevelofmaterialculturethan elsewhere knowofthesedwellings The settlement on theforumwouldpresumably have whatwe findreflected on thesite.228 labor on theestatewas housed,witha church been thevillagein whichthe agricultural builtbytheowneroftheestate. Betweenthemansio and thefarm,then,thereseemsto be littlematerialevidenceon whichtobase a choice.We do nothaveanyparallelsinItalyeitherfora sixth-century mansio or fora fortified farmofthisdate.229 The massiverampthatcarriestheroadfromthePorta Romanaup through theold curiatowardtheArxis perhapsbestexplainedifit wereused forbringing in loadedcartsor mules-butagain,thiswouldfitrentsas wellas taxes.It may in factbe possibleto combinethetwoviews.We mightsee in theestateat TorreTagliataa as mansio,probablydoublingas a taxcollection point.Thiswouldhave function subsidiary beentheSuccosaoftheitineraries it is theonlyinhabited point century (infact,in thefifth 223
Tab.Peut.IV,4.
224
1988.
225Gamurrini 1868. 226
CIL XI, 2637.
Ciampoltriniand Notini 1993. His argumentagainst the mansio is simplythatit would have "unnecessarily weighed down the road system." This is somewhat obscure-it would simplyhave replaced an existing mansic on the Via Aurelia.
227
It could be suggestedthat,as elsewhereon the site, true midden deposits are missingbecause of the proximityof the citywalls,whichprovided convenientsites of disposal of rubbish,but this remainsto be testedby 228
excavation.Whatwe knowof newlyfoundedGothic military sitesis verydifferent fromtheCosanevidence: at MonteBarro,forinstance, thequartersoftheofficialsincludea largecourtyard withlongrooms structure marked bycentral linesofposts:forthisandothersites theexcellentsynthesis in LusuardiSiena 1989.A privateestatewouldbe verydifferent, butthepoemson thatofTheodahadcertainly suggest a fargreater levelof luxurywithphrasessuchas "necmunisselocumsatisest," "artemnaturaepermiscuit,utile pulcro" (no. iii) in the
poemshonoring Theodahad'sislandfortress.
229As notedin 1991,theclosest paralleltothebuildings
on theArxis foundat Ordona(Mertens1971,18-21). Here a basilicawas builton theacropolisin thefifth Theheightwasfortified century. (as, subsequently, was thebasilica),and a seriesoflong,straight wallsrecalls thoseofthestablesandgranaries at Cosa.
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
86
wouldhavemovedup thehillattheendof intheimmediate region).Bothofthesefunctions the century.The combinationof estateand way stationis hardlywithoutprecedent: to theprovision offoodstuffs references containnumerous bylandlords Cassiodorus's letters and the tax revenuesof the provinceof Tuscia are also and horses for the public post,230
forpublicas forpriThe porton theFeniliawouldhavebeenas convenient mentioned.231 muchofthisaround.232 The depositsintheforumcisandtherewas certainly vateshipping, werefairly wide: ternand on theArxshowthatthetradingcontactsofthelittlesettlement found from Sardinia and of are importations alongwithcookingwares local production Pantelleria, whileamphoraecomefromSyriaor Cyprus,Gaza and Africa.ThesewereacfromAfricaandNarbonnensis. companiedbyfinewares attestedon theArxaresepaAs we haveseen,thetwophasesof sixth-century activity We cannotusethisto provea violentendto thesite,but ratedbytheburning ofthegranary. layersseemsto wallthatcutsthedestruction it is certainly suggestive. The newdefensive forthesite.Gone is anyparticular traceofstorage,and in its suggesta changein function It is difficult notto associatethischangewiththearrivalof placewe finda newfortification. ofthemansioorestatecenteras a castrum. Byzantine troopsintheareaandtheiradaptation in 1991,thismayhavebeena responsetotheLombardpenetration ofthelatter As suggested coastnearCentumcellae,233 The GothicWarsdid touchtheTyrrhenian partofthecentury. butthereis no evidenceforthepassageofanyarmiesalongthecoastfarther northor fora systematic buildingprogram duringtheGothicWars.234 ofthecoastand theVia Aureliain theareaofCosa seemsto thefortification Certainly seems latesixth-century fortifications havebeenfairly comprehensive, fora lineofapparently down and to Cosa.233 Both Roselle Talamonaccio to stretch fromPoggioCavallothrough and Cosa controlnarrowpassagesbetweenthecoastandtheinlandhills,deTalamonaccio fensive army. The fortification oftheVia Aurelia positionstypically chosenbytheByzantine can be comparedto thoseoftheVia Flaminiaand theVia Amerina.236 Ratherthana linear barrieragainstattacks,on themodelof theold Romanlimites, thefortifications of these roadsformed a defenseindepthalongpossiblelinesofpenetration. In thecaseoftheAurelia bythefact theportswereprotected as well.The successofthesystem is suggested defenses, thatitwasinlandtownssuchas Sovanathatfellto theLombardsfirst.237 thesiteremained Byzanhardlyequalto theimportant However, verysmall,itsremains tineadministrative centersuggested Thissuggestion byCitter.238 wasbasedinparton a Greek misfromOrbetello,which,as thefollowing willshow,has been systematically inscription datedandmisinterpreted. The absenceofevidencefromCosa fortheperiodinwhichitwas and theinternal evidenceoftheinscription ruleoutany itself, cannowdefinitively written, connection withthesiteofCosa. 230
E.g., Var.XI.39, 24; XII, 12.
231
XI.38.
Ciampoltriniand Notini 1993; Cassiodorus Var.IV, 5 on naviculariTusciae.
232
the use of opus africanum,Fentresset al. 1991. For the fortification at Poggio Cavallo, Citter1993. For further discussionof thesesites,Augenti2000 and the comprehensivepublicationoftheByzantinecastrumat S. Antonio in Liguria: Mannoni and Murialdo,eds. 2001. 236
233
Procopius BG VI, 7, 18-23.
234
Christieand Rushworth1988, 81.
235
For this hypothesisand subsidiaryevidence such as
Pertusi 1968, 687; Bullough,1965; Bavant 1979.
On the defenseof the duchyof Rome Bavant 1979, and in particular59.
237
238
1993.
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
87
NotesontheByzantine Inscription fromOrbetello (VvF) "In Orbetello ... nel disfarsiun muro d'una chiesa,vi e statatrovatauna iscrizioneGreca, ma de' bassi tempi, per quanto si deduce dalla mala ortografia e dalle voci latine mescolatevi."Thus begins the publicationof a Byzantinefuneraryinscriptionpublishedby Giovanni Lami froma copy of the text.239 The stone,whose exact findspotand measurements remain unknown,was lost a long time ago. The text,writtenaccording to Lami, "tuttoin lettereunciali ben grandi" with a "sigma lunata," was reprintedfromhis tran-
in CIG IV,9853,inIG XIV,2263,in theInscriptiones GraecaeChristianae scription veteres
and Salvatore Occidentis,240 analyzedby Cardarelli241and, more recently,by Carlo Citter242 Cosentino.243 It was not, however,included in Guillou's collection of medieval Byzantine inscriptionsin Italy.244 'EvOSci KCtTctKLVTEX/EpyLO3 KOVULXLacpL/30<3> Katl Mapovs, q 1uv(va/4; vTOIu a,[La Av/5aaTaCr(W u[KpLIVlap/6(p TOV aOT6v oiio/7v, uVV AyciOs, Ts u/8vvjyov av4[TOV] KcaL
M/9dvctXos aKplVrp/10LOs,
KaL M6/13UXos3 pXL8LaK6v/14 Tl
TOVTOL oT06, KTaT 3/yLO
a/(1iV
MoVuX0oil,
CtT/120V uuT3ov,
15'KE XE/lca3rU.
Here lie Sergiusconsiliarius and Marushiswife,togetherwithAnastasiusscriniarius, their son,withAgatha,hiswife,and Mamalus,scriniarius,theirson,withMuscusahiswife,
andMoscusarchdeacon oftheholychurch.
The inscriptionthusrecordsthreegenerationsof the same family, but in the absence of the stone itselfor of a drawingor photographthereis no way of knowingifthe names of all the people recordedwere writtenin the same hand or if those of the second and thirdgenerationswere added later.In anycase, ifwe considerthe onomasticaspectsof the family, whose names are relativelyuncommonin late Roman and medievalItaly,and the large numbersof spellingmistakesdue eitherto the monophthongization of "al" into "E" or to theloss of the quantitativeopposition,it seemsto me highlyimprobablethattheOrbetelloinscriptioncould be a seventeenth-century fake.245 The names of thevariousfamilymembersare, in fact,eastern Mediterraneanin origin,in large part Syrianor Palestinian.The second volume of the
Prosopography oftheLaterRomanEmpire, whichdealswiththeperiodfromA.D. 395 to527,
lists nine personswiththe name of Sergius,of which eightare certainlySyrian,while one, around460, was a lawyer(vo[LLK6;) in Thrace.246 In thethirdvolumeare listedas manyas 55 people withthisname,mostofwhomare of Orientalorigin.247Sergiuscancellarius, a Byzantine mentionedin a letterof Pope Pelagius I of the yearsbetween559 and 561, was functionary Lami 1759, 740f. It is clear froma note published earlier that the church in question was the cathedral (Lami 1758, 90).
239
240
Wessel1989,no. 166.
241
Cardarelli1925,75.
242
Citter1993.
243
Cosentino 1996, 507-516.
244Guillou1996.
Accordingto Carchidio 1824, 6, n. 1, who had examined at Orbetello the "avanzi di quell'Epitaffio"without,however,givinga descriptionor a transcription, "la cattivaortografia non era del Marmo,ma lo fudel copista ignaro forsedel Greco." This does not seem veryconvincing,as all ofthespellingmistakescorrespondto precise phoneticdevelopmentsin ByzantineGreek and can certainlynot be attributedto a "copista ignaro . . . del Greco."
245
246
PLRE II, 994f.
247
PLRE III, 1123-1137.
88
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
ofMaria,is a nameknownin Egypt,249 activein Italy.248 Marous,a diminutive whilethenameof In any Anastasiuswas also used in thelate Romanperiodby Christianfamiliesin theWest.250 case thenamesSergiusand Anastasiusare verycommonin Rome in theeighthand ninthcenturies.251 Because of theearlyvenerationat Rome and in centraland southernItalyof theSicilian martyr St. Agatha,252 hernamewas oftengivento Christianwomenin thatarea.253 Mamalus is a rarename,254 whilethoseofMoscus and Muscusa (whowereprobablyrelated)255 areknown fromSyriaand Egypt.256 The functionsof consiliariusand scriniariusare knownboth in the and in theRomanchurchin late antiquityand theMiddle Ages.258 imperialadministration257 The inscriptionis generallydated to the sixthcenturyA.D.259 Citter,who assumes that the stone came fromCosa, concludes that "the people on the inscriptionfromOrbetello can thus be placed withinthe Byzantinestrategyin defenseof Rome, and could have been He proposes to sent to Cosa as special administratorsof an importantcastrum.."260 identifythe consiliariusSergius with a cancellariusof the same name cited in a letterof Pelagius I, who would have been promotedto the functionof consiliariusin the570s. Later, his son, withthe titleof scriniarius,"compatiblewitha militaryrole," would have administeredthe area. "But the difficultgeneralsituationwould have suggestedto thelatterthatit would be wise to send his son to the East, underthe care of a close cousin,M6aXos, future archdeacon of the church of Constantinople."'261 For this reason Citter concludes that Ibid.,1128,n. 5.
withadditionaljudiciaryfunctions:Hartmann1889,32f., 38, 141; Tjader 1982,38-41; Brown1984,264, 266, 268, 249 274. The scriniariuswas a financialofficial:Hartmann Ibid.,835. 1889,141,173;Preisigke-Kiessling 1931,157;Tjader1955, 250 Ibid.,II, 77-83;IIIA, 61-70;PietriandPietri1999, 244. There are also lead seals of CrKpLVLapLoLof the sixth and seventhcenturies,of which some are writtenwith 112-121;Kajanto1963,111,117-120. Latinletters,publishedbyZacos and Veglery1972,I, nos. 251 Caspar1933,792; Llewellyn 339, 646, 880, 934B, 999, 1050, 1360,2790, 2836, 2930. 1981,366f.,370. 248
252Duchesne 1955,I2, 262,312f.;Sansterre 1982,36f. CIG IV,9476(Catania,thirdcentury), 9480(Catania), ofS. Agnese,via Nomentana); 9568 (Roma,catacombs ICUR I, 737, III, 7470, IV, 10671,11192,V, 14972, 15106,VII, 17689,20346,VIII,22811,IX,24921,24922, X, 26997. 253
ICUR I, 417. Mamaluswas thenameof a bishopof inThrace,present atthecouncilofConstanMesembria tinopleof692,theso-calledQuinisextum (Mansi1766, col.992;Ohme1990,152,265) andoftheprimiceriusof theEmpress sentin781from Irene,headofa delegation to the courtof Charlemagne: TheoConstantinople phanes,Chronographia,ed. De Boor 1883,I, 455. In RomeunderPopeGregory III (731-741) a Mamalushad rentedfromtheRomanchurchthefundumFunianum on theVia Prenestina, to themassa Aliana, belonging patrimonioTiburtino:Fabreand Duchesne1910,353, n. 69; Cosentino1996,513. 254
255
PLRE IIIB, 808.
256
PLRE II, 766; IIIB, 895f.
The role of consiliariusis attestedin the period of Pope Vigilius (537-555). Later thereare referencesto, forexample,Boniface,consiliariusapostolocaesedis underPope BenedictII (684-685) and SergiusI (687-701), and to Christopher,consiliariusunder Sephan II (752757); Duchesne 1955, 373, 378, 455. The Liber Pontificalismentionsa Sergiusscriniariuswho, in A.D. 710, accompaniedPope Constantineto Constantinople (ibid.,389), Leontiusscriniarius, who was also a notarius regionarius, in 769 (ibid.,472, 477, 482), and an Agathon scriniariusunderHadrian 1 (772-795) (ibid., 505).
258
259ThusLami 1759,765; CIG IV, 9853; Brown1984,275; PLRE IIIB, 1130f.;Citter1993, 627f.,and mostrecently Pietriand Pietri1999,II, 1524. Cardarelli,who suggested the creation in the seventh century of a Byzantine "provinciamarittima" administratively separatefromthe duchyof Rome and perhaps then territorially isolated, preferredthe seventhcentury(Cardarelli 1925, 85). It should be noted thatno evidence has ever emergedto confirmthissuggestion. 260
Citter,loc. cit.,translationFentress.
261
Here Citteris followingan hypothesisalreadypro-
257Theconsiliariuswasthelegalconsultant oftheexarch posed by Lami 1759, 765, and by Cardarelli1925, 77.
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
89
Moscus,together withMamalusand Muscusa,wouldhavebeen thededicant,who never actuallycameto Italy. Thisreconstruction ofthestoryofthefamily of Sergius,withitsheavydose offantasy, has beenjustlyrefuted whocorrectly datedthestoneandplacedit in itshisbyCosentino, ofthechurch toricalcontext.262 In fact,he identifies Moaxog apXL8LaKWV withthearchdeacon ofRomeunderPope Gregory III, mentioned in a synodaldecreepublishedin 732 concernin theoratory ingtheliturgy of St. Maryin thebasilicaof St. Peter's:adstantibus quoque This diaconibus,Moscho archidiacono,Zacharia,Johanne,Theophylacto, atque Gemmulo.263
II as Moscus,whosignedtheactsofa synodheldinRomeinApril721 underPope Gregory
Muscus humilis diaconus sanctae sedis apostolicae,264was replaced by the archdeacon
thathe diedbetween732 and 743. Thisis theonly Theophilactes by743,265whichsuggests instanceofthenameMoscusintheearlymedievalRomanclergy, and,as Cosentinoshows,it is hardlycoincidental thatwe finda contemporary Mamalusin Rome,a nameotherwise absentfromtheRomandocumentation.266 However,a Latinfunerary inscription, "quae vix legiprae antiquitatepotest,"published forthefirst timein 1688byFrancescoMartinelli andin 1722byGiacomoLaderchiandnow lost, shows thatMoscus humilisdiaconussanctaesedis apostolicaewas buried in Rome in the
basilicaofS. Cecilia.267 ForthisreasonCardarelli had alreadydeniedtheidentification with M6axogin 1925.268If theywereindeedthesameperson,theproblemcan be resolvedby thatMoscuswas thededicant.In thatcase,onewouldhaveto acceptingCitter's hypothesis addtotheinscription finalverb,suchas "KaiL MO6cxo3 copiedbyLamia dedicatory aPXL8LaKOV Ti aytLoTaTfl; EKXLCTT1ag The identification ofMoscuswiththeRo[avEOflKEv]"or similar. in the720s or 730s manarchdeaconunderGregoryIII and thedatingof theinscription seemsto be certain.Indeed,eventhebasilicaofS. Ceciliain Trastevere was closelytiedto theGreek-speaking circlesin Rome:forexample,thefuture pope StephenIII (768-772),a at St.Ceciliabeforehiselectionto thethroneofSt.Peter.269 SicilianGreek,waspresbyter halfoftheeighthcenturies theSyroandthefirst Duringthesecondhalfoftheseventh in Rome.The Arabconquestofthesoutheastern Palestinian element was particularly strong oftheByzantine oftheelitetomoveto Sicilyand provinces Empirehadforcedmanymembers III himself, was to Italy.Presumably, thefamily ofthearchdeacon Moscus,likePope Gregory lives:hencetheGreekfunerary ofGreek-Syriac originand,as such,usedGreekintheirprivate dedicatedto hisfamily. Latinwouldhavebeenusedon publicoccasions.A lively inscription in theRomanchurchat thebeginning oftheeighthcenofthelinguistic situation description ofEddiusStephanus, whotellsthatin704 Wilfrid, turyis foundintheVitaWilfridi bishopof Whiletheoffioutofhisdiocese,turnedto a Romansynodto defendhisrights. York,thrown embarrassed ciallanguageofthetrialwasLatin,everyso oftentheEnglishclericswerehighly
etsubridentes, nosautemcelantes, multaloquiceperunt."270 whentheRomans"interse graecizantes
The principal oftheinscription liesinthefactthatitshowsus threegenerations interest
262Cosentino1996,511-516. 263
Silvagni1943,pl. XIII; Mansi1766,col.300.
264Mansi 1766col.262,265; Conte1984,192-194. 265
Caspar1933,II, 792.
266
Cosentino1996,513.
267
Laderchi1722,192.
268Cardarelli 1925,76. 269
Sansterre 1982,11,128(36).
Eddius Stephanus,Vita Wilfridi,ed. W. Levison, MGH,Script. rer.Merow., VI,247;Sansterre 1982,1,20; II, 79,n. 118.
270
90
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
of a familyof Eastern immigrantsresidentin Rome. There is no way of knowingwhether the consiliariusSergius,whom CosentinoidentifieswiththeSergiusscriniariuswho accompanied Pope Constantineto Constantinoplein 710,271 and the scriniariiAnastasius and Mamalus were in the service of the exarch or of the duke of Rome, or whethertheybelonged to the lay officersof the Roman church,althoughI would supportthe second hypothesis.In anycase the inscriptionrevealsa familythatservedin highlyimportantsecular and ecclesiastical roles. This is a good example of the compositionof the Roman ruling class in the period of the Eastern popes. One problem remains:how did an inscriptioncarved in the 730s in Rome end up in Orbetello, in a regionwhich at thattimehad been under Lombard dominationfornearly 150 years? The most northerlyByzantineoutpost at that time was Civitavecchia,whose The scarce walls had been repaired by GregoryIII as a defenseagainst the Lombards.272 evidence allows us to suggestsome hypotheses.In the twelfthcentury,and, veryprobably, including a castrumquod still earlier, Monte Argentarioand its surroundingterritory, Orbitellumvocatur,belonged to the Roman monasteryof S. Anastasio ad Aquas Salvias, Accordingto a legend handed down in the monastery now the abbey of the Tre Fontane.273 during the Middle Ages the lands would have been given to S. Anastasio in 805 by Charlemagneand Pope Leo III. Now, in the formthatit has come down to us the privilege monkswere is an obvious forgery, but mostauthorshave concluded thatthetwelfth-century aware of an earliertradition.274 In the eighthand ninthcenturiesS. Anastasio,foundedbetween634 and 649 near the basilica of S. Paolo fuori le muraby monks fromCilicia, was one of the richestand most The most importantmonasteriesofRome,theobject of opulentdonationsfromthepopes.275 precious relicpreservedtherewas the head of the martyrSaint AnastasiusPersianus,saved by the Palestinianmonks and broughtto Rome afterJerusalemfell into the hands of the Arabs.276 During a visitto Rome even the Lombard king,Liutprand(712-744), wentto the monasteryto venerateand kiss the head of Saint Anastasius,to whom he later dedicated a churchclose to his capital at Pavia.277It is not impossiblethatLiutprandhimselfgave the of Cosa, includingMonte Argentarioand Orbetello,to themonastery. Althoughhis territory of the ByzantineEmpire,was oftentense,he relationshipwiththe popes, as representatives forexample,to thebeatissimisapostolisPetroet Paolo both was a devoutCatholic,returning, In thiscase we can imaginethatthe family the patrimonium AlpiumCottiarumand Sutri.278 Orbetello of the as leaseholdersor administrators of the archdeaconMoscus had moved to in Rome.Accordingto thishypothesis, themonks propertiesoftheprincipalGreekmonastery of S. Anastasioad Aquas Salvias would have foundthemselvesin a potentiallyembarrassing 271 Cosentino 1996, 512f. Under GregoryII the heredes Sergiiscriniariirentedchurchpropertyin vico Bassiano (ICUR II, 209f.). However,thenameis sufficiently common to make the identificationpossible but hardlyinevitable.
275Ferrari1957, 33-48; Broccoli 1980, 22-25; Sansterre
1982, I, 32-35, 91.
276
Flusin 1992, II, 370.
The dedicationof S. Anastasio at Corteolona,where Liutprand'svisitto Rome is mentioned,was published in ICUR II, 1, 169, n. 23. See also Ferrari1957, 34 and Bertolini1972, 39-42.
277
272Bavant1979, 80. 273
Giorgi 1879, 59f. and below p. 95.
274Kehr1906, 173; MGH, Diplomata Karol.,I, 405-408, n. 274; Cardarelli1925 and below p. 96 note 287.
278Bertolini 1972, 33f. For the propertiesof the Roman church in the Tuscia Langobardorumat the time of Liutprandsee Kurze 1990, 23-45.
THE SIXTH-CENTURYSETTLEMENT
91
Thusforreasonsofpoliticalopportunism positionafterthefalloftheLombardkingdom. in theninthcentury theywouldhavesuppressed itinsteadto Liutprand's donation, attributing andPope Leo III. Charlemagne However, theremightbe othersolutions. Forinstance, it is possiblethattheconsiliarius Sergiusandhisdescendants, a family thatoriginated inSyriaorPalestineandresidedinRome, wereburiedatS. Anastasio, wherethearchdeacon Moscusprepared a funerary for inscription them.Onlylater,forexamplewhenthemonastery wasburneddownandrestored duringthe ofHadrianI (772-795),279 orwhen,during pontificate theeleventh themonastery century, was abandoned,theinscription-perhaps alongwithotherbuildingmaterial or as ballast-was movedto Orbetelloandreusedintheconstruction ofthechurch.
279Duchesne1910, I, 512f.; Ferrari1957, 34f.,43.
4 * The EarlyMedievalSettlement ElizabethFentress
withKatherine Gruspier
O
Summary (EF)
oftheMiddleAgesis veryscantyindeed,although urevidencefortheearlycenturies inthesurrounding we havea slightly cleareridea ofcontemporary settlement territory. In thiscontexttheCarolingian legendaboutthesiteremainsveryobscure:it is discussed hereforthesakeof completeness, butthereis littleto tieit to ourexcavations. We are on firmer groundfromthetenthcentury onward,whenthefirstcertaintracesofa newsettlementemerge.Twochurches withassociatedcemeteries areknownfromthesite.The excavationofmorethaneighty tombsin one ofthesehas producedan interesting glimpseofthe someofthesebelongto thetype population.Remainsofhousesarefew,however, although ofthesunken-floored on medievalsitesin Italy.The construction building,stilluncommon ofan earthwork aroundthesettlement occurredtowardtheendoftheeleventh and century, thatsettlement itis fromthismoment concentrated within appearstohavebeenincreasingly a defensive structure. Thisgivesus anideaoftheearlystagesoftheprocessofincastellamento, inwhicha dispersed ofan earlyperiodwasslowly settlement transferred to a defended height. ofa castleon thesitewillbe discussedinthenextchapter. The construction intheAlbegnaValley Settlement EarlyMedieval (fig.30) In theabsenceofanycertainevidenceforearlymedievalsettlement at Cosa aftertheabanofthecastrum attheendofthesixthcentury, itis interesting donment tolookattheseventh/ in theAlbegnaValley.280 settlement eighth-century Bythemiddleofthesixthcentury almost all ofthevillasintheareacoveredbythesurvey hadbeenabandoned.Occupationcontinued on onlythreeof these,and we haveno idea whatformit took.One possibility is thatthe settlements resembled theearlymedievaloccupationat thevillaofSettefinestre,28' wherea groupofshepherds occupiedthecryptoporticus, threwtheirrubbishinthewell,andburied theirdead on thesite.Butthevillasmayequallyhavebecomethefocusfortheformation of moreorganizedvillages.The spreadof seventh-century materialat siteSD43, in thelower butwhether itrepresents anindependent valley(seemapfig.44),wasextensive, villageoran For more ample treatmentof thissettlementand the relevant documents, Fentress and Wickham 2002; Luttrell2002. For a good summaryof early Christian evidence fromOrbetello and its regionBisconti 1985; see also Ciampoltrini1988. For a generaldiscussionof the formationof earlymedievallandscapes in Tuscany 280
92
Cambiet al. 1994.The hoardof Lombardcoinsfrom themintof Luna foundbelowthesite,nearS. Biagio (Tondo1977),doesnotdemonstrate settlement on the hilltop. 281
Settefinestre II, 109.
,/00 *Settlement *
/
on site of Romanvilla
Village
* Farm
/~~~~~
A~~~~~~~~~~~~~A .10e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5
8
I5 kTa
8I , Xr
i
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SD43
FP18ft__*
=
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4
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Fig. 30. Settlement in theAlbegnaValley,600-1000 (EF).
I
94
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
The positionsof thesesitesare not particularly defenestatecenteris impossibleto guess.282 sive; onlySD43 is on a hill,and thatnot a particularlysteep one. These agglomeratedcentersmaybe seen as a continuationof the last of the late Roman settlement.However, the other component of the earlymedieval settlementin the area is completelynew. Small sites, coveringnot much more than 25 m2, are found with some frequencyon the spurs runningdown toward the northbank of the Albegna. They are all verysmall scattersof potterywitha littletile and, usually,no building stone at all. These characteristicsmake them ratherdifficultto find. However, all those identified were found within sample transects.Since only one-fifthof the territorywas sampled, those shown on figure30 should representonly a fifthof those that mighthave been found in the rest of the valley.We can thereforepostulate a dispersed settlementwithin the area of the whole of the rightbank of the Albegna River.We may imagine that they representsmall wooden structures,housing no more than a single family.They show no clear relationshipto any earlier settlementsand are not found in particularlydefended positions. Indeed, theyseem to representa capillaryexploitationof the best of the available farmingland. This patternof open settlementis not described in our documentsfor the coast, though it has parallels in texts for the upper valley and on the coast farther south, toward Tuscania.283 This new settlementin the Albegna Valley representsa clean break withlate Roman smallfarmshad entirelydisappearedfromthearea bythethirdcenturyA.D., while settlement; the distancebetweenthesesitesand thoseof thelatestvillasindicatesthattherewas no connectionbetweenthem.We can thusconclude thattheywere occupied by newcomersto the area, fillingthevacuumleftby the disappearanceof themajorityof thelate Romansites.We mayimaginethatthehinterlandof Cosa, and perhapsmuchofthevalley,was settledbypeople into Italyafterthe Lombard conquestshad been consolidated,but we have no evifiltering thattheyestablishedshowno particularhierarchy, dence forthisfromtexts.The settlements have no evidentdefenses,and seem aimed at self-sufficient farming.
anda Carolingian Archaeology Legend FORUMV US 73 AND RELATED DISPOSALS (KG)
The presence of a numberof skeletonsdisposed in cisternsover the site seems to forma All of the individualsare adult males, of robustbuild. patternthatis worthinvestigating. Three are rathertall and one, C70-306, somewhatshorter. One of these was found in the cisternof the House of Diana, lyingover the RomanThe man was 35 to 45 yearsof age. The period silts,and is representedby a singlefemur.284 femurexhibitsa puncturewound of the righthip,whichcame fromthe frontand slightlyto the leftof the individual.There is also sharpforcetraumain the formof a cut throughthe superioranterioriliac crestof the righthip thatcame fromthe rightside of the individual. Neitherofthesewoundswould have caused immediatedeath,althoughthedamageto muscle 282 For documentary evidenceforestatecentersin the University of Siena have revealeda complexof oval lowervalley, FentressandWickham 2002,60-63. huts:Valenti1995.
Ibid.,CDA 39,55, 68; cf.Polucci1980,123-125.In centralTuscany,nearPoggibonsi,excavationsof the
283
Thewholeofthedepositwasnotexcavated: presuminthesilts. ablytherestofthebodylieselsewhere
284
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
95
fromthecut,and to thegutsfromthepuncturewoundthrough them,wouldlikelyhave causeddeathfrominfection. Thereis no evidenceofhealing,so something eventually else aroundthetimetheblowswerereceived.It is notunreasonable killedtheindividual to assumethatit was someothertypeof trauma.Radiocarbonputsthedateofthisskeletonat 940+/-55B.P., or aroundA.D. 1000.285 The othertwoindividuals arepresentin varying statesofcompleteness (C 69-1,C69-2). SkeletonsC69-1and 2 comefromtheforumcistern, wheretheylayon top of a depositof material butwerenototherwise stratified. sixth-century C69-1exhibitsevidenceofdecapiTheblowcamefromtherightand tationin a cleancutthrough thesecondcervicalvertebra. and thereareno tentative behindtheindividual, cutsassociatedwiththeremaining slightly and theskullwas notrecovered. bone. The firstcervicalvertebra showsno signof injury, The presenceofthefirstcervicalvertebra doessuggestthattheskullwasdepositedwiththe in separations restofthebody,inthecistern. Judicialexecution mostoftenresulted through thelowercervicalvertebrae.286 Thiscaseis moretypicalofhomicidaldecapitation thanjudicial.No otherperimortem traumawasseenon theremains. Theotherindividuals fromcisterns retrieved showedno signsoftraumaorpossiblecause ofdeath,butnoneofthecisterns was completely excavated,and noneoftheskeletons was complete. DISCUSSION(EF)
These skeletonssuggesta veryviolentepisodeat Cosa, fornotonlyweretheyapparently killedin battle,but theywereleftunburiedand disposedof withtheevidentintentof foulingthe waterof the cisterns.We have no verysolid evidenceforthe date of this episode,exceptfortheradiocarbondate of ca. A.D. 1000 forthefemurin thecisternat theHouse ofDiana, twocenturieslaterthanthelegend'ssetting.Identifiable ninth-centurypotteryis veryrare,limitedto a fewunstratified sherdsof ForumWarefromthe Arx. Could this obscure settlementand its obscure end be relatedto the legend of Charlemagne's conquestofCosa? Thisevent,whichpurportedly tookplace twocenturies discussedat length,and I shalldo no morethansummarize earlier,has been recently it here.287 The tradition is thesubjectoffrescosfoundon thegateand on thewestfacadeof themonastery churchof S. Anastasioad AquasSalvias(colorpls. 11 and 12).288 Thesedepict Charlemagne, who,unableto expungea band of enemiesfromAnsedonia,dreams thathe is miraculously aidedbytherelicoftheheadofSaintAnastasius. The monksofthe in Romeobligingly monastery bringCharlemagne thehead,anditsarrivalcausesan earthquakethatallowshimto takethetownand throwhisenemiesoverthewalls.In gratitude, thetownand itsterritory aregivento themonastery byCharlemagne, together withPope Leo III, in A.D. 805. Now,thefrescosprobablydateto theendofthetwelfth century, andthebronzeplaque, nowlost,whichsupposedly recordedthedonation, is an outrageous forgery ofperhapssixty Brock UniversityEarth Sciences Radio Carbon lab no. BGS 211. Dec. 16, 1998. Femur.Calculated Age B.P.: 1044 +/-55 yrs.B.P. CalibratedAge B.P. (1950): 940 +/55 yrs.B.P. 285
Luttrell2002; Fentressand Wickham2002 (quoted to some extentin the following);Cardarelli1924-1925; De Maffei1970 and von Falkenhausenin thisvolume. 287
De Maffei1971; forthe originalpublicationof these imagesWaetzoldt 1964.
288 286
Manchester1983; Harmanet al. 1981; McKinley1993.
96
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
yearsearlier.289 However,thereis by now a consensuson the historicbackgroundsuggested by De Maffei.The donationmade by Charlemagneto Hadrian I in 774 and reconfirmed by Ludwig to Leo III in 815 includedpartibusTuscieLongobardorum: much of the coast as far northas Populonia. However,theseterritories were not easilycontrolled:from790 the pope requestedhelp againsttheLombards as well as againstunrulypriests.290 By 808 Leo seemsto havehad controlofthearea and promisedto armagainstthepaganslittoraria nostraetvestra.291 As both Hadrian I and Leo III showeddirectinterestin theGreek abbeyof SaintAnastasius, it aftera fireand the latteroffering the formerreconstructing it a numberof gifts,the grant of the old Ager Cosanus by one or the otherto the monasteryseems plausible, althoughas suggestedabove (p. 90) we cannotexclude an earlier,Lombard donation.In eithercase Cosa would have been an importantelementin the frontierzone betweenthe Patrimonyof St. Peter and the old Lombard kingdom.The combinationof Charlemagneand Leo III in the frescoedversionof the mythwould thus signifytheiragreementon this delicateboundary. The historicalfactof his siege,or of a settlementon the site,remainselusive. Two points are interestinghere. First,Cardarellispentmuch timeestablishingthatthe lands grantedto the monasterywere preciselythose of the Ager Cosanus, and evidence fromarchaeological surveyseems to point the same way.292 However, it has always been difficult to imaginehow Liutprand,Pope Leo III, Charlemagne,or anyoneelse in the eighth or earlyninthcenturiesknew anythingabout the administrative divisionsof a Roman territorywhose centerwas abandoned by the end of the thirdcentury.This problem of transmissionmay be overcomein part by suggestingthat recordsof the Byzantinecivitaswere preservedin Rome. If, as I have suggested,Ansedonia was conceived of as the civitasfrom which the surroundingterritory was to be administered,some record of that administrative structure,howeverimaginaryin actual fact,could have been preservedin the Vatican. For the Byzantinecastrumto have had the same administrative territory as Roman Cosa is not surprising,and it would have been this territorythat was given to the monasterywhetherby Liutprand,Charlemagne,or the papacy-with its boundaries substantiallyunchanged. The fact that Ansedonia is always referredto as a civitasin the twelfth-century privilegesconfirming the possessions of Saint Anastasiussuggeststhatits status,as well as its boundaries,was retainedin documents,forcertainlyno post-Byzantinesettlementbore the slightestresemblanceto a town. If the transmission of information about Ansedonia'sstatusand territory was probablyby meansof an archive,thesame can hardlybe said aboutthestatusof the (archaeologically invisible) inhabitants ofthetown.Cardarellisuggeststhatthefactthattheywereall killedimpliesthat theywerenot Christians.293 On the frescotheyare shownas naked devils,an iconography that mightbe consistent witha tradition thatconsidersthemSaracens.However,a different tradition seemsto have existedin Siena, forMalavoltiin 1599 referred to theinhabitantsof Ansedonia as Lombards,an identification thatseemsto concurwiththatof thepapal letterof A.D. 790.294 DCM 284: Luttrell2002. Barclay-Lloyd showsthat 292 Fentressand Wickham2002. thefrescoon thegatecoverssomelatetwelfth-century De Maffei1971suggests masonry. a similar date;seealso 293 Cardarelli1925, 89. Mancinelli et al. 1994.
289
Malavolti,Historiade'fattie Guerrede' Senesi,Venice 1599, 1 partefo. 19. recto,quoted in Cardarelli1925, 89. Cardarellibelieves thatthereis a confusionbetweenS. Anastasioand SaintBlaise (S. Biagio),whosetwelfth-centurychurchis foundbelow Cosa neartheTagliata.
294
290
Migne1862,vol.98,letterXCVII, col.424.
291
Ibid.,col 530.
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
97
itself.As faras Romewas conAs we haveseen,thereis littleor no traceofthesettlement ofthemedievalMaremma werepeoplewhodidn'tpaytaxesor robcerned,theinhabitants bersand in anycase sufficiently different to deservebeingexpunged.In thecourseofthe tothemostobviousenemies ofItalians, theSaracens. centuries theymayhavebeenassimilated Aninteresting paralleloccursintheSongofRoland,whereRoland'sBasqueenemiesaretransAs peasants,evenwitha predatory formed intoSaracens.295 approachto passing bytradition legend.As Saracens,or travelers, theyhardlypresenteda worthy enemyfora Carolingian devils,theymadesenseofthestory. ofan earlymedievalsettlement It wouldbe satisfying to tiethislegendtothedestruction itremains at Cosa. However, a legend,andthearchaeological evidencehasno epistemological relationship to it.It mustthusbe leftto thereadersto believe(or disbelieve)whatthey is thefrontier statusofthehillfromtheninthcentury choose.Moreto thepoint,however, period.We onward.In a sense,thistoo wouldhavebeenhandeddownfromtheByzantine themostnortherly outpostoftheduchyofRomewas knowthatin theearlyeighthcentury ofthelandsto themonastery ofSaintAnastasius wouldhave butthetransfer Civitavecchia, ofRome.As such,theyformed partofthenewnorthern placedthemunderthepolitical control frontier andmayperiodically havebeenfortified.296 TheTenthandEleventh-Century Settlement thereis littletraceofactivity on Apartfromthepossibleviolentepisodeofthetenthcentury, theEasternHeightor in thearea of theforum.It is notuntilthesecondhalfofthetenth thatthefirstdatablecoinageappears:one coinwasfoundon theArx,possiblyassocentury in theforumarea.297 ciatedwitha burial,andanother Ceramicmaterial fromthesubsequent is fromtheeleventh to thefirstquarterofthefourteenth, period,running century through in oftheconnections betweentheelements abundant,althoughagainwe maybe uncertain withassociatedcemeteries, thepattern. Theseconsistoftwochurches a fewscattered huts, and a hilltopsettlement defended byringditches. The firstconsistent tracesofactivity on thesitecomefromtwochurches andtheirassoin theforumareawillbe discussedfirst, ciatedcemeteries. The churchand cemetery parthanthepossibly dateis derivedfromradiocarbon rather tiallybecauseitseleventh-century chanceassociationwitha coinand partially becausetheskeletalmaterial fromit has been examined. thoroughly THE CHURCHON TEMPLEB
Our knowledge fromLawrenceRichardson ofthischurchderivesexclusively jr's1953excavationdiaryandhisphotographs, plates20 and21. On May7 he notedthattherewas a raisedplatform intowhich theinscription notedyesterday alongbackwall(northeast) wasbuilt,together withseveral mayprovetreasure whenlifted. largeflatblockswhich ca. 1.75mwide,raisedca. 0.15aboverest.In front ofthisa shallow spacebounded 295
Fentressand Wickham1992, 161.
I am gratefulto EtienneHubert forhis commentson the political significanceof the transferand on the po-
296
tentialimportanceof the site as a frontieroutpost. Denari of Otto I, 962-973, and Otto III, 983-1002: Buttrey1980, nos. 366 and 367.
297
98
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate20.Thechurch onTemple B,altar andfoundation for chancel screen(?) American (archives, inRome). Academy
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Plate21. Thechurch onTemple B, of showing walling
church above the
.
polygonal masonry.. Notetheblocks shaken outwardi. thesideofthe
,
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.
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in Rome).
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.
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i
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towards the largerpart of the cella by a pluteus of re-used blocks against which the signinumpavementabuts and throughwhichin some places passes. NW of centerthere is a column,embedded in thefloor,as partof thispluteus,not in perfectline of thewall, a littleon the cella proper side. The pavementinside the pluteus stands a littlehigher thanoutside,but is continuousthroughthe opening ... signinumpavementcontinuous along SE wall into south corner.
The nextdaya medievalburialwas foundclose to thesurfaceon theplatformabove pavement
level.Thiswas theonlyburialfoundinsidethechurch.
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
99
The inscription,298 whichdates to the reignof the emperorDecius (A.D. 249-251), gives the only certainterminuspost quem. This is not veryuseful.Nor is the architectureof the church,determinedby thatof the earliertemple,particularly significant chronologically. Althoughin Rome thereuseof templebuildingsas churchesis as old as thatof thePantheonin A.D. 609, it would not have been obvious to the buildersof our churchthatits foundation had once been a temple.The plan is verydifferent fromthatof the churchon the basilica, whichlacked the raised step but did include an apse. Neitherchurchwas orienteddue east, as both buildingsfollowedthe alignmentsof ancientstructuresthatwere laid out at almost exactly45 degreesin relationto geographicalnorth.In the case of the sixth-century church, an orientationtowardthe southeastwas chosen,whilein thatof the churchon TempleB the focuswas towardthe northeast.The formof the altaris also different: almostcubical in the sixth-century church,it appears to have been roughlyrectangularin the churchon Temple B. Faint traces of an alignmentresemblinga chancel screen may representanotherdifferof a carved stone screen ence, but if thisexisted,it was probablyin wood, as no fragments have survived. In the destructionmaterialsof the churchwas found a maiolica jug datingto the thirteenthor earlyfourteenth century(below p. 129). This suggeststhatthe buildingcontinued in use at least untilthatdate. THE ARCHAEOLOGY THE FORUMII CEMETERY:
The Excavation.The existenceof a denselyoccupied cemeteryaround this churchwas revealed earlyin the 1953 excavations,when an "isolation"trench2 m wide was dug along the southeastwall of the church.On May 18 Richardsonencountered"a numberof burials,the skeletonslaid in crazilyand sometimeson top of each other,"whiletwo dayslaterwas found a "burialedged withmedium-sizedstoneshard againstthe templeplatform.Othermorecasual burialsat frequentintervals,somelaid veryclose to templeplatformbut othersare found throughthewhole widthof the trench."Manymoreburialswere foundtowardthe east end and in the forecourtof the temple,bringingthe total,by June 1, to "close to eighty."The skeletonsfromthesetrencheswere subsequentlydisposed of. When the firstburials of the same cemeterywere encounteredin 1991, we decided, on the advice of KatherineGruspierand Grant Mullen, to excavate as large a sample as possible, in order to forman adequate basis forthe studyof the population. In the event,the burialswereso dense thatwe wereunable to excavatethewhole of thecemetery, or eventhat part of it which was included withinthe Forum II trench,of which an area was thus left unexcavated.In all, 91 whole or partialburialswere recorded.299 298Babcock 1962; 2 AE 1973, 235.
precise,but the participationof the anthropologistsin the liftingof the bones ensuredthatnone of theircom299 The excavation and recordingof the cemeterywas ponentswerelost. In the area closestto thetemple,and directed by Matilda Webb. Each burial was photo- thus cut by Richardson's"isolation" trench,the graves graphed,drawn,leveled, and recordedon a burial con- were particularlydense, withas manyas six successive text sheet. In order to avoid excessive dryingof the burials cuttingeach other.Under these circumstances bones, as well as the possibilityof vandalismafterthe soil changes were usuallyinvisible,as each new interexcavationhad finishedin theafternoons, itwas decided ment would churn up the soil of the last. More than thateach skeletonwas to be cleaned,recorded,and lifted twentyboxes of "loose," or disarticulated,bones were in a single day, usually by anthropologistsKatherine collected.Only the earliestcuts,or thoseon theperiphGruspierand GrantMullen. This meantthatneitherthe eryof the cemetery,were visible and yielded a certain cleaningnor the drawingof each burial was extremely amountof information.
100
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
anyregard The gravesseemat firstsightto havebeencutwithout Phasingand Orientation. however, the eventhoseofveryrecentdate.On closerexamination, forpreviousinterments, morestructure thana simpletopplanwouldsuggest. cemetery appearsto havehad rather inthecourseoftheexcavation. orientations wereobserved Thirteen burials Threedifferent while to the 26 were found parallel to it.Of temple/church, layalmostexactlyperpendicular burial,withtheirheads therest30 layinwhatcametobe thestandard positionforChristian matrix was constructed of to thewest,on a diagonalwiththechurchitself.A stratigraphic thechangeofpositionscouldbe relatedto different peritheburialsin orderto seewhether is fraught as manyofthe withuncertainty, ods intheuseofthecemetery. Now,thisoperation relationship to hadno stratigraphic ofthecemetery, graves,especially thoseon theperiphery couldhavebeendugat anytime.Furthermore, althougha clearpattherestand therefore ofa longsequenceofburials andtherelative ternis possible,itis notnecessary, chronology is onlycertainin a limitednumberof cases.However,ifwe takeboththematrixand the intoaccount,as manyas fiveperiodsofuseseemto emerge, and,within these,far orientations inthearrangement ofthecemetery thanwasatfirst apparent. moreordercanbe observed to thechurch, withtheirheadspointing The earliestgraves(fig.31) wereperpendicular withthesearetwoeast-west burials,84 and49,whichwere, towardit.Possiblycontemporary Thisphasewas followedbyone in whichall burialswere however, verypoorlypreserved. thereareas manyas threesuperpositions duringthisperiod although parallelto thechurch, (fig.33). Fourlevelsofsuperposi(fig.32). Duringthenextperiodallburialswereeast-west extended tion,thelargenumberofburials,andthefactthatduringthisperiodthecemetery thatthiswasboththelongestperiodandthat atleast15 mfromthechurchseemto confirm The peripheral show inwhichthepopulation washighest. gravesarethosewhosestakeholes thatthesewereused to orderthecemetery. clearevidenceof tombmarkers,300 suggesting ofsuperpositions thattheywereofa perishable natureand suggests However,thequantity did notremainin place forlong.The subsequentperiodis theclearestcase of an orderly to thechurchandlie about.8 oftheburials:all sevenburialsareperpendicular arrangement m apart.The finalphasescomprisebothparalleland east-west burials,cuttingeach other without anycertainorder. wasinuseis hardlyclear, Whatthisallmeansintermsofthelengthoftimethecemetery but it does suggestthatgraveswerenot cutsimplyat randomand thatduringeach short andperishable wasmadeto keepthemparallel.Shortgenerations periodofuse someeffort as to whowas buriedwhere,butit does not markers combinedto createa shortmemory Whatis interesting is thatwe cannot appearto havebeen simplya matterofindifference. towardtheeast-west observea simpleprogression throughgravesthatweretobecomenormal in a are the most numerous the as there was out Europe:301 whole, cemetery althoughthey inwhichtheywererejectedinfavorofthearrangement inwhichtheheads clearlya moment ofthedeceasedwerelaidtowardthechurch(fig.34). 300These postholesat theheads are also foundin a church ut de occasu festenetad ortum" (Rat. Div. off Lib. in Alto-Adige,in a seventh-century context (Kersting Vii, cap. XXXV no. 39, cited by Young, p. 80). Note 1993). the idea that the dead person is praying,signifying, perhaps, that the hands were crossed or clasped. Dif301 For grave orientationsee Young 1977. It is not unferences of orientation in contemporarygraves are til 1280 that G. Durand specified the orientationof found in various cemeteries in the north, while a burials: "Debet quis sic sepeliri, ut capite ad change toward north-southorientationsis found at occidentem posito, pedes dirigat ad orientemin quo Torcello (Leciejewicz et al. 1977) and Bellinzona quasi ipsa positione orat et innuitquod promptusest (Meyer 1976, 25).
TEMPLE "B"
1953 'isolationtrench'
I
'
_-
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excavated to this level ~~~~~~~~~~~~~not
e
Fg
Fi/3.Th
is phas oft
southeastoTempe excm t tery
(E)
1953 'isolationtrench'
not excavated to this level
.5~~
~~~....
i
.
6,1N
.0 Fig. 32. The secondphaseofthecemetery, showinghurialcuthyditch(EF).
TEMPLE "B"
1953 'Isolation trench'
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;
/
i
/J
i
3 not excavated
to this level
I0
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104
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
4
Fig.34.Grave orientations. Thelength ofeachlinerepresents
thenumber ofburials
onthatorientation.
one individual The evidence fromthe cemeteryseems to suggestthat the settlementwas fairlylonglived. If each superimposedbody representeda generation,we mightsuggestas manyas ten This seemsexaggerated,but,as we have seen, oriengenerationsforthelifeof the cemetery. tationscombined with superimpositionssuggestthattherewere at least five,if not more, clear phases in the use of the cemetery. This givesus a minimumof 80 years(assuminggenerationsas shortas 16 years)and a maximumof as muchas 20 (ten20-yeargenerations). Dating. The mostimportantstratigraphic relationshipin the cemeteryis the factthatone of the peripheralburialswas cut by a ditchsurroundingthe EasternHeight. The lowerlegs of thisburial,60, were cleanlycut by the initialcut of the ditch.The fillsof this and related ditchesappear to date fromthe eleventhcentury, givingan apparentterminusante quem to Of course,the cemeterymighteasilyhave remainedin use after at least partof the cemetery. the constructionof the ditch. Three radiocarbondeterminations werecarriedout bytheBritishMuseumon long bones The burialswere selectedon stratigraphic fromthe burials.302 grounds,one fromthe lowest level near the church,one fromthe highest,and the burial on the peripheryof the cemetery cut by the ditchsurroundingthe EasternHeight.These gave the calibrateddates in table 1. Burial 79 60 4
Position
lowestnear church peripheral,cut by ditch highestnear church
BM no. 3005 3004 3003
DateB.P. 950?35 960?35 810?40
Calibrated date(2 s.d.) -1 170 1010-1170 1195-1265
A.D. 1010 A.D. A.D.
Table1.ForumII burials, radiocarbon dating.
This givesus a somewhatlongerrangethanwe had expected,althoughfromthebeginningof the cemetery(bu 79) to theperiod of itsmaximumextension(bu 60) not muchtimepassed. We mightsuggestthatbu 4 and a fewothersuperficialburialsoccurredwhen the cemetery 302 I
am verygrateful to thelateTimPotterandJanet Ambersfortheirhelpwiththesedates.
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
105
itselfwasgoingoutofuse.Themainconcentration seemsinanycasetohavebeenwithin the eleventh century. withthoseoftheearlierexcavation, Population Size.The91 burialsrecovered, together bring thetotalto around170.The "loosebone,"orbonesnotattributable to an identifiable burial, in thesamegenbutitis likelythattheywereredeposited mightraisethisestimate slightly, eralarea,and probablysomepartofanygivenskeletonwas notdisturbed andwas thusrecordedas a burial.Estimating howmanyburialswerenotexcavatedis risky, butwe probably havesufficient datatomakean informed limitsarereasonably clear. guess.Thetopographical The burialsare rare9 m southeastofthechurch,and nonewas encountered farther away. no burialswerefoundbyRichardson behindthechurch, andthetrench ForumIII, Further, isolationtrenchin backofthechurch,showedno evialongthesamelineas Richardson's denceofgraves.The unexcavated betweentheByzantine walland portionofthecemetery m2. thechurchmeasures under 10 while outside it there are another The distincjust m2, 15 tionis important, as theByzantine wall,at between4 and 5 m fromthechurch,seemsto marka limitbetweentheverydenselyconcentrated burialsand thosemorethinly distributed.The density insidethewallis 17 persquaremeter, whichwouldgive170 unexcavated no morethan1 persquaremeter, burials,whilethatoutsideit is apparently addinganother 15 burials.A roughestimate forthepopulationof thecemetery as a wholewouldthusbe around255 or,to playsafe,between225 and 300. If fivegenerations are represented, this wouldgivea populationofaround50 peopleforthecommunity as a whole, TheFunerary Rite.Aswe havealreadynoted,theburialsweredensestclosetothewallofthe Thisdensity continued as faras theruinsoftheByzantine temple/church. wall11 butseems to havethinned outmarkedly on theothersideofit.Suchan arrangement is standard inlate Romanand earlymedievalcemeteries, as a positioncloseto theprotection offered by the in thechurchitselfwasparticularly holyrelicsconserved soughtafter. Indeed,theeavesdrip ofthechurchwouldhaveafforded a visiblesignofthisprotection, and thusa positionunderneath itwouldhavebeenprized.303 The singleburialrecovered byRichardson insidethe church,undertheplatform, and therefore mayhavebeen consideredsaintly, able to offer butit is morelikelythatit was simplythatofthechurch'sfounder. protection, Relicsconservedin thealtarwouldhaveguaranteed thesanctity ofthechurch. All ofthebodieswereplacedon theirbacks.Thereis no evidenceforshrouds,except forthestudsfoundin twooftheburials,The onlyornament foundwas a shellbead on the chestofburial68. The positionofthearmswasvaried.Whereitcouldbe determined (in56 cases),thearmswereeitherat thesides(19 cases) or crossedoverthepelvis(13 cases) or overthechest(24 cases).As table2 shows,thereis somecorrelation betweenthesepositions andthegenderand ageofthedead. Themajority ofthefemales (13outof18)areburiedwiththeir armscrossed overtheir chests. Maleburialsareslightly morelikelythanwomento havetheirhandscrossedoverthepelvis(5 in7 casestheyarecrossedoverthechest.Finally, outof14),although mostofthechildren have theirarmsat theirsides(14 outof20). Now,although theposition witharmscrossedoverthe chesthasalwaysbeenassociated withtheactofprayer, thevariation foundheresuggests that Crawford1993, 88 observesthat the position under the eavesdripwas particularlyfavoredforthe burial of children.
303
106
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
maleadult femaleadult femalechild child adult totals
Sides 2 1 1 14 1 19
Chest Pelvis Totals 7 5 14 13 3 17 1 2 4 20 2 1 4 24 13 56
ofhands. Table2. ForumII burials, position
thiswas notyetcanonical.Possiblythefactthatthepositionwitharmscrossedoverthechestwas morecommonamongwomen,whilethatwiththehandsat thepelviswas morecommonamong men,suggeststhatthepositionofthearmsat thisdatewas relatedto modestyratherthanritual. Where theycould be observed,the gravecutswere shallowand roughlyrectangular, no largerthanwas necessaryto hold thebody.One probable double burialwas found:bu 9 and 10, which seem to be two siblings.In two cases, bu 58 and 63, the gravesmayhave been coveredby wooden planking.This is suggestedby the presenceof iron nails,the stoneson eitherside of the head and at the feet,and the factthatthe bodies evidentlyhad space in whichto decompose. The mandibleshad dropped down onto the chest,and, in the case of bu 58, the toes had fallenbackwardonto the tibia. This could not have takenplace if the bodies had been covered with dirtat the momentof theirburial. On the otherhand, the shape of thesecuts and the presenceof the stonesseem to ruleout the use of coffins. A singleslab-linedcistgravewas foundnextto wall 11, with,insideit,a smallterracotta head derivingfroma Campana plaque. It is probable that the terracottawas deliberately placed inside it, althoughwe cannotbe sure. More normalwas the provisionof stoneor tile packingaround the head and, more rarely,at the feet.In two instances,on the peripheryof the cemetery, stakeholeswere observedoutside the tomb just behind the head, and, in one the feet were markedas well. This mayindicatethe use of crossesto markthe position case, of the bodies. In all, then,the cemeteryin Forum II resemblescloselythose of othermedieval sitesin centralItaly,particularly in itsabsenceof gravegoods or structures and therather haphazardnatureof the interments.304 THE POPULATION: SUMMARY RESULTSOF THE OSTEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION(KG)
The skeletalremainsrepresentthelargestsampleof humanremainsanalyzedfromthesiteof Cosa to date: a fullreporton demographyand paleopathologyis foundbelow (p. 353), while a catalogueis publishedat www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/ and appearsin thearchives of the AmericanAcademyin Rome. Previousexcavationssimplydisposed of anyskeletalremains,withthe exceptionof the skeletonsexcavatedin the forumcisternin 1970. The sample fromthe Forum II cemeterygivesa glimpseof lifeand death at Cosa in the eleventhand twelfthcenturies.Infantmortalitycannot be addressed,but the presence of individualsin the fifthand sixthdecade at death suggeststhatlifeexpectancycould be high. 304 An excellent compendium of earlier cemeteriesin which grave goods are found is found in Rotili 1983. Young 1977 reviewscontemporary cemeteriesin France, concludingthatthechurchhad no moreto do withburial practices than the traditionalpractices of the people doingtheburyingor thoseofthehegemonicculture.For
Italy northof the Appenines the most comprehensive review is that of Blake 1983. A good parallel for the Ansedonia cemeteryis found at the Mola di Monte Gelato, wherea veryhaphazard arrangementof bodies associatedwitha churchis foundin theeighthand ninth centuries(Potterand King 1997, 147-148).
107
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
3
-K---~~~~~~~~~~~
2t 0
5
R. Scott). ontheArx(EF,after Fig.35.Thechurch
and metabolicdisease werefound,and theseare not unAge-relatedchangessuch as arthritis expected. Traumaticchangessuggestthattherewas some knowledgeof settingfracturesand allowingtimeforhealing.The extensiveamountof porotichyperostosisand periostitissugfroma heavypathogenload, possiblymalarial,or that geststhateitherthepopulationsuffered thegenesforone ofthesicklecell diseases. by theywereadaptedto theirenvironment carrying question.Racial morphologicaltraitssugWho the people of Cosa were is an intriguing gest that at least part of the population appeared skeletallyto be European, while others is a smallgroupof burialson the show mixedBlack and Whitetraits.Particularlyinteresting whose morphologicaltraitssuggesta sub-Saharanorigin.Howperipheryof the cemetery, ever,this observationremainsan impression,and a varietyof standardmorphologicaland metricaltestsdid not prove conclusive.Comparisonof themorphologicaland metricaltraits of thissamplewithothersin the geographicalvicinitymayelucidatethisproblem. THE CHURCHON THEARx (EF) (FIG.35)
In 1965 a rectangularstructurewas excavatedjust southeastof theCapitolium,withroughly the same orientationas the Roman structure.Built of reused Roman blocks,it was partially destroyedbytheconstructionof an observationpost duringtheSecond WorldWar.Its alignmentand thetombsfoundbothinsideand outsideofit suggestthatthebuildingwas a church. Like those outside Temple B, the 62 burialsin thiscemeterywere withoutstructureor gravegoods. The singleexceptionis a stone and plaster-linedcist (fig.35 no. 3), whichappears to projectbeyond the line of the east wall and which thus maybe presumedto have
108
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
as a "prestige" had an apse.Thiscan be interpreted burial,perhapsthatofthepersonwho paidforthebuildingofthechurch. intotwophases,distinguished The burialsweredividedbytheirexcavators bythedepth Hereagainwecanassociate different orientations withthedifferent oftheirdepositions. phases. In theearly, deepestphase,thebodiesalmostallliewiththeirheadstothewest(47 cases),with Six is lesshomogeneous. headstothenorthinonlytwocases.In thelaterphasethedeposition fivewiththeir lie withtheirheadsto thewest,twowiththeirheadsto thesouth,andanother butwe headsto thenorth.Othertombswerefoundto thenorthandwestoftheCapitolium, aboutthem.Unfortunately, we can saynothing aboutthepopulahaveno otherinformation as alloftheskeletal material withthiscemetery, wasdisposedof. tionassociated be suggested The dateoftheuse ofthecemetery might bytwocoinsdatingtotheendof betweenfindsand cemetery areparticularly thetenthcentury.305 However,theassociations weak,and we cannotbe surethattheyare notresidualin thecontext.It maybe thatthis wasrelatedtothelatercastle,whosecemetery churchwouldhavebeenconstructed cemetery hill. on theneighboring THE DOMESTIC STRUCTURES:VEGETABLEPATCHES AND SUNKEN-FLOOREDBUILDINGS
Threeof the structures recovered werecut downintotheground,in thetradition of the GermanandSlavicgrubenhduser, theEnglish"sunken-floored Thefirst ofthese buildings."306 wasfoundin ForumV (see fig.67). It measured 4 x 4.5 m andwas cutdown60 cmintothe Romandestruction deposits,untilthecementflooroftheRomanbuildingwasreached.The sidesofthecutwerepackedwithclayand stones.An apparentopeningon thesideofthe Romanforumsuggeststhatit facednortheast. The destruction layersofthestructure containedlargequantities ofstone,and it maybe suggested thatthewallswereconstructed of clayand stone,toppedwitha slopingwoodenroof.The dry-stone walls,iftheconstruction oftheirfoundations is anything to go by,couldnothaverisenveryhighnorborna significantload,butthereis no evidenceforpostholeseither, and it is possiblethattherooftimbersweresupported on sillbeams.The absenceofanytrample oroccupationdepositon the floorsuggests that,likesomenorthern examplesofthesebuildings, thefloorofthestructure consisted oftimber laidovera hollow,probably to keepgrainorhaydry. A second,andevensmaller, sunken-floored wasfoundtoward building therearofthetrench (pl.22). Thismeasured only1.5x 4 m andcouldneverhavebeenusedforhumanhabitation. Wemaysuggest a structure intended forstorage orforsheltering someanimal.In muchofthe restoftheareaoftheHouseofDianaa seriesofdisturbances inthepisedestruction layerscan be interpreted as evidenceforcultivation. Relatively straight cutsrunning justinsidethewall linesdistinguish areasinwhichthedestruction layerswereintactfromthoseinwhichthepise wasdisturbed andthecoherent fallsofwallplasterinterrupted. Thesecutsseldomrunallthe waydownto thefloorsandin generalstoparound30 cmfromthecontemporary groundsurface.Theyare consistent withthesortoftraceswe mightexpectfromhoe cultivation. This might explainwhythewallswereleftundisturbed, as withthesefairly primitive toolsthelabor to remove thewallsmayhavebeenperceived required as excessive, andthewallsformed convenientboundaries betweenseparatepatches.The agricultural activity occurredthroughout thetrench andmayhavecontinued inthesurrounding areas. Buttrey1980, nos. 366 (A.D. 962-973) and 368 1056-1106), the latterfroma tomb.
305
(A.D.
306
Donat 1970.
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
109 Plate22.ForumV, sunken-floored building overthedestruction Wg ms levdsofthegarden (EF).
. west souteas.t toward theimpluviumofthe cisternThiswasevidentlydesignedb.ri....... g. .',:. cis?ternand t inthe
_ the channel ~!K * .. 'S...~;
; from fi| W N Pottery these deposits _dates totheeleventhcentury.
House oDna Some arewa tae with he a satile being-plaed in the skull nas ai "pillowhand thehan o te a e Fou thei e. Theinwdividual is plvius,
and a ro offour tha cotine foSightr p. 23 ;38Hrh strtgrpi an adultsmale,3 at deth. topotoe thelowe changetos arscoeenon siuaio 45yyheapreseofnae (periopsteal legsthe individual thadcannlvotery hadespra to the elefeth maxillry.si largodetalasesedpsitha The largertwasroud is smewhat. fund thefeatures in teForumV ontes theary ofer timerstrsuctureas ipuinmo deige the unerin.iidanohe obriner evientveoly this, csapetrernchis5O nus. sugg hesthtiwas chronicanmayrave Prosthea chlianges hishorhws deaofthe evntalygaued ib tof wa smpl collece found nearby, in andatero fucstrn whthat a O cninusfot deathe Sl this the we he onl situadrip corer 23ainwatere perenhP. stuctre, postholes p sratigromaphi tHroughseptficema. Toecr a burial,atiudandpahooicl tknwthe wthebothlthea change corresponde
havteciseen erceandtheihnselPofther shalow treenc adeoisdtso then cearth,ry. pcedlevendwth The ditc that iesmropiae. iniiulh vrlaroudndthe outsidesadpshls hdsr appttearedtonaxclava sAtheenrter on theinside of the sown trencan th nsopaewdard witch ran north,s tion terosthave vycharpcones suggesthtitwas would poustdhols phostin-trncayhaconstruction.lTh
thattheholesrepresent postvoids.The factthatthesehavea clearlysquaredshapesuggests thatthetimbers wereadzedbeforeuse,a technique thatbecameincreasingly commonin the No material medieval to date structure the and was there were no associated present, period.309 307 Information fromthe reporton humanbones at www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/.
trenchN5 was thefirstin theseries Unfortunately ofsampletrenches as wellas thefirstevidencefortim-
onthesite.Thisled us topursuethesamberbuildings plingschemeratherthanthetimberbuilding,to our laterregret.
308
309
Parenti1994,482.
110
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
012-
Plate23. TrenchP5,
forthe post-trench timbers ofa substantial (.E hut().
l
P
J....N4,,.._
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W
.X.X...-
(
!
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viewofthehutinP5,withrelated theEastern and,totherear, Fig.36.Reconstruction buildings Height(AW).
thatitwas foundin thesame vicinityas thesunken-floored surfaces.However,it is significant no buildingsin Forum V, and it mayhave been part of the same complex. Unfortunately, datable potterywas associatedwiththisstructure, and whileit is temptingto see it as a habitationthatformedthe centerof a complex thatincluded the sunken-floored buildingsand in figure36 should therefore the cultivationpatches,we cannotbe sure. The reconstruction be takenwitha grainof salt. Two othersunken-floored buildingswere foundon the EasternHeight (EH VI, fig.37). The firstlay just east of the Republicantemple.Here the area seems to have been cleaned to in bedrock. Such a cleaningwould explain the almosttotal absence of Roman stratigraphy
Ii l
I
sunken-floored building
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gisunken-flooredbuilding masonry structure
structure
*posthole lb i postholestructure?
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postholestruiture
timber ontheEastern Fig.37.Sunken-floored buildings Height(EF).
-.
-
112
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
Plate24.Ovalsunken-floored building partially excavated ontheEastern Height.
4;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
-,
the neighborhoodof the hut. A steep cut was thenmade down into the leveled rock. At the easternend ledgeswerecut intotherockat thesides of themaincut,whilealong thewestern half of the building the sides and westernend were packed with clay and small stones. Postholeswere foundat threeof the fourcornersand irregularly placed aroundthe sides. In one case the clay and stone edges were packed againstthe timber,which suggeststhatthe timberframewas erectedfirst.The bedrock at the bottomof the cut was veryirregularand could not have representeda floorsurface,whilenone of thelayerswithinthe cut suggested a beaten-earthfloor.Here again it is reasonableto suggestthatthe flooringwas of timber, runningacross thecut and supportedon theledges and on thestoneand claypacking,which seems to have been intendedto raise the available surfaceto an even height.There are more postholesaroundthisstructurethanaroundthatfoundin ForumV, but theyare veryirregular. Again, the destructionlayerwas filledwithlarge rocks,which may suggestthat stones were placed around the base of the walls. A verylarge hollow in the center,if it is not a naturalfissure,mayhave supporteda centralpost, althoughno post void was observed.Two symmetrically placed postholes at the centerof the southeastside suggestthatthe opening mighthave faced in thatdirection. A thirdsunken-floored buildinglies to thewestof the templeon the slope below it (EH VI). This was onlypartiallyexcavated:about halfof the structureapparentlylay outsidethe trench,whilethe finaldestructionlayerprovedtoo deep to removein the limitedtimeavailable at the end of the excavation.The structureconsistsof a rectangularcut withrounded corners,2.2 m wide (pl. 24). On the upslope side the cut is verydeep-at least 60 cm,while
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
113
on the opposite side it is no more than 30 cm. At the bottomof this cut therewas a very dense layerof large stones,apparentlypushed in when the buildingwas destroyed.It was initiallyfeltthat these stones had been placed in the cut to provide drainagefor a higher floor,but whatwas initiallyinterpretedas a beaten-earthfloorabove themwas not,in fact, particularlyconvincing.Traces of burningon thislayermayhave relatedto the destruction of the hut ratherthanto a domestichearth,and in the absence of betterevidencethe question of the floorwill have to remainopen. Like the neighboringstructure,the cut was surroundedby small stakeholes,suggestinga lightframework risingabove low stonewalls. We have no evidence forinternalpostholes,as excavationwas not carriedthatfar.The structuresare atypicalin respectto thosefoundin Britainand Gaul, whichare generallymarked by a clear arrangementof postholes. However,recentexcavationsat Nicolopis ad Istrum Slavic grubenhauswhose roofmusthave been selfhave showna tenth-or eleventh-century supporting,restingdirectlyon the externalgroundsurface.310There were onlytwo vertical timbersinside the building,off-center with respectto the main structure.Such a solution mightbe applied to our huts. Eleventh-century potterywas fairlyplentifulin the neighborhoodof both these strucbut tures, unfortunately cultivationdown to bedrock duringthe medievalperiod appears to An exceptionis the destructionlayerof the last hut,where have cut away anystratification. eleventh-century SparseGlaze appearsin conjunctionwithothereleventh-century coarsewares. We thus have evidenceforthreebuildingsscatteredover the hilltop.A furtherroughly square foundationof large,reused Roman blocks was foundin trenchIVG, to the west of theArx,but whileit probablyrepresentsa hut,no datingevidencewas recovered.Fromthis fairlyscantyevidence we mightinferan initialscatteredsettlementover the hilltop,with perhapsfouror fiveseparatefarmsteads. THE DITCHED SETTLEMENT
The Defenses(fig.38 and pl. 25). The cemeteryin Forum II was cut by a shallow,irregular ditch,separatedby a bank froma ditchslightlyhigherup (pl. 26). The ditchcut burial 60, dated by radiocarbonto 1010-1170 (above table 1). The upper ditchran at a slightangleto the lower and seemed to be turninga cornerin orderto run southeastwardtowardthe Roman citywalls. The course of thislatterditchcan be easilytracedto the southeast,as closer to the Roman walls its double bank becomes verymarkedindeed, makinguse of both the naturalslope and of theRomanwalls encounteredon eitherside of it. Northeastof ForumII the line of the bank and ditchis visible runningparallel to streetQ, along the line of the easternedge of the sinkhole,whichwas apparentlyincorporatedinto the fortifications. On the otherside of the sinkholea largerinterruption is clearlyvisible in the bank and ditch, where a road appears to cross themrunningup fromthe northeastgate towardthe Eastern Height.The bank thencontinuesalmostdue northto encounter,again,the Romanwalls. At thispoint,and fora shortdistancewestward,theRomanwalls were takendown witha long, irregularcut (pl. 27). This seemsto have been intendedto stop passage along thetops of the walls, whichwould have enabled attackersto threatenthe defenders:a similarcut existsat the otherend of the fortifications. A sectionthroughthe bank (X C) revealedthatit was not flankedat thispoint witha ditch.Rather,the existingslope was enhancedby a sharpcut in theRoman stratigraphy. The 310Poulter1993, 168f.and fig.65.
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
114
*
*
(90)
~~sin*hob*
around theEastern Fig.38.Earthworks Height(EF).
roadthatpiercedthebankwasflanked on theupslopesidebya longwallofa fairly irregular whichranon for12 m beforeturning towardtheRomanwall.The exactpurconstruction, was presentin ForumIII, running pose ofthiswallis notobvious,but a similarstructure roadthatled through theposterngate. alongthepresumed InsideForumII, andbetweenthetwoditches,a smallsquarefoundation mayrepresent thebase of a timbertower:theabsenceof tumblenearbyseemsto ruleout thepossibility thatitwas builtofstone.Thistowerprobablyguardeda smallgatein thedefenses, forjust to thenortheast a secondtrench, ForumIII, revealeda longwallrunning acrossthelineof theditchesand thebeginning oftheupperditchrunning northeast. Thereis, however, no thatitexistedonlyfora shortdistanceto signofthelowerditchon thisside,whichsuggests reinforce thedefenses at thesidegate.
theair(AW). ForumII andIII, from Plate25.Trenches
k
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h
116
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plate27. A sectionof theRomanwais cut
Y
AQ
away in conjunction
withthe defensesoftheHeight. Eastern ditched4
j~~~~
~
'r'
Plate28. EH VI, parallelrowsof postholessuggesta timber"longhouse" (TS).
;1
.14a
7i
A thirdditchlay nearerto the top of the hill,just westof the twelfth-century castle (EH II). Here a ditchof verysimilarprofileto the outerpair was found,coveredby the construction of the outerwall of the castle.Justinside it,two postholesmayrepresenta palisade. Its course is farless clear thanthatof the lower line, but it seems to have run southwestalong the contourline,possiblyturningsoutheastto meetthewallsjustnorthof the "circularstructure" (EH). Both the innerand the outermostditcheswere recutat least once, althoughthe recutsare even smallerand shallowerthanthe originalditches. Althoughtheyrepresenta significantamountof labor,these defensesare singularlyunimpressive,even if we imaginethemreinforcedby stakes (one stakeholewas found in the outerditch)and a palisade.In comparisonwiththeRomancitywallstheyare almostludicrous.
THE EARLYMEDIEVALSETTLEMENT
117
havebeenexpected thatcreatedthemcouldhardly thepopulation ofthesettlement However, to defendtheRomancitywalls,and thebanksand ditcheswereprobablynotintendedfor haveoffered useagainst smallbands cavalry. Theywould,however, adequateprotection against andprobablyprotected thesettlement's cattleas well. We haveverylittleevidenceforthedatingofthesedefenses, although theyareprobably use andpriortotheconstruction withthemainperiodofthecemetery's ofthe contemporary castle.As we haveseen,a skeletoncutbytheditch,burial60, is datedby radiocarbon to around1090.A sherdofSparse-Glazed warewas foundin thefilloftheinnerditch,giving an eleventh-century terminus andthesherdofan Islamicfilpost quem to itsabandonment, terjar foundoverthelowerditchin ForumII suggests a similardate.311 A further sherdof SparseGlaze was associatedwiththelongwallinX C. TimberBuildings.Lyingjustto thesoutheast ofthesunken-floored buildingon theEastern Heightwerefoundtwoparallelrowsofpostholes,1.75 cmapart,whichseemto represent a building(pl. 28; EH VI). The lengthofthebuildingwas at least6.5 m,thelengthofthe shorterrow,butit is byno meanscertainthatwe haveitswholeextent.It seemsunlikely thatthetwowerecontemporary, as one ofthesepostholesappearsto cuttheexteriorofa postholeassociatedwiththesunken-floored ifwe are correctin interbuilding.Further, preting thepositionofthedoorofthesunken-floored building, thetimberstructure would have blockedit. It is possiblethata roughsurface,whichcoversthe destruction of the sunken-floored building,was associatedwiththetimberstructure, but thisis hardlycertain.Indeed,we can saylittleaboutthetimberstructure, exceptthatit is present.A second pairofparallelrowsofpostholeswas foundabout6 m to thesoutheastofthese.This grouphad the peculiarity of havinga relatively neatlysquaredsunkenfloorat one end, witha postholeat each corner.However,therestofthestructure was simplycutdownto thebedrock,ratherthanintoit. Thesetwo "buildings" wereroughly parallelto each otherand possiblyfacedontoan open space. On thenorthwest side of thetrenchsomefairly wellmade,but veryuneven, postholesmayrepresent another building. Cut intotheconstruction levelsof thetempleon theEasternHeightwerefoundtwo walls,one ofwhichtooktheplace oftheold frontwall,whiletheothercutroughly across themiddleofthestructure. A thirdwalloverlaidthesouthwest wallofthetemplepodium. Thesethreewallsappearto havebelongedto a roughly squarebuildingmeasuring 2.5 x 3 m, whichusedthetempleas a foundation. It mayjusthavebeenthebase ofa towerthatwould haveformedpartofthedefenses, butit is probablysaferto interpret it as a simplehouse foundation. Unfortunately, justas inthecase ofthetimber buildings, subsequent activity on theEasternHeighthaseliminated anyevidencefordatingthestructures. Discussion.The mainclueto thedateandtypeofthesettlement is thetripleringwork, join-
ingtheRomancitywalls.In Britainand Franceringworks suchas thatofAnsedoniaregularlycontaina farmor manor,or an earthenmotte,witha villageor farmbuildingsin the exterior bailey.312 Theydatefromtheendofthetenthcentury in France,andtheirarrivalin 311This sherdwas unfortunately lost duringprocess- product.
ing.However,itsidentification on sitewascertain:the fabricwas fine,white,and well levigated,the filter 312 Cathcart-Kingand Alcock 1966; see also Herrenbrodt holes irregular. It was likelyto havebeen a Tunisian 1966.
118
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
Englandis generally supposedto coincidewiththeNormanConquest.In Italyearthworks of orhavegonelargely anysortarefarmorerarearchaeologically unrecognized.3"3 However, they intentharewidelyattested andeleventh-century to suggest that sources,andthereis nothing moatedsitesdo notcomefroman indigenous tradition.3"4 Documents ofthefirstdecadesof thetenth century speakofpalisadesorsimply withthedefenses ditches, completed byhedges.315 namedthanwalls,suggesting Ditchesaremorefrequently thatmanycastleswerenotinitially walled.316 Woodentowers(britisca) arealsomentioned, as arepostern gateswithtowers.317 We remainignorant aboutthesettlement withintheearthworks. Theremay,ofcourse, havebeena timbertowerwithintheinnerringwhosetracewas abolishedbytheconstructionofthestonecastle.318 Theremightalso havebeena farmor village.The latteris more inviewoftheamountoflaborthatwouldhavegoneintothedefenses likely, andwouldhave beennecessary to manthem.The size ofthesettlement, around5,000m2,fallsintoSettia's "medium"range:the tenth-century castle at Nogara, of the same size, had 70 families,319 al-
thecommunity thoughgiventhesize of thecemetery, at Ansedoniawas certainly smaller, numbering perhapsnotmorethan50 peoplein all. In anycase thesettlement is an early in thearea,evenifitprobably exampleofincastellamento lookedlikean insubstantially fortifiedvillage.Elsewherein Tuscanycastleswithwoodenbuildingsbeganto emergein the tenthcentury: thebest-known (orbest-excavated) examplesbeingMontarrenti, whichbegan as earlyas theninthcentury, Scarlino,andRoccaSan Silvestro (whichbeganinthetenth).320 In theAlbegnaValleyonlythreecastlesarecertainly documented beforeA.D. 1100,and both documentsdate towardthe end of theeleventhcentury(see table3 p. 135). Like Elsa (Stachilagi, Ansedonia, nearMarsiliana)andOrbetelloarefoundon a property listofS. Paolofuorile muraof1081,thelattertworecordedas castra.321 S. Paolo probably succeeded to thelandsof S. Anastasiowhenthelatterwas abandonedin thetenthcentury. Magliano, on therightbankoftheAlbegna,is knownfrom1097onward.322 The threecastlesareall on Ditched settlements have been found at Filattierein Liguria(Cabona et al. 1984) and at S. Agata,nearModena (pers. comm. S. Gelichi). At S. Cassiano, in Emilia Romagna,a late tenth-century ditchis associatedwitha churchand castrum(Gelichi 1989). Observedditchesare usuallyassumedto go withthewallsof a settlement: thus at MonterealeValcellina,whereten-eleventh-century occupationis attested,a double ditchwas foundoutsidethe walls but not investigated(Andrewset al. 1987). 313
3"9Settia1984, 201. Francovichet al. 1989. In Lazio, thecastrumat Ponte Nepesino has wooden buildings, with potterydating fromtheninthcentury(Cameronet al. 1984). On medieval village houses see Chapelot and Fossier 1980; Bazzana and Hubert eds. 2000.
320
S. Paolo I. The sources forthisperiod are discussed by Luttrell 2002; Fentress and Wickham 2002 (from 314 For a ditched settlement dating to the sixth-eighth whichmostof thisdiscussionis drawn); and Cardarelli centuriesMoreland et al. 1993. 1924-1925. 321
Settia1984, 157f.,197f.Tracesof a palisade are found 322 CDA 323 m cfr,329-330. Small castles,all undocuat the earlymedieval site of Treonzi di Roccagrimaldi: mented,are foundon therightbank of theAlbegna,but Giannichedda 1990a. most are built of stone and probablydate to a laterperiod. The onlysettlementvaguelycomparableto thatat 316 Giannichedda 1990a,200. Ansedonia is found on an isolated hill northwestof Magliano. Here a circularringof stone almost100 m in 317AtAsti and Domodossola: Giannichedda 1990a, 199. diametershows that the site was walled, but thereare no tracesof a toweror of stone-builtinteriorstructures, 318 Far less likelyis a motte,or artificial mound,which and no datablematerialwas recoveredexceptfora single occurs in Italy onlyin specificallyNorman contexts.It sherdof archaicmaiolica. This siteprobablyrepresents seemsclearthatthelatercastlewas builtdirectlyon bed- a perched, walled village and may,like Ansedonia, be rock and thatthe mound whichnow occupies the East- earlier than the more elaboratelyfortifiedsites of the ern Height is createdentirelyby the fallof the tower. twelfthcenturyand later. 315
THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT
119
thecoast,andtheAlbegnaRiver.The positionofStachilagi-Elsa is theedgesoftheterritory, it overlooks theAlbegna,whichprobablyformed thefrontier ofthe particularly significant; Papal Statesat thistime. thenew"castle"atAnsedonia formed part It would,ofcourse,be usefultoknowwhether whether itwasan effectively structure andthusrelated, howsignorial ofsomewidernetwork: to theworldoutsideitsborders.Our onlyclueis thateachofthechurches everschematically, has a "foundation" burial;thaton theArxat thecenterofthechurchandthaton TempleB attheend.Thisis notmuch,as faras tracesofhierarchy go.It seems undertheraisedplatform as weremostof thecastlesin was based on an existing thatthesettlement curtis, unlikely or documentary evidenceforsuchan estate.FurTuscany.323 First,thereis no archaeological evidenceforlocallords,andwhatwe do havepointsto a conther,we haveno documentary inRome.Theseremain themostlikelyinitiators landlords tinuing ownership byecclesiastical theindividuals we cannotbe sureoftheexactconnection: possibly ofthesettlement, although forseeingto burialsin thechurches heldthelandunderS. Paolo,in return given"prestige" as a military, thedefenseofthearea.The roleforthesettlement maythushavebeenpartially and as one of thenorthernfrontier castlesof the guardagainstSaracen raiderson the coast324
see Ansedonia foronce,in cooperation withOrbetello. working, Papal States.Herewe might ofthesettlement itself. thiswillremainspeculation untilwe havemoreknowledge However, ofOrbetello, thetrading linksofthesettlement were In spiteofitsport,andthevicinity fromnearbycenters, limited.Pottery was probablyimported especiallytheveryhard-fired ofan Islamicfilter jug,mostprobably strap-handled pitchers(belowp. 331). The fragment fromTunisia,givesa hintof extraterritorial contact.Jarssuchas thisone are veryrarein evicentralItaly,butitis notenoughto suggestmorethanchancecontact.Moresubstantial contactcomesfromthepossiblepresenceofpeopleofsubdencefortrans-Mediterranean Saharanoriginin thecemetery as a group,theypresumably (abovep. 107).Buriedtogether a family, and it is hardto imaginethattheywerenotslaves.Now,we knowfrom represent documents oftheCairoGenizathatintheeleventh coast, century jerba,on theNorthAfrican in slaveswithSicily, andGenoa,anditmaybe thatthepossessorsofthe wastrading Amalfi, is entirely Ansedoniacastlehad acquiredslavesinthisway.Theirpresenceinthecommunity in ruralTuscany, elsewhere butveryfewmedievalcemeteries havebeenstudied unparalleled inthisdetail,anditmaybe thatAfricans, eitherfreeorslave,werea lessuncommon element inthepopulationthanwe mightnowimagine. One peculiarity oftheAnsedonia castleis thepositionofbothitschurches andtheircematthepostern eteriesoutsidetheringoffortifications, gateandon theArx.As we haveseen, bothchurches wereprobably ontheEastern Height.Howearlier thanthenucleated settlement wouldhavecarrieda pathdownfromthesettlement, ever,thepostern gateintheearthworks and up theold decumanus maximus to the pastthechurchon TempleB, acrosstheforum, therewasnofeltneed lay.Probably Arx,wherethemoredistant-andperhapsearlier-church to protect thechurches, whosesanctity enough.325 (andpoverty?) wouldhavebeenprotection theprecisesequenceofeventsremains hazy,we seemto see at Ansedoniathe Although thetopofthehillintoa defarming gradualtransformation ofa thin,dispersedcommunity on thesamehill.The construction ofa stonetowerthatcomfended,nucleatedsettlement willbe discussedinthenextchapter. pletedthetransformation 323
Wickham1989a.
324Settia
1984, 158f.
A churchwellseparatedfromthetowercomplexis foundat Radicofani, butitsdateis notclear:Perogalli et al. 1976,pl. 141,142.
325
5 * Ansedonia: The Settlement oftheTwelfth theFourteenth Centuries through Michelle Hobart
Summary
The
and documentary archaeological sourcesbothsuggestthatthetwelfth was century a turning ofAnsedonia.326 Stonestructures pointin thehistory ofthesettlement seem to havereplacedearthand woodenonesand,fromthethirteenth century onward,trading contactsweregreatly increasedwiththeoutsideworld.Evidenceof thesechangescan be on theEasternHeight,theArx,theforum, seenin particular andthemarket buildingatthe northwest structures on theEasternHeightand gate.We willbeginwiththemostimportant thendiscussthoseintherestoftheareaoftheRomancity.Consideration ofthecastleandits roleinthehistory oftheareaconcludesthechapter. TheEastern Height THE TOWERANDITS DEFENSES
Phase1. The smallmoundon thetopoftheEasternHeightis entirely artificial andwas createdbythecollapseoflargestructures. the of the Despite inclusion manyof exposedwallsin Brown'splanof thesite(fig.2), no interpretation ofthesewas everproposed.Amongthe wallsobservedduringthe1950swerea small,squarecistern, a longwallrunning downthe hillto thewestof themound(X C), and a thickwallencircling thetop ofthehill,which showsup clearlyon theair photograph (colorpl. 1).327Although somepointsstillremain between1993 and 1995 (EH I-VIII) allowus to forma fairlyclear obscure,excavations pictureofthestructures (fig.39). Excavationsin EH I, III, and IV revealedfoursidesofa structure thatmustbe interbuiltnorthofthesanctuary pretedas a tower, andtheearlymedieval villageexcavatedinEH VI. The siteofthetowerseemsto havebeenchosenlessforitssuperior height(itscontemporarygroundlevel,102.5m abovesea level,is slightly lowerthanthatofthetemple)than foritscommanding positionovertheVia Aurelia.328 Atno pointwerethefoundations ofthe towerexposed,butitsoriginal wallswereconstructed ofwell-coursed limestone blocks,slightly lessthan1 m thick.Although theoriginal wallstands3.46 m abovethelowestvisiblepoint, For thesourcessee now Luttrell2002; Collavini 1998; Cammarosanoand Passeri 1984, 124; Ciacci 1934, 229, 246; Cardarelli 1924-1925; Bruscalupi 1906, 607-610; Lambardi 1866; Repetti1833, I, 9, 827. 326
327
Furtherannotationsofnon-Romanstructures or walls
are occasionallyfoundin Brown'sor Richardson'sfield notebookscollectedat theAmericanAcademyin Rome. Bedrockwas not reachedin trenchesEH I-V but was clearlyvisiblein EH VI, whereit lay slightlyabove the lowestlevel of the towercistern.
328
120
Aa;R
Fig. 39. The towerand relatedstructures (AW).
o
5
3
?1S
I
I
g~~~~~~~~~~~~~E
122
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
it could be observedonlyinsidethecisternwheretheplasterwas missingand in a small inroughly ofthewallshowrelatively sectioninEH III. Theexposedportions regular coursing The structure was square,askewto the facedsmallstones,set in a mediumhardmortar. is about10 degrees),andmeasuredabout10 x 10 m. Romangrid(thedifference to thetower, butoftentowershad Thereis no evidenceforthepositionoftheentrance the doorlocatedon an upperstory.In our case the doorwouldprobablyhavefacedthe thetower approachfromtheRomangate,on itswestside.An outercircuitwallsurrounded side(EH II). Thiswallwasprobably builtat thesametimeas the witha gateon thewestern tower,as an outerdefense. Wehaveno dating forthesmallcubicalcistern foundtothenortheast ofthetower, although inEH I. Thiswellitmaybe earlier thanthetower, orin anycaseearlier thanthelargercistern preserved cistern was carefully withwallsjoinedto thefloorby a smoothcurveof plastered, plaster slopingirregularly. Waterwasletinthrough a terracotta pipeinthewestside,justbelow inthesoutheast theroof,andretrieved from anopening whichcorresponds tothelowest corner, pointoftheslopingfloor.In thefloora small,carvedinsethelpedthecleaning ofthecistern. Wherethewaterwas collected to fillthecistern remains andthedateofthecistern is unclear, uncertain. Thecontinuous is typical ofmostoftheRomancisterns layerofmortar ofCosa329 but also ofearlymedievalones.330 ofa roomwitha Duringthe1996campaignin EH VI thediscovery tessellatedpavementjustoutsidethecastlebermconfirmed thatthisarea ofthecitywas notonly settledbutalso used forprivatehousing,justifying and explainingthepresenceofa cistern.However,thecisternis not alignedwiththeRomantown,and its size is anomalouscomparedto the otherexistingcisterns.The majordifference lies in the two roofingsystems.While theRoman roofwas normally stonevaulted,thesurviving roofofthesmallercisternbearsno resemblance to the Romanvaults.It is pitchedand coveredwitha mortarsurface,bearingthe tracesof very crudeformwork, whichwas laid overfivebeamsof 10 cm at mostin diameter. Duringconstruction,theweightof themortarclearlycaused thebeams to bow dangerously, althoughtheydid hold as long as was necessaryforthemortarto set.Even ifthecisternwas Roman,itsroofmust havebeen added whenthecisternwas reusedduringthislastperiodoflifeat Ansedonia.
Phase 2. Two significant additionswere made to the originaltowershortlyafterits construcof the excavationbetweentrenchesEH I and EH II did not tion,althoughthe discontinuity allow us to establishtheexact relationshipbetweenthem.On thenorthside of thetowerwas builta second wall, 1.20 m thick,doublingthe originalwall of the castle (EH III). This must have been intendedto buttresstheoriginalstructure.The masonryof thissecond wall seems, if anything, moreregularthanthatof the first,witheven coursesof blocks some 20 cm high and littleexposed mortar.The mortaris deep grayand veryhard. On the south and the west sides of the tower,a batteredwall was constructed,which buttsthe towerat 3.60 m above the originalgroundlevel,leavingspace below fora largecistern(EH I, figs.40 and 52 and pl. 29). This was carefully flooredand plasteredwithhydraulic cement,witha curvedjointbetweenthewalls and thefloor.At the southwestcorner,an arch 329 For othercisternson sitesee Cosa IV,20 pl. 7 and 122 pl. 68.
similarcisterndatingto the thirteenthcenturywas set into the ground inside the compound. Rectangularin shape, 2.84 x 5.44 m, it was coveredwitha barrelvault 330 A good parallel for this cisterncomes fromCaputabout 2 m high. The interioris coveredwithhydraulic aquis,in southernItaly,a medievalsettlement datedfrom plaster,and its cornerswere rounded. See also Castel the ninth to the thirteenth century (Delogu and Porciano in Vannini1987, 128. Tabaczynski1976, 79-80; Squatriti2000, 242) where a
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
nl~
X
44"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'
-_
40.Axonometric ofthecistern ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Fig. drawings (AW).
|
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of the
. . wffi
twer
(EF)
Plate29.Thecistemonthewestside
@
4
4
v.-
.:L-
124
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
the connectedthe outer cornerof the towerto the innerone of the cistern,strengthening structureat thisvulnerablepointwhile allowingpassage betweenthetwo adjoiningcisterns. In section the cisternswere irregularin shape: verticalon the side of the tower,with the outerwall slopingup to meet it and forminga slightvault at the top. The whole structure clearlyhad the double functionof buttressingthe toweron the two sides most exposed to attackand of creatinga substantialreserveof water.The masonryof the southernbuttress was neatlyconstructedand faced,but withoutthe irregularcoursingof the buttressto the we do not have a stratinorthside. The buttressingwalls are not necessarilycontemporary: graphiclinkbetweenthem,and themortarsdifferslightlyone fromthe other. Access to the cisternwas througha carefullyconstructedsquare hole at thenorthernend of thewesternarm:here a ledge was providedto standon. Traces of a ledge on the masonry to protectthe cisternfrom suggestthatthe sill was used forthe placingof a wooden shutter, animalsand othersourcesof contamination. To the northof the cistern,nextto the entrance,was foundthebottomof an inletbasin. This too was lined withhydrauliccement.It was connectedto the cisternby a pipe made of two opposed imbrices.This inletbasin originallyled us to suggestthatit was a catchment basin forwaterfallingfroma rainspoutlocated on the roof.Waterejected froma rainspout fourstoriesup, however,would have fallenmuch fartheraway fromthe building.A more likelysolutionis that waterwas carrieddown fromthe roofby a downspout.This would have consistedof a pipe, perhapsconstructedin the same techniqueand builtintothewall. The inletbasin would thenhave servedas a settlingbasin fromwhichthewaterwould have The layerof sandy silt with small pebbles coveringthe been channeledinto the cistern.331 An ovoid pumice stone,stillin place, was bottomof the basin supportsthisinterpretation. found inside the terracottapipeline as the last filterbeforeenteringthe cistern,and there were probablyothersthroughoutthe pipeline. At some point the wall supportingthe inlet basin was further buttressedwithveryroughmasonry.This could have been intendedto support a wooden staircaseor a ladder leadingup to the cisternentrance. Watersupplyhad alwaysbeen a majorconcernfortheinhabitants of Cosa, wherea single to providefora substantialpopulation.Each Romanhouse had its own springis insufficient The solutionadoptedhereis unusualin medicistern,and waterwas mainlyprovidedbyrainfall. eval Tuscanybut extremely practical,as thewaterwouldbothhave a readysourcefromrainfall ontotheroofand a well-defended position.Whenwatersupplycouldbe drawnfromtheground, as in Tuscania,themainconcernwas to place thewellin themostprotectedarea possiblewithin the cityor the compound.Othersitespreferred to protecttheircisternsin thehighestpointin thevillage:At Rocca San Silvestrothewatercisternwas carvedout of thesmallhilldirectly bethesettlement, as at theRocchettecastle.332 neaththecassero,or maintoweroverlooking It may be that the buttressingepisode (thereis no evidence for the easternside) was connectedwiththe raisingof the heightof the towerby an additionalstory(fig.41). Our evidenceforthisis the presenceon the west side of a large chunkof masonrythatevidently tumbledfromthetower,withregularcoursesof stoneinterrupted by stringcoursesof brick. This masonryis nowherevisiblein theremainsof thestandingwalls and mayhave come from new workfarther up. This work,in turn,would explaintheextracaretakenwiththebuttressdoes not come fromtheoriginaltower:it may ing.However,it is not certainthatthefragment A similarbasin and inletwere found at the Offiano Castle in Lazio: Hubert et al. 1992, 516 fig.5.
331
332
Francovich1991, 77; Bianchi et al. 1994, 255 fig.2.
ANSEDONIA
125
reconstruction ofthetowerand itsprecinct(AW). Fig. 41. Axonometric
wherebrickstring coursesarepartof foundatTorreArgentario, be compared to themasonry on of the but occurred the tower.333 theoriginal higher portions masonry only oftheouter tookplaceduringthisperiod:therebuilding Phase3. Twomajorreorganizations ofthecistern to a prison.Again,we haveno cerdefensive wallandthepossibleconversion tainevidencethatthesetwoeventswerecontemporary. "I
Della Monaca et al. 1996, 62-67.
126
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
The gatein theouterdefensivewall was blocked up, and thewall itselfwas rebuiltabove thelevel of thefirstthreecourses (EH II). The constructionin thisphase was less particular, coursed and roughlyfaced stonesbound by a yellowmortar.The originof usingirregularly thisyellowtingemaybe lime fromthe kilnfoundon the podium of the Capitolium,which This kiln was probably was used to burn the yellowishlimestoneblocks of the temple.334 used to burn the yellowlimestoneof the podium blocks, which would have resultedin a yellowishmortar.The positionofthenew gateremainsunclear.It mayhavebeen reconstructed to the south of the old gate,forcingan attackingarmyto turnrightoffthe approach road, therebyexposingthe soldiers'flanksto firefromthewalls. The changein theuse of the cisternis impliedby the graffiti scratchedintoitswalls (fig. 42). These are densestnear the cisternentrance,whichmusthave been the onlysource of light.None were foundin the southernarmof the cistern.On the inner,or east,wall of the structure,a drawingof a long,thinformcurvingupwardto the leftand filledin withzigzag lines was found.To the northof thiswas the inscription, A(nno) D(omini) MCCX (below p. 267). On the opposite wall are two boats paintedwithdarkbrownpigment,one largerthan the other,both sailingtowardthe north.The boats were riggedwithapparentlylateen sails and were maneuveredby ruddersand manipulatedby oarsmenin rowson both sides of the keel. The stylizedreproductionshowsthe smallheads of the oarsmenas circles,just overthe deck and connectedto long straightlines representing the oars. The bowspritsseem unusuallylong and mayrepresentbeaks. To the southof the shipsis a seriesof six simplecrosses. in themonastery Similardrawingsare foundas graffiti ofS. Paolofuorile murain Rome.335 There are clear differencesbetween the boats at Ansedonia and Rome, but the themeremainsthe same. The Roman ship is more detailed and coveredwithlaterengravings.336 The highmastwitha small crow'snest positionedon the top is foundon ships of the fifteenthas suggestedfortwosimilarshipsfoundin Sicily,insidetheVaccaricaves.337 sixteenthcentury, Mott notes thatthe use of oars to power ships in the Middle Ages decreased as the rudder made themmoremaneuverable,338 althoughoars wereemployedat least throughthefifteenth century.However,oars were veryrarelyused on merchantships,being entirelyabsentfrom the Geniza documentationand fromiconographicrepresentations fromthe tenthcentury It is veryplausiblethatour own shipsare war galleysratherthantheheaviertransonward.339 port or merchantvessels,withthe oars being used for chase and flight.As such theymay have been of thetypeknownas sagenaon documents.340 The suggestionof a beak in thebow maysupportthis,as the beak was used as a bridgeto board enemyships. The comparisonwiththe graffiti fromthe cisternin S. Paolo suggeststhat,like the Rothe cisternwas convertedto a prison.The graffiti man monastery, were not scratchedonto the walls at the timeof theirplastering,as the plasterwas drywhen theywere created.Further,the brownpigmentof the ship sketcheswould have been vulnerableto the water,and whenthe cisternwas in use, theywould have been mostlikelyunderwater.Again,the representationof shipson theopen sea mightbe an appropriateiconographicchoicefora prisoner "I
Suggestionof R. Scott.
"I Anotherincisedshipwas foundin a smallroom,which was identifiedas the prison;see also Rutolo 1972, 60. 336
"I Purpura 1979, 58-70. 338
Mott 1997, 24-25.
339
Udovitch 1978, 517; Kreutz 1976, 109.
340
Kreutz 1976, 107.
Hobart 1995, fig.10, 580.
0
1
11,.CCs
A,
wall (EF). and paintingson theinnerwallsofthecistern.The upperdrawingshowsthenorthwest Fig. 42. Graffiti
128
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
ina dark,dampcell.The crossesmayhavebeenscratched torepresent daysormonths passed withinbut also mightimplya spiritual liberation. However,thetotalabsenceofobjectsor itselfwouldsuggestthattheuse ofthecisternas a prison anyhumanremainsin thecistern wasbriefor,perhaps,followedbyitsreuseas a cistern. SUBSIDIARYBUILDINGS.One or twootherbuildings wereconstructed betweenthetower andtheRomancitywallto theeast.On theeastsideofthetower, we havea singlewallbuilt ofwell-cut similar to thatofthenorthern buttress squaredstonessetin a mortar (EH IV). A secondwall,roughly parallelto thefirstbutsmallerand less carefully built,was thenconstructed ontotheeastofthefirst.The smallsize ofthetrenchmakestheinterpretation of thisstructure It mighthavebeenpartofa house,butit also mightjustas easily impossible. havebeenan agricultural was muchrougher thanthatofthecastle, building.The masonry witha generally weakermortar. A second,better-preserved remains building tothenorthofthetower:itappears standing to havebeenbuiltparallelto theRomanfortification wall.Onlyoneofthetwolongsidessurvives.Builtintwophases,itrunseast-west andcomprises tworooms.Thewesternmost ofthese wasbuiltlaterthantheeastern, whichitabuts.On theeastwallofthewestern roomis a niche, linedwithbrick.Themasonry carefully oftheeastern roomis muchrougher andwithout tiles, whilethemasonry ofthewestroomis morecompact, numerous oftiles including fragments insidea whitish mortar. Thissecondpartofthewallresembles thelatedefensive wallon the Arxandmaybe contemporary withit.The longshapeofthisbuildingsuggests thatitmight havefunctioned as a granary oras another formofstorehouse, butwithout further excavation itis impossible to interpret thestructure withcertainty. Its chronology is evenlesswellestablishedthanthatofthebuildingto theeast,and thefrequent use oftilein itswallsmayhave occurred at anytimefromthethirteenth tothefirst century quarter ofthefourteenth.341 Phase4. Defensesaddedto thetowerin a laterperiodshowsimilarconstruction techniques and wereprobablyall builtat thesametime.The firstand mostimportant of theseis the probablebase fora trebuchet builtagainsttheRomancitywall,about45 m southwest ofthe castle(EH). This structure was madeup of an irregular ringof largestones,certainly retrieved fromthepolygonal masonry oftheRomanwallitself, andfilledinwithearth(figs.43 and 50). The resultwas a moundrevetted in stone,whosetop is almostexactlyflushwith thatoftheRomancitywall.Themoundslopesdowngradually to thewest,wheretheringof stonesis lower.Thiswas plausiblyinterpreted byTheresaClayas thebase fora trebuchet. Thiswouldhavebeen draggedup fromthewesternside,wheretherevetment is lower.342 The addedheight wouldhavelifteditoverthecitywall,allowing ittofirewithout damageto thearm.The positionis suitablefordefenseagainstattackers approaching fromthedirectionoftheport,although itis unlikely thata projectile firedfromthetrebuchet wouldhave reachedtheportitself. The southern sideoftheouterdefensive wallofthetowerwasfurther reinforced witha bermconstructed inexactlythesamemanneras thetrebuchet platform (pl.30,EH VI ext.). Parentidiscussingthematerialused in different periods has noticed thatthe use of tile in combinationwith stones becomes a more standardprocedureby the end of the thirteenthcentury.Parenti 1988, 284. The tiles here seem to have derived largelyfromRoman settlementdebris. 341
This area was excavatedin our firstcampaignin 1990, and the resultswere published in Fentresset al. 1991, 197-230; Hobart 1991, 71-89.
342
Fig.43.Reconstruction drawing ofthe trebuchet (R.Impey, reproduced bykind permission ofthePapers oftheBritish School inRome).
Plate30.Thebermandtheouterwallofthe castle(TS).
130
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
The spacebetweentheexternal faceofthewalland an outerringoffaced,polygonal stones was filledwithearth1 m deep.In frontoftheberm,a shallowditchwas cutdownto bedrock,usingas itssouthern sidethemuchearliercutoftheboundary oftheRomansanctuary. The resulting obstaclewas in all only3 m wideand 1.80m deepbutcouldhaveprevented theeffective use ofsiegemachinery againstthewall. A similar, shallowditchwas cutalongsidethesurfaces associatedwiththeouterdefensivewallon thewestern herethebermwasmissing side,although (EH II). Allthesedefenses havetheairofhavingbeenthrown in somehaste.The use ofstonesfromthepotogether lygonalwallsratherthancutblocksis particularly as is theshallowditchand noteworthy, berm.This appearsto be thelatestseriesof constructions insignificant beforetheend of Ansedonia. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CASTLE
The sillat theentrance to thetowercistern was foundcoveredwitha thinlayerofashthat mayhaveresulted fromtheburning ofthewoodenshutter thatclosedthesill.Elsewhere, all thesurfaces werecoveredwiththetumbleofthetowerandthemuchlesssignificant tumble fromthedefensive wall.Therewereno tracesofburning outsidethewestern wall,and nowhereelse werethetumblelayerscompletely excavated.The destruction of thecastlewas evidently To thenortheast, extremely systematic. theRomanwallswerepusheddownfrom theinside,creating an impressive pileoftumbleon thesideofthehill.The wallsin therest ofthetowndo notseemto havereceivedthesametreatment. thelargecistern Although was thesmallcistern entirely empty, wasfilledwithlayersofsilt.In thelowestoftheseand in a limitedspace30 coinswerefound,possiblyfroma smallpurse(see catalogueinfra).These, withtheremainsoffivealmostcompletepitchers together in archaicmaiolica,as wellas of twounglazedvessels,testify to thefinalabandonment ofthecastle.343 CHRONOLOGY
Beforediscussing theevidence from themedieval periodelsewhere inthetown,itseemsworthwhileto establishas bestwe can thechronology ofthedifferent phasesjustdescribed.For theoriginaltower, we can proposea datebetweentheeleventh andtheearlytwelfth centuries.The outerdefensive wallofthetowercoversa ringditch,wherea fragment ofSparse Glaze wasfound.Thisfragment providesthebestevidencefordatingthewallto theendof theeleventh or later.It musthavebeencompleted century bythesecondhalfofthetwelfth whenthecastleofAnsedoniais first century, mentioned on a document (belowp. 135).The construction techniqueseenin theearliestwallofthetowerin EH III wouldfitwellwitha dateat theendoftheeleventh century, beingregularly coursedin rathersmallblocks. The secondwallin thattrench, whichbuttresses thetowerto thenorth,is evenmore andmaywithsomeconfidence regular be datedfromitsconstruction technique tothetwelfth This couldbe trueofthebuttressing century. cistern, whichwas probablybuiltaboutthe sametime.The heavieruse ofmortar in itsconstruction mayhaveresulted fromtheneedto supporta vault. The construction ofthecisternis givena firmteminus antequemofA.D. 1210-1211by thedateincisedontotheplaster.No suchprecisedatingis givenforeithertheblockingof "I See belowp. 326,pl. 119;329,pl. 121.
ANSEDONIA
131
oftheouterwall,so thesupposition thatthesebelongto the thecastlegateortherebuilding alNo datesare assignedto thesubsidiary samephaseremainsuncorroborated. buildings, thoughtheheavyuse oftileinpartofthelongrectangular buildingto thenorthdoessuggest a datein thelate thirteenth or fourteenth A similardateis suggested forthe centuries.344 Thisappearsto be confirmed foundin thefillofthelittlecistern. pottery bythelatestcoin, 1324,in thedispersedhoardfromthesamelocation.The date 1329 givenby theSienese this(document18,belowp. 135). forthedestruction ofAnsedoniasupports chronicle datesto thebuildingphasesofthecastle: Thuswe maytentatively assignthefollowing or earlytwelfth phase 1: lateeleventh century; phase2: mid-twelfth century; phase3: thirteenthcentury; phase4: firstquarterofthefourteenth century. THE FoRM ANDCONTEXTOF THETOWER
Closeparallelsto thetowerat Ansedoniaarefoundin bothurbanand ruralcontexts on the southernTuscancoast. Similartowersare visibleon the Argentario and at promontory Bothpresentclearparallelsforthestringcourses ofbricksfoundon Capalbiaccio(Tricosto). fallenfroman upperstory. thefragment at 10x 10 m,Ansedonia's However, planseemstobe oneofthelargest ofthearea.AtTuscania, wherea closestudyhasbeenmadeofthetowers on thehillaroundS. Pietro,thetowersvaryin sizebetween5 x 5 m (themajority) to 9.10x 8.30 m.345 Twoofthelargest showthesamereinforcement wehaveobserved inphase2. In onecase theouter, wallrisestoa pointjustbelowthelaststory, buttressing intended tosustain evidently thegreatheightofthebuilding. In ourreconstruction ofthecastle,we havefollowed theproofthisstructure. Of course,manyofthedetailsonwhichthephasingoftheTuscania portions towers is based-roundedorpointeddoors,inwardly arrowslitsorarched splayeddoorjambs, thenatureofthequoining-aremissing windows, here.346 Further, noneoftheTuscaniatowers hasa cistern likethatofAnsedonia. ThelandscapeoftheAgerCosanusbytheendofthetwelfth century wasdottedwiththe sortoftowerfoundhere,surrounded, perhaps,bythesamesortofsmallsettlement.347 The frescopaintedon thegateofthemonastery ofS. Anastasio(colorpls. 9 and 10),ifhardlya realistic representation, givesus theflavorofthislandscape,representing stylized hillseach coveredwitha stylized castle. Other Medieval Settlement THEFORUM
One well-preserved plateof archaicmaiolica348 was foundin thedestruction levelsof the churchon TempleB, whichsuggests thatitwasin use untiltheendofthesettlement. A few otherstraysherdsandcoinswerefoundintheareaofthecuria,butno structures inthatarea remainto suggesthouses.The latestburialin thecemetery, as we haveseen,is datedto the 344
Parenti1988,284.
Della Monaca et al. 1996,62-67; Pringle1972,200 fig. 8; 203 fig.11.
"I
Collavini 1998 listsall of theAldobrandeschiproperties in the Maremma.
345
346
Andrews1978; Pringle1972, 189-194.
348
Fentresset al. 1991, pl. 4.
132
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
inuse,although thatthecemetery continued therelationthirteenth century, soitispossible unclear. thiscemetery andthatontheArxremains shipbetween THEARx
ofthechurch ontheArxarethefoundations tothe medieval structures stillvisible Thethree of a and a the latter both added the eastof temple (abovep. 107),parts standing wall, tower, in coursed fortification. Thiswallwasbuiltwithirregularly totheearlier Byzantine masonry tower with tile.Tothesouthwest oftheByzantine a gray mortar, frequent gate,a square projects oftileusedwiththelimestone thewall.Substantial from quantities suggest that,likethe ontheEastern thiswallwasconstructed attheendofthethirrectangular building Height, ofthefourteenth ofa puzzle, Itsrolerepresents teenth orthebeginning century. something insidethisareawasthelatetenthstructure or early as theonlyothermedieval surviving intheprevious church discussed eleventh-century chapter. as itis missofthewallappearstobe rather theconstruction Further, discontinuous, cannot it wascomand western faces. We whether of the northern ingalongparts say side.To theeastofthemainentrance totheArx pletedorrobbedoutalongitswestern itshighest to the thesurviving wallis in goodcondition, 4 m.However, pointreaching thereis no traceofit,norsufficient tumble to suggest thatit westofthesameentrance thatit mayneverhavebeencompleted and at thispoint.Thissuggests was destroyed thattheplanoffortifying theArxwasinterrupted during construction.349 However, some thelatethirteenth occurred andearlyfourteenth as a few occupation during centuries, indicate.350 sherdsofpottery It is notpossibletoestablish ornotthechurch whether wasstillinuseatthistime.351 theCapitoline stillstanding couldeasilyhavebeeninhabited However, temple, hightoday, elements stillvisibleareholesinthesurface ofthe thisperiod.Theonlystructural during lateral wallsinsidethemaintemple. Thesefairly regular aligned openings mayhavesupported floors orroofing. Thewell-preserved Roman cistern oftheCapitoline wooden onthepodium havebeenusedas well.Thelackofwaterat Ansedonia madeanypossible temple might onsitevaluable. Aswehaveseen,a limekiln collection builtintothepodium pointavailable usedtoburnthefacing ofthetemple wascertainly themortar usedinthe blocks, creating castleontheEastern thesearetheonlysurviving ontheArx elements Height. Unfortunately, andthetrench ina zoneuntouched ofthemedieval excavated settlement, byearlier excavaArxI, showed nomedieval Elsewhere theextensive intheearly tions, stratigraphy. excavation tohelpfurther 1950sleftlittle speculations. Untilrecently theArxwasbelieved tobe thelocation forthecastlementioned inSienese documents. Thestanding wallsofthetemple seenfrom a distance ledtotheobvious assumption thatthiswasthesiteofthecastle. TheArxwascertainly anactive partofthesettlement from an finds oftenth-century asunstratified early period, pottery testify. However, theevidence from the Eastern Height suggests thatthiswastheareaofgreatest settlement concentration, forwhen inthefourteenth Ansedonia wasthreatened itwasthemost century, heavily fortified. Similarly, thefortification wallsofCapalbiaccioseem 351 This area,on the southernside of the Capitoline neverto havebeencompleted: Dyson1984,268. temple, wasparticularly disturbed during WorldWarII. Barracks werebuiltagainstthetemple, andtheareawas 350 Fentress et al. 1991,197-230;Hobart199171-89; cleanedoutwithdynamite. Hobart1992,304-309. 349
133
ANSEDONIA
. <-
;"
2w"b ^
g
_
; 4
Plate31. EasternHeight, Balloon showingterracing. photograph(archives, i AmericanAcademyin Rome)
4r
THE NORTHWESTGATE AND THE MARKET BUILDING
Brownand Scott'sexcavationsof 1972-1976 revealeda carefulrebuildingand refortification of the northwestgate.352 This maybe associatedwithsome sortof occupationon or near the marketbuilding,whose strongpolygonalpodiummayhave provenan attractivesiteforlater occupation,as at the EasternHeight and theArx. The materialcollectedfromthiscampaign has been misplacedduringthe different of themuseum.Howunfortunately reorganizations ever,a fewchance findsof medievalpotterynear the northernedge of the structuresupport thisview.Furtherexcavationwould clarifythe functionof thisarea duringthe Middle Ages. CULTIVATIONON THE HILLTOP
Balloon photographyundertakenin the 1970s shows a seriesof relictcultivationterracesin the area to the west of the castlewalls and above the sinkholefurtherdown the hill (pl. 31). These are surelypost-Roman;theyprobablywere relatedto the castlein one of its phases. It seemsplausible to imaginethattherestof thetownwas cultivatedas well. There also seem to be tracesof shallow agriculturalactivityin the forumarea (see late phases of Forum V). Of thefourteenhectaresof thehill of Cosa, one, at most,was used forhabitation.It would have 352
Brown1984.
134
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
witha pastureon thelowerslopes and in providedample arable land fora smallcommunity, the marshesbelow. It is unlikelythat much farmingoccurred on the marshyand malarial plain,whereno medievalpotteryhas everbeen picked up by systematicsurvey.
Documentary Evidenceand theHistoryoftheCastle The documentsrelatingto theAgerCosanushave been discussedon severaloccasions,most recentlyby AnthonyLuttrelland SimoneCollavini.353 Table 3 liststhe significant documents between 1081 and 1329 in whichthename Ansedoniaappears. The firstof thesedocuments is thelistof propertiesheld by the monasteryof S. Paolo fuorile mura.Afterthe mentionof the monasteryof S. Anastasio,ceded to S. Paolo sometimeduringthe previouscentury,a brief list appears detailing the monastery'sformerproperties,including the civitas of Ansedonia.Here the name of Ansedoniais mentionedforthe firsttime. In 1140, the pope gave the monasteryof S. Anastasioto Bernardof Clairvauxand the Cistercianorder.The new abbot, BernardoPisano, soon became Pope EugeniusIII and may oftheCarolingiandonation,althoughno documents(apart haveinitiatedthefirstconfirmation fromtheforgeddonation)belong to thispapacy.Confirmations thatAnsedoniaand theother castles of the Ager Cosanus did indeed belong to the monasteryat the Tre Fontane follow throughoutthe twelfthcentury.This reiterationimplies,of course,thatthe ownershipof the castleswas underdispute.We need not look farforthe sourcesof thisthreat.In the twelfth who had occupied the headwatersof the AlbegnaRiver the Aldobrandeschifamily, century, and had been graduallypushed down fromtheiroriginalseat at Lucca, appropriatedmuch In 1173 we findthecastleof Scerpenain thehands of thelands of theabbeyof S. Salvatore.354 of the comitatusIldibrandesco,35 while the Aldobrandeschipropertydivisionof 1216 lists Ansedoniaamongtheterritories thatpassed to theSanta Fiora branchof thefamily.356 By 1203, in fact,the castle was occupied by vassals of the Aldobrandeschiand apparentlyremainedin the hands of a singlefamilyuntilthe destructionof the site in 1329. The Orvietanchroniclelists Catello de Guglielmode Anzidonia,one of the principalvassals of theAldobrandeschi(document8).357 Tancredidi Catellino,mentionedin a chronicleof 1219, was most likelythe son of Catello (document 10). The last knownpossessor of the castle, anotherTancredidi Catellino,probablya relative,was recordedas havingsubmittedto Orvieto in 1319 (document17). of possessionis remarkablein viewof thefrequentquarrelsoveritsownThis continuity One such disputeoccurredin 1274, ershipamongthemembersoftheAldobrandeschifamily. In 1303 Pope BonifaceVIII while in 1289, the sitewas besieged by Margaritaof S. Fiora.358 gave the castle to BenedettoCaetani, his nephew.The next quartercenturywas markedby almostcontinuouspettywarfarebetweenthe Baschi of Orvieto,the Aldobrandeschi(supported by the Orsini family),the Pisans (supportersof the Baschi), the papacy,and finally "I
Luttrell2002; Collavini 1998.
"4 Collavini 1998, 257, 264. 355
356
withthegeographical divisions oftheterritories. "I Cardarelli 1925,II, 92.
RS, 98 note257; Cardarelli 1925,100.
358
Ciacci 1934. See also map betweenpages 56 and 57
perugine.
In 1302Margherita Aldobrandeschi hadpaidherannual fee to the monastery of S. Anastasioof 25 lire
1
Author
Date
VII Gregory
with Ansedoniaas "civitas" 1081 privilege list property
2
Nature
?1140 forged privilege
Notes
bronzeplaquenowlost
Text S. Paolo 1 Trifone 1908,278-285 DCM, 274
3
III Alexander
with confirmation of2 1161 privilege property list
4
S. Anastasio
c. contract 1180
5
LuciusIII
with confirmation, 1183 privilege property list withchurches
ASS Capitoli171,no.2
6
ClementIII
1188 privilege withconfirmation, property list withchurches
Kehr1908,288-291
7
CelestineIII
1191 privilege with confirmation, list withchurches property
Ratti1797,96-98;plus Barbiero1938,pl. 20
1203 chronicle
mentions Catello de Anzidonia
Muratori 284 1203
1216 contract
Aldobrandeschi divisionofproperties
CDO no. 107p. 75; summaryinFumi1884,74-77
10
1219 chronicle
mentions Tancredi di Catellino
Muratori 289
11 Alexander IV
1256 privilege with confirmation property list
Vat.Lat.5844,fols.51-55v; Luttrell 2002,53
12 S. Anastasio
1269 contract
confirmation of emphyteusis
ASS Capitoli171, Riformagioni, Ughelli 1718, 748-749
13 Aldobrandeschi1274 contract ofSovanaand Santafiora
property division
ASS Riformagioni ad an. Cf.Bibl.Com.Sen.,cod. B. VI, 16,168;Ciacci1935, 246-247
14 Aldobrandeschi1286 lease
confirmation
ASS S. Anastasioad an. (copyof1322);Ciacci1935, 274; Giorgi1878,61-63
15 S. Anastasio
1303 lease
emphyteusis to Aldobrandeschi revoked, Caetaniholdfeudalrights overAnsedonia
ASS S. Anastasioad an. (copyof1322)cf.Ughelli III, 826-829;Caetani 1922,20
16
1319 lease
Ansedoniainpossessions of ASS Cons.Gen.,RegXCII, Aldobrandeschi ofS. Fiora c. 2t;Ciacci1935,246-247
17
1319 chronicle
Tancredidi Catellino submits to Orvieto
18
1329 chronicle
accountofthedestruction HS II, 486; partialtext, ofAnsedoniabytheSienese Giorgi1878,61-63
8 9
Comuneof Orvieto
Giorgi1878,59-60
concession ofemphyteusis CV no. 62 pp. 81-86 an. to Aldobrandeschi 273 1203;fordateCollavini
Cardarelli1925,114
Table3. Documents relating toAnsedonia (established byA. Luttrell andM. Hobart).
136
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
SienawoulddeSiena.Then,in 1316Orvietoand Sienaagreedon an allianceforprogress: on theleft. the Orvieto all those bank of River, all of the castles on the Albegna right stroy to regainsomeoftheir oftheAldobrandeschi family attempted The following yearmembers theinevipeace" withSiena.Thisdelayedonlybriefly old territory bysigninga "perpetual but the of the not periodhad rewas immediate, generaldisruption tableend.Destruction sultedin largenumbersof displacedand well-armedpeople. Manyof thesesettledin Caetani whichbecameknownoncemoreas a nestofbandits.In 1319Benedetto Ansedonia, Catellino was held Tancredi di Ansedonia ofSiena.Bythen,however, by becamethepotestd ofOrvieto(document17). In August1329,Sienadecidedto rootthe underthejurisdiction to laysiegeto the "bandits"outand sentan armyof3,000footsoldiersplus300 balistrarii thecastle.The sitewas city.The nextdaytheycapturedthecity(urbisvestigio)and finally in an attempt to prevent itsuse as a shelterforbrigandsand thensystematically destroyed, 18). thusto protectcoastalshipping(document ofthe For thepurposesofthisbriefoutline,we can breakdownthelasttwocenturies site'soccupationintofourperiods.Duringthefirst(ca. 1080-1140),thesitewasin thepostothemonastery ofS. Paolofuorile mura.Around1140,itreturned sessionofthemonastery it whocontinued tohold untilneartheendofthe nowundertheCistercians, ofS. Anastasio, theendofthesecondperiod.Fromca. 1200to 1320,itwasheldbyvassals marking century, whileforthefinaldecadethesewereeitherjoinedoroustedbythose oftheAldobrandeschi, the Sienese whom perceivedofas "a groupofbandits." thesehistorical phasingofthesiteis a less phaseswiththearchaeological Connecting thetowermighthavebeenerectedas earlyas thelastquarterofthe Although easymatter. forassigning thereis no clearsignorial thiswork.This,of eleventh agentresponsible century, period.Again,we have course,is a problemthatwe havealreadydiscussedin thepreceding theconstruction tothemonastery ofS. a castlewithno obviouslord,unlesswe mayattribute borderof Paolo ortooneofitsvassals.Thiswould,again,fitintothedefenseofthenorthern thePapal States,alongwithCastrumElsa and Orbetello.Another possiblesolutionwould at S. be to attribute theconstruction of thetowerto thenewenergiesof theCistercians theonlysignificant properties forwhomthelandsoftheAgerCosanusremained Anastasio, wereslippingaway,the whentheseproperties in Italy.Even by the end of the century, oftheAgerCosanusbypaintings on theirgate theirownership Cistercians werestillasserting wouldthenbe and on thefa,adeofthechurch(colorpl. 9). The logicoftheconstruction of the castleof moreeconomicthandefensive. However,theidea thatthe construction totheadministration oftheCistercian monksremains specuAnsedoniashouldbe attributed landlordsinRometo a level lative.It is perhapsmoreplausibletolookbeyondthemonastic thatonlyappearsinoursourcesinthethirteenth The "privileged" ofminornobility century. forthe burialsof thetwoearlychurchesmaysuggestthatthedeceasedwereresponsible ditched and their heirs for settlement its reconstruction as a tower with a defensive original overthelandwerepassedfromthemonastery wall.Whiletheownership ofand rights ofS. theoccupantshad Paolo to thatof S. Anastasioad AcquasSalviasto theAldobrandeschi, likethatofthelaterCatellini-ifnotthe beenand continued to be a minorsignorial family, Catellinithemselves. fallduringtheperiodof Phase 2, whenthecisternwas constructed, shouldcertainly control.The extremely innovative structure andtheconcernwithwaterconservaCistercian tionseementirely to a Cistercian initiative. The regularconstruction technique appropriate
ANSEDONIA
137
ofthebuttressing wallandtheterminus antequemof1211providedbythegraffito inscribed in thecisterncombineto suggesta datein thesecondhalfofthetwelfth century. Phase 3, whichsees theuse of thecisternas a prison,thereconstruction of theouter defensive of a seriesofbuildingswithinthedefensive wall,theconstruction wall,and the gradualspreadof occupationoutsidethewallsof thecastleto theArxand thenorthwest to theAldobrandeschi when gate,mustsurelybe attributed periodofthethirteenth century, Ansedoniawasthefiefof"Catellodi Anzidonia"andhisdescendants. Phase4, characterized byhastyand ratherincompetent theberm,ditch,and outworks, mustdateto thelastyearsoftheoccupationofthesite,ifnotto itsvery trebuchet platform, lastdays. in thearea? How can Ansedoniabe linkedto thephenomenon of theincastellamento Ansedoniaas a medievalsettlement has a veryparticular nature.Normally, Romanarchaeologicalsitesare locatedin theplains,whilehilltopsare mostlydominated by Etruscanor The siteoftheRomantownofCosa wasa naturally medievalpopulation. strategic place.The immense polygonal wallsand thewell-preserved ruinsoftheRomantownoffered a natural defensive siteto thenewmedievalsettlement, one oftheearliestofthearea,withitstower, itssmallfortifications, anditsclusterofhuts.The defended areaswerethetwohigher hillsof thetown:theEasternHeightand theArx.Theybothprovideda clearstrategic observation pointovertheVia Aurelia,Orbetello,andthesouthern coast.The settlement, even however, at itspeakofpopulation-during theendofthethirteenth and beginning ofthefourteenth centuries-wasalwayssmall.The fortification on theEasternHeightcouldnothaveheld morethanfiveor sixfamilies undersiege,andonlyfora shortperiod.The structures inside thecastlemayhaveservedas granaries and providedstorageforthedefenders, butnotfor an entirecommunity. Nonetheless Ansedoniaseemsto haveretaineda certainvitality, as its extensive contactsshow.LocatedbetweenTuscanyandthePapal States,theterritotrading riescontrolled bytheAldobrandeschi seemto havehad contactwithboth,as the(predominantly Tuscan)pottery andthe(predominantly Montefiascone) coinsshow.It mayalsohave servedas themarketplace foranyruralcommunity nearby. To conclude,Ansedoniaappearsto be a goodexampleofdevelopment alongthecoast, whichreacheditspeakat thebeginning ofthefourteenth century, beforewarandtheBlack Deathbrought thepopulationoftheMaremma to a levelfromwhichitdidnotrecoveruntil thetwentieth The earlymedievalsettlement century. was defended byearthen fortifications, to the of testifying originalincastellamento thearea.The tower,positionedon one of the highest pointson thiscoast,mayhaveservedas thecenterfortheorganization ofthemonasticproperties in thearea.The ruinsof Cosa gavethetownthenameofcivitasin medieval to thesitemoreforitspastthanforitsmedievalsettlement. documents, addingauthority The surrounding Romanwallgavethenewmedievalsettlement an unusualidentity, butit was partofa largertrendtowardtheoccupationofthehillswithdefendedsettlements that was occurring centralItaly. throughout
An Intermittent Settlement 6 + Conclusions: ElizabethFentress
O
ofoccupationat thesiteofCosa has revealedjustthereverse. ursearchforcontinuity taleforthosewhoengagein fieldsurvey, forfindsofall the Indeed,it is a cautionary wouldimmediately lead to theconclusionthatthesitehad been periodsof Cosa's history inthetownis itsdiscontinuity. continuously occupied.Instead,theonlycontinuity apparent on thespecific conThefactors causingthisdiscontinuity werefarmoredependent historical ofthehillanditssurrounding coastalplain.Excavation textthanon thenaturalenvironment on siteswhoseoccupationcoversthelonguedure'egivesus glimpsesofmicroeconomic syswiththeirneighbors overtime.In thecase ofCosa anditsterritemsandtheirrelationship we arestruckbyhowfragile theconnections tory, were,bothbetweenthetownand itsimandbetweenthetownandmoredistantcenters. mediateterritory Its firstincarnaWe haveseenCosa foundedfullysixtimes,withjustas manyfailures. as to new in was so ephemeral deductionofsettlers tion,as a Republicancolony, requirea 197 B.C. Thisis theperiodto whichwe can datealmostall ofthedomestic and mostofthe ofthetown.Thissettlement publicstructures collapsedin itsturnaround70 B.C., due perofpirates.A thirdsettlement, hapsto theincursions probablya colonyoftheAugustan period,endedmoregradually, perhapsas earlyas thelastquarterofthefirstcentury A.D., althesecondcenthoughsometracesofoccupationarefoundin theforumareathroughout an or military A the res administrative tury. fourth settlement, publicaCosanorum, probably centercreatedbyCaracalla,was desertedbytheendofthethirdcentury. Again,thereis no thatthesitewas no longerattractive to its occutraceof violence,simplytheimpression end The fifth which at the of the fifth was similar to the pants. settlement, began century, mansioor castrum, and a smallgroupof buildings fourth;a probableofficialcomponent, and againseemsto have apparently occupiedby civilians.It lastedno morethana century The finalsettlement ofthesite(ifwe ignoretheenbeenabandonedratherthandestroyed. at theendofthetenth tirely ephemeral Carolingian presence)was thelongestlived,starting ofthesitein 1329. andendingwiththeSienesedestruction century At firstsightthesesix storiesseemto havelittleto do witheachother.Each is entirely consistent withitsownhistorical context. Wecouldlookatthesettlements as paratactic events thathappenedalmostcoincidentally tooccupythesamehill.Eachchosethesiteforitsevident theaggressive advantages: positionbetweenthecoastandtheViaAurelia, withgoodcommunications withtheinterior. Therichfarmland andfisheries wouldhavebeenmoreimportant to theoriginalsettlers thanto thesubsequent communities: indeed,duringtheEmpireit seems clearthat,likefarming, becametheprovince ofmorepowerful fishing privatelandlords. Of after wouldhavebenefited thefirst fromthemassive course,allsettlements fortifications ofthe thirdcentury B.C., whichacted,in a sense,as one moreoftheposition's naturaladvantages.
138
CONCLUSIONS
139
betweenthesuccessivesettlements arisesin a rathersubtlerway,however. Continuity Beyondtheinertiaprovidedbytheruinsthemselves, whichoffered naturalattractions to furthersettlement, therewastheinertiaprovidedbythememory oftheplaceanditsstatusas a town.The municipium ofCosa wasa fiscalandlegalinstitution, holdingland,a treasury, and controloverpublicbuildings. It wasthuseasy,andindeed,necessary, tomaintain a fiction of betweenthecolonyof Cosa and therespublicaCosanorum continuity of thethirdcentury, evenifthelatterwasno morethana scatterofgranaries andadministrative buildings. Using thisfiction, thelittlesettlement, itsvariouscurators, or,morelikely, wouldhavebeenableto controlandadminister thepubliclandsoftheformer colonyinthenameofitsdecurions. In thesameway,thesixth-century ifperhapsconsciously a "Neapolis,"wouldhave castrum, inherited theterritorial boundariesoftheearlieradministration, whoserecordsmighthave been preserved by archivesin Rome,availableto Gothicrulersas wellas to Byzantine administrators. Archives mayalsohaveprovidedthesourceforthetitletotheterritory givento theabbeyofS. AnastasiobyLiutprand orbyCharlemagne. ViewedfromRome,Cosa should havebeen an administrative centerwitha coherent, sizableterritory. Throughan occupied Cosa thelandcouldbe taxed,brought undercultivation, andcontrolled. Thisarchival memory almostcertainly led to thethird-and sixth-century settlements, withtheirmilitary and administrative character. It may,indeed,havebeen an important in themedieval component settlement as well,referred to significantly bythenamecivitasevenin theeleventh century, whenitssettlement was an ephemeral affair ofhutsandearthworks. The politicalroleofthe siteis apparent initsfortification inthelateeleventh andtwelfth whenitsposition centuries, on thenorthern frontier ofthePapal Stateshad onceagainbecomeimportant. ButwhatwastheviewfromCosa? One hastheimpression thatfromthefirst century A.D. onwardtheaspectwasaltogether lessimpressive. Thisrelationship toRomewasfairly tenuous. Overa hundred milesaway,themetropolis seemcloserto Carthage. could,attimes, Romewas closeenoughto drainpopulation butnotcloseenoughto provideitwithanysubstantial market.If thevillasofCosa'sterritory coulduse itsportto exporttheirwineto thewholeofthe western thetownitselfhad farless to sell.The Augustan Mediterranean, settlement had to contend withthefactthatitsorganicrelation totheterritory hadallbutdisappeared. Theland was farmed through villaswhoseabsenteeurbanlandlords had littleinterest in theinsignificantmunicipality on thehill.Evenitsportwasquickly takenoverbya majorvilla.359 The settlerscouldhardlyhavehad muchlandto farm, although housessuchas thatofDiana or the House oftheBirdsmight havebeenbuiltbytheownersofvillasin thearea,following an old reflex to establish a residence in thenearbytown.Norwerelocalmanufactures likelyto have beenparticularly interesting to theslaveswhoformed themainlaborforceat thevillas.The collapse,perhapsinan earthquake, ofmajorpublicbuildings inthesecondquarter ofthefirst century A.D. mayhavediscouraged theinhabitants stillfurther: certainly theefforts ofL. Titinius GlaucusLucretianus to rebuildthetownfindno echo amonga grateful citizenry, whilethe HouseofDiana,whichheprobably inhabited, collapsedsoonafter hisdeparture from thetown. We mayperhapsseethebulkofthecitizensdisappearing atthesametime:towardtheopportunities foremployment provided bythevastNeronian building program after thefireof62 or towardprovinces suchas Africa whoseeconomies wereonlyjuststarting to develop.Thewaterless hill,withitslandscapeempty offarms, no longerheldmuchattraction. "I
Ciampoltriniand Rendini 1990; Ciampoltrini1991.
140
THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
wine boom of Cosa's fateis not an isolated example of the effectsof the extraordinary the end of the Republic and the beginningof the Empire and its consequencesforthe agriculturaleconomy.It was sharedbymanyofthesmalltownswithinRome'simmediatesphere. The historyof neighboringHeba, on the rightbank of theAlbegna,is similarto thatof Cosa it coversan area of around 14 in manyways.Founded in the firsthalfof the second century, hectares,on gentlyslopingground.The entiresite is ploughed,and thusin 1982 a verysysThe experimentshowed that tematiccollectionof the potterywas carriedout on the site.360 the towngrewfroma smallnucleus of the thirdcenturyB.C. to its fullsize in thefirsthalfof the second centuryB.C. Italic red-glazedpotteryand earlyAfricanRed Slip are abundant, of the forumporticounder Hadrian.361 and we should also note the reconstruction African Red Slip datingto the second halfof the second centuryis almostcompletelyabsent. This suggestsa sharp decline in the occupation of the site towardthe middle of the second century.With the thirdcenturyAfricanRed Slip again arrivesat the site in quantity,a revival that coincides with one of the veryfew inscriptionsfromthe site, a dedication to Julia Mammaea by the R(es) P(ublica) Heb(anorum).362 This briefresuscitation, whichprovidesa clear parallelto thatof Cosa, did not survivethe end of thethirdcentury, and fourth-century potteryis foundonlyon a tinyportionof the site.At Vulci,too, the Augustanperiod shows thereconstruction of aristocratic housesin thecenteroftown:theHouse oftheCryptoporticus is one of themostluxuriousin AugustanItaly.363 But the restof Vulci'shistorywe knowonly throughits inscriptions:a dedicationto Vespasian and the mentionof an ordo and populus on a monumentto Fl. ValeriusSeverus.364 Three Christiantombscompletethe evidencefor the late Roman occupation.365 The difference betweenthesetownsand Cosa was the evident desire withinRome to keep an administrative presence on the site and the frequencywith whichattemptswere made to carrythisout. Althoughthe old model of an organicrelationshipbetweentown and territory had colin lapsed practice,it took longerto disappearfromRomantheory.The progressivedeclineof farmingin the Maremmawas not invisible,as we have seen fromAurelian'splan forthe resettlementof barbarians.The administrative void mustalso have been felt.It is in thiscontext thatwe mustsee the respublica Cosanorum,a PotemkinVillage whose forumportico masked the emptylots behind it. The onlyfigurethatappears regularlyin the epigraphyis the curatorreipublicae,and the successiveimperialdedicationsof the thirdcenturyseem as hollow as the portico itself.The substantialgranaries,however,suggestthat at least some cultivationand collectionwas takingplace, givingthe centeritsraisond'etre.These granaries mightalso serveto explain the curioustale of RutiliusNamatianus,who relatedin A.D. 416 thattheinhabitantsof Cosa had been drivenout by a plague of mice.366 The variousattempts to explain thisremarkhave leftthe simplestsolutionaside: thata settlementin whichgrain storagewas the principalactivitycould not long survivea reallyseriousinfestation by mice. The settlementof the sixthcenturyshould be seen in the same lightas the respublica Cosanorum.Beginningin the Gothic period as whatwas probablya smallciviliansettlement, 360
This was carriedout by I. Attoliniand has been reported on in Celuzza and Fentress1990.
363
AE 1981, 343, integratedwith furtherfragments, clearly froma portico, found on the Albegna Valley Survey.
364
CIL XI, 2928.
365
CIL XI, 2948-2950.
366
De redditu I, 285f.
361
362
AE 1981,340.
De Albentiis1990, 136-138; see also Papi 2000 for the laterhistoryof the othersouthernEtruscanfarms.
CONCLUSIONS
141
character lateron,as theextensive barnsand granaries it seemsto haveacquiredan official villaat TorreTagliata.A on theArxsuggest.Possiblythiswas thesuccessoroftheimperial was military roleseemsto havecomestilllater,fortheArxwas onlywalledafterthegranary havetakenplaceduring theGothicWarsofthe530s.Yetagain,we burned.Thischangemight withdelusions ofgrandeur. ofbuildings, arelookingat a humblecollection possibly Someone, theideaofthecitywitha farmore perhapsan administrator, perhapsinRome,wasconfusing orcastrum itquickly itneverexisted.As a settlement As a city, miserable reality. peteredout. was certainly more The groupthatsettledon thehillat theend of thetenthcentury a farmoreintegrated successful, displaying responseto theenvironment. Theyusedthehill fortificaThe progressive forwhatitwas perhapsbestadaptedfor:subsistence agriculture. and thenwitha standardtowerand outtionof theEasternHeight,firstwithearthworks ofthesettlement, thebestevidenceforthecontinuing work,is probably politicaldimension as thetortured of thePapal States.But thisrolewas ambiguous, on thenorthern frontier shows.The abbeysofS. Paolo and oftheTre ofthecastlein thethirteenth history century and mayhaveexpecteda reFontanemayhavecontributed capitalto buildthestructures ofthethirteenth ifnotearlier, we see turnon itsinvestment, butfromthebeginning century, whoseinterests werecenteredon the thecastleat Ansedoniain thehandsofa local family, ofcreating rentsor taxesforRome.Indeed,theoccupasite,ratherthanon thepossibility seemstohaveputa haltto anyroleinthedefense tionoftheterritory bytheAldobrandeschi ofthePapal States. The concentration ofall theruralpopulation intocastlesinthisperiodshouldnotnecesin orderto sarilybe seenas retrograde: perhapssucha nucleatedsettlement was necessary createtheconcentration oflaborneededto restart theagricultural economyoftheregion. oftheareawas in expansionduringthisperiod.Infrastructure thesettlement of Certainly roadsand markets was growing, fora newroadhad justbeen createdbetweenRomeand Maglianoacrossthevalleyof Capalbio (fig.44). The demandforfoodby theprosperous citiesofSienaand Florencewas probablyinfluential of here,andin theincreasing quantity we canperhapssee thebeginning imports ofa moveawayfromthesubsistence economyof theearlierperiod. The year1329,ofcourse,markstheendofthisperiodofrelative prosperity andexpansion.The brutaldestruction ofAnsedoniabytheSienesegivesus a clearexplanation forthe abandonment of the finalsettlement. The Black Death, followinghard on the heels of Ansedonia's ruin,easilyexplainswhyitwasnotreoccupied. Fromthatpointonward,practiwashuddledinthealmostimpregnable callyalloftheremaining population townofOrbetello, whichseemsto havebeenreoccupiedintheeighthcentury, as theambiguous Greekinscriptiondiscussedabovesuggests. Malariadevastated therestoftheregion,as thefailureofthe repeatedattempts bySienato settleSaturniashow.Memorysurvived in thearchives, as we can see fromthecontinuous, ifapparently betweentheAbbeyoftheTre pointless, struggle Fontaneand theGrandDuchyof Tuscanyfortheterritory of Ansedonia.367 Not untilthe land reforms of themid-twentieth century, whennewpopulationwas imported wholesale fromtheAbruzzoandthestateengagedinmassivelanddrainage, didthefarming andoccuof the in earnest. pation territory beginagain Whatis goingon here?Whydid thesuccessivesettlements on thehillofCosa fail?We canhardlyadducethelackofwater, constant buteasilyovercome bythecisterns ofthethird367
Luttrell2002.
* castle
*
s monastery
t church
/
* opensite
/f
1. ronian,o
~~~~~~~~~~~~4cchettO s
/
Acansao
jI
/r
gianoa
3
tI~~~~~~~~~~~~~
* sporadicmalolica groseto i
./ ca
perota
X
ca. 1300(EF). Valley intheAlbegna Fig.44.Settlement
amu e(sam 47m
CONCLUSIONS
143
villasa suffiandsecond-century colonies.Noris theoccupationofthelandbyslave-worked cientreasonforanyofthesefailures, oftheAugustansettleexceptforthedisappearance ment.I wouldliketo suggestthatthedepopulation ofthearea,begunwiththedisappearled to a viciouscirclethatmadeitimpossible anceofthefreefarmers, to repopulate without ofnewcolonists.Indeed,one couldarguethatthefirstsettlement a massiveimportation of Cosa in a landthathadbeendrainedofitsEtruscanoccupants wastoosmallto survive. The SecondPunicWarleftfewCosansaroundto occupytheterritory, andtherepeatedrequests fornewsettlers leaveno doubtthattheythemselves thatthesitecouldnotsurvive perceived withoutthousandsof newcitizens.It is justthesethousandsthatwerelackingin theAugustan,Severan,andsixth-century resettlements. Romeno longerhad enoughlandlesspeasantryto disposeof,whiletheurbanplebswouldhardlyhaveleaptat thechanceto occupy in theincreasingly farmsteads desolatecoastalplain.The downward spiraloftheterritory, increasingly desertedbybothpeasantsand largeestates,was notreversed untiltheseventh when a century, newtrickleoflittlesitessignalstherenewaloftheruralpopulation, andthe reoccupation ofOrbetelloprovideda secure,defensible center. Fivecenturies ofsubsistence and naturalpopulationgrowth farming led to theephemeral prosperity ofthetwelfth cenbutthecombinedbacteriaoftheBlackDeathandmalariaweretoo strong tury, to allowany further revival. OnlywiththeoccupationofOrbetellobytheSpanishandthecreation ofthe Statodei Presidiido we see therecreation ofa linkto thewiderworldoftheMediterranean.
PART III
THE DECORATIONOF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
TheWallPaintings andtheDecorative Pavements Stefano Fernanda Elisabetta Camaiani, Cavari, Gliozzo, Valentina Francesca andSilviaNerucci Lolinzi, Lunghetti,
RoomA: Vestibulum andFauces THE PAVEMENT (SC)
T hevestibulum,adjacenttotheforum,is characterizedbyanglepilastersanda pavement
in opus signinumwithouttraceof decoration.368 It is ofexcellentquality, withthesurfaceperfectly smoothed. Fragments oftileinthefloorrangeup to3 cm.Thevestibulum is separatedfrom thefaucesbya robbedthreshold. Herethepavement is ofthesamequality butdecoratedwithscattered tesserae ofwhiteandblacklimestone.369 Bothpavements varyinthickness between 10and15cmwitha nucleus370 oflime,sand,andpiecesoftilelying overa rudus oflime, finegravel, and tile,whichin turnlie overa statumen oflargeriverpebbleswithout tracesof cement. Thepavement tothatoftheatrium, joinssmoothly whichis certainly indate. Augustan THE WALLPLASTER(FC)
In frontofthedoor,againstthewall,a plasteredwallthatabutsthemainwallofthehouse can be interpreted as a bench.It is coveredwithplaster35 cmhigh.Thishad twolayersof preparation, thetectorium.37' The lowestis identicalto thatofthemortar ofthewall:gray, 11-18mmthick,and composedoffairly coarselimeand finesand.This showsthatit was appliedatthetimeoftheAugustan reconstruction ofthehouse.The secondlayeris pink,10 mmthick,composedofcoarselime,sand,andpoundedtile.372 The cleaning ofa smallsample revealeda smooth, brilliant coatofmonochrome redpaint,rather badlypreserved. Fauces.The plasteris preserved to a maximum heightof25 cm.Threestrataofpreparation wereobserved:thefirstis gray,10-12 mmthick,and is composedoflime,graysand,and 368 The workpublishedherewas supervisedand coordinated byFernandaCavari. For the definitionofthe geometricdecorative motiveswe have followed Balmelle 1985.
second or firstcenturyB.C. (ibid., p. 14 n. 58). 370
The terminology used is thatof Giuliani 1990.
These preparationlayersare described afteran examinationon site:no archaeometricanalysiswas carried out.
371
Pavementswithrandomlyscatteredtesseraeare found in Rome at the Sant'Omobono (MorriconeMatini 1971, 8 and pl. VIII no. 1), in a room under the Tabularium dated to the end of the second centuryB.C. (ibid., p. 8 and pl. VIII no. 5), and in a room of the second or first centuryB.C. under the lower peristyleof the Domus Augustanaon thePalatine (ibid., p. 16 and pl. I no. 69). They are also knownfromtheHouse of theAcropolisat Ardea of79 B.C. and theRepublicanvilla at Anzio of the 369
The use of pounded tile in the preparationof wall plastersis mentionedby Vitruvius,who counselsits use in the lowerthreefeetof thewall plasteron the ground floorso as to improvethe water resistanceof the wall itself(Vitruvius, De Arch.11,5. 1,VII, 4.1). See also Pliny, H.N. XVI, 176-177. 372
145
146
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
pounded tile. The second is the same color and composition,10-17 mm thick,while the third,10-12 mm thick,is whitein color and composed of lime and calcite. Sample patches revealedmonochromeblack paint,thicklyapplied, witha smoothand brilliantfinish. Thirteengroupsof plasterfromhigherup on the wall were recovered,but timehas not permittedus to examinethem.These are preservedin theAntiquariumat Cosa.
RoomB: TheAtrium THE PAVEMENT (SC)
Beyondthe faucesopens the tuscanicatrium.Its pavementis in signinum, witha broad mosaicbordercomposedofeightrowsofblacknenfrotesserae flankedon both sides by two rowsof whitetesserae.The tesseraeare 0.75 cm square, and the widthof the whole bordermeasures9 cm. Inside the borderis an orthogonaldottedpatternof singlewhitetesserae2.5 cm laid 19 cm apart.The impluviumis verysimple,of Fadda's typeAl,373witha limestonemoldingwitha simpleprofilecomposedofa perpendicularsocle 7 cm high and a torus5 cm high.The bottomof the impluviumis in opus signinum,decoratedwitha networkof rhomboidsoutlinedby lines of adjacent diamondsformedof white tesserae1.2 cm square. Here the pavementis badly preserveddue to rain damage in antiquity.The inletto the channelthatconnectsthe impluviumto the cisternis well preservedto the rear of the impluvium.It is placed slightlyabove the level of the bottom,in order to allow the dirtto settlein the impluviumratherthanbeing carrieddown into the cistern.At the frontis anotherdrainthatclearlyled to a channelrunningout the frontof the building. This would have servedto evacuatedirtywaterresultingfromthe cleaningof theatriumfloor. As itwas importantthatit carryawayall thedirt,itlayat theleveloftheimpluviumpavement. The datingof thispavementis difficult, as decorationwithregularlyspaced tesseraeis one of theearliestdecorativeschemaforsigninumfloorsin theMediterraneanand continues in use intotheearlyEmpire,associatedwithsecond and thirdstylepaintings.374 In Italycomparable pavements are found in houses dating to the Republic in Rome,375Pompeii,376 Antium.377 The networkoflozengesis a motifcommonin Italyfromthesecond centuryB.C.,378 althoughI knowof no impluviawiththissortof decoration. The combinationof a signinumfloorwitha border in mosaic is also rare,althoughan of the firstcenturyB.C. example is knownfromPompeii at the House of M. Gavius Rufus379 "I
Fadda 1975, 161f.
374 Sanzi Di Mino 1987, 50-51; MorriconeMatini 1971, 23-31.
Houses of the second centuryB.C. under the Domus Aurea (MorriconeMatini 1971, 11 pl. X no. 31), in the buildingof the middle of the firstcenturyin the "vigna di Merode" on the Viminal(ibid., p. 17 n. 71), and in a pavementundertheFlavianPalace on thePalatine(ibid., 19 pl. VI no. 75).
(PPM VI, 987); House of the Vettii,VI 15,1 (PPM V, 473-474); House of the SilverWedding,V 2,1 (PPM II, 680); House ofthe Small FountainVI 8,23.24 (PPM VI, 625); House of the TragicPoet, VI 8, 3.5 (PPM IV, 534, althoughhere the groundis fullytessellated).
375
376
Houses VII 4, 31.51 (PPM VII, 1003); VII 4, 22.23
377 MorriconeMatini and Santa Maria Scrinari1975, pl. V nos. 19-20. 378 MorriconeMatini 1971, 24; Sanzi Di Mino 1987, 5152.
379
VII 2, 16-17: PPM VI, 535, pls. 6-7.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
147
and in the House of the Skeleton at Cosa, dated between 89 and 70 B.C.380The signinum revetmentof the cisternis bonded to thatof the floorof the atriumpavement,whichmight date it to the firstphase of the house. However,the relationshipbetweenthe atriumpavementand all the othersof thisphase makesit morelikelythatthe cisternwas relinedduring the Augustanrebuilding.Unfortunately, eitherdate would fitthe pavement. THE WALLPLASTER(FC)
The disturbanceof the shallowdestructiondepositsleftnone of thewall plasterin situ.The exceptionis thelow wall thatsurroundedthe impluviumin the Claudian phase,whichprobablytransformed it into an ornamentalpool. The wall was plasteredon both sides. The inner side is preservedfor23 cm and has two layersof preparation.The lowestis beige, 1.4-1.7 mmthick,and is composed of lime,coarse sand, and pounded tile.The second has the same compositionbut a slightlypinkercolor. The externalside of the wall has plasterpreserved for22 cm. The tectoriumis of two layers,the first,20-25 mm thick,is grayin color and composed of lime,sand, and finelypounded tile,whilethe second is beige, 14-17 mmthick, and composed of sand,lime,and morecoarselypounded tile.The samplecleaningrevealeda coat of pink paintwitha faintlyscored surface.This is typicalof paint on a surfacecontaining pounded tile and mayhave been createdwithred ochreor tile dust.3
RoomC: TheShrine(?) (SN) THE PAVEMENT
The mosaic pavement(fig.94 and pl. 66) measures5.7 x 3.95 m. Two large lacunae were present.The firstof these,to the southeast,was due to a pit cutfroma higherlevel.This revealedthepreparationlayers.The tessellatum w w was set in a layerof whitemortar5-10 mm thick.The nucleuswas composed of sand,lime,and pounded tile and measuredaround20 mm,while the ruduswas composed oflime and largefragments of tile,measuring105 mm. No statumenwas found. The second lacuna was found in the west _. cornerof the room.Here onlythe tesseraewere lacking,whichpermittedthe observationof the preparatorydesign impressedwith a cord while the plasterwas wet onto the layerto whichthe tessellatumwas attached.This consistedof a gridof lines fromwhichthe hexagonal networkcould be easilyderived(fig.95).382 The mosaic is composed of black and whitetesserae,0.6-0.9 cm square, of nenfroand whitelimestone(fig.96). An externalborder 20 cm wide of whitetesseraewas laid diagoin the walls. Inside thisrunsa border composed of alternallyto attenuateany irregularity natingbands of black and white tesserae:fromthe outside threetesseraeof white,six of black,fiveofwhite,and two of black. This innerband definesthe centralpattern.The white
u
380
Cosa IV, 131 and figs.48 and 76.
31'
Barbet and Allag 1972, 968.
The use of such sinopie is knownfroma numberof examplesdatingbetweenthe middleof the firstcentury
382
B.C. and thesecond century A.D. These includethenearby villa of Settefinestre(rooms 29 and 27: De Vos in Settefinestre I, 74-90), the Villa on the Via Nomentana nearRome (Mus. Naz. Romanoinv.125533 bis), and the hospitaliaof Hadrian's villa.
Fig. 94. Room C, mosaic p av em en t
(SC).
I I
_
l _
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 l
_
_
_
l
_
_
_
_
_
I
_
ll
_
_
l_l
__
_
2m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
THE WALL PAINTINGS AND THE DECORATIVE PAVEMENTS
149
Plate66. RoomC, the mosaicpavement(EF).
..
X
Fig. 95.s.Room .. ... C,wlv . prepa i .+ Xr " ation,. " s
AQ;
..>~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
.. ...........s.! t ;r'''
'N -t;
t.;,....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ....
pavement mosaic~ ~~ "(SN).
o'
0
10
O
lOOcm
Fig.95.RoomC, preparation, mosaicpavement(SN).
Fig. 96. RoomC, detailandanalysisof mosaicpavement(SC).
J
fieldis decoratedwitha networkof black hexagons 11 cm on a side, outlinedwithtwo rows of black tesserae. Hexagonal, or "beehive," designs,whose originappears to be eastern,are verycomThe motifappears firstin textiles,thenin mosaics. In Pompeii it is associated with mon.383 paintingsof the second styleand laterin houses datingto the firstcenturyB.C. and the first For the originof the motifRepertoire1973, 75 note 395. Bastet and De Vos suggestthat the motifderives
383
from the hexagonal marble elements of opus sectile (1979, 109 note 13).
150
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
centuryA.D.,384as well as in urban settingsAlba Fucens385and Ostia386and in a numberof villas.387 THE WALLPLASTER
Excavationand Conservation.The excavationof the collapsed plasterin roomC was carried out in two different campaigns.In 1995 thebulk ofthefallenplasterand stuccoeswereexcavated. The collapse was badly damaged by latercuts,but severalsubstantialgroupsof plasterwere recovered.In 1999 we excavatedthe plasterin an earthbalk thathad been leftto protectthe plaster still in situ. Here several spreads had fallen almostverticallyfromthe upper portionof the wall. Finally,what remainedof the painted socles was covered with muslinfixedwithParaloid B72 and removed.Of 160 boxes of plaster,120 containedwall plasterand 40 stuccoesfromthevault.388 In most cases the plasterfragmentsconservedonlythe top layer,onto whichthe color was applied. This seems to be due to the consistencyof the preparation layers,which were highlyfriable and tended to come apart in the humid earth of the archaeological deposit. The lowest is 5-7 mmthick,composed of graysand, lime, small grainsof calcite, and straw.The second was similarin composition,10-12 mmthick,withveryrare traces of pounded tile. The highest layer,to which the point was applied, was only 2-3 mm thick,white in color, with veryrare traces of pale graysand, small inclusions of quartz, and powdered marble. The miniaturistic treatment of thepaintingas a whole is striking, as is theexcelIconography. lent stateof conservationof the painted surface.In the vivid colors red cinnabarpredomielements. nates,togetherwiththe pastel tonesof the architectural The studyof the frescoeshas allowed us to reassemblethreelarge sections,derivingin all probabilityfromthe southwestwall of theroom,whichwould have facedanyoneentering the space. The firstgroup (color pl. 2, fig.97) measuresaround 1 x .90 m and belonged to the upper right-handpart of the wall. This is shownby tracesof an angledjoin on both the top and therightside of thegroup.It shows,in the center,a columnedbuildingwitha circular exedra renderedin perspective(color pl. 5). The columnsof the exedra, to judge from thatin the frontof the picture,are Corinthian(color pl. 4). A griffon(color pls. 5 and 6) is found as one of the acroteriain the frontof the building.To the leftis visible part of the trabeationof anotherbuildingwitha columnwithan ionic capital,while,on the right,part of a panel is preserved.This was probablyrectangularand is borderedwith a band of red cinnabar.To theleftof themaingroupwe have placed a smallergroupshowingan architrave cornerof anothercinnabar-framed endingwitha pilasterwith,above it,thelowerright-hand panel (colorpl. 9). The zone underneaththetwobuildingsconsistsof twohorizontalbands of The House of the Iliadic Shrine (I 6, 4), dated to around 40 B.C., The House of the Centenary(IX 8, 6), theHouse of theWild Boar (VII 3, 8), and theHouse of Meleager (VI 9, 2): Blake 1930, 108-109, pl. 32 pl. 1; pl. 26 pl. 24; pl. 27 fig2 and pl. 37 pl. 7. 384
387 The Villa of Ariadneat Stabiae (Pisapia 1989, 46-47, note 89, pl. XXII), the Villa at Via S. Isaia at Bologna (Ortalli 1996, 287-297, 4, 6, and 9), and the Villa of Cottanelloin the Sabina (Sternini2000, 87).
The excavation technique was that described in Fentresset al. 1981. In severalinstancesboth the plasterand thestuccoeswerecoveredwithmuslinreinforced withParaloid B72 beforeremoval. 388
385
De Visscherand Mertens1957, 169 pl. 5.
In the Insula of the Muses, firstcenturyA.D.: Becatti ed. 1961, 132 pl. 262. 386
Xb F4 1II .... .Y6W*_ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~g ILIL
2m
0 wallplaster(SN). Fig. 97. RoomC, reconstructed
152
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
on a yellowground;the The first, 6 cmhigh,consistsofvioletfloraldecoration decoration. (colorpl. 8). second,5 cmhigh,has a skybluegroundwithdarkbluefloraldecoration The secondgroup(colorpl. 3) measuresroughly1.30 m x 60 cm and belongsto the exactlytwoRomanfeetwidesepamiddlezoneofthesamewall.It showspanelsin cinnabar thesamedarkblue ofskyblue5 cmwidecontaining ratedbyverticalbordersandpilasters is floralmotifofthelowerborderoftheupperpanel.It is thusclearthatthismiddleregister butwithout joinsin theplasterwe cannot composedofpanelsthatjointo theupperregister, the Theloweredgeofthisgrouphasa slightlip,whichmayrepresent be sureoftheirheight. as theplasterin thisregister end ofa day'swork.For thesoclewe havea smallerfragment, on It seemsto havebeena "classic"repetitive pattern, lostitspaintedsurface. had generally some floralor vegetalornaments: a verypale pinkground,withregularpanelscontaining as itsschematic qualityis arevisible.The socleis verylikelyto havebeenrepainted, tendrils schemesofthethirdstyle.Betweenthesocleandthemedianzone verysimilarto decorative on a skybluegound. thereseemsto havebeena predella,withdarkbluevegetalornaments is certainly the imagefromthepointof viewof theiconography The mostsignificant is a mythical on theupperregister beast, acroterial (colorpls.5 and 6). The griffon griffon andharpies.It to thesamefamily as sphinxes, chimeras, parteagleand partlion,belonging withthehead and wingsof a birdand thebodyofa feline, represented is mostcommonly ithas a lion'sheadandfront lessfrequently legs,withthewingsandthebodyofa although in literature had acquiredsolarassociations: its bird.Alreadyin ArchaicGreecethegriffon It wasthusnatural theimmateriality oflight.389 as it represents whitecoloris oftenstressed, oflight:Serviustellsus thatthey thatgriffons cameto be associatedwithApollo,divinity thegriffon wasalso sacredto Dionysus, substituted for wereApolliniconsecrati.390However, theanimals hissacredpanthers of theGriffons at Baltimore: on theso-calledSarcophagus Although theiconography ofthebeastis vastly havethebodyand theheadsofpanthers.391 of us here,in thatthedecoration complex,itssolarand Dionysianvalenceis whatinterests theroom,andparticularly thatofthevault,containsotherreferences to thesedivinities. In Romanpaintingacroterialgriffons are verycommon,particularly in the fourth ofthemesfromthesecondstyle,exPompeianstyle,whichtendstowardthereelaboration andtheatrical ofthelatter. examplesofthis connotations Well-known cludingtheillusionism use includetheHouse oftheGriffons on thePalatine,thepairedgriffons in thetablinum of theHouse ofLivia,andtheseatedacroterial griffons on theupperpartofthesouthwallof intheHouseofLucretius thetablinum FrontoatPompeii.392 Theclosestparallelstoourown arethosefromthepaintedsoclefromroomI oftheFarnesina.393 griffon The semicircular The restoftheiconography ofthepainting ofroomC is architectural. exedraon theupperleft(colorpls. 2 and 5 and figs.97 and 98) is also closelyrelatedto similarconstructionsin the Farnesina,particularlythe end wall of the alcove, E.394Another closelyrelatedpaintingis foundin House I, 7, 19 at Pompeii,wherethe cinnabarand deep Cf. Bisi 1965, with referenceto Egypt,Assyria,and Babylon.The relationshipbetweenwhite color and the sun is evident.In imperialRome the triumphalcar was drawn by whitehorses,sacred to the sun (Suet., Nero, 389
thegriffon, and thearrow.SidoniusApollinarisalso lists the griffonamongthe attributesof Apollo (Ep. IX, 6f.). 391
25).
Ad Bucolica VIII, 27. In V, 66 he saysthataccording to Porphyrius,Apollo has threedomains:Sol in the sky, Liber on earth,and Apollo in the Inferi.His attributes varyaccordingto the zone and are respectivelythelyre,
Cf. EAA,s.v. "grifo,"p. 1061.
392V4, 11.
390
393
Dolciotti in Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, fig.29.
394
Ibid.,fig.114.
I~~~~
_
Fig.
98.
Room
C, the design
of the rear wall,
reconstructed
(SN).
(SN). Fig. 98. RoomC, thedesignoftherearwall,reconstructed
154
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
blue are verysimilarto ours,as well as to thecubiculumB of theFarnesina.3A second a colbuildingis visibleto theleftofthissection,ofwhichonlya partofthetrabeation, umnseen fromthe front,and anotherseen fromthe side,is preserved.This mustbe a withan L-shapedplan,well suitedforits roleas a frameforcentralized strucstructure tures.396 It appearsto be supportedby a cornicein pale greenand cinnabar.As thiscan as an architectural elementsuchas a hardlybe anotherbuilding,it can bestbe interpreted to thosefoundin thecubiculaB and D ofthe modillion,similarin itsformand function otherstructures and of Thesebracketshavethefunction bothofsupporting Farnesina.397 fields.In ourcase,it separatesa zonewitha blackbackthevariousdecorative separating groundfromone witha whiteone. is closelyparalleledin the friezea fasciawithfloraldecoration Belowthearchitectural The borderwitha palebluegroundis foundbothin roomI andinthebordersto Farnesina. theimagesofJupiter Hammonand Isis on therightwallsofcubiculum B, whiletheyellow is foundin thesameroom.398 groundwithfloraldecoration The decorationof themedianzone consistsof monochrome panelsin cinnabarsepain thesecondandthirdstyles. Thisis a verycommonspatialorganization ratedbypilasters. roomsI andE.399 The arparticularly Again,theclearestparallelcomesfromtheFarnesina, withitssequenceofa lesbiankymation and a cornicewith oftheleft-hand element, chitrave Even theuse of a reversedLovoli,is also abundantly paralleledin thesamebuilding.400 is foundinthese effect, shapedstrokeinsideeachovolo,perhapsto enhancetheperspective use in theepistyleoflittlediademedheads,with examples.Equallycloseis thedecorative andfeathers orpalmbranchesemerging fromthediadem(colorpl. 7). Alpendantearrings ourminiaturistic forms areknownfromelsewhere,401 imageis closesttoa much thoughsimilar Theseheads,withtheirpalmette largerexamplefoundin cubiculumB at theFarnesina.402 we haveat Cosa to theexoticdecorthatis so obvicrowns,aretheonlyvagueresemblance ouslypresentin thecubiculaoftheFarnesina. thetechnito theFarnesinathusgo beyondthepurelyiconographic: The resemblances cal detailsofourpaintings, bothin thecolorsand theminiaturistic aretoo close detailing, fortheresemblances to be based on merefashion.Thereseemslittledoubtthattheroom ofthesameworkshop. waspaintedbymembers enoftheCosanpainting is itsadditionto a smallgroupofdecorative The importance oftransition besembles-theFarnesinaandtheAulaIsiaca-thatshowclearlythemoment tweenthesecondand thirdPompeiianstyles.The painters oftheseensembles use all ofthe ofarchitectural and figurative motifs to createa worldthatis at onceunrealand repertory rigidly organized. 395
Cf.BastetandDe Vos 1979,28-29.
400 Ibid.: see the architrave of thecentralaediculain
Ibid.,pls.29,128.
402
cubiculaB andD, thearchitrave ofthesoclein theamStructures ofthistypearefoundintheupperzoneof bulacrum F-G (pls. 136-137),andthearchitraves supthesidewallsofcubiculaD andE oftheFarnesina; Sanzi portedby caryatids in theupperlevelof the cryptodiMinoed. 1998,pl. 40. In theeastwalloftheHouseof porticus(pl.31). theOrchard(I 9, 5) thebuildingseemsto be preceded 401 Diademedheads fromthe epistyleof the central bya semicircular exedra,as in ourcase. aediculainthetablinum oftheHouseofLivia(Bragan397Ibid., pl.81. tiniandDe Voseds. 1982,36 fig.15) andintheHouse of ObelliusFirmusat Pompeii(IX 14: ibid.,51 fig. 398 Ibid.,pls.29, 74, 81, 82. 280). 396
399
Sanzidi Minoed. 1998,pl. 73.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
155
The StuccoedVault.Stucco,composedoflimeand powderedmarbleand perhapsa littlesand, The pieces recoveredfromroomC wereveryfragile,which is extremely sensitiveto humidity. slowed workbothin thefieldand in thelaboratory(pl. 68). Further,theyseem to have fallen afterthe wall plaster.Their higherposition in the deposit leftthemmore exposed to the damage caused by medieval agriculturein the room. Our knowledgeof the ceilingis thus thanthatof thewall. considerablymorefragmentary The stuccoes were created over a preparationlayerbetween 3 and 5 mm thick,composed of lime and graysand withsmall grainsof calcite. Over thiswas laid the truestucco, white in color,whose depth varies between 1 and 12 mm, dependingon the subject. The reliefwas createdwithmolds and finishedoffby hand. Tracesof thewooden molds are clear around the geometricborders,while the faces of the figuresshow signsof the littlewooden sticksused in the hand finishing.The figures,in highrelief,seem to have been fixedto the backgroundwithoutthe use of nails. It is not possibleto reconstruct the decorativeschemeof thevault,althoughit was in all probability geometric, comparableto thoseofthecubiculaB and E oftheVillaoftheFarnesina. There are bordersdecoratedwithovoli and otherswithfloraland vegetalborders;some of theseappearas circularframes(pl. 68). We do nothave enoughevidenceofthecurvatureto be certainof theformof thevault,but it was in all probabilitya fullbarrelvaultrunninglengthwise along the room.Small stuccobracketswerefoundtogetherwiththeplasterfall,overthe levelof thefallofthevault.These probably"supported"thevaultalongthejoin withthewall. A veryfewfiguralelementshave been foundso far.There are threeheads, two arms,and the lowerpart of a body.The firsthead (pl. 69.4) is turnedslightlyto the rightand is velato capite.It is probablyto be associatedwitha fragment of an armholdinga patera,whichwas foundveryclose to it. This figurewas probablya genius,a tutelaryRoman deitythatpresides at a birthand accompaniesan individualthroughouthis life.However,our imagecould also representa priestof the cult engagedin sacrificeor a memberof a religiousprocession.403 The second head belongsto a bearded figure,probablya divinitysuch as Jove.It maybe combinedwiththelowerpartof a draped seated figure(pl. 69.2). WhenJoveis represented seated, he appears withhis torsobare, a mantelaround his shouldersand wrapped around his lowerbody.He is usuallybearded, as here,witha matureface. His militaryassociations lead to a frequentcombinationwithfiguresof Victory.Such is our thirdfigure,a Nike whose wings,head, and upper body are preserved,shownin profilewithan outstretchedleftarm (pl. 69.3). The head is thatof a youngman. The wingsare ample and the feathersrendered withcare. The figurebends forwardand is mostlikelykneeling,engagedin the act of sacrificinga bull. Victoriesare oftenassociatedwithcandelabra:theassociationis foundon Campana plaques and on thestuccoesofthevaultoftheFarnesina.404 Numerousfragments ofthymiateria of a floraltypeare foundamongthe stuccoesof room C, similarin all waysto those of the Farnesina.Insofaras theybringlight,candelabraare one of the attributes of Apollo,but later theyassumea genericsignificance ofpietas. A fragment of a fourthhead, in profile,maybe identifiedas Minerva:partof a helmetis visibleon thetop ofthehead (pl. 69.5). Minervais ofcoursea secondmemberoftheCapitoline For parallels to the iconographicrepresentationof Augustalessee the friezeof the vicomagristri and of the Pompeian altarof Augustandate, whichshows the emperor sacrificing(the Augustan dating is plausibly argued by Dobbins 1992).
403
404 Cf. Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, 91 fig. 110 (detail of the vaultof cubiculumB). Compare the two Victoriesfrom a Campana plaque, Seltis Frugoni 1973, 80 fig.25.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
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triad.However,the armholdinga lance (pl. 67) maybelong to a figureof Mars, who would add anotherelementof the Roman pantheonto the decoration.The polyvalentsymbolism here,and the minimalamountof it we have managedto recover,leaves roomforall manner It is perhapssafestto see heretheAugustanabilityto mixvarioussymbols of interpretations. and signs. The Functionof the Room. The positionof room C suggestsits identificationas a taberna, accordingto the canonic schemeforRepublican houses in which two shops are positioned which include a on eitherside of the fauces. However,the Augustanperiod modifications, mosaic floor,a vaulted ceilingdecoratedwithstuccoes,and an exceptionalpictorialdecoration,seem to indicatethatit was no longera shop. It thus seems naturalto suggestthatthe use of the roomhad changed,althoughits positionon theforumimpliesthatit continuedto play a public role. Our initialhypothesiswas thatthe roomwas in some wayto be identifiedwiththe imperial cult. Analysisof the iconographyof the vault seems to supportthis hypothesis,as elementssuch as theveiled head of thegeniusfitwell intothegenreof Augustanpropaganda.405 The argumentis discussed at lengthin Zanker 1989 and 1998.
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ofthemonarchintothedivinerealmtendedto manifest itselfwithhybrid The assimilation theidentification withthesacredofRomeandtheimperial famdivineancestry,406 solutions: ily,and finally apotheosis.FromAugustusonward,all of theemperors weresituatedon a higherplane,and devotionto cultof thedead emperors-with obviousconsequencesfor a wayto showfidelity, and submission to theemperor reigning monarchs-became loyalty, tothisnewcult, wereerectedconnected andthestate.In all oftheRomanworldmonuments theappearanceoftheancientcity. modifying In 29 B.C. wasbuiltthefirst theDivusJulius. The templededicatedto a divinized mortal, ofthetemplecoincided withthecelebration inauguration ofOctavian's triumph overIllyricum, overMarkAnthony at Actium.The apotheosisofCaesarrepresented Egypt,and,especially, divifilius, a cardinalpointin Octavian'spropaganda.He couldby thismeanscall himself couldbe seentospringfromtheassumption ofhisfather toa seatamong whilehislegitimacy thegods.The titleaugustus, takenin 27 B.C., puthimintoan intermediate positionbetween menandgods,an ambiguous situation richin opportunities forpropaganda. as a god withvariousexpedients. In the However,Octavianavoidedpublicveneration oftheviciofRome,whichtendedtobe foundat crossroads, theimperial and compita family numesthatoffered as tutelary The cultoftheGenius itsgeniuswereworshiped protection. in Romein 12 B.C.,407whilein thesameyearwe find and oftheLaresAugustiwasinstituted evidence oftheimperial cultinEtruria, aninscription witha dedication toAugustus theearliest ofa priestly inthemunicipium ofNepet,members byfourmagistriAugustales collegefounded in thesameyear.408 Cosa and itsterritory havealso producedinscriptions ofAugustandate connectedto the imperialcult.409
ofthecult,410 thesanctuaries weregenerally builtneartheforum ofthecity.The Augustea, intheterritory first ofthesethatwe knowofwaserectedinthepagusstellatinus ofFerentium in4 or3 B.C. andwasreferred toas an [a]edes.411 Theidentification ofroomC as anAugusteum, The earliestpossibledateforsucha transformation however, posesa chronological problem. was wouldbe 12 B.C., theyearinwhichthecultoftheGeniusAugustiandtheLaresAugusti thepictorial instituted. tothenumerous between decoNow,wehavedrawnattention parallels rationandthatoftheVillaoftheFarnesina, a complexthatis generally datedto 25 B.C. This hiatusof thirteen givesa minimum chronological years,whichseemsa fairly longtimefora toretainanidentical A possiblesolution seriesofmotifs. be thededication workshop might of of theroomtooneofthenumerous virtues dear to such personifications Augustan ideology, as Pietasor Fortuna we knowthatthefirst Augusta; Pompeianbuilding withthisdedication was builtaround20 B.C.412Perhapstheclosestofthesecultsin timeto theFarnesinacomplexis thatofFortuna Redux:an altarwasdedicatedto thisvirtuebyvoteofthesenateon theoccafromSyriain 19 B.C.413It was erectedjustoutsidethePorta sionofthereturn ofAugustus Caesar had alreadystressedhis divineancestryin the goddess Venus. 406
407
Fraschetti 1990,260f.
408
Papi 1994, 139f.
Augustea,buildingsdedicated to the cult of the emperors,are also knownby othernames: aedes, aedicula, caesareum,sacrarium,templum.See Jouffroy 1986, 75f. 410
411
CIL XI, 3040= ILS 106.
This is the buildingdedicated to FortunaAugustaby M. Tullius, whose career dates to the early Augustan period (Zanker 1993, 97f.)
412
Manacorda 1979 foran analysis.CIL XI, 2631, now lost,refersto a magisterAugustaliswho erecteda statue or altarto Augustus. 409
413
Res Gestae Divi Augusti,11.
..
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Colorplate1.Cosa:false-color airphotograph (Marcello Cosci).
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Color plate2. Frescoesfromroom C: exedra(SN).
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Colorplate6. RoomC, detail, griffon (SN).
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border. Colorplate8. RoomC, detail,
frame withovoli. Colorplate9. RoomC, detail,
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Color plate 10. Frescoes on the portico, reconstructiondrawin
oftheAbbeyofS. Salvatore adAquasSalvias. atthegatehouse Colorplate11.Wallpainting Legend(Barb.Lat.4402,fol.36r). TheCarolingian
Color plate12. Wal paintingat thegatehouseoftheAbbeyofS Salvatoread AquasSalvias.
Thecastles oftheterritory ofAnsedonia (Barb.Lat.4402,fol.37r).
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
159
Capena, probablyalong the road takenby Augustuson his returnto the city.Thus we may hesitantly suggestthatroomC was dedicatedto Fortuna,Redux,or Augustaby a manwho was and ideologicaltrendsin Rome. clearlyverywell informedof thelateststylistic Stairwellor StorageArea (FC). The plasteris preservedto a heightof 20 cm. The preparation is of two layers,the firstbeige in color, 8-15 mm thick,composed of lime, coarse sand, and finelypounded tile. The second is white, 1-3 mm thick,composed of lime and calcite. Some fragmentsfromhigherup on the wall showed traces of the diagonal scoring thatwas applied to the pise walls beforethe plasterwas applied. This plaster,easilyrecognized by its color and composition,is foundonlyin room C and in the portico,room Q. In the southeastwall of the corridorsmall fragmentsof tile are insertedinto the lowest layer of plaster.This use of tiles at the contact point of the wall is found in the sources and in manyarchaeological contexts.414
RoomD: Taberna THE PAVEMENT (SC)
The square roomsfacingthe forumon the northeastside of the house are clearlyto be interpretedas tabernae,shops forthe sale of food,wine,and othermerchandise.The pavementin room C was completelyobliterated J @ _ lO 9 by a later pavement(discussed below), so our evidence forthe Augustan period is limitedto room D. Here the signinumpavementextends only over the northernquadrant of the space, measuring2.50 x 4.00 m. The restof the roomwas paved in beaten earth.The constructionof the pavementis identicalto thatelsewherein the house, the rudusapplied directlyto the bedrockof the hill. The walls were roughlyplastered,withone layerof lime and sand coveredby a second witha finer,well-levigatedsurface.Potteryevidencesuggeststhatthe beaten earthwas relaid at the end of the firstcenturyB.C. *
*_
RoomE: Oecus THE PAVEMENT
_
_
l
i
_
On the southeastside of the atriumopens a rectangularroom thatoccupies thespace originallydividedintotwo cubicula.The roomis paved with signinumcomposed of both red and whitetile fragmentsand decorated withrandomlyscatteredtesseraein white(the majority)and black (0.5-1 of tile,is 4 cm thick,the cm). The nucleus,of lime, sand, and fragments rudus,in lime and small pebbles, variesbetween7 and 11 cm, while the statumenis composed of limestoneblocks rangingbetween4 and 12 cm. Both the pavementand the wall plaster must be in phase with the
414 Again,Vitruvius recommends itsuse on potentially damp walls:VII, 4, 2. Barbetand Allag 1972,954-958. At Rome tilesarefoundin thewallsat theVillaofLivia,at Pompeii,
in the House of the Pigmiesand the House of the Little Bulls.In theHouse ofDiana we findtilesin thenorthwest wallofthetriclinium and thesoutheastwalloftheportico.
160
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
Plate70. CubiculumG, thesigninum pavement. Note theareaforthe bed to therear(EF).
.4~~~~~~~~j~
of the domus. Tracesof the earlierwall plasterare visiblewell below Augustanrestructuring the existingpavement,whichsuggeststhatthe Republicanpavementswere somewhatlower than those of the Augustan rebuilding. It may be suggested that the change in use of this room
could be relatedto theopeningup of thetriclinium to theportico,creatinga need fora more shelteredspace, oecus or triclinium, forwinteruse.
RoomF: Cubiculum THE PAVEMENT
This roomopens onto the northwestside of the atrium.Its signinumfloor is withoutdecorationand is generallyverybadly preserved.The threshold was probably
a block of travertine: however, this appears
to have been
robbed out. Towardtheentranceto theroomthe signinumhas a red,wellsmoothedsurface.The zone to the rearof the roomis badlyworn,revealing the rudus,around 6 cm thick,of lime mixed withyellowand red tile fragments laid over a statumenof riverpebbles. It is possible thatthispavementbelongs to the Republicanphase of the house: both its heavywear and its slightlydifferent preparation(the riverpebbles in the statumen)would withthe pavementof roomB. suggestthatit was not contemporary
RoomG: Cubiculum THE PAVEMENT
The room has the same formas room F and, like it, is in poor condition.The decorationof the signinumpavement clearly divides the space into two zones, an anticameraand the
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
161
Plate71.Cubiculum G, detailofthesigninum (EF). pavement
1W
'".t.Z'-I,W
4
zone of the bed itself (pl. 70). The formermeasures 2 x 2.30 m and is composed of a networkof lozenges,7 x 18 cm, picked out in whitetesserae,1.5 x 1.3 cm. This networkis fairlyregularbut is less clear than those in rooms B, K, and Q because of the relatively smallernumberof tesseraein each lozenge. Two lines of tesseraeborderthe whole pattern. The tesseraeof the innerline are white,while the outerline is composed of alternateblack and whiteadjacent diamonds (pl. 71). At the cornersa line of fivewhitetesseraejoins the innerand outerborders. The bed lay againstthe northwestwall, betweentwo cupboardswhose bases, 1.30 x 50 cm, are markedon the pavement.The area of the bed is markedout by randomlysprinkled tesseraein black and white. As we have alreadyseen,themotifof thenetworkof lozengesis commonfromthesecond centuryB.C. throughthe beginningof the firstcenturyA.D. It is found at Pompeii,41' at at the Villa Le Ostia,416in Rome,417at Palestrina,418at Anzio,419 at S. Maria Capua Vetere,420 Colonne near Orbetello,42'and, at Cosa itself,in the House of the Skeleton, dated to 80 Pernice (1932) has counted around 40 examples:the Republican houses under the Domus Aurea (ibid., 11models closest to our own are found in a firststyle 12 and pl. VI no. 19). cubiculumin the House of the Centaur (VI 9, 3.5: PPM IV, 836). Four examples of the firstcenturyB.C. are vis- 418 In one of the rooms near the ramp of the sanctuary ible in the tricliniumand the cubicula of the House of (MorriconeMatini 1971, pl. XIII no. 48). M. Gavius Rufus(VII 2, 16-17: PPM VI, 539, 567, and 568). An examplefromthefirstcenturyA.D. comes from 419 In theso-calledVilla ofNero: MorriconeMatini1971, the House of Sallust (VI 2, 4: PPM IV, 92). 11 pl. IX-X no.29. 415
Two examples, one froma second- or first-century 420 In a house of the Augustanperiod. However,in this structure(Becatti 1961, 95 and pl. III no. 163) and the examplethereare tesseraein thecentersofthelozenges: otherin the "caseggiatoa Taberne" of the Augustanpe- De Franciscis1952, 302 pl. 1. riod (ibid., 18, pl. VI no. 19). 421 In the annularcorridorof the peristyleof the Villa: 417 In the Sullan pavement of the Domus Publica Dyson forthcoming. (MorriconeMatini 1971, 11 pl. IX no. 24), and in the
416
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
162
Plate72. Ala H, detail
'
_
of the signinum
i
pavement(EF).
ag
i
e dat
e
thu morelproal tuhat ike thedatrium,itmishAuguosta itsCpeArationghagisner similar.alteis in date.
RoomH: Ala THiEPAVEMENT (SC)
The room is open to the atrium.It is characterizedby a signinumpavementof a darkred decoratedwitha thresholdmosaic (0.20 x 2.70 m) with randomwhitetesserae(1 x 1.5 cm),whichintroducesthemainmotif,floweretscomposedofgroupsoffourwhitetesseraesurroundinga singleblack one, spaced 9 cm apart (pl. 72). The pavementis in excellentcondition, witha smoothsurfacein whichare evidentlargefragments of tilemeasuring2-3 cm. The motifof the regularlyspaced floweretswas widelyused in the last two centuriesof the Republic423and in the Augustanperiod. It is associated with paintingof the firstand second stylesin Pompeii,rslin Gubbio, in Umbria,bleat Faenza in an Augustancontext, and at Cosa in the House of the Skeleton,in room23Ii42 422
Cosa IV, 130 pl. 74.
423 MorriconeMatini 1971, 26; Sanzi di Mino 1987, 5152 pl. 4.
E.g., in the ala of the House of TrebiusValens (III 2, 1, PPM III, 359-360, pls. 26-27); in room 28 of the
House of Meleager (VI 9, 2.13, PPM IV, 789 pl. 245). 425
Manconi and Scaleggi 1994, 111-112 figs.3-6.
426
Gentili 1980, 427-428 pl. 8.
427
Cosa IV, 131 pI. 75.
424
163
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
--------_
------------------------------------------
Fig. 99. RoomH,
preserved ofthe fragments socle, reconstructed design(FC).
2..
andthusprobablydates withthatoftheatrium contemporary is certainly The pavement reconstruction. to theAugustan THE WALLPLASTER(FC)
wallsoftheala fortheirfulllength, and southwest Paintingis preservedon thenortheast coversthe blockeddoor intothe The plaster cm 99). of (fig. 45 a maximum height to of be datedwithassuranceto theAugustanreconstruction and can therefore triclinium thehouse. The reddishvioletsocle was decoratedwitha seriesof geometricmotifs:on the southwestwall werefoundthetracesof incisedlinesthatservedas a guideforthe Two squarepanelsare visible,delimitedby threewhitelines applicationof the color.428 whosetotalwidthis 1 cm.The bottomof thepanelsis 25 cm above thefloorlevel,and thepanelsare28 cmwide,separatedby 1.17 m. The twosquaresare connectedbyvertiwall are tracesofa falsedoor,delimitedbytwo cal and horizontallines.In thenortheast panels recessed4 cm fromthe surfaceof thewall. This seemsto have been createdto balance the genuinedoor in the otherala. The decorativemotif,whichpermitsus to the heightof the socle at around70 cm,is typicalof the firstphase of the reconstruct A thirdstyle:a flatsocle witha purpleor black backgroundand lineardecoration.429 similarmotifis foundon thesocleofthecubiculumE oftheVillaoftheFarnesina,where The incisionof thepreparamotifis outlinedin redon a whiteground.430 thegeometric tionrecallsthatof theatriumof House V 3,10 at Pompeii,whosedecorationmayagain be assignedto thethirdstyle.43' RoomI: Cupboard THE PAVEMENT (SC)
ala, has a beatenearthpaveThissmallroom,whichoccupiestheend ofthesoutheastern withwooden possibly thatitservedas a pantry, whichsuggests ment.Thewallsareunplastered, ofthefamily. as a cupboardfortheimagines shelving or,alternatively, 428
BarbetandAllag1972,984-985.
430
Sanzidi Minoed. 1998,pl. 128.
429
Ling1991,52-57.
431
PPMIII, 931 pl. 3.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
164
RoomJ:Tablinum THE PAVEMENT
0
u
The room is paved with a mosaic of black and whitetesserae (0.8 x 0.8 cm) (fig.100). The black tesseraeare of nenfro,a stoneof volcanicorigin, while the whitetesseraeare of limestone.The thresholdis composed of a
withconcentric meanderof swastikasalternating by a squaresdelimited
black border.The groundofthemosaicis ofwhitetesserae.Alongthewalls these are laid obliquely to the room, forminga fascia 31 cm wide. This by theborder,of two bands of fourblack tesserae alignmentis interrupted separatedbya band ofthreewhitetesserae.The oblique alignmentofthewhitetesseraeis then
0
2m
(SC). Fig.100.RoomJ,mosaicpavement
THE WALL PAINTINGS AND THE DECORATIVE PAVEMENTS
73 Tablium
__________________Plate
0
I-
L
I
I
I
I
--I
I
I I
100cm
165
J emblema (EF).
andanalysis details ofmosaicpavement Fig. 101.RoomJ, (SC).
I
1
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 room is a square emblemameasuring101 x 101 cm (fig. 101 repeated.At the centerof the and pl. 73). The frameis a double braid on a black ground,43framedon the inside and out by alternatingbands of white and black. Withinthe frameis a circle of whiteon a square black panel, whileinside the circleis a concave hexagoninscribedwitha six-petaledflower, in black.433 The customof decoratingpavementswithelaborate thresholdsand centralemblemata even goes back to the archaicor "severe"period associatedwithsecond stylewall painting,43 thoughthe ornamentalmotifstend to remainunchangeduntilthe end of the firstcentury A.D.435 The themeof a meandermade up of alternating swastikasand concentricsquares was verycommonin the firstcenturyB.C.: it is associated with paintingof the second stylein Rome in the House of the Griffons,436 at Pompeii in the thresholdsof the House of the Silver 432
Balmelle et al. 1985, pl. 70 d.
"I
Ibid., 508.
4"
Ibid.,p1.45 b.
436
MorriconeMatini 1971, no. 13 pl. III no. 10.
143
Morricone Matini1970,505.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
166
Plate74.Tablinum J,traces ofreedson thebackoftheceiling plaster (FL).
and the House of the Menander,438in the Augustanperiod in the thresholdof a Wedding437 and, afterA.D. 62, in the House of the and anotherat Aquileia,440 mosaic foundat Bologna439 Painted Capitals and theHouse of theBronzesat Pompeii.44' The double braid occurs rather rarelyas a bordermotivein mosaics of the second style."2It is muchmore commonin assoat Sousa,444 and at Ostia, in ciationwiththe thirdand fourthstyles,at Pompeii,443 Brescia,445 The motifofthesix-petaledflowerinscribed tomb 17 ofthenecropolisoftheVia Ostiensis.446 in a circleis typicalof the second style,althoughit normallyextendsto thewhole mosaic.447 The schemefound here thus has ratheroriginaltraits,even thoughan analogous composiand in tionis foundat Stabia in the firstcenturyB.C. at theVilla Ariadne448and at Pompeii449 The stylistictraitsdo not permitprecise ReggiaEmilia in a house of the Augustanperiod.450 dating,but the carefullylaid diagonalgroundand the six-petaledflowerseem to fixthe date in the earlyAugustanperiod. THE WALLPLASTER(FL)
The centralroomofthedomus,thetablinum,measuredmorethan14 msquare. In thecourse of the 1996 season the destructiondepositin thetablinumwas excavateddown to theplaster falls.This consistedof tiles,earth,and plaster,whichrepresentthe collapse of the roofand 437
V 2, 1,PPM II, 746 pls. 151-152.
445
438
110, 4, PPM II, 362, figs.196-197, in the cubiculum
446
439
Scagliarini1969, 177-179, note 38.
447
MorriconeMatini 1971, 505.
440
Donderer 1986, 36 note 49 and pl. 12.
448
Pisapia 1989, pl. XXXVIII no. 117.
no. 21.
441PP
VII, 135-136, pls. 10-11; pl. 27 no. 111.
At Pompeii in theHouse of theCryptoporticus(PPM I, 6, 2) and the House of the Menander (I 10, 4 PPM I, 362 pls. 196-197).
442
E.g., House ofthePaintedCapitals (VII 4, 31.51, PPM VII, 1044 pl. 65).
443
Becatti 1961, 233 and pl. IX no. 234, dated to the Antonineperiod.
At Pompeii in the House of the Gilded Cupids (VI 16. 7.38 PPM VI, 790-791 pls. 139-141: earlyfirstcenturyA.D.); and in the emblemaof an opus signinumfloor ofan Augustan-period house (Nappo 2000,345-346 and fig.3,3). A similarflooris found in an earlier context (early firstcenturyB.C.) at the Villa of Termititonear Matera: Giardino 2000, 213-214.
449
450 444
In roomH ofthesecond centuryA.D.: De Maria 1994.
Donderer 1986, 106 note 21 and pl. 35.
Lancha 1977, 34 note 14.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
167
the underlyingceiling.The higherfalls seem to have been destroyedby later agricultural activity.The fallswere distinguishedas threelayers,divided into homogenousgroupsof related plasterfragments. Part of the socle is preservedin situ,to a maximumheightof 42 cm. The vast majorityof the plaster recoveredbelongs to the ceiling. Numerous traces of the reeds used to create the ceiling were found on the backs of the fragments(pl. 74). Where the plasterwas painted,it was reasonablywell preserved:it is in factpossible to see the traces of the brushstrokes.However, the small amount of plaster recovered belongs largelyto a monochromewhite area of the ceiling,which leaves us in the dark as to the whole decorative scheme. We can assume that there was an emblema,perhaps centered over the mosaic emblemaon the floor. A veryfewfragments belong to the upper zone of thewalls. This was separatedfromthe ceilingby a whitestucco cornice,whose exact profileis impossibleto reconstruct.The wall finishedwithtwo colored borders.The highest,7 cm thick,is of pale green,while the second, 2 cm thick,is black. This is borderedby a thinband of red,.5 cm high,whichmarksthe transitionto thewhitegroundbelow.
RoomK: Triclinium THE PAVEMENT (SC)
The room is a large rectangle,more than 46 m square, open towardthe southwestonto the portico.The pavementis a mosaic thatis borderedby * ~ the signinumpavementof the Augustan portico (room Q). Again, the 1: 9 tesseraeare of black nenfroand whitelimestone. L, The mosaicis dividedfromthesigninumpavementby a thresholdwith a meanderof swastikasborderedby bands of black fivetesseraewide (fig. 102). The swastikamotifis finishedat theends by concentricsquares.Outside thisbordera double line of whitetesseraelinksthe thresholdto the obliquelylaid white tesseraeoftheground.In thecenteroftheroomlies a circularemblemaborderedbytwobands of black fourtesseraewide separatedby a whiteband threetesseraewide (fig.103 and pl. 75). The centralmotifconsistsof a seriesof concentriccircleswithinwhichis inscribeda regular hexagon on a whiteground,delimitedby bands of whiteand black tesserae,threeand two tesseraewide respectively with,at the center,a six-pointedstarformedof two counterposed The diameterofthewholeemblemais 116 cm.Althoughthesix-pointedstarinscribed triangles. in a hexagonis foundwidelyfromtheend ofthefirstcenturyB.C. onward,it is generallylinked to otherhexagonsto forma repeatingpattern.The earliestexampleis foundin Rome at the House of Livia, dated to the beginningof the Augustanperiod.45'In Campania the datingis similaror slightly later.452 However,thereis onlyone exampleof themotifused in an emblema fromtheHouse of the Orchardat Pompeii,453 whereit is associatedwiththirdstylepainting. 451MorriconeMatini 1967, 56
and pl. XII no. 52.
Fragmentin the Naples museum, Pisapia 1989, 55 pl. XXI no. 106; cubiculum of House 17 (Ins. Occ. 32.36: PPM V, 2, pls. 1-2, although in this case the star is inserted in a square); the threshold and the tablinumof House VIII 5, 16.18 (Blake 1930, 77-119, 452
pl. 33 pl. 1); and the thresholdof the oecus of the Villa Ariadne at Stabiae (Pisapia 1989, 48 and pl. XXVII no. 62). Also knownas theHouse of theFloweredBedrooms. The mosaic is foundin cubiculum8 (I, 9.5) PPM II, 15 pl. 24. 4S3
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
168
0" JIlmsJE 0
2m
Fig. 102.RoomK, mosaicpavement(SC).
Here, however, the star is inscribed with a six-petaled double
square bordered
rosette, and the circle is inscribed in a
by a frame of alternating triangles. Again, the stylistic comparison
suggests an Augustan date, clearly associated
with the Augustan redecoration.
THE WALL PAINTINGS AND THE DECORATIVE PAVEMENTS
169
Plate75. Trichinium K, emblema(EF).
II
0
100cm
andanalysis ofmosaicpavement Fig.103.RoomK,details (SC).
THE WALL PLASTER (FC)
The triclinium of the initialAugustanphase opened directlyonto theportico.When thiswas enclosed, the new wall was plasteredand repainted,althoughthe originalplasterremained in the restof the room.The preparationand color of theplasterinside and outsidethe original tricliniumare markedlydifferent. Inside the room the plaster consistedof two layers. The lower,10-17 mmthick,is composed of limewithsome largelumps and finesand,while the second is white,4-5 mmthick,and composed of lime and calcite.A verticalline in conjunctionwiththe originalmosaic thresholddelimitsthe plaster.Beyond thisline the plaster is again composed of two layers:the first,8-12 mmthick,is beige in color and composed of lime,withlargelumps,sand,and pounded tile.The second is 5-13 mmthick,white,and combetweenthetwois probablydue to the organization posed of limeand calcite.The difference
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
170
of theworkby two separateteams,as well as thefunctionalneed to protecttheplasterof the the socle was monochromeblack. porticofromdamp. Inside the triclinium,
RoomsL and 0: ServiceRooms THE PAVEMENT (SC)
In room L, whichopened onto the andron,M, a thinpartywall was built dividingthe room molding.The in two. The roomwas thenrepaved,thenortheastern halfwitha quarter-round pavementsloped towardthe drain.Its signinumwas coarserthanthe precedingRepublican pavement,with tile fragmentsup to 4 cm mixed withfinegravel.The thresholdwas comin mortarover a bedding of mortaredstones. posed of a seriesof tilefragments
RoomM: TheAndron/Corridor THE PAVEMENT (SC)
The andronwas originallypaved in beaten earth:it appears to have been repavedin the Augustanperiod. THE WALLPLASTER(FC)
The plaster of the corridor showed three layers of preparation. The firstis gray,5 mm thick,and composed of lime withlarge lumps and finesand. The second, 10 mm thick,is identical to the first,while the third,3-5 mm thick,is composed of lime and calcite. The second layer shows traces of a fish-scalepatternincised onto the firstto encourage its adherence. The firsttwo layersare identical to the mortarof the walls and thus certainly belong to the originalAugustanphase. The plaster is covered with a monochromeyellow paint.
RoomN: BathBuilding a-,, .
*
.THE
_
PAVEMENT (SC)
In the Augustanperiod the earlierpavementin smallsquare tileswas partiallydestroyedand was coveredwitha smoothsigninumpavement.The drainwas closed offat thistime. THE WALLPLASTER(FC)
The wall plaster,preservedto a maximumheightof30 cm,showstwophases of decoration.The first,whichmustcorrespondto the originalAugustan phase, is paintedred. The second,whichprobablycorrespondsto the reworkingof the room in phase 3 of the house, shows onlya singlecoat and is not painted at all. This maysuggest thatthe roomwas unfinishedat the timeit was abandoned.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
171
RoomP: Culina THE PAVEMENT (SC)
The kitchenwas paved withbeaten earth.Along the northeastside are visibletracesof what mighthave been a low, rectangularcookingplatformbuilt out of packed earth.The threshold is composed of tile fragments laid on a beddingof mortar.
Room
Q: Portico
THE PAVEMENT (SC)
The portico was paved with signinum,decoratedwith a networkof lozenges similarto those in room G (pl. 76). The lozenge patternwas bordered witha singleline of whitediamonds.The patternis betterlaid than thatin roomG, withfourtesseraeon each side of thelozenges.The motif is also somewhatlarger,measuring30 x 14 cm. The stylisticcomparisons have been discussed above, but it is likelythat the portico dates to the Augustan reconstruction:not only is the decorative motifbetter constructed,but the join withthe mosaic of the triclinium, whichis certainlyAugustan,is carefullymade witha line of square tile fragments clearlylaid afterthe tesseraeof themosaic. THE WALLPLASTER(VL)
During the excavationsof 1996 and 1997 a majorfallof wall plasterin the portico,roomQ, was broughtto light.The fallwas recordedand liftedbythearchaeologists, who distinguished threemainlayers.For each of thesea plan was drawnupon whichtheindividualgroupswere indicatedand numbered.In all, 160 boxes of plasterwerecollected.The cleaningand assemblingof thesegroupsis not yetcompleted,so thisnote should be consideredpreliminary.454 It was immediatelyclear thatsome of the plasterbelonged to the ceilingas well as to the wall. The ceilingseems to representa seriesof geometriclines,probablya pergola,with,in positionsas yetundefined,bunchesof grapeswithleaves and tendrils.However,as it has not yetbeen entirelycleaned and studied,its publicationwill be completedat a laterdate. Descriptionof the Plasteron the NortheastWall. All of the wall plasterrecoveredseems to belong to a singlewall, the northeasternor rearwall of the room,which faces the garden. This was 5.60 m long: the piece we have managed to reassembleis 3.80 m long, or around halfof thelengthof thewhole wall. The preparationforthefrescoconsistedof fourlayers.The firstthreelayersare beige in color,8-40 mmthick,composed of lime,coarse sand, pulverizedtile,calcite,and straw.The fact thatthese threelower layershave the same compositionsuggeststhat theyare simply different coats of the same plaster,applied successively.The lowestcoat preservesthe traces of diagonal scoringon the pise walls,to encouragethe adherenceof theplasterto them.The highestlayer,onto whichthe frescowas applied, is whitein color,made of lime and calcite, and 0.8-1.0 cm thick. 454
August2000.
172
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
Plate76.LoggiaQ, detailofthesigninum (EF). pavement
Cleaning and piecingtogetherthe survivingfragments have allowed us to reconstruct the top sectionof the wall, measuring1.50 m high (fig. 104 and color pl. 10). This gives us roughlythe upper thirdof the wall, whichprobablymeasured4.80 m in all (see the section fig.21). We also have a small piece of the friezeand 10 cm of a panel fromthe middle section. We do not know whetherthe absence of otherportionsof this section is due to the destructionof the depositbecause of medievalagricultureor to theexistenceof a windowin the rearwall of the tablinum. The descriptionof thewall will runfromtop to bottom.The uppermostelementis a cornice. This is composedof a seriesof palmettesframedby a black band between3 and 3.5 cm highand a seriesof yellowhorizontallines 10 cm high.The colors of the palmettesalternate amonga redpalmetteon a whiteground,a whitepalmetteon a redground,and a whitepalmette on a pale blue ground.The whitepalmettesare open,and reversed,whiletheredpalmettesare closed. Below the palmettesare foundthreelines in black, red, and pink.The totalheightof thearchitraveis between24.5 and 24.8 cm,joiningthewall decorationto thatof theceiling. The area below the corniceis dividedintothreelargepanels,respectively red,black, and pale blue. The red and black panels are separatedby a candelabrum-colonette whose thin whiteshaft,77 cm high,is topped witha whitecapital overpaintedin green,whose inverted conical formrecallsthatof a crater.Over the capitalwe can observevegetalmotifsin green with,at the center,a thinverticalwhiteline enrichedwithvegetalvolutesthatconnectsthe columnto the cornice. To theleftofthecandelabrum-colonette theblackpanelis 1.45m wide.In thecenterwe find anothercandelabrumcomposedof threeelementson top of each other:a reversedcalyxover whichis an ochredisc coveredby a hemispherical pinkglobe. Fromthe sides of the disc hang two linesof pearlsterminating in skyblue gems.Two floralgarlandshangfromthefirstcalyx, on the righttowardthe main candelabrum-colonette and on the lefttowarda sky stretching blue area.45'The candelabrumis preservedfor42 cm,but thereis no traceofthebase. The color of the left-handpanel is impliedby thatof groups 36 and 41, whose position as excavated would
455
place themon this area of the wall. However,no joins were found.
wallplaster.Scale: 1:15 (VL). Fig. 104.RoomQ, reconstructed
174
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
is a redpanel,1.46cmwide.Thisis decorated To therightofthecandelabrum-colonette thiszonefromtheone beneath.The withtwobuildingsthatstandon thefriezeseparating in is composedofa whitecolumnanda greenpilasterhighlighted firstofthetwostructures a series ofpaleblueandwhite,whichsupports yellow.Thesearecoveredwithan architrave is oflittlepanelsin pale yellow, green,pink,and redborderedin white.Allofthestructure alsosupported showninperspective withan obliquebeigelinethatjoinsa secondarchitrave, The wholestructure a rectangular exedra,withtwo on a columnand a pilaster. resembles Theperspective bya washofpalepink structures towardthefront. is heightened protruding in thelowerpartoftheareabetweenthetwomainstructures. To theleft,theblackpanelis separatedfromtheskybluepanelbya pale bluepilaster. byconverging linesin sectionsformed Thisis 90 cmhighand consistsofthreerectangular Overthepilasteris a small theperspective treatment. green,red,andpink,whichunderline architrave 25 cmlong,witha thinlinejoiningit to thepalmettecornice.On theskyblue fora heightof73 cm.He is probpanelwe finda humanfigurepaintedin red,preserved ablystandingon thesamefriezethatsupportsthelittlebuildings.He is turnedin a threea mantelmadeup ofwhitelineslightly quarterspose,witha tunicofpinkand,probably, In therighthandhe holdsa Boththemanteland thetunicare knee-length. overpainted. shortblackstick,perhapsa stylus(?), whilein thelefthe seemsto be holdingthemantel. His hairis paintedthesamecoloras histunic,whilenothingofhisfaceremainsbesidesa singleeye. frieze, 30 cmhigh,filledwith The medianzoneofthewallconsistsofa largerectangular The areadividedtheuppersectionofthewallfromthelowerand probably vegetalmotifs. theprincipalsupportforthescenedescribedabove.Fromtop to bottomthe constituted ofthiszoneconsistsofa greenline,2.5 cmhigh,borderedbythinlinesofblack. decoration 1 cmthick,abovea bandofdentils.The dentilsare Belowitis a thinlineofshadedyellows, ofredon a whiteground,whilebandsofredborderthewholeofthemolding.Each dentil containsa smallerdentilin pale blue. Belowthismoldinga pale blue band 1.5 cmhighis withthinred diagonallines,whichgivean illusionof depth,withdarksemioverpainted theshadowsofthedentils.The restofthefriezeconsistsoffloraldecocirclesrepresenting oftwoparallellinesin redand rationon a whiteground,15 cmhigh.Thisis a scrollformed in redandgreenor redandpaleblue. withflowers at intervals green,whichareinterrupted In theintervals arefoundsmallredapples andupright. arealternately reversed The flowers with roses. orberries, alternating pale pink The friezeis borderedtowardthebase witha seriesofeightlinesin red,white,black, a tripleband ofskyblue,whichcreatesthesamegraduated whitishpink,red,and,finally, themidsection ofthewallis missing, effect as theupperband ofthefrieze.Unfortunately, redfield. in redthatmaysuggesta uniform exceptfora numberoffragments The socle remainsattachedto thewall. Fromthebottomup it is formedby a black band between14 and 15 cm high,above whicha red plinthbegins.The two zones are heightofthesocleis 50 cm.Although separatedbya thinwhiteline.The totalpreserved a comparison thetotalheightofthesocle is thusunknown, withexamplesfromPompeii aroundaround90 cm high.This decorationis also would suggestthatit was originally on thenorthwestern sidewall,whereitwaslaterincorporated intothetriclinium. preserved A verticalblackbandis visibleat thewesterncorneroftheroom,presumably the defining
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
175
end oftheporticowall.Thisblackband is echoedon theplinthof thesemi-column that projectsfromthewall. thedecorativescheme,we Reconstruction oftheDecorativeScheme.Whenreconstructing musttakeintoaccountthewholelengthofthewall,includingthatsectionwhichranover Thismeasured10.90m (fig.105 and colorpl. 8). The decorathedoorofthetriclinium. tionofthewallwas thusinterrupted bythedoor,buttheupperzoneandthefriezecontinued overit. The sectionwe havereconstructed was probablyoriginally locatedaround60 cmfrom theeasterncornerofthewall.This,in fact,is thepositionin whichitwas found,lyingface On thebasisofcomparison withotherearlythirdstylewalls,such downduringexcavation. 11 oftheHouse oftheOrchardat Pompeii,456 as triclinium we haveplacedanother building as an exedra.Working thatwouldhavereachedtheend of thewall.Thisis reconstructed fromtheright, we havesimply reversed theschemefoundintheportionwe recovered, makingtheskyblue panelthecentralpanelof thewall,flankedbyblackand redpanels.The 2.10m (7 Romanfeet,theredpanels),1.45m (5 Romanfeet,the panelsmeasurerespectively blackpanels),and3.80 m (roughly 13 Romanfeet).UsingVitruvius (VI, 3, 8), we candivide thewallhorizontally intoan uppersectionof 1.50m,or 5 Romanfeet,a mediansectionof 2.40 m,or 8 Romanfeet,and a socleof.90 m,or3 Romanfeet.The medianzoneis divided, on ourreconstruction, intopanelswhosewidthscorrespond to thoseoftheupperzone. The structure ofthewall,witha continuous intheupperzoneoverthedoor, decoration has numerousparallelsat Pompeii:forinstancein theperistyle of theHouse of Paquius oftheHouse oftheFourStyles.457 Proculusor thenorthwallofthetablinum It is likelythatthefigurein theskybluepanelwas echoedat theotherendofthesame The candelabrum inthemiddleoftheblack panel.We haveno goodparallelsforthisfigure. witha pedestallikethaton thebase ofa candelabrum in thefrespanelhasbeencompleted coesoftriclinium 14 oftheVillaat Oplontis. The ColumnsofthePorticoand theLaterDividingWall(FC). The columnsof theportico werepaintedwiththesamereddishvioletas thewalls.It is probablethat,as inmanycasesin Pompeii,thecolumnsweresmoothand coveredwithcoloredplasterfortheirbottomthird. Abovethistheywouldhavebeenwhiteandfluted.Threelayerscoverthefirstcolumnfrom thewest:thelowestis 5 cmthick,beige,composedoflime,coarsesand,andlargefragments ofpoundedtile;thesecondis identical, 9-12 mmthick,whiletheuppermost layeris white, 6-8 mmthick,and composedoflimeand calcite.The lowestlayerseemsto havebeenused to equalizethethickness ofthecolumns:in fact,it is absenton thenextcolumn,whosedithanthefirst. ameterat .54 cmis 5 cmthicker The northwest walloftheroom,addedin a laterperiodto dividetheporticofromthe showsa monochrome vermilion redsocle,whosetonality is completely triclinium, different fromthereddishvioletoftheoriginaldecoration. As in thetriclinium, then,no effort was madeto imitate theexisting decoration. 456
BastetandDe Vos 1979,211 andpl. XXXIXfig.71.
457PPM I,I, 7, 1 p. 528 fig.74-75 andI, I, 8, 17,p. 862 fig.29.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ;aq
fragmet (V posiion ofherecostructe Qsuggesed Fig.105Room
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
177
Parallels (VL). The wall is subdivided into threemain zones: the socle, the median zone,
divisionofthewall and and theupperzone,dividedintofivepanels.Boththegeometric therenditionof theindividualelementsleave no doubtthatthewall was paintedin the thirdPompeianstyle.Amongthemosttellingof theseelementsare the columnsof the base or, architectural ensemblethatareposed directly on thefriezewithouta supporting in the case of thegreenpilasters,on a base withextremely simplelinearelements.The ensembleitselfis supportedon columnstoo fragileto bear itsweight,and architectural itsformresemblesno functional structure. The threemainfieldsare dividedby a motif foundin the Villa of the FarnesinathatMariettede Vos definesas a candelabrumThe floralfriezebetweentheupperand themedianzone is also typicalof colonette.438 thethirdstyle. The styleoftherepresentation on ourfresco, whichis stillquiterealistic, seemsto confirma dateat thebeginning ofthethirdstyle.The bestparallelis foundin oecusA ofthe The generalcomposition, ofthespaces,andthe ImperialVillaat Pompeii.459 thesubdivision areverysimilar. The datingofall thefrescoes oftheImperialVilla subjectsofthedecoration has been thesubjectofmuchcontroversy, butit nowseemsto be agreedthatoecusA beofthethirdstyle,contemporary withtheVillaoftheFarnesinaand longsto thebeginning All ofthesedateto thelasttwodecades,or perhapsto thelastdethatof Boscotrecase.460 B.C. cade,ofthefirstcentury A detailedexamination ofthemotifsconfirms thisattribution. The friezeofthearchimotifon a whiteground,is foundon manybuildingsof trave,composedofa redpalmette thisperiod:theinternalfriezeof theAra Pacis Augustiwillstandforall of these.46'The architectural are typicalof thethirdstyle: fantasies, elongatedand completely unrealistic, in roomC. theyalso recallthesimilarstructures The candelabrum on thecenteroftheblackgroundis paralleledbythedecorationof thePyramidofCestius,datedbetween20 and 12 B.C.,462whilecandelabrafromcubiculaC and E oftheVillaoftheFarnesina463 arealso similar. on theblack The largercandelabrum groundresemblesthosein thedecorationofthePyramidof Cestius,as wellas thestucco candelabrum fromcubiculumB of theVillaof theFarnesina,whichis equallydecorated withlinesofpearlsand gems.464 In bothcaseswe aredealingwitha thymiatherion, or perfumeburner:in factwe can evensee theholesthatlettheperfumed smokeescape.Of the humanfigurewe can sayverylittle,althougha closeparallelcan be foundin theHouse of theCentenary, thelast actoron theright,whileanotherparallelcomesfrom particularly oecusA oftheImperialVilla,465 wherewe findvarioussortsofscenes,fromtragediesand comediesto lyricand heroicpoetry. Theparallelsseemto show,onceagain,thatthemodelsforthedecoration werefoundin Rome,fromwhichtheywere"exported" toorcopiedinprovincial towns,including Pompeii andCosa. 458
Bastet and De Vos 1978, 17.
459
Beyen 1956 and Schefold 1957, 292.
460
Bastet and De Vos 1979, 37-38 and notes 9 and 14.
461
Bianchi Bandinelli 1969, 226.
462
Bastet and De Vos 1979.
Bragantiniin Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, 47-55, 95-96, and 105.
463
For the Pyramidof Cestius,Bastet and de Vos 1979; cubiculumB oftheVilla oftheFarnesina,Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, o, 82 and fig.98.
464
465
La peinturede PompeiiII, 1993, 202-208.
178
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
RoomR: Corridor THE PAVEMENT (SC)
This narrowservicecorridorrunsout to a door on thesoutheasternside of the domus,which mayhave opened onto a kitchengardenlaid over the remainsof AtriumBuildingVI. It was paved withbadlypreservedsigninum.This was composed of an upper layerof mortarmixed withfragments of tile,laid over a rudus10 cm thickof lime and gravelapplied directlyto the rock. At the centerof the pavementis the openinginto the small cisternbeneath the bath building:the coveringin stonewas preservedin situ,withholes stillremainingforthe iron leverused to liftit. In a subsequentperiod the signinumpavementand the cisternopening were coveredwithbeaten earth. THE WALLPLASTER(FC)
The plastershows a singlegraylayer,10-15 mm thick,composed of lime, calcite, and fine sand. The side that touched the wall shows the printof the fish-scalescoringin the pise walls, 4.5 cm apart. These fragmentsare identicalto those of the stairwellof room C. The plasterwas paintedin a monochromeyellow.
The Garden(FC) INTRODUCTION
The originalgarden of the domus was largerthan that of the Augustan in all probabilityas faras the rearwall of the tablinum. period,stretching It was almost certainlya vegetablegarden,with a strictlyfunctionalaspect. The Augustanrebuildingcreateda porticoalong the rearwall of the house, onto which the tricliniumwas opened. This suggeststhatnew attentionwas paid to the gardenitself.In all probabilityit became a formal garden,open to the principalrooms of the house. This change is paralleled in contemporary houses in Pompeii,such as the House of Menander,the House of the SilverWedding,and theHouse of Sallust,466 wheretherearroomswereclosed offtowardthe atriumand opened onto the porticoor peristyle. In the House of Diana the open plan did not last long, and the rear wall of the tricliniumwas reinstatedalong the lines of the columns of the portico. To this phase, which may date around A.D. 30, belongs the pictorial decoration of the garden itself.Toward the end of theJulio-Claudianperiod, around the middle of the century,an aedicula was constructedagainst the wall of the garden, and a new wall, perhaps a pluteus, was constructedalong what was leftof the portico colonnade. The similarityof construction techniques confirmsthatthese two structureswere contemporary.The new wall was plastered but not painted, but the walls of the aedicula were painted with a motifwell suited to the decoration of the garden. 466
Pesando 1997, 61.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
179
wall(CM). onthenortheast painted plaster Fig.106.Thegarden, THE WALLPLASTER
The frescoeson all the walls of the gardenare badly preserved(fig.106). On the northwest wall,whichconsistsmostlyof roughlycut bedrockwitha fewlargestones,theplasteris very A smallportionremainsabove the stair,to a maximumheightof 1.50 m. To the fragmentary. leftof the aedicula, the plasteris preservedto a maximumheightof .90 m and is somewhat morelegible,althoughstillpresentingmanylacunae. The greatestdamageto thissectionhas been caused by the rootsof an olive tree,whichhave penetratedthe preparationlayersand greatlydisturbedthepaintedplaster.The plasteritselfrunsbehindboth theaedicula and the staircaseand is thus clearlyanteriorto theirconstruction.Some plasteris preservedto the rightof the aedicula, witha maximumheightof 40 cm. All of the plasterwas coveredwitha thick,homogeneouslayerof calcareous concretion. Macroscopic analysisof the preparationof the plastershows thatthe lowest layerwas composed of lime and finesand. Over thisweretwo layersof plaster.The first,grayin color, is between20 and 25 mmthick,althoughit is as deep as 50 mmin correspondencewiththe encased column.Its compositionis of large grainsof lime,finesand, straw,and a fewgrains of pounded tile. The upper layer,to which the paint was applied, is white,measuringbetween3 and 4 mm,of lime and calcite. It is possible to distinguishtwo clumpsof foliageto theleftof the aedicula,withanother one on the right.This latterclumpis veryworn:thereare some tracesof brightgreenleaves, whilethebackground,whichmustoriginallyhave been black,has totallydisappeared.To the leftof the aedicula the plantis slightlybetterpreserved,withits six visibleleaves in brilliant green alternatingwith a darkergreen. The zone above the staircaseshowed threeparallel at around 1 m above horizontalbands 1 cm thick,in yellow,brown,and yellow,respectively, the contemporaryground level. Below these,thindouble yellowbands runningdiagonally intersectto forma networkof rhomboids.The whole motifshould be interpretedas a latticeworktrelliscomposedofwovenslatsor reeds,runningbehindtheclumpsofplants.Above the trellisare foundtracesof a copper-greenbackground. The back wall of the gardenis preservedfora maximumheightof 1.90 m. Again,it is at 3.40 m fromthewesterncorner. largelycomposedof bedrock,withthefountainprotruding
180
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
The plasteris conserved in veryfewplaces,leavingus tenor so widelyspacedgroups.Over thestairthetrellismotifcontinues, andthereseemto be tracesofbrown,green,andyellow leaveshanging overthetrellis. Abovethetrellis, on a blackground, aretracesofgreenleaves. Another zoneon thelowerpartofthewallgivesus a blackground, nowfadedto blue,with threeblade-shaped leavesof a plantin greenand blue.Brushstrokes followthelineofthe leafonthecentral one.Atthebaseofthisfragment canbe observed thebottomofthepainted withdripsrunning surfaces, downontoa zoneleftfreeofcolor.Thisgivesus theheightof thegardensoilatthetimeofthepainting. It coincideswiththebottomoftheplasteron the bench,whilethaton thefountain base runsanother 20 cmfurther downandis clearlyanteriorto thepaintedplaster, whichabutsit. The southwest wallhas a doorat itscenter. To therightofthisa bench60 cmhighruns betweenitandtherearwallofthegarden.Thebenchabutsthepaintedplaster, andthedoor clearlycutsit.Although thepaintedsurfacehas almostentirely a fewtracesof disappeared, blackcanbe seenoverthebench,whilefallenfragments recovered on topofthebenchshow thecopper-green withtracesofdarkgreenleaves. background Thewallthatclosedoffthetriclinium fromthegardenencasesoneofthecolumns, whose plasterwas chippedoffin orderto createa flatsurfaceforthenewplasterofthepainting. On thewall,whichis preserved up to70 cm,theplasterwasverymuchbetterpreserved than itwas elsewhere in thegarden.Cleaningrevealedthreeplants.Fromtheleft,thebadlypreservedfirstplanthas eightleaves,someofwhichwereof a brighter greenand othersof a darker. Thebackground is a washed-out black.Thesecondplanthaselevenleaves,thedarker oneshighlighted withpalercolor.Betweentheleavescanbe seena flower withyellowpetals heldup bya thinstem.Thebackground atthispointpresents twoclearzones,thelowerone verybadlypreserved and theupperone withevidentbrushstrokes. At thedivisionbetween thesezonesstarts thetrellis withyellow pattern, lattices1 cmthick.Thedistance between these variesbetween11and13.5cm:as ina reallatticework, thepainting showsa realistic variability. The divisionintoplanesprobablyrelatesto thewayin whichthewallwaspainted.The background oftheupperlevelwasprobably appliedfirst, thentheyellowlattices.Finallythe soclewaspainted,at a moment whentheplasterwasmuchdrier, allowing lessabsorption of thepaint.However,it is notimpossible thatthetwobandsweredistinguished intentionally in orderto givegreater depthto therepresentation. TheDecorative Scheme.The fewelements thatremainofthedecoration allowus to reconstructthedecorative schemeoftheviridarium oftheHouse ofDiana,largely bycomparison withexamplesfromPompeii.Thewallswerepaintedwiththeimageofa garden.Thisgenre, theso-called"gardenpaintings," becomescommon withthethirdstyle.Thetypicalelements ofthisstyle-thetripartite vertical development ofthespace,thepresenceoftrellises andof marbleelements, andtherichness andvariety oftheplantsandbirdsrepresented-remain a constantin thedevelopment ofthetheme.This continues in thefourthstyle,enrichedby newelements suchas mythical or exoticbeasts.However, in thatperioditlosestheillusionisticaspectcharacteristic ofthethirdstyle,whichopensthewallsoftheroomstowardthe In theHouse ofDiana thepainting countryside. on thegardenwallswasapparently identical on all foursides.A plinthwitha black ground30 cm highwas paintedwitha seriesof paratactic shrubsat a regulardistances-eachshrubmeasuredaround60 cm,and theyappearat intervals around1 m. Thissuggests thatthenorthwest and southeast wallshad six shrubseach, whilethose on the southwestwall had nine,and the southwestfive.Behind the
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
181
70 cmhigh, coveredbythem,was painteda trellisofreedlatticework shrubs,andpartially schemeof color is the this on a black ground: in and brown composedof reeds yellow was almostall the examplesfromRomeand Pompeii.The upperedge of the cancellum thecentralone brownand theouter reedsboundtogether, composedofthreehorizontal ones yellow;herebrownshadingis used to bringout thevolumeof thereeds.Fromthis hungleafybranches.This is a detailthatcan be foundin manyhouses,forexamplethe House of theInn witha Garden(II 9, 5-7). Abovethetrellistheremusthavebeen trees on a copper-green and bushesofvarioussortsthatit arenowimpossibleforus to identify, ground,whiletheskywouldhavebeenpaintedabove. ofthelate Parallels.The decorationofthegardenfitswellintothecommonphenomenon of gardenbecamean ornament Republicanand earlyImperialperiods,whenthefunctional The fashionofdepicting gardenson the spacefortheproprietor. thehouseand a reception ofimagiwas a resultofthisnewuse ofopenspaces;thedevelopment wallsoftheviridaria gardens.467 in of real ornamental narygardensgoinghandinhandwiththegrowth importance or tiny Thisis truenotonlyin thegardensofthegreathousesbutevenin smallcourtyards similarto the is strikingly lightwells.In theHouse ofSallust(VI 2, 4), whosedevelopment House ofDiana,thewallsofthegardenwerepaintedin thethirdstyle,afterthepartialclosureoftheportico. Fences are foundin variousmaterials-reeds,wood, or marble-and are generally paintedat thebase ofthewallwiththeplantsin frontofthem,as in ourcase,or abovea elementsthatactuallyexistedin thegarden,they lineoflow bushes.Besidesreproducing planesthatenlargetheilluserveto createa greatersenseof depthbycreatingdifferent withhavebeen rectilinear, In trellis seems to sionisticspace ofthegarden. our case the mighthavebeen found,but out thetypicalrecessesin whichpaintedmarbleornaments not enoughis preservedto be sure.The double reedsare less common,althoughthey of the House of StalliusEros (I 6, 13). We can say can be paralleledin the viridarium littleaboutthegardenthatwouldhavebeendepictedaboveandbeyondthem.AtPompeii, oleanders,viburnum, all belongto the Campaniancountryside: the plantsrepresented Tuscan coast. With themwouldhave and fruittrees.These speciesare all at homeon the been paintedbirds.The plantsalongthebase ofthewallarelikelyto havebeeniris,well adaptedto humidconditions.Elsewherewe findthemassociatedwithferns,acanthus, The plants painted on the base of the walls probably could be confused with and ivy.468
therealplantsofthegarden,as was thecase in House VI 3, 10,wherea bed withplantin frontofthepaintedbushesofthelastphaseofthethirdstyle,on ingplotslaydirectly a blackground.469 ofMaeceinthisstyleappearinthefirst decadeB.C. intheAuditorium Thefirst pictures three Evenearlier, nas andinthefamousGardenRoomoftheVillaofLiviaatPrimaPorta.470 467 Jashemski 1993, 49-51.
PPM IV,428 pl. 31.
of theHouse of In Pompeii irisesare verycommonalong the base of 469 PPM III, 389 pl.31. The peristyle of Valens(III 2, 1) showsthesamecombination the wall and tend to be associated with acanthus and Trebius fernssuch as Lingua Cervina (Phyllitisscolopendrium), plants,whichalso coversthe klineof the open-air (PPMI, 529 pl. 77). equally adapted to damp positions. These grow in the triclinium cracksofthewall. At theHouse ofAdonis (VI 7, 18) the wall that united the columns of the portico was deco- 470 Barbet1985,138. ratedwithacanthus,ferns,iris,and ivyon a red ground:
468
182
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
----------------------------1
0
2m.
ofthedecorationoftheaedicula(CM). Fig. 107.The garden,reconstruction
fromthegardenoftheVilla oftheFarnesinashowtrellisesand marbleornaments.471 fragments The firsttwo examples come fromclosed rooms ratherthanfromgardens,but the aim was alwaysthe same: to open up the space intotheworld outside.An identicalschemato thatof the House of Diana is foundin the calidariumof the House of the Labyrinth(VI 11, 8-10). is in thethirdstyleand datedto A.D. 2030.472 It seemsreasonableto attribute The painting the paintingsof our gardento around the same period,as theyare certainlylaterthanthose of theportico,oftheearlythirdstyle.However,so littleis preserved,and thepaintingtypeis so common,thatthisdatingmustbe regardedas veryimprecise. The Aedicula. THE OUTER WALLS. The plasteron the southwestwall of the aedicula is preservedto a maximumheightof 1.20 m. It was foundverybrokenup, withnumerouslacunae, aroundthebase of thewall. This was caused by a numberoffactors:therootsof particularly the olive treebehind the aedicula, the pressureof the earththathad filtereddown between thewall and the plaster,and biological agents.The plasterwas coveredwitha thickcalcareous concretion. The preparationconsistsof threelayersover a smoothingcoat. The firsttwo measure18 and 13-20 mmrespectivelyand containlime,verycoarse graysand, pounded tile,and straw. The thirdlayeris 2-3 mmthickand is composed of lime and calcite. red and yellow, The decorationrevealedby sample patchesconsistsof reeds,alternating whichintersectover a cream-coloredgroundto forma typicaltrellis(pl. 77, fig.107). A few The side ofthetrellistowardthecornersofthestrucleavesarevisiblethroughthelatticework. tureis a redband 5.5 cmwide. The yellowreedsalwaysoverliethered ones,and theirjunction withtheverticalredband showsthattheywerepaintedsecond.The upperlimitofthetrellisis red,yellow,and red. foundat 70 cm and consistsof threeparallellines 1 cm thick,alternating wallwas painted creamsurface.The northeast Overthispointsamplecleaningshoweda uniform thatappear to have fallenfroma higherlevel withan identicaldecoration.A fewfragments 471
Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, 93.
472
A verysimilarpaintingis also foundin the calidarium
of M. Castricius (VII 16, 17), of the finalyearsof the thirdstyle.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
183
Plate77.Aedicula, detailofthetrellis .'
!,..e'.*~
gv uaclu
,,
A.i,..,.~ r_a~
aMWs to the deoato
(EF).
.pattern
''.w.
E
of th upe
par ofte wall Som oftes
shwagrln
made of small yellowand red leaves paintedin the same tones as the cancellum;othersare coveredwitha red band; one showsthe armof a femalefigureholdinga vexillum(?). The frontwall oftheaedicula,to theleftoftheentrance,conservesothertracesof decoration.The plasteris preservedto a heightof 20 cm. It showsan 8 cm band of wavyred lines .5 cm wide on a yellowground.Above thisare foundalternating bands of red,creamywhite,and black 1 cm thick:a blackverticalband is also foundat 8 cm fromthe cornerofthebuilding.A fragment fallenin frontofthebuilding,whichpreservesa rightangle,is paintedwitha cornice of yellowovolion a red ground,thesame colors used fortherestof thebuilding. THE INNERWALLS. The plasterof the innerwalls is preservedto a maximumheightof 35 cm and showsnumerouscracksand lacunae. Its preparationconsistsofthreelayers:thefirstis gray,18/20mm thick,and composed of lime sand and pounded tile. The second is 20 mm thick,withstrawadded to the plaster.The thirdis 2 mmthick.Its surfaceis not smoothand showsthe strokeswithwhichit was applied to thewalls. The colors are veryfaded.Cleaning revealedthe same latticework in pale creamyyellow,thistimeagainsta black ground(pl. 77). At the base of the northeastwall is foundan irregularred line 2 cm thick,which,however, seemsto have resultedfroma carelessbrushstroke relatedto thepaintingof thefloor. directlyat groundlevel.Above Parallels. Againwe findthetwo-colortrellis,thistimestarting
it,thefragments suggestthattherewas a garlandhangingfromverticalsupportsforthe trellis. The fragmentsshowingan arm holding a vexillum(?) could belong to a friezepainted witha figuredscene placed overthegarland,at thetop of thewall. The best parallelis found in theHouse oftheInn witha Garden (II 9, 5-7).473 Here thegardenhas a summertriclinium withtwo masonryfountains,one in frontof the other.The ends of theklineshow trellisesin red,whilebehind and above themare low bushes. The southernpartof the northernbench shows garlandshangingfromthe top of the benches. The same trellismotifis foundon the 473
PPM III, 332-337.
184
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
walls of the two fountains,while above themis painted a gardenwithmarblefurniture and birds. The scheme of the friezepainted over the garlandis found on the west wall of the
houseannexedto theHouse oftheEphebe(I 7, 9).474
The compositionas a wholefitswell withthatof theearliergardenbut appearsless naturalisticboth in the colors used and in the treatmentof details.The frontwall was probably decoratedwithfakemarbles.A painted cornicewas probablyplaced over the frontwall or whichwas generallycarriedout in stucco. The inside of the cella was also on the tympanum, trellis in slightlydifferent decoratedwitha colors: possiblytheysoughthere to imitatethe preexistingtrellisthatstilldecoratedthe rearwall. The closestparallelsall fallinto decorativeschemesof thefourthstyle,whichbegan in thelast decade of thereignof Claudius. This fitswell withthe proposed date of the creationof the sanctuary.
Conclusions: TheAugustanDecorationoftheHouse (SC and EF) These new pavementsand frescoesfromEtruriaadd to theavailabledocumentation, showing just how closelythe compositionaland decorativemotivesmaybe comparedto contemporarydevelopmentsin Latium and Campania. In generalthe patternsof the floorsformpart of thestandardrepertory, althoughtheemblemataof thetablinumand thetriclinium present certaindistinctivefeatures.Withtwo exceptions,thenew owner,perhaps a decurionof the Augustancolony,chose pavementstylesthatwere as similaras possible to those ofhis peers elsewherein Italy.Indeed, we should be struckby the absence of any local style.The exceptionsare,luckily,the two best-preservedwalls recoveredby the excavation.These stand out not only for the quality of theirdecoration but also for the differentnature of their preparation.Now, while the decorationof the otherrooms is comparable to that of ordinaryhouses in AugustanItaly,the shrinein room C findsits best parallels in the Villa of the Farnesina in Rome, a buildingwhose owner belonged almost certainlyto the imperial is not simplya matterof family.Indeed, Silvia Nerucci has argued above thatthe similarity stylisticparallels but thatthe paintingof the Augusteumwas actuallycarriedout by some of the same artisansresponsibleforthe Farnesina. This tells us much, not only about the taste of the patronbut also about the mobilityof the most specialized artisans.The quality of the paintingin room C is exceptionallyhigh; thisis visible both in the use of expensive materials,such as a red pigmentderived fromcinnabar,and the wealth of miniaturistic detail. Further,the patron went to the trouble of having a stuccoed vault created,whose reliefswere clearlyfinishedby hand, using an extensiverepertoryof imageryderivedfrom the Roman pantheon. it clearlyparAlthoughthe qualityof thedecorationof theloggiawas less extraordinary, ticipatesin themodishcharacterof the restof thehouse. The loggiawas a newlyfashionable space, whichhad clearlybecome an importantreceptionroom forintimatefriends.The reof the spaces of the house showsthatguestswould have been led directlyfrom arrangement the atriumto the porticoby the narrowcorridor,M. From this corridorthe porticowould have opened out onto the garden,its real columnsreflectedby those on the wall behind. From the portico the guests could have appreciatedthe garden beforebeing led into the equallyfashionableblack triclinium. 474
PPM VII, 44-46.
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
185
The verymodishqualityofthisdecoration,and theroleofthepatronofthehousein refashioning thetabernaas a shrineconnectedto theimperialcult,leads us to wonderif coloniae, he was notone ofthechiefcitizensof a newcolony,perhapseventheconditor and theroad the forum between a newlyarrivedfromRomeand occupying keyposition to theArx. Archaeometric Analysis (EG) ThePigments andPlaster: THE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
and plastersin orderto characon bothpigments analyseswereperformed Archaeometric and to localizethesourcesfortheraw terizetheirchemicalandmineralogical composition thecontextwithin criteria: A setof40 sampleswas selectedusingthefollowing materials. oftheplasterlaythemacroscopiccharacteristics thebuilding,thecolorofthepigments, taken fromplaster No sampleswere of thefragments. ers,and the stateof conservation stillin situ. as wellas nondestructive techniquesand The analytical methodsincludeddestructive the different examination. The colors weremeasured to materials under variedaccording was appliedto identify a tristimulus coloranalyzer.475 Micro-Raman spectroscopy476 through as itdoesnotrequirethetreatment ofthesampleandprovidesinsituanalysis thepigments, withmicroanalysis electron microscopy at a micrometric scale.Opticalmicroscopy, scanning both and electronmicroprobe478 characterize analyseswereused to further (SEM-EDS)477 ofthecintheprovenance pigments andplasters.The sulphurisotopewasusedto establish All theorganicand inorganic pigment.479 of theMiniumCinnabaris nabar,theconstituent The resultsallowed micro-Raman spectroscopy. wereidentified bynondestructive pigments thereconstruction ofthepainter's palette: * MiniumCinnabaris ChemicalforVermilion. Cinnabar. Principalconstituent: [Synonym: ormixedwiththeRubricain roomA. mula:HgS]. Appliedbothas a pureredpigment * Rubrica[Synonym: formula: RedOchre.Principal constituent: Hematite. Chemical Fe203]. the Used eitheras a pureredpigment(insideroomA, theimpluvium, thetriclinium, in mixed(1) withtheCaeruleum theaedicula,and theportico)or variously vestibule, to ob(2) withtheMiniumCinnabaris orderto obtainthevioletcolorofthetriclinium; in roomA; (3) withtheMiniumCinnabaris tainthedarkredtonality andtheCaeruleum to obtainthedarkbrowncolorin roomA. Minolta,ChromaMeterCR-200witha measuringarea 8 mmin diameter.
475
LTD confocalLabrammultichannelspec476Jobim-Ivon trometerequipped witha Peltier-cooledcharge-coupled device detectorand an Ar+ Laser (1 = 514.5 nm). The scatteredlightwas analyzedusing a Notch holographic filterwitha spectralresolutionof 1.5 cm-' and a grating of 1800 groove mm-1(Department of Earth Sciences, Universityof Siena). SEM PhilipsXL 30 SEM equipped withan EDS spectrometer(EDAX-DX4) workingat 20 kV (Department of Earth Sciences, Universityof Siena).
476
478 Microprobe JEOL Superprobe JXA-8600 working withthe followingoperativesettings:20 kV; beam current at 15 nA; beam diameterof 5 mm (Universityof Florence).
"I The sulphurisotope analyseswere performedat the Stable Isotopes Laboratory of the University of Lausanne, Switzerland.The SO2 gas is produced in a Carlo Erba 1108 elementalanalyzer(EA) connectedby a continuousheliumflowinterface(FinniganMat Conflo II) to a stableisotope ratiomass spectrometer(Finnigan Mat Delta SIRMS).
186
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
constituent: Goethite. Chemical formula: FeO(OH)]. Yellowochre. Principal Sil [Synonym: in the aedicula, brown: gold-yellow Used fornumeroustonalitiesof yellowand clear in roomA,brownin roomA andinthewallsoftheportico. mustard ChemicalforBlue.Principalconstituent: Cuprorivaite. * Caeruleum [Synonym: Egyptian it was widelyapplied, mula:CaCuSi4010. Despitethehighcostof somevarieties,480 eitheras a pureblue pigment(roomA, walland ceilingoftheportico)or as a compoorthebrilliant green(garden) nentofthedarkbrown(roomA), theviolet(triclinium), pigments. Chemicalformula: Celadonite. TerraVerde. * Cretaviridis[Synonym: Principalconstituent: Al)[Si4010](OH2)].The Ramanspectraobtainedfromthispigment K(Mg,Fe2+)(Fe3+, from MonteBaldo(Verona, Italy). similarities withthoseoftheceladonite showsignificant weremixedwiththeCretaviridisin orderto givea shiny A fewcrystals of Caeruleum to thegreenpigment. reflection CaCO3] Calcite.Chemicalformula: Whitewash. * Creta[Synonym: Principalconstituent: FlameBlack.Composition:obtainedby thesoot]. Used and Atramentum [Synonym: forthewhiteand theblackcolorsbut also to lightenor darkentheother respectively pigments. theabsenceofanynaturalgluewiththeexcepestablished The micro-Raman investigations tionofcalcite. wereusedto determine The scanningelectronmicroscopeand an electronmicroprobe thepigments and thetexturalfeathechemicalcomposition of themineralsconstituting and conservation of thepaintedlayer-relatedto tures-suchas thickness, homogeneity, thedataobtainedthrough microthepainting technique.The chemicalanalysesconfirmed on theblue,green,white,and and providedsignificant information Ramanspectroscopy blackpigments. ofbothcuprorivaite zoned)and unreacted The Caeruleum containscrystals (sometimes of The chemical of the never reachesthestoichiocrystals cuprorivaite composition quartz. both metriccomposition due to theglassphasevariously presentbutis quitehomogeneous ofthesamesampleandwithinthesamecrystal. The dimensions of betweendistinct crystals Furthermore, small thecrystals areneverbelow19 microns, as requiredfora shinyblue.481 appliedwithin and smallamountsoftinwerefoundin theCaeruleum nuggetsofplatinum thetriclinium, theimpluvium, thegarden,and theporticoceiling.The analysesconfirmed in the theabsenceofsulphatesor lead carbonatein thewhitepigments and ofphosphorus blackpigments. on depending (10-80microns, Thethickness ofthepaintedlayersshowedlittlevariation As expected,thegreater oftheCaeruleum progranulometry thekindofappliedpigment). thicker ducedrather whiletheMiniumCinnabaris producedthinner layers(70-80microns), ones(10-20microns). The thickness ofthelayeroftheCretaandtheSil variesconsiderably from10 to 60 microns. The sulphurisotopicsignature wasfundamental fortheidentification oftheprovenance ofthecinnabar(constituent oftheMiniumCinnabaris). The isotopiccompositions ofthree
*
Caeruleum is known to be an expensive pigment. ancientpigmentsis found in Augusti 1967, 147-149. Pliny (H.N. XXXIII, 13) reportsthat 1 libra of common Caeruleumcost 128 asses, of Caeruleumlomentum 481 The dimensionof the crystals-usuallyrangingfrom 160 asses, of Caeruleumvestorianum640 asses, and of 5 to 50 microns-influencesthe reflectionof the pigCaeruleum tritum5 asses. A resume of prices for the ment:biggercrystalsgive brightercolor. 480
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
187
and comparedwiththecinnabaroresofAlmaden(Spain),Idrija sampleswas determined482
(Slovenia), Monte Amiata (Italy),Genepy (La Mure, Isere, France), and Moschellandsberg (Palatinat,Germany).
CONCLUSIONS
*
MiniumCinnabaris.The isotopicratioof the cinnabarprovidesproofof the Spanishoriginofthispigmentand localizesthesupplyarea withinthewell-knownminesofAlmaden. Althoughthereis no directarchaeologicalevidenceforminingin thearea of Almaden,483 Pliny,485 and Cicero,486 accordingto Vitruvius,484 the Spanish mineswere exploitedduring theRomanperiod. The stylisticanalysisof thepaintingsand theemployment of such an expensivepigmentas theMiniumCinnabaris487 confirmthehighqualityof the painting in roomA, the onlyone in whichit was used. * Rubrica.Our sourcesattestthatthispigmentcan be obtainedboth fromhematite488 and fromburningSil.489 Nevertheless,we have no directevidenceforthemineralogicalcharacteristicsof thispigment. * Caeruleum.Ancientsources490 and analyticalstudiespreviouslyperformedon Caeruleum demonstratethatthispigmentis produced by grindingand firingof two different compounds. Startingwitha commonbase of quartzand calciumcarbonate,it was possibleto use-as a thirdcomponent-eitherexpensivemalachiteor rathercheap scrap metals.491 Therefore,small amountsof tin are of particularrelevanceas theycan prove the use of scrap metalsinstead of malachite.At the House of Diana this shows thatthe pigment applied in thetriclinium, impluvium,garden,and porticoceilingwas obtainedwithscrap metals,whilethe pigmentapplied in roomA was obtainedusingmalachite.This distinction confirmsthe generalconclusionthatroom A shows a higherartisticlevel thanthe otherrooms. * Cretaviridis.The Raman spectraobtained forthispigmentshow significant similarities to that of the celadonite fromMonte Baldo (Verona, Italy), but furtheranalyses of celadonitesamples will be necessaryto put forwarda reasonablehypothesisregarding the provenanceof thispigment. * Creta. The analysescharacterizethis pigmentas a calcium carbonate compound. The originof thismaterialmustbe foundin thelimestonewidelyoutcroppingin theterritory of Cosa.492There is no evidenceforthe use of marble,althoughit cannotbe discounted on thebasis of theseanalyses. * Atramentum. The absence of phosphorusallows us to exclude the employmentof bone ash, but we cannotestablishwhethercoal or soot was used instead. The Hg isotope ratioin threesamplesof theMinium Cinnabarisdecoratingroom A gives the followingvalues: sample 6: 11.6 ? 0.3 (n=2); sample 13: 11.8 ? 0.2 (n=2); sample 38: 12.1 ? 0.3 (n=3).
482
487
Pliny,H.N. XXXIII, 7, 118-123 reportsthat 1 libra
ofMiniumwas70 sestertii. 488
Pliny,H.N. XXXVI, 20; Vitruvius,De Arch.,7.
483
Domergue 1990, especially193.
489
Pliny,H.N. XXXV, 6; TheophrastusV, 53.
484
Vitruvius,De Arch.,7, 9, 4.
490
Vitruvius, De Arch.,7, 11.
485
Pliny,H.N. XXXIII, 7.
491
Tite, Bimson,and Cowell 1984, 218.
486
Cicero, Phil. II, 48.
492
Giannini,Lazzarotto,and Signorini1971.
Ba)~~~~~~~~~a
c)
bb)
d)
* * t
t~
Quartz K-feldspars Plagioclase
2
U
Calcite Ca-piroxenes Fe-oxides
Lit Lim EJ Ch
oftheplastersamples(EG). Fig. 108.The composition
*
THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS
189
COMPOSITION OF THE PLASTERSAND PROVENANCEOF THE RAWMATERLALS
The description oftheplastersstartsfromthelayersunderlying thepigment and proceeds towardthelayersapplieddirectly on thewall.Thisunusualprocedure is due to thefactthat thefirsttwolayersunderthepigment, sinceit was alwayspossibleto characterize thedeofthefirst scription layersappliedto thewallprovedmoredifficult. All oftheplasterexaminedpresented one or twolayersimmediately beneaththepigmentcomposedexclusively ofcalcite.The firstcalcitelayerwasgenerally verythin(100 micronsto 2 mm)and composedofgroundcalcite.The secondlayerrangedin thickness from 0.5 to 11 mmand showedconsiderably different ratiosbetweenmicrocrystalline and spatic calciteevenwithinthesameroom.The presenceof a singleor a doublelayercan be variouslyexplained;itmaysuggesta freshstarton a subsequent thedifferdayor,moresimply, entialsmoothing of theunderlining layer.However,severalexplanations be may excluded forthepresenceor absenceofthedoublelayer:theformoftheroom(openor closed),the decorative thatwas to be applied(different sequence,and/orthekindofpigment kindsof pigment couldneeddifferent preparation layers). Underthecalcitelayer(s)werepresentsandylayerscomposedlargelyofcrystals ofCapyroxenes, K-feldspars, plagioclase, calcite,quartz,Fe-oxidestogether withnumerous lithic and sometimes fragments, fragments ofchamotte. Six typesmaybe distinguished, basedon thequantity andthedimension ofthesecomponents: typea characterized bya mediumsandstructure, similar modalproportion ofminerals with theexceptionofCa-pyroxenes, quantitatively slightly higherthantypesb-c and e-f (fig.108,a). typeb similarto typea in itsmineralogical composition, characterized bya higherratioof a majorgrainsize,anda lowerquantity matrix/grains, ofCa-pyroxenes (fig.108,b). typec characterized by thepresenceof largeaggregates of limestone, insertedin a sand verysimilarto typeb witha higherquantity ofquartz(fig.108,c). typed characterized ofchamotte bythepresenceoffragments ina sandverysimilar totype c (fig.108,d). typee characterized bya higherquantity ofcalciteanda verydifferent averagegrainsizeof thecomponents (e.g.,calciteis presentbothin crystals of 10 micronsand 1 mm) (fig.108,e). typef characterized byveryfine-grained crystals ofquartz,K-feldspar, andplagioclase(fig. 108,f).
Therewereusuallytwosandylayers, withcoarsermaterials includedin thelayerclosest to thewall.A finelayeroftypef was presentin roomA and theporticoceiling.Thislayer seemsto havebeenobtainedbyrefining thesandin orderto obtaina relatively lighter white paste. The different typesoflayerscorrespond to different rooms.Underthecalcitelayer,the plastersin roomA andtheporticowallsareoftypesa or b,whilethecorridor andthewest wallofroomA areoftypesc or d. The porticoceilingis typee andtherefore appearsto be different fromall theothersamples.Theredoesnotseemto be a singleexplanation forthe changing composition oftheplaster. The additionofchamotte is a well-known technique for theplaster;itsabsenceintypesa andb might waterproofing be explainedbythefactthatthe roomsweredryor thenecessity fora verylightweight coat.
190
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
itis possibletodraw oftherawmaterials usedfortheplasters, theprovenance Regarding structures have and plagioclaseswithglomeroporphyric severalconclusions. Ca-pyroxenes whiletheroundedshapeof thesemineralssuggeststheywerecarriedby volcanicorigins, waterfromtheiroriginalsource.A likelyoriginfortheroundedCa-pyroxenes and plagioclasesis thusthevolcanicareaofMonteAmiata,and theywouldhavebeencarrieddownstreamby theAlbegnaRiver.Consequently, thesupplyarea of the rawmaterialscan be localizedalongthecoastof theriver.Micro-palaeontological analysessupportthisreconas thefewfossilsfoundwithinthesandofthesecondandthirdlayersaremainly struction, whichmaybe reliablyconnectedwiththepliocenicclayscutbythe bentonicforaminifera, Albegna.Employing riverrather thansea sandavoidedtheriskofdegradation fromthecirculationofsolublesalts. In general,thevariationamongtheplastersis minimal. The use of different typesof likethetypeof roomor surfaceto be decoplastersseemsto dependon technicalfactors, in composition rated.However, theirgeneralhomogeneity-both andinsequence-suggests thata single,localgroupofplasterers was employed forthewholebuilding.The verydifferentstylistic betweenroomA andtherestofthebuildingmustdequalitiesofthepaintings of an individualmasterpainterratherthantheimportation pend on theemployment of a wholeworkshop forthedecoration oftheroom.
Sculpture andFurniture RabunTaylor
Catalogue 1. C9603 (pl. 78), C9606 (not illustrated),C9607(not illustrated),C9608 (not illustrated),C9609 (not illustrated)493 Typeof object: Fragmentsof freestanding statuetteof Diana. Dimensionsof fragments: C9603 (torso)H: 58 cm; W: 33 cm; C9606 (lefthand) H: 11 cm; C9607 (right hand) H: 6 cm; C9608 (rightleg, joins with torso) H: 18 cm; C9609 (rightforearm,joins with C9607) L: 13 cm. Material:Extremelyfine-grained whitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description:Torsoand upperarms:Diana wears a shortbelted chitonwithoverfoldand elbow-length sleeves. Over this she wears a nebris diagonallyon her leftshoulder,held in place by a baldric wornoverherrightshoulder.Three ofthe deerskin'shoofedlegs are visible,alongwiththeskinof theneck at waistlevel in front,whichprominently displaystwo rowsof drillholes. The back of the torso is less well worked than the front.The nebriscoversmost of the back; one leg of it hangs down on theleftside. On theback thebaldricand foldsof theskirtare carvedin verylow relief.A largeellipticalsocketbetweenthe shoulders,beveled at the edge, once held thehead. In thebreak of her leftarmis a traceof a hole forthe attachmentof the forearm,whichseems to have broken offand been repaired.A hole in thelowerleftside of the tunicprobablyheld a rod anglingup to secure her armto her side. Arms:In fact,the lefthand fragmentpreservestwo dowel holes in the wrist.This hand, though clearlybelongingto the ensemble,seems too smallforthe body.It is flexedaround a cylindrical void, whichmustoriginallyhave accommodateda wooden bow or a similarobject. Althoughthe fingersare brokenoffthe righthand, it too clearlyheld a cylindricalobject. Legs: The rightleg is brokenbelow the knee; a joiningfragment is preserveddown to just above the ankle. It was bent back in a Polyclitanhalf-stride.The leftleg, broken at the knee, was evidentlyunbent.There is no traceof footwear. Discussion: The statuetteis roughlyhalflife-size.Neitherarmcan be preciselyreconstructed.The left armhungrelaxed and doubtlessheld a bow,whilethe rightarmwas extended,probablyin the act of extractingan arrowfroma quiver.Of the quiveritselfthereis no trace;it mayhave been made of a different material. The stance and draperytypesare not well representedamong extantstatuary.The closest parallels are a portrait-headstatueof Diana fromOstia now in the Museo Nazionale Romano, a headless statuein theLandesmuseumin Trier,and a headless statuefromthegardenof theVilla of All threeare examplesof a recognizedtypein whichthegoddess standsin a Polyclitan Oplontis.494 I am indebted to JacquelynCollins-Clinton,who inspectedmanyofthecatalogueditems,read thecatalogue text,and offeredmanyperceptivecommentsand corrections.I also thankRobertCohon forhis helpfulcom493
mentson the marblefurniture. Picciotti Giornetti 1979, 23-24 and bibliography; Germini1998, 49; Trier:Faust 1988, 30-3 1, no. 47, pl.
494
191
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
192
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thestatue ofDianaC9604(SF). Plate79.Dog,from
in detail. buttheyareeachdistinct backto herquiverwithherrightarm,49' stancewhilereaching tunicanda highouter doesnot:a sleeveless thattheCosa statuette features Theyalsosharecertain enoughofthelegsto revealfootwear, beltinsteadofa nebris.TheOstiaandTrierstatuespreserve arenotpreserved. butthelowerlegsandfeetoftheCosa statuette imagetothatoftheCosa ThestatuefromOstia(MNRinv.108518)assumesa stanceinmirror is farmoresophistithetreatment of drapery Polyclitan. Although Diana,butit is recognizably withhercounterpart at Cosa: a catedon thisjustlyadmiredDiana,shesharesoneobviousfeature (TheloopontheCosa Diana, toherleftofcenter. ofhertunic,somewhat largeloopintheoverfold to abouthalfway inkeepingwiththeoppositestance,is on herrightside.)Theleftarm,preserved thantherod slightly higher tothehipbya marblestrutpositioned downtheforearm, wasattached A smalldogservedas a propforherstraight leg.The Trierstatuealso right on theCosa statuette. standswithitsweighton therightleg,theleftlegbentback.A largeproprestsagainsttheright ofa dog.The tunichasno largeloop in theoverfold. leg,whichincludesfragments TheOplontisstatuehasthesamestanceas theCosa Diana,butshehasa cloakdrapedloosely overherleftshoulderand leftarm.Her lefthandwas attachedto thethighat thebase of her hasno exactparallels. drapery thumbwitha marblestrut.The Cosa statuette's 2. C9604 (pl. 79) dog. ofstatuette: Typeofobject:Threejoiningfragments (assembled):about14 cm. Dimensions offragments Material:Whitemarble. 12 and bibliography;1996, 117; Jashemski1993, 300, pl. 340; De Caro 1987, 102-114.
495LIMCDiana 18-18b and 361.
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
193
Plt 8. HeaC97 ;S)
Greek a lateclassical orclassicizing Plate80.Headfrom ofa goddessC9674(SF). statue Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description:Only the fronthalfof the dog's body is preserved,along withthehead, the rightfrontleg to below theknee,and a stumpoftheleftfrontleg. The head is wornbut clearlyrepresentsa breed witha sleek,pointedmuzzle and powerfuljaws. It is turnedsharplyto the rightand upward.Part of a strutprojectsfromthe rightshoulder. Discussion: This is certainlya companionfigureto theDiana statuette,attachedto herleftleg withthe strutstillvisibleon the dog's shoulder.The dog looks up at its mistress. 3. C9674 (pls. 80-82) Typeof object: Head of a goddess. Dimensions:H: 20 cm; W: 14 cm. whitemarble,probablyof Greek island origin. Material:Extremelyfine-grained context:227. Stratigraphic Description:Roughlyhalflife-size.The nose and most of the upper lip are batteredaway.Both eyebrows are chipped; thereis a shallow chip in the hairlineabove the righteyebrow.The chin is abraded; mostof the frontof the neck is batteredaway.Featuresare classical or classicizing.The face is round,witha fullchin. Eyes are large and sharplydelineated.The hair undulatesforward fromthetop of thehead withouta discerniblepart;it framesthe face in a mass ofboldlymodeled waves movingfromthe templesback to the ears; only the lower part of the rightear is visible. Framingboth sides of templesand cheeksis one lock in deep zigzags,best preservedon her right. Above the waves on eitherside, the hair is drawnup verticallyin thickparallel strandsextending to the edge of herhood. A smoothtriangularzone in thehairabove theforeheadsuggeststhatthe goddess wore a tiara.The back is roughlyfinished.The hood coverstheback of herhead, itsedges descendingfromthe crownof her head to the neck just behind the ears. A knot of hair projects
194
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
Plate 82. Head C9674,fromtherear(SF).
Plate83. ColumnarpedestalC9601 (SF).
prominently beneaththe hood. Into thisa largeand deep rectangular mortisehas been cut, measuring 5 x 3.5 cmarounditsperimeter and 6 cmdeep;itssidesareroughly picked.Toward theleftsidethenapeoftheneckis cutflatandmustnothavebeenvisiblewhenthestatuette was inplace.The flatareais faroffcenter, andfromthiswe mayconjecture thattheheadwasturned to theproperleft. Discussion: Thisheadwasinitially believedtohavebeenspecially producedforthetorsoofDiana.However,itis on a noticeably smaller scale,andtheneckdoesnotfitthesocketofthetorsocomfortably. Thesketchily rendered hoodoverthebackpartofthehead,whichwasnotreadily visibleuntilthe headwascleaned,is completely incompatible withthehabitofthehuntress. Theangular planeand in therear-intended largemortise to receivea stonetenonrather thana metalfastener-suggest thatitwasoncepartofa highreliefsetagainsta background, perhapsa pediment group. The closestparallelsto theheaddo notbelongto Diana types.The meandering wavesofthe hairframing theforehead, combined withthesuggestion ofa hood,seemto owesomething to the ofCalamistype.496 Yettheblurredmodelingofthehair,withbold Sosandra/Aspasia/Aphrodite loopslaidoutinthick, lumpystrands likerolledclayhastily applied,findsa closercompanion ina marbleheadofDemeterfrom Agrigento.497 Thathead,although cockedsideways onitsneckinthe aspectofthemourning bearsremarkable mother, to theCosa head:a wide, stylistic resemblances bottom-heavy ovalfacewithfullchinandjaw;unusually large,almond-shaped eyeswithsharply delineatedlids;and fleshy a smallmouth.The originsofthestyleand typology lipssurrounding seemto be Athenian; theworkshop ofAgorakritos has been suggested fortheDemetertype.A datein theearlyfourth B.C. seemslikely. century See Napoli 1954, 1-10. I thank C. K. Williams for bringingthiscomparisonto myattention. 496
"I LIMC Demeter 190; De Miro 1966, 191-198, Tav. LXVIII. Compare LIMC Demeter 191, fromAthens.
SCULPTURE AND FURNITURE
195
tablesupportC9605 (SF). Plate 84. Goat-griffon
___~~~~~~W
This head, whichmusthave been fittedprovisionally(and badly) to the body of Diana with the help of some attachmentto the back wall of the cella, mayhave come by routeunknownfrom a late Classical monumentin Greece, Sicily,or Magna Graecia. TABLE AND BASIN SUPPORTS
4. C9601 (pl. 83) Type of object: Columnarpedestal fora table or shallowbasin. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 70 cm; H of shaft:49.5 cm; Diam. at base: 31 cm; Diam. at top: 26.5 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarblewithgrayveins. Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description: The Atticbase is 9.5 cm high; the capital is a simple cavetto 11 cm high. The shaftis smoothand tapering,withno perceptibleentasis.The upper surfaceis flat,smoothedwitha claw chisel,and picked hereand there.In thecenteris a round,shallowhole withstraightsides,roughly picked. Conditionis intact;thereis a large chip in the upper molding.The upper edge is chipped all around. Discussion: This pedestal is almost identical to one found in the garden of the House of Sallust in Pompeii, which stands 69 cm high.49That table is thoughtto belong to the finalphase of the withthe fourth-style house, contemporary paintingsof the garden. 5. C9605 (pl. 84) protome. Type of object: Monopod table support:goat-griffon Dimensionsof fragment:H: 75 cm; W:-15 cm; D: 28 cm. whitemarble. Material:Fine- to medium-grained Stratigraphiccontext:227. 498Pernice1932, 53, pl. 34.6.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
196
C9610andC9611(SF). Plate85.Basinsupports
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protomeadorsed to a plain column.The ears Description:The supporttakestheformof a goat-griffon and horns,whichmayhave helped to supportthe tabletop,are batteredaway,and the topknotis worn.The top of the columnis also missing,but a thickiron pin remainsembedded in the shaft. The goat's featuresare playfuland youthful:the eyesslantupward,and the tonguelolls out of the mouthon the leftside. Small whiskertuftshang fromthe jaw. An acanthus ruffon the chest is mostlybrokenoff;drillholes on eitherside and the top appear to have been visiblewhen the ruff was complete. Below it on the leftside, some of the surfacemarble has flaked off.The wings overlapthe columnon eitherside, taperingin a sharpcurlforwardat the top of the columnshaft. The protomemergesinto an animalleg withprominent,knobbyarticulation.The footis lost,but a dewclaw or talon, doubled to presenta mirror-image profileon both sides of the column,is preservedabove thebreak.The columnbase is square, cut flushwiththe shaft.The frontand one side of the base moldinghave brokenaway.There is no evidenceof a fasteneron the bottom. of thistypehave felinelegs or themorebirdlike Discussion: Accordingto Moss, all knowntrapezophori Cats do not have dewclaws,and so it maybe best to reconstructthisas a griffon feetof griffons. Unlikethe footwithvestigialtalons. Only two othergoat-griffon monopods are knownin Italy.499 a whimsical cast,with best-preservedexample in the museumat Paestum (inv. 104), thisone has immaturefeaturesand a lollingtongue.
6. C9610,C9611(pl. 85)
Type of object: Slablike basin supports. Dimensions:H: 63 cm; W (at base): 18 cm; D (at base): 32 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227. Mus. Arch. inv. 104; AmericanAcademyin 499Paestum, Rome,uncataloguedand lost.Moss 1988,cat.A136,A153.
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
197 Plate86.BraceC9664(SF).
Description:The edges and cornersare chipped; otherwiseboth supportsare almostcompletelyintact. They are thick slabs of white marble, heavily molded around the bottom and tapering toward the top. On one narrow face of each is a simple bucranium in relief; on the other is a six-petaled
rosettepatera.Each has a joiner'smarkin theshape of a C on top,whichis otherwisesmooth.The base moldingis an Attictype,comprisinga plinth,lower toruswithfillet,scotia withfillet,and upper toruswithfillet. Discussion: These served as dual transversesupportsfor a trough-shapedbasin. The joiner'smarks suggestthattheywere carvedto fita specificbasin, perhapsone of the two whose preservedfragmentswere found in the House of Diana (C9610-1 1). Basins of this type are well known from Pompeii, Delos, and Rome. Perhaps the best-knownexamples are in the gardenof the House of the Vettii at Pompeii.500
7. C9664(pl. 86) Type of object: Ornamentalbrace fora hermtable base. Dimensions: H: 7.5 cm; W: 24 cm; Th: 3.5 cm.
Material:Dark purple to red-violetmarblewithwhitebrecciations.Possiblypavonazzetto. Stratigraphiccontext:240. Description:Workedto a uniformwidthwitha profilesimilarto thatof a pilastercapital,the piece is completelyplain on both facesexcept fortinyvolutescarvedat the centerof each end on one face. There is no evidence of fastenersor adhesivesof anykind. Discussion: Such braces typicallywere attachedto the frontface of rectangularhermtable bases to provide lateral stability.However,if this piece ever servedits intendedpurpose, then it was attached withoutanyfastenersand musthave offeredlittlestructuralsupport. 8. C9616 (not illustrated) Type of object: Plinthwithrectangularmortise. Dimensions:L: 22 cm; W: 22 cm; Th: 5 cm. Material:Whitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227. Museo nazionale romano351-352, no. XI,7 and bibliography;Deonna 1938, 78-80, pls. 111-113. An
500 See
example in Rome appears in Pavia 1985, 40.
198
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
Plate87.Baseofherm tableC9675(SF). monopod
Description:This square plinthis roughlybeveled on the underside,as if it was fittedinto a base or directlyinto the ground.In the centerof the smoothlyfinishedtop is a rectangularmortiseand, withinthat,a small circularhole drilledthroughthe base fora dowel. Discussion: It mayhave been a plinthfora hermor a monopod table but does not seem to correspond to anyof the survivinghermor furniture fragments. 9. C9675 (pl. 87) Type of object: Base of bermmonopod table. Dimensions: H: 12 cm; W.: 21 cm; D: 26 cm. Shallow mortise on top: L: 12 cm; W. 7.5 cm; D: .7 cm.
Deep mortiseon-top:L: 10 cm; W:-6.5 cm; D: 2.8 cm. Material:Black marblewithgiallo anticoshaftand inlay. context:281. The base was apparentlyin situbeside thefountain,againsttheback wall of Stratigraphic the garden. Description:This block offineblack marbledisplaysinlaidcirclesand rectanglesin gialloanticoaround threesides but is plain on one shortside. The bottomis roughlypicked. The top has two rectangular sockets,a broader,shallowerone towardone end and a narrower, deeper one towardtheother. The deeper socket was found withfragmentsof a giallo antico shaftstill inside and traces of a verticaliron dowel fasteningthe shaftto thebase. At some point the undecoratedend of the base had brokenoffand been repairedwithsmallironpins. Discussion: Bases of thiskind supportedhermmonopod tables withseparateshaftsforthe hermand the leaf support. One of the shortsides faced forwardand carried a frontalbrace like C9664; however,thatbrace is somewhattoo smallforthispiece, and neitherthebrace nor thebase shows evidencethatit was everattachedto anotherelement.The shallowsocketon top supporteda base for the hermshaftor its feet,while the deeper socket accommodatedthe narrowershaftrising behind the herm and supportingthe table's weight.None of the herm fragmentsfound in the garden appears to correspondto thisbase. Two tables fromPompeii in the Museo Nazionale of Naples and one at the Antiquariumat Pompeii,amongwhichare the ones cited as a close parallel forthe flat-backedhermbust (C9673),have comparabledouble-socketbaseS.50' The dark stoneof thisbase is identicalto thatof an unusual triangularbase fora statuetteof Pan on displayin theCosa museum(CE 1953). This has tworowsofcontinuoushorizontalgrooves, In addition to the hermtables cited above see Mus. Naz. Nap. inv. 126149 and Carrington1936, pl. 8. All
501
are catalogued in Moss 1988, but the photographicreproductionsare poor.
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
199
Plate 88. Stretcher oftripodprotometableC9713 (SF).
Plate89.Legofa tripod protome tableC9715(SF). probablyalso to receiveinlays.The Pan mayoriginallyhave been a table leg, in whichcase itsbase mayhave been reworkedfroma piece of furniture as well.502
10. C9713 (pl. 88) Typeof object: Fragmentary stretcherof tripodprotometable. Dimensions:H: 10 cm; W: 33 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description: The stretcherhas threearms,only one preservedto its originallength;the ends of the other two are broken away. The top is finished and smoothlyconvex, while the bottom is concave and furtherhollowed out withroughpickwork.The threesides are carefullyfinished, each with a recessed fluterunningalmost the fulllength.The stretcherhas two joiner's marks, an E in the top center and the Roman numeral II on the single preservedjoint face. Both this piece and C9715, part of the same table, show clear evidence of breakage and repair withiron pins.
Discussion: See the discussionof its companionpiece, C9715. 11. C9715 (pl. 89) Type of object: Fragmentary leg of a tripodprotometable. Dimensions:L: 26 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:326. Description:The piece is in the formof a powerfulfelineleg withexaggerated,knobbyarticulation. J.Collins-Clinton,personalcorrespondence.This was foundin room22 of "AtriumPublicum" I, whichseems 502
to have been a storeroomfora shop.
200
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THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
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Plate91. Fragment ofdecorativewaterbasinC9676 (SF).
Plate90.Fragment ofdecorative water basinC9708(SF). The upper part of the haunch once carryinga head is broken away; the lower leg, which had brokenoffand been rejoinedwithan irondowel pin in antiquity, is also lost. Tracesof an acanthus ruffare visiblejust below the top break; towardthe top back, part of the joint face is preserved withremainsof the ironpins. Discussion: The leg and the stretcher(C9715) were both parts of a single table.503There are many survivingexamplesof such tripodprotometablesin Italy,mostdated to thefirstcenturyA.D.504All had round tabletopsmeasuringfrom73 cm to 125 cm in diameter;manyhad rectangularblocks underthe feet.The leg originallycarrieda protomehead as well. Tripod table stretchersare relativelyrarefindseven in Pompeii and Herculaneum,and onlya fewof thistype,withrectangular joins, are knownto exist.Pentagonaljoins are more commonin theJulio-Claudianperiod.505 Each join worked as follows:matchingholes were drilled into the joining faces at a right angle,and a shortirondowel pin was insertedto join thefaces.Below and parallelto theshortpin, a groovewas cut into the marbleacross the join, and an iron rod in the formof a shallow U was insertedintothisto forma clamp.The same double fasteningmethodwas used to repaira breakin one of the armsof the stretcher. 12. C9708 (pl. 90) Type of object: Fragmentof decorativewaterbasin. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 17 cm; W: 17 cm; Th: 2.5-3 cm. A well-knownexample withan intactstretcheris at the Museo Nazionale in Naples; see Richter1926, 139140; see also Deonna 1938, 45-48.
503
markin the formof a K.
For examples withrectangularjoins, see Moss 1988, cat. C30 (Lucus Feroniae, Villa of the Volusii) and C66 504 Moss 1988, type 9. See Moss 1988, 37-43; cat. Cl(Pompeii 1.6.11); on the occurrenceof various typesof C1 18. Especiallynotableis C22, foundat Cosa in Atrium joins, see Moss 1988, 40-41. BuildingIV (cat. C69285). In the centerwas scratcheda 505
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
201
Material:Graymarble. context: Stratigraphic 331. thesmoothly rimmoldingof a waterbasin.It shows Description: Thisfragment preserves finished invertical continuous thusthebasinencloseda void curvature sectionbutdoesnotcurvelaterally; The rim consisting of a cylindrical is smoothly segment. roundedin section,forming an ovolo moldingon theupperedgesurmounting twoshallowcymata. About4 cmbelowthemoldinga fragmentary bossprojectsfromtheoutersurface. Discussion:Thislabrumortub-shaped basinmaybe thecompanion ofthetwowhitemarblesupports foundintheshrine(C9676,C9708).Themarblehasanicy,bluishcastatthebreakssimilar tothat of somegradesof Luna bardiglio butmaybe the"marbrebleuatre"of somesimilarbasinfragin fact,appearson a Delianbasin.It reveals mentsin Delos. A virtually identicalmolding profile, thatthebosson theCosa fragment is thetopcornerofthehorizontal fortheseatingofa molding transverse support, as maybe seenin an illustration inW.Deonna,Le mobilier ddlien.506 13. C9676(pl. 91) ofdecorative waterbasin. Typeofobject:Fragment offragment: H: 13 cm;W:14cm;Th: 3-3.5 cm. Dimensions Material:Graymarble. context: 282. Stratigraphic The moldings on thisfragment aresimilar, Description:. butnotidentical, to thepreviouspiece.The rimis thesamesize,butthereis onlyone cymabelowit. Discussion:Themarbleofthetwopiecesisverysimilar, anditmaybe thatthefragment comesfrom the backofthesamebasin,wherethemolding waslesselaborate. HERMS
14. C9617 (p1.92) Typeofobject:Headlessdrapedherm. Dimensions offragment: H: 62 cm;W: 15-18cm;D: 13-14cm. Material:Fine-grained whitemarble. context: 227. Stratigraphic Description:The surfaceof frontand sides is verywornand was foundcoveredwitha layerof calciumcarbonate.The hermtapersslightly towardthebottom.The losthead was joinedto thehermwithan irondowel,partof whichis stillembeddedin the smooth,flatjoin of the neck.The sides are smoothand preservesmalldowelholes at shoulderheightforattaching armstumps.Theyare slightly a thinprojecting recessed,forming edge aroundtheperiphery. The hermwearsa chlamyspinnedto theleftshoulderwitha roundbrooch.On thefrontthe foldsfallin elongatedparabolaswitha flatzig-zaggededge alongtheproperleftside below thebrooch.The majorfoldsare schematically renderedas long channelscutwitha running drill. Discussion:Thisfineexampleofthe"Mantelherm" typefindsa reasonably closeparallelat Delos, butwithouttheextensive modelingand drilling ofthedrapery.507 Use ofrunning drillchannels as an expressive elementin sculpture is usuallyassociatedwiththelatefirstand secondcenturiesA.D.Here thetechniqueis mutedbya fairbit of modeling;certainly it is notintendedto drawattention to itselfas laterstyledictated.Hermbustsin PompeiiandHerculaneum dating 506
Deonna 1938, 78-80 pl. 113 right.
On Mantelhermtypein general,see Wrede 1985, 4. On the example at Delos, see Marcade 1969, A 6888, pl. XI. Its threeparabolicfoldsare renderedin an extremely
507
simplefashion,perhapsbecause thehermis unfinished. The sides are recessed in the same way as on the Cosa herm;however,the head, onlyroughlycarvedbut identifiablymale, is of a piece withthe shaft.
202
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
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Plate92. Headless drapedhermC9617 (SF).
Plate 93. Headless drapedhermC9618 (SF).
fromthemid-first to A.D. 79 oftenrevealthistechnique, century butforthemostparttheyareof importedcoloredmarbles.508 15 and 16.C9618 (pl. 93), C9687(pl. 94) Typeofobject:Fragments oftwomatching drapedherms. Dimensions offragments: C9618 (twojoinedfragments): H: 90.2 cm;W: 14-15cm;D: 12 cm.C9687: H: 21 cm;W: 13 cm;D: 12 cm. Material:Fine-grained whitemarble. context: Stratigraphic 240 (C9618);227 (C9687). Description: Bothwerecompletely straight, untapered pillarherms.C9618is preserved almostcompleteintwopieces,buttheheadis missing. C9687is thebottomfragment ofa matching herm.On is rendered inlowreliefonthreesidesandis pinnedwitha circular each,drapery broochattheleft shoulder. The drapery is represented in threeoverlapping tiers.On thefrontthetopand middle tierhangin acuteparabolasdownthecenter, whiletheirbottomhemsrevealsinglesymmetrical dovetailfoldsat eachside.The tiersarecontinued aroundthesides;on theproperlefttheycontinuethepatternofthefront, buton therighttheygivewaytowardtherearto verticalrowsof mirror-image dovetails formed bythejuncture ofthetwolateralhems.Thesecascadetwo-thirds of thewaydownbeforetapering out. The back is plain.C9618 has a largesocketbetweentheshouldersfortheinsertion of the head,whichwas notfound.It is shallowand rounded,finished smooth,withshallowconcave leftand right.On eachsideat shoulderlevelaredowelholesfortheattachment cuttings ofarm in a different stumps, possibly material. Theundersides ofbothareworkedflatwitha clawchisel; eachpreserves a longholeforattachment to a separatebase. 508
Moss 1988,159-162.
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
203
Plate94.Fragment ofhermC9687(SF).
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thehed whc iscomlee exep fo of a pic was< wihtesatadhsXenboewyh middl Delos adcipdifrn. o6'f longtresss hanidentical, inwv comparandum: dule stad aon the shuler.: Discussion: but similar, againprovidesaTrcs byno means straight, draped Theshaf iswith undrnd a pilla run upteraie herm a fewparabolic foldsaxiall of drapery down the front.509 pillar Dsusson Th trae of ubudsole-eghairvalteem's liel idntt as Dionsus 17. C9612; C9680 (not illustrated) Typeof object: Fragmentsof two matchingherms. Dimensionsof fragments:C9612: H: 87 cm; W: 19 cm; D: 14 cm; dorsal pillar: W: 8 cm; D: 4 cm. C H:came 9680: 86 cm; 14 cm. Dina froW:a 19 sigl citen wher theywer evdetl throw in laeatqit.Sc:e cm; D: Material:Fine-grainedgraymarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227. farther down. C9612 Description:C9680 is an exactmatchforC9612, althoughthebreakoccursslightly is completeexceptforthehead, whichwas of a piece withtheshaftand has been brokenaway.The shaft,smoothand unadornedon the frontand sides, is brokeninto two joiningpieces above the middleand chipped in front.Traces of long tresseshangin wavydouble strandson the shoulders. The shaftis unadorned;a pillarrunsaxiallyup the rearside. Discussion: The tracesof unbound shoulder-length hair revealthe herm'slikelyidentityas Dionysus. The double strandsof hair on eithershoulder are a commonfeatureof Roman herms;a similar headless example with a plain shaft(except for a small hole for a phallus) is at the Maison du Foulon at Delos.510 The consistentabsence of all the herms' heads may be significant.Several herm heads on displayin the Cosa museum (none of them correspondingto the hermsfound in the House of Diana) came froma single cistern,where theywere evidentlythrownin late antiquity.Such methodical defacementis commonlyseen in earlyChristiancontexts."'lThe heads of pagan statues, seen as the seat of demonic powers and the evil eye, were oftenremovedfromthe premisesor 509Marcade 1969,pl. XIX, bottomright.The head,which
510
Marcade1969,pl. XVI.
5"
Taylorforthcoming, withbibliography.
is missing,was of a piece withthe shaft.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
204
Plate95.Headlessherm bustC9673(SF).
defaced in order to deprive the demons of theirmalicious gaze. Even the human heads on the suovetauriliareliefmayhave been intentionally damagedor removed(see below,C96 15). The head of Diana, thoughseparatedfromthe body,seemsto have escaped thisfate. 18. C9673 (pl. 95)
Type of object: Headless hermbust. H: 12 cm; W:-18 cm; D: 9 cm. Dimensions of fragment: Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:275. Description:The conditionis intactexcept forthe missinghead. The bust is cut flaton the bottom, sides, and back. The verticalplane in back probablyextendeddown fromthe crownof the head. Part of the neck emergesfromthe shouldersand ends in a roughbreak. On eithershoulder,ends of a filletor vittafallonto the chest,doublingovernear thetipS.512There is no evidenceof fasteners or adhesives. Discussion: The bust is of a fairlycommontype.Small flat-backedhermbusts began to be produced in the mid-firstcenturyAD. and appear sporadicallyaround central and northernItaly.They typicallyfeatureheads of Dionysus, maenads, sileni,Hercules, Isis, and otherpopular types."53 Flat-backed hermbusts are oftensmall because theywere meant to be mountedon table supports or balusters of a contrastingmaterial.Completelyplanar on both back and bottom,and oftenthe sides too, theywere eitherfittedinto a deep rabbet cut into the upper frontedge of a singlepillar shaftor affixedto the top of a hermshaftand addorsed to a separatepillar supporting a table (see C9675). Excellent examples fromPompeii, still attached to theirtable herms, have similarfillets."4 Some flat-backedhermbusts remained freestanding,however.The busts at the House of Euxinus in Pompeii, forexample,were found displayedin a wall niche. The completelack of Fillets arrangedin thismannerare foundon numer- 514 Mus. Naz. Nap. inv. 12652: See Ward Perkins and ous hermbusts,not all of themof theflat-backedkind. Claridge eds. 1978, 139 no. 63. Pompeii Antiquarium: A good example, a freestandingHercules herm from Gnoli 1971, pl. 45. the Villa of Oplontis, appears in Jashemski1993, 300515Jashemski1993, 52-53 pls. 61, 62. 301 pls. 336, 341.
512
513
Zanda 1983, 59-71 pl. XIX 1-4.
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
205
intheform Plate96.Oscillum headC9613(SF). ofa silenus
evidence of fastenersor adhesives on the Cosa bust suggeststhat this too was displayed on its own. OSCILLA 19. C9613 (p1 96) Type of object: Oscillum: silenushead. Dimensions:H: 22 cm; W: 14 cm; Th: 7 cm. Material: White marble.
Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description:The frontof the mask is carved fullyin the round; the back is roughlyhollowed out. It portraysa silenuswearinga vaguelydefinedgarlandor circlet.Facial featuresare typicallyexagcurls gerated,withprominentbrow ridgeand short,broad nose. The fullbeard has symmetrical and a veryprominentmoustache.The piece is completebut brokeninto threefragments. One of the breaksoriginatedat the smallhole drilledinto the top of the head, in whichpartsof the iron hangingeyeletare stillembedded. Discussion: Dramatic masks used as oscilla were finishedon one side only and hollowed out from behind."16Oftenthe pupils and mouthwere drilledthroughbut not in thisinstance.Oscilla hung fromchainsor cords in theintercolumniations of porticoes.Presumablythefinishedside ofmasktypeoscilla was meantto face the garden. 20 and 21. C9662, C9663(pls. 97 and 98). The fourfragments have been integratedby Erik Risserwith a reconstruction of the hindlegs of the feline. of an oscillum:pinax withreliefon both sides. Type of object: Four joiningfragments "6 Dwyer 1981, 129-130. For a thoroughdiscussionand
see Cain 1988. catalogue of Dionysiac Maskenreliefs,
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
206
pinaxrelief Plate97.Oscillum, C9662andC9663(SF).
Plate98. Oscillum,pinaxrelief
C9662andC9663(SF).
Dimensions (assembled): H: 17 cm; W. 22 cm; Th: 2.5 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:242 (C9662); 227 (C9663). Description: The rectangularslab, slightlyrounded at the corners,is carved in crude low reliefon both sides. Each reliefhas a somewhatirregularborder about 2 cm in width. On one side is depicted a felinepouncingto the righton a prostrateanimalof uncertainidentity.The otherside depicts a silenus mask in profilefacingright.The facial featuresare typicallyexaggerated,with a protrudingbrow and snub nose. The bald head wears a simple fillet,and the hair falls in a taperinglock behind the pointed ear. A thyrsosin the backgroundprojects illogicallyfromthe mask's forehead;a tympanum,onlypartlyintact,would have filledout the bottomrightcorner. The break at the top correspondsto a small hole drilled into the top centerfor an iron hook. There are no traces of paint.
Discussion: Relief pinakes come in two forms:those displayed in gardens upon columnar stands, such as the well-knownexamples at the House of the Gilded Cupids in Pompeii; and those that hung as oscilla in intercolumniations.The formerhave high reliefon one side and low on the
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
207 Plate99.Oscillum, pinax relief C9688(SF).
.9
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Plate100.Oscillum, pinax relief C9688(SF).
A~~~~~~~~~~~~~
other,while the hangingtype has low, usually crudelycarved, reliefon both sides.51 Like this exampleand C9688, pinakestypicallyfeaturestockthemesrelatedto thetheaterand theDionysus cult-in thiscase, the silenusmaskwiththyrsosand tympanum.Whetherthe springingfelineon the otherside is meantto remindus of the panthersof Dionysus or is just a typicalferalscene is uncertain.In theirmodestway,the two tableaus on opposite sides of the slab evoke the tensions between wild and tame, sacred and human, terrifying and ridiculous,which so delighted the Romans in theirart. 22. C9688 (pls. 99 and 100)
Type of object: Fragmentof an oscillum:pinax withreliefon both sides. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 1r1cm; W: 10.5 cm;pTh: 2.5 cm. Material:Whitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:285. 517
Ibid.;Pailler1982;Corswandt 1982.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
208
Plate101.Suovetaurilia relief C9615(SF).
Description: Of the same originaldimensionsas C9662-63, this pinax survivesonly in a small fragment.The borders and carving.styleon both sides are indistinguishablefromthose of the other recoveredpinax. On one side, it depictsthe hind legs of an animalleaping right;on the other,the gapingmouthand corkscrewlocks of a tragicmaskin profilefacingright. Discussion: See the discussionforC9662-63. ALTARs 23. C9615 (pl. 101)
reliefof sacrificialprocession. Type of object: Fragmentary L: 46 cm; H: 38cm; Th: 11 cm; W. of fascia at bottom:5 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphic context: 251. Description: The slab represents a processional frieze fragmentin low relief on the front; it is crudely
picked flaton the back. It is brokenroughlyinto the shape of a batteredrectangle,witha large section additionally broken away diagonally from the top right corner. Enough is preserved to
show the fullheightof the frieze.A horizontalfasciamoldingalong the top is freshlychipped on its leftside. A second fascia near the bottomservesas the groundlineforthe relief,which is in good conditionexcept forsome abrasion and batteringon the most exposed surfaces.At some point afterthe friezewas broken,a rectangularhorizontalgroovewas cut crudelyintothe surface of the reliefjust above the lowerfasciaon the farright. The reliefis carved to an intermediatedepth; it representstwo victimariileading a thick-set bull fromleftto right.The bull is almostcomplete,onlythe veryend of its hindquartersand left hindleg brokenoffto theleft.Its two frontlegs are set squarelyon thegroundlineand farapartin profile,as much in resistanceas in progression.Its head is held high,again presentinga slightly reluctantdemeanor.It wears the dorsualeand sacrificialheadgear (perhaps); prominentdewlaps walks in tandemwiththe bull, his torso and upper legs obhang fromthe neck. One victimarius scured by the animal'smassivebody.His lowerlegs,in mid-stridetowardthe right,appear below the bull's belly;his batteredhead and shouldersemergein profilejust above the bull's back. Another victimarius, bare-chestedwith his tunic rolled down around his hips, stands to the bull's in frontal contrapposto.His rightarmextendstowardthebull's snoutto gripthe harness, right a his leftbalances a platterof sacrificialcakes. The head is lost,brokenaway at the top of the neck awayfrom along the diagonalfractureof theupper rightcorner.He leans intohis taskjust slightly,
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
209
a pendanttensionagainstthebull'sanchoredmass.The background thebull,generating is completelyplain. fora medievalgrave,carvedsidedownward. It Discussion:Thefragment wasreusedas theheadstone formpartof thedecoration of thehouse,althoughone mustaskwhenit thusdoes notstrictly in a medieval,and therefore contextmayacmovedthere.The fragment's discovery Christian, countforthedamagedoneto theheadsofthetwovictimarii.The entireupperrightcornermay to eliminate thattheevileyeofthispaganartifact havebeenbrokenoffpurposely anypossibility had at one time (in theformofa semifrontal gaze?)woulddisturbthedeceased.If thefragment in shape,itwouldbe easiertojustify in a metalsetting beenmoreregular itsapparent remounting forthegroovecut roughly intothefaceat thelowerright).We might (theeasiestexplanation horizontal therefore another conjecture groovein thelostupperrightcorner. Thefragment wouldappeartobelongtothedecorative ofanearlyjulio-Claudian superstructure altarassociatedwithone ofthetempleson theArx.51"Therearetwocompanion from fragments theArxnowin thesitemuseum, whichshowpartsofa bull,a sheep,and a victimarius moving fromrightto left.519 The presentfragment representsa sacrificialprocessionmovingin theopposite directionbut by no means in precise mirrorimage. In the museumfragments, a victimarius he is in thebackground,and thebull's leg positions overlapsthe bull in front;in thenew fragment are different. are thickerthanthenewlydiscoveredone, indicatingthat Moreover,thosefragments theywerenot all partsof a singlecontinuousfrieze.As in the opposingplaques of themuchlarger Louvre suovetaurilia,the two processionsmayhave servedas pendantson eitherside of a central element.The registeroftheCosa friezeis only23 cm highfromgroundlineto top moldingand was clearlydesignedfora smallmonument,probablya U-shaped altarsimilarto theAra Pacis in Rome. Althoughonlytheleft,or north,friezeis preservedon thealtarproperoftheAra Pacis, representing a processionfromleftto right,the south friezeprobablycarrieda similarprocessionin the opposite direction.This famousaltarcertainlyoffersa plausible precedentforthe physicalplacementof two pendantfriezes,one on the outerleftface and one on the outerright. The figuralgroupingis familiarin generaloutline,ifnot in detail,on manyImperialprocessional reliefs.The man leading the bull, thoughrenderedin a squat, short-waistedform,is of a clearlyrecognizabletypein Roman public reliefs.The earliestand perhapsthe best parallelis the victimariusof the terracottapedimentgroupingfoundnear the Via S. Gregorioin Rome, usually dated to the second centuryB.C.,520 but the typehas manycognatesand variantsin the Imperial period,even on the Ara Pacis itself. Althoughthe small Ara Pacis reliefis more sophisticatedin conceptionand execution,and depictsnot a suovetauriliabut rathera ritualfeaturingtwoheifersand a sheep,it revealsa kinship in conception,style,scale, and choice ofmolding.52' Unlikeso manyother"historical"reliefs,both the Rome and the Cosa friezesuse humanfiguressparinglyagainsta blank background.On the Ara Pacis reliefthe two aproned figuresbalancingtraysof sacrificialofferings in theirlefthands inviteimmediatecomparisonwiththe leading figureon the Cosa relief.There can be littledoubt thatthe Ara Pacis served,at least indirectly, as a model forCosa's altar. No fragmentsof the altar were found in situ on the platformof the Capitolium,only the settingscut into the pavement.However, twelvefragmentsof a Republican-eratufa altar with heavyquarter-ellipsemoldingswere recoveredfroma medievalwall on the Arx, and thesewere assignedto the Capitoliumaltar.Brownconjecturedthatthe altarremainedotherwiseunchanged when it was repositionedin the late firstcenturyB.C. to correspondto the temple'sorientation.522 Cosa II, 127. The Augustanaltarwas set square with the temple,unlike its predecessor,which had been off alignmentby about 45 degrees.
518
Ryberg1955, 106 pl. 35, who dates the fragments to the Augustanor earlyImperialperiod.
520
Kleiner 1992, 52-54, fig.36, and bibliography.
For good reproductionsof the Ara Pacis altarfrieze, see Conlin 1997, figs.240-246.
521
519
522
CosaII, 127.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
210
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Plate 102. AltarvoluteC9623 and C9685 (SF).
A_
g
Plate 103.ColumnaraltarC9689 (SF).
But it is also possible thatan altarin the new style,clad in marbleand equipped withraised decorated panels on the wings,was installed at this time. About 3.1 m square, it could easily have accommodateda figuralfrieze38 cm highabove its crownmolding. The suovetauriliarelieffragmentgives us a sense of the hopeful and solemn nature of the Augustan refoundationof the town. It has been proposed that depictions of the suovetaurilia sometimescommemoratethe lustralritesinvolvingthe foundingor refoundingof a sanctuary.523 A rededicationof the town'ssanctuariesfollowingthe sack and abandonmentin the late Republic mayexplain the constructionof an Augustanwall around the forecourtof the Capitolium.524 If this wall was in fact a physicalmanifestationof the restoredtemplum,then its creationmay well be associated with the verysame suovetauriliaceremonythat is representedon the relief plaques. 24 and 25. C9623, C9685 (pl. 102), C9709 (not illustrated) Type of object: Matchingaltarvolutes. Dimensions of fragments:Diam. of volute: 7cm. Reconstructed,the cylindricalbolstersjoiningthese voluteshave a completelengthof about 32.5 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227 (C9623, C9685); 340 (C9709). Description:A four-petaledrosetteconstitutesthe eye,a crisplycarved calyxthe pulvinus.The leaves are pinched in slightlyat the centerof the pulvinusto forma balteus. C9685 includes partof the fascia and cymamoldingthatran across the frontof the altar.A deep horizontalrabbethas been cut across the top of the voluteof C9709. Discussion: These are typicalvegetalvolutesfromthe side edges of a smallaltarof Imperialdate. Their reconstructedlength,32.5 cm,would constitutethe approximatetotalwidthof the altar. 523
Vermaseren1957, 1-12.
524
CosaII, 129-140.
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
211 Plate104.Smallsupport inthe form ofa feline legC9670(EF).
_
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.
26. C9689(p1. 103)
Type of object: Small columnaraltaror pedestal. Dimensions: H 27 cm W at top: 22 cm.
Material:Fine-texturedlimestone. Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description:Slightlylargerand betterpreservedthanC963 1, it has thesame generalfeatures.Base and echinusare partlypreservedbut are brokenawayin large sections. Discussion: Numerous examples of such pedestals, rangingfrom20 to 30 cm in height,have been recoveredin Pompeian houses. Typicallytheyare made of travertine, less commonly,of tufaor marble. Pernice refersto themas altars,and the lack of any evidence of fastenerson the upper surfaceof our own exampleswould seem to supportthisidentification.'2' Their small size makes themeasilyportable. 27. C9631 (not illustrated) Type of object: Small columnaraltaror pedestal. Dimensionsof fragment: H: 25 cm; W at top: 19 cm. Material:Porous limestone. Stratigraphiccontext:275. Description:Though badly broken,thispiece revealsa verysimplecolumnardesign,consistingof no morethana smoothcylindricalshaftwithsimplebell-shapedbase and echinus.The latterfeatures are mostlybrokenaway.Surfaceis somewhatpitted. Discussion: See discussionof C9689. MISCELLANEOUS MARBLEOBJECTS 28. C9670 (pl. 104) Typeof object: Small supportin the formof a felineleg. Dimensions:H: 10 cm. Material:Fine- to medium-grained whitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:75. Description: A veryfine,muscularfelineleg, low and squat in proportionsto support a horizontal 525
Pernice 1932, 70, pl. 42.1.
THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA
212
.
~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~
...............
Plate 106. Decorativearchitectural frieze,C9671 and C9710 (SF).
relief C9718(EF). Plate105.Fragment ofvegetal
__...... ...... .....
element.Cut smoothon top and bottom,it bears no traceof adhesivesor fasteners.The condition is intact. Discussion: The purpose is unknown.Althoughprobablydesignedas a supportfora marblecandelabrumor similarfurnishing,'2the footwas neverattachedto a largerobject and musthave stood alone, perhaps as a small lampstand. 29. C9718 (p1. 105)
Type of object: Fragmentof vegetalrelief. Dimensions of fragment: H: 5.7 cm; W- 4.2 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:333. Description: This small, irregular fragment appears to represent two heart-shaped (ivy?) leaves on a
singlestem. a mass of leaves,perhapsin a is doubtlesspartof a largerreliefrepresenting Discussion: The fragment in theshrineof Liber Pater festoon.Leaves carvedin a similarstylewerefoundon an altarfragment in Cosa.'2 The Rouse of Diana fragment maytoo have been partof an altar,perhapseven Diana's. 30. C9671a,b,c, C9710 (p1. 106) Type of object: Decorative architectural frieze. Dimensions of fragments: L: 15.5 cm; H: 19 cm; Th: 3 cm. L: 23 cm; W: 18 cm; Th: 3 cm. L: 19 cm; H:
15 cm; Th: 3 cm. L: 12 cm; H: 19.5 cm; Th: 3 cm.
Material: White marble.
Comparethe rathermoreelaboratefeetof two thebodiesoftheircandelabra. marblecandelabrain Cain 1985,cat.nos. 36, 49, pls. 1977,56 pl. 29. from 527 Collins-Clinton 52, 3-4. Theywereclearlyproducedseparately
526
SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE
213
Stratigraphic context:(C 9671a, b, c, ) 227; (C 9710)340. Description: Fourjoiningfragments ofa lotusandpalmette frieze.The stemofthepalmette is carved leaveson eithersideofthecentralstemoftheplant,whichrisesoutof withthreegently curving vineatthebottomoftheplant.The stemhasa centralridgelinethat thespiralsoftheconnecting diesoutattheroundedtopofthestem,atthetopofthepanel.Thelotushasa two-tiered blossom, outto jointhetopofthestemoftheadjacentpalmette. Molded withtheupperblossomcurving witha flatchiselwithwhatappearstobe finepolishing onboththeleafforms surfaces arefinished andthebackground is 3 cmhigh.Theback,bottom, andtop planesofthepanel.Thebasemargin arefinished witha flatchisel.528 ofthefragment
528
Jamgrateful toJeffrey Burdenforthisinformation.
Terracottas
ElizabethFentress
C9666 (not illustrated) Typeof object: Architectural fragment. Dimensionsof fragment: L: 6.5 cm; H: 19 cm; Th: 2 cm. Stratigraphiccontext:240. Description:Portionof whatappears to be a palmette. C9672 (not illustrated) Type of object: Terracottaentablaturefragment. L: 18 cm; H: 13.5 cm; Th: 6 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:292. Description: Upper portionof entablaturerevetmentwithovolo, dental mold, and small portionof rinceaufriezeintact.Clearlya miniatureof an architecturalentablature. C9711 (pl. 107) Typeof object: TerracottaCampana plaque. W: 15.5 cm; H: 13 cm; Th: 3cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description:Maenad Campana plaque of typedescribedin Cosa II, 297 as "type2," withfemalehead, The edges appear to have been delibbust,drapery,arms,and tambourinepreservedon fragment. eratelycut to preservethe upper body of the maenad. C9717 (pl. 108) Type of object: TerracottaCampana plaque. W: 7 cm; H: 6 cm; Th: 3 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description:The same typeof plaque, witha clear attemptto preservethe head as the centerof the fragment. C9660 (pl. 109) Type of object: TerracottaCampana plaque. W: 5 cm; H: 12 cm; Th: 3 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description:Head and bust of Minerva,preservinghelmet,upper shoulder,and fragmentof breastplate,derivedfromtheCampana plaque describedin Cosa II, 298 and pl. LV as "type5," Compare the stuccoed head of Minervafromthe Augusteum,pl. 69.5. DISCUSSION
The fragmentsof Campana plaques found in the destructionlayers of the garden certainlycame from the Arx, where they formed part of the decoration of the Capitoline temple. However, 214
TERRACOTTAS
215
thefactthatall threefragments are of heads suggeststhattheyare not chance findsbut were deliberatelycut out to decorate the fountainniche,beneathwhich theywere found,or for some otherapposite use in the area. The firsttwo would have fitnicelyinto the Dionysian of the templewould have provided themesof the gardendecoration.A majorrefurbishment the occasion fortheirreuse in the gardenof the House of Diana. The functionof the small terracottaentablatureremainsobscure: perhapsit belonged to a small structureor the little in the destructionlayermakesthisunlikely. shrineitself,but the absence of otherfragments Plate107.Fragment ofmaenad Campana plaqueC9711(EF). .As. .1sr~~~~~~~~~J
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PART IV
THE FINDS
ForumVI fromTempleE in Trench Terracottas RabunTaylor
C9542 (not illustrated) motif. Typeof object: Shell antefix,satyr/maenad Richardsonsubtype:Temple D phase I (Cosa II, 187-188, fig.12). Dimensionsof completeunit:Diam: 23 cm; H: 23.5 cm. H: 6.5 cm; W: 4.6 cm; Th: 0.9-1.8 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Fabric: Pinkishbuffexterior,deep orangecore; heavygrogof coarse red pozzolana. Similarto fabricB of TempleD (Cosa II, 184). Stratigraphiccontext:106. Description: Small fragmentof the leftedge of the antefixshield. Several strandsof the ivyrinceau reliefare visibleon the concave,frontalside. The edge has a simplebeveled finish. antefixtypeB known Discussion: The decorationand edge correspondperfectlyto the satyr-maenad fromTemple D. C9546, C9569 (not illustrated) Typeof object: Strigilatedsima. Richardsonsubtype:Temple D phase II (Cosa II, 199-200, pl. 28.2). Dimensionsof completeunit:H: about 30 cm; W: unknown. Dimensionsof fragments: C9546: H: 8.0 cm; W: 9.6 cm; Th: 2.2-3.5 cm. C9569: H: 8.4 cm;W: 15.3 cm; Th: 1.9-3.5 cm. Fabric: Buffwitha finepepperygrogof red pozzolana, clear and black quartz.Appears to be identical to the fabricof C9507, C9508, C9545, and C9580. Stratigraphiccontext:C9546: 106. C9569: 104. Description: The strigilsare narrow,closelyspaced, and slightlyconcave. Scoringmarksare visible along the top, definingthe mortiseforthe open cresting.The widthof themortiseis 2.2. cm. The back is verysmooth,withno tracesof mortaror strutsto attachit to the roof.The face of C9546 shows tracesof mortar. Discussion: The mortiseis wide enoughto accommodateeitherkind of crestingfoundin the vicinity. The mortaron the face of C9546 suggeststhatthefragment was reused as buildingmaterialin the vicinityof the temple. C9504 (pl. 110) motif. Typeof object: Open cresting,triskelion/figure-eight Richardsonsubtype:Capitoliumphase III (Cosa II, 240-242, pl. 38.1). Dimensionsof completeunit:H: 53.1 cm; W: 52.5 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: H: 10.8 cm; W: 12.4 cm; Th: 1.8-2.3 cm. Fabric: Pinkishbuffwitha verycoarse grogof red pozzolana, clear and black quartz. Stratigraphiccontext:101. patternflankedon eitherside by portionsof triskelia. Description:Part of a ribbonin a figure-eight
217
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TERRACOTTASFROM TEMPLE E IN TRENCH FORUMVI
219
withthetwosubtypes knownfrom Richardson's Discussion: Wewereunabletomakea directcomparison phasesI andIII oftheCapitolium (CosaII, 210-211,pl. 31; 240-242,pl. 38), butthefragment is associatedwiththe to thesubtype plainlysimilar to bothandcanbe ascribedwithsomecertainty armsandvoidsin relation to the earlierphaseoftheCapitolium bythepositionofthetriskelion arecutaway;buton thisfragfigure eight.Typically, thevoidsaroundthearmsofeachtriskelion armis cutawayonlyon one side,whilethevoidnearestto thewaistofthe ment,thepreserved Thedecisionnotto cutallthevoidswasprobably figure eightis simply represented bydeeprelief. does notfitRichardson's madeafterthemoldingprocesswas complete.Thisfragment template buta closeexamination ofthebadlydegradedfragments on thetemplate in CosaII, pl. perfectly, less 38.1 showsthattheyarean equallypoorfit.It seemsthatthefigure eightshouldbe somewhat on thedrawing. elongated thanitis represented C9507,C9508,C9545,C9580 (pl. 111) motif. Typeofobject:Open cresting, loopedpalmette Richardson subtype: TempleofJupiter phaseI (CosaII, 159-160,pl. 18.1). Dimensions ofcomplete unit:H: 31.2 cm;W:54.4 cm. Dimensions offragments: C9507:H: 7.2 cm;W: 8.0 cm;Th:2.8-3.2cm.C9508:H: 6.2 cm;W: 8.9 cm; Th: 3.0-3.4 cm.C9545:H: 8.2 cm;W: 7.6 cm;Th: 2.7-3.7cm.C9580:H: 6.0 cm;W: 4.7 cm;Th: 2.9-3.4cm. Fabric:Buffwitha finepeppery grogofredpozzolana,clearandblackquartz.Appearstobe identical tothefabricofC9546andC9569.Thepieceswereslipped,andtracesofsiennapaintorprimer are visibleon C9507. context:C9507,C9508:101.C9545:106.C9580: 151. Stratigraphic Description: C9507is a roughY forming thespandrelbetweentwoogivalpiercings on leftand right and a rimmed circularpiercingabove.The raisedrimis partofa continuous ribbonthatforms rowsofstaggered circles.A smallfragment, serpentine loops aroundtwohorizontal C9580,preservespartsoftherimsoftwoadjacentcircles.Thebestpreserved ofallthefragments, C9545is an almostcompletepalmette ofthesameplaquesubtype. fromthetop register It has no holefora meniscus. ofthiskind,has lostmostofitsreliefbutretainstheflareof C9508,anotherpalmette twopalmette leavesandthedistinctive Atitspeakis a hole dogtooth profileat theirculmination. The backsofall fragments fora meniscus. aresmoothandeven. Discussion:Thesefourfragments, all ofthesamefabric, associbelongto thepiercedcresting subtype ofthe"TempleofJupiter" atedwiththeoriginaldecoration (CosaII, 159-160,pl. 18). C9577,C9578 (pl. 112) Typeofobject:Revetment plaque,crossed-ribbon motif. Richardson subtype: TempleB (CosaIII, 162-163,pl. 116). Dimensions ofcompleteunit:H: 45 cm;W:51.7 cm. Dimensions offragments: C9577:H: 9.0 cm;W: 12.4cm;Th: 1.8-3.0cm.C9578:H: 9.0 cm;W: 10.9 cm;Th: 1.7-2.0cm. Fabric:C9577:Buff-colored witha grogmostly ofredpozzolanaofmediumcoarseness. C9578:Buff fadingto a greenish grayin thecorewitha medium-coarse grogofgraysand. context:151. Stratigraphic Bothfragments arefromtheanthemion Description: witha distancebetweenlotusblossoms register, ofabout5.65 cm.C9578 revealsa badlywornfasciaabovetheanthemion andtheendloop ofa ribbonbelonging to themainregister. The onefragmentary dentilon C9577is 3 cmwidelikethe finished dentilsofTempleB. Thebacksofbothareroughly scraped,thatofC9577showing traces ofmortar. Discussion: C9578, whichpreservespartof the plaque's leftedge, terminatesthe anthemionpatternin
THE FINDS
220
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preciselythesame place as thepreservedplaques fromTempleB. The mortaron theback ofC9577 indicatesthatit was reused in laterconstruction. C9584 (not illustrated) Type of object: Revetmentplaque (?), motifand subtypeunknown. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 4.4 cm; W: 8.1 cm; Th: 2.0-2.5 cm. Fabric: Buff-coloredclaywithcoarse red pozzolana grog. Stratigraphiccontext:172. i radiatefroma small round element.Brokenon all sides. leaves sarrow Description:Eight or n Traces of mortaron the back and one edge. Discussion: Possiblypartof a palmette.The presenceofmortaron one edge indicatesthatthefragment was brokenbeforereuse. C9509 (not illustrated) motifand subtypeunknown. Typeof object: Plaque sttu H: 5.7 cm; W: 6.0 cm; Th: 1.9-2.3 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Fabric: Veryorangeclaywitha mediumgrogof red pozzolana and clear quartz; the presenceof black
quartziS minimal.
Stratigraphiccontext:101. Brokenon all sides. Description:Severalnarrowstriationsin a slightlyfannedarrangement. modeled by hand; it is motif a to be Discussion: This veryfragmentary loosely palmette piece appears series. of an architectural not part probably C9516 (not illustrated)
Typeofobject:Ex-votostatueorferculum(Richardson:Cosa II, 336-340;Cosa III, 197-199,pls.200201).
TERRACOTTASFROM TEMPLE E IN TRENCH FORUMVI
221
offragment: H: 3.6 cm;W: 6.8 cm;Th: 3.6 cm. Dimensions Fabric:Pinkishbufffabricwithinclusions; tracesoflightredpaint. Stratigraphic context:101. ofa corbelleddoubleortripletorus. Description: Crudelymodeledfragment totwofragments oflife-size Discussion:Thisisverysimilar ex-votos womeninHellenistic representing dressfoundnearTempleB (CosaIII, 197-199,pls.200-201).Thosepiecesevidently belongto a broadarmband.However, itis alsopossiblethatthismolding is partofa smallferculum, orstatuettebase,as describedin CosaII, 336-340.In eithercase it is not,properly speaking, partofan architectural terracotta scheme. DISCUSSION
While it would be presumptuousto argue that such a small samplingof architecturaland in all-provides a completeor balanced pictureof sculpturalterracottafragments-thirteen the decorationof Temple E, it is neverthelessremarkablethateverytypeof terracottaelementone would expect on a smallEtrusco-Romantempleis representedamongthefindings: antefix,rakingsima,open cresting,and revetment. Only the acroteriaare missing,but thisis hardlysurprising, giventhe extentto whichthe area has been disturbedand despoiled. The presenceof mortaron threeof the fragments mightsuggestthattheyhave strayedfromtheir source,but the templesof the Arx and the forum,which are some distanceaway,probably were not the source forthesematerials.A moresatisfactory conclusionis thatthe fragments were takenfromTempleE or its vicinity, were mortaredinto a medievalwall on the Eastern Height just to the east of the ancienttemenosenclosureof the temple,and foundtheirway back down to the templesanctuaryafterearthquakesdestroyedthe medievalstructures. If we followedthe old typology,529 we would say that the oldest architecturalelement associated withTemple E was the serpentine-ribbon cresting(pl. 110). Because fourof the eighteenfragmentsof this subtypefound on the Capitoliumwere in constructioncontexts forthe Capitoliumand therefore predatethatbuilding,Cosa II assignsit to the earliestphase ofthe "TempleofJupiter," 240-220 B.C. However,some fragments ofthissubtypewerefound in thefirelayerblackenedwithsoot and musttherefore havebeen on a templewhenitburned in 70 B.C. This broad chronologyis remarkableevidenceforthe physicaland aestheticdurabilityof some terracottasubtypes.It also shows thatwe cannotnecessarilydate a building accordingto the earliestknowndate of its decoration.Clearlythissubtype,even ifit was on the Capitolium,was in use beforethe Capitoliumwas built. Less controversialelementsare associatedwithtemplesB and D. First,the crossed-ribbon plaque formof Temple E (pl. 112) is the same as that of Temple B and can be dated accordingly.Second, the antefixfragmentfound in 1995 at Temple E is a subtypethat Richardsonassociateswiththe firstphase of TempleD. Third,the two strigilatedsima fragmentsare of the subtypeattachedto the second phase of the same temple.It can be suggestedthattherewas no second phase of pedimentaldecorationon TempleD. Indeed, all of it maybe original.But even if we must suppose thatone sima is older than the other,our subtypewould seem to have the betterclaim to antiquity:it is the smallerof the othertwo, and the refurbishment of TempleD, ifit took place, was presumablyintendedto amplifyits visual presenceon the Arx. Thus we have threeelementson TempleE thatcan be associated withthe beginningsof templesB and D. For criticismof the datingof this typologysee now Taylor2002.
529
222
THE FINDS
datesoftemplesB and D to theyears RussellT. Scotthas movedup theconstruction therecolonization TempleE shareddecorative immediately following ofCosa in 197B.C.530 withbothandhad a piercedcresting type(serpentine ribbon),whoseintroduction elements of theCapitoliumca. 160 B.C. We maytherefore demonstrably precededtheconstruction withtemplesB andD; thatis,itwas a concludethatTempleE is roughly contemporaneous the following productofthecolony'ssecondcreative phaseduringtheperiodofprosperity SecondPunicWar. offourdecorative one simasubtype, twocrestings, registers: TempleE had a minimum revetment evenby comparison to and a rectangular subtype.Beinga verysmallstructure on therakingcornicesofthepediTempleB, itprobably didnothavethreestackedregisters type,whichwouldnormally conments.The templeseemsto havelackeda looped-palmette The twofaqaderegisters, a simaabout30 cm stitutethelowestrakingregister. comprising highand cresting roughly 50 cmhigh,werealreadymorethanenough.A thirddecorative outofproportion to thedimensions register wouldhaveproduceda broadbandcompletely ofthepediment. sima-whichnormally wouldhavestoodfreeabove Instead,thestrigilated sufficed to revetthecornice.Thissimasubtype, witha flatback therevetment-probably well. The simaplaquesprobablywere and no struts,wouldhave suitedsuch a function and fastened likeordinary revetments directly to the punchedwithnailholesbeforefiring revetment plaquesservedto cover faceof thebeam.As on TempleB, thecrossed-ribbon mostofthehorizontal beams.
530
Scott 1992, 91-98.
Roman Minor Objects, 1990-1997
C. J.Simpson
T he itemscataloguedand illustratedhererepresentmostof theRomaninstrumenta
discoveredduringthelatestcampaignsof excavationat Cosa (Ansedonia, domestica infunction, theobjectsdisplaya greatvariety ranging Tuscany)from1990to 1997.Although to knifebladesandlead slingshots, theydo notexhibit fromarticlesofpersonaladornment anygreatwealthor sophistication. Perhapsthemostobviousconclusionto be drawnfrom ofCosa in theareasexcavatedwerefairly theobjects,in fact,is thattheresidents poor. A slightmilitary record.In additionto thelead slingpresenceis visiblein theartifact in theArx(73,74, 75,76, 77,78),therearethepeltiform buckle shotsfromtheexcavations in theseseemto reflect somewaythe loop (14) and theunusualpilumhead (72). Together, ofthecity.Slingshots oftheinhabitants occasionalwarfooting (glandes)arequiteapproprias a defensive ate in siegewarfare, whiletheshortpilummayalso havebeen appropriate is Themaininterest ofthisobject,however, weapon,as werespears,butthisis lesscertain.531 tosimilar the itsclose-thoughperhapsfortuitous-resemblance objectsfromTalamonaccio, nearbysiteoftheBattleofTelamonin255 B.C. inthefollowing sample. Also,therearecategories ofequipment thatareunderrepresented maleaspectto theinhabitants oftheareasinvestigated, As ifto emphasizea predominantly all thesecategories somehowrelateto women.For example,therewereno clearlyidentifiable hairpinsor earrings viewedamongtheartifacts fromtheexcavations underdiscussion. ifone acceptsthatthespinning ofyarnwasa woman'staskinRomanantiquity Furthermore, lackofloomweights and spindlewhorls(onlyone of (cf.Suetonius, Aug.64.2),therelative one category andtwooftheotherarerepresented here:20,21,22) suggests thatwomendid nothavea primary excavated.Inpresenceamongtheoccupantsoftheareasmostrecently wererecovered However,at leastone deed,no quernsor millstones duringtheexcavations. ofthefinger below(13) wasprobably wornbya smallerperringsdiscussedandillustrated catason,i.e., a womanor child,whilethereare also sevensewingneedlesin thefollowing whiletheseitemsandevidencemayattestthe logue(23,24,25,26,27,28,29). Nevertheless, recorddoessuggestthatthatpresencewasminimal. presenceofwomen,theartifact in thecatalogue(32,33, 34, 35, 36). Thisis to be exTherearefivefishhooks contained on-the sea. The artofwriting, perhapsevenlitpectedat a siteso closeto-and dependent ofmen,is represented inthefourstyli(38,39,40,41). eracy, thoughnottheuniqueprovince Mostoftheminorobjectsrecordedhereyieldlittleevidenceas to thedateofthelayers in whichtheywerefound.Thus,a commonrefrain formanyof the entriesis: "Date of uncertain." This is to be expected;in theMediterranean world,formostof comparanda: therewaslittleinnovation ofequipment here. represented antiquity, amongthecategories 531
Bishop and Coulston 1993, 52.
223
224
THE FINDS
Whenattention is turnedfromdatingtotheuseofa particular areaandlayer, therecord of theminorobjectsis forthemostpartequallyambiguous. One area and layer,however,
standsout: IX D, 17. There can be littledoubt thatthislayer,withits varied contents,was composed of domesticrefuse.The contextdates to the earlysecond centuryA.D. and contained articlesof dressor personaladornment(a brooch,2; a glass bead, 4; fingerrings,10), textileequipment(a loom weight,20; a spindlewhorl,21; a sewingneedle,27), a blade (43), and leisureobjects (a flutefragment, 66; a gamingpiece, 65). All the dimensionsare givenin centimeters: D. = diameter;H. = height;L. = length;T. = thickness;W. = width.Only those dimensionsare giventhatare appropriateto each object. An attempthas been made to illustrateas manyof the artifactsas possible by line drawings and the occasional halftone.While,fora varietyof reasons,not everypiece has been so illustrated(usuallyto avoid duplication),all categoriesof equipmentare representedin the accompanyingfigures. In all, the minorobjects recordedand illustratedhere are an impoverishedcollection. Indeed, it is noteworthy that,in relativeterms,not muchhas come out of the ground.Also, smalland poor as thiscollectionis, it mustbe noted thatthe presentationof smallfindshas not been a major concernin manyearlierexcavationreportspublished in Italy.Thus, it is hoped thatwhat followswill promotea more frequentpublicationof these objects,which give tantalizingglimpsesinto dailylifein the ancientworld.
Catalogue ARTICLESOF PERSONALADORNMENTOR TOILET (FIG. 109)
Brooches 1. Brooch(CG223) Excavations 1954:BldgC (curia),Forecourt SE (2),LevelI black.Copperalloy.L.: 3.1,Max.D. of chord:1.1.Onlypartoftheflatbowandthechordofthreewindssurvive. Onerowofbeadingflanks eitherside of thecentralspineof thebow.Cf.,fora closeparallelfromSan Giovannidi Ruoti (Basilicata), Simpson1997,no.64.Dateofcomparanda: beginning tolastquarter offirst century A.D. 2. Brooch(C9219) IX D, 17.Copperalloy.L.: 6.9; Max.T.: 0.8. Simplewirebroochwithpin(missing) issuingfroma three-chord spring.D-shapedloop to flattened catchplate.Fora virtually identicalchordat San Giovannidi Ruoti(Basilicata), Simpson1997,no.63. Cf.an exampleofthetypeatSettefinestre in theAgerCosanus,Fama 1985,233,tav.60,5. Not illustrated. Date of comparanda: end offirst firstquarterofsecondcentury through A.D. 3. Brooch(C9582) EH VI, 151.Copperalloy.L.: 6.5; Max.W.ofbow:0.9. Thebowandhingesurvive butthepinis Similarto Guzzo 1972,92, tav.III, A3. Butwithout missing. smallterminal disc.The Guzzo exseemto be tooearly.Date ofcomparanda: amples,however, uncertain. Beads 4. Glassbead (C9241) IX D, 17.L.: 1.4;Max.D.: 1.6;D. ofcanal:0.6. "Melon-shaped" withlongitudinal striations. Pale blue opacifiedpaste.Thisis a widespread typeofbead,whichis manufactured individually and
\jy
i/
1
5
~~~~~~~~~4
3
13
11
10
14
15
/
18
17
16
0
20
21c 19
21b
21a 0
5cm
loomweight,and spindlewhorl(AJD). Fig. 109. Objectsforpersonaladornment,
226
THE FINDS Plate113.Amber ringstone, engraved witha ship (Soprintendenze Archeologica dellaToscana).
'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
* ;fi 11_, ......................... .. . .
not by segmentation. Cf. (Verulamium, Britain) Charlesworth 1984, fig. 69-150, 172; (Coichester)
Crummy1983,fig.32-520/521,30;(Oberstimm,Germany)Bdhme1978,Taf.113-F28/f55;Berthelot 1995,5f. (Basse-Normandie,France); Simpson1997,no. 96 (San Giovannidi Ruoti,Italy).Date of centuriesA.D. comparanda:first-third 5. Glass bead (C9714) Forum V, 223. L.: 0.9; D. of canal: 0.7. "Melon-shaped" with longitudinalstriations.Pale blue centuriesA.D. opacifiedpaste. Cf. above, C924 1. Date of comparanda:first-third FingerRings 6. Fingerring(C9101) P5, 12. Copper alloy,withglass ringstone.D.: 1.6; T.: 0.7. Dark blue paste. Flat bottom;slightly curvedtop. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertainbut of long duration. 7. Intaglio (C9107) (pl. 113) Forum II, 1. Amber.Dimensions: ? Oval, withincised designof an oared ship or boat. The boat has a highsternand appears to be sailingto the right.The prowis less high.There is neithermast nor sail, but theboat seemsto be propelledby fiveoars (or has holes/shields)thatare represented the boat appears to be by incised lines like parentheses.If the ringstone is placed horizontally, sailingupwardat an angle of30 degrees.(The descriptionoftheobject,now missing,was supplied of shipswas a fairlycommonmotifon bezels and intagliosof by B. Fentress.)The representation the Greco-Roman world. Cf. Marshall 1907, 1200, PI. XXIX; Walters 1926, passim. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 8. Fingerring(C9137) N5, 5. Copper alloy. Ext. D.: 2.0; T.: 0.3. No distinguishing features. Cf. below, C9724; Feug:re
1994, 357f., fig. 150-2,5. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda: uncertainbut of long duration.
9. Finger ring (C91.39)
features.Cf. below,C9212; C9724. Not N5, 3. Copper alloy.Ext. D.: 2.1; T.: 0.2. No distinguishing illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertainbut of long duration.
ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997
227
10. Fingerring(C9212) IX D, 17. Copperalloy.Ext. D.: 2.3; T.: 0.2. No distinguishing features.Cf. cat. 9. Date of comparanda: uncertain butoflongduration. 11. Fingerring(C9231) termini IX D, 17. Copperalloy.Thin,penannular finger ring.Max. D.: 2.1; T.: 0.1. The spatulate as anearring. Thetermini are0.3 apart.Dateofcomparanda: tellagainstthisobject'sidentification uncertain. 12.Fingerringstone(C9350) curvedtop.NotillusEH VI, 7. Glass.D.: 1.3;T.: 0.6.Iridescent bluepaste.Flatbottom;slightly uncertain. trated.Date ofcomparanda: 13. Fingerring(C9724) The smalldiameter use ForumV, 0. Copperalloy.Ext.D.: 2.1; T.: 0.2. Roundedprofile. suggests features. Date ofcomparanda: bya smallperson,womanor child.No otherdistinguishing uncertainbutoflongduration. BeltEquipment 14.Buckle(C9589) ForumV, 75. Copperalloy.Max. W.: 5.6; H.: 0.7. Peltiform buckleloop withinturned, spiral The articleis roughly in generalappearance.Its outerfaceis decoratedwith termini. "hooflike" incisedpendanttriangle, puncheddot,andlinearornament. Theinterior edgeoftheloopis raised andmarkedwithlateralhatching. The article'sdecoration seemsto be veryslightly wornat that partoftheloop againstwhicha buckletonguewouldhaverested.Attachedto one oftheloop's termini is a smallcylindrical tubethatwouldoncehaveaccommodated thebuckleaxle.(A similar tubefortheotherterminus is missing.) The spiraledtermini oftheloop arecommonto military bucklesofthefirstcentury A.D.; fora goodparallelfrom Ocafia(Spain),Aurrecoecha Fernandez 1996,50 and54,figs.1-5,pl.2. Cf.,inaddition tothecomparanda citedat54,BishopandCoulston 1993,fig.59-15(Hod Hill),fig.40-2c,d (suspension loopsfromKempten, Velsen);Kiinzl1977, 180,fig.3 (Naples);Rajtar1994,93,Abb.6,7(undecorated, withextended rectangular axlesforthe buckletongues, butseealsofig.113-7,wheresimilar objectsareclassified as third-century A.D. equine Whiletheidentification equipment). oftheobjectas a first-century peltiform buckleofmilitary type is certain, theincisedandpunchedornament seemstometo be muchlater.Indeed,thedecoration inconception. seems"Germanic" Date ofcomparanda: lasthalfofthefirst century A.D. 15. Stud(C9539) X C, 6. Copperalloy.D.: 1.9.Appliqueforleatherbelt(?). Withincisedlinesandalternate circular arounda centralrivet/boss. protrusions Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. PendantandMetalChains 16.Pendant(?) (C9645) ForumV,223. Copperalloy.L. ofchain:ca. 6.3;L. ofpendant:4.0;Max.W.ofpendant: 2.0; Max. T. of chain:0.5. The pendant,withcentralcloison/boss, is fashioned with"heart-shaped" and thatarenotuncommon peltatecut-outs artistic in thethirdandfourth motifs centuries A.D. (For theuse ofthesemotifs on certaingroupsofbeltendsofthefourth century with A.D., sometimes centrally placed"ringanddot"ornament, cf.Simpson1976,198ff.) Thependantis suspendedby a chainoffinely crafted"loopin loop" copperalloywire.Cf.Higgins1961,15,fig.4b; Santrot 1996, 302ff.,fig.36 (Dax, Landes). Such chainsare comfortablein thefirsthalfofthefirstcentury
228
THE FINDS
"maisperdurent" (306). The Cosa ensemble's use is notsecure.Date ofcomparanda: uncertainbutperhapsthird/fourth A.D. (alsothedateoftheDax deposit). century A.D.
17. Chain(C9726) ForumV, 351. Copperalloy.L.: 5.1; W.ofchain:0.5; Ext.D. ofloop: 1.3.A "loopinloop" chain ofcopperalloywireverysimilar in execution to cat.16 above,whichsee forcomparanda. Thisis hungfroma penannular copperalloyloop. The termini oftheloop aresmoothandpointed.The object,therefore, maybe whatremainsof an earring-although suchan identification is quite uncertain. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain butperhapsthird/fourth A.D. century Cosmetic orSurgical Instruments 18. Scoop/Probe-Cyathiscomele (C9754) ForumV, 271. Copperalloy.L.: 5.7; W.:0.7; T.: 0.3. Drawnandchiseled.The centralpartofthe elongated scoop(probably forcosmetics as wellas forotherpurposes)is "olive-shaped" andconcave,withthetipbrokenoff.Atthejoinofthescoopandthequadratespiraledshaft, thereis bead andreelornament. Cf.Jackson1986,128f.,fig.4-30;id. 1994,202f.,ill.211-A4,A5,A6; Bliquez andJackson1994,144ff., cat. 145-184.Forthefunctions ofa cyathiscomele, Milne1907,61-63. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 19.Probe(C9636) ForumV, 19. Copperalloy,slightly corroded.L.: 14.9;Max. D.: 0.7. Like manysuchsurgical instruments 1986,132),thisobjectis double-ended (Jackson andtapersto a pointat eitherend. The centralportionis decoratedwithlaterally incisedornament ca. 1.0 apart.Cf. Bliquezand Jackson1994,215,ill.227-A56.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. ARTICLES WITHTEXTILESANDCLOTHING(FIG. 110) ASSOCIATED
LoomWeights 20. Loomweight(C9246) IX D, 17.Terracotta. D.: 6.2; Max.T.: 2.2. Disk-shaped weight witheitherfaceconvex.Thecanal fortheyarnis placedoff-center. Beigefabric.Theobjectwasfoundinthesamelayeras thespindle whorlandsewingneedle,C9245andC9252,below.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. SpindleWhorls 21. Spindlewhorl(C9245) IX D, 17.Terracotta. Ext.D.: 7.4; Int.D. ofcanal:2.1; T.: 2.3.Thisobjectis identified as a spindle whorl,eventhoughit is relatively large.The size oftheobjectand theinternal ofthe diameter canal,whichaccommodated thespindle,suggest thattheyarnspunwasrather heavyand,perhaps, coarse.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 22. Spindlewhorl(C9153) ForumII, 4. Terracotta. D.: 2.6; D. ofcanal:0.9. Biconical,flattened top andbottom.Diagonal combeddecoration on upperzone.Notillustrated. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. SewingNeedles 23. Sewingneedle(C9012) ArxI, 18. Castcopperalloy.L.: 10.8;W. ofhead:0.5; T.: 0.3. Simple,thoughlong,copperalloy needle,presumably forrelatively thickmaterial. Tapering to a pointandwitha subrectangular eye at one end (0.7 x 0.2). Date ofcomparanda: uncertain.
~
Z
.~-
28
30
0
i:
'
34 1 ~~~3
32
23
35
3637
38
42I
43
39 40 44 0
5cm
andwriting withtextiles, associated Fig.110.Articles clothing, fishing, (AJD).
THE FINDS
230
24. Sewingneedle (C9102) withpointmissing.Eye formedby two P5,16. Bone. L.: 5.1; Max. W.: 0.4. Tapering.Fragmentary, overlappingdrilledholes immediatelybelow pointed conical head. Cf. Mercando et al. 1983, fig. 93, 222f. (Urbino [Pesaro], Bivio della Croce dei Missionaritomb 11); Fama 1985, 70, Tav. 18, 5 (Settefinestre);Carbonara and Messineo 1994-1995, 257, Tav. 89 (Via Nomentana,Rome). Cf. below, cat. 25. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:second centuryA.D. but of long duration. 25. Sewingneedle (C9147) withdistortedeye halfbrokenoff. Forum I, 3. Copper alloy.L.: 7.6; Max. T.: 0.3. Fragmentary, The lower threadguide is stillvisible.Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 26. Sewingneedle (C9167) withpointmissing.Eye formedbelow 07, 4. Bone. L.: 4.1; Max. W.: 0.4. Tapering.Fragmentary, pointed conical head by two overlappingdrilledholes. Cf. above, cat. 24. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:second centuryA.D. 27. Sewingneedle (C9252) Eye (0.8 x 0.2) IX D, 17. Bone. L.: 8.5; Max. W: 0.6. Taperingslightly fromflathead. Fragmentary. Date ofcomparanda:uncertain. drilledholes1.4fromhead.Notillustrated. formedbythreeoverlapping 28. Sewingneedle (C9276) withpoint missing. Forum II, 12, Burial 60. Bone. L.: 3.4; Max. W.: 0.5. Tapering.Fragmentary, Eye formedbeneathslightlyconical head by two overlappingdrilledholes. Cf. below,cat. 29. Date of comparanda:thirdcenturyA.D. but of long duration. 29. Sewingneedle (C9279) IX D, 22, Burial31. Bone. L.: 3.2; Max. W.: 0.5. Tapering.Fragmentary, withpointmissing.Slightly conical head. Eye formedby two contiguousdrilledholes. Flanked verticallyby drilledholes of less than0.1 in diameter.For verysimilarexamplesat Urbino (Pesaro), Mercando et al. 1983, fig. (Period IV: "tardo-antico 93, 222F. (Bivio della Croce dei Missionaritomb8). Also at Settefinestre e medievale"), Fama 1985, 70, Tav. 13-6. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:of relativelylong duration;thirdcenturyA.D. and later.
OtherObjects 30. Pin (C9655)
to a point.Fragmentary, withhead ForumV, 242. Bone. L.: 5.6; Max. D.: 0.4. Taperinguniformly features.Date of comparanda:uncertain. brokenoff.No distinguishing
31. Hook (C9003) Arx 1, 18. Copper alloy.L.: 5.3; Max. D. of socket 0.7; T. of hook 0.1; D. of hook point: 0.6. Socketed. Of unidentifiedfunctionbut possibly used in the manufactureof textiles.Date of comparanda:uncertain. ARTICLESASSOCIATEDWITH FOODSTUFFS
Fishhooks 32. Fishhook (C9180) ForumII, 13. Copper alloy.L.: 4.4; W.: 0.6; T.: 0.2. Elongatedstripofmetal,turnedat one end and sharpenedto forma hook. A tab at the otherend is perforatedforattachmentto theline. Use as a fishhookprobablyis a secondaryfunction.Date of comparanda:uncertain.
ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997
231
33. Fishhook (C9351) Forum V, 8. Copper alloy.L.: 3.9; W.: 2.2; T.: 0.2. Head slightlyflattenedforattachmentto the line. Singleinteriorbarb. Cf. Fama 1985, 65, Tav. 15-2 (Settefinestre); Jolyet al. 1992,316, fig.240 (Leptis Magna); Simpson 1997, cat. 289 (San Giovanni di Ruoti). Also below, C9725. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:firstcenturyA.D. but of long duration. 34. Fishhook (C9669) ForumV, 265. Copper alloy.L.: 2.9; W.: 2.0. Head slightlyflattenedto facilitateattachmentto the line. Fluke brokenoff.Cf. above, C9351; below,cat. 35. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:first centuryA.D. but of long duration. 35. Fishhook (C9725) Forum V, 370. Copper alloy.L.: 2.9; W.: 1.7. Spatulate terminusto assist in attachmentto the line. Single interiorfluke.Cf. above, cat. 33. Date of comparanda: firstcenturyA.D. but of long duration. 36. Fishhook (C9730) Forum V, 381. Copper alloy.L.: 2.5; W.: 1.5. Intact. Similarto cat. 36 and the otherexamples above. Date of comparanda:firstcenturyA.D. but of long duration. Strainer
37. Strainer(C9595) Forum V, 125. Copper alloy.D.: 5.5; H.: ca. 1.0. Small concave disk,withtriangularsets of three holes placed at rightangles to each otherand separatedby a singleperforation.In the middle of the interior,there is a knob. Quite probably,this object served as a wine strainer.Date of comparanda:uncertain. ARTICLESASSOCLATEDWITH WRITING
Styli 38. Stylus(C9131) N5, 3. Cast copper alloy.L.: 9.3; W. of head: 0.5. With characteristicspatulatehead forerasure. Quadrate cross section taperingto a point. Cf. the authoritiesin Simpson 1997, cat. 216 (San Giovanni di Ruoti). Date of comparanda:uncertain. 39. Stylus(C9648) Forum V, 271. Ivoryor highlypolished bone. Intact.L.: 11.1; Max. D.: 0.9; Max. D. of head: 1.0. Althoughthis object lacks the essentialdesideratafora stylus(a point togetherwitha spatulate head for erasure), the identificationis secure. Like one example fromCorinththe shafttapers to an oval head. Cf. Davidson 1952, 187,pl. 83-1362.The pointis 1.9 longto theabruptly uniformly widershaft(cf. Corinth,1364). The contextis thefillof cess pit of a tabernainterpretedas a wine shop, filledin the second centuryB.C. 40. Stylus(C9649) Forum V, 271. Ivoryor highlypolished bone. L.: 14.4; Max. D.: 0.8. Similarto C9648 above, but withhead brokenoff.The pointis 1.7 to the brink.Contextas above. 41. Stylus(C9650) Forum V, 271. Ivoryor highlypolished bone. L.: 9.3; Max. D.: 0.6. The pointis 1.4 to the brink. Head missing.Cf. above, C9648; C9649. Not illustrated.Contextas above.
232
THE FINDS
ARTICLESASSOCIATEDWITH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Weight 42. Weight(C9599) Massoftheobjectis undeForumV, 160.Copperalloy.H.: 2.5; D.: 2.0. Smalland "bell-shaped." Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. termined. BLADES, OTHER IMPLEMENTS,AND UTILITARIANOBJECTS(FIGS. 111-112)
Blades 43. Knifeblade (C9251) bladeforslicing.L.: 9.4;L. oftang:2.2; Max.W.:2.4; Max.T. ofblade: IX D, 17.Iron."Kitchen" totheblade,continues thelineofthe Thetang,thininrelation 0.3; T. oftang:0.6. Verycorroded. had beenexertedwhile as thoughsomeheavypressure upturned, noncutting edgeandis slightly uncertain butthroughout the slicing.Cf.Manning1985,114,pl. 54-Q42.Date of comparanda: RomanImperialperiod. 44. Knifeblade(C9704) ForumV, 329. Iron.L.: 18.8;L. oftang:2.7; Max. W.:3.1; Max. T.: 1.1;T. at point:0.5. Robust For slicingand chopping.The tangis shortin relationto bladewitha fairdegreeofcorrosion. uncertain thebodyoftheblade.Cf.Manning1985,115,pl. 55-Q49,Q56. Date ofcomparanda: butoflongduration. Mattock 45. Mattockblade(C9661)(fig.111) ForumV, 255. Iron.H.: 19.7; Max. H. of blade: 11.0; Max. W. of blade: 19.9; D. of hole for A mattock is defined, as is woodenshaft:0.4. Verycorrodedandfragmenting (sarculum) readily. an adze,byhavingtheshaftsetat rightanglestotheblade.In thisexample,thebladeis rectanguthanas a groundrather larandis widerthanitis high.One suspectsthatitwasusedforbreaking hoe fortillingalreadyworkedsoil.Cf.White1967,36ff.,fig.14;Manning1985,42, F8. The contextis a Republican layer. periodconstruction Awl 46. Awl(C9135) to a leather. rapidly Tapering ForumII, 4. Bone.L.: 7.5; Max.T.: 1.1.Probablyusedto puncture decoration tosuggest useoftheobjectas a drill.Cf.C9535,"Catapointatoneend.No "clinging" Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. Notillustrated. logueofMedievalArtifacts." Chisel 47. Chisel(?) (C9703) corrodedbuthasa spatuForumV, 186.Iron.L.: 12.1;Max.W.:2.7; T.: 1.7.Theobjectis heavily uncertain. lateendthatmakestheidentification probable.Date ofcomparanda: Mold 48. Mold (C9667) (fig.112) stone.L.: 23.1;Ext.H.: 7.1;Ext.W.:13.9;Int.H. 3.9;Int.W.:8.4.Heavy ForumV, 80.Unidentified In thattheobjectshowslittlediscoloration mold.Probably usedintileproduction. due trapezoidal in themoldandletdryto a "biscuithardness" to intenseheat,a singletilewasmostlikelyformed rectangle beforebeingturned outandfiredina kiln.Atthecenterofthemold,thereis aninscribed (2.9x 1.1)dividedintotwoequalparts.Interestingly, kilndebriswasusedtodecorate thefountain of theHouse ofDiana, wherethiswas found,althoughthe contextis Augustanperiodat thelatest.
45a
0>2,
/
45b (outside)
47
0
5cm
Fig.111.Mattock (AJD).
45c (inside)
48a
48b
0
5cm
Fig. 112. Mold forrhomboidaltiles(AJD).
ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997
235
ANDFiXTUms(FIG. 113) FURNISHINGS, FASTENINGS, Appliques 49. Applique (C9238) ForumII, 54. Copper alloy.Hollow castin theformof a dolphin.L.: 7.2; Max. W.: 3.3. For furniture (?). The object'sdeep greenpatinamaysuggesta highcoppercontent.Date ofcomparanda:uncertain. 50. Applique (C9550) EH VI, 151. Copper alloy.L.: 5.5; W.: 2.2. Pelta-shapedwithprojectionson the terminiand the center.For furnitureor a wooden chest. For a verysimilarobject fromCorinthdescribed as a possible "vase foot,"see Davidson 1952, 71, pl. 50-538. There,it is said to have been foundin a "Byzantinecontextbut perhaps [is] of the Roman period." There can be littledoubt thatboth objects servedthe same function.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 51. Applique (C9551) ForumV, 8. Copper alloy.H.: 2.4; Max. W.: 2.2. Hollow cast in theformof a front-facing feminine head. The hairis raisedon a highcentralbrow.A rivet(missing)puncturedthetop leftpartofthe applique while the metal was stillwarm or malleable-thus causing a dissectionon the interior surface.For furniture(?). Date of comparanda:uncertain. Keys 52. Tumblerlock/slidekey (C9653) ForumV, 242. Iron. L.: 5.9; T. ofbit: 0.9; L. ofbit: 2.1. At one end, thereis a simplering(D.: 1.7). At the otherend is a bit of threeteethset at rightanglesto the shaft.Given its smalldimensions, theobjectwas probablyfora wooden chest.Cf.Manning1985,92f.,fig.25-7 (pl. 41-054); Simpson 1997, cat. 315 (San Giovanni di Ruoti). Cf. also below, C9722. Date of comparanda:mid-fourth centuryA.D. but of long duration. 53. Tumblerlock/slidekey (C9722) Forum V, 349. Iron. L.: 6.7; T. of bit: 1.7; L. of bit: 2.9. Similarto C9653 above (see which for comparanda).Date of comparanda:mid-fourth centuryA.D. but of long duration. Handles 54. Buckethandle (C9525) Forum V, 92 (cistern).Iron, L.: ca. 24.9; H.: 1.3; Max. T.: ca. 1.0. Corroded bucket handle with upturnedtermini.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 55. Door handle (?) (C9592) Forum V, 78. Iron. L.: 14.5; Max. H.: 2.1; Max. W.: 3.4. Roughlytriangularobject withone end circularand pierced by a bolt. The identification is uncertain.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 56. Handle fragment(?) (C9642) Forum V, 222. L.: 3.0; T.: 0.5. Curved object withlongitudinalgrooves.Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. MiscellaneousFixturesand Fittings 57. Binding(?) (C9333) Forum VI, 2. Copper alloy.H.: 3.1; W.: 3.1; T: 0.1; D.: 1.7. Fragmentary cast facetedcopper alloy cylindricalobject. Possiblyforstrengthening a wooden rod or actingas a piece of furniture itself. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain.
ls'.
4-.
'
.
:....
49b
50
49a
Y"
51 5cm
0
52 53
0
5cm
andfixtures fastenings, (AJD). Fig.113.Furnishings,
ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997
237
58. Cotterpin (?) (C9348) withone tapering Forum VI, 11. Hammered copper alloy.L.: 4.4; W.: 0.5; T.: 0.1. Fragmentary, armbrokenoff.L. of arm:3.1; Ext. D. of ring:1.0. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 59. Clasp (?) (C9705) Forum V, 330. Copper alloy.L.: 3.0; Max. W. 1.3; T.: 0.1. Thin metaltonguewithone end broken off;in two contiguousparts: a trapezoidalelementand a roughlycircularattachmentplate. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 60. Door catch (C9706) Forum V, 327. Copper alloy.L.: 3.2; Max. W. of head: 0.9; Max. W. of tongue: 0.6; Max. T. of tongue:0.3. A small object thatwas perhapsused forensuringthe closure of a verticallyhanging bivalve door. The attachmentring,whichwas attachedto the piece of furnitureby a wide rivet (Int. D.: 0.6), is set at rightanglesto the tongue.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 61. Nail (C9729) ForumV, 395. Copper alloy.L.: 7.6; T.: 0.3; D. of head: 1.2. This well-preservedand intactobject exhibitsno curvaturethatwould resultfromits being drawnfroma relativelyhard object-an itemofwooden furniture perhaps.Moreover,itslengthand thickness,indeed thematerialofmanufacture,suggesta functionotherthanbeingnecessarilyan elementin construction.Perhaps,therefore,thisis a "magical" nail withan apotropaicfunction.As such, it would have been set into a lintelor doorpostto ward offthe "evil eye." The identification, however,is quite uncertain,and is thus in the object included thismuch less speculativecategory.For a copper alloy nail witha similarfunction(thoughwitheach facetdecoratedwithincisedlinearornament),Simpson 1997, cat. 366 (San Giovanni di Ruoti,Italy). Date of comparanda:uncertain. 62. Seal (?) (C9668) ForumV, 222. Lead. D.: 1.8. Round object lookingmuchlike a coin and approximatelythe same size as a denarius.On the obverse,set slightlyapart,are thelettersS P. On the convexreverseare the contiguouslettersVVA. Cf. Tomlin 1991, 302 and 311, fig.8 (Piercebridge,England), fig.13 (KirbyThore,England). There is no traceof the tie. Date of comparanda:uncertain. ARTICLESASSOCIATEDWITH LEISURE (FIG. 114)
GamingPieces and Token 63. Gamingpiece (C9020) ArxI, 18. Unidentifiedstone.D.: 1.7. Flat on both surfaces.Not illustrated.Date of comparanda: uncertain.
64. Gamingpiece (C9104) P5, 16. Bone. D.: 2.0; T.: 0.1. Three concentricringswithina border.Compass hole in the center. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 65. Gamingpiece (C9250) IX D, 17. Stone. D.: 1.8; T.: 0.6. Flat bottom; slightlycurved top. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. Flutes 66. Flute fragment(C9244) IX D, 17. Bone. L.: 9.7; Ext. D.: 2.5; Int.D.: 1.9. Workedfemur(?). Three parallel grooves0.8
-
=~~~~~-
I
I 60
-
55
61
64 0
62 0
5cm
5cm
67c
67b
67a
70a
68
0
70b(top)
5cm
andarticles associated with leisure Fig.114.Furnishings (AJD).
70c (inside)
ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997
239
fromend. To theside (0.9) oftheseis a blowhole,Max. D.: 0.9. As a hollowed-outbone objectwith incisedlaterallines,thisitemis similarin conceptionto Bassi 1995,47, fig.1-18.It is impossibleto reconstructthe sound produced when the instrumentwas intact.Nevertheless,given the large dimensions,one suspects thatthe pitch was low and the timbrewas somewhat"rounded." Not illustrated.Similarto directlybelow,cat. 67. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 67. Flute fragment(C9639) ForumV, 19. Bone. L.: 7.1; Ext. D.: 2.8. Workedfemur(?). Threeparallelgrooves1.2 fromend. Two fingerholes oppositeto one thumb(?) hole. Cf. above, cat. 66. Date of comparanda:uncertain. Tintinnabula 68. Tintinnabulum (C9179) IX D, 1. Copper alloy.RestoredD.: 2.3; H.: 1.6. Fragmentary conical bell, clapper missing.Two scored lines aroundbase. Cf. below,cat. 69. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 69. Tintinnabulum (C9206) Forum II Ext. NE, 0. Copper alloy.D.: 2.2; H.: 1.8. Round conical bell. Hole in the top forthe clapper (missing).Cf. also below, cat. 70. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 70. Tintinnabulum (C9656) ForumV, 242. Copper alloy.D.: 2.0; H.: 1.9. Fragmentary conicalbell. Iron attachment forclapper intact,but the clapper is missing.Similarto cats. 68, 69 above. Date of comparanda:uncertain. Molded plaster 71. Elephant trunk(C9658) Forum V, 271. Plaster (?). L.: 7.8; Max. W.: 3.4. Fragmentary; onlythe middlepartsurvives.It is formedand carvedrealistically.532 WEAPONRY (FIG. 115) Spearhead 72. Pilum (C9594) ForumV, 78. Iron. L.: 22.4; Max. W. ofpointbetweenbarbs:2.0; L.: ofshaft:19.0; W. ofshaft:1.2. Corroded but intactspearhead (pilum)withriveted,rectangulartang.Pila of thistype,withrectangulartangforattachmentto a wooden shaftby means of rivets,are usuallysomewhatlargeand weighty.The lighterpila are moreoftensocketed.Cf. Bishop and Coulston 1993, 48-5 1, fig.2 1-1, 3 (Numantia,Kranj). Slightlycloser parallels,but withwiderand flangedrectangulartangs,exist in thevotivedepositsfromnearbyTalamonaccio.Von Vacano 1988,46-56, fig.50, taf.XI. Date of comparanda:uncertain,thirdto earlyfirstcenturyB.C. Slingshot 73. Slingshot(C9001) ArxII, 4. Lead. L.: 4.1; Max. W.: 2.1. Biconical. Cast withone flatfacet.Not illustrated.Cf. below, cat. 74. For lead slingshotbulletsgenerally, see Greep 1987, 189-192 ("Lead Sling-Shotsin Classical Literatureand Archaeology"),fig.7-1. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:firstcenturyB.C./ first-secondcenturyA.D.
This piece probablyderivesfromthe stuccoes on the ceilings.Its excavationpredatedthatoftheceiling,which
532
is how it came to be classed as a small findand drawn up in the same figures.
71
72
*-<9
81
0
o
75
82
2.
579
/
StX
0
5cm
80
83
weaponry (AJD). Fig.115.Moldedplaster,
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~84
ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997
241
74. Slingshot (C9008) ArxI, 6. Lead. L.: 3.7; Max. D.: 1.9. Biconical.Cast. A verysimilarexampleis attestedat PeriodII (Trajanic-Late Settefinestre, Fama1985,65,Tav.15,1. Date ofcomparanda: Antonine). firstcenturyB.C./first-second centuryA.D.
75. Slingshot(C9018) Arx II, 0. Lead. L.: 3.8; Max. W.: 2.1; Max. T.: 1.1. Biconical. Cast. Date of comparanda: uncertain.
76. Slingshot(C9022)
ArxI, 0. Lead. L.: 2.9; Max. W.:2.0. Biconical.Cast.Pointedat one end.Castingflashesvisible. Notillustrated. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain.
77. Slingshot (C9259) ForumIII, 7. Lead. L.: 3.9; Max.W.: 1.9;Max. T.: 2.0. Biconical.Cast.One flatfacet.Cf.above, C9282.Notillustrated. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 78. Slingshot (C9282) IV G, 0. Lead. L.:3.9;W.: 1.8;Max.T.: 1.5.Biconical.Cast.One flatside.Notillustrated. Date of uncertain. comparanda: OBJECTS CURRENTLY UNIDENTIFIABLE
CopperAlloyObjects 79. Pendant(?) (C9555) X C, 2. Copperalloy.L.: 3.5; Max. W.: 1.6; Int.D. of hole: 1.6. Smallpendant."Leaf-shaped" belowsuspension ring.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 80. Applique (? ) (C9596)
ForumV, 200. Copperalloy.L.: 5.2; Max. W.:3.5. "Heart-shaped" and slightly curvedplateof metalwitha raisedcentralspuror ridge.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain.
81. Pyxis(?) (C9583) ForumV, 93 (cistern).Copperalloy.Cast cylindrical metalreceptacle withwider,flangedbase. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 82. Curvedobject(C9637) ForumV, 19.Thismetalobjectdescribesa quartercircleandhasa roundedandflatprofile. One maysuspectthattheflatfacetwasforinlayor attachment to someobjectoffurniture, perhapsa woodenchest.However, thereareno rivetholes,etc.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 83. Plate(C9651) ForumV, 271. Copperalloy.L.: 5.0; Max. W.: 4.1; T.: 0.2. Irregularly shapedmetalplate.No forattachment perforations rivets. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. IronObjects 84. Keybit(?) (C9634) ForumV, 222. L.: 4.1; Max.W.:1.0;T.: 0.5.Possiblytheremains ofthebitofa liftkey,withthree teeth.Fordiscussions ofkeys,see aboveC9653("Keys")andtheauthorities citedthere.Thehesitantidentification is quite insecure.Date of comparanda:uncertain.
LateRomanandMedievalMinorObjects,1948-1997 C. J.Simpson
otethatthefindswithcatalogue numbers NT and pre-C90comefromprevious excavations, fig.2.
theirprovenances aregenerally foundon theplanofthesite, givenbythegridreference
CatalogueofLate andSub-Roman Artifacts ARTICLESOF PERSONALADORNMENTOR TOILET (FIG.
116)
Brooches 1. Brooch(C9009) Arx1, 19. Copperalloy.L.: 5.9; Max. W.:2.5. Equal-armed brooch.Cf.below,cat.2. Not illusmidfifth/first trated.Date ofcomparanda: halfofseventh century A.D. 2. Brooch(CC678) Excavationsof 1951. "Arxslope cellar."Surfacefind.Copper alloy.L.: 5.6; Max. W.: 2.7. Equal-armedbrooch.Castwithincisedline/"ring and dot" ornament. Twoopposingpunched holeson eitherarm.The armsare connectedbya bow triangular in crosssection.For a virtuallyidenticalbrooch,above,cat. 1; Webb1991,225f.,fig.22. Thisbroochbelongsto a classof objectthatmaybe definedas Lombardandis represented at Krainburg in Slovenia(Grave43/ 1905) and, forexample,at Aquileia,Cividale,Nocera Umbra(e.g., Graves4 and 17), and CastelTrosino(AscoliPiceno).Fuchsand Werner1950,39-43, 63, Taf.45-48 (photographs), Taf. B (line drawings);Menghin1985, 125f.,Abb. 103, 150, 151. Webb's date in the sixth is perhapsthesaferchronology, century especiallyas it is believedthatsimilarbroochesshow up in Britainas earlyas themid-fifth century (cf.MacGregorandBolick1993,150f.).Evenso, the Cosa examplesmaybe no earlierthanthelast quarterof the sixthcentury and perhaps laterthanthe Krainburgexample.An unprovenanced broochexistsin theMuseo Civico at Bologna.Thoughthearmsare rounded,it bears"occhiodi dado" and cutout ornament very similarto theCosa brooches.Carretta1981,fig.5. Date of comparanda:midfifth/early seventh centuryA.D.
3. Brooch (C9261) Forum III, 7. Copper alloy.Max. D.: 1.7; L. of point: 2.0. Verysmall. Penannularringbrooch, withthe ringas an axle forthe pin. The terminiare rolled once. It is verysimilarindeed to an example in the Lombard cemeteryat Casale Madonna del Piano (Castro dei Volsci) and has parallels,forexample, in Puglia and Basilicata: Volpe 1994, 303, fig.4-1; Fiore Cavaliere 1992, 515, 519, Tav. IV, 4; Salvatore 1981, 134, fig.4c, 139, fig.7c. Date of comparanda:late fifth/midseventhcenturiesA.D.
242
3
0
5cm
.11S
lOa
4
*
*
(front) ~~~~~~~~~~9c l Ob
0
5cm
adornment, ligulae, firedog, andhandle(AJD). forpersonal Fig.116.LateRomanarticles
244
THE FINDS
Beads 4. Bead (C9355) EH Cistern, 4. Hollowcastcopperalloy.Ext.D.: 0.8.Possiblya beltfitting; forpersonal probably adornment. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. BucklesandBeltEquipment 5. Buckle(C69171) Excavationsof 1969:VD, SH, SoundingI, LevelII. Copperalloybuckle.L.: 2.8; Max. W.:2.7. Cireperdue"D-shaped"buckleloopwithinsetintegral axlereducedin circumference to accommodatethetongue(missing). On eitherpostoftheloop thereareraiseddoublegrooves.Date of comparanda: uncertain. Ligulae 6. Ligula(CG270a) Excavations of1954:BldgC (curia),SE room.Copperalloy.L.: 12.4;Max.D. ofmeniscus: 0.5.Thin tapering, pointedtoolwithsmallscoopatoneend.Cf.Simpson1997,cat.119-124(SanGiovanni di Ruoti);Ciampoltrini 1992,697,Tav.8F (Tuscany); Feugere1994,358f.,fig.126-13(Carminiello ai Mannesi).Date ofcomparanda: mid-fifth/seventh A.D. butoflongduration. century 7. Ligula(CG270b) Excavationsof 1954:BldgC (curia),SE room.Copperalloy.L.: 13.0.Verysimilarto CG270a above.Date ofcomparanda: mid-fifth/seventh A.D. butoflongduration. century Weaponry 8. Spearhead(C9029) EH, 7. Iron.L.: 9.6; Max.W.:0.6. Quadratecross-section headspringing fromroundedsocketof L. 2.2. Theneckis 2.2 thick.Notillustrated. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain butoflongduration. MISCELLANEOUSOBJECTS
9. Firedog(?) (CG431) Excavationsof 1954:Forumarea.Copperalloy"T-shaped"object.L.: 5.6; Max.W.:9.5; T.: 1.1. Fragmentary withall elements oftheT brokenoff.The crossbarrepresents everted"duck"heads in a crudely incisedandpunchedzoomorphic Date ofcomparanda: pattern. uncertain. 10.Handle(C9209) R6,3. Copperalloy.Betweentermini L.: 8.4; T: 0.4. Fragmentary withoneterminus missing. Cast andincisedzoomorphic "duck/sea monster" decoration. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. CatalogueofMedievalArtifacts Althoughno dates are givehere,it is assumedthatall oftheobjectsfallintotheperiodofthe occupationof the site,1050-1338. ARTICLESOF PERSONALADORNMENT(FIG. 117)
Pins 11.Pin (C9026) ArxII, 7. Copperalloy.L.: 7.2;Max.T.: 0.2.Smallrectangular head,0.3 x 0.6 x 0.2.Thin,tapering slightlyto a point. Slightevidenceof decorationon head. Date of comparanda:uncertain.
12
*
11
13 5cm
14
0t
@
-
16
)0
15
5cm
18 17
'/0w
20
^
19
0
5cm
(AJD). forpersonal adornment articles Fig.117.Medieval
THE FINDS
246
BucklesandBeltEquipment 12. Buckle(C9345) ForumVI, 1. Cast(cireperdue)"D-shaped"bucklering.L.: 2.1; H.: 3.1; Max.T.: 0.4.Thetongue thanthehoopforthetongueandisworn.Wherethetonguewould missing, andtheaxleis thinner lines.For similarexamplesat Rougiers(Var), fall,thehoop is markedby twofainttransverse Date ofcomparanda: fourteenth A.D. Demiansd'Archimbaud 1980,498,fig.466-35,36,37. century 13.Beltstrengthener (CG269) Excavationsof 1954:BldgC (curia),SE room,upperlevel.Copperalloy.L.: 4.9; Max. W.: 1.2. Thefront surface is decorated Twointegral copperalloyrivets projectfromtheplainrearsurface. band. and rectangular boxes separatedby a narrowrectangular withopposing"heart-shaped" Withineachelementis a castfleur-de-lys design.For a similarobjectat Rougiers(Var),Demians first d'Archimbaud A.D. 1980,509f.,fig.474-21.Date ofcomparanda: partoffourteenth century 14.Beltend/chape (C9182) ForumII, 13. Copperalloy.L.: 1.5;W.:3.9. Thinmetalplatefoldedin twoto accommodate the endofa leatherbelt.Securedbytworivets theplate.Raisedpunchornament. thatpenetrate Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 15. Stud(C9255) ForumII 47. Copperalloy.D.: 2.6. For a leatherbelt(?). The exterior surfaceis decoratedwith oneconcentric circle.It is attached tothebeltbya 0.2-longrivetfixedto a smallrectangular plate uncertain. (1.0 x 0.9). Date ofcomparanda: 16.Applique(C9503) X C, 2. Copperalloy.Max.Dimensions: 2.5 x 2.6.Cireperduecastequal-arm cruciform appliquefor orwovenfabric. attachment toleather Eacharmhasa flattened terminal boss.Theobjectispenetrated Similar bya centrally placedironrivet. toDavidson1952,143,pl. 72-1057,1058(Corinth; hereeach armis perforated Dateofcomparanda: uncertain butperhaps bya rivet). Byzantine periodorlater. BLADES AND OTHER IMPLEMENTS
Awl 17.Awl(C9535) EH VI, 154.Bone awl.L.: 8.05; Max. D.: 0.8. Boneunidentified (pig?).At one end,theobject tapersto a point.Fromthenonworking end,thereis ca. 3.0 of cross-hatch thatsurrounds the ca. 1.8fromthenonworking object.Thereis a slight end.Thedecoration andwaisting waisting are consistent withuse as an awl/drill formaking holesinleather. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. Blades 18. Knifeblade(C9216) ForumII, 41. Iron.L.: 16.2;Max.W.:1.8.Corrodedbladewithlowerplacedtang(4.2long).The bladeis triangular in crosssection.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 19. Knifeblade(C9501) EH VI, 101. TempleNW. Iron.L.: 11.1;H.: 2.1; T.: 0.5. Tip and centrally placedtangbroken off.Rivetholeto securebladeto haft.For a similarobject,butwithintacttangandthreerivets at PonteNepessino(35 kmnorthofRome),Johns1984,123,fig.36.5. Also at Rougiers(Var), Demiansd'Archimbaud 1980,434, fig.418-9.Date of comparanda: latethirteenth-early fourteenthcenturiesA.D.
LATE ROMANAND MEDIEVALMINOR OBJECTS,1948-1997
247
20. KnifeBlade (C9585) EH VI, 131. Iron. L.: 9.9; Max. W.: 2.1; Max. T.: 0.2. Relativelythinblade forslicing.The tang continuesthe line of the noncuttingedge. Cf. C9251 (Roman). Date of comparanda:uncertain. ANDFixTuREs(FIG. 118) FURNISHINGS, FASTENINGS,
Appliques 21. Applique (CG201) Excavations of 1954: Forum Area. Copper alloy. H.: 1.8; W.: 2.0; T.: less than 0.1. With a single centrallyplaced iron riveton the back. Probably for attachmentto a leather belt. The applique bears the cast representationof a lion rampantfacingto the right,with a raised left frontpaw and a tuftedtail risingover the animal's back. The background is a field of raised dots. Cf. a similar,thoughslightlylarger,panel of canine animals on a "provincialByzantineor middle Byzantine-inspired"bracelet in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. Gonosova and Kondoleon 1994, no. 18, 74-7 (illustrationon 75); at Rougiers (Var), Demians d'Archimbaud 1980, fig. 474-24. Date of comparanda: late eleventhor twelfthcenturyA.D. (Rougiers, early fourteenthcenturyA.D.) 22. Applique or binding(C9505) EH VI, 101. Temple NW. Copper alloy plate. L.: 6.1; Max. W.: 3.6. A truncatedand thin (0.1) pear-shapedplate withpunched scroll-workornament.There are tracesof gilding.Centralrivet hole (0.4) placed 0.8 fromwideredge. Both edges are brokenoff.Possiblya clasp or,perhapsmore probable, a hingefora book. Date of comparanda:uncertain.
Finial 23. Finial (C9140) EH VI, 101. Copper alloy.L.: 7.0; D.: 1.4. Gilt copper alloystafffinialwithintegralelevatedloop (H.: 1.1). It is apparentlyforgedor hammeredfroma singlepiece of metalfolded over on itself. Curved round and fastenedthrougha wooden rod by two horizontaliron rivets.The lower ends are decoratedwithdentilornament.Date of comparanda:uncertain.
Keys 24. Key (C9226) ForumII, 41. Iron. L.: 8.9; Max. W. ofloop: 2.4; Max. W. ofbit:2.6; Max. W. of shaft:0.7. Forged. Probably for a wooden chest. The slightlyoval loop forhangingand to facilitateturningis an extensionof the shaftthathas been foldedoveron itself.For similarobjects but withcast ringsat Fillatiera,Cividale,and Rougiers(Var),Cabona et al. 1982, Tav.IV, 55; Favia et al. 1992, 266, 270, and Tav. 7, 21-27; Demians d'Archimbaud1980, 467ff.,fig.446. Date of comparanda:twelfthfourteenthcenturiesA.D. 25. Key (C9272) ForumII, 29 Iron. L.: 7.2; Ext. D. of loop: 3.2; Max. W. of bit:2.2. Forged. The corrodedcircular loop is in one piece withthe shaftand bit. Cf. above, C9226. Date of comparanda:twelfth-fourteenthcenturiesA.D. 26. Key (C9524) Forum V, 62. Iron. L.: 7.6; Int. D. of loop: ca. 0.8; H. of bit: 3.1. Apparentlyforgedfroma single piece of metal.The bit is simple,withthreeopposing rowsof teeth.The loop is square (2.5 x 2.4) and is set trapezoidalto thesubrectangularshaft.Cf. above, C9226. Date of comparanda:twelfthfourteenthcenturiesA.D.
THE FINDS
248
21
0
5cm 22
~~~
24
M-0-t 23
27
26
25
0
5cm
28 (AJD). andfixtures fastenings, furnishings, Fig.118.Medieval
27. Key (C9508) EH VI, 151. Iron. L.: 4.9; Ext. D. ofloop: 2.7; Max. W. ofbit: 1.7. Forged. Cf. above, C9226. Date centuriesA.D. of comparanda:twelfth-fourteenth
LATE ROMANAND MEDIEVALMINOR OBJECTS,1948-1997
249
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECT 28. Chess piece ArxII, 0. Piece sincelost: theillustration is drawnfroma photograph.Bone (genusundetermined). D. of base: 3.0; H.: ca. 5. "Helmet-shaped"bone object identifiedas a chess piece (pawn?). Just above the circularbase and aroundits middleare singlebands of incised "ringand dot" ornament withintwo scoredhorizontallines.At rightanglesto theupperband, and traversing thecentertop of the object, is anothersimilarlydecoratedrow.Below thisband, and above the centrallyplaced horizontalrow,are "diamond-shaped"groupingsof four"ringand dot" incised circlessimilarthough not identical-to decoration on bone and ivoryobjects fromRougiers (Var), Demians d'Archimbaud1980,424ff.,figs.410.4 and 412.15. Date of comparanda:twelfth-thirteenth centurieS A.D.
TheGreekandRomanCoins T V Buttrey
Fora largerdiscussionof thenatureand spreadof thecoinfindsat Cosa see Buttrey
herediffer fromthoseearlierpublishedwillbe 1980.How thelatestfindspresented notedbelow. Greek
inRomanRepublican andImperial Italyofsmall ofevidence forthecirculation Thereis plenty here. is exceptional andevenbeyond.Nothing bronzesfromGreekcitiesofItalyandSicily, Republican and uncial mostofthesebadlywornlatesextantal ExactlyhalfofthefindsareRepublican, idenas tofrustrate B.C. Mostareerodedso thoroughly bronzes,issuedinthesecondcentury can be given who signedthem,so thattheirdateofproduction ofthemoneyers tification ofRomanRepublican bronzecoinsofthesecondcentury theweights Further, onlygenerally. makes in striking, whichalongwithloss ofweightin circulation B.C. werepoorly calibrated of somewhat hazardous.On theuncertainty to a givenweightstandard eventheirattribution B.C. see RRC,p.11. ofthelatethirdandsecondcenturies theRepublicanbronzestandards lostlongaftertheirdateofissueand could The well-worn bronzecoinswerecertainly bronzecoins wellhavebeenlossesfromtheverylateRepublic,forwhichno contemporary withthealmosttotalabsenceofRetogether werefound.On theotherhand,thisevidence, supports publicancoinsfortheperiodbetween70 B.C. and27 B.C. fromearlierexcavations533 thisperiod.Norwerethereanyexamples thehypothesis thatthetownwasabandonedduring at Cosa),piecesthathad ofthenot-uncommon halvedcoins(foundearlierin somenumbers decadeofthefirstcentury B.C. at thetimeof,or been dividedprobablyin thepenultimate of is instructive here:08,4 was justbefore,theAugustanreform thecoinage.One deposit as all thecoinsin itwerefoundin a very assumedto be a dispersedhoardwhenexcavated, itcontainssixRepublicancoins,theearliestof 169-168B.C., twocoins smallarea.However, ofa singlepurse,the ofAugustus, thecontents and one ofTiberius.If indeedit represents in circulation is striking. lengthoftimetheearliestcoinscontinued Ten are recorded in Buttrey1980, nos. 23 and 112117, compared to 35 for the period between 95 and
5"
73
250
B.C.,
nos. 84-111.
251
THE GREEK AND ROMANCOINS
Imperial The Imperialfinds,thoughnot numerous,have a persuasiveprofile:a regularrun through thefirstcenturyA.D.; a slightfallingoffduringthesecond centuryA.D. (we missTrajan);then of whichthereare only2-4 coins. The threelater a dramaticfallingoffin the thirdcentury, and fifth/sixth pieces, of Valens,and two nummi,of the fourth/fifth centuries,mustbe outin the forum. riders,the lattertwo relatedto the smallGothic-periodsettlement Coin findseven withina givenboundarycan be irregular, dependingmuch on the particularkindof area explored.What is strikinghereis the completeabsence afterGordian III of severalverycommonkindsof coin thatare recorded,even ifnot in largenumbers,among the earlierfinds(Buttrey1980): base antoninianifromthe 260s and following;anythingof smallbronze of Constantine the reformof Diocletian; and the verycommonfourth-century and his family.It is instructive to comparethefindsfromearlierseasons withthosefromthe last decade, as in table 4.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Greek RomanRepublican Augustus 1stcent. 2ndcent. cent. 2nd/3rd 3rdcent. 4thcent.,first half 4thcent.,secondhalf
10. 4th/5thcent. 11. 5th cent.
12. 5th/6th cent.
1948-70
1990-97
Totals
33 259 27 69 59
4 44 4 14 10 2 2
37 303 31 83 69 2 46
44 21
1948-70,lessfinds fromtheLiber"hoard" 33 259 27 69 59 44
21
20
79
1
80
36
93 7
1
94 7
37 1
1
1
Table4. Coinfinds bycentury.
The proportionof Greek to Roman Republican is roughlythe same; these are in fact coins that circulatedtogether.But where the total of Imperial coins fromthe earlierfinds rises above thatof the Republic,here the Empire fallsoffdramatically:the thirdcenturyis representedby only2-4 pieces, thefourthand fifthby onlyone each. AlthoughCosa has not been remarkablyrich in coins of the later thirdand the firsthalf of the fourthcenturies, therewas at least a representation; and, as the earlierpublicationshows,therewas in facta real surgein the last halfof the fourthcentury, beginningwiththe FEL TEMP REPARATIO issues of ConstantiusII-coins thatare spectacularlycommoneverywhere. Yet amongthenew finds thereis not a singleexample. An examinationoftheprovenancesofthethird-and fourth-century coinsfromthe 19481970 excavationssuggestsan explanationforthis.Almostall of the third-century coins,and all of the fourth-and fifth-century coins,come fromthe forumarea. Further,fully43 of the coins of the second halfof the fourthcentury, and 56 of the genericallyfourth-fifth century
THE FINDS
252
50
40 V7 ZIZ
1948-1970
1990-1997
30 a) 0 a)
IL
20
10
0
Gk
Rep
Aug
1
2
2/3
3
4-1
4-2
4/5
5
5/5
5
5/6
Period Graph 1. Coins,1948-1970versus1990-1997,bypercentage.
50
0_j
_7/
40
71948-1970
1990-1997
530 (U (U 0 a) L 20_
10
Gk
Rep
Aug
1
2
2/3
3
4-1
4-2
4/5
Period
Graph2. Coins,1948-1970(lessLiher"hoard")versus1990-1997,bypercentage.
coins come fromthe sanctuaryof Liber,whereCollins-Clintonhas suggestedthata "collection hox" forthe sanctuaryhad fallento the floor.If we suhtractthese fromthe totals,the curvesof totalsforthe two cataloguesresemhleeach otherfarmoreclosely(graphs1 and 2). The thirdand fourthcenturiesare decidedlyunderrepresented compared to othersites,a situationthatreflectsthe depopulationof Cosa duringthisperiod. More surprising, consideringthegood evidenceforoccupationhothin theforumand on that+perod It ishar toknow pauc_1itofV cin firom-r sixt cetur, i the1. the-Arxduig-h
THE GREEK AND ROMANCOINS
253
a falsepictureofthefindsfromthesiteor whether whether thisrepresents it is a coherent on thesite.Thereare fewsiteswithwhichsixthof thelimitedcoin circulation reflection Cosa canbe usefully MonteBarro,thevillaat San Giusto,and century compared.However, S. Vincenzoal Volturnoshowa reasonablenumberof coinfindsin thesixthcentury, and On theotherhand,thereareno coinsin sixthCosa comesoffbadlybythecomparison.534 contexts at San Giovannidi Ruoti.35 century Catalogue GREEK COINS
no. inv.
context metal
denom. weight
obverse/reverse
date
reference
1. C9340 Forum V,7 litra
Teanum bullr., ca.300Apollo1./man-headed
2.
Uncertain mints Marsr.,palmbehind/warrior Hellenistic
AE
3. 4.
C9014 ArxI,0 AE C9123 ForumI, 5 AE C9225 M3,3 AE
Nikeabove
268 B.C.
McClean
1.54.389-390
Tycher./ []
Hellenistic
Apollo1./bull(?) r.
Hellenistic
ROMAN REPUBLIC
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
C9652 Forum11,0 1/2litra AE 1.35g C9110 ForumII,0 uncia,quadrantal AE 7.22 g C9174 04,2 semis,sextantal AE 16.80g C9270 IX D N, 17 semis,sextantal AE 16.13g C9671 ForumV,0 quadrans,sextantal AE 9.47 g C9343 ForumV,10 sextans,sextantal AE 6.86 g C9158 08,0 sextans,sextantal AE 6.50 g C9646 ForumV,247sextans,sextantal AE 6.28 g C9640 ForumV,19 sextans, sextantal AE 5.94 g
ObservationAlessia Rovelli: on Monte Barro,Arslan 1991, 125-135; S. Giusto, Siciliano 1998; s.v. incenzo: Rovelli2001. 534
234-231B.C. RRC26/4 214-211B.C. ca. 211mid-2nd B.C. ca. 211mid-2nd B.C. ca. 211mid-2ndB.C.
ca. 211-
mid-2ndB.C.
ca. 211-
mid-2ndB.C.
ca. 211-
mid-2ndB.C.
ca. 211-
mid-2ndB.C. "53
Reece 1997.
denom. weight
obverse/reverse
date
no. inv.
context metal
14. C9214
P4.5,2 sextans,sextantal AE 5.43 g SAX or C.SAX Forum II,24 as, uncial AE 26.75 g SAX or C.SAX ForumV,0 as, uncial AE 26.75 g OPEI 08,4 as, uncial AE 9.47 g 08,4 as, uncial AE 30.66 g 04.5,32 as, uncial AE 19.47 g ArxI,18 as, uncial AE 26.89g ForumV,1 as, uncial AE 26.38 g ForumV,0 as, uncial AE 26.36 g 08,4 as, uncial AE 23.99 g ForumV,260 as, uncial AE 22.27 g Forum II,33 as, uncial AE 21.92 g 08,4 as, uncial AE 20.20g ForumV,260 as, uncial AE 16.14 g EH VI,101 as, uncial AE 9.50 g (broken) C X,6 as, uncial AE 9.07 g (halved) ForumV,369 semis,uncial AE 12.65 g R6,10 semis,uncial AE 8.27 g Forum II,4 semis,uncial
ca. 211mid-2ndB.C. 169-158 B.C. RRC173/ 1; 180/1 169-158 B.C. RRC173/ 1; 180/1 169-158 B.C. RRC 190/
AE
cent. B.C.
15. C9170 16. C9630 17. C9160 18. C9161 19. C9263 20. C9006 21. C9341 22. C9629 23. C9163 24. C9638 25. C9236 26. C9164 27. C9635 28. C9553 29. C9538 30. C9723 31. C9207 32. C9128 33. C9264 34. C9205 35. C9281 36. C9702 37. C9159
7.19g
Forum II,29 triens,uncial AE 9.52 g N 4,2 triens,uncial AE 8.20 g IVG,1 triens,uncial AE 7.35 g ForumV,140 sextans,uncial
mastand sail
reference
lst half,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. lst half,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1st half,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd cent.B.C. 1sthalf,2nd RRC 213/
AE
3.54 g
cent. B.C.
08,4 AE
sextans,uncial 3.32 g
1sthalf,2nd cent. B.C.
5
no. inv.
context metal 38. C9222 M 3,3 AR 39. C9339 ForumVI,1 AE 40. C9239 M6,2 AR 41. C9004 Arx1,18 AE
denom. weight
obverse/reverse
date
denarius
C.CASSI
126 B.C. RRC 266/
(plated) as, semuncialL PISO FRVGI 7.43 g quinarius M CATO semquadrans, uncial3.91 g
42. C9149 ForumII,4 quadrans, semAE uncial3.19 g 43.36C9361 ForumVI,14 quadrans, semAE
uncial2.57 g
44. C9540 EH VI,106 quadrans, semAE uncial2.47g 45. C9269 04.5,23 12.50g AE 46. C9644 ForumV,82 7.03 g AE 47. C9647 ForumV,2475.48 g AE 48. C9364 ForumVI,1 AE
90 B.C. 89 B.C. late90s-
reference 1 RRC340/ 4 RRC343/ 2
80s B.C.
late90s80s B.C.
late90s80s B.C.
late90s80S B.C.
Illegible,RomanRepublican
ROMANEMPIRE mintofRome,savepossiblynos.63 and81 Augustus, 31 B.C.-A.D. 14 dupondius SANQVINIVSQ F III VIRA A A F F AVGVSTVSTRIBVNICPOTEST in oakwreath/ S C largein center/ 50. C9141 08, 4 as headofAugustus, bare,r.CAESAR AE AVGVSTVSTRIBVNICPOTEST/ S C largein center 51. C9720 ForumV,369as MAECILIVSTVLLVSI VIiRA A A F F AE headofAugustus, bare,r.CAESAR AVGVSTPONT MAXTRIBVNIC POT / S C largeincenter 52. C9549 EH VI,131 quadrans S C in center. C RVBELLIVS AE BLANDVS/Altar. III VIRA A A F F 49. C9165 08,4 AE
Tiberius,A.D. 14-37 Marked asa quadrans butappears tobeara Roma head ofHercules). Thinflan. (instead Ancient counterfeit?
536
17 B.C.
RIC
12.
66.342
1615 B.C. 7 B.C.
RIC
4 B.C.
RIC 12. 78.467
12.
76.433
denom.obverse/reverse weight Drusus 53. C9719 ForumV,0 as headofDrusus,bare,1.DRVSVS CAESART AVGF DIVI AVGN/ AE S C largein center. PONTIF TRIBVNPOTEST ITER no. inv.
context metal
as
58. C9587 ForumV,92 as AE 59. C9588 ForumV,69 as AE 60. C9659 ForumV,294as AE
61. C9701 ForumV,146as AE 62. C9598 ForumV,82 as AE
63. C9337 ForumVI,2 as AE
A.D.
23+
Divus AugustusPater
headofAugustus, radiate,l., staraboveDIVVS AVGVSTVS PATER/ femalefigure seated1.S C headofAugustus, 55. C9336 ForumVI,2 as radiate, l., star aboveDIVVS AVGVSTVSPATER/ AE femalefigure seated1.S C headofAugustus, 56. C9338 ForumV,7 as radiate,l., AE DIVVS AVGVSTVSPATER/ Altar.PROVIDENT S C 57. C9728 ForumV,0 as: imi-headofAugustus, radiate,1. AE tation DIVVS AVGVSTVSPATER/ Altar.PROVIDENT S C
54. C9027 EH,6 AE
date
A.D.
16 A.D.
16
22-
15- RIC 12.99.72
22/ RIC 12.99.81 23-(?)30
A.D.
A.D. 22/ cf.RIC 12.99.81 23-(?)30
headofClaudius,bare,1.TI A.D. 41CLAVDIVSCAESARAVGP M TR 50(?+) P IMP /Libertas standing, holding pileus.LIBERTASAVGVSTAS C headofClaudius,bare,1.TI A.D. 41CLAVDIVSCAESARAVGP M TR 50(?+) P IMP /Libertasstanding, holding pileus.LIBERTASAVGVSTAS C headofClaudius,bare,1.TI A.D. 41CLAVDIVSCAESARAVGP M TR 50(?+) P IMP /Minerva advancing r.,holding javelinandshieldS C Nero, A.D. 54-68
AEQVITAS AVGVST S C
RIC 12.128.97
RIC 12.128.97
RIC 12.128.100
64-
RIC 12.168.306
A.D.
66-
RIC 12. 171.347
A.D.
74-
RIC 2.80.557a, etc.(Romeor
A.D.
66
68
Vespasian, A.D. 69-79
headofVespasian, laureate, r. [ ] /Aequitasstanding 1.
RIC 12.97.45
15- RIC 12.99.72
Claudius, A.D. 41-54
headofNero,laureate, r.NERO CAESARAVGGERM IMP / TempleofJanus.PACE P R VBIQ PARTAIANVMCLVSIT S C headofNero,laureate, r.IMP NERO CAESARAVGGERM / TempleofJanus.PACE P R VBIQ PARTAIANVMCLVSIT S C
reference
79
Lugdunum?)
denom. obverse/reverse context weight metal radiate,r. 64. C9657 ForumV,245dupondiusheadofVespasian, IMP CAES VESP AVGP M T P AE 1. COS VI / Felicitasstanding FELICITAS PVBLICA S C no. inv.
65. C9162 08,4 AE
as
66. C9208 ForumII,0 as AE
as 67. C9130 N 5,2 AE 68. C9342 Forum VI,2 as AE
69. C9556 ForumV,242 as AE
Titus,A.D. 79-81 1. headofTitus,laureate, IMP T CAES VESP AVGP M TR 1.S C P COS VIII / Spesadvancing Domitian,A.D. 81-96 headofDomitian, laureate,r. IMP CAES DOMIT AVGGERM 1. COS XI [ ] / Fortunastanding FORTVNAEAVGVSTI
date A.D.
75
RIC2.81. 567
A.D.
80-
RIC 2. 131.130b
A.D.
85-
RIC 2. 192.299, etc.
81
89
Hadrian, A.D. 117-138
headofHadrian.[]
-
headofHadrian,laureate,r. IMP CAESARTRAIANVS HADRIANVSAVG/Aequitas 1.PONT MAXTR POT standing COS III SC headofHadrian,bare,r. HADRIANVSAVGCOS III P P / 1. Provincereclining [e.g.,AEGYPTOS S C]
A.D.
138 A.D.
121
A.D.
138
L. Aelius
70. C9670
ForumV,0
AE
as
71. C9522 EH VI,106 as AE 72.537C9111ForumII,1 as AE
headofL. Aelius,bare,r. L AELIVS CAESAR/ Spes 1.TR POT COS II S C advancing AntoninusPius, A.D. 138-161
A.D.
117119-
RIC 2.
119-
RIC 2. 445.838, etc.
137
RIC 2. 482. 1067b
r. A.D. 145Pius,laureate, headofAntoninus 161 ANTONINVSAVGPIVS P P TR P COS IIII /Wreath, within which S P Q R /OPTIMO /PRINCIPI/ S C Pius,laureate,r. A.D. 156headofAntoninus ANTONINVSAVGPIVS P P IMP II / 157 1.TR POT xxcosiiii standing Jupiter
AntoninusPius: theTR POT numberis eroded away, but the obverse legend in IMP II does not occur elsewhere on the as with this reverse.BMCRE 4.347.2045 537
reference
412.576
RIC 3. 130.827 RIC 3. 146.971
claimstheissue as well forA.D. 157-158, but the reading TR POT xxi is restored.
no. inv.
context metal
denom. weight
obverse/reverse
date
reference
Faustina II
73. C9168 08,1 AE
dupondius bustofFaustinaII, draped,r. or as FAVSTINAEAVGPII AVGFIL / r.HILARITASSC Hilaritasstanding
Marcus Aurelius,A.D. 161-180 74. C9133 Forum II,4 dupondius head of Marcus Aurelius.[]/
AE
75. C9143 08, 9 AE
Commodus,A.D. 180-193 sestertius headofCommodus, laureate,r. M COMMOD ANT P FELIX AVG BRIT P P / Securitas seated1. SECVRIT ORB TR P XIIII IMP VIII COS V DES VI Crispina
76. C9232 M7,1 AE
dupondius bustofCrispina, draped,r. or as CRISPINAAVGVSTA/ Concordia seated1.CONCORDIA S C
77. C9142 08,9 AE
as
A.D.
145-
A.D.
161-
146
180
189
RIC 3. 428.545
before A.D. 183
RIC 3. 443.675
A.D.
SeptimiusSeverus,A.D. 193-211
headofSeptimius Severus.[]/
A.D.
211
JuliaDomna
78. C9210 ForumII,12 dupondius bustofJuliaDomna,draped,r. AE IVLIA DOMNA AVG/ Fecunditas seatedr.FECVNDITAS S C 79. C9243 M6,2 AE
80. C9132 05,1 AE
Elagabal,A.D. 218-222 dupondius bustofElagabal,radiate,draped andcuirassed, r.IMP CAES M AVR ANTONINVSPIVS AVG/Elagabal overaltarP M TR P IIII sacrificing COS III P P S C as
RIC 3. 193.1396
GordianIII, A.D. 238-244 bustofGordianIII, laureate, drapedandcuirassed, r.IMP GORDIANVSPIVS FEL AVG/ Victory standing 1.,withcaptive. VICTORIAAETER S C
193-
193-
RIC 41. 207.844
A.D.
221
RIC 42 54.324
A.D.
240-
RIC 43. 52.337b
A.D.
196
244
no. inv.
context metal
denom. weight
81. C9121 ForumII,4 AE3 AE
82. C9118 Forum1,3 nummus AE 83. C9102 ForumI,3 AE
obverse/reverse
date
reference
Valens,A.D. 364-378 bustofValens,diademed,r.D N A.D. 367- LRBC.2.711 VALENSP F AVG/Emperor dragging 375 (e.g.),uncercaptive,GLORIA ROMANORVM tainmint Illegible,4th-5thcent.
Illegible5th-6thcent. nummus illegibleI tracesofmonogram 0.30 g
Illegible 84. C9126 ForumII,12 fragment AE 85. C9175 042 AE 86. C9177 ForumII,12 fragment AE 87. C9178 IX D,1 AE 88. C9184 ForumII,1 AE 89. C9376 ForumVI,20 AE CONCORDANCE OFINVENTORY ANDCATALOGUE NUMBERS C9004 C9006 C9014 C9027 C9102 C9110 C9111 C9118 C9121 C9123 C9126 C9128 C9130 C9132 C9133 C9141 C9142 C9143
= 41 =20 =2 = 54 = 83 =6 = 72 = 82 = 81 =3 = 84 = 32 = 67 = 80 = 74 = 50 = 77 = 75
C9149 C9158 C9159 C9160 C9161 C9162 C9163 C9164 C9165 C9168 C9170 C9174 C9175 C9177 C9178 C9184 C9205 C9207
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
42 11 37 17 18 65 23 26 49 73 15 7 85 86 87 88 34 31
C9208 = 66 C9210c = 78 C9214 = 14 C9222 = 38 C9225 = 4 C9232 = 76 C9236 = 25 C9239 = 40 C9243 = 79 C9263 = 19 C9264 =33 C9269 = 45 C9270 = 8 C9281 = 35 C9336 =55 C9337 = 63 C9338 = 56 C9339 = 39
C9340 = 1 C9341 = 21 C9342 = 68 C9343 = 10 C9361 = 43 C9364 = 48 C9376 =89 C9522 = 71 C9538=29 C9540 =44 C9549=52 C9553 = 28 C9556 = 69 C9587 = 58 C9588 = 59 C9598 = 62 C9629=22 C9630 = 16
C9635 = 27 C9638 = 24 C9640= 13 C9644 = 46 C9646 = 12 C9647 = 47 C9652 = 5 C9657 = 64 C9659 = 60 C9670 = 70 C9671 = 9 C9701 = 61 C9702 = 36 C9719 = 53 C9720 = 51 C9723 = 30 C9728 =57
The MedievalCoins AlessiaRovelli
Forty-onemedievalcoins were recoveredbetween 1990 and 1995. Of these,all but one
were foundon the EasternHeight or the nearbytrenchX C. The exceptionwas a florin foundon theArx.Nine ofthesecoinswereisolatedfinds,whiletheremaining32 constituted a smallpurseof silver-alloy denari.This was foundin the smallcisternbehindthetower(EH cistern).Many of the coins were stuckto the floorof the cistern,suggestingthattheyfellin when it was stillfullof water. The purse is characterizedby the prevalenceof coins fromthe Papal States,fromthe mintof Montefiascone(14 examplesin the name of Pope JohnXXII). Perugia,with 10 examples,is thesecond-bestrepresented.The hoardshowsanalogieswiththatfoundat Fontana orderof magnitude,comprising Antica,nearTarquinia,althoughthelatterwas of a different 392 coins.It also showsa clearmajorityofcoinsfromPerugia(218) and Montefiascone(83).538 In our hoard a deniertournoisof Guy II de la Roche confirmsthatcoins fromthe crusader statescirculatedalong the Tyrrhenian coast.539 The datingof the littlehoard suggeststhatit was buried duringthe Sienese assaulton Ansedoniaof 1329. It closes withthedenariofJohn XXII (1316-1334), and the isolated finds,along withthose fromearliercampaigns,can be dated to the same period. This is also trueof Buttreynos. 343, 344, and 369, now dated to the period before1329.54? The 4 quattrinicoin of the Bourbon king FerdinandIV, like those found in previous excavations,bearswitnessto thesporadicpassage of shepherdsand farmersin theearlymodernperiod.541
Catalogue The catalogue is orderedby the stratigraphicunits.Withinthese,the coins are in chronological order.
Finetti1981, 152-155; on the issues and circulation 1997 45-47, nos. 1-9: denaro, late twelfthcentury= of the Perugiancoinage,Finetti1997, 74. Buttrey1980, 56, no. 344. The example fromPerugia (Buttrey1980,57, no. 369, dated to 1471-1476) is com539 Rovelli 1996,235. parable to thosein thehoard thatwereissued according to the ordinanceof 25 August 1321. 540 Buttrey1980, 11-153. For the coins of Arezzo cf. Vanni 1997, 67-69, nos. 63-68: grosso,firsthalfof thir- 541 Buttrey1980, nos. 34-35 and 56-57. teenthcentury= Buttrey1980, 56, no. 343 and Vanni 538
260
ISOLATED FINDS no. inv.
context diameter
metal
denom. weight
obverse reverse Republic of Florence, mintof Florence [ ]OR. Lilyof Florence,withoutflowers, in border of dots. [ ...]AN[ ...] S B moon. St. Johnrepresented down to knees, righthand raisedin blessing, leftwith crossed staff,no border.
1.
C9005
Arx 1,0 15 mm
silver alloy
denaro piccolo 0.22 g
2.
C9349
EH VI,1 15.5 mm
silver alloy
denaro 0.64 g
Republic of Siena, mintof Siena SENA V[ ...]. Large reversedS, flanked by 4 small globes, in hatched border. ALFA[ ...]. Cross pattee in hatchedborder.
1180ca. 12
3.
C9362
EH VI,3 16.50 mm
AR
denaro 0.88 g
Henry IV of Franconia, mintof Lucca + INPERATOR. Monogram + ENRICVS (separated R). In the field LV//-//CA.
10561105/
4.
C9363
EH VI,3 25.10 mm
CU
5.
C9521
EH VI,106 16.70 mm
silver alloy
date
1st semes 1326
King Ferdinand the IV of Spain, mintof Orbetello FERDINAN *IV D- G SICILIAR *REX. 4 1798 quattrini Bared head to rightwithlong hair. 6.29 g Underneath,P. R crown*C */REALI//PRESIDI// QUATTRINI//17IIII98 between 2 laurel branches.
Republic of Volterra (?) in the name of Henry,mintof Volterra ( [ ...]ATO[ ...]. Monogram in borderof dots denaro 1189/ 0.58 g (2 verticalbars and circleemphasized). mid-1 cent. [... ] NRI [...]. In the fieldLV// ring//CA,oval flan.
no. inv.
context diameter
metal
denom. weight
6.
C9523
EH VI,106 14.90 mm
silver alloy
denaro 0.42 g
7.
C9563
EH VI,179 15.80 mm
silver alloy
denaro 0.78 g
obverse reverse Republic of Arezzo, mintof Cortona(?) + crescentDE ARITIO crescent. Cross patteein hatched circle. [ ...]DO[ ...]. Traces of frontalbust with nimbus,blessing,with crozier.
date
refer
2nd half 13thcent.
CNI XI On "cr Stahl 1 1997, 5
11001129/1130
Matzk forthe
ca. 1180
Paolozz 286, no (late ll
ca. 11801230
Matzk Paolozz no. 2 ( no. 6 (l
Henry IV or V of Franconia, mintof Lucca
8.
C9550
X C,1 15.30 mm
silver alloy
denaro 0.51 g
9.
C9554
X C,2 fragment
silver alloy
denaro 0.37 g
[.] INPERATOR ("split"R). Monogram.
+ ENRICVS ("normal" R). In the fieldLV////CA. Republicof Siena, mintof Siena SEN[ ... VS. Large reversedS, flankedby 4 small globes, in hatched border. [...]LF[ ...]. Cross pattee withlittlewedges at extremities, in hatched border. Illegiblelegend.Large reversedS, flankedby 4 small globes,in hatched border. Illegible legend. Cross pattee in hatchedborder. THE HOARD
Republic of Lucca (in the name of Otto), mintof Lucca ca. midOTTO-REX. Monogram. 13thcent. [S] VVLT-[D] LVCA. Traces of the SanctusVultuscrowned.
10. C9301
EHcistern,4 14.70 mm
silver alloy
albulo 0.42 g
11. C9302
EHcistern,4 18.50 mm
silver alloy
denier tournois 0.55 g
Guy de la Roche, mintof Thebes + - GVI DVX rosette ATENES -. Crosspatt&e. 1294-1308 + ThEBA[ ...]IS. Castle.
See CN inthen Freder Ottoni 1971, 1 of San 19922,
Schlum Our sp of fiel
no. inv.
context diameter
metal
denom. weight
12. C9303 EHcistern,4 silver 13.90mm alloy
denaro piccolo 0.41 g
13. C9304 EHcistern,4 silver 14.80mm alloy
denaro piccolo 0.51 g
14. C9305 EHcistern,4 silver 16.60mm alloy 15. C9306 EHcistern,4 silver 16.20mm alloy 16. C9307 EHcistern,4 silver 16.30mm alloy 17. C9308 EHcistern,4 silver 16.80mm alloy 18. C9309 EHcistern,4 silver 16.40mm alloy 19. C9310 EHcistern,4 silver 16.10mm alloy
obverse reverse RepublicofPerugia,mintofPerugia [...]VS[..]. Tracesofa largeP, between2 points,in hatchedborder. + [...]CVLAN(C closed,N inverted). Cross patt&ewithtrefoil fromfirstcorner, growing in hatchedborder.
date
referen
1315-1317 Finetti19 XIV, 198 coinsofu mustbelo
RepublicofFlorence,mintofFlorence [... ]LOREN[ ...].. LilyofFlorencewith2 1315-1321 Bernocc in dottedborder. flowers, 46; CNI X ofSt.Johnwith + S . IOH[ ...]S B. Half-bust beaded nimbus,righthandraisedinblessing, lefthandwithlongcross,indottedborder.
JohntheXXII, mintofMontefiascone denaro + IOS' PAPA XXII. Crossedkeyswith paparino roundends,inhatched circle. 0.55 g withstar. + [...]M' BEI . PE shield Crosspatteewithfloral extremities. denaro + IOS' . PAPA XXII. Fieldas no.14. paparino + PRI'M[ ...]I' PE. Fieldas no. 14. 0.69 g + IO[ ... ]PAPA. XXII . Fieldas no. 14. denaro paparino + PRI'M' BEI' I' E. Fieldas no. 14. 0.47 g denaro + ] PAPA . XXII star.Field as no. 14. paparino + PRI'M' BE[ ...] PE shieldwithstar. 0.69 g Field as no. 14. denaro + IOS . PAPA. XXII. Fieldas no. 14. paparino + [ ...]BEI PE shield.Fieldas no. 14. 0.60 g denaro + IOS'. PAP[...]XII. Fieldas no. 14. paparino [...]BEI[ ...]. Field as no. 14. 0.56 g .
1316-1334 CNI XIV,
1316-1334 CNI XIV,
1316-1334 CNI XIV,
1316-1334 CNI XIV, Our spec centerfie 1316-1334 as above 1316-1334 as above
no. inv.
context metal diameter 20. C9311 EHcistern,4 silver 16.10mm alloy 21. C9312 EHcistern,4 silver 15.80mm alloy 22. C9313 EHcistern,4 silver 15.80mm alloy 23. C9314 EHcistern,4 silver 15.80mm alloy 24. C9315 EHcistern,4 silver fragment alloy 25. C9316 EHcistern,4 silver fragment alloy 26. C9317 EHcistern,4 silver fragment alloy 27. C9318 EHcistern,4 silver fragment alloy
denom. weight denaro paparino 0.54g denaro paparino 0.53g denaro paparino 0.43g denaro paparino 0.35 g denaro paparino 0.25g denaro paparino 0.24g denaro paparino 0.20g denaro paparino 0.11 g
obverse reverse + IOS[ ...]XII star.Fieldas no. 14. [...]RI'M[...]. Fieldas no. 14.
date
+ IOS' PAPA . XXI[...]. Fieldas no. 14. + PRI'[...]PE shield.Fieldas no. 14.
1316-1334 as abo
[...]O[ ...]PA XX[...]. Fieldas no. 14. + [...]R[...]EI -PE. Fieldas no. 14.
1316-1334 as abov
+ IOS'- PA[...]XX[...]. Fieldas no. 14. + PE..]* PE. Fieldas no. 14.
1316-1334 as abo
[...]PA[...]. Fieldas no. 14. [...]EI [...]. Fieldas no. 14.
1316-1334 as abov
Illegible. [...]PR[...1. Tracesofa crosslikeno. 14.
1316-1334 as abov
[...]PA[...]. Tracesofkeysas no. 14. Illegible.
1316-1334 as abov
+[ ...]XII. Tracesofkeysas no 14. [...]BEI[ ... Fieldillegible.
1316-1334 as abov
refere
1316-1334 as abo
RepublicofPerugia,mintofPerugia.Issued accordingto theordinance of25 August1321,whichcontinueduntilthemiddleofthe14thcentury. 28. C9319 EHcistern,4 silver denaro Illegiblelegend.LargeP flankedby2 stars 2ndquarter Finett 15.00mm alloy in hatchedcrown. piccolo 14thcent. no. 43 [...]ERCVLA[...]. Crosspatteeflankedby2 0.60g alloyan starsin 1stand 4thangles,insidehatched XIV,19 border. withor quattr 29. C9310 EHcistern,4 silver denaro + DE PERVS[...]. Fieldas no. 28. 2nd quarter Finett 14.90mm + S:ERCV[...] . Fieldas no. 28. piccolo 14thcent. alloy 0.35 g
no. inv.
context metal diameter 30. C9311 EHcistern,4 silver 16 mm alloy 31. C9312 EHcistern,4 silver 13.21mm alloy 32. C9313 EHcistern,4 silver 13.80mm alloy 33. C9314 EHcistern,4 silver 13.60mm alloy 34. C9315 EHcistern,4 silver fragment alloy 35. C9316 EHcistern,4 silver fragment alloy 36. C9317 EHcistern,4 silver alloy fragment
37. C9318 EHcistern,4 silver 15.10mm alloy 38. C9319 EHcistern,4 fragment 39. C9320 EHcistern,4 fragment 40. C9321 EHcistern,4 mortared fragment 41. C9322 EHcistern,4 mortared fragment
silver alloy silver alloy silver alloy silver alloy
denom. weight denaro piccolo 0.35g denaro piccolo 0.30g denaro piccolo 0.28g denaro piccolo 0.24 g denaro piccolo 0.22g denaro piccolo 0.19g denaro piccolo 0.11g denaro piccolo 0.56g 0.25g 0.23g
obverse reverse + . DE PERVSIArosette. Fieldas no.28. Tracesoflegend.Fieldas no. 28.
date
refere
2nd quarter Finett 14thcent. 182,no
[...]ER[...]. Fieldas no. 28. [...]ANV[...] (N inverted). Field as above. [...]RV[...]. Fieldas no. 28. Illegible.
2nd quarter as abov 14thcent.
Illegiblelegend.Fieldas no.28. ...]RCVL[...]. Fieldas no.28.
2ndquarter as abov 14thcent.
+[-]D[ ...]. Fieldas no. 28. Illegiblelegend.Fieldas no.28.
2nd quarter as abo 14thcent.
Field as no.28. +[ ...]A rosette. [...]RC. Field as no. 28.
2nd quarter as abo 14thcent.
Illegiblelegend.Fieldas no. 28. [...]N[...] . ](N inverted). Field as no. 28.
2nd quarter as abo 14thcent.
Uncertain issues A [...] Fieldillegible. [...] - V[ ..] Fieldillegible.
][
Illegible. Illegible. Illegible. Illegible.
2nd quarter as abov 14thcent.
14thcent.?
as abov
Inscriptions andGraffiti andAlexMoseley ElizabethFentress
Plate114.Inscription C95103(EF).
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ....."' ..
numberof new inscriptionsappear in the textabove (pp. 44-51, 56-61, 81-84, 87-91). in thatcontextare foundhere. Those thatdid not seem to warranta detailedtreatment Inscription C95103 (pl. 114) (EF) in The fragment was foundin whathas been interpretedas the makeupforthesupportofa bed frame
roomF (ForumV 174). It consistsofa pieceofwhite,finethelastphaseoftheuse ofthecubiculum thefront slightly polished.Tracesofguidegrainedmarble,12.7x 13.6x 3.5 cm.Thebackis smooth,
lines are visible on the upper two lines.
Letterheightsline 1: 2.5 cm; line 2: 2.4-3 cm; line 3: 2.4 cm. Interspace.9 cm (between1 and 2) and .8 cm (between 2 and 3).
] BERT[
ET SIBI[
Th faget
asfon
i]SMF[ waths ] S.
ee itrpetd266rmei sth mkepfo
Perhapslibertis li]BERT[abvsq(ue) suis]ET SIBI[ et
Flecit sui]S M(EMORIAM)
E(st)?] [H(Oi)SUIitus/a)
te
upot
f
INSCRIPTIONSAND GRAFFITI
0
267
5cm inthecistern (AM). Fig.119.Graffito
A funerary inscription,foundbuiltinto a slightwall in one of the cubicula of theHouse of Diana. The high T mightjustifya datingin the firstcenturyA.D.,542but the context,which,like the rest of the occupation of the building,must be Neronian or earlier,suggestsan earlierdate, as it is somewhat difficultto imaginethebreakup and reuse of the inscriptionso soon afterit was set up. The Graffitoon the Eastern Height Cistern(fig.119 and pl. 115) (AM) was found98 cm above the flooron the easternwall of thenorthernarmof the cistern.It The graffito had been scratchedinto the plaster coveringthat surface.It was evidentthat the graffitohad been made afterthe wall plasterhad dried,due to a flakingof the plasteralong the edges of the inscribed lines. The inscriptionwas almostinvisiblein directlight:a squeeze was attemptedbut proved unsuccessful, as the lines were so shallow thatthe coarse surfaceof the plasteritselfobscured theirtrace. Photographsprovidedmuchbetterrenderings. Paleography.The graffitoconsistedof two lines of text,withsix characterson the top line and fiveon thelower.Line 1 is in a mild cursivestyle.The initialcapitalA is Roman,and thed of thetop line,with itsverticalstrokecurvedbackward,is a distinctionofthemany"gothic"or "text"handsin use throughout WesternEurope fromthetwelfthcenturyonward.It shouldbe noted thattheseare somewhatrarer in Italy.On the lower line the firstfourcharactersshow distinctinlinestypicalof gothiccapitals,particularlythe x witha double verticalstrokeintersectedby a singlediagonal. All the ends are finished witha serif.The fifthand finalcharacteron line 2 was of no definiteform.
Gordon and Gordon 1977, 205. I am gratefulto of the inscription. John Bodel for his suggestionson the reconstruction 542
THE FINDS
268
Plate 115. Graffito (EF).
i
Transcription Anno d(o)m(ini) MCCX Line 2: The firstfourcharactersgive a date of MCCX, or 1210. The fifthand finalcharacteron the lowerline was difficult to discerneven on thebest of photographs,being carvedmuchless deeplythan the othercharacters.It is possible thatthe characteris a furtherRoman numeralI, althoughthe absence of a serifat the base and the prominentcross strokemake thisuncertain.Second, the character could be an initial,such as f or-if the twolines formingan acute angleto theleftof theverticalstroke are takenintoaccount-a monogramdenotingthe authorofthegraffito. Finallyit is possible that,like the strokesintertwined withtheM, thisfifthcharacteris merelycomposed of accidentalscratches.The firstexplanationseemsthemostplausible,and thatis whatis hesitantly suggestedhere.The inscription givesa terminusante quem forthe use of the cisternforcontainingpeople ratherthanwater.
dellaCasa di Dianae dellaForumCistern La Ceramica andElisaGusberti Fontana, LauraCerri, Sergio
LA CERAMICA DELLA CASA DI DIANA
P
La struttura del testo(EG)
per oiche il materialequi analizzatoappartienea numeroseclassi ceramiche,identificate del complesso e tecniche,e poichela stratigrafia e caratteristiche funzionalita morfologiche In il testosecondo i seguentiparamatri.543 e decisamentearticolata,si e deciso di strutturare ogni sezione e inquadrata una fase del complesso, con una breve introduzionesulle unita relativealla fase. Le sezioni sono ulteriormentesuddivise secondo le classi stratigrafiche attestate:vernicenera,terrasigillataitalicae paretisottili,lucerne,ceramicacomune,e anfore. II testo relativo a ciascuna classe e correlato da una tabella, consultabile sul sito Ciascun frammentoe stato inseritonella tabella, www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/. di provenienzadei reperti,ed all'internodella quale compaionola fase e l'unita stratigrafica e stato quindi identificatoper "classe" (ad esempio ceramicada cucina) e per "forma"(ad esempio: olla). Nella tabella compaiono, inoltre,il numero dei frammentie il numero complessivo degli esemplariricostruibili,il confrontotipologico e le attestazionidei tipi identificatiin Etruria,o piiugenericamentein Italia. Sul sito sono consultabili anche le delle superfici. classificazionidegli impastie dei rivestimenti
L'impiantodelladomus(Fase I): ceramicaa vernicenera Questa fase e rappresentatasoprattuttoda materialein giaciturasecondaria, attestatoin di ceramicaa vernicenera datatial III e agli inizi del II stratigrafie piiurecenti.I frammenti di secolo a.C. sono solo cinque: gli esemplaripiiuantichi(III secolo a.C.) sono due frammenti coppe attribuibiliai tipi Morel 2672 (con orlo distintoe svasato) e Morel 2765 (con orlo Trai materialirinvenuti all'internodella fossaal di sottodell'impiantotermale(380) rientrante). di skyphosattribuibile al tipoMorel4353, della finedel e statorinvenutoinoltreun frammento III secolo a.C., mentreun orlo di patera(Morel 1531,VarietaA), datatatrala finedel IV e gli inizi del III secolo a.C., provienedalla 329. E inoltreattestatauna patera a profilocontinuo assimilabileal tipo Morel 1281 provenientedalla 423, uno dei livellipiiuantichidel giardino. Questo tipodi paterae anch'essopresentenel depositoC di Cosa544ed e di probabileproduzione locale (impasto7, vedi il catalogosul web). La redazionedi questo capitolo &statacuratada Elisa Gusberti.
543
"I
269
Taylor1957, tav.XXI C 27b.
THE FINDS
270
L'etdrepubblicana e augustea(Fasi II e III A) (EG) Si trattadella fase relativaall'impiantodella casa e alla sua occupazione duranteil periodo repubblicanoe augusteo.Appartengonoa questafasegli stratidel giardinoe i depositirelativi ai riempimentidelle due fosse biologiche situatedietrole bottegheC e D (271 e 266/269). alla vitae all'occupazione della domusnel II secolo a.C. Invece Questi scarichisono riferibili il riempimentodella fossa al di sottodel piccolo impiantotermale(380) presentaun aspetto insolito,in quanto sembrasi sia formatoattraversoscarichioccasionalie in un arco di tempo piuttostolungo che si chiude solo con l'occupazione augustea. Tali contesti,chiaramente originatida una direttaattivitadi butto,verrannopresentatiseparatamente. A questimaterialisi aggiungono369, 370, 372, 374, 395, 411, 414, 425, ovverogli strati relativiall'ortodella casa, la 329, il riempimentodi una fossanella stanzaL, e la 317, ovvero la preparazionepavimentaledella stanzaP, di epoca probabilmenteaugustea. La presenza di materialicertamenteantecedential II secolo a.C. appare assai limitatae certamenteresiduale.Ad eccezione della fossa rinvenutasotto il piccolo impiantotermale (380) che dovrebbe chiudersinegli anni finalidel I secolo a.C., di uno dei livelliriferitial giardino (369), della preparazione pavimentaledella stanza P (317) e della piccola fossa dell'ambienteL (329), chiaramentedatabili all'eta Augustea,i contestiche appartengonoa questa fase dovrebberochiudersiintornoall'anno 70 a.C., quando Cosa fu apparentemente distruttada un'incursionedi pirati(vedi suprap. 32). Pur trattandosidi due momentidistinti dal punto di vista stratigrafico, abbiamo preferitotrattareunitariamenteil materialedelle due fasiper motivitipologici,in quanto il repertoriodelle formeattestatetrail II e il I secolo a.C. appare sostanzialmenteomogeneo. CERAMICAA VERNICENERA(EG)
Lo scavoha restituito ceramicaa vernicenerainquantitapiuttosto limitata. Si tratta di 204 frammenti, dei qualie statopossibileidentificarne 130perun totaledi 89 formericostruibili. inquestocasosi tratta Rimangono prividi unconfronto morfologico 75 frammenti: di orlie fondi di dimensioni estremamente ridotteo di paretiprivedi un qualsiasielementodiagnostico;questi classificati esemplarisono statigenericamente comeformeaperteo chiusenonidentificabili. La tabella pubblicatasul sitoweb riassumei critericlassificatori adottatinellaschedatura del materiale: sonosegnalate la fasee il numerodi UnitaStratigrafica dai qualirisultasubitoevidente se il materiale e o menoin giacituraprimaria. Il materialee statosuddivisoper formefunzionali (coppe,patere, bicchieri, pissidi,coperchi, balsamari, skyphoi, crateri)e, traqueste,sonostatedistinte quelleforme conunapeculiarecaratteristica morfologica (il piattellosu piedee, trale coppe,la forma1; grafico 3). Per quantoriguardai confronti e la cronologiadei reperti, morfologici si e fattoriferimento al riccorepertorio di formee di tipidi Morel,545 prestandouna peculiareattenzione nel segnalarela o piugenericamente a Cosa546 presenzadi esemplari giaattestati appartenenti al gruppodelleproduzioni dell'Etruria meridionale e delLazio.547 L'analisimacroscopica e dellevernici degliimpasti ha permesso di individuare ottotipidi impasto e cinquetipidi vernice(vedicatalogodegliimpastisulsitoweb),rendendo cosipossibilel'attribuzione dell'esemplaread una determinata produzione(CampanaA, CampanaB e Boide di probabile a produzione locale,Boide "pastagrigia"). 545
Morel1981.
546
Taylor1957; si veda anche Morel 1994, 41-43.
547
Pasquinucci 1998.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
271
80 70 60 50 40. 30. 0. 1
co~~~~) W ..
.
.
'tp a vernice e augustea: neradell'etarepubblicana Grafico 3. Ceramica a confronto. forme funzionali Va specificatoche almeno il 30 per cento degli esemplarie da considerareresiduale: si trattadi un numero limitato di frammentiprecedenti il II secolo a.C. (probabilmente antecedenti anche di l'impiantodella casa), e di tuttigli esemplariin giaciturasecondaria,ovveropresentiin stratigrafie epoca decisamentepiu tarda. la grandemaggioranzadei vasi (l'80% circa dei Per quanto riguardala cronologiadei tipiattestati, materialidatabili)e inquadrabilenel II secolo a.C., mentresono solo 9 gli esemplaricon una cronologia che scende finoal I secolo a.C. Per quanto riguardale produzioni,circa 65% degliesemplaripuo essere attribuitocon ogniprobabilit'aad officinedell'Italiacentralee dell'Etruriae traquestecircail 35 % degli esemplaririentranella produzionedi vernicenera Boide, sicuramentelocale. Sono 21 gli esemplariche trovanoun immediatoconfrontocon il materialeprovenientedai depositiB, C e D di Cosa esaminati dalla Taylor.'48 Alla definizionedelle aree di produzionepuo fornirequalche contributol'esame degli impasti, anche se i dati risulteranno piuttosto limitati, trattandosi di un esame condotto l'associazionefrai tipiceramiciattestatie i relativitipidi impastoha fornitoa volte macroscopicamente; ma ha anche reso plausibili alcune ipotesi. In via preliminaresi possono infatti dati contraddittori, circoscrivere gli impasti2, 3, 5, 7 a produzionidell'Italiacentralee con moltaprobabilit'adell'Etruria. per quanto riguardail suo periodo "tardo" (II e I secolo La produzionedi Campana A, soprattutto a.C.) e attestataper il 35% degli esemplariidentificati. II repertoriomorfologiconon e particolarmentevario; sono documentatequasi esclusivamente formeaperte,trale quali predominanole coppe e le patere (grafico3). attestata(67 esemplari,il 48% del campione);il tipo pituricorrente Coppe. Sono la formamaggiormente e quello con vasca a profilorettilineo,brevissimoorlo a tesa e fondo piano (Morel 2563). Si trattadi otto esemplarituttiattribuibilialla produzione della Campana B. Le coppe a profiloconvesso e orlo distinto(Morel 2614; sei esemplari)sono per lo pituproduzionilocali (352, fig.120.2) in un caso (Morel2614 al) gia attestatea Cosa nel deposito C.549 In due casi (271; Impasto 1) si trattainvececon tutta probabilit'adi produzionidella Campana A. Esclusivamenteprodottedalle officinedella Campana A e attestateda ottoesemplarisono le coppe del tipo Morel 2812 e 2814; quest'ultima (impasto 4; 380, fig. 121.5) sembra apparteneread una dell' area provenzale."0 produzionecaratteristica 548
Taylor1957.
"I
Taylor1957, tav.XXX C28.
550
Morel 1981, 229.
THE FINDS
272
3~~~N'
c
/
t
--\
34
9 a vernice Fig.120.ForumV,faseI, ceramica nera,352: da cucina. faseII-III A,ceramica 335:3, coperchio 1,patera(residuale); 370:2, coppa(residuale); (residuale); inargilla ceramica 411:5-8,balsamari, 9 coppa(EG). 329:4, coperchio; depurata, La forma1 (Morel 232e) e attestatada due esemplarianch'essiidenticial tipo presentea Cosa nel deposito D55le probabilmenteprodottilocalmente.552 Patere.Il tipo di pateramaggiormente attestato(17 esemplari)sembraesserequello con orlo a tesa con profilosinuoso e labbro distinto,553 per lo piu di produzioneBoide e in due casi gia presentea Cosa.554 Solo un esemplare (attribuibileal tipo Morel 1443d) e di probabile produzione della Campana A (Impasto 1, 370, fig.120.1). II tipo di patera con vasca relativamenteprofonda,profilotendenzialmenteangolare,e orlo da leggermentesvasato a rientrante(Morel 2252, 2253, 2255, 2256) e rappresentatoda otto esemplari, mentrequello con vasca decisamentephi schiacciatae bordo quasi verticale(Morel 2283, 2286), solo da due. In un caso (380) si trattaplausibilmentedi una produzioneattribuibilealle officinedi Campana A mentretuttigli altriesemplaririentranonelle produzioniB o Boidi. Gli esemplaridi paterepresenti nell'266 (fig. 133.2), attribuibiliai tipi Morel 2255 e 2256, sono attestatia Cosa nel deposito B.555Tra le patere con orlo a tesa, sono infineattestatii tipi Morel 1531 (con la tesa piuttostobreve e il profilo 551
Taylor1957, tav.XXXVI D16.
"I
552
Pasquinucci 1998, tav.4.119, pag. 118.
"I Taylor1957, tav.XXVII b 23 e 24 a.
155
Morel 1981, 1443, varietab,d,h,i,f,m,n.
Taylor1957, tav.XXXIII Dla e b.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
273
curvoe rivoltoversoil basso), convesso),1625e 1313(conl'orlofortemente dellavascaleggermente anchea Rosellae.i6L'unicopiattellosu piedee presente nella271 (fig.128.5;vedisotto). attestato solo treesemplaridi bicchieri,di cui uno (vd. Bicchieri, pissidie balsamari.Lo scavoha restituito ai tipiMorel 1222 (di probabileproduzione sotto271, fig.128.3) quasi integro.Sono attribuibili orizzontalesull'orlo)e 1225.Va inoltresegnalatala presenzadi locale), 1224 (con una scanalatura una sola pisside(fig.128.4;Morel7541),e quella di un coperchio,con l'orloa tesainclinataverso (335,fig. l'esterno,attaccocon la paretea spigolovivoe presaschiacciataa sezionetroncoconica nel repertorio perquestotipodi coperchiosembrafinora riscontrabile 120.3).L'unicaattestazione il nostroesemplareappartienecon tuttaprobabilitaalle produzioni della villa di Settefinestre;557 Boidiin pastagrigia(impasto5). invernicenera(unaparetedalla duebalsamari frammentari solamente Infinelo scavoha restituito 349 e un piedino dalla 372 attribuibileal tipo Morel 7111) e solamentedue anse (380 e 349) deltipoMorel3221. ai crateri ad anseverticali probabilmente appartenenti TERRASIGILLATAITALICAE PARETISOTTILI (LC)
(533 g), provenienti neglistratidi epoca augusteada 64 frammenti La terrasigillataitalicae attestata La formamaggiormente dalle 141,19,79, 70, e 69, dai qualie statopossibilerisalirea 34 esemplari. trai qualicompaionoil tipoPucciVIII (370), attestata dai piatti(cinqueesemplari), e rappresentata IX (369),e X (370). Le coppesonoattestate da due soliesemplari riferibili al tipoPucciXX (370). Il masullabase a causadellostatoframmentario dei reperti, none statoidentificato restodeiframmenti la presenzadi27 esemplari. Trai frammenti deifondie statopossibilericostruire dellaquantificazione riferibile ad un piattodel tipoPucciVIII (141),presentala superficie rinvenuti un solo esemplare, bolli(tabella5). presentano decorataa rotella.Due frammenti Bollo Tipo di cartiglio Identificazione N? esemplari N? US 1 370 Paetus Proti Rettangolare CVArr386 1 370 L(ucius) T(itius) Rettangolare CVArr2055 C(aupo) Tabella5. Bollisuterra italica. sigillata
dalle179,70,e 69,riconducibili Le paretisottili sonoattestate da setteframmenti (32g),provenienti a cinqueesemplari, deiqualisolounoe statoidentificato ed e riferibile ad unboccalinodeltipoAtlante dipintane decorazioni. presenta la superficie 1-165(370). Nessunodei frammenti LUCERNE (LC)
Perla faserepubblicana (43g) riferibili a treesemplari, da solicinqueframmenti le lucernesonoattestate di cui due sonostatiidentificati: la seconda unae riferibile al tipoDoughnutTypeCosa (411) mentre al tipoDressel2 condecorazione a globetti sulcorpo(164). di bicchieri Le paretisottilisonoinveceattestate (4 g) riferibili a due esemplari da dueframmenti Nessuno il tipodi appartenenza. nonha permesso di individuarne (249,392),il cuistatoframmentario dei frammenti la superficie dipintae sonotuttiprividi decorazioni. presenta Per l'epoca augusteasono statirinvenuti (50 g) riferibili a sei esemplari,dei sei frammenti (179, 370, 369), ma si trattadi frammenti quali cinque non sono statiidentificati attribuibili, ad una lucernaa volute genericamente, all'epocaimperiale;un frammento e, invece,riconducibile 556
Morel 1981, 104.
557
Gualandi 1985, 132 e 135, fig.36.5.
274
THE FINDS
80 100
Grafico comune e augustea. 4. Ceramica dell'etarepubblicana del tipo Loeschke Ia (370), che trova un preciso confrontocon un altro esemplare di questo tipo rinvenutoa Cosa.558 562
CERAMICACOMUNE (EG)
1~~6
La ceramicacomune attestatanelle stratigrafie della domuse stataa sua volta suddivisanelle categoric funzionalidella ceramicada cucina (tegami,pentole,olle da fuoco,casseruolee coperchi),da conserva (olle non da fuoco), da mensa e/o da dispensa (brocche,anforette,gutti,piatti,coppe, olle, bacini) e da toiletta(balsamari;grafico4). Lo scavo ha restituito430 frammenti "diagnostici"(cfr.la tabella sul web: www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/) in ceramica comune, per un totale di 300 esemplari ricostruibli..1 Nel presentelavoro ci si e limitatiad una classificazionedelle diversecategoriee formeceramiche attraversol'attribuzionedegliesemplariindividuatiad una formao ad un tipo gia attestatonei depositi di Cosa559o in altricontestiitalici,vistala bassa consistenzanumericadei repertie in molticasi, la loro elevataframmentarieta. Per quanto riguardai critericlassificatori e di terminologiasi e fattosoprattutto riferimentoal ricchissimorepertoriodi tipi attestatiad Albintimilium,'60 e a quello della Villa di L'attestazionedi un esemplare all'internodegli otto depositi di Cosa esaminatida Settefinestre.5"l Dyson56 e stata scrupoiosamente segnalata. Per le ceramiche da mensa e da dispensa e stato di fondamentaleapporto il lavoro di classificazionetipologica effettuatoda C. Pavolini'63sul materiale dell' antiquariumdi Ostia. Attraversol'analisi macroscopicadegli impastie delle superficidei vasi, sono statiindividuati11 tipi di impasto per la ceramica da cucina e da conservae 11 tipi di impasto per quanto riguardale ceramicheottenutecon argillep4i depurate (ceramicheda mensa e da dispensa, balsamari). Queste tabellesi possono consultaresul sitoweb e sono parteintegrante del lavorodi sintesiche qui si presenta. L'attestazionein quantita phiuche rilevanti,nei depositi di Cosa indagati da Dyson o nelle sue immediatevicinanze(Settefinestre), di tipi estremamente viciniai nostriesemplarie stataun elemento diagnosticoper supporreun'eventualeproduzione locale di alcune forme.Un ulterioreelementoper restringere la produzione di alcune formead un ambitolocale e statala massicciapresenza di biotite all'internodi moltidegli impasti(1, 2, 5, 9, 10, e 11 della ceramicada cucina). La presenza della biotite,unitamenteall'augite,ai calcarie al quarzo, costantementepresentinegliimpastidelle ceramiche 558
561
Papi 1985.
1976.
562
Dyson 1976.
Olcese 1993.
563
Pavolini 2000.
Cosa: The Lamps, 85, fig.54.
559 Dyson 560
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
275
dell'alto degliimpastidelleceramiche dell'Italia,sembraessereunacaratteristica dellafasciaTirrenica Lazio e dellaMaremma(cfr.Fontana,sottop. 316). E. Papi,nelsuo studiotipologicodellaceramica localigliimpasti 7, 11 e presumibilmente segnalacomeproduzioni comunedellaVilladi Settefinestre, dellacollina allafornace di Tricosto, In particolare postasullependicioccidentali 16.564 egliattribuisce perla produzionedi ceramicacomunee laterizitrail I secolo di Capalbiaccioe attivacomeofficina basatosiunicamente d.C. II a.C. e il secolo gliimpasti9, 13,18,e forseil 5. A seguitodi unconfronto la presenzadellabiotitetragliimpasti di taliimpasti, purnonessendomaispecificata sulledescrizioni inviapreliminare questeequivalenze: si possonosupporre dellaceramicacomunedi Settefinestre, 7 / Cosa-CeramicaComuneDepurata1 Settefinestre 9 / Cosa-CeramicaComuneDepurata10 e 11 Settefinestre 11 / Cosa-Ceramicada Cucina7 Settefinestre Settefinestre 13,(16) / Cosa-Ceramicada Cucina9 Settefinestre 15 / Cosa-Ceramicada Cucina11. e di ceramicacomuneneicontesti di etarepubblicana la totalitadelleattestazioni Perquantoriguarda la tabellaanalitica sulweb.Verranno invecetrattati pubblicata augusteadelladomussi potraconsultare C e D, 271,266/269,e 380. in dettaglio qui di seguitogliscarichidellebotteghe e augustea significativo di esemplari unnumero Glistrati diepocarepubblicana chehannorestituito ricostruibili; all'ortodelladomus(369,53 esemplari inceramica comunesonosoprattutto quellirelativi nellafig.120.5di cuiquattrobalsamari e unacoppasonoriprodotti ricostruibili, 411,ottoesemplari e il secondobattuto di una fossanellastanzaL (329, sei esemplariricostruibili) 9), il riempimento i rapporti trale diverseforme 4 illustra il grafico ricostruibili); al corridoio(141,seiesemplari relativo i tre Le forme anche delle fosse. in piiuattestate depositi funzionali attestate questafase,comprendendo olle da in le conserva esemplari) (80 sonoi coperchi(83 esemplari totale,cfr.335,fig.120.4).Seguono le casseruole o pentole(sinotila quasitotaleassenzadi questaforma all'interno e i tegami(22esemplari); frammentarie. dellefossetrattate qui di seguito)sonosolo quattroed estremamente allebotteghe nella271) di cui le formeattestate neidepositirelativi (inparticolare Se escludiamo in ceramicafineapparein generalemenoconsistente. si trattera piu avanti,il numerodegliesemplari trovano confronto conle produzioni sonosolamente due(141e 369)ed entrambe Le broccheidentificate attestate a Sutri.565 Va inoltresegnalatala presenzadi quattrobalsamarisu piedecon corpofusiforme da unafossadel giardino(411,fig.120.5-8).566 tuttiprovenienti ANFORE (SF)
neicontesti dellaCasa diDianacopreunarcocronologico anforici stratigrafici La presenzadi contenitori in un esaminati consistono compresotrail II secoloa.C. e la primametadel II secolod.C. I materiali un campionecertamente agli esiguoper ricondurci riconoscibili, complessodi circa250 frammenti di I e domus nel corso secoli di materiali ai consumi della frequentazione. quattro approvvigionamenti un primocontributo per colmarela scarsaconoscenza possonocomunquecostituire qui presentati dell'agerdovela alleanforeprovenienti dall'areaurbanadi Cosa. Meglionotae la situazione riguardo dei reperti delPortusCosanus567 e dellaVilladi Settefinestre568 puooffrire utilielementi pubblicazione di paragoneperi materiali dellaCasa di Diana. anteriori al II secoloa.C. apparemoltolimitata e trale anforepossiamo La presenzadi materiali antica(tipoVandermerch di orloriferibile ad unagreco-italica soltantoununicoframmento segnalare 564
Papi 1985, 246.
VI.2,4,VIL,9.
565
Duncan 1965, 80, fig.13.112.
567
Will1987.
566
Dyson 1976 VD 97, PD 148-149; Camilli 1995, Tav.
568
Cambi1985.
276
THE FINDS
residuale 1994,MGS VI) databileal III secoloa-C.;la presenzadi questoframmento puo considerarsi dellostrato(372).569 all'interno i riempimenti attenzione meritano dellefossedi scarico Trai contestidi provenienza particolare databilial II secoloa.C. Talidepositihannoil carattere di verie propriimmondezzai dellebotteghe, Peri periodisuccessivi nonsihannodepositi ovevennero alienati contenitori spessoinpartericostruibili. e i frammenti, cheappaionodi minoridimensioni, conquestecaratteristiche provengono perlo piuda in giacitura ceramicisi trovanoprobabilmente attivitadi rideposizionedi stratiove i frammenti al loroabbandonocomerifiuti domestici. secondariarispetto nellorocomplesso i depositiriferibili Se consideriamo al II secoloa.C. la presenzadi anfore vinarie prodottenell'Italiatirrenicaapparedominante;anforedi produzioneafricanasono attestateda frammenti riconducibili a singoliesemplari nelle271 e 395,dovesi riscontrano due orlidi anforedi nella dimateriali tradizione punicaprodotte probabilmente Bizacena.Del tuttosporadica e l'attestazione 2 dalla271).Completamente diprovenienza adriatica assenti sembrano (un'ansaforsedeltipoLamboglia esserei contenitori dall'Oriente mediterraneo. provenienti inetarepubblicana, Trale piutipicheanfore vinarieprodotte sullacostatirrenica ovverole anfore tardee le Dressel1, i repertidellaCasa di Diana presentano greco-italiche differenti caratteristiche nellacomposizione delleargillechericonducono a diversi centridiproduzione da ricercarsi neiterritori limitrofi al PortusCosanus. Le anforegreco-italiche tardeappaiono ben documentateessendopresentiin entrambii deipozzinerirelativi allebotteghe. La definizione di questicontenitori riempimenti coniatadalBenolt570 alleprecedenti di anforevinariesicilianee magno-greche, li riconette le cosiddette produzioni grecoitalicheantiche.Comee statonotato'7I di discontinuita esistonofortielementi conle produzioni di III secoloa.C. e precedenti; infatti le anforegreco-italiche nellaprimametae attorno alla tarde,prodotte metadel II secolo,nonrecanopiubolliin greco,masoltantoinlatino,e i centridi produzione, chesi trovanolungola costatirrenica trala Campaniae l'Etruria, coincidonoquasisemprecon quellidelle anforeDressel1 di cuile anforegreco-italiche i tardesono diretti antecedenti tipologici. di anfore Frammenti Dressel1 si rinvengono associatia greco-italiche tardeneidepositidi II secolo a.C. che abbiamoricordato. Gli orlirinvenuti nei due riempimenti sono da riferirsi al tipodefinito Dressella nellaclassificazione propostada N.Lamboglia.572 Attestazioni delleanforeDressel1 sono anchenelle326 e 372 anch'esseda riferirsi presenti al tardoII secoloo agliinizidelI secoloa.C. Come vedremole attestazioni di questotipodi anforacontinuano nei contestidelladomusnellatardaeta e nellaprimaetaaugustea(vediinfra). repubblicana alcunicentridi produzione di anforeattivinelII e nelI secolo Nell'AgerCosanussonoconosciuti a.C. Si trattadella fornacedi Albinia,573 e di fornacinel PortusCosanus,574 e in localita Parrina.575 La
produzionevinariadel territoriovennelargamenteesportata,infattisi possono riferirecon a produzionicosanele anforeDressel1 recantii bolli dei Sestiiche ebberoampia verosimiglianza diffusione nelMediterraneo occidentale e nelleareeinterne dellaGallia.576 Sullabase di un primoesamedelleargillerinvenute nelleanforegreco-italiche tardee Dressel1 neicontesti rinvenute dellaCasa di Diana si possonoindividuare almenotredifferenti gruppi: di colorcremaai margini (1) Impastocon sezionestratificata rosatae nelnucleo,augite,quarzi,rari di questoimpastola presenzadi calcari,rariinclusiopachidi colorerosso.Apparecaratteristica 569Perle attestazioni di anfore antiche nel produsse con certezza anforeDressel 1 e Dressel 2/4. greco-italiche PortusCosanuse a Orbetello sivedaWill1987,177-179. Molto probabilee anche la produzionedi greco-italiche 570
Benoit1957.
tarde di cui per6 non sono stati rinvenutiframmenti ipercottie deformati.
571
Manacorda1981,22-23.
574
Will 1987, 174-175, Manacorda 1981, 13-16.
572
Lamboglia1955.
575
Manacorda1981,25-27.
576
Will 1987,174,fig.IX-1.
Peacock1977;Manacorda1981,16-22.La fornace di Albiniasegnalataper la primavolta da Peacock
573
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
277
Grafico 5. Ceramica a vemiceneradel deposito sottol'impianto termale.
12 10 8 6 24
coppe sykphos te
pe
venaturevisibiliin sezionedi colorevariabiletrail rosa e il rosso-bruno. Questo impastoe documentato soltantonelleanforegreco-italiche tarde. (2) Impastonocciolaconmoltivacuoli.Inclusidi quarzo,augite, inclusicristallini dicolorerossoe calcare inpiccolequantita. Questoimpasto e documentato nelleanfore greco-italiche tardee nelleDressel1. (3) Impastodi colore rosso-bruno.Inclusi:foraminiferi, quarzi,neriopachi. Questo impastoe documentato nelleanforegreco-italiche tardee nelleDressel1. I treimpastipotrebberoriferirsi ad un ambitoproduttivo locale o regionale.L'impasto1 e verosimilmente assimilabile a quellodi granpartedelleanforegreco-italiche tarde(Will1-d)rinvenute nelPortusCosanuse chevienedescritto dallaWillcome"sandypinkish yellow-buff clay."577 L'impasto e differente da quellidocumentati comunque nellafornace diAlbinia.578 Le caratteristiche delsecondogruppo coincidere conquelledi moltiframmenti potrebbero di anfore Dressel1 conbollidei Sestiirinvenuti nel PortusCosanus.579Nella villa di Settefinestre il 95 percentodei frammenti questo impastocaraterizerebbe
di Dressel1 rinvenuti.580 f1terzogruppo&inveceriferibile allaproduzione di Albiniacomeha confermato unprelimare confronto al microscopio conframmenti dalsitodellafornace. provenienti Nei contesti riferibili all'etacesarianae augusteail numerodei frammenti di anforaidentificabili appareassailimitato; la continuita possiamosoltanto delleattestazioni di contenitori segnalare riferibili al tipoDressel1 (343)e, trai materiali si segnalala presenza di unfondodi anfora importati, ditradizione punica(343).
I contesti: lo scaricosottol'impianto termale(291/380) CERAMICAA VERNICENERA(EG)
E' attestata la presenzadi almeno27 esemplari invernicenera,dei qualie statopossibileidentificarne 11 (cfr.tabella, www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/). Come risultadal grafico5 le forme attestate sonole pateree le coppe. maggiormente Quattroesemplaridi pateresono riconducibili al tipo Morel 1443 (fig.121.1,2)e sembrano tuttiad officine dell'Etruria. appartenere I1 tipoMorel2245,nellasua varietaB, e attestato da due di cui uno sembraappartenere ad un officina esemplari, dellaCampanaA (impasto4, vediil catalogo sulweb).Sonoinoltre treorlidi paterea vascaschiacciata, presenti e orloda verticale profiloangolare, a schiacciato attribuibili ai tipiMorel2283,2284 e 2286 (fig.121.3,4).Tuttele patere rispettivamente sonodatabilial II secoloa.C. Trale coppeun esemplare e quasiintegro(fig.121.5)ed &confrontabile conil tipoMorel2824, di probabileproduzionedellaCampanaA e attestato in Provenza(Morel1981,228); Questacoppa, perla formacomplessiva e peril tipodi rivestimento ed impastoappareesclusivadelI secoloa.C. Piiu 577Will
1987,179-182.
Per una descrizione delle argille di Albinia si veda Manacorda 1981, 19-22.
578
579
Manacorda 1978; Manacorda 1981, 4 ss.
580
Cambi 1985, 87, impasto3.
278
THE FINDS
_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
3
~~-
4.
\~~~~~~~~~~
n
<
-~~~~~~~~e .7
1:3 a vernice neradallafossasottol'impianto 380.1-4,patere; Fig.121.ForumV,faseII-III A,ceramica termale, inrosso(EG). inargilla conla tesadell'orlo 5,6,coppe;7,skyphos; 8,piattello depurata sovradipinta antica (III secolo a.C.) sembrala coppa (fig.121.6) con labbro arrotondatoe distinto,riconducibileal tipo Morel 2672. TERRASIGILLATAITALICAE PARETISOTTILI (LC)
I materialirelativial riempimento della cisterna,in particolarmodo la classe delle lucernee delle pareti sottili,hanno permessodi determinareun arco cronologicopiuttostoampio per quanto riguardal'uso della fossa come scarico. I materialirinvenutisono riferibiliad un periodo compresotra la tarda eta repubblicanae l'eta augustea. attribuibilead una coppa non identificata, La terrasigillataitalicae attestatada un solo frammento, alla primaproduzionedi questa classetrala finedell'eta ma che,con ogniprobabilita,puo essereriferita repubblicanae la primaet'aaugustea. Le paretisottilirappresentano la classe ceramicamaggiormente attestatadal puntodi vistanumerico e tipologico. Tuttii tipi individuatitrovrano un confrontonella tipologia presentenell'Atlantedelle oltre forineceramichedell'EAA, al quale si rimandaper una descrizionedi tipi e della loro diffusione,
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
TipoEAA 1-1 1-2 1-13 1-15 1-19 1-20 1-22 1-49 1-61 1-89 1-360 1-389 2-422
279
esemplari Tabella6. Paretisottili: tipiattestati. Numero 5 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 1
che per le decorazioni,mentrel'elenco dei tipi e il totale degli esemplaririnvenutie riportatonella rinvenutie statopossibile risaliread un totaledi 47 esemplari:45 bicchierie tabella 6. Dai frammenti riferibilia bicchieripermettedi ipotizzareche la cisdue coppe; la cospicua presenza di frammenti ternavenneutilizzataper lo smaltimentodel vasellameprovenientedalla cucina,situatanelle immediin questione.Ancheper questa classe ceramica,l'arco cronologicoindicato ate vicinanzedella struttura dagli esemplaririnvenutiindica un periodo compresotrail II a.C. e l'eta augustea.Tuttigli esemplari mentreper quanto riguardale decorazioni,due soli presentanola superficiepriva di rivestimento, frammenti presentanomotividecorativiottenutia la barbotine(tipo EAA tav.CIV n?41 e tav.CV n?47).
LUCERNE (LC) rinvenutinegli stratisi Per quanto riguardale lucerne,e necessariosottolineareche tuttii frammenti a esemplariintegrio privi presentanoin ottimostatodi conservazionee la maggiorpartesono riferibili solo di una parte del becco o dell'ansa. Questa particolarita,riferibileanche alla classe delle pareti sottili,unita al fattoche la cisternafu utilizzataper un lungo periodo, permettedi ipotizzare che la strutturavenne utilizzata come luogo di butto per la suppellettile domestica che veniva rotta accidentalmentenelle attivitaquotidiane della casa, collegateall'illuminazione(lucerne) e alle attivita domestiche(bicchieri).Per le lucerne,gli esemplaripiiuantichi,riferibilialla tarda eta repubblicana, sono rappresentatida due esemplaridi lucerne del tipo Truncated-coneType Cosa (pl. 116),581due Il tipo piu lucernedel tipo DoughnutTypeCosa582e da due lucernedel tipo biconico dell'Esquilino.583 recentee, invece,rappresentatoda trelucernedel tipo Dressel 3 (pl. 116), caratterizzateda prese ad orecchiettelateraliimpostatesulla spalla, ansa a nastroe becco ad incudinee databilitrala finedell'eta repubblicanae l'eta augustea.Tra gli esemplarirelativia quest'ultimotipo, uno solo presentail disco da un decorato con delfini,motivogia presentea Cosa;584mentregli altri due sono contraddistinti come a inciso da altri simili rinvenuti Cosa.585 fondo esemplari quattropiccoli cerchi, CERAMICACOMUNE (EG)
Lo scavo del depositoha restituito112 esemplaridi vasi in ceramicacomune;traquesti,ben 108 forme attestate appartengonoal repertoriodella ceramicada cucina o da conservae le formemaggiormente sono le olle e i coperchi(grafico6; figg.122-125.1-3 e 126.4-8).
581
Cosa: The Lamps,23.
584
Cosa: TheLamps,70.
582
Ibid.,27.
585
Ibid.,fig.136.
583
Ibid.,39.
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. :
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
281
Grafico 6. Ceramica comune deldeposito
50
-
45 40 35 30
sottol'impiantotermale.
20 10 0
40.
'!0
CERAMICA DA CUCINA Le olle costituisconoii 40% circa degli esemplari;quasi tuttetrovanoun immediatoconfrontonei depositidi epoca repubblicanadi Cosa indagatida Dyson e, in alcunicasi, con le olle tardorepubblicane eaugustee attestate ad Albintimilium&6Sono presenti olle di piccole e medie dimensioni, con l'imboccaturapiuttostostretta,orbosvasato e ii labbro prominente,ingrossatoe distinto(fig. 122.14), riconducibilia tipi attestatiin quasi tuttii depositidi epoca repubblicanadi Cosa.'87 Le olle con orlo "a mandorla,"utilizzatecon tuttaprobabilit'aper contenerederrate,piuttostoche in numeropiuttostoconsistente percuocere,'588di dimensionigrandi,mediee medio-piccole,sono attestate (vedi la tabella subweb, figg.122.5-7, 123.1-6, 124.1-4). Esse trovanoun immediatoconfrontocon gli esemplaripresentinei depositi 1 e 2 di Cosa del II secolo a.C,'589o in quello datatoalla finedel I secolo notarela continuit'a a.C.590 B interessante morfologicadi questa formadi olla per almenodue secoli. Le olle con orbo"a mandorla" svasato e a profilointernamente concavo, di dimensionipiuttosto sono attestate da nove la (vedi loro produzione sembra anch'essa piccole, esemplari fig. 124.5-9); riferibilead un momentoavanzato della Repubblica. Questo tipo di olla 'e cospicuamenteattestatoa Cosa nel PotteryDump indagatoda Dyson, che lo data al 100-30 a.C.591 Va segnalatainfinela presenzadi quattroframmenti di olle con orboa tesa piatta,con spigolointerno vivo e breve colboa profilointernamenteconcavo (fig.125.1-3). I nostriesemplarisono praticamente identiciableolle con orboa tesadei depositiV-D e del Pottery Dumpdi Cosa,'92 di epoca tardorepubblicana e augustea,e moltosimiliad un tipo attestatoad Albintimilium nelbostessoperiodo.593 I coperchirappresentano ii 49% circadel campioneanalizzato.Gli esemplarialla fig.126.6-8 hanno formatroncoconica,profilorettilineo, orbodistintoe prominente.Altricoperchihanno l'orlo rialzatoe ricurvo(fig.127.1-3). L'esemplaredi piccole dimensionialla fig.127.6 ha inveceb'orlorientrante. I tegamisono 14 (cfr.tabella subweb; figg.125.4-7, 126.1-5): uno ha paretedirittae breve orboa tesa," trehanno la parete quasi verticalee l'orlo a tesa5eunsmpaehloroigsat,dtno 586
Olcese 1993, 97, fig.34.68.
Su questo gruppo si veda Dyson 1976, CF 19 e 26; 16-IV 25, 29, e 30, PD 50, 51, e 62.
587
588
Olcese 1993, 184.
589
Dyson 1976, CF 29 e 31; FG 34.
590
Dyson 1976, CF 29 e 31; FG 34.
591Dyson
1976, PD 44, 45, 46 e 68.
592
Dyson 1976, VD 44 e 45; PD 55 e 57.
593
Olcese 1993,201-202, fig.36.46.
594
Dyson 1976, 16IV 2.
595
Dyson 1976, PD 27, 28, e 29.
Fig. 122.ForumV, fase II-III A, ceramicada cucinadallafossasotto l'impiantotermale, 380. 1-4,olle con labbro distintoe ingrossato; 57, olle con orloa mandorla(EG).
Q:
-
;
_
UI "
1 ' 4
Fig. 123.ForumV, faseIIIII A, ceramicada cucina dalla fossasottol'impianto 380. 1-6, olle con termale, orloa mandorla(EG).
6
1:3
l===' ,,
2 \
\_ ___
Fig. 124.ForumV, faseII-III A, ceramicada cucinadallafossa 380. 1sottol'impiantotermale, 4, olle con orloa mandorla;5-9, olle con orloa incavato internamente (EG).
1
1:3 9 *. . 1:3Fig.
<;
125.Forum V,
faseIl-I11 A, ceramica da cucinadallafossa sottol'impianto 380. 1-3, olle termale, con orloa tesa;4-7, tegami(EG).
\
3
I
N~~
,4,
,,-
,5-
II~:rg
t\
7Dxr;s~+
....
\
\
-
THE FINDS
284
.-
5o,5
/~~~~~~~
,
8
__=_-_
1:3
da cucinadallafossasottol'impianto Fig.126.ForumV,faseII-II A,ceramica 380. termale, 1-5, tegami;4-8, coperchi(EG).
e svasato,596 I due tegami con parete convessa, orlo "bifido" e fondo piano sono confrontabilicon mentresolo un esemplarepresental'orlo "a quelli del PotteryDump e con quelli di Albintimilium,597 mandorla"(fig.125.7). Infinesono attestatisolamentedue esemplariattribuibilialla serie che Dyson chiama "legged skillets."Si trattadi tegamia fondo piano sostenutida alti piedi a sezione circolare, usati forseper deporrela brace sotto il vaso, cosi da riscaldareil cibo (fig. 126.4,5).598 E attestatoinfineun solo esemplaredi pentola con una lunga tesa applicata alla parete e rivolta verso il basso.599 596
Dyson1976161V,7.
197 Dyson
45.116.
1976 PD 10 e 11; Olcese 1993, 224-225, fig.
598
Dyson 1976, VD 22.
599Dyson
1976, PD 3 e 4.
LA CERAMICA DELLA CASA DI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
6
285
1:3
Fig. 127. ForumV, faseII-III A, ceramicada cucinadallafossasottol'impiantotermale, 380. 1-6, coperchi(EG). CERAMICADA MENSA
la ceramicada mensa:soltantotreesemplarisonoriconducibili attestata Nel contestoe scarsamente
a questa classe funzionale.Si trattadegliorlidi un'olla e di una brocca.600 fEopportunoinfinesegnalare la presenza di un piattello su piede, sovradipintoe interamenteconservato (fig. 121.8). Il piatto e di piccole dimensionied ha l'orlo a tesa, il labbro leggermentedistintoe rivoltoverso il basso, la vasca schiacciata e il piede ad anello basso; lo spigolo internotra l'orlo e la vasca e fortemente pronunciato. Il tipo e sicuramenteattestatonei repertoridella ceramica a vernicenera di ll secolo a.C.601 Inoltre, in Etruria, nell'abitato e nelle necropoli di epoca ellenistica di Tarquinia, sono attestati piattelli in tutto simili al nostro nella produzione di ceramica depurata acroma.02 L'esemplare qui descritto e dipinto di rosso: tracce di piccole tacche verticali sono distinguibili nella faccia internadell'orlo. OSSERVAZIONI(EG)
Dall'analisi del repertoriodei vasi attestatinella fossa, che si trova nelle immediatevicinanze della cucina, stanza L, risultanoevidentitre particolarita.In primo luogo, l'imboccatura della fossa, di dimensionidecisamenteridotte,ha impeditolo scarico di vasi grandiquali le anfore.In secondo luogo le formepresenti,sia della vernice nera che della ceramica comune, sono quasi tutterelativealla preparazione,conservazionee al consumo degli alimenti.Mancano quasi del tuttole formeceramiche per i liquidi. Infine le numerose lucerne, alcune delle quali quasi integre, provengono quasi come l'immondezaiodella cucina. esclusivamenteda questo butto,che possiamo interpretare Dyson 1976, PD 164; Olcese 1993, 202-203, fig. 72.303.
600
601
Morel 1312, 103, tav. 12.
Bagnasco Gianni 1998, 122, tav. 48.7; Cavagnaro Vanoni 1996, fig.15.103. 602
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286
Fig.128.ForumV, faseII-III A,ceramica neradalla a vernice bottega C,271.1, coppa;2,forma 1;3, 5, 4,pisside; bicchiere; piattello supiede (EG).
-
1
3
2
__
_ 9 5
1:3
La fossadellabottega C (271) A VERNICE NERA(EG) CERAMICA
Coppe.Dei nove esemplaridi coppe attestatinella fossa della bottegaC tre sono riconducibilial tipo di orlo sembra Morel2614 (fig.128.1) attestatoin Etruriae a Cosa e nel II secolo a.C.; solo un frammento ai apparteneread un officinadi Campana A.603Le altrecoppe identificate appartengonorispettivamente tipiMorel 2784, 2787, e 2822 e rientranocon tuttaprobabilitanella produzionedella Campana A. La forma1 e rappresentatada un esemplareintegro(fig.128.2) assimilabileal tipo Morel 2323604 e si trattadi una delle due uniche attestazionidi questo tipo di coppa provenientidallo scavo (l'altrae stata recuperatanella fossa della bottegaD). La forma1 e presenteanche nel deposito D di Cosa,605 datato alla meta del II secolo a.C. Bicchierie pissidi. La fossa 271 ha restituitouno dei soli tre bicchieripresentinelle stratigrafie della domus(gli altri,estremamente frammentari provengonodalle 411 e 329, quest'ultimadi epoca piiutarda). Il nostroesemplare(fig. 128.3), datato agli anni centralidel II secolo a.C., e di probabileproduzione locale (impasto3) ed e attribuibileal tipo Morel 1221,varietae, gia attestatoa Cosa nel depositoD.606 Anche l'unica pisside attestatanei livelli della domus(fig. 128.4) provieneda questo scarico. Si trattadel fondoframmentario di un esemplareattribuibileal tipo Morel 7541, datato al I secolo a.C. e attestatotrale produzionidell'Etruria.607 Patere. Delle tre patere recuperatenella fossa, una rientranel tipo Morel 2256, mentrele altre due appartengonocon tuttaprobabilitaal tipo Morel 1443, che, come abbiamo vistosopra, sembraessere attestatoa Cosa. quello maggiormente Va certamentesegnalata,all'internodi questo scarico, la presenza dell'unico piattellosu piede presentenelle stratigrafie della domus.Si trattadi un esemplareintegro(fig.128.5), con l'orlo a tesa e la vasca estremamente schiacciatache trovaun immediatoconfrontocon il tipo Morel 1411 al, attestato 603
cfr.Morel 1981, 2614f.
606
Taylor1957, tav.XXXVII D17 a.
604
cfr.anche Pasquinucci 1998, 118, tav.4.119.
607
Pasquinucci 1998, 118 tav.4.124 .
605
Taylor1957, tav.XXXVI D 16c.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
287
ad Adria.Nel depositoD di Cosa608 unframmento e presente simileal nostroesemplare; tipologicamente inoltre piattelli confrontabili conl'esemplare morfologicamente descritto sonosegnalati trale produzioni datatitrala metae la finedelII secoloa.C. dell'Etruria609 TERRASIGILLATAITALICA,CERAMICATIPO AcO E PARETISOTTILI (LC)
La presenza delcontesto dellasigillata italicaall'interno si riducead unsoloframmento, nonidentificabile. treframmenti diceramica Dalo strato provengono classecostituita tipoAco,unaparticolare prevalentemente da bicchieri I frammenti decoratia matrice. rinvenuti nellostratosonoattribuibili ad un bicchiere che presenta le paretidecorate conmotivi e privedirivestimento e databile vegetali allatardaetarepubblicana. Le paretisottili sonoattestate da 11esemplari dibicchieri, deiqualisoloduesonostatiidentificati. Il primo al tipoEAA 1-1ed e costituito e riferibile da unbicchiere a corpoallungato, e fondopiatto, orlomodanato databiletrail II e il I a.C. Il secondoesemplare &rappresentato da unbicchiere tipoEAA 1-19,concorpo orlononmoltoaltoe fondopiatto; &databile ovoidale, a partire dalII a.C.e sisviluppa l'esemplare finoalla finedelI a.C. Nessunodegliesemplari rinvenuti la superficie presenta dipinta o decorata. LUCERNE
Le lucerne sonoattestate da duesoliesemplari, unorelativo ad unalucernadeltipoDoughnut TypeCosae l'altroal tipobiconicodell'Esquilino. II primotipoe costituito da unalucerna, fabbricata al tornio, con serbatoio circolare e paretiarrotondate, ansaa nastroe fondopiattoe superficie convernice dipinta nera. L'esemplare e mancante delbeccomadovevapresentare ilbeccosvasato ad incudine (pl.117.1).L'esemplare trovaun confronto conaltritipisimiliattestati a Cosa nellatardaetarepubblicana, Il trail II e il I a.C.610 secondotipoe rappresentato da unalucernaconserbatoio biconicoe ampioforodi alimentazione, fondo piattoe grossobeccosvasatoad incudine(pl. 117.2).Anchequestoesemplare, comequelloprecedente, trovaconfronti conesemplari similirinvenuti a Cosae datatinellatardarepubblica.611 CERAMICACOMUNE (EG)
Il contestoha restituito 27 formericostruibili. La peculiarita del depositostanellamassicciapresenza di formeappartenenti al repertorio della ceramicada mensa(attestate in percentuale minimanelle altrefosse;cfr.i grafici 6 e 8),tuttelegateall'attivita delversare liquidi(vino?).Si tratta di ottoesemplari benconservati. relativamente La bottiglia-lagynos dellafig.129.1presenta corpobiconicomoltoespanso e spallamediamente l'ansa e probabilmente spiovente; doppia,impostata verticalmente su un unico lato,tral'orloe la spalla.Questacaratteristica dell'ansanonsembracomunetrale bottiglie-lagynoi attestate nelII e nelI secoloa.C. Perla suaformacomplessiva &confrontabile il nostroesemplare con una bottigliadall'antiquarium di Ostia.612 Anchela secondabottigliapresente nellafossa(fig.129.2) trovaun confronto trai materiali di Ostia.613 Sono attestate due brocche(fig.129.3,4)che mostrano caratteristiche del simili a quelledellaforma27 di Sutri.614 morfologiche tutto Le due anforette (fig. 130.1,2),rientrano in tipiattestati genericamente neldeposito4 di Cosa615 datatoal I secoloa.C. E da segnalare la presenzadi unvaso,il guttus (fig.130.3),conunafunzione deltuttoparticolare: si trattadi unabottiglia munitadi un filtro, ovverodi un diaframma foratochechiudeil vasoversoil basso, all'internodell'imboccatura. L'anticadenominazione di guttusderivaprobabilmente dalla funzionedel versarei liquidiguttatim Il confronto (gocciaa goccia).616 con i vasi-filtro islamici,che tuttora vengonoutilizzati perla venditadi acqua in Egittosuggerisce una funzione simile,in quantoil 608
Taylor1957, tav.XXXIII D2 a.
613
Pavolini 2000, 79-80, fig.19.5.
609
Taylor1957, tav.XXXIII D2 a.
614
Duncan 1965, 154, fig.9. A26 e 42.
610
Cosa: The Lamps, 27-34.
615
Dyson 1976, VD 83 e 101.
611
Cosa: The Lamps, 39.
616
Pavolini 2000, 257.
612
Pavolini 2000, 72, e 100, fig.18.1.
2
1
3
4
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2, bottiglia; 3-4 brocche(EG). Fig.129.ForumV, fase11-HIA, ceramicainargilladepuratadallabottegaC, 271. 1,bottiglia-lagynos;
THE FINDS
290
/
I
-
I
dallabottega C,271. depurata inargilla Fig.130.ForumV,faseII-III A,ceramica 3, gutto;4, coppa carenata(EG). 1-2, anforette;
filtro,fissoe piccolo,pu6 serviresoltantoa tenerefrescoe pulitoil liquido. Il nostroesemplaretrovaun di Ostia,617 datatigeneralmente inetarepubblicana. trai vasidell'antiquarium unicamente paralleloimmediato L'unica formaapertae attestatada una coppa di grandidimensionicon vasca carenatae schiacciata, orlo a tesa e labbro decorato da una fittaserie di tacche oblique (fig.130.4). Il confrontopi'uvicino al nostropezzo e con una coppa provenientedal PotteryDump di Cosa.618 617
Pavolini2000, 258-261, fig.63.135.
618
Dyson 1976, PD 117.
291
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
,l
-
t 1
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2
4 3
9
1~~~~~~~~~~~~.0
1:3 da cucinadallabottega C,271. Fig.131 ForumV,faseII-I11A,ceramica (EG). 1-2,olleconlabbrodistinto; 3-4,olleconorloa mandorla; 5-10,coperchi Per quanto riguardala ceramica da cucina e da conserva,sono attestatiunicamentecoperchi e olle in percentualeidentica(cfr.grafico8; fig.131). Queste ultimesono del tipo con labbro ingrossato e distintoo con orlo a mandorla,in tuttosimilial repertorioanalizzato nella fossa sotto l'impianto termale(cfr.suprae tabella, Sui web). ANFORE(SF) In questo contestobeanforesono attestateda 79 frammenti (treorli,cinque fondi,14 anse, 57 pareti) per un peso complessivodi 23,939 kg. Ii numerominimodegli esemplaripresentipu6oessere stimato in sei unit'a. Le anforevinariedelb'Italiatirrenicapaiono nettamentepredominantiessendo rappresentateda due greco-italichetarde e da due Dresseb1 a; vi sono poi numerosiframmenti attribuibiliad un'unica anforadi tradizionepunica, mentresoltantoun'ansa, forseriferibileal tipo Lamboglia 2, potrebbe attestarebapresenza di un contenitoreprodottosubbacostaadriaticaitabiana.
292
THE FINDS
~~~~~'
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2
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Fig.132.ForumV,faseII-III A,anfore dallabottega C,271(EG). I due esemplaridi anforeitalicheche conservanol'orlo sono una greco-italicatarda (fig.132.2) e una Dressel la (fig.132.1); le argilledi questi contenitorisono rispettivamente attribuibiliai gruppi3 e 1 (vedi supra p. 276f.). Altriframmenti di parti significativedocumentanola presenza di un'altra del gruppo 2, mentredue frammentidi anse con Dressel 1 la cui argilla presentale caratteristiche ad un altroesemplaredi anforagreco-italicatarda. impastoprobabilmentecampanopotrebberoriferirsi Nel deposito che stiamo illustrando,cosi come nel riempimentodell'altra fossa (266, 269), la coesistenza dei due successivi tipi di anfora vinaria tirrenicaci riconduce alla fase di passaggio, all'evoluzione morfologicaoperata nei centriproduttoridalla costa campana, laziale ed etrusca che avvenneprobabilmentein un periodo compresotrail 150 e il 125 a.C.; in questi anni infattisi vennea definireil tipo Dressel 1, mentrevennerogradatamenteabbandonate le caratteristiche morfologiche propriedelle greco-italichetarde. L'anforadi tradizionepunica presentenel deposito appare attribuibileal tipo Ramon 7.5.2.2 di probabile produzione Bizacena (fig. 132.3). Largilla di questo contenitoree caratterizzatada un colore beige-rosatocon la presenzadi abbondantechamottee numerosiinclusicalcarei.
La fossadellabottegaD (266/269) NERA(EG) A VERNICE CERAMICA E attestata la presenzadi cinqueesemplaridi ceramicaa vernicenera,di cui solamentetreidentificabili; si di formeaperte:una coppa (forma1,fig.133.2),in tuttosimileall'esemplare trattaesclusivamente presente nellafossadellabottegaC, e due patereentrambeattribuibili al tipoMorel2255,varietaA, dellafinedel II secolo a.C. (fig.133.1).
293
LA CERAMICA DELLA CASA DI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
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inargilla Vernice nera:1,Forma1;2,patera; ceramica dallabottega Fig.133.ForumV,faseII-III A,ceramica D, 266/269. e distinto;8-9, olle con orloa mandorla(EG). depurata:3, bottiglia;ceramicada cucina:4-7, olle con labbroingrossato
PARETISOTTILI(LC) Le pareti sottilisono attestateda soli quattro frammentidi pareti riferibilia quattro esemplari di bicchieri.Lo statodi conservazionedei repertinon ha pero permessodi giungeread una identificazione Nessuno degli esemplaririnvenutipresentala superficie dal punto di vista tipologico dei frammenti. o decorata. dipinta
294
THE FINDS
CERAMICA COMUNE(EG) di cui quelle riconducibilial repertoriodella ceramicada Sono staterecuperate28 formericostruibili, di una brocca attestataa mensa sono attestatein numeroesiguo; segnaliamoqui l'orlo frammentario e una bottigliaparzialmentericostruibile(fig.133.3), che per la sua Cosa nel depositoPotteryDump619 con un esemplare formacomplessivae perl'ansa applicatasubitoal di sottodell'orlopuo essereconfrontata provenientedall'antiquariumdi Ostia.620 Tuttigli altriesemplarisono formedi ceramicada cucina e da similea quello della 380. conserva.II repertoriodi formee estremamente Anche in questo scaricole formepiuiattestatesono coperchi(11) e olle (10). E interessantenotare la comparsa, tra i reperti recuperati nelle stratigrafiedella domus, dei primi coperchi di grandi dimensioni,con il labbro arrotondatoe l'orlo distinto(fig.133.8,9).621 Le olle sono quelle con orlo "a mandorla,"spigolointernopronunciatoe con il collo relativamente sviluppato,l'imboccaturapiuttosto strettae il labbro ingrossatoe distinto,piattoo tagliatoobliquamenteversol'esterno(fig.133.4-9). o parete I tegamisono quattroe presentanoparetea profilorettilineo,orlo ingrossatoe svasato,622 a profiloconvesso e orlo bifido (fig.134.1-3). Inoltree attestatauna sola pentola con la tesa applicata sulla vasca (fig.134.4).623 ANFORE(SF) In questo contestoi contenitorida trasportosono documentatida 12 frammenti (due orli, due anse, un fondo,settepareti,gia selezionatein fasedi scavo) per un peso complessivodi 10,590kg.I frammenti provengonoda un numeromoltolimitatodi anfore,non piu di quattroo cinque esemplari.I contenitori presentisono esclusivamentevinarie di origineitalica,si trattainfattidi treesemplaridi anforegrecoitalichetarde e di due Dressel la. La datazione del contestoalla seconda meta del II secolo a.C., o come terminepiu tardo ai primianni del I secolo a.C., appare dunque sostanzialmenteconfermata anche dai contenitorianforici. I due orli conservatidocumentanoprobabilmentela fase finaledella produzionedi anforegrecoitaliche(fig.134.11) e quella inizialedelle Dressel la (fig.134.12). L'argillaappare probabilmentelocale o regionalenel primocaso (gruppo 1), mentree possibile ipotizzareuna produzionenella fornacedi Albinia(gruppo3) per l'esemplareillustratodi Dressel la; un altroesemplaredello stessotipo e attestato da frammenti di paretee da un'ansa anche la produzioneche abbiamo riferito al gruppo2. Nell'insiemele anforeitalichepresentiin questo contestonon differiscono nei tipie nelleproduzioni da quelle rinvenutenel deposito che abbiamo illustratoin precedenza (271) confermandola probabile contemporaneitadei due riempimenti. OSSERVAZIONI SULREPERTORIO VASCOLARE DELLEBOTTEGHE C E D (EG)
Il confrontotrai materialipresentinei depositidelle due bottegheci portaad un'interresante Le formedellaverniceneralegateal consumodel vino(le coppe,il bicchiere)sono constatazione. tutteattestatenello scarico della bottega C (271), mentrein quello della bottega D (266-269) le forme piu attestate sono le patere, ovvero i piatti su cui si mangiava (grafico 7). Se a questa considerazione si aggiungono i dati della ceramica comune si noter'ache la maggior parte dele
formeperversarei liquidi,legatequindiallo spacciodel vino,sono attestate semprenelloscarico dellabottegaC (bottiglie, il guttus)mentrelo scaricodellabottegaD comprendeperla anforette, stragrande maggioranzaolle,coperchie tegamilegatialle attivit'a della cucina(grafico8). 619Dyson 1976, PD 138.
622
Dyson 1976, 16IV 7 e 8.
620Pavolini2000, 79-80, fig.19.5.
623
Dyson 1976, PD4.
62
Dyson1976,VD 72,72.
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THE FINDS
10 D d'BotaqaCD
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ItI Grafico7. Ceramicaa vemiceneradellebottegheC e D: formefunzionalea confronto.
Grafico8. CeramicacomunedellebottegheC e D: formefunzionalea confronto.
Dall'etdclaudiaall'etddomizianea(Fasi IIIB-IV) (EG) Appartengono a questafasetrestratidi costruzione: il riempimento dellanicchiadellafontana(379), la preparazione peril pavimento dellastanzaN (352) e lo stratodi livellamento di una fossasituata nellastessastanza(294),datatada unamonetadi etaclaudia(vedisuprap. 256no.60). Inoltreabbiamo inclusoin questafasei primilivellisigillatidal crollodella casa, all'interno dei quali sono attestate formeparzialmente ricostruibili (76,80, 106,140,154,155,350). TERRASIGILLATAITALICAE PARETISOTTILI (LC)
La terrasigillata italicae attestata da unesemplare (4 g) riferibile ad unacoppadeltipoPucciXXXVII (379).Inoltre,e presente unbollo(tabella7): i bolliappartenenti a L. RasiniusPisanussonobennotie inun arcocronologico si inquadrano cheva dall'etaclaudiaall etaflavia.Perquantoriguarda le pareti sottili, questaclassee attestata da seiframenti (118 g),tuttipertinenti ad ununicoesemplare di coppa biansatadel tipoEAA 2-223(379). Bollo Tipocartiglio L(ucius)R(asinius) In plantapedis PIS(anus)
Identificazione No esemplari No US CVArr1558 1 154
Tabella7. Bolo suterra italica. sigillata CERAMICACOMUNE (EG)
La tabellapubblicatasulwebe il grafico9 riassumono le attestazioni di ceramicacomuneda mensa, da dispensae da cucina,per questo periodo. Si trattadi 26 esemplariricostruibili, di cui 23 in questafasee soprattutto identificabili; nella successiva(cfr.grafico10) i rapportitrale forme funzionalisembranomutare.E importante notareche, nel repertoriodella ceramicada cucina comincianoa comparire in questomomento le casseruole,in numerougualeo addirittura maggiore delleolle. Le formemaggiormente continuano ad esserei coperchi(setteesemplari), rappresentate trai quali ricorrefrequentemente il tipo di grandidimensioni, con il corpo schiacciatoil labbro arrotondato e l'orlo distintoconfrontabile, oltreche con gli esemplarigia vistidel deposito4 di Cosa (vedi suprap. 294), con i materialidelle stratigrafie di I secolo d.C. di Ostia (cfr.140, fig.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
297
Grafico9. Ceramicacomunedel I secolo d.C.
8 6-
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e provengonodalla 80 (fig.135.1), 135.7-9).624 Le olle sono attestateda quattroesemplariricostruibili dalla 154 e dalla 155. DA CUCINA CERAMICA di casseruole(di cui quattrodalla 106), tuttiriconducibilia tipipresenti Sono attestaticinque frammenti nel deposito22II di Cosa, datato al 30 d.C.62'Queste casseruolehanno l'orlo a tesa e lo spigolo interno tral'orlo e la vasca piuttostopronunciato. Tra i tegamiattestatineglistratidi I secolo d.C., quello della fig.136.3 (352) e verniciatodi rosso datato anch'esso al I internamentee trova un immediatoconfrontocon il tipo 31.3 di Settefinestre, secolo d.C.626 CERAMICADA MENSAE DA DISPENSA
Dei setteesemplaridi brocche,cinque provengonoda un livellodel giardino(349), e sono riconducibili a formeattestatead Ostia, nei livelli di eta claudia del Piazzale delle Corporazioni (fig. 135.1).627 All'internodello stesso livello e inoltrestatorecuperatol'unico piccolo coperchioin argillapiuttosto della domus(fig. 135.9). I bacini attestatiin questa fase sono solo depuratapresentenelle stratigrafie due, di cui uno, con l'orlo svasato e incavato internamentee il labbro tagliatoobliquamenteverso l'esterno,e attestatoa Settefinestre.628 CERAMICACOMUNEDAI CONTESTICONTEMPORANEIAL CROLLO DELLA CASA(60-70 D.C.)
80 (Atrio:fig.135.1-4): Si trattadi trevasi parzialmentericostruibilie del fondodi una formachiusa. La casseruola e di grandidimensionied e attribuibilead un tipo presentenel deposito di Cosa datato in eta claudia.629L'olla ha l'imboccatura stretta,l'orlo a fascia, separato dal collo da un gradino ed e databile genericamentenel I secolo. aggettante630 e ricostruibili sono otto;sono presentiquattrocoperchi 140 (CorridoioM: fig.135.5-9): I vasi identificati di grandi dimensioni,con l'orlo arrotondatoe ingrossato,attribuibiliad un tipo e presente nelle di Ostia del I secolo d.C.631La piccola olla ha l'orlo in tuttosimilea quello di un esemplare stratigrafie 624
Ostia II, amb.1, stratiV, tav.XXVIII.515.
628
Papi 1985, 217, fig.53.4.
625
Dyson 1976, 22, II, 10 e 13.
629
Dyson1976,22,II 72.
626
Papi 1985, 113-1 14, fig.31.3.
630
Dyson 1976, PD121; Olcese 1993, 251, figg.57, 195.
627
Carta, Pohl, e Zevi 1978, stratoVI; cfr.tabella.
631
Ostia II, amb.1, stratiV, tav.XXVIII.515.
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Fig. 135. ForumV, faseIV, ceramicacomunedai contesticontemporanci al crollodella casa (60-70 d.C.), 80: 1, olla in argilladepurata;2, olletta;3, formachiusa;4, casseruola;140:5, olletta;6, formachiusa;7-9, grandicoperchi(EG).
Fig. 136. ForumV,faseIV, ceramicacomunedai contesticontemporanei al crollodella casa (6 1, olla in argilladepurata;2, brocca;352: 3, tegameverniciatodi rossointernament
300
THE FINDS
Infineva segnalata da Dysonneldeposito5 di Cosa.632 la presenzadi unpiattello individuato di piccole intuttosimileall'esemplare dimensioni estremamente (miniaturistico?) frammentario, dall'antiquarium di Ostiadescritto da Pavolini.6" 154 e 155 (Ambiente F: fig.136.1-2):Dei cinqueesemplari due sonovasibenconservati. identificati, L'olla,ricostruibile da treframmenti, al tipoconil corpoglobulare, e attribuibile l'imboccatura stretta e l'orloa fasciaattestato a Sutria partiredall'etaclaudia.634 Anchela broccae confrontabile con un a Sutri,main stratigrafie tipoattestato piu antiche.635 ANFORE (SF)
Nei depositiattribuibili al I secolod.C. la prevalenza dei contenitori su quelliitaliciappare importati netta.t evidente la perditadi importanza quantitativa deicontenitori vinariitalicineicontesti attribuibili alla faseIV. Sono infattisicuramente residualile attestazioni di anforeDressel 1 (294) mentrele di anforeattribuibili attestazioni al tipoDressel2/4sonoquantificabili incinqueframmenti (352,373). In questafasenegliapprovvigionamenti di Cosa la produzione italicasubiscela concorrenza del vino dalleattestazioni di anforedeltipoPelichet47. La diffusione gallico,documentata di questotipoinizia gia probabilmente nellatardaeta augustea(294). Continuanoa mancarequasi del tuttoi prodotti dal Mediterraneo provenienti orientale conl'eccezionedi un'ansadi anforarodiaconbolloilleggibile in cartiglio rettangolare dall'160(stratodi distruzione appartenente allafaseVII, maconun'altissima percentuale di residui).Considerevole e la diffusione di anforespagnolecontenenti salse di pesce documentate dai tipiDressel7/11(160) e Beltran11(294); soltantoun frammento il tipo documenta olearioDressel20 di produzione betica(352). Il quadroofferto dai depositidell'et'agiulio-claudia e neronianadellaCasa di Diana nonsembra differire da quantoe statorilevato a Settefinestre.636 Cosa apparedirettamente interessata, comecentro portualee comecentroconsumatore, alla circolazione dellemercinelTirrenocentro-settentrionale. I carichiprovenienti dalla Gallia e dalla penisolaibericapotevanotrovarenel PortusCosanusun importantescalo nella rottaverso Roma.637 Meno rilevantiappaiono gli apportidall'Africae dall'Oriente. ANFORE DAI CONTESTICONTEMPORANEIAL CROLLO DELLA CASA(60-70 D.C.)
80: L di Ostia,di produzione gallica,confermano la datazionedelcontesto. 140:Un frammento di BeltranhIa,da garum, di produzione ispanica. La primametddelII secolod.C. (Fase V) (EG) a questafasei materiali Appartengono provenienti dal battutodel giardino, rimastoin uso dopo il crollodelletettoie delladomus(278,349,351).Inoltre, sopraa questi,troviamo inquestafasei materiali di scaricomistiai livellidi crolloattestati nelgiardino(240,242,275,281,288,300,335) e nellastanza N (245).
632
Dyson1976,PD120.
633
Pavolini 2000, 189 e 190, fig.46.93.
634
Duncan 1964, 81, fig.14.137 (Forma 34).
635
Duncan 1965, 155, fig.10.A46 (Forma 30).
636
Cambi 1985, 87.
637 Le anforegalliche (Will tipo 18a) risultanoampiamente documentate nei materiali del Portus Cosanus dove possono essere consideratecome il contenitoredi origine non italica maggiormentediffuso(Will 1987, 209-211) .
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
Bollo SER[ ...] o SEX[ ...]
L.L. [ ...I
CH. FEST[ ...] SEX[ ...] o SEN[ ...] A. V(i)B(ius)
SCR(ofula) A. MA(nneius) PR(udens) A. TIT(ius)
301
Tipocartiglio In plantapedis In plantapedis In plantapedis In plantapedis
Identificazione N? esemplari No US Non identificato Non identificato Non identificato Non identificato CVArr2327
1 1 1 1 1
222 222 223 240 288
In plantapedis
CVArr825
1
335
Rettangolare
CVArr2001
1
349
Rettangolare; 4 bolli radiali
Tabella8. Bollisuterra italica. sigillata TERRA SIGILLATAITALICA,PARETISOTTILI E TERRASIGILLATAAFRCANA(LC)
In questa fase sono attestati121 frammenti di terrasigillataitalica(1625 g), trai quali e statopossibile identificare 66 esemplari.La formapiiudiffusae rappresentatadalle coppe (13 esemplari),in particolar modo prevaleiAtipo Pucci XXXVII, ma sono oltremodopresentii tipi Pucci XIV (160, di epoca piu tarda,vedi sotto),XX, XXI, XXXI (160), XXXV, e XXXVI. Le altreformeattestatesono le scodelle, con prevalenzadel tipo Pucci XIX, e i piatti,in particolareil tipo Pucci X (160); e statorinvenutoun solo frammento attribuibilead un bicchieredi cui non e possibile stabilireil tipo, mentretra i reperti non assegnabiliad una formae un tipo preciso e statopossibile distinguere31 esemplari.Per quanto riguardale decorazioni,la maggiorpartedei frammenti presentala superficieprivadi decorazioni;solo dieci frammenti presentanomotividecorativiottenutid la barbotine, a rotellae a matrice(160). Nella tabella 8 sono inclusitreframmenti con bollo attestatiin giaciturasecondaria(222 e 223, faseVII). La terrasigillatatardo italica e rappresentatada 61 frammenti (1601 g), tra i quali la formapi'u diffusae costituitadalle coppe a calice del tipo Dragendorff29, ma sono presentianche due esemplari riferibiliai tipi Dragendorff11 e 37, mentretra i repertinon identificatie stato,comunque,possibile risaliread un totale di 22 esemplaridistinti.La maggiorparte dei frammentirinvenutipresentala superficiedecorata a matrice,tipica di questa classe ceramica,con motivivegetalie figurati. Le paretisottilisono rappresentateda 86 frammenti (439 g), dai quali e statopossibile risalirea 40 esemplaridistinti,di cui otto sono statiidentificati.Gli altriframmenti non sono statiidentificati, ma e statopossibile risalirealla presenzadi 32 esemplarioltreai tipiidentificati. Tra i repertirinvenuti solo cinque frammenti presentanola superficiedecorata con decorazionia rotella(tipo EAA No 5), a' la barbotine (tipo EAA No 14) e a pettine(tipo EAA No 99) La terrasigillataafricanae attestatada 92 frammenti(943 g) che hanno permesso di risaliread un totale di 52 esemplari,tuttiappartenentialla produzione A. Tra i repertirinvenutila formapiu diffusae rappresentatadalle coppe e, in numero minore,dalle scodelle, mentre29 esemplarinon sono statiidentificati.Dallo scavo provieneun solo frammentodi parete,non identificato,di sigillata appartenentealla produzione D. Anche l'africana da cucina e particolarmenteattestatain questa fase; sono statirinvenuti45 frammenti (1466 g), per un totale di 27 esemplariidentificati,attribuibili a casseruole e coperchi. Tra le prime,il tipo piu diffusoe rappresentatodalle casseruole tipo Hayes 23a e 23b, mentreper quanto riguardai coperchi, il tipo maggiormenteattestatorisultaessere la formaHayes 196a. LUCERNE
Le lucerne rappresentanola classe piiuattestataper questa fase, sono infattipresenti158 frammenti (3998 g) attribuibiliad un totaledi 75 esemplari,trai quali il tipo piiudiffusoe costituitodalle lucerne a becco tondo Loeschke VIII, mentre52 esemplaririsultanonon identificabili.La maggiorparte dei
302
THE FINDS
reperti presentail discodecoratocon elementi vegetalio figurati (pl. 117). Si da qui di seguitola tae i confronti bella 9, conl'indicazionedei motividecorativi con esemplari simili,e la tabella10,con ai frammenti di lucerneconbollo. datirelativi Decorazione Tipodi lucerna No US presente su uccello,rivoltoa destra, disco nonidentificata281 sopraun ramo piccoliglobulia rilievo corpo nonidentificata242
Motivodecorativo
Confronti
tralcidi vitee grappoli d'uva pavone
corpo
LoeschkeVIII
240
disco
LoeschkeVIII
240
leprechemangial'uva
disco
LoeschkeVIII
240
pastoreconflautodi pan e pecora leonee motivivegetali arietegradiente verso destra ramodi ulivo bustoradiatodi Helios fiorestilizzato Leda e il cigno voltoumano
disco
LoeschkeVIII
240
Cosa:TheLamps,n?775;Bailey III Q2421 Cosa:TheLamps,n?837;Heres no450 Cosa:TheLamps,n?908;Heres n?483; BaileyIII Q 3507 Cosa:TheLamps,n?804;Heres n?289; BaileyIII 1687EA BaileyIII Q3041;Gualandi Geniton? 128 BaileyIII 1400bis
discoe spalle nonidentificata240 disco LoeschkeVIII 300 disco disco disco disco disco
LoeschkeVIII 349 LoeschkeVIII 245 LoeschkeVIII 343 LoeschkeVIII 349 nonidentificata294
BaileyIII Q 1528 BaileyIII Q 2829;Pavolini 2000,tav.34 n?21 BaileyIII Q 2545 BaileyIII Q 1945 BaileyQ 2674 GualandiGenitono400
Tabella9. Motivi decorativi dilucerne.
Bollo L(ucius)FABRIC(ius)MAS(culus)
Identificazione Tipodi lucerna N? esemplariNo US CIL XV,6433 LoeschkeVIII 1 282 Brooner LoeschkeVIII 1 240 C(aius) OPPI(dus) RES(titutus) CIL XV,6593 LoeschkeVIII 3 240;336;351 242 [Lucius][...]CAECI[lius] [Saecularis]CIL XV,6350 nonidentificata1 L(ucius)M(unatius)ADIEC(tus) CIL XV,6560 LoeschkeVIII 2 300 Tabella10.Bollisulucerne.
CERAMICA COMUNE(EG)
Gli esemplariin ceramicacomuneattestatiper questa fase sono 65, dei quali e statopossibile identificarne 57 (cfr.tabellasul web). Come risultaevidentedal grafico10, i rapportitrale forme funzionali confermano la cesuracheavevamo individuato nellafaseprecedente trail repertorio di forme utilizzate nelladomusin epoca repubblicana e quellerecuperate neilivellidi etaimperiale: aumenta il numerodellecasseruole(sette)attestate innumeroquasiugualea quellodelleolle(nove)e restaaltoil numerodei coperchi(12). Le casseruolesonoquellevicineal tipoconorloa tesae spigolointerno tra l'orloe l'attaccodellaparetegia attestate neldepositoLateShopsdi Cosa datatonelII secolod.C.,638 638
Vd. tabella;Dyson1976,LS 5, 18 e 19.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
16 14
303
Grafico10. Ceramicacomunedel 100-150 d.C. ------
12 '8 '6 4 2
XcP
mentredalla 349 proviene l'unica pentola con la tesa applicata sul corpo simile all'esemplare del deposito 5 di Cosa.639 La 349, uno dei livelli del giardino, e particolarmentericca di materiale relativamenteben conservato(26 esemplariidentificatidi ceramicacomune,di cui 11 alla fig.137.111). Qui le olle sono sei; una e ricostruibileda tre frammentied e estremamentesimile ad un tipo con il corpo globulare,l'orlo a fascia con il profilointernolievementeconcavo e lo spigolo interno pronunciato,gia attestatonel deposito 5 di Cosa, ma anche nelle stratigrafiedi I e II secolo d.C. della Villa di Settefinestree di Albintimilium.640 Dei quattro tegamiidentificati,uno appartiene ad un tipo con orlo a tesa tagliatoobliquamenteversol'internoe labbro distinto,attestatoa Cosa dall'eta claudia.64'Inoltre, nel medesimo livello sono stati recuperatii frammentidi quattro brocche, otto coperchi, e due casseruole (per i confrontimorfologici,le attestazionie la tipologia degli impasti, cfr.la tabella sul web). Tra le brocche individuatein questa fase (sono la formamaggiormente attestata,con 15 esemplari ricostruibili)vale la pena segnalarequella provenientedalla 349 (fig. 138) ricostruibileda tregrandi frammenti.II nostro esemplare appartiene ad un tipo (orlo a fascia, da verticale a leggermente troncoconico e fortementedistintodal collo, ansa verticalebifida a profilo angolare, argilla color crema generalmentemolto depurata) attestatoin manieraconsistentenel deposito 4 di Cosa datato al I secolo a.C.642 L'ottimostato di conservazionedel nostroesemplaresuggerisceche non si trettidi un residuo ma piuttostodi un tipo di lunga durata il cui utilizzo e inquadrabile tra il I e gli inizi del II secolo d.C. ANFORE(SF) II quadro generaleoffertodai contestidella primameta del II secolo d.C., relatividunque alla fase di abbandono della domus,non sembramutaresostanzialmenterispettoa quanto rilevabilenei depositi della seconda meta del I secolo d.C. II numerodei frammenti provenientida contestiattribuitialle fasi V e VI e anch'esso limitato(69 frammenti), ma si puo comunque ancora notare la prevalenza delle importazionidi anforevinariegallichedocumentatedal tipo Pelichet47 (in totaleottoframmenti dalle: 240, 242, 275, 373). Rilevante& la presenza di anforespagnole da garum:Dressel 14 (351), Dressel 7/ 11 (242,372). Scarsissimeappaiono in queste fase le attestazionidel tipo Dressel 2/4, appena un frammento dall'240. In questo periodo compareil tipo Ostia III, 369-370, conosciutaanche come anforadi Spello, 639
Dyson 1976, PD 4.
Dyson 1976,PD 49; Olcese 1993,250-251, fig.57.195; Papi 1985, 104-105, fig.29.20. 640
641
Dyson 1976, 22II78; Papi 1985, fig.53.4.
642
Dyson 1976, VD 101.
2
-
3
6
_
5
'
X
=
> ~10
~~~~~~~~~7
<11
1:3
Fig. 137. ForumV, ceramicacomunedellafaseV,349. 1, broccain argilladepurata;3-5, ceramicada cucina;6-9, tegami;10-11,coperchi;9, coperchioin argilladepurata(EG).
Fig. 138. ForumV, anforetta in argilladepuratadellafaseV,349 (EG).
LA CERAMICA DELLA CASA DI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
305
da quattroframmenti dell'ItaliacentraleM"3 documentato vinariotipicodelleareeinterne uncontenitore di attestazioni del tipoDressel1 (141). (275 e 331). Chiaramente residualee la continuita il quadrodell'approvvigionamento vinariodue tipidi produzione Completano africana: le anfore entrambi MidRoman1644documentati da singoliframmenti nell275;la presenza MauXXXVe Benghazi di un'ansadi anforatardopunicae forseresiduale(141). di contenitori sipuorilevare l'estrema olearispagnoli e africani. Neicontesti esaminati rarita E molto oleariodellacomunita ilfabbisogno chela produzione Cosanus continuasse a soddisfare probabile dell'Ager i consumi da apportiesterni; Abbiamodetto vinariappaionosullungoperiodointegrati urbana,mentre neinostricontesti a partire dalI secolo delvinogallicoassaibendocumentata dellacrescente diffusione d.C. Standoai datidelladomusdi DianaanchenelII secolod.C.la Gallia,peril vino,e la Spagna,perle i principali salsedi pesce,costituirono cosano. puntidi approvvigionamento peril mercato L'etdseveriana(Fase VI) (EG, LC) delgranaio:il riempimento Appartengono a questafasei livelliassociatialla costruzione dellafossadi spoliazionedel murodi fondodellacasa (262),unostratodi crolloaccantoallo stessomuro(275) e il riempimento di untaglionelgiardino(333).I materiali identificabili da questistratisonopocchissimi: si trattadi due coperchidi produzioneafricana(Hayes196a) dalla262 e dalla275 e uno attribuibile allaFormaOstia261 dalla333. Inoltre,da 275 proviene unaFirmalampe (veditabellasulsitoweb). La tardaetdimperiale(Fase VII) (EG) a questafasei livellidi scaricodepositati al di sopradei crollidel giardinodelladomus Appartengono (160,166,223). Uno dei livelli,la 223,riempiva la depressione trail muroesternodellacasa e quello del giardino.Questoscarico,dal qualeprovengono alcuneformedi ceramicacomunechepresentano fortisomiglianze con quelledel deposito8 di Cosa, la ForumCistern(Dyson1976e sottop. 307), dovrebbedatarsitrala finedel V e gli iniziidel VI secolod.C., vistatral'altro,la presenzadi un di casseruola inceramica frammento microasiatica o di CandarlideltipoHayes3e (318),databileverso la finedelV secolod.C. CERAMICA COMUNE(EG)
Va premesso chela percentuale di materiale ingiacitura secondaria e quindida considerare residualee altissima(il 100 percentoperquantoriguarda i vasiin ceramicacomuneattestati nelle160 e 166,e circail 40 percentoperquantoriguarda la 223). Ci si e quindilimitati a inserire nellatabellarelativa a questafasetuttii vasichehannouna cronologia compresatrail I e il III secolod.C. (o addirittura di senza trattarli epoca repubblicana), dettagliatamente. Presentiamo qui inveceil repertorio di vasi il databilitra V e gliinizidelVI secolod.C. presenti inequivocabilmente nellivellodi scaricoesterno al giardino(223;fig.139). CERAMICADA CUCINA
Innanzitutto sono attestatitreesemplaridi grandiolle, di cui una relativamente ben conservata all'orlo:37 cm),conbreveorlofortemente (diametro svasatoe doppiospigolotral'internodell'orlo e la parete(fig.139.1-3).Questiesemplarisono assolutamente identiciai tipiattestati nel deposito Per questo tipo di anforasi veda Panella 1989,143146.
643
644
Riley1979.
THE FINDS
306
i'3
dellafaseVII, 223. comune Fig. 139.ForumV, ceramica eae itlocnversatoio; 7, pentola(EG). ,vs
1-4,grniol;5
relativamente ForumCistern.4 L'altragrandeolla presentenelcontesto(fig.139.4)ha l'imboccatura stretta, e sono assimilabili a due l'orlo fortemente svasato il labbro ingrossato.Anch'esse tipi di olle di grandi .646 Questi vasi sono probabilmente dimensionipresentinella ForumCistern prodottilocalmente,vistala presenzadella biotiteall'internodell'impasto(vedisupra)e venivanousateper cuocerei cibi piuttostoche da due grandi per contenerli.I tegamicon vasca profondaed orlo a mandorla(di cui uno ricostruibile frammenti: morfologico, perla morfologia complessiva, fig.139.5) trovanoanch'essiun puntualeconfronto con quella dellaForumCistern(cfr.infrap. 3 16)647 Ii frammentodi casseruola (fig. 139.7) & attribuibilead un tipo (di probabile lunga durata) con attestatonei livellitardoantichi l'orlo a tesa piattae l'attaccotrala tesa e la paretefortemente rientrante, della Villa di Settefinestre. 645
Dyson1976,FC 20.
647
Dyson1976,FC 8.
646
Dyson 1976, FC 25 e 32.
648
Papi 1985, 98 e 101, fig.27.1.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
307
da Va infinesegnalatala presenzadi un vaso "a listello"con beccuccio(fig.139.6)ricostruibile La funzione di questovasopotrebbeesserequelladi pestaree rimescolare alimenti dueframmenti. gia II nostroesemplare, cottioppurele erbee le spezie.649 conil labbroarrotondato, il listelloapplicatoe nel repertorio di beccuccio(perversareil cibo triturato), trovaun immediato confronto fornito di 50 dovequestivasisonoattestati neilivellitardi,a partiredal IV secolod.C. Va notata Albintimilium, la presenzadi un vaso "a listello"anchenellaForumCisterndi Cosa,6"sicuramente assimilabile al diversoda unpuntodi vistamorfologico. nostroda un puntodi vistafunzionale maleggermente
Tabelledei materiali umich. ceramici-www.press. edu/webhome/cosa/ Al finedi consentire unarapidavisionesinottica deidatifinquiespostisonostateredatte alcunetabelle riassuntive dellaceramicasuddivisaperclassie dunqueperfasi.Nelletabellecompareil numerodei frammenti attribuitialla formaindividuata,distintiper orli (o), anse o prese (a), fondi(f) o semplicemente Va tenutopresenteche la voce pareti(p) e il numerodegliesemplariricostruibili. cronologia si riferisce alla datazionedel frammento in base al confronto effettuata e quindi tipologico inquestomodorisulteranno indipendentemente dallafasestratigrafica di rinvenimento; immediatamente evidenti residualichesonoampiamente glielementi attestati nellaprimaetaimperiale (cfr.ceramicaa vernicenera)e nellestratigrafie piutarde(faseVII).
IL DEPOSITO DELLA FORUM CISTERN E LA CULTURA MATERIALE DI COSA AGLI INIZI DEL VI SECOLO D.C. (SF) L'evidenzaceramicasull'occupazionedi Cosa trail tardoV e il VI secolo d.C. e costituita da una seriedi contestiprovenienti dall'Arx,i cui materialisono statipubblicatida M. Hobart;652 vi e poi un gruppodi manufatti in sigillataafricana, databilitrail tardoV e il VII secolo d.C., di cui non e notala provenienza stratigrafica.653 Nelleimmediate vicinanzedellacittava segnalatol'insediamento di TorreTagliatache ha restituito un importante contestodatabileagliannicentralidel V secolo d.C.654A queste testimonianzesi aggiungeil riempimentodi una delle grandicisterneche il foro;questodeposito,per la quantit'adei materialie l'affidabilita fiancheggiano stratigrafica, e moltoutileper documentare gliaspettidella culturamaterialedell'occupazionetardoanticadella citta.La cisterna, scavatanel 1969,restitui numerosimateriali ceramici.Traquestie predominante la ceramicacomune,documentatada numerosiframmenti e da alcuniesemplariricostruibili a cui e dedicatol'ultimocapitolodel volumedel Dyson sull'utilitarian Lo scavo della cispottery.655 ternadel fororestitui ancheformeda mensain sigillataafricanae anfore,ma questimateriali non venneropubblicate, se si eccettuaqualchefugacecennosullaceramicaafricana neltestodi Dyson.656 Il riempimentodella cisternacon rifiutidomesticie materialida costruzionefu un'attivita certamente connessaalla vitadell'insediamentotardoanticoche si vennea impiantarenel foro. 649
Olcese 1993, 308; Fentress1991, 194.
653
Fentresset al. 1991, 215.
650
Olcese 1993, 89 e 310, fig.83.362.
654
Ciampoltriniand Rendini 1988.
651
Dyson 1976, FC 34.
655
Dyson 1976, 160-167, figg.64-68.
652
Fentresset al. 1991, 214-222.
656
Dyson 1976, 161.
308
THE FINDS
dal Brown657 comenonposteLe traccedi occupazionedellapiazzavenneroconsiderate si baso sull'evidenza riorialla finedel IV o agli inizidel V secolo d.C. Tale convinzione al principato diValentiniano essendole piiutardemoneterinvenute numismatica, appartenenti dalladesolatadescrizione cheRutilioNamazianofecedellerovinedi II, e apparivaavvalorata S. Dyson,inaccordoconquesteconsiderazioni, nelcelebreviaggiodel416.658 Cosada luivisitata dellacisterna trala finedelIV e gliinizidelV secolod.C.659 Comevedremo, datoil riempimento in manierasostanziale nellacisterna consentedi rivedere il riesamedellaceramicarinvenuta di oltreunsecolola cronologia deimateriali taledatazione, posticipando piiutardi,e fornendo inepocatardo-gota.660 di un'occupazione dell'areaforense dunquetestimonianza in disusovennecolmataconlo scaricodi rifiuti La cisterna e di materiali da costruzione, in un'azione volontariaprobabilmente portataa termine un'unicasoluzionetemporale,661 sulpavimento sebbenenonsi possaescluderela presenzadi depositipiu antichisedimentati dell'invaso. Oltreai materiali ceramici lo scavodellacisterna restitui alcunirestifaunistici, traquesti di grossataglia,un carapacedi tartaruga un craniodi canisfamiliaris e un craniodi arvicola. inunabreverelazione di S. Scalipubblicata Talireperti sonomenzionati nel1994.662 Maggiore di restiumaniriferibili ad almenotreindividui. sorpresa puo destarela presenzanellacisterna di duegiovaniuominidi corporatura Si tratta robustae di unfemore deglischeletri incompleti a un terzoindividuo.In un caso vi sarebberochiarisegnidi una morteviolenta attribuibile allabasedellatesta,comemostrerebbe cagionatada unseccocolpodi armada taglioricevuto la nettafrattura del dentedell'epistrofeo.663 La presenzadi questatracciadi anticaviolenza ci ricondurebbe ad un epoca in cui il corpodel nemicopuo divenire rifiuto confondendosi coni residuidellavitaquotidiana, unacircostanza delleguerre probabileneglianniburrascosi greco-gotiche; purtroppo perononconosciamoi dettaglidel rinvenimento deglischeletri e chela deposizione deirestipoteavvenire nonsi puo escludere forseinepoca successivamente, una fossaall'interno medievale, praticando del riempimento tardoantico. La datazioneagli anniintornoa 1000d.C. delloscheletro ritrovato nellacisterna vicinadi ForumV potrebbe fornire un indizioin questosenso(vedisuprap. 95). Trai reperti ceramici abbiamodettodellaprevalenza delvasellamein ceramicacomune; sitratta divariedecinedi esemplari frammentari o parzialmente mentre la sigillata ricostruibili, africanae rappresentata da frammenti riconducibili ad un numerominimodi 12 vasi e le anforesonoattestate da setteesemplari frammentari. Nel riempimento sono presentimaterialiresidualio relativia sedimentazioni che la definitiva colmatadellacisterna. Trai manufatti precedettero piuantichi bisognasegnalare di unguentari quattrofondie un orloin ceramicaa vernicenerae due frammenti di epoca repubblicana.Tra la sigillataafricanasi puo riconoscereun piccolo nucleo di materiali trala secondametadelII secolod.C. e gliinizidelIII secolo, cronologicamente inquadrabile inoltreresiduidi epocamedioimperiale sonopresenti anchetrala ceramicacomune. 657
Cosa III, 247-251.
658
Rut. Nam. 1.286.
659
Dyson1976,161.
Negli ultimi anni una datazione del deposito sensibilmentepiu tarda di quella indicata dal Dyson e stata sostenuta da vari studiosi (Fulford and Peacock
1984, 157; Fentresset al. 1991, 214; Ciampoltrini1998, 301). 661
Dyson1976,161.
662
S.
663
Gruspier1994 e supra p. 94f.
Scali 1994.
660
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
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Sigillata africana Nella sigillataafricanaalcuniframmenti traquesti possonoessereascrittialla mediaeta imperiale, un fondodi askos(formaHayes122),alcuniframmenti di orloe fondopertinenti a due esemplari di piatti(formaHayes32, produzioneA2 e formaHayes29, produzioneA/D) e un orlo di scodella (formaHayes 5, produzioneA2). Ancoranella media eta imperialedebbono esserecollocatii frammenti ad un esemplaredellaformaHayes181,un piattoforseancheutilizzabileper pertinenti il fuoco,in ceramicaafricanada cucina.Questopiccologruppodi materiali apparesufficientemente omogeneodal puntodi vistacronologico, tantoda poterlasciarsupporrel'utilizzonelriempimento della cisternadi terremistea rifiuti da depositipiu antichidi circatresecolirispetto provenienti alla definitiva colmatadell'invaso;oppuresi potrebbeipotizzarela presenzasul pavimentodella cisternadi uno strato,nonriconosciuto durantelo scavo,databiletrail tardoII e la primametadel III secolod.C. Nellacisterna sonoassentiformedi sigillataafricana databilinelperiodocompreso trala seconda metadel III secoloe il tardoV secolod.C.; una circostanza che,sebbenepossaconsiderarsi casuale, potrebberiflettere l'andamentogeneraledella presenzadiacronicadella sigillataafricanaa Cosa, cosi comee stataillustratada E. Fentress,in relazioneal popolamentodella citta.664 La maggior partedella sigillataafricanarinvenuta nellacisternae da attribuirsi al periodocompresotrala fine del V e la primametadel VI secolod.C. e questimateriali tardiforniscono i piu importanti elementi di datazioneperil contesto.Si trattadi un gruppodi 12 frammenti ad ottoesemplari appartenenti di formeaperte: 1. Vasoa listellodi piccoledimensioni, Hayes91C,d. 15.5cm(fig.140.1). 2. Vasoa listellodi piccoledimensioni, Hayes91C, d. 18.3cm(fig.140.2). 3. Coppa o ciotola,Hayes99A:riconducibili allaproduzione D2, d. 19.5cm(fig.140.3). 4. Coppa o ciotola,Hayes99A:riconducibili allaproduzione D2, d. 18 cm(fig.140.4). 5. Orlo di piatto,Hayes88: d. 42 cm(fig.140.5). 6. Orlodi piatto,Hayes103D: d. 30 cm(fig.140.6). 7. Frammento di fondocon decorazionea stampo;motivoa palmettastampoHayes118,notonegli stilidecorativiAiii,C, D ed E(i) e dunquedatabiletrail V e gli inizidel VI secolo d.C. (fig. 140.4b). 8. Frammento decoratoa stampoconl'immagine diunafigura maschile stante, probabilmente unsanto, una crocedecoratacon ageminature reggente nellamanosinistra. Il motivoe mutilonellaparte inferiore. La decorazione nontrovaprecisiconfronti nelmateriale edito,assaisimileapparelo stampo Hayes236 (Atlante, 433) che perodifferisce perla presenzadi un nimboattornoalla testadella nonrilevabile figura, nelnostrocaso;certamente vicinoallaraffigurazione cosanae anchelo stampo Hayes234 (Atlante, 431),main questocasola crocee rappresentata inmodoassaipitusempliceed e privadi decorazioni interne. Lo stiledellaraffigurazione sulframmento si collocaassaibenenella faseinizialedellostileE(ii) chedovrebbe essereinquadrabile nelsecondoquartodelVI secolod.C.665 La formadelpiattopotrebbeessereascrivibile al tipo104di Hayes,mal'assenzadi granpartedella paretee dell'orlononconsente di escluderealtreattribuzioni nell'ambito delrepertorio morfologico dellasigillataafricana D2 (fig.140.7). Tuttii vasi sono ascrivibilialla sigillataafricanaD2, una produzionepropriadella Tunisia settentrionale che probabilmente ebbe nellacittadi Oudna il principalecentrodi fabbricazione.666 Tuttele formedocumentate eranoin produzionenellaprimametadel VI secolo,e i datiappaiono concordanti peruna datazionedella chiusuradell'intero depositoposteriore di qualchedecennioal 500 d.C. 664
Fentress1994.
665
AtlanteI, 124.
666
Mackensen 1993, 451-452.
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LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
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Anfore Le attestazioni di anforenel contestosonolimitate a nonpiu di setteesemplari frammentari: si tratta di trecontenitori di verosimile origineitalica,di due anforeafricane, da fondi,e di due rappresentate anforedi provenienza orientale documentate soltantoda pareti. ANFORE DI PRODUZIONEITALIANA
1. Anfora di forma KeayLII, inbuonapartericostruibile, ad esclusione delfondoe dellaparteterminale del corpo.Comee notoi centridi produzionedi questocontenitore vinariosonostatiidentificati nel Bruttium e in Sicilia.667 Argilladi colorebeigechiarocaratterizzata dallapresenzadi numerosi inclusi fossiliferi bianchi(foraminiferi). Nelle caratteristiche il tiposi avvicinaagliesemplari morfologiche piufrequentemente neicontesti diVI e VII secolod.C.,caratterizzati presenti da uncollomenoslanciato rispetto ai tipideltardoIV e delV secolod.C.668 Questotipodi anforaapparecomunissimo neicontesti di Romatrail tardoIV e il VII secolod.C. e sembraavereuna certadiffusione sullacostatirrenica a norddi Roma documentata dal relittodi Pian di Spille e da attestazioni in Liguriae sulla costa provenzale.669 Potrebbero essereascrivibili a questotipodi anforaanchealcuniframmenti provenienti da unostratodi V secolod.C. di TorreTagliatanelterritorio di Cosa (fig.141.1).670 dicolo dianfore 2-3.Due grossi frammenti dipiccoledimensioni conorloingrossato, lievemente estroflesso, al di sottodel qualesi impostano massicceansea nastroconinsellatura nellaparteinterna e cordoletto il colloapparecortoe svasato.L'impasto laterale; di colorearancioscuroe caratterizzato dallapresenza di quarzi,inclusinerilucenti(lavevulcaniche), numerosa micadorata(biotite) e inclusineriopachi(tufi).Tra i possibili paralleli diquesticontenitori tipologici lemaggiori similarita dalpuntodivistamorfologico possono essereriscontrate conla cosiddetta anfora diEmpoli,7'contenitore verosimilmente vinario invari prodotto centri dellaVald'Arnoo piugenericamente nell'Etruria settentrionale il cuiperiododiproduzione interna, giunsesinoal V secolod.C.Rispetto a questaanfora i frammenti nord-etrusca differiscono nell'articolazione dell'orlo, privodellacaratteristica scanalatura masonosoprattutto interna, le caratteristiche dell'argilla a scoraggiare infatti neiframmenti l'identificazione; cosanil'impasto e riccodiinclusi, anchedinatura vulcanica, mentre quellodei contenitori empolesisi presenta assaipiu depurato. Le caratteristiche mineralogiche induconoa ritenere possibileunaproduzione di ambitolocale,soprattutto invirtudellagrandesimilarit'a riscontrabile con gliimpastidellamaggior partedelleceramiche comunida fuocorinvenute all'interno dellacisterna. Possiamodunqueipotizzare chesi trattasse di piccolicontenitori forseadibitial commercio
vinariosu scala locale o regionale(fig.141.2-3).672 ANFORE DI PRODUZIONEAFRICANA
4. Massicciopuntaledi formacilindricache puo esserefacilmente ricondotto ad un contenitore di di epocaimperiale grandidimensioni o tardoantica, machenonpresenta caratteristiche talida suggerire precisiparallelitipologici(fig.141.4). 667
Pacetti 1998, con bibliografiaprecedente.
668
Pacetti 1998, 200.
669
Pacetti 1998, 190-192.
Potrebbe attenere a questo tipo il frammento pubblicato in Ciampoltriniand Rendini 1988, fig.11.4. 670
671
672
Cambi 1989. Alcune caratteristiche morfologiche e l'impasto
possono richiamare un contenitore attestato in un contesto romano di V secolo (Whitehouse et al. 1982, fig. 14.198). Sulla produzione di vino in Etrurianella tarda antichita si veda Menchelli 1990-1991. Dai contestidella CryptaBalbi (Roma) del tardo V secolo (scavi 2000) provengono numerosiframmentidi anse che potrebberoessere riferibilia contenitoridi questo tipo, attribuzione confortata dalle caratteristiche dell'argillae dalla morfologiadelle anse, caratterizzate da un cordolettolungo il marginedel profilointerno delle anse. Sono gratoa Lucia Sagui per avermimostrato questi materiali.
1
0F1
6
1F
Fig.141.ForumCistern,anfore(EC).
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
313
5. Puntaledi formaogivaleattribuibile con buona probabilitaal tipo KeayLXII, un contenitore di grandidimensioni cilindrico tipicodelVI e VII secolod.C. (fig.141.5).673 ANFORE DI PRODUZIONESIRANA 0 CIPRIOTA
Non illustrati: ottoframmenti di paretiattribuibili a due diversiesemplari del tipoLateRoman1.
Ceramicacomune La ceramicacomunedel contesto vieneillustrata e descritta inmanieraampianelvolumedi Dyson;in ad alcuneosservazioni e aggiornamenti basatisui recentiprogressi nella questasede ci limiteremo e su un riesameautopticodi granpartedei pezzi. conoscenzadel vasellamedomesticotardoantico, In Sono gratoa ClaudioCapelliche ha eseguitola letturadellesezionisottilidi alcuniframmenti. primoluogoe opportuno ricordare chela datazionepropostadal Dyson(tardoIV-iniziV secolod.C.) in appareampiamente superatae che,in analogiacon la sigillataafricana, granpartedel materiale ad un periodocompresotrala finedel V e la primametadel ceramicacomunepuo esserericondotto VI secolod.C. In questotestofaremoriferimento agliesemplari pubblicaticitandolicon la siglaFC di Dyson(fig.142,FC 1-23;fig.143,FC 24-38). seguitadallanumerazione progressiva CERAMICACOMUNEDA MENSAE DA DISPENSA
Trail materiale in ceramicacomuneappareprevalente il vasellameda cucinae da fuoco,seguitodai allamensae daivasiperla conservazione manufatti destinati dellederrate. Comeabbiamodettoalcuni frammenti sono evidentemente residuali,essendoriferibili alla mediaeta imperiale,tra questila casseruola con orlo a tesa FC 1674e l'orlo di brocca FC 35. Trail materiale da mensasonopresenti dueforme a diverse aperte(FC 6,FC 34),relative produzioni chesi richiamano entrambe al repertorio dellasigillata africana. morfologico Un frammento restituisce il profilo di unacoppao ciotolasu piede(FC 6) inimpastobrunoriccodi inclusi. quasicompletamente La superficie esternadelvasoapparepolitaa steccaforseneltentativo di imitare il rivestimento lucente della ceramicaafricana. II frammento mostranotevolisimilarita con un gruppodi ceramiche con le medesimecaratteristiche in varicontestiromanidatabilial VI secolod.C. e probabilmente presenti dalbassoLazio.675 provenienti Comegiaebbea notareDyson676 l'esemplare mostra unachiaraderivazione da unaforma delrepertorio dellasigillata propria africana e il prototipo puoesserefacilmente identificato inunaforma tipicadelVI secolod.C.,la Hayes99A.E da notarechetrai manufatti insigillata africana nellacisterna presenti da dueesemplari questaforma e attestata mostrando la presenzacontemporanea, neimedesimi contesti d'uso,deiprototipi importati accantoad imitazioni di ambitolocaleo regionale. L'altraformaapertada mensapresente nelcontesto e unaciotolaconorloa listello(FC 34). Come notola produzione in ceramica comunedeivasia listelloda mensae un fenomeno che,a partire dal IV inmolteregioni secolod.C.,sisviluppa delMediterraneo comedocumentano numerosissime attestazioni.677 Le caratteristichedel frammentocosano possono essere confrontatecon numerosi esempi da contesti tardoantichidi Cartagine:Fulfordand Peacock 1984,fig. 43.12 1-123.
Celio. Per attestazionidi vasi similiin ambitoToscano si veda Ciampoltrini1998, con bibliografia.
674 Per paralleli tipologici si veda Ostia III, 85 e Settefinestre III, fig.26.11.
677
673
Fontana 1998, 93-95, il frammentocosano mostra similaritacon fig. 7.5 dalla Domus di Gaudenzio sul
675
676
Dyson 1976, 163.
Esemplarimolto similia FC 34 provengonoda Luni (Luni II, fig.264), da Albintimilium(Lamboglia 1950, 110, fig. 85), da S. Antonino di Perti (Murialdo and Olcese 1998, 242, fig. 6.4.) e dall'Isola di Gorgona (Gambogi e Firmati1998, fig.2.8).
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Fig. 142.ForumCistern,ceramicacomune(S. Dyson,FC 1-23).
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
FC24
315
FC32
.F_CI3_4_
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comune Fig.143.ForumCistern, ceramica (S. Dyson,FC 24-38).
La forma,che e chiaramenteconnessa con il tipo Hayes 91C in sigillataafricana,e frequentissima anche nel repertoriodella ceramica comune di produzione tunisina.675 La superficiedella parete del vaso e caratterizzatada un colore aranciomentrel'orlo ha assuntoin cotturauna tonalitacremachiaro. L'impasto di colore beige-rosatopresenta,ad un preliminareesame microscopico,piccoli inclusi di calcari e quarzi e granulidi color ruggine,minutissimima molto numerosi.1Efuordi dubbio che si trattidi una produzioneimportatama le caratteristiche dell'impastoportanoad escluderel'Africacome luogo di provenienzarendendopifuprobabileun'originenel Mediterraneooccidentale,forsein Spagna. Il corredodella ceramicacomune da mensa e completatoda una serie di quattrobottiglieo olpai, tredelle quali frammentarie ricostruibile(FC 38). Gli esemplari (FC 36, 37, 38) e una quasi interamente FC 33 e FC 36 attengonoprobabilmentea produzionilocali o regionalipoiche presentanonegliimpasti gli stessiinclusi che caratterizzanogranparte della ceramicacomune da fuoco rinvenuta(vedi infra). Dal punto di vistamorfologicoFC 32 presentaalcune similaritacon un esemplareda Albintimilium,679 mentreFC 36 rientrain una tipologiadi bottiglie,frequentenei contestitardoantichi,contraddistinta
678
Fulfordand Peacock 1984, 202, fig.10.1.
679
Olcese 1993, 276, fig.68.276.
316
THE FINDS
da un piccololistelloa sezionetriangolare al di sottodell'orlo.680 Assaisimilee l'esemplareFC 37 realizzatoin una produzionemoltodepuratadi colorcremachiaro.Si trattadell'unicoesempiodi ceramicacomune"acroma"presente neldeposito,mentre neicoevicontesti romaniquesteproduzioni nel repertorio appaionodominanti dellaceramicacomunedestinataalla mensa.L'esemplare FC 38 e di importazione ed e contraddistinto quasi certamente da un impastoarancio-rosato assaidepuratoe presenta all'esterno unasottilissima vernicedi colorerossoscuro. Trail vasellameda dispensasi pu6 annoverare la grandeolla confondoad anelloFC 32 (definita dal non che sembra avere Dyson), precisiconfronti e chenonho potutoriesaminare tipologici comejar personalmente; attenerea questogruppoanchedue bacinelle(FC 7, 8) che comunque potrebbero presentano impastidel tuttosimilia quellidellaceramicada fuoco. CERAMICACOMUNEDA FUOCO DI PRODUZIONELOCALE 0 REGIONALE
Ad una analisipreliminare degliimpastile formedestinate alla cotturadei cibirisultano in granparte di produzione localeo regionale. Un'osservazione preliminare degliimpastidei manufatti chesi sono potutiprenderein esame,68' consentedi attribuirli ad un unicogruppoproduttivo. II coloreappare assaivariabile, tral'arancioscuro,il rosso-bruno, il grigioe il nero,a secondadellacottura; mentre e distintiva la presenzadi inclusidi mediedimensioni tra cui sono costantemente in riconoscibili, ordinedi frequenza, approssimativo quarzi,tufie lavevulcaniche, raraaugite;abbondante e anchela presenzadi micadorata(biotite)benvisibilesullasuperficie deivasi.La presenzadi inclusivulcanici permette un'attribuzione di provenienza genericaall'Etruria al Lazio o allaCampaniama meridionale, l'abbondantepresenzadi micadoratapotrebbecaratterizzare alcunefabbriche localio dell'odierno Lazio settentrionale.682 Le duebacinelleFC 7 e FC 8 nontrovano parallelitipologici convincenti e poco chiarae anchela funzionea cui eranodestinati questivasi,ma e opportunonotareche l'esemplare FC 8 presentaal centrodelfondounpiccoloforocircolare praticato ed e possibilechequesteforme primadellacottura fosserodestinate allalavorazione dellatte.PiCu chiaramente attinenti alla cotturadei cibisonoi tegami FC 3, FC 4, FC 5; il primoesemplare conorloingrossato appartiene ad untipodocumentato nelcontesto di V secolod.C. dellaScholaPraeconum.683 FC4 documenta L'esemplare la versione di tegameconorlo rientrante anch'essaassaidiffusa in contesti tardoantichi.684 Le casseruolesonoben attestate neldepositodagliesemplari FC 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15,e 27. I trovano tipidocumentati numerosi in contesti parallelitipologici databilitrail V e il VII secolod.C.685 Il contesto dellaForumCistern e caratterizzato dallaprevalenza delleolletrale forme da fuoco;se ne possonoinfatti annoverare bensetteesemplari di produzione localeo regionale(FC 17, 18,19,20, 21, 22, 25) e almenotreimportati (FC 23, 24, 26 e forseFC 28). L'uso diffusodi olle da fuoco,a discapitodei tegamie delle casseruole,puo esserericonnessoalla maggiorediffusione di alimenti semiliquidi qualile zuppe,la puls,o anchedellecarnibollite,rispetto ad altrepreparazioni inunumido 680
Si veda ad esempio Olcese 1993, 279, fig.70.290.
683
Whitehouseet al. 1982, fig.6.72-73.
681 E stato possibile prenderein esame direttamente FC 4, 7, 19, 20, 21, 20, 27, 29, e 30.
684 Si veda ad esempioWhitehouseet al. 1982,fig.6.71 e Luni II, fig.335.
682 Questo tipo di composizioneappare dominate anche nella ceramicacomune degli altricontestitardidi Cosa; si trattadegli impasti "a" e "b" distintida M. Hobart (Fentresset al. 1991, 218). Impasti similisono attestati anche a Monte Gelato (Nepi-Viterbo) (Roberts 1997, 322-323, fabrics26 e 27), e a Roma, dove nei contesti tardoantichi sono comunque prevalenti impasti non micacei (si veda ad esempioWhitehouseet al. 1982, 58, Fabric 7 e 8).
In particolare l'esemplare FC 9 risulta simile a Whitehouseet al. 1982,fig.8.112; FC 10 e FC 27 possono essereconfrontati con Whitehouseet al. 1982,fig.8.112, da un contesto di V secolo d.C., ma il tipo e anche presentein contestidi VII secolo d.C. da Portus(Paroli et al. 1998, fig.8.7); Per FC 11 e FC 12 si veda Olcese 1993, 236, fig.50.145 con bibliografiae Whitehouseet al. 1985, fig.7.36 (da un contestodi VI secolo d.C.). 685
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUM CISTERN
317
La prevalenza delleollesuglialtrimanufatti a cuirisultano o fritte piu consonii tegamie le casseruole. nel VI secolo d.C. anchein sitiruralidell'Etruria meridionale come da fuocopuo essereregistrata Nell'Italiasettentrionale l'utilizzoperil fuocodi vasi nell'insediamento dellaMola di MonteGelato.686 ansatie nonansatie ampiamente diffuso durante tuttal'etaimperiale e tardoantica,687 mentre semichiusi le olleda fuocosonoattestate moltoraramente e divengono neicontesti romanidi etatardo-imperiale sembramodificarsi radicalmente nelcorsodel soltanto nelVI secolod.C.; talesituazione piufrequenti le pentole,o olleansate,forsein conseguenza di mutate VII secolod.C. quandoa Romasi diffondono alimentari.688 abitudini nel depositosi distinguono treesemplaridi piccoledimensioni (FC 17, 18, Trale olle attestate in un contestoromanoprobabilmente di VI 19); in particolareil tipo FC 19 trovaun confronto Assai caratteristico documentato da FC 20, 21, e 22 secolo d.C.689 e il tipodi maggioridimensioni unorloestroflesso conprofonda Il tipotrovaunpreciso chepresentano solcaturanellaparteinterna. confrontonel contesto "giustinianeo" della Mola di Monte Gelato.690II tipo FC 25, con orlo leggermente ingrossatoall'estremitae privo della solcaturainterna,si trovain altricontesti di Cosa691mala forma, diffusa anchenellaversioneansata,appareampiamente tardoantichi attestata nelMediterraneo occidentalein contestidi VI secoloed esemplari importati dall'Italiasonopresenti il quadro anchea Cartagine e a Berenicedi Cirenaica.692 Alcunicoperchi(FC 29,30,31) completano della ceramicacomuneda fuocodi produzionelocale o regionalepresentenel riempimento della cisterna. CERAMICACOMUNEDA FUOCO DI IMPORTAZIONE
E sembrato importate chedifferiscono dai utiletrattare separatamente alcuneproduzionicertamente sinqui illustrati materiali oltrecheperle caratteristiche dell'impasto ancheperle differenti tradizioni Si tratta infatti di ceramiche cuiappartengono. difattura inparteprodotte assaipiugrossolana artigianali al torniolento,o che comunquediscendonoda manifatture legatea modelliarcaicinellaconcezione dellaformae nell'usodi elementi comele presea linguetta e la accessoridi ascendenzaprotostorica polituraa steccadellesuperfici. di formaapertaFC 2 e alle grandiolle da fuocoFC 23, 24, 26. Nel Ci riferiamo al frammento verosimile comerisulterebbe primocasosembra un'attribuzione allaproduzione dell'isoladiPantelleria, da un esamepreliminare quelladi un piatto-coperchio con dell'impasto. La formae probabilmente assimilabile ad esemplaricon fondoumbonatoad anelloattestati in un paretifortemente inclinate, e probabilmente a Cartagine.693 depositodi VI secolod.C. dajerbaoltrecheinuncontesto da Agrigento Attengono certamente ad una diversaproduzionele grandiolle FC 23, 24, e 26; si trattadi vasi 686
Roberts1997, 347-349.
687
Si veda ad esempio Olcese 1993, 209-218.
688 Sulla diffusione delle "pentole" a Roma: Ricci 1998, 356-357.
fig.lOa e dalla Casa di Diana (US 223, vedi suprap. 306). Olcese 1993, 205, fig. 37.52, con bibliografia precedente.
692
Per gli esemplarida Jerbasi veda Fontana 2000, fig. 5.4; per le attestazioniad Agrigento:Alaimo et al. 1997, 689 Whitehouseet al. 1985, fig.7.37. 52, fig. 2. Una forma simile e documentata anche a Cartagine:Fulforde Peacock 1984,fig.56.5-6. La forma 690 Roberts1997,394, fig.231.138 assai simileanchenelle appare attestata da numerosi esemplari in un relitto caratteristichedell'impasto. Similaritapossono essere recentementerinvenutonel porto di Scauri sulla costa riscontrateanche con esemplariansatida Albintimilium sud orientale di Pantelleria. Per le caratteristiche (Olcese 1993, 215, fig. 42.92). Altre attestazionisono dell'impastodella ceramicadi Pantelleriasi veda Fulford documentatea Cosa in uno stratotardoanticodella Casa e Peacock 1984, 8-11. Limpasto del frammento da Cosa di Diana (US 223, vedi suprap. 306). presenta,ad un preliminare esamemicroscopico,le stesse caratteristiche riscontrabilisu campioniprovenientida 691 Dall'insediamentosull'Arx:Fentresset al. 1991, 221, Pantelleria. 693
318
THE FINDS
(FC 23 e 24)694o rilevatocon scanalatura con ampiofondopiatto,corpoglobulareed orloinspessito Questi inoltreda quattropresea linguetta dispostesimmetricamente. interna(FC 26), caratterizzati all'interno le lineeditornitura riscontrabili al tornioveloce,comemostrano vennero prodotti manufatti esterne da tipirealizzatial torniolento.Le superfici di FC 26, sebbenesia evidentela derivazione di coloregrigio, grossi presenta l'impasto, traccedi unasommaria polituraa steccamentre presentano in Vasidi similemorfologia occasionalipirosseni. compaiono feldspati, inclusidi lavee vetrivulcanici, alcune con e caratteristiche di mineralogiche compatibili contestitardoantichi Cartagine presentano a Altriparallelitipologicipossonoessereritrovati e con la Sardegna.695 aree dell'Italiameridionale ed ancora interna697 oltrechenellaToscanasettentrionale Luni,in Liguria,inProvenzae in Corsica696 indice e certamente deltardoVII secolod.C. dellaCrypta Balbi.698 Numerosissime, a Romanelcontesto inSardegna699 e inoltre e altomedievale, sonole attestazioni localeinetatardoantica di unaproduzione in un contestodi VI secolod.C. da SantaFilitica cosanitrovanoi piu precisiconfronti gliesemplari dallaSardegna deimanufatti moltoprobabile E da ritenersi l'ipotesidi unaimportazione nelSassarese.700 rinvenuti nellacisternadel forodi Cosa, sebbenenon si possa escluderela produzionedellestesse occidentale. in diverseareedel Mediterraneo forme
Conclusioni possonooffrire I materialiprovenienti dalla cisternadel foro,che abbiamofinqui riconsiderato, alcuni utilielementidi conoscenzaper la culturamaterialedel centrocosano in epoca tardogota. Va in primoluogo sottolineatala vitalitadella produzionedi ceramicada fuoco che e in buona partericonducibilea fabbrichedi ambitolocale o regionalee testimonial'esistenzadi officine, probabilmentestanziatenei latifondidell'Ager,che erano ancorain piena attivitanei nella pratica primidecennidel VI secolo d.C. Alle produzionilocali o regionalisi affiancarono da isole verosimilmente quotidianadella preparazionedei cibi,prodottiimportatiprovenienti postesottoil dominiovandalocomePantelleriae la Sardegna.La presenzadi questeceramiche di Cosa nel contestodei traffici mediterranei, di fatturagrossolanaimplicail coinvolgimento vasellameda mensao di derrate non soltantoper quanto attieneall'importazionedi raffinato ma ancheperprodottidi un artigianato assai poveroche potevanoesseretrasportati alimentari, come caricodi zavorraneiviaggidi trasferimento dellenavi.Granpartedellestoviglieutilizzate per consumarei pasti erano in sigillataafricanae i piattie le scodelle prodottinella Tunisia non sembranosubirela concorrenzadi produzionidi formeaperteda mensa settentrionale locali o regionalidocumentatenel contestoforsesoltantoda un unico esempio(FC 6) mentre un'altrascodella in ceramicacomunerisultaanch'essaimportata(FC 34). Nelle formechiuse utilizzatepermescere,dovela concorrenzadella sigillataafricanae insignificante, si utilizzavano da altreregioni. prodottilocali come purevasi provenienti 694
Resta incertaI'attribuzione a questo gruppo morfo-
logicoe produttivo diFC 28 chenonhopotutoprendere in esamepersonalmente.
698
Ricci 1998, 338, fig.1.7.
699
Rovina 1998, 792-793, nota 20.
Fulford andPeacock1984,163,fig.58.20,esemplari 700 Rovina 1998, fig. 2.18 appare assai simile nell' probabilmente realizzati al torniolento;a Cartagine in articolazionedell'orlo a FC 26 mentreper FC 23 e FC contesti diVI-VIIsecolod.C.sonopresenti ancheversioni 24 si veda ibid., fig. 3.1. Le analisi mineralogiche realizzate al tornio veloce(Hayes1978,53,fig.13.33-34). condotte sui materiali di Santa Filitica (Giogiano in 695
Rovina 1998, 793-794) hanno dato risultaticompatibili
696
Olcese 1993,240-242,conbibliografia precedente. con quanto rilevatodalla sezione di FC 26.
697
Ciampoltrini 1998,301.
LA CERAMICADELLA CASADI DIANA E DELLA FORUMCISTERN
319
Si puo notareuna sensibilediversita trai contestidellacosta negliapprovvigionamenti toscana,comeappuntoCosa,e la documentazione dalleareeinterne dellaregione proveniente dovegia nelV secolod.C. le produzionida mensadi ambitoproduttivo localesuppliscono all'estrema scarsitadelleimportazioni africane.i01 I1panoramaemersodallostudiodellepurscarseattestazioni di anforenelriempimento della cisternadel foromostral'importazione, ancorauna voltadall'Africa, di contenitori al trasporto destinati di olio o di salsedi pesce.La continuit'a delleimportazioni di anfore africane a Cosa puo essereevidenziata anchedall'attestazione trail materiale sporadicodella cittadel tipoKeayLXII702databiletrail pienoVI e il VII secolod.C. Le anfore vinariedallaForumCistern sonoingranparteattribuibili a produzioni italiche: da unlatoabbiamoun'attestazione deltipicocontenitore delBrutium e dellaSicilia,dall'altro la presenzadi un tiposostanzialmente ineditoma chevariindiziportanoa ricondurre ad un ambitoproduttivo localeo regionale e cheforsee testimone dellacontinuita dellaviticoltura inEtruria e dellacircolazione meridionale delvinoinanfore, siapureinunambitodistributivo di breveraggio.I1vinoconsumato a Cosa agliinizidel VI secolod.C. proveniva anchedalla Siriao da Cipro,comedocumentano i frammenti di anforeattribuibili al tipoLateRoman1. Cosa nel periodotardo-goto e ancorainteressata dalla circolazione di merciimportate che,standoai daticeramici delnostrodeposito, costituivano circala met'adeiprodotti utilizzati nel quotidiano.Le mercidovevanogiungerein grandissima parteattraverso il trasporto marittimo, visteanchel'insicurezza e la nonpercorribilit'a di moltitratti dellaViaAureliagi'a attestate nelV secolod.C. da RutilioNamaziano. In questosensole attestazioni diimportazioni africanee siculo-calabre a Cosa possonoessereconnessealle stesserottecommerciali che interessarono tral'etagotae l'etabizantina altricentricostieri comeVadaVolaterrana, Luna, S. Antonino di Pertio l'isoladi Gorgona,limitandoci a quellimeglionotiarcheologicamente. Contatti conle areedelTirreno settentrionale e dellaCostaAzzurra, sebbenenonpossano esseredocumentati daimateriali dellaForumCistern, trovanoconferma nellapresenzaa Cosa nelV-VI secolod.C. dellaterrasigillata grigiadi produzione narbonense,703 ceramica peraltro rarissima nei coevi contestiromani,e nella attestazione del vasellamein pietraollaredi provenienza ligure.704 L'insediamento nel forodi Cosa agliinizidel VI secolod.C. poteva quindigoderedi considerevoli approvvigionamenti transmarini maeranoancheimportanti i rapporticon le aree ruralicircostanti da cui provenivano ceramichedi uso quotidianoe prodotti dell'agricoltura tracuiprobabilmente il vino.
701
Ciampoltrini1998, Fontana 1998.
703
Fentresset al. 1991, 209.
702
Fentresset al. 1991, 216, fig.17.2.
704
Fentresset al. 1991, 216, fig.17.4.
The MedievalPottery EnricoCirelli andMichelle Hobart
B
Introduction
eforethe 1990 excavations,medieval potteryat Ansedonia had neverbeen systemation siteand store callystudied,althoughFrankBrownand his teamdid collectfragments themin the Academyfor furtherresearch.The briefcampaignheld in 1993-1995 on the Eastern Height gave us little glazed material but enough to draw a general picture of Ansedonia's medievalsettlement.This excavationwas aimed at identifying the main structuresinside the castlewall. The natureof the contexts,consistingessentiallyof the collapse of the tower,preventedus fromreachingthe occupationlayers.Therefore,we mustkeep in mind the lack of excavated materialfromcontextsbelow the thicklayerof collapse inside the compound. The threeexceptionswere the small cistern(EH VII) and the threeareas outside the walls of the tower (EH II, EH VI, EH VIII),70'which,however,contributed littleglazed material.The materialthatfollowsin thisbriefcatalogueincludeseverypiece of medievalpotteryfoundduringour campaigns,as well as the materialrecoveredby Brown's previousseasons,mainlyfromthe Arx. In fact,the largestamountof late medievalmaterial comes fromthesetwo highpointsof the old Romantown.As we have seen,medievaltraces, walls,and findswere discoveredin variouspartsof the town,particularly thehigherground on the Arx or the EasternHeight and those areas withsubstantialbuildingsstillsurviving. These include the Arx,the forum,the northeastgate, and the nearbymarketbuilding,and the EasternHeight itselfwiththe small trenchdown slope, X C. The glazed potteryshows parallelswithmostof the otherexcavatedsitesalong the coast of centralItaly. For each type,a briefdiscussionof its typologyis followedby a catalogue of the material,notingforeach class themostrecentbibliography. Althoughmuchoftheexcavatedglazed materialhas alreadybeen published,the most importantpieces will be included again for completenessand coherence.706
TheGlazedPottery (MH) Cosa allows us to see the progressionof glazed potteryin centralItaly fromForum Ware throughearlyexamplesof archaicmaiolica. There are veryfewimportsfromoverseas:From Most of the glazed medieval sherds came fromthe surfacelayers:EH I, 0, 2; EH II, 1, 3; EH VI 1, 2, 106. EH II, 6 and 9 layerscontainsmallfragments of archaic maiolica. 705
See Hobart in Fentresset al. 1991, 214-225; Hobart 1991, 71-89; 1992, 304-309.
706
320
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
321
on thecoastfromtheend ofthe Spaincamea smallcup oflusterware,whichis frequent onward(fig.146.1).7?7 It seemsmostlikelythatsometraveler fourteenth century passing fromthislaterperiodhave musthaveleftthecup there,sinceno otherfragments through ofan Islamicfilter, nowlost,is theoneothertraceofcontact beenfoundon site.A fragment of withtheworldoutside Italy. Catalogue FORUMWAREANDSPARSEGLAZE708
atAnsedonia-Forum WareandSparseGlaze-isdatedfrom the Theearliest medieval found pottery lateninth Thisclassis foundall orearlytenth century through thefirst halfoftheeleventh century. inthenature oftheclay, isgenerally aswellas inshape. overItalyanddiffers which collected locally,
The glazesvary;theearlytype,ForumWare,is characterized byitsverythickcoatofdarkgreenlead glaze,whilethelatertype,SparseGlaze,is namedforitsextremely thinandsparsecoatofglazeover thesurfaceofthevessel.Bothtypesarefoundat Cosa in relatively thatit largequantities, confirming wasparticularly activeduring thesetwocenturies, whencompared withotherTuscantowns.709 especially Analysisof theSparseGlaze fabricsshowsa remarable The inclusionsare of averagedimenunity. witha lowfrequency oflimestone andabunsions,characterized bygranulesofmetamorphic origin, dantflint,quartz,feldspate, and blackmica.Thisis verycloseto group9/cfromtheexcavations of Cencelle,studiedbySergioSfrecola.Bothshowaffinities withareasofthesouthcentralAppenines, withtheTiberValley, andwithRome.7"0 Mostofthesefragments werefoundon theArxsurfaceduringthefirst excavations oftheareain the 1950s.Coarsewares fromthesameperiodwerefoundduringour excavations in EH VI, VIII, ForumII, Arx,andtrenchX C (seebelow). 1. 1954excavations VIII C 25 I, northwest gate(fig.144.1).711 Bodysherdofclosedvessel.Diameter 18 cm. The fabricis hardand powdery;thecoloris beige-pink withsmallshiny, white,and black inclusions. The glazeis thickandonlyappliedon theexterior, a darkgreen(Munsell2.5 Y 472). The inciseddecoration is composedofthreewavylines,interrupted bya straight one.Otherparallelscome fromMazzucato1972,f.8-9; Crypta Balbi3,215,and154-155,pl.XVI; Crypta Balbi5,297;Mazzucato 1990, 10.
2. 1954excavations, Arxsurface(fig.144.2).Bodysherdofclosedvessel.The max.diameter is 7 cm, andthemin.is 4. The fabricis hardandsmooth, in color.Smallblackinclusions beige-pink withvery rareshiny inclusions andvacuoles.Thedarkolivegreenglazecoversthewholeexterior surface andpart of theinterior (Munsell2.5 Y 4/4).The decoration is composedofvertical linesofflattened, applied withtracesfrom "petals"ona surface, thepotter's wheel.Parallels comefrom Whitehouse etal. 1985,107, pl.2,4 107;Crypta Balbi3,534,pl.XIV.5;Gai 1986,386,pl. 1.1. For the bowl of golden lusterware (or loza dorada) see Hobart 1991, 88; othersimilarfragmentswere also found at Tuscania: Johns 1973, 100; note 228, fig. 31.99. 707
708 Sherds 1-8 werefirst publishedin Hobart 1990,304309.
709 The Pontignanoseminarin 1992 was dividedinto regions. Ansedonia was at the timethe site withthe larg-
est numbersof fragmentsof lead-glazed potteryfound in Tuscany:Hobart 1990, 304-309. 710
Sfrecola1992, 584-585, fig.6.
711 We have keptBrown'soriginalnumbering. This fragmentwas analyzedbyHelen Pattersonthroughthelaboratories L.A.R.A. Piazza delle Vigne 3/6A, 16124 Genova, and appears to have been locallyproduced.
322
THE FINDS
QI_ID
1 4
2
0
5cm
5
3
6
7
8
theArxandelsewhere warefrom Fig.144.Forum 1-7;SparseGlaze8 (MW/BC) 3. 1948-1951 excavations, Arx surface (fig. 144.3). Closed vessel, sherd possibly part of no. 1 (see
above). 4. 1948-1951 excavations,Arx surface(fig. 144.4). Handle. Fabric color beige-pink,bard and rough withsmall and mediuminclusions,sbiny,white,and irregularshape. The dark yellowglaze (Munsell 2.5 Y 4/4) coversboth sides, withthe exceptionof a small area. The decorationhas flattenedapplied Balbi3, pl. XVI, 159, "~petals,"whichdo not touch one another.Bibliographyas no. 2 and also Crypta 215. 5. 1948-1951 excavations,Arx surface(fig. 144.5). Spout of jug. Pink-beigefabriccolor, hard and rough.The glaze is green(Munsell2.5 Y 4/2), thickand bubbly,and coversthe entireSpout,whilethe body of the vessel is uncoated. There are no traces of decoration,but it could belong to any of the fragmentsseen above. Other parallels are: Potter et al. 1984, 101, fig.3, 30 101; Gai 1986, 2 386; Balbi3, 534,p)l.XIV,11 534; Crvpta Balbi'5,310. Crvpta
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
323
Arxsurface(fig.144.6).Rimofclosedvessel.The diameter 6. 1948-1951excavations, is 14 cm.Fabric colorgrayandhard.White,black,andshiny inclusions. Thedarkgreenglaze(Munsell2.5 Y 4/4)coveringbothsurfaces is verythickand bubbly, withlimeencrustation on theexterior surface. The thick, roundedrimis bentoutwardandhas a vertical lines. For characterized the straight neck, by shape,see Gai 1986,386,pl. 1.7;Crypta seeManacordaetal. 1986,518,pl.III, 5, Balbi5,313;forthedecorations, 1 and 16.In theselastexamples therimsarenotbent,although theyhavethesamedecorations. 7. 1948-1951excavations, Arxsurface(fig.144.7).Rimofclosedvessel.Diameter:10 cm.The fabric coloris pale beigewithsmallwhiteinclusions. The glazeappearsto be palerthanthepreviousexamples,and thecoloris lightgreen-yellow The pointedrimis (Munsell2.5 Y 5/6)on bothsurfaces. bentoutward.See Crypta Balbi5, 314-325. 8. 1948-1951excavations, Arxsurface(fig.144.8).Spoutofjug ofSparseGlaze. The fabricis hard andpinkwithsmallshiny, The glazeis thicker black,andwhiteinclusions. on thespoutbutbecomes thinner towardthecenterofthebody;thecoloroftheglazeis olivegreen(Munsell2.5 Y 5/4),while theinterior is unglazed.The triangular shapeofthespoutis in Whitehouse et al. 1982,figs.6, 9, 31, 326; Crypta Balbi3,pl. XVII; Gai 1986,390,pl. 2, 11;Crypta Balbi3,519,pl. IV,3,5, pl.XV,2; Crypta Balbi5, 324,333,pl. XL. 9. 1954excavations VIII C, northwest gate(notillustrated). Bottomofclosedvessel.Diameter:6 cm. Thedarkgreenglaze(Munsell2.5 Y 4/4)appearsonlyon theexterior; itis thickbutnothomogenous. It maywellbe partofone ofthevesselsabove. 10-12.1948-1951excavations IX N Building C (curia)712 Cosa 1954(notillustrated). Threebodysherds of closedvessels.The beige-pink fabricis hard.On theexteriorsurfacesomeSparseGlaze shows explodedbubbles,indicating thatoneofthethreefragments wasoverfired. Thesemaywellbe partof thesamevessel,eveniftheydo notjoin. Fromthesurface layersoftheArx,aboutsevenfragments werefoundduringBrown'sexcavation in 1954,which,comparedto thequantity fromothersitesin thearea,is a relatively largeamount. Associated withthistypeofmaterial aresomesmallandroundedjugsin a finefabric, withsmallwhite inclusions.Similarassociations werefoundin Romein theCryptaBalbi and datedto thetenthand eleventhcenturies.713
UNDERPAINTEDLEAD GLAZE
In southern Italyunderpainted lead glazeis present fromthetwelfth century, butinLatiumitdoesnot appearuntilthebeginning of thethirteenth century, foundtogether withtinglazepottery, thesocalledsmaltate. Thereis notsufficient evidenceto provethatthisproduction started beforetheearly phasesofarchaicmaiolica.The maindifference betweenthesetwoclassesliesin thelackofthewhite tinglaze,characteristic ofarchaicmaiolica,as thebackground fortheblackandgreendecoration. The coloroftheunderpainted leadglazeis applieddirectly on thebarefabricandthencoveredwitha final coatoflead glaze.Despitethedifferences inthetwotechniques, manyofthedecorative motifs remain thesamein bothclasses.The twodifferent typesfoundat Ansedoniaareparticularly frequent in centralItaly.The production centerwasprobably locatedinOrvietoor Rome.714 "Building C" was the termused initiallyforthe curia/comitium complex.
712
713
Crypta Balbi3,206-224; seeinparticular Balbi Crypta
5, 320 no. 7a.
Berti,Gelichi,andMannoni1997,398-399;Bernardi 1985,41-48;Orvieto I, 1455; Bernardi 1984,43,24 73; Crypta Balbi5, 357-484.
714
324
THE FINDS
13. 1948-1951 excavations,Arx surface(fig.145.3). Profileof a cup, almostcomplete.The black manganese decoration"a spinadi pesce" filledin by greenramina(copper) is directlyapplied on top of the claybeforethe finalcookingstagewithlead glaze. The curved,flattenedhandle is brokenat the bottom.The fabricis fine,of a clearbeige color.Similarfragments come fromthenearbycastleof Tricosto (Capalbiaccio). For parallels,see Blake 1981, no. 18, 104, and forthe shape see Satolli 1981, 18 104, no. 80; Hobart 1991, 81. 14. 1948-1951 excavations,Arx surface(fig. 145.1). Body sherd of a small closed vessel. A series of verticalblack lines decoratesthe exteriorupper part,whilelead glaze coversthe interior.The color of the fabricis pale orange.See Satolli 1981,52, fig.6; CryptaBalbi3, 521, pl. V, 11 521; Pollmann1985, 38, fig.2, 4, 38; CryptaBalbi 5, 411, fig.137, 10c. 15. 1948-1951 excavations,Arx surface(fig.145.2). Rimof a smallclosed vessel.Decorationwithvertical lines in black witha coat of lead glaze on the exterior.The fabrichas smallwhiteand black inclusions. See Orvieto1, 51; OrvietoII, 73, fig.24; 86, fig.62; CryptaBalbi 5, 1990,401, pl. LVI 439, 401. GRAFFITA ARCHAICA TIRRENICA Two fragmentsof "GraffitaArcaica Tirrenica"were found. This characteristicLigurian type comes froman earlystage of Italian productionsand was probablyproduced in Savona. GraffitaArcaica Tirrenicadiffersfromthe otherglazed materialin thatit is also incised (graffito) and uses, in addition to the commoncolors,greenramina,black manganese,typicalof the archaicmaiolica,and also yellow ferraccia.The most frequentshape is a plate with a ringfoot and a large horizontalrim,frequently curvingupward.Fragmentswere also foundat Ansedonia of a moreunusual plate,withouta rim.The firstexamples are dated to the end of the twelfth/beginning of the thirteenth centuryand have been foundat manycoastal sites.7"5 In Pisa, thereare exampleson the churchof St. Cecilia dated to thefirst halfof thethirteenth centuryand on othercontemporary monumentsin the area of Lucca.7"6At Rome, the materialappears around the same time.717 16. EH, 4 (1990) (Hobart 1991,82, fig.6). Sherdfroma hemispherical bowl. Dark yellowrimwithgreen spout over incised decoration.The rimis verticaland does not show the characteristic horizontal,flat rim,whichprotrudesover the hemisphericalbowl. The same formwas also foundat Capalbiaccio, the castleof Tricosto.This piece was foundinsidethebase of the catapulton theEasternHeight.See Berti and Tongiorgi1981a,277, fig.244; Blake 1986,321-328; Lavagna and Varaldo 1989, 124,9 forthedecoration;forthe shape see Mannoni 1975,type58, fig.63, form19; CryptaBalbi 5, 374, fig.402. 17. EH VII (cistern)4 (not illustrated).Part of plate of GraffitaArcaica Tirrenica,withoutrim.Orange fabricdecoratedwithincised lines. Traces of yellowferracciaand greenramina.It is associated withthelatestjugs of archaicmaiolica. In the 1991 campaigna similarpiece was foundinsidethebase of the catapult.718 ARCHAICMAIOLICA As Italybegan to produce its own glazed pottery,duringthe thirteenth century,archaic maiolica appeared in Ansedonia. This came mainlyfromcentralItaly,Tuscany,Umbria,and Latium.Pisa appears 715
Lavagna and Varaldo 1986, 119-130.
716
Bertiand Cappelli 1994, 151-168.
"I Crypta Balbi5, 357-484,withextensivebibliography
namingotherplaceswhereGraffita ArcaicaTirrenicawas found:Provence,Tuscany,northwestItaly,and Liguria. 7"8 Lavagna and Varaldo 1986, 119-130.
Fig. 145. Glazed pottery: lead glaze underpainted and jugsin archaic maiolica(MW). 2
11
3
8
5
l
12 6
9
13
KID
01
X
14
6
THE FINDS
326
[~~~~~~~
* 0 PlateK118.Maiolicadish E ..........f
M .
Plate 119. Maiolicajug fromEH VII (MH).
Plate 118. MaiolicadishfromEH (MH).
to have been the principalsupplierforthe site. The finalyearof Ansedonia'ssettlementin 1329 gives us a terminusante quem for all the materialfound on the site, sheddingnew lighton some of the earliertypesof archaicmaiolica tradedon the coast. This date is also confirmedby the smallhoard of coins discoveredat the bottomof the cistern(above p. 200f.) togetherwiththe documentsthatmention the destructionof the castle in the firstquarterof the fourteenthcentury.The completeabsence whichis century,719 of zafferaa rilievoor archaic maiolica withblue, dated commonlyto the fifteenth of the completeabandonmentof the is a furtherconfirmation foundin mostof thenearbysettlements, site afterthe attack. 18. EH VII (cistern)3-4 (not illustrated).Bowl decoratedwitha greencross and black rays,so-called decorazionecon crocein raminae raggiin manganese.The plate has a ringfoot; the rimis curvedinward. The fabricis orange.The greencrossis decoratedwiththreeblack (manganese)raysinside each This class ofPisan archaicmaiolicawas produced fromthe 133Os quarteron a whitetinbackground.720 to the 1450s.721In Pisa, the firstchurchesthatshow baciniof archaicmaiolica are Santa Cecilia (12 101230) and San Francesco I (the lower partof the campanile),officiallydated between 1250 and 1270. Besides its use forarchitecturaldecoration,afterthe 1330s thispotteryis foundmore oftenin urban contexts.The presence of the crocein raminae manganeseat Ansedonia shows thatthis typewas in circulationoutside Pisa before 1329. This same typeof decorationis also found on jugs and used in 719
For zafferaa rilievosee Alinariet al. 1991.
Berti 1997, 111-114 and pl. 71, fig.23. The decoration is classifiedas M.A.I. Motivo I n. 1-5; Berti 1997
is a revisionof Bertiand Tongiorgi1977; see p. 71 and fig.23.6.
720
721
Berti 1997, 155 and fig.23 nos. 1- 8.
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
327
suchas LiguriaandthetownofLucca,whereitis knownthatPisanpotters otherareasofItaly, settled.722 in arethejugsdecoassociatedwiththistypeofplate otherexcavations The pottery mostcommonly ArcaicaTirrenica, bothpresentat ratedwithleavesfilledin witha manganese gridandwithGraffita Ansedonia. Arxsurface(pl. 118).Platewithleavesoutlinedin raminaandfilledin a thick 19. 1948excavations, blackgrid.The profileis completeandstandson a ringfoot.Froma surface layerofthecatapultbase ofa similar Thisrather commonshape on theEasternHeight(EH 0) cameanother fragment plate.723 is a Pisanproduction and is datedto thelastquarterofthethirteenth halfofthefourcentury/first teenthcentury.724
20. EH VII (cistern) 4 (notillustrated). Jugwitha flatbase andan orangefabric.It is decorated witha largegreengrid,whichis filledin withmanganese vertical linesalternating withan X on a whitetin background. This typeof decoration is called "decorazione a reticolo in raminaconbarrette e linee ondulatein manganese." The bodyis dividedbyvertical linesrunning alongthevessel,connected by horizontal waves,orVs. Unfortunately, thehandleis missing, butthebase ofthejugis complete. This is oneoftheearliestproductions fromPisa,datedto thefirst decoration halfofthethirteenth century (1220-1330).It can be foundon bothplatesandjugs.The decoration butnottheformofthevessel had a lifespanof abouta century.725 The grid,theparallellines,and thestylized vegetaldecorations werealsofrequently usedin Montalcino, Orvieto,andAssisi.726 21. EH VII (cistern) 3-4 (pl. 119).Jugofarchaicmaiolicadecorated withstylized vegetalmotifs orthe so-calleddecorazione a motivi It hasa transparent vegetali stilizzati. lead glazeovera darkbeigefabric on thelowerpartandinternally. Thegreenleavesovera whitish tinglazearefilledinwitha blackgrid lines.The upperpartofthejughasthetypicalgreenchainmoseparatedin themiddlebyhorizontal a catenella. The sidesofthecentralareaaredecorated tif,motivo withthewide,wavygridinblackon white.It hasa flattened is practically handle,andtheprofile complete. Thisvesselseemstobe a Sienese on thebasisofitsshapeand is datedto thefirsthalfofthefourteenth production Similar century.727 jugswerealsofoundin Montalcino.728 22. 1949excavations, ArxCap cellaII E. Fillbelowfloor(fig.146.3).Bowlofarchaicmaiolica, CB1420, finegrainedwithsomesmallwhiteandblackinclusions. CC254.Pale beigefabric, It is decorated with stylized vegetalmotif.The thinblacklinesarecoloredinwitha lightramina.The profile is complete. The rimis thickened and projectsoutward.ParallelscomefromSiena,Montalcino, and Grosseto.729 Variation on thistypeofdecoration is also extremely inLatium,at ViterboandOrvieto,and frequent is datedaroundthefirst halfoffourteenth century.730 722
Bertiand Tongiorgi1977, 132-133.
This typehas been publishedsincethe 1920s. See also Francovich1982, 35 fig.23.
723
727 Luna 1999, 1, 3 and 3.1 415; for shape see also Francovich1982, 127, A.6.1. The fragments came from a kilnin the Nicchio districtin Siena. 728
Berti 1997, 131, M.A.I. Motivo X al; Berti and Tongiorgi1981, fig. 186, pl. CLXX; Hobart 1991, 7189. For decorationon jugs, see Berti1997, 105; 131, fig. 46 no. 593; 175, fig.86 nos. a.1-a.2; 176, fig.87 no. 175.
Francovich1982, 105, note 3.
724
725 M.A.I. MotiviVI gruppo,b6, the second phase of the production(1280-1330), Berti 1997, 120, 176.
726Francovich1982, 105, N.3 in the Museo Civico di Montalcino;Satolli 1981, 34-78, fig.88, 144.
This typeof decorationseems to be mostfrequentin Siena: Francovich1982, 141, fig.204 M.I.4, M.I.6; Luna 1999, shape II 13.1; and forsimilardecorationsIII a3, a4, a5.
729
Johns 1973, pl. XVa; Mazzucato 1979, figs.33-34; Whitehouseet al. 1982, 334, fig.6, 12b; Hobart 1991, 74. 730
Fig. 146. Glazed pottery: 1,lusterware;2-3, archaic maiolica(EC).
2
3
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
Plate 120. Maiolicajug fromTempleB (MH).
329
Plate 121. PignattafromEH VII (MH).
23. 1953 excavations, Temple B surface(fig. 145.14; pl. 120). Jugwith vegetal motifinside circles, CF70. Beige-coloredhard fabric.The verythincoat of whitetin glaze is well absorbed into the fabric. The elongated shape of the jug suggeststhe firsthalf of the fourteenthcenturyforthis Sienese production.731
24. EH VII (cistern)4 (not illustrated).Whitemonochromejug. The darkorange,hardfabricis clearly visibleunderthetransparentlead glaze. The whitetinglaze coversthree-quarters of thevessel,leaving thebottomunglazed. Unfortunately, theprofileis incomplete,but thevessel is a rathercommonshape for Pisa. There is no use of color. The presence of this class at Ansedonia is interestingbecause it shows that this productionstartedat least ten or twentyyears earlierthan has previouslybeen assumed. In Pisa, these fragmentsare normallydated after1330, but the archaeological contextsare uncertain. 25. 1949 excavations,Arx surface(fig.145.4-13). Eleven fragments of closed vessels.732 26. EH II (not illustrated).Seventy-eight smallfragments fromthe entranceto the castle and one from the destructiondeposits of the tower.733 The provenanceand datingconfirmedthe conclusionsbased on the restof the material. Francovich 1982, figs. 6-8 30; Berti,Cappelli, and Francovich1984, 485, fig.I 6.5; 489.
731
732
Hobart 1991, 87, fig.16.
"I
Most of themcame fromthe surfacelayers(EH, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7) and fromEH 119.
THE FINDS
330
INVETRIATA (LEAD GLAZEDPOTTERY) 27. EH VII (cistern) 3-4 (pI. 121). Pignatta,a large cookingpot withglaze inside and spiltoverthe
rimand ontopartof theexterior, withbothattachments forthehandles.The fabricis darkorange, fromPisa withthearchaicmaiolica.Thisdomestic, thatit couldhavebeenimported less suggesting in preciouspotcouldalsohavebeenproducedlocallyor an areaclosertothesite.The datingis interin fact,is normally foundin contexts esting.Thepignatta, ofthelaterfourteenth andfifteenth centuries,butitspresenceheresuggests thatitwasproducedat an earlierperiod,probably duringthefirst quarterofthefourteenth century.
TheMedievalCoarsewares (EC) The materialdiscussed here comes fromtrenchesEH I, VI, VII, Forum II, and X C. The techniquesused for its studyare those perfectedby the BritishTeam at Carthageand at now in generaluse in Italy.It presupposesa total recoveryof the potteryfrom Caesarea,734 stratifiedcontexts.Once counted,the sherdsare weighed,in order to get an idea of their averagesize and theirrelativeproportionsin the group. By takingweightinto account,it is possible to counterthe tendencyto sampleerrorpresentin simplenumericcalculations.Finally,a minimumnumberof individuals(MNI) foreach typeis establishedfromfragments of rimsand bases.735 The fabricswere examinedunder a 20x lens, and a sample was taken each timea new fabricwas encountered.A tablewas thencreatedof thedifferent fabrics,each one numbered in series. The materialstudiedherewas extremely and thenumberof individualpots fragmentary probablyexiguous.This mayin partbe due to the natureof the depositsexcavated,none of whichcould be called a midden,736 but mayalso be due to the relatively low level of thelocal materialculturein the settlement broughtto lightby the excavation. The firstpoint to make is thatthe numberof excavatedfinewaresis verylow. Veryfew glazed sherdswere recoveredfromthe excavations,which throwssome lighton the social and commercialdynamicsofthesettlement. Almostall ofthematerialconsistsof coarsewares, destinedfordomesticconsumption.The repertory of formsis also verylimited.However,it has been possible to relatethispotteryto a specificculturalmilieu.Justas we have seen from the archaicmaiolica,the bulk of the potteryseemsto come fromthe area of Pisa, as thetwo amphoraewithstraphandlesfoundin a twelfth-century depositwould suggest. There followsan enumerationof the fabrictypes,thena generaldiscussionof each type of pottery, followedby a listof the subtypesfoundat Ansedoniaand by a table detailingthe incidence of each subtype.The firstcolumnindicatesthe minimumnumberof individuals (MNI) in contextswithoutglazed pottery-or,in general,fromtheeleventhand earlytwelfth "I
Riley1976, 131.
This calculationis based on thepercentageofthe rim circumferencepresent.For example, if in a given contextfiverimsof jugs in archaicmaiolica of type1.2 are found,the sum of the rimcircumferences is calculated, say50% +60% +30% +75% +65%. Thetotal ofthese figureswould be 310%, fromwhich we can deduce a minimumnumberofindividualsequal to 4, witha maxi735
mumof5, based on thetotalquantityoffragments. This last figurecan be correctedbythetotalnumberofbases. For an analysisof systemsof potteryquantificationsee Arthurand Ricci 1981, 125-128. The Roman walls near EH VI mighthave provided ideal sitesfromwhichto throwawaybrokenpottery. This hypothesiscould not be testedbecause of the depth of theirdestructionmaterial. 736
THE MEDIEVAL POTTERY
33 1
centuries-while contextsof the second period are those withglazed pottery,fromthe late centuries. twelfththroughthe earlyfourteenth FABic TYPES
fracture. The base 1. Reddishbrownfabric(Munsell5YR 5/4),rough,hard,coarse,withan irregular It containsa considerable ofinclusions: carbonate. material is ferrous quantity largeflakesofbiotite smallgrainsofsanidine(0.1 andnumerous (1 mm),abundanttrachitic granules (0.5mm),plagioclasts, mm). and a high fracture 2. Red fabric(Munsell2 YR 5/80),welllevigated, hard,rough,withan irregular flakesofbiotiteand Inclusionsincludequartz(0.01mm)withan irregular ironcontent. distribution, andangularfeldspar andevendistribution, muscovite (0.05mm)witha highdensity (0.01mm)witha lowdensity distribution. andirregular fracture. It con3. Red fabric(Munsell2.5 YR 5/6),fairly coarse,hard,and rough,withan irregular ofinclusions: abundantlargegrainsofangularfeldspar, tainsa notablequantity plagioclast, sanidine, Flecksofchamotte andflint(0.01-0.02mm),withan and augite(1 mm),all fairly evenlydistributed. andmuchbiotite(0.02-0.05mm). irregular distribution, 4. vacat
fracture. Variousinclusions: 5. Pale redfabric(Munsell2 YR 6/6),coarse,hard,withanirregular large limestone grainsoftrachitic (0.5 mm),abundantmedium-sized grainsof angularfeldspar(0.2 mm), plagioclast, sanidine,and augite,manysmallflecksofchamotte (0.1 mm),all irregularly distributed, andsmallflakesofbiotite, andleucite. flint, 6. vacat
7. Darkbrownfabric(Munsell7 YR 4/2),coarse,soft,andrough,withan irregular Thebase fracture. material is micaceous.It containsabundantmedium-sized grainsof angularfeldspar(0.2 mm),uniandmuchplagioclasts, andaugite,evenlydistributed. formly distributed, sanidine, 8. Brownfabric(Munsell7 YR 5/4),coarse,hard,rough,withan irregular fracture. Medium-sized characterized oflime,abundantflint, inclusions, bygranulesofmetamorphic origin,smallquantities andflakesofblackmica. quartz,feldspars, FINE TABLEWARESIN WELL-LEVIGATEDFABRIcs
Pitchers ofPisanTypewitha Trefoil Spout.One ofthemostcommonformsofunglazedpottery is the pitcherwitha trefoilspoutand a singlestraphandlerecently studiedbyGraziellaBertiand Sauro Gelichi.737 The Cosanmaterial confirms theirconclusions as to thechronology ofthetype.Themajorityhavea straphandleattachedjustbelowtherimand joiningthebodyat thepointof itsgreatest diameter. The cylindrical neckrisesfroma globularbody,whiletheflatbase showstracesofthestring usedto detachit fromthewheel.The capacityoftheserecipients as calculatedbyBertiand Gelichi rangesfromaround2.5 litersto as muchas 13 liters. AlloftheexamplesstudiedwereofPisanproduction. Thisis confirmed bymineralogical analysis ofthefabric(no.2). A fabricwithexactlythesamecharacteristics wasidentified fromexcavations at "I
Bertiand Gelichi 1995, 202-203.
THE FINDS
332
to theTuscanarea.738 Kilnsproducing thistypeofpottery have and also attributed Leopolis-Cencelle butworkshops musthaveexistedat La Rotta,740 andPalaia,74' beenfoundalongtheArnoatFauglia,739 nonehasyetbeendiscovered. Pisa as well,although stampfoundon thehandleofone ofthe Anotherconnection to thePisanareais theimpressed offivetriangular Thisis intheformofa rosette(Cosa type1.02,fig.147.10)formed petals recipients. witha trefoil foundon pitchers spoutfromPiazzaDanteat (similar to BertiandGelichi'stypeIIlb),742 Pisa743and at Castiglionedi Migliana near Prato.744A second stampfromCosa is a toothedwheel of
on thehandle(Cosa type2.02,fig.147.9).Although onlytwoofthe40 pitchers typeIa, alsoimpressed foundat Cosa werestamped,elsewhere stampsarefoundon as manyas 24 percentoftheindividucentersofproduction, and it seems It is thushardlylikelythatthestampsindicateddifferent als.745 find as we also themon largedishes,or catini.They motifs, possiblethattheyweresimplydecorative similarstampsfoundon thelargejarsproducedon theislandofJerba mayin facthavebeenimitating theMediterranean.746 in thisperiodandexportedthroughout bothwithandwithout archaicmaiolica.It is unlikely to havebeen The formis foundin contexts intheformprobably hasa chronological Variation significance, producedbeforetheeleventh century. to register andwe willattempt changesoverthethreecenturies duringwhichthepitcher significant cenwas produced.However,it is notyetpossibleto assertthatthestampsall dateto thethirteenth as notenoughsecurely datedcontextsareknown.At Cosa, however, thestampwas associated tury, Bertiand Gelichiadvancedthehypothesis thatunstamped withglazedpottery. examplesdateto the at Cosa wouldcontradict this,thereis notyetenoughdatato previousperiod,747 butalthough nothing it. confirm In thecontexts studied,a minimum numberof39 individuals wasfound. Description oftheSubtypes. The first, Cosa 1,is characterized flatrim.This bya slightly tapering Twomaintypeswereidentified. is byfarthemostcommontype,comprising 90.5percentofthepitchers found,23 individuals against weredistinguished, ofwavy generally decorated withtworegisters 3 ofthesecondtype.Sevenvariants lines,thefirston theneckand thesecondon thebody.The waveson theneckarelowerand more and onlythreeexfrequent thanthoseon thebody.The secondtype,Cosa 2, is muchless common, distinction is thepoorlydefined rimandthemuchthinner body:these ampleswerefound.Theprincipal differences couldbe duetothegenerally smaller sizeofthevases.Twovariants weredistinguished. COSATYPE 1
Allin fabric2 1.01 (fig.147.13).Flattapering rimand a shortcylindrical neck.The straphandleis joinedjustbeThebase is flat,withtracesofthestring neaththerimandon theshoulder. usedto detachitfromthe ofhorizontal In othersthedecoration wheel.Theexampledrawnhasa densedecoration linesinrelief. is ofwavylines,generally on theneckandsometimes on thebase.One ofthesewasfoundina context The mineralogical and petrographic analysis at Cencelle was carriedout bySergioSfrecolaforthe tcole Fran,aise de Rome: see Cirelli2002, 2, impasto9. 738
39Dani and Vanni Desideri 1981, 481.
small amphora,or anforaceo:Menichelliin Bruni 1993, 482-498. The assumptionis contradictedin Berti and Gelichi 1995c, 195. "I Capecchi et al. 1974, 73,XXIVA.
BertiandGelichi1995c,226.
740
Dani, Giunti,and Menicucci 1988, 44-50.
745
741
Ciampoltrini1979, 359-360.
746
742
Bertiand Gelichi 1995c, 217, pl. XIII.
Such stampswere found on sherds collected in the contextof theJerbaProject,whose publication(Cirelli in Drine, Fentress,and Holod) is forthcoming.
743
Althoughhere the authorbelieves thatthe typeis a
747
BertiandGelichi1995c,234.
|IV
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
4
=
_
LfX
,/z6
__ __-
111
w
'
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~12
Fig.147.EH, coarsewares(acromaclepurata). 1-3,jugswithan almondrim;4-13, "Pisan"jugs (types1-2) (BC).
THE FINDS
334
theseareourearliest intrenchX C belowthelayersinwhichglazedorotherfinepottery waspresent: Rimdiameter medievalcontexts. 10.5cm. 1.02 (fig.147.10).Roundedand veryevertedrim.The neckis almostabsent,withtherimattached to thebodyofthevase.The handleis attachedjustbelowtherim;thebase is a flatdiskwith directly usedto detachitfromthewheel.Rimdiameter tracesofthestring 10.5cm. everted. Theneckis highandcylindrical; thestraphandle 1.03(fig.147.11).Flat,tapering rim,slightly Rimdiameter 12 cm. is attachedjustbelowtherim.Flatdiskbasewithtracesofthestring. on thetop.Highcylindrical neck.The wallsarevery 1.04 (fig.147.12).Almostverticalrim,flattened ofthevase.Rimdiameter thin,in spiteofthenotablecircumference 13 cm. and slightly evertedrim,highcylindrical neck.A deep incisionjust 1.05 (fig.147.5).Flat,tapering, 12 cm. undertherimbothinsideandoutsidethevase.Rimdiameter 1.06(fig.147.6).Vertical, tapering rim,shortcylindrical neck.The rimis steppedon theoutside. neckwitha 1.07 (fig.147.7).Taperingrim,flattened on top and slightly everted.A shortcylindrical itsresistance toshock. denseseriesofturning lines,destinedeitherto decoratetheneckorto augment Rimdiameter 11 cm. COSATYPE 2
Allin fabric2 2.01 (fig.147.4).Poorlydistinguished vertical neck,andstraphandle.The body rim,shortcylindrical fromthewheelwitha knife.Rimdiameter 10 cm. is thin.Flatdiskbase,removed 2.02 (fig.147.9).Poorlydistinguished, evertedrim,thickened on theinsideofthevase.Flat slightly fromthewheelwitha knife.Rimdiameter 8 cm. diskbasewasremoved is necessarily hazardousbecauseoftherarity ofexamplesoftype2, some Although anycomment differences betweenthem(graph11).Pitchers ofthesecondtypearenever interesting maybe observed The witha knife, whilethoseoftype1 areremoved witha string. decorated.Theirbasesareremoved
45 4 35 3 2.5 2
PeriodI m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ mPeriodHI
1 03 0
1:01
1Q02
1:03
1:04
1:05
1:06
1:07
2:01
witha trefoil rim:MNIbysubtype. Graph11.Pitchers
2:02
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
335
verysimilarfabricssuggestthat theycome fromthe same general area of production,but theyare certainlynot fromthe same workshop. The chronologicalrelationshipsbetweenthe two are reasonablyclear.Types 1.01,1.03,and 1.04 of glazed potcertainlydate to the eleventhcenturybecause theyare associated withsome fragments This is because the of Glazed ware. that are transitional forms veryimportant depositsare Sparse tery those thatseal the use of thehutson the EasternHeight.The othervariantsare all presentin contexts withthe exceptionof 1.06,1.07,and 2.01.This of courseis not a proofof their withoutglazed pottery, date because it is based on an argumentfromsilence,but in the case oftype1.05we can be more early certain,insofaras all the contextsin which it was foundare the earliestcontextson the hill, directly coveringthe Roman abandonment. COSATYPE3: PITCHERSWITHAN ALMOND-SHAPEDSPOUT. In the earlieststratigraphiccontextsof
EH VI we find pitchersof a differenttype,Cosa 3, with an almond-shapedspout. These are un-
glazed, which again suggestsa phase of culturaltransition.The typemusthave been the most common in the centuriesbeforethe diffusionof the trefoilspout of Pisan type.The characteristicfabric of containersof this typeis in factverydifferent fromthatof the Pisan pitchers.The mineralogical componentspoint to Lazio and Campania, while the formssuggesta production area near Rome. The same fabricsare foundin the Sparse Glazed materiallisted above.748This is an importantproof of the change in the economic relationsof the settlement,which shiftedfromLazio to Tuscanyin the course of the twelfthcentury. of thistypewerefoundin the contextsstudied,belongingto threeindividuOnly fourfragments als (table 11). All are body sherds.As faras we can judge, theybelong to threeseparatesubtypes. All in fabric8 3.01 (fig.147.1). Indistinctrimand shortcylindricalneck. The spoutjoins the neck witha 2 mmstep. The globularbody is slightlyflattenedtowardthe base. Rim diameter8 cm.
3.02 (fig. 147.2). Indistinctverticalrim,slightlyrounded on the inside. Short cylindricalneck. The spout is entirelyjoined to the profileof the vase. Rim diameter11 cm.
3.03 (fig. 147.3).Indistinctevertedrimand shortcylindricalneck. The body is slightlyflattenedtoward the base. Rim diameter12 cm.
Subtype 3.01
MNI PeriodI ( 1 th-1l2th cent.) 2
MNI PeriodII (13th-i14th cent.) 0
TotalIs 2
3.02
1 1 4
0 0 0
1 1 4
3.03 total
Table11. Pitchers withalmond-shaped spouts. None of the examplescomes froma contextwithglazed pottery.Their absence,even as residuals, seems to confirman earlydate. It is strikingthat,whereasin Lazio itselfpitchersof this typewere eventuallyreplaced by glazed vessels,in Tuscanytheywere replaced by the Pisan typewitha trefoil rim.The passage of the settlementfromthe monasteryof S. AnastasioadAquasSalviasintothe hands This fabricis identicalto group9/c,studiedbySergio Frecola, wherethe inclusionsappear to derivefromthe south centralApennines,the Tiber Valley,and Rome:
748
Sfrecola 1992, 584-585, fig.6. A fragmentof a pitcher of the same typefromCosa was published in Hobart 1992, 307, pl. I.8.
336
THE FINDS
moment whichcan in 1181749 givesus a goodhistorical forthistransformation, oftheAldobrandeschi thusbe linkedto politicalandsocialchanges. ofthematerial studiedbelongsto thisclass.The repCookingWareswithCoarseFabric.The majority of forms is there are Themostcommon ertory formis a wide-mouthed limited, although manyvariants. jarknownas a pignatta or,whenitis without handles,as an olla.It wasusedto cooksoupscontaining oracquacotta. beans,cereals,or drybread,suchas pancotto AtCosa,although a largenumberofstrap handleswerefoundinthecontexts studied,noneofthevesselswasfoundwiththeirhandlesattached, whichmakesit impossible to specify howmanytherewereon eachvessel.Theywereprobably joined totherimandthickened attheends.The sizeofthecontainers andthethickness oftheirwallsshould havemadeatleasttwohandlesnecessary, someofthesamesizeareknownwithonlya single although handlein theregionof Pisa750 and Siena.75" An interesting document fromViterbo,dated1251,addressesthisexactproblem. Anordinance refers to a recipient, a form ofpignatta, whicharound possibly thistimebeganto be madewitha singlehandle.The ordinanceforbidstheproduction ofpanate752 witha singlehandle,in orderto respecttradition andto protectthecitizensfrombuyingpottery that wouldbe tooeasilybroken.753 Containers ofthistypewereextremely commonin Tuscany. The material was competently producedon a fastwheel,a notabledifference fromtheregionofMontecastrese, nearCamaiorein the Lucchesia,wherecookingpotsproducedon fastwheelsarefoundalongsidedomestic production producedon a slowwheelor a simpleboard.754 Tracesof burningon thesidesshowsthatthepotswerebroughtup nextto theflameson the hearth.In severalexampleswe cansee a lid seating, whichimpliesthatstewscouldbe cookedinthem as wellas soups.Theythusaretheprecursors ofthelatercasseroles. Thefunction ofthevesselsprobably obviated theneedfordecoration. In onlyonecasetheoutsidewallsofthepignatta weretreated withthin relief lines.A similar typeofdecoration hasbeenfoundinurbancontexts, forexampleatSiena.755 Eventhoughtheyare fairly fragmentary, thelargenumberof sherdspresenthas allowedus to createa typology and to recognizedifferent The 69 fragments provenances. havebeen classified as threetypes, 4, 5, and6. The mostcommon typeis 4, represented by36 vessels:thismaybe subdivided into16subtypes. Thencomes6,with25 vesselsand7 subtypes. Therarest form is 5, whose8 vesselsare dividedinto5 subtypes. Theclearest parallels comefrom thematerial excavated atPiazzaDanteinPisa.756 The principalcharacteristic oftype4 is theflat,tapering rim,slightly roundedon itsupperside. Type5 carriestherounding evenfurther: although at first fairly rare,itbecomesmorecommonin the following centuries. Type6 insteadhasan indistinct, evertedrim.In all thevariants theneckis almost absent,thebodyis globular, andthebase slightly concave,withitsextremities workedwitha knife. COSA TYPE 4: PIGNATTE
4.01 (fig.148.1).Flat,tapering rim,attacheddirectly to theglobularbodyofthepot.The flatbase is finished witha knife.Variouscapacities. Rimdiameter between13 and 16 cm,fabric1. "I
Above p. 134f.
750
Renzi and Rizzo 1989, 11/4.
"I Francovich1982, 67, fig.58.
panatas cum duobus manicis.Item statuimusquodfiguli faciantamodopanatascumduobusmanicissicuthactenus consueverunt: et qui contrafeceritpuniaturin XX solidis: et predictapotestasfierifacere teneaturet vendereper civitatemut fuit hactenus consuetum.See Mazzucato 1981, 3.
The term,in documentsfromAssisi,indicatesa measure of volume for bread (Palumbo 1971, 357). Prob- 754 Pucciarelliand Redi 1997, 232. ably in this case the content-the bread of the aquacotta-had giventhename to thecontainer.For a differ- "I Francovich1982, 65, figs.55-56. ent interpretation Mazza 1983, 9, 24. 756 Bruni 1993, 47. 753 Article 147 is especially telling:Quod figulifaciant 752
warestype Fig.148.EH, cooking 4.01-4.08(EC). 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
01 8
6
338
THE FINDS
andeverted. A depression 4.02 (fig.148.2).Flat,tapering rim,roundedon itsuppermargin justinside a lid seating.The bodyis globularand ofmediumcapacity;thebase is flatand therimis evidently 16 cm,fabric1. finished witha knife.Rimdiameter andevertedrim.Globularbody.Rimdiameter 4.03 (fig148.3).Flat,tapering, 15 cm,fabric1. and slightly evertedrim,attachedto theshouldersofthebody.Me4.04 (fig.148.4).Flat,tapering, diumcapacity. Rimdiameter 16 cm,fabric4. one. Slighthollowfora lid seat4.05 (fig.148.5).Flat,tapering rim,moreevertedthanthepreceding ing.Rimdiameter 13 cm,fabric1. 4.06 (fig.148.6).Flat,tapering The globularbodyis slightly rim,veryeverted.Largecapacity. elongatedin theupperportion.Rimdiameter 18.5cm,fabrics1 and7. 4.07 (fig.148.7).Roundedrim,slightly everted.The neckis almostabsent.Slighthollowfora lid 14.5cm,fabric1. seating.Rimdiameter and slightly evertedrim.The upperpartoftherimis fairly 4.08 (fig.148.8).Flat,tapering, rounded; Rimdiameter thebodyis globular. 14.5cm,fabric1. 4.09 (fig149.1).Flat,tapering roundedon theexterior. A grooveon theinsideoftherim rim,slightly mayhaveservedas a lid seating.Rimdiameter 12 cm,fabric1. Rimthickened andcurvedon theupperedge.Highlyeverted. 4.10 (fig.149.2). A lidseatingis foundat thepointwheretherimjoinstheshoulderofthevessel.Globularbody;flatbasefinished witha knife. Rimdiameter 15.5cm,fabric1. 4.11 (fig149.3).Rimthickened androundedon itsupperedge,highly everted. Thelidseatingis found justbelowtherim.Globularbodyslightly towardthetop.Rimdiameter elongated 17 cm,fabric5. Rimflat,slightly 4.12 (fig.149.4). neckandglobularbody.Rimdiameter everted;shortcylindrical 12 cm,fabric1. 4.13 (fig.149.5). Flat,tapering rim,highly everted, attacheddirectly to theglobularbody.Rimdiameter18.5cm,fabrics1 and5. 4.14 (fig.149.6). Flat,tapering, slightly evertedrim,attacheddirectly to thebody.Lid seatingbetween therimandtheshoulderofthebody.Rimdiameter fabric 1. 13.5cm, 4.15 (fig149.7).Flat,tapering, evertedrim.A depression formsa lid seatingjustbelowtherim.Rim diameter 13 cm,fabric1. 4.16 (fig.149.8).Flat,tapering roundedon theoutside;globularbody.Rimdiameter rim,slightly 14 cm,fabric1. As graph12shows,themostcommon oftheeleventh variants andtwelfth centuries are4.06,4.10, 4.11,and4.16.Theseareabsentinthelastperiod,giving wayto subtypes withmorehighly articulated rims,likevariants 4.02,4.04,and4.12-4.15.
Fig. 149. EH, cookingwarestype4.09-4.16 (EC).
2
K_ 3
_
4
5
K. -
6
7
01
8
6
THE FINDS
340
3
I *Period
3
4:01 '4:0 '403 4:0
4
4W 4-0 4.49 4106 *11 4:12 4:13 4:14 4:15 4:16
Graph12.Cosa4: MNIbysubtype.
COSATYPE 5: PIGNATTE 5.01 (fig. 150.1). Flat, evertedrim,curvedon the outside; globularbody of mediumcapacity.Superficial grooveon the exteriorjust below the rim,possiblyfordecoration.Rim diameter12 cm, fabric4. 5.02 (fig. 150.2). Flat, curvedrim,highlythinningon the outside,witha shortcylindricalneck and a globularbody of mediumcapacity.Rim diameter13 cm,fabric1.
5.03 (fig. 150.3). Rounded rim,flattenedon the exterior,highlyeverted.This variantpresentsa clear distinctionbetweenthe shouldersand thebody of thevase. The capacityis low. Rimdiameter10.5cm, fabric1.
neck and globu5.04 (fig.150.4). Rounded and thickenedrim,thinningon theoutside.Shortcylindrical lar body of mediumcapacity.Rim diameter13 cm,fabric1. 5.05 (fig. 150.5). Rounded and slightlyevertedrim,thinningon the outside. Small lid seatingon the inside. Globular body of medium capacity. Rim diameter 13.5 cm, fabric 5.
Subtype
MNI periodI (1 l th-12thcent.)
5.01
5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 total
1 1 1 3
MNI periodII (13th-i 4thcent.)
Totals
1
1
3
4 1 1 1 8
1 5 Table12.Pignatte typeCosa5.
The onlysubtypethatappears in both periodsis 5.02 (table 12). Subtypes5.01 and 5.05 are found onlyin contextwithglazed ceramics,whiletheothertwo are foundonlyin earliercontexts.However,as Similarpignatte thereare onlyeightexamplesin all, theseconclusionsshouldbe regardedas preliminary. havebeen foundelsewherein Tuscany,at Poggibonsi,Rocca S. Silvestro,MonteZignago,and Grosseto.bu "I
For Poggibonsi,Nardini 1996,265f.:Our pignatte5.4 datingbetweenthe end of the thirteenth and the beginare veryclose to the olla illustratedon pl. XVII.8 (p. ning of the fourteenthcenturies; both are found at 271). This is also foundin othercenters,such as Rocca Poggibonsi (5.3 is similar to Nardini 1996, 272, pl. S. Silvestro(Francovichand Parenti1987,pl. XII.4) and XIX.10, while5.5 is similarto 271, pl. XVII.7). Subtype Monte Zignago (Giannichedda 1990b, I, no. 1, H2 68, 5.5 has also been found at Grosseto (Francovich and p. 375). Subtypes5.3 and 5.5 are commonin contexts Gelichi 1980, 91, pl. XV.31).
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
__0
0
~~
341
wares Fig.150.EH, cooking type5 (EC).
v
2
3
4
5
01
6
COSATYPE6: PIGNATTE 6.01 (fig.151.1). Indistinctrim,slightlyeverted,globularbody,and flatbase finishedwitha knife.Rim diameter14 cm,fabric1. 6.02 (fig.151.2). Indistinctrim,slightlyeverted,thinneron the externaledge. Slightgrooveunderthe rim.The globularbody has a large capacity.Rim diameter18 cm,fabric5. 6.03 (fig.151.3). Indistinctrim,barelyeverted,attacheddirectlyto the shoulderof the body.Perhaps one of the earliesttypes,althoughit is foundin latercontexts.Rim diameter10 cm,fabric1. 6.04 (fig. 151.4). Indistinctrim,slightlythinningand everted.The neck is placed directlyover the globularbody.Rim diameter10.5 cm,fabric1. 6.05 (fig.151.5). Indistinctverticalring,attacheddirectlyto theglobularbody.Rimdiameter15.5 cm,
fabrics 1 and 7.
THE FINDS
342
6.06 (fig.151.6).Indistinct everted.The shortcylindrical neckemphasizedby a slight rim,slightly groove.Rimdiameter 13 cm,fabric1. rim.Theprofile is markedbya deepgroovejustbelowthe 6.07 (fig.151.7).Slightly thickened vertical rim.Shortneckandglobularbody.Verysimilar to subtype 5, whichitseemsto derivefrom.Rimdiameter14 cm,fabric1.
1
I
*Peod
1
;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 0 6:01
6:02
603
II
&04
6*05
_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
6:06
6:07
Graph13.Cosa6: MNI bysubtype
in theearlyperiod,and As graph13 makesclear,forms 6.05,6.06,and6.07 arefoundexclusively 6.01 and6.02 in thelaterperiod.Only6.03 and6.04 areproducedin bothperiods.
-------
20 15
-
*Peniodl
-
uIinPerodIli
'?101 5 Cosa4
Cosa5
Con 6
Graph14.Comparison among types 4,5, and6.
Graph14 showstherelativenumbersof each typeduringthetwoperiods:it is clearthatthereis a difference reasonablecontinuity forall threetypes,whichmightsuggesta functional amongthem,as no one typereplacesanother. PansforBread.The typicalpan forbread,or testo,foundat Cosa has a shortverticalrim.Theseare witha verycoarsefabriccharacterized thanthosefoundinthe simpleopenforms, bylargerinclusions othercookingwares.Mostoftheexampleswereproducedon a slowwheel,whichresultsin a great formsof thedifferent ofprofiles. The heightofthewallsvaries,as doestheirshape.However, variety ofculturalchangebutaresimply theexamplesrecovered giveno indication productsofthevariation Burntsections characteristic ofdomestic production. showing exposuretotheflameorcoalsarepresent overor nextto bothinsideand outsidethepots.Thisis due to thepracticeofplacingthemdirectly thecoalswhenbakingunleavened bread.
1
2
3
4
5
6
>
<
Or ~ ~~~1
7 Fig. 151. EH, cookingwarestype6 (BC).
6
344
THE FINDS
findsofthesamesortareknownfromLiguria,758 inTuscany,759 andinthesouthern Contemporary TheirpresCirculartestiofthistypeprobablybelongto an earlymedievaltradition.761 Maremma.760 andthethirteenth testifies totheabsenceofdomestic enceatAnsedoniabetweentheeleventh century of For thisreasonit was necessary to use therathercrudersystem or collectiveovenson thesite.762 of a cookingbreadon thehearth-which may,of course,havealso been relatedto thepreservation tradition. culinary domestic oftheseforms makesa typological division uselessfrom thelargely Although production ofthevesseltypes, we havecreatedonein orderto aid thequantithepointofviewofthechronology someofthetestiseemto havebeenproducedon a fast fication ofthenumberofindividuals. Further, betweenCosa types7 and8. wheel.Thisis thedifference COSATYPE 7 7.01 (fig.152.1).Highlyevertedrimjoininga wall3 cmhigh.Flatbase.Rimdiameter 25 cm,fabrics1 and5.
betweentherimandthewall,whichis 4 cm 7.02 (fig.152.2).Highlyevertedrim,withno distinction high.Rimdiameter 34 cm,fabrics 3 and5. thick.Rimdiam7.03 (fig.152.3).Highlyevertedrimjoininga wall3.5 cmhigh.Thebaseis unusually and eter22 cm,fabrics 3 5. 7.04 (fig.152.4).Highlyeverted rim,roundedon theuppermargin, andjoiningthewall,whichis 3 cm high.Rimdiameter 34 cm,fabrics 4 and5. evertedrimjoiningan everted wall4 cmhigh.Rimdiameter 7.05 (fig.152.5).Slightly 24 cm,fabrics 4 and5. 7.06(fig.152.6).Almostvertical between itandthewalls.A carination tapering rim,withno distinction dividesitfromthebase.Height5 cm.Rimdiameter 24 cm,fabric4. 7.07 (fig.152.7).Highlyeverted, roundedrim,distinct fromthewall,a low foot.Thisis one ofthe largesttypes,5.5 cmhigh.Rimdiameter 32 cm,fabric4. 7.08 (fig.152.8).Indistinct evertedrim,walls5 cmhigh.Rimdiameter 29 cm,fabric4. rimjoiningwalls6 cmhigh,whichin turnslopeintotheflatbase. 7.09 (fig.152.9).Indistinct vertical Thistestois verysimilar to thecasseroles, which,however, occurlater. COSATYPE 8
8.01 (fig.153.1).Flatrim,roundedat theedge,withan evertedlip. The flatbase curvesup intothe 18 cm,fabric5. walls,whichare3.5 cmhigh.Rimdiameter Ambrosi1975, 375; Mannoni 1975, types10 and 17, pp. 25, 32, 34, 146-147, figs.11.6, 19. 758
Francovich1982,67; Whitehouse1978,146-147; Leopolis-Cencelle(Tarquinia):Cirelli1998,111,fig. 760
1.
Montecastrese (Lucca): Pucciarelli and Redi 1997, 232-235, pls. I-II. Viareggio:Paribeni and Rovai 1995, 96. San Salvatore a Vaiano (Prato): Francovich and Vannini 1976, 123. Ripafratta(Pisa): Renzi Rizzo 1989, II.1,2. 759
761
Mannoni1965,19;PuciarelliandRedi1997,233.
762
Pesez 1986,65-92;Lecuyer1998,87.
I
2
<<~~~~~~~ \
\
)
_/~~~~~~~~~~~~3
4
5
6
7
8
01 Fig.152.EH, cookingwarestype7 (EC).
6
THE FINDS
346
8.02 (fig.153.2). Flat, taperingrim,the flatbase curvingup into the walls,3.5 cm high.Rim diameter 25 cm,fabrics1, 4, and 5. 8.03 (fig.153.3). Flat rim,taperingon the exterioredge, slightlyeverted.The flatbase curvesup into thewalls,whichare 4 cm high.Rim diameter24 cm,fabric5.
aPeriod | ___I a Periodil
5 4 3 2 0-
701
70
7:0
7:04
70
706
7:7
7.0
70
Graph 15. Cosa type 7: MNI by subtype.
25
imPeriodil'
&801
802
8:03
Graph 16. Cosa type 8: MNI by subtype.
Graphs 15 and 16 show how rarethe pieces made on a fastwheel are, comparedto the domestic fewertestioverall production-theyrepresentonly11 percentofthe "totals"quantity.Thereare slightly in the second period, and of theseslightlyfewerwere made at home on a slow wheel. Lids. Not manylids were found,especiallywhen comparedto the numberofpignattewithwhichthey musthavebeen associated(table 13). Probablyeach lid could havebeen used on variousvessels.None of sitesin centraland southernLazio werefound.763 thepyramidallids foundon a numberof contemporary All of the lids belong to a singletype,Cosa 9. This is a simpledisk of clay,slightlyraisedin the center, wherea handleis found.The variantslistedhereare based on theshape oftherimand theoverallheight. COSATYPE 9 9.01 (fig. 154.1). Flat lid witha thickenedrimand cylindricalhandle. Rim diameter14 cm, fabrics1 and 5. 9.02 (fig.154.2). Rounded, thickenedrimand thickwalls,workedon a slow wheel. Cylindricalhandle. Rim diameter16 cm, fabrics1 and 4. 9.03 (fig. 154.3). Rounded lid with a flatrim,sloping towardthe inside. Thick walls and cylindrical withthe lid seatingof thepignatte.Rim diameter14 cm, handle. The formof the rimmarriesperfectly fabrics 4 and 5. 763
Balbi5, 236-237;Mazzucato1976,63. Crypta
2
3
0 i9 Fig. 153. EH, cookingwarestype8 (EC).
2
3
4
5
01 Fig. 154. EH, cookingwares,lidstype9 (EC).
6
THE FINDS
348
towardtheouteredge.The thickwalls rim,tapering 9.04 (fig.154.4).Roundedlid withan indistinct 20 cm,fabric4. wereworkedwitha slowwheel.Rimdiameter lid withindistinct rim,thinwallsworkedon a fastwheel.Rimdiam9.05 (fig.154.5).Hemispherical eter21 cm,fabric4. Subtype 9.01 9.02 9.03
9.04 9.05 totals
MNI periodI (1l th-12thcent.) 2
MNI periodII (13th-14thcent.) 2 2
Totals 4 2
1
1
2
4
1 6
1
1 1 10
Table13.LidstypeCosa9.
ofthecookingpots Catini.In thecontextofthethirteenth andfourteenth centuries thecoarsefabrics in thisperiod.Theseareknownas was also usedforlargebowlsofa formthatwasnewlyintroduced conchae.7"6 catinior,as theyareknownin theGenoesenotarialarchives, Theywereusedforwashing, butalsoas serving dishes.Theexamplesfound as welearnfromtheexpression "prolavandomanibus," at Cosa havestampedorinciseddecoration on theirrims.The stampson thevesselCosa 10.02,from theEasternHeight,canbe comparedto material fromtheexcavations at TorredellaFameat Pisa.765 to by the formulaad opperam[sic] In documents,thistypeof decorationseemsto be referred whichsuggests thesupposedprovenance of thedecorative style.A recipient witha damaschinam,766 wasfoundatRipafratta.767 profileverysimilar to subtype10.03,without decoration, werefoundon theexcavation. The fabricis no. 4, whichis also Onlyfouridentifiable fragments ofsomeofthelidsandalmostall ofthetesti. characteristic COSATYPE 10
rimslightly 10.01(fig.155.1).Roundedandthickened curvedinward.Thebodyhasthickwallsovera concavebase,due perhapsto thepressureofthehandswhena string was used to removeit slightly fromthewheel.No decoration was foundon therimexcepta deep centralgroove.Rimdiameter 30 cm. 10.02(fig.155.2).Flat,taperedrim;thelip is rounded,folded,and decoratedwithstampsat regular intervals of 2.5 cm. The evertedwallsjoin a flatbase, removedfromthewheelwitha string.Rim diameter 40 cm. 10.03(fig.155.3).Flattaperedrimwitha roundedlip. The top edgeofthewallsis decoratedwitha Rimdiameter zigzagmotif. 40 cm. withthick,porouswalls.Rim 10.04(fig.155.4).Thickenedrimfoldedupward.The bodyis everted, diameter 42 cm. 764 Barbero, Mannoni, and Mannoni Sorarui1973, 5051.
vals: Busi 1984, 83.
766 Inv. Petrina filia Frederici de pagana et uxor qd. The stamp type is that classified by Berti and BabilaniGibo (1389): Barberoand MannoniSorarut 1973, Gelichi as I/c: Bertiand Gelichi 1995c, 217, XIII. The 47. catino fromPisa was 48 cm wide and was decorated on the rimwith more than 30 stamps at regularinter- 767 Renzi Rizzo 1989, V, 25.
765
Fig. 155. EH,
._______
coarsewares type10 (EC).
l
l
~~~6
2
14!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
3
350
THE FINDS
Conclusions (EC andMH) ofsomeaspectsofdaily The studyofthemedievalceramics givesus a clearerunderstanding thefourteenth centuries andthesocialandcultural lifein theeleventh through implications ofthestructures studied. fewcenturies oftheMiddle Whatis mostevidentis thepaucityofforms. Duringthefirst tobe duetoa fragmented andclosedeconomy. is generally Agesthisstateofaffairs suggested and formula is bothextreme However, manystudieshaveshownhowthe"closedeconomy" inthecenturies theyear1000,whentheboomin toohasty. It is evenlessjustifiable following tradeofthemaritime republicstookplace.It is intothisperiodwe mustfittheexcavated contexts. arethemostimportant. Ofthelimited rangeofcookingwares,theglobular pignatte They theMiddleAges.In theirtraditional continued to be theprincipalcookingpotsthroughout thethicksoupsand gruels and consuming form, theycouldbe usedforcooking,reheating, thatformedthebasisforthemedievaldiet.Theycouldevenbe used forstorage,forthis limitedrepertory of formsin domesticuse. The periodwas characterized by an extremely culture thusexplainsthelongdominance ofboiledfoods.768 Hearths verynatureofthematerial andcookingdependedon theembers, weregenerally smallandrudimentary, whichnecessarily implied dishes that could be cooked slowly.769 However,thereis a clear disjunctionbe-
in domestic tweenmaterial fromexcavations contexts andwhatwe knowfromdocumentary evidence.It seemsthatthehabitof frying foodneverentirely disappearedin theMiddle offrying ofthetwelfth Ages,as we can see fromthemention pansin documents century770 in earlymedievalburials.771 Thesepansweremadeofmetal,sometimes andtheiroccurrence ofdepositing we copperbutmostofteniron.Once thetradition objectsin tombsdisappears, no longerfindtheminexcavations. We thusareinno positionto claimthatonlyboiledfoods wereconsumed andto deducefromthisassertion thatthechoicewasbasedon poverty.772 Thus,althoughtheceramicsfromAnsedoniamightsuggestthatthesitewas relatively to suppliesofdopoor,we cannotbe certainofthis.The studyofnotarialarchivesrelating mesticcontainers usedin somehousesat Genoarevealedthenumerical superiority ofmetal, Thesesurvive muchlesswellthanpottery. wood,andglasscomparedto ceramics. Metaland wereremelted andrecycled, glass,in general, whilewoodis noteasilyfoundin archaeological deposits.We cannotexcludethepossibility thatthehousehold(s)examinedherehad a richermaterialcultureat theirdisposalthanwhathas emergedfromtheexcavations. It is madeofvaluableglassand metalwereownedonlybytherichest probablethatcontainers families-for classes.Woodandcoppercouldhavebeenusedby example,therisingtrading thepoorestfamilies, likethosesettledinthehumblestructures studiedon theEasternHeight. However, thedepositsfromAnsedonia arestillnotableforthelackofunglazedfinewares. In contexts oftheeleventh andtwelfth centuries a totaloftwopitchers withalmond-shaped werefound,an infinitesimal spouts("conbeccoa mandorla") percentage whencomparedto 768
Lecuyer 1998, 88.
769
Faure and Boucharlat1990, 29-32.
specified:"pro assandopisces o foreminatama pro castaneis" (BarberoandMannoniSorarui 1973,56). 771
Chiudano and Moresco 1935, textsfromRaimundo Piccenado (1156) and Wuilielmi Scarsarie (1164). In some twelfth-century documentsthe use of the pans is
PasquiandParibeni1919;Giannicheda 1993,581.
770
ThisclaimthattheMiddleAgeswascharacterized bya "monopolio delbollito"is madebyGiovannini 1998,17.
772
THE MEDIEVALPOTTERY
351
the finewaresat Rocca San Silvestro,wherewell-levigatedtable wares amountto 27 percent In the next period the growthin finewaresis marginal:4 percentof the potof the finds.773 terystudied. Good comparisonsforthe deposit come fromCampiglia Marittimaand from Both sitesare nearthe coast and closelyconScarlino-although both are stillunderstudy.774 nected to Pisa. On these sites,as at Ansedonia,the majorityof all ceramicswere imported fromelsewhere,withthe singleexceptionof the cookingpots. In our case, the close relationship withRome meantthatthe few finewarespresentwere produced in Latium,while the arrivalof theAldobrandeschiswitchedthe focusto Pisa. The largestgroupof medievalpotteryis the archaicmaiolica,whichwas importedfrom differentcentersin centralItaly.A few examples of archaic maiolica have been analyzed, Most of the identificationof the provconfirmingthat theywere not produced locally.775 enance of the potterycomes fromthe shape and the decoration,but these have also been confirmedby theseanalyses.Undoubtedly,Pisa was the majorsupplierforAnsedoniaat the end of its occupation. The characteristicorangePisan fabricis farmore commonthan any other.However,tradewithothercenterstook place, as otherfabricson site confirm.Three othergeographicalareas have been identifiedfrommineralogicalanalysis.776 Apartfromthose of Pisa, we findmaterialfromSiena, Viterbo,Assisi,and Montalcino. Althoughdocumentsshow that potterswere active in Pisa fromthe beginningof the thirteenth century,most of the archaeologicalevidence suggeststhatthe followingcentury saw a widertradingnetwork.777 Beforethemiddleof thethirteenth centurypotterswereproducing largelyunglazed material.Recentlyresearchhas focused on how the glazing technique was introducedin Italy and along the Mediterraneancoastline and how the "know how" spread fromone productioncenterto the other.778 The knowledgeof the new techniques usingeithertinor lead glaze over the fabricseems to have been transmitted by individualswho came directlyfromplaces outsideItalywhereglazingwas used sinceno tracesof have yetbeen foundaround kilns.779 experimentation Anotherfactorin the diffusionof the process is the amountof tradecarriedout by the citiesalong the coast. Citieswhose trading networksare suggestedby the largestnumbersof importedvesselswere those thatbecame the largestlocal producers.This was trueof Pisa and Savona. In fact,it is knownthatPisan merchantstraveledextensively in NorthAfricaand Sicily,both areas whereglazingwas common.780 These were the areas fromwhichthe potterswiththe necessaryskillscame. We can assumethat,as thedemandforimportedglazed potterygrew,some local entrepreneurs must have decided to imitatetheirproducts,hiringspecialistsfromabroad. The presenceof Pisan archaic maiolica in thirteenth-century contextsin most of the recentexcavationsin central "I
Boldrini,Grassi, and Molinari 1997, 117.
774
Francovich 1991,3.
775 The minero-petrografiche analyseswere carriedout by Pattersonand Sfrecolain 1992.
Of the fivefragments analyzedfourdifferent mineral groups/areasof provenancehave been identified.Only twoareaswererecognized:Pisa (similarmaterialpresent in Rocca San Silvestro)and Latium.The resultsindicate characteristicstypicalof the Maremma:Pattersonand Sfrecola,pers. com. 776
Blake 1980, 91-151. The authormentionsa number of potteryproducersin Pisa after1291, and Palumbo's researchof the Assisi archivesshows dates as earlyas 1257, 1261, and 1270. More recentlyBertihas demonstratedthatPisa produced archaic maiolica from1210 to 1230 (Bertiand Gelichi 1995a, 226-227; Berti1997).
777
Bertiand Gelichi 1995b,409-445; Berti,Gelichi,and Mannoni 1997, 383-403.
778
779 Berti, Gelichi, and
1997, 251-271.
Mannoni, 1997, 389-391; Berti
780Bertiand Gelichi 1995a, 129-164.
352
THE FINDS
republicof Savona,in Liguria,tiedto theotherseafaring Italyconfirms itswidecirculation. The fewfragments ofGraffita ArcaicaTirrenica foundat Genoa,sharesa similarsituation. Italian towns and between central Liguriais well Ansedoniacamefromthisregion.Trade in Genoa as farback as the Tuscanmerchants whilewritten sourcesmention documented, in mostofthesettlements on ArcaicaTirrenica The presenceofGraffita twelfth century.781 confirmation oftheserelationships.782 thecoastis thematerial southof Latium:theapparenttotalabThereis no evidencefortradewithanywhere thatAnsedoniawasnot confirms theothermajorItalianproduction, senceofProtomaiolica, from absenceofimported fromsouthern Italy.Thecomplete glazedpottery importing pottery ofAnsedoniawasimporting only NorthAfricaallowsus alsoto concludethatthesettlement fromtheproducersin Pisa, Savona,and Latium.Bothoftheotherexcavatedsites, pottery havefragments tothenorth, of tothesouthandtheRoccaSanSilvestro thecastleofTricosto CobaltandManganesewares,ofwhichthereis no traceatAnsedonia. theNorthAfrican thaton otherexcavatedsitesin theregion, The material cultureat Ansedoniaresembles thatthemarkets and sourcesofexchangewerethesame,at leastforthosemore suggesting inthewaythesesettlewhatwasperhapsa pattern commonclasses.To attempt to summarize atthisstage.We theirmerchandise andwerestructured mayseempremature mentsexchanged in mind the of the last centuries of the castle's lifehavenot thatmostof contexts two mustkeep andthematerial discussedherecomesinlargepartfromdestruction beenexcavated, layers. inTuscany, theimthesimilarity ofthepottery elsewhere including complexes However, linked road The inland traffic ran the is almost to the along system. portedmaterial, certainly theancientRoman Francigena, theelaborateroad systemthatled to France,overlapping would roads,suchas theCassia,theClodia,andtheAemilia.PisanandGenovesemerchants tradetheirimported Orbetello, goodsbothon thecoast,to sitessuchas Tuscania,Tricosto, and thenewSieneseportat Talamone,and to inlandsites.ThoseservedbytheFrancigena On thecoast Siena,andLucca,to mention themostrelevant. includedOrvieto,Montalcino, theVia Aureliaconnected Grossetoand Orbetello.Thiscomplemented thesea routes,servroadsaroundEurope.783 ingtravelers movingnorth,spillingontotherestofthepilgrimage The different overthe"lost"territories of to asserttheirsovereignty powersstruggling theAgerCosanus,abandonedduringtheearlyMiddleAges,suggestotherwaysofinterpretingthismaterial. ImportsfromLatiumgivewayto thosefromPisa andTuscanyin thethirteenthcentury, fromtheRomanabbeyof S. Anastasioto parallelto theshiftin ownership theAldobrandeschi. However,theprevalenceof coinsfromthePapal Statesin thesmall hoardfromthecisternsuggeststhatthefamily residentat Ansedoniawas in contactwith bothofitspowerful We shouldperhapsreexamine therelationships betweenthe neighbors. andthecitiesofTuscanyandthePapal States. Aldobrandeschi Thisfirst toimposesomeorderoverthematerial ofmedieval settleculture stepattempts of to completethehistory mentlife.Far moredetailedanalysisstillneedsto be undertaken thematerial cultureofcentralItaly,as we continueto tryto reconstruct rich thisextremely andvitalhistoric moment. 781Waley 1961, 82, note 2.
See also Rocca San Silvestro(Francoviched. 1991), Scarlino (Francovich 1985), Tuscania (Johns 1973), Tricosto(Dyson 1985; Hobart is currently studyingthe material). 782
783 Carnabuci 1992, for roads on the coast; De strata francigena, II, 1994 Poggibonsi,forroads in Tuscanyand northern Latium; De strata francigena, III, 1995 Poggibonsi,forroads thatled to Viterboand Tuscany; De stratafrancigenaV/1, 1997 Poggibonsi,forroads that led to Siena.
Remains The HumanSkeletal Gruspier Katherine
umich.edu/webhome/cosa/) ofBurials(www.press. Discussion ofCatalogue ANALYSIS DEMOGRAPHIC
The
to potentialproblemswithagingtheskeletalremainsfromthissitewillbe familiar of werechosenforagedetermination A numberofwell-tested methods anyosteologist. remains.785 of the adult as wellas fortheage andsex determinations juvenileremains,784 graphically below.Graph17 includes curveforthesampleis presented The mortality inwhocouldbe agedand/orsexed.The totalnumberofarticulated onlythoseindividuals oftheskeletons weresubadult(42 percent), twentydividualsexcavatedwas91. Thirty-eight weremale(25 percent),and twoadults eightwereadultfemale(31 percent),twenty-three did nothavesex determined (2 percent).Only5 percentofthesampleis composedofinlessthanonewouldexpect.Infantmortalfantsfrombirthto one year.Thisis considerably suggest documents societiesoftenapproached50 percent.Contemporary ityin premodern and thishas been seenin the thatinfants wereburiedin a separatepartof thecemetery, miningvillagenorthof ofRocca San Silvestro, a contemporary excavationofthecemetery cranialsutureclosure(Meindland Lovejoy1985), sternal rib end metamorphosis(Iscan, Loth, and Wright1984; 1985; 1987), dentalattrition (Brothwell1981), and fusion of late-fusing epiphyses(Sucheyet al. 1984). The pubic symphysis morphologyand thelate-fusing epiphysesproved to be the most usefulstandards.Auricularsurfacemorphologyand cranial suture closure oftenpresenteda verybroad,essentially uselessage range or did not concur with resultsderivedfromother age indicators.In the case of the cranialsutureclosurestan785 Sex was determinedfor the adult skeletonsby mordards, this is simplybecause the rangesresultingfrom phologicalobservationsforthoseskeletonswithos coxae the scoringare verybroad. In the case of the auricular and/orcrania.Wherethesewerenot available,compari- surfacemethod,it is oftendifficultto assess, even with fromskeletonsofdeterminedsex ample experience,and subjectto unknowablevariation son withmeasurements withinthe skeletalsample was done. The widthsof the in samplessuch as thisone withextensivevertebralpahead of the humerusand femur,the bicondylarbreadth thologyin the older individuals. Both morphological of the femur,and the lengthsof the long bones proved methodsbased on changes of articularsurfacesof the to be the most discriminatingmeasurements.Sex was pelvisbecome suspectin females,withwhomthe rigors determinedwithgreataccuracyforvirtuallythe entire of multiplechildbirthmayacceleratethe changesto the sample. surfaces,makingthemappear older thantheywere.AlAge at deathfortheadultremainswas assessedusinga thoughmanystandardsforscoringdental attritionexnumberofmorphologicalindicators.All availableindica- ist, Brothwell'sstandardbased upon Neolithic to metorswere assessed on everyskeleton.The standardsuti- dieval Britishskulls is simple and worked well forthis lized werepubic symphysis morphology(Katz and Suchey sample. The attritionages were almostalwaysin agree1989),auricularsurfacemorphology(Lovejoyet al. 1985), mentwiththose derivedby othermethods.
The juvenile remainswere aged using the standards of Morreess,Fanning,and Hunt (1963a; 1963b) fordental calcification,Ubelaker 1989 fordentalformationand eruption,and Maresh 1955 and Merchantand Ubelaker 1977 fordiaphyseallength.Additionalage standardsfor olderjuvenileswerederivedfromWilliamsand Warwick 1980, Suchey et al. 1984, and Krogmanand Iscan 1986 forepiphysealfusion.Sex was not determinedforprepubertalindividuals. 784
353
354
THE FINDS
*14 12 -
Alizji@
vefileul
/
34 2
Age,Cohort Graph17.ForumII, ageatdeath.
Cosa.78 At Rocca San Silvestro,two areas of the cemeterywereutilizedfortheburialof neonates and fetalskeletons.It is mostlikelythatthe limitedexcavationof the Forum II cemeterydid not include the infantburial area or thatthe concentrationof infantswas removed by the 1953 excavation. ofa livingpopulationfroma mortality curveofa sample Paleodemographicreconstruction of dead individualsis highlyconjectural.In thiscase, onlya portionof the cemeterysample is available forstudy,and thereis no way of knowingifthiscemeterywas the onlyone used by the population. Habitation of the site has not been adequatelylocated forthistimeperiod, and we do not know how long the cemeterywas in use.787However,thereis no reason to suspectthatthe excavatedremainsdo not representa randomsampleof the adults,as the sex ratiois near 50/50,as would be expected. The ages at death do not show anyparticular peaks thatmightsuggesthazards at a certainage or deliberateburialin a specificpartof the cemeteryfora specificage and sex group (withthe possible exceptionof the infants,as discussed above). There are apparentlymoreolder femalesthanolder males,but thismaybe a resultof theage determination methods,and theeffectsof childbearingon them,as opposed to anyreal suggestionthatfemalestendedto live longer. ANDSUBADULT STATURE OF HEALTH788 GROWTHASANINDICATION
The mean livingheightformales in the sample was 170 cm, and forfemalesit was 160 cm. The resultsare depicted in graph 18. The femalespresentmore of a rangeof heights,while the males tend to clusteraround the mean. Many studieshave suggestedthatthe assessment of subadultgrowthby comparisonof age at death determinedfromthelong bone diaphyses 786
Gruspierin Francovichforthcoming.
greeofmorphologicalage-relatedchanges.
In additionto theproblemswithreconstructing demog- 788 The livingheightwas calculatedforall adultindividuraphyspecificto thisarchaeologicalsite,therearethemany als withmeasurablepostcranialbones utilizingthe stanuncertainties withderivingan age at deathfromskeletal dards of Trotterand Gleser (1952; 1958) forwhiteindimaterial.For a criticaldiscussionseeJackes1992.The skel- viduals. In all cases where therewas a choice of bone, etonsfromCosa werealwaysassignedbroad age rangesin the equation fittingthe bone withthe least standarderorderto includeall age indicatorsand wererankedby de- rorwas chosen. No correctionforage was calculated.
787
THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS
355
1412-
10 lo U Male 0
Female
2-
0
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
Height in cm Graph 18. ForumII, adultstature.
to ageat deathdetermined fromdentalcalcification anderuption is a usefulindication ofthe healthofpastpopulations. Thegeneraltheory thatifdiaphyseal suggests growth lagsbehind dentaldevelopment, thechildrenare notreceiving and/orare subadequatenourishment to theirgrowth.789 jected diseasesthathaveaffected Methodological in thisapproach,as we cannotsex subadultreproblemsare inherent mains,and mostof thestandardsforinterpretation of chronological age are presented by sex. Further, thesestandardsare based uponmodernpopulations, or geographically unrelatedpopulations, andno datahavebeenpublishedthatprovidetheageinterpretation standardsfromboththeteethand diaphyses ofthesamepopulation.790 Therewerefifteen in theCosa samplethathad dentalremains subadultindividuals and forage comparison. Of these,onlythreeshoweddifferences longboneremains betweenthe In all cases,thedentalage agesjudgedbylongbonesand thosejudgedbydentalstandards. was a yearor moreaheadofthediaphyseal betweendentaland age.The generalagreement diaphysealages in thesamplesuggeststhat,forthemostpart,thechildrenof Cosa were and werenotchronically receiving adequatenutrition ill. The threeanomalousindividuals mayhavebeensubjectedto chronicdiseaseor undernutrition, ortheymaysimply be exhibitingnormalvariancein growth, whichwouldhaveled to shorter stature as an adult. PALEOPATHOLOGY
DentalDisease.The rateofdentaldiseaseforthesampleis quitelow.In general, theteethare lessaffected bycariesandabscessesthanhasbeenseeninotherpopulations (e.g.,RoccaSan horticultural NativeNorthAmerican Silvestro,791 A surprisingly groups,andothers). highinciopment. Thedentalcalcification standards werederived froma sampleof Americanchildrenof knownage 790 For the Cosa sample, the standardsof Maresh 1955 (Moorrees, Fanning, andHunt1963a;1963b).In both and Merchantand Ubelaker 1977 wereused fordiaphy- thissampleandothersimilar research (Gruspier1998), seal lengths. The Maresh standards are derived from theresults ofdiaphyseal age derivedfromMaresh1955 Colorado childrenofknownage,whiletheMerchantand andUbelaker1977agreed, in almostall cases. 789
Buikstraand Cook 1980; Mensforthet al. 1978.
Ubelaker standards are derived from protohistoric Arikaraskeletonswithage determinedby dental devel-
791 Gruspierforthcoming.
356
THE FINDS
251 20 15 I-ea SA 15 * S ' 0Caries/Abscess 10
|-~~~~~~sFracture/Wear|
*
5 0 Young Female
Young Male Old Female
Old Male
Age and Sex Group
Graph19.ForumII, dentaldisease.
and antemortem enamelfracture is seenin thesample.Thisis thetypeof denceofattrition Thepattern ofdiseaseatCosa is indicausewearthatis mostoftenseeninhunter-gatherers. and sugarsbuthighin gritand fiber.Somecaritiveofa dietlow in refined carbohydrates andsugarswereconsumed, as cariesandabscessesarepresent. ogenicprocessed carbohydrates In truepreagricultural is rapid,withtheabrasivenatureofthe groups,therateofattrition thepitsand cleaningthesurfaces wherecariescouldform.It seemsplaufoodsmoothing methodsusedforthegrainforbread,whichwasa stapleof sibleto acceptthatthegrinding medievalTuscandiets,introduced enoughgritto cause thewearseenin thissample.The numberofenamelfractures is highalso,buttheydo notroutinely occuron theanterior as areunlikely teethand therefore to havebeencausedbytheuse of opposedto theposterior theteethas tools.The amountofgritinthedietmaywellhavebeenthecauseoftheenamel fractures as well. intheincidenceofcariesandabscesses difference Graph19showsthatthereis a definite andwearbysex andageinthesample.The "old"malesandfemales as opposedto fractures whowere30+ yearsat death.Onlyadults(thosethatcouldbe sexed) arethoseindividuals no dentalcariesor abscesses,and onlytwo wereincludedin thegraph.Juveniles exhibited olderjuvenilesexhibitedwearand fractures. The samplesuggests thatthefemalesareless affected differential accesstofoodtypes. bycariesandabscessesthanthemales.Thissuggests In mostcultures, females aremoreconcerned thanmaleswithprocessing foodsandbringing themto thefamily tableand thushavemoreaccessto preparedfoods.As a result,theyare moreaffected thatatCosa maleshadmoreaccessto generally bycaries.792 Graph19 suggests refinedcarbohydrates and sugars(cariogenic foods)thanthefemales, resulting in a higher rateofcaries.Alternatively, theresults inthepopulation thatfemales maysuggest weremore concerned withdentalhygiene andmadeefforts tocleansetheteethofpotentially cariogeneic The rateoffractures material. andwearis similarforthesexesbyage exceptfortheolder males,whereitis muchlessthanforthefemales. Accessto different dietsmightsuggest that Physiologicalfactorshave been cited fordifferences archaeologicalpopulations(Walker1986). Clinicalstudin frequencies of dental caries between females and ies have failedto provephysiologicalreasonsforwomen males, as femalesare more affectedthan males in most beingmoreproneto cariesthanmen (Larsenet al. 1991). 792
THE HUMANSKELETALREMAINS
357
or thanthefemales, themalesofthepopulationweremoreoftenawayfromthesettlement accessto morehighlyrefinedand therefore thatculturalpracticesgavemalesa preferred higherqualityfoods. thatthepeopleofCosa would AnemiasandMalaria.Thereis a strongsuggestion Hemolytic anemia.The Maremma was an endemicmabymalariaand/orhemolytic havebeenaffected Eventoday,themosquitoesare verymuchin evidence, larialarea untilrelatively recently. in thestagnant In additionto this,the watersnearthecoastoftheMediterranean. breeding whichwouldhaveprovidedamplestanding on cisterns, townofCosa is builtalmostentirely waterformosquitobreeding. totheeffects someimmunity Somehaveobservedthathavingthesicklecelltraitconfers in theearlychildhoodperiod.793 Almostall ofthesicklecelldiseases, ofmalaria,particularly occurin Italy sicklecell diseaseand alpha and beta thalasemmias, includinghomozygous nowand havebeenpostulatedto haveoccurredthereforsometime.Of thoseindividuals ofsicklecell diseaseor one ofthethalassemias, exhibittheeffects thedocuwhoclinically severe.The changesaregenerally mentedbonechangescan rangefromslightto extremely butthebone changesarenotnecessarily dependent uponwhichtypeofdiseaseis present, themostseverein thoseindividuals whoappearto be themostill. To compoundthediffithisdiseasefromskeletalremains, boutsofmalarialfevercancausesome cultyin diagnosing anemias.794 ofthesameclinicalchangesas do thegenetichemolytic fromCosa exhibitanyoftheseverechangesthatcan noneoftheindividuals Although or homozygous sicklecell disease,thereis quitea be definitely diagnosedas thalassemia and lower legperiostealreactioninthesample. highincidenceofbothporotichyperostosis intheCosa skeletalsample. thefrequency ofporotichyperostosis Graphs20 and21 illustrate of theskullvault,and itsmanifestation in theorbits The severity ofporotichyperostosis cribra from to the lesions areboth severe,and knownas orbitalia,ranges slight extremely thelesionscan all be describedas healingor activeand healing.In the adultsaffected, healed.Overhalfof thechildrenin thesampleare affected (52 percent),whichincludes almostall of thoseovertheage of 3 to 4 years.Twenty-five percentof theadultsare afis oppositeto fected.Witha singleexceptionall ofthesearemales.Thissex predilection However,thesamplesize is small,as only20 whathas beenobservedforothersamples.795 thishighsuggestsa heavypathogenload adultshad skulls.A rateofporotichyperostosis or a commonunderlying geneticcausation. In additionto thehighrateofporotichyperostosis, ofthelongbones,in parperiostitis is The of the tibia and also causes this condition areat oncemyriad ticular fibula, veryhigh. Someresearchers and nonspecific. of systemic infection, while suggestthatit is indicative Livingston1971. The heritabilityof sickle cell disease, althoughbased upon simpleMendelianinheritance patterns,can be somewhatcomplicated,and theclinical manifestation of the disease will depend upon thegenotype combinationof the individual.It is generallyaccepted thatthose individualswho are heterozygousfor of the traitwill not exhibitany clinical manifestations the disease (Serjeant 1992). 793
E.g., hemolysisresultingin porotic hyperostosis,as well as chronicleg ulcers resultingin tibial and fibular 794
periostitis (although thismaybe due to livingin subtropical conditions). Malariais causedbya parasite (PlasorP.vivax),andheavyparasite modiumfalciparum loads, in particular malaria,havebeen suggested as a major in skeletalsamples.In cause forporotichyperostosis itis ithasbeensuggested thatphysiologically addition, whoareabletoexhibitthechangesinthe onlychildren skullknownas porotichyperostosis (Stuartand Macadam1985). 795Stuart andMacadam1989.
THE FINDS
358
14 12 CA *10
--Af&etmed Mwam
II -0 Moruk
WI~~~Grp
ooi
yeotssidlsk.
l
um_eul
jS
kl
25 20
injuvlts. Graph20.Forum Fs, porotic hyperostosis
0"~~~~~~~1
Mal
s
15
C&obrt, Age Age Cohort
in aduvnlts. Graph201.Forum II,porotichyperostosis
of ndiiduls
ithlowr lgsareaffcte,
3 pecen
ofth
Affenies, and 0erento
h
adults.Graph22 illustrates theincidencein theadultsample.As graph23 shows,juveniles arelessaffected, andintheadultsamplethesexdistribution is notstatistically different. The was mostoftenverythickand sclerotic, imtypeofperiostealreactionseenon theremains a chronic Few skeletal exhibit rates this from condition.79 plying samples high hypothesized Localized areas of periosteal reactionwere seen, as were active (wovenbone) lesions. Leg ulcersare a common occurrencein individualswithhomozygoussickle cell disease,less commonin theothertypesof sicklecell 796
disease. Theycan arisefromtrauma(even an insectbite) or spontaneously(Serjeant 1992). Untreatedleg ulcers will affecttheunderlyingperiosteum,whichwill in turn affectthe bone, causing deposition of periosteal new
THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS
359
10 9 8
~~~~~~Males
/
-1 Females 34
4
Males ~~~~~~~~~~~-9-Affected -
tdFemales
3
0
Age Cohort Graph22. ForumII, lowerlegperiostitis in adults.
12 10
0
abvenest -4-Affeted 2 dietry
nd ifeciousdisasefactrs 0~~~ 4 0-1
lone797Thre 5 10
ofthejuvenilesintssapeloex 5
Age CSbt in juveniles. Graph23. ForumII, lowerleg periostitis
Three of the juvenilesin thissample also exdietaryand infectiousdisease factorsalone.797 hibitmuch delayedlong bone growth,indicativeof disease (includingmalaria) or malnutrition. Growthdelaysare also seen in homozygoussicklecell disease. How thendoes one interpretthesechangesat Cosa? As statedabove, historicalevidence is not lackingformalariain Italy,particularly Tuscany.One recentexcavationhas attempted bone. In at least two cases at Cosa, thetibialchangesare most definitelya resultof an overlyinginfection,as the bone is grosslyaffectedin a singlearea. In manyof the othercases, theredo appear to be localized areas of periosteal reaction,in particularat the medial malleolus
and theanteriorshin,themostcommonlyaffectedplaces in sickle cell disease leg ulceration(Serjeant 1992). 797
See the papers in Cohen and Armelagos1984.
360
THE FINDS
to attributethepresenceof a largeinfantcemeteryto an epidemicof malariain theneighboring regionof Umbria in the mid-fifth centuryA.D. (Soren and Soren 1995). Documentary evidence forthe sickle cell diseases on the Italian peninsulais also abundant.It seems reasonable to suggestthatthe affectedindividualseitherhad malaria or were protectedfrom malariaby one of the sicklecell diseases.798 Trauma.Veryfewtraumaticchangesare seen on the skeletalremainsfromCosa. Those that are seen are well healed and, in the case of the femoralfracture,suggestiveof care in setting the fractureand allowingforhealingtimeby not walkingon theleg. Infectious Diseases.A numberofindividualsexhibitchangesthatare morelikelyto have arisen fromdifferent infections. Endemicand epidemicinfectiousdiseases,particularly thosethatare acute and do notleave signson theskeleton,werea majorcontributor to infantand childmortalityin pre-antibiotic times.It is not unexpectedto findsome juvenileindividualsexhibiting bone changessuggestingthattheywerefitenoughto survivetheinfectiousassaultsfora time beforesuccumbing.It is notoriously to diagnosethespecificcause ofthebone changes. difficult In additionto signsof systemicinfection,a numberof individualsexhibitlocalized periosteal lesions.These are seen on metacarpals,long bones, jaws, and withinthe nasal sinusof one.799Small focal lesions such as theseoccur frominflammation of the overlyingsofttissue due to abscesses or secondaryto infectedtrauma. AppendicularOsteoarthritis. Age-relatedarthriticchangesof the appendicularskeletonare slightand occur mostlyat the hip joint beforethe age of 30 years.Followingthat,changes are seen at the jointsof the hands,feet,knees,shoulders,and elbows. Temporo-mandibular joint disease is seen in fourindividuals,two males and two females.Arthriticchangeshave been citedas possibleindicationsofoccupationas well as thechangesdescribedbelow.There maybe some relationbetweenoccupationand thearthritic changesobserved,particularly on the jointsof thehands and feetin thissample. Developmental Anomalies.This broad categoryencompassesbothgeneticanomaliesand those thatare consideredto have arisenfromoccupationalstress.All developmentalanomaliesare describedin the descriptivecatalogue.The geneticanomaliesrangefromdisruptionsin fusion to extraepiphysesand sesamoidbones and prematureor irregularfusion.Manyofthese changes are nonspecific,and althoughsome have triedto explain themby way of a single occupationor habit,thisis not easilyproven.None ofthe anomaliesobservedon thissample are plentifulenough to calculate frequenciesby sex or age. One particularchange seen on Promisingresearchin the fieldsof biochemical and mtDNA analysis is a potential answer for the Cosa sample. Ascenzi et al. 1991 demonstratedthat it was possible to extracthemoglobinremnantsfromarchaeological bone fromcemeteriesaround Rome. They state thatit maybe possible to quantifynormaland abnormal hemoglobinusingtheirtechnique.Recently,researchers at the Universityof McMaster,Ontario,have succeeded in extractingthe DNA fromsome individualsfromone of the same sites (Isola Sacra). Definiteresultsare yetto be obtained (S. Saunderspers. com.). The mostspecific researchis currentlybeing undertakenon skeletal re798
mains fromPompeii, by the PaleoDNA laboratoryin Thunder Bay, Ontario (E. Molto pers. com.). Extracts are preparedfromthe pulp cavityof a toothfromeach individualand tested againsta known sample of DNA fromthe parasite,while a DNA sample of the bone is testedforthepresenceof a geneticanemia.This typeof researchwillanswerthequestionposed here.Initialsteps towardundertakingthese testsin the Cosa skeletalmaterialare currently being undertaken. "I Details of these can be found in the catalogue, www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/.
THE HUMANSKELETALREMAINS
361
twomalesand one femalefromthesampleis thebilateralosteiticchangesto theischialtufor berosities. Thesechangesare producedby chronicischialbursitis, arisingfromsitting These longperiodsof time,and wererecognizedby Shakespeareas "weaver'sbottom."800 andbargees.The factthatnotall of changeshavealso beendescribedon tailors,coachmen, bonesdoessuggestthattherewassomespecializathesechangesoccuron everyindividual's tionwithin thecommunity. "weaver's Perhapsthoseindividuals exhibiting bottom"werejust whospentmostoftheirlivessitting that,or perhapstheyweremerchants on cartseatsor horsesor practiceda similaroccupationthatrequiredsitting forextendedlengths oftime. MetabolicChanges.Twoadultfemalesexhibitage-related metabolicchanges.Burial59, between35 and50 yearsold,exhibitsosteoporosis and osteopeniaofthespineas wellas two healedribfractures, whichcouldindicatesimilarchangesto theribs.Thismaybe due to or couldbe a byproduct postmenopausal osteoporosis ofundernutrition or a malabsorption syndrome. Burial53, between40 and 60 yearsold, exhibitsdystrophic calcification of thecostal ofwhatwas deemedin situto be theureters cartilage ofthekidneys. Thesearealmostcermetabolicchanges. tainlyage-related
800
Kennedy1989; Wells 1967.
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INDEX TO PEOPLE AND DIVINITIES
Agatha,Saint,88 Agrippina theYounger, 58 46 n. 73 Alcibiades, Aldobrandeschi, 9, 134-137,141,352 Amalhouse,81 n. 202 ofThessalonica, Antipater 47 n. 75 Arabs,90 Artemis-Selene, 46,46 n. 74. See alsoDiana. Athanasius, 83 n. 213 Augustus, Emperor, 46,70; Augusteum, 158-159, 184;colonization, 32,37, 138,139;cult,37,62, 158-159;LaresAugusti, 46; propaganda, 156 Aurelian, Emperor,63,68, 140 BaschiofOrvieto,134 BernardofClairvaux, Saint,134 Blaise,Saint,96 n. 294 Britannicus, 56 Brown,FrankE., 1,3,4, 19,23,23n.34,26,30 n. 47,32, 34,49,55-57,63,64, 121n. 327,320 Caetani,Benedetto, 134 Caracalla,Emperor,63, 66, 66 n. 161,67, 68,68 n. 177,70, 138 81 n. 202,83, 83 n. 211,86 Cassiodorus, 134-137 Catellode Guglielmo, 88 n. 254,90,91,96, 139 Charlemagne, Emperor, Claudius,Emperor, 56,57,57n. 123,58,58n. 130, 60,61, 184 Columella, 71 Constantine, Pope,90 CorneliusFuscus,81 n. 202
195, 192 pls. 78, 79, 193 pls. 80, 81, 194 pl. 82; temple at Aricia, 46 n. 70; temple on the Aventine,46 n. 70, 49; templeat Cosa, 49 Dio Cassius, 57 Diocletian,Emperor,47 Domitia Lucilla, 68 n. 174 DomitiusAhenobarbus,L., 57 Eddius Stephanus,89 Ennodius, 83 n. 211 Eugenius IV, Pope, 134 Felicity,Saint,81 n. 207 FerdinandIV, King,260 Fl. ValeriusSeverus,140 Flavius ArdapurAspar,85 Fortuna,36; FortunaRedux, 158 Gaius, 57 Gelasius, Pope, 70 George of Cyprus,83 Gildo, 82 GregoryII, Pope, 89, 90 n. 271 GregoryIII, Pope, 89, 90 Guy II de la Roche, King of Thebes, 260 Hadrian I, Pope, 91, 96 Hadrian, Emperor,140 Hephaestus,83 n. 213 Hercules, 63; cubans,66, 66 n. 161, 70 n. 187 Ino-Leucothea,49 Irene,Empress,88 n. 254 Isis, 154
Decius,Emperor, 69, 99 Desiderius, King,81 Diana,38,45-51; sanctuary atMonsTifata, 47,47 JohnXXII, Pope, 260 n. 78, 48; shrineat theHouse ofDiana,48-60; JuliaMamaea, 68, 140 statue,41,44,45,49-52,52 n. 100,55,62, 191- Julian,Emperor,69, 69 n. 181
393
394
INDEX TO PEOPLE AND DIVINITIES
JupiterHammon, 154 Laetus signumDelmatius,47, 48 Latona, 47 Leo III, Pope, 90-92, 95, 96 Leonidas of Tarentum,46 Leto, 47 n. 77 Liber Pater,47 n. 75, 63-70 Liutprand,King,90, 90 n. 278, 96, 139 Livy,23, 25 Ludwig,Emperor,96 Mamalus, 87-89, 88 n. 254 Marcus Aurelius,68 n. 174 58 Mark Anthony, Marous, 87 Mars, 156 Martial,49 n. 86 Mater Matuta,49, 49 n. 85 MaximinusThrax,Emperor,56, 69 Maximus,Emperor,69 Meleager,46 Monica, Saint,81 n. 207 Moscus, 87-89 Muscusa, 87-89
Polybius,25 Pompey,Sextus,32 Poppaea, 60 n. 140 Porcius Severinus,68 Propertius,46, 48 Prudentius,70 pseudo-Asconius,23 Pythagoras,20, 46 n. 73 RutiliusNamatianus,70, 140, 319 Saracens,96, 97; raiders,119 Sergius,87-91 Sestius,L., 1, 277 Severandynasty, 66 SeverusAlexander,Emperor,69, 69 n. 179 Stephanus,83 n. 213 Sulpicius ScriboniusProculus,P., 60 n. 137 Sulpicius ScriboniusRufus,P., 60 n. 137
Tacitus,51, 57 Tancredidi Catellino,134-137 Theodahad, King, 85 n. 228 Theoderic,King,81, 85 Theophanes,88 n. 254 Tiberius,Emperor,82 n. 207 Nero, Emperor, 56-58, 57 n. 123, 58, 58 n. 130, TitiniusGlaucus Lucretianus,L., 54, 55, 58-62, 59 pl. 12, 139 61, 68; building program,140; quinquennium Neronis,58, 60, 60 n. 140 Titinius,L. F. Petrinianus,L., 61 Trajan,Emperor,61 Nike, 37, 155, 157 pl. 69,3 Tullius Maximus,Q., 46 Tullius,M., 158 n. 412 Orsini, 134-137 Ostrogoths,81 n. 202; OstragothicItaly,83 Ovid, 48 Venus,46 Vespasian,Emperor,68, 68 n. 174, 140 Vandals,81 n. 207 Pales, 81 n. 206, 83, 83 n. 212 Visigoths,81 Pausanias, 47 n. 75 Pelagius I, Pope, 87 Wilfred,Bishop of York,89 Perpetua,Saint,81 n. 207 Pliny,51 Zoe, Mater,66 Plutarch,46
INDEX TO PLACESAND THINGS
Aco, 287 AfricanRed Slip, 8, 64, 69, 70 fig.25, 84, 140,305, 307, 309, 310, 318 AgerCosanus,67, 96, 131, 134, 136,276, 305, 352 AgerSaturninus,67 Agriculture:farmland,138; grain,108, 140; hay, 73, 108; haybarn,108; hoe cultivation,108, 110; kitchengarden, 18; subsistence,141; terraced cultivation,133; wine, 139, 141, 318, 319 Albegna Valley,63 n. 52, 92, 94, 119, 140; survey, 1-3, fig.1, 70 fig.25, 93 fig.30, 118 n. 322, 140 n. 361, 141 fig.44 Albinia,276 Albintimilium, 83, 281, 282, 303, 315 Altar,30, 37 n. 63, 41, 53, 208-211; volutes,51, 52, 62; in churchon basilica, 75, 77 fig.28, pl. 17, 208-210, 208 pl. 101, 210 pls. 102, 103 Amalfi,83, 119 Amphorae,Roman,9, 14, 30, 68, 73, 84, 275-277, 291, 292, 300, 303, 307, 311-313, 319 Amphorae,medieval,330 Ancestralmasks,17 Ansedonia, 80, 84, 95, 96, 117-119, 118 n. 322, 121-137, 141, 320-352 Ansis, 81 Anthemionfrieze,43, 61, 212, 212 pl. 105, 106 Antlers,47 n. 77, 48, 49, 50 Apamea, 58 Aphrodisias,82 Appliques, 235, 236 fig.113, 247, 248 fig.118 Aquileia, 25, 46, 46 n. 71, 166 Archof Constantine,48 Archaicmaiolica, 130, 131, 324-330 Archaicpottery,13 Archives,7, 8, 96, 139 Aricia,46, 46 n. 71 Arminium,49 n. 84 Athanasius,83 n. 213
Atrium:Maenianum,23; testudinate,23, 23 n. 34; Titium,23; Tuscan, 16 AugustaRaurica,25 n. 38 Augustales,155 n. 403 Augusteum,38 fig.17,214. See also Augustus,cult, in Index to People and Divinities Awl,232 Bachanalia,70; Bacchantes,70 Balistrarii,136 Barbarianinvasions,1 Basilica, of S. Cecilia, 89; of S. Paolo 90; Porcia, 23 Basin,51, 52, 200 pls. 90, 91, 201 Bellinzona,100 n. 301 Berm,127 pl. 30, 128 Black Death, 141, 143 Black glaze pottery, 8, 19, 269-273, 277, 278, 286, 287, 292 Bononia, 25, 58 Britain,113 Brooches,224, 225 fig.109, 243, 244 fig.116 Buckle,223, 227, 244, 245 fig.117, 246 Burial: arcaic, 13; cists,78, 106, 107; foundation, 119; in theHouse ofDiana, 109; orientation, 78, 100, 104 fig. 34, 108; medieval, 98-108, 113; prestige,108; rites,105; shroud,78, 79, 105. See also Skeletons Byzantine:administrators, 139; Africa,83; army, 84, 86; castrum,86 n. 235, 88, 139, 141; empire, 90; fortification, 78, 105, 132; Italy,83; official, 83; troops,86 Cales, 49 n. 85 Campana plaques, 43, 44 pl. 8, 51, 62, 106, 214, 215, 215 pls. 107-109 Campania, 83 Cancellarius,88
395
396
INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS
kiln,275. Capalbiaccio,1,131,132n.349;pottery See alsoTricosto Capena,46,46 n. 71 Capua,47, 48, 48 n. 82 Caputaquis,122 legend,92,94,97 Carolingian Carrara,60 25 n. 38, 139,317 Carthage, CastelPorciano,122 Castle,3, 9, 118n. 322, 119,131 Castrum Elsa, 118,119,136 Catapult, 3. See alsoTrebuchet 32 n. 52 Catilineconspracy, Catini,348 78-80; in ForumII, Cemetery, 9, 97; Byzantine, 99-107,figs.31-34; on Arx,107,108.See also Burials;Skeletons 83,86 Centumcellae, Cesspit,14,21 Chesspiece,248 fig.118,249 Chisel,232 Church:ofRome,89; on Arx,73, 97, 119;on Basilica,75,76 pl. 16,77 pl. 17,99; on TempleB, 98-106,119 Cilicia,90 Cinnabar, 37, 149,184-190 Cistercian order,9, 134,136 Civitas:Byzantine, 96, 137 96; Ansedonia, 90,97 Civitavecchia, medieval, 330-351 Coarsewares, Roman,274,275,279,281,285,287, Coarsewares, 289-291,294-300,302,303-307,313-318 262Coins:Greek,250,251,253;hoardincistern, 265; Liberhoard,252; Lombard,92; medieval, 3, 10, 108, 128,137,260-265;Roman,10,55, 57,65,69,70,250-259 Coloni,68,71 32,33; Colony,113,23-35, 30,33,49; Augustan, Latin,25 87,88,88 nn.257,258,91 Consiliarius, ofPiso,60 n. 140 Conspiracy 88n.254,90;councilof,88 n.254 Constantinople, 83 Consularis, Cora,49 n. 85 57 Corinth, 25 n. 38; isthmus, Cornua,46,46 n. 73 90 n. 277 Cortoleona, Cosa: Arx,3, 29, 29 n. 43, 31, 49, 60, 62, 72-74, 73 fig.26, 78,80,81,84-86,85 n. 229,86, 113,
119, 131, 132, 320; AtriumBuildingI, 26, 55, 67, 69; AtriumBuildingV, 7; AtriumBuilding VI, 34; Augustancolony,138; basilica, 30, 31, 31 n. 47, 34, 55,56-58, 67, 75-78, 76 fig.27, 77 fig. 28; bread ovens, 69, 72, 75; Capitoline temple,34, 43, 49, 54, 56, 58-62, 73, 85, 108, 126, 132, 132 n. 351; castle on the Eastern Height, 4, 119-137; castrum,83, 86, 92; cemetery,Byzantine,72, 78; cemetery, medieval,97109, 131; churchon TempleB, 97, 131; church on Arx,97; cisterns,95, 132, 141; comitium,69, 78; curia,30, 31, 31 nn. 46-47, 55, 56, 63, 64, 65, 66, 78, 131; EasternHeight,28 fig. 12, 29, 97, 104,EasternHeightcisterns,121,121 n. 327; Eastern Height hut, 117, 121; Eastern Height sanctuary,29; Eastern Height sunken-floored buildings, 110; Eastern Height tower cistern, 122, 123, fig.40, pl. 29; forum,19-21, 22 fig.9, 23, 25, 49, 58, 62-64, 75, 121, 320; forumcistern,58, 61, 69, 75, 84, 95; forumcisternpottery,305-319; forumportico,63, 63 n. 154, 66, 69; gardens,24 fig. 10; granary,forum,64, 66; granary, Arx,72, 84, 85, 85 n. 228, 86; House of the Birds,32, 34, 139; House of the Skeleton, 32, 34, 147, 162; House of the Treasure,32; houses, Republican, 19, 30, 31; houses, Late Roman, 75; market building, 121, 133, 320; mithraeum, 63-65; northeastquarter,27 fig.11; northwestgate,133,320; odeum,63, 64, 66, 69; Porta Romana, 64, 69; Republican colony,13, 14, 24 fig.10, 138; shrineofLiber Pater,63, 66, 69; sinkhole,28; stables, 72, 73, 84, 85, 85 n. 228; Temple B, 29-31, 34, 56, 69 n. 181, 78; TempleB cemetery, 99-107,221; TempleD, 2931,221; TempleE, 10,28 fig.12,28-30; Temple E terracottas, 217-222; walls,city,85 n. 228,116, 117; walls,Arx,73 Cuicul, 66 n. 161 Curatores,60, 139; restituendae Campaniae,61; rei 60 publicae,66, 68; sacrorumfaciundorum, Cyprus,86 Delos, 201, 203 Ditch, 109-118; ring ditch, 130. See also Earthworks Doganella, 3 Earthquake,55-58, 58 n. 125, 61; at Pompeii,61, 139
INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS
397
Earthworks, 108-118,113-117,115 pl. 26, 139, Horrea, 69 House ofDiana, 7-10, 13-15, figs.5, 6, 14-23, 32141 44, 48, 52-55, 63, 64, 65, 94, 109, 139, 144-190; Elegiaccouplet,45 aedicula, 44, 182-184; ala, 17, 162; atrium,16, Equites,23,25 17, 21, 34, 146-147; Augusteum,38, 38 fig.17, Etruria, 69 Faenza,162 Faesulae,32 n. 52 Farm,13,71, 93 fig.30, 117 Fibula,73,242,243 fig.116 Figlina,54 118n. 313 Filattiere, Fisheries, 138 Fishooks,223,229 fig.110,230,231 Flamen,60 ForumWare,95,320-323 France,117 Fregellae, 21,25 n. 34 Fresco.See Wallplaster Furnishings, 237 Furniture, 51-55,62 Gamingpieces,237 Gaul,113,305 Gaza, 86 Genius,155,157pl. 69,4,158 GenizaofCairo,119,126 Genoa,83, 119,352 GiardinoVecchio,1 tablesupport, Goat-griffon protome 51, 195-196, 195pl. 84 Gorgona,319 GothicWars,86, 140,141;rulers,140 Graffita archaicaterrenica, 324,352 127 Graffiti, 126, fig.42 Granary: forum, 64, 66, 68 n. 177,69, 139,140; Arx,72, 128 Graphicrecording, 8 Griffon, 150,152;colorplates5, 6 Grosseto, 340 Grubenhaus, 108,113 Gubbio,162
147-159; basin, 18, 44; bathhouse, 19, 21, 34, 43, 44, 53, 170-171; cistern,8, 9, 16, 18, 19, 20, 94, 109; cubiculum,17, 19, 160 pl. 70, 160-162; fauces, 16, 34, 145-146; garden, 17 fig.7,19, 21, 23, 34, 36-38, 37 fig.16, 38, 40, 44, 46, 4954, 154 n. 108, 178-184, grotto-niche, 62; impluvium,16, 16 n. 8, 21, 38, 109; kitchengarden, 18,34; kitchen,17, 171; latrine,19,21; loft, 21; manureheap, 18; plantingpits, 17; portico, 34, 37, 38, 40, 44, 53, 171-177; puteal, 16; service rooms,20, 23, 170; shrinein taberna,38, 38 fig.17, 147-159; Shrineof Diana, 38-55, 39 n. 65; staircase,41; taberna,14, 20, 21, 34, 36, 37, 159; tablinum,17, 20, 23, 34, 52, 164-167; triclinium,17, 20, 21, 34, 37, 40, 44, 167-170; vestibule,14 Huts, 97, 110 fig.36, 113, 117, 137, 139 Ilium,58 Impasto, 13 Incastellamento,137 Inscriptions,80; Shrineof Diana, 41, 44 pl. 9, 4551; L. TitiniusGlaucus, 56-61; C27283, 81-84; CIG IV, 9853, 87-91, 141; funerary, 266, 266 pl. 114; graffito, 126, 127 fig.42, 267, 267 fig.119 Intaglio,226, 226 pl. 115 Italic sigillata,56, 56 n. 116, 62 n. 151, 273, 278, 287,296,301 Jerba,119, 317 Keys,235, 236 fig.113, 241, 247, 248 fig.118 Knifeblades, 223, 232, 246, 247
Lambaesis, 66 n. 161 Lamps,273,279,280pl. 116,288pl. 117,301;list of stamps,301; decoration,302 Lanuvium,82 Heba,32,33, 63,63 n. 152,68, 140 Lararium,43 Herculaneum, 46 n. 72,52,55, 201; House ofthe Legion: GeminaFelix,47; VI Victrix, 60, 60 n. 140; Stags,52 XXII Primigeniae,60 Herm,43,51-54,201-204,202 pls.92,93,203pl. Leptis Magna, 66 94,204 pl. 95 Lex MunicipiiTarentini,23 Hierapolis,82,83 Ligulae,244
398
INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS
Lime kiln,126 Lombards, 81, 86, 90; conquests,94; donationof Ager Cosanus,90, 96; kingdom,91 Loom weights,223, 224, 228 Lorium,60 Lucca, 352 Lucus Feroniae,52 Luna, 6, 6 n. 10, 54, 55, 60, 60 n. 137, 62, 83, 319 Lusterware,328 Maenad,43, 51 n. 99, 62, 204, 214, 215 pl. 107, 108 Magistrivicorum,46 n. 69 Magliano, 85, 141 Malaria, 107, 141, 143, 357-359 Mansio, 67, 85, 86 Marble, 45, 51, 53-55, 58; bardiglio,54; giallo antico,41, 51, 53, 54; Luna, 54, 56-58, 62, 81, 191-213 Maremma,97, 140 Matronae,49 Mattock,232, 233 fig.111 Mediolanum (Milan), 46, 46 n. 71 Micro-Ramanspectroscopy,185 Midden deposits,8, 108 Minerva,155, 157 pl. 69, 215 pl. 109 Mithraeum,63, 65, 66 Mogontiacum,60 Mola di Monte Gelato, 106 n. 304, 3 17 Mold forfloortiles,232, 234 fig.112 Montalcino,352 Monte Amiata,190 Monte Argentario,90, Monte Barro,85 n. 228 Monte Zignago,340 Montefiascone,137, 265 MontrealeValcellina,118 n. 313 Mosaics, 7, 37, 147-150, 148 fig.94, 149 figs.95, 96, pl. 66, 164-169, 164 fig. 100, 165 fig. 101, pl. 73, 168 fig.102, 169 fig.103, pl. 75 Motte, 117 Narbo, 49 n. 84 Narbonennensis,86 Neapolis, 82, 83, 139 Needles, 223, 224, 228, 229 fig.110, 230 Nicopolis ad Istrum,113 Noli, 84 Norcia, 58 NormanConquest, 118
NorthAfrica,71,81,83 n. 216, 86, 119; Byzantine period in, 82, 83; medieval,351 Offiano,124 21 Opus caementicium, 21 Opus incertum, Opus sectile,54 Opus signinum.See Signinumpavements Orbetello,10, 86, 87, 87 n. 245, 90, 91, 92 n. 280, 119, 136, 141, 143, 352 Ordona, 85 n. 229 Orvieto,134-137, 352 Oscilla, 51, 53, 205-207, 205 pl. 96, 206 pls. 97, 98, 207 pls. 99, 100 Ostia: mithraea,66; pottery, 294, 296, 297, 300 Palaestina,82, 83, 83 n. 213, 91 Pantelleriawares,84, 317 n. 693, 318 Papal States,137, 139, 141, 260, 352 Pascua publica,67 Pasta vitrea,62 Pavia, 90 Pedites,25 Peristyle,52, 52 n. 100 Perugia,260 Philadelphia,25 n. 39 Pignatte,336-342 Pisa, 331-336, 351 Pisaurum,49 n. 85 Pisede terre,7,8,21,21 n. 26, 34, 108, 171 Plasterfloor,72 Poggibonsi,94 n. 283, 340 Poggio Cavallo, 86, 86 n. 235 Polygonalmasonry, 55 Pompeii, 19, 20 n. 24, 21, 23, 23 n. 34, 38, 44, 51, 54, 55, 149, 159-166, 177, 180; earthquake,61 n. 147; House of Euxinus, 204; House of Lucretius Fronto, 152; House of M. Gavius Rufus, 146 n. 376, 161 n. 415; House of M. Lucretius,53; House of Meleager,150 n. 384, 162 n. 424; House of Obellius Firmus,154 n. 401; House ofOctaviusQuartio,39 n. 65; House of Pansa, 19 n. 22; House of Paquius Proculus, 175; House ofQueen Caroline,44,52,52 n. 100; House of Sallust, 19 n. 22, 36, 181; House of Stallius Eros, 181; House of the Bronzes, 166; House of the Centaur,161 n. 415; House of the Centenary, 150 n. 384, 117; House of the Cryptoporticus, 166 n. 442; House of the
INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS
Ephebe, 184; House of the Four Styles,175; House of theGilded Cupids,53, 166 n. 449; House oftheIliadicShrine,150n. 384; House of theInn witha Garden,181; House of the Labyrinth, 182; House of theLittleBulls,159 n. 414; House oftheMenander, 34 n. 60, 166; House oftheMoralist, 52 n. 100;House ofthe Orchard,154 n. 396, 167, 175; House of the 159 PaintedCapitals,166;HouseofthePigmies, n. 414; House oftheSilverWedding,19 n. 22, 146,165,n. 376; House oftheSmallFountain, 146n.376;HouseoftheTragicPoet,146n.376; HouseoftheVetii,146;HouseoftheWildBoar, 150n.384;HouseofTrebiusValens,162n.424; House V 3,10; ImperialVilla,177 PonteNepesino,118n. 320 PortusCosanus,1,33,68 n. 173,85,276,277,300 PortusFeniliae,73,84,86 Portus,83 Postholes, 72, 109,112,117 Pottery, medieval, 97,109,111,117,119,133,134, 137,320-351; Islamicfilter jar,117 Pottery, Roman,9, 64, 67, 69, 84,269-319;"potterydump,"281,282,290,294 60 n. 141; FabrumConsulis,54, 60; Praefectus, Praetorio Orientis, 83 n. 213 Praeneste, 49 n. 85 Prison,128,137 Probe,228 Qasr Ibrim,48 Radiocarbon dates,95, 104,113 Ratiaria, 80 Reccopolis,82 Relics,105 RespublicaCosanorum, 63, 138,139 Rhodes,58 Rings,226 RoccaS. Silvestro, 124,340,352 Rocchette, 124 Rome,57, 58, 60 n. 138,70, 88-91,97, 99, 126, of Maecenas,181; Aula 139, 141; Auditorium Isiaca,154;Aventine, 46 n. 70,colonization, 68; ForumRomanum, 23; House ofLivia,48 n. 80, 152,167;HouseoftheGriffons, 152,165;plebs, ofCestius,177 68, 143,152;Pyramid S. Agata,118n. 313
399
S. Anastasioad AquasSalvias,abbey,90, 95, 96, 131,134-137 86 n. 233,319 S. Antonino da Perti,castrum, S. Biagio,church, 92 S. Cassiano,118n. 313 S. MariaCapua Vetere,church,161 S. Paolofuorile mura,abbey,126,136 S. Salvatore, abbey,134 Sardinia, 318 Saturnia, 141 Savona,352 ScholaPraeconum, 316 Scrinarius,87, 88, 90
Sculpture, 9, 44,51-55,62 SecondPunicWar,25, 143 Serpentware,66,70,73, Sevirequitum Romanorum, 60 Ships,126,127fig.42 Sicily, 351 Siena,96, 135-137,141,352; Sienesechronicle, 131 Signinum pavements, 14,17,32,34, 98, 146-147, 161pl. 71, 162pl. 72, 172pl. 76, 162-163,170, 171 Silenus,205,205 pl. 96 Sitifis, 83 n. 211 Skeletons, 94,95,308,353-361;anemia, 357;antemortem toothloss,80;arthritis, 107,360;cribria orbitalia, 357; decapitation, 95; dentaldisease, 355; endocranial changes,80; fungalinfection, 80; hemopoietic changes,80; maduromycosis, 80; malaria,107,357-359; metabolicdisease, 107,361; morphological traits,107; mortality, 353; osteomyelitic toe,80; periostitis, 107,109; porotichyperostosis, 107,357-359;septicemia, 109;stature, 354; thalassemia, 357 Slaves,68,71, 119,139 Slingshots, 223,239 SongofRoland,97 SouthEtruriaSurvey, 69 n. 184 Spain,305 Sparse-glaze pottery, 113,117,128,322,323,335 Spindlewhorls, 223,224,225 fig.109,228 Spolia,41 Stachilagi, 118,119 StatodeiPresidii,143 Statue,5 1 Stratigraphy, 7, 8,21 n. 26,30, 100,101,109,110, 113
400
INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS
Streets,25, 26, 27 fig.11, 29, 48, 49; processional, 25, 30, 67 Stucco, 37, 59, 150 n. 388, 155-158, 155 pls. 67, 68, 157 pl. 69, 167 Styli,229 fig.110, 231 Succosa, 67, 85 Sunken-flooredbuildings,108, 110-113, 111 fig. 37, 117 Suovetaurialia,54, 62, 208-210, 208 pl. 101 Sutri,90, 275, 300 Syria,83 n. 213, 86, 91, 319 Table, 51-54, supports,193-199, 194 pl. 83, 195 pl. 84, 196 pl. 85, 197 pl. 86, 198 pl. 87, 199 pl. 88 Tabula aenea, 67 Telamon,57 Templa,46, 49, 50 Terracottas:architectural,9, 10, 29; statue, 49; fromTempleE, 217-222, 218 pls. 110, 111, 220 pl. 112 Testi,342-346 Thamugadi (Timgad),25 Theodoricopolis,82 Theopolis, 83 Theveste,82 Thibilis,69 n. 181 Thin walled pottery, 273, 278, 287, 293, 296, 301 Threshingfloor,75 Thurii/Copia,25 Thymiateria, 155, 177 Timber:buildings,109, 111 fig.37, 114, 116 pl. 28; palisade, 116, 117, 118 n. 313; towers,115 pl. 26, 118 Timgad (Thamugadi),25 Tintinnabula,239
Torcello,100n. 301 TorreArgentario, 125 Tower,115pl. 26, 118,119,121-131,122fig.39, 123fig.40, 125fig.41, 141;circuit wall,123 Travertine, 59 Tre Fontane,abbeyof the,90, 141. See also S. Anastasioad AquasSalvias Trebuchet, 3, 128,129fig.43, 137 Treonzidi Roccagrimaldi, 118n. 315 Tricosto,1, 352; amphorakiln,275. See also Capalbiaccio Tuscania,58, 94, 138,352 TusciaLangobardorum, 90 n. 278 Vaccaricaves,126 VadaVolterrana, 319 60 Vesuvius, Veteransettlement, 32 Via,49, 50; Aemilia,352; Armerina, 86; Aurelia, 68, 68 n. 177,84, 85 n. 227, 86, 121,137,138, 319; Cassia, 352; Clodia, 252; Flaminia,86; 26 praetoria, Vicesima hereditatum, 67 VicoBassiano,90 n. 271 Village,68,92,93 fig.30, 117 Vulci,140;House oftheCryptoporticus, 140 Wallplaster, 8, 9, 21,37-39,43,51,54 n. 108,95, 145,145-147,150-154,151fig.97, 153fig.98, 159,163fig.99, 166,171-177,173fig.104,176 fig.105,178-190,179fig.106,182fig.107,183 pl. 77, colorplates2-8 Weaponry, 239,244 Weight, 232 Wine,139,141,318,319
