Continuum Guide to Geographical Education (Continuum guides to the curriculum)

The Continuum Guide to

Geography Education

Also available: Sue Cowley: Starting Teaching Anne Gold: Head of Department: Principles in Practice Don Flimmer et al: The Environment: A Primary Teacher's Guide Patrick Wiegand: Children and Primary Geography Michael Williams (ed.): Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education

The Continuum Guide to

Geography Education GRAHAM BUTT

CONTINUUM London and New York

Continuum Wellington House 125 Strand London WC2R OBB

370 Lexington Avenue New York NY 10017-6503

© 2000 Graham Butt All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. First published 2000 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN

0-8264-4793-7 (hardback) 0-8264-4816-X (paperback)

Designed and typeset by Ben Cracknell Studios Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn

Contents

Introduction

vu

Acknowledgements A-Z

1

List of Headwords B ibliography Index

x

211

203

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Introduction This guide to geography education, while presented alphabetically, is neither strictly a dictionary of defined terms nor an encyclopaedia. Its aim is to provide the reader with a varied collection of references and definitions relating to geography education; the width of the parameters both of geography as a discipline and of education as an activity has meant that its scope is necessarily broad but, unfortunately, not all-encompassing. The purpose of producing a guide of this sort is to enable geography educators, from the primary-school geography co-ordinator to the geography lecturer in higher education, to quickly access information on geography education. The information contained within this book should also help in the professional development of geography teachers as it enables the reader to understand further the process of teaching and learning geography, to access research-based information and to obtain a concise understanding of contemporary issues, terms and problems in geography education. Entries within the guide often proceed beyond the mere definition of words to provide the reader with a fuller contextual or analytical understanding of terms. Indeed, in many cases the 'terms' may themselves be references to the works of geography educators, to contemporary debates in geography education, concepts and philosophical underpinnings, educational legislation, or small biographies of individuals who have influenced the worlds of geography and/or education. Although some of the headwords included within this guide may initially appear to have only a rather indirect link to geography education they have each been selected as terms of which anyone with a broad interest in geography and education should have some appreciation. This book therefore makes reference to the following: • geography educators and their works; • geographical and educational societies and organizations; • geographical and educational journals and publications; THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Introduction

• government legislation, with particular reference to education legislation; • educational reports; • research in geography education; • research in education; • resources, materials and sources in geography education; • key ideas and concepts; • current debates within geography, geography education and education; • philosophy of geography and education; and • statistical terms and concepts often applied in geography and geography education. As to the rationale for those terms included and for those omitted, the geographical references that were chosen for the guide relate primarily to terms found within the 1995 version of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC), the 1999 Consultation Materials on the National Curriculum (which were current at the time of writing) and those regularly included in various geography General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary (A and AS) Level syllabuses. Mindful of the fact that the book was designed to be not a dictionary of geography, but a guide to geography education, restrictions were placed on the number of strictly geographical terms that could be included. While the selection of such terms from primarily English, Welsh and Northern Irish geography curricula and specifications may be felt to be restricting to international audiences, most of the terms are in fact regularly seen in other geography curricula in the Englishspeaking world. References to a number of contemporary geography educators have been included within the text, with a brief biographical note and a mention of some of their work. Making such inclusions in a guide of this size is always problematic (not least because one has to leave out people who may arguably be more influential in their field than some of those included). However, it was felt that it was important to give the reader an appreciation of who these key people are. The criterion for their selection has been reasonably objective, although somewhat arbitrary, in that only those educators who have twelve or more references in the recently published Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997 (Nick Foskett and Bill Marsden (eds)) have been included. This has the advantage of representing a number of geography educators from countries beyond the UK who have written for Englishspeaking readerships. The guide also contains a series of short essays, or, more accurately, brief discussions, on a variety of themes or issues which it was felt would benefit VÍÜ

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Introduction

from a fuller coverage than that provided within a simple definition. The essays are somewhat eclectic, but attempt to provide a reasonable coverage of the major issues, ideas, concepts and debates in contemporary geographical thought, geography education and education generally. Their strict relevance to geography education per se may not at first be apparent. However, it is felt that anyone who has a broad interest in this field should have some cognizance of the issues discussed. It is hoped that the guide will prove useful to a wide range of readers who have an interest both in geography and in education. Students engaged in initial teacher training (ITT) in geography, for example on Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) courses, may find it valuable, while those who are on education degree courses containing geographical components, at Master's, BPhil, MPhil or PhD level may consider it useful for providing a quick overview of terms and concepts. A small number of references to geography education, associations, societies, legislation and journals in other Englishspeaking countries are also included. Throughout the text, words which are in bold are cross-referenced to headwords within the alphabetical listing. Some entries have a small number of academic references appended in an attempt to give the reader a 'first step' beyond the definition supplied, in order to extend his or her reading on the subject. Graham Butt Birmingham July 1999

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Acknowledgements

I should like to express my sincere thanks to my colleagues Carol Gray and Paul Weeden at the University of Birmingham, and to Patrick Wiegand at the University of Leeds, for their insightful comments on the first draft of this book. Thanks are also due to Brenda Cox for her help in completing the sections of contact details for many of the geographical societies and organizations listed here. While every attempt has been made to contact each of the contemporary geography educators who fall within the criterion for inclusion in this book, I am aware that some omissions may have occurred. Where the fault is on my part I sincerely apologize to those individuals who were not represented at the time of the book's completion.

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A AAAG. See Annals of the Association of American Geographers. AAG. See Association of American Geographers. ability. Describes the capacity to perform given tasks or skills. Children have traditionally been educated according to their age, aptitude and ability. An assessment of academic ability was used, following the 1944 Education Act, to select pupils for different forms of secondary education, a process now largely stopped by the advent of comprehensive schools. In geography the Schools Council curriculum development projects of the 1970s were originally specifically geared towards 'higher'- or 'lower'-ability children (see Bristol Project and Geography for the Young School Leaver). ACCAC. See Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru. access course. Offers an alternative route of entry into university for mature students who do not possess the 'standard' entry qualifications of two Advanced Levels (A Levels), or the vocational equivalent. By successfully completing an access course students may satisfy a university that they have met the standards of entry equivalent to those provided by A Levels. Access courses are usually offered by further education colleges. They typically contain more than one subject discipline, with geography being represented in three areas: humanities and social sciences, teaching, and environmental studies. Some access courses are specifically designed to meet the needs of particular groups within the community who are currently under-represented within higher education. Allchin, A. R. ( 1997) 'Geography teaching on access courses', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post- / 6 Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. I 39-45.

accessibility. The ease with which particular features, or areas, within a given space can be reached. Accessibility is partly a factor of physical distance, but must also include considerations of travel time, cost and social factors (such as the extent to which different social groups can access goods, services, etc.). In the field of transport geography accessibility is sometimes assessed through the use of networks. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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action research

action research. Originally sought to improve the research methods adopted to study particular social situations and to either solve societal problems, or improve the quality of action adopted to effect change. The term was first used by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s for a form of research that was then becoming increasingly important within the social sciences. In the field of education, action research is concerned with everyday practical problems that teachers face, rather than the theoretical problems created within a discipline of knowledge. Validity of the research findings rests within their practical solutions to problems, while 'theory' is based on the usefulness of resultant actions, rather than on scientific veracity. In action research, theories are often generated through practice, rather than being created through philosophical reasoning. Importantly the methods employed support the professional development of the practitioners who employ them and (ideally) make the user more competent in understanding and applying research findings. Action research encourages practical problem-solving and can be used within all levels of education. In geography education, action research has mostly provided geography teachers with guidance on ways of teaching that link together theory and practice, with the goal of enhancing classroom practice. Hillcoat (1996) outlines how the approaches used within action research can have a number of outcomes different to those associated with traditional geography research, including: • advancing practical knowledge relevant to a particular situation; • raising consciousness and empowering those involved in the research; • taking into account the needs of all those involved in it; • respecting and utilizing the expertise and skills of those involved; • sharing control by both researcher and participants of the questions which the research is addressing. Carr, W. ( 1989) 'Action research: ten years on. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21(1), 85-90. Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. ( 1986) Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge, and Action Research, London: Palmer Elliot, j. (1978) 'What is action research in schools?' Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10(4), 355-7 Elliot,]. ( 1981 ) 'Action research: a framework for self evaluation in schools'. Schools Council Programme 2, Working Paper I. Elliot, J. ( 1991 ) Act/on Research for Educational Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hillcoat, J. ( 1996) 'Action research', in M. Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research, London: Cassell, pp. 150-61. Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (eds) ( 1989) The Action Research Planner. Belmont, Victoria: Deakin University Press. McNiff, j. ( 1988) Act/on Research: Principles and Practice. London: Macmillan. Naish, M. ( 1996) 'Action research for a new professionalism in geography education', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and R Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 321-43.

active learning. Motivates pupils to take an active role in the learning process, rather than being passive recipients of information. It acknowledges that for learning to occur a child must be actively involved in, and partly responsible for, the learning process and recognizes that teachers can not learn 'for the child'. Active learning seeks to promote deeper, rather than superficial, learning, which 2

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Addresses encourages understanding. Geography teachers have been encouraged to engage in active learning techniques to improve the quality and enjoyment of the learning experience. Such approaches also break the traditional pattern of pupils receiving information from the teacher or text, merely to memorize or reproduce it. High levels of interaction between pupils and teachers are often seen as being a positive aspect of the active learning techniques used in geography education (see enquiry, cf. rote learning). Roberts, M. ( 1996) Teaching Styles and Strategies', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish, and R Slater (eds), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 23 i-59.

addresses. The following is a list of addresses of official organizations and suppliers of educational materials which may be of relevance to those involved in geography education: OFFICIAL ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC), Castle Buildings, Womanby Street, Cardiff, CF1 9SX. Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), Clarendon Dock, 29 Clarendon Road, Belfast, BT1 3BG. Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), Sanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, SW1P 3BT. Department for Education, Northern Ireland (DENI), Rathgael House, Balloo Road, Bangor, County Down, BT19 7PR. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED), Alexandra House, 33 Kingsway, London, WC2B 6SE. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), 29 Bolton Street, London, W1Y 7PD. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority: Publications (QCA), PO Box 99, Sudbury, Suffolk, CO 10 6SN. Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum, Gardyne Road, Broughty Ferry, Dundee, DD5 1NY. Scottish Office Education and Industry Department, Victoria Quay, Leith, Edinburgh, EH6 6QQ. Welsh Office Education Department, Government Buildings, Cathays Park, Cardiff, CF1 3NQ. SOURCES OF GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION MATERIALS

ICT British Educational Communications and Technology agency (BECTa), Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry, CV4 7JJ. PHOTOGRAPHS AND AIR PHOTOGRAPHS Aerofilms Ltd, Gate Studios, Station Road, Borehamwood, Herts, WD6 1EJ. Air Photographs Unit, Ordnance Survey, Romsey Road, Maybush, Southampton, S09 4DH. Air Photographs Unit, Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland, Department of the Environment, 83 Ladas Drive, Belfast, BT6 9FJ. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Addresses

Air Photographs Unit, Scottish Development Department, New St Andrew's House, Edinburgh, EH1 3SZ. Air Photographs Unit, Welsh Office, Crown Offices, Cathays Park, Cardiff, CF1 3NQ. Pictorial Charts Educational Trust, 27 Kirchen Road, London, W13 OUD. SATELLITE IMAGERY The Remote Sensing Centre, Space Dept, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, Hants, GU14 6TD. VIDEOS BBC Educational Publishing, PO Box 234, Wetherby, West Yorks, LS23 7EU. BBC Education Information, White City, 201 Wood Lane, London, W12 7TS. Channel 4, 124 Horseferry Road, London, SW1P 2TX. Granada Television, Granada TV Centre, Quay Street, Manchester, M60 9EA. ITV Association, Knighton House, 56 Mortimer Street, London, WIN 2AN. CENSUS (ENGLAND AND WALES) Census Customer Services, OPCS, Titchfield, Fareham, Hants, PO15 5RR. CENSUS (SCOTLAND) Census Customer Services, GRO (Scotland), Ladywell House, Ladywell Road, Edinburgh, EH 12 7TF. MAPS Experian Goad Limited, 8-12 Salisbury Square, Old Hatfield, Herts, AL9 5BJ. Latitude, PO Box 10146, London, N14 4QR. National Map Centre, 22-4 Caxton Street, London, SW1H OQU. Ordnance Survey, Romsey Road, Maybush, Southampton, SO9 4DH. ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Centre for Alternative Technology, Llwyngwern, Machynlleth, Powys, Wales, SY6 9AZ. Conservation Trust, National Centre for Environmental Education, George Palmer Site, Northumberland Avenue, Reading, RG2 7PW. Council for Environmental Education, University of Reading, London Road, Reading, RG1 5AQ. Council for the Protection of Rural England, Warwick House, 25-7 Buckingham Palace Road, London, SW1 OPP Countryside Commission, John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, GL50 3RA. Forestry Commission, 231 Costorphine Road, Edinburgh, EH1 7AT. Friends of the Earth, 56-8 Alma Street, Luton, LUI 2PH. National Association for Environmental Education, University of Wolverhampton, Gonvay Road, Walsall, WS1 3BD. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Beds, SGI9 2DL. Town and Country Planning Association, 17 Carlton House Terrace, London, SW1Y5AS. 4

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Advanced Level FIELD-STUDY ORGANIZATIONS Field Studies Council, Preston Montford, Montford Bridge, Shrewsbury, SY4 1HW.

CHARITABLE ORGANIZATIONS/DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION ActionAid, Chataway House, Chard, Somerset, TA20 1FA. CAFOD, 2 Romero Close, Stockwell Road, London, SW9 9TY. Centre for Global Education, University of York, Heslington, York, YO1 5DD. Centre for World Development Education, Regent's College, Inner Circle, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4NS. Christian Aid, PO Box 100, 35 Lower Marsh, London, SEI 7RL. Commonwealth Institute, 230 Kensington High Street, London, W8 6NQ. Council for Education in World Citizenship, Seymour Mews House, Seymour Mews, London W1H 9PE. Development Education Centre, Gillett Centre, 998 Bristol Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham, B29 6LE. National Association of Development Education Centres, 6 Endsleigh Street, London, WC1HODX. Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 7GZ. UNICEF (UK), 55 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, WC2A 3NB. Worldaware, 31-5 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TE. Worldwide Fund for Nature (UK), Panda House, Weyside Park, Catteshall Lane, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 1XR.

Advanced Extension Award (AEA). These were announced by the UK government in March 1999 as a series of 'world class tests' at the age of 18. They are designed to challenge the most able 18 year olds, requiring from students a depth of understanding and an ability to think critically at a level higher than Advanced Level (A Level). The standard of the awards are to be benchmarked against similar awards in other countries and as such the International Baccalaureate Organization is involved in the trials. Trialling and piloting of the award is initially taking place in five subjects, including geography, in a sample of centres across England and Wales. Advanced Level (A Level). Examinations providing more able pupils in England, Wales and Northern Ireland with an academic General Certifícate of Education (GCE). They are usually studied as part of a two-year course, after the age of 16. During the 1990s geography remained at around the fifth most popular A Level choice for candidates from within a wide range of possible subjects to study. A Levels have been criticized for apparent over-specialization; however, they still maintain their status as the 'gold standard' qualification for university entrance. Any attempts at instigating fundamental reforms of the qualification have so far been unsuccessful (see Higginson Report 1988, Bearing Review 1996), although the option to teach modular A Level geography specifications proved popular in the 1990s. From September 2000 new A level and Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level) specifications in geography were introduced by all examination boards and groups (or awarding bodies). These have reduced the number of specifications for the study of geography at post-16 level, with AS Levels THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Advanced Subsidiary Level

making up the first half of an A Level course to be followed with an A2 course to complete the full A Level qualification. A Levels comprise six equal-sized modules. Opportunities for developing and assessing key skills are identified in the AS and A Level specifications for geography. Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level). Examinations which were originally designed to be of Advanced Level (A Level) standard but capable of being completed in just one year, as they contain only half the content of a traditional A Level. Like A Levels, the AS Levels are available in linear or modular form and are accepted as an entry qualification by most higher education institutions. The AS Level qualification was originally introduced in 1984 (as an Advanced Supplementary Level examination), but has subsequently been revised due to its lack of popularity. The original geography AS Level only attracted a few hundred candidates each year, compared to the annual entrance for geography A Level of around 44,500 in the UK in the late 1990s. From September 2000 a new AS Level qualification representing the first half of a full A Level has been introduced. This three-unit examination is aimed to provide greater breadth of choice for post-16 study, clear progression to A Levels and a worthwhile qualification for those choosing not to complete a full A Level. Opportunities for developing and assessing key skills are identified in the AS and A Level specifications for geography. advisory teacher. An experienced classroom teacher who is employed by a local education authority (LEA) to support teaching and curriculum development within a subject. Due to recent financial cutbacks many LE As either have dispensed with advisory teachers in geography, or have appointed geography or history teachers as general humanities advisers. AEA. See Advanced Extension Award. affective learning. Refers to the area of education that deals predominantly with emotions, feelings, beliefs, values and attitudes. It aims to foster the emotional growth and development of pupils and may involve aspects of education not normally linked to cognitive development, such as socialization skills, selfesteem, and acceptable behaviour. The differences between the affective, psychomotor and cognitive domains of children's learning were originally outlined by Bloom and others. During the 1970s geographers became increasingly concerned with the development of affective learning through their subject, particularly with reference to values and attitudes. Bloom, B. ( 1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. London: Longman. Huckle.J. (1985) Values education through geography: a radical critique', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. Brighton: Palmen pp. 187-97. Slater; R ( 1996) Values: towards mapping their locations in a geography education', in A. Kent et al. (eos), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 200-30.

age. An under-emphasized, but important, aspect of geography which has yet to be fully recognized within specifications and curricula at all levels of geography education. Examples of social stereotypes (such as gender, race and ethnicity) in geography have achieved some prominence in educational writing, while ageism 6

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aims

has produced only a limited literature. Marsden (1995) notes that considerations of age have a significant geographical dimension, including lifestyles in old age; leisure in retirement; residence; access; and a range of social welfare issues. Gant, R. ( 1997) 'Geographical investigations with elderly people1, in M. Naish (éd.), Values in Geography Education. London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 76-80. Harper, S. and Laws, G. ( 1995) 'Rethinking the geography of ageing'. Progress in Human Geography, 19(2), 199-221. Marsden, W. ( 1988) The age aspect in human rights geography in school'. Teaching Geography, 13(4), 146-8. Marsden, W. ( 1995) Geography I 1-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton.

agglomeration. The clustering of activities or phenomena at certain points, such as within cities, or in a specific area. The advantages of locating various types of activities within such an area are often economic, as people and/or businesses gain from sharing services and utilities with others, and from cutting their transport costs. AGS. See American Geographical Society. AGS. See Australian Geographic Society. AGTA. See Australian Geography Teachers Association. aims. Statements of educational intentions. They are usually of a more general nature than objectives and may be classified as being either intrinsic or instrumental. Intrinsic aims are those which involve children in worthwhile activities which are desirable to develop in their own right for the good of the individual child; while instrumental (extrinsic) aims are more concerned with external factors, such as educating children for the good of the state, society, or church. Marsden (1995, p. 2) refers to aims as indicators of the wider ends towards which schools are working. Aims • serve an orientation function providing, among other things, guidelines for the planning of curricula; • involve making value judgements and, as such, will be influenced by external factors, cultural, social, political and economic, which operate differentially from place to place and from time to time; • represent, therefore, relative and not absolute statements; • remain as statements of aspiration, at a stage removed from making detailed decisions. Marsden, W. ( 1995) Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton.

HOW SHOULD WE DETERMINE OUR EDUCATIONAL AIMS? Definitions of education tend to stress that it should be an intrinsically worthwhile activity - but what should the aims of education be, and how should we decide upon these aims? Educational aims are determined to a greater or lesser extent by the society in which the process of education is taking place; they therefore reflect aspects of the values, beliefs, economic and social development, and culture of that society at a given point in time. Most countries have national education systems which are to some extent controlled and financed by the state. Educational aims, as determined by policy advisers working with national governments, affect how these THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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aims

systems are organized, how their curriculum content is selected and taught, and how schools are run. In the English and Welsh education systems there currently exists a National Curriculum which pupils follow from age 5 to 16, with General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) syllabuses dominating the final Key Stage for many pupils. There are also options of taking further academic and vocational courses beyond the age of compulsory schooling at 16. The very existence of a National Curriculum, and the nature of its contents and restrictions, offer a statement of the educational aims of the society in which it exists, or of the government that seeks to organize that society. Interestingly, the aims originally stated for the National Curriculum, which were to prepare pupils for adult life and to promote their spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development, are nowhere in evidence in the specific Subject Orders chosen to promote these aims. This reflected the government of the day's intention to base state education on objectives rather than aims, which it preferred to remain undebated. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) attempts to make more explicit the values, aims and purposes of both the school curriculum and National Curriculum. It highlights two broad aims which create the 'essential context within which schools develop their own curriculum' (DfEE 1999, p. 10). These are that the school curriculum should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve, and that it should aim to promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life. In addition four main 'purposes' of the National Curriculum are outlined as being: to establish an entitlement; to establish standards; to promote continuity and coherence, and to promote public understanding. The fact that the National Curriculum in England and Wales is subject-based rather than structured around broader areas of educational experience is in itself significant. Although the National Curriculum has changed considerably since the passing of the 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA), particularly with the removal of some of its compulsory elements following the Dearing Report (1994) and the recent provision for vocational education to start at the age of 14 for many children, its overarching aims for education are still the same. Recent demands by governments for a more 'back to basics' curriculum, numeracy and literacy hours in primary schools, increased information and communications technology (ICT) provision, the widespread application of testing, league tables and the growth of external inspections give us further indications that the aims for education are currently broadly politically determined. At present a largely instrumental and utilitarian curriculum exists - that is, one which specifically prepares children for a useful role in society based upon achieving gainful employment. Within any national educational system a tension is apparent between centrally controlled and legislated educational aims and those devised by individual schools on a local basis. Gaining comparisons of the results achieved by national educational systems in other developed industrialized countries is seen to be important as a measure of continued economic competitiveness - the very fact that these technologically advanced nations seek to compare the mathematical and scientific prowess of their children is also revealing about the aims of their education systems. The lack of comparison on humanistic, literary, creative, imaginative, moral and social indicators of educational development is notable; although it is acknowledged that such comparisons are rarely easy to generate. The dominance of businesses, industries and commerce within an increasingly globalized world is having an impact on what governments in developed countries currently see as the main aim of education. This influences whether these educational aims are predominantly driven by what is 'good for the state', or what is 'good for the individual'. If educationists are unsure about the wisdom of adopting broadly utilitarian and instrumental aims for education, what are the alternatives? What do we want our education system to do; and therefore what should its aims look like? Such a question is intriguingly simple to pose but difficult to answer given the diversity of 8

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aims of geography education what educationists expect education to achieve and the diversity of children involved in the process. Educational aims can be considered with reference to the knowledge, skills and attitudes we expect children to develop. In addition, these aims will also encompass academic, vocational and personal educational goals. A fundamental question is whether different curricula should exist for different pupils according to their perceived needs, previous performance and levels of educational attainment. In essence, should our educational aims foster the excellence of the elite, or the development of all under the auspices of equal opportunities? Of course educational aims should not be constructed merely by the resolution of a series of opposites, but such a process does give some pointers as to what teachers might like to see as the main aim and purpose of educating. At a time when many of our educational aims are determined politically, and are beyond the influence of the individual school, it is perhaps a saving grace that the implementation and interpretation of these aims is left to the professional skill of the teacher. Aldrich, R. and White, J. ( 1998) The National Curriculum Beyond 2000:The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority and the Aims of Education. London: Institute of Education. Peters, R. ( 1966) Ethics and Education. London: Alien and Unwin. Wringe, C. ( 1988) Understanding Educational Aims. London: Unwin Hyman.

aims of geography education. Provide a statement of educational intentions within geography education, more general than those outlined by objectives. A reasonable definition of the overall aims of geography education can be found in the Final Report for geography in the National Curriculum in England and Wales (1990): a. stimulate pupils' interest in their surroundings and in the variety of physical and human conditions on the Earth's surface; b. foster their sense of wonder at the beauty of the world around them; c. help them to develop an informed concern about the quality of the environment and the future of the human habitat; and d. thereby enhance their sense of responsibility for the care of the Earth and its people. More explicitly these aims are addressed through helping the pupils to: a. acquire a framework of knowledge about locations and places that will help them to set local, national and international events within a geographical context, and that will support their development of geographical understanding; b. understand some of the important characteristics of the Earth's major physical systems - its landforms, weather and climate, hydrological and ecological systems and the interaction among those systems; c. understand the significance of location and of distribution patterns in human activities and physical processes; how places are linked by movements of people, materials and information, and by physical, economic, social and political relationships; and the interdependence of people, places and environments throughout the world; d. understand some of the relationships between people and environments, including both (i) the influence of environmental conditions on human activities, and (ii) the varied ways in which societies with different technologies, economic systems and cultural values have perceived, used, altered and created particular environments. e. develop a sense of place: a feeling for the 'personality' of a place and what it might be like to live there; THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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aims of geography education f. acquire knowledge and understanding about the physical and human processes that bring about changes in place, space and environments, and a critical appreciation of the consequences of those changes; g. develop awareness and appreciation of the ethnic, cultural, economic and political diversity of human society, and its geographical expression; h. acquire the knowledge and develop the skills and understanding necessary to identify and investigate important cultural, social and political issues relating to place, space and environment, with sensitivity to the range of attitudes and values associated with such issues; i. acquire techniques and develop skills and competencies necessary for geographical enquiry, and of value for other purposes, especially the making and interpretation of maps, the use of information technology and the conduct of field work; and j. develop intellectual and social skills, including the ability to observe, analyse and communicate.

More-recent explorations of the aims of geography education, while not explicitly in the form of those in the Final Report (1990), give a similar overview of the distinctive contribution of geography to the school curriculum: Geography contributes to the school curriculum by stimulating curiosity about the natural and human world, and introducing pupils to people, places and environments at a range of scales. It provides a link between the sciences and the arts and humanities, and contributes to environmental education and education for sustainable development. Geography develops understanding of physical and human landscapes and introduces pupils to different societies and cultures, enhancing awareness of global interdependence. It also promotes exploration of issues about the environment, development and society, and provides opportunities for pupils to reflect critically on their place in the world and their rights and responsibilities in relation to other people and the environment. Pupils learn the significance of people's values and attitudes in influencing changes to places and environments and, through engaging with a range of geographical issues, have opportunities to develop their own values. Pupils undertake geographical enquiry, in which they address geographical questions, both inside and outside the classroom. They learn to analyse evidence, make decisions and critically evaluate information, ideas and viewpoints. They find out how to apply skills specific to geography, including those of fieldwork and mapwork. They also draw on many different sources and resources including photographs, written and visual materials, and ICT. (QCA (1999) The Review of the National Curriculum in England:The Consultation Materials. London: QCA, p. 144)

In the GNC (DfEE 1999) which was published as a result of the QCA review the aims of geography were broadly stated in an introductory section called The importance of geography' : Geography provokes and answers questions about the natural and human worlds, using different scales of enquiry to view them from different perspectives. It develops knowledge of places and environments throughout the world, an understanding of maps, and a range of investigative and problem-solving skills both inside and outside the classroom. As such it prepares pupils for adult life and employment. Geography is a focus within the curriculum for understanding and resolving issues about the environment and sustainable development. It is also an important link between the natural and social sciences. As pupils study geography, they encounter different societies and cultures. This helps them to realize how nations rely on each other. It can inspire them to think about their own place in the world, their values, and their rights and responsibilities to other people and the environment. (DEE (1999)The Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO) 10

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anarchism

In addition, the Geographical Association (GA) has created a 'position statement' for geography in the curriculum, sections of which are reproduced below: The purpose of geography. The GA believes that the aims of geography education are: • to develop in young people a knowledge and understanding of the place they live in, of other peoples and places, and of how people and places inter-relate and inter-connect; of the significance of location; of human and physical environments; of people-environment relationships; and of the causes and consequences of change; • to develop the skills needed to carry out geographical study, e.g. geographical enquiry, mapwork and fieldwork; • to stimulate an interest in, and encourage an appreciation of, the world around us; and • to develop an informed concern for the world around us and an ability and willingness to take positive action, both locally and globally.

[This statement also includes later sections on geography's distinctive contribution to the curriculum; geography's wider contribution to the curriculum; and geography in the National Curriculum.] (Geographical Association ( 1999) 'Geography in the curriculum: a position statement from the GA'. Teaching Geography, 24(2), 57-9)

A Level. See Advanced Level. American Geographical Society (AGS). Founded in 1851, like its British equivalent the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) it at first represented widespread commercial and political interest in the exploration and discovery of new lands. In the latter half of the twentieth century the AGS became increasingly involved in sponsoring academic research. Despite periods of financial hardship the Society has continued its tradition of exploration, research and publication. Its membership is generally broader than that of the Association of American Geographers (AAG), and its quarterly Geographical Review (first published in 1910) is a well-respected academic periodical. mail: American Geographical Society (AGS), 120 Wall Street #100, New York, New York 10005-3904, USA tel: 00 I 2124225456 email: [email protected] website: www-personal.umich.edu/~sarhaus/isss/ags.html

anarchism. A doctrine which maintains that the freedom of the individual should be absolute and that governments should be abolished. However, the rejection of order, such as the replacement of law, government and administrative systems by self-sufficient co-operative groups, does not imply their replacement by violent disorder. Anarchist ideas were developed by geographers such as Kropotkin and Reclus at the beginning of the twentieth century and played a role in the formulation of labour movements in Europe and the USA. In contemporary geography education the theme of anarchism has been used to illustrate the nature of hierarchical power within societies and the possibilities of creating radically different forms of social organization. As such anarchism has links to economic, social, political and welfare geography. Cook, I. and Pepper, D. (eds) ( 1989) 'Anarchism and geography.' Contemporary Issues in Geography and Education, 3(2). Kropotkin, R ( 1885) 'What geography ought to be'. The Nineteenth Century, 18,940-56 THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

II

Annals of the Association of American Geographers Reclus ( 1868-9) La Terre. Description des phénomènes de la vie du globe. Paris: Hachette.

Annals of the Association of American Geographers (AAAG). A quarterly journal first published in 1911 by the Association of American Geographers (AAG). It includes scholarly articles on all aspects of geography. annual review. The statutory review period at which a local education authority (LEA) must review a statement of special educational needs (SEN) which has been provided for a child. Antipode. A quarterly journal of geography with a radical perspective, first published in 1969. It was founded to 'ask value questions within geography, question existing institutions concerning their rates and qualities of change and question the individual concerning his [sic] own commitments'. Area. A quarterly journal of geography, first published in 1969. It is one of the journals of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) with the Institute of British Geographers (IBG) and carries short articles of a scholarly nature for geographers. AS Level. See Advanced Subsidiary Level. assessment. Involves the measurement of the extent of an individual's learning, or an evaluation of their performance or of a particular aspect of their attainment. Any assessment must take into account the validity, reliability and fitness for purpose of the assessment methods used. Assessment should seek to improve the learning of pupils. Its aims and methods should be clear to those undergoing the assessment process. Different types of assessment have sometimes been referred to as 'high stakes' or 'low stakes': the former relating to external, public examinations (such as the General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE), or Advanced Level (A Level)), where the outcome determines future employment or educational pathways and where scores can be collected into league tables; the latter being internal, private and used in determining individual performances of pupils and planning their next educational steps. WHAT IS ASSESSMENT IN GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION FOR? There are a number of equally valid answers to the above question. However, the following may provide a helpful overview: • to enhance pupils' learning; • to measure (or possibly raise) standards; • to check teaching objectives against learning outcomes; • to recognize and plan for pupils' learning needs; • to place pupils against different descriptors of achievement; • to discover what pupils know, understand and can do; • to help plan future learning objectives; • to help pupils to devise personal targets; • to evaluate teacher effectiveness/performance; • to motivate both pupils and teachers. 12

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assessment opportunities

Assessment should always be a factor considered at the start of a process of designing a curriculum. Problems invariably occur when assessment is considered as an afterthought - for example when it is a last-minute consideration about how the curriculum which has been devised (and maybe even already taught) will be assessed and evaluated. Assessment should therefore be integral to curriculum construction and delivery - it is too late to start thinking about how to assess pupils' performance at, say, Key Stage 3 of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) at the end of Year 9. Conversely there are also problems if assessment begins to dominate the curriculum, sometimes referred to as the assessment 'tail' wagging the curriculum 'dog'. This is a problem regularly experienced in General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced Level (A Level) courses where the 'high stakes' assessment at the end of the course dominates the pace and practice of teaching and learning throughout the year. A helpful structure for the way in which assessment should ideally fit into the Geography National Curriculum is given on p. 14. Black, R and Wiliam, D. ( 1998) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment. London: King's College. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Student assessment in geography Post-16', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 298-309. Butt, G., Lambert, D. andTelfer, S. ( 1995) Assessment Works: Approaches to Assessment in Geography at Key Stages I, 2 and 3. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Daugherty, R. ( 1995) 'Assessment in geographical education: a review of research', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 242-50. Grimwade, K. ( 1996) 'Practical approaches to assessment, record keeping and reporting', in P Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 203-9. Hopkin, J. ( 1995) 'Developing an assessment policy'. Teaching Geography, 20(4), 192-3. Lambert, D. ( 1996) 'Assessing pupils' attainment and supporting learning', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 260-87. Lambert, D. ( 1997) Teacher assessment in the National Curriculum', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 275-86. Marsden, W ( 1995) Assessment, testing and examinations', in W Marsden, Geography I 1-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton, pp. 99-1 18 Stimpson, R ( 1996) 'Reconceptualizing assessment in geography', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developments and Directions in Geographical Education. Clevedon: Channel View Publications, pp. I 17-28. Tidmarsh, C. and Weeden, R ( 1997) 'Using optional tests and tasks'. Teaching Geography, 22(2), 71-6.

assessment criteria. Statements that describe candidates' educational performance accurately enough for valid and reliable assessment to take place against them. With reference to the Geography National Curriculum (GNC), widespread debate has occurred about how effectively the assessment criteria, known as level descriptions, actually match representative pupil performance at particular ages and stages of their educational development. assessment opportunities. Occasions when evidence of what pupils know, understand and can do can be gathered, either informally or formally, to be used by teachers for assessment purposes. In geography the opportunities for gathering such evidence should be considerable, given the many different ways in which pupils should learn within their geography education, the range of THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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assessment opportunities

PROGRAMMES OF STUDY FOR GEOGRAPHY PLANNING

Monitoring and evaluation

Learning objectives

Learning activities

Assessment opportunities • criteria referenced • formal and informal

TEACHING AND ASSESSING

What the children know, understand and can do

What happens next?

Shared understanding of levels

What do I want to record in terms of significant progress?

MANAGEABLE RECORDING

Ongoing marks and recorded comments

Recording • how often? • what format? • who for?

Portfolio of pupils' work

LEVEL DESCRIPTIONS

Summative Teacher Assessment 'best fit', end-of-KeyStage judgements

Source: Butt, G., Lambert, D. andTelfen S. ( 1995) Assessment Works: Approaches to Assessment in Geography at Key Stages I, 2 and 3. Sheffield: Geographical Association, p. 9.

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attainment

skills they should develop and the various settings (both indoors and outdoors) in which such education takes place. Association of American Geographers (AAG). The major academic society for geographers in the United States. It was founded in 1904 in Philadelphia. During the Second World War many geographers felt excluded from the AAG resulting in a separate group, the American Society for Professional Geographers (ASPG), being formed. This group flourished and was amalgamated with the AAG in 1948, which was then reconstituted into a less exclusive society. The foci of activity for the association are the production of publications and the organization of conferences which occur nationally on an annual basis and have numerous regional outlets. The association therefore serves a similar purpose to the Institute of British Geographers (IBG) in the UK. The major journals of the association are the quarterly Annals of the Association of American Geographers (first published 1911) ana Professional Geographer. A variety of activities are undertaken by the AAG including research projects and attempts to influence geography education and curriculum development at all levels. The best-known example for British geographers is perhaps the High School Geography Project of the 1960s and '70s which had a direct influence on the development of Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). mail: Association of American Geographers (AAG), 1710 Sixteenth Street, N W, Washington DC, 20009-3198, USA tel: 001 202234 1450 email: [email protected] website: www.aag.org

AT. See attainment target. atlas. A collection of maps or charts bound into a single volume. The specific contents of atlases vary, but most will include topographic, political and thematic maps often at a range of scales from regional to continental. Some atlases also provide satellite images and contain sections which refer to contemporary processes or phenomena which have a spatial expression. Atlas maps are usually accompanied by an index which uses an alphanumeric referencing system to places. In recent years electronic and interactive atlases have grown in popularity. Atlases complement globes in their usefulness - however, even the most detailed globe can only carry a fraction of the information contained within an atlas. Atlases therefore provide more than just a collection of maps, rather a narrative about places. The Geography National Curriculum (GNC) stresses particular atlas reference and lexical skills, as well as the need for pupils to use globes, maps and plans at a range of scales. Wiegand, R ( 1996) 'Learning with atlases and globes', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 125-37.

attainment. An individual's grasp of different skills, information and understanding within a certain, specified area of learning. Attempts at defining attainment targets in geography during the creation of the Geography THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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attainment target

National Curriculum (GNC) encountered problems concerning the nature and extent of geographical content to include at each Key Stage. attainment target (AT). Introduced by the Education Reform Act (1988), attainment targets within a subject are the 'knowledge, skills and understanding which pupils of different abilities and maturities are expected to have by the end of each Key Stage' of the National Curriculum. Each attainment target was originally divided into ten levels, which were reduced to eight following the Dearing Report (1994) with one level for exceptional performance, as defined by the level descriptions. In the Final Report of the GNC (June 1990), seven attainment targets existed; these were reduced to five for the Statutory Orders (March 1991) and finally just one in the 1995 version of the GNC produced following the publication of the Dearing Report (1994). The original division of the attainment targets into numerous statements of attainment (SoAs) was thought overly cumbersome in terms of content and assessment, hence their later removal from all National Curriculum subjects. This enabled assessment to move away from an atomistic 'tickbox' approach to one which was concerned with 'best fit' against level descriptions. attitude. A disposition to behave in a certain way towards a particular person, object or event. Attitudes are often linked to emotional, social and cognitive development and their promotion is believed to be an important consideration in humanities subjects such as geography. Together with an exploration of values, the education of children within geography to achieve a greater appreciation of their own, and other people's, attitudes is considered central to contemporary geography education. Using the International Geographical Union's (IGU) International Charter on Geographical Education, a recent curriculum development project in geography arrived at the following model for incorporating attitudes and values into their materials: Attitudes and Values: Students should develop their • appreciation of the different living conditions of people • concern for the quality and planning of the environment and human habitat for future generations • understanding of the significance of attitudes and values in decision-making • readiness to use geographical knowledge and skills adequately and responsibly in private, professional and public life • respect for the rights of all people to equality • dedication to seeking solutions to local, regional, national and international problems on the basis of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (Butt, G. (ed.) ( 1998) Living and Working in Berlin. Sheffield: GA, p. 2.)

audience. The person, or persons, addressed by a particular piece of writing or speech. In geography education techniques of 'audience centred' teaching and learning have sought to encourage children to use more exploratory and expressive forms of language than those forms which are traditionally demanded in the geography classroom. The theory is that by getting pupils to write for realistic audiences (other than the teacher) the immediacy of the 16

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awarding

teacher's assessment role will be downplayed, encouraging pupils to be more motivated by their work and to use more exciting and exploratory forms of writing in geography. Butt, G. ( 1998) 'Increasing the effectiveness of "audience centred" teaching in geography'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 7(3), 203-18.

Australian Geographer. A journal first published in 1929 and now appearing twice each year. It carries articles of a philosophical and theoretical nature predominantly on the geography of Australia and its region (including the Western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Asia and Antarctica) for geographers and geography educationists. Australian Geographic. The quarterly geographical journal, established in 1986, of the Australian Geographic Society (AGS). It aims to increase its readers' awareness of the positive aspects of Australian life. Australian Geographic Society (AGS). Originally established to raise funds for research, environmental projects, adventure and community work in Australia. mail: Australian Geographic Society (AGS), PO Box 321 .Terrey Hills, New South Wales 2084, Australia

tel: 00 612 9450 2344

email: aussubeausgeo.com.au website: vwvw.australiangeographic.com.au

Australian Geographical Studies. A journal of the Institute of Australian Geographers first published in 1963. It contains articles particularly about the geography of Australia and its Pacific and Asian neighbours, and on the nature, methods and study of geography. Australian Geography Teachers Association (AGTA). Originally established in 1967 to foster the teaching and learning of geography in Australian schools, to promote and disseminate research in geography education and to provide a professional network for geography teachers in Australia. It has a number of sister organizations affiliated to it throughout Australia and publishes an annual journal titled Geographical Education. mail: Australian Geography Teachers Association (AGTA), PO Box 663, Gawler SA, 5 I I 8 , Australia website: www.agta.asn.au/index.htm

authentification. A process by which a teacher verifies that the work submitted for assessment in an external examination is the candidate's own. This is usually through the candidate signing a pro forma to state that the work is theirs. The pro forma is then countersigned by the teacher. The extensive use of coursework in General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced Level (A Level) examinations in geography, much of it based on candidates' individual field-studies, means that authentification is an aspect of many geography teachers' professional duties. award. Any qualification issued by an examination or validation group (or awarding body). awarding. The process by which a grade is defined for candidates who have taken an examination, most typically a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced or Advanced Subsidiary Level (A or AS Level). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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awarding bodies

awarding bodies. External examinations such as General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced/Advanced Subsidiary Level (A/AS Level) and General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs) are currently administered by awarding bodies (previously called examination boards and groups). Originally established by universities to provide entrance examinations for degree courses, the boards (which were initially responsible for the arrangements for Ordinary Level (O Level) and A Level exams) and groups (which were responsible for Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) exams) merged around 1986, when the GCSE was introduced. The Secretary of State for Education established four GCSE groups in England which controlled the new examination nationally through the Joint Council for GCSE. The creation of national criteria for GCSE in each subject, monitored by the Joint Council, meant not only greater central control over examination boards but also a clearer standardization of examination practice. Subsequently the Southern Examining Group (SEG) joined the Associated Examining Board (AEB), whilst the Midlands Examining Group (MEG) joined the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Examination boards and groups have recently experienced another series of amalgamations with equivalent organizations in vocational education following the Bearing Review (1996). This paralleled the joining together of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) and National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) into one unified body called the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in 1997. As such the University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC) has joined the Business and Technician Education Council (BTEC) to form EdExcel Foundation; and the Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (NEAB) has joined AEB to form the Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA). MEG, the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) and the Oxford and Cambridge Examination and Assessment Council (OCCEAC) have now formed the Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations (OCR). A Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC) and a Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA, Northern Ireland) also exist. Each of these organizations offer both vocational and academic qualifications. Fewer, but more powerful, awarding bodies now exist who have changed their titles to reflect their amalgamation with vocational bodies. They are currently reducing the numbers of syllabuses they offer in an attempt to clarify standards and reduce duplication of awards. Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC). The Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales, the equivalent organization to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in England, and the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), in Northern Ireland. mail: ACCAC, Castle Buildings, Womanby Street, Cardiff CFI 9SX tel: 029 20375400 email: [email protected] website: www.acac.org.uk

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B baccalauréat. The examination taken by French children at the end of their secondary schooling at 18 or 19. It is noted for its breadth compared to the Advanced Level (A Level) system of examinations used within the UK. The post-16 International Baccalaureate (IB) consists of six academic subjects - two languages, a science, human science and an option which may include geography. It is accepted as an entry level qualification to degree courses in twenty countries. Convey, A. ( 1997) 'Geography and the International Baccalaureate', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 105-9. International Baccalaureate Office (1996) Geograph/. Geneva: IBO.

Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.). A degree level qualification introduced following the publication of the Robbins Report (1963), which recommended that teaching should become a graduate entry profession in the UK. Typically B.Eds are three or four years in duration and lead to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) following practical teaching experience in schools. These degrees are available through colleges of higher education and university departments of education (UDE) and contain subject-based and professional/educational studies, as well as practical teaching experience. They are the usual route for gaining QTS before entering into primary teaching. For those primary teachers who do not wish to specialize in the teaching of geography at primary level the input of sessions specifically on geography may be minimal, reflecting the current need to cover all aspects of the National Curriculum and in particular the core subjects. 'back to basics'. A phrase describing attempts to return education to a more basic diet of subjects, with a strong emphasis on reading, writing and arithmetic (the so called 'three Rs'). In recent years politically motivated campaigns have attacked progressive teaching methods and curriculum design, claiming that they are responsible for declining educational standards. Those who believe in taking the school curriculum back to a more basic form usually support the return to an educational system which prioritizes the teaching of literacy, numeracy and possibly ICT/technology. Many geography educators would argue that a 'back to basics' approach to the curriculum creates dangers of squeezing out subjects such as geography and history - a negative step given THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Bailey

that literacy, numeracy and ICT can all be taught very effectively through the medium of geography. Bailey, Patrick (1925-98). A Cambridge graduate who taught in schools and colleges of education before becoming a lecturer, then senior lecturer, in geography education at the University of Leicester from 1968 to 1990. He had a particular interest in fieldwork, at one point becoming the secretary of the Geographical Fieldstudy Group. He was instrumental in the publication of the journal Teaching Geography by the Geographical Association (GA) in 1975, serving as its editor up until 1985, when he became the association's president. During that year he organized and edited A Case for Geography (with Tony Binns), a response to a series of challenging questions for geography delivered to the GA by the then Secretary of State for Education, Sir Keith Joseph. He had previously written an influential text on the Orkney Islands in 1971, and in 1975 had published a methodological text titled Teaching Geography. In 1996 he co-edited the Geography Teacher's Handbook (with Peter Fox) and was awarded honorary membership of the GA in the following year. An honorary fellowship of the Royal Geographical Society was bestowed upon Patrick in 1998, along with similar recognition from geographical associations and societies in Poland, Spain and Portugal. Bale, John (b. 1940). Holds degrees from the University of London and started his teaching career working in secondary modern and grammar schools. He subsequently taught economic geography and geography education at Avery Hill College of Education (now the University of Greenwich), moving in 1979 to the Education Department at the University of Keele. As well as making numerous contributions to the teaching of geography in primary and secondary schools, he has pioneered the geographical study of sports and holds the Chair of Sports Geography at Keele. Professor Bale wrote The Location of Manufacturing Industry in 1976, a second edition of which appeared in 1981 and a Japanese edition in 1995. He has also authored Geography in the Primary School (1987), which has been published as a Spanish edition (1989). In the last decades his research interests have mainly (but not entirely) focused on the geographical study of sports. Among several books in this area are Sports Geography (1989), Sport, Space and the City (1993) and Landscapes of Modern Sport (1994). He has been a visiting professor at the University of Jyvaskyla in Finland and has lectured in North America, Australia and most of the countries of western Europe. banding. The division of a year of pupils into two or three groups of generally equivalent ability. Pupils are then taught within this band for the majority of their subjects (see setting; streaming). baseline assessment. A set of data gathered on children before a period of study, for example before the start of their primary school education. From September 1998 all children in English, Welsh and Northern Irish schools were assessed in language and literacy, maths and personal and social development before they entered compulsory schooling. The aim was for teachers to be able to match their educational programmes to the particular needs of the children they were to teach, to demonstrate measurable progress. 20

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bibliography

Baseline assessments are possible in any subject, although in geography there are currently no plans for wholesale national assessments of this type to take place. BECTa. See British Educational Communications and Technology agency. B.Ed. See Bachelor of Education. behavioural environment. The part of an environment which elicits a particular type of response in the form of behaviour, or towards which a particular type of behaviour occurs (cf. phenomenal environment). Gestalt psychologists believe that individual objects within our environment, when viewed together, create a different response from when they are viewed individually. Perception, and therefore behaviour, is often intuitive and ordered according to the environment one is in. In geography this has been conceptualized as the existence of behavioural environments - where people behave and make decisions as a response to the patterns of objects they perceive, and the values of these patterns within their culture. The process is 'two way' in that people's behaviour is partly determined by their environment, and the environment is changed as a result of the behaviour and action of people within it. The cultural influence on perception, and therefore action towards or within one's environment, is important. Also a person's rationality, purpose, reasoning and consciousness are significant in influencing their behaviour. Kirk, W. ( 1951 ) 'Historical geography and the concept of the behavioural environment'. Indian Geographical Journal, 25, 152-60.

behavioural geography. Emphasizes the human processes and behaviours which exist within an environment, particularly those relating to the development of perception, attitudes and environmental learning. It seeks to generalize from human experiences rather than looking at unique events, and has focused upon themes such as decisions to migrate, consumer choices in environment, and choice of transport mode. bias. A predisposition for, or against, something or someone. In essence it is a prejudicial distortion from reality. Within geography education a number of articles have been written about perceived bias in teaching materials, most notably within textbooks, and on the image that children have of peoples from other countries. Hicks, D. ( 1979) Bias in Geography Textbooks: Images of the Third World and Multiethnic Britain (Working Paper I). London: University of London Institute of Education. Kent, A. (ed.) ( 1982) Bias in Geographical Education. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

bibliography. A list of books referred to in a scholarly work, or by a specific author, or on a specific subject. Two major bibliographies of geography education in the UK currently exist. The first, produced in 1972 by Clare Lukehurst and Norman Graves, is titled Geography in Education: A Bibliography of British Sources 1870-1970. This was updated in 1998 by A Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997 under the editorship of Nick Foskett and Bill Marsden. Both arose through a collaboration between the Geographical Association (GA) and the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission on Geographical Education. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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biogeography

These bibliographies are geared to the needs of British researchers, teachers and students in geography education, although the later version does extend to materials produced in the English-speaking world, predominantly Australia and the United States. Foskett, N. and Marsden, B. (eds) ( 1998) A Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Lukehurst, C.I and Graves, N. (eds) ( 1972) Geography in Education: A Bibliography of British Sources 1870-1970. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

biogeography. The study of the geographical distribution of flora and fauna. biome. A large area inhabited by particular flora and fauna which have adapted to the natural environmental conditions in which they live. Black Papers. A series of publications in the UK which took their name from one of their key writers, Professor Paul Black. These papers, the first of which was published in March 1969, criticized modern teaching methods, the growth of comprehensive education and a perceived decline in educational standards in British schools. The papers were written by various right-wing academics, politicians and teachers. Although the Black Papers cannot be said to have had a direct influence on geography education, their opposition to progressive educational methods in the 1970s coincided with a period when geography curriculum development projects were taking the teaching of the subject in a new direction. Cox, C. and Boyson, R. (eds) ( 1975) Black Paper 1975: The Fight for Education. London: Dent. Cox, C. and Boyson, R. (eds) ( 1977) Black Paper 1977. London: Maurice Temple Smith. Cox, C. and Dyson, A. (eds) ( 1969) Fight for Education: A Black Paper. London: Critical Quarterly Society. Cox, C. and Dyson, A. (eds) ( 1969) Black Poper Two: The Crisis in Education. London: Critical Quarterly Society. Cox, C. and Dyson, A. (eds) ( 1970) Black Paper Three: Goodbye Mr Short. London: Critical Quarterly Society.

Bloom, Benjamin. The creator of a taxonomy of educational objectives, classified into a hierarchy, where the later categories subsume the ones that have gone before. Such taxonomies can be applied to see whether the teaching and learning process, and more particularly its assessment, will help to develop simple or more complex forms of learning. In 1956 Bloom edited and published arguably his most famous work, a Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Boardman, David (b. 1936). After graduating from the University of Manchester, David Boardman taught geography in secondary schools in London and Bristol. In 1970 he was appointed Lecturer in Geography Education at the University of Birmingham, where he later received his Ph.D. and became Senior Lecturer. Since 1990 he has been a tutor at Hatfield College, University of Durham, where he was awarded an M.Phil, in 1996. He was editor of Teaching Geography from 1990 to 1996. His books include Graphicacy and Geography Teaching (1983) and The Impact of a Curriculum Project (1988). He edited, and contributed to, New Directions in Geographical Education (1985) and the Handbook for Geography Teachers (1986). He has published numerous articles in geographical and 22

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Bruner

educational journals. His main interest is in children's understanding of maps, on which he has written extensively. Bowles, Rachel (b. 1938). A graduate of Bedford College, University of London, Rachel Bowles undertook postgraduate research at the University of Hull before embarking on a PGCE at the Institute of Education, University of London. She taught geology and geography at The Latymer School, Edmonton, before moving to Avery Hill College of Education (now School of Education, University of Greenwich), where she currently teaches. She has written mainly on environmental science and on themes in primary geography, with a particular focus on locality work. Rachel is the editor of the Geographical Association's Primary Guidance series and is co-ordinator and editor of the Register of Research in Primary Geography, a directory of teaching and learning observations in the classroom and beyond. brainstorming. An activity which geography teachers, and others, use to allow creative ideas and solutions to flow without being impeded by immediate criticism or comment. In effect it is the process of solving a problem or answering a question by promoting the generation of spontaneous ideas. Once a range of points have been made by a group, or class, these are then investigated and discussed in a more structured way. In humanities subjects such as geography, brainstorming is often used to initiate discussion on a theme or concept, or to help in solving decision-making exercises. Bristol Project. See Geography 14-18. British Educational Communications and Technology agency (BECTa). Formerly known as the National Council for Educational Technology (NCET), sponsored jointly by the government and other organizations to improve the use of information and communications technology (ICT) within education. Its aim is to ensure that the government's drive to raise educational standards is supported by the use of technology and that the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) is successfully implemented. BECTa works closely with the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), other government offices and local education authorities (LEAs) to ensure that ICT use and proficiency within schools and further education, and amongst teachers, lecturers and pupils, is enhanced. A variety of geography-related projects and materials have been produced by BECTa, or its previous incarnation as NCET, often in collaboration with the Geographical Association (see information and communications technology). mail: BECTa, Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry, CV4 7JJ tel: 024 7641 6994 email: [email protected] website: www.becta.org.uk

Bruner, Jerome (b. 1915). An American psychologist educated at Duke and Harvard Universities, Bruner's main research was in cognitive social psychology and the development of language and thought. His experiments in the 1950s researching into sequences of decision-making in problem-solving were some of the first steps taken in the field of cognitive psychology. The results were published as A Study of Thinking (1956) with Goodnow and Austin. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Bullock Report In the late 1950s Burner's work focused on education and cognitive development, the culmination of which was a series of ideas about the merits of pupil-centred teaching and the importance of pupil participation in the learning process. He also developed a theory of instruction which involved the use of structured sets of learning experiences for children. In 1960 Bruner established the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard (with George Miller), publishing some of his later work there as Studies in Cognitive Growth (1966). His major cognitive theory involved the development of a model for the growth of thought processes through enactive, iconic and then symbolic representations and communication. Bruner's later work was largely centred on the development of language and communication skills in problem-solving. He adopted a Vygotskyian line that language skills help children to solve problems, with communication from prespeech to linguistic forms being central to the development of thought. The social framework for language development was also seen to be important. Unlike Piaget, Bruner did not believe that children passed through stages of thinking development, rather that they used different types of thinking according to the problem they had to solve or the situation they found themselves in. Bruner's writings also include The Process of Education (1960); Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language (1983); and In Search of Mind: Essays in Autobiography (1983). Bullock Report. Commissioned in 1972 by the then Secretary of State for Education to investigate the teaching of English in schools, including the development of reading, writing and speech. It also made suggestions about monitoring the attainment of language skills in English. The Bullock Report was published in 1975 as A Language for Life, which spurred the development of a variety of 'language across the curriculum' groups. Various geography educators, such as Williams (1981) and Slater (1989), became involved in the development of language awareness within geography education. Slater; F. ( 1989) Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge. Williams, M. ( 1981 ) Language Teaching and the Learning of Geography. London: Ward Lock.

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c Canadian Association of Geographers/1'Association Canadienne des Géographes. Founded in 1951, the Association aims to promote research in geography and improve geography education in schools and colleges. It publishes one journal, the Canadian Geographer. mail: Burnside Hall, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal (Quebec), Canada, H3A 2K6 tel: 001 5143984946 email: cagefelix.geog.mcgill.ca website: www.uwindsor.ca/cag/

Canadian Geographer. The quarterly geographical journal of the Canadian Association of Geographers. It was first published in 1950 and carries geographical articles in both French and English on any topic of geographical significance. capitalism. An economic system based on the creation of private economic wealth and ownership. Individuals invest capital in the production, distribution and selling of goods in order to maximize their income. The allocation of resources and wealth are dependent on market forces. Harvey, D. ( 1982) The Limits to Capital. Oxford: Blackwell. Harvey, D. ( 1985) The geopolitics of capitalism', in D. Gregory and J. Urry (eds), Space and Social Structures. London: Macmillan, pp. 128-63.

career. Advancement through a chosen field of employment. In the teaching profession the traditional lack of an apparent career structure has regularly been criticized, although attempts to introduce induction arrangements, appraisal systems, fast-tracking and financial rewards and incentives for particular aspects of performance and responsibility may constitute a form of career-structuring. A literature exists concerning the career opportunities provided by studying geography; the place of geography in vocational education; on becoming a geography teacher; and on in-service opportunities for geography teachers. Fox, R ( 1996) 'Where can you go with geography?' in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 325-35. Lambert, D. ( 1996) 'Understanding and improving school geography: the training of beginning geography teachers', in M. Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 230-41. Leat, D. ( 1996) 'Geography student teachers and their images of teaching'. IRGEEL, 5( I ), 63-8. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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career entry profile Williams, M. (1988) The in service education and training of geography teachers in England and Wales', in M.Williams, O. Biilman and R. Gerber (eds), Towards Models of the Continuing Education of Geography Teachers. Brisbane: IGU/CGE, pp. 13 1-50.

career entry profile (CEP). From 1998 all newly qualified teachers (NQTs) entered the teaching profession with a career entry profile issued by their initial teacher training (ITT) institution (in England). Profiles contain a statement of the NQT's strengths and development needs at the point of exit, to be used in their induction year in school for target-setting and support. The induction coordinator at the NQT's school is responsible for establishing a programme of support for the induction year, which has to be satisfactorily passed for the NQT to remain eligible to teach. Performance is therefore monitored and assessed as part of each new teacher's professional development. Although the format of the CEP is common to teachers in all subjects, it is possible for geographers to highlight specific aspects of their strengths and needs with particular reference to geography education. cartography. The science and art of constructing and producing maps and charts. If broadly applied the term can be used to refer to the making of any plans or sections which represent aspects of the Earth. Considerations of graphicacy and spatial ability in geography education have links to cartography. Almost all cartography is now electronic, which has created tensions between the craft skills of professional cartographers and the power of computers to replicate or enhance such skills. For example, the positioning of type on maps still remains limited in many computer applications. Blakemore, M. (1992) 'Cartography'. Progress in Human Geography, 16(I), 75-87. Boardman, D. ( 1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching. London: Groom Helm. Boardman, D. ( 1985) 'Cartographic communication with topographical maps', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 135-52. Gerben R. (1985) 'Competence and performance in cartographic language', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 153-68.

cartoon. A drawing in a newspaper or magazine, which may be humorous in nature. In geography textbooks the use of 'talking head' cartoons to display generalized or stereotypical characteristics and views of particular peoples has been criticized for its tendency to bias. Marsden, W. ( 1992) 'Cartoon geography: the new stereotyping?' Teaching Geography, 17(3), 128-30.

case studies. An approach to teaching and learning whereby a particular case, or example, is presented for study. In geography, case studies often refer to reallife examples of particular geographical themes or ideas which may, at some stage, also be studied in theory - for example, the Kobe earthquake as a case study of seismic activity. In the 1960s the adoption of case study materials in the teaching of geography helped to replace the regional approach in geography with one which gave teachers more flexibility and choice. Catling, Simon (b. 1947). Graduated from London University and taught in primary schools in London for twelve years. Following a deputy headship, he moved into teacher education at Oxford Brookes University in 1984, where he has been responsible for primary geography and has served both as deputy head and acting head of the School of Education. An active member of the 26

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Charney Manor Conferences

Geographical Association (GA), he chaired its Education Standing Committee in the 1980s and was President in 1992-3. Simon has written widely for teachers and children. Among the teaching resources he has produced are the Outset Geography and Mapstart series, as well as other map books and atlases for children's use. He is well known for his work on teaching map understanding and skills, and locational knowledge through his book Placing Places, and, more recently, for his studies of primary geography textbooks. Author of many articles and book chapters, he is perhaps best known for his championing of the teaching of geography in primary schools. CCEA. See Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment. CD ROM. See Compact Disk Read Only Memory. census. A count of a population, often containing a variety of different types of data on the population surveyed. CEP. See career entry profile. Certificate of Achievement (CoA). Introduced in 1998 as a qualification for school leavers who would normally leave school without certification in geography (or other subjects), as their levels of performance were below that of the Foundation tier grades of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). GCSE criteria do not apply to the CoAs, which are awarded at three levels comparable to levels 1, 2 and 3 of the National Curriculum. CoAs have no restrictions on the amount of teacher assessed coursework they can offer to candidates. Flinders, K. ( 1998) The new Certificate of Achievement for geography'. Teaching Geography, 22(1), 46-7.

Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE). Introduced in 1965 for those school leavers in England, Wales and Northern Ireland who did not sit Ordinary Levels (O Levels) and therefore would otherwise leave compulsory education without any form of certification. Many geography teachers welcomed the CSE as it provided opportunities for them to engage in curriculum development and syllabus design which related closely to the needs of their own pupils, as well as the prospects of introducing coursework elements into the geography curriculum. The CSE was abolished in 1988, together with O Levels, to be replaced by the multi-purpose General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Charney Manor Conferences. Began in 1970 as an informal gathering of geography educators from both schools and universities. The focus for the first conference was the 'new geography' and the movement away from the descriptive and factually based study of geography towards a 'geography of ideas' incorporating problem-solving, games and simulations. A book, New Directions in Geography Teaching (Walford 1973), emerged from the first conference and served to diffuse teaching ideas to a wider audience. The 1980 conference at Charney Manor resulted in the publication of Signposts for Geography Teaching (Walford 1981), which collated the views of many of the original delegates from 1970, as well as those from a wider THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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chi-square

audience of teachers and educators. This second publication largely focused upon humanistic, welfare and behavioural approaches within geography and education. The 1990 conference saw the publication of Viewpoints on Geography Teaching (Walford 1991), which offered an eclectic range of views on the possible future of geography education within the emergent National Curriculum. Papers from the Charney Manor conference held in 1993 were published as Challenging Times: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography (Walford and Machón 1994). The Charney Manor conferences for geographers and geography teachers in primary and secondary schools, as well as those from higher education institutions, are still held on an annual basis. There is an expectation that the majority of delegates will offer papers or a presentation, which may form the basis of a conference publication in certain years. Walford, R. (ed.) ( 1973) New Directions in Geography Teaching. London: Longman. Walford, R. (ed.) ( I 9 8 I ) Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Walford, R. (ed.) ( 1991 ) Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Walford, R. and Machon, R (eds) ( 1994) ChallengingTimes: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge Publishing Services.

chi square. A non-parametric statistical test which can be used to compare a sample to a specified population, or to test for association between two or more samples. In the first test the 'observed' sample is tested against an 'expected' population distribution to see whether it fits within it. The second test, using two or more samples, is similar to the first and can be used to indicate fit and the degree of association both with a population and between samples. Chi square can be used with nominal or ordinal data. child-centred education. Places the child, rather than the teacher or the subject, at the heart of the educational process. Often supported by psychologists, and those who have been involved in the education of very young children, the childcentred tradition has played a strong role in the development of British primary school education. The works of Pestalozzi and Rousseau, as well as those of Dewey, form part of this tradition. This form of education is rooted within existentialist philosophy, and thus the interests, abilities and needs of the individual child are believed to be closely served by it. Contact with the outside world is highly valued as a positive, subjective, experience. In many ways the process of education is seen as more important than the product and therefore those geographers who have been influenced by this tradition see their role as educators of the 'whole child', rather than as creators of new 'geographers'. Geography is therefore seen as a vehicle to develop a child's self-understanding: a process of leading out rather than of imparting knowledge. The influence of child-centred approaches on geography education has encouraged children to explore their feelings and experiences of the world. Often this involves locally based projects and fíeldwork which the child may have a role in defining. In the classroom, pupil-centred work may be of an enquiry nature. In the most extreme examples child-centred education has allowed the child's interests to dominate the educational process, making curriculum planning, or the creation of schemes of work, virtually impossible. 28

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Circular 4/98 Dewey, J. ( 1902) The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago: Phoenix Books. Rousseau, J.-J. (1972) Emile. London: Dent.

Children Act (1989). Introduced to co-ordinate legislation with respect to the care and welfare of children. The act stresses that children with particular social, emotional or educational difficulties are often raised most successfully in their own family environs. It is an act jointly implemented by the departments of Social Services, Health and Education. Chorley, Richard (b. 1927). Educated at Oxford before moving to the United States under a Fulbright scholarship to work at the Universities of Columbia and Brown. He returned to the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge in 1958, achieving a professorship in 1974. Frontiers in Geographical Teaching (1965) and Models in Geography (1967), both of which he wrote with Peter Haggett, strongly influenced geography education in the late 1960s and 1970s. Richard Chorley is perhaps best known for his role within the methodological revolution which occurred in British geography in the 1960s. He has also published widely in physical geography, methodology, hydrology, systems analysis, geomorphology and the study of landforms. choropleth map. Designed to show the spatial distribution of a given phenomenon within discrete areas (often administrative regions). The data are usually grouped or classed in some way, and each division of the data is assigned a particular colour, or density of shading, for mapping purposes. The convention is that dark colours should indicate 'high' values, whilst light colours indicate 'low' values. The weakness of choropleth mapping is that the use of bounded areas means that each area can often only show an average for the data collected, therefore creating the illusion of abrupt changes as the boundary of the area is crossed. In reality a gradual 'grading' of data often occurs across such a boundary. CIJE. See Curriculum Index to Journals in Education. circular. A statement issued by the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) and the Secretary of State for Education to provide those involved with education (such as local education authorities (LEAs) and educational institutions) with directives concerning government education policy. Circular 10/97 (Standards). Titled Teaching: High Status, High Standards, the circular originally set out the criteria which all courses of initial teacher training (ITT) must meet and specified the English and mathematics curricula which must be taught to trainees in primary teacher training. It established the standards of knowledge, understanding and skills which trainees must demonstrate to successfully complete a course of initial teacher training and be eligible for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) in the UK. It superseded previous teacher training circulars DFE Circular 9/92 and DFE Circular 14/93, and was itself replaced by Circular 4/98. DfEE ( 1997) Circular 10/97. Teaching: High Status, High Standards. London: DEE. Circular 4/98. Titled Teaching: High Status, High Standards, it sets out the criteria which all courses of initial teacher training (ITT) must meet and specifies the national curricula for ITT in English, mathematics, science and for the use of THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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citizenship

information and communications technology (ICT) in subject teaching. It establishes the standards of knowledge, understanding and skills which trainees must demonstrate to successfully complete a course of initial teacher training and be eligible for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) in the UK. It replaced previous teacher training Circulars DfEE Circular 10/97, DFE Circular 9/92 and DFE Circular 14/93. Although Circulars 10/97 and 4/98 do not state specific criteria for ITT in geography, some training institutions have reworked them to make explicit a geographical component. In addition the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) has subsequently published guidance to enhance the subject-based training related to Circular 4/98, for example Using Information and Communications Technology to Meet Teaching Objectives in Geography Initial Teacher Training, published in 1999. DEE ( 1998) Circular 4/98. Teaching: High Status, High Standards. London: DfEE. citizenship. The legal relationship between an individual and the country in which he or she resides; a condition which confers rights and responsibilities on the individual. In educational terms citizenship became a cross-curricular theme which first achieved prominence during the creation of the National Curriculum in the late 1980s, and again under the Labour government at the end of the 1990s. The National Curriculum Council (NCC) was originally instructed to develop a small series of curriculum guidance papers to support cross-curricular themes in the early 1990s, one of which was titled Education for Citizenship. Under the chairmanship of Professor Bernard Crick, further work was pursued with the publication of Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools in 1998. With the study of citizenship emphasizing, in part, local, regional, national and international community relationships, including the European dimension; democracy and human rights; and employment, citizenship is seen by many geography teachers as a significant component within the teaching of human geography. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) contains a section on citizenship which highlights some links to geography. The statement on the importance of citizenship within the curriculum has some clear connections with geography education: Citizenship gives pupils the knowledge, skills and understanding to play an effective role in society at local, national and international levels. It helps them to become informed, thoughtful and responsible citizens who are aware of their duties and rights. It promotes their spiritual, moral, social and cultural development, making them more self-confident and responsible both in and beyond the classroom. It encourages pupils to play a helpful part in the life of their schools, neighbourhoods, communities and the wider world. It also teaches them about our economy and democratic institutions and values; encourages respect for different national, religious and ethnic identities; and develops pupils' ability to reflect on issues and take part in discussions. (TTA 1999) Bailey, R ( 1993) 'Citizenship and core and foundation subjects: geography', in J. Edwards and K. Fogelman (eds), Developing Citizenship in the Curriculum. London: Fulton, pp. 58-61. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Driven F. and Maddrell.A. (1996) 'Geographical education and citizenship: introduction'.Journal of Historical Geography, 22(4), 371 -2. 30

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Code of Practice (Special Educational Needs) Huckle, J. ( 1988) 'Geography and world citizenship', in J. Fien and R. Gerber (eds), Teaching Geography for a Better World. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, pp. 20-30. Martin, L ( 1995) 'Citizenship, cultural diversity and the geography curriculum'. British Journal of Curriculum and Assessment, 5(2), 30-1. QCA ( 1998) Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools: Final Report of the Advisory Group on Citizenship. London: QCA. QCA (1999) The Review of the National Curriculum in England: The Consultation Materials. London: QCA. TTA ( 1999) Using Information and Communications Technology to meet Teaching Objectives in Geography Initial TeacherTraining. London:TTA. Wiegand, R (1990) 'Geography, citizenship and international understanding', in S. Catling (ed.), Some Issues for Geography within the National Curriculum. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 81-5.

class. A division or order within society; alternatively, a group of pupils who are normally taught together. classical humanism. See ideologies. climate. The mean atmospheric and weather conditions across a given area measured over a considerable time period (hence the loose definition of climate as 'average weather'). Many areas show distinct climatic patterns throughout the year, with seasonal variations. cloze. A technique used in reading and writing whereby words are deleted from a text which pupils then have to fill in using appropriate terms. Such terms may be provided in a prescribed list, or may be devised by the pupils themselves. Cloze exercises can be used to support or assess comprehension and are applied within the geography classroom as one of a range of techniques used in language development through geography. Geographical Association (1996) Use of Language and the Geography National Curriculum. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

CoA. See Certifícate of Achievement. COBRIG. See Council of British Geographers. Code of Practice (GCSE and GCE A/AS Level). Designed to ensure that standards of awarding, grading, assessment and specification design remain comparable between different awarding bodies for each subject. The Codes apply to General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) examinations in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Established principles for the setting, examining, marking and grading of examinations, as well as the percentage of marks for course work, are also included in the Code. The most recent Code of Practice was developed by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC) and the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) in consultation with the awarding bodies. QCA, ACCAC, CCEA ( 1998) GCSE and GCE A/AS Code of Practice. London, Cardiff, Belfast. Code of Practice (Special Educational Needs). Gives practical guidance to local education authorities (LEAs), governors, health and social services, and teachers on the educational provision for children with special educational needs (SEN) as defined in the Education Act (1993). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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coefficient of correlation

The Code establishes the principles, practices and procedures for working with SEN pupils and recommends the adoption of a five-staged model of SEN provision as well as the use of individual education plans (lEPs). DFE (1994) Code of Practice on the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs. London: DFE.

coefficient of correlation. An index of the statistical relationship between two variables. This shows the degree of positive or negative correlation between two sets of data. cognition. The act of knowing or perceiving, which includes the processes of reasoning, problem-solving and understanding. Cognition is usually held to be distinct from emotion and volition, which are affective processes. cognitive development. The intellectual acquisition of information and concepts through sensory perception, memory and observation. It also refers to the growth in a child's ability to understand concepts, relationships and patterns of ideas. Sometimes cognitive development is interpreted as the development of mental skills which are qualitatively different at different stages of the child's educational development (see Piaget), as well as the development of ability in reasoning and problem-solving. A child's culture, environment and background have influences on what they learn and the ways in which they learn. Much of the recent work on cognitive development within geography education in the UK has been led by David Leat, and the Thinking Through Geography team (see learning theories). Bruñen B. ( 1960) Process of Education. New York: Random House. Downs, R., Liben, Land Daggs, D. (1988) 'On education and geographers: the role of cognitive development theory in geographical education'. AAAG, 78(4), 680-700. Flavell.J. (1982)'On cognitive development'. Child Development, 53(1), I-10. Leat, D. ( 1997) Thinking Through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington. Leat, D. (1997) 'Cognitive acceleration in geographical education', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 143-53. Piaget, J. ( 1958) Development of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. ( 1969) The Psycholog/ of the Child. New York: Basic Books.

cognitive domain. The area of learning involved with the intellectual acquisition of information, concepts and principles. It is possible to create taxonomies of cognitive objectives linked to the cognitive domain, as Bloom (1956) successfully attempted, which relate to a hierarchy of thinking skills: • knowledge • comprehension • application • analysis • synthesis • evaluation Here each 'level' subsumes the next, with higher levels only being achievable once the lower ones are acquired. This implies that there are certain higher-order thinking skills that should be aimed for in both teaching and learning. 32

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communism Ausubel, D. and Robinson, F. ( 1969) School Learning:An Introduction to Educational Psychology. New York: Rinehart and Winston. Bloom, B. (ed.) ( 1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. London: Longman. Gagne, R. ( 1965) The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

cognitive theory. The belief that both thought and information-processing involve choices being made by individuals as determined by certain goals. This contrasts with behaviourist theory, which emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in creating an individual's responses, which may render thought processes of secondary importance. Cognitivist theory. Proposes that language development is largely the result of intelligence and not a product of behaviour and environment. Regardless of environmental factors, logical thought develops through a series of identifiable stages in a given sequence. Thus cognition and cognitive development precede language and language development, so that the ability to think lies at the foundation of the process of language acquisition. Chomsky, N. ( 1968) Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Piaget, J. ( 1958) Development of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

communism. A theory based on communal, rather than private, ownership and wealth-generation. It advocates a society where all property is publicly owned and where people work, and are paid, according to their needs and abilities. Marx envisaged that eventually the state would lose its significance under a mature communist regime; however this did not occur in communist countries in the twentieth century, where by contrast the state eventually grew to control all aspects of society. Harvey, D. (1973) Social justice and the City. London: Arnold. Marx, K. (1967) Capital (3 vols). New York: International Publishers.

Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD ROM). A computer disk which is capable of storing large amounts of data - it is similar in appearance to an audio disc. The data on a CD ROM may be in text form, as sounds, graphs and/or programs, thus making it extremely valuable for use in geography education, which often requires a variety of forms of data presentation to be used. When combined with a computer which has the capability to deliver sound and graphics this is known as a multimedia system (see information and communications technology). 'compass rose'. Apart from representing the points of a compass, a 'compass rose' has been adopted by educators working within the field of development education as a means of analysing data, photographs and sources of information. The cardinal points of the compass are replaced by 'dimensions' or processes that may need consideration when analysing the geography of places. The rose can be used at a variety of scales and can combine 'dimensions' as a means of exploring a range of factors - for example enquiring into both natural and economic factors together at the NE direction of the compass rose. Robinson, R. and Serf,J. (eds) ( 1997) Global Geography: LearningThrough Development Education at Key Stage 3. Sheffield: Geographical Association/DEC (Birmingham). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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competence

Natural

Who decides?

Economic

Social competence. The ability to perform a specific task, or skill, to a given standard. computer. An electronic machine capable of performing computations, which may have additional functions relating to the storing and processing of texts, data and information. As such the potential use of computers within geography education is considerable, through the application of spreadsheets, databases and geographical information systems (GIS) (see information and communications technology). computer literate. A general term describing a person with an ability to use computers. concept. A way of categorizing thoughts into a form whereby the distinguishing features of such thoughts are commonly understood. In essence a concept is a notion, created by abstracting events, situations, objects or ideas, which has been formed into a named entity (see key idea, exemplar). Kaminske.V. ( 1997) 'Geographical concepts: their complexity and their grading'. IRGEE, 6( I ), 4-26.

concept mapping. The creation of a diagram which is used to understand the basis of a concept. A concept (or spider) diagram is used to display important ideas within a theme or unit of work and may be devised by pupils to reveal what they know and whether misunderstandings exist. Concept mapping can be created through brainstorming, and can be used at any point within a teaching programme. Leat, D. and Chandler, S. ( 1996) 'Using concept mapping in geography teaching'. Teaching Geography. 21 (3), 108-12. Novak, J. and Gowin, D. ( 1984) Learning how to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

confidence level. The degree of confidence with which a statement can be accepted. In statistical analysis, this would mean that, given a set of 100 statements with a confidence level of 95 per cent, the most likely outcome is that 95 out of the 100 statements would be true. 34

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continuity

consciousness. The awareness of one's environment, and of one's emotional and cognitive processes. conservation. Protection, maintenance and possible enhancement of the natural and/or human features and resources within a given environment. Conservation is often defined as the sensible use of resources, possibly involving a reduction in their current rate of consumption, with the aim of achieving sustainable development. The efficient use of resources, particularly those which are nonrenewable, and the rejection of wasteful means of extraction, processing and production techniques, are central to the concept. Recycling of waste materials is also important in conservation. The term may be specifically applied to certain phenomena, such as building conservation, soil conservation, wildlife conservation. constructivism. A theory, based on the work of Vygotsky, which states that learning is a process of building upon what is already known, or 'constructing' knowledge based on previously acquired information. The constructivist approach to learning therefore involves pupils engaging in experimentation and making mistakes, which in turn leads to a process of redefining and extending their knowledge and understanding. The active role of the learner is stressed in building up their understanding, resulting in an interactive style of teaching and learning, usually with the teacher adopting the role of facilitator. Such discovery methods of learning often involve a process known as scaffolding, where a teacher initially supports and structures a child's learning experiences until he or she is capable of working independently. Vygotsky used the concept of a zone of proximal development to refer to the gap between what a child could learn on their own and what they could achieve with the help and support of a more knowledgeable individual. Constructivist approaches tend to be 'hands on' rather than text-based, to involve thinking and reasoning rather than memorization, and link to broad themes and concepts rather than isolated facts. Recent use of constructivist ideas in geography education have been developed by David Leat and the Thinking Through Geography team (see learning theories). Leat, D. (1997) 'Cognitive acceleration in geographical education', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 143-53. Leat, D. ( 1998) Thinking Through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington. Vygotsky, L. ( 1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J. and Ross, G. ( 1976) The role of tutoring in problem solving'.Journo/ of Child Psycholog/ and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.

continuing professional development (CPD). The term 'continuing professional development' refers to any courses, award bearing or otherwise, that are provided to enhance the knowledge, understanding and skills of teachers (see in-service education and training). continuity. Along with progression, an essential quality of any subject in terms of its curriculum design. The National Curriculum was intended to strengthen both of these aspects for all subjects, although it could be argued that in geography the various revisions of the curriculum did not necessarily enhance or strengthen aspects of its continuity. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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continuous assessment

Continuity refers to the maintenance and development within the geography curriculum of certain aspects of geography education over a series of years, for example from 5 to 14 in the case of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). These aspects could be the aims of geography education; sections of geographical content; types of teaching and learning activities; or assessment procedures. The overall aim is to ensure that sufficient continuity exists to allow children to build upon their previous experiences in geography education as they pass between Key Stages, to General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and to Advanced or Advanced Subsidiary Level (A or AS Level) in the subject (cf. progression). Bennetts.T ( 1981 ) 'Progression in the geography curriculum1, in R. Walford (ed.), Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 165-85. Bennetts.T ( 1995) 'Continuity and progression'. Teaching Geography, 20(2), 75-9. Rawling, E. ( 1997) Issues of continuity and progression in post-16 geography1, in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. I I -30.

continuous assessment. The assessment of work produced throughout a course of study which may provide ongoing formative information on educational performance, as well as contribute to a summative profile of marks or grades (cf. terminal assessment). core (of subject coverage). The School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC) introduced the idea of subject cores for Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels (A and AS Levels) in the early 1990s as a means of creating a more uniform standard of subject syllabus coverage between examination boards. Each board had to design its subject syllabus around a nationally agreed 'core' of subject knowledge, skills, techniques, abilities and understanding. The finalized geography core was published in December 1993 by the newly formed School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA), representing one-third of the content of geography A Level, and two-thirds of the AS Level. In essence the core requires students to develop a range of geographical skills and gain an understanding of a people-environment theme at a range of spatial scales. A mandatory study of physical and human environments and investigative work based on the collection of primary and secondary data were also included. The core was replaced by geography criteria in 1998, which provided a similar framework for the development of new A and AS Level specifications in geography. core and periphery. A concept used within economic geography to explain differences in economic development at various spatial scales, as well as the dependence of peripheral areas on a core region. The models of spatial patterns of economic development devised by Friedmann, Hirschman and Myrdal all contain aspects of concepts of core and peripheral regions. Friedmann,J. ( 1966) Regional Development Policy:A Case Study ofVenezuela. Cambridge, MA: MIT Keeble, D, ( 1989) 'Core-periphery disparities, recession and new regional dynamisms in the European Community1. Geography, 74( I ), I -1 I. Myrdal, G. ( 1957) Rich Lands and Poor. London: Harper and Row.

core subject. The Education Reform Act (1988), which introduced a subjectbased National Curriculum into England and Wales, defined curriculum subjects as either 'core' or 'foundation'. As the term suggests core subjects form 36

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correlation

the heart of the curriculum. Geography was deemed a foundation subject, together with history, a modern foreign language (in Key Stages 3 and 4 only), art, music, PE and technology. This signified that it would attract less curricular time, assessment status and funding than the more prestigious core of English, mathematics, sciences and, for Welsh-speaking schools, Welsh. Subsequent revisions of the National Curriculum following the Dearing Report (1994) further simplified these arrangements and made the study of geography essentially optional in Key Stages 1, 2 and 4. By contrast the status of the core subjects was enhanced (see National Curriculum). In effect, three classifications of subjects might now be considered to exist within the National Curriculum: core, foundation and optional. Corney, Graham (b. 1943). Graduated from Durham University and gained a Postgraduate Certifícate in Education from Exeter University before teaching in state schools in Sutton Coldfield and Oxfordshire. He became Lecturer in Educational Studies (Geography) at Oxford University in 1977 and was subsequently elected a fellow of St Anne's College. His main professional and research interests are in working with student and experienced geography teachers to develop interactive styles of teaching and learning. He directed the Geography, Schools and Industry Project (1984-92), a Geographical Association-supported initiative to promote more active teaching about economic understanding and environmental education; a major outcome of the project's work in over 25 local education authorities in England and Wales was the publication Teaching Economic Understanding Through Geography (1992). Currently he is working with geography teachers in the Oxford area on establishing a classroom research network based on teacher action research. Graham is also interested in research into the geography teacher's contribution to environmental education. His recently submitted Ph.D. focused on student teachers, and led to articles in geography education texts in 1996 and 1997. Currently, he is involved in curriculum development and research with primary and secondary school teachers into teaching and learning about sustainability, including links with Local Agenda 21 initiatives. correlation. The mutual relationship and association between two sets of data (variables). Often correlation is statistically calculated by use of a correlation coefficient (such as Spearman's Rank or Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficient) which gauges how strongly one variable is related to another. A test of significance is then applied to see whether the relationship could have occurred by chance. A positive correlation occurs where an increase in the numerical value of one variable corresponds to an increase in the numerical value of the other, for example as altitude increases so does rainfall. A negative correlation shows the reverse, where an increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in the other. However, a high positive correlation does not necessarily indicate a strong causal relationship between the two variables. Correlation is often expressed by a coefficient of between +1 (perfect positive relationship ) and -1 (perfect negative relationship). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment

Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), Northern Ireland. An equivalent organization to Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC) in Wales and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in England. mail: CCEA, Clarendon Dock, 29 Clarendon Road, Belfast, BTI 3BG. tel: 01232 261200 email: [email protected] website: www.ccea.org.uk

Council of British Geographers (COBRIG). Established in 1988 as an organization to bring together representatives from the English, Scottish and Welsh institutions dedicated to the study and promotion of geography and geography education. Northern Irish geographical organizations are also affiliated to COBRIG. The council seeks to provide opportunities for teachers, lecturers and researchers to discuss contemporary issues of concern for geographers, with a general aim of promoting the advancement of British geography. The representation of the interests of geography and geographers at national and international levels, and the identification of issues requiring investigation and action, are both areas of activity. tel: 0145 I 860 265 (secretary) coursework. The work completed, often for assessment purposes, during a course of study. Coursework can take a variety of forms; in geography this has often included a fieldwork report, an essay or dissertation, a decision-making exercise, a statistical or cartographic exercise or some form of problem-solving. Disputes still exist concerning the amount of coursework which should be permitted in geography examinations at General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level), with a ceiling of 20 per cent now invoked. CPD. See continuing professional development. criterion. A principle or standard against which something is judged. criterion-referencing. An assessment in which attainment is measured in terms of specified criteria, levels, or standards of mastery. Criterion-referenced assessment systems 'fix' the standard of performance by stating criteria (or in the National Curriculum the level descriptions) against which pupils will be assessed. Thus, if a child can meet the given criteria he/she will be awarded with that level. Any number of pupils can therefore 'pass' at different levels achievement does not depend on the performance of others, as it does in normreferencing. Criterion-referencing is chiefly concerned with acknowledging positive achievement related to learning objectives. The concept of where a child's overall attainment 'best fits' within the given range of detailed criteria may be problematic and becomes a key professional judgement for the teacher. Geographers have debated this with respect to the level descriptions in their subject in the National Curriculum. critical theory. Originally conceived as a form of intellectual resistance to the political and social developments within Europe in the 1920s and '30s, being more recently developed through the work of Habermas, Bourdieu and Foucault. Critical theory has previously been widely supported by sociologists and political theorists both within and beyond the field of education. In essence it 38

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cross-curricular

provides a form of analysis of social, political and economic life where one gains a fuller appreciation of the largely oppressive forces that govern one's existence. It targets the unthinking acceptance of common practices, beliefs, values and institutions, and seeks to expose their unfairness, or lack of social justice. The belief is that there are no inherent truths and that all knowledge is socially created - hence academic disciplines and subjects in the school curriculum are human constructions and are not value-neutral. Geography, like any other discipline, is therefore seen as containing particular interests which distort it towards facts rather than values, and laws rather than interpretations. The underlying influences on the contemporary academic world of control, manipulation, management and efficiency are pointed out by critical theorists, rather than the need for reflection, participation, democracy, reform and emancipation. Education is viewed as a further control mechanism of the state which ensures social regulation. The school curriculum plays a significant part in this, particularly when it is state generated, as is the case with a National Curriculum. It serves particular sectional interests for different classes and groups, with knowledge serving as 'cultural capital'. However, critical theorists often indulge in high levels of abstraction and ascribe uniformity to highly diverse systems, using theory and ideology. Critical theorists have often utilized the ideas of Marx in their pursuit of the creation of a world free of domination, where the active participation of citizens would serve to control society. They call for emancipation through self-reflection and the raising of individuals' consciousness regarding their position in society. In essence, critical theory seeks to show people the processes which operate within a society; as a result they will understand how they are manipulated, and should therefore develop the desire to change their society. Ball, S. (ed.) ( 1990) Foucault and Education: Disciplines and Knowledge. London: Routledge. Bourdieu, R and Coleman, J. (eds) ( 1991 ) Social Theory for a Changing Society. London: Westview Press. Grenfell, M. and Jones, D. ( 1998) Bourdieu and Education: Acts of Practical Theory. London: Palmer Habermas, J. ( 1974) Theory and Practice. London: Heinemann. Habermas, j. ( 1978) Know/edge and Human Interests. London: Heinemann.

cross-curricular. Describing any area of a subject-based curriculum which is taught as an aspect of a number of different subjects, rather than as a discrete subject in its own right. The National Curriculum Council (NCC) established five cross-curricular themes when the National Curriculum was created in the early 1990s, each of which was considered to be important in helping to prepare pupils to take an active and informed part in adult life: • economic and industrial understanding (EIU): financial decisionmaking, economic roles (e.g. producers, consumers and citizens), government economic policy, and the impact of economic activity on the environment; • careers education and guidance: self, roles, career, transition, work; • health education: use and misuse of various substances, sex education, family life education, safety, nutrition, personal hygiene, health-related exercise, environmental and psychological aspects; THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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cross-curricular

• education for citizenship: participative citizenship, information on which to base the development of skills, values and attitudes towards citizenship, local, regional, national and international community relationships including the European dimension, democracy, human rights, law, employment, public services and leisure; • environmental education: responsible attitudes towards the environment, knowledge and understanding of the processes by which environments are shaped, the vulnerability of different environments, and opportunities for protecting and managing the environment. The cross-curricular elements of the original National Curriculum also involved skills and so-called 'dimensions' as well as the themes listed above. Geographers saw many aspects of the cross-curricular themes as lying within the prescribed content of their subject in the National Curriculum. Citizenship achieved prominence in the revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) when it became a part of the statutory curriculum at Key Stages 3 and 4 (from September 2002) for the first time. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Tilbury, D. ( 1997) 'Cross-curricular concerns in geography: citizenship and economic and industrial understanding', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 93-104.

cross-section. The surface created by cutting through a solid, to give a representative sample of the whole thing. For example a cross-section of the geology of an area shows the distribution and alignment of different rock types within it. CSE. See Certificate of Secondary Education. 'cube'. The 'cube' diagram originated in the Interim Report of the Geography Working Group (1989) which devised the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) as a way of representing the attainment targets within geography as a three-dimensional shape or matrix. This was later simplified into the diagram below which illustrates that all geography teaching should involve the use of geographical skills, and understanding of places and themes:

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culture cultural geography. A branch of geography which studies the ways in which human activities are determined by culture, and the impact of different cultural groups on their landscape and environment. cultural literacy. Possession of a core of knowledge about people, places, events, language, traditions and concepts which exists within a particular culture. Hirsch believes that contemporary education fails to provide American pupils with a sense of their cultural heritage because of its lack of cultural reference points within the curriculum. In an effort to address this failing he suggests the inclusion of a series of names, places, events and dates that have some cultural significance. Such thinking is believed to have influenced the original conception of the Geography National Curriculum with its overemphasis on specific geographical content and locations. Dowgill, D. and Lambert, D. ( 1992) 'Cultural literacy and school geography'. Geography, 77(1), 107-10. Hirsch, E. D. ( 1987) Culturo! Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

culture. The collective beliefs, traditions, symbols, ideas and values which influence the behaviour and social structures of a particular group. Culture may characterize a society and may be transferred from one generation to the next, undergoing some changes in the process. In geography the influence of culture may be seen in one's perception of environment and patterns of behaviour. HOW DO CULTURE AND CURRICULUM COMBINE? The culture of a particular society is partly transferred from generation to generation by the educational system which that society has established. Within any society and some would argue particularly within modern industrial societies - the concepts of culture are increasingly complex and difficult to determine. However, there should be definite links between the type of education children experience, the curricular means by which this education is delivered, and the culture(s) prevalent within a society. Thus culture partly defines the curriculum, although it is necessary to examine which aspects of our culture we should select as being important for the next generation to learn about. The debates about the form of the National Curriculum, following the passing of the Education Reform Act (1988), identified some major questions about how culture and curriculum combine. For example, is it only the dominant (or core) culture that should be represented? Do ethnic and religious minority groups agree with the definitions and parameters of the curriculum? Is the curriculum divisive, limiting, anti-democratic or lacking in equal opportunities? The question of how curriculum planners should take account of cultural diversity is a difficult one. At present we have a curriculum which largely reflects an enterprise culture and elevates utilitarian and instrumental aims. To some extent the selection of core subjects within the current National Curriculum suggests a culture based on science, technology and educational 'basics' rather than one based on the humanities; a curriculum which meets rather narrow objectives compared to the complex needs of children growing up in a multicultural, multiethnic, economically developed and technologically advanced country. Hall, D. (1990) The National Curriculum and the two cultures: towards a humanistic perspective'. Geography, 75(4), 3 I 3-24. Lawton, D. ( 1989) Education, Culture ana the National Curriculum. London: Hodder and Stoughton. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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curriculum

curriculum. Aspects of the content of a subject to be taught, or the total programme of teaching within an educational establishment (the 'official curriculum'). A curriculum should not be confused with a syllabus, which is a body of knowledge, understanding and skills to be examined. The school curriculum is not merely a collection of subjects, but the wider education actually offered within the school. Aspects of education that pupils experience but which either are not recorded within the official curriculum, or are not overtly planned, or do not fall within the consciousness of the curriculum designers, are known as the 'hidden curriculum'. In essence the curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes, with statements provided on aims, objectives, learning activities and methods of evaluation and assessment. Bailey, Rand Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Goodson, I. (1987) 'Understanding curriculum: the alienation of curriculum theory'. Curriculum Perspectives, 7(2), 4 1 -7. Goodson, I. and Ball, S. (eds) ( 1984) Defining the Curriculum: Histories and Ethnographies. London: Palmer Hacking, E. ( 1992) Geography into Practice. Harlow: Longman. Kelly, A.V. ( 1989) The Curhculum:Theory and Practice. London: Paul Chapman. Lawton, D. ( 1983) Curhudum Studies and Educational Planning. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Powell, A. (ed.) ( 1997) Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Stenhouse, L ( 1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. London: Heinemann.

curriculum development. Focuses on a particular area of the curriculum, often subject-based, with the aim of improving the teaching and learning undertaken. Usually this involves the creation of new teaching materials and schemes of work, but may equally involve teachers reappraising the aims and objectives of their pedagogy. Curriculum development may be carried out by individual teachers, by groups of teachers or by a team of educationists appointed to the task. Curriculum development projects, such as the American High School Geography Project (HSGP) or Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL), have been specifically financed to promote curriculum development in geography. CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY

(NB no publications from official organizations are recorded here. Please see relevant sections.) PRIMARY Bale, J. ( 1987) Geography in the Primary School. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Blyth, A. and Krause, J. ( 1996) Primary Geography. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Bowles, R. (1995) Practical Guides: Geography. Leamington Spa: Scholastic Publications. Foley, M. and Janikoun, J. ( 1996) The Really Practical Guide to Primary Geography. London: Stanley Thornes. Marsden.W. and Hughes, J. (eds), Primary School Geography. London: Fulton. Morgan, W. ( 1995) Plans for Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA. Wiegand, R ( 1993) Children and Primary Geography. London: Cassell. 42

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curriculum, spiral SECONDARY Bailey, P. and Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA. Battersby, J. (1996) Teaching Geography at Key Stage 3. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing. Graves, N. ( 1979) Curriculum Planning in Geography. London: Heinemann. Graves, N. ( 1996) 'Curriculum development in geography: an ongoing process', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 72-99. Marsden.W. ( 1995) Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton. Pawling, E. (1996) The impact of the National Curriculum on school-based curriculum development in secondary geography', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 100-32. Roberts, M. (1997) 'Curriculum planning and course development: a matter of professional judgement', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 35—48.

Curriculum Index to Journals in Education (CUE). A periodical which serves to update those involved in education with contemporary issues, debates and topics within educational journals. CUE is currently published through the Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) network on a monthly basis. curriculum projects. Usually funded by the state, publishers or organizations interested in education to promote curriculum development. In geography education in the UK the most notable curriculum projects have arguably been the Geography 14-18 Project, Geography 16-19 and Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). curriculum, spiral. A concept originated by Bruner which advocates the regular recycling of important ideas within a subject during a child's education. Bruner believed that significant concepts should be studied in a variety of different ways on different occasions during the stages through which children progress when learning. He also advocated that concrete ideas should be taught before abstract ones and that teaching should begin with the known and progress to the unknown (see continuity, progression). Bruner, J. ( 1960) The Process of Education, New York: Random House.

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D DARTs. See directed activities related to text. data. Observations collected as the basis for statistical analysis, inference or reference. In their original form such data are often referred to as 'raw data' signifying that they have not yet been ordered, sorted, summarized or grouped in any way (singular: datum). Daugherty, Richard (b.1942). An Oxford graduate, who taught geography at Manchester Grammar School until his appointment to a lectureship at the University of Wales, Swansea, in 1971. From 1976 to 1981 he served as Honorary Secretary of the Geographical Association. Since 1993 he has been Professor of Education and Head of the Department of Education at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. He has published widely on the subject of educational assessment, including articles and chapters on the role of assessment in geography education. His presidential address to the Geographical Association (1990) was on 'Assessment in the geography curriculum'. He edited Geography in the National Curriculum (1989) and, with Eleanor Rawling, Geography into the Twenty-First Century (1996). Bearing Report/Review. Commissioned by the Secretary of State for Education in the early 1990s, two separate committees under Sir Ron (later Lord) Dealing were charged with the tasks of: (1) making the National Curriculum slimmer, more manageable and more easily assessed, and (2) reviewing the nature of qualifications for 16-19-year-olds. Both of the resulting reports were accepted in full by the Secretary of State for Education and significantly influenced the direction of education in England and Wales in subsequent years. Bearing Report (National Curriculum and its Assessment). Focusing on the National Curriculum and its assessment (Interim Report, 1993; Final Report, 1994), it resulted from an investigation into the scope for slimming down the National Curriculum following the expression of widespread concern about its complexity, over-prescription and domination by subject content. Dearing 44

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decision-making

decided that a review of all Statutory Orders should take place to reduce the volume of material to be taught; to simplify and clarify programmes of study; to reduce prescription and to increase support for teachers. In geography an advisory group (the Geography Advisory Group) was established to fulfil this task, working in concert with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). The review succeeded in defining for all subjects the matter, skills and processes that should exist at each Key Stage, although subject content could not be added or radically changed in the process. Within geography a single attainment target was created from the five which previously existed, the burden of assessment was reduced, and 183 statements of attainment were replaced by eight level descriptions. The Dearing Report successfully reappraised the role and function of the National Curriculum, heralded a reduction of 20 per cent of time spent delivering National Curriculum subjects at Key Stages 1 to 3, and significantly raised the profile of vocational education at secondary level. Dearing, R. ( 1993) The National Curriculum and its Assessment. Interim Report. London: HMSO. Dearing, R. ( 1994) The National Curriculum and its Assessment. Final Report. London: HMSO.

Bearing Review (16-19 qualifications). Following his well-received report on the future of the National Curriculum Dearing was again commissioned by the Secretary of State for Education to review the framework of 16-19 qualifications in England and Wales. His review was published as an Interim Report (1995), and then a Final Report (1996). Some of the broad recommendations within the review have had an impact on geography education and assessment at post-16 level. The emphasis on the parity of esteem between academic and vocational education has promoted the General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ), which some geography educators believe is having a direct effect on recruitment to geography courses within the 14-19 curriculum. In addition the reduction in the number of syllabuses, options and ultimately examination awarding bodies has meant that the range of geography (and other) courses that candidates can take has been restricted. Dearing's recommendations for the restructuring of Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level) examinations and for the introduction of modular courses have also come to fruition. Dearing, R. ( 1995) Review of 16-19 Qualifications: Interim Report. London: SCAA. Dearing, R. ( 1996) Review of 16-19 Qualifications: Final Report. London: SCAA.

DEC. See Development Education Centre. decision-making. The use of various strategies or techniques to achieve a goal, or to evaluate the potential benefits and drawbacks of different solutions to a given problem. The decision-making process is usually influenced by a variety of factors, not least the perceptions of the decision-maker(s) involved; the available access to information; the ability to interpret, evaluate and analyse information; and the range of alternative solutions to the problem. Reasoning, planning and judgement are all important aspects of decision-making. Political and cost implications often strongly influence decision-making in the real world. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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déficit model

The inclusion of aspects of decision-making in geography education was strengthened through the Geography 16-19 Project, which introduced a formally assessed decision-making exercise as one of its terminal examinations for Advanced Level (A Level) geography students. deficit model. Originally devised as a means of explaining the underachievement of certain children; however, deficit modelling has more recently been widely applied to a variety of educational situations. With respect to underachievement, the models implied blame on teachers, curriculum planners and society for children's poor attainment. During the creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) it was assumed that the Geography Working Group (GWG) had applied a deficit model to contemporary geography education to justify the inclusion of a substantial amount of 'traditional' geographical content in the curriculum. degrees of freedom. A measure used within inferential statistics which helps to interpret the relevance of a statistical test. demography. The study of population changes, often conducted at a variety of spatial scales. Data may include measures of birth and death rates, fertility, etc. DENI. See Department for Education, Northern Ireland. Department for Education (DFE). Created in 1994 to replace the Department of Education and Science (DES), which had been established in 1964 as the government department responsible for educational matters in England and Wales. The DFE was short-lived, being amalgamated with the Department for Employment in 1995 to form the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). The government department currently responsible for all educational matters. Previously this role was executed by the Department of Education and Science (DES) established in 1964, then the Department for Education (DFE) established in 1994, before its amalgamation with the Department for Employment to form the DfEE in 1995. The major responsibilities of the DfEE cover all aspects of education, particularly the creation of educational policy and allocation of resources, with joint responsibility for teacher supply, training and qualifications (shared with the Teacher Training Agency (TTA)) and standards in schools (shared with HMI/OFSTED). The appointments to the DfEE are a Secretary of State for Education and two junior education ministers. mail: Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), Sanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, SWIP 3BT tel: 020 79255000 email: infodfee.gov.uk website: www.dfee.gov.uk

Department for Education, Northern Ireland (DENI). Responsible for developing primary, secondary, tertiary and higher education, as well as community and adult education, within Northern Ireland. DENI therefore performs a similar role to that of the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) in England and Wales. 46

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developed country mail: DENI, Rathgael House, Balloo Road, Bangon County Down, BTI9 7PR tel: 028 91279279 email: [email protected] website: www.deni.gov.uk

Department of Education (ED) (USA). The governmental department in the USA responsible for education, which establishes federal education policy, supervises financial arrangements and devises programmes of education. Department of Education and Science (DES). Established in 1964 as the government department responsible for educational matters in England and Wales. It was replaced in 1994 by the Department for Education (DEE), which was itself amalgamated with the Department for Employment in 1995 to form the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). During the thirty years of its existence it produced a variety of publications linked to geography education: DES (1972) NewThinking in School Geography: Educational Pamphlet No 59. London: HMSO. DES ( 1974) School Geography in the Changing Curriculum: Education Survey No 19. London: HMSO. DES (1978) Geography in the 11-16 Curriculum. London: HMSO. DES ( 1978) The Teaching of Ideas in Geography: Some Suggestions for the Middle and Secondary Years of Education. London: HMSO. DES ( 1985) National Criteria: Geography. London: HMSO. DES ( 1986) Geography from 5 to 16: Curriculum Matters 7. London: HMSO.

DES. See Department of Education and Science. descriptive statistics. Those which seek to describe the characteristics of a population sample through the use of various statistical measurements and techniques. The numerical description of data can be carried out in a number of ways, including: the classification of data; the creation of frequency distributions; the drawing of histograms; the representation of data using graphs (e.g. line graphs, bar graphs, pictograms); the calculation of means, medians or modes; and the computation of variances. Descriptive statistics can be used to describe the data that have been gathered, but cannot be used to imply or infer characteristics of other data sets or populations (see inferential statistics). determinism. The belief that human behaviour is guided by observable and measurable causes. In geography this has been related strongly to views that the environment plays a major role in shaping human actions and behaviour, hence environmental determinism. Determinism as a concept is sometimes related to ideas that a previously existing state of affairs has an influence on current actions. Many psychologists have a deterministic view of human behaviour. developed country. Usually, a country in an advanced state of economic development often with associated high standards of living for the majority of its population; political stability; high levels of health care and educational provision; low primary employment, declining secondary and increasing tertiary and quaternary sectors; etc. A more favoured term for such a country is now economically more developed country (EMDC), which signifies that they may experience advanced economic development, but may arguably be less THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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developing country

developed in cultural, religious and social terms. The gross national product (GNP) of a country is often used as a crude measure of its development. developing country. Usually refers to a country in a less advanced state of economic development, often with associated low standards of living for the majority of its population; political instability; low levels of health care and educational provision; high primary employment, rising secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors. However, some of the population within developing countries will almost certainly enjoy standards of living similar to, or better than, those within developed countries. A more favoured term for developing countries is now economically less developed country (ELDC), which signifies that they may not yet have experienced advanced economic development, but may be more developed in cultural, religious and social terms. Terms used to describe developing countries have changed recently, although many are still used interchangeably. The gross national product (GNP) of a country is often used to give a crude measure of its development. development education. A form of education designed to explore aspects of economic and social development, enable pupils to gain awareness of development issues from the local to global scales, and to understand concepts of social justice. Development education stresses the importance of participation in one's society, and emphasizes the development of skills and attitudes as well as knowledge and understanding. The themes covered within development education are diverse and often holistic; these can sometimes be overlooked within a subject-based curriculum, although geography generally has a close association with much of the content covered within development education. Active, pupil-centred learning, decision-making activities and enquiries are often associated with development education - all of which imply the existence of a 'democratic' classroom. Development education commonly outlines six broad areas of overlap and support for geography in schools: global viewpoints and interrelationships; unity of the human race; role of the learner in the study of school geography; justice; providing a skills base; and attention to the real world (see Robinson and Serf 1997). Importantly, development is considered to be a factor concerning not only 'the South', but all parts of the world. Drake, M. ( 1992) Development Education and National Curriculum Geography: Introduction and Resources Guide for Use at Key Stage I and 2. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Hicks, D. ( 1983) 'Development Education', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 89-98. Hopkin, J. ( 1994) 'Geography and development education', in A. Osier (ed.), Development Education: Global Studies in the Curriculum. London: Cassell, pp. 65-90. Robinson, R. ( 1986) 'Geography teachers' reflections on their teaching about development'. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 18(4), 409-27. Robinson, R. and Serf, J. (eds) ( 1997) Global Geography: Learning through Development Education at Key Stage 3. Birmingham: GA/DEC. Serf, J. and Sinclair, S. (eds) ( 1992) Developing Geography: A Development Education Approach to Key Stage 3. Birmingham: DEC. Tilbury, D. ( 1997) 'Environmental education and development education: teaching geography for a sustainable world', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 105-16. 48

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directed activities related to text

development education centres (DECs). Small independent organizations working in partnership with teachers to bring a global dimension and a development perspective to the school curriculum. Each DEC has a policy of teacher involvement in all aspects of its work and management (see development education). DFE. See Department for Education. DfEE. See Department for Education and Employment. dictionaries. A number of dictionaries and reference books of geography exist, a small selection of which are listed below: Bayliss.T ( 1995) A Concise Advanced Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Clark, A. ( 1985) Longman Dictionary of Geography. Harlow: Longman. Goodall, B. ( 1987) Facts on File: Dictionary of Human Geography. Oxford: Facts on File. Goudie,A. (ed.) (1994) The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Physical Geography. London: Blackwell. Johnston, R., Gregory, D. and Smith, D. (eds) ( 1986) The Dictionary of Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Mayhew, S. ( 1994) Oxford Mini Reference Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skinner, M., Redfern, D. and Farmen G. ( 1996) The Complete A-Z Geography Handbook. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Small,], and Witherick, M. ( 1995) A Modern Dictionary of Geography. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

didactic teaching. A teacher-centred form of educational instruction where the teacher often engages in whole-class teaching. Recent emphasis has been given by the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) to the perceived benefits of didactic teaching, for example with respect to numeracy and literacy hours. In common with many forms of education, didactic teaching can been carried out well or badly, leading to either enhanced learning or stagnation (cf. active learning). differentiation. The targeting of teaching and learning materials and pedagogy for different abilities of children. In the broadest sense it can involve applying different educational goals, curriculum structures, subject content, assessment and teaching and learning approaches to different individuals and groups of children. In assessment terms differentiation refers to the presentation of opportunities for pupils of all abilities to perform appropriately to show what they know, understand and can do. Here differentiation may occur either by outcome (determined by how pupils perform on a common task), or by task (determined by how pupils perform on different tasks, but a similar theme). BattersbyJ. (1997) 'Differentiation in teaching and learning geography', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 69-79. Piggott, B. ( 1995) 'Differentiation in geography'. Primary Geographer, 21, 30-2.

directed activities related to text (DARTs). Designed to help pupils develop their reading skills and understanding of texts by enabling them to focus on the text's structure and meaning. This may involve the teacher underlining key words, deleting parts of the text for the pupils to replace with their own words or words supplied by the teacher, reforming text under given headings, hypothesizing about the ending of an incomplete piece of text, or comparing texts to find similarities and differences. Some DARTs require pupils to THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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disapplication

sequence text which has been disarranged by the teacher, thus helping the pupil to concentrate on the meaning and flow of ideas within it. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Language and learning in geography', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 154-67. GA ( 1996) Use of Language and the Geography National Curriculum. Sheffield: GA.

disapplication. The removal of some aspect of the National Curriculum from a child's programme of state education to take account of their special educational need (SEN) (cf. modification). discourse analysis. The investigation of different forms of literary text, speech, conversation, dissertations and lectures. In geography education a developing area of research exists within the analysis of language as a medium for ideology, and into the deconstruction of text within geography textbooks. Bennett, S. ( 1997) 'Discourse analysis: a method for deconstruction', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 162-71.

discovery learning. Where students work out the basic principles of thinking and learning for themselves. Discovery learning is a form of learning originally encouraged by Bruner which has clear links to pupil-centred and active learning approaches adopted in geography education. discrimination. Unfavourable treatment of groups or individuals based on prejudice. In the context of education this may mean that the rights of a particular group or individual are infringed, or that someone is favoured to the detriment of others. dispersion diagrams. Graphs or charts which show the spread of data or observations. They may be used to show significant clustering of data, or linear forms, which reveal that some form of relationship exists between the data gathered. distance. The interval between two points, usually measured by length but also capable of being measured chronologically (time distance). distribution. (1) The pattern made by the occurrence of a phenomenon in space; (2) the process by which a product is transported from a producer to a consumer; (3) in statistics, the way in which data are arranged or classified. Draft Orders. The penultimate stage in the creation of the subject orders for a National Curriculum subject, the final stage being the Statutory Orders. DES ( 1991 ) Draft Orders for Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO.

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E EAB. See Examinations Appeals Board. early years. Usually refers to children in the age group 5 to 7 years (see infant). Earth. (1) A planet in the solar system, fifth in size and third from the sun, on which people, flora and fauna live; (2) solid material ofthat planet's surface, as distinct from air and water (cf. soil, the upper layer of earth, in which plants grow, and usually consisting of disintegrated rock and organic materials). Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. A specialist journal of geomorphology. EBD. See emotional and behavioural difficulties. ecology. The study of the interrelationship between living organisms, and their relationship with the environment in which they live. Often concerned with the functioning of ecosystems, ecology includes the nature of population dynamics, the effects of the physical and human environment on living things, interaction between species, and energy flows that occur within ecosystems. economic and industrial understanding (EIU). EIU is a cross-curricular theme within the National Curriculum. In its original conception it involved the study of financial decision-making, economic roles (e.g. producers, consumers and citizens), government economic policy, and the impact of economic activity on the environment. Geographers have been involved in the promotion and teaching of EIU for some time, as its themes have direct relevance to certain aspects of human geography. The Geography Schools and Industry Project (GSIP) developed curriculum ideas and materials relating to EIU before the establishment of the National Curriculum. Carter; R. (1993) 'Recent developments in geography and economic and industrial understanding'. Teaching Geography, 18(1), 34. Corney, G. ( 1985) Geography, Schools and Industry. Sheffield: GA. Corney G. ( 1992) Teaching Economic Understanding through Geography. Sheffield: GA. Curriculum Council for Wales (1994) Developing Economic and Industrial Understanding through Geography and History. Cardiff: CCW. National Curriculum Council ( 1992) Geography and Economic Understanding at Key Stages 3 and 4.York: NCC. Rawling, E. ( 1991 ) 'Education for economic understanding through geography'. Geographical Education, 6(3), 29-34. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

5I

economic geography Williams, M. and Khalid, K. ( 1994) 'Geography as a vehicle for economic and industrial understanding: a comparative study of England, Wales and Malaysia'. IRGEE, 3(1), 19-30.

economic geography. The branch of geography which deals with the interaction between economic and geographical conditions; often focusing on the creation, distribution and consumption of wealth. Economic Geography. A quarterly journal of economic geography which was first published at Clark University in 1925. economically less developed country (ELDC). See developing country, economically more developed country (EMDC). See developed country. ecosystem. An organizing concept in ecology which states that within any area the living organisms (biotic) interact with each other, as well as the non-living physical environment (abiotic). This creates an integrated community of plants and animals interacting with the environment in which they exist. The system functions by a constant transfer of materials, recycling of nutrients and a flow of energy. A series of trophic (or feeding) levels exist within ecosystems with each higher level involving fewer organisms and a reduction of available energy to the system. This is why ecosystems 'carry' relatively few large, fierce animals. A weakness of the ecosystem concept is that like any spatial unit determined by people, the area that each ecosystem covers is a human construction. The boundaries of ecosystems are not fixed and are difficult to define, although it is usually assumed that the transfer of energy and materials across their defined boundary is low (see Gaia). ED. See Department of Education. education. A complex term often applied genetically to the diverse processes and activities associated with learning. Education is sometimes defined in terms of its intentions rather than its results and is applied as a concept relating to its purposes, rather than outcomes. As such, teachers can claim to be educating children if they follow accepted methods and procedures of teaching and assessment, even if the outcome of the process is not necessarily an educated group of children. Education implies improvement, nurture and development and should be defensible as a worthwhile activity; it therefore differs from instruction and training which may not involve making the learner a 'better person'. Some definitions of education also highlight its role in the acquisition, conservation and renewal of worthwhile culture. THE CONTEXT FOR EDUCATION The context for the education of children is not simply expressed by a statement of the formal curriculum devised by the state or the school. Education, as a process, is only partly the result of the curriculum which has been planned and the action of the teachers who attempt to deliver it; numerous 'outside' influences and unintentional aspects of education are invariably created by what is sometimes called the hidden curriculum. Peters (1966) believed that an educated person, in addition to having an in-depth knowledge of a particular discipline, should also possess a breadth of knowledge across a range of disciplines. This would provide both breadth and depth of understanding - the hallmarks of the condition he perceived as being 'educated'. 52

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Education Reform Act ( 1988) The process of education therefore aims to contribute to the production of this worthwhile state - although education is often rather narrowly assessed with reference to cognitive and intellectual outcomes, rather than aesthetics and values (affective learning). The dominance of knowledge and understanding within the curricula of many developed, industrialized countries is increasingly being questioned. Education as both a term and a process is value-laden. There are continuing debates, which will never finally be resolved, about what constitutes 'useful knowledge' and whether education should seek to fulfil instrumental and utilitarian aims. These arguments also inform further debate about what are the most suitable forms of pedagogy. For some this creates a strong case for the formulation and development of educational theory, despite the generally adverse reaction which this term receives from politicians and certain sections of the public and academic worlds. Peters, R. (1966) Ethics and Education. London: Allen and Unwin.

Education Acts. Since 1870 a series of Education Acts for England and Wales have been passed of varying importance and significance. The early acts (1870, 1876 and 1880) were mainly concerned with the establishment of compulsory education and schooling; later acts (1902) combined many aspects of the developing national educational system together with the formulation of a Board of Education and the establishment of local education authorities (LEAs). The school leaving age has been successively raised by four acts (1918, 1936, 1944 and 1973). The 1944 Education Act is significant in that it provided the foundation for the modern system of school education, namely that of a national system locally administered through local education authorities. It also heralded the development of a tripartite system of secondary education of grammar, technical and secondary modern schools. Education Reform Act (1988) (ERA). The single most influential piece of educational legislation in England and Wales since the Butler Act of 1944, removing the previous conception of the school education system as being centrally governed but locally administered. Kenneth Baker, as Secretary of State for Education, introduced in 1987 a 'Great Education Reform Bill' (GERBIL) which later became the 1988 Act. This sought to centralize control of education, introduce market forces into the operation of schools and give parents greater choice of the schools their children might attend. In turn it weakened the influence of local education authorities (LEAs) and gave the Secretary of State over 300 new powers with which to shape the national education system. The introduction of legislation for the creation of the first National Curriculum for all children aged 5 to 16 in English and Welsh maintained schools was the major reform established by the Act. To implement such wholesale changes it also established a National Curriculum Council (NCC), a Curriculum Council for Wales (CCW) and a School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC). Subject working groups were to be created to devise reports which would then be submitted via the Secretary of State to the NCC for widespread consultation before becoming Statutory Orders for the teaching of each subject. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Education (Schools) Act (1992)

Although often remembered for its introduction of the National Curriculum in England and Wales, the Act also heralded other influential changes. The Secretary of State could now demand by right information on individual schools and LE As' performance which could be published and compared in league tables; inspections of educational institutions were also increased; and open enrolment was introduced whereby parents had greater choice of schools. Schools were now expected to recruit up to their physical capacity of pupils rather than to some agreed target figure negotiated with the LEA. The aim was to force unpopular schools to close through lack of pupil numbers created by parents using their rights to choose schools - in effect the closure of schools by market forces. Formula funding was introduced to schools to clarify the processes by which LEAs released educational funds and to relate funds received to pupil numbers; in addition LEAs were instructed to use only 15 per cent of their money for administration and services and to pass 85 per cent directly to schools to administer under local management of schools (LMS). Grant maintained schools (GMSs), which were subsequently abolished by the Labour government in 1999, took some schools away from local authority control by funding them directly from central government; while city technology colleges (CTCs), introduced under the auspices of the act, were jointly funded by the government and local businesses to become institutions of educational excellence in inner city, or socially deprived, areas. The act also made it possible for polytechnics to become universities and abolished the Inner London Education Authority (ILEA), which was replaced by smaller authorities in the 13 London boroughs previously covered. This was a further statement of the government's intention to restrict the powers of LEAs. Education (Schools) Act (1992). Required schools and local education authorities to publish league tables of their examination performance and introduced the principle of school inspections every four years. Education Act (1993). Provided further encouragement for the establishment of grant maintained schools, abolished the National Curriculum Council (NCC) and School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC), replacing them with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) and Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC). Education Act (1997). Established the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) by merging the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC). A US federal information network which provides information about educational resources. It works through a system of 16 'clearinghouses', which provide information on specific educational topics (see Curriculum Index to Journals in Education). EE. See environmental education. EIA. See environmental impact assessment. EIU. See economic and industrial understanding. 54

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enquiry

ELDC (economically less developed country). See developing country. electoral geography. The branch of human geography concerned with the study of election results and voting patterns and their geographical significance. EMDC (economically more developed country). See developed country. emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). Children who are said to have emotional and behavioural difficulties, as recognized by the Code of Practice (1994) for children with special educational needs (SEN), may be educated in mainstream or special schools according to the severity of their particular case. empiricism. The belief that experience rather than reason is the basis of true knowledge and understanding, hence experience and observation are seen as superior to theoretical knowledge. Empiricism emphasizes the study of 'reality' through observation and scientific method in the belief that true knowledge is achieved through the senses, rather than through reason. While not entirely rejecting rationalism, empiricists question such approaches as a source of truth and do not accept that knowledge is achievable independent of the senses. Knowledge is therefore viewed as uncertain and subject to change in the light of new evidence; while 'knowing how' is valued above factual knowledge ('knowing that'). In geography education the influence of empiricism can be witnessed in the first Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Educationists who rejected the overriding importance of geographical knowledge in the curriculum, but stressed the significant of the process of knowledge acquisition, child-centred education, affective learning and the development of the individual, could be seen as adopting an empiricist stance. Naish, M. ( 1996) The geography curriculum: a martyr to epistemology?' in R. Gerber and j. Lidstone (eds), Developments and Directions in Geographical Education. Clevedon: Channel View, pp. 63-76.

enactive representation. A Brunerian theory of how memory of actions is stored enabling humans to carry out familiar tasks, such as walking, running and eating, without conscious thought. By extension the process of 'learning by doing' is seen to be important, although this approach is only successful if repeated regularly. Communication within the enactive mode would typically involve a person acting out, or using gestures to re-enact, something - for example, gesturing and pointing when giving a person directions to a place. Bruñen J. ( 1960) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

encoding. The process of creating and sending messages in some form of language. In the written text this will be encoded into sentences or phrases by putting words together, while in the context of cartography encoding involves the use of symbols to convey meaning about, and representations of, space. energy. The capacity for activity. In geography this is usually linked to the use of chemical or physical resources to supply power. enquiry. An act of asking a question or seeking information. The Geography 16-19 Project promoted the use of a 'route for enquiry' within the curriculum development of geography at Advanced Level (A Level); this has subsequently THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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environment

had an influence on the form of enquiry approaches adopted throughout geography education for all age groups. The creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) by the Geography Working Group (GWG) involved much debate about the role of enquiry within geography education. A typical format for a route for enquiry is shown below: Use a route for enquiry . . . Observation/perception Definition/description Analysis/explanation Evaluation/prediction Decision-making Personal response

to pose key questions What do I observe/perceive? How do others view it? What is the key question which emerges? What is the issue to be studied? What processes are involved? What might have happened? What are alternative viewpoints/solutions? What decisions might be/should be made? What is my personal response? How might I justify my views? What action, if any, should I take?

In the Geography National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) the 'Geographical enquiry and skills' section explains that: 1. In undertaking geography enquiry, pupils should be taught to: a. ask geographical questions and to identify issues b. suggest appropriate sequences of investigation c. collect, record and present evidence d. analyse and evaluate evidence and draw and justify conclusions e. appreciate how people's values and attitudes, including their own, affect contemporary social, environmental, economic and political issues, and to clarify and develop their own values and attitudes about such issues f. communicate in ways appropriate to the task and audience. Butt, G. (ed.) ( 1998) Living and Working in Berlin. Sheffield: GA. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum. London: HMSQ

environment. The totality of the physical and human surroundings and conditions within an area of the Earth. The term is often used broadly in geography to refer to the ways in which such conditions affect human activity, and vice versa. The environment contains a complex set of interacting factors which determine its growth and evolution. environmental determinism. A concept which represents one of the first attempts by geographers at generalization, rather than mere description, of phenomena by area or theme. In explaining people's patterns of use of the environment geographers looked to the physical environment itself as the source of their behaviour. Many scientists, most famously Darwin, saw the influence of environment on evolution, natural selection, adaptation and behaviour. Davis (1906) believed that the core of geography lay in the notion of the relationship between the physical environment (the control) and human behaviour (the response). Geographers such as Ratzel, Semple and Huntington developed these 56

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environmental education

ideas, although some authors were foolhardy enough to ascribe all human behavioural characteristics to the environment. Reactions to these views led to the development of the counter thesis of possibilism, where people are seen as active agents who can choose from a range of possible uses for their environment. Davis, W. M. (1906) 'An inductive study of the content of geography'. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 38,67-84.

environmental education (EE). Any educational studies that relate to the environment. Often EE involves themes such as natural resource management, control of pollution, sustainability, population growth, use of energy, and global warming. Although these themes also have a geographical expression, EE tends not to pursue their spatial aspects and therefore does not fall within currently accepted parameters of the discipline of geography. As a cross-curricular theme of the National Curriculum Environmental Education was defined as developing responsible attitudes towards the environment, knowledge and understanding of the processes by which environments are shaped, the vulnerability of different environments, and opportunities for protecting and managing the environment. Aldrich-Moodie, B. and Kwong, J. ( 1997) Environmental Education. London: Institute of Economic Affairs. Ballantyne, R. and Parken J. (1996) Teaching and learning in environmental education: developing environmental conceptions', journal of Environmental Education, 27(2), 25-32. Convey A. ( 1994) 'Environmental education: international approaches and policies'. IRGEE, 2(1), 92-6

Corney, G. ( 1997) 'Conceptions of environmental education', in F. Slater; D. Lambert and D. Lines (eds), Education, Environment and Economy: Reporting Research in a new Academic Grouping. (Bedford Way Papers) London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 37-56. Corney, G. and Middleton, N. ( 1996) Teaching environmental issues in schools and higher education', in E. Rawling and R. Daugherty (eds), Geography into the Twenty-First Century. Chichester: John Wiley, pp. 323-38. DFE/Department of the Environment ( 1995) Education and the Environment The Way Forward. London. DFE. DES ( 1989) Environmental Education from 5-16: Gurriculum Matters 13. London: HMSO. Elliot,]. (1995) The politics of environmental education'. Gurriculum Journal, 6(3), 377-93. Fien, J. ( 1993) Education for the Environment: Gritical Gurriculum Thinking and Environmental Education. Geelong: Deakin University Press. Greig, S., Pike, G. and Selby, D. ( 1987) Earthrights: Education as if the Planet Really Mattered. London: Kogan Page: WWF(UK). Hicks, D. ( 1996) 'Envisioning the future: the challenge for environmental education'. Environmental Education Research, 2( I ), 101 -8. Huckle.J. (1994) 'Environmental education and the National Curriculum in England and Wales'. IRGEE,2(\), 101-4. Job, D. ( 1996) 'Geography and environmental education: an exploration of perspectives and strategies', in A. Kent et al. (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 22-49. Marsden.W (1997) 'Environmental education: historical roots, comparative perspectives and current issues in Britain and the United States'. Journal of Gurriculum and Supervision, 13(1), 6-29. NCC (1992) Environmental Education: Gurriculum Guidance /.York: NCC. Palmer; J. and Neal, P ( 1994) The Handbook of Environmental Education. London: Routledge. SCAA ( 1996) Teaching Environmental Matters through the National Gurriculum. London: SCAA. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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environmental geography Tilbury, D. ( 1995) 'Environmental education for sustainability: defining the new focus of environmental education in the 1990s'. Environmental Education Research, I (2), 195-212. Walken K. (1997) 'Environmental education and the school curriculum:the need fora coherent curriculum theory. ¡RGEE, 6(3), 252-5.

environmental geography. The branch of geography concerned with the study of the ways in which the environment affects people and vice versa, with particular reference to spatial aspects of these relationships. Concepts and issues often associated with environmental geography include conservation, sustainable development, resource depletion, pollution and wilderness protection. environmental impact assessment (ElA). Conducted where some form of development is currently having, or might in future have, a significant effect on the environment in which it is located. Such assessments may therefore involve the identification and evaluation of current impacts, and/or a prediction of their potential effects. Various methods can be used to collect such data, including the gathering of public opinion. Data are then used in the decision-making process relating to the planning, design and authorization of future developments. ElAs are routinely undertaken in the European Union (EU) for new developments such as motorways and power stations as a means of indicating potential problems and highlighting priorities. epistemology. The branch of philosophy which considers knowledge and the ways in which we obtain it. It is concerned with the basis of knowledge and the grounds for claiming that something is 'knowable'; in effect it is the investigation of what differentiates justifiable beliefs from mere opinion. Epistemology is often described in terms of how we know what we know (cf. ontology). equal opportunities. Recognition of the right to be treated according to one's needs so that the same opportunities can be offered without discrimination on any grounds (usually sex, race, gender, age, class, wealth, physical or mental conditions and social status). Gonzalez, B. and Gonzalez, E. ( 1997) 'Equal opportunity and the teaching of geography', in D. Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. I 17-32.

ERA. See Education Reform Act (1988). ERIC. See Educational Resources Information Centre. ethnicity. The shared cultural heritage of a group, although it is often taken to have a racial or national expression. Ethnicity therefore describes a common group identity based on a shared set of values, beliefs, and lifestyles. Although the terms 'race' and 'ethnicity' are often used interchangeably, they do not describe the same thing. Members of a particular ethnic grouping may not necessarily be of the same race, but share a common set of cultural characteristics such as language and religion. Race refers to a condition which is biologically determined, whereas ethnicity relates to culture - hence one can change one's ethnicity, but not one's race. Winter; C. ( 1997) 'Ethnocentric bias in geography textbooks: a framework for reconstruction', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 180-8. 58

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evaluation

ethnography. In research terms, ethnography usually refers to small-scale research within a classroom, school or other complex grouping which focuses on how given participants act. The researcher often spends considerable time integrating with those he/she wishes to observe when undertaking ethnographic research. This has the advantages of increasing the likelihood of acceptance and enabling the researcher to collect considerable amounts of data, but may have disadvantages in that the researcher may influence the group joined and therefore bias the data obtained. EU. See European Union. Euclidean space. In spatial concept development, where the relationships of objects in space are structured in terms of lines, squares, rectangles, triangles and circles. In this way an individual begins to understand the relationship between objects in space, with particular reference to their scale, distance apart and distribution. An appreciation of perspective and the ways in which different objects will look from different viewpoints is important within this stage of spatial concept development. Understandings of Euclidean space tend to occur towards the end of the concrete operational and the beginning of the formal operational thinking stages. Boardman (1983) considers that The understanding of Euclidean space requires an accurate conception of the spatial relationship between places. Most children are now able to draw true maps which are detailed and co-ordinated. Direction, orientation, distance and scale are all shown with reasonable accuracy. Maps are drawn properly in plan form and buildings are no longer shown in side elevation. Symbols are used to indicate important features so that a legend to the map becomes necessary' (p. 13) (see Projective, Topological). Boardman, D. ( 1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching. London: Croom Helm. PiagetJ. and Inhelder, B. (1956) The Child's Conception of Space. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

European Union (EU). Established in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome as the European Economic Community (EEC), later becoming the European Community (EC), and finally the European Union (EU). The EU has adopted the responsibility to remove trade barriers between member states; enhance standards of living in those states; promote economic activity; and encourage closer relations through a common market. It has a permanent commission in Brussels, representation through a Council of Ministers from member states and a European Parliament. evaluation. An assessment of the value and quality of education, or of an individual's educational experience and attainment. The effectiveness of the teaching and learning process is often central to educational evaluation, although if too closely linked to assessment it may be considered too narrow to give a realistic judgement. Evidence for evaluation can come from a variety of sources and may involve complex qualitative research of educational experience, such as interviews of teachers and pupils. Evaluation can occur with respect to the curriculum, a lesson taught or student attainment. Evaluation of a geography lesson taught may focus on a wide variety of aspects of the teaching and learning process, or may be more narrowly defined THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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examination by either the student teacher, teacher or mentor. Such evaluations may encompass classroom management, which could draw the focus away from the geographical content of the lesson, or may be more explicitly concerned with the teaching and learning of the geography itself, or a combination of both. Typical areas for lesson evaluation in geography are shown below: 1. Aims

2. Methods

3. Management

4. Control/discipline

5. Resources

6. Follow up

Were the aims of your lesson wholly or partly achieved? Did you manage to cover the geographical content of the lesson? Could pupils understand and use the geographical knowledge and skills you introduced? What do you think the pupils learnt? What did any assessment show? Did you have success with the various methods used? -question-and-answer technique -visuals, OHP, video, ICT -pair work, group work -games, role plays, simulations -differentiation -teacher-led sessions -pupil-centred sessions Was the start and finish of the lesson orderly? Was the change of activities orderly? Were pupils organized into effective learning (groups)? Were your instructions clear? Did you cope with interruptions? Did you create a positive learning atmosphere? Was prior preparation of resources sufficient? Type and use of reward/praise (smile, look, encouragement) Type and use of censure (look, talk, action) Tone and approach adopted towards class and individuals Use of board, textbooks, worksheets, maps, atlases, OHP, video, ICT, etc. Were these resources used effectively? What should be planned next? Should the geographical content be covered in a different way, or should you teach something new? Marking of books and feedback? Specific targets for next lesson?

Kent, A. ( 1996) 'Evaluating the geography curriculum', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. I 33-95.

examination. A test of the proficiency of candidates' attainment (often their knowledge, understanding and skills), usually by the means of written and/or

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Examinations Appeals Board

oral questions. An external examination (or public examination) is conducted by a body established to assess student attainment, and award certification, but which has not been involved in their teaching (cf. internal examination). WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXAMINATION AND ASSESSMENT? Occasionally the terms examination and assessment are used synonymously, although inaccurately, to refer to the gathering of evidence about pupils' educational progress and attainment. In essence 'assessment' is a broad generic term for the collecting of such information, while the term 'examination' refers specifically to some form of testing. Examinations tend to be formal, with fixed time conditions for their completion, and have established rules for the ways in which they are conducted. These often include restrictions on the equipment and reference sources that can be used, with questions being set which the candidates have not seen before, and strict conditions on candidate behaviour applied during the examination. While the majority of examinations which children take are internally set and marked, that is by teachers in their school, at significant points these examinations will be externally organized. Such external examinations are designed to sample a given syllabus (or specification) which the teacher and pupils have been following for a set period of time. The examinations may include questions that do not closely reflect what the candidates have learnt, or the ways in which they have learnt - a problem addressed to some extent by the assessment of coursework, such as individual fíeldwork reports. External examinations, such as General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels (A and AS Levels), are usually considered to be 'high stakes' examinations, in that they are believed to have a common 'currency' and standard which are known and understood by candidates, parents, employers, politicians and academia. They are summative assessments of a candidate's knowledge, ability and skills within a subject on a particular day at the end of a course of study, and serve largely 'bureaucratic' purposes of selection, grading and certification. Often these examinations test memory and recall more than other intellectual abilities. Assessment can be 'formal', such as examinations, or 'informal'. Whenever a teacher is teaching, he or she is, in some way, also informally assessing the individuals being taught. Oral question and answer in class involves informal assessment; both of the knowledge and understanding of particular pupils and of the teacher's ability to convey learning. When pupils take part in a role play, or make a presentation in front of the teacher and class, this also involves assessment. Many of these forms of assessment are called teacher assessment, a term which has changed its meaning to some extent in recent years. Not only does it refer to the informal assessment methods of day-to-day teaching, but it also has a more rigorous edge, given the recent emphasis placed upon teachers' use of such assessments to eventually arrive at levels decisions within the National Curriculum. In general terms, formal assessments such as examinations are usually summative, while informal assessments are often formative. Formative assessment is loosely defined as 'educational' rather than 'bureaucratic' - it uses information gained through assessment to help the child develop, can be diagnostic and is collected with the intention of using the findings to help children to learn. This 'everyday' assessment is continuous and helps the teacher and learner to take the next educational steps - it is only infrequently used to help make final summative judgements about what children know, understand and can do.

Examinations Appeals Board (EAB). Deals with enquiries from private candidates and centres regarding the outcome of an appeal to an awarding body regarding the result or conduct of an examination. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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exemplar mail: Examinations Appeals Board, 29 Bolton Street, London, WIY 7PD tel: 020 7509 5995 website: www.theeab.org.uk

exemplar. An example of something, possibly within an overall structure of key ideas and concepts represented in a scheme of work, specification or curriculum. experiential learning. The process of learning through direct, concrete experiences rather than through more traditional, formal means of transmission of knowledge by teacher and text. explanation. The interpretation of, for example, a concept given in an attempt to achieve mutual understanding. expository teaching. A range of teaching methods, more specifically where teachers present broadly based ideas to a class and then redefine these into specific points for learning. expressive language. A form of language used in writing and speech which is personal and exploratory. Sometimes referred to as 'thinking aloud', expressive language tends to reveal what the writer (or speaker) feels or believes, uninhibited by the more structured and formal patterns of language often seen in the transactional mode. The expressive form often represents the first stages of exploring a new idea or concept (cf. transactional language, poetic language) and may therefore signify the first stages of learning. external assessment. An assessment usually conducted by a body external to the school in which the candidates have been taught (see course work).

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F Family Involvement Initiative (USA). One of the United States national education policies within Goals 2000 designed to increase parental involvement in the educational development of their children, particularly within the home. features. Aspects of a landscape; landforms within a given environment. feminism. A broad term which covers both the equality of the sexes and the upholding of the rights of women from various perspectives (social, political, intellectual, employment, pay, etc). Within geography, feminism has not limited itself to any one particular political, philosophical or theoretical stance and has thus developed a number of variants in terms of liberal, radical and socialist strands. A unifying theme is that men and women have unequal power and differing lived experiences both of these factors have a geographical expression. Aspects of feminism as it relates to geography have, until recently, remained either largely unexplored or marginalized within academic geography and geography education. Bowlby, S. ( 1992) 'Feminist geography and the changing curriculum'. Geography, 77, 349-60. Massey, D. ( 1991 ) Space, Place and Gender. Cambridge: Polity. Rose, G. (1993) Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge. Cambridge: Polity. Women and Geography Study Group ( 1997) Feminist Geographies: Explorations in Diversity and Difference. Harlow: Longman.

Field Studies Council (FSC). Established in 1943 to foster a better understanding of the environment through practical fieldwork conducted around a variety of field study centres. The FSC currently has eleven field centres across England and Wales which offer access to a variety of sites previously evaluated for safety and teaching suitability. Courses are offered with a wide range of options so that the specific needs of schools and/or geography specification/syllabus requirements are met. The majority of centres offer residential facilities as well as experienced teaching staff with specialist knowledge and fieldwork expertise. mail: Field Studies Council (FSC), Preston Montford, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 IHW

tel: 01743 850674

email: [email protected] website: www.field-studies-council.org

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field study centres

field study centres. Educational centres expressly established for the conducting of fieldwork. fieldwork. Educational experiences gained outside the classroom. Fieldwork often involves first-hand data collection by pupils and may be conducted within school grounds, or the area local to the school; or may involve day visits, or residential stays, within a different region or country. The main aim of fieldwork is to explore and understand geographical concepts and processes within different environments. This may involve the exploration of theories within the real world, first-hand data collection, enquiry methods and the development of geographical skills. Analysis and evaluation, as well as decision-making, may be facets of fieldwork. Many educationists also stress the social education aspects of fieldwork in that pupils often engage in group work, leadership tasks, communication, cooperation, etc. Bland, K., Chambers, B., Donert, K. andThomas.I ( 1996) 'Fieldwork', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 165-75. Foskett, N. ( 1997) Teaching and learning through fieldwork', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 189-201. GA ( 1983) The enduring purpose of fieldwork'. Teaching Geography, 9(5), 209-1 I. GA ( 1990) Geography Outside the Classroom. Sheffield: GA. Lidstone, J. ( 1988) Teaching and learning geography through fieldwork', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developing Skills in Geographical Education. Brisbane: IGUCGE/Jacaranda, pp. 53-9. May, S. and Cook, J. ( 1993) An Enquiry Approach (Fieldwork in Action 2). Sheffield: GA. May, S., Richardson, R and Banks, V ( 1993) Planning Fieldwork (Fieldwork in Action). Sheffield: GA. Thomas,T and May, S. ( 1994) Managing Out-of-Classroom Activities (Fieldwork in Action 3). Sheffield: GA.

Fien, John (b.1951). A graduate of the University of London (MA) and the University of Queensland (BA, Ph.D.), John Fien is Director of the Centre for Innovation and Research in Environmental Education at Griffith University, Australia. His research includes studies of nature conservation in Australia, environmental education within conservation non-governmental organizations, environmental attitudes of young people in the Asia-Pacific region, environmental learning and public participation, and innovative approaches to professional development. He was Editor of Geographical Education (198595), President of the Australian Association for Environmental Education (1990-2), and founder of the Australian Federation of Societies for Studies of Society and the Environment, the main professional development group in social and environmental education in Australia. Two of the earlier texts which he co-edited had a major impact in setting directions for socially critical geography: Teaching Geography for a Better World (1988) and, formalizing the study of pedagogy in geography education, The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom (1982, 1986). His research and professional development activities in environmental education have helped shape the development of theory and practice of education for sustainability (e.g. Environmental Education: A Pathway to Sustainability (1993); Education for the Environment: Critical Curriculum Theorizing and Environmental Education (1993); Teaching for a Sustainable World (1995); and Learning for 64

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Friends of the Earth

a Sustainable Environment (1997). He is a Global Education Partner of the World Resources Institute, USA, and a member of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Commission on Education and Communication. Final Report (DES 1990). The Final Report of the Geography Working Group (GWG) (DES 1990) defined the attainment targets, programmes of study and means of assessment for the emergent Geography National Curriculum (GNC). The report was more favourably received than the GWG's previous Interim Report in 1989 as it had succeeded in reducing the previous amount of geographical content by condensing three 'place' attainment targets into one, enhancing the status of environmental geography, and encouraging enquiry learning of social, economic and political aspects of geography. Direct intervention by the Secretary of State for Education in the drafting of the subsequent Statutory Orders for geography meant that many of the improvements to the geography curriculum witnessed in the Final Report were removed before the publication of the GNC. DES ( 1990) Geography for Ages 5-16. Final Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO.

fitness for purpose. The choice of the form of assessment strategy adopted to collect evidence of attainment must fit the purpose for which it is used. formative assessment. Providing feedback from assessment that can be used for educational purposes, rather than for narrowly bureaucratic purposes such as grading and rank ordering (cf. summative assessment). Formative assessment is part of daily teaching and learning and aims to further the educational progress of children by providing helpful information about what they know, understand and can do. It is therefore diagnostic, using formal and informal assessment methods to identify the next educational steps that children should take. SCAA ( 1996) Consistency in Teacher Assessment: Key Stage 3 Exemplification of Standards: Geography. London: SCAA.

foundation subject. The National Curriculum prescribed in 1988 was composed of core subjects (English, Maths and Sciences) and foundation subjects (technology, PE, a modern foreign language (MEL), history, geography, art and music). Initially the core subjects had to be taught from Key Stages 1 to 4, as did technology, PE, history, geography, art and music, with MEL being compulsory in Key Stages 3 and 4. Subsequent revisions to the National Curriculum following the Bearing Report (1994) and the curriculum reappraisal exercise conducted by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in 1999, have tended to reduce the significance of geography within the curriculum, particularly at Key Stages 1 and 2. free market. A market in which prices are a result of unrestricted competition. Friends of the Earth. A pressure group which was established in 1971 to promote the cause of environmental awareness and protection. mail: 26/28 Underwood Street, London N l 7JQ tel: 020 7490 1555 email: [email protected] website: vwvw.foe.co.uk THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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FSC

FSC. See Field Studies Council. further education. A stage of education beyond the statutory age of schooling, but usually considered to refer to education below degree level (higher education).

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G GA. See Geographical Association. Gaia. The Gaia theory was formulated by Lovelock in 1969 and applies the ecosystem concept to the entire biosphere covering the Earth. The Earth is seen as a self-regulating organism that controls the maintenance of life on the planet. It supports the idea that in all ecosystems there are both positive and negative feedbacks between the abiotic and biotic components and that some of the negative feedbacks act to restrict change within the system. This selfregulation of ecosystems occurs between the organisms and environment. The key idea is that humans endanger the natural balance that occurs within most ecosystems because they increase the positive feedbacks and therefore threaten to ruin the equilibrium which exists in the biosphere. Lovelock,]. E. (1988) Galo: A New Look at Life on Earth, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

games. Used in the teaching of geography to present pupils with an active learning experience. Often linked with role plays and simulations, which serve similar purposes of promoting active learning, games were first developed within geography education in the 1960s. Cole, J. R ( 1966) Geographical Games. Nottingham: University of Nottingham (Geography Department). Dalton.T, Minshull, R., Robinson, A. and Garlic,]. (1972) Simulation Games in Geography. London: Macmillan. Walford, R. ( 1969) Gomes in Geography. Harlow: Longman. Walford, R. ( 1986) 'Games and simulations', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 79-84. Walford, R. ( 1988) 'Games and simulations', in D. Mills (ed.), Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools. Sheffield: GA, pp. 142-6.

GCE. See General Certificate of Education. GCSE. See General Certificate of Secondary Education. GDN. See Geography Discipline Network. gender. The socially and culturally defined difference between men and women; sex being the biologically determined difference. Gender can be used to provide an expression of the various roles and responsibilities of the sexes and the THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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General Certifícate of Education

relationships which exist between these roles. The focus on gender within geography is often related to issues concerning unequal access to employment, transport, ownership of property, education and power. The trend has been for gender studies in geography to challenge assumptions about the roles of the sexes; for example equating female worlds with the home and domesticity and male worlds with the public domain and paid employment. Atkinson,]. ( 1992) 'How are women in the Third World portrayed in geography textbooks?' Teaching Geography, 17(4), 179-80. Bale,]. ( 1982) 'Sexism in geographical education', in A. Kent (ed.) Bias in Geographical Education. Sheffield: GA, pp. 3-10. Bramwell, J. ( 1987) 'Pupils' attitudes towards geography in the lower school: an investigation into gender issues'. Geography, 72( I ), 46-8. Connolly, J. ( 1992) 'Geography: equal opportunities and the National Curriculum', in K. Myers (ed.), Genderwatch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 143-6. Larsen, B. ( 1983) 'Geography', in j. Whyld (ed.), Sexism in the Secondary Curriculum. London: Harper and Row, pp. 165-78. Monk,J. ( 1996) 'Partial truths: feminist perspectives on ends and means', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 274-86. Monk, J. and Williamson-Fien, J. ( 1986) 'Stereoscopic visions: perspectives on gender - challenges for the geography classroom', in J. Fien and R. Gerber (eds), Teaching Geography for a Better World. Brisbane: AGTA/Jacaranda, pp. 186-220.

General Certifícate of Education (GCE). Introduced following the Norwood Report (Board of Education 1943) and the 1944 Education Act - the GCE replaced the School Certificate with a series of single-subject examinations in 1951. The GCE Ordinary Level (O Level) was originally designed to assess the top 20-30 per cent in academic subjects and was aimed at pupils in grammar and public schools. The Crowther Report (1959) questioned the viability of the GCE to serve the needs of all abilities and the enhanced status it afforded those subjects assessed. In 1965, the introduction of a dual examination system at 16, with the launch of the Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE), extended the means of examining and assessing. The CSE measured a wider range of skills and abilities, and included a Mode 3 examination, whereby the geography department/teacher devised the syllabus and scheme of the examination, subject to moderation by the board. The CSE subsequently influenced the form of the geography O Level, with many boards introducing course work assessment, projects and teacher assessments. In the early 1970s a drive by the Schools Council to combine the examinations at 16+ was eventually achieved nationally in 1986 with the introduction of the General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Board of Education ( 1943) Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools. (Norwood Report). London: HMSO. Crowther Report ( 1959) Report to the Minister of Education's Central Advisory Council:'15 to 18'. London: HMSO.

General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Replaced the GCE Ordinary Level (O Level) and Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE) in 1986 by creating one examination designed to suit virtually all abilities. It is normally taken at the age of 16 after completing a two-year course of full-time 68

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GeoAct/Ve

study. The examination arose from the concern amongst politicians, educationists, employers and parents that the previous examination system was divisive because of the small proportion of children who aspired to the 'academic' qualification of O Level. All pupils now receive one certificate and follow a similar syllabus, although recent changes have brought into question the viability of the GCSE - namely the introduction of vocational qualifications such as the General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) and the 'tiering' of existing GCSEs by ability, similar to the previous division of examinations. The inclusion of compulsory coursework in the GCSE was considered an important step forward, although dispute about the percentage of such coursework has continued since the inception of the examination. General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ). Introduced in 1992 through the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ), aiming to provide vocational skills and knowledge for students who wished to progress into employment or university. GNVQs cover three levels (Foundation, Intermediate and Advanced) and can be awarded as pass, merit or distinction. Based in schools, rather than the workplace, GNVQs focus upon attainment rather than vocational competence (cf. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ)). The Part One GNVQ offers a vocational option for pupils at Key Stage 4 and is available at Foundation and Intermediate levels. After an initial pilot this qualification was offered to schools nationally in September 1999, causing an immediate impact on the number of candidates choosing to opt for the geography General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in a number of schools (see vocational education). General Teaching Councils for England (GTCs) and the General Teaching Council for Wales (GTCW), were established in September 2000 to maintain a register of qualified teachers in England and Wales. All teachers in maintained schools are required to register. The Councils seek to maintain and improve standards of professional practice and conduct within schools and advise the government on a variety of educational issues. mail: General Teaching Council, MWB Exchange, Greycoat Place, London, SWIP I SB tel: 0207 960 6264 email: [email protected]

GENIP. See Geographic Education National Implementation Project. genre. A type, classification, or category. In English language teaching the term genre often refers to a writing style, but can be applied more widely to include aspects of speech and forms of text. In geography education, broader definitions of genre are often applied (see audience). GeoActive. A quarterly magazine published for General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE)-level geography students by Stanley Thornes Publishers. mail: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, Ellenborough House, Wellington Street, Cheltenham, Gloucester, GL50 I YD tel: 01242 267278 THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Ceofile

Geofile. A quarterly magazine published for General Certifícate of Education (GCE) Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level geography students by Stanley Thornes Publishers. mail: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, Ellenborough House, Wellington Street, Cheltenham, Gloucester; GL50 I YD tel: 01242 267278

Geographic Education National Implementation Project (GENIP) (USA). A consortium of major geographical associations in the USA who are committed to the improvement of the quality and status of geography education. Organized as a project in 1985, its origins arise from a booklet called Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools, which was produced jointly by the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and Association of American Geographers (AAG) in the preceding year. The booklet outlined five themes for geography education, which influenced the geography national standards published a decade later (see Geography for Life: The Geography National Standards). GENIP develops policies relating to geography education, creates curriculum materials, promotes the use of information and communications technology (ICT) in geography, provides support for teachers and develops the use of the standards for geographical studies throughout American schools. A series of publications on themes, key ideas and learning opportunities in geography have been produced by GENIP since its inception. mail: c/o Association of American Geographers, 1710 Sixteenth Street, NW, Washington DC 20009-3198, USA tel: 001 202234 1450 website: www.genip.tamu.edu

Geographical Abstracts. Geographical Abstracts provide a collection of abstracts of articles, authors and a key word index of geography. Geographical Analysis. A journal, first published in 1969 at Ohio State University, which was initially designed to focus on the conceptual and theoretical changes occurring in geography at the time. It maintains a theoretical focus and is produced quarterly. Geographical Association (GA). Founded in 1893, the national subject teaching organization for geography in the UK. It has around 11,000 members and local branches throughout England, Wales and Northern Ireland. A variety of working parties, working groups and section committees operate through the voluntary efforts of teachers, advisers, lecturers and educationists. Its major services to members include the production of journals (Primary Geographer, Teaching Geography and Geography), publications, the maintenance of local branches, and the provision of regional and national conferences annually. The GA strives to provide curriculum support for geography teachers at all levels to extend and safeguard geography's contribution to education. It provides specialist help and information on all aspects of geography and geography teaching. Balchin.W (1993) The Geographical AssoaationThe First Hundred Years 1893-1993. Sheffield: Geographical Association. mail: Geographical Association, 160 Solly Street, Sheffield, S l 4BF tel: 01 142960088 70

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Geographical Journal email: [email protected] website: www.geography.org.uk

Geographical Association of Zimbabwe. Founded in 1966, it publishes the Geographical Journal of Zimbabwe. mail: c/o Department of Geography, University of Zimbabwe, Box MPI 67, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe tel: 00 263 4 30321 I email: [email protected]

Geographical Education. Established in 1969, the journal of the Australian Geography Teachers Association (AGTA). Its purpose is to promote the effective teaching and study of geography in Australian schools and provide a forum for the expression of opinions on matters relating to geography education. geographical information systems (GIS). A computer-based system used to acquire, store, retrieve and analyse data within a previously defined area. The sort of data gathered can vary tremendously but they should be capable of being mapped using a computer and usually involve a series of information overlays, the relationship between the data then becoming apparent by the map produced. GIS are often constructed using satellite data, which have particular advantages in informing resource and environmental management. The commercial applications of GIS are numerous and the demand for GIS skills within the workforce has somewhat outstripped the capacity of educational systems to cope with their provision. The focus of GIS is spatial analysis and mapping, and as such its relevance to geography education is clear. As Newcombe (1999) states, 'Linking data to maps, interrogating the data, determining appropriate methods of display and most importantly analysing this spatial output has the potential to transform the teaching and learning of geography at all levels.' Debate exists as to the most appropriate ways to introduce GIS into geography education, although there is some agreement about the need for exemplary curriculum materials, in-service training for teachers, and equity of access to GIS among students. The balance between content-based GIS education and skills-oriented technical training still has to be resolved. Some commentators favour using GIS to solve real geographical problems based on local data - this, they believe, enhances the development of geographical skills but also uses previously acquired geographical knowledge and understanding within a constructivist pedagogy. Audet, R. and Paris, J. ( 1997) 'GIS implementation model for schools: assessing the critical concerns'. Journal of Geography, 96(6), 293-300. Heywood, I., Cornelius, S. and Carver, S. ( 1998) An introduction to GIS. London: Longman. Keiper.T. ( 1999) 'CIS for elementary students: an inquiry into a new approach to learning geography'. Journal of Geography, 98(2), 47-59. Newcombe, L ( 1999) 'Developing novice teacher ICT competence1. Teaching Geography, 24(3), 128-32. Pickles,], (ed.) Ground Truth: The Social Implications of GIS. New York: Guilford Press. Sui, D. ( 1995) 'A pedagogic framework to link GIS to the intellectual core of geography'. Journal of Geography, 94(6), 578-89.

Geographical Journal. Published three times per year by the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), it contains articles on human, physical and environmental geography. The Geographical Journal was first published in 1893. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geographical Magazine

Geographical Magazine. First published in 1935 by the Royal Geographical Society (RGS). It is produced monthly and contains a variety of articles of interest both to geographers and to the general public. Geographical Review (USA). A geographical journal of the American Geographical Society (AGS). First published in 1916 as the American Geographical Review and now produced quarterly. Geographical Society of Ireland. Founded in 1934, promotes the teaching, learning and research of geography within education. It publishes the journal Irish Geography. mail: Geographical Society of Ireland, c/o Dr Gerald Mills, University College, Belfield, Dublin, Eire

tel: 00 353 I 7068229

email: [email protected] website: www.ucd.ie/-geograph/gsi.html

geographical vocabulary. The phrase used in the 1995 Geography National Curriculum (GNC) which refers to the specialist terms in geography that pupils should know, understand and be able to use at different Key Stages. Although not exhaustive or definitive, the terms supplied give some guidance as to the nature of the expected vocabulary of the child and how he or she should use it. For example at Key Stage 3 (11-13) as well as stating some exemplar terms, the curriculum indicates that pupils should be able to use their geographical vocabulary to explain geographical patterns and change, and to investigate relationships. geography. Seeks to explore the relationship between the Earth and its peoples through the study of place, space and environment. In particular it is the study of human and physical phenomena, especially their distribution and pattern in space at a variety of scales. The discipline is generally regarded as involving a breadth of description, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, often drawing upon other disciplines. As such the subject is often seen as forming a bridge between the humanities and physical sciences. The study of the location of physical and human features on the Earth, as well as the processes and systems which have created them, is fundamental to geography. In addition an appreciation of the patterns and relationships created between people and places in a spatial context is essential. Environmental aspects of the interrelationship of human and physical activities have become increasingly important, with particular reference to resource use and depletion, as well as social, economic, political, welfare and cultural aspects of their use. Geography is studied at a variety of spatial scales: local, regional, national, international and global. It places great importance on the study of change and employs a variety of skills to pursue questions and issues that concern people and their environments. The nature of geography as a discipline', in Final Report (DES 1990), p. 6. PERSONAL VIEWS ON GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE In recent years a number of geographers have published their personal views on the nature of geography as a discipline. In some cases these are virtually 72

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Geography 14-18 autobiographical accounts of the lives of the academic geographers who have written them: Bird, J. ( 1989) The Changing Worlds of Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buttinnen A. ( 1983) The Practice of Geography. London: Longman. Gould, R ( 1985) The Geographer at Work. London: Routledge. Haggett, R ( 1990) The Geographer s Art. Oxford: Blackwell. Johnston, R. ( 1986) On Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Stoddart, D. ( 1986) On Geograph/. Oxford: Blackwell. Unwin.T. ( 1992) The Place of Geography. Harlow: Longman.

VIEWS ON GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION Walford, R. and Haggett, R ( 1995) 'Geography and geographical education: some perspectives for the 21 st century'. Geography, 80(3), 3-13. Walford, R. (1996) 'Geography 5-19: retrospect and prospect', in E. Rawling and R. Daughterly (eds), Geography into the Twenty First Century. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 131-43. DES ( 1990) Geography for ages 5-/ 6. Final report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO

Geography. One of the three journals of the Geographical Association. It publishes predominantly scholarly and research-based articles for teachers of geography at all levels of education, but is perhaps primarily of interest to those teaching at post-16 and degree level. The journal was first published in 1901 as The Geographical Teacher and appears quarterly. Geography 14-18 Project (or Bristol Project). Established in 1970 at the University of Bristol as a programme of curriculum development to make geography a more intellectually demanding and enjoyable subject for more able pupils. It was initially given funding by the Schools Council for two years of research before the actual project started. Rejecting previous approaches to curriculum development it sought to fully involve teachers in each stage of the initiation, planning, development, trialling and assessment of materials produced. A major aim was that the geography curriculum should be in an almost constant state of renewal and reassessment to become almost selfsustaining. An Ordinary Level (O Level) examination was devised and taught from 1972, when the project was expanded from its original ten pilot schools to regional, and eventually national, dissemination. Funding from the Schools Council ended in 1975, significantly affecting the further curriculum development associated with the project. A joint O Level and Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE) (16 +), as well as a Mode 3 CSE, were devised by the project in the early 1980s. A national conference is held annually for centres entering candidates for the existing syllabus. (Cf. Geography for the Young School Leaver.) Orrell, K. ( 1985) 'Geography 14-18', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 85-98. Reynolds,]. (1972) 'Curriculum change and the Schools Council Geography 14-18 Project'. Area, 4(2), 128-31. Toi ley, H. and Reynolds, J. ( 1977) Geography 14-18: A Handbook for School Based Curriculum Development. London: Macmillan. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geography 16—19

Geography 16-19 Project. A curriculum development project established in 1976 with funding from the Schools Council at the University of London, Institute of Education. Its aim was to involve teachers and students in curriculum development in geography with particular emphases on establishing a route for enquiry learning and values enquiry, as well as an Advanced Level (A Level) (16-19) examination in geography and clear links to vocational courses. A variety of books, pamphlets, occasional papers and software packages have been published in relation to the project. Funding from the Schools Council stopped in 1983, but the project was taken up by the Secondary Examinations Council (SEC) and School Curriculum Development Committee (SCDC). The Geography 16-19 Project developed as a response to a changing sixthform student body, where more students were staying on within full-time education, and the changing nature of academic geography as a discipline. Like the Geography 14-18 Project, it sought to fully involve teachers and education lecturers as curriculum developers to reconsider the objectives, content and teaching methods used in geography education post-16. Piloting, support and consultative arrangements were established nationally by the project in 1977. In addition, a clear curriculum framework was devised for the development of a syllabus, which was adopted by the London GCE Board, and related geography education materials. Due to its innovative approach to geography teaching and assessment the Geography 16-19 Project achieved rapid uptake of A Level candidates in the 1980s and early 1990s, becoming the UK's most popular A Level geography syllabus in 1992. The project also had a substantial influence on the form of development of many A Level geography syllabuses and specifications during the 1990s. Hones, G. ( 1991 ) 'Geography 16-19', in R. Walford (ed.), Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 46-7. Naish, M. ( 1985) 'Geography 16-19', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 99-1 15. Naish, M., Rawling, E. and Hart, C. ( 1987) Geography 16-19: The Contribution of a Curriculum Development Project to 16-19 Education. Harlow: Longman.

Geography Advisory Group. The Dearing Report (1994) on the National Curriculum necessitated the creation of a small Geography Advisory Group, under the auspices of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). This group was established to advise on the reduction of the content, complexity and prescription of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) and suggest arrangements for its assessment at each Key Stage (see Geography National Curriculum). geography co-ordinator. A teacher within a primary school charged with the responsibility of co-ordinating the programme of teaching and learning in the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Teaching experience and subject expertise within geography vary considerably amongst those teachers who have been appointed as co-ordinators; however, the main responsibilities of the role are usually understood to involve clarifying and planning the geography programme, managing resources, measuring pupil progress, making cross phase and cross Key Stage links, and providing support to other colleagues. A geography policy statement to inform parents, governors and inspectors about 74

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Geography for Life:The Geography National Standards

how geography is taught in the school is a statutory requirement for all primary schools; this is usually devised by the geography co-ordinator, having gained the views of other staff and senior management. Catling, S. ( 1993) 'Co-ordinating geography'. Primary Geographer, 14, 10-1 I. Krause, J. ( 1998) The geography co-ordinator1, in R. Carter (ed.), Handbook of Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 99-109. Krause, J. and Garnen W ( 1997) Geography Go-ordinator's Pack. London: BBC Education.

geography criteria (A and AS Level). For the creation of Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) specifications by awarding bodies (QCA 1999). These establish the geography content to be included in geography A/AS Levels, which was similar to the core devised in 1993, and require coverage of physical geography, human geography and people-environment interactions in all geography specifications. Work at a range of scales and in different contexts (including the UK and countries in various states of development), as well as investigative work using both primary and secondary sources, is expected in both the A and AS Level geography specifications. The maximum weighting for internal assessment in geography A level was increased to 30 per cent, with specifications at both A and AS Level highlighting opportunities for developing and assessing key skills (although only the key skill of communication contributes to the assessment of geography at A and AS Level). The criteria also include grade descriptions for A Level grades A, C and E. QCA ( 1999) Revised Subject Gritería for AS and A level: Geography. London: QCA. Geography Discipline Network (GDN). A UK-based organization which seeks to improve the quality of teaching and learning of geography in higher education nationally and internationally. It aims to promote research, exchange materials and ideas, stimulate dialogue and generally raise the profile and status of geography in higher education. mail: Cheltenham and Gloucester College of HE, Francis Close Hall, Swindon Road, Cheltenham, GL50 4AZ

tel: 01242 543364

email: [email protected] website: www.chelt.ac.uk/gdn

Geography Education Outreach (USA). Aims to instil and improve geography education in US schools on behalf of the National Geographic Society. The organization publishes a newsletter called Update, which includes geographical teaching material, policy statements, and general and professional development information. The main work of the Geography Education Outreach programme is conducted by numerous geographic alliances across the USA, the District of Columbia in Canada and Puerto Rico. A Geography Awareness Week has been organized since 1987. mail: National Geographic Society, I 145 17th Street NW,Washington DC 20036-4688, USA tel: 00 I 202 81 3 979 6845 email: [email protected]

Geography for Life: The Geography National Standards (USA). These standards, published in 1994, establish what every American child should know, understand and be able to do in geography by years 4, 8 and 12. There are six 'essential elements', which encompass a total of eighteen geography Standards: THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geography for the Young School Leaver

• • • • • •

The world in spatial terms Places and regions Physical systems Human systems Environment and society Uses of geography

The aim of the Geography National Standards is to help to produce geographically informed individuals who see meaning in the arrangement of phenomena on the Earth's surface; who appreciate the relationship between people, place and environment; who can use geographical skills; and who can apply geographical understanding to their lives. The Standards were developed as a response to the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994. Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). A curriculum development project, initially funded in 1970 by the Schools Council for a period of three years, which was later extended until 1985. With the demise of the Schools Council in 1982 the Secondary Examinations Council (SEC) continued to fund and support the project until 1988. Initially GYSL was a geography curriculum project for average and below-average pupils, instigated at a time of change for geography and in preparation for the raising of the school leaving age (RoSLA) in 1973-4. GYSL development was based at Avery Hill College of Education, which eventually gave its name to the subsequent syllabus, curriculum materials and examination produced. One remit was to produce schemes of work and supporting resources that could be used in subject or interdisciplinary ways. Importantly, GYSL looked at changes both in geography and in the curricular needs of children. First examined through a regional Mode 3 Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE) and eventually nationally as an Ordinary Level (O Level), the GYSL examination differed from other O Levels at the time by including a substantial amount of coursework. A variety of published materials, a current examination at General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level that still bears the name of the Avery Hill project, and the fact that the Schools Council research indicated that in the 1970s at least one person was making some use of GYSL materials in half of the secondary schools in England and Wales, testify to its importance. A national conference for those centres entering candidates for the GCSE examination is currently held annually. (Cf. Geography 14-18 Project.) Boardman, D. ( 1988) The Impact of o Curriculum Project: Geography for the Young School Leaver. Educational Review Occasional Publications 14. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Gill, D. ( 1984) 'GYSL: education or indoctrination?' Contemporary Issues in Geography and Education, I (2), 34-8. Higginbottom.T ( 1980) 'Geography for the Young School Leaver', in E. Rawling (ed.), Geography into the 1980s. Sheffield: GA, pp. I 1-20. Parsons, C. (1988) The Curriculum Change Game: A Longitudinal Study of the Schools Council GYSL Project. London: Palmer

Geography Inset Primary Project (GIPP). Established in 1990, based at the Department of Education, University of Liverpool under the directorship of Bill Marsden. 76

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Geography National Curriculum

Its aim was to support primary schools in coming to terms with the then new Geography National Curriculum (GNC). GIPP provided school-based in-service education and training (INSET), courses and conferences for primary teachers as well as a national mailing of Guidesheets and articles for Primary Geographer. In association with its local education authorities (LEAs) in the North-west of England, it produced publications for teachers, the Geographical Association (GA) and the National Curriculum Council (NCC). Marsden.W and Hughes, J. (eds) ( 1994) Primary School Geography. London: Fulton. Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Devised following the confirmation of the subject's place within the National Curriculum for England and Wales after the publication of the Education Reform Act 1988. A Geography Working Group (GWG) was convened in May 1989 to produce an Interim Report (DES 1989) by the end of October, following guidelines about the structure of the curriculum already devised by the Task Group on Assessment and Testing (TGAT) in 1987. The Interim Report outlined the programmes of study and attainment targets for geography across the four Key Stages from 5 to 16. It received widespread criticism from teachers and educationists in that it strongly emphasized the study of prescribed locations and heavily defined the geographical content that had to be taught. A Eurocentric and developed-world bias was detected, with little reference to interdependence. Of concern to many was the apparent lack of emphasis on enquiry learning and values and attitudes, an implicit rejection of the advances many felt had been made through the Geography 14-18, Geography 16-19 and Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL) projects. Seven attainment targets revealed an overlap of content, potential assessment difficulties and a lack of clear progression. After public consultation a Final Report (1990) was produced which was more favourably received. Three 'place' attainment targets had been condensed into one, environmental geography was enhanced, and enquiry learning of social, economic and political aspects of geography was encouraged. Further advances were made following the public consultation which resulted from the production of a Consultation Report by the National Curriculum Council (NCC) in November 1990. The final stages in the development of the Geography National Curriculum were the production of Draft Geography Statutory Orders, and finally Statutory Orders, in 1991. A change of Secretary of State for Education at the time saw a late revision of the geography curriculum to re-emphasize the learning of factual content, reduce the emphasis on affective and enquiry learning, and narrow the range of geographical skills. Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 of the Geography National Curriculum were introduced to schools in England and Wales in the autumn of 1991. The phased introduction of Key Stage 4 geography, for those pupils who would opt for it, was planned for the autumn of 1994; however, the subsequent Bearing Report (1994) removed this final stage of the GNC, which was already causing timetabling difficulties and forcing schools to consider implementing short courses in geography and history. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geography Review

The Dealing Report saw the creation of a small Geography Advisory Group, under the auspices of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA), which was charged with the task of reducing the content, complexity and prescription of the GNC and making arrangements for its assessment at each Key Stage. The Advisory Group suggested: • a reduction in the number of attainment targets to one (now simply called 'Geography'); • a reduction in the range of skills, places and themes to be taught, although these were to stay in the programmes of study as separate sections; • provision of choice within the geography content; • that knowledge, understanding and skills should be clearly stated and show progression; • that the programmes of study should not overlap. The revisions to Key Stage 3, being the last compulsory geography education that many children would now receive, were perhaps the most difficult. The revised Geography National Curriculum was subsequently published in 1995 (DFE 1995) and implemented in schools in the same year. A review of the National Curriculum for England and Wales was conducted in 1999, which resulted in further changes. The new GNC (DffiE 1999) followed the common structure and design devised for all twelve National Curriculum subjects, incorporating a section on 'breadth of study' - namely the contexts, activities, areas of study and range of experiences through which the knowledge, skills and understanding should be taught - and an overview of what pupils should learn during each Key Stage. Information in the margins of each page of the geography programmes of study detailed non-statutory information such as definitions of words and phrases, suggested opportunities for the use of information and communications technology (ICT) and key links with other subjects. A concluding section on locational knowledge, giving examples of 'significant places and environments', is provided and contains reference to the British Isles, Europe and the world at Key Stages 2 and 3. DES ( 1989) Geography for Ages 5-16. Interim Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO. DES ( 1991 ) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. Walford, R. and Machon, R (eds) ChallengingTimes: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge Publishing Services. website: www.nc.uk.net

Geography Review. A magazine written specifically for Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) students, although it may sometimes be read by geography undergraduates. It features articles of general interest to geographers and contains contemporary case studies on various themes in geography. Geography Review is published five times per year. mail: Philip Allan Publishers Ltd, Market Place, Deddington, Oxfordshire, OX 15 OSE tel: 01869 338652 78

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Geography Schools and Industry Project (GSIP). Established by the Geographical Association (GA) in 1984 to identify how geography teachers could help students in the 11-16 age range increase their economic understanding. The project sought to involve geography teachers and other adults in the development and dissemination of activities that promoted economic and industrial understanding (EIU) through geography. It originally operated as a partnership between local education authorities (LEAs), teachers, industry, commerce and services, and was co-ordinated by a small team based at the University of Oxford Department of Educational Studies. GSIP helped geography teachers to contribute to students' economic understanding through geography and cross-curricular lessons; LEA advisers to organize in-service education and training (INSET); and initial teacher training (ITT) lecturers to include the theme in their courses. Geography Working Group (GWG). Established in May 1989 to advise the Secretary of State for Education on the attainment targets, programmes of study and associated assessment arrangements for geography in the National Curriculum following the passing of the Education Reform Act (1988). The group, whose twelve members were drawn from a variety of fields both within and outside the educational world, was chaired by Sir Leslie Fielding and was charged with the task of submitting an Interim Report (DES 1989) to the Secretary of State by 31 October 1989, outlining the contribution which geography should make to the whole curriculum, as well as provisional thoughts on attainment targets, programmes of study and profile components for geography. The work of the group was pressurized by time constraints and by differing views on the importance of various aspects of contemporary geography education, for example the role of enquiry learning. In its initial stages the group concentrated on defining the nature and aims of geography and on drafting attainment targets, though these led to later problems in assessment. The GWG was widely believed to have quickly arrived at a set agenda of concerns about the nature of geography education in schools, which some argued amounted to a 'deficit model' of the subject. The key concerns of the group, which emerged in the Final Report (DES 1990, p. 5), were: • the lack of geography teaching in primary schools • the lack of exposure of some children to geography by 16 • the uneven geographical knowledge about locations, places and environments of some children • broad thematic studies reducing a full understanding of place • the lack of understanding of geographical concepts, patterns and processes • • • •

the lack of physical geography the lack of environmental geography the role of enquiry methods of learning the lack of coherent planning of case studies, areal coverage, and skills in the geography curriculum

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geology

• poor integration of content, skills and themes • overemphasis on affective rather than cognitive learning The work of the GWG ended with the publication of its Final Report in June 1990. This subsequently formed the basis of the Geography Statutory Orders and the Geography National Curriculum published in 1991. DES ( 1989) Geography for Ages 5-16. Interim Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSQ DES ( 1990) Geography for Ages 5-16.Final Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO. DES ( 1991 ) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO.

geology. The scientific study of the Earth's crust, the rocks of which it is composed, their structure and the development of these over time. Geology is often subdivided into its two major categories of physical and historical geology. geomorphological processes. Listed in the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) at Key Stage 3, they include rivers or coasts; rock types and weathering in landform development, and hazard management; and physical features of the Earth as related to processes of formation and geology. Geomorphology. A journal devoted to publishing research articles about geomorphology. GeoVisions Project. Established in 1998 at the Development Education Centre (DEC) (Birmingham) to bring together educators and people outside formal education to (1) reflect and raise debate about the future needs of 5- to 19-yearolds, and (2) consider how school geography could contribute to the development of capabilities in young people and in the education system to satisfy these needs. Its aim is to look to longer-term curriculum developments, rather than modifications to the current curriculum, and initially focused on the question of what form of geographical education is needed for the twenty-first century. The group has disseminated its thoughts through the Birmingham DEC website, contributions to conferences, workshops, and articles in geography education magazines. Garten R., Robinson, R. and Sinclair S. ( 1998) The GeoVisions Project'. Teaching Geography, 23(4), 201-2. GeoVisions Project Team ( 1999) 'Co-operative research'. Teaching Geography, 24(2), 70-1. Robinson, R, Garten R. and Sinclair; S. ( 1999) 'Wiser people - better world?' Teaching Geography, 24(1), 10-13. email: [email protected] website: www.tidec.org

Gerber, Rod (b.1945). An Australian educator who has had a career of more than thirty years in geography education as a secondary teacher, lecturer, teacher educator, head of department and school, and dean of faculty. He has been a full member and chair of the International Geographical Union's Commission on Geographical Education (1988-2000). He has been president of the Queensland Geography Teachers' Association, the Royal Geographical Society of Queensland Inc. and the Australian National Committee for Geography. Among his awards have been the Thomson Medal for outstanding contribution to 80

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global warming

geography education, the Cox-Gerber award from the Geography Teachers Association of Queensland (GTAQ) and the Fellowship of the Australian Mapping Services Institute. He has an extensive research record in geography education. A wide range of publications have emanated from this research including the Jacaranda Atlas Programme and geography textbooks for school students; teacher textbooks, including The Geography Teachers' Guide to the Classroom', geography education reference books, including Developments and Directions in Geographical Education', Fieldwork: Reflections, Perspectives and Action', and Using Maps and Graphics in Geography Teaching', and an extensive range of book chapters and journal articles. He co-edits the journal International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. Rod Gerber is best known for his research on learning in geography education, especially involving graphics, and professional lifelong learning. gifted. A term used for individuals who have mental characteristics which allow them to acquire knowledge, understanding and skills considered to be advanced either implicitly, or because of the developmental stage at which they are acquired. Usually giftedness is used to refer to advanced cognitive abilities displayed through some aspect of performance, creativity or achievement. Lists of qualities of gifted pupils vary, but often refer to one or more of the following: overall intellectual ability, academic aptitude, creativity, leadership, ability in visual or performing arts, and psychomotor ability. Giftedness is sometimes considered to be a special educational need (SEN), although it is explicitly excluded from the Code of Practice. Grenyer, N. ( 1983) Geography for Gifted Pupils. Harlow: Schools Council/Longman. Grenyer; N. ( 1986) 'Bright pupils', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 171-5.

GIPP. See Geography Inset Primary Project. GIS. See geographical information system. glaciation. The effects on an area of being covered by an ice sheet or glaciers. global. Anything that occurs worldwide is termed global, for example geographical processes (physical, human and/or environmental) which have a measurable impact at the world scale. global warming. The gradual increase of average atmospheric temperatures worldwide through a variety of processes, often loosely referred to as 'the greenhouse effect'. Agreement on the causes and effects of global warming is not yet unanimous, although evidence of increase in temperature is now accepted as being the result of human activity such as the burning of fossil fuels. Natural processes also have a significant influence on climate change. The effects will be a rise in sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and unpredictable climatic events. Increases in surface temperature and the prediction of associated effects is problematic. Solutions include the reduction of 'greenhouse gases' (such as carbon dioxide) and restricting global deforestation. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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globalization

globalization. A process of increasing liberalization of world trade and investment, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the effects of this process and to enhanced communications worldwide. These effects may be wide-ranging such as increasing the gap between rich and poor, reducing job security in the developed world, and exacerbating the economic problems of less-developed countries. In essence globalization may be seen as having economic, cultural, technological, social and political dimensions. The reduction of trade barriers, and the existence of virtual free trade conditions for goods and services, have meant that transnational companies are now often more powerful and wealthy than certain countries. globe. A spherical model of the Earth which shows either its physical or its human phenomena - for example, environmental and political versions of globes are currently produced. Recently, inflatable globes have become popular, as well as globes with surfaces that can be written on for illustrative purposes. Globes and atlases are used as complementary resources in geography education, the former being especially helpful in the development of children's understanding of the relationship between the round Earth and a flat world map. GNC. See Geography National Curriculum. GNVQ. See General National Vocational Qualification. Goad Plans. Land-use maps of town centres within the UK at a scale of 1:1056. They are detailed enough to provide a useful base plan for various fieldwork activities and include the names of major retailers, banks, hotels, etc. present when the map was drawn. mail: Experian Goad Ltd, 8-12 Salisbury Square, Old Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 5BJ.

Goals 2000: Educate America Act (USA). A series of educational targets set by US President Bush and agreed by 50 State governors in February 1990. These placed a high priority on achieving educational basics delivered through a curriculum based upon the study of English, maths, science, history and geography. Six national education goals were initially defined (two more being added in 1994) to be achieved by the year 2000. These included a commitment to raising the percentage of high school graduates, improving basic standards of literacy and numeracy, excellence in science and maths and that American adults should be literate in the workings of a global economy and exercise their rights and responsibilities as US citizens. The additional goals related to teachers becoming reflective practitioners and parents playing a greater role in educational partnerships. (Goals 2000 is also referred to as 'America 2000', 'National Educational Goals' and 'The Educate America Act'.) grade. A number or letter which indicates a level of student performance. graph. A diagram usually representing the relationship between two (or more) variables, as shown by plotting their values as distances from a pair of axes (x and y) usually drawn at right angles to each other. By convention the dependent variable is plotted on the y axis (vertical), while the independent is plotted on the x axis (horizontal).The resultant graph is a collection of points, often joined by a line or represented by bars, whose co-ordinates represent this relationship. 82

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graphicacy. The ability to conceptualize and represent spatial phenomena by the use of maps, charts, plans, photographs, images, diagrams and/or graphs. Together with literacy, numeracy and oracy, the spatial and visual skills of graphicacy are sometimes recognized as creating the four basic foundations of education. Balchin, W. and Coleman, A. ( 1965) 'Graphicacy should be the Fourth Ace in the Pack1. TES. 5 November. Balchin, W. ( 1996) 'Graphicacy and the primary geographer'. Primary Geographer, 24,4-6. Blades, M. and Spenser; C. ( 1987) 'Map use by young children'. Geography, 71(1), 47-52. Boardman, D. ( 1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching. London: Groom Helm. Matthews, M. H. ( 1986) 'Gender; graphicacy and geography'. Educational Review, 38(3), 259-71.

graphical techniques. Introduced at Key Stage 3 of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) within the section on geographical skills. Pupils must select and use appropriate techniques to present evidence on maps and diagrams, such as pie charts and choropleth maps. Graves, Norman (b.1925). Graduated at the London School of Economics and Political Science after an eight-year period in the Post Office Engineering Department (now British Telecom). He taught in grammar, technical and comprehensive schools for ten years, then became a lecturer in education at the University of Liverpool. In 1963 he was appointed head of the Geography Department at the Institute of Education, University of London. Norman became a Reader in 1974 and Professor of Education in 1978, a title that was changed to Robert Ogilvie Professor of Geography Education in 1980. He was appointed Pro-Director (Professional Studies) of the Institute of Education from 1984 to 1990. He became a member of the International Geographical Union's Commission of Geographical Education from 1968, and its chairperson from 1972 to 1980. From 1970 to 1975 he chaired the Schools Council's Geography subject committee. He is bilingual (French/English) and has served as a visiting professor at l'Université Laval in Quebec and the University of British Columbia and has lectured widely in France and at international conferences. He was geography adviser to the Curriculum Development Institute in Singapore from 1981 to 1986. He has written such books as Geography in Education (1975) and Curriculum Planning in Geography (1979), as well as books on education in general such as The Education Crisis: Which Way Now? (1988). He has edited a number of books, including New Movements in the Teaching of Geography (1972); New UNESCO Sourcebook for Geography Teaching (1982); Initial Teacher Education: Policies and Progress (1990); Learner Managed Learning (1993); Working for a Doctorate (1997); and Education and the Environment (1998). He is particularly interested in the influence of the disciplines of education on geographical education and is currently researching the history of geography textbooks. Great Debate. Following a speech at Ruskin College, Oxford, on 18 October 1976, the then Prime Minister James Callaghan launched the so-called Great Debate on education. This was followed by a series of regional conferences and a Green Paper called 'Education in Schools' in 1977. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Great Debate

The Great Debate is connected to the eventual establishment of a National Curriculum; however, the period of time between the speech and the implementation of the new curriculum rules out a direct causal link. The importance of the Great Debate is that it symbolized the right of a government to take a direct lead in determining the existence of a national curriculum for schools; a fact underlined by the creation of the first Geography National Curriculum (GNC) in 1991 (see Yellow Book). DES ( 1976) School Education in England: Problems and Initiatives. London: HMSO. Greenpeace. Formed in 1971 to campaign internationally for the conservation of the environment and the protection of endangered species. Recent campaigns have focused on the prevention of whaling; the trade in endangered species; nuclear power and processing; and acid rain. grid reference. A point on a map determined by using an arbitrary grid which has been drawn on the surface of the map for that purpose. Most maps use a Cartesian system, where the point is found by stating the intersection reference of two lines drawn at right angles to each other in a grid system. The lines are numbered eastwards (Eastings) and northwards (Northings) from a point in the south-west corner of the grid and are referred to in that order. Grid references are either 'four-figure', which locates an entire grid square by reference to the intersection of grid lines in its south-west corner, or 'six-figure', which gives an exact point of reference on the map. Alphanumeric grid codes are also used, particularly within atlases and A-Z maps, to provide a simple alternative to 'four-figure' referencing of grid squares. grounded theory. Based on data, rather than on logical deduction, it is generated through the act of carrying out research, and is not developed before data are collected and analysed. The theory, or theories, are therefore 'grounded' in the data gathered. Glazer, B. and Strauss, A. ( 1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago: Aldine. Tilbury, D. and Watford, R. ( 1996) 'Grounded theory: defying the dominant paradigm in environmental education research', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 5 1-64.

group work. Usually established to try to foster collaborative learning. Group work often involves children working together on a task or question to gain the benefits from co-operation, discussion, clarification, negotiation, sharing and constructing knowledge. GSIP. See Geography Schools Industry Project. GTC. See General Teaching Council. GWG. See Geography Working Group. GYSL. See Geography for the Young School Leaver.

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H Haggett, Peter (b. 1933). A Cambridge graduate, he started his academic career at University College London, followed by a period at Cambridge University. From 1966 he held the chair of urban and regional geography at the University of Bristol, a position he achieved in his early thirties. He has served as a visiting professor at a number of North American and Australasian universities and is a gold medallist of both the Royal Geographical Society and the American Geographical Society. His books include Geography: A Modern Synthesis (1972); Locational Analysis in Human Geography (1965); and The Geographer's Art (1990). Two of his texts which strongly influenced geography education in the late 1960s and 1970s, Frontiers in Geographical Teaching (1965) and Models in Geography (1967), were written with Richard Chorley. Peter Haggett is perhaps best known for his influence on the methodological revolution which occurred in British geography in the 1960s. Hall, David (b. 1931). Graduated from Oxford, began his career in the oil industry and then taught in France. Returning to the United Kingdom he taught in secondary schools for over a decade before taking a higher degree (including research into the curriculum in social sciences in North America in the postSputnik era) at the University of Southampton. In 1970 he moved to a lectureship in the School of Education at the University of Bristol, where he led the PGCE geography course and taught about curriculum theory for higher degrees. David contributed to research and development work for the Schools Council and its successors, in particular the Geography 14-18 Project, Geography 16-19, and Computers in the Curriculum, and as evaluator for the World Studies 5-13 Project. He was also chief examiner for geography at A Level with two examination boards, and latterly worked as the comparative scrutineer of syllabuses and procedures of examination boards in geography at A Level. Since retirement he continues consultancy and examining work, currently as chief moderator at A Level, as external examiner for PGCE, and extensively for the International Baccalaureate. David wrote Geography and the Geography Teacher (1975), numerous research reports on curriculum and assessment, articles in the Times Educational THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Haubrich

Supplement, and in geography journals of education. His major interests and modes of thought are perhaps best exemplified in his chapters in Charney Manor Conference Papers (Walford 1991 Viewpoints in Geography Teaching) and in Rawling and Daugherty's (1996) Geography into the Twenty-first Century. The former reviews the changing philosophy of the subject curriculum, the latter the culture and politics of assessment at A Level. Rawling, E. and Daugherty, R. (eds) Geography into the Twenty-first Century. Ch¡ehester: Wiley. Walford, R. ( 1991 ) Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Haubrich, Hartwig (b. 1932). Gained his Ph.D. at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, before becoming Professor of Geography and Didactics at the Pedagogical University at Freiburg, in Germany, in 1972. He has initiated a wide variety of national and international projects relating to geography education and as the chair of the Commission for Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union (IGU) he developed the first International Charter on Geographical Education in 1992. In addition, as chair of the Association of Educational Geographers in Germany, he established the Basislehrplan Geographie (Basic Geography Curriculum) in 1980. In 1996 he chaired the Leipziger Erklärung, a commission of German Geography Associations for the promotion of geoscience education. Hartwig Haubrich has written some 300 articles on geography education which have been translated into twelve languages. His books include International Focus on Geographical Education (1982), a survey of the developments in geography education in 30 countries from five continents; Didaktik der Geographie (1998), which is currently the most widely read book on geography education in Germany; and Geographie hat Zukunft (1999) (Geography Has a Future). hazard. A natural or human event which is perceived as a possible threat to people, property and nature. Hazards may lead to sudden changes in environmental conditions (such as an earthquake) or their effects may only be revealed over time (such as the long-term effects of dumping chemical waste). They are often hard to predict in terms of their scale, frequency, duration, spatial coverage and human impacts. head of geography. A title usually given to the teacher who organizes a geography department in a secondary school (cf. geography co-ordinator). Many geography departments are classed as being part of a larger humanities faculty which may include subjects such as history and religious education. Geography departments vary in size according to the size of the school and the popularity of the subject; therefore a head of geography may run a department of only one or two teachers, or up to possibly twelve or thirteen in a very large comprehensive school. The responsibilities of a head of geography, which may be subject to some delegation, usually include resourcing, planning of the geography timetable, organization of the department's field courses, examination entries, financial organization and general management and administration. Bailey R and Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA. Powell, A. (ed.) ( 1997) Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA. Wiegand, R (ed.) ( 1989) Managing the Geography Department. Sheffield: GA. 86

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Head Start (USA). A programme in operation in the United States since 1965 which aims to give children from disadvantaged backgrounds support at the pre-school stage (age 3-5). Over 90 per cent of children within these programmes are from families who live below the poverty line; programmes include early education schemes but also health and social care provision, and parenting advice. Hicks, David (b.1942). Professor in the Faculty of Education at Bath Spa University College, where he is responsible for courses on educating for the future, education for sustainability and radical education. He taught geography in schools before directing the World Studies 8-13 Project in the 1980s, and then moving into initial teacher education. He is internationally recognized for his work on the need for a global and futures perspective in the curriculum, concerns which have been welcomed by many geography educators over the last twenty-five years. His doctoral thesis in 1980 was on racism in geography textbooks, and he contributed to Fien and Gerber's Teaching Geography for a Better World (1986) and the Geographical Association's Handbook of Primary Geography (1998). His most recent books are Visions of the Future: Why We Need to Teach for Tomorrow, with Cathie Holden (1995), and Futures Education: The World Yearbook of Education 1998 (1998). hidden curriculum. The learning to which children are subjected that is not laid down in the formal school curriculum. Sometimes the term is used to highlight aspects of behaviour or attitudes and values imbued that are not intended by the school, but result from a child's attendance at school. Higginson Report (1988). The Higginson Committee recommended changes to the post-16 curriculum and examinations in English and Welsh schools and colleges. It advocated that the majority of students should study five 'leaner and tougher' Advanced Level (A Level) syllabuses, thus broadening their educational experience. Although the committee had been established by the government of the day, the Secretary of State for Education refused to implement its recommendations, introducing instead a number of new Advanced Supplementary (now Advanced Subsidiary) or AS Level examinations. DES (1988) Advancing A Levels (Higginson Report). London: HMSO. 'high order' questions. Posed to ensure that students use thinking and reasoning abilities that involve high order skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Often such questions are open in structure and extend beyond the need for simple recall and comprehension. Carter, R, (ed.) ( 1991 ) Talking about Geography: The Work of Geography Teachers in the National Oracy Project. Sheffield: GA.

High School Geography Project (HSGP). A curriculum development project which began in the United States in 1962. It developed as a result of academic geographers, educators and teachers meeting at various conferences to create a curriculum proposal for geography education within secondary schools. The model for curriculum development was superficially similar to that used later within the Schools Council Geography 14-18 and 16-19 Projects, where THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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'high stakes' assessment

seconded teachers developed materials supported by academic geographers and educators. A variety of geography units were developed for the project, each of which considered the ways in which children would learn most effectively and the geographical content that it was important to teach. Although the High School Geography Project provided a direct stimulus to the creation of the Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL) materials, its adoption in the United States was somewhat disappointing, partly as a result of conservatism towards curriculum development within secondary schools. Hellburn, N. ( 1983) 'Reflections on the High School Geography Project', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 20-8. Rolfe, J. ( 1971 ) The completion of the American High School Geography Project'. Geography, 56(3), 216-20. StoltmanJ. (1976) 'Student perception of teacher style: the effects of the High School Geography Project', in J. Stoltman (ed.), International Research in Geographical Education. Kalamazoo, Ml: IGUCGE/Western Michigan University, pp. 89-1 14.

'high stakes' assessment. Involves a significant outcome associated with candidate performance. For example, Advanced Level (A Level) and General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) may be considered to be 'high stakes' assessments as the results of such examinations are regularly used to determine university places, further education opportunities and employment prospects. Daugherty, R. ( 1990) 'Assessment in the geography curriculum'. Geography, 75(4), pp. 289-301. higher education. The courses, usually offered by universities, for which degrees, or other advanced qualifications, are awarded (cf. further education). Hill, A. David (b.1933). Until recently, Professor Emeritus of Geography and former Chair of the Department of Geography, University of Colorado (UC) at Boulder. His Ph.D. (1964) is from the University of Chicago. He initiated the Colorado Geographic Alliance and has served as its co-ordinator since 1986. In 1988, he began the Center for Geography Education in the Department of Geography, UC Boulder, and served as its director. David Hill directed nine science education projects, eight of which were funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), and ten summer geography institutes for pre-collegiate teachers. With a grant from the National Science Foundation (1990-4) he developed Geography Inquiry into Global Issues, twenty instructional modules for secondary level geography, published by Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation in 1995. Beginning in 1998, he was co-director of the NSF-funded Activities and Resources for the Geography of the World (ARGWorld) project and high school team leader for NASA's Mission Geography project. He served on the steering committee of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Geography Assessment Project, and on the oversight committee of the National Geography Standards Project and chaired that project's International Committee. David was a member of the Task Force for Colorado's Model Content Standards in Geography. He was also the US regional correspondent for the International Geographical Union's Commission on Geographical Education. David Hill's honours include the National Geographic Society's Distinguished Geography Educator Award (1990), the George J. Miller Award 88

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for Distinguished Service from the National Council for Geographic Education (1990), the Honors Award of the Association of American Geographers (1992), Distinguished Faculty Mentor Award of the National Council for Geographic Education (1994), and Honorary Fellowship of the IGU Commission on Geographical Education. He retired from the University of Colorado in 1999. histogram. A graph of the frequency of distribution of scores as represented by their varying heights as rectangular bars, the widths of which are constant. historical geography. The branch of geography concerned with the study of the real, perceived or theoretical past as it impacts on geographical phenomena. homework. Work which pupils undertake outside normal school hours. Debate continues as to the educational merits of setting children homework: some believe that it is important in establishing working regimes and enabling teachers to deliver curricula within the limitations of a crowded school timetable; others question its educational value and its influence on children's time. In geography, good practice with regard to homework-setting usually means extending the work of the pupil beyond the mere continuation of routine tasks from the classroom. Homework should ideally integrate with the geographical work that has gone before, but also exploit materials and resources in the environment and community outside the school, and encourage independence, research, creativity and initiative. The promotion of co-operation and involvement of parents and other adults in the learning process is also to be encouraged (DES 1987). Balderstone, D. and Lambert, D. ( 1999) 'Sunday evening at the kitchen table'. Teaching Geography, 24(2), 89-91. DES (1987) Homework A Repon by Her Majesty's Inspectorate. Education Observed 4. London: HMSO. Grimwade, K. and Martin, F. ( 1997) Homework in Geography. Geography Guidance Series. Sheffield: GA.

Huckle, John (b. 1943). Trained as a teacher at the College of St Mark and St John in Chelsea. After a period of teaching in Yorkshire he became a lecturer at Bedford College of Education (subsequently Bedford College of Higher Education and De Montford University, Bedford). On retiring from De Montford University in 1997 he became a part-time tutor on South Bank University's M.Sc. in Environmental and Development Education. For much of this time John was an associate of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), writing curriculum and teacher education materials and carrying out consultancies in other parts of the world, particularly China. John is best known for challenging the legacy of positivism in school geography and helping to introduce more critical approaches to geographical and environmental education. After writing a Masters dissertation and several articles on values education, he became interested in the politics of school geography and the potential of humanistic and radical geographies to provide a more relevant and empowering education for young people. In the book he edited in 1983, Geographical Education: Reflection and Action, he advocated a socialist school geography and his commitment to an ecological socialism shaped all his subsequent work. It can be seen in What We Consume (1988-92), THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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the curriculum he developed for WWF, and in Reaching Out (1995), WWF's programme of professional development for teachers. In seeking appropriate critical theory and pedagogy, John became increasingly interested in critical realism and its potential to shape an Education for Sustainability (Huckle and Sterling (eds), 1996) between modernism and postmodernism. human geography. A major division of the discipline of geography (the others being physical geography and, more recently, environmental geography). Human geography studies the impact of people on space, place and environment, in both the past and the present. The interrelationship of people with both the natural and social environments, at a variety of spatial scales from local to global, is central to human geography. Gregory, D. and Walford, R. (eds) ( 1989) Horizons in Human Geography. London: Macmillan. Massey, D. and AllenJ. (eds) ( 1984) Geography Matters! Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peet, R. and Thrift, N. (eds) ( 1989) New Models in Geography. London: Unwin Hyman.

human rights. On 10 December 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Set out in 30 articles, the declaration outlines the equal and inalienable rights of people to live in conditions of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The declaration was designed to be 'disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories'. Article 26 refers specifically to education, stating: (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups and shall further activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Barrs, D. ( 1993) The National Curriculum, geography teaching and the United Nations', in C. Speak and P Wiegand (eds), International Understanding Through Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 45-9. Burnley, j. ( 1988) Teaching for human rights in geography', in J. Fien and R. Gerber (eds), Teaching Geography for a Better World Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, pp. 61-79. Starkey, H. ( 1991 ) The Ghallenge of Human Rights Education. London: Cassell/Council of Europe.

humanistic geography. Includes a wide range of philosophical approaches to geography. The term broadly describes their focus on people as sentient beings, rather than simple responders to environmental stimuli. As such, many humanistic approaches aim to develop original philosophies for the understanding of geographical and social-scientific phenomena, rather than adopting philosophies which have previously been developed in other areas. Concepts of hermenuetics, which are concerned with the creation of understanding rather than explanation, are often associated with humanistic geography. 90

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The subjectivity of the actors within their social settings is commonly agreed within humanistic geography. This contrasts with positivistic approaches and their belief in objective evidence. Thus perception, creativity, experience, values and beliefs are seen as centrally important in the relationships that people form with each other and with their environment. Within humanistic geography, the three most commonly accepted variations are idealism, existentialism and phenomenology. humanities. A varied group of subject disciplines, often including geography, history and certain social studies. In addition, art, languages, literature, music, philosophy and theology are also included within the humanities. In some secondary schools the study of humanities, including elements of geography, is still practised. However, the advent of a subject-based National Curriculum in the early 1990s often saw the removal of humanities as a timetabled 'subject' in many schools. hydrology. The study of the occurrence, movement and use of water on or beneath the Earth's surface. The concept of the hydrological cycle is central to the study of hydrology. Here water is seen to be in continuous circulation from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface and back again via a number of routes. Precipitation from the atmosphere therefore supplies water to the oceans, lakes, rivers and groundwater; from here water transfers to the atmosphere by the processes of evaporation and evapotranspiration; water vapour in the atmosphere then condenses into clouds, returning again to the Earth's surface as precipitation.

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I lASA. See Improving America's Schools Act. IB (International Baccalaureate). See baccalauréat. IBG. See Institute of British Geographers. iconic representation. A Brunerian concept relating to our visual sensory memory. It refers to an individual's representation of the world through the use of images and concrete examples in order to understand or remember aspects of it. Communication within the iconic mode would typically involve a person using pictures, images and diagrams - for example drawing a person a sketch map of streets and landmarks to offer directions to a place. Bruñen J. ( 1960) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruñen J. (1966) Studies in Cognitive Growth. Oliver and Greenfield.

ICT. See information and communications technology. ideologies (educational). Sets of ideas, or abstract speculations, which encapsulate beliefs and traditions about education. Such ideologies can offer somewhat distorted views which often seek to promote the beliefs of a particular interest group within education. In geography education it is rare to find geography teachers, or departments, which function from just one ideological stance. Nonetheless much of what is taught and planned within geography owes some implicit allegiance to some educational ideology or another. Skilbeck's (1976) four educational ideologies are outlined below. It must be remembered that these ideologies overlap and may not apply to education in any literal sense which might be implied by their simplification here: 1. Classical humanism: education visualized as a process of handing on cultural heritage, traditional values and subject knowledge. This ideology is sometimes viewed as being narrowly elitist and overly academic. 2. Progressivism: child-centred, with childhood seen as an important stage in itself as opposed to being merely a stage before adult life. Discovery learning and providing children with educational choices and options are seen as being important within this approach. 3. Utilitarianism: the purpose of education is primarily seen as the preparation of children for a useful life in society. This often narrows into an expectation that schools should instruct and train children for employment and advancing the state's economy. 92

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inclusion By doing so, it is argued, this will bring personal wealth and happiness to the individual through consumerism. 4. Reconstructionism: education seen as a vehicle for reconstructing society along more fair and just lines. The aim is for the individual to achieve the means to live harmoniously within society. This ideology focuses on moral and social values as well as highlighting the means to change society. Other educational ideologies exist which mirror to some extent those outlined by Skilbeck, for example Miller's (1983) traditional knowledge-based teaching, teaching for enquiry and decision-making skills, and teaching for social transformation; and Kemmis et al.'s (1983) vocational/neo-classical orientation, liberal/progressive orientation, and socially critical orientation.

(See classical humanism, progressive education, utilitarian education, reconstructionist education.) Fien, J. ( 1999) Towards a map of commitment: a socially critical approach to geographical education'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), pp. 140-58. Kemmis, S., Cole, Rand Suggett, D. ( 1983) Orientations to Curriculum and Trans/'t/ons: Towards the Socially Critical School. Melbourne:Victorian Institute for Secondary Education. Miller; J. ( 1983) The Educational Spectrum: Orientations to Curriculum. New York: Longman. Skilbeck, M. (1976) 'Ideologies and values', in S. Dale (ed.), Curriculum Design and Development. Milton Keynes: Open University. Skilbeck, M. (1982) Three educational ideologies', in T Morton and R Raggatt (eds), Challenge and Change in the Curriculum. London: Hodder and Stoughton, pp. 7-18. Walford, R. ( 1981 ) 'Language, ideologies and geography teaching', in R. Walford.(ed.), Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 215-22.

idiographic. The description and elucidation of individual cases, situations or phenomena because they are unique (cf. nomothetic). Idiographic approaches involve the study of particular events and phenomena such as through the use of case studies, which may lead to a descriptive, factual and inductive style of geography education. Explanation may be closely linked to description within such approaches. IEP. See individual education plan. IGU. See International Geographical Union. impairment. The physical or mental aspect of a person which may inhibit their functioning (for example visual impairment, or hearing impairment). Improving America's Schools Act (IASA) (USA). Formerly the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, it aims to improve the educational experience of poor and disadvantaged children in the United States. It also provides finances for the professional development of teachers concerning their approaches to teaching and supporting children from such backgrounds. inclusion. The education of special educational needs (SEN) children within mainstream schools, whereby they are integrated into the curriculum of the school regardless of their disability. In many cases partial inclusion occurs, where a pupil is integrated for the majority of lessons but may be exempt from some or be withdrawn at certain times for special tuition. Often the use of support teachers enables pupils to stay with mainstream classes but receive specialist tuition. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Indian Geographical Society

Within a section on 'General teaching requirements', The National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) supplies information on inclusion and the provision of effective learning opportunities for all pupils. Three principles for inclusion are outlined as: setting suitable learning challenges; responding to pupils' diverse learning needs; and overcoming potential barriers to learning and assessment for individuals and groups of pupils. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers. London: HMSO. Indian Geographical Society. Founded in 1926, the society publishes the Indian Geographical Journal. mail: c/o Dr S. Subbiah, Department of Geography, University of Madras, 600 005, India tel: 00 9 1 445368778

individual education plan (IEP). An outline of both a specific and a general programme of education for a child with special educational needs (SEN). induction. A period when support is offered to a pupil or teacher. Newly qualified teachers (NQTs) have an induction year in maintained schools which is statutory and combines support, monitoring and assessment of performance as a new teacher. Arrangements involve the use of a career entry profile (CEP) compiled during initial teacher training (ITT), a lighter timetable for the year and opportunities to watch experienced teachers at work. National standards exist for assessment of performance. DfEE (1999) Induction Arrangements for New Teachers in England: A Brief Guide. London: HMSO. Ellis, B. (ed.) (1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA.

industrial geography. A branch of economic geography which particularly focuses upon the study of the functioning, location and distribution of manufacturing industries. industry. Work conducted for economic profit; a collective term for manufacturing. infant. For the purposes of primary education, a child aged between 5 and 7 years is referred to as an infant, although the term 'early years' is often favoured for this age group. inferential statistics. The use of statistical methods and techniques to determine whether one is justified in making generalizations from sample data about a larger population. Inferential statistics indicate the probability that relationships between data occur by chance, making use of measurements of statistical significance to indicate the extent of this probability. Norcliffe, G. ( 1977) Inferential Statistics for Geographers. London: Hutchinson.

information and communications technology (ICT). A wide range of technology currently used in schools, businesses and the home. Generally the term refers to microcomputers (portable and desktop); software packages (word processors, databases, spreadsheets); input devices (keyboards); output devices (monitors, printers) and storage devices (see Compact Disc Read Only Memory). The communications aspect of ICT refers to the facility of computers to be networked through the world wide web, the internet and email. However, in its broadest sense ICT may also refer to tape recorders, fax machines, telephones, video machines, televisions, satellite television and overhead projectors. 94

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The Geography National Curriculum (GNC) (DffiE 1999) makes explicit reference to the use of ICT within geography education across the Key Stages. For example at Key Stage 3, in the section on developing geographical skills, it states that pupils should be taught: d. to select and use secondary sources of evidence, including photographs (including vertical and oblique aerial photographs), satellite images and evidence from ICT-based sources [for example from the internet] e. to draw maps and plans at a range of scales, using symbols, keys and scales and to select and use appropriate graphical techniques to present evidence on maps and diagrams, including using ICT [for example using mapping software to plot the distribution of shops and services in a town centre] f. to communicate in different ways, including using ICT [for example, by writing a report about an environmental issue, exchanging fieldwork data using email] g. decision-making skills, including using ICT [for example, by using a spreadsheet to help find the best location for a superstore]. Other ICT opportunities are also provided in the margins of the GNC as nonstatutory guidance. Geography educators have been interested in the developments of IT and ICT within their subject from the very inception of the technology. ICT has the potential to make a significant contribution to pupils' learning in geography as well as enabling geography teachers to keep up to date with subject knowledge and pedagogy, access varied resources and data, and provide flexible teaching approaches. A number of projects linking ICT and geography have successfully run over the past twenty-five years, one of the most recent of which was the Geography ICT Support Project (see below). MATERIALS PRODUCED BY THE GEOGRAPHY ICT SUPPORT PROJECT Hassell, D. and Warner; H. (eds) ( 1995) Using IT to Enhance Geography: Case Studies at Key Stages 3 and 4. Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. NCET ( 1994) Geography and IT: Investigating Weather Data: A Resource Book for Teachers Using Weather Data. Coventry: NCET NCET (1995) Geography and IT: Investigating Aspects of Human Geography. Coventry: NCET NCET/GA ( 1994) Geography and IT: Shopping and Traffic Fieldwork. Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. NCET/GA (1996) Geography: A Pupil's Entitlement for IT (Primary and Secondary). Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. NCET/GA ( 1996) Investigating Aspects of Human Geography. Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. All the above titles are available from BECTa, who can also supply a list of CD ROMs for geography (1998). Barnett, M., Kent, A., Milton, M. ( 1995) /mages of Earth: A Guide to Remote Sensing in Geography at Key Stage 3 and GCSE. Sheffield: GA. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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information processing BBC/OS ( 1997) Teaching Today: Geography and IT. London: BBC/OS. Davidson,], and Krause, J. (eds) ( 1992) Geography, IT and the National Gurhculum. Sheffield: GA. Durbin, C. and Sanders, R, ( 1996) 'Geographers on the internet'. Teaching Geography, 21(1), 15-18. Freeman, D ( 1997) 'Using information technology and new technologies in geography', in D. Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 202-17. Freeman, D, Green, D. and Hassell, D. ( 1994) 'A guide to geographical information systems'. Teaching Geography, 19( I ), 36-7. Kent, A. ( 1992) The new technology and geographical education', in M. Naish (ed.), Geography in Education: National and International Perspectives. London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 163-76. Martin, F. and Smith, C. ( 1996) What can CD ROMs do for us?' Teaching Geography, 21 ( I ), 21 -3. Phillips, A. ( 1997) 'Managing IT in post-16 geography', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 73-8. QCA ( 1995) Key Stage 3: IT and the National Curriculum: Geography and IT. London: SCAA/QCA. Taylor, L ( 1997) 'Using the World Wide Web as a geography resource'. Teaching Geography, 22(1), I 1-15. Warner, H. ( 1997) 'Planning for progression in IT activities'. Teaching Geography, 22(1), 38-9.

information processing. A theory of learning, based on perception and memory, which is influenced by concepts in computer technology. Computer functions represent and replicate those of the brain in terms of short-term memory (STM) analysing information and storing it; and long-term memory (LTM) - storing abstracted rather than verbatim information (see learning theories). initial teacher training (ITT). Or, perhaps more correctly, initial teacher education, a generic term for the first stage of training of prospective teachers towards an award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). In recent years ITT has undergone a series of reforms intended to make it more accountable and to change the location for much of the training, taking it away from higher education and moving it into schools. In England and Wales ITT occurs through a variety of courses - undergraduate courses such as B.Ed., B A or B.Sc. with QTS, which combines subject and professional studies with practical teaching in schools; or at graduate level a one-year Postgraduate Certifícate of Education (PGCE). The former is the most common route to becoming a primary teacher, the latter for secondary teaching. A small number of schoolcentred initial teacher training (SCITT) courses also exist, as well as routes into teaching on part-time, distance- and employment-based schemes. All teachers have to pass an induction year in schools once they have become newly qualified teachers (NQTs) to ensure they maintain their QTS. All ITT courses are of standard length, have national curricula which currently apply to the core subjects and ICT, and involve close partnerships with training schools. ITT is currently overseen by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA), a government body charged with the responsibility of improving teacher training, teaching and school leadership, raising the status of the teaching profession, teacher supply and recruitment. Bale,], and McPartland, M. (1986) 'Johnstonian anarchy, inspectorial interest and the undergraduate education of PGCE geography students'.Journo/ of Geography in Higher Education, 10(1), 61-70. Ellis, B (ed.) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA. 96

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Institute of Australian Geographers Inc. Foskett, N. ( 1994) 'What are we going to do with our student teacher?' Teaching Geography, 19(1), 26-9. Hacking, E. ( 1996) 'Novice teachers and their geographical persuasions'. IRGEE, 5( I ), 77-86. Lambert, D. (1996) 'Understanding and improving school geography: the training of beginning teachers', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 230-41. Leat, D. ( 1996) 'Geography student teachers and their images of teaching', IRGEE, 5( I ), 63-8. Marsden.W. ( 1994) 'Geography in primary initial teacher education: the developing agenda1, in B. Ellis (ed.), /ssues and challenges for ITE in Geography: Geographical Association Teacher Education Working Group. Sheffield: GA, pp. 6-8. Roberts, M. ( 1996) Teacher education and training', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 315-23. Rynne, E. and Lambert, D. ( 1997) The continuing mismatch between students' undergraduate experiences and the teaching demands of the geography classroom: experience of pre-service geography teachers'.Journo/ of Geography in Higher Education, 21(1), 65-77.

in locoparentis. Literally, 'in place of the parent', it describes the responsibility of teachers and schools in the UK to act responsibly, and with reasonable care, towards the children they educate. In geography education the notion of the geography teacher being in loco parentis may have particular significance with regard to residential or day field activities. In accordance with health and safety legislation, teachers will make decisions about the suitability of fieldwork practices, but will also have responsibilities for the well-being of children in their care when they are engaged in educational experiences beyond the boundaries of the school. in-service education and training (INSET). Short courses or day conferences run to enhance the professional development of teachers. INSET arose due to criticisms of much of the teaching profession for its inability to update and enhance professional knowledge, understanding and skills after a period of initial teacher training (ITT). Courses are usually offered by local education authorities (LEAs) and increasingly by university departments of education (UDEs), or individual educational consultants. The secondment and funding of teachers on longer continuing professional development courses, previously undertaken by the LEAs, has now largely stopped. Williams, M. ( 1988) 'Continuing education of geography teachers', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developing Skills in Geographical Education. Brisbane: IGUCGE/Jacaranda Press, pp. 231-44. Williams, M. ( 1988) The in-service education and training of geography teachers in England and Wales', in M.Williams, O. Biilmann and R. Gerber (eds), Towards Models of the Continuing Education of Geography Teachers. Brisbane: IGUCGE/Brisbane College of Advanced Education., pp. 131-50. Williams, M. ( 1991 ) 'Staff development and INSET', in R Wiegand (ed.), Managing the Geography Department. Sheffield: GA, pp. 91 -102.

INSET. See in-service education and training. Institute of Australian Geographers Inc. Established in 1958 to promote the study and discussion of geography in Australia through conferences and a journal, Australian Geographical Studies. mail: Institute of Australian Geographers Inc, c/o School of Geography, Population and Environmental Management, Flinders University of South Australia, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001,Australia website: www.ssn.flinders.edu.au/geog/iag/welcome/htm THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Institute of British Geographers

Institute of British Geographers (IBG). Founded in 1933, and located in the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) buildings in Kensington, following its merger with the RGS in January 1995, IBG is an organization for academic geographers within Britain. As well as publishing two journals (Area and Transactions), the IBG seeks to hold conferences, create study groups and encourage membership from postgraduates working in the field of geography. mail: Royal Geographical Society (with Institute of British Geographers), I Kensington Gore, London, SW7 2AR tel: 020 7591 3000 email: [email protected] website: www.rgs.org

integration. The teaching of children with special educational needs (SEN) alongside those without such needs in mainstream schools. Integration is somewhat different to inclusion, which refers to selected involvement in mainstream education. intelligence. The capacity to think and reason rationally, to function within and to understand one's surrounding environment. Definitions of intelligence are wide-ranging, involving considerations of intelligence as a single concept, or of 'multiple intelligences'. Most believe that functioning effectively, communicating and interacting purposefully with others in the same environment are important considerations. The ability to solve problems is included in most definitions. Gardner (1994) originally outlined eight varieties of intelligence: interpersonal; intra-personal; bodily-kinesthetic; musical; spatial; logico-mathematical, verbal and naturalistic. Two other varieties were later added (spiritual and existential). Debate still continues as to the balance of the influence of the key factors in the determination of intelligence, namely genetics and environment (see nature-nurture debate). Gardner H. ( 1994) The theory of multiple intelligences', in B. Moon and A. Shelton Mayes (eds), Teaching and Learning in the Secondary School. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, pp. 38-46.

interdependence. The interrelationship between elements within a system, where a change in one of the elements may create a change in one or more of the other elements. For example, the removal of a trophic layer within an ecosystem will have an impact on its food web, due to the interdependence of these elements. The term is commonly used for the relationship between economically less developed countries (ELDCs) and economically more developed countries (EMDCs). Interim Report (DES 1989). Under its terms of reference the Geography Working Group (GWG) was required to submit an Interim Report on geography in the National Curriculum to the Secretary of State for Education by 31 October 1989. This report defined both the nature and aims of geography as well as the attainment targets and programmes of study for the subject. Following consultation, the group sought to address some of the commonly perceived weaknesses within the report, namely its overloaded content, over specification of areas to be studied, difficulties with progression and lack of attention to assessment. The Interim Report contained eight Attainment Targets, which were reduced to seven in the Final Report (1990), five in the Statutory Orders (1991) and, eventually, one (simply called 98

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Geography) in the 1995 revision of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) (DFE 1995). DES ( 1989) Geography for Ages 5-16. Interim Repon of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. Roberts, M. ( 1990) 'Redrawing the map'. Times Educational Supplement, I 3 April.

international. Involving, or relating to, two or more nations. International Charter on Geographical Education. Endorsed by the General Assembly of the International Geographical Union (IGU) in 1992, and published in 21 languages in 1994, the charter represents the basis on which sound geography education in all countries should be maintained. The Preface of the Charter (reproduced below) outlines the main views of the IGU, while sections of the Charter refer to 'Challenges and responses'; 'Questions and concepts in geography'; 'The contribution of geography to education'; 'Content and concepts of geographical education'; 'Principles and strategies for implementation'; and 'Proclamation'. Preface The Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union, Convinced that geographical education is indispensable to the development of responsible and active citizens in the present and future world, Conscious that geography can be an informing, enabling and stimulating subject at all levels in education, and contributes to a lifelong enjoyment and understanding of our world, Aware that students require increasing international competence in order to ensure effective co-operation on a broad range of economic, political, cultural and environmental issues in a shrinking world, Concerned that geographical education is neglected in some parts of the world, and lacks structure and coherence in others, Ready to assist colleagues in counteracting geographical illiteracy in all countries of the world, Supporting the principles set out in: • the Charter of the United Nations; • the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; • the Constitution of UNESCO; • the UNESCO Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace; • the Declaration on the Rights of the Child; and • many national curricula and statements on geographical education, commends this International Charter on Geographical Education to all people of the world.

International Geographical Union (IGU). A member of the International Council for Scientific Unions and promoter of geography and geography education worldwide. It holds a major congress every four years and regional meetings in between. The IGU publishes the journal International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education (IRGEE). tel: 00 49 228 7392 87 email: [email protected] website: wNAAW.igu.net.org/igu-ugi THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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International Journal of Geographical Information Systems

International Journal of Geographical Information Systems. Established in 1986 as a focus for research on geographical information systems (GIS). It appears monthly (except in February, August and November), and in addition to publishing research articles on GIS also carries papers on spatial analysis, remote sensing, cartography and spatial databases. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education (IRGEE). First produced in 1992 on behalf of the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission on Geographical Education, ajournai to publish research studies in geographical and environmental education. It seeks to provide a forum for the dissemination of such research, for its critique and for the demonstration of its relevance to good professional practice. internet. An international computer network that links together computers used in the home, in businesses, in educational institutions and in governments. It is an information and communications system which is accessible to computer owners with a modem giving them access to a wide range of information. The ease with which 'pages' can be placed on the internet means that although the information it contains is often lively and topical it also suffers from being chaotic, 'organic' and uncontrollable. In geography education use of the internet may lead to more collaborative forms of learning and a democratization of the information provided for children. However, fears about the suitability and veracity of much of the content of internet sites has already led many schools to create restrictions on its use. interval data. Reveals the actual magnitude of the variable being collected (for example population figures, rainfall data, etc.). ipsative assessment. A form of assessment which measures progress against a pupil's previous performance and achievement, rather than against that of a group of peers (norm-referencing). IRGEE. See International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. Irish Geography. The journal of the Geographical Society of Ireland. It was first published in 1944 and carries scholarly articles predominantly on the geography of Ireland. It appears twice yearly. issues. Something which is contestable, where facts are disputed or their significance a matter for debate (see issues-based approach). issues-based approach. Popular in geography education, particularly in certain secondary schools in the 1980s and 1990s. The approach stresses the contestable nature of much that is regarded as 'fact', and often uses pupilcentred techniques to engage children in aspects of geography education. The promotion of positive attitudes towards different peoples and environments is often considered central to the issues-based approach in geography. During the creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) issues-based approaches were sometimes criticized for their perceived fragmentation of the geography curriculum and their multidisciplinary appeal. ITT. See initial teacher training.

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J journal. A collection of research-based, or scholarly, articles bound together in a single periodical. Often journals have a particular area of specialism and are usually reserved in libraries for the purposes of research and scholarship. WHAT TYPES OF JOURNALS DO GEOGRAPHERS WRITE FOR? Geographical writing occurs in a variety of journals, the type of journal chosen for publication varying according to the nature and content of what has been written. The pressure on academic geographers to research and publish is now greater than ever before, causing a corresponding impact on the workloads of editorial boards of journals, who now consider a far larger number of potential articles for publication than ever before. Journals are sometimes classified as either popular, professional or academic. As such, Geographical Magazine and National Geographic would be considered 'popular', with an aim to promote geography to a broad readership; Teaching Geography would be called a 'professional' journal, featuring mostly articles of interest to secondary school geography teachers; while Geography, Journal of Geography in Higher Education or the American publication Annals of the Association of American Geographers, would be classed as 'academic', containing mostly research-based articles mainly for other academic geographers. Some academic journals are more specialist in that they focus on a particular theme or area of the discipline, for example Progress in Human Geography or Journal of Historical Geography. Most academic journals have a similar format, carrying articles that either are research-based and contain the results of original research, or are pieces of scholarship which pull together aspects of work from other academics in a scholarly way. Virtually all journals include an editorial comment, reviews of books or other articles and possibly running debates on a particular theme. Articles submitted to academic and some professional journals are 'refereed', in that the editor sends them to two or three referees for their comments. Articles are eventually returned to the author carrying the anonymous referees' comments, and possibly an overview comment, for revisions to be made by the author before the article is finally accepted for publication. However, a substantial number of articles may be rejected at this stage and never achieve publication. A number of geography magazines have been published in the last twenty years specifically for schoolchildren. Among these magazines are publications such as Geography Review, for Advanced Level (A Level) students, and Wideworld, for General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) students. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Journal of Geography

Journal of Geography (USA). The major journal of the National Council for Geographic Education. It is in some ways similar to the Geographical Association's journal Geography and serves to promote and improve the effectiveness of geography education through its bi-monthly editions. Journal of Geography in Higher Education. Established in 1977, seeking to raise the status of the teaching of geography in higher education and to provide a forum for geography lecturers to raise issues and concerns. It is published three times each year. Journal of Historical Geography. Established in 1975 to publish articles of research and scholarship on aspects of historical geography.

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K Kent, Ashley (b. 1945). A Cambridge graduate who taught at Haberdashers' Aske's School, Elstree, before becoming head of geography at John Mason School, Abingdon. Since then his career has been based at the Institute of Education, University of London, which he joined as associate director of the Geography 16-19 Project. He is now the head of the institute's Education, Environment and Economy Group, which includes the geography department. He has directed a number of research and development projects including the EC funded Eurogame Project 1998-2000. He is a longstanding member of the Geographical Association and was president in 1996/7. He is an active member of the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission of Geography Education. He is a full member of the commission and chairs its British SubCommittee. Ashley has co-authored a number of textbooks, including the Oxford Geography Project (1974 and 1980); Human Geography: Theories and Their Applications (1977); and Understanding Human Geography: People and Their Changing Environments (1993). He has written a number of Geographical Association publications, including Perspectives on a Changing Geography (1985) and most recently Promoting Geography in Schools (1999). His main interests in geography education have centred upon curriculum research and development; IT and geography; 16-19 geography; geography's marketing and image; and teacher training. key. A set of the symbols used on a map with an explanatory text beside them. The term legend is also used by cartographers to refer to such symbols and is more commonly applied to maps produced in the United States. key idea. A major principle, or a linking of concepts, which has broad scope within the discipline of geography. Key ideas form 'higher level assumptions' (Peters 1967) which give structure to a subject. Each key idea is built up of concepts, which in turn may be further explained through exemplars. The geographical content within a geography curriculum can therefore be organized using the hierarchy of key ideas, concepts and exemplars. Peters, R. (ed.) ( 1967) The Concept of Education. London: Routiedge and Kegan Paul. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Key Stage

key skills. Currently defined as the generic skills required for lifelong learning and effective membership of an adaptable workforce. Originally developed by the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ), key skills are recognized at five levels from General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (grades D-G) to degree level. They cover: 1. communication 2. application of number 3. information technology 4. working with others 5. improving own learning and performance 6. problem-solving. Key skills are mandatory in all General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs), but are only just being introduced into all NVQ, GCSE, Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) subjects. All A and AS Level geography specifications developed for introduction in September 2000 now include the necessity to assess the key skill of communication. In the revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999), the six skill areas are described as being 'embedded' within the curriculum and promoted as helping learners to improve their learning and performance in education, work and life. A section on thinking skills, financial capability, enterprise and entrepreneurial skills, work-related learning, and education for sustainable development is also provided. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers. London: HMSO. Nowicki, M. ( 1999) 'Key skills through geography at GCSE'. Teaching Geography, 24( I ), 17-23. Nowicki, M. ( 1999) 'Developing key skills through geography fieldwork'. Teaching Geography, 24(3), I 16-21.

Key Stage. The time division into which the National Curriculum requirements for children's education is split. The National Curriculum is divided into four Key Stages which cover the age ranges from the start of compulsory education to age 7 (Key Stage 1), from 7 to 11 (Key Stage 2), from 11 to 14 (Key Stage 3) and from 14 to the end of compulsory schooling (Key Stage 4). In geography the requirement for pupils to study Key Stage 4 no longer exists, and those who opt for the subject would normally follow a geography General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), or Certificate of Achievement (CoA), during this period. knowledge. Broadly defined as the information, facts, intelligence or experience of something held by an individual. Debate continues about the division of educational attainment into its major components of knowledge, understanding and skills. Many educationists have major concerns about the generation, or provision, of knowledge through a curriculum, and the form of the curriculum necessary to 'deliver' different types of knowledge most effectively. A fundamental division, for example, occurs between a curriculum that stresses the importance of 'knowing that' - linked to attainment of content; and one which promotes 'knowing how' - linked to the development of skills. 104

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Defining the essential knowledge that a pupil should possess is therefore almost impossible, as this is to a large extent culturally and socially determined. In geography education, debates about the geographical knowledge and content that should be contained within the curriculum were prevalent during the creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Such concerns tend to resurface periodically when the nature of the subject discipline is changing, when examination syllabuses/specifications are being reviewed and when curriculum revisions are being discussed. kurtosis. The degree of peakedness of a frequency distribution such as a normal curve. It refers to the shape of the curve: a normal distribution which is a 'standard' bell shape is referred to as mesokurtic, one which is 'flat' is platykurtic, and one which is 'peaked' is leptokurtic (see skewness).

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L Lambert, David (b. 1952). Graduated with a degree in geography from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, following this with a PGCE at Cambridge University and a twelve-year career teaching in comprehensive schools. In 1986 he began a new career at the University of London Institute of Education, where he has had a continuous involvement with the geography PGCE, including teaching and course leadership, and is currently course leader for the Masters in geography education. He is also Honorary Publications Officer of the Geographical Association. David has published widely on geography, teacher education and educational assessment. His Key Stage 3 series, The Cambridge Geography Project, won the Times Educational Supplement school book of the year award in 1992. He has also either jointly edited, or jointly authored, a number of books including Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning (with Ashley Kent, Michael Naish and Frances Slater); Exploring Futures in Initial Teacher Education (with Alan Hudson); ana Learning to Teach Geography (with David Balderstone). His doctorate (1995) concerned prejudice in geography education and has supported a long-standing research interest in the values component of geography and its capacity to promote the moral education of young people. landform. A physical feature on the Earth's surface which has been produced by geomorphological processes. Shape and form categorize these features into different landforms. Landsat. First launched by the USA in 1972, a series of satellites used to monitor the Earth's resources from a height of 12 kilometres. Images of the whole of the Earth's surface are produced on a regular basis by remote sensing, so as to provide information on changes to the environment, land use and natural resources. landscape. An area of the Earth's surface which contains a particular configuration or type of scenery. The term is often used by geographers with descriptors such as 'natural' or 'cultural' according to the type of landscape viewed. language in education. The spoken or written words used in an educational context to communicate and express ideas. The term 'language' encompasses a 106

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variety of forms of talk, reading and writing which occur in the classroom; the key concern of many educationists with an interest in language is the relationship between these forms and the learning process. As language provides the medium for education, its form should be a major consideration in the planning and preparation of lessons. The action of learning is closely associated with the comprehension and use of different forms of language. The different forms that language takes in the learning process have been termed transactional, expressive and poetic. Recent research in geography education has also concentrated on language genre and the audience-centred aspects of pupil writing and talk. Geographers also need to be familiar with a variety of language forms beyond those related to the spoken and written word for example the use of symbols within maps to denote features, which create a specific and unique 'language of maps'. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) contains a section on the 'use of language across the curriculum', outlining the need for pupils to be taught in all subjects to express themselves appropriately and to read accurately. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Language and learning in geography', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 154-67. Garten R. ( 1991 ) Talking about Geography. Sheffield: GA. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Hull, R. ( 1985) The Language Gap. London: Methuen. SCAA ( 1997) Geography and the Use of Language. London: SCAA. Slater, F. (ed.) ( 1989) Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge.

LEA. See local education authority. league tables. Graphical representations of different types of educational performance data applied to schools, often used as a means of crudely assessing their standards. Following the creation of the Parent's Charter in 1991, schools were legally required to issue parents with a statement of their child's educational progress as well as a level of attainment within National Curriculum subjects, sometimes defined by a standard assessment task (SAT). This information has been amassed by academics, the government and a variety of official educational bodies into league tables of schools locally, regionally and nationally. Local education authorities (LEAs), awarding bodies and educational magazines and other publications have also begun to imitate this process by creating league tables of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) results. A variety of different league tables have now been devised using education-related data. These represent diverse phenomena, from truancy rates in schools, to inspection performances of initial teacher training (ITT) courses. The assumptions about schools' performance often made on the basis of such league tables may be considered to be fallacious, particularly where factors such as the socio-economic profile of the school's catchment are not considered. The 'value added' to the educational development of the child by the teachers is also not considered within most tables. There is widespread concern that the creation of league tables may have had an immediate and damaging effect on THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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learn

some schools where educational policies (particularly on exclusion and examination preparation), as well as the curriculum, have been altered with a view to massaging league table results. In geography education, league tables have also been used to provide comparative information on National Curriculum levels obtained at the end of Key Stage 3, and on GCSE and A/AS Level performance in the subject compared to other subjects. Butt, G. and Smith, R ( 1998) 'Educational standards and assessment in geography - some cause for concern?' Teaching Geography, 23(3), 147-9. Smith, R ( 1997) 'Standards achieved: a review of geography in secondary schools in England, 1995-6'. Teaching Geography, 22(3), 125-6.

learn. Gain knowledge, understanding or skills through one's experiences, often involving formal teaching. If something is said to have been learnt it implies a permanent, or semi-permanent, change in one's cognition resulting from an environmental stimulus or experience, such as being taught. learning style. The preferences in the way in which an individual learns, reflecting his or her previous educational experiences, personality and environment. Learning styles are very personal; they may change with time or subject matter, and are defined by a complex mix of factors including cognitive, social, psychological and affective dimensions. The study of geography is often assumed to accommodate a variety of learning styles due to the diverse nature of its content, the range of skills to be gathered and in particular its use of outdoor education. Such styles include deep and surface learning; serial and holistic; and activist, theorist, reflective and pragmatist styles. The most effective learners seem to be able to apply a wide range of different learning styles, or more correctly learning strategies, as suits the occasion. Gerben R. ( 1984) The diagnosis of student learning in geography', in J. Fien, R. Gerber and R Wilson (eds), The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom. Melbourne: Macmillan, pp. 185-96. Kolb, D. (1985) The Learning Style Inventory: Techniques Manual. Boston: McBer and Co. Lidstone, J. ( 1984) Teaching geography in the mixed ability classroom', in J. Fien, R. Gerber and R Wilson (eds), The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom. Melbourne: Macmillan, pp. 197-207. Riding, R. ( 1998) Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies. London: Fulton.

learning theories. A variety of different learning theories exist, developed mainly through the work of educational psychologists. Three of the main theories of learning are detailed opposite (and see research: Educational research into teaching and learning):

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learning theories

Cognitive Developmental Theory (CD) All children pass through a series of stages before they construct the ability to perceive, reason and understand in mature, rational terms

Social Constructivist Theory (SC) Shares some important areas of agreement with Piagetian theory, particularly activity as the basis for learning and for the development of thinking.

Information-Processing Theory (IP) Develops elements of CD (sequences, activity) and SC theory (experience) but emphasizes cognitive strategies rather than structures.

Central Aspects 1 Children's thinking is different in kind from that of more mature individuals.

1 Relationships between talking and thinking.

1 Fundamental processes and strategies underlie all cognitive activity.

2 All children develop through the same sequence of stages before achieving mature rational thought.

2 Role of communication, social interaction and instruction in scaffolding thinking and cognitive development is crucial.

2 Brain's systematic processes of perception, memory and problem-solving process information in the shortterm memory and store it as abstractions in the long-term memory.

3 Learning involves search 3 Structures of children's thinking at each stage are for patterns, regularities and predictability distinctive, i.e. the same for (Bruner). all children at the same stage and differ from the children and adults at other stages.

3 Processes are the same for all individuals but speed and efficiency vary from learner to learner.

4 Development is not a continuous accumulation of things learnt step by step but 'intellectual' revolutions are marked by a change in structure of intelligence.

4 'Zone of proximal development' (Vygotsky) is the gap that exists for an individual between what she can do on her own and what she can achieve with help from a more knowledgeable or skilled person.

4 Cognitive development is the process of learning more and more helpful strategies of analysing, remembering and problem solving.

5 Active, experimental learning encouraged.

5 'Guided discovery' learning is encouraged.

5 Concrete examples and experiences are important in developing abstractions. Instruction important in strategy development.

Source: Nicholls, G. ( 1995) 'Ways pupils learn', in S. Capel, M. Leask andTTurner (eds), Learning to Teach in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. London: Routledge.

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lesson

lesson. A small self-contained section of the curriculum which concentrates on certain educational objectives. The particular learning objectives for the lesson will incorporate the broader aims of the curriculum and be recorded within a lesson plan. lesson observation. The process of one practitioner watching another teach and then providing some form of feedback, for example a trained mentor teacher watching a trainee teacher. A variety of different observational techniques and foci have been developed. It is deemed good practice to allow for prior discussion of the lesson plan, while feedback after the lesson is an essential part of the process of observation, but may vary in extent and timing. Often the areas observed include some, or all, of the following: • starting and ending of the lesson • matching of tasks to learner needs • use of resources • managing changes in lesson activities • use of language and body language • classroom management • timing and pacing • achievement of targets, aims and objectives • assessing pupils' work It is usual that some form of written record of the observation is made. This may take one of a variety of forms, from the use of a blank sheet of paper to the use of sheets with numerous headings and criteria, or even a tick-sheet. The general purposes of observation are to see whether teaching and learning are purposeful, whether planning is effective, whether the teaching creates and maintains motivation, whether all abilities are catered for and whether the knowledge, understanding and skills of the subject are conveyed appropriately. Effective assessment of the teaching and learning is also essential. However, observation often has a narrower focus on a particular theme or issue which may be determined by either the observer, or the observed, or through mutual agreement. In geography education, lesson observation techniques and approaches may vary to some extent from those used in other subjects: for example PE and science may have a more regular focus on safety, while modern foreign languages may have a more direct concern with language and communication. The particular demands of fieldwork planning and management will to some extent alter the observational techniques used in this aspect of geography education. A key concern within lesson observation should always be the nature of the subject knowledge, understanding and skills that are conveyed or developed within the lesson - that is, whether an accurate geographical 'message' is being understood. Ellis, B. (ed.) (1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA.

lesson plan. Should convey in concise form the aims and objectives, resources and materials, content and subject matter, teaching and learning methods, and I 10

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lesson plan LESSON PLAN 'A' Lesson Plan

Day/period

Year group

Aim of lesson

Objectives

Unit of work

Resources

Methods/procedures (timings)

Homework

Evaluation

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III

lesson plan LESSON PLAN *B' Lesson Plan

Day/period

Year group

Aim of lesson

Objectives

Unit of work

Resources

Methods/procedures (timings)

Teacher activities

Pupil activities

Homework

Evaluation

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lesson plan LESSON PLAN 4 C'

Lesson Plan

Day/period

Year group

Objectives

(1) Geographical ideas (2) Geographical skills (3) Values and attitudes

Geographical content

Unit of work

Equipment and resources

Methods/procedures (timings)

Teacher activities

Pupil activities

Homework

Evaluation

Sawicka, E. ( 1996) 'Planning your lessons', ¡n R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 65-79.

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level description

assessment techniques for a given lesson. The lesson plan should be consistent with and integrated into the overall unit of work which is being taught. Most lesson plans will make specific reference to aspects of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC), or a syllabus/specification for General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced or Advanced Subsidiary Level (A or AS Level). Evaluation of the lesson is important after it has been taught. The precise structure varies for lesson plans used in geography education according to the nature of the learning undertaken and the particular preference of the teacher. Some plans place particular emphasis on both teacher and pupil activity to ensure that a pupil-centred lesson ensues; most will be particularly concerned with the timings of different activities within the lesson. In some instances a lesson plan will outline the particular values and attitudes to be addressed with the class - for example in a decision-making exercise on aid to developing countries - while in another these may not be appropriate, such as within a lesson on meander development in rivers. Examples of different lesson plans used in geography education which reflect these points are given on pp. 111-13: level description. Describes the types and range of performance and expected attainment in each subject of the National Curriculum at a particular level in an attainment target. In the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) there are currently eight levels, with a further level for exceptional performance, each represented by its own level description. The original conception of the National Curriculum included numerous statements of attainment in each level; however, following the Bearing Report (1994) the system was simplified to present more integrated descriptions of what pupils should know, understand and be able to do to achieve a given level. Each level within the Geography National Curriculum refers to particular geographical skills, enquiries, places and themes relating to the subject that are considered to be progressive throughout the eight levels. Butt, G., Lambert D. andTelfen S. (eds) ( 1995) Assessment Works. Sheffield: GA. liberal humanist education. Traditionally concerned with the transfer of worthwhile ideas and development of values through education. The form of a liberal humanist approach to education is usually defined through the teaching of 'traditional' subjects in the curriculum, rather than being promoted by the provision of cross-curricular 'areas of experience'. Teachers act as the guardians and purveyors of essential knowledge through the subject disciplines, rather than facilitators of learning or co-learners. In some ways the tradition is divisive in that it believes that certain types of knowledge and understanding are only suitable for an educated elite, implying that the less able should only be permitted access to a limited span of ideas, concepts, knowledge and understanding. Lidstone, John (b. 1947). Trained as a geography teacher at Bede College, Durham, and then moved to London to complete a B.Sc. (Econ.). While teaching at various high schools in the London area, he completed an Advanced Diploma in Education and a Masters degree in geography curriculum and educational I 14

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linear

administration at the London University Institute of Education, and began his doctoral studies under Professor Norman Graves. In 1984 he moved to Australia to work in the School of Education of the Brisbane College of Advanced Education, which in 1990 became the Faculty of Education of the Queensland University of Technology. John is currently Associate Professor in Education in this Faculty. Since 1990, John has been executive secretary to the Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union (IGU) and has chaired the education committee of the Royal Geographical Society of Queensland. He edited Developing Skills in Geographical Education (1988); Developments and Directions in Geographical Education (1996); International Perspectives on Teaching about Hazards and Disasters (1996); and Global Issues of Our Time (1995, 1998) and has also written and edited a number of textbooks for classroom use. His research interests focus on geographical curricula in primary and secondary schools and he has undertaken a number of curriculum evaluations. In 1991, he initiated and has continued to co-edit the journal International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. In 1999, he was invited to visit the University of Helsinki and was awarded a University of Helsinki Distinguished Visiting Teacher Medal. Likert scale. A data collection instrument used to assess attitudes which requires the respondent to either agree or disagree with given statements on a scale of levels of response; for example, strongly agree; agree; disagree, strongly disagree, no opinion. It can be used within both geography and geography education as a means of gathering data on a population's views on a particular subject or subjects. linear syllabus/specification. A form of syllabus (or specification), usually offered at General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE), or Advanced or Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level), which is taught and finally assessed at the very end of the period of teaching by means of a terminal examination (apart from elements of coursework which may be internally marked and externally moderated). The term linear implies that course elements are taught in sequence and as a whole, while a modular syllabus is divided into self-contained units with some form of synoptic assessment at the end. Linear syllabuses represent a traditional form of syllabus delivery which was changed when examination boards (now awarding bodies) at A and AS Level were, in 1993, given the option of creating modular syllabuses. Many boards, teachers and candidates now favour the modular form of syllabus construction, delivery and staged assessment for geography. Butt, G. and Weeden, R ( 1999) 'Arrangements for the new A and AS Levels in geography'. Teaching Geography, 24(4), 196-7.

literacy. An ability to read and write. The term has a particular meaning when applied to certain aspects of geography education, for example political literacy, which encompasses an ability to understand the procedures for the resolution of disputes. local. Usually, a small area, the exact size or extent of which is often undefined. Debate occurred about the use of the term in the original Geography National THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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literacy

Curriculum (GNC)(DES 1991) with reference to whether it described a small area immediately surrounding the school, or the pupils' homes, or whether it could be applied to a small area of another region or country. A reasonably broad interpretation of the term is now applied in geography education such that it can refer to a small area within any region, unless previously specified to particular geographical parameters. DES ( 1991 ) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. local education authority (LEA). Established by the 1902 Education Act, to take over the roles of individual school boards. Each LEA is run by an education committee established by the political party which currently controls the local authority. Much of the budget of each local authority is taken by education, although LEAs witnessed a dramatic curtailing of their powers in the 1990s following the passing of Education Acts which allowed the creation of grant maintained schools and local management of schools (LMS). In addition, elements of sixth-form provision and further and higher education have also passed to private control. locality. The general position of something in space; alternatively, an area where a particular activity, person or thing resides. The term is used within the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) to refer to case studies, or locality studies, of particular areas. logical positivism. A branch of positivism that relies heavily on empiricism and the principles of verifiability. Originally developed by the Vienna Circle the methods evolved within logical positivism aimed to eliminate speculation; thus a statement was only believed to have meaning if its validity could be tested empirically. Concepts such as values, ethics and morality were deemed subjective and therefore unhelpful in developing understanding in this branch of philosophy. low achiever. Someone who does not perform well academically, socially and/or behaviourally, often due to motivational, social and/or intellectual difficulties. Boardman, D. ( 1988) 'Current thinking on low attainers and geography teaching', in J. Dilkes and A. Nicholls (eds), Low Attainers and the Teaching of Geography. Sheffield/Stafford: GA/National Association for Remedial Education, pp. 7-11. Mickey, M. and Bein, F. ( 1996) 'Students' learning difficulties in geography and teachers' interventions: teaching cases from K - 11 classrooms', journal of Geography, 95(3), I 18-25.

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M map. A structured cartographie representation of certain phenomena of the Earth's surface, or geology. The term is often used loosely to refer to a number of types of plans, diagrams, charts, cartograms, dynamic and interactive maps. Maps can be represented physically (in the form of a topographical map, tactile or braille map), linguistically (in the form of written spatial instructions) or virtually (in the form of an electronic map on a computer screen, or a geographical information system). The cartographer encodes a conception of the real world in the form of symbols on a map, which inevitably represents a generalization of the phenomena being depicted. The map reader then has to decode the map in order to interpret and analyse the information it conveys. Problems of storing, updating and transferring information from one map to another have now been largely solved through electronic means, thus the clarity, content and detail of contemporary map images is often impressive. Bailey, R and Fox, R ( 1996) Teaching and learning with maps', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA. Boardman, D. ( 1996) 'Learning with Ordnance Survey maps', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. I 17-23. Keates, J. ( 1996) Understanding Maps. Harlow: Longman. MacEachren, A. ( 1995) How Maps Work. New York: Guilford Press. Sandford, H. ( 1985) 'Atlases and map work', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. I 39-44. Weeden, R ( 1997) 'Learning through maps', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 168-79.

mark scheme. Sets out how marks should be awarded for questions set within an examination, or for coursework, classwork or homework. The scheme itemizes the number of marks for each subsection of an answer and guides the examiners towards acceptable parameters for candidate answers. Marsden, William (b. 1932). A Sheffield graduate who taught in three Lancashire schools between 1954 and 1966, and in that year entered teacher education at Edge Hill College, Ormskirk. In 1970 he was appointed to the Department of Education at the University of Liverpool, being promoted to Senior Lecturer (1974), Reader (1983) and subsequently to a personal chair (1993). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Marxism

With an initial degree in geography and a higher degree in the history of education, Bill Marsden's research interests have been in the fields of geographical education, the urban history of education, the history of the curriculum, and the links between these. His academic texts include Evaluating the Geography Curriculum (1976); Unequal Educational Provision in England and Wales: The Nineteenth-Century Roots (1987); Educating the Respectable: A Study of Eleet Road Board School, Hampstead 1879-1903 ( 1991); Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice (1995); An Anglo-Welsh Teaching Dynasty: The Adams Family from the 1840s to the 1930s (1997); and International Perspectives on the School Textbook: Geography, History and Social Studies (forthcoming, 2001). Edited books include The City and Education in E our Nations (1993, with R. E. Goodenow); A Bibliography on Geographical Education 1970-1997 (1998, with N. Foskett); and, for the International Geographical Union Commission on Geographical Education, Historical Perspectives on Geographical Education (1980); Teacher Education Models in Geography: An International Comparison', and German Didactics of Geography in the Seventies and Eighties: A Review of Trends and Endeavours (1988, with J. Birkenhauer). Marxism. A doctrine based on the political, social and economic theories of the German philosophers Karl Marx (1818-83) and Friedrich Engels (1820-95). Broadly, economic and social interaction are seen to be driven by the 'mode of production'; class conflict will create an impetus for change in this mode of production resulting ultimately in a classless society based on communism. A number of geographers and geography educationists have drawn upon the theories of Marx within their works, either implicitly or explicitly. This is perhaps best seen within radical geography and the reconstructionist tradition in geography education. Harvey, D. ( 1973) Social Justice and the City. London: Edward Arnold. Huckle.J. (ed.) (1983) Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marx, K. (1967 ) Capital (3 vols.). New York: International Publishers Edition. Peet, R. ( 1977) Radical Geography. Chicago: Maaronfa Press. Pepper, D. ( 1993) Eco-sodalism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice. London: Routledge.

Masters. A course of study for the award of an advanced degree, above the level of an undergraduate degree but below that of a research degree such as an MPhil. or PhD Masters degrees, like other degrees, may be specifically related to education, therefore being termed an MEd, rather than an MSc (Master of Science) or MA (Master of Arts). Masters degrees in education usually take one to three years to complete, depending on whether they are studied on a parttime or full-time basis. Comparatively few Masters courses specifically in geography education now exist in UK universities, due to a number of factors such as cost, staffing difficulties, and the realignment of many continuing professional development (CPD) courses away from single-subject higher education degrees. mean. The arithmetical average of a distribution of scores. I 18

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

mentor median. The middle value in a series of values arranged in order, with half of the values above this figure and half below. mental map (cognitive map). An image of a place held in the mind. Such maps result when an individual receives information about a place (or environment) and their thought processes encode, store, recall and then decode this information. When such maps are drawn they reveal the subjective nature of such information, showing numerous distortions from reality. These distortions indicate that perceptions of space are personal, fragmented and affected by an individual's emotions and associations. mentor. A professional guide or adviser, such as a teacher who supervises a trainee teacher during a teaching placement. In initial teacher training (ITT) the role of the mentor has developed significantly in recent years; thus in geography education a mentor might be expected - in partnership with a higher education institution - to fulfil some or all of the following roles: • assisting in the interviewing and selection of appropriate trainee teachers; • assisting in the development of a geography methods course; • providing an introduction for trainee teachers to their school and their geography department, and the observation, planning, teaching, assessment and evaluation of geography lessons; • providing a suitably balanced timetable of geography lessons for trainees to teach, reflecting the age and ability range of the school; • observing lessons taught by trainees and providing feedback; • setting targets within (weekly) mentor meetings; • liaising with university tutor(s) regarding the progress made by trainee teacher(s); • providing formative and summative assessment of the progress of trainee teachers during teaching placements, including making recommendations on the award of provisional Qualified Teacher Status (QTS); • assisting in the delivery of university-based elements of the geography methods course. Geography mentors have an important and diverse role in training new geography teachers which relies upon their acting as suitable role models for newcomers to the profession. Their responsibilities involve encouraging and supporting trainees; identifying the strengths and needs of trainees; setting targets; making sure that trainees are aware of school and departmental policies and practices; ensuring trainee access to different staff; and providing examples of various teaching and learning styles in geography. The overseeing of the planning, observation and evaluation of trainees' geography lessons is a central concern of the geography mentor. Ellis, B. (ed.) ( 1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA. McPartland, M. ( 1995) 'On being a geography mentor'. Teaching Geography, 20(1), 35-7.

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metacognition metacognition. The understanding of one's own reasoning and thought processes, with particular reference to learning styles, problem-solving and decisionmaking. Often referred to as 'thinking about thinking', the term was first used byFlavellinl977. Geography educationists and teachers concerned with understanding how children think and how to accelerate and support their thought processes, such as David Leat and the Thinking Through Geography Team, have recently become increasingly interested in metacognition. Flavell.J. (1977) Cognitive Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Flavell, J. ( 1982) 'On cognitive development'. Child Development, 53(1), I -10. Leat, D. ( 1997) ThinkingThrough Geography. Cambridge. Chris Kington. Leat, D. (1997) 'Cognitive acceleration in geographical education', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 143-53.

Meteosat. A weather satellite system, providing visible, infra-red and watervapour satellite images of the world's weather. mail: Meteosat Data Service, European Space Agency, Robert Bosch Strasse 5,6100 Darmstadt, Germany

MetFAX. A UK Meteorological Office weather information service. This provides regularly updated satellite images of the weather, as well as weather data, which can be accessed by schools through a fax machine. mail: Meteorological Office Education Services, Sutton House, London Road, Bracknell, Berks, RG12 2SY

tel: 01344 854802

fax: 09003 400 480 (Education Index Page) email: [email protected] website: www.met-office.gov.uk

methodology. Literally, science of methods. However, the term is often applied to a type of teaching or research procedure. It is even used loosely to describe a particular style of teaching. Within geography education a wide variety of texts have been published which have reflected changes in the discipline of geography, teaching methodology and curriculum theory. A selection, listed in chronological order and starting in the mid-1960s, is given below: Long, M. and Roberson, B. ( 1966) Teaching Geography. London: Heinemann. Graves, N. ( 1971 ) Geography in Secondary Education. Sheffield: GA. Bailey, R ( 1972) Teaching Geography. Newton Abbott: David and Charles. Graves, N. ( 1972) New Movements in the Study and Teaching of Geography. London:Temple Smith. Bale,]., Graves, N. and Walford, R. (eds) ( 1973) Perspectives on Geographical Education. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Walford, R. (ed.) (1973) New Directions in Geography Teaching. London: Longman. Long, M. (ed.) ( 1974) Handbook for Geography Teachers. London: Methuen. Graves, N. ( 1975) Geography in Education. London: Heinemann. Boden, R ( 1976) Developments in Geography Teaching. London: Open Books. Hall, D. ( 1976) Geography and the Geography Teacher. London: Allen and Unwin. Marsden, W. ( 1976) Evaluating the Geography Curriculum. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Williams, M. ( 1976) Geography and the Integrated Curriculum. London: Heinemann. Graves, N. ( 1979) Curriculum Planning in Geography. London: Heinemann. Walford, R. (ed.) ( 1981 ) Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. 120

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mnemonic device Slater, F. ( 1982) Learning through Geography. London: Heinemann. Huckle, J. (ed.) ( 1983) Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Boardman, D. (ed.) ( 1986) Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA. Bale, J. ( 1987) Geography in the Primary School. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Mills, D. (ed.) ( 1988) Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools. Sheffield: GA. Walford, R. (ed.) ( 1991 ) Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Hacking, E. ( 1992) Geography into Practice. Harlow: Longman. Wiegand, R ( 1993) Ghildren and Primary Geography. London: Cassell. Marsden.W. and Hughes,], (eds) ( 1994) Primary School Geography. London: Fulton. Marsden.W. ( 1995) Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton. Bailey, R and Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA. Kent, A., Lambert, D., Naish, M. and Slater, F. (eds) ( 1996) Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Powell, A. (ed.) ( 1997) Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA. Tilbury, D. and Williams, M. (eds) ( 1997) Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge. Carter, R. (ed.) ( 1998) Handbook of Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA.

microteaching. A method sometimes used in initial teacher training (ITT) to help trainee teachers develop their teaching skills. A trainee teacher will teach a section of a lesson to his or her peers, or to a group of children, often being filmed in the process. This teaching performance is then analysed by the student and tutor to identify strengths and weaknesses, with the aim of encouraging a reflective approach to lesson observation and self-evaluation. migration. The act of movement from one place to another, with the intention of staying at the new location permanently (or for a long time). Human migrations occur for many reasons, although economic and social factors often predominate. mixed ability teaching. Teaching a range of abilities of children within a single class. Despite the social advantages of grouping children in this way the difficulties for the teacher in correctly differentiating for all abilities within the class make mixed ability teaching hard to deliver successfully. Criticisms of these methods often point out the problems of correct pacing and the dangers of more able (or gifted) pupils not being stretched or challenged, and of the less able being confused. Most mixed ability teaching can be found in certain subjects, such as geography and history, in years 7, 8 and 9 at secondary level, although in general the use of this technique has declined severely since the 1970s. In particular subjects, such as maths and languages, streaming, setting or banding by ability is the norm. Kemp, R. ( 1986) 'Mixed ability groups', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 164-70. Lidstone, J. ( 1984) Teaching geography in the mixed ability classroom', in J. Fien, R. Gerber and R Wilson (eds), The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom. Melbourne: Macmillan, pp. 197-207. Slater, A. ( 1993) 'Planning for mixed ability groups'. Teaching Geography, 18(3), 127-8.

mnemonic device. A method of remembering something, often through the use of acrostics, for example 'Naughty Elephants Squirt Water' to remember the points of the compass in order: North, East, South, West. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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mode

mode. The most frequently occurring value in a set of data. Mode 3 examination. One in which the teacher has a considerable role in defining the syllabus content and the means of assessment, which is often weighted in favour of some form of assessed coursework. In geography Mode 3 examinations became popular with the introduction of the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) in 1965. model. An exemplar, structure or pattern used to allow an interpretation of the ways in which aspects of the real world function; a representation of what is real constructed to show certain properties. The degree of abstraction from real life within a particular model is important when considering its applicability and usefulness. An iconic model is the least abstract, being a scaled-down model of reality; an analogue model represents phenomena by different, but analogous, representations (for example transfers of energy in an ecosystem being represented by arrows); a symbolic model is the most abstract, often representing real phenomena mathematically. In both geography and geography education the use of models is considered important and they are regularly adopted to clarify concepts or processes. Chorley, R. and Haggett, R (eds) ( 1967) Models in Geography. London: Methuen.

moderation. The process by which different teachers, or examiners, agree on marks to be awarded for a particular examination or piece of work. Moderation therefore involves an attempt to reach conformity with the same standards, usually based on a representative sample of work. modification. The alteration of a statutory programme of study (e.g. National Curriculum) to make access provision for a child with special educational needs (SEN) (cf. disapplication). module. A short, self-contained, unit within a course. Modules enable flexibility in both the teaching and assessment arrangements made for a subject, rather than relying too heavily upon terminal assessment at the end of a course (see linear syllabus). Most Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) courses in geography are now modular. Within a modular A Level at least 30 per cent of the marks awarded must still be within a terminal examination. In the revised specifications produced by awarding bodies in response to the new 'Subject Criteria for A and AS Level' (QCA 1999), modules were termed 'units'. Butt, G. and Weeden, R ( 1999) 'Arrangements for the new A and AS Levels in geography'. Teaching Geography, 24(4), 196-7. QCA ( 1999) Subject Criteria for A and AS Level. London: QCA.

modular syllabus. First examined in 1995, modular syllabuses (or specifications) enabled examination boards (now awarding bodies) to devise Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) courses in discrete modules which could be assessed at two points in the academic year (staged assessment). Examination boards strongly favoured producing modular syllabuses for geography, rather than keeping to the traditional linear syllabus format, and could see future advantages in being able to transfer 'credit' for modules between academic and vocational courses. Initially modules each carried a 122

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multicultural education

minimum of 15 per cent of marks with at least 30 per cent accruing to the terminal examination. The opportunity to assess students at times other than the end of their course creates a 'maturation' issue, specifically that students taking their first modular examinations early within a course will not yet have developed the range of knowledge, understanding and skills that a candidate who is assessed at the end of a course has amassed. Candidate performance on modules at or near the end of a course should therefore be better than performance assessed at an earlier stage. Some geographers criticize the modularization of their subject on academic grounds, stating that the discipline requires candidates to have a holistic appreciation of subject content rather than a fragmented understanding of separate modular themes. multicultural education. A form of education designed to reflect and celebrate the multicultural nature of society. Often the emphasis in multicultural education is placed upon mutual respect, appreciation of varied cultural and religious backgrounds, and communication. Concepts such as social justice, tolerance and co-operation are often stressed within the curriculum in the expectation that the values and attitudes of children will be enhanced. Geography offers a convenient vehicle for multicultural education in many schools as its subject content and themes are of direct relevance to this cross-curricular area. Garten D. ( 1987) 'Resources for multicultural education: a view from the primary school'. Teaching Geography, 12(4), 152-3. Gill, D. ( 1985) 'Geographical education for a multicultural society', in M. Straber-Welds (ed.), Education for a Multicultural Society:A Case Study in ILEA Schools. London. Bell and Hyman, pp. 58-69. Hacking, E. ( 1991 ) 'Preparing for life in a multi-cultural society', in R. Walford (ed.), Viewpoints on Geographical Education. Harlow: Longman, pp. 85-8. Hicks, D. ( 1981 ) The contribution of geography to multicultural misunderstanding'. Teaching Geography, 7(2), 64-7. Singh, M. ( 1991 ) 'Geography's contribution to multicultural education'. Geographical Education, 6(3), 9-1 3. Walford, R. ( 1985) Geographical Education for a Multi-cultural Society. Sheffield: GA. Walford, R. ( 1993) 'Geography', in A. King and M. Reiss (eds), The Multicultural Dimension of the National Gurriculum. London: Palmen pp. 91 -108.

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N Naish, Michael (b. 1934). After graduating from University College London, Michael taught for seven years in London secondary schools. He was appointed Lecturer in Education with Special Reference to the Teaching of Geography at the University of London Institute of Education in 1968. He retired in 1992 as University Reader in Education. From 1976 to 1985, he directed the Geography 16-19 Project, and from 1986 to 1992 he was Senior Tutor for Initial Teacher Education. From 1984 until retirement, he was Commissioner for the International Geographical Union Commission on Geographical Education and Chair of the British Sub-Committee. Michael was co-author of Geography 16-19: The Contribution of a Curriculum Project to 16-19 Education (1987). He has edited a wide range of teaching materials and books, including Geography and Education: National and International Perspectives (1992). From 1974 to 1982 he was the editor of occasional publications for the Geographical Association, which included the Teaching Geography Occasional Papers. Michael has published a range of articles in journals and chapters and books, and from 1974 to 1987 he wrote a personal column on geographical education in the Geographical Magazine. named person. Someone identified by a local education authority (LEA) to liaise with parents regarding the issuing of a statement for their child who has a special educational need (SEN). The named person should be independent of the LEA and able to give the parents information and advice about their child's needs. nation. A society composed of peoples who share a common culture. In addition, nations also often possess historical, ethnic and linguistic commonality; occupy a particular area of land; and are usually separate political entities. Nations differ from states, which may not experience full political autonomy but are selfgoverning to some degree, occupying a given territory (as in the United States of America). A nation state is a sovereign state where the majority of citizens (or subjects) are united by possession of those elements which usually define a nation (such as culture, history, ethnicity, etc). national. Pertaining to a nation. 124

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National Curriculum

National Commission on Education (NCE). Established in May 1991, under the direction of Sir Claus Moser, the commission has sought to consider the future of educational policy and practice in Britain for the next quarter-century. Two major reports have been published, in 1993 and 1995, on the themes of how the educational policy and practice of the UK should change in the future to ensure educational success for the majority. National Council for Geographic Education (USA). Established in 1914 to promote geographical education in the USA, it is located at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania and publishes ajournai of geographical education entitled the Journal of Geography. mail: National Council for Geographic Education, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania, 15705-1087, USA website: www.nationalgeographic.com

National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ). Established in 1986 to monitor and promote vocational education, and to consolidate numerous vocational awards. It merged with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) in 1997 to form the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). national criteria. In 1980 the UK government proposed the introduction of a single system of examination at the age of 16, called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), to replace the previous Ordinary Level (O Level) and Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE). This was supported by the creation of national criteria upon which examination boards based their syllabuses and procedures for assessment. The introduction of the GCSE examination in 1988 was thus supported by national criteria in each subject, including geography. They are particularly important in ensuring that the syllabuses of different examination boards which are presented under a given subject title adhere to a sufficiently common content, format and degree of difficulty. National Curriculum. Defines the minimum educational entitlement for pupils of compulsory school age; that is the core and foundation subjects and their associated attainment targets, programmes of study and assessment arrangements. It was introduced into all state schools educating 5- to 16-yearolds in England and Wales, between 1988 and 1992. Established by the Education Reform Act 1988 the National Curriculum originally consisted of ten compulsory subjects (English, maths, science, technology (design), history, geography, art, music, PE and modern foreign languages) for 11- to 16-yearolds, as well as Welsh for pupils in Wales. The Education Reform Act 1988 required all state schools to provide a curriculum which was broad and balanced; which promoted spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; which prepared pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life; and which included RE and sex education for secondary pupils. Testing at 7, 11, 14 and 16 through standard assessment tasks (SATs) was established for the core subjects. Four Key Stages exist (Key Stage 1 for 5-7-year-olds, Key Stage 2 for 7-11-yearolds, Key Stage 3 for 11-14-year-olds and Key Stage 4 for 14-16-year-olds); the THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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National Curriculum Council

General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) serves as the main examination at 16. Following a review of the National Curriculum and its means of assessment by Dearing in 1994, it was slimmed substantially, statements of attainment were removed, and level descriptions were introduced. The Dearing Report (1994) recommended that the National Curriculum should be subject to review again for the year 2000, a process which was intentionally 'light touch', to clarify and rebalance emphases with a view to improving standards and raising attainment. Aspects of citizenship, personal, social and health education, suggestions for breadth of study within subjects and revised level descriptions were introduced into the National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) following this review. The National Curriculum documentation also now contains sections on the values, aims and purposes of the school curriculum and National Curriculum; general teaching requirements (such as inclusion, use of language, use of ICT and health and safety); and a statement of values by the National Forum for Values in Education and the Community. Primary schools are now obliged to spend 40 to 50 per cent of curriculum time on the core subjects of English and maths, with 10 per cent of time on science. The requirements to teach geography at primary level (Key Stages 1 and 2) have been relaxed, although it is compulsory at secondary level within Key Stage 3. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) has twelve statutory subjects at Key Stage 3 (English, maths, science, design and technology, information and communications technology (ICT), history, geography, modern foreign languages, art and design, music, physical education and citizenship (from August 2002); while at Key Stage 4 English and ICT remain compulsory, with maths, science, design and technology, modern foreign languages and physical education statutory from August 2001, and citizenship from August 2002. However, schools may disapply, for one pupil, up to two National Curriculum subjects at Key Stage 4. Other requirements to be taught within the National Curriculum are listed as religious education, careers education and sex education. Some schools now offer Part One General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs) at Key Stage 4, which may have a negative impact on the numbers of candidates opting to study geography GCSE. DES ( 1991 ) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Primary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. website: www.nc. uk.net

National Curriculum Council (NCC). Established in 1987 before the passing of the Education Reform Act (ERA)(1988) to aid consultation on the nature of the subjects to form the emergent National Curriculum, on curriculum developments and to provide the Secretary of State for Education with advice on the implementation of the National Curriculum. It worked in partnership with the School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC) and 126

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National Geographic Society

Curriculum Council for Wales (CCW), before merging with SEAC in 1993 to form the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). National Curriculum Revision ('Curriculum 2000'). The Dearing Report (1994) on the National Curriculum recommended that no major revisions should be made to the curriculum for a period of five years, following those initiated immediately as a result of the report. These revisions, for the year 2000, had a number of aims: • to promote stability in schools by restricting changes to the National Curriculum to the essential minimum; • to increase flexibility, reducing prescription and the overall weight of the National Curriculum at all Key Stages, but particularly in the 'non-core six' at Key Stages 1 and 2; • to increase flexibility at Key Stage 4; • to extend the statutory framework to include citizenship; • to provide guidelines for a more coherent approach to PSHME; • to ensure the school curriculum is manageable for all schools; • to clarify the relationship between key skills and the rest of the curriculum; • to ensure that any developments contribute to a more inclusive framework for all learners. In geography these changes resulted in more flexible programmes of study (PoS) and greater choice of content, reduced content in Key Stages 1 and 2, and clearer aims and rationale at each Key Stage. In addition the changes were designed to increase clarity, both within the PoS and between the PoS and attainment target. Clearer links were also established between geography and the rest of the curriculum, particularly with respect to citizenship and key skills, as well as minimum changes occurring to the level descriptions. Dearing, R. ( 1994) The National Curriculum and its Assessment: Final Report. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Primary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. website: www.nc.uk.net

National Geographic. A magazine first published in 1899 by the National Geographic Society (USA) and now appearing monthly as a publication for those interested in geography in its broadest sense. National Geographic Society (USA). Based in the United States, it was founded in 1888 and is currently located in Washington DC. The National Geographic Society publishes National Geographic Magazine, primarily for the general public, but has recently looked towards promoting research, by means of a new publication called National Geographic Research. The society has developed a policy of further stimulating and supporting geographical education in schools and universities. mail: I 145 17th Street NW,Washington DC, 20036^688, USA THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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National Grid for Learning tel: 001 202 81 3 979 6845 website: www.nationalgeographic.com/main.html

National Grid for Learning (NGfL). A scheme to improve the use of information and communications technology (ICT) within the UK, partly through connecting all schools, colleges, universities and libraries to a computer network grid. Targets have also been established for training teachers and librarians in the use of ICT; for ensuring all school leavers are competent in ICT use; and for reducing the paper-based correspondence between the government and education bodies. The aim is to invest in the UK as a learning society which makes full use of ICT to raise educational standards, enhance international competitiveness and improve quality of life. national records of achievement (NRA). Developed in schools throughout the 1970s, eventually being brought together under the umbrella NRA in the 1980s and becoming compulsory for all children in state education in 1993. NRAs grew as a response to the recognition of pupils' achievement solely in terms of public examination performance, by also providing a portfolio of evidence of their wider achievements. They can be used to inform the next steps in education, training or employment for the pupil and have a developing link to vocational education. national targets for education and training. The 1995 white paper, 'Competitiveness: Forging Ahead', revised a series of national educational targets previously established for the year 2000. These were: (1) by the age of 21, 60% of the population to have achieved 2 A Levels, or an advanced GNVQ or NVQ to level 3. (2) by the age of 19, 85% to have achieved 5 GCSEs grade C or above, or GNVQ Intermediate or NVQ level 2 standard. (3) by the age of 19, 75% to have achieved level 2 competence in numeracy, literacy and IT, and 35% to have achieved level 3 in these by the age of 21. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ). A competence-based qualification which is largely taught and assessed in the workplace (see General National Vocational Qualification). nature-nurture debate. Concerns whether genetic influence on intelligence, personality and ability is stronger than socio-cultural, environmental/educational influences. Keenly discussed amongst educationists, psychologists and sociologists, this issue has seen the creation of extreme theories about the development of intelligence in different racial groups. Although geography educationists have not, to date, been keenly involved in the debate, it is an area of some interest, particularly given previous interest within the discipline about environmental determinism and possibilism. NCC. See National Curriculum Council. NCE. See National Commission on Education. NCT. See non-contact time. NCVQ. See National Council for Vocational Qualifications. 128

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New Right. A collective term for the Conservative pressure groups and think tanks influential in promoting right wing educational ideas and in influencing the formulation of the Education Reform Act (ERA) (1988). Usually considered to be composed of the Hillgate Group, Institute for Economic Affairs and Centre for Policy Studies, the New Right successfully drove the educational agenda of the late 1980s with their beliefs in educational efficiency bred from competition, privatization and the promotion of market forces in education. The strong links between politics and education are clear within the influence that the New Right had both on education in general in the 1980s and early 1990s, and on geography education in particular. The Geography National Curriculum (GNC) favoured by the government of the day was strongly based on a rationalist ideology. New Zealand Board of Geography Teachers (NZBoGT). Serves to promote and develop the interests of geography teachers within New Zealand. mail: Mark Wilson, c/o St Peter's School, Private Bag 884, Cambridge, New Zealand tel: 00 64 07 8279899 email: markw@stpeters,school.nz website: wvwv.waikato.ac.nz/geog/nzgs/nzgs.htm

New Zealand Geographer. One of the journals of the New Zealand Geographical Society. It was first published in 1945 and appears twice yearly, its research-based articles focusing on aspects of geography particularly within the New Zealand, Australia and SW Pacific region. New Zealand Geographical Society. Founded in 1945 and dedicated to developing the scientific and educational understanding of geography. It publishes two journals, the New Zealand Journal of Geography and New Zealand Geographer. It is a society for the promotion of the study of and research into geography, primarily within the Asia Pacific region. It is affiliated to the New Zealand Board of Geography Teachers (NZBoGT) and has close links to the Institute of Australian Geographers. mail: Dr Peter Urich, Dept of Geography, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand tel: 00 64 07 838 4466 ext 8430 email: [email protected] website: www.waikato.ac.nz/geog/nzgs/nzgs.htm

New Zealand Journal of Geography. Written for secondary school geography teachers, with articles of general interest designed to challenge and support classroom practitioners within this phase. It is published quarterly by the New Zealand Geographical Society. Ince, C. ( 1994) 'Appointing newly qualified mature geography teachers'. Teaching Geography, 19(2), 81-2.

newly qualified teacher (NQT). One who has just completed a course of study for initial teacher training (ITT) and has gained provisional Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). During an induction year the NQT will seek to progress against a series of standards to ensure that full QTS can be awarded at the end of the induction period. Ellis, B. (ed.) (1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA. Ince, C. ( 1994) 'Appointing newly qualified teachers'. Teaching Geography, 19(2), 81 -2. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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NGfL NGfL. See National Grid for Learning. nominal. Nominal data are those which divide into categories or groups, for example land use types, employment categories, diseases, etc., where the frequencies of their occurrence can be measured. nomothetic. Nomothetic approaches to geography are concerned with universals and generalities; they are usually adopted for the creation, testing and production of theories and models in order to develop laws (cf. idiographic). non-contact time (NCT). The time during the teacher's school day when he or she does not teach. This time is normally used for preparation, marking, reportwriting, administration or other duties beyond classroom teaching. In secondary schools each subject teacher has a timetable which includes non-contact time, a provision which does not apply in the same way to primary school teachers, who have responsibility for single classes to whom they must teach all aspects of the curriculum. non-maintained special school. A special school approved by the Secretary of State for Education but which does not come under the maintained status of a local education authority (LEA). As such it will charge fees and raise other monies as a charitable trust, or through its association with a major charity. In certain circumstances an LEA, rather than the parents, will pay the fees if such schooling is deemed appropriate in a statement of special educational needs (SEN). non-parametric statistics. Involving the use of statistical techniques and tests that are based on the assumption that data collected are not from a normally distributed population; that is they do not follow the recognized set of parameters of a normal distribution. normal distribution. A frequency distribution in statistics which is represented by a symmetrical bell-shaped curve (normal curve). Such a curve is usually associated with commonly occurring phenomena within a population, for example height or weight. In a normal distribution 50 per cent of the data fall each side of the mean, and the mean, median and mode are all located at the same point. Most of the values group around the mean, falling away as distance from the mean increases. norm-referencing. In a norm-referenced assessment, a cohort of pupils is assessed, pupils' marks are placed into rank order and then grades are allocated to divisions of that order. Thus grades are awarded according to ranking rather than based on actual achievement. The assessment of performance is therefore achieved by direct reference and comparison to the performance of one's peers. The grade a pupil is awarded thus depends on the performance of the population of candidates as a whole. For example the top 15 per cent of pupil marks may be awarded an A grade, while the bottom 10 per cent may be Ungraded, whatever the distribution of those marks might be. Here pupils' work is being judged in comparison with that of other pupils and there is no fixed standard that has to be achieved to be awarded a particular grade (cf. criterionreferencing). NQT. See newly qualified teacher. 130

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NRA. See national record of achievement. null hypothesis. A statement that a proposed hypothesis in a statistical test will not occur and that no difference between groups, nor relationship between variables, exists. Any relationships which emerge are therefore by chance alone. Rejecting a null hypothesis means that the results obtained are statistically significant and therefore are not the result of chance. numeracy. The condition of having a basic knowledge of the principles of mathematics, and the interpretation of mathematical and statistical evidence. Together with literacy, numeracy represents a cornerstone of the current educational system. The Crowther Report (1959) raised the concept of numeracy as an essential to good education, which should encompass developing an ability with number, thinking quantitatively and an appreciation of scientific method. Subsequently the Cockcroft Report (1982) recommended that numeracy was essential for pupils in the context of everyday mathematical skills and their understanding of ways in which mathematical information is regularly presented by the media (graphs, charts, tables, etc.). Many geography educationists would argue that geography provides a convenient vehicle for the teaching of numeracy within the curriculum as the discipline requires students to use such skills regularly. (See literacy, graphicacy and oracy.) NVQ. See National Vocational Qualification. NZBoGT. See New Zealand Board of Geography Teachers.

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o objective approach. Concerned with actual evidence, rather than something that is a construct of the mind, the personal feelings or the imagination of the observer (cf. subjective). objective test. An instrument of assessment which needs no interpretation in the marking, such as multiple choice, true/false or certain missing-word tests. Here the scores achieved by the candidates can be objectively determined as there is only one right answer; however, the validity and reliability of the assessment may be questionable in such tests. objectives. Specific goals or purposes to be achieved. Educational objectives can be expressed in a variety of different forms: lesson (or academic) objectives help to narrow down the overall aims of the scheme of work or syllabus into a more workable and practical form for the duration of a lesson. Here the teacher writes down on a lesson plan the objectives for the lesson, bearing in mind the objectives of the subject curriculum which he/she wants the pupils to achieve. More detailed plans for lessons may involve the setting of behavioural objectives, which define desirable forms of behaviour to be achieved; and instrumental objectives, which are those which the teacher sets for the learning outcomes of the pupils. In geography education, as with all forms of education, there is a need to differentiate between long- and short-term objectives. In day-to-day teaching, objectives are often thought of as the educational target just for a particular lesson. oblique aerial photograph. Taken from an aircraft where the angle at which it is taken is greater or less than 90 degrees (cf. vertical aerial photograph). Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). The Office of Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Schools (OHMCI), created as a consequence of the restructuring of Her Majesty's Inspectorate (HMI) following the passing of the Education (Schools) Act in 1992. As a result of this Act the Senior Chief Inspector role was abolished, to be replaced by the current Chief Inspector of Schools. OFSTED is a non-ministerial government department, independent of the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), whose role is to 132

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improve standards of achievement and quality in education through inspection, reporting and advice. OFSTED inspects schools on a regular basis, publishing a report after each inspection. Inspections are carried out within a national framework, with teams of independent inspectors contracting for work under a system of competitive tendering. mail: OFSTED, Alexandra House, 33 Kingsway, London, WC2B 6SE tel: 020 7421 6800 website: www.ofsted.gov.uk

OFSTED. See Office for Standards in Education. O Level. See Ordinary Level. online. A term describing the services available to anyone who is directly connected via their computer and modem to the internet. ontology. A branch of metaphysics concerned with what really does exist, rather than what only appears to exist. Ontology is thus concerned with the essence of things and their existence. The nature of being and the relationship of existence to human consciousness is central to ontology. open-ended question. Where the pupil is encouraged to answer in their own words in a reasonably expansive way, rather than by giving a 'yes' or 'no' response to a closed question or responding to a multiple-choice question, for example. This increases the variety of possible responses, allowing the pupil to express themselves, but also creating difficulties over objective marking and assessment. In geography education the use of open-ended questions is generally favoured as these require pupils to think through geographical concepts and ideas for themselves; a process that is less likely with the use of closed questioning. options. Methods of course selection by which pupils have some element of choice about their future curriculum content after Year 9. The effect on geography uptake of national curricular changes in the 1990s has been quite dramatic in many schools. Having achieved brief status as a compulsory subject post-14 in the first National Curriculum, geography soon reverted (after the 1994 Bearing Report) to an optional subject, along with history, art and music. With the rise of GNVQ Part 1 courses and 'compulsory' options, geography now finds itself squeezed at General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) Level and is suffering declining numbers. oracy. The use of speech to communicate and be understood. Oracy has recently been promoted, in addition to literacy, numeracy and graphicacy, as an important aspect of children's education. In geography education many opportunities exist for children to develop their oracy skills. Garten R. (ed.) (1991) Talking about Geography. Sheffield: GA. Wilding, S. ( 1989) A Shift from Monocultured to Polycultured Approaches in Geography, Occasional Paper 3. Stafford: Staffordshire Oracy Project (National Oracy Project). Wilding, S. (1989) GeogingAlong. Stafford: Staffordshire Oracy Project (National Oracy Project).

oral examination. A method of evaluating a student's performance by an examiner asking the candidate questions to which he or she has to respond orally. In geography examinations such techniques have been used only infrequently, THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Orders (Statutory)

although some Advanced Level (A Level) geography examinations have required candidates to talk to an examiner about their individual studies which they have submitted as assessed coursework. Orders (Statutory). See Statutory Orders. ordinal. Ordinal data occur where the relative magnitude of the variable is known, so that data can be ordered from largest to smallest, although actual values may not be provided. Ordinary Level (O Level). The School Certificate Examination was replaced in 1951 by the GCE Ordinary Level examination. This was designed for the most able school leaver and was different from the School Certificate in that it was examined in separate subjects. An O Level pass was defined as being equal to a 'credit' grade in the School Certificate. The examination was originally offered through eight regional examinations boards and was designed as a means of selection of academically able pupils for further and higher education and the professions. In 1965 it was joined by the Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE), which catered for the lower abilities, although the bottom 20 per cent remained without an examination specific to their needs. A CSE grade 1 was deemed to be the equivalent of an O Level. Calls for a unified system of examining at 16 resulted in the creation of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in 1988. Ordnance Survey (OS). The major organization which surveys the UK for cartographic and mapping purposes and produces detailed maps of various sorts at a variety of scales. The main OS maps used for geography education are as follows: Scale 1:1,250

Area covered Available for large urban areas. 500m x 500m covered on each map extract.

General points Black and white. Useful for locality studies with younger children (Key Stages 1 and 2).

1:2,500

Available for areas beyond towns and cities (but not some upland areas). 1km x 1km covered on each map extract.

Black and white. Useful for locality studies with younger children (Key Stages 1 and 2).

1:10,000

Available for all areas. 5km x 5km covered on each map extract.

Black and white with contours shown in brown. Useful for locality studies; features such as roads, street names and major buildings clearly shown.

1:25,000

Pathfinder series. Available for all areas. 10km x 10km covered on each map extract.

Limited use of colour. Useful for place studies. Detailed to the level of showing field boundaries.

1:50,000

Landranger series. Available for all areas. 40km x 40km covered on each map extract.

Coloured. Useful for regional studies. Less detailed than largerscale maps described above, but capable of providing a reasonably comprehensive overview of features within a region.

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The OS also produces small-scale maps such as the Travelmaster (1:625,000 or 1:250,000), Outdoor Leisure Maps (1:25,000), maps of areas of great historical interest and some maps of overseas areas. (See Goad Plans.) mail: Ordnance Survey, Romsey Road, Maybush, Southampton, SO9 4DH tel: 01703 792 000 email: [email protected] website: www.ordsvy.gov.uk

OS. See Ordnance Survey.

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p paradigm. A generally accepted example, or school of thought, with an associated methodology. Paradigms also determine the phenomena that should be investigated and the methods of conducting such investigations, because of the perceived ability of these methods to solve certain kinds of problems. Kühn introduced the term paradigm to represent a model or exemplar of science as 'universally recognised scientific achievements that for some time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners' (1970, p. viii). Kühn was a writer on the philosophy of science who believed that scientific thought did not develop in a steady linear fashion but experienced revolutions where dominant paradigms fairly rapidly overtook previous beliefs. He believed that fundamental changes away from previous conceptions of science were needed in order that science could advance (paradigm shift). The term has also been associated with the kinds of phenomena that a community of scholars should investigate and the most appropriate methods for their investigation. Despite variations in definitions, the importance of paradigms is that they exemplify a tradition within scientific study, often of themes and research methods. Kühn also believed that a paradigm could be a 'disciplinary matrix' within which exists 'the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques and so on shared by a member of a given community' (1970, p. 175). Kuhn's ideas have subsequently been challenged by, among others, social scientists who question the revolutionary way in which he assumes paradigms might change and the ambiguous use of the term in a variety of contexts. Kuhn.T S. ( 1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuhn.T S ( 1977) 'Second thoughts on paradigms', in F. Suppe (ed.), The Structure of Scientific Theories. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, pp. 459-82.

paradigm shift. A significant change in the way in which a school of thought considers its field of study, theories, methodologies and problems to be solved. When the old paradigm no longer meets the needs of a community of scholars, a new paradigm arises which is accepted following a process known as a paradigm shift. Johnston, R. ( 1999) 'Paradigms and revolution or evolution', in J. Agnew, D. Livingstone and A. Rogers (eds), Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 37-53. 136

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partnership

parametric statistics. Employ statistical tests which involve the assumption of a recognizable distribution of data within a given population, namely that they follow a normal distribution (cf. non-parametric statistics). parental responsibility. Defined according to the Children Act (1989) as covering all the duties, responsibilities, rights, powers and authority which parents have with respect to their children and their children's property. Parental responsibility falls upon mothers and fathers married at the time of a child's birth (including those who have subsequently separated or divorced); mothers who were not married to the father at the time of birth; and fathers who were not married to the mother at the time of birth but who had obtained parental responsibility by court order or agreement with the mother. Parental responsibility also falls upon a person who is not a child's parent or guardian, but someone who has assumed this responsibility as the result of a court making a residence order (for the duration of that order). While a care order is in force a social services department has parental responsibility for a child and may decide upon the extent to which a parent or guardian is permitted to carry out their parental responsibilities for the child. Arrangements may be made for parental responsibility to be transferred to another person when a parent is not present for a short period; however, this does not negate the original parent's responsibilities. (See in loco parentis.) parliamentary papers. Produced at the demand of the House of Commons, these will include bills, reports of royal commissions, select committee reports, departmental committee reports, and white and green papers. Statutory Orders, such as those that introduced the subject-based National Curriculum, are also considered to be parliamentary papers. DES ( 199 I ) Draft Orders for Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO. DES ( 1991 ) Statutory Orders for Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO.

Part One General National Vocational Qualifications (Part 1 GNVQ). A vocational option at 14 for those pupils who feel that their choice of academic qualifications at General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) should be supplemented or enhanced. Introduced nationally in September 1999 the Part 1 GNVQ had an immediate impact on the number of candidates opting to take geography GCSE in many schools (see General National Vocational Qualifications; vocational education). participant observation. A research technique whereby a researcher joins a groups he or she wishes to study and observes the behaviour of the group from a member's viewpoint. partnership. An association between two or more partners who share in a joint venture. Many aspects of education are now being developed as partnerships between schools, businesses, local government, and further and higher education institutions - a development which is encouraged by government policy. Initial teacher training (ITT) is mainly now conducted within a partnership framework. Schools and higher education institutions are considered to be equal partners in the training of teachers, although universities maintain certification THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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passive learning

and awarding responsibilities. A small number of school centred initial teacher training (SCITT) courses also exist. Ellis, B. (ed.) (1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA.

passive learning. A situation where little or no pupil contribution is made to the learning process. Here pupils are expected to be passive recipients of information given to them in whatever form the teacher feels is appropriate. Many geography teachers and educationists believe that geography is best taught and learnt through more active modes of education (cf. active learning). pass mark. The minimum mark, agreed by the examiners, with which a candidate can pass an examination. pastoral system. In tandem with the academic system, most schools possess a pastoral system to support pupils. Such systems are often based around the tutor group and form tutor, but are also part of a larger conception of the Year group or House (both of which may be run along pastoral lines). Most teachers in comprehensive schools have both pastoral and academic duties, although for some these roles may be more fully defined, e.g. a Head of Year to whom form tutors refer particular pastoral problems. Schools interpret their pastoral roles differently. In some the pastoral system is designed specifically to enhance academic achievement amongst pupils, in others there is a particular emphasis on pupil welfare, personal development and behaviour. Capel, S., Leask, M. andTurnenl ( 1997) Starting to Teach in the Secondary School: A Companion for the Newly Qualified Teacher. London: Routledge. Griffiths, R and Shearman, K. ( 1991 ) The Form Tutor: New Approaches to Tutoring in the 1990s. Oxford: Blackwell.

Patten, John (b. 1945). John Patten was educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he studied geography at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, being awarded a doctorate in 1972. He became a lecturer in geography at Hertford College, Oxford University (1969-79), where he was a fellow from 1972. He was the founding editor (with Andrew Clark) of the Journal of Historical Geography during his time at Oxford. Patten's political career began in earnest in 1979, when he became a Conservative Member of Parliament for Oxford (1979-83), and subsequently for Oxford West and Abingdon (1983-97). He held a number of junior ministerial positions before being appointed to the position of Secretary of State for Education in April 1992, a post he held for two years. pattern. An order, combination or arrangement of things. pedagogy. Literally, the science of teaching, including curriculum construction and teaching methodology. In essence, pedagogy is concerned with what teachers do to meet the aims of education, and how they select and use certain teaching methods and materials in the classroom to achieve these aims. Much therefore depends on the original aims established, which reflect both the teacher's and society's view on what is important in children's intellectual, social, moral and personal development through education. 138

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Discussions about pedagogy also have a distinct subject-based perspective. In geography education recent debates have concerned the use of enquiry methods within the subject, a pedagogical issue which arose during the formulation of the original Geography National Curriculum (GNC) in 1989. Walford, R. ( 1996) 'Geography 5-19: retrospect and prospect', in E. Rawling and R. Daugherty (eds), Geography into the Twenty -first Century. Ch¡ehester: Wiley, pp. I 31-43.

people-environment approach. Acknowledges that geography as a subject is best understood holistically with reference to both its human and its physical components. Advocates of people-environment approaches would not condone, say, the teaching of 'pure' physical geography (for example the study of rivers, or coasts, as purely physical features) without recourse to study of the human impact and influence on the physical world, and vice versa. Naish, M., Kent, A. and Rawling, E. ( 1980) The man-environment approach to geography: a focus for curriculum development at 16-19'. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 3( I ), 77-9. Naish, M., Rawling, E. and Hart, C. ( 1990) Geography 16-19: The Contribution of a Curriculum Development Project to 16-19 Education. Harlow: Longman.

perception. An understanding of something, based upon the interpretation of sensory information received from the surrounding environment. Perception occurs when a variety of undifferentiated stimuli are ordered and recognized. 'personal geography'. A 'personal' (or 'private') geography consists of the particular feelings, emotions and values an individual attaches to particular places and spaces. In essence, these are the conscious and unconscious feelings a person has about what surrounds them at a particular time and are unique to the individual who perceives them. personal, social, health and moral education (PSHME) (or PSE, or PSME, or PSHE). The education of children, according to the conception of the National Curriculum, is primarily composed of learning within separate subject disciplines. Many would argue that cross-curricular learning about a variety of themes such as personal, social, health and moral education is equally important to a well rounded education. In addition, careers education, environmental education and citizenship are often also considered to be essential elements. PSHME helps children understand themselves and their role in society. Previous attempts to introduce elements of such cross-curricular education failed at a national level due to ministerial insistence that a subject-based National Curriculum should dominate. The publication of cross-curricular themes by the National Curriculum Council (NCC) largely failed to have an impact on most schools' curricula. PSHME is currently treated as a separate 'subject' in many schools, and taught by form tutors, due to the failure of purely cross-curricular approaches to deliver it. The introduction of a framework for personal, social and health education at Key Stages 3 and 4 within the revised National Curriculum (1999) has enhanced the status of PSHE, although it still remains non-statutory. It is now envisaged that PSHE will be promoted through work in lessons and a wide range of activities across and beyond the curriculum. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO.

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phenomenal environment

phenomenal environment. All aspects of the environment, ranging from physical and biotic factors to aspects of human activity which influence these factors and therefore the whole nature of the environment. The range of human activities considered is broad - from the creation of settlements, industries and communications, to the production of wastes and pollutants. The central focus within the concept is that of humans as agents of change within the environment. The use of raw materials, resources and ecosystems - and the resultant impact on the physical and biotic environment - is a major consideration. (Cf. behavioural environment.) phenomenography. A qualitative research technique which can be used to describe and explain what students learn; the ways in which they learn what they learn; and whether it is possible to manipulate the ways in which students approach learning and thus alter their learning outcomes. Researchers who use phenomenographic approaches accept that all knowledge has a subjective and experiential basis, but have adopted an empirical approach to try to make sense of the phenomena that people experience within different contexts and subjects. The approach usually involves interviewing respondents to ascertain the qualitatively different ways in which they experience phenomena. In geography education phenomenographic research has been used recently to explore students' and teachers' understandings of geographical and educational concepts; investigations of the processes by which students understand geographical concepts; and the processes by which knowledge is conceptualized in learning geography. Gerben K. (l992) 'Phenomenography as an important qualitative approach to research in Geography', in A. Hill (ed.), Proceedings of the Interdependence in Geographic Education Conference. Colorado: University of Colorado, pp. 66-8. Marton, F. ( 1988) 'Phenomenography: exploring different conceptions of reality', in D. Fetterman (ed.), Qualitative Approaches to Evaluation in Education. New York: Praegen pp. 176-205.

phenomenology. A broad term used in relation to any philosophies concerned with phenomena, as distinct from those relating to being (ontology). Lived experience is analysed to reveal essences of things, without recourse to scientific methods or explanations. Phenomenology has similar foundations to idealism in its belief that all knowledge is subjective and related to consciousness. Originally phenomenologists believed that people should be studied without any preconceived theories about how they act; that an appreciation of the nature of an act is more important than finding an explanation for it; and that for people the world only exists as a mental construction created through acts of intentionality. Intentionality is based on the fact that people only give meaning to elements within the world through having some intention towards them. Johnston, R. ( 1985) Philosophy and Human Geography. London: Arnold. Spiegelberg, H. ( 1975) Doing Phenomenology. Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. philosophy. The study of the nature of knowledge, wisdom, behaviour, existence, reality and moral values by the use of reason and argument. THE PHILOSOPHY OF GEOGRAPHY Geographical concepts such as place, space, time, and scale are each applied within the discipline to increase our understanding of whatever geographical phenomena 140

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physical geography

we wish to study. Geographical enquiries and research aim to increase what we know and understand about people-environment, but may utilize methods and techniques not originally designed with geographers in mind. It is therefore necessary to look at the concepts, assumptions and techniques used by geographers to see whether they really are applicable to the study of geography and actually serve the purposes to which they are put. Thus a critical and reflective approach is necessary to determine whether, say, the geographical data we aim to collect is valid, reliable and fit for purpose, and indeed whether it is ethically and morally correct to be collecting such data in the first place. Geographers neither agree about how knowledge is produced, nor about what it actually is (epistemology). In addition there are long-standing debates, which are still to be resolved, concerning what actually exists as geographical knowledge and how it exists (ontology). Along with practitioners in other disciplines, geographers also disagree about what constitutes explanation within their subject. What is certain is that geography encompasses a number of different epistemologies, each charged with the task of answering questions about how one verifies the truth of a particular statement. For example, within phenomenology (as it applies to geography) it would be argued that essences exist which, through lived experience, provide us with our understanding of the world without recourse to scientific methods; while positivism would assert that only through scientific methods and empiricism can true knowledge be forthcoming. Structuralists would say that deep structures exist which govern the ways in which we behave; while humanists (including those involved in approaches related to hermeneutics, phenomenology, existentialism and idealism) would claim that all human action is highly subjective and can only be fully understood with reference to the social setting in which it occurs. Much of what geographers 'do' does not fall neatly into any one epistemology; in fact epistemologies are perhaps better considered as influencing geographical thought rather than being directly observable within specific pieces of geographical writing - such as that which occurs in geographical textbooks. To try to elucidate the philosophical positions adopted by most geographers in their work is problematic; to ascribe such positions directly to different texts often proves to be either impossible or risky. It is perhaps more appropriate to look at how different geographers approach their subject-matter, what methods they use, what assumptions they make and what concepts they apply or adopt. Importantly, geographical ideas and their origins are not 'owned' entirely by geographers: many of the questions and debates which geographers pursue, and the methods they use to pursue them, have originally come from other disciplines. Freeman,T ( 1980) A History of Modern British Geography. London: Longman. Haines-Young, R. and Fetch, J. ( 1986) Physical Geography: Its Nature and Methods. London: Harper and Row. Holt-Jensen, A. ( 1988) Geography: History and Concepts. London: Paul Chapman. James, R and Martin, G. ( I 9 8 I ) All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical Ideas. Chichester: Wiley Johnston, R. ( 1981 ) Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945. London: Arnold. Johnston, R. (1986) Philosophy and Human Geography: An Introduction to Contemporary Approaches. London: Arnold. Keat, R. and Urry, J. (1982) Social Theory as Science. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Rogers, A. ( 1993) 'Key themes and debates', in A. Rogers, H.Viles and A. Goudie (eds), The Student's Gompanion to Geography. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 233-52. Unwin.T ( 1992) The Place of Geography. Harlow: Longman.

physical geography. A division of the discipline of geography (the others being human geography and, more recently, environmental geography). Physical THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Physical Geography

geography studies the distribution, character and processes of formation of physical phenomena, in both the past and the present. Thus studies of the biosphere, lithosphère and hydrosphere are central to physical geography. Physical Geography. Ajournai first published in the USA in 1980. It now appears twice yearly and contains research-based articles on physical geography. Piaget, Jean (1896-1980). A Swiss child psychologist who studied the development of children's cognitive processes from their early childhood to adolescence, developing from this work a theory of intelligence. His original interest was in philosophy and ecology - he was awarded a Ph.D. from the University of Neuchatel (1918) before studying at the Sorbonne (1919-21) and teaching at the Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Geneva where he became CoDirector in 1933. During his life Piaget held a number of professional posts at different universities, eventually becoming the Director of the International Centre for Epistemology at the University of Geneva (1955-80). His work divides into three periods: in the 1920s, he researched the development of children's language, reasoning, moral judgement and perception; in the 1930s and 1940s, the development of thought in childhood and adolescence; and in the 1950s, concepts of time, space and probability. He believed that as children matured and interacted with their environment they passed through specific stages of cognitive development which he termed sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operations and formal operations. His influence extends beyond the fields of academic psychology to educational practice, where revisions of curricula, teaching methods and classroom organization have in the past adopted Piagetian ideas and beliefs. His major works include The Language and Thought of the Child (1936); Origins of Intelligence in Children (1954); and The Early Growth of Logic in the Child (1964). pilot study. A small-scale study to try out given materials or approaches to education with the aim of improving or rejecting whatever is being piloted before making a larger trial, implementation or study. Each of the major curriculum development projects in geography education over the past thirty years have all successfully used pilot studies. place. A particular location, or area, within a given space. The Geography National Curriculum (GNC) in England and Wales, and Geography National Standards (see Geography for Life) in the United States, both attempted to improve place, or perhaps more accurately locational, knowledge through their geography curricula. Debate among geography educationists in the 1990s has questioned the prime importance of locational knowledge within the curriculum and has focused upon the extent to which children should be able to accurately locate places on maps at different stages of their geographical education. However, considerations of one's perceptions of a place, and the factors which make each place unique, have also been considered within this debate. The importance of locality studies which highlight the physical, human and environmental features and issues within a place; the spatial context of places within local, regional, national and international settings; similarities and 142

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political literacy

differences between places; and where places are around the world, has been stressed in the GNC (see sense of place). Plowden Report. Published in 1967, entitled Children and their Primary Schools, this report considered all aspects of primary schooling and the arrangements for transition of children into secondary education. Its wide-ranging recommendations included the establishment of Educational Priority Areas (EPAs) where extra staffing, resourcing and finance were to enhance nursery and primary education and help to ameliorate the effects of social deprivation. Suggestions that ages for primary to secondary transfer should be changed from the norm of age 11, to a model of first schools (age 5 to 7), middle schools (age 8 to 12) and upper schools (age 13 to 18) were adopted by certain local education authorities (LEAs). The argument that this led to better educational progression and continuity was largely destroyed by the introduction of a National Curriculum divided into four Key Stages with transfer at 7, 11, 14 and 16. Although its intentions for greater parental involvement in children's schooling and firmer links between home and school have been widely applauded, the detractors state that the report was too progressive and has led to a decline in educational standards and a damaging split from traditional educational methods. Garten R. (ed.) ( 1998) Handbook of Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA. DES ( 1967) Children and their Primary Schools (The Plowden Report). London: HMSO. Mills, D. (ed.) ( 1988) Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools. Sheffield: GA.

poetic language. Similar to expressive forms of language, this form consists of words arranged to provide a pleasing format for reader and writer, often involving metaphorical and figurative use of language (cf. transactional language; expressive language). political geography. A branch of geography which studies the phenomena within politically defined areas (for example their boundaries, divisions, interrelationships, resources, etc.). Political Geography Quarterly. Ajournai which publishes scholarly and researchbased articles on political geography. political literacy. An understanding of political processes, institutions and decision-making. The inclusion within the geography curriculum of political terms and methodology, and the development of an appreciation of how to argue rationally and make balanced decisions, owe something to the role of political literacy. Butt, G. ( 1990) 'Political understanding through geography teaching'. Teaching Geography, 15(2), 62-5. Crick, B. ( 1990) 'Politics and geography'. Teaching Geography, 15(2), 5 1 -2. Crick, B. and Porter, A. ( 1978) Political Education and Political Literacy. Harlow: Longman. Huckle, J. ( 1983) 'Political education', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 82-8. Huckle,J. ( 1997) Towards a critical school geography', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 241-52. Marvell, A. ( 1997) 'Social and political dimensions in post-16 geography', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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population POLITICS AND EDUCATION. Despite frequent protests among educationists that politicians interfere too much within education, it is difficult to deny that education as a process is broadly political. As with any activity that is such a large consumer of public money - and here education stands alongside health and defence - one would expect politicians to take an active interest in how this expenditure is accounted for. The budget afforded to education in virtually all developed countries is massive, and therefore it is only proper that there be due debate about what the priorities should be for its use. Indeed it can be argued that because large sections of the population are either directly or indirectly involved in the outcomes of the educational process particularly perhaps the parents, children and employers - there should be a strong political voice to make statements about the ways in which education is paid for, managed and delivered. Concepts of education are clearly very different within differing political ideologies. Arguments about whether the state or private businesses should fund education; about the rights of parental choice of schools; about nursery provision; about assessment and testing and a myriad of other issues, all have a political expression. As such the preferred aims, outcomes, purposes and processes of education vary according to one's political ideology. The major political parties have traditionally been influenced in their thinking about education by a number of individuals and pressure groups, largely from the right of the political spectrum. Chief among these over the past quarter-century are the Centre for Policy Studies (CPS), Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) and Hillgate Group, which formed the core of New Right thinking on education at the end of the 1980s. In addition, other right-of-centre groups such as the Critical Quarterly Society, which produced the influential Black Papers in the 1970s, the Conservative Philosophy Group (CPG) and the Adam Smith Institute (ASI) also produced a series of pamphlets, articles, books and papers dedicated to a free market and privatized approach to education. In contrast, the political left in England and Wales has not traditionally benefited from the support of such pressure groups, although since the late 1980s we have seen the creation of the Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) in 1988, and Demos in 1992. The influence of teacher unions may also be seen as either a centrist, or left-of-centre, influence according to the particular union under consideration. population. The total number of some thing, which may be limited within a specified group, inhabiting a particular area. A sample is a subset of a given population. population geography. A branch of geography which studies the spatial distribution of people, including the geographical expressions created by their dynamics. portfolio. A collection of work which exemplifies performance. In geography, portfolios have been configured in various ways - some being compiled to show an individual pupil's best work, others to represent work of a particular standard or level by taking examples of work by a number of pupils. Such portfolios may carry teachers' marks, comments, etc. In many schools the inclusion of 'borderline' work - which exemplifies a particular grade or level boundary has proved helpful when judging the performance of pupils on given pieces of work. Butt. G., Lambert, D. andTelfen S. (eds) ( 1995) Assessment Works. Sheffield. GA. Howes, N. ( 1996) The portfolio as a Key Stage 3 assessment tool'. Teaching Geography, 21 (3), 143-5. 144

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positivism. See logical positivism. possibilism. A philosophical concept that refutes the excesses of environmental determinism in that it accepts that environments can limit human activities, but that humans have freedom of choice and opportunities in the ways in which they exist within different environments. post-16. The tertiary stage of education, beyond the age of compulsory school attendance at 16. Postgraduate Certifícate of Education (PGCE). A qualification for graduates who have already taken a first degree in a subject relevant to the curriculum area in which they wish to teach. The PGCE is normally a one-year full-time course leading to provisional Qualified Teacher Status (QTS), which is confirmed following a year of successful teaching in school. The course covers 36 weeks, 24 weeks of which are school-based, and combines aspects of educational theory and practice. Students are usually taught and supervised jointly by tutors within universities (or other accredited institutions) and by trained mentors within schools. PGCE courses all have partnership arrangements with the schools where students gain their practical experience; these arrangements are both administrative and financial. In recent years the demands placed upon trainee teachers during their PGCE courses have risen. There are now exacting standards for the award of provisional QTS introduced by Circulars 10/97 and 4/98 as well as expectations during the training period to follow a National Curriculum for information and communications technology (ICT) in ITT. Trainees in core subjects have a National Curriculum for ITT to follow, and tests for literacy, numeracy and ICT have also been introduced for all. PGCE courses are also subject to regular HMI inspections, with target numbers and funding closely reliant on inspection performance. At present some 46 higher education institutions or school-centred initial teacher training (SCITT) groups offer a secondary PGCE in geography under the auspices of the Teacher Training Agency (TTA). The national target for the number of geography teachers to be trained at secondary level each year is currently around 1,200, although recruitment to courses declined through the 1990s. This has led to recent special measures under the Secondary Shortage Subject Scheme (SSSS) to attract trainees in geography by assisting in paying off their debts. postmodernism. A philosophy based on scepticism of all grand theories which provide 'convenient' explanations to problems. Postmodernism attempts to describe and explain contemporary human existence from perspectives different from those of modernist and post-Enlightenment thinkers. THE CASE FOR POSTMODERNISM IN GEOGRAPHY Postmodernism thrives on the conviction that the world is a more complicated place than we have previously believed. It therefore questions the use of nomothetic approaches to explain and understand the world around us, and calls for a more guarded and subtle interpretation of what is sometimes blandly accepted as objective truth. Nonetheless, the term postmodernism is often rather loosely THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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potential concept stage defined and appears to be used by some writers as a convenient reference for almost anything 'new' (but see Soja 1989 and Harvey 1989). Recently, postmodernists have attempted to identify the changes in the world which have had a fundamental impact on geography, politics and philosophy, and have rejected Enlightenment, Fordist and modernist ideas to create a new conception of notions of change and existence. Postmodernist ideas have also been adopted to analyse change in architecture, the arts, culture and social life as well as being used within academic disciplines. Some postmodernists attribute changes to advances in capitalism, others to globalization and space-time compression. In geography this has been expressed by new conceptions of space, social organization, culture and a deeper analysis of the presentation of geography in the written form. Postmodernists recognize that truth and meaning are relative to one's own standpoint and that individuals and groups have competing, but equally valid, views and interpretations of the world. Dominant ideas within society are seen to be mainly those of the powerful and may be based upon incomplete or incorrect assumptions. Postmodernists challenge assumptions of a 'knowable world', 'essential truths' and 'universal laws' and would argue that the accepted scientific means of discovering and applying knowledge are flawed. As such the search for unity within any discipline is ultimately futile, as knowledge is related to a range of beliefs rather than a body of demonstrable certainties. The creation of boundaries around disciplines, such as geography, is therefore impossible and explains the current branching of geography into various adjectival divisions in university departments. A fundamental belief is that the world, and the forms of geography which seek to explain it, are much more complex than we have previously thought. As such the simplistic theoretical models and laws of the conceptual revolution in geography and their search for neat order are rejected; life is complex, space is complex, modelling is rarely successful. Postmodernists believe that most explanations in geography are partial and that adopting rational, reasoning approaches to solving intellectual problems will only get us so far. Thus single explanations of geographical phenomena rarely access the truth, and a plurality of explanations is often the key to greater understanding. Unfortunately, the continual 'unpacking' of geography in the search for fuller knowledge may leave little in its stead. The future influences of postmodernism on various disciplines, including geography, are as yet unclear (see Bale 1996; Morgan 1996). With particular reference to schools, Marsden (1995) states, 'the concept is so ill defined and idiosyncratically used, it is difficult to offer guidance on how it might be accommodated in the school setting' (p. 211). However, others, such as Bale (1996), believe that 'geography in schools - as elsewhere - exhibits a "post modern condition" and hence the place of postmodernism in geography in schools constitutes a valid subject for discussion among those involved in the geographical education of young people' (p. 288). Bale,]. (1996) The challenge of postmodernism', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 287-96. Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Blackwell. Marsden, W. ( 1995) Geography I 1-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton. Morgan,]. ( 1996) 'What a carve up! New times for geography teaching', in W. Kent et al., Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 50-70. Soja, E. ( 1989) Postmodern Geographies. London: Verso.

potential concept stage. According to Vygotsky, the stage in cognitive development immediately before full attainment is reached; the stage at which a learner can recognize some, but not all, of the attributes of a concept. 146

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primary geography Vygotsky, L ( 1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT

prejudice. A preconceived, often negative, attitude or set of attitudes towards an individual or group of people. It is literally a pre-judgement, revealing intolerance and discrimination, often based on characteristics such as race, colour, ethnicity, sex, age and/or class, and often arising out of ignorance and out of fear of the unknown. Barrett, H. ( 1996) 'Education without prejudice', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 29-37.

Primary Geographer. One of the three journals of the Geographical Association (GA). Published three times a year it is a magazine for those involved in teaching geography at the primary level and contains practical teaching ideas. primary geography. All aspects of the teaching and learning of geography within the primary age range of 7 to 11 years. Before the passing of the Education Reform Act (1988), and the creation of the first Geography National Curriculum (GNC) (1991), the condition of geography education at primary level was generally poor. This was confirmed by HMI reports into geography and history teaching at this level and by statements made by the Geography Working Group (GWG) in their Final Report (1990), such as, 'the neglect of geography in primary schools is in our view the most serious weakness, and tackling this should be given a high priority' (p. 5). The GNC introduced an important entitlement for pupils to study geography in Key Stages 1 and 2, although schools were in the early 1990s initially underresourced and teachers untrained to take on these responsibilities. Major advances did occur in many schools with the creation of geography coordinators from among existing teaching staff. However, in 1998 the Secretary of State for Education announced a relaxation in the requirements to teach geography at primary level such that greater emphasis could be placed on literacy and numeracy. Although coupled with the exhortation that schools should still teach a broad and balanced curriculum, the announcement caused an inevitable downturn in the fortunes of geography at primary level. Geography is a dynamic subject that should form a central part of children's education within both the primary and the secondary age ranges. It is essential in helping children start to understand places, their home and school localities and the wider world. Geography introduces children to patterns and processes in the human and physical worlds and enables them to begin to make connections between the two. At primary level it provides a vehicle for outdoor education within the environment and helps children to develop a range of practical and enquiry-based skills. The role of geography education in supporting the development of reasoning and thinking abilities, as well as supporting programmes of information and communications technology (ICT), numeracy and literacy teaching, is also well established. Bale, J. ( 1987) Geography in the Primary School. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Blyth, A. and Krause, J. ( 1996) Primary Geography. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Bowles, R. ( 1995) Practical Guides: Geography. Leamington Spa: Scholastic Publications. Carter, R. (ed.) ( 1998) Handbook of Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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primary school Foley, M. and Janikoun, J. ( 1996) The Really Practical Guide to Primary Geography. London: Stanley Thornes. SCAA ( 1997) Geography at Key Stage 2: Curriculum Planning Guidance for Teachers. London: SCAA. Wiegand, R ( 1993) Children and Primary Geography. London: Cassell.

primary school. The first stage of compulsory schooling. The Haddow Report of 1926 suggested that the division between primary and secondary school should come at the age of 11 ; before this most children were educated in infant schools (from age 5 to 7) and then in separate-sex schools (from age 8 to 14). The majority of schools now conform to a pattern of primary education up to the age of 11 (infants from 5 to 7 and juniors from 8 toll) followed by secondary education from 11 to 16 or 18. The growth of middle schools in certain local education authorities (LEAs), following the Plowden Report of 1967 which recommended a three-tier structuring of compulsory education, has now declined partly as a result of the age divisions within National Curriculum Key Stages. Nonetheless, there are still parts of England and Wales where secondary education starts within existing middle schools. primary source. A source of information which is collected as raw data from the field (cf. secondary source). probation (induction). Until 1992, Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) could only be awarded to a teacher following successful completion of a recognized course of initial teacher training (ITT) followed by a year's successful teaching in a state school. The QTS was awarded by the Department of Education and Science (DES) but monitored by inspectors and advisers within local education authorities (LEAs) and schools who had particular responsibilities for probationary teachers. The system was effectively reintroduced in 1999 when schools were once again given the responsibility of inducting and monitoring their progress towards confirmation of the provisional award of QTS. (See career entry profile.) process. A procedure, progression or connected series of events. professional development. The further development of a teacher's professional competence, expertise, knowledge and skills through in service education and training (INSET) or continued professional development (CPD) courses. Such professional development may be award-bearing and provided by either a local education authority (LEA) or university, or a partnership between both. Increasingly, professional development is also provided by private educational consultants and awarding bodies. The Teacher Training Agency (TTA) has developed national standards to define expertise in key roles in teaching linked to continuing professional development for newly qualified teachers (NQTs), special educational needs co-ordinators (SENCOs), subject leaders and headteachers. Williams, M., Biilmann, Q, and Gerben R. (eds) ( 1988) Towards Models for the Continuing Education of Geography Teachers. Brisbane: IGUCGE.

Professional Geographer. Published quarterly by the Association of American Geographers (AAG), ajournai carrying a series of short articles, commentaries and reports of interest to geographers. 148

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progressive

profile. A record of pupil achievement which may, or may not, have reference to performance in external examinations. Profiles were originally introduced as an alternative to school reports and formal assessments. They may not be linked solely to subject performance but can include a range of qualitative, behavioural and achievement-related statements. As such profiles can provide a fuller picture of the individual pupil's knowledge, understanding and skills than a set of examination grades. Much of the early development of profiles was related to vocational education, such as the Technical and Vocational Educational Initiative (TVEI) and national records of achievement (RoA). Profiles are often used with pupils who have, or potentially will have, little examination success. Catford, R. ( 1990) 'Effective prompts for profiling'. Teaching Geography, 15(4), 163-5. Graves, N. and Naish, M. (eds) ( 1986) Profiling in Geography. Sheffield: GA. programme of study. Introduced by the Education Reform Act (1988) as a central component of each subject, a programme of study refers to the 'matters, skills and processes which are required to be taught to pupils of different abilities and maturities during each Key Stage'. These are laid out in each National Curriculum Order together with the statutory attainment target(s). Progress in Geography. Ajournai first published in 1969 for scholarly and research-based articles, as well as reviews of developments in international research in all branches of geography. Progress in Human Geography. Ajournai for scholarly and research-based articles, as well as reviews of developments in international research, and annual progress reports, in human geography. Progress in Physical Geography. Ajournai for scholarly and research-based articles, as well as reviews of developments in international research, and annual progress reports, in physical geography. progression. The measurable advances in knowledge, understanding and skills made by pupils within a subject. Pupils should make progress at a pace appropriate to the individual and which maximizes their potential. The term can also be applied to the design of a curriculum, where the chosen sequence of lessons is intended to promote learning. Assessment is one of the most appropriate ways of monitoring pupil progression (cf. continuity). Bennetts.T. ( 1995) 'Continuity and progression'. Teaching Geography, 20(2), 75-9. Bennetts,! ( 1996) 'Progression and differentiation', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 81-93. Daugherty K. (1996) 'Defining and measuring progression in geography', in E. Rawling and R. Daugherty (eds), Geography into the Twenty-first Century. Ch¡ehester: Wiley, pp. 195-215. Rawling, E. ( 1997) 'Issues of continuity and progression in post-16 geography', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. I 1-30.

progressive education. A term which has gained a variety of meanings over the years and is therefore difficult to define succinctly. Originally it referred to a form of education espoused by educationists who felt that the traditional methods of education used in the nineteenth century - typified by rote learning, teacher-centred education and corporal punishment in schools - were in need of reform. However, in the second half of the twentieth century the term was THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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projective

applied somewhat indiscriminately to those who wanted to see the growth of comprehensivization, and the removal of a tripartite system of secondary schooling. In the 1960s and '70s progressive education was attacked by various rightwing groups and academics in the belief that the ideas underlying it were causing a decline in educational standards. Most prominent amongst these attacks were those of the Black Papers, which criticized the integrated curricula of primary education, child-centred teaching methods, the demise of the 11+ examination and the decline in disciplinary standards which they saw as related to the liberalization of educational methods. The use of the label 'progressive', applied to either a school, an educational theory, or a person, is problematic, as many of these may contain elements of both traditionalism and progressivism. The term is usually applied to a form of broad general education, based largely on the humanities and the liberal arts but with elements of science and technology, which utilizes child-centred approaches. In geography education progressivism has been witnessed within humanistic and behavioural approaches to geography, which have encouraged both a people-environment perspective and the use of enquiry learning methods. Fien, J. ( 1983) 'Humanistic geography', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 43-55. Fien, J. ( 1999) Towards a map of commitment: a socially critical approach to geographical education'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), 140-58. Fien, J. and Slater; F. ( 1983) 'Behavioural geography', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 30-42. Huckle, J. (1983) The politics of school geography, in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 143-54.

projective space. A form of spatial conceptualization (see Topological and Euclidean space). The ability to deal with the relationship between objects in space increases as the learner's appreciation of distribution, location and order improves. PSHME, FSE, PSME. See Personal, social, health and moral education. public examinations (external examinations). Set, administered and assessed by accredited awarding bodies, by whom certificates are issued to successful candidates. These certificates have national and/or international acceptability as a reliable indicator of an educational standard, or set of standards, reached. pupil-centred education. A form of education that seeks to ensure that pupils are placed at the heart of the process of education. The learning activities designed for the pupil, and their effects on pupil thinking and activity, are considered to be of paramount importance. The terms pupil-centred education and childcentred education are often used synonymously.

ISO

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Q QCA. See Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. QTS. See Qualified Teacher Status. quadrat. An instrument used in statistical sampling. It is usually a 1-metre-square frame which conveniently provides a uniform survey area for sampling. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). Created in 1997 as a result of the amalgamation of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) with the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) following the passing of the Education Act (1997). It has a remit to overview the curriculum, assessment and qualifications offered in schools, colleges and the workplace and is the regulatory authority for all awarding bodies. The QCA publishes a variety of materials to support geography education, some of which are listed below, as well as a termly 'update' which details changes to the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) and its assessment, geography examination syllabuses (or specifications) and public examinations. The QCA has sister organizations in Wales and Northern Ireland which publish similar materials (see Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC); and Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA)). PUBLICATIONS A Scheme of Work for Key Stages I and 2: Geography (QCA/DfEE/SEU 1998) Geographical Enquiry at Key Stages 1-3: Discussion Paper No.3 (QCA 1998) Maintaining Breadth and Balance at Key Stages I and 2 (QCA 1997) Expectations in Geography at Key Stages I and 2 (SCAA 1997) Geography at Key Stage 2: Curriculum Planning Guidance for Teachers (SCAA 1997) Geography and the Use of Language: Key Stages I and 2 (SCAA 1997) Teacher Assessment in Key Stage 2 (SCAA 1997) Consistency in Teacher Assessment: Guidance for Schools (SCAA 1995) Consistency in Teacher Assessment: Exemplification of Standards - Key Stage 3 Geography (SCAA 1996) THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

I5I

Qualified Teacher Status Consistency in Teacher Assessment Optional Tests and Tasks - Key Stage 3 Geography (SCAA 1996) Geography and the Use of Language: Key Stage 3 (SCAA 1997) Teaching Environmental Matters through the National Curriculum (SCAA 1996)

Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Awarded by the Secretary of State for Education, under the auspices of the Department for Education and Employment (DffiE), to those who have successfully completed a recognized course which develops the professional standards for teaching. At present QTS is awarded provisionally after training and only confirmed after a period of one year's successful teaching in school. QTS therefore encompasses the criteria and standards for qualifying as a teacher in a maintained school in England and Wales. The usual routes for gaining QTS are through taking a Bachelor of Education or Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) course, or through a recognized BA/B.Sc. with education, which offers QTS in addition to the subject degree course itself. qualitative research. The use of research methods, largely adopted from the social sciences, which make frequent use of observation and interview. Previously, much educational research was quantitative in nature; and while such work is still carried out, many researchers now prefer qualitative methods, believing that they allow a greater depth of understanding. With reference to geography education, Boardman (1993) classifies qualitative research as being variously described as 'soft', 'subjective' or 'less rigorous'. Instead of testing hypotheses it aims to explore situations with a view to describing, explaining or illuminating them. It believes in giving people the maximum flexibility when they agree to participate in research. Questionnaires, for example, will be largely free-response, and interviews will be semi structured or unstructured, giving respondents plenty of scope to answer questions in their own way. (p. 85)

With their assumptions of multiple realities, which are a function of personal perceptions and interactions, such research techniques deny the existence of a single objective world that can be measured. Terms such as 'naturalism', 'ethnography', 'constructivism' and 'interpretation' are also used in relation to qualitative research methods. Boardman, D. ( 1993) 'Evaluating quality in research: asking why? as well as how?' IRGEE, 2( I ), 85-8. Cohen, L and Manion, L ( 1994) Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. Habermas, J. ( 1974) Theory and Practice. London: Heinemann. McElroy, B. ( 1993) 'How can we be sure? Ground rules for judging research quality'. IRGEE, 2(1), 66-9.

quality of life. Broadly, a person's conditions of life and lifestyle, often interpreted as the level of satisfaction with these. Inevitably, quality of life is a subjective measurement; however, it may be possible to assess one's social well-being through a number of indicators. These vary from measurements of the basics (such as shelter, food, water, clothing) to more advanced criteria (such as telephone ownership, car ownership, mental and physical health, etc.). Considerations of quality of life therefore vary between individuals, societies, places and times. 152

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quantification. Measuring phenomena and the representation of them in numerical terms. quantitative research. Broadly, ascribing numerical values to observations, behaviours and outcomes. It is largely based on scientific approaches and statistical methods, often in direct contrast to qualitative research methods. Quantitative research methods mainly derive from the natural sciences (including the social and behavioural sciences) and are typified by hard-edged, positivistic research which uses 'objective' data and relies on scientific methods such as hypothesis-testing. As Boardman (1993) states in the context of geography education: Quantitative research is usually described as 'hard' research which uses 'rigorous' methods of data collection and analysis, resulting in 'objective' findings. Research of this kind tests preconceived hypotheses already deduced from a known body of theory. The data collected are normally analysed for statistical significance in order to verify, modify or reject a hypothesis, (p. 85)

Methods are often preoccupied with questions concerning definitions, objectivity, replicability and causality. They are usually based on the idea that a single objective and observable reality exists which can be measured and ultimately understood. Experimental research, structured interviews and questionnaires are favoured techniques. Such positivistic approaches, being heavily reliant on observation and measurement, regularly aim to produce laws or generalizations that are observable under similar conditions elsewhere. Terms such as 'positivist' and 'empiricist' are often applied to quantitative research methods. Boardman, D. ( 1993) 'Evaluating quality in research: asking why? as well as how?' IRGEE, 2(1), 85-8. Cohen, L. and Manion, L ( 1994) Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. Habermas, J. ( 1974) Theory and Practice. London: Heinemann. McElroy, B. ( 1993) 'How can we be sure? Ground rules for judging research quality'. IRGEE, 2(1), 66-9. Schrettenbrunner, H. ( 1993) 'How to judge quality in research'. IRGEE, 2(1), 73-5.

quantitative revolution. A broad movement in geography which advocated the use of quantitative techniques, such as statistical and mathematical methods, during the 1950s and 1960s. The approaches adopted amounted to a paradigm shift in geographical thought with the use of nomothetic rather than idiographic methods. Geographers made numerous attempts to produce laws and theories of spatial organization during this period, placing trust in scientific, objective and empirical methods. Holt-Jensen, A. ( 1999) Geography: History and Concepts:A Student's Guide. London: SAGE. Johnson, R. ( 1979) The Making of Modern Geography: A History of Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945. London: Edward Arnold.

question. A statement worded so as to elicit information from a respondent. questionnaire. A series of questions designed to be used as a method of gathering data for a study.

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R race. A term often used to categorize or classify people who share broadly similar ethnic, physical, social and cultural characteristics, as well as geographical origins. In their definition of a 'racial group' the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) make reference to: • colour • nationality • ethnicity • a long shared history • a cultural tradition of its own • a common geographical origin • descent from a small number of common ancestors • a common language • a common literature • a common religion • being either a minority or a majority within a larger community (Source: Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) (1989) Code of Practice for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination in Education. London: CRE)

However, any sub-classification of the single species Homo sapiens into 'races' is largely unscientific and unhelpful. As such 'race' is considered a controversial social concept by many scientists and is not used by anthropologists to describe humans. The biological concept of race is therefore considered unhelpful by many in any attempts to classify the world's human population into distinct racial groups (or sub-species). Such groups rarely, if ever, exist, because of migration and interbreeding. Often the terms 'race' and 'ethnicity' are used interchangeably - and wrongly - to describe the characteristics of a perceived group of people; race is a broadly biological definition whereas ethnicity is culturally determined. Grosvenor, I. (1999) '"Race" and education', in D. Matheson and I. Grosvenor (eds), An Introduction to the Study of Education. London: Fulton, pp. 70-83. 154

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racism. Prejudicial thoughts and actions resulting in the unequal treatment of a particular racial group. The assumption that a person's characteristics, behaviour, intelligence, etc. are determined by their race, and that one race is superior to another, is at the core of racism (see race). Gill, D. ( 1983) 'Anti-racist teaching through geography'. Contemporary issues in Geography and Education, I (I), 34-6. Jackson, R ( 1989) 'Challenging racism through geography teaching'. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 13(1), 5-14. Wright, D. ( 1983) 'A portrait of racism in geography'. Education journal, 5(2), 1-5.

radical geography. Seeks to transform society through political action, rather than merely describing or analysing society. It grew in the 1970s in the United States, initially basing its ideas upon Marxist thinking, and has developed geographical theories on the nature of capital, urbanism, environment, class, development and economy. The influence of radical geography on geography education can be seen in a number of publications and articles, perhaps most notably those written by Huckle. Harvey, D. ( 1973) Social Justice and the City. London: Edward Arnold. Huckle, J. (ed.) ( 1983) Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Peet, R. ( 1977) Radical Geography. Chicago: Maaronfa Press. Pepper D. ( 1993) Eco-sodalism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice. London: Routledge.

raising of school leaving age (RoSLA). In 1973 the secondary school leaving age was raised from 15 to 16, a procedure usually referred to by the acronym RoSLA. Original recommendations for the raising of the leaving age were contained within the 1944 Education Act and the Newsom Report (1963). The additional year for which secondary pupils would be taught created the need for a revision to the subject curricula for final year pupils in school, particularly those of lower ability who would previously have left school at 15. The curriculum development project directly related to such revisions in geography was Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). ratio. A proportion or percentage measurement. rationalism. A philosophy based on a priori reasoning for the acquisition of knowledge (cf. empiricism). Here the rational mind is itself thought to be a source of valid knowledge, beyond that of the world of experience and perception. Rationalism argues that knowledge and education based on the senses and empiricism are flawed, as the senses can be deceived, while reason cannot. It also has a clear view of what constitutes truth and states that there are significant amounts of knowledge that are certain. Some areas of knowledge are deemed to be more important than others, creating a hierarchical set of subjects within the curriculum (see Naish 1996). The rationalist perspective appears to have dominated the creation of the National Curriculum, with the establishment of a subject-based curriculum. The existence of hierarchically important core subjects (English, mathematics and sciences) and less significant foundation subjects (for example geography) reflects a rationalist perspective on the curriculum. It can therefore be argued that rationalism has had a significant impact on geography education. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Rawling Naish, M. ( 1996) The geography curriculum: a martyr to epistemology?' ¡n R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developments and Directions in Geographical Education. Clevedon: Channel View Publications, pp. 63-76.

Rawling, Eleanor (b. 1949). An Oxford graduate; taught geography at John Mason School, Abingdon, before becoming team member and Associate Director of the Geography 16-19 Curriculum Development Project (Schools Council) at the Institute of Education, London, from 1976 to 1985. Subsequent positions included National Coordinator of the Geography Schools and Industry Project (GSIP) at the University of Oxford, and, more recently, Principal Officer for Geography with the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), London. Eleanor was editor of Teaching Geography from 1985 to 1988, President of the Geographical Association 1991-2 and Chair of the Council of British Geography (COBRIG) 1993-5. She was awarded an MBE for services to geographical education in the New Year's Honours List 1995. Eleanor has produced a wide range of articles, academic papers and books most significantly Geography 16-19: The Contribution of a Curriculum Development Project to 16-19 Education (co-authored with Michael Naish and Clive Hart, 1987); The Making of a National Geography Curriculum (Presidential Address to the GA, 1992); and Geography into the Twenty-First Century (co-authored/edited with Richard Daugherty, 1996). She is probably best known for her analyses of curriculum issues, her promotion of geographical enquiry and her campaign for the place of geography in the school curriculum, often via membership of national bodies and task groups. Since 1994, she has organized the biennial COBRIG seminars, now established as an important means of facilitating school-higher education dialogue. readability. A measure of how easy a text is to read and comprehend. Some of the factors used to assess readability scores are sentence length, sentence construction and numbers of syllables in each word or sentence. reasoning. The cognitive processing of available data and information. reconstructionist education. A form of education which can be used as a vehicle to change the status quo in society by adopting a radical, often left-of-centre, perspective. The role of the teacher is visualized as establishing in pupils the means to challenge the accepted mores of society and suggesting ways of creating alternatives. Often this educational ideology involves pupils in active participation both in the learning process and also in the eventual logical conclusion of the ideas and decisions in society itself. Social justice is a central tenet of reconstructionist education, which aims to create a more democratic and fair society through its adoption of a critical stance. It acknowledges that education is never values-neutral and has previously targeted aspects of race, gender, class and global development in geography in order to advance its notions of reconstruction. Fien, J. and Gerben R. (eds) ( 1988) Teaching Geography for a Better World. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Huckle, J. ( 1983) 'Political education', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 82-8. Huckle, J. ( 1983) The politics of school geography1, in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 143-54. 156

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record of achievement (RoA). A summary of a pupil's academic, social and personal attainment/activities while in education (see national records of achievement; portfolios; profiles). DES (1984) Records of Achievement: A statement of Policy. London: DES.

reflective journal. Various forms exist, used commonly by trainee teachers and education researchers. Such journals, 'learning logs' or diaries are designed to engage their owner in reflective writing about their experiences; they may be confidential, shared with a tutor or supervisor or open to more public investigation. Generally such reflective journals are seen as having value in helping the writer reconstruct knowledge, clarify thinking and express feelings. Readers of reflective journals may also be helped to understand the writer more fully, and to evaluate their thoughts and feelings. Ellis, B. (ed.) (1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA. Roberts, M. ( 1989) 'Writing as reflection', in F. Slater (ed.), Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 193-21 I.

reflective practitioner. A concept originally advanced by Schon (1983): he insists that truly competent teachers must reflect on their work in the classroom to improve practice. The idea that trainee teachers should also reflect upon their development and question how and why they are succeeding, or otherwise. This approach has commonly been adopted in initial teacher training (ITT), where trainee teachers are frequently required to reflect upon their development. Schon, D. ( 1983) The Reflective Practitioner. London:Temple Smith. region. An area with one or more consistent characteristics which distinguish it from the areas which surround it. As a human construct, with boundaries determined by people, the regions defined within a given space may coincide, overlap or alternatively have little relationship to one another. Regions may be administrative, physiographic, cultural, economic, political or may combine a variety of attributes. Kimble, G. ( 1999) The inadequacy of the regional concept', in J. Agnew, D. Livingstone and A. Rogers (eds), Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 492-5 ¡2.

regional geography. An approach concerned with the study of regions and their areal differentiation. The regional approach regularly combines aspects of human and physical geography within an area, and studies their interrelationships. THE CONCEPT OF REGIONS AND OTHER SPATIAL DIVISIONS Regional geography, as supported by Hartshorne (1939), saw regions as unique (or idiographic) entities which had their own 'personalities' and characteristics. By the 1960s the conceptual revolution in geography, bringing nomothetic approaches to the fore, created a notion that regions were only unique when considered in absolute space and that their qualities could be abstracted into the forms of models, theories and laws. Hence the regional approach to geography was deemed to be unscientific and dated (see Schaefer 1953) in the 1960s, but has since re-emerged and today is the focus for conceptual debates about the nature of the discipline. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Regions are human constructions; their boundaries are defined, their characteristics described, and their human and physical components identified by people rather than through any 'naturalistic' process. A conceptualization of the 'new regional geography' acknowledges that geographical processes do tend to form regions and that they are not merely a convenient way of dividing space. However, the concept of human and physical features conveniently combining within one space has been rejected and replaced by notions of regionalizing forces that affect certain aspects of human processes. The ideas that some processes form and others destroy regions have also been considered; a concept which has largely dispelled previously loose definitions of the size of regions, which can now be perceived as occurring at a variety of spatial scales. Terms such as 'local', and indeed 'locality', have a similarly turbulent history within the study of geography and often lack close definition when used by geographers. While it is not necessary to seek cast-iron interpretations of such terms, the study and understanding of geography is hindered if the language we use does not have a common currency. Similar problems arise with the definition of 'place', although it may be counterproductive to delve too deeply into exact definitions. Some have argued that if geographers achieved a more unified understanding of the concept of scale, then within this overarching conceptual structure closer definitions of place, locality and region - possibly tied to understandings of human processes — would become possible. Such an understanding has proved elusive, partly because of the complexity of the concepts involved, but also because many human actions and processes 'nest' spatially within different hierarchies and at a variety of different scales. Hartshorne, R. (1939) The character of regional geography', in AAG, The Nature of Geography: a Critical Survey of Current Thought in the Light of the Past. Lancaster PA: AAG. Schaefen R (1953) 'Exceptionalism in geography: a methodological examination'. AA/AC, 43,226-49.

regulatory bodies. Organizations which set or approve national educational standards and monitor the quality assurance and assessment arrangements of awarding bodies to ensure that they work fairly and effectively. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the regulatory bodies are the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), the Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC) and the Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA). reliability. The consistency of an assessment or test in measuring what it is designed to measure. A reliable test will yield consistent results if applied to the same population on two or more different occasions (see validity). relief. The physical shape of the Earth's surface including all its physical features (such as mountains, valleys, plateaux, plains, etc.). remote sensing. The examination of the Earth's surface features from a great distance, often using aircraft or satellites (see Landsat and SPOT) to gather data. Data are frequently collected in the form of electromagnetic radiation. research. The systematic study of a problem, question or hypothesis. Planning and presentation of research usually follows a set series of steps, whether the research is carried out within, or beyond, an educational setting, namely: • statement of the research problem; • literature review including a statement of the location for the investigation within the current body of knowledge and research paradigms; 158

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research • creation of a possible hypothesis; • definition of terms and population; • research design and methodology, outlining a justification for its use and the proposed means of analysis; • collection of research evidence; • discussion of results; analysis and conclusions; • critique of research undertaken, statement on how ethical issues were handled in the research, possible future research, implications of research. Increasingly the roles of the 'teacher as researcher', and of the teacher as a user of research findings within a research-based profession, are being recognized within education. Most educational research is characterized by being systematic and self-critical in its enquiry, contributing to the advancement of knowledge and wisdom. However, it is sometimes criticized for being fragmented, lacking a sense of audience, and for the reluctance of educational researchers to try to replicate the results of others in their research. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH INTO TEACHING AND LEARNING Educational research should provide us with alternative ways of thinking about teaching and learning. However, many writers suggest that such research undertaken in the UK in recent years has often been deliberately ignored by politicians and their advisers in attempts to exclude professional educators from a decision-making role within education (Naish 1993). In addition, and encouraged by this governmental attitude, many teachers have disregarded research findings as having little relevance to their day-to-day problems of classroom practice. Much educational research is thus caricatured as being based on unsatisfactory samples, as exploring idiosyncratic themes, and as lacking in reliability and validity. The focus for educational research into teaching and learning has increasingly shifted over time from looking at 'what the teacher does' (as the source of all knowledge and the transmitter of subject content); to 'what the pupils do'. This reorientation for research implicitly acknowledges that what pupils do, and the ways in which they learn, is at least as important as the ways in which content is transmitted by teachers. Hence the pupil moves to 'centre stage' in research terms and we focus on what he or she does in the classroom, and on the forms of pupil interaction with the teaching offered. Important questions about how pupils feel about their progression and role within the learning process, and the ways in which their environment affects the quality of their learning, have also been researched. It is now generally accepted that the teacher should encourage active participation among the pupils, raising levels of interaction with all the factors involved (other pupils, teacher, teaching materials) and acting to support, guide and facilitate learning. Contemporary research into learning can be simplified through a comparison of three dominant learning theories, although it should be acknowledged that a number of different theories of learning exist. The three outlined here are the cognitive developmental theory, the social constructivist theory and the information-processing theory (Capel et al. 1999). Previously, the theory and practice of pupil learning focused on a transmission model of teaching and learning, whereby pupils were viewed as passive 'empty vessels' to be filled with content which could then be memorized and regurgitated during examinations. However, this has been revealed as a simplistic and damaging model of learning, and the knowledge acquired in this fashion was often shown to be valuable only in its THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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research intrinsic merit — it was not useful for helping pupils reason and solve problems and did not advance their affective education. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY This theory stresses the belief that children pass through a distinct series of stages in their learning, rather than experiencing a continuous process of attainment. These stages can be identified and described (see Piaget), and mark distinct changes in the ways in which children perceive, reason about and understand the world around them. Thus, children are not 'mini-adults', capable of learning in the way that mature individuals do, and the ways in which they are taught at different ages and stages should take account of this variation. The ways in which children think at different stages reflect the developing intellectual structures they are acquiring to cope with new concepts and information. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISTTHEORY A social constructivist view of learning states that true knowledge and understanding is only achieved if pupils use the information they have previously received. In common with Piagetian ideas of cognitive development the constructivist approach values pupil activity in learning. Thus by accepting, revising and reformulating information pupils begin to 'own' the knowledge they acquire, learning on their terms (rather than those of the teacher) to achieve true understanding. Here the conception is of pupils as participators, with teachers facilitating this process of education rather than merely transmitting information. Methods used to achieve such understanding involve questioning, problem-solving, discussing and explaining. It is important that pupils 'learn how to learn' ; as such the concept of metacognition is important. This helps pupils to analyse how they think and learn. Discovering how one learns best, and identifying the most appropriate methods of handling information and solving problems, are very important to social constructivist theoreticians (see Biggs 1985). Within a context of high expectations the benefits of collaborative learning are stressed as they give pupils opportunities to practise their thinking, reasoning and presentational skills. In this context a number of ideas are explored, and 'scaffolding' can occur. The implications are that group teaching and learning may be more rewarding and valuable than competitive and individualistic learning. The 'empty vessels' idea is also rejected, given that learning is essentially a process of building upon what children already know. INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY The information-processing theory of learning has developed from conceptions of how computers receive and store information. Here the perception and memory processes of the child are compared to the information processing of a computer: hence information is analysed in the short-term memory and then stored in the long-term memory with related information which has already been analysed. However, as in a computer, the information in the long-term memory is best stored in abstracted form and is then recalled as an idea or schema - for example, if one is asked to give a definition of the term 'urban' it will be an abstracted form of all the information previously received and stored in one's long-term memory pertaining to the concept of 'urban'. In terms of cognitive development the information-processing theory states that the long-term memory stores a number of schemata. These are then built upon, refined and developed as more information is added to the same category, as a result of new experiences, stimuli, teaching, etc. Hence the geographer's schema of, say, 'environment' may be fuller and more complex than that of many other members of the general public, due to their previous involvement with and experience of information within this category. The information-processing theory would therefore argue that when children are being taught they should be offered a variety 160

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Robinson of links to concrete examples which may already exist within their schemata to help fix the new learning, rather than expecting them to accept abstracted information in the first instance. Critical thinking and the creation of connections between areas of subject knowledge are seen to be central. MOTIVATION One further area of research into learning considers pupil motivation. Motivation, in the context of the constructivist approach to education, is considered to be an important factor in pupil learning. It is not enough just to consider that some pupils are 'highly motivated' and some not at all - motivation is not fixed, it can be increased (or decreased) and it is not dependent solely on environmental factors. Motivation primarily relates to pupils' perceptions of what is important, of what they need and value, and by expectations of success. Increased motivation appears to be linked to teachers adopting more 'learner-centred' approaches to teaching, having clear and common aims within the curriculum, identifying what pupil needs are, and emphasizing the value of what is being learned. Research has been carried out which suggests that group-working is important, as learning in a group reduces the chance of personal failure by sharing responsibilities and increasing support. This is at odds with the government's reliance on research emphasizing whole-class teaching (see learning theories). Biggs, J. ( 1985) The role of m eta-1 earn ing in study processes'. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 55(3), 185-212. Capel, S., Leask, M. andTurner.T ( 1999) Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. London: Routledge. Naish, M. ( 1993) 'Never mind the quality - feel the width: how shall we judge the quality of research in geographical and environmental education?' IRGEE, 2(1), 64-6.

RGS. See Royal Geographical Society. river. A movement of water, usually within an observable channel, towards a lake, an inland depression, a marsh, another river, or the sea. Rivers may flow regularly or intermittently according to the nature of their water supply; however, all are considered to begin at a source, to flow over a particular path called a course, and have a place where they enter a lake or the sea, known as a mouth. RoA. See record of achievement. Robinson, Roger (b. 1934). A graduate of St Catherine's College, Cambridge, who began his professional career teaching in a variety of secondary schools including St George's College, Buenos Aires, and Cheltenham Girls' School. Since 1967 he has been involved in teacher education, first at the City of Birmingham College of Education and then at the University of Birmingham. Since 1990 he has worked with the Development Education Centre (DEC), Birmingham. His writing is mainly for secondary schools, including almost all aspects of geography for 14- to 16-year-olds; for example the Study the Earth series (1980) with Michael Atherton; People on Earth (1984) and Mapwise (1987), both with Ian Jackson; and Brazil (1997). His A Level writing has been on human geography with Ways to Move (1976) and the contribution of substantial sections on economic geography, employment and especially development in general A Level human geography texts. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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He has edited and contributed to many projects with the DEC in Birmingham since 1975, including study visits and publications on Taiwan, Ghana, Senegal and the Gambia. Roger Robinson's main contributions have been working with teachers and students to develop geographical ideas and teaching methods for the classroom. In the 1960s and early 1970s he was heavily involved in the interpretation of scientific methods, behavioural geography and enquiry methods. In the 1980s and 1990s he helped to promote a partnership between school geography and development education which emphasized a holistic approach and enquiry learning based on real life experience and issues. role play. An educational technique where learners attempt to adopt the role, viewpoints and characteristics of given individuals to achieve a fuller understanding of an issue or problem. This usually involves interaction with other learners, or the teacher, in different roles. In geography, role play is used to promote affective and pupil-centred learning, often about controversial issues such as, say, the routing of a by-pass around a settlement or the location of a new power station. Crookes, C. ( 1992) Issue-based teaching using role play drama'. Teaching Geography, 18(2), 71 -7. Walford, R. ( 1991 ) Role-play and the Environment. London: English Nature.

RoSLA. See raising of school leaving age. rote learning. Learning 'by heart', usually through repetition and practice. It is considered a traditional approach to learning which relies heavily on memorization. Learning by rote ensures that pupils can recite whatever it is that has been 'learnt', but they may not necessarily understand the concepts or ideas that surround what they have memorized. Royal Geographical Society (RGS). Founded in 1830, it is the senior British geographical organization. Its premises in Kensington are, in part, open to the general public, and it is the largest geographical society in Europe, with over 13,000 members. The RGS promotes and sponsors research in geography, geographical expeditions and geographical education. In 1995 the RGS merged with the Institute of British Geographers (IBG). It publishes a magazine, Geographical, as well as the Geographical Journal, Area and Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. mail: RGS/IBG, I Kensington Gore, London, SW7 2AR tel: 020 7591 3000 email: [email protected] website: www.rgs.org

Royal Scottish Geographical Society (RSGS). Founded in 1884, its aim is to promote the understanding of the interrelationship between people, places and environment through geographical research, education, debate, travel and exploration. The RSGS publishes ajournai, the Scottish Geographical Journal, which was originally established in 1885 as the Scottish Geographical Magazine. It appears quarterly and carries papers and articles on all aspects of geography. mail: Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Graham Hills Building, University of Strathclyde, 40 George Street, Glasgow, GI IQE tel:OI4I 5523330 162

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Ruskin College speech email: [email protected] website: www.geo.ac.uk

RSGS. See Royal Scottish Geographical Society. rural. Appertaining to the countryside, as opposed to an urban area. The distinction of where a rural area begins and an urban area finishes is problematic, leading to reference to an urban-rural continuum. Ruskin College speech. The speech made by James Callaghan as Prime Minister at Ruskin College, Oxford, in October 1976 to launch a so-called 'Great Debate' on education is significant in that it marked the first moves towards a National Curriculum for English and Welsh schools. Justifications for a core curriculum, with obvious implications for the place of geography education in schools, were outlined in the speech, which also shared many of the assumptions first expressed in the 'Yellow Book' (DES 1976). DES ( 1976) School Education in England: Problems and Initiatives. London: HMSO.

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s Safe Schools Act (USA). Part of the legislation associated with Goals 2000, whereby funding is provided locally to support programmes in schools designed to combat violence, to train teachers in safety procedures, and to help in mediation between children and teachers. It is associated with the Gun Free Schools Act and the Safe and Drug Free Schools and Communities Act. SAGT. See Scottish Association of Geography Teachers. sample. A representative subset of a population, from which results can be generalized for an entire population. sampling. The process and method of taking a sample; in statistics it defines the selection of a part of the population in order to make an evaluation of the whole population. A variety of sampling methods exist for different forms of data and different purposes, each designed to have validity and reliability (for example, random sampling, point sampling, quadrat analysis). satellite image. An image of the Earth's surface taken from a satellite. Such images are often 'false colour' in that they use radiation to create their images and can therefore show a greater amount of information. SAT. See scholastic aptitude test; standard assessment task. SCAA. See School Curriculum and Assessment Authority. scaffolding. The support provided for pupils by the teacher when carrying out problem-solving or reasoning activities. These may be in the form of teachers giving step-by-step guidance, hints, encouragement or text-based support. The aim is to help the pupils in developing their thought processes such that in similar situations in the future they will be able to find solutions following similar techniques independently. Support is usually provided while the child is undertaking the task, rather than before the task is attempted. In recent years the process of scaffolding has been promoted in geography education by the production of geography teaching materials by the Thinking Through Geography team. Leat, D. (1998) ThinkingThrough Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington. Leat, D. and Nichols, A. ( 1999) Mysteries Moke You Think. Sheffield: GA. 164

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scale. (1) Scale provides a representation of reality, proportionately accurate but either larger or smaller that the actual object. The amount of detail provided about the original object varies according to the scale of enlargement or reduction. For example a 1:50,000 map, where objects, features and landforms on the ground are represented as being approximately 50,000 times smaller than in reality, will not be capable of showing the same amount of detail as a 1:25,000 or 1:10,000 scale map. (2) A linear scale represents the ratio of a distance on a map to the distance which actually exists on the Earth's surface. (3) A scale is a series of marks on an instrument used for measuring something (e.g. angle in degrees on a clinometer, temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit on a thermometer, etc.). (4) Scale may be an indication of relative size, for example large-scale or small-scale. schema. According to Piaget, a pattern of knowing whereby an individual builds knowledge through assimilation and accommodation leading to equilibration. Equilibration places experiences, new information and understandings in relation to old, so that a stable schema results which is logical, consistent and does not contradict previous knowledge and understanding. These schemata are tested in the real world when new situations and stimuli occur. scheme of work. A structured plan of the proposed content, learning objectives, teaching methods, materials, resources, assessment and evaluation of a particular aspect of a subject curriculum, such as a theme. Schemes often cover units of work which are planned over the course of a term. They should also mesh within an overall plan for the teaching of geography across the whole year and indeed the entire Key Stage. The revisions to the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) as part of the review of the National Curriculum for the year 2000 saw the introduction of optional scheme of work for Key Stage 3. An updated scheme of work was also made available for geography at Key Stages 1 and 2 to replace the original version published in November 1998. Bennetts.T ( 1996) 'Planning your courses', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 49-63. Bowles, R. (ed.) ( 1997) Geography Guidance for Key Stages I and 2. Sheffield: GA. Hughes, J. and Marsden, W. ( 1995) 'Revising courses at Key Stage I '. Primary Geographer, 21, 15-17.

scholastic aptitude test (SAT) (USA). A form of assessment used in the United States to determine selection for universities, colleges, training or employment for students at the end of high school. The test is multiple choice and usually of 3 hours duration. school-centred initial teacher training (SCITT). The training of teachers solely within schools, without the immediate involvement of university departments or schools of education. Most SCITTs buy in support from university departments, in contrast to higher education institution/school partnerships THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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which run Postgraduate Certifícate of Education (PGCE) courses where the support is established and fully integrated within courses. School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). The 1992 white paper Choice and Diversity, which later became law under the 1993 Education Act, recommended that the National Curriculum Council (NCC) and School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC) be merged to form the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority. school development plan (SDP). An outline of proposed improvements to a school's curriculum, teaching methods, administration, resources and staffing. The emphasis of each plan may be different, often reflecting externally set targets such as those resulting from an OFSTED inspection of the school. School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC). Established by the Education Reform Act 1988 to advise the Secretary of State for Education on the development of assessment, primarily within the National Curriculum (in conjunction with the National Curriculum Council (NCC)). Assessment was primarily driven by testing across the Key Stages. SEAC was abolished in 1993 to be replaced by the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). school leaving age. The 1870 Education Act charged newly created school boards with the responsibility to ensure pupil attendance at school from the age of 5 to 13. After a brief lowering of the leaving age to 10 in the 1880 act (for children who could show basic academic proficiency at that age), subsequent acts raised it progressively (in 1893 to 11, in 1899 to 12, in 1938 to 14, in 1947 to 15, and in 1973 to 16) (see raising of the school leaving age). The most recent raising of the school leaving age for schools in the UK in 1973 had a positive effect on curriculum development in geography, acting as a stimulus for the creation of new teaching materials and pedagogy through the Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL) project. school placement. A block of time which a trainee teacher spends within a school as part of their initial teacher training (ITT). According to the stage of the training process reached a school placement may involve the trainee teacher in observing, gathering data and carrying out research, or teaching and adopting many of the roles and responsibilities of a fully qualified teacher. Schools Council. Established in 1964, it followed the creation of a curriculum study group in 1962 by David Eccles, the then Minister of Education, and a subsequent working party under Sir John Lockwood which reported in 1964 outlining the necessity to form a body to stimulate curriculum development. The Schools Council was charged with the task of establishing new subject curricula and examinations, although it recognized that schools would still ultimately be responsible for their own curriculum arrangements. During its life the council helped to develop numerous curriculum projects, and published research findings and working papers. In geography the Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL), Geography 16-19 project and Geography 14-18 project were each successful examples of its work. 166

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In 1982, despite calls for its continuance from teachers and curriculum developers, the Schools Council was disbanded by the Secretary of State for Education, to be replaced by the Secondary Examinations Council and School Curriculum Development Committee. scientific method. The investigative method used in science, based on established facts and using observation and experiment (empiricism) to establish laws. Inductive and deductive approaches are used, as some scientists would argue that the initial formulating of a hypothesis to test relies on assumption and conjecture. The hypothesis is a tentative explanation of a relationship, based on the inductive reasoning applied to a set of previously collected facts and data. Only when a hypothesis is finally proved can an inductive method of scientific investigation be said to have been fully applied. Scientific method usually follows a reasonably clearly defined set of stages: identification of a problem; observation; formulation of a hypothesis; testing and experimentation to verify, modify or reject the hypothesis; solution of the problem (or return to the hypothesis-forming stage again if necessary). SCITT. See school-centred initial teacher training. Scottish Association of Geography Teachers (SAGT). Founded in 1970, it is the leading professional organization for geography teachers in Scotland. It has around 700 members and aims to further the development and teaching of geography in Scotland. The SAGT publishes the Scottish Geographical Newsletter, an annual journal, occasional papers, and textbooks for geography teachers and their students. mail: SAGTVice President, 73 Muir Road, Bathgate.West Lothian, EH48 2QH tel: 01506 656693

Scottish Education Department (SED). Established in 1872 by the Education (Scotland) Act, partly as a means of transferring the administrative control of schools from the church to locally elected school boards. The SED's functions and powers are broadly the same as those of the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). Scottish Geographical Magazine. First published in 1885, the general geographical journal of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. It contains scholarly and research-based articles on geography in general, and the geography of Scotland in particular. SDP. See school development plan. SEAC. See School Examinations and Assessment Council. secondary school. Any school established for the education of children from 11 to 18 or 11 to 16. In education systems where middle and upper schools exist for pupils aged 9 to 13 and 13 to 18, it is still assumed that secondary education technically occurs from 11 onwards. secondary source. A source of information provided by someone other than the person conducting a study or research (see primary source). Secretary of State for Education. A post created as a recommendation of the Robbins Report (1963), namely that the Minister for Education be replaced by THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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SED

a Minister for Arts and Sciences. The government created a Department of Education and Science (DES) with a cabinet-ranking Secretary of State for Education at its head. The new department was responsible for the formulation of policies on education. In 1992 the DES became the Department for Education (DFE), followed in 1995 by a merger with Employment to become the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). SED. See Scottish Education Department. SEN. See special educational needs. SENCO. See special educational needs co-ordinator. sense of place. Linked to phenomenology and its search for elements of pure consciousness, the notion of 'sense of place' is concerned with the emotional links between people and places and relates to Tuan's concepts of topophilia, or, literally, 'love of place'. In its broadest terms 'sense of place' considers the nature of people's ties to, and feelings about, their environment. Tuan.Y F. ( 1974) Topophilia. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Tuan.Y F. ( 1977) Space and Place. London: Edward Arnold.

setting. The practice of grouping pupils in a particular subject with reference to their ability (see banding; streaming). settlement. A place of human habitation, usually with a number of residences present (although the term can be applied to a single habitation). Each settlement tends to show one of a variety of spatial forms (linear, nucleated, dispersed), and settlements within an area may combine to form a recognizable spatial pattern. short course. In the original National Curriculum devised in the early 1990s, short courses existed in certain foundation subjects for pupils at Key Stage 4. The courses, which were devised for the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) and due to be introduced in 1994 were never taught as revisions to the compulsory curriculum made geography an optional subject within the final Key Stage, thus removing the need. Short courses also exist at General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level in a variety of subjects, including geography. These count as half a GCSE. significance level. The level at which it can be said, with a certain degree of confidence, that a correlation or relationship between two sets of data has not occurred by chance. High levels of statistical significance show that the data correlation observed, and the effects which have produced it, are the result of some form of relationship. However, significance does not necessarily prove a cause-effect sequence. simulation. A model which represents or imitates reality and can be used for illustrative or experimental purposes. Such models can be either mathematical or physical and can for example be used to represent the influence of chance factors in some forms of geographical process (see games). Kemp, R. ( 1985) 'Role play and simulation', in G. Corney and E. Rawling, (eds), Teaching Slow Learners Through Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 67-71. 168

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SoAs Walford, R. ( 1986) 'Games and simulations', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 79-84. Walford, R. ( 1988) 'Games and simulations', in D. Mills (ed.), Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools. Sheffield: GA, pp. 142-6.

sixth form college. Provides academic and, increasingly, vocational education for 16- to 19-year-olds. It is distinct from a tertiary college, which educates a greater age range of students, usually within a wider educational programme. Many students who study in sixth form colleges progress into higher or further education, rather than training or employment. In 1991 sixth form colleges were removed from local education authority (LEA) control. skewness. A skewed distribution occurs in a set of data which do not show true normal distribution, being asymmetrical in appearance rather than occurring as a normal, bell-shaped, curve. If the mean is lower than the median and mode, then the data can be said to be negatively skewed; and if the mean is higher than the median and mode the data are positively skewed (see kurtosis). skills. A diverse range of physical, social or mental abilities, usually achieved through practice. Skills are often placed alongside knowledge, understanding and attitudes, forming a broad range of educational objectives for the learning process. There may be considerable overlap between the skills in each of these areas, such that skills (or any other aspect of educational attainment) are not discrete. In geography education debate has previously occurred as to whether recognizable geographical skills exist, or whether skills are generic and not narrowly applicable to a particular subject or discipline. Slater, Frances (b. 1940). Received her university education at Otago University, New Zealand, and her Ph.D. from the University of Iowa, USA. She was the first person in New Zealand, or Australia, to attain a Ph.D. specifically in the field of geography education. Frances taught in schools and universities in New Zealand before accepting a post at the University of London Institute of Education in 1973. She became a Reader there and was chairperson of a joint department of economics, geography and business education and leader of the geography education section in the latter period of her time at the Institute. In addition, Frances has held visiting professorships at universities in Australia, Canada and the USA. She is an Honorary Fellow of the IGU Commission on Geography Education and a member of the Society of Women Geographers. Her books include Learning Through Geography (1982), reprinted by the National Commission for Geography Education in 1993; and, as editor, Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography (1989). School texts include People and Environments (1986) and Societies, Choices and Environments (1991), which obtained a Geographical Association Silver Award. Her main interests have been lesson planning in geography; language and its role in learning; values and ideologies; and research in geography education. S Level. See Advanced Extension Award. SoAs. See statements of attainment. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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social geography

social geography. A branch of human geography which investigates social phenomena and their geographical expression; often within a peopleenvironment approach. The influence of social geography can be seen within cultural, humanistic and welfare geography, particularly where aspects of the functioning of human society are considered. social justice. Considers the unequal distribution of benefits and burdens among people within a society. Coates, B. (1982) Towards a geography of social well being', in R Wiegand and K. Orrell (eds), New Leads in Geographical Education. Sheffield: GA, pp. 21 -6. Gilbert, R. and Singh, M. ( 1992) 'Geography teaching and social justice'. Geographical Education, 6(4), 7-12. Knox, R ( 1985) The geography of social concern', in A. Kent (ed.), Perspectives on a Changing Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 58-69. Lambert, D. ( 1992) Towards a geography of social concern', in M. Naish (ed.), Geography and Education: National and International Perspectives. London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 144-59.

socialism. A political, social and economic concept which expresses the struggle for equal opportunities and as such is opposed to capitalism. Various forms of socialism exist, but traditionally its doctrine has sought the collective ownership of the means of production, the contribution of each individual to the society in which he or she lives and in return the receipt of protection, education and care from that society. Forms of socialism such as Marxist socialism, democratic socialism and Christian socialism each vary in the emphasis they place on economic, political and social aspects of this concept. The achievement of social justice within society is one of the aims of socialism. socialization. A process by which one acquires the social customs, values and mores of a group such that one can function as a member of that society. socially critical education. Approaches emphasizing the need for education to strive for the creation of democratic societies. As such they tend to adopt active learning pedagogies and focus upon social justice, critical reflection and action. Schools and society thus respond to, and shape, each other's needs and functions. In geography education the socially critical approach has been reflected in enquiry-led teaching, democratic decision-making in the classroom and school, negotiated curricula and an emphasis on community-based learning (see reconstructionist education). Fien, J. ( 1999) Towards a map of commitment: a socially critical approach to geographical education'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), 140-58. Fien, J. and Gerben R. (eds) ( 1988) Teaching Geography for a Better World. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Huckle, J. ( 1988) What we Consume. Richmond: Richmond Publishing/WWF(UK).

Society of South African Geographers. Founded in 1917, the society publishes the South African Geographical Journal. mail: PO Box 128, Witswatersrand, 2050, South Africa

tel: 00 27 I I 339 1951

website: www.egs.uct.ac.za/ssag

socio-economic groupings. Social and economic indicators of people's status and conditions of existence. As such they are often reflective of the nature of one's work and income, with socio-economic groupings being defined to reflect 170

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similar employment status, and/or economic, social, cultural and educational standards. soil. Broadly, any loose material on the Earth's surface in which plants may grow, usually created from rock weathering by either physical, chemical or biological means. Soils are composed of varying amounts of inorganic minerals from the bedrock below them, as well as organic matter from the plant and animal life within them. Mature soils often reveal distinct horizons, or layers, of different materials. South African Geographical Journal. First published in 1917 by the Society of South African Geographers, it currently appears twice each year, and carries articles of a scholarly and research-based nature on all aspects of geography. Soviet Geography ¡Post Soviet Geography. The journal Soviet Geography was first published in 1960 by the American Geographical Society (AGS) to make available to English-speaking geographers research published in the Soviet Union. Mostly articles were translated from the journal of the Institute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In 1992 the journal changed its title to Post Soviet Geography and is now published monthly, containing translated articles from Russian geographers as well as those from Western authors. space. An area which may be occupied by something. GEOGRAPHY AND THE CONCEPT OF SPACE Although traditionally all geography could be regarded as having a distinct spatial element, it was only in the 1960s that the concept of space achieved central prominence within the discipline. At a time when the spatial scientific method within the discipline was growing, as a result of the conceptual revolution in geography, demands from outside the subject also placed great emphasis on a form of geography which could help planners and economists to determine the optimum use of space. In philosophical terms geographers have regularly argued over whether space is absolute or relative, that is whether space exists independently of people and can exert an influence on their actions; or whether people have the central role in defining and influencing space. Contemporary geographical thought generally expresses the belief that objective space does not exist, that it is closely tied up with our thoughts and beliefs, and that we cannot conceptualize space without considerations of our relationship with it. Recent debates on space have focused on how space is 'produced' ; simplistically, that is, how societies at different developmental stages (or within different political systems) conceive the space around them, create built environments, and visualize the importance of places. Different approaches within geographical thought in the 1970s and early 1980s have made their own contributions to the debate, which have featured ideas about cognitive space, experiential space, existential space and structural space. More recent ideas and considerations (Soja 1989; Giddens 1985) have raised the question of whether all social theory is spatial and temporal, rather than being relevant only in certain contexts. Some geographers believe that social thought has been dominated by concepts of time (such as progress and continuity) at the expense of considerations of the importance of concepts of space. It is possible that space is being 'destroyed', or at least radically changed, by our modern conceptions of time and space-time compression (Harvey 1989). The drawing together of places — from the early concepts of the 'global village' to more advanced conceptualizations of globalization - is a phenomenon which impacts on the daily lives of millions of people. Although absolute distances between places THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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SPAG

still exist, these places are becoming increasingly interdependent and entwined politically, economically, socially and by forms of communication such as the internet. Giddens, A. ( 1985) Time, space and régionalisation', in D. Gregory and J. Urry (eds), Social Relations and Spatial Structures. London: Macmillan, pp. 265—95. Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Soja, E. (1989) Postmodern Geograph/es: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory. London: Verso.

SPAG. See spelling, punctuation and grammar. spatial. Relating to space; something that is subject to or controlled by the conditions of the space it occupies. For example, spatial interaction refers to the ways in which movement and contact between things within a space are affected by the nature of that space. spatial ability. The ability to recognize relationships between different objects or phenomena within space. In geography education the development of good spatial ability is obviously key, particularly with relation to map reading and interpretation, to the understanding of distribution and spatial patterns and processes. special educational needs (SEN). Since the 1944 Education Act, special educational needs have gradually been redefined in terms of educational and human development, rather than narrowly on medical criteria. The Warnock Report (1978), which resulted in the 1981 Education Act, sought to redefine such needs according to requirements of particular provision related to specific learning difficulties. The 1981 Act was replaced by subsequent Acts in 1993 (which introduced the Code of Practice) and 1996. Recent assessments of special needs have always included educational, psychological and medical components. A child is said to have a special educational need if he or she has a learning difficulty that requires special teaching, or the provision of special equipment to aid access to teaching. This may be due to a physical disability requiring educational facilities different from those usually provided in mainstream schools for 'average' pupils. Up to 20 per cent of children may require help relating to a special educational need at some stage of their schooling, often on a temporary basis. The term special educational need covers a number of learning, emotional and behavioural difficulties including exceptionally severe learning difficulties (such as multi-sensory impairment); moderate or specific learning difficulties (such as dyslexia and dyspraxia); physical or sensory impairment (such as visual impairment); and, in some definitions, exceptionally able or gifted children. Currently, schools within local educational authorities (LEAs) have to identify provision for the broad range of special needs, on which parents should be consulted (see Code of Practice). In geography education certain special educational needs may require particular attention and the use of a specific pedagogy - for example supporting a child who is colour-blind in their use of an Ordnance Survey map, or a physically impaired child during fieldwork. However, it is more common for geography teachers to be faced on a day-today basis with dealing with general learning difficulties, such as reading 172

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problems. According to the severity of a child's special educational need the geography teacher could expect to be helped by a support teacher in the classroom. Ayers, G., Clarke, D. and Rose, A. ( 1996) Assessing Individual Needs. London: David Fulton. Boardman, D. ( 1982) Geography with Slow Learners. Sheffield: GA. Corney, G. and Rawling, E. (eds) ( 1985) Teaching Geography to Less Able 11-14 year olds. Sheffield: GA. DFE (1994) Code of Practice on the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs. London: Department for Education. Dilkes, J.L and Nicholls, A. C. (eds) ( 1988) LowAttainers and the Teaching of Geography. Sheffield: GA. Sebba, J. ( 1995) Geography for All. London: Fulton.

special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCO). A teacher who has responsibility for co-ordinating the special educational needs (SEN) programme within a school. Special Papers (S Levels). Examinations set by some General Certifícate of Education (GCE) awarding bodies at a standard above Advanced Level (A Level). They were replaced from 2000 with Advanced Extension Awards (AEA). special school. A school which makes special educational provision for pupils with special educational needs (SEN). specifications. The term given to syllabuses produced by examination boards and groups (now called 'awarding bodies') for Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) examinations introduced from September 2000. Butt, G. and Weeden, R ( 1999) 'Arrangements for the new A and AS levels in geography'. Teaching Geography, 24(4), 196-7. QCA ( 1999) Qualifications 16- / 9; A Guide to the Changes Resulting from the Qualifying for Success Consultation. London: QCA.

spelling, punctuation and grammar (SPAG). All General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examinations take account of candidates' spelling, punctuation and grammar. Although the criteria outlined by the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA), and subsequently the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), are applied slightly differently by awarding bodies, this usually means a small number of marks (5 per cent) being awarded against criteria for below threshold, threshold, intermediate and high performance in this area. All geography GCSEs currently have marks awarded for SPAG. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Language and learning in geography', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 154-67. Garten R. ( 1991 ) Talking about Geography. Sheffield: GA Hull, R. ( 1985) The Language Gap. London: Methuen. SCAA ( 1997) Geography and the Use of Language. London: SCAA. Slater, R (ed.) ( 1989) Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge.

spiral curriculum. See curriculum, spiral. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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SPOT SPOT (Satellite Probatoire pour l'Observation de la Terre). A French satellite which carries out remote sensing of the Earth's surface gathering data on environmental conditions, resources, land use, etc. standard assessment task (SAT). One of the formal means of assessment within the National Curriculum. It consists of externally set assessments which incorporate a variety of methods according to the subject and Key Stage. Geography, and other foundation subjects, have never been assessed using SATs. standard deviation. The measurement of variability that shows how much an individual score in a distribution deviates from the mean. standards. Levels of performance or quality, as defined by professionals within a given field. Standards in education are now usually considered as being maintained partly by means of public examination and league tables, on which different educational institutions can be compared. The role of inspections undertaken by OFSTED has also been recognized as instrumental in establishing and maintaining public perceptions of standards in education. Standards can also be statements against which individuals can plan and monitor their achievement, as well as providing professional recognition of expertise and attainment. WHAT IS THE STANDARDS DEBATE IN EDUCATION? Education at the end of the twentieth century increasingly became overrun with the rhetoric of standards, from the start of the educational process in primary schools to the teacher training of postgraduates in higher education institutions. Although no immutable, or even commonly acceptable, statement of 'standards' currently exists — they are, after all, created by professionals who themselves may not agree on what constitutes a 'standard' - their use within inspections, measures of accountability and everyday discussions about education are widespread. However, it is important to differentiate between the standards established by professionals with respect to the quality of their daily work and those which are created and imposed on education by the government. Politicians and the general public have become increasingly concerned with whether educational standards are rising or falling. This nervousness, often in the wake of international comparisons made by educational researchers about how well children at different ages perform in maths or science tests, has undermined the professional confidence of many teachers. In addition there is a fear that the national education system is not offering 'value for money'. The application of commercial criteria and measurement techniques for the assessment of educational standards is worrying; not least because the worlds of education and commerce are very different. The inappropriate use of simplistic measurements of standards - for example using raw examination performances, standard assessment task (SAT) results and truancy rates to create league tables with which schools can be compared - should therefore be resisted. These crude applications of data, implying that educational standards and quality can be judged on simplistic league tables based on single pieces of data, are deeply damaging to the education profession. They skew the educational process, ignore the complexities of value added and fail to acknowledge more detailed performance indicators that might reveal a clearer appreciation of standards. state school. A school controlled by a local education authority (LEA), church or group of trustees. More correctly such schools should be referred to as 174

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maintained schools, rather than state schools, and contrast with schools where parents pay fees for their children's education. Some special schools, while not technically being state schools, may be financed by a local education authority but run by a group of trustees or a charitable organization (for example, Royal National Institute for the Blind schools). statement. Following the 1981 Education Act, children with severe special educational needs (SEN) should be issued with a statement of their needs by the appropriate local education authority (LEA). Importantly, this identifies the specific nature of special educational needs provision for the child. Local education authorities define the ways in which such needs have been measured and the nature of the provision made for them. In areas where social deprivation occurs and special needs are more prevalent, certain LEAs have created local definitions of special needs which have offset some of the requirements to make costly provision. statements of attainment (SoAs). Originally used within the National Curriculum subjects to define subject content more precisely than the broader attainment targets (ATs) within which they were contained. They were closely linked to the ten levels of attainment across four Key Stages within the original National Curriculum. The statements were eventually removed from the National Curriculum by the Bearing Report (1994) as a result of their overcomplexity and the difficulty which their application presented for assessment purposes. Butt, G. and Lambert, D. ( 1993) 'Key Stage 3: professional guidance?' Teaching Geography, 18(2), 146-7. Digby, B. ( 1994) 'Stranded!: reflections upon assessment at Key Stage 3', in R. Walford and P. Machon (eds), ChallengingTimes: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography. Cambridge. Cambridge Publishing Services, pp. 80-3. Lambert, D. and Daugherty, R. ( 1993) Teacher assessment in Key Stage 3: a snapshot of practice'. Teaching Geography, 18(3), I 13-15.

statistics. The branch of mathematics concerned with collecting, describing, analysing and interpreting data scientifically so that valid statements can be made from appropriate samples about characteristics of an entire population. APPROACHES TO STATISTICAL ANALYSIS IN GEOGRAPHY Geographers are often concerned with describing and analysing phenomena within a spatial context. As such they use a range of methods, techniques and approaches not originally designed with the study of geography in mind; hence the statistical methods which geographers use will almost certainly not have been created to analyse spatial data or phenomena. A problem also exists in that most statistical methods assume that any data being collected occur independently of other data and do not affect them causally - however, in geography most of the data one wishes to collect do have a causal relationship with their spatial expression. In geography it is usually impossible to measure and record all aspects of a defined population, phenomenon, or feature within a given area when trying to investigate an issue. This is because the area one wishes to measure is too large, or the population too complex, or the time or cost of full measurement too prohibitive. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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statistics In these circumstances it is possible to measure only a part of the whole population, or a sample, and then by analysis and description of the sample data make statements about the whole population which are as reliable as possible. This type of statistical approach is therefore referred to as descriptive statistics. The observations contained can have various measurements applied (such as mean, median, mode) and can be represented either numerically or graphically as a means of describing the data gathered. Descriptive statistics therefore can describe the data collected, but cannot be used to imply characteristics of other data sets or populations. Although the data gathered may be representative of the entire population, there are still limitations as we cannot be totally confident that sample data truly reflect all the characteristics of that population. Hence, the type of statistical approach adopted when using sample data is referred to as inferential statistics. The establishment of a representative sample usually involves some form of random sampling, that is, collecting a sample in which any item of the entire population has an equal chance of being chosen. The size of the sample, compared with the overall size of the population, is important as too small a sample will not provide a true cross-section of the population as a whole; the size of the population will determine the size of the sample. The aim is to infer from the sample data the qualities of a larger population. Inferential statistics makes use of the known properties of common frequency distributions, such as the normal distribution. This is helpful when attempting to make accurate inferences about a population from a sample. Thus the extent of the population and its characteristics can be inferred from the qualities seen within the sample, within a statistical margin of error or significance level. Statistical significance is measured because if a geographer, or any other researcher, were to obtain two random samples from an entire population and then calculate their mean, there would almost inevitably be a small difference between them. Both represent the same population - but is the difference between their means the result of chance factors, or do they actually reflect a more significant variation which shows that they are not truly representative of the whole population? Testing for statistical significance therefore enables us to say whether the observed differences are so great that the results gained from a sample are in fact not representative of the entire population. A number of different tests exist according to the nature of the data collected, be they nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio data. Some of these are parametric; that is, they make assumptions about the parameters and characteristics of the entire population - for example that the entire population follows a normal frequency distribution. Others are non-parametric, meaning that they make no assumptions about how the data within the population are distributed. Values for such tests are published in tables and have variation according to the degrees of freedom and significance level required. In geography all sampling engages the use of probabilities; the level of significance and therefore the probability of the data sampled being 'accurate' is determined by the geographer who is undertaking the investigation. Many geographical problems include a large number of variables, and are not simply concerned with the collection of one or two sets of representative data. In such cases multivariate analysis, which involves investigations of the significance of relationships between many sets of data, may be required. The relative importance of each variable may need to be evaluated if full understanding is to be achieved. Here techniques of correlation and regression are often used to show how the changes in one variable may affect changes in another. Ebdon, D. ( 1985) Statistics in Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Flowerdew, R. and Martin, D. (eds) ( 1997) Methods in Human Geography. Harlow: Longman. 176

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Stoltman Gregory, S. (1993) Thinking statistically', in A. Rogers, H.Viles and A. Goudie (eds), The Students Companion to Geography. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. I 35-40. Hammond, R. and McCullagh, R (1978) Quantitative Techniques in Geography: An Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hayslett, H. ( 1981 ) Statistics Made Simple. London: Butterworth Heinemann. Matthew, H. and Foster, I. (1989) Geographical Data: Sources, Presentation and Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Norcliffe, G. ( 1977) Inferential Statistics for Geographers. London: Hutchinson. Shaw, G. and Wheeler, D. (1994) Statistical Techniques in Geographical Analysis. London: Fulton.

Statutory Order. A legal document which is an extension of an Act, making law of the decisions of a Secretary of State. The Secretary of State can only create such laws if he or she has been given powers under a previously published Act of Parliament. Within the National Curriculum each Statutory Order relating to a National Curriculum subject provides the common requirements for pupil access to the curriculum; the programme of study which establishes the minimum knowledge, understanding and skills for each Key Stage; and the attainment target(s) which define the standards of pupil performance at the end of each Key Stage through the use of level descriptions. In geography education the Statutory Order for Geography was originally laid before Parliament in March 1991 and was then made law as the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) for all pupils in England and Wales to study from the age of 5 to 14 in the same year. This was the culmination of a curriculum development process for geography which had begun with the passing of the Education Reform Act in 1988 and ended with the issuing of a subject report by a Geography Working Group (GWG) for public consultation. DES ( 1991 ) Statutory Orders for Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO. stereotype. A generalized or oversimplified view of a person or people. Stereotypes ascribe certain characteristics and qualities to all people who fall within a certain category. In geography there are dangers that through generalization and simplification of complex reality a stereotypical image can be created. Stereotypes often relate to race, gender, class, age and culture. Stoltman, Joseph (b. 1940). Completed his baccalaureate degree with a major in geography and education at Central Washington College, after which he taught geography in a junior high school in Ellensburg, Washington. He returned to university to study for an MA at the Department of Geography, University of Chicago, after which he taught high school geography at Barrington, Illinois. He completed his doctorate in geographical education at the University of Georgia in 1971 with his research focusing upon children's spatial development. Joseph accepted a position as assistant professor of geography at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, in 1971 and has subsequently been promoted to Professor of Geography and Distinguished University Faculty Scholar. During 1997-8 he was visiting Senior Lecturer in Geography Education at the Institute of Education, University of London. He has received the George J. Miller Award from the National Council for Geographic Education, Distinguished Teaching THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Honors from the Association of American Geographers, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the East Lakes Division of the Association of American Geographers. He served from 1976 to 2000 as a full member of the International Geographical Union, being Chair of the Commission from 1980 to 1988. Joseph was Secretary of the Committee on the Teaching of Science of the International Council of Scientific Unions from 1990 to 1996. His publications include textbooks on world geography, Canada and Latin America, and map and globe skills. Research papers have been published in both national and international journals on topics such as assessment in geography education, computer use in teaching geography, textbook evaluation and classroom practice. Joseph Stoltman is perhaps best known for his work on geography development teams leading to print- and CD-based materials entitled Activities and Readings in the Geography of the United States (ARGUS) and Activities and Resources Teaching the Geography of the World (ARGWorld). streaming. The process of assigning children of different abilities into different classes for which they are taught for all subjects. There are inherent dangers that some teachers may wrongly ascribe certain characteristics (such as behaviour, effort, and attitude) to children who have been streamed solely on intelligence. In many schools geography may still be taught in mixed ability groups in Years 7, 8 and 9, although the practice of either banding, streaming or setting has now become more prevalent after Year 7. In schools where the number of pupils opting to take geography at General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level is high, some form of grouping by ability is often practised. Where streaming occurs it is usually determined by academic performance within core subjects, rather than in geography. student-centred learning. (Or pupil-centred learning) considers the needs and interests of the student such that learning activities are geared specifically to these. student teacher. A person in the process of initial teacher training (ITT). Student teachers can also be referred to as trainee teachers, beginning teachers (BTs), interns and associate teachers. subject cores (Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels). These were used by examination boards (now awarding bodies) as an indicator of the knowledge, understanding and skills that should be placed within a syllabus (now specification). Subject cores helped to achieve consistency of standards within examinations in a given subject across the different awarding bodies and over a number of years. In geography a subject core representing two-thirds of an AS Level and one-third of an A Level was introduced in 1993 as a foundation on which the (then) examination boards could design their geography syllabuses. The core required candidates to develop a range of geographical skills and to gain an understanding of people-environment themes at a variety of spatial scales and in countries in various states of development. The studying of aspects of human, physical and people-environmental geography was mandatory, as 178

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well as investigative work based on primary and secondary data collection (including field work). In 1999 revised geography subject criteria replaced the core as a framework for the development of A and AS Level specifications. Although ostensibly similar to the original subject core, the new criteria made some changes - such as increasing the maximum weighting for internal assessment in geography A Level to 30 per cent. Specifications were now to signpost opportunities for developing and assessing key skills, although only the key skill of communication currently contributes to the assessment of geography at A and AS Level. Butt, G. and Weeden, R ( 1999) 'Arrangements for the new A and AS Levels in geography. Teaching Geography, 24(4), 196-7.

subject criteria (Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels). A framework around which examination awarding bodies can devise the specifications for each subject. The criteria are used by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) to help them make decisions on whether to accredit new or changed specifications created by awarding bodies (see subject core). Butt, G. and Weeden, R ( 1999) 'Arrangements for the new A and AS Levels in geography'. Teaching Geography, 24(4), 196-7. QCA ( 1999) Subject Gritería for Geography. London: QCA.

subject leader. A teacher who can provide professional leadership and management in a subject area to secure high-quality teaching, effective use of resources and improved standards of learning and achievement for all pupils. As such, subject leaders are expected to reveal qualities of vision, reflection, direction, inspiration and subject management. In geography the emphasis on subject leadership has been associated with: directing and developing the subject, planning development for departmental improvement, using evidence to support developmental planning, managing teaching and learning in geography, teaching and learning strategies and styles in geography, and leading, managing and deploying staff and resources (see GA 1999). GA ( 1999) Leading Geography: National Standards for Geography Leaders in Secondary Schools. Sheffield: GA. TTA ( 1998) National Standards for Subject Leaders. London:TTA.

subjective. As seen from the personal view of an individual, and therefore conditioned by his or her beliefs, values and attitudes. summative assessment. Asessment at the end of a course, with the purpose of identifying a pupil's level of attainment within a subject. Such assessments are regularly used to rank or grade pupils for comparative purposes. (Cf. formative assessment.) supply teacher. A trained teacher who is temporarily appointed by a school to replace a teacher who, for one reason or another, is absent from that school. support teacher. Provides additional help to a subject teacher, usually by working with a pupil or pupils in the class who have a particular learning difficulty. Such teachers are expected to work in the context of a variety of curriculum subjects and therefore may not originally be trained as geography specialists. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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survey

survey. An examination of something in some detail, for example of an entire population through the means of a census. The findings of surveys can be presented in various formats including diagrammatic form, in tables of statistics, written text, or data or by cartographic means. The methods of surveying are important as they should be rigorous, accurate and fit for the purpose they are designed to meet. sustainable development/sustainability. The concepts of sustainability and of sustainable development have largely developed in education in many countries following the Earth Summit of 1992. Ideas of (economic) development have traditionally focused narrowly on growth, with a general disregard for the costs of such growth for environments, people and future generations. Sustainability emphasizes the need to improve economic and social well being (particularly among the poor and disadvantaged), yet simultaneously to protect the biosphere on which life depends, and to ensure that future generations inherit environmental and material wealth which is comparable to that of current generations. As Hicks (1994) states: Working towards a sustainable future requires production planned to meet human needs together with a more just distribution of resources. It means reducing the harmful effects of industry and new technology, challenging company policies which are dangerous to people and the environment, stopping aid programmes which are inappropriate and damaging, reducing over-consumption and waste, restraining population growth, distinguishing clearly between wants and needs, and organising locally, nationally and internationally for appropriate change, (p. 5) Hicks, D. ( 1994) Educating for the Future: A Practical Classroom Guide. Surrey: WWF.

syllabus. An overview, or outline, of a course of study particularly relating to the subject content to be taught. In contrast to a curriculum, which embraces an entire set of subjects and cross-curricular activities, a syllabus is primarily designed to elucidate the content of an individual subject. For example the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) consists of a programme of study as well as an attainment target; the programme of study is the 'matters, skills and processes which are required to be taught to pupils of different abilities and maturities during each Key Stage', while the attainment target contains the 'knowledge, skills and understanding', in short the content, of the particular subject. The attainment target therefore mirrors the information provided by a syllabus. Examination syllabuses are now generally referred to as specifications, which are provided by awarding bodies (previously examination boards). Butt, G. and Weeden, R ( 1999) 'Arrangements for the new A and AS Levels in geography'. Teaching Geography, 24(4), 196-7.

symbol. A sign, shape or object which represents something. Maps contain symbols in their keys, with each symbol being used to represent a feature of the Earth's surface. Beyond the realm of cartography, symbols may be used to represent more abstract things such as concepts, ideas, qualities or values. symbolic representation. The final stage in one's ability to form abstract representations of the world; an ability to think in abstract terms and represent reality by symbolic means. 180

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Syncretic stage. The Syncretic stage is Vygotsky's definition of an early stage in concept learning where concepts are easily confused because the individual has little understanding of their relative attributes. Concepts are grouped randomly rather than in a reasoned way and may be unrelated, e.g. an assumption that all countries beginning with C are South American countries, because Colombia and Chile are South American. Vygotsky, L S. ( 1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. synoptic assessment. The assessment of a candidate's ability to draw upon their understanding of the connections between different aspects of a subject. In geography, this might include undertaking decision-making exercises, problemsolving or issues-evaluation exercises which draw upon the knowledge, understanding and skills they have developed from their previous geographical learning in a variety of units of study. system. The functional relationship between a set of elements or phenomena, the whole being identified by the interconnections between these elements. The breadth of things which systems can represent is extremely large, encompassing both the physical and human worlds, and representing aspects of structures, flows, processes, forms and activities which are interconnected. The formal and functional relationships between elements are often highlighted within a system such that the complex nature of the whole can be better understood (e.g. a diagrammatic representation of the trophic levels within an ecosystem). THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN MAINTAINED SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES The system of compulsory education* in maintained (state) schools in England and Wales exists for the ages of 5 to 16. Broadly two types of maintained schools exist - the county school, which is controlled by the local education authority (LEA), and the voluntary school, which is LEA-maintained but established by a religious denomination.

NURSERY/PRE-SCHOOL (NOT COMPULSORY) Age 3-5 years; education provided privately or with LEA assistance. May be part of an existing primary school, or a separate playgroup or nursery.

PRIMARY SCHOOL Age 5-11 years; some LEAs have separate infant schools (5-7 years) and junior schools (8-11 years), or combined junior and infant schools.

SECONDARY SCHOOL** Age 11-16 or 11-18; a number of different types of school and educational institutions exist in this age range including: • Grammar schools - entrance as a result of an examination at 11. May be LEA controlled or independent and fee-paying. • Comprehensive schools - entrance for all abilities, LEA-controlled. • Technology colleges - entrance for all abilities; curriculum has an emphasis on use of ICT; LEA-controlled. • City technology colleges (CTCs) - entrance for all abilities, but some selection procedures applied. Funded in part directly by government and in part by local businesses. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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system • Foundation schools. • Community schools. • Specialist schools (such as language colleges). At 16 students enter the tertiary sector: TERTIARY SECTOR • Sixth form colleges - education mostly on academic courses up to A Level, although GNVQ courses are gaining in popularity; for 16- to 19-year-olds. • Further education (FE) colleges - academic and vocational courses. • Tertiary colleges - academic and vocational courses. • Independent FE colleges - often include specialist courses in arts. • Sixth form in schools - academic and vocational courses, continuation of educational provision by a secondary school. HIGHER EDUCATION (HE) No age limits; all courses above A Level. • Universities - offering undergraduate, postgraduate and research degrees. • Colleges of higher education - offering undergraduate, postgraduate and sometimes research degrees. Some LEAs still maintain a system of first (age 5-8/9 years), middle (age 8-12, 9-13 or 9-14) and upper schools (age 12-16, 12-18, 13-18, or 14-18). *There is actually no compulsion for parents to send their children to state schools in England and Wales as long as they make adequate provision for their education in other ways, either by home schooling or through private schools. ** Secondary schools could 'opt out' of LEA control and be directly funded by central government up until September 1999 when the Education Reform Act of 1988 was partly repealed. Such schools were known as grant maintained schools.

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T targets. Stated goals for an individual or group to achieve, often within a given time period. Such targets may cover a variety of phenomena and may be jointly established, say between a teacher and a pupil, or determined individually. Target-setting has increasingly become a focus within initial teacher training (ITT) following the introduction of training standards by Circulars 10/97 and 4/98. Task Group on Assessment and Testing (TGAT). Established in 1987 by the then Secretary of State for Education, Kenneth Baker, and charged with the responsibility of advising the government on a system of assessment for the emergent National Curriculum of England and Wales. The TGAT report established the guidelines for all subject working groups as a basis for formulating their assessment systems. Chaired by Professor Paul Black, the group created levels-related assessment, linked to separate subject attainment targets and statements of attainment. The original TGAT report stressed the importance of criterion-referencing and of teacher assessment. The resulting assessment structure was soon revised by government review, having become cumbersome and unwieldy in its implementation (see Bearing Report 1994). DES (1988) Notional Curriculum Assessment andTesting:A Report (TGAT Report). London: HMSO. Lambert, D. ( 1989) 'National assessment in the UK: implications of government plans for a National Curriculum'. Geographical Education, 6(1), 24-6.

taxonomy. A classification of some kind. In education, taxonomies have been used to classify levels of thinking and reasoning skills into hierarchies, such as Bloom's (1956) taxonomy. Taxonomies exist which classify levels of cognitive, affective and psychomotor abilities. Bloom, B. S. (ed.) ( 1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. London: Longman.

teacher assessment. The continual process of assessment through which teachers monitor and record pupils' progress. This can be used to help pupils develop educationally (formative assessment) or can eventually lead to a summative judgement of attainment. All teachers who deliver the National Curriculum are charged with the responsibility of undertaking teacher assessments to THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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ascertain the level of pupils' performance. Since 1994 these levels have been reported to parents. teacher-centred. Describes any educational processes pre-determined and controlled by the teacher, where the teacher often uses a didactic mode of teaching. (Cf. pupil-centred; student-centred.) teacher education. Any form of initial teacher training (ITT), or continuing professional development (CPD) work, carried out with teachers by a body or individual charged with this educational responsibility. The term teacher education is favoured over the use of the more limited term 'teacher training', which implies more superficial learning. teacher training. See initial teacher training; teacher education. Teacher Training Agency (TTA). Established in 1994, as a result of the passing of the Education Act of the same year. Its role is to improve the quality of all training routes into the teaching profession, and it has previously had a role in monitoring the professional development of teachers. The TTA funds providers of initial teacher training (ITT) and, on the basis of OFSTED inspections, decides on the numbers of trainee teachers allocated to different training institutions. Teaching Geography. One of three professional journals of the Geographical Association (GA) launched in 1975 by Patrick Bailey. Teaching Geography is designed to serve the needs of secondary geography teachers and exists alongside its sister academic journal of the association, Geography, and the more recent professional journal Primary Geographer. In recent years Teaching Geography has included more research-based articles, perhaps reflecting developments in the teaching profession of classroom practitioners becoming more grounded in research matters. mail: Geographical Association, 160 Solly Street, Sheffield, S l 4BF teaching style. Encompasses both the ways in which a teacher teaches and the mode of interaction with a group of pupils. Teaching styles can be described by using a series of opposites - formal/informal, teacher-centred/pupil-centred, passive/active, didactic/enquiry-led, autocratic/democratic - although these should be understood as general descriptors rather than absolutes. Individual teachers may have a particular teaching style, though it may vary, to some extent, between subjects and age groups, although often they are personal to particular teachers. Once they are established, preferred teaching styles are very difficult to alter, although some success has been witnessed through curriculum development projects such as Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL) and Geography 16-19. (Cf. learning style.) Bale, J. ( 1987) 'Classroom styles', in J. Bale (ed.), Geography in the Primary School. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 105-38. Gilchrist, G. ( 1992) 'Flexible learning; the way forward for geography?' Teaching Geography, 17(3), 173-5. Molyneux, F. andTolley, H. ( 1987) Teaching Geography: A Teaching Skills Workbook. London: Macmillan. Naish, M. ( 1988) Teaching styles in geographical education', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developing Skills in Geographical Education. Brisbane: IGU/CGE, Jacaranda Press, pp. I 1-19. 184

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textbook Roberts, M. ( 1996) Teaching styles and strategies', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 231-59. Slater; F. ( 1988) Teaching style?: a case study of postgraduate teaching students observed', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developing Skills in Geographical Education. Brisbane: IGU/CGE, Jacaranda Press, pp. 20-6.

team teaching. Any teaching where two or more teachers plan and deliver some aspect of education to a group of pupils in the same classroom. In geography this may be used when a game, role play or simulation is undertaken that requires the presence of more than one teacher, often for management purposes. Other situations where teams of geography teachers would work together might be related to the use of information and communications technology (ICT), or where one of the teachers is a student teacher in training or fîeldwork. technophobia. Fear of using technology, often specifically the use of computers. tectonic processes. The processes which form structural features of the Earth's crust. terminal examination/assessment. The final, summative assessment carried out at the end of a course of study. test. A method of collecting data, an assessment instrument (see assessment). textbook. The use of some form of a textbook as a teaching and learning resource in geography education is widespread, although perhaps most common at secondary level. The term textbook is problematic in that it is often used loosely to describe a wide range of books that serve different educational purposes. For example a textbook may be a 'coursebook' which all pupils possess and which covers an entire geography syllabus (or specification), or it may refer to a single book that is used solely by the teacher to generate worksheets, teaching resources and ideas. With the implementation of a Geography National Curriculum (GNC) in English and Welsh schools in the 1990s, there was a resurgence in the influence of geography textbooks, with certain authors dominating the market of textbook sales. There has also been a trend towards publishers commissioning syllabusspecific textbooks which can be used in close association with a particular awarding group's geography examinations at General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels (A and AS Levels). Acheson, D. ( 1994) 'An analysis of how changing viewpoints in geography at university level have influenced school textbooks at GCSE and A Level'. Reporting Research in Geography Education, I . London: Institute of Education. Butt, G. and Lambert, D. ( 1996) 'Geography assessment and Key Stage 3 textbooks'. Teaching Geography, 22(3), 146-7. Lambert, D. ( 1996) The choice of textbooks for use in secondary school geography departments: some answers and some further questions for research'. Paradigm, 21 (3), 14-31. Lambert, D. and Butt, G. ( 1996) The role of textbooks: an assessment issue?' Teaching Geography, 21 (4), 202-3. Lidstone, J. ( 1992) 'In defence of textbooks', in M. Naish (ed.), Geography and Education: National and International Perspectives. London: Institute of Education, pp. 177-93. SCAA ( 1997) Analysis of Educational Resources in 1996/7: Key Stage 3 Geography Textbooks. London: SCAA.. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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TGAT Winter C. ( 1997) 'Ethnocentric bias in geography textbooks: a framework for reconstruction', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 180-8.

TGAT. See Task Group on Assessment and Testing. themes. In the 1995 version of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) the geographical themes were listed and exemplified under the section 'thematic studies'. At Key Stage 1 (ages 5 to 7), the theme was an investigation of the quality of the environment in any locality, either in the UK or overseas, particularly looking at its attractiveness, how the environment is changing and how the quality of environment could be sustained and improved; at Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11), four geographical themes were to be investigated within the context of actual places, using topical examples and at a range of scales from local to national in the context of different parts of the world (including the UK and EU): namely, rivers, weather, settlement and environmental change; at Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14), nine geographical themes were to be investigated, again within the context of actual places, using topical examples and at a range of scales from local to global. Contexts were given as the local area, UK, EU and parts of the world in various states of development: the themes were tectonic processes, geomorphological processes, weather and climate, ecosystems, population, settlement, economic activities, development and environmental issues. Elements of choice were given within the themes of tectonic processes, geomorphological processes and environmental issues. In the 1999 version of the GNC (DfEE 1999) these themes were broadly maintained in the sections entitled 'Breadth of study' ; for example at Key Stage 3 geographical knowledge, skills and understanding were to be taught through the study of two countries (in significantly different states of economic development) and ten themes - tectonic processes, geomorphological processes, weather and climate, ecosystems, population distribution and change, settlements, economic activity, development, environmental issues, and resource issues. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum. London: HMSO.

theory. A set of logically coherent statements which assist in explaining, understanding or conceptualizing a phenomenon. Theories are usually supported by a number of observations which relate to them, but may be constructed on the basis of speculation. thinking. The mental manipulation of concepts, images and symbols to help in the solving of problems and in the process of reasoning and decision-making. Thinking Through Geography Team. A group of geography teachers, mentors and educators who have devised a series of innovative classroom materials for the teaching of secondary geography. The team is closely associated with the University of Newcastle Department of Education and in particular with the work of David Leat, a lecturer in geography education. The team have concentrated on how children learn, and regard geography as a vehicle for learning rather than a subject that should be learnt as an end in itself. Their aim has therefore been to motivate children, enable them to become independent learners, and encourage them to ask questions through geography education. Many of the materials produced by the team have a constructivist 186

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view of learning and encourage pupils to engage in metacognition as a part of the learning process. Leat, D. (1998) ThinkingThrough Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington. Leat, D. and Nichols, A. ( 1999) Mysteries Make You Think. Sheffield: GA.

tiering. The division of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) papers into two (or more) separate tiers according to the perceived abilities of the candidates who will take the papers. In geography there are currently two tiers: Higher (grades A*-D) and Foundation (C-G). Each tier gives an opportunity for 'overlap', which takes account of the performance of candidates within the C-D grades. Tilbury, Daniella. Gained a BA/B.Ed, degree in geography from Oxford Brookes University in 1990, and a Ph.D. in environmental education from Cambridge University in 1993. Her undergraduate thesis was awarded the David Irvine Prize and a Commonwealth Scholarship for research into environmental education. Daniella has lectured in geographical education at the Universities of Wales, Swansea and Hong Kong, as well as serving as a visiting lecturer at the University of Girona, Spain, and Griffith University, Australia. She has acted as a consultant within the field of environmental education research for a number of universities, including the Beijing Normal University, East China Normal University and South West China Normal University. Her research interests fall within the field of environmental education and education for sustainability, with links to citizenship, and political and development education. Daniella has a particular interest in models of education for critical thinking, empowerment and capacity-building. Examples of her project development and management include Action Research for Sustainable Development, an initiative funded by the Ministry for Education and Culture, Gibraltar; and Issue Based Studies on the Environment, funded by the European Commission and involving schools in Denmark, England and Spain. She has also been involved with a UNESCO Asia-Pacific Programme in environmental education leading to the publication of Learning for a Sustainable Environment: An Agenda for Teacher Education in Asia and the Pacific (J. Fien and D. Tilbury 1996). Daniella has worked within a team evaluating the educational achievements of the World Wide Fund for Nature International (WWF) in eleven countries and has participated in government and NGO committees in Spain, Hungary, Hong Kong and China. Her publications include Environmental Education for Sustainability: Responding to the Global Challenge (2000) (with J. Fien, B. Stevenson and D. Schreuder) and Teaching and Learning Geography (1997) (with M. Williams). time. An important consideration in geography, particularly when linked with concepts of change. Geographers have struggled to combine explanations of process with considerations of time, either as a point in time or a duration of time. Some human geographers have tended to consider aspects of time as a point, thus denying the relevance of a fuller temporal perspective. Others, by concentrating on spatial aspects at the expense of the temporal, or by visualizing time in terms of broad stages of development, may have oversimplified the THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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time—space geography

effects of time. Arguably, physical geographers may be considered to have a better appreciation of time than human geographers. Any geographical theory which attempts to divide the influence of space from time is bound to face problems, although attempts at combining the two often raised huge conceptual difficulties for geographers. time-space geography. Popular in the 1970s when Hagerstrand (1975) conceptualized the constraints on human behaviour of living within a 'time space prism', simplistically the maximum area that can be covered by an individual in a given time. Time-space geography was thus used to explore how people are constrained by various spatial, social and organizational factors and then to create better spatial planning to cope with these constraints. Hagerstrand,T. (1975) 'Space, time and human conditions', in L Kariquist, L Lundquist and F. Snickars (eds), Dynamic Allocation of Urban Space. Farnborough: Saxon House, pp. 3-12.

timetable. A document which outlines the arrangement of the curriculum, pupils and teachers in different locations within an educational institution on a daily basis. The timetable shows 'where, when and by whom' the education of pupils occurs, but gives only limited information on the educational philosophy and aims of the institution that applies it. Tolley, Harry (b. 1936). Graduated from Leeds University, where he also completed research in glacial geomorphology for his MA and trained as a teacher. He began his teaching career at Roundhay School, Leeds, followed by a period at the City of Leeds and Carnegie College of HE, where his colleagues included Keith Orrell and Malcolm Ren wick. From 1972 to 1975 he was at the University of Bristol, where he was a research fellow, and subsequently the Project Director, of the Schools Council Geography 14-18 project - a project noted for its teachercentred strategy for curriculum development in school geography and its role in developing new approaches to assessment. Since 1975 he has been at the University of Nottingham, where he was first a lecturer, and later a senior lecturer in geographical education. The main focus of his work during this period was on the development of effective models for school-based initial teacher training and the continuing professional development of teachers. Since 1990 his work has shifted away from geographical education, and he is now a senior research fellow in the Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning. Throughout his career he has maintained an active interest in the assessment of geographical learning, not least through his involvement as a senior examiner in examinations at 16-plus and A Level. His publications include Geography 14-18: A Handbook for School-Based Curriculum Development (with John Reynolds, 1977) and Teaching Geography (with Frank Molyneux, 1987). In addition he has published journal articles and books on a wide range of educational issues. Topological space. Spatial conceptualization where the child has ideas of proximity, separation and order, but has no system of co-ordinating objects in space and has difficulty in understanding spatial arrangements from any viewpoint but his or her own. tourism. A synonym for the tourist industry, i.e. the provision of transport, accommodation, recreational activities and amenities for those travelling or visiting a place for pleasure and recreation. 188

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trade. The distributing, selling and exchanging of commodities at a variety of scales. transactional language. A form of language most often used in the classroom. It is used to convey factual information, express ideas and concepts and record facts in a logical and ordered sequence. In the geography classroom transactional forms of language tend to dominate as they are convenient and efficient for conveying information. However, teachers sometimes misunderstand the stages that children must pass through in order that they might use transactional language successfully and expect children to produce this form in oral and written work too quickly. Copying notes, filling in missing words on a worksheet, and answering 'structured' comprehension questions on a given text will produce transactional writing, but will not necessarily advance learning and understanding (cf. expressive language; poetic language). School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (1997) Geography and the Use of Language. London: SCAA. Slater, F. ( 1989) Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge.

Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. First published in 1935, it is a quarterly journal of the Institute of British Geographers, a 'general' geographical journal which publishes articles on human, physical and environmental geography. transect. A section taken across an area for the purpose of studying what is contained therein (e.g. vegetation transect, urban transect). transmission model. A model of education where the teacher merely transmits information to the pupils in a didactic fashion (cf. pupil-centred education). transport geography. A branch of human geography which focuses on the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The forms, patterns, costs and volumes of such movement are central to transport geography. In addition the political, economic, environmental and social impact of transport systems, and of their geographical expression, is also considered. triangulation. A research technique which encompasses a threefold evaluation of the methods used and data collected. Often this will involve gaining the views of, say, the teacher/researcher involved, the pupils and an independent neutral observer. It might also refer to the use of three different research instruments to see whether each supports the findings generated by the others. The aim is to improve the process of research and to seek greater validation for any data collected. TTA. See Teacher Training Agency. t test. A statistical test which estimates whether the difference between the means of two sets of data is occurring by chance. Therefore the t test is useful in research situations when one is trying to determine whether the differences between an experimental group and a control group are significant; or whether data collected on the performance of boys are significantly different to data collected on the performance of girls.

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u UDE. See university department of education. under-achievement. A situation where the academic performance of a child falls below that which is reasonably expected, given the child's perceived intellectual capacity and ability. understanding. The ability to perceive, abstract or judge information that is received. UNESCO. See United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization. unit of work. An organized series of lessons, lesson plans, materials, learning and assessment activities on a particular theme within the stated curriculum (see scheme of work). United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Established in 1946 to promote international co-operation and collaboration within education, science and culture between member states. UNESCO was criticized in the early 1980s following its increasingly political involvement in the affairs of member states. In 1984 the USA withdrew its membership of UNESCO, followed a year later by the UK, which rejoined in the late 1990s. Geographers contributed to handbooks and guides produced by UNESCO which aimed to provide the geography teacher with useful educational suggestions based on international expertise and experience in the field of geographical education. UNESCO (1965) Sourcebook for Geography Teaching. London: Longman/UNESCO Press. UNESCO (1982) New UNESCO Sourcebook for Geography Teaching. London: Longman/UNESCO Press.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights. See human rights. university department of education (UDE). A department within a university which specializes in education. The term is now rather dated as most UDEs, which originally grew from day teacher training colleges, have now been replaced by schools of education. urban. Relating to a town or city, as opposed to rural. urban geography. The branch of geography which relates to the study of settlement, its site, form, function, development, morphology, pattern and 190

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evolution. In addition the classification of settlements from hamlet to megalopolis; the study of their location relative to one another and the area in which they occur; and the processes at work within them, be they economic, social or political, are all considered within urban geography. Urban Geography. A geographical journal specializing in the publication of articles related to the study of urban form and process. utilitarian education. A tradition which sees education as essentially preparing children to enter society as functioning individuals. It therefore aims to equip them with the skills and knowledge necessary to operate and survive in the existing social structure. The importance of being able to get a job has often dominated this tradition, particularly with respect to vocational education. Schools are therefore characterized as failing society if they do not produce a workforce with the necessary skills and abilities to maintain full employment. In many countries state policies on education follow, or have previously followed, a utilitarian trend. Here education is seen as a legitimate extension of state goals, particularly within autocratic political systems which seek to use education to further the aims of their regimes. Subjects with a strong vocational significance are valued in the utilitarian tradition. Geography's position is therefore somewhat questionable - its vocational skills of information and communications technology (ICT) use, statistical analysis, teamworking and decision-making may uphold utilitarian values, but the perceived 'irrelevance' of some of the knowledge and understanding traditionally associated with the subject detract from a central position for the subject within utilitarian conceptions of the curriculum (see ideologies). Fien.J. ( 1999) Towards a map of commitment: a socially critical approach to geographical education'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), 140-58. Walford, R. (1981 ) 'Language, ideologies and geography teaching, in R.Walford (ed.), Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 215-22.

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v validity. The extent to which a test, or other form of assessment, accurately measures what it is intended to measure. As such the results of a test may look plausible but may not actually reflect what the test has been designed to find out - for example, it may simply be assessing knowledge, rather than understanding or skills, and therefore it will not give a holistic picture of a child's attainment within a subject. The validity of such a test is therefore questionable. At present there are no quantitative ways of accurately measuring validity. Validity is often difficult to determine when trying to assess aspects of geography education that are subjective, such as the values and attitudes of pupils. Asking pupils what they would do in a given situation - such as a moral dilemma question, or decision-making exercise - may not provide accurate information about what they would actually do in a similar, real-life situation. value added. The additional educational value gained by children by virtue of their experiencing an educational process. Such additional 'value' cannot easily be measured, particularly through simplistic approaches such as the creation of league tables of data. During the 1980s much of the educational policy in England and Wales which was developed by the Conservative government was designed to offer parents greater choice, based on comparable evidence of school quality. Data on examination results were believed to offer the most accessible means of doing this by presenting league tables of schools based on their General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced Level (A Level) and National Curriculum test results. However, raw data do not give an adequate indication of the educational process within schools nor of the quality of the teaching experienced. In an attempt to gain more valuable indications of quality, suggestions to show value added have arisen, for example in converting 'poor' GCSE grades into 'better' A Level grades. Complicated multi-layered models exist which give a more accurate indication of the nature of the value added through the educational process but which have not been widely adopted partly due to their complexity (see Goldstein 1987). 192

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values Goldstein, H. ( 1987) Mu/ti Level Models in Educational and Social Research. London: Griffin. DFE ( 1995) Value Added in Education. Briefing Paper. London: DFE.

values. Promotion of values within education is concerned with the exploration of qualities and principles; in essence the belief that certain things, phenomena and patterns of behaviour are more worthwhile than others. It is often considered that the most productive approaches to geographical education involve a balancing of the cognitive aims of the geography curriculum with the aims of affective education, as typified within values education. In this way geographical education is called upon to help redress the social, economic and political imbalances of the world by helping children actively to adopt values associated with social justice and democracy. Education is never value-neutral as it is a human creation, as are all institutions and social processes. It therefore selects from the culture in which it is practised and seeks to establish priorities for education based on certain dominant values. The fact that education tends to serve the interests of the most powerful groups and individuals in society indicates that educational systems tend to reflect and perpetuate the values of the most powerful educational and political decision-makers (Fien 1996). The dominant cultural values are therefore sustained within education. In their broadest sense the values that are applicable within geographical education may be seen to be consistent with those for the creation of a democratic society, namely: a positive self-image; acceptance of, and respect for, others; compassion and kindness; open-mindedness; respect for human rights; concern for justice; commitment to sustainable development; and a willingness to be involved (Fien 1996). Implicit within values education in geography is the development of children's capacity to clarify their own views, beliefs, attitudes and opinions about geographical issues; analyse and evaluate information; and come to reasoned decisions about such issues. Their ability to defend their own values, and to take action when necessary and appropriate, is also considered to be important. In the revised version of the National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) the 'Guidelines' section of non-statutory guidance contains a statement of values by the National Forum for Values in Education and the Community. These values are promoted as being those which are commonly agreed upon across society and include statements about the self, relationships, society, and the environment. DfEE (1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Fien, J. ( 1996) Teaching to care: a case for commitment in teaching environmental values', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Deve/opments and Directions in Geographical Education. Clevedon: Channel View, pp. 77-91. Fien, J. and Slater, F. ( 1985) 'Four strategies for values education in geography1, in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Falmer, pp. 171-86. HuckleJ. (I960) Values and the teaching of geography: towards a curriculum rationale'. Geographical Education, 3(4), 533-44. HuckleJ. ( 1985) Values education through geography: a radical critique', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geography Teaching. London: Falmer, pp. 187-97. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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variable Lambert, D. ( 1992) Towards a geography of social concern1, in M. Naish (ed.), Geography and Education: National and International Perspectives. London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 144-59. Marsden, W. ( 1995) The values and attitudes dimension: issues-based geography', in W. Marsden, Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton, pp. 137-53. Naish, M. (ed.) ( 1997) Values in Geography Education: Proceedings. London: IGUCGE/University of London Institute of Education. Rokeach, M. (1973) The Nature of Human Values. New York Free Press. Slater, F. ( 1996) Values: towards mapping their location in geography', in A. Kent et al. (eds), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 200-30. Smith, D. M. ( 1995) 'Moral teaching in geography'.Journo/ of Geography in Higher Education, 19(3), 271-83. Stradling, R., Norton M. and Baines, B. ( 1984) Teaching Controversial Issues. London: Edward Arnold. Wiegand, R (1986) Values in geographical education', in PTomlinson and M. Quinton (eds), Values Across the Curriculum. London: Falmer, pp. 5 I -76.

variable. A measurable characteristic that may change its value (cf. constant). variance. The square of the standard deviation. Variance indicates how significantly data collected from a particular population differ. It can therefore be used to help to highlight the need to identify factors that account for changes in the data. vertical aerial photograph. A photograph taken from an aircraft, the camera pointing vertically downwards towards the Earth's surface. video. A picture and sound recording on tape that can be played on a television monitor or computer. In geography education video is generally considered to be valuable in bringing images of distant places into the classroom; enabling different people's views to be heard; explaining difficult geographical processes or concepts using graphics, images and/or commentary; illustrating spatial changes; and bringing up-to-date information into geography lessons. However, it has limitations when attempting to convey complex map information or geographical data; and when providing subtle or complex viewpoints on an issue (instead of 'soundbites'). A variety of strategies exist to ensure that pupils engage in 'active watching' of videos in geography, rather than merely listening and note-taking in a passive way. Pupils should always be aware of the purpose, and of their role, when watching videos and be encouraged to both look at the images and listen to the commentary provided. Butt, G. ( 1991 ) 'Have we got a video today?' Teaching Geography, 16(2), 179-82. Durbin, C. ( 1995) 'Using televisual resources in geography'. Teaching Geography, 20(3), I 18-21. Durbin, C. ( 1996) Teaching geography with televisual resources', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 261 -70. Lambert, D. ( 1988) 'Using videofilm'. Teaching Geography, 13(1), 22-3.

vocabulary. The words an individual acquires which can be recognized or recalled during oral or written communication. There is often a close relationship between the vocabulary one acquires, and the knowledge and comprehension an individual has attained. The necessity for the development of children's 194

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vocational geographical vocabulary is recognized and stressed throughout the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). vocational education. Embraces the different types of education used to prepare pupils for the world of work, an occupation or a group of occupations. WHAT IS THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION DEBATE AND HOW DOES IT AFFECT GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION? The vocational 'revolution' in the British education system started in the 1990s as a major force for change within the existing 14-19 curriculum. Two white papers, Education and Training for the Twenty-First Century (DES 1991) and Competitiveness (DEE 1994), showed the government of the day's drive to focus attention on the issues of student choice, accreditation and the academic and vocational 'pathways' beyond the ages of 14 and 16. A hitherto unanswered question about access to higher and further education post-16 for non-academic students also resurfaced, given the low 'staying on' rates in education for students in the UK compared to those in other industrialized nations. Hence the emphasis on increasing the access to, and the status of, meaningful vocational courses in the national targets for education and training in 1992. A major stumbling-block had always been the lack of parity of esteem between academic and vocational courses. Since 1951 the academic educational pathway had led through Ordinary Levels (O Levels) (and later General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs)) on to Advanced Levels (A Levels) and then higher education. The 'gold standard' was set by the rather overspecialized A Level examinations at 18 or 19; an unsuitable examination for those with vocational aspirations and one which was wasteful of young potential given that some 25 per cent either failed to complete the course or failed to achieve a grade at the end of it. Numerous attempts at reform in the 1970s and 1980s were sidelined, due to their political unpopularity or complexity. Even the most reasonable and defensible suggestions, such as those provided by the Higginson Report (1988), were shelved. Vocational education post-16 was typified by a huge variety of different vocational awards and certificating bodies, while initiatives for school-based vocational education such as the Certificate for Pre-Vocational Education (CPVE) and the Diploma for Vocational Education (DVE) withered, due to ministerial apathy. The Education (Schools) Act of 1992 began to sort out the vocational pathways by introducing a new vocational qualification for schools partly based upon the work-centred National Vocational Qualification (NVQ). This General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) offered an extension of education beyond the age of 16, with proposed parity of esteem with A Levels and clear routes into further and higher education. Despite the lack of integration across the academic and vocational divide, and a variety of teething problems, the GNVQ has made an impact on education and is supported by organizations such as the Confederation of British Industry (CBI) and Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR). With plans for future common modules, changes to certification and a more unified awarding system, the academic and vocational divide is certainly narrowing. By the late 1990s many geography departments in maintained schools in England and Wales had found themselves under pressure to staff and teach the GNVQ courses, which were now beginning to grow at the expense of geographical education. At Key Stage 4 the new Part 1 GNVQ stood in direct competition with the option to take GCSE geography in many schools. The advantages and disadvantages for geography teachers of being involved with GNVQ courses are reasonably straightforward - geographers may have little difficulty in adapting their teaching towards the promotion of enquiry styles of learning expected at GNVQ and may have experience of key skills and work-based curricula; however, the growth in popularity of GNVQ courses may be mirrored by a decline in the appeal of geography. GNVQ courses are, by definition, not geography - they may THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Voluntary Service Overseas have geographical elements within them but do not promote the teaching of geography per se. There are certainly dangers that if geographers become too closely and successfully associated with vocational courses both they, and the discipline, will lose their geographical identity. The key question for the future in schools where vocational courses are becoming more and more popular is: Can geography survive on the periphery of a curriculum within which vocationalism has become more central? Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Student assessment Post-16', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 298-309. DES ( 1991 ) Education andTraining for the Twenty-First Century. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1994) Competitiveness: Forging Ahead. London: HMSO. Crombie-White, R., Pring, R. and Brockington, D. ( 1995) 14-19 Education and Training: Implementing a Unified System of Learning. London: RSA. Dearing, R. ( 1996) Review of Qualifications for 16-19 year olds:The Dearing Report. London. SCAA.

Marvell, A. (1994) 'Should your department consider GNVQ Leisure and Tourism?1 Teaching Geography, 19(4), 175-6. Rawling, E. ( 1997) 'Geography and vocationalism: opportunity or threat?' Geography, 82(2), 163-78.

Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO). Established in 1958 to assist the development of Third World countries. Professional workers from developed countries offer their labour to work on projects in over 40 countries, being paid the local rate for their work. In recent times the range of skills required has changed, with geography teachers being less in demand, compared to science and maths teachers. Volunteers from other professions, such as those within the commercial and business sectors, are now increasingly sought after. VSO. See Voluntary Service Overseas. Vygotsky, Lev (1896-1934). A Russian psychologist who studied philosophy and history at the University of Moscow (1912-17) before teaching psychology at his old gymnasium in Gorvel. Here he became interested in the problems of handicapped children, moving in 1924 to teach at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow, where he attempted to advance the field of psychology within a Marxian framework. Much of his research addressed questions within mental development and theories of learning, where his findings were at odds with those of Piaget's stages of development. Vygotsky believed that children learn most effectively when supported by an adult, particularly when the teacher provides the learner with support in what he termed the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Perhaps his best-known work was in the field of language and thought development, where Vygotsky believed that children's intellectual growth was dependent on their mastery of language. He identified three stages of speech development: external, egocentric and inner. Vygotsky wrote over 200 works, including Thought and Language (1934) and Mind in Society (1978).

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W Walford, Rex (b. 1934). Gained a B.Se. (Econ.), with special subject geography, from the London School of Economics, followed by a PGCE from King's College, London. He was later awarded a Rotary scholarship and obtained an MA from the School of Speech at Northwestern University, Illinois. He started his career as a journalist, but took a temporary teaching post in a secondary modern school in London, where he found himself in the position of head of geography on his first day of teaching. He was appointed as Lecturer in Geography and Mathematics at Maria Grey College in Twickenham in 1963, achieving the position of Senior Tutor in 1971. He ensured that the college became the venue for a number of key DES in-service conferences in geography during his ten years there. In the 1960s he became one of the early pioneers of the use of games, role plays and simulation exercises in geography and published Games in Geography (1964) and Learning and the Simulation Game (1974, with J. L. Taylor). He moved to the University of Cambridge in 1973, where he taught PGCE geography for 26 years, training over 500 geography teachers. He served as head of the Department of Education from 1992 to 1995, and in 1999 was awarded one of the university's Pilkington Prizes for teaching excellence. He is a Fellow of Wolfson College, Cambridge. A lifelong member of the Geographical Association, he served on the GA Council for over 20 years, latterly as trustee, and on many GA committees. He was GA president in 1984 and was instrumental in establishing the annual Worldwise Quiz for schools, the LandUse UK project in 1996 and Geography Action Week. Rex was Chair of the Royal Geographical Society-Institute of British Geographers Education Committee from 1988 to 1993 and Vice President from 1994 to 1997. He was given the Back Award by the RGS in 1992 for services to geographical education. A founder of the Council of British Geographers (COBRIG), he served as its first chairman from 1988 to 1993. He served as a member of the Geography Working Group which devised the first Geography National Curriculum in 1989-90. Rex instigated an annual series of conferences for teachers at Charney Manor, Oxfordshire, in the 1970s, which acted a catalyst for new ideas in geography teaching (New Directions in Geography Teaching (1973); Signposts THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Warnock Report

for Geography Teaching (ed.) (1983); Viewpoints on Geography Teaching (ed.) (1991); Challenging Times (ed. with P. Machón) (1994). He edited, with Derek Gregory, Horizons in Human Geography (1989) and has written or edited a number of school texts and series. Rex has also written over 100 academic and professional articles within geographical education. Warnock Report. The report of the Warnock Committee of inquiry published in 1978, established to investigate the education of pupils with special educational needs (SEN). It recommended that the Department of Education and Science (DES) statutory categories of disability be disbanded, to be replaced by a realization that almost 1 in 5 children would require some specialist support at some time during their education. The necessity to plan for this scale of need and provision was established for children with educational and intellectual problems who were to be referred to as children with 'learning difficulties'. The Warnock Report also called for the increased involvement of parents in decision-making about special needs provision and the inclusion of training relating to special needs in initial teacher training (ITT). A fundamental requirement outlined by the report was the greater integration of special needs children into ordinary schools; however, no specific proposals were stated on how this might be achieved. The 1981 Education Act implemented much of the Warnock Report, but did not sanction the closure of many special schools or the redistribution of their resources. Boardman, D. ( 1982) Geography with Slow Learners. Sheffield: GA. Corney, G. and Rawling, E. (eds) ( 1985) Teaching Geography to Less Able I l~l4Year Olds. Sheffield: GA. DES (1978) Spec/o/ Needs Education (The Warnock Report). London: HMSO. Dilkes, J. L and Nicholls, A. C. (eds) ( 1988) LowAttainers and the Teaching of Geography. Sheffield: GA. Grenyer, N. ( 1983) Geography for Gifted Pupils. Harlow: Schools Council/Longman. Grenyer, N. ( 1986) 'Bright pupils', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 171-5. Sebba, J. ( 1995) Geography for All. London: Fulton.

weather. The conditions in the atmosphere, particularly in the layer nearest the ground (troposphere), measured over a short period of time (cf. climate) and at a particular place. Measures of weather usually include data on sunshine, temperature, precipitation, cloud cover, atmospheric pressure, wind and humidity. weathering. The mechanical, physical, chemical or biological processes which break down rocks on or near the Earth's surface in situ (cf. erosion, where movement is involved). welfare geography. An approach in human geography which considers the geographical expression of social inequality, for example its spatial distribution within an area. Thus, quality of human life, and the social and economic indicators used to determine it, is central to welfare geography. Explanations for observed differences, and possible resolution of inequalities, are both aspects of this approach. Bale, J. ( 1983) 'Welfare approaches to geography', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 63-73. 198

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Wideworld. (Subtitled GCSE Geography Review), a magazine for students studying General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) geography, which is published four times a year by Philip Allan Publishers. mail: Philip Allan Publishers Ltd, Market Place, Deddington, Oxfordshire, OX 15 OSE tel: 01869 338652

Wiegand, Patrick (b. 1948). After leaving Bede College, Durham, with a Teachers' Certificate, he studied part-time in London for a B.Sc. in geography and an MA in geography education while teaching in primary and secondary schools. He became a lecturer at the School of Education, University of Leeds in 1980 and was Head of Initial Teacher Training, 1990-4. He was awarded a doctorate in children's collaborative learning with electronic maps. In 1999 he was promoted to Reader in Geography Education. His research interests have principally been in children's understanding of place and educational cartography. He has been involved in several major research projects, including a study of wayfinding strategies for young people with learning difficulties funded by the Nuffield Foundation. His books for teachers include Places in the Primary School (1982) and Children and Primary Geography (1983). He has been editorial adviser for more than a dozen school atlases for Oxford University Press and written curriculum materials on map skills as well as several school textbooks. Williams, Michael (b. 1938). A graduate of the London School of Economics, he attended the PGCE course at the University of Reading before teaching at a high school in Upper New York State. A research MA course at Reading University was followed by posts at Jordanhill College of Education, Glasgow, and Didsbury College of Education, Manchester. He became responsible for geographical education at the University of Manchester in 1969, where he stayed until 1988, when he was appointed to the chair of education and head of department at the University of Wales, Swansea. He was Honorary Secretary (Education) of the Geographical Association and is an active member of the Education Commission of the IGU, being Reviews Editor of the journal International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. He has been a visiting lecturer at the University of Nairobi and a visiting professor at the University of Jyvaskyla, the University of Hong Kong and Queensland University of Technology. He has been a consultant to the Council of Europe and the OECD. His books include Geography and the Integrated Curriculum (1976); Teaching European Studies (1977); Designing and Teaching Integrated Courses (1984); Language Teaching and Learning: Geography (1981); Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research (1995); Qualitative Research in Geographical Education (1996) (with Rod Gerber); and Teaching and Learning Geography (1997) (with Daniella Tilbury). Wright, David R. (b. 1939). With a geography degree and PGCE from Cambridge, he taught at Alleyne's School, Stevenage, and at Mt Lebanon High School, PA, USA. From 1969 he held teacher training posts in Norwich, at Keswick Hall College of Education, where he served for five years as head of geography, then at the University of East Anglia School of Education. His MA THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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in geography education from London University reflected his interest in textbook research. A member of the Geographical Association, David chaired the Norfolk Branch and has previously been a member of various GA working groups. He has co-authored 14 books with his wife, Jill, who is also a geography teacher trainer; their children's atlases have sold over a million copies worldwide. David has written over 100 articles on education, with his main themes for research and writing focusing upon anti-racist and anti-sexist education; pupil-friendly approaches to teaching geography for all age groups; and the development of local and global perspectives in geographical education. Current work centres around the development of new approaches to international textbook research as well as developing the links between geographical, environmental and development education. His books include The Changing World in the Classroom (UNESCO-UK/VCOAD); Survival, The West Indies', Philip's Children's Atlas', Philip 's/WWF Environmental Atlas', The Greenhouse Effect, as well as contributions to six teachers' handbooks.

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Y Yellow Book. Originally a confidential report on standards in education commissioned by James Callaghan when he was Prime Minister. Civil servants in the Department of Education and Science (DES) in 1975 devised the book, which contained criticisms of schools, curriculum variations, discipline and vocational education. Importantly, it also made a strong case for the creation of a core curriculum in schools and became instrumental in determining the content of the Ruskin College speech made by Callaghan in 1976. The socalled 'Great Debate' on education which was promised to follow eventually led to the establishment of a National Curriculum, although the period of time between the speech and the implementation of the new curriculum rules out a direct causal link. Importantly, the existence of the Yellow Book, and the subsequent use made of its contents by a prime minister, asserted the right of a government, rather than teachers and educationists alone, to determine the shape of the curriculum. DES ( 1976) School Education in England: Problems and Initiatives. London: HMSO.

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z zone of proximal development. A term used by Vygotsky within his concept of cognitive development. It is the stage of learning at which an unaided child will not be able to progress further without the support and assistance of an adult.

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Headwords

List of Headwords

AAAG

assessment criteria

bias

AAG

assessment opportunities

bibliography

ability

biogeography

ACCAC

Association of American Geographers

access course

AT

accessibility

atlas

action research

attainment

active learning

attainment target

Addresses

attitude

Advanced Extension Awards

audience

Advanced Level

Australian Geographer

Advanced Subsidiary Level

Australian Geographic

biome Black Papers Bloom Board man Bowles brainstorming Bristol Project British Educational Communications and Technology agency

advisory teacher

Australian Geographic Society

AEA

Australian Geographical Studies

Bruner

affective

Australian Geography Teachers Association

Bullock Report

age agglomeration

ACS

authentification

Canadian Association of Geographers

award

Ganadian Geographer

awarding

capitalism

awarding bodies

career

Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru

career entry profile

baccalauréat

cartoon

Bachelor of Education

case studies

'back to basics'

Catling

Bailey

CCEA

Annals of the Association of American Geographers

Bale

CD ROM

banding

census

annual review

baseline assessment

CEP

Antipode

BECTa

Certificate of Achievement

Area

B.Ed.

AS Level

behavioural environment

Certificate of Secondary Education

assessment

behavioural geography

Charney Manor Conferences

ACS AGTA aims aims of geography education A Level American Geographical Society anarchism

cartography

Headwords child-centred Children Act (1989) chi square Chorley

Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment Council of British Geographers coursework

choropleth map

CPD

circular

criterion-referencing

CIJE

Circular 10/97 Circular 4/98 citizenship class classical humanism climate cloze CoA

COBRIG Code of Practice (GCSE and GCE A/AS Level) Code of Practice (Special Educational Needs)

criterion critical theory cross-curricular cross-section CSE

'cube' cultural geography cultural literacy culture curriculum curriculum development Curriculum Index to Journals in Education curriculum projects

DFE

DfEE dictionaries didactic teaching differentiation directed activities related to text disapplication discourse analysis discovery learning discrimination dispersion diagrams distance distribution Draft Orders EAB

early years Earth Earth Surface Processes and Landforms

coefficient of correlation

curriculum, spiral

cognition

DARTs

cognitive development

data

cognitive domain

Daugherty

economic and industrial understanding

Dearing Report/Review

economic geography

Dearing Report

Economic Geography

Dearing Review

economically less developed country

cognitive theory Cognitivist theory communism

DEC

Compact Disk Read Only Memory

decision-making

'compass rose'

deficit model

competence

degrees of freedom

computer

demography

computer literate

DENI

concept

Department for Education

concept mapping

Department for Education and Employment

confidence level consciousness conservation constructivism continuing professional development continuity continuous assessment core core and periphery core subject Corney correlation

204

Department for Education, Northern Ireland

EBD

ecology

economically more developed country ecosystem

ED education Education Acts Education Reform Act ( 1988) Education (Schools) Act (1992) Education Act (1993)

Department of Education

Education Act (1997)

Department of Education and Science

Educational Resources Information Centre

DES

EE

descriptive statistics

EIA

determinism

EIU

developed country

ELDC

developing country

electoral geography

development education

EMDC

development education centres

emotional and behavioural difficulties

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Headwords

empiricism enactive representation

GCE

GCSE

Geography Schools and Industry Project Geography Working Group

encoding

GDN

energy

gender

geology

enquiry

General Certificate of Education

Geomorpho/ogy

environment environmental determinism environmental education environmental geography environmental impact assessment epistemology equal opportunities ERA

ERIC ethnicity ethnography EU

Euclidean space

geomorphological processes

General Certificate of Secondary Education

GeoVisions Project Gerber

General National Vocational Qualification

gifted

General Teaching Council

GIS glaciation

GENIP genre GeoAct/Ve Geofile

GIPP

global global warming globalization

Geographic Education National globe Implementation Project GNC Geographical Abstracts GNVQ Geographical Analysis Goad Plans Geographical Association

Goals 2000

evaluation

Geographical Association of Zimbabwe

examination

Geographical Education

grade graph

Examinations Appeals Board exemplar

geographical information systems

experiential learning

Geographical journal

explanation

Geographical Magazine

European Union

expository teaching expressive language external assessment Family Involvement Initiative features feminism Field Studies Council field study centres

graphicacy graphical techniques Graves

Great Debate Greenpeace Geographical Review grid reference Geographical Society of Ireland grounded theory geographical vocabulary group work geography GSIP Geography GTC Geography 14-18 GWG Geography 16-19 GYSL Geography Advisory Group

fieldwork

geography co-ordinator

Fien

geography criteria

Haggett Hall

Gaia

Haubrich Geography Discipline Network hazard Geography Education head of geography Outreach Head Start Geography for Life: The Hicks Geography National Standards hidden curriculum Geography for the Young Higginson Report School Leaver High School Geography Geography Inset Primary Project Project 'high order questions Geography National Curriculum 'high stakes' assessment

games

Geography Review

Final Report fitness for purpose formative assessment foundation subject free market Friends of the Earth FSC

further education GA

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

higher education

205

Headwords Hill histogram historical geography homework Huckle human geography human rights humanistic geography humanities hydrology IASA ID

ID

IBG

iconic representation ICT

International Geographical Union International Journal of Geographical Information Systems International Research in Geographical and Environmental C.UUCC/L/U/ /

internet interval data ipsative assessment IRGEE Irish Geography issues issues-based approach ITT

locality logical positivism low achiever map

mark scheme Marsden Marxism Masters mean median mental map mentor metacognition Meteosat

journal

MetFAX

Journal of Geography

methodology

1ER

Journal of Geography in Higher Education

IGU

migration

Journal of Historical Geography

impairment

mixed ability teaching

Kent

Improving America's Schools

mnemonic device

key

mode

key idea

Mode 3 examination • i mooei

ideologies idiographic

A/HACI

inclusion Indian Geographical Society individual education plan induction industrial geography industry infant inferential statistics information and communications technology information processing initial teacher training in loco parentis in-service education and training INSET Institute of Australian Geographers Inc.

key skills Key Stage knowledge kurtosis Lambert landform Landsat landscape language in education LEA

league tables learn learning style learning theories lesson

microteaching

moderation modification module modular syllabus multicultural education Naish named person nation national National Commission on Education National Council for Geographic Education

lesson observation

National Council for Vocational Qualifications

lesson plan

national criteria

Institute of British Geographers level description liberal humanist education integration

National Curriculum National Curriculum Council

Lidstone

National Curriculum Revision

interdependence

Likert scale

National Geographic

Interim Report

linear syllabus/specifications

National Geographic Society

international

literacy

International Charter on Geographical Education

local

intelligence

206

local education authority

National Grid for Learning national records of achievement

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Headwords national targets for education and training

Ordnance Survey

Primary Geographer

National Vocational Qualification

OS

primary geography

paradigm

primary school

paradigm shift

primary source

parametric statistics

probation

parental responsibility

process

parliamentary papers

professional development

Part One General National Vocational Qualifications

Professional Geographer

nature-nurture debate NCC NCE NCT

NCVQ New Right New Zealand Board of Geography Teachers New Zealand Geographer New Zealand Geographical Society

participant observation partnership passive learning pass mark pastoral system Patten

New Zealand Journal of Geography

pattern

newly qualified teacher

pedagogy

NGfL

people-environment

nominal

perception

nomothetic

'personal geography'

non-contact time

personal, social, health and moral education

non-maintained special school non-parametric statistics

PGCE

normal distribution

phenomenal environment

norm-referencing

phenomenography

NQT

phenomenology

NRA

philosophy

null hypothesis

physical geography

numeracy

Physical Geography

NVQ

Piaget

NZBoGT

pilot study

objective

place

profile programme of study Progress in Geography Progress in Human Geography Progress in Physical Geography progression progressive education projective space PSHME public examinations pupil-centred education QCA (TTC QTS

quadrat Qualifications and Curriculum Authority Qualified Teacher Status qualitative research quality of life quantification quantitative research quantitative revolution question questionnaire

objectives

Plowden Report

objective test

poetic language

oblique aerial photograph

political

Office for Standards in Education

Political Geography Quarterly

OFSTED

population

O Level

population geography

online

portfolio

ontology

positivism

open-ended question

possibilism

options

post- 1 6

oracy

Postgraduate Certificate of Education

record of achievement

oral examination Order (Statutory)

postmodernism

reflective practitioner

ordinal

potential concept stage

region

Ordinary Level

prejudice

regional geography

political literacy

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

race racism radical geography raising of school leaving age ratio rationalism Rawling readability reasoning reconstructionist education reflective journal

207

Headwords regulatory bodies

secondary school

state school

reliability

secondary source

statement

relief

statements of attainment

remote sensing

Secretary of State for Education

research

SED SEN

Statutory Order

RGS

river

SENCO

RoA

sense of place

Robinson

setting

role play

settlement

RoSlJ\

short course

rote learning

significance level

Royal Geographical Society

simulation

Royal Scottish Geographical Society

skewness

RSGS

sixth form college blxlllb çHlk

statistics stereotype Stoltman streaming student-centred learning student teacher subject cores subject criteria subject leader subjective summative assessment supply teacher

rural

Slater

Ruskin College speech

S Level

Safe Schools Act

SoAs

SAGT

social geography

sustainable development/sustainability

sample

social justice

syllabus

sampling

socialism

symbol

satellite image

socialization

symbolic representation

SAT

socially critical education

Syncretic stage

SCAA

synoptic

scaffolding

Society of South African Geographers

scale

socio-economic groupings

schema

soil

scheme of work scholastic aptitude test

South African Geographical Journal

support teacher survey

system targets Task Group on Assessment and Testing taxonomy

Soviet Geography/ Post Soviet Geography

teacher assessment

School Curriculum and Assessment Authority

space cpAr~ or Au

teacher education

school development plan

spatial

School Examinations and Assessment Council

spatial ability

school-centred initial teacher training

special educational needs

teacher-centred teacher training TeacherTraining Agency Teaching Geography

school placement

special educational needs coordinator

teaching style

Schools Council

Special Papers

technophobia

scientific method

special school

tectonic processes

SCITT

specifications

terminal examination/ assessment

school leaving age

team teaching

Scottish Association of Geography Teachers

spelling, punctuation and grammar

Scottish Education Department

spiral curriculum SPOT

TGAT

Scottish Geographical Magazine

standard assessment task

themes

SDP

standard deviation

theory

SEAC

standards

thinking

208

test textbook

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Headwords Thin king Thro ugh Geography

UDE

variance

tiering

under-achievement

vertical aerial photograph

Tilbury

understanding

video

time

UNESCO

vocabulary

time-space geography

unit of work

vocational education

timetable

United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization

Voluntary Service Overseas

Tolley Topological space tourism

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

VSO Vygotsky Walford

university department of education

Warnock Report

Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

urban

weathering

urban geography

welfare geography

transect

Urban Geography

W/'dewor/d

transmission model

utilitarian education

Wiegand

transport geography

validity

Williams

triangulation

value added

Wright

TTA

values

Yellow Book

t test

variable

zone of proximal development

trade transactional language

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

weather

209

Bibliography

The following sources have proved invaluable in the compilation of this guide and are thus duly acknowledged. Clark, A. ( 1985) Longman Dictionary of Geography. London: Longman. Foskett, N. and Marsden, W. ( 1998) Bibliography of Geography Education: 1970-1997. Sheffield: GA. Holt-Jensen, A. ( 1988) Geography: History and Concepts. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Johnston, R. ( 1986) Philosophy and Human Geography: An Introduction to Contemporary Approaches. London: Edward Arnold. Johnston, R. ( 1986) On Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Johnston, R., Gregory, Q, Haggett, P, Smith, D. and Stoddart, D. (eds) ( 1985) Dictionary of Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Lawton, D. and Gordon, P ( 1996) Dictionary of Education. London: Hodder and Stoughton. McBrien, J. and Brandt, R. ( 1997) The Language of Learning: A Guide to Educational Terms. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD Pearsall, J. andTrumble, W (eds) ( 1995) Oxford English Reference Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rogers, A.,Viles, H. and Goudie.A. (1992) The Student's Companion to Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Skinner, M., Redfern, D. and Farmer; G. ( 1996) The Complete A-Z Geography Handbook. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Spafford, G., Pesce, A. and Grosser, G. ( 1998) The Cyclopaedic Education Dictionary. New York: Delmar Unwin,T ( 1992) The Place of Geography. Harlow: Longman.

210

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Index ability 5, 20, 28, 32, 33, 34, 36, 45, 49, 61, 68, 69, 81, 83, 88, 97, 119, 121, 128, 131, 136, 147, 149, 150, 155, 168, 169, 172, 178, 187, 190, 191,193 Acheson, D. 185 active learning 50, 67, 170 Advanced Extension Award (AEA) 173 Advanced Level (A Level) 1,5,6, 12, 13,17,18,19,31,35,36,38,46, 55, 61, 70, 74, 75, 78, 87, 88, 101, 104, 107, 111, 115, 122, 123, 133, 161, 173, 185, 188, 192, 195 Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level) 5,17,18,31,36,38,45, 61,70,75,78,87,104,107,114, 115, 122, 173, 185 affective learning 32, 53, 55, 77, 80, 108, 160, 162, 183, 193 age 58,147,177 aims 7,12,36,37,41,42,53,64,79, 80,98,110,126,127,132,138, 144, 161, 167, 188, 191, 193 Aldrich R. 9 Aldrich-Moodie, B. 57 Allchin, A. 1 Allen, J. 90 American Geographical Society 72, 85, 171 Annals of the Association of American Geographers 15, 101 Area 98, 162

assessment 1, 13, 16, 17, 22, 31, 37, 38,42,44,45,49,52,59,61,62, 65, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 85, 94, 98, 100, 106, 110, 114, 115, 119, 122, 125, 130, 132, 133, 144, 149, 151, 158, 165, 166, 172, 174, 175, 178, 181, 183, 185, 188, 190, 192 Association of American Geographers 11, 12, 70, 89, 148, 178 Atherton, M. 161 Atkinson, J. 68 atlas 82, 199, 200 attainment 9, 12, 24, 38, 46, 59, 61, 65,69,104,107,114,146,157, 160, 169, 174, 175, 179, 183, 192 attainment target 15, 40, 45, 65, 77, 79,98,114,125,149,175,177, 180, 183 attitude 6, 9, 10, 21, 40, 48, 56, 57, 64,77,87,100,114,115,123, 147, 159, 169, 178,179, 192, 193 Audet,R. 71 audience 56, 107, 159 Austin, D. 23 Australian Geographic Society 17 Australian Geographical Studies 97 Australian Geography Teachers' Association 71 Ausubel, D. 33 award 5, 148 awarding 31, 138, 195

Index

awarding bodies 5, 17, 31, 45, 61, 75, 107, 115, 122, 148, 150, 151, 158, 173, 178, 179, 180 Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru 18, 31, 37, 54 Ayers, G. 173 'back to basics' 8 Bailey, P. 30, 42, 43, 86, 117, 120, 121, 184 Baines, B. 194 Baker, K. 53,183 Balchin, W. 70, 83 Balderstone, D. 89, 106 Bale, J. 42, 68, 96, 120, 121, 146, 147, 184, 198 Ball, S. 39, 42 Ballantyne, R. 57 banding 121, 178 Banks, V. 64 Barnett, M. 95 Barrett, H. 147 Barrs, D. 91 Battersby, J. 43, 49 Bayliss, T. 49 behavioural geography 28, 150, 162 Bein, R 116 Bennett, S. 50 Bennetts, T. 36, 149, 165 bias 26, 59, 77 Biggs, J. 160,161 Biilmann, O. 148 Binns, A. 20 Bird, J. 73 Birkenhauer, J. 118, Black, R 13 Black Papers 144, 150, 180 Blades, M. 83 Blakemore, M. 26 Bland, K. 64 Bloom, B. 6,32,33,183 Blyth, A. 42, 147 Boardman, D. 26, 59, 76, 83, 116, 117,121,152,153,173,198 Boden, R 120 Bourdieu, R 38, 39 Bowlby, S. 63 Bowles, R. 42, 147, 165 Boyson, R. 22 212

brainstorming 34 Bramwell, J. 68 Brockington, D. 196 Bruner, J. 32, 35, 43, 50, 55, 92 Burnley,!. 91 Bush, G. 82 Butt, G. 13, 16, 17, 50, 56, 107, 108, 114,115,122,143,144,173,175, 179, 180, 185, 194, 196 Buttimer, A. 73 Callaghan,J. 84, 163,201 Canadian Association of Geographers 25 Canadian Geographer 25 Capel, S. 138, 159, 161 capitalism 146, 170 career entry profile 94 Carr, W. 2 Carter, R. 51, 80, 88, 107, 121, 123, 133, 143, 147, 173 cartography 55, 100, 180, 199 Carver, S. 71 case studies 78,80,93, 116 Catford, R. 149 Catling, S. 75 Certificate of Achievement 104 Certificate of Secondary Education 18,68,73,76,122, 125, 134 Chambers, B. 64 Chandler, S. 34 Charney Manor Conferences 197 child-centred 55, 92, 150 Children Act (1988) 137 Chomsky, N. 33 Chorley,R. 85,122 choropleth map 83 Circular 10/97 30, 145, 183 Circular 4/98 29, 145, 183 citizenship 40, 126, 127, 139, 187 Clark, A. 49,138 Clarke, D. 173 class 58, 147, 155, 156, 177, 179 climate 9, 82, 186 Coates, B. 170 Code of Practice (special educational needs) 55,81,172 cognition 33, 80, 108, 142, 156, 171, 183,193

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Index

cognitive development 6, 16, 24, 33, 142, 146, 160, 202 cognitive domain 6 Cohen, L. 152,153 Cole, J. 67, 93 Coleman, A. 83 Coleman, J. 39 communism 118 computers 71, 94, 96, 100, 128, 133, 160, 185, 194 Connolly, J. 68 constructivism 71, 152, 161, 186 continuing professional development 118,148,184,188 Convey, A. 19,57 Cook, I. 11 Cook, J. 64 core 75,125,145 core subject 19, 41, 65, 155, 178 Cornelius, S. 71 Corney,G. 51,57,173,198 correlation 31, 168, 176 Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment 18,31,158 Council of British Geographers 156, 197 coursework 17, 27, 31, 61, 68, 69, 76, 115, 117, 122,133 Cox, C. 22 Crick, B. 30, 143 criterion-referencing 183 critical theory 90 Crombie-White, R. 196 Crookes, C. 162 cross-curricular 30, 51, 57, 79, 114, 123, 139, 180 cultural geography 170 cultural values 9 culture 7,21,32,41,52,58,124, 146, 177, 190, 193 curriculum development 1,6, 15, 16, 22, 27, 37, 43, 55, 73, 74, 80, 87, 142, 155, 156, 184, 188 Daggs, D. 32 Dalton, T. 67 Daugherty, R. 13, 86, 88, 149, 156, 175

Davidson, J. 96 Davis, W. 56, 57 Dearing, R. 45, 127, 196 Dearing Report (1994) 16, 37, 65, 74, 77,114,126,127,133,175, 183 Dearing Review (1996) 5, 8, 18 decision-making 16, 23, 38, 39, 48, 51,56,58,64,93,95,114,120, 143, 159, 170, 181, 186, 191, 192 deficit model 79 Department for Education 46, 47, 168 Department for Education and Employment 23, 29, 46, 47, 49, 132, 152, 167, 168 Department of Education and Science 46, 148, 167, 168, 197, 198, 201 descriptive statistics 176 developed country 8, 144, 196 developing country 114 development education 33, 162, 187, 200 centres 49, 162 Dewey, J. 29 didactic teaching 184, 189 differentiation 121 Digby, R. 175 Dilkes, J. 173, 198 distance 1,59,165,171 distribution 22, 29, 40, 47, 52, 59, 72, 89,94,95,105,118,130,142, 150, 170, 174 Donert, K. 64 Dowgill, R 41 Downs, R. 32 Drake, M. 48 Driver, F. 30 Durbin, C. 96, 194 Dyson, A. 22 early years 94 Earth 9,26,56,67,72,76,80,82,91, 106, 117,158,164, 165, 166, 170, 174, 177, 180, 185, 194, 198 Ebdon, D. 176 Eccles, D. 166 ecology 52 economic geography 11, 20, 36, 52, 94, 161

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

213

Index

economic and industrial understanding (EIU) 39,79 economically less developed country 48,98 economically more developed country 47,98 ecosystem 51, 67, 98, 122, 186 Education Act ( 1993) 31, 166 Education Act (1997) 151 Education Acts 116, 184 Education Reform Act (1988) 8, 16, 36,41,77,79,125,126,129,147, 149, 166, 177 Education Schools Act ( 1992) 132, 195 Educational Resources Information Centre 43 Elliot, J. 2, 57 Ellis, B. 94, 97, 110, 119, 138, 157 empiricism 116, 140, 141, 153, 155, 167 enactive representation 24 energy 51,52,57, 122 Engels, E 118 environmental determinism 47,128, 145 environmental education 10, 37, 40, 64.89, 100, 139, 187,200 environmental geography 65, 72, 77, 79.90, 141, 189 epistemology 141 equal opportunities 9,41,170 ethnicity 6, 124, 147, 154 ethnography 152 Euclidean space 150 European Union 58 evaluation 12, 42, 58, 64, 72, 88, 114, 119, 121, 165 examination 5, 6, 17, 18, 19, 38, 45, 54, 61,68,73,74,76,86,87, 88, 105, 108, 115, 117, 122, 123, 128, 134, 138, 149, 150, 159, 166, 173, 174, 178, 192, 195 exemplar 72, 103, 122, 136 explanation 141 expressive language 16, 107, 143 214

Farmer, G. 49 features 1, 72, 80, 106, 139, 142, 158, 165, 175 field study centres 63 fieldwork 10,28,38,61,63, 64, 82,95,97,110,172,179,185 Fien,J. 57,87,93,150,156,170, 187, 191, 193 Final Report 9, 16, 77, 79, 98, 147 fitness for purpose 12,141 Flavell,J. 32,120 Flinders, K. 27 Flowerdew, R. 176 Foley, M. 42, 148 formative assessment 36, 61, 119, 183 Foskett,N. 21,22,64,97, 118 Foster I. 177 Foucault, M. 38, foundation subject 37, 125, 155, 168, 174 Fox, P. 20, 25, 42, 43, 86, 117, 121 Freeman, D. 96, 141 Friedmann, J. 36 further education 1, 23, 88, 116, 134, 137, 169, 195 Gagne, R. 33 games 27, 185, 197 Gant, R. 7 Gardner, H. 98 Garlic, J. 67 Garner, W. 75 gender 6, 58, 156, 177 General Certificate of Education 5, 70, 173 General Certificate of Secondary Education 8, 12, 13, 17, 18,27, 31,36,38,61,68,69,76,88,101, 104, 107, 114, 115, 125, 126, 133, 134, 137, 168, 173, 178, 185, 187, 192, 195, 199 General National Vocational Qualification 18, 45, 69, 126, 133,195 genre 107 Geographical Association 11, 20, 21, 23, 27, 37, 44, 73, 77, 79, 87, 102,

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Index

103, 106, 124, 147, 156, 169, 184, 197, 199, 200 Geographical Education 17 geographical information systems 34, 100, 117 Geographical Journal 162 Geographical Magazine 101, 124 Geographical Society of Ireland 100 Geography 70, 101, 102, 184 Geography 14-18 23, 43, 74, 77, 85, 87, 103, 124, 156, 166 Geography 16-19 43, 46, 55, 77, 87, 166, 184 Geography Advisory Group 45, 78 geography co-ordinator 147 geography criteria 36 Geography for Life: The Geography National Standards 70, 142 Geography for the Young School Leaver 1, 15, 42, 43, 73, 77, 88, 155,166, 184 Geography National Curriculum 13, 15,36,40,41,46,55,56,65,72, 74,77,99,114,195,197 Geography Review 101 Geography Schools and Industry Project 37,51,156 Geography Working Group 40, 46, 56, 65, 77, 98, 147, 177, 197 geology 40,80,117 Gerber, R. 26, 87, 108, 140, 148, 156, 170, 199 Giddens,A. 171,172 gifted 121, 172 Gilbert, R. 170 Gilchrist, G. 184 Gill,D. 76,123,155 Glazer, B. 84 global development 48, 156 global warming 57 globalization 146, 171 globe 15, 178 Goals 2000 63, 76, 164 Goldstein, H. 192, 193 Gonzalez, B. 58 Gonzalez, E. 58 Goodall, B. 49 Goodenow, R. 118 Goodnow, R. 23

Goodson, I. 42 Goudie, A. 49 Gould, R 73 Gowin, D. 34 graph 33,47,83,89,131 graphicacy 26, 133 Graves, N. 21, 22, 43, 115, 120, 149 Great Debate 163,201 Green, D. 96 Gregory, D. 49, 90, 177, 198, Greig, S. 57 Grenfell, M. 39 Grenyer,N. 81,198 Griffiths, P. 138 Grimwade, K. 13,89 Grosvenor, I. 154 group work 64 Habermas, J. 38, 39, 152, 153 Hacking, E. 42,97,121,123 Hagerstrand, T. 188 Haggett, P. 29, 73, 122 Haines-Young, R. 141 Hall,D. 41,120 Hammond, R. 176 Harper, S. 7 Hart, C. 74, 139, 156 Hartshorne, R. 157, 158 Harvey, D. 25, 33, 118, 145, 146, 155, 171, 172 Hassell, D. 95, 96 Hayslett, H. 177 hazard 80 head of geography 197 Hellburn, N. 88 Hey wood, I. 71 Hickey,M. 116 Hicks, D. 21,48,57,123,180 hidden curriculum 42, 52 Higginbottom, T. 76 Higginson Report 5,195 High School Geography Project 15, 42 'high stakes' assessment 13, 61 higher education 1, 6, 19, 28, 47, 66, 75, 80, 83, 84, 90, 94, 96, 100, 105, 111, 114, 116, 118, 119, 129, 134, 137, 139, 142, 145, 147, 151,

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

215

Index

(higher education cont'd) 156, 165, 168, 169, 174, 177, 180, 185, 186, 195 Hillcoat, J. 2 Hirsch, E. 41 histogram 47 Holden, C. 87 Holt-Jensen, A. 141, 153 homework 117 Hones, G. 74 Hopkin,J. 13,48 Howes, N. 144 Huckle, J. 6, 31, 57, 118, 121, 143, 150, 155, 156, 170, 193 Hudson, A. 106 Hughes,!. 42,77,121,165 Hull, R. 107, 173 human geography 30, 51, 55, 72, 75, 141, 149, 157, 161, 170, 178, 180, 198 human rights 16, 30, 39, 193 humanistic geography 28, 89, 141, 150, 170, humanities 1, 6, 10, 16, 23, 47, 72, 86, 150 Huntington, E. 56 hydrology 29 iconic representation 24 ideologies 39, 50, 144, 156, 169, 191 idiographic 153, 157 Ince, C. 129 individual education plan 32 induction 26, 96, 129 industry 140 inferential statistics 46, 176 information and communications technology (ICT) 8, 10, 19, 23, 30,70,78,128,145,147,185,191 Inhelder, B. 32, 59 initial teacher training 26, 29, 79, 94, 97,107,119,121,129,137,148, 157, 166, 178, 183, 184, 188, 198 in-service education and training (INSET) 71,77,79,148 Institute of Australian Geographers Inc. 17, 129 Institute of British Geographers 12, 15, 162, 189, 197 216

intelligence 33, 104, 155, 178 interdependence 9 Interim Report 40, 65, 77, 79 international 9, 16, 30, 38, 39, 72, 86, 142, 149, 150, 174, 178, 190, 200 International Charter on Geographical Education 16,86 International Geographical Union 16, 21,80,83,86,88,99, 100,103, 115,118,124,169,177,199 International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 99, 115, 199 internet 95, 133, 172 interval data 176 Irish Geography 72 issues 10, 30, 37, 43, 56, 58, 69, 72, 102, 110, 142, 162, 175, 193, 194, 195 Jackson,?. 155,161 James, P. 141 Janikoun, J. 42, 147 Job, D. 57 Johnston, R. 49, 73, 136, 140, 141, 153 Jones, D. 39 Joseph, K. 20 Journal of Geography 124 Journal of Geography in Higher Education 101 Journal of Historical Geography 101, 138 Kaminske, V. 34 Keat, R. 141 Keates,J. 117 Keeble, D. 36 Keiper,T. 71 Kelly, A. 42 Kemmis, S. 2, 93 Kemp,R. 121,168 Kent, A. 21, 60, 95, 96, 106, 121, 139 key 180 key idea 62, 67, 70 key skills 6, 75, 127, 179, 195 Key Stages 8, 13, 15, 16, 37, 45, 65, 69, 72, 74, 77, 80, 83, 94, 95, 108, 125, 127, 139, 143, 147, 148, 149,

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Index

165, 166, 168, 174, 175, 177, 180, 186, 195 Khalid, K. 52 Kimble, G. 157 Kirk, W. 21 Knox, P. 170 Kolb, D. 108 Krause, J. 42, 75, 96, 147 Kropotkin, P. 11 Kühn, T. 136 Kwong, J. 57 Lambert D 13, 25, 41, 89, 97, 114, 121, 144, 170, 175, 183, 185, 194 landform 9,29,63,80,165 landscape 41,63 language in education 16, 31 Larsen, B. 68 Laws, G. 7 Lawton, D. 41,42 league tables 8, 12, 54, 174, 192 learning style 119, 120 learning theories 32,159 Leask, M. 138, 161 Leat, D. 25, 32, 34, 35, 97, 120, 164, 186, 187 lesson 110, 119, 121, 132, 149, 190, 194 lesson observation 121 lesson plan 110, 132, 169, 190 level description 13, 16, 38, 45, 126, 127, 177 Lewin, K. 2 Liben, L. 32 Lidstone, J. 64,108,121,185 linear syllabus/specification 6, 122 literacy 8, 82, 83, 131, 133, 145, 147 local 9,16,30,39,48,54,64,70,72, 90,142,158,186,200 local education authority 6, 12, 23, 29,31,53,54,77,79,97,107, 124, 130, 143, 148, 169, 172, 174, 175,181 locality 142, 158 Lockwood, J. 166 Long, M. 120, Lovelock, J. 67 Lukehurst, C. 21,22

McCullagh, P. 176 MacEachren, A. 117 McElroy,B. 152,153 Machon, P 28, 78, 198 McNiff, J. 2 McPartland, M. 96,119 McTaggart, R. 2 Maddrell, A. 30 Manion,L. 152,153 maps 15, 23, 26, 59, 63, 71, 82, 84, 92,95,103,107,119,134,142, 165, 172, 178, 180, 194, 199 Marsden, W. 7, 13, 21, 22, 26, 42, 43, 57,76,97,120,121,146,165, 194 Martin, D. 176 Martin, F. 89, 96 Martin, G. 141 Martin, L. 31 Marion, R 140 Marvell, A. 143, 196 Marx,K. 33,39,118 Massey, D. 63, 90 Matthew, H. 177 Matthews, M. 83 May, S. 64 Mayhew, S. 49 mean 47, 130, 169, 174, 176, 189 median 47, 130, 169, 176 mentor 60, 110, 145, 186 metacognition 160 methodology 29, 136, 138, 143, 148, 159 Middleton, N. 57 Miller, G. 24 Miller, J. 93 Mills, D. 121,143 Milton, M. 95 Minshull, R. 67 mixed ability teaching 178 mode 68,73,76 model 24, 87, 130, 136, 146, 157, 168, 187, 188 modular syllabus 5, 6, 45, 115 module 123, 195 Molyneux,R 184, 188 Monk, J. 68 Morgan, J. 146 Morgan, W. 42

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Index

Moser, C. 125 Myrdal, G. 36 Naish, M. 2, 55, 74, 106, 121, 139, 149, 156, 159, 161, 184, 194 nation 91, 124 National Council for Geographic Education 70, 89, 102, 177. National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) 18, 54, 69, 104, 151 national criteria 18, National Curriculum 8, 16, 19, 27, 28, 30, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 44, 45, 50, 51, 53, 57, 61, 65, 74, 77, 79, 84,90,98, 104, 107,114, 122, 126, 127, 133, 137, 139, 143, 145, 148, 155, 163, 166, 168, 174, 175, 177, 183, 192, 193,201 National Geographic 101, 127 National Geographic Society 75, 127 National Grid for Learning (NGfL) 23 national targets for education and training 195 National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) 69,195 Neal, P. 57 New Right 144 New Zealand Board of Geography Teachers (NZBoGT) 129 New Zealand Geographer 129 New Zealand Geographical Society (NZGS) 129 New Zealand Journal of Geography 129 Newcombe, E. 71 newly qualified teacher (NQT) 26, 94, 96, 148 Nicholls,A. 173, 198 Nicholls, G. 109 Nichols, A. 164, 187 Noctor, M. 194 nominal 29, 176 nomothetic 145, 153, 157 non-parametric statistics 29, 137, 176 Norcliffe, G. 94, 177 normal distribution 105, 130, 137, 169, 176 218

norm-referencing 38 Novak, J. 34 Nowicki, M. 104 numeracy 8, 82, 83, 133, 145, 147 objective 90, 133, 145, 153, 171 objectives 7, 8, 9, 12, 22, 38, 41, 42, 74, 110, 152, 165, 169 Office for Standards in Education 166, 174, 184 ontology 140, 141 oracy 83 ordinal 29, 176 Ordinary Level (O Level) 18, 27, 68, 73,76, 125, 195 Ordnance Survey 172 Orrell, K. 73,188 Palmer, J. 57 paradigm 136, 158 paradigm shift 136, 153 parametric statistics 176 Paris,!. 71 Parker, J. 57 Parsons, C. 76 partnership 96, 137, 145, 148, 162, 165 pattern 31, 36, 56, 72, 79, 122, 147, 148, 165, 168, 172, 189, 190, 193 pedagogy 42, 49, 53, 64, 90, 95, 166, 172 Peet,R. 90,118,155 people-environment 11, 36, 75, 140, 150, 170, 178 Pepper, D. 11, 118, 155 perception 142 personal, social, health and moral education 127 Petch, J. 141 Peters, R. 9, 52, 53, 103 phenomenology 90, 141, 168 Phillips, A. 96 philosophy 86, 90, 116, 136, 140, 145, 146, 155, 171, 188 physical geography 29, 72, 75, 79, 90, 139, 142, 149, 157, 178, 189 Piaget, J. 24, 32, 33, 59, 160, 165, 196 Pickles,!. 71

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Index

Piggott, B. 49 Pike, G. 57 Plowden Report 148 poetic language 62, 107 political 15 political geography 11 political literacy 115 population 29, 46, 47, 48, 51, 57, 94, 100, 115, 130, 144, 154, 158, 159, 164, 175, 179, 180, 186, 194 Porter, A. 143 portfolio 128 positivism 90, 141, 153 possibilism 57, 128 Postgraduate Certificate of Education 23, 37, 85, 96, 106, 152, 166, 199 postmodernism 90, 145 Powell, A. 42,86,121 prejudice 50, 106 Primary Geographer 70, 77, 184 primary schools 8, 20, 26, 28, 37, 74, 77,79,115,130,174,199 Pring,R. 196 professional development 2, 26, 64, 75,93,97,184 Professional Geographer 15 programme of study 45, 65, 77, 79, 98, 125, 127, 177, 180 progression 6, 77, 98, 159 public (external) examinations 12, 151 pupil-centred 24, 28, 48, 50, 114, 162, 184 quadrat 164 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 18,31,38,54,65, 125, 158, 165, 173, 179 Qualified Teacher Status 19, 29, 30, 96, 119, 129, 145, 148 qualitative research 59, 140, 153 quantitative research 152 question 88, 141, 158, 171, 186 questionnaire 152, 153 race 6, 58, 147, 156, 177 racism 87 radical geography 89,118

raising of school leaving age 76 ratio 165, 176 rationalism 55, 129 Ratzel, R 56 Rawling, E. 36, 43, 44, 51, 74, 86, 139, 149, 173,196, 198 Reclus, E. 12 reconstructionist education 118 record of achievement 149 Redfern, D. 49 reflective practitioner 82 region 17,36,64,116,129,157 regional 15, 16, 26, 30, 39, 70, 72, 73, 84, 99, 142 regional geography 156 regulatory bodies 151 reliability 12, 132, 141, 159, 164 remote sensing 100, 106 Renwick,M. 188 Reynolds,!. 73,188 Richardson, P. 64 Riding, R. 108 river 80, 139, 186 Roberson, B. 120 Roberts, M. 3,43,97,185 Robinson, A. 67 Robinson, R. 33, 48, 80 Rogers, A. 141 Rokeach, M. 194 role play 61,67,185,197 Rolfe, J. 88 Rose, A. 173 Rose, G. 63 Ross, G. 35 Rousseau, J.-J. 29 Royal Geographical Society 11,12, 20, 72, 85, 98 Royal Scottish Geographical Society 167, 197 rural 190 Ruskin College speech 201 Rynne, E. 97 sample 29, 40, 47, 61, 94, 122, 144, 159, 164, 176 Sanders, R. 96 Sandford, H. 117 satellite 15 satellite images 95, 120

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Index

Sawicka,E. 114 scaffolding 35, 160 Schaefer, F. 157, 158 schema 160 scheme of work 28, 42, 62, 76, 132 Schon, D. 157 School Curriculum and Assessment Authority 18, 36, 45, 54, 74, 78, 125, 127, 151, 166, 173 School Examination and Assessment Council 36, 53, 54, 126, 166 school-centred initial teacher training (SCITT) 96, 138, 145 Schools Council 1, 68, 73, 74, 76, 83, 85,87,156,188 Schrettenbrunner, H. 153 Schreuder, D. 187 scientific method 171 Scottish Geographical Magazine 162 Sebba,J. 173,198 secondary schools 20, 22, 37, 85, 86, 87,90, 100, 101, 115,124,129, 130, 148, 155, 161, 199 secondary sources 95 Secretary of State for Education 18, 20, 24, 29, 44, 45, 47, 53, 65, 77, 79,87,98, 126,130, 138,147, 152, 166, 167, 177, 183 Selby, D. 56 Semple, E. 57 'sense of place' 9 Serf, J. 33, 48 setting 121, 178 settlement 140, 186, 190 Shaw, G. 177 Shearman, K. 138 short course 78 significance level 37, 94, 176 simulation 27, 67, 185, 197 Sinclair, S. 48, 80 Singh, M. 123,170 Skilbeck, M. 92, 93 skills 1, 2, 9, 10, 15, 16, 24, 26, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36, 40, 42, 45, 48, 49, 56, 61, 64, 68, 69, 70, 72, 76, 77,79,81,83,88,95,97,103, 104, 108, 110,114, 121,123, 131, 147, 149, 160, 177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 191, 196, 199 220

Skinner, M. 49 Slater, R 6, 24, 106, 107, 121, 150, 173, 185, 189, 193, 194 Small, J. 49 Smith, C. 96 Smith, D. 49, 194 Smith, R 108 social geography 11 social justice 39, 48, 123, 156, 170, 193 Society of South African Geographers 171 Soja,E. 145, 146, 171, 172 South African Geographical Journal 170 space 1, 10, 50, 55, 59, 72, 90, 116, 119, 139, 140, 142, 146, 157, 158, 171, 172, 188 spatial 15, 29, 36, 46, 52, 57, 58, 59, 71,72,83,86,90,97,142,150, 153, 168, 171, 175, 177, 178, 187, 188, 194, 198 spatial ability 26 special educational needs 12,31,50, 55, 81, 93, 94, 98, 122, 124, 130, 173,175, 198 Special Educational Needs Co-ordinator 148 special school 55, 130, 175 specifications 5, 6, 31, 36, 61, 62, 63, 74,75, 104,105, 115, 122, 151, 178, 179, 180, 185 Spenser, C. 83 Spiegelberg, H. 140 standard assessment task 107, 125 standard deviation 194 standards 8, 12, 18, 19, 22, 23, 29, 34,36,38,47,61,69,75,82,94, 107, 122, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133, 143, 144, 148, 150, 152, 158, 171, 173, 174, 177, 178, 179, 201 Starkey, H. 91 statement 124 statements of attainment 16,45, 126, 183 statistics 50, 130, 164, 180 Statutory Order 16, 45, 50, 53, 65, 77,98,99,137 Stenhouse, L. 42

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Index

stereotype 6 Stevenson, B. 187 Stimpson, P. 13 Stoddart, D. 73 Stoltman, J. 88 Stradling, R. 194 Strauss, A. 84 Streaming 121, 178 student teacher 60 subject criteria 179 subject leader 148 subjective 28, 116, 119, 140, 141, 152, 192 Suggett, D. 93 Sui,D. 71 summative assessment 36, 65, 119, 183,185 sustainable development/ sustainability 10, 35, 37, 57, 58, 64,87,104,187,193 syllabus 27,36,42,45,61,63,68, 69,74,76,85,87,105,114,115, 122, 123, 125, 132, 151, 173, 178, 185 symbol 95, 103, 107, 117, 186 symbolic representation 24 synoptic assessment 115 targets 12, 26, 110, 119, 128, 132, 166 Task Group on Assessment and Testing 77 Taylor,!. 197 Taylor, L. 96 taxonomy 22,32 teacher assessment 61, 68, 183 Teacher Training Agency 30, 47, 96, 145, 148 teacher-centred 149, 183 Teaching Geography 20, 70, 101 tectonic processes 186 Telfer, S. 13,114,144 terminal examination/assessment 122 test 192 textbook 21, 26, 27, 50, 81, 83, 87, 103, 115, 141, 167, 178, 199, 200 thinking 59 Thinking Through Geography 32, 35, 120, 164

Thrift, N. 90 Tidmarsh, C. 13 tiering 69 Tilbury, D. 40, 48, 58, 84, 121, 199 time 86, 140, 142, 171 timetable 119 Tolley,H. 73,184 topological space 150 transactional language 62, 107 Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 98, 162 transport geography 1 Tuan,Y.R 168 Turner, T. 138,161 unit of work 34, 114, 165 University Department of Education 19,97 Unwin, T. 73, 141 urban 163 Urry,J. 141 utilitarian 53 validity 12, 116, 132, 141, 159, 164 'value added' 107, 174 values 6, 7, 16, 21, 30, 38, 40, 41, 53, 56, 58, 59, 74, 77, 87, 89, 90, 92, 106, 114, 116, 123, 126, 136, 139, 140, 156, 161, 169, 170, 179, 180, 192 variance 47 vocational education 1,8, 18,25,45, 69,74,93,122,125,128,149, 169,191,201 Vygotsky, L. 35, 146, 181, 202 Walford, R. 27, 28, 67, 73, 78, 84, 86, 90,93,120,121,123,139,162, 168,169, 191 Walker, K. 58 Warner, H. 95, 96 Warnock Report 172 weather 9,31,120,186 weathering 80 Weeden, R 13, 115, 117, 122, 173, 179,180 welfare geography 11, 28, 170 Wheeler, D. 177 White, J. 9

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221

Index

Wideworld 101 Wiegand, P. 15, 31, 42, 86, 121, 148, 194 Wilding, S. 133 Wiliam, D. 13 Williams, M. 24, 26, 52, 58, 97, 120, 148, 187 Williamson-Fien, J. 68 Winter, C. 58,186

222

Witherick, M. 49 Wood, D. 35 Wright, D. 155 Wringe C 9 Yellow Book

163

zone of proximal development (ZPD) 35, 196

THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION