Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
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Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Constructing Nationhood
in Modern East Asia
Kai-wing
Edited by
Constructing Nationhood
Chow, Kevin M. Doak,
Poshek Fu
Ann Arbor
in Modern East Asia
THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS
Edited by
Kai-wing Chow, Kevin M. Doak, Poshek Fu
Ann Arbor
THE liNIVERSITY
OF
MICHIGAN PRESS
Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2001
All rights reserved
Published in the United States of America by
The University of Michigan Press
Manufactured in the United States of America
Q Printed on acid-free paper
2004 2003 2002 2001
4321
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or
otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher.
A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Constructing nationhood in modern East Asia / edited by Kai-wing Chow,
Copyright © © by the the University of Michigan 2001 All rights reserved Published in the United States of America by The University of Michigan Press Manufactured in the United States of America acid-free paper @)Printed @l Printed on acid-free 2004 2003 2002 2001
4
3 2
1
Kevin M. Doak, Poshek Fu.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-472-09735-0 (cloth : alk. paper) - ISBN 0-472-06735-4
(pbk.: alk. paper)
No part pan of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, system. or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise, publisher. otherwise. without the written permission of the publisher.
1. Nationalism - East Asia - History - 20th century. 2. East Asia -
Civilization -20th century. I. Chow, Kai-wing, 1951- II. Doak, Kevin
Michael. III. Fu, Poshek, 1955-
A for this book is available from from tile the British Library. A CIP catalog record for
DS518 .C66 2001
951.05 - dc21
00-51176
Library library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data I edited by Kai-wing Chow. Chow, Constructing nationhood in modern East Asia I
Kevin M. Doak, Poshek Fu. p. c m. em. Includes bibliographical references and index. Includes ISBN 0·472·06735-4 0-472-06735-4 0-472-09735-0 (cloth: (cloth : alk. paper)ISBN 0·472·09735·0 paper)-ISBN (pbk. :: alk. paper) 1. 2. East AsiaI. Nationalism-East Nationalism - East Asia-History-20th Asia -History -20th century. Asia Civilization- 20th century. I. I. Chow, Kai-wing, 1951- II. Doak, Kevin Civilization-20th Michael. III. Fu, Poshek. Poshek, 1955DS518 .C66 2001 951.05 -dc21 951.05dc21
00-51176 00·51176
I(HIG
P ESS
Acknowledgments
This collection of essays originated in the conference Imagining National
Identity in Modern East Asia in Narratives, Art, and Ritual organized
by the three editors at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in
1997. We received conference grants from the Center for East Asian and
Acknowledgments
Pacific Studies and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, State-of-
the-Art Conference. For their generous support, we are grateful. Other
units to which we are indebted for financial support include the Depart-
ment of East Asian Languages and Cultures and the Department of
History of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Many colleagues and graduate students helped to make this confer-
ence successful. In particular, we would like to thank Jin-hee Lee, Susan
This collection of essays originated in the conference Imagining National
Hellman, and Garvin Davenport for their help during the conference.
Jin-hee Lee and Soon Keong Ong have been very helpful in converting
files and copyediting the manuscript. We also want to thank Ingrid
Erickson and Christina Milton of the University of Michigan Press for
their professionalism and uncompromising support of this book.
Identity in Modern East Asia in Narratives, Art, and Ritual organized by the three editors at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in 1997. We received conference grants from the Center for East Asian and Pacific Studies and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, State-of the-Art Conference. For their generous support, we are grateful. Other units to which we are indebted for financial support include the Depart ment of East Asian Languages and Cultures and the Department of History of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Many colleagues and graduate students helped to make this confer ence successful. In particular, we would like to thank Jin-hee Lee, Susan Hellman, and Garvin Davenport for their help during the conference. Jin-hee Lee and Soon Keong Ong have been very helpful in converting files and copyediting the manuscript. We also want to thank Ingrid Erickson and Christina Milton of the University of Michigan Press for their professionalism and uncompromising support of this book.
Contents
Introduction1
Part 1: Narrative Schemes, Language, and Printed Texts
Contents
1. Three Realms/Myriad Countries: An
"Ethnography" of Other and the Re-bounding
of Japan, 1550-1750
15
Ronald P Toby
2. Narrating Nation, Race, and National Culture:
Imagining the Hanzu Identity in Modern China
47
Kai-wing Chow
3. Narrating China, Ordering East Asia:
Introduction
The Discourse on Nation and Ethnicity in
Imperial Japan
1
85
Kevin M. Doak
Part 1: Narrative Schemes, Language, and Printed Texts
Part 2: Nostalgia and Loss in the Formation of Modern
National Identity
4. Discoveries of the Horyiji
117
1. Three Realms/Myriad Countries: An "Ethnography" of Other and the Re-bounding
Stefan Tanaka
5. Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
149
of Japan, 1550-1750
Peter Zarrow
15
6. In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea:
Ronald P. Toby
The Discourse of Modernity in Contemporary
Historical Fiction
189
2. Narrating Nation, Race, and National Culture:
JaHyun Kim Haboush
Imagining the Hanzu Identity in Modern China
7. Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation in
Communist Revolutionary Culture
47
215
Kai-wing Chow
Hung-yok Ip
3. Narrating China, Ordering East Asia: The Discourse on Nation and Ethnicity in Imperial Japan
85
Kevin M. Doak Part 2: Nostalgia and Loss in the Formation of Modern National Identity 4. Discoveries of the Horyiij i
117
Stefan Tanaka 5. Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
149
Peter Zarrow 6. In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea: The Discourse of Modernity in Contemporary Historical Fiction
189
JaHyun Kim Haboush 7.
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation in Communist Revolutionary Culture Hung-yok Jp
215
Vlll
Contents
Part 3: Diaspora, Gender, and Ambiguity of Identity viii Contents
Part 3: Diaspora, Gender, and Ambiguity of Identity
Emigr6s, Marginal Culture, Hong Kong Cinema,
1937-1941
8. Between Nationalism and Colonialism: Mainland
Emigres,
8. Between Nationalism and Colonialism: Mainland
247
Marginal Culture, Hong Kong Cinema, 247
1937-1941
Poshek Fu
Poshek Fu
9. Trials of the Taiwanese as Hanjian or War
Criminals and the Postwar Search for
Taiwanese Identity
279
10. The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation: Music and
Media Culture in Republican Shanghai
317
Andrew F Jones
11. Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
in Contemporary Korean Japanese Writings
9. Trials of the Taiwanese as
Hanjian
or War
Criminals and the Postwar Search for
Jiu-jung Lo
Taiwanese Identity
279
Jiu-jung Lo
343
John Lie
10. The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation: Music and
12. The Regime of Authenticity: Timelessness,
Gender, and National History in Modern China
359
Prasenjit Duara
Contributors
387
Media Culture in Republican Shanghai
Andrew
F.
317
Jones
Index
389
1I. Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland in Contemporary Korean Japanese Writings
343
John Lie 12. The Regime of Authenticity: Timelessness, Gender, and National History in Modern China
359
Prasenjit Duara Contributors
387
Index
389
Introduction
Kai-wing Chow, Kevin M. Doak, Poshek Fu
Recent scholarship on nationalism has shifted focus from the traditional
state-centered perspective to a more cultural understanding of the na-
tion and national identity. This tendency is especially helpful for work on
Introduction
nationalism in East Asia, where the emphasis on the state and state
building has tended to dominate the literature on nationalism in the
past, especially since the rise of modernization theory during the 1950s
Kai-wing Chow, Kevin M. Doak , Poshek Fu
and 1960s. Moving away from this concern with state building should
allow scholars of East Asia to liberate themselves from the Japan para-
digm, which has focused on the establishment of a modern state in Japan
only to conclude with the lack or relative weakness of the state in the
rest of East Asia. While the issue of state building in East Asia is
perhaps an overworked topic, the similarities and differences among
cultural constructions of national identities and nationalisms in modern
East Asia remain underdeveloped topics. It is well established that the
state mobilizes culture to shore up its own legitimacy. Yet less attention
has been given to attempts by domestic social groups to establish cul-
tural and national identities that may remain in opposition, or at least in
an ambiguous relationship, to the state. To understand the politics in the
cultural production of a nation, we need to understand the values and
ideals that various groups hold up as representing what is most impor-
tant to them. While states may be analyzed in terms of the economic
structures, institutions, and governing apparatuses that inform them,
nations are far more chimeric and rest more on those ideas and values
that convince many people that they are one. A shift from the state-
building perspective to a more sustained reflection on the multiple di-
mensions of cultural identity in the region will uncover the complexity
and heterogeneity of nationalism and nationhood in East Asia.
The appeal to cultural ties in inventing national identity often in-
volves privileging the culture of a specific ethnic group either as the
Recent scholarship on nationalism has shifted focus from the traditional state-centered perspective to a more cultural understanding of the na tion and national identity. This tendency is especially helpful for work on nationalism in East Asia, where the emphasis on the state and state building has tended to dominate the literature on nationalism in the past, especially since the rise of modernization theory during the 1950s and 1960s. Moving away from this concern with state building should allow scholars of East Asia to liberate themselves from the Japan para digm, which has focused on the establishment of a modern state in Japan only to conclude with the lack or relative weakness of the state in the rest of East Asia. While the issue of state building in East Asia is perhaps an overworked topic, the similarities and differences among cultural constructions of national identities and nationalisms in modern East Asia remain underdeveloped topics. It is well established that the state mobilizes culture to shore up its own legitimacy. Yet less attention has been given to attempts by domestic social groups to establish cul tural and national identities that may remain in opposition, or at least in an ambiguous relationship, to the state. To understand the politics in the cultural production of a nation, we need to understand the values and ideals that various groups hold up as representing what is most impor tant to them. While states may be analyzed in terms of the economic structures, institutions, and governing apparatuses that inform them, nations are far more chimeric and rest more on those ideas and values that convince many people that they are one. A shift from the state building perspective to a more sustained reflection on the multiple di mensions of cultural identity in the region will uncover the complexity and heterogeneity of nationalism and nationhood in East Asia. The appeal to cultural ties in inventing national identity often in volves privileging the culture of a specific ethnic group either as the
2
2
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
dominant group of the political arena or the oppressed subgroup of the
nation. While power can enhance the appeal of ethnicity among dominant
groups, conversely, the shared experience of being oppressed or sub-
sumed under the dominant culture can also lend luster to claims of ethnic-
ity among members of subgroups. The contesting voices of domestic
ethnic groups in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries frequently
were overwhelmed by powerful waves of state-engineered nationalisms
that often sought to assimilate, integrate, or outright oppress domestic
contesting identities. The presence and the role of these divergent cul-
tural forces in the nationalist movements in East Asia during the nine-
teenth and early-twentieth centuries need to be reconsidered if we are to
understand the complexity of modern East Asian nationalisms.
Notoriously elastic, the concept of nationalism has generated more
definitions than consensus. But many analyses point to the importance
of sustained communication and the means of communication in shaping
a sense of common identity and in the dissemination of that identity.
Printed materials, radio, films, literary and historical narratives, ritual,
and the performing arts - through which national identities are imag-
ined, contested, and publicized - significantly determined how effective
nationalist movements would be in mobilizing popular support. As pub-
lic means of communication, media easily shape the manners in which
national identities are presented, transmitted, and contested. The battle
among domestic social groups over how national identities should be
imagined and constructed inevitably involves the control and use of
media. In part, it is this particular attention given to the role of media
and the suppressed voices of sub- and counternationalisms that distin-
guish this volume from other attempts to come to terms with nationalism
in East Asia.
In recent years, we have all come to appreciate how every form of
identity presupposes Other(s). Constructing and imagining an identity in-
volves the projection of a sense of Other or Otherness, whether implicit
or explicit, domestic or foreign. What constitutes identity and alterity is
imagined in terms of differences, traits, and bonds presumed to be "natu-
ral" or cultural. It is important not to forget that differences and identities
are established conceptually through processes of metonymic reduction
and reconfiguration, which "cut up" and reassemble traits to be appro-
priated as one's own while jettisoning undesirable ones onto the Other.
Of course, as desires, fears, and the nature of conflict change in a given
society the significance of the Other(s) changes as well.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
dominant group of the political arena or the oppressed subgroup of the nation. While power can enhance the appeal of ethnicity among dominant groups, conversely, the shared experience of being oppressed or sub sumed under the dominant culture can also lend luster to claims of ethnic ity among members of subgroups. The contesting voices of domestic ethnic groups in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries frequently were overwhelmed by powerful waves of state-engineered nationalisms that often sought to assimilate, integrate, or outright oppress domestic contesting identities. The presence and the role of these divergent cul tural forces in the nationalist movements in East Asia during the nine teenth and early-twentieth centuries need to be reconsidered if we are to understand the complexity of modern East Asian nationalisms. Notoriously elastic, the concept of nationalism has generated more definitions than consensus. But many analyses point to the importance of sustained communication and the means of communication in shaping a sense of common identity and in the dissemination of that identity. Printed materials, radio, films, literary and historical narratives, ritual, and the performing arts - through which national identities are imag ined, contested, and publicized - significantly determined how effective nationalist movements would be in mobilizing popular support. As pub lic means of communication, media easily shape the manners in which national identities are presented, transmitted, and contested. The battle among domestic social groups over how national identities should be imagined and constructed inevitably involves the control and use of media. In part, it is this particular attention given to the role of media and the suppressed voices of sub- and counternationalisms that distin guish this volume from other attempts to come to terms with nationalism in East Asia. In recent years, we have all come to appreciate how every form of identity presupposes Other(s). Constructing and imagining an identity in volves the projection of a sense of Other or Otherness, whether implicit or explicit, domestic or foreign. What constitutes identity and alterity is imagined in terms of differences, traits, and bonds presumed to be "natu ral" or cultural. It is important not to forget that differences and identities are established conceptually through processes of metonymic reduction and reconfiguration, which "cut up" and reassemble traits to be appro priated as one's own while jettisoning undesirable ones onto the Other. Of course, as desires, fears, and the nature of conflict change in a given society the significance of the Other( s) changes as well.
Introduction
Introduction 3
With the arrival of the state and state-building projects in modern
East Asia, the state was often seen as an emblem of the Otherness of the
West and an intrusion on local and native cultural forms. Consequently,
in this volume we have found it necessary to reconsider cultural national-
ism not only as the ways in which the state mobilized culture but also as
how cultural identities could be mobilized independent of and against
the modern state. Paradoxically, this cultural or ethnic sense of national
identity was deployed widely in China, Korea, and Japan (as minzu,
minjok, and minzoku, respectively) and worked at times to support
modern states and at other times to undermine them. Surely, the cul-
tural production of national identity in modern East Asia cannot be
understood without some consideration of the complicated dynamics of
this cultural, ethnic sense of national identity.
Narrative Schemes, Language, and Printed Texts
This volume approaches national identity as something that must be
understood beyond the machinations of political institutions; we explore
and interpret various narrated sites of identity and Otherness in East Asia
as forms of struggle over cultural identity. We are particularly con-
cerned with how Others in East Asia were represented in new narrative
3
With the arrival of the state and state-building projects in modern East Asia, the state was often seen as an emblem of the Otherness of the West and an intrusion on local and native cultural forms. Consequently, in this volume we have found it necessary to reconsider cultural national ism not only as the ways in which the state mobilized culture but also as how cultural identities could be mobilized independent of and against the modern state. Paradoxically, this cultural or ethnic sense of national identity was deployed widely in China, Korea, and Japan (as minzu, minjok, and minzoku, respectively) and worked at times to support modern states and at other times to undermine them. Surely, the cul tural production of national identity in modern East Asia cannot be understood without some consideration of the complicated dynamics of this cultural, ethnic sense of national identity.
schemes: how constructing essential differences involves imagining new
boundaries to be deployed in a new configuration of space and time in all
sorts of texts, both literary and iconic. One of the new ways in which
Narrative Schemes, Language, and Printed Texts
identities were constructed is the conflict of metanarrative schemes that
provided the fundamental frame of reference in time and space. Tradi-
tional identities were rendered unintelligible when aporia occurred as a
result of redeployment in radically disparate narrative schemes. An im-
portant change in the production, dissemination, and consumption of
narratives of collective identities (whether ethnic, national, cultural, reli-
gious, class, or gendered) in the modern period is the speed with which
texts could be duplicated, distributed, and appropriated within the same
scriptural society and, especially in modern East Asia, across different
national societies using similar writing systems. Narratives and iconog-
raphies of both the self and the Other were disseminated and translated
into different languages. A translingual discursive space was opened up
in print wherein disparate conceptualizations of group identity articu-
lated through different languages competed for "universal validity" in the
expanding horizon of what was understood of the world. Producers of
This volume approaches national identity as something that must be understood beyond the machinations of political institutions; we explore and interpret various narrated sites of identity and Otherness in East Asia as forms of struggle over cultural identity. We are particularly con cerned with how Others in East Asia were represented in new narrative schemes: how constructing essential differences involves imagining new boundaries to be deployed in a new configuration of space and time in all sorts of texts, both literary and iconic. One of the new ways in which identities were constructed is the conflict of metanarrative schemes that provided the fundamental frame of reference in time and space. Tradi tional identities were rendered unintelligible when aporia occurred as a result of redeployment in radically disparate narrative schemes. An im portant change in the production, dissemination, and consumption of narratives of collective identities (whether ethnic, national, cultural, reli gious, class, or gendered) in the modern period is the speed with which texts could be duplicated, distributed, and appropriated within the same scriptural society and, especially in modern East Asia, across different national societies using similar writing systems. Narratives and iconog raphies of both the self and the Other were disseminated and translated into different languages. A translingual discursive space was opened up in print wherein disparate conceptualizations of group identity articu lated through different languages competed for "universal validity" in the expanding horizon of what was understood of the world. Producers of
4
4 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
literary culture were forced to deal with discourses originating in other
languages made available through translated texts. This translingual
dimension of the modern discourse on identities in East Asia is an espe-
cially compelling issue since for most of the premodern era people
throughout East Asia (who today are considered to belong to indepen-
dent nations or cultural groups) shared a common literary and intellec-
tual structure.
One finds several key moments beginning with the sixteenth century
when territorial and cultural markers were reimagined to rechart the
spatial boundaries of East Asia, especially between Japan and China.
The chapters by Ronald P. Toby, Kai-wing Chow, and Kevin M. Doak
address the question of the construction of identities in new and conflict-
ing narrative schemata of time and space. Each focuses on some of these
early moments when the boundaries of China, Japan, and Asia were
being reimagined in narrative and iconic representations.
Toby's chapter marks the origins of a break from the premodern,
transnational, epistemological order in East Asia. As he shows, Japan's
encounter with Europeans in the mid-sixteenth century contributed to a
change in imagining and representing Japan's Other(s) in a new spatial
and ethnic relationship with China. The shift Toby outlines, from a
"Three Realms" spatial structure to a "Myriad Countries" framework,
can be seen in the new ways Japanese and their Other(s) were portrayed
in both literary texts and in iconography. In this new spatiality, the rela-
tionship between China and Japan was changed, but it was not yet con-
structed within the framework of modern states. In his universal encyclo-
pedia, the Kinmo zui (1666), Nakamura Tekisai recognized that China's
self-appellation was "Central country," even though China was called in
Japanese texts by its dynastic titles, Han and Tang. Nakamura was aware
of the Europeans' choice of "China" (i.e., shina in kanji), but this term
would not become the label preferred by Japanese intellectuals until the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The wankoku framework
in which the boundaries of Japan and China were imagined in the mid-
sixteenth century was prenational, in the sense that it preceded the
construction of a modern state in Japan, but also protonational, in
the sense that it laid the epistemological foundations for a ready accep-
tance of the ethnic definitions of peoples that would proliferate in the
modern period. This representation of ethnic others also demonstrates
how publishing served as an important conduit for the reproduction of
images of Europe's Other(s).
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
literary culture were forced to deal with discourses originating in other languages made available through translated texts. This translingual dimension of the modern discourse on identities in East Asia is an espe cially compelling issue since for most of the premodern era people throughout East Asia (who today are considered to belong to indepen dent nations or cultural groups ) shared a common literary and intellec tual structure. One finds several key moments beginning with the sixteenth century when territorial and cultural markers were reimagined to rechart the spatial boundaries of East Asia, especially between Japan and China. The chapters by Ronald P. Toby, Kai-wing Chow, and Kevin M. Doak address the question of the construction of identities in new and conflict ing narrative schemata of time and space. Each focuses on some of these early moments when the boundaries of China, Japan, and Asia were being reimagined in narrative and iconic representations. Toby's chapter marks the origins of a break from the premodern, transnational, epistemological order in East Asia. As he shows, Japan's encounter with Europeans in the mid-sixteenth century contributed to a change in imagining and representing Japan's Other ( s ) in a new spatial and ethnic relationship with China. The shift Toby outlines, from a "Three Realms" spatial structure to a "Myriad Countries" framework, can be seen in the new ways Japanese and their Other (s ) were portrayed in both literary texts and in iconography. In this new spatiality, the rela tionship between China and Japan was changed, but it was not yet con structed within the framework of modern states. In his universal encyclo pedia, the Kinmo zui ( 1666), Nakamura Tekisai recognized that China's self-appellation was "Central country, " even though China was called in Japanese texts by its dynastic titles, Han and Tang. Nakamura was aware of the Europeans' choice of "China" ( i . e . , shina in kanji) , but this term would not become the label preferred by Japanese intellectuals until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The wankoku framework in which the boundaries of Japan and China were imagined in the mid sixteenth century was prenational, in the sense that it preceded the construction of a modern state in Japan, but also protonational, in the sense that it laid the epistemological foundations for a ready accep tance of the ethnic definitions of peoples that would proliferate in the modern period. This representation of ethnic others also demonstrates how publishing served as an important conduit for the reproduction of images of Europe's Other (s ) .
Introduction
Introduction 5
Toby's interrogation of the "anthropological" lens converges with
Kai-wing Chow's analysis of the anti-Manchu rhetoric of Zhang Binglin
and the revolutionaries in China. As Chow shows, an earlier discourse
on race was appropriated and refigured beyond biology into a political
ideology directed against the Manchu regime. To exclude the Manchus
from the Chinese nation, the vast ethnic, linguistic, and local cultural
differences were subsumed under and erased by a Han identity. In sharp
contrast to the ways in which modern Japanese mobilized narratives of
Chinese ethnicity, Zhang used historical narrative to endow the Han
lineage with a subjectivity that homogenized the various dynasties into
one Chinese Han lineage (Hanzu) that fought constantly and coura-
geously against barbarians, the equally homogeneous Other(s). As
Chow argues, this imagination of the Chinese nation as a mammoth Han
lineage descended from Huangdi drew upon the symbolic sources of
social Darwinism, Enlightenment discourse on the nation, and indige-
nous lineage discourse. The extensive deployment of lineage terminol-
ogy in the writings of the revolutionaries clearly shows the "domesticat-
ing" or "distorting" effect of translating foreign discourse into the native
language. Like Japanese sinologists, Zhang drew from Western sources
on Chinese history and national identity. But, whereas Japanese sinolo-
gists frequently argued that China was merely a territory that encom-
passed five distinct ethnic nations, Zhang Binglin and the revolutionaries
sought to efface ethnic minority identities by arguing that a single Chi-
nese nation based on the Hanzu should overthrow the Manchus in order
to establish a single Chinese Han nation-state. Here we find a striking
example of how ethnic national identity in China was deployed for dra-
matically different purposes by Chinese and Japanese.
Kevin M. Doak's chapter looks at how Japanese sinologists mobi-
lized the rhetoric of ethnic nationality to deny that China was a single
nation. Even as Japanese historians employed the language of ethnic
nationalism favored by anti-imperialists, their representations of Chinese
ethnic identities often reflected Japanese imperial interests. As Doak
reveals, this was true not only of elite historians in the academy but of
popular historians as well. In particular, a 1916 text aimed at the masses,
The Nations of the Far East, took advantage of a large reading public and
a modern efficient publishing industry in the Japanese empire to propa-
gate a common conceit among Japanese that China was not a state. China
was seen as neither a modern state nor the Central Country, but as a
transitional "multinational region" in which various ethnic peoples had
5
Toby's interrogation of the "anthropological" lens converges with Kai-wing Chow's analysis of the anti-Manchu rhetoric of Zhang Binglin and the revolutionaries in China. As Chow shows, an earlier discourse on race was appropriated and refigured beyond biology into a political ideology directed against the Manchu regime. To exclude the Manchus from the Chinese nation, the vast ethnic, linguistic, and local cultural differences were subsumed under and erased by a Han identity. In sharp contrast to the ways in which modern Japanese mobilized narratives of Chinese ethnicity, Zhang used historical narrative to endow the Han lineage with a subjectivity that homogenized the various dynasties into one Chinese Han lineage (Hanzu) that fought constantly and coura geously against barbarians, the equally homogeneous Other(s). As Chow argues, this imagination of the Chinese nation as a mammoth Han lineage descended from Huangdi drew upon the symbolic sources of social Darwinism, Enlightenment discourse on the nation, and indige nous lineage discourse. The extensive deployment of lineage terminol ogy in the writings of the revolutionaries clearly shows the "domesticat ing" or "distorting" effect of translating foreign discourse into the native language. Like Japanese sinologists, Zhang drew from Western sources on Chinese history and national identity. But, whereas Japanese sinolo gists frequently argued that China was merely a territory that encom passed five distinct ethnic nations, Zhang Binglin and the revolutionaries sought to efface ethnic minority identities by arguing that a single Chi nese nation based on the Hanzu should overthrow the Manchus in order to establish a single Chinese Han nation-state. Here we find a striking example of how ethnic national identity in China was deployed for dra matically different purposes by Chinese and Japanese. Kevin M. Doak's chapter looks at how Japanese sinologists mobi lized the rhetoric of ethnic nationality to deny that China was a single nation. Even as Japanese historians employed the language of ethnic nationalism favored by anti-imperialists, their representations of Chinese ethnic identities often reflected Japanese imperial interests. As Doak reveals, this was true not only of elite historians in the academy but of popular historians as well. In particular, a 1916 text aimed at the masses, The Nations of the Far East, took advantage of a large reading public and a modern efficient publishing industry in the Japanese empire to propa gate a common conceit among Japanese that China was not a state. China was seen as neither a modern state nor the Central Country, but as a transitional "multinational region" in which various ethnic peoples had
6
6 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
contested for centuries over political dominance and autonomy. Like
British missionaries, this text found the Chinese self-identity as zhongguo
(Central Country) unacceptable for its anachronistic, premodern sense
of hegemonic identity and its implied arrogance toward other nations.
Instead, it employed the transliteration of the English term China, render-
ing it in Japanese Kanji as shina. But the point was not that China was
now a modern national state. Rather, The Nations of the Far East shifted
its narrative of Chinese history from a narrative of a single national state
to independent narratives of the five major ethnic groups (minzoku) of
China, emphasizing the ethnic oppression of the minority Manchus dur-
ing the Qing dynasty as well as the shortcomings of contemporary Chi-
nese attempts to construct a unified, stable, political state around a single
Han ethnicity. In short, Doak raises troubling questions not only about
the ambiguities of ethnic identity in national formation but about the
transference of imperial desire in early-twentieth-century Japanese nar-
ratives of East Asian identities.
Read together, the chapters by Kai-wing Chow and Kevin M. Doak
reinforce how the sharing of the same linguistic symbols (Chinese charac-
ters or Japanese Kanji) made it extremely important to gain control over
linguistic representation. The choice of the characters for toyo by Japa-
nese scholars and yazhou by Chinese intellectuals is by no means merely
a trivial quarrel over accuracy in rendering the English word Asia. At
issue was a translingual contest over the imagining of a new geopolitical
space in which both China and Japan sought to position themselves at the
center. In fact, as Toby's chapter shows, a geopolitical space of bankoku
had been introduced in Japan in sixteenth-century maps and portraits of
non-Japanese. Even though China retained its central position on the
world map, it had been decentered in discourse by virtue of the shift
from the sankoku spatial structure to the "ten thousand countries," of
which China was only one. After the Meiji Restoration, Japanese schol-
ars increasingly refused to use zhongguo as the name for China, arguing
that such usage was not only anachronistic but an affront to the equality
of nations.
Nostalgia and Loss in the Formation of Modern
National Identity
One issue central to the cultural production of national identities is how
modernity engenders a sense of loss and nostalgia for a more certain past
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
contested for centuries over political dominance and autonomy. Like British missionaries, this text found the Chinese self-identity as zhongguo (Central Country) unacceptable for its anachronistic, premodern sense of hegemonic identity and its implied arrogance toward other nations. Instead, it employed the transliteration of the English term China, render ing it in Japanese Kanji as shina. But the point was not that China was now a modern national state. Rather, The Nations of the Far East shifted its narrative of Chinese history from a narrative of a single national state to independent narratives of the five major ethnic groups (minzoku) of China, emphasizing the ethnic oppression of the minority Manchus dur ing the Qing dynasty as well as the shortcomings of contemporary Chi nese attempts to construct a unified, stable, political state around a single Han ethnicity. In short, Doak raises troubling questions not only about the ambiguities of ethnic identity in national formation but about the transference of imperial desire in early-twentieth-century Japanese nar ratives of East Asian identities. Read together, the chapters by Kai-wing Chow and Kevin M . Doak reinforce how the sharing of the same linguistic symbols (Chinese charac ters or Japanese Kanji) made it extremely important to gain control over linguistic representation. The choice of the characters for toyo by Japa nese scholars and yazhou by Chinese intellectuals is by no means merely a trivial quarrel over accuracy in rendering the English word Asia. At issue was a translingual contest over the imagining of a new geopolitical space in which both China and Japan sought to position themselves at the center. In fact, as Toby's chapter shows, a geopolitical space of bankoku had been introduced in Japan in sixteenth-century maps and portraits of non-Japanese. Even though China retained its central position on the world map, it had been decentered in discourse by virtue of the shift from the sankoku spatial structure to the "ten thousand countries," of which China was only one. After the Meiji Restoration, Japanese schol ars increasingly refused to use zhongguo as the name for China, arguing that such usage was not only anachronistic but an affront to the equality of nations. Nostalgia and Loss in the Formation of Modern National Identity One issue central to the cultural production of national identities is how modernity engenders a sense of loss and nostalgia for a more certain past
Introduction
Introduction
7
and how this longing can lead to cultural expressions of national identi-
ties. Nostalgia as a form of historical consciousness is common in the
construction of national and nationalist cultures across modern East
Asia. While nostalgic resistance to the defamiliarizing and alienating
aspects of modernity is hardly unique to East Asia, within and across
East Asian cultural and nationalist discourse a shared concern over the
hegemony of Western culture was often an underlying element in the
construction of this cultural nationalism. The particularities of East
Asian cultural nationalism, if any, can be found in the interstices be-
tween this broadly shared nostalgia for a moment prior to the invasion of
Western history and the different forms this nostalgic impulse took in
responding to and shaping social and political movements in the very
different national contexts of China, Japan, and Korea.
Stefan Tanaka's chapter explores how the Meiji Restoration, like
other modern disruptions, simultaneously constructed a new sense of
historical time and with it other strategies for contesting tradition in
multiple ways and for multiple purposes. Tanaka focuses on a single
Buddhist temple, the Horyuji, which in the early Meiji period was redis-
covered and reconceptualized as central to modern Japanese understand-
ings of themselves and their nation. The struggles over the meaning of
what had been a rather obscure temple reveal the profound depths of
the aesthetic and emotional responses to this modern disruption. At
issue was the perception that the past was receding but not entirely
inaccessible to modern Japanese. This sense of loss and longing was
exacerbated by a specific, modern, temporal consciousness that required
past traditions in order to project a particular national identity into the
future. What is striking about this debate over a Buddhist temple as an
icon of modern Japanese identity is that it was taking place against the
backdrop of a modern state that had decisively shifted away from Bud-
dhism toward its own version of nationalistic Shintoism. Clearly, na-
tional identity in modern Japan was a field much larger than the state
could imagine. Through the debates over H6ryuji, Tanaka skillfully un-
covers the multiple uses of and contestations over the national aesthetic
past, reminding us of the varieties of ways in which modernity engenders
its own peculiar forms of nostalgia and loss and of the varied possibilities
in reimagining the past.
When Tanaka's chapter is read in conjunction with Peter Zarrow's
chapter analyzing a roughly simultaneous moment in China, one catches
both the similarities of this modern nostalgia across East Asia and some
7
and how this longing can lead to cultural expressions of national identi ties. Nostalgia as a form of historical consciousness is common in the construction of national and nationalist cultures across modern East Asia. While nostalgic resistance to the defamiliarizing and alienating aspects of modernity is hardly unique to East Asia, within and across East Asian cultural and nationalist discourse a shared concern over the hegemony of Western culture was often an underlying element in the construction of this cultural nationalism. The particularities of East Asian cultural nationalism, if any, can be found in the interstices be tween this broadly shared nostalgia for a moment prior to the invasion of Western history and the different forms this nostalgic impulse took in responding to and shaping social and political movements in the very different national contexts of China, Japan" and Korea. Stefan Tanaka's chapter explores how the Meiji Restoration, like other modern disruptions, simultaneously constructed a new sense of historical time and with it other strategies for contesting tradition in multiple ways and for multiple purposes. Tanaka focuses on a single Buddhist temple, the Horyuji, which in the early Meiji period was redis covered and reconceptualized as central to modern Japanese understand ings of themselves and their nation. The struggles over the meaning of what had been a rather obscure temple reveal the profound depths of the aesthetic and emotional responses to this modern disruption. At issue was the perception that the past was receding but not entirely inaccessible to modern Japanese. This sense of loss and longing was exacerbated by a specific, modern, temporal consciousness that required past traditions in order to project a particular national identity into the future. What is striking about this debate over a Buddhist temple as an icon of modern Japanese identity is that it was taking place against the backdrop of a modern state that had decisively shifted away from Bud dhism toward its own version of nationalistic Shintoism. Clearly, na tional identity in modern Japan was a field much larger than the state could imagine. Through the debates over Horyuj i, Tanaka skillfully un covers the multiple uses of and contestations over the national aesthetic past, reminding us of the varieties of ways in which modernity engenders its own peculiar forms of nostalgia and loss and of the varied possibilities in reimagining the past. When Tanaka's chapter is read in conjunction with Peter Zarrow's chapter analyzing a roughly simultaneous moment in China, one catches both the similarities of this modern nostalgia across East Asia and some
8
8
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
of its differences. Zarrow highlights how the Revolution of 1911 in
China led not to a complete discarding of the earlier reliance on ritual as
power and tradition but to its redefinition for modern Chinese social
needs in the hands of men like Yuan Shikai. Like Tanaka, Zarrow
undertakes his analysis with the modern rupture as his point of depar-
ture while reminding us that the past is not a complete loss in modern
societies but was reconfigured in the invention of new identities. Zarrow
locates the power of this nostalgic concern for the past and its rituals not
merely at the political level but at deeper cultural levels where individu-
als find their personal needs met through reconnection with an earlier
moment even while those needs are reconfigured within new political
and social contexts. Zarrow's reading of Yuan's attempt to find answers
to modern social and national questions in the Qing emphasis on ritual
reminds us again of this particular consciousness of loss and the hope
that responses to the disquieting effects of modern social ruptures can be
quelled by looking backward into the past.
Another perspective on how modern forms of nostalgia situate the
past and the nation is provided by JaHyun Kim Haboush's chapter on
Korean historical fiction. Kim-Haboush shows how the nation can be
approached as a text in the same way that literary texts prefigure na-
tional obsessions: in her analysis, the Korean nation becomes a "multidi-
mensional space in which are married and contested several writings,
none of which is original." For Korean intellectuals in the 1980s, moder-
nity was not a hegemonic ideology that called forth suppressed desires
but a possibility that could be read into their own tradition by looking
into their past and locating an autonomous modernity. Such a retrospec-
tive gaze, however, required a concept of "arrested time," a sense that
East Asia had multiple paths toward modernity, multiple ways of filling
the gap created by loss and longing, multiple national identities, and
multiple narratives of the West. Through her powerful and compelling
readings of contemporary Korean historical fiction, Kim Haboush not
only reminds us of the continuing importance of historical consciousness
in Korea but of the importance of interpreted culture and political fluid-
ity in democratic politics and societies.
Just as Kim Haboush's analysis of literary texts foregrounds the
broad menu of strategies available for coming to terms with loss and
longing for the past, Hung-yok Ip shows how a similar spectrum of
cosmopolitan concerns informed Chinese Communist intellectuals. Ip
explores how Chinese Communism was itself a response to the disorient-
ing array of new ideas and modern political values that flooded into East
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
of its differences. Zarrow highlights how the Revolution of 1911 in China led not to a complete discarding of the earlier reliance on ritual as power and tradition but to its redefinition for modern Chinese social needs in the hands of men like Yuan Shikai. Like Tanaka, Zarrow undertakes his analysis with the modern rupture as his point of depar ture while reminding us that the past is not a complete loss in modern societies but was reconfigured in the invention of new identities. Zarrow locates the power of this nostalgic concern for the past and its rituals not merely at the political level but at deeper cultural levels where individu als find their personal needs met through reconnection with an earlier moment even while those needs are reconfigured within new political and social contexts. Zarrow's reading of Yuan's attempt to find answers to modern social and national questions in the Qing emphasis on ritual reminds us again of this particular consciousness of loss and the hope that responses to the disquieting effects of modern social ruptures can be quelled by looking backward into the past. Another perspective on how modern forms of nostalgia situate the past and the nation is provided by JaHyun Kim Haboush's chapter on Korean historical fiction. Kim-Haboush shows how the nation can be approached as a text in the same way that literary texts prefigure na tional obsessions: in her analysis, the Korean nation becomes a "multidi mensional space in which are married and contested several writings, none of which is original. " For Korean intellectuals in the 1 980s, moder nity was not a hegemonic ideology that called forth suppressed desires but a possibility that could be read into their own tradition by looking into their past and locating an autonomous modernity. Such a retrospec tive gaze, however, required a concept of "arrested time, " a sense that East Asia had multiple paths toward modernity, multiple ways of filling the gap created by loss and longing, multiple national identities, and multiple narratives of the West. Through her powerful and compelling readings of contemporary Korean historical fiction, Kim Haboush not only reminds us of the continuing importance of historical consciousness in Korea but of the importance of interpreted culture and political fluid ity in democratic politics and societies. Just as Kim Haboush's analysis of literary texts foregrounds the broad menu of strategies available for coming to terms with loss and longing for the past, Hung-yok Ip shows how a similar spectrum of cosmopolitan concerns informed Chinese Communist intellectuals. Ip explores how Chinese Communism was itself a response to the disorient ing array of new ideas and modern political values that flooded into East
Introduction
Introduction 9
Asia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. She provoca-
tively suggests how cosmopolitanism and Marxism were not simply an-
tagonistic systems of belief but often converged around a shared experi-
ence of loss of continuity and the radical conditions of modern society.
Modern utilitarian values, evident in Communist celebrations of the
nation as a legitimate tool in anti-imperialist movements (even as they
condemned bourgeois nationalism), were themselves a central part of
the modern reflection on the loss of original, pure essences and an
awareness of the contextual or contingent nature of modern social life.
As Ip demonstrates, this was especially true of Chinese Communists,
who had to deal not only with the economic effects of modern capitalism
but with the cultural connotations of Western social theories as tools for
the liberation of East Asia. This cultural dilemma often led Chinese
Communists to what Ip calls cosmopolitanism as a means of reimagining
Chinese national identity from a cultural perspective, rather than locat-
ing it wholly within the modern state or in some essential category of
tradition.
Diaspora, Gender, and Ambiguity of Identity
National and cultural identities need to be historicized and hetero-
genized. With different geopolitical focuses and analytical strategies, all
the chapters in this section underscore the ambiguity and cultural poli-
tics of identity formation in modern East Asia. Rather than a homoge-
neous discourse - whether emanating from the state, the nation, or eth-
nic groups-identity is actually the site of hegemony, contestation, and
various kinds of resistance. Gender, diaspora, and popular culture pro-
9
Asia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. She provoca tively suggests how cosmopolitanism and Marxism were not simply an tagonistic systems of belief but often converged around a shared experi ence of loss of continuity and the radical conditions of modern society. Modern utilitarian values, evident in Communist celebrations of the nation as a legitimate tool in anti-imperialist movements (even as they condemned bourgeois nationalism) , were themselves a central part of the modern reflection on the loss of original, pure essences and an awareness of the contextual or contingent nature of modern social life. As Ip demonstrates, this was especially true of Chinese Communists, who had to deal not only with the economic effects of modern capitalism but with the cultural connotations of Western social theories as tools for the liberation of East Asia. This cultural dilemma often led Chinese Communists to what Ip calls cosmopolitanism as a means of reimagining Chinese national identity from a cultural perspective, rather than locat ing it wholly within the modern state or in some essential category of tradition.
vide significant ways of understanding the complex politics of identity
making.
Poshek Fu focuses on the Hong Kong cinema between 1937 and 1941
Diaspora, Gender, and Ambiguity of Identity
to explore the ambiguity of local identity formation. In the 1930s, as
colonial subjects of Great Britain, Hong Kong people were doubly mar-
ginalized by the British colonizers and the diasporic intellectuals exiled
from Japanese-occupied Shanghai. While the British "Otherized" them
as apathetic and excluded them from war preparations, the people of
Hong Kong were castigated by the mainland Chinese 6migr6s as "feu-
dal" and unpatriotic. The local cinema became a site in which a China-
centered nationalist discourse that privileged modernization and Enlight-
enment values tried to impose its hegemonic control over local popular
culture. Through the lens of what Fu calls "Central China syndrome,"
National and cultural identities need to be historicized and hetero genized. With different geopolitical focuses and analytical strategies, all the chapters in this section underscore the ambiguity and cultural poli tics of identity formation in modern East Asia. Rather than a homoge neous discourse - whether emanating from the state, the nation, or eth nic groups - identity is actually the site of hegemony, contestation, and various kinds of resistance. Gender, diaspora, and popular culture pro vide significant ways of understanding the complex politics of identity making. Poshek Fu focuses on the Hong Kong cinema between 1937 and 1941 to explore the ambiguity of local identity formation. In the 1930s, as colonial subjects of Great Britain, Hong Kong people were doubly mar ginalized by the British colonizers and the diasporic intellectuals exiled from Japanese-occupied Shanghai. While the British "Otherized" them as apathetic and excluded them from war preparations, the people of Hong Kong were castigated by the mainland Chinese emigres as "feu dal" and unpatriotic. The local cinema became a site in which a China centered nationalist discourse that privileged modernization and Enlight enment values tried to impose its hegemonic control over local popular culture. Through the lens of what Fu calls "Central China syndrome,"
10
10
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the 6migr6 filmmakers and critics inscribed a primitive and slavish Other
onto the local cinema. The Mandarin films they made in Hong Kong - a
city of Cantonese speakers- projected this "centralizing nationalist ide-
ology" by valorizing a national language as the instrument of state build-
ing and sacrifice to collective interests. Against this statist intervention,
some local filmmakers strove to foreground the cultural difference of
Hong Kong from the geopolitical situation on the mainland. This differ-
ence, Fu argues, animated the production of an alternative vision of a
Hong Kong identity. But under the twin pressures of British colonialism
and centralizing nationalism, this incipient sense of local identity was
tentative. As is evidenced in one of the popular films discussed in his
chapter, this identity was both hybridized and ideologically ambivalent.
It was situated uncomfortably between an attachment to the Chinese
homeland and an assertion of local difference.
Like Fu, Jiu-jung Lo looks at diasporic Chinese identity. Her subject
is Taiwanese identity and its ambiguous position in the shifting contexts
of Chinese politics. Beginning in 1931, under the colonial policy of assimi-
lation, the majority of Taiwanese became Japanese nationals. But many
intellectuals chose to remain loyal to China because it provided them
with a psychological escape from colonial oppression. After the Marco
Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, some Taiwanese went to join the resistance
on the mainland only to meet with the suspicion of the Chinese govern-
ment, while the colonial authority enlisted those who remained in Taiwan
to serve in the imperial Japanese Army. The end of the war thus brought
the question of Taiwanese nationality to the forefront: were Taiwanese
Chinese nationals or Japanese nationals? It was a question with serious
implications. A heated debate broke out within the Chinese government
regarding whether Taiwanese should be brought to trial under the cate-
gory of traitor or war criminal, a question that hinged on their nationality.
In Lo's account, just after the war many Taiwanese readily identified
themselves as Chinese while pleading for legal clemency for their war-
time behavior. After 1946, however, under the abusive rule of the Chi-
nese, who ignored their complicated situation, Taiwanese began to imag-
ine a separate national identity by fashioning a distinctive ethnic-cultural
tradition out of their Japanese colonial past. This ambiguous history
marked the beginning of an increasingly fixed but contested boundary
between Taiwan and China, providing an excellent example of the inven-
tion of national identity in modern East Asia.
While Fu and Lo discuss the Chinese diaspora as an instrument of
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the emigre filmmakers and critics inscribed a primitive and slavish Other onto the local cinema. The Mandarin films they made in Hong Kong - a city of Cantonese speakers - projected this "centralizing nationalist ide ology" by valorizing a national language as the instrument of state build ing and sacrifice to collective interests. Against this statist intervention, some local filmmakers strove to foreground the cultural difference of Hong Kong from the geopolitical situation on the mainland. This differ ence, Fu argues, animated the production of an alternative vision of a Hong Kong identity. But under the twin pressures of British colonialism and centralizing nationalism, this incipient sense of local identity was tentative. As is evidenced in one of the popular films discussed in his chapter, this identity was both hybridized and ideologically ambivalent. It was situated uncomfortably between an attachment to the Chinese homeland and an assertion of local difference. Like Fu, Jiu-jung Lo looks at diasporic Chinese identity. Her subject is Taiwanese identity and its ambiguous position in the shifting contexts of Chinese politics. Beginning in 193 1 , under the colonial policy of assimi lation, the majority of Taiwanese became Japanese nationals. But many intellectuals chose to remain loyal to China because it provided them with a psychological escape from colonial oppression. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1 937, some Taiwanese went to join the resistance on the mainland only to meet with the suspicion of the Chinese govern ment, while the colonial authority enlisted those who remained in Taiwan to serve in the imperial Japanese Army. The end of the war thus brought the question of Taiwanese nationality to the forefront: were Taiwanese Chinese nationals or Japanese nationals? It was a question with serious implications. A heated debate broke out within the Chinese government regarding whether Taiwanese should be brought to trial under the cate gory of traitor or war criminal, a question that hinged on their nationality. In Lo's account, just after the war many Taiwanese readily identified themselves as Chinese while pleading for legal clemency for their war time behavior. After 1 946, however, under the abusive rule of the Chi nese, who ignored their complicated situation, Taiwanese began to imag ine a separate national identity by fashioning a distinctive ethnic-cultural tradition out of their Japanese colonial past. This ambiguous history marked the beginning of an increasingly fixed but contested boundary between Taiwan and China, providing an excellent example of the inven tion of national identity in modern East Asia. While Fu and Lo discuss the Chinese diaspora as an instrument of
Introduction
Introduction
11
homogenizing nationalism, John Lie explores diasporan Koreans in Ja-
pan. Through the writings of three Korean writers in Japan, he demon-
strates the pluralities of responses to ethnicity and national identity
among Korean Japanese. While Kim Sok-pom yearned to return to a
homeland that existed only in his literary imagination, Yi Yang-ji found
herself, like many Korean Japanese, trapped in a predicament between
an idealized homeland and its alienating reality. One way to escape this
predicament is offered by Yi Hoe-song. Yi avoids the psychological
ambivalence by eschewing a return to a national homeland and champi-
oning a diasporic and "pan-ethnic vision" of Korean identity. This para-
digmatic shift "from exile to diaspora" tries to sever ethnicity from
national aspiration and relocate it as merely cultural membership in a
deterritorialized group. Lie takes us back to the equation that informed
the initial quest for national identity in modern East Asia: the attempt to
identify and then match ethnic identities with their own nation-states.
But Lie's is a postnational vision: diasporic identity - accepting the
condition of exile rather than seeking to alleviate it by returning to a
homeland - as the only realistic solution when the boundaries between
homeland, identity, and one's place of residence are constantly shifting
and fraught with ambiguity.
Focusing on popular songs in Republican Shanghai, Andrew F.
Jones explores the reconfiguration of nation in the 1930s surrounding the
figure of the sing-song girl. The mass appeal of popular songs had been
predicated on the fetishization and consumption of their female per-
formers - sing-song girls - whose glamorous but brutal lives were at the
same time exploited as sensational themes in these songs. As an all-out
Japanese invasion became imminent in the early 1930s, critics of differ-
ent backgrounds began to attack popular songs as weakening the spirit
of national salvation. This did not mean that they gave up the figure of
sing-song girls. Instead, they incorporated them, especially the pathos of
their oppression, into the nationalist discourse by transforming them
into a symbol of national humiliation. Popular music was thus turned
into an instrument for mobilizing resistance against the Japanese inva-
sion. But in both the commercial and nationalist discourses the "real
persons" of sing-song girls were erased.
Prasenjit Duara seeks to locate the gendered politics of identity
formation in modern China in a complex nexus between history and the
national state. He locates an enabling contradiction at the foundation of
national history in that it is at once linear and timeless. In his words,
11
homogenizing nationalism, John Lie explores diasporan Koreans in Ja pan. Through the writings of three Korean writers in Japan, he demon strates the pluralities of responses to ethnicity and national identity among Korean Japanese. While Kim Sok-pom yearned to return to a homeland that existed only in his literary imagination, Yi Yang-ji found herself, like many Korean Japanese, trapped in a predicament between an idealized homeland and its alienating reality. One way to escape this predicament is offered by Yi Hoe-song. Yi avoids the psychological ambivalence by eschewing a return to a national homeland and champi oning a diasporic and "pan-ethnic vision" of Korean identity. This para digmatic shift "from exile to diaspora" tries to sever ethnicity from national aspiration and relocate it as merely cultural membership in a de territorialized group. Lie takes us back to the equation that informed the initial quest for national identity in modern East Asia: the attempt to identify and then match ethnic identities with their own nation-states. But Lie's is a postnational vision: diasporic identity - accepting the condition of exile rather than seeking to alleviate it by returning to a homeland - as the only realistic solution when the boundaries between homeland, identity, and one's place of residence are constantly shifting and fraught with ambiguity. Focusing on popular songs in Republican Shanghai, Andrew F. Jones explores the reconfiguration of nation in the 1930s surrounding the figure of the sing-song girl. The mass appeal of popular songs had been predicated on the fetishization and consumption of their female per formers - sing-song girls - whose glamorous but brutal lives were at the same time exploited as sensational themes in these songs. As an aU-out Japanese invasion became imminent in the early 1930s, critics of differ ent backgrounds began to attack popular songs as weakening the spirit of national salvation. This did not mean that they gave up the figure of sing-song girls. Instead, they incorporated them, especiaUy the pathos of their oppression, into the nationalist discourse by transforming them into a symbol of national humiliation. Popular music was thus turned into an instrument for mobilizing resistance against the Japanese inva sion. But in both the commercial and nationalist discourses the "real persons" of sing-song girls were erased. Prasenjit Duara seeks to locate the gendered politics of identity formation in modern China in a complex nexus between history and the national state. He locates an enabling contradiction at the foundation of national history in that it is at once linear and timeless. In his words,
12
12
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"linear History embeds a notion of time in which all is in flux, but it also
locates an unchanging core at the heart of change." It is this unchanging
core that animated the production of national identity. In Republican
China, as in other (post)colonial nation-states, as Duara argues, this
identity was thoroughly gendered. Political elites represented women as
that unchanging core, that realm of authenticity that defined the nation.
This subsumption of women into the national discourse was in effect a
strategy of containment, subjecting women to patriarchal control. But
Duara does not see this as a totalized regime of control. Rather, some
women, like the Hong Kong filmmakers and Taiwanese, were able to
appropriate the nationalist idiom to enunciate their resistance. Herein
lies the ambiguity of identity politics. Gender, articulated by male elites
to define the core of national tradition, ironically may simply make
national identity more accessible to women within the terms of this
repressive schema. For all their discursive homogenizing power, dis-
courses on nationalism and national identity throughout modern East
Asia have not been able to displace social resistance, whether on the
basis of gender or other sources.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"linear History embeds a notion of time in which all is in flux, but it also locates an unchanging core at the heart of change." It is this unchanging core that animated the production of national identity. In Republican China, as in other (post)colonial nation-states, as Duara argues, this identity was thoroughly gendered. Political elites represented women as that unchanging core, that realm of authenticity that defined the nation. This subsumption of women into the national discourse was in effect a strategy of containment, sUbjecting women to patriarchal control. But Duara does not see this as a totalized regime of control. Rather, some women, like the Hong Kong filmmakers and Taiwanese, were able to appropriate the nationalist idiom to enunciate their resistance. Herein lies the ambiguity of identity politics. Gender, articulated by male elites to define the core of national tradition, ironically may simply make national identity more accessible to women within the terms of this repressive schema. For all their discursive homogenizing power, dis courses on nationalism and national identity throughout modern East Asia have not been able to displace social resistance, whether on the basis of gender or other sources.
PARTl PART 1
Narrative Schemes, Language, and
Printed Texts
Narrative Schemes, Language, and Printed Texts

Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Three Realms/Myriad Countries:
An "Ethnography" of Other and the
Re-bounding of Japan, 1550-1750
Ronald P. Toby
A nation can have its being only at the price of being forever in
search of itself, forever transforming itself in the direction of its
logical development, always measuring itself against others and
identifying itself with the best, the most essential part of its being;
a nation will recognize itself in certain stock images, in certain
Three Realms/Myriad Countries: An "Ethnography" of Other and the Re-bounding of Japan, 1550-1750
passwords known to the initiated. . . . It will recognize itself in a
thousand touchstones, beliefs, ways of speech, excuses, in an
unbounded subconscious, in the flowing together of many obscure
currents, in a shared ideology, shared myths, shared fantasies.
Ronald P. Toby
- Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France
Identities, both individual and collective - that is to say, psychological,
social, cultural, and ethnic - are constituted psychologically and cultur-
ally through processes of distinction, the perception or invention, and the
demarcation of asserted difference of the self from an ever-increasing
array of others. Benedict Anderson's influential work on Indonesia articu-
lates a notion of the nation as a community imagined from within and
stresses the ideological generation of internal similarities, consistencies,
and continuities within a politically constituted, bounded geographic area
that historically had contained a dazzling array of cultural, linguistic, and
ethnic diversity.1 At the extreme, one might read Anderson as positing
the nation from within as a self without others, an internal similitude
without external difference. Eugen Weber, likewise, focuses on dis-
courses of similitude, the effacement of what Braudel later saw as the
nearly infinite variety of linguistic and cultural microclimates within
A nation can have its being only at the price of being forever in search of itself, forever transforming itself in the direction of its logical development, always measuring itself against others and identifying itself with the best, the most essential part of its being; a nation will recognize itself in certain stock images, in certain passwords known to the initiated. . . . It will recognize itself in a thousand touchstones, beliefs, ways of speech, excuses, in an unbounded subconscious, in the flowing together of many obscure currents, in a shared ideology, shared myths, shared fantasies. - Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France
"France" that brought about a unified "French" nation, with but passing
15
Identities, both individual and collective - that is to say, psychological, social, cultural, and ethnic - are constituted psychologically and cultur ally through processes of distinction, the perception or invention, and the demarcation of asserted difference of the self from an ever-increasing array of others. Benedict Anderson's influential work on Indonesia articu lates a notion of the nation as a community imagined from within and stresses the ideological generation of internal similarities, consistencies, and continuities within a politically constituted, bounded geographic area that historically had contained a dazzling array of cultural, linguistic, and ethnic diversity. 1 At the extreme, one might read Anderson as positing the nation from within as a self without others, an internal similitude without external difference. Eugen Weber, likewise, focuses on dis courses of similitude, the effacement of what Braudel later saw as the nearly infinite variety of linguistic and cultural microclimates within "France" that brought about a unified "French" nation, with but passing 15
16
16
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
reference to the discourses of difference, distinguishing what was homoge-
nized as "France" and "French" from what was excluded as different.2
Freud, by contrast, writes of a "narcissism of petty differences"
(narzismus der kleinen differenzen), a discourse of distinction of the
collective, community self from its proximate, yet excluded, "othered"
neighbors.3 He argues that the gross differences that distinguish the
collective self from the radical alterities of far-off, little-known strangers
are of far less import in the construction of identities than the articula-
tion of "petty differences" between the self and its best-known, most
familiar, proximate others. Thongchai Winichakul, in a critique of An-
derson, amplifies upon Freud's theme (though he does not refer to
Freud), arguing that nations cannot be "imagined" solely from within as
communities of similitude constructed without reference to the excluded
other. Rather, he argues, the nation is constructed precisely by "identify-
ing those characteristics which do not belong to us, rather than by consid-
ering positively any natural qualification of 'us.'"4 This process, Freud's
"narcissism of petty differences," privileges differentiation from the fa-
miliar, proximate Other over distinction from the less well-known, dis-
tant alien.
In this chapter, I examine some of the early modern roots of the
"imagined community" of the Japanese "nation," looking at discourses
of difference in an age of political and ideological unification but also an
age of radical challenge to historically dominant cosmologies in Japan.
Politically, "Japan" might be said to have existed in the mid-sixteenth
century, if at all, only as an imagined ideal and goal, much like the Holy
Roman Empire: The archipelago had been torn by virtually ceaseless
civil war since 1467 and had barely reconstituted itself into a series of
territorial "kingdoms," principalities engaged in constantly shifting stra-
tegic alliances to defend themselves against the depredations of invari-
ably hostile neighbors. It was as "kingdoms" that the first Europeans
referred to the many principalities they found upon arriving in late-
sangoku Japan in the 1540s and 1550s.5
I take a position closer to that of Freud and Winichakul than to
Anderson, and read the "nation" as constructed at least as much in a
dialogic engagement with "imagined communities" of excluded others -
aliens distinguished by imagined differences, both petty and great, from
the included, imagined "nation," its land and people, customs, lan-
guage, and lifeways - as in any process of imagining the internal commu-
nity in an intracultural soliloquy. For, despite the seemingly self-evident
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
reference to the discourses of difference, distinguishing what was homoge nized as "France" and "French" from what was excluded as different.2 Freud, by contrast, writes of a "narcissism of petty differences" (narzismus der kleinen diJJerenzen) , a discourse of distinction of the collective, community self from its proximate, yet excluded, "othered" neighbors.3 He argues that the gross differences that distinguish the collective self from the radical alterities of far-off, little-known strangers are of far less import in the construction of identities than the articula tion of "petty differences" between the self and its best-known, most familiar, proximate others. Thongchai Winichakul, in a critique of An derson, amplifies upon Freud's theme (though he does not refer to Freud), arguing that nations cannot be "imagined" solely from within as communities of similitude constructed without reference to the excluded other. Rather, he argues, the nation is constructed precisely by "identify ing those characteristics which do not belong to us, rather than by consid ering positively any natural qualification of 'US."'4 This process, Freud's "narcissism of petty differences," privileges differentiation from the fa miliar, proximate Other over distinction from the less well-known, dis tant alien. In this chapter, I examine some of the early modern roots of the "imagined community" of the Japanese "nation," looking at discourses of difference in an age of political and ideological unification but also an age of radical challenge to historically dominant cosmologies in Japan. Politically, "Japan" might be said to have existed in the mid-sixteenth century, if at all, only as an imagined ideal and goal, much like the Holy Roman Empire: The archipelago had been torn by virtually ceaseless civil war since 1467 and had barely reconstituted itself into a series of territorial "kingdoms," principalities engaged in constantly shifting stra tegic alliances to defend themselves against the depredations of invari ably hostile neighbors. It was as "kingdoms" that the first Europeans referred to the many principalities they found upon arriving in late sangoku Japan in the 1540s and 1550s.5 I take a position closer to that of Freud and Winichakul than to Anderson, and read the "nation" as constructed at least as much in a dialogic engagement with "imagined communities" of excluded others aliens distinguished by imagined differences, both petty and great, from the included, imagined "nation," its land and people, customs, lan guage, and lifeways - as in any process of imagining the internal commu nity in an intracultural soliloquy. For, despite the seemingly self-evident
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
17
ocean borders of the island-country of "Japan," neither those borders
nor the "country" it delineated was self-evident in 1550-nor even to-
day, when the borders of Japan are in dispute with Russia, both Koreas,
and both Chinas.6 I shall examine the processes of imagining an increas-
ing variety of excluded Others, peoples and creatures defined as "not
Japan," and "non-Japanese," even before there was full internal agree-
ment upon where Japan was, and who was Japanese.
The two centuries encompassed by this study are the years of final
transition from a "medieval" to an "early-modern" order - both politi-
cal and ideological or cosmological in Japan; they also coincide with
Japan's first encounters with peoples from beyond China. This Euro-
pean - initially Iberian - encounter from the mid-sixteenth century cata-
lyzed a transformation of Japanese consciousness and cosmology; the
emergence of distinct new structures and discursive practices, especially
with regard to the modes of representation; and the strategies for consti-
tuting and deploying "knowledge" of the foreign and distinguishing it in
a rhetoric of "petty differences" that one might characterize as the pre-
condition for imagining the nation that would be Japan.7
I shall limit the present inquiry to a set of questions centered on
conceptions/representations of Japan's Other(s), those "not-Japanese"
creatures - human or otherwise - and places "not-Japan," against whom
(or which) "Japan"8 constituted itself. I shall be more concerned with
establishing the emergence of a new array of significant structural and
discursive forms that mark the shift into the early modern era - the begin-
nings of a kinsei discourse - than with their ending, their transformation
into a "modern," or fully "national," discourse of self and Other.9 In
doing so, that is, I am interrogating the notion of "Japan" itself as a
historically-constituted artifact produced at a particular moment and re-
produced or re-constituted periodically in an ongoing dialectic of identity.
There was, I shall argue, a distinct shift, not merely in the "objec-
tive" relationship of "Japan" to its Others - "not-Japans" - but in the
cognition of both Japan and not-Japan in the Japanese consciousness,
that may be located in the mid-sixteenth to mid-seventeenth centuries.
This shift, moreover, accompanied a shift in representation itself that
allows us, for the first time, I believe, to speak of a Japan that has a
discursive, representational consistency unifying all "Japan" and all
"Japanese" - although the margins of both Japan and Japanese re-
mained themselves raggedly unclear and contested.10 The shift in repre-
sentation reflects a shift in cosmologies, from a universe of Three Lands
17
ocean borders of the island-country of "Japan," neither those borders nor the "country" it delineated was self-evident in 1550 - nor even to day, when the borders of Japan are in dispute with Russia, both Koreas, and both Chinas.6 I shall examine the processes of imagining an increas ing variety of excluded Others, peoples and creatures defined as "not Japan," and "non-Japanese," even before there was full internal agree ment upon where Japan was, and who was Japanese. The two centuries encompassed by this study are the years of final transition from a "medieval" to an "early-modern" order - both politi cal and ideological or cosmological in Japan; they also coincide with Japan's first encounters with peoples from beyond China. This Euro pean - initially Iberian - encounter from the mid-sixteenth century cata lyzed a transformation of Japanese consciousness and cosmology; the emergence of distinct new structures and discursive practices, especially with regard to the modes of representation; and the strategies for consti tuting and deploying "knowledge" of the foreign and distinguishing it in a rhetoric of "petty differences" that one might characterize as the pre condition for imagining the nation that would be Japan.7 I shall limit the present inquiry to a set of questions centered on conceptions/representations of Japan's Other(s), those "not-Japanese" creatures - human or otherwise - and places "not-Japan," against whom (or which) "Japan"8 constituted itself. I shall be more concerned with establishing the emergence of a new array of significant structural and discursive forms that mark the shift into the early modern era - the begin nings of a kinsei discourse - than with their ending, their transformation into a "modern," or fully "national," discourse of self and Other. 9 In doing so, that is, I am interrogating the notion of "Japan" itself as a historically-constituted artifact produced at a particular moment and re produced or re-constituted periodically in an ongoing dialectic of identity. There was, I shall argue, a distinct shift, not merely in the "objec tive" relationship of "Japan" to its Others -" "not-Japans" - but in the cognition of both Japan and not-Japan in the Japanese consciousness, that may be located in the mid-sixteenth to mid-seventeenth centuries. This shift, moreover, accompanied a shift in representation itself that allows us, for the first time, I believe, to speak of a Japan that has a discursive, representational consistency unifying all "Japan" and all "Japanese" - although the margins of both Japan and Japanese re mained themselves raggedly unclear and contested. lO The shift in repre sentation reflects a shift in cosmologies, from a universe of Three Lands
18
18
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
(sangoku) to a world comprised of Myriad Lands (bankoku), and in
epistemologies and strategies of representation that suggest an "anthro-
pology" (jinrui-gaku) of alterities evocative of the panoptic posture of
the National Geographic."
An equally compelling line of inquiry, of course, prompts us to ask
when - or whether - the discursive structures of identity that coalesced
as an "early-modern" discourse on identity(ies) ceased to have the
power to explain and convince, to ask when the "early-modern" ends.
That inquiry I leave to a separate study. I shall suggest, however, that
new modes of both constituting and organizing "knowledge" as it ap-
plied to the Other (and to the Self, though that is another inquiry) were
formed in the late sixteenth century and that these modes signaled the
loss of heuristic power in the sangoku model and its gradual displace-
ment by a bankoku model.
Sangoku: The "Three Realms"
Although one cannot locate a unitary cosmology comparable to the
monotheistic, theogonic cosmology of the Judeo-Christian "tradition"
that held unquestioned, hegemonic sway in either elite or - to the extent
we can "read" it - popular Japanese consciousness prior to the mid-
sixteenth century, there is little question that most Japanese shared a
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
(sangoku) to a world comprised of Myriad Lands (bankoku) , and in epistemologies and strategies of representation that suggest an "anthro pology" ( jinrui-gaku) of alterities evocative of the panoptic posture of the National Geographic. 1 1 An equally compelling line o f inquiry, o f course, prompts us t o ask when - or whether - the discursive structures of identity that coalesced as an "early-modern" discourse on identity(ies) ceased to have the power to explain and convince, to ask when the "early-modern" ends. That inquiry I leave to a separate study. I shall suggest, however, that new modes of both constituting and organizing "knowledge" as it ap plied to the Other (and to the Self, though that is another inquiry) were formed in the late sixteenth century and that these modes signaled the loss of heuristic power in the sangoku model and its gradual displace ment by a bankoku model.
vision of a division of the world into three parts: the sangoku (Three
Realms) of Wagacho (our country); Shintan or Kara (the continent),
which included both "China" and "Korea"; and Tenjiku (India).12 Japa-
Sangoku: The "Three Realms"
nese merchants, adventurers, and religious traveled to and from various
parts of kara, while a variety of comparable karabito (men of Kara)
likewise visited Japan at irregular intervals, but travelers to and visitors
from Tenjiku were all but unknown.13
The relative merit and priority of the "Three Realms" was contested
in Japanese Buddhist and Shinto cosmological theory, with Buddhist
cosmologies generally positing a Tenjiku-centered cosmos, as visualized
in world maps that radiated outward from Mount Sumeru, and placed
Japan at the far margins, a hendo shOkoku or "small land at the mar-
gins."14 This cosmology represented the buddhas and bodhisattvas as
prior, original essences, honji, and the deities of Shinto as localized
manifestations, suijaku, contingent manifestations in Japan of universals
originating in Tenjiku. Medieval Shinto theology, spurred by the suc-
cesses of Japan's myriad deities in fending off the Mongol invasion,
Although one cannot locate a unitary cosmology comparable to the monotheistic, theogonic cosmology of the Judeo-Christian "tradition" that held unquestioned, hegemonic sway in either elite or - to the extent we can "read" it - popular Japanese consciousness prior to the mid sixteenth century, there is little question that most Japanese shared a vision of a division of the world into three parts: the sangoku (Three Realms) of Wagacho (our country); Shintan or Kara (the continent), which included both "China" and "Korea"; and Tenjiku ( India), 12 Japa nese merchants, adventurers, and religious traveled to and from various parts of kara, while a variety of comparable karabito (men of Kara) likewise visited Japan at irregular intervals, but travelers to and visitors from Tenjiku were all but unknown.13 The relative merit and priority of the "Three Realms" was contested in Japanese Buddhist and Shinto cosmological theory, with Buddhist cosmologies generally positing a Tenjiku-centered cosmos, as visualized in world maps that radiated outward from Mount Sumeru, and placed Japan at the far margins, a hendo shokoku or "small land at the mar gins." 14 This cosmology represented the buddhas and bodhisattvas as prior, original essences, honji, and the deities of Shinto as localized manifestations, suijaku, contingent manifestations in Japan of universals originating in Tenjiku. Medieval Shinto theology, spurred by the suc cesses of Japan's myriad deities in fending off the Mongol invasion,
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
19
reversed the sequence of priority, positing the Japanese deities as the
original forms, or roots, which then grew, like tree trunks, through
Shintan, to leaf and flower in Tenjiku as the buddhas and bodhisattvas,
manifestations of originally Japanese universalities in Buddhistic form.'5
Yet, in sangoku cartography, the centrality of Tenjiku was unshakable.
In the late-fourteenth-century Go-tenjiku-zu, for example, the world
consisted of one vast continent comprising Tenjiku and Shintan sur-
rounded by stormy oceans with a mountainous "Shikoku" and "Kyl-
koku" floating precariously above the waves at the eastern edge of the
sea; Honshu, home to the centers of Japanese power and culture, has
literally fallen off the edge of the world.16
The attempt to reformulate a Japanese-centered sangoku was itself
intimately bound up with notions of shinkoku, of Japan as the "Land of
the Gods" or "Divine Land." Shinkoku thought, as first expressed in the
archaic histories compiled in the eighth century, was premised on the
notion that the Japanese land and people were uniquely descended from
Japanese progenitor deities and "confirmed" by foreign recognition: "I
hear that in the east there is a shinkoku, called Japan," averred a Silla
prince, according to the Nihon shoki.17 In later years, Japan's divinity
became the predicate of both historiography and diplomacy. For Kita-
batake Chikafusa, it was the underlying premise of all Japanese history:
His Jinno shotO ki begins from the declaration that "Japan is the shin-
koku." Likewise, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's edict of 1587 ordering the Catho-
lic missionaries expelled is premised on Japan's divinity: "Because Japan
is the shinkoku, it is an outrage that [men from ] strange lands [come
and] propagate false doctrines to mislead the people ..."18
There was, as has recently been shown, substantial fluidity and
variation in notions of shinkoku.19 Nor was there a unitary sangoku
cosmology, we discover. Rather, there was a multiplicity of noncon-
gruent sangoku cosmologies, contesting the relationships among the
"three realms." Yet within that intellectual and ideological tension the
sangoku comprised the entire plane of known and imagined ("seen and
unseen"?) realms until hitherto unimagined creatures ruptured the cos-
mology from beyond its limits.
When those unimagined creatures from beyond the limits of the
cosmology actually appeared, rupturing Japanese cognitive spaces and
toppling the sangoku cosmology, it would require new epistemologies -
new "techniques of knowledge"20 - to comprehend and organize an un-
derstanding of both the lands and the peoples of the "brave new world"
19
reversed the sequence of priority, positing the Japanese deities as the original forms, or roots, which then grew, like tree trunks, through Shintan, to leaf and flower in Tenjiku as the buddhas and bodhisattvas, manifestations of originally Japanese universalities in Buddhistic form. 15 Yet, in sangoku cartography, the centrality of Tenjiku was unshakable. In the late-fourteenth-century Go-tenjiku-zu, for example, the world consisted of one vast continent comprising Tenjiku and Shintan sur rounded by stormy oceans with a mountainous "Shikoku" and "Kyu koku" floating precariously above the waves at the eastern edge of the sea; Honshu, home to the centers of Japanese power and culture, has literally fallen off the edge of the world. 16 The attempt to reformulate a Japanese-centered sangoku was itself intimately bound up with notions of shinkoku, of Japan as the "Land of the Gods" or "Divine Land." Shinkoku thought, as first expressed in the archaic histories compiled in the eighth century, was premised on the notion that the Japanese land and people were uniquely descended from Japanese progenitor deities and "confirmed'" by foreign recognition: "I hear that in the east there is a shinkoku, called Japan," averred a Silla prince, according to the Nihon shoki.17 In later years, Japan's divinity became the predicate of both historiography and diplomacy. For Kita batake Chikafusa, it was the underlying premise of all Japanese history: His Jinno shot6 ki begins from the declaration that "Japan is the shin koku. " Likewise, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's edict of 1587 ordering the Catho lic missionaries expelled is premised on Japan's divinity: "Because Japan is the shinkoku, it is an outrage that [men from ] strange lands [come and] propagate false doctrines to mislead the people . . . " 1 8 There was, as has recently been shown, substantial fluidity and variation in notions of shinkoku. 19 Nor was there a unitary sangoku cosmology, we discover. Rather, there was a multiplicity of noncon gruent sangoku cosmologies, contesting the relationships among the "three realms." Yet within that intellectual and ideological tension the sangoku comprised the entire plane of known and imagined ("seen and unseen"?) realms until hitherto unimagined creatures ruptured the cos mology from beyond its limits. When those unimagined creatures from beyond the limits of the cosmology actually appeared, rupturing Japanese cognitive spaces and toppling the sangoku cosmology, it would require new epistemologies new "techniques of knowledge"2°- to comprehend and organize an un derstanding of both the lands and the peoples of the "brave new world"
20
20
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Japan discovered. These techniques, I would argue, are as much a part
of the rupture in the discourse as the objects of knowledge they were
mobilized to comprehend.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Japan discovered. These techniques, I would argue, are as much a part of the rupture in the discourse as the objects of knowledge they were mobilized to comprehend.
The Iberian Irruption and the End of the Triad
The tripartite cosmology that had held sway in Japanese consciousness for
a millennium since the introduction of Buddhism in the sixth century was
The Iberian Irruption and the End of the Triad
irreparably shaken by what I have called the Iberian irruption of the mid-
sixteenth century. 21 Portuguese, followed by Spanish and other European
traders, raiders, and missionaries, first found their way to Japan in the
1540s. The initial Iberian arrival in Japan, in 1543, was more remarkable,
or at least more remarked, for its technological impact - the first known
appearance of modern firearms in Japan - than for the strangeness of the
humans who brought these early arquebuses to the island of Tanegashima
off the southwest coast. Indeed, the Teppo ki, an early "account of the
arrival of firearms," while interesting in every detail of the new weapons,
offers no description whatever of the people who brought them. But a
scant six years later, when Francisco Xavier, one of the founders of the
Society of Jesus, landed in Satsuma in 1549 to begin preaching the gospels
to the "heathen" Japanese, it was the strangeness of the person, as well as
his doctrine, that attracted attention.22
Xavier remained in Japan for only a few months on his first visit, but
in his wake came dozens of others, both Catholic missionaries and a host
of secular sorts: Portuguese aristocrat-soldiers, merchants, common sea-
men, and slaves and crew members from India and (perhaps) Africa. In
what seemed only a moment, the universe had opened and Japan was no
longer "one in three," but "one among myriad" countries and peoples in
the wide, wide world. To be sure, Japanese merchants had already en-
countered a wider world in their peregrinations, for long before the
mid-sixteenth-century "Xavierian moment" Japanese traders and free-
booters had been sailing the waters of Southeast Asia. Portuguese ships
had taken Malacca in 1511 and were active in the South China Sea by the
second decade of the century, and it strains credibility to think that
Japanese and Portuguese had somehow avoided each other for more
than three decades while crisscrossing the sea lanes of Southeast Asia.
In the years after Xavier's visits, dozens of missionaries and hun-
dreds of Iberian merchants, soldiers, and seamen came to Japan. As
warring Kyushu daimyos competed to attract the foreigners, their trade,
The tripartite cosmology that had held sway in Japanese consciousness for a millennium since the introduction of Buddhism in the sixth century was irreparably shaken by what I have called the Iberian irruption of the mid sixteenth century. 21 Portuguese, followed by Spanish and other European traders, raiders, and missionaries, first found their way to Japan in the 1 540s. The initial Iberian arrival in Japan, in 1543, was more remarkable, or at least more remarked, for its technological impact - the first known appearance of modern firearms in Japan - than for the strangeness of the humans who brought these early arquebuses to the island of Tanegashima off the southwest coast. Indeed, the Teppo ki, an early "account of the arrival of firearms," while interesting in every detail of the new weapons, offers no description whatever of the people who brought them. But a scant six years later, when Francisco Xavier, one of the founders of the Society of Jesus, landed in Satsuma in 1549 to begin preaching the gospels to the "heathen" Japanese, it was the strangeness of the person, as well as his doctrine, that attracted attention. 22 Xavier remained in Japan for only a few months on his first visit, but in his wake came dozens of others, both Catholic missionaries and a host of secular sorts: Portuguese aristocrat-soldiers, merchants, common sea men, and slaves and crew members from India and (perhaps ) Africa. In what seemed only a moment, the universe had opened and Japan was no longer "one in three," but "one among myriad" countries and peoples in the wide, wide world. To be sure, Japanese merchants had already en countered a wider world in their peregrinations, for long before the mid-sixteenth-century "Xavierian moment" Japanese traders and free booters had been sailing the waters of Southeast Asia. Portuguese ships had taken Malacca in 1 5 1 1 and were active in the South China Sea by the second decade of the century, and it strains credibility to think that Japanese and Portuguese had somehow avoided each other for more than three decades while crisscrossing the sea lanes of Southeast Asia. In the years after Xavier's visits, dozens of missionaries and hun dreds of Iberian merchants, soldiers, and seamen came to Japan. As warring Kyushu daimyos competed to attract the foreigners, their trade,
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
21
and their firearms to their domains, the outlanders became a fixed pres-
ence in western Japan and a regular sight on the streets of the capital,
Kyoto, and the trading city of Sakai (just south of modern-day Osaka).
Their fixity in the landscape was enhanced when in 1571 Omura Sumi-
tada, daimyo of Arima, granted the port - then but a fishing village - of
Nagasaki to the Society of Jesus, making of the town a center of Portu-
guese residence, trade, and evangelism. By 1587, when Toyotomi Hide-
yoshi confiscated Nagasaki, the town boasted a foreign population -
Portuguese, Chinese, and others-of hundreds, a church, and a school
for catechists. Similarly, the Jesuits had established a collegio in the
province of Bungo on the eastern coast of Kyushu and - of perhaps
greater cultural significance - had built a church in the capital on land
granted by the emperor.
My purpose in cataloguing these landmarks of the Iberian presence
is not simply to list key moments in the narrative of European encroach-
ment into Japan's physical environment, nor to rehearse the tragic - or
triumphant, if one's viewpoint is that of the invaded - "Christian cen-
tury" narrative of initial evangelical successes snuffed out by Japanese
intransigence (or Jesuit arrogance).23 Rather, it is to suggest that the
Iberian irruption into Japanese consciousness and discursive space consti-
tuted a fundamental rupture in the discursive structure. The appearance
of real people from the third-realm world of trans-Kara subverted and
destabilized the sangoku cosmology, rendering it ultimately irreparable,
and forced the construction of a "brave new world" of myriad realms
(bankoku) populated by a formerly unimaginable variety of peoples.24
How the mutually perceived "radical alterity"25 of Japanese and Iberians
affected Iberian cognitive space-if it had any lasting impact at all-is
not my concern here; its effect on Japanese cognition, however, is criti-
cal to my argument.
Kibi Daijin and Sumiyoshi Daimyijin
Prior to the Iberian irruption, as I argue elsewhere,26 Japanese iconogra-
phy barely admitted the possibility of non-Japanese on Japanese soil.
Visual representations of Chinese in China, or of "Indians" (beings from
the land of the Buddha) in a quite imaginary India, which no Japanese
had even seen, were a common, even essential element in Japanese ico-
nography and cosmology. Similarly, tales of both China and Japanese
travelers in China were common.
21
and their firearms to their domains, the outlanders became a fixed pres ence in western Japan and a regular sight on the streets of the capital, Kyoto, and the trading city of Sakai (just south of modern-day Osaka). Their fixity in the landscape was enhanced when in 1571 O mura Sumi tada, daimyo of Arima, granted the port - then but a fishing village - of Nagasaki to the Society of Jesus, making of the town a center of Portu guese residence, trade, and evangelism. By 1587, when Toyotomi Hide yoshi confiscated Nagasaki, the town boasted a foreign population Portuguese, Chinese, and others - of hundreds, a church, and a school for catechists. Similarly, the Jesuits had established a collegio in the province of Bungo on the eastern coast of Kyushu and - of perhaps greater cultural significance - had built a church in the capital on land granted by the emperor. My purpose in cataloguing these landmarks of the Iberian presence is not simply to list key moments in the narrative of European encroach ment into Japan's physical environment, nor to rehearse the tragic - or triumphant, if one's viewpoint is that of the invaded - "Christian cen tury" narrative of initial evangelical successes snuffed out by Japanese intransigence (or Jesuit arrogance ).23 Rather, it is to suggest that the Iberian irruption into Japanese consciousness and discursive space consti tuted a fundamental rupture in the discursive: structure. The appearance of real people from the third-realm world of trans-Kara subverted and destabilized the sangoku cosmology, rendering it ultimately irreparable, and forced the construction of a "brave new world" of myriad realms (bankoku) popUlated by a formerly unimaginable variety of peoples.24 How the mutually perceived "radical alterity"25 of Japanese and Iberians affected Iberian cognitive space - if it had any lasting impact at all - is not my concern here; its effect on Japanese cognition, however, is criti cal to my argument. Kibi Daijin and Sumiyoshi Daimyojin Prior to the Iberian irruption, as I argue elsewhere,26 Japanese iconogra phy barely admitted the possibility of non-Japanese on Japanese soil. Visual representations of Chinese in China, or of "Indians" (beings from the land of the Buddha) in a quite imaginary India, which no Japanese had even seen, were a common, even essential element in Japanese ico nography and cosmology. Similarly, tales of both China and Japanese travelers in China were common.
22
22
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
The reverse, however, cannot be said: representations of foreigners
in identifiably Japanese settings are extremely rare in the extant inventory
of Japanese painting prior to about 1565. It is impossible, of course, to be
certain that some accident of preservation has discriminated against the
survival of such works, but barring that remote possibility I have been
able to identify only a very few works among thousands of pre-1565
Japanese paintings in which foreigners are depicted in Japanese set-
tings.27 The oldest of these is the eleventh-century Shotoku Taishi eden, a
pictorial biography of Prince Shotoku (574-622), in which two scenes -
out of dozens - show the prince receiving obeisance from "barbarian"
emissaries. Next is the TOsei eden, which depicts the coming of Ganjin
from Tang China to Japan. But, as noted earlier, Ganjin's monastic
status places him outside ethnicity: he cannot be distinguished visually/
iconographically from Japanese monks depicted in the same scroll. In
any case, in terms of the Kibi Daijin and Sumiyoshi Daimyojin para-
digms proposed earlier, Ganjin was himself a form of booty brought back
by the enterprising Japanese monks Eiei and Fusho.28 The last work is
the MOko shirai ekotoba, which narrates the exploits of Suenaga against
the invading Mongol horde in the late thirteenth century.29
How are we to account for this "visual silence," the absence of repre-
sentation of foreigners in Japan, when representation of foreigners - and
Japanese - abroad was quite common? I suggest that an analogy with
Japanese legend types may be helpful and propose a bipartite schema,
which I call the Kibi-Sumiyoshi paradigm, drawing on the legend of the
Nara period envoy to Tang, Kibi no Makibi, as embodied in the Kibi
Daijin nittO ekotoba, and the tale of the encounter between the god
Sumiyoshi Daimyojin and the Chinese poet Bo Zhuyi, as told in the No
play, Hakurakuten.30 Kibi and Sumiyoshi each encountered the Other,
the former in China and the latter in the waters off the southwest Japanese
coast. The contrasting venues and manner of their encounters consti-
tute, I suggest, two cultural paradigms of the Japanese encounter with
the Other that endured until the middle of the sixteenth century.
Kibi, the scion of a clan of provincial magnates on the shores of the
Inland Sea, made his way to the capital in Nara in the 710s, attended the
state-sponsored university, and gained an appointment in the state bu-
reaucracy. Immensely talented, he rose to ministerial level-the last
man from the provinces to do so for four hundred years; he studied in
Tang China from 717 to 735 and was selected as ambassador to the
Tang. According to the Ekotoba, at least, the Tang court feared that
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
The reverse, however, cannot be said: representations of foreigners in identifiably Japanese settings are extremely rare in the extant inventory of Japanese painting prior to about 1565 . It is impossible, of course, to be certain that some accident of preservation has discriminated against the survival of such works, but barring that remote possibility I have been able to identify only a very few works among thousands of pre-1565 Japanese paintings in which foreigners are depicted in Japanese set tings.27 The oldest of these is the eleventh-century ShOtoku Taishi eden, a pictorial biography of Prince Shotoku (574-622), in which two scenes out of dozens - show the prince receiving obeisance from "barbarian" emissaries. Next is the Tosei eden, which depicts the coming of Ganjin from Tang China to Japan. But, as noted earlier, Ganjin's monastic status places him outside ethnicity: he cannot be distinguished visually/ iconographically from Japanese monks depicted in the same scroll. In any case, in terms of the Kibi Daijin and Sumiyoshi Daimyojin para digms proposed earlier, Ganjin was himself a form of booty brought back by the enterprising Japanese monks Eiei and Fusho.28 The last work is the Moko shurai ekotoba, which narrates the exploits of Suenaga against the invading Mongol horde in the late thirteenth century. 29 How are we to account for this "visual silence," the absence of repre sentation of foreigners in Japan, when representation of foreigners - and Japanese - abroad was quite common? I suggest that an analogy with Japanese legend types may be helpful and propose a bipartite schema, which I call the Kibi-Sumiyoshi paradigm, drawing on the legend of the Nara period envoy to Tang, Kibi no Makibi, as embodied in the Kibi Daijin nitto ekotoba, and the tale of the encounter between the god Sumiyoshi Daimyojin and the Chinese poet Bo Zhuyi, as told in the No play, Hakurakuten.30 Kibi and Sumiyoshi each encountered the Other, the former in China and the latter in the waters off the southwest Japanese coast. The contrasting venues and manner of their encounters consti tute, I suggest, two cultural paradigms of the Japanese encounter with the Other that endured until the middle of the sixteenth century. Kibi, the scion of a clan of provincial magnates on the shores of the Inland Sea, made his way to the capital in Nara in the 710s, attended the state-sponsored university, and gained an appointment in the state bu reaucracy. Immensely talented, he rose to ministerial level - the last man from the provinces to do so for four hundred years; he studied in Tang China from 717 to 735 and was selected as ambassador to the Tang. According to the Ekotoba, at least, the Tang court feared that
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
23
Kibi might undermine the emperor's authority and imprisoned him in
the turret of a gate, planning to prove him with tests and schemes and
ultimately either to execute him or to drive him away. Kibi, though, was
far too clever and resourceful to be bested so easily. Taming, indeed
civilizing, a demon who inhabited the environs of the gate, Kibi learned
the secrets of invisibility and flight and thus was able secretly to enter
the imperial palace and discover the tests that were to be put to him. He
eavesdropped as the learned doctors of Chinese lore composed ques-
tions about the Thousand Character Classic, an elementary but basic
primer of Confucian theory. Likewise, primed to expect a challenge at
the game of go- not yet known in Japan- Kibi took an all-night lesson
from the demon, visualizing the black and white stones laid out on the
grid of the ceiling in his turret-prison. Because he had been able to steal
the exam questions, as it were, Kibi easily bested his Chinese examin-
ers, answering correctly their every challenge about the arcana of the
Thousand Character Classic and defeating the imperial go master at his
own game.
Kibi went out there to Otherland (TO, after all, is Kara). There,
overcoming all the challenges and passing all the tests (even though he
"cheated"; the Tang doctors were playing a rigged game, too), Kibi was
able to wrest from the Chinese their precious secret lore and bring back
to Japan all manner of material treasure and esoteric new knowledge.
He is credited with introducing a number of Chinese texts to Japan on
return from his first, student sojourn in Tang. Kibi went out there, stole
treasure and wisdom from Other, and brought it back here, without once
enduring the risk of having Other come here.
Yet what happened when Other did seek to come here? In Hakura-
kuten - the play is named for Bo Zhuyi, the most popular Chinese poet
in Japan in the Heian and medieval eras, using a sobriquet by which he
was commonly known in Japan - Other tried to accomplish just that. In
an inversion of Kibi's tale, the Tang emperor, fearful of Japan or merely
perverse, has dispatched Bo as a reconnaissance party of one to spy out
Japan in preparation for a Chinese invasion. A fisherman in Hakozaki-
today part of Fukuoka - who is later revealed to be the god Sumiyoshi,
gets word via the divine ether(eal) net of the nefarious Tang plot and
rows out to meet and thwart Bo. Hailing the Chinese voyager as he
approaches Japan's shores, the fisherman/god announces that he knows
Bo's evil purpose and will do all in his power to foil his designs. Un-
daunted by the innocuous mien of this mere fisherman, Bo announces
23
Kibi might undermine the emperor's authority and imprisoned him in the turret of a gate, planning to prove him with tests and schemes and ultimately either to execute him or to drive him away. Kibi, though, was far too clever and resourceful to be bested so easily. Taming, indeed civilizing, a demon who inhabited the environs of the gate, Kibi learned the secrets of invisibility and flight and thus was able secretly to enter the imperial palace and discover the tests that were to be put to him. He eavesdropped as the learned doctors of Chinese lore composed ques tions about the Thousand Character Classic, an elementary but basic primer of Confucian theory. Likewise, primled to expect a challenge at the game of go - not yet known in Japan - Kibi took an all-night lesson from the demon, visualizing the black and white stones laid out on the grid of the ceiling in his turret-prison. Because he had been able to steal the exam questions, as it were, Kibi easily bested his Chinese examin ers, answering correctly their every challenge about the arcana of the Thousand Character Classic and defeating the imperial go master at his own game. Kibi went out there to Otherland (To, after all, is Kara) . There, overcoming all the challenges and passing alI' the tests (even though he "cheated"; the Tang doctors were playing a rigged game, too), Kibi was able to wrest from the Chinese their precious secret lore and bring back to Japan all manner of material treasure and esoteric new knowledge. He is credited with introducing a number of Chinese texts to Japan on return from his first, student sojourn in Tang.. Kibi went out there, stole treasure and wisdom from Other, and brought it back here, without once enduring the risk of having Other come here. Yet what happened when Other did seek to come here? In Hakura kuten - the play is named for Bo Zhuyi, the most popular Chinese poet in Japan in the Heian and medieval eras, using a sobriquet by which he was commonly known in Japan - Other tried to accomplish just that. In an inversion of Kibi's tale, the Tang emperor, fearful of Japan or merely perverse, has dispatched Bo as a reconnaissance party of one to spy out Japan in preparation for a Chinese invasion. A fisherman in Hakozaki today part of Fukuoka - who is later revealed to be the god Sumiyoshi, gets word via the divine ether( eal) net of the nefarious Tang plot and rows out to meet and thwart Bo. Hailing the Chinese voyager as he approaches Japan's shores, the fisherman/god announces that he knows Bo's evil purpose and will do all in his power to foil his designs. Un daunted by the innocuous mien of this mere fisherman, Bo announces
24
24 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
his determination to go on, so the fisherman challenges Bo to his own
game: a poetry contest! If Bo wins the match, he may do his will in
Japan; should the "fisherman" prevail, Bo must promise to turn tail and
go back to China without ever setting foot on dry land in Japan.
Bo accepts the challenge, of course, and the contest is joined. Verses
fly back and forth across the waves separating the two craft(smen),
rhyme thrusting and stanza parrying in a tense and bitter exchange.
Finally, Bo admits defeat, and Sumiyoshi reveals himself for the god that
he is. Bo turns back across the waves to Tang, and Japan is (once again)
saved by divine force. Other - in this instance an explicitly hostile Other
with nefarious designs - is prevented from landing in Japan.
In pre-1550 Japanese expressive culture-literature, art, and per-
formance - as I read it, most representations of the Japanese encounter
with Other either engage Other out there in Otherland or repel Other's
unwanted attempts to come in here, to enter Japan (there are excep-
tions, of course).31 After circa 1550-75, however, in the wake of the
Iberians, as it were, the Others who had been kept comfortably at bay,
either offshore or out there in Otherland in the realm of Japanese
representation, appeared increasingly in here, in Japanese settings.
While no foreigners are depicted in the Uesugi Rakuchu rakugai-zu
byobu (ca. 1565), Nanban-style foreigners - or Japanese costumed in
Nanban garb - walk freely on the streets of the capital in the Funaki
Rakucha rakugai-zu byobu (ca. 1618-20) and Koreans tour the Dai-
butsu-den at HOkoji in the Okayama Rakucha rakugai-zu byobu (after
1617).32 Similarly, two Chinese stand and chat on the street near Nihon-
bashi in the Edo meisho-zu byObu (ca. 1635), while Nanban-garbed
Japanese masquerade in a festival at the Asakusa Kannon Temple and
in the Edo-zu byobu a parade of Koreans marches right through the
main gate of Edo Castle.33 Indeed, Sumiyoshi had failed, and the for-
eigners had landed!
Moreover, the Iberian irruption, like Miranda after the fortuitous
arrival of Prospero's brother's ship off his magical isle, brought Japanese
into contact with a "brave new world" of unimaginably varied Others
and Otherlands beyond the ken of sangoku cosmologies and forced a
reordering of cosmologies to bring them into conformity with the range
of newfound "radical alterities." Among the strategies for ordering
knowledge of the brave new world, I suggest, were radically new episte-
mologies, some of which might, in a pinch, be termed protomodern or
even quasi-anthropological. Some of these strategies were imported,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
his determination to go on, so the fisherman challenges Bo to his own game: a poetry contest! If Bo wins the match, he may do his will in Japan; should the "fisherman" prevail, Bo must promise to turn tail and go back to China without ever setting foot on dry land in Japan. Bo accepts the challenge, of course, and the contest is joined. Verses fiy back and forth across the waves separating the two craft(smen), rhyme thrusting and stanza parrying in a tense and bitter exchange. Finally, Bo admits defeat, and Sumiyoshi reveals himself for the god that he is. Bo turns back across the waves to Tang, and Japan is (once again) saved by divine force. Other - in this instance an explicitly hostile Other with nefarious designs - is prevented from landing in Japan. In pre-1550 Japanese expressive culture - literature, art, and per formance - as I read it, most representations of the Japanese encounter with Other either engage Other out there in Otherland or repel Other's unwanted attempts to come in here, to enter Japan (there are excep tions, of course ).31 After circa 1 550-75, however, in the wake of the Iberians, as it were, the Others who had been kept comfortably at bay, either offshore or out there in Otherland in the realm of Japanese representation, appeared increasingly in here, in Japanese settings. While no foreigners are depicted in the Uesugi Rakucha rakugai-zu byobu (ca. 1565), Nanban-style foreigners - or Japanese costumed in Nanban garb - walk freely on the streets of the capital in the Funaki Rakucha rakugai-zu byobu (ca. 1618-20) and Koreans tour the Dai butsu-den at Hokoji in the Okayama Rakucha rakugai-zu byobu (after 1 617) .32 Similarly, two Chinese stand and chat on the street near Nihon bashi in the Edo meisho-zu byobu (ca. 1635), while Nanban-garbed Japanese masquerade in a festival at the Asakusa Kannon Temple and in the Edo-zu byobu a parade of Koreans marches right through the main gate of Edo Castle.33 Indeed, Sumiyoshi had failed, and the for eigners had landed! Moreover, the Iberian irruption, like Miranda after the fortuitous arrival of Prospero's brother's ship off his magical isle, brought Japanese into contact with a "brave new world" of unimaginably varied Others and Otherlands beyond the ken of sangoku cosmologies and forced a reordering of cosmologies to bring them into conformity with the range of newfound "radical alterities." Among the strategies for ordering knowledge of the brave new world, I suggest, were radically new episte mologies, some of which might, in a pinch, be termed protomodern or even quasi-anthropological. Some of these strategies were imported,
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
25
borrowed, or adapted from either Chinese or European models; others,
perhaps, were "original" Japanese ideas. Each was an attempt to bring
order to the brave new world and the peoples now discovered to exist
beyond Kara, beyond Tenjiku, and indeed, beyond the ken of a sangoku
cosmology in a universe of bankoku, a world of a myriad realms and
peoples.
Brave New World: The Panopticon of Peoples in the
25
borrowed, or adapted from either Chinese or European models; others, perhaps, were "original" Japanese ideas. Each was an attempt to bring order to the brave new world and the peoples now discovered to exist beyond Kara, beyond Tenjiku, and indeed, beyond the ken of a sangoku cosmology in a universe of bankoku, a world of a myriad realms and peoples.
Myriad Realms
The Europeans brought with them "round earth" knowledge of the myr-
iad realms of trans-Kara as well as strategies for mapping that world and
representing its myriad peoples. I leave the question of mapping strate-
gies per se to a separate project, concentrating here on Japanese attempts
Brave New World: The Panopticon of Peoples in the Myriad Realms
over the succeeding century to impose a seeming order on the remarkable
proliferation of "peoples" in the myriad realms now revealed to them.
While the emergence of an "anthropology"--as jinruigaku, a "science of
humanity" - remained but an unimagined possibility for future fulfill-
ment (in the "West" as well as in Japan), one can imagine in these move-
ments toward an ordering of knowledge of Other in sixteenth- to
eighteenth-century discourse a groping toward an anthropology of sorts.
Indeed, as will be seen, I am led to the notion of an anthropology of
representation by the self-description of a series of one-sheet charts of all
the peoples in the myriad realms as a display of jinrui, composed to aid
the reader in determining the relative qualities of each of these peoples -
an ambition not unlike the pleasure nineteenth-century physical anthro-
pologists took in measuring and classifying peoples in order to place them
in a Darwinian evolutionary hierarchy.
Tabulations of the peoples of the myriad lands first appeared as
marginalia on world maps composed in the late-sixteenth and early-
seventeenth centuries as one expression of the so-called Nanban art
of the Azuchi-Momoyama age. Initial representational schemata were
adapted directly from European models, sometimes representing only
Catholic Europe and its "New World" conquests.34 As in the forty-two
cartouches depicting "couples" from all around the world, even the appar-
ently "Japanese," "Chinese," and "Korean"(?) couples are painted
through the gaze of a European iconographic vision.35 Even the carto-
graphic vision of these early maps was European, derived from Willem
Blau's Amsterdam world map of 1607.36 They placed the Atlantic Ocean
The Europeans brought with them "round earth" knowledge of the myr iad realms of trans-Kara as well as strategies for mapping that world and representing its myriad peoples. I leave the question of mapping strate gies per se to a separate project, concentrating here on Japanese attempts over the succeeding century to impose a seeming order on the remarkable proliferation of "peoples" in the myriad realms now revealed to them. While the emergence of an "anthropology" - as jinruigaku, a "science of humanity" - remained but an unimagined possibility for future fulfill ment (in the "West" as well as in Japan), one can imagine in these move ments toward an ordering of knowledge of Other in sixteenth- to eighteenth-century discourse a groping toward an anthropology of sorts. Indeed, as will be seen, I am led to the notion of an anthropology of representation by the self-description of a series of one-sheet charts of all the peoples in the myriad realms as a display of jinrui, composed to aid the reader in determining the relative qualities of each of these peoples an ambition not unlike the pleasure nineteenth-century physical anthro pologists took in measuring and classifying peoples in order to place them in a Darwinian evolutionary hierarchy. Tabulations of the peoples of the myriad lands first appeared as marginalia on world maps composed in the late-sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries as one expression of the so-called Nanban art of the Azuchi-Momoyama age. Initial representational schemata were adapted directly from European models, sometimes representing only Catholic Europe and its "New World" conquests.34 As in the forty-two cartouches depicting "couples" from all around the world, even the appar ently "Japanese," "Chinese," and "Korean"(?) couples are painted through the gaze of a European iconographic vision.35 Even the carto graphic vision of these early maps was European, derived from Willem Blau's Amsterdam world map of 1 607.36 They placed the Atlantic Ocean
26
26 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
and Europe (Repanto sentO-zu -Sekai chizu byobu) or Jerusalem (Nija-
hachi toshi-zu -Bankoku-zu byObu) at the center of the map. It was only
with the introduction of Matteo Ricci's China-centered adaptation of the
European world map that the "center" of the world shifted cartographi-
cally to East Asia, and Japanese, too, were quick to note the shift.37
A Ricci-style world map was issued by a Nagasaki publisher in 1647
(ShOho 4), under the title Bankoku sOzu (A complete map of the myriad
countries), in tandem with an accompanying table of forty different
peoples of the world arrayed in a grid, five cells across and eight cells
high. Although it is untitled, the table bears a legend at the top, which
reads, in part, as follows:
The world is broad; the variety of its peoples (jinrui) is without end.
Just as its countries differ, the peoples are likewise different. In
appearance, some are tall and some short; they appear in paired
opposites: black and white; male and female. If we represent their
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
and Europe (Repanto sento-zu -Sekai chizu byobu) or Jerusalem (Niju hachi toshi-zu -Bankoku-zu byobu) at the center of the map. It was only with the introduction of Matteo Ricci's China-centered adaptation of the European world map that the "center" of the world shifted cartographi cally to East Asia, and Japanese, too, were quick to note the shiftY A Ricci-style world map was issued by a Nagasaki publisher in 1 647 (Shoho 4), under the title Bankoku sozu (A complete map of the myriad countries), in tandem with an accompanying table of forty different peoples of the world arrayed in a grid, five cells across and eight cells high. Although it is untitled, the table bears a legend at the top, which reads, in part, as follows:
body types as specimens, this is what they are generally like. One
can distinguish at a glance their systems of clothing and headgear;
the manufacture of their bows, swords, and weapons. [Using this
chart, one can] instantly discriminate the quality of each people
(jinpin shabetsu) in the regions of the world. Thus, we have pre-
pared this [chart] solely that it may serve as an aid to the investiga-
tion of things and the accomplishment of knowledge (kakubutsu
shichi).38
The Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu, that is, makes claims to an authori-
tative and didactic gaze that offers to assist in the attainment of a system-
atic "knowledge" of the peoples of the world. It proposes an anthropol-
ogy of the world, allowing the reader to "discriminate" among peoples
and arrange them in a meaningful, systematic order, a hierarchy of
quality. The chart accomplishes this, in the first instance, by simple -
though not entirely consistent - tabular arrangement of peoples, in a
geographic order, from the "nearer" peoples of eastern and northeast-
ern Asia at the top to peoples from "faraway places with such strange-
sounding names" as Ingeresu, Amerika, and Perusha at the bottom and
in an implicitly descending order from Japanese at the upper right to the
barbarous, savage, and grotesque at the lower left. It signifies "civiliza-
tion" and "savagery" through the deployment of signs such as clothing
The world is broad; the variety of its peoples ( jinrui) is without end. Just as its countries differ, the peoples are likewise different. In appearance, some are tall and some short; they appear in paired opposites: black and white; male and female. If we represent their body types as specimens, this is what they are generally like. One can distinguish at a glance their systems of clothing and headgear; the manufacture of their bows, swords, and weapons. [Using this chart, one can] instantly discriminate the quality of each people ( jinpin shabetsu) in the regions of the world. Thus, we have pre pared this [chart] solely that it may serve as an aid to the investiga tion of things and the accomplishment of knowledge (kakubutsu shichi) .38
and nakedness, whiteness or blackness of skin, decoration of the body
The Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu, that is, makes claims to an authori tative and didactic gaze that offers to assist in the attainment of a system atic "knowledge" of the peoples of the world. It proposes an anthropol ogy of the world, allowing the reader to "discriminate" among peoples and arrange them in a meaningful, systematic order, a hierarchy of quality. The chart accomplishes this, in the first instance, by simple though not entirely consistent - tabular arrangement of peoples, in a geographic order, from the "nearer" peoples of eastern and northeast ern Asia at the top to peoples from "faraway places with such strange sounding names" as Ingeresu, Amerika, and Perusha at the bottom and in an implicitly descending order from Japanese at the upper right to the barbarous, savage, and grotesque at the lower left. It signifies "civiliza tion" and "savagery" through the deployment of signs such as clothing and nakedness, whiteness or blackness of skin, decoration of the body
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
27
with tattoos (by savages - dojin) or recognizable animal products (furs,
feathers, or unprocessed leaves), hair texture, hairiness, and so on.39
The lower corners of this National Geographic display of comfort-
ably lesser Others is anchored with quite antipodal depictions of sav-
agery and alterity: At the lower right, a nearly naked Amerika(n) couple
wears tobacco-leaf headdresses and (the man) a skirt; below them a
cannibal couple from Barajiru (Brazil) stands over a remarkably well-
crafted grate where a human hand and foot roast over an open fire. They
"live in holes and like to eat human flesh. They eat men but don't eat
women. In childbirth, the men have labor pains; the women do not have
pain."40 At the lower left are two men from the Land of the Giants
(Chojin), "people" (hito) who are "one jO and two shaku [about fifteen
feet] tall; because they don't have letters, they use ropes to govern." The
"giants" leave just enough space to show four men, "people" from the
Dwarf (Shajin, Kobito) Land, strolling arm in arm. They are "one shaku
and two sun (about eighteen inches) tall; because they are likely to be
captured if they walk alone, they walk in large, linked groups." With
the exception of these last two antipodalities, all of these varieties of
people emerge either from Japanese experience in East and Northeast
Asia or from the "implicit ethnography" of the earlier Nanban screens.
The giants and dwarves are creatures from another cosmology, the paral-
lel world of the Shanhaijing.41 Curiously invisible are the "peoples" of
both Ezo and Ryukyu, Japan's nearest outer boundaries, both of which
were being increasingly closely bound to "Japan" at this moment while
being maintained as boundary "Others."42
Yet, the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu's "system of organization" re-
mains curiously unsystematic, though it seemingly follows a principle of
geographical distance from Japan as its underlying organizational prin-
ciple rather than the "discrimination of qualities" proclaimed in its cap-
tion. Japan serves as the starting point for these peoples/countries, and
the remainder of the top row is devoted to more or less familiar Others
in Northeast Asia, China, Korea (archaized as Da-Ming/Dai-min and
Korai/Kory6 rather than the truly contemporary Da-Qing/Dai-Shin and
Chosen/Choson), Tatary (Tattan), and Manchuria (Orankai). All are
clothed in garments firmly grounded in the iconographic and ethno-
graphic intersection of Japanese "sight" and "representation" that Gom-
brich suggests we should expect from Japanese artists. So far so good.
But, interestingly, Iberians - now taboo, of sorts, in Japan - are identi-
fied and located nearby, in Luzon and Macao, rather than in "Spain"
27
with tattoos (by savages - dojin ) or recognizable animal products (furs, feathers, or unprocessed leaves), hair texture, hairiness, and so on.39 The lower corners of this National Geographic display of comfort ably lesser Others is anchored with quite antipodal depictions of sav agery and alterity: At the lower right, a nearly naked Amerika(n) couple wears tobacco-leaf headdresses and (the man) a skirt; below them a cannibal couple from Barajiru (Brazil) stands over a remarkably well crafted grate where a human hand and foot roast over an open fire. They "live in holes and like to eat human flesh. They eat men but don't eat women. In childbirth, the men have labor pains; the women do not have pain. "40 At the lower left are two men from the Land of the Giants (Chojin), "people" (hito) who are "one jo and two shaku [about fifteen feet] tall; because they don't have letters, they use ropes to govern. " The "giants" leave just enough space to show four men, "people" from the Dwarf (Shoj in, Kobito) Land, strolling arm in arm. They are "one shaku and two sun (about eighteen inches) tall; because they are likely to be captured if they walk alone, they walk in large, linked groups. " With the exception of these last two antipodalities, all of these varieties of people emerge either from Japanese experience in East and Northeast Asia or from the "implicit ethnography" of the earlier Nanban screens. The giants and dwarves are creatures from another cosmology, the paral lel world of the Shanhaijing.41 Curiously invisible are the "peoples" of both Ezo and RyUkyU, Japan's nearest outer boundaries, both of which were being increasingly closely bound to "Japan" at this moment while being maintained as boundary "Others. "42 Yet, the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu's "system of organization" re mains curiously unsystematic, though it seemingly follows a principle of geographical distance from Japan as its underlying organizational prin ciple rather than the "discrimination of qualities" proclaimed in its cap tion. Japan serves as the starting point for these peoples/countries, and the remainder of the top row is devoted to more or less familiar Others in Northeast Asia, China, Korea (archaized as Da-MinglDai-min and Korai/Kory6 rather than the truly contemporary Da-Qing/Dai-Shin and Chosen/Choson), Tatary (Tattan), and Manchuria (Orankai). All are clothed in garments firmly grounded in the iconographic and ethno graphic intersection of Japanese "sight" and "representation" that Gom brich suggests we should expect from Japanese artists. So far so good. But, interestingly, Iberians - now taboo, of sorts, in Japan - are identi fied and located nearby, in Luzon and Macao, rather than in "Spain"
28
28 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
and "Portugal" in Europe, while Hollanders, whose bases in Taiwan and
Java were of great concern and interest to Japanese, were located in
Europe, nestled between "Zerumaniya" and "Furansa." Represented in
this way, however, the Iberians appeared more "outland(ish)," their
clothing marking them off more radically from their neighbors (on the
chart) for their location in East Asia. Each "country" was also located
precisely on the accompanying world map (Bankoku siOzu), including
the giants and dwarves, who were located at precisely opposite "poles"
in Patagonia (giants) and far northwestern Europe (dwarves), as if they
were truly mutual antipodes.
This organizational scheme relies on iconographic cues as well as
location in the tabular arrangement of information. Peoples perceived as
savage or uncivilized, for example, are some combination of partially or
wholly naked (shod/barefoot, etc.), darker skinned, or curly haired;
they tattoo themselves or eat animal-even human-flesh. They wear
unprocessed "natural" things such as tobacco-leaf skirts and hold rough-
hewn weapons or knives. Some peoples mix signs: black skinned but
fully clothed Javanese and Takasago-ites (Taiwanese?), white-skinned
but barefoot Sumatrans. The Hollander couple is white-skinned and
fully clothed, in the manner of "civilized" peoples in this schema, but in
Otherly fashion the man and woman are ignorant of proper morals and
public conduct, as evidenced by their arm in arm public intimacy.
Publishers in Nagasaki and Kyoto produced and re-produced these
tabular representations of the "Peoples of the Myriad Realms" (Bankoku
jinbutsu-zu) frequently throughout the second half of the seventeenth
century, with but minor variations. The "myriad realms" differed signifi-
cantly from the anthropologies of the cartouches and tabulations in the
earlier Nanban-genre maps in some important respects:
1. First, the specific peoples represented in the early Nanban-
genre system were themselves an "anthropology" constituted by an
Iberian gaze into which Japanese artists were co-opted - especially
the "peoples" of Catholic Europe and those realms in Africa, the
"Indies," and the "New World" that had been focused in the coloniz-
ing gaze of Portugal and Spain. That is to say, the gaze sees Brazil-
ians but not the peoples of North America. It recalls the "Tar-
tarians" of the Mongol invasions and Marco Polo's Travels, yet the
eye is blind to the Manchus, Mongols, and other peoples of continen-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
and "Portugal" in Europe, while Hollanders, whose bases in Taiwan and Java were of great concern and interest to Japanese, were located in Europe, nestled between "Zerumaniya" and "Furansa." Represented in this way, however, the Iberians appeared more "outland(ish)," their clothing marking them off more radically from their neighbors (on the chart) for their location in East Asia. Each "country" was also located precisely on the accompanying world map (Bankoku s6zu) , including the giants and dwarves, who were located at precisely opposite "poles" in Patagonia (giants) and far northwestern Europe (dwarves), as if they were truly mutual antipodes. This organizational scheme relies on iconographic cues as well as location in the tabular arrangement of information. Peoples perceived as savage or uncivilized, for example, are some combination of partially or wholly naked (shod/barefoot, etc.), darker skinned, or curly haired; they tattoo themselves or eat animal - even human - flesh. They wear unprocessed "natural" things such as tobacco-leaf skirts and hold rough hewn weapons or knives. Some peoples mix signs: black skinned but fully clothed Javanese and Takasago-ites (Taiwanese?), white-skinned but barefoot Sumatrans. The Hollander couple is white-skinned and fully clothed, in the manner of "civilized" peoples in this schema, but in Otherly fashion the man and woman are ignorant of proper morals and public conduct, as evidenced by their arm in arm public intimacy. Publishers in Nagasaki and Kyoto produced and re-produced these tabular representations of the "Peoples of the Myriad Realms" (Bankoku jinbutsu-zu) frequently throughout the second half of the seventeenth century, with but minor variations. The "myriad realms" differed signifi cantly from the anthropologies of the cartouches and tabulations in the earlier Nanban-genre maps in some important respects: 1 . First, the specific peoples represented in the early Nanban genre system were themselves an "anthropology" constituted by an Iberian gaze into which Japanese artists were co-opted - especially the "peoples" of Catholic Europe and those realms in Africa, the "Indies," and the "New World" that had been focused in the coloniz ing gaze of Portugal and Spain. That is to say, the gaze sees Brazil ians but not the peoples of North America. It recalls the "Tar tarians" of the Mongol invasions and Marco Polo's Travels, yet the eye is blind to the Manchus, Mongols, and other peoples of continen-
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
29
tal Northeast Asia still hidden "beyond Cathay" as well as to two of
Japan's nearest neighbors, Ezo and Ryuikyu.43
The "peoples" portrayed by the Bankoku jinbutsu-zu of 1647, by
contrast, are caught in the focus of a new gaze, one that combines
Iberian, Japanese, and Chinese cosmological and "anthropological"
lenses, through which it "sees" the peoples of Korea, Manchuria,
and Mongolia, "invisible" to sixteenth-century Portuguese, who
never strayed far enough from the sea lanes of eastern Asia to "see"
peoples beyond China and Japan. It also "sees" peoples the Iberians
would likely never have encountered, giants (chOjin) and dwarves
(shOjin), who lived only in the cosmology of the Shanhaijing, an
archaic Chinese text, and its rehearsals in late-Ming encyclopedism,
yet it remains blind to Ryukyu and Ezo..
2. The vision underlying the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu is a gaze
that - however much it finds objects for its vision in Iberian im-
ports- is constituted in a Sino-Japanese iconographic tradition quite
separate from the purely Iberian vision of the imperial Bankoku-zu
byobu. If, as Gombrich suggests, "an existing representation will
always exert its spell over the artist even while he strives to record
the truth," training the artist "to see what he paints rather than to
paint what he sees" - if, that is, iconographies are "a selective
screen which admits only the features for which schemata exist,"44-
then the imperial Bankoku-zu byobu represents nearly total co-
optation of Japanese artists to adopt an "alien" gaze, even when
"seeing themselves." The gaze at China, Korea, and Northeast
Asia, and reflexively at Japan, derives its "view" from Japanese and
Chinese iconographic models, while the Europeans and others from
the brave new world have been assimilated - at least halfway, as
Ezo and Ryukyu remain hidden - to a Sino-Japanese iconography
and gaze not visible in the earlier Nanban-genre vision.
One or two examples will suffice to clarify some of these differences
of gaze. The "Chinese," "Tatar" (?), and "Japanese" couples45 of the
imperial Sekai chizu byobu are -like all the "peoples" illustrated -
constituted in a sixteenth-century Italianesque painterly style, as repli-
cated by the anonymous Japanese artist, rather than in a "Japanese"
painterly vision. The "Japanese" woman, apparently intended to be an
aristocrat, is dressed in robes more prescient of nineteenth-century
29
tal Northeast Asia still hidden "beyond Cathay" as well as to two of Japan's nearest neighbors, Ezo and RyiikyU.43 The "peoples" portrayed by the Bankoku jinbutsu-zu of 1 647, by contrast, are caught in the focus of a new gaze, one that combines Iberian, Japanese, and Chinese cosmological and "anthropological" lenses, through which it "sees" the peoples of Korea, Manchuria, and Mongolia, "invisible" to sixteenth-century Portuguese, who never strayed far enough from the sea lanes of eastern Asia to "see" peoples beyond China and Japan. It also "sees" peoples the Iberians would likely never have encountered, giants (chojin) and dwarves (shojin) , who lived only in the cosmology of the Shanhaijing, an archaic Chinese text, and its rehearsals jln late-Ming encyclopedism, yet it remains blind to RyUkyU and Ezo. 2. The vision underlying the Sh6h6 Bankoku jinbutsu-zu is a gaze that - however much it finds objects for its vision in Iberian im ports - is constituted in a Sino-Japanese iconographic tradition quite separate from the purely Iberian vision of the imperial Bankoku-zu byobu. If, as Gombrich suggests, "an existing representation will always exert its spell over the artist even while he strives to record the truth," training the artist "to see what he paints rather than to paint what he sees" - if, that is, iconographies are "a selective screen which admits only the features for which schemata exist,"44 then the imperial Bankoku-zu byobu represents nearly total co optation of Japanese artists to adopt an "alien" gaze, even when "seeing themselves." The gaze at China, Korea, and Northeast Asia, and reflexively at Japan, derives its "view" from Japanese and Chinese iconographic models, while the Europeans and others from the brave new world have been assimilated - at least halfway, as Ezo and RyUkyU remain hidden - to a Sino-Japanese iconography and gaze not visible in the earlier Nanban-genre vision. One or two examples will suffice to clarify some of these differences of gaze. The "Chinese," "Tatar" (?), and "Japanese" couples45 of the imperial Sekai chizu byobu are - like all the "peoples" illustrated constituted in a sixteenth-century Italianesque painterly style, as repli cated by the anonymous Japanese artist, rather than in a "Japanese" painterly vision. The "Japanese" woman, apparently intended to be an aristocrat, is dressed in robes more prescient of nineteenth-century
30
30
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Japonisme than reflective of a Japanese vision - indeed, one might won-
der whether the artist had actually seen an aristocratic Japanese woman,
so alien are her garments in both "design" and illustration - and sports
long, flowing, curly locks down to her waist.46 Her "spouse," likewise, is
displayed in a pose not common in Japanese portraiture, a standing full
figure, and is stylistically more evocative of the representations of Japa-
nese visitors to Europe in the illustrated press of the nineteenth century
than of any Japanese model I can identify.47 Further, he is depicted as
clean shaven, which would have been regarded as unmanly in Japan at
the turn of the seventeenth century, and is likewise outside the parame-
ters of Japanese portraiture.48
In the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu, by contrast, the Japanese couple
is the product of a Japanese vision, both iconographic and observa-
tional. The man is represented as a seated warrior in full battle regalia,
grasping a halberd in his left hand. He sports a full beard and moustache
and reminds the viewer of the memorial portrait of Honda Tadakatsu,
a general of fierce repute in the armies of Tokugawa Ieyasu.49 His
"spouse," too has been iconographically repatriated from the alien vi-
sion of the imperial Sekai chizu byObu, her hair, now freed of Ital-
ianesque curls, is straight, and it flows "properly" down the shoulders of
her juni hitoe kimono, itself a sign of a woman of high status. In the
hand-colored Kyoto University example, the sartorial signs of her status
are replicated by the chalk-white skin of her face and hand - a left hand
that dutifully holds a long sword (tachi) as if her husband is about to go
off to battle.50 Both are represented in "correct" garments, ones that
would be recognized by contemporary "native" observers as "authen-
tic," on the one hand, and in a painterly idiom that would be convinc-
ingly "real," on the other.
The Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu and Bankoku sOzu, with its "an-
thropological" panopticon of forty "peoples," reappeared in several vari-
ant editions published in Nagasaki, Kyoto, Edo, and elsewhere, at least
until the late seventeenth century. Even as late as the first decade of the
eighteenth century, Nendaiki shin-e shO replicated the geography and
"anthropology" of the Bankoku sOzu and jinbutsu-zu at the same time
that Inagaki Korb attempted to combine an abbreviated, somewhat re-
vised anthropology - one that "saw" people in Ryukyu, if not Ezo, but
also bodhisattvas in Tenjiku - with a dual-polar-projection world map
(polar projections had been known for about a century in Japan).51
Inagaki "saw" the people of Ryukyu, for example, who had been
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Japonisme than reflective of a Japanese vision - indeed, one might won der whether the artist had actually seen an aristocratic Japanese woman, so alien are her garments in both "design" and illustration - and sports long, flowing, curly locks down to her waist.46 Her "spouse," likewise, is displayed in a pose not common in Japanese portraiture, a standing full figure, and is stylistically more evocative of the representations of Japa nese visitors to Europe in the illustrated press of the nineteenth century than of any Japanese model I can identify. 47 Further, he is depicted as clean shaven, which would have been regarded as unmanly in Japan at the turn of the seventeenth century, and is likewise outside the parame ters of Japanese portraiture.48 In the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu, by contrast, the Japanese couple is the product of a Japanese vision, both iconographic and observa tional. The man is represented as a seated warrior in full battle regalia, grasping a halberd in his left hand. He sports a full beard and moustache and reminds the viewer of the memorial portrait of Honda Tadakatsu, a general of fierce repute in the armies of Tokugawa leyasu.49 His "spouse," too has been iconographically repatriated from the alien vi sion of the imperial Sekai chizu byobu, her hair, now freed of Ital ianesque curls, is straight, and it flows "properly" down the shoulders of her juni hitoe kimono, itself a sign of a woman of high status. In the hand-colored Kyoto University example, the sartorial signs of her status are replicated by the chalk -white skin of her face and hand - a left hand that dutifully holds a long sword (tachi) as if her husband is about to go off to battle.so Both are represented in "correct" garments, ones that would be recognized by contemporary "native" observers as "authen tic," on the one hand, and in a painterly idiom that would be convinc ingly "real," on the other. The Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu and Bankoku sozu, with its "an thropological" panopticon of forty "peoples," reappeared in several vari ant editions published in Nagasaki, Kyoto, Edo, and elsewhere, at least until the late seventeenth century. Even as late as the first decade of the eighteenth century, Nendaiki shin-e sho replicated the geography and "anthropology" of the Bankoku sozu and jinbutsu-zu at the same time that Inagaki Koro attempted to combine an abbreviated, somewhat re vised anthropology - one that "saw" people in Ryukyu, if not Ezo, but also bodhisattvas in Tenjiku with a dual-polar-projection world map (polar projections had been known for about a century in Japan) . Sl Inagaki "saw" the people of Ryukyu, for example, who had been -
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries 31
invisible in earlier iterations of the myriad peoples of the world, even
though the country of Ryukyu appeared unmistakably - and color-
coded, like Ezo, as a "foreign" country - in accompanying Bankoku
sOzu. As a cartographer, Inagaki recognized Ezo as a foreign country,
while excluding its people from his gaze. Inagaki likewise declined to
portray the people of Korea, even while representing ChOsen on his
map.52 Brazil, whose people were cannibals in earlier iterations, became
denizens of Canniballand (Shokujin-koku), fiercer and hairier than their
iconographic forebears and far more obviously eager to sate their crav-
ing for the human limbs roasting on an open fire. These were joined by
new "peoples" from "Blackpeople-land" (Kokujin-koku), and a re-
discovered Tenjiku, the latter looking for all the world like the bodhi-
sattvas that inspired them. Ishikawa Toshiyuki's Bankoku sOkai zu of
1688, published after the Kangxi Emperor's final defeat of the last Ming
resisters, maps Dai-shin (Great Qing) rather than the Dai-min (Great
Ming) of earlier maps, while Inagaki drops Dai-min for unspecificity.
Yet in his anthropology Inagaki insists on picturing a couple from Dai-
min, and none from Dai-shin; his concession, perhaps, to the Qing
triumph is to distinguish Tatars and Jurchens in his anthropology -
though this may be a renaming of Orankai. Nendaiki shin-e shO, like-
wise, refused to concede the Qing conquest, picturing only Dai-min in
its anthropology, and further dissociated lands and peoples by picturing
a couple from the anachronistic Korai while noting the nautical distance
to contemporary ChOsen.
At the same time, the encyclopedist Nishikawa Joken began to reor-
ganize anthropological knowledge from a myriad countries that num-
bered forty to a specified number of countries - he returned to the forty-
two of the imperial Bankoku screen - that would become canonical in
later iterations, well into the nineteenth century.53 Divorcing his anthro-
pology from cartography, Joken adopted a format that was replicated in
later iterations, accompanying each illustration of a people with a brief
explanatory text. He "saw" the people of Ryukyu - but not Ezo - and
clearly distinguished Ming (by which he meant "real" Chinese who had
not adopted Manchu customs) and Qing, who: "Because the emperor
(tenshi) is originally from Tatary, have amended the customs of Ming;
for this reason, I have divided the countries into two [separate] illustra-
tions, in order to show the reader the customs of the past and present"
(kokon no frzoku o shirashimu). Within this frame, Nishikawa intro-
duced such new "knowledge" as the distinction between Ming and Qing
31
invisible in earlier iterations of the myriad peoples of the world, even though the country of Ryukyu appeared unmistakably - and color coded, like Ezo, as a "foreign" country - in accompanying Bankoku sozu. As a cartographer, Inagaki recognized Ezo as a foreign country, while excluding its people from his gaze. Inagaki likewise declined to portray the people of Korea, even while representing Chosen on his map.52 Brazil, whose people were cannibals in earlier iterations, became denizens of Canniballand (Shokujin-koku), fiercer and hairier than their iconographic forebears and far more obviously eager to sate their crav ing for the human limbs roasting on an open fire. These were joined by new "peoples" from "Blackpeople-Iand" (Kokujin-koku), and a re discovered Tenjiku, the latter looking for all the world like the bodhi sattvas that inspired them. Ishikawa Toshiyuki's Bankoku sokai zu of 1 688, published after the Kangxi Emperor's final defeat of the last Ming resisters, maps Dai-shin (Great Qing) rather than the Dai-min (Great Ming) of earlier maps, while Inagaki drops Dai-min for unspecificity. Yet in his anthropology Inagaki insists on picturing a couple from Dai min, and none from Dai-shin; his concession, perhaps, to the Qing triumph is to distinguish Tatars and lurchens in his anthropology though this may be a renaming of Orankai. Nendaiki shin-e sho, like wise, refused to concede the Qing conquest, picturing only Dai-min in its anthropology, and further dissociated lands and peoples by picturing a couple from the anachronistic Korai while noting the nautical distance to contemporary Chosen. At the same time, the encyclopedist Nishikawa loken began to reor ganize anthropological knowledge from a myriad countries that num bered forty to a specified number of countries - he returned to the forty two of the imperial Bankoku screen - that would become canonical in later iterations, well into the nineteenth century, 53 Divorcing his anthro pology from cartography, loken adopted a format that was replicated in later iterations, accompanying each illustration of a people with a brief explanatory text. He "saw" the people of Ryukyu - but not Ezo - and clearly distinguished Ming (by which he meant "real" Chinese who had not adopted Manchu customs) and Qing, who: "Because the emperor (tenshi) is originally from Tatary, have amended the customs of Ming; for this reason, I have divided the countries into two [separate] illustra tions, in order to show the reader the customs of the past and present" (kokon no Juzoku 0 shirashimu) . Within this frame, Nishikawa intro duced such new "knowledge" as the distinction between Ming and Qing
32
32
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
and the existence of a people in Ryukyu who were distinct from both
Japanese and Chinese; and he divided the world into five "continents"
(go daisha, one of them comprising both the northern and southern
continents of Amerikiya). Interestingly, he located Africa (Rimiya) and
Europe by reference to direction from Tenjiku - by which he meant
India. The giants and dwarves of his anthropology were the ultimate
antipodalities, the last of his forty-two peoples, just as they were the last
of the Bankoku charts' peoples, at the corner diametrically opposite the
warrior-general and elegant woman of Japan.
Nishikawa's vision, however, contrasted sharply with the earlier
Bankoku vision in two crucial respects. First, his forty-two countries
were all foreign, that is, they excluded Japan. This was exclusively an
anthropology of Other, designed to catalog and order the foreign as
categorically distinct from-rather than inclusive of-a Japanese self.
And, whereas the Bankoku representations sought only to depict, not to
describe, their objects of knowledge, and did not attribute to them the
least social and cultural subjecthood, Nishikawa, in adding prose descrip-
tions, gave each people a history, if only momentary, and an identity,
however erroneous or fanciful. Nishikawa moved toward an encyclo-
pedism - another "technique of knowledge" - reflective of a parallel
universe of reflection.
The Encyclopedic Vision: Articulate Selves and
Typed Others
Nishikawa Joken traveled, as it were, in two epistemological universes,
the finite universe of the Nanban/Bankoku vision and the limitless,
panoptical universe of encyclopedism, a "technique of knowledge" that
had begun with a late Ming "big bang" in China and expanded with
growing force in Japan after the middle of the seventeenth century.
Encyclopedism exploded in China in the middle of the Wanli era (1573-
1620), with publication of Wanjin buqiuren and Jushu bolan (both 1604)
and Sancai tuhui and Xuefu chuanbian (both 1607).54
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
and the existence of a people in Ryo.kyo. who were distinct from both Japanese and Chinese; and he divided the world into five "continents" (go daisha, one of them comprising both the northern and southern continents of Amerikiya). Interestingly, he located Africa (Rimiya) and Europe by reference to direction from Tenjiku - by which he meant India. The giants and dwarves of his anthropology were the ultimate antipodalities, the last of his forty-two peoples, j ust as they were the last of the Bankoku charts' peoples, at the corner diametrically opposite the warrior-general and elegant woman of Japan. Nishikawa's vision, however, contrasted sharply with the earlier Bankoku vision in two crucial respects. First, his forty-two countries were all foreign, that is, they excluded Japan. This was exclusively an anthropology of Other, designed to catalog and order the foreign as categorically distinct from - rather than inclusive of - a Japanese self. And, whereas the Bankoku representations sought only to depict, not to describe, their objects of knowledge, and did not attribute to them the least social and cultural sUbjecthood, Nishikawa, in adding prose descrip tions, gave each people a history, if only momentary, and an identity, however erroneous or fanciful. Nishikawa moved toward an encyclo pedism - another "technique of knowledge" - reflective of a parallel universe of reflection.
The encyclopedist urge to organize all knowledge intersected with
a reflexive ethnography of Japan itself, the Shokunin uta awase and
Shokunin ezukushi, by means of which, beginning in the late Heian era,
Japanese who had mastered "techniques of knowledge" classified them-
selves (initially aristocrats) and their internal Others (craftspeople) in
The Encyclopedic Vision: Articulate Selves and Typed Others
song and picture.55 In the earlier Japanese encyclopedias, the sinocentric
Nishikawa Joken traveled, as it were, in two epistemological universes, the finite universe of the NanbanlBankoku vision and the limitless, panoptical universe of encyclopedism, a "technique of knowledge" that had begun with a late Ming "big bang" in China and expanded with growing force in Japan after the middle of the seventeenth century. Encyclopedism exploded in China in the middle of the Wanli era (15731620), with publication of Wanjin buqiuren and lushu bolan (both 1604) and Sancai tuhui and Xuefu chuanbian (both 1607) .54 The encyclopedist urge to organize all knowledge intersected with a reflexive ethnography of Japan itself, the Shokunin uta awase and Shokunin ezukushi, by means of which, beginning in the late Heian era, Japanese who had mastered "techniques of knowledge" classified them selves (initially aristocrats) and their internal Others (craftspeople) in song and picture.55 In the earlier Japanese encyclopedias, the sinocentric
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
33
ethnographies of Sancai tuhue and Xuefu chuanbian are turned back on
themselves. Chinese encyclopedists represented a fully articulated range
of occupational and status types in China, beginning with the legendary
Yellow Emperor, and proceeding through actual emperors, and then to
a wide range of types representing a wide variety of occupational and
social roles. By contrast, the Japanese, like every foreign people, was
represented by a single type, usually male, indicating none of the social
complexity of that people. On the other hand, in Nakamura Tekisai's
universal encyclopedia, KinmO zui (1666), Japanese "humanity" (jin-
butsu) was represented as an articulated - though somewhat limited -
set of nearly sixty statuses, genders (though constructed as status posi-
tions rather than genders), and occupations derived from the shokunin
utaawase tradition.56
Nakamura's "humanity" is divided into two groups, a main group
and an "appendix," and each contains some foreign peoples as well as
Japanese. The Japanese run from the highest nobility (kO-kyo-shi-jo)
through the almost familiar "four classes" of warriors, peasants, artisans,
and merchants (here, though, hei-no-kO-shO) and life stages (infancy,
[male] youth, and old age, both male okina and female Oba) to a wide
variety of occupations, including such "despised" occupations as actors,
beggars, and prostitutes. Each of the two sets of statuses/occupations
seems to be arranged hierarchically. After each group of Japanese comes
an assortment of foreign peoples: a fur-covered Ezo archer, Nanban,
Chinese (here Chigoku), Korean, Mongol, and Jurchen in the main
section; a Ryukyuan, Luzonese (Spaniard, here distinct from Nanban),
Annamese, and so on, grading into the giants, dwarves, and the like from
the Shanhaijing (as the second half of the appendix).
Nakamura's foreigners have a variety of iconographic and anthropo-
logical forebears. His denizens of Nanban and Luzon, for example,
peoples not noted, in any case, in the late Ming encyclopedias, are
heavily indebted to images in the ShOho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu. But his
Korean - here Chosen - owes everything to Sancai tuhui, as do his
Jurchen and Mongol (Xiongnu in the Sancai tuhui) as well as his man
from Tenjiku. Even his Buddha (Demon, Taoist Immortal, Buddha,
and Bodhisattva are "Japanese" in Nakamura's scheme if I understand
him correctly), for whom there were nearly infinite models available, is
clearly copied from the Sancai tuhui. Nakamura's scheme of repre-
sentation is a straightforward combination of the visual and the nomi-
nal: a picture of each "thing," accompanied by a name-tag label, which
33
ethnographies of Sancai tuhue and Xuefu chuanbian are turned back on themselves. Chinese encyclopedists represented a fully articulated range of occupational and status types in China, beginning with the legendary Yellow Emperor, and proceeding through actual emperors, and then to a wide range of types representing a wide variety of occupational and social roles. By contrast, the Japanese, like every foreign people, was represented by a single type, usually male , indicating none of the social complexity of that people. On the other hand, in Nakamura Tekisai's universal encyclopedia, Kinmo zui (1666) , Japanese "humanity" ( jin butsu) was represented as an articulated - though somewhat limited set of nearly sixty statuses, genders (though constructed as status posi tions rather than genders), and occupations derived from the shokunin utaawase tradition.56 Nakamura's "humanity" is divided into two groups, a main group and an "appendix," and each contains some foreign peoples as well as Japanese. The Japanese run from the highest nobility (ko-kyo-shi-jo) through the almost familiar "four classes" of warriors, peasants, artisans, and merchants (here, though, hei-no-ko-sho) and life stages (infancy, [male] youth, and old age, both male okina and female oba) to a wide variety of occupations, including such "despised" occupations as actors, beggars, and prostitutes. Each of the two sets of statuses/occupations seems to be arranged hierarchically. After each group of Japanese comes an assortment of foreign peoples: a fur-covered Ezo archer, Nanban, Chinese (here Chiigoku) , Korean, Mongol, and Jurchen in the main section; a Ryukyuan, Luzonese (Spaniard, here distinct from Nanban), Annamese, and so on, grading into the giants, dwarves, and the like from the Shanhaijing (as the second half of the appendix). Nakamura's foreigners have a variety of iconographic and anthropo logical forebears. His denizens of Nanban and Luzon, for example, peoples not noted, in any case, in the late Ming encyclopedias, are heavily indebted to images in the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu. But his Korean - here Chosen - owes everything to Sancai tuhui, as do his Jurchen and Mongol (Xiongnu in the Sancai tuhui) as well as his man from Tenjiku. Even his Buddha (Demon, Taoist Immortal, Buddha, and Bodhisattva are "Japanese" in Nakamura's scheme if I understand him correctly), for whom there were nearly infinite models available, is clearly copied from the Sancai tuhui. Nakamura's scheme of repre sentation is a straightforward combination of the visual and the nomi nal: a picture of each "thing," accompanied by a name-tag label, which
34
34
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
includes all the names by which the thing was known. Thus, for ex-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
includes all the names by which the thing was known. Thus, for ex ample, China is "named" as follows:
ample, China is "named" as follows:
Central country; Kara. Morokoshi. Same as Central civilization.
Here, we call the Central country Han or Tang. Central Asians call
it Shintan or Shina.57
His scheme is the same for phenomena like wind and rain (vol. 1);
features of the natural or built landscape like valleys, rivers, and bridges
Central country; Kara. Morokoshi. Same as Central civilization. Here, we call the Central country Han or Tang. Central Asians call it Shintan or Shina.57
(vol. 2); buildings and architectural features (vol. 3); clothing (vol. 6);
insects (vol. 15), and so on.58
A half century after Kinmo zui, in 1713, Terashima Ryoan pub-
lished his monumental encyclopedia, Wakan sansai zue, a domestication
of the Sancai tuhui in which, like much contemporary discourse, Japan
and Japanese toppled China from centrality and took over center
stage.59 Unlike the Sancai tuhui, however, and Kinmo zui, which saw
even demons, buddhas, giants, and dwarves as "people" (jinbutsu),
Terashima's anthropology is more exclusive. He begins his examination
of the species with Japanese, apparently the only people with a knowl-
edge of proper human relations (jinrin), looking at "categories of
human relations" (jinrin-rui), "kinship in human relations" (jinrin-
shinzoku), "offices and ranks" (kan'i), and "the utilities of human rela-
tions" (jinrin no yo). All are Japanese, from the emperor to thieves
(nusuhito) and from prostitutes (keisei) and wet nurses (menoto) to
beggars (kotsujiki) and boy lovers (nanshoku); even angels (tennin) are
Japanese.
Terashima proceeds to foreign peoples - who are also "people"
(jinbutsu). But, as if they were as distant biologically as geographically
or culturally, he interposes two volumes on the human body (keiraku)
between jinrin and foreign peoples. He further divides the foreign world
into two subcategories: "peoples of different/strange countries" (ikoku
jinbutsu), in what is among the briefest of all of his 105 chapters; and
"outer barbarian peoples" (gaii jinbutsu). It is not entirely clear to me
what his criteria are for distinguishing between "countries" and "barbari-
ans," although most of the eleven "countries" are familiar - China and
Korea, for example, as well as Ryukyu and Ezo. Each has a history (of
sorts), a language, and customs - including, for example, the Tatar
queue. Not all have relations with Japan; but all are in what we would
call Northeast Asia - they are familiar Others.
His scheme is the same for phenomena like wind and rain (vol. 1 ) ; features of the natural or built landscape like valleys, rivers, and bridges (vol. 2); buildings and architectural features (vol. 3 ) ; clothing (vol. 6 ) ; insects (vol. 15), and so on.58 A half century after Kinmo zui, in 1713, Terashima Ryoan pub lished his monumental encyclopedia, Wakan sansai zue, a domestication of the Sancai tuhui in which, like much contemporary discourse, Japan and Japanese toppled China from centrality and took over center stage. 59 Unlike the Sancai tuhui, however, and Kinmo zui, which saw even demons, buddhas, giants, and dwarves as "people" ( jinbutsu) , Terashima's anthropology is more exclusive. He begins his examination of the species with Japanese, apparently the only people with a knowl edge of proper human relations (jinrin) , looking at "categories of human relations" (jinrin-rui) , "kinship in human relations" (jinrin shinzoku) , "offices and ranks" (kan 'i) , and "the utilities of human rela tions" (jinrin no yo) . All are Japanese, from the emperor to thieves (nusuhito) and from prostitutes (keisei) and wet nurses (menoto) to beggars (kotsujiki) and boy lovers (nanshoku) ; even angels (tennin) are Japanese. Terashima proceeds to foreign peoples - who are also "people" (jinbutsu) . But, as if they were as distant biologically as geographically or culturally, he interposes two volumes on the human body (keiraku) between jinrin and foreign peoples. He further divides the foreign world into two subcategories: "peoples of different/strange countries" (ikoku jinbutsu) , in what is among the briefest of all of his 105 chapters; and "outer barbarian peoples" (gaii jinbutsu) . It is not entirely clear to me what his criteria are for distinguishing between "countries" and "barbari ans," although most of the eleven "countries" are familiar - China and Korea, for example, as well as Ryukyu and Ezo. Each has a history (of sorts) , a language, and customs - including, for example, the Tatar queue. Not all have relations with Japan; but all are in what we would call Northeast Asia - they are familiar Others.
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries 35
The "outer barbarians," however, are a complex lot. There are
more than 160 of them, beginning with Champa, including Cambodia,
Siam, Spain, and Portugal (in the guise of Luzon and Macao), and
ending (exclusive of the appendix) with Holland. Many of these barbari-
ans are clearly "real." But many more of the "countries" of the Bankoku
jinbutsu-zu have fallen through the cracks, replaced by "people" from
the Sancai tuhui who owe their existence to the Shanhaijing: the "long-
armed" and "long-legged" people (tenaga, ashinaga) and my favorite,
the "hole in the chest" people (senkyO), whose aristocrats ride on poles
running through the holes in their chests, borne by porters.
Encyclopedias and an Anthropology of Myriad Lands
Some of this knowledge of the myriad countries of the world is quite
fanciful, clearly, and hardly "modern" or "scientific" in any sense that
we would accept, though it is perhaps rationalist in its urge to classifica-
35
The "outer barbarians," however, are a complex lot. There are more than 1 60 of them, beginning with Champa, including Cambodia, Siam, Spain, and Portugal (in the guise of Luzon and Macao), and ending (exclusive of the appendix) with Holland. Many of these barbari ans are clearly "real." But many more of the "countries" of the Bankoku jinbutsu-zu have fallen through the cracks, replaced by "people" from the Sancai tuhui who owe their existence to the Shanhaijing: the "long armed" and "long-legged" people (tenaga, ashinaga) and my favorite, the "hole in the chest" people (senkyo) , whose aristocrats ride on poles running through the holes in their chests, borne by porters.
tion and order. The framework is one of rationalizing and organization,
yet the approach to the acquisition or constitution of knowledge to be
ordered in the frame is neither entirely empirical nor skeptical, not to
Encyclopedias and an Anthropology of Myriad Lands
say "scientific" (if that is modern). Yet, I would argue, the attempts at
an ordering of knowledge, particularly of reinscribing boundaries of
Other around a circumference of Japanese identities, that is represented
in the Bankoku sozu, Jinbutsu-zu, KinmO zui, and Wakan sansai zue
marks a radical change in cosmologies and epistemologies from anything
visible prior to circa 1550.
Certainly, however, the knowledge of Other and Self inscribed in
these texts is a knowledge that could not conform to the sangoku frame-
work. The proliferation of peoples and continents, and especially the
irruption of Other into Japanese spaces, required the invention of new
practices, new forms of constituting both Self and Other, that marked an
irreparable discursive break with the nature of that knowledge and its
modes of representation.
As I said, this may not look modern, or even early modern. I do not
propose to look to "the West" to introduce the possibility of modernity
into Japan any more in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, than in
the nineteenth and twentieth. However, to paraphrase Matsuda Osamu,
it seems fair to suggest that the Iberian and Protestant irruptions into
Japanese cognition in the decades after 1550 "obliterated the constella-
tion of possibilities" contained in the sangoku discourse of Self and
Some of this knowledge of the myriad countries of the world is quite fanciful, clearly, and hardly "modern" or "scientific" in any sense that we would accept, though it is perhaps rationalist in its urge to classifica tion and order. The framework is one of rationalizing and organization, yet the approach to the acquisition or constitution of knowledge to be ordered in the frame is neither entirely empirical nor skeptical, not to say "scientific" (if that is modern). Yet, I would argue, the attempts at an ordering of knowledge, particularly of reinscribing boundaries of Other around a circumference of Japanese identities, that is represented in the Bankoku sozu, linbutsu-zu, Kinmo .z ui, and Wakan sansai zue marks a radical change in cosmologies and epistemologies from anything visible prior to circa 1 550. Certainly, however, the knowledge of Other and Self inscribed in these texts is a knowledge that could not conform to the sangoku frame work. The proliferation of peoples and continents, and especially the irruption of Other into Japanese spaces, required the invention of new practices, new forms of constituting both Self and Other, that marked an irreparable discursive break with the nature of that knowledge and its modes of representation. As I said, this may not look modern, or even early modern. I do not propose to look to "the West" to introduce the possibility of modernity into Japan any more in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, than in the nineteenth and twentieth. However, to paraphrase Matsuda Osamu, it seems fair to suggest that the Iberian and Protestant irruptions into Japanese cognition in the decades after 1550 "obliterated the constella tion of possibilities" contained in the sangoku discourse of Self and
36
36 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Other, bringing to a close the viability of one set of structures and
practices. Yet they did so without determining the shape of the new
practices that were to form.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Other, bringing to a close the viability of one set of structures and practices. Yet they did so without determining the shape of the new practices that were to form.
NOTES
I would like to thank E. Taylor Atkins, Kevin M. Doak, Jeffrey E.
Hanes, Paisley Livingston, Brian Platt, David Prochaska, and the participants in
the conferences on "What's 'Early-modern,' and What's 'Japanese' about 'Early-
NOTES
modern' Japan" (Princeton University, December 1995) and "Narratives, Arts,
and Ritual: Imagining and Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia" (Uni-
versity of Illinois, November 1996) for their valuable comments on earlier drafts
of this paper. All translations are my own, unless otherwise noted.
This paper was written while I was a visiting professor at the Institute for
Research in the Humanities, Kyoto University; much of the research was con-
ducted while I was a visiting scholar at the Historiographical Institute, University
of Tokyo. Both institutes provided stimulating, intellectually generous environ-
ments in which to work. Research for this paper was supported by a William and
Flora Hewlett Summer Research Grant from the Office of International Pro-
grams and Studies, University of Illinois; a National Endowment for the Humani-
ties Senior Research Fellowship; and a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
fellowship. These supported my work in the summers of 1992 and 1994 and during
the spring term of 1993. Grants from the Toyota Foundation and the University of
Illinois Research Board provided research assistants and other research funds. I
am deeply grateful to these organizations for their generosity.
1. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin
and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991).
2. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural
France, 1870-1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976). Cf. Fernand
Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper and
Row, 1989). For Braudel, the internal sameness was an illusion that deceived
French and foreigner alike.
3. See Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, trans. James
Strachey (New York: Norton, 1961), 72: "I once discussed the phenomenon that
it is precisely communities with adjoining territories, and related closely to each
other in other ways as well, who are engaged in constant feuds and in ridiculing
each other-like the Spaniards and Portuguese, for instance, the North Ger-
mans and South Germans, the English and Scotch, and so on. I gave this phe-
nomenon the name of 'narcissism of minor differences,' a name which does not
do much to explain it." See also James Strachey and Alan Tyson, eds., The
Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24
vols. (London: Hogarth Press, 1962), 18:101 11:199. I hope I will be forgiven my
"minor difference" in rendering kleinen differenzen; in the Standard Edition,
I would like to thank E. Taylor Atkins, Kevin M . Doak, Jeffrey E . Hanes, Paisley Livingston, Brian Platt, David Prochaska, and the participants in the conferences on "What's 'Early-modern,' and What's 'Japanese' about 'Early modern' Japan" (Princeton University, December 1 995) and "Narratives, Arts, and Ritual: Imagining and Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia" (Uni versity of Illinois, November 1 996) for their valuable comments on earlier drafts of this paper. All translations are my own, unless otherwise noted. This paper was written while I was a visiting professor at the Institute for Research in the Humanities, Kyoto University; much of the research was con ducted while I was a visiting scholar at the Historiographical Institute, University of Tokyo. Both institutes provided stimulating, intellectually generous environ ments in which to work. Research for this paper was supported by a William and Flora Hewlett Summer Research Grant from the Office of International Pro grams and Studies, University of Illinois; a National Endowment for the Humani ties Senior Research Fellowship; and a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science fellowship. These supported my work in the summers of 1 992 and 1 994 and during the spring term of 1 993. Grants from the Toyota Foundation and the University of Illinois Research Board provided research assistants and other research funds. I am deeply grateful to these organizations for their generosity. 1 . Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1 99 1 ) . 2. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870- 1 91 4 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1 976). Cf. Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper and Row, 1 989) . For Braudel, the internal sameness was an illusion that deceived French and foreigner alike. 3 . See Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, trans. James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1 96 1 ) , 72: "I once discussed the phenomenon that it is precisely communities with adjoining territories, and related closely to each other in other ways as well, who are engaged in constant feuds and in ridiculing each other - like the Spaniards and Portuguese, for instance, the North Ger mans and South Germans, the English and Scotch, and so on. I gave this phe nomenon the name of 'narcissism of minor differences,' a name which does not do much to explain it. " See also James Strachey and Alan Tyson, eds . , The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24 vols. (London: Hogarth Press, 1 962) , 1 8 : 1 0 1 1 1 : 1 99. I hope I will be forgiven my "minor difference" in rendering kleinen differenzen; in the Standard Edition,
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
37
Strachey, cotranslating in collaboration with Anna Freud, renders the same
phrase as "narcissism of small differences."
4. Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A4 History of the Geobody of the
Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), 16.
5. The first Europeans in Japan spoke of a proliferation of territorial
"regnos" (sengoku daimyo domains). Even Frangois Caron, who doubtless
worked from the analogy of the Holy Roman Empire, spoke in the 1640s of the
daimyos' territories as "kingdomes" vaguely subject to an "emperour," rather
than of a single undivided country. We must nriot, however, forget Braudel's
caveat that even "absolutist" Bourbon France, on the eve of the Revolution, was
fragmented into a bewildering array of pays, even within individual provinces.
Even in his own youth, he remarks, his cycling peregrinations with friends took
him across countless microcosmic pays in a single outing. See Braudel, Identity
of France.
6. I refer, of course, to the disputed northern territories, Takeshima and
the Senkaku Islands, each claimed by another country and the former two
occupied by Russia and the Republic of Korea, respectively. One could likewise
note the ongoing separatist movements in Okinawa Prefecture, annexed and
incorporated into the Japanese home islands in 1879 and occupied by the United
States from 1945 to 1972.
7. Lest the inference be drawn that this imputes sole agency to the Iberi-
ans, who "expanded" into East Asia in an "age of discovery," it is worth noting
that the initial Japanese encounters with Europeans occurred at the front of a
vigorous Japanese "expansion" (for which prewar Japanese historians crafted a
triumphant narrative) in the waters of the Indian Ocean, in Goa, and in South-
east Asia. It was in Goa, for example, that Francisco Xavier found the Japanese
convert Paolo (Yajiro), who served as interpreter during Xavier's 1549 evangeli-
cal visit to Japan.
8. This is not to say that there is an essential "Japan"; Japan remained
(and remains) in the process of self-invention, largely through a contest between
the Center, which attempts to impose a hegemonic uniformity and a wide range
of variation- say, Ezo and Ryukyu - which has historically resisted uniformity.
See Amino Yoshihiko's suggestive "Rekishigaku e no sasoi," in Aera mook 10
(1995): 4-8, which summarizes a line of argument Amino has pursued for sev-
eral years about the historically constructed nature of Japanese "homogeneity."
9. See M. William Steele, "Goemon's New World View: Popular Repre-
sentations of the Opening of Japan," in Asian Cultural Studies 17 (1989): 69-83.
Steele argues for the "creation of a new world view," mediated by the publica-
tion of popular broadsides (kawaraban) in the years surrounding the arrival of
the second round of Black Ships, 1853-54. If one--tentatively - accepts Steele's
argument, then one can posit an "early-modern" encompassing almost exactly
three centuries, from the arrival of Xavier (1549) to the arrival of Perry (1853).
Steele's argument, based heavily on the same general sort of visual evidence I
employ, is generally persuasive; yet I note in his evidence strong cosmological
and iconographic continuities with the kinsei.
37
Strachey, cotranslating in collaboration with Anna Freud, renders the same phrase as "narcissism of small differences." 4. Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geobody of the Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), 1 6 . 5 . The first Europeans in Japan spoke of a proliferation o f territorial "regnos" (sengoku daimyo domains). Even Franc;ois Caron, who doubtless worked from the analogy of the Holy Roman Empire, spoke in the 1 640s of the daimyos' territories as "kingdomes" vaguely subject to an "emperour, " rather than of a single undivided country. We must not, however, forget Braudel's caveat that even "absolutist" Bourbon France, on the eve of the Revolution, was fragmented into a bewildering array of pays, even within individual provinces. Even in his own youth, he remarks, his cycling peregrinations with friends took him across countless microcosmic pays in a single outing. See Braudel, Identity of France. 6 . I refer, of course, to the disputed northern territories, Takeshima and the Senkaku Islands, each claimed by another country and the former two occupied by Russia and the Republic of Korea, respectively. One could likewise note the ongoing separatist movements in Okinawa Prefecture, annexed and incorporated into the Japanese home islands in 1879 and occupied by the United States from 1945 to 1972. 7. Lest the inference be drawn that this imputes sole agency to the Iberi ans, who "expanded" into East Asia in an "age of discovery, " it is worth noting that the initial Japanese encounters with Europeans occurred at the front of a vigorous Japanese "expansion" (for which prewar Japanese historians crafted a triumphant narrative) in the waters of the Indian Ocean, in Goa, and in South east Asia. It was in Goa, for example, that Francisco Xavier found the Japanese convert Paolo (Yaj iro), who served as interpreter during Xavier's 1549 evangeli cal visit to Japan. 8. This is not to say that there is an essential "Japan"; Japan remained (and remains) in the process of self-invention, largely through a contest between the Center, which attempts to impose a hegemonic uniformity and a wide range of variation - say, Ezo and Ryukyu - which has historically resisted uniformity. See Amino Yoshihiko's suggestive "Rekishigaku e no sasoi," in Aera mook 10 (1995): 4-8 , which summarizes a line of argument Amino has pursued for sev eral years about the historically constructed nature of Japanese "homogeneity. " 9. See M . William Steele, "Goemon's New World View: Popular Repre sentations of the Opening of Japan," in Asian Cultural Studies 17 (1989): 69-83. Steele argues for the "creation of a new world view, " mediated by the publica tion of popular broadsides (kawaraban) in the years surrounding the arrival of the second round of Black Ships, 1 853-54. If one -- tentatively - accepts Steele's argument, then one can posit an "early-modern" encompassing almost exactly three centuries, from the arrival of Xavier (1549) to the arrival of Perry (1853). Steele's argument, based heavily on the same general sort of visual evidence I employ, is generally persuasive; yet I note in his evidence strong cosmological and iconographic continuities with the kinsei.
38
38 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
10. See Ronald P. Toby, "Kinsei-ko no Nihon-zu to Nihon no kyokai,"
forthcoming from Tokyo University Press in an as-yet-untitled volume edited by
Sugimoto Fumiko.
11. Although there are numerous late-Momoyama period maps and screens
now called "world maps," the first such world map I have seen that calls itself a
printed map is the Bankoku sozu, from 1647, which is accompanied by a chart of
the peoples of the world, described as Bankoku jinbutsu-zu. There are several
extant exemplars of this map and chart. For a conveniently available reproduc-
tion, see Kazutaka Unno, "Cartography in Japan," in J. B. Harley and David
Woodward, eds., The History of Cartography, vol. 2, bk. 2, Cartography in the
Traditional East Asian Southeast Asian Societies (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1994): 406, fig. 11.39. Unno dates the map to 1645.
12. All three terms were more or less imprecise. Wagacho quite clearly
indicated "Japan," but the boundaries of "Japan" were less than clear. Kara and
Tenjiku together comprised ikoku, which might be parsed as either "foreign
lands" or "strange lands." Kara, if spoken or written phonetically, specified only
"the continent" and could be written with the Chinese characters for either
"Han" or "Tang" China, "Han" denoting the three kingdoms of archaic southern
Korea. Tenjiku, originally a Buddhist term, connoted the land of the historical
Buddha. Yet unlike "our land" and "the continent," it was not someplace from
which visitors came; nor did people from "our land" ever go there and return to
tell of it. My reading of Tenjiku is that it denoted "trans-Kara," which comprised
all the earth beyond China/Korea, merging almost imperceptibly from ikoku
into ikai, the "other/strange world(s)" of gods and spirits, buddhas, bodhi-
sattvas, and so on. Cf. Asao Naohiro, "Higashi Ajia ni okeru bakuhan taisei," in
Asao, ed., Nihon no kinsei l sekai shi no naka no kinsei (Chug Koronsha, 1991),
60-62. Asao sees a transition from a "three realms (sangoku) world view" to a
"global (chikyiigi) world view."
13. As I have shown, however, Tenjiku cannot be summarily equated with
"India" but must be understood as "trans-Kara," everywhere beyond China.
Bodhisenna, an Indian priest (from Tenjiku) is among those listed in a roster
recently discovered in the Shosoin storehouse as participating in the ceremonies
installing the Great Buddha in Nara in 752 (Asahi shinbun, April 13, 1996), and a
Tenjiku merchant named Kusuha Sainin - most likely a Muslim from Malacca -
settled in the Osaka area in the fifteenth century. But no Japanese traveler
was known to have visited Tenjiku and returned to tell the tale. On Sainin, see
Tanaka Takeo, "Kenmin-sen boeki-ka Kusuha Sainin to sono ichizoku," in Sato
Shin'ichi, ed., Nihon jinbutsu-shi taikei 2: chasei (Asakura Shoten, 1959),
193-225.
14. See Narusawa Akira, "Hendo shokoku Nihon," in Gekkan hyakka
194, 195 (1978). Japanese world maps rooted in a sangoku cosmology date
from at least the fourteenth century. See Jikai, Go-tenjiku-zu MS, 177 x 166.5
cm, 1364, in the collection of the Horyuji, Nara. Reproduced in Muroga and
Nobuo Unno Kazutaka, eds., Nihon kochizu taisei, sekai-zu hen (Kodansha,
1975), pl. 1.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
10. See Ronald P. Toby, "Kinsei-ko no Nihon-zu to Nihon no kyokai," forthcoming from Tokyo University Press in an as-yet-untitled volume edited by Sugimoto Fumiko. 1 1 . Although there are numerous late-Momoyama period maps and screens now called "world maps," the first such world map I have seen that calls itself a printed map is the Bankoku sozu, from 1647, which is accompanied by a chart of the peoples of the world, described as Bankoku jinbutsu-zu. There are several extant exemplars of this map and chart. For a conveniently available reproduc tion, see Kazutaka Unno, "Cartography in Japan," in 1. B . Harley and David Woodward, eds., The History of Cartography, vol. 2, bk. 2, Cartography in the Traditional East Asian Southeast Asian Societies (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994): 406, fig. 1 1 .39. Unno dates the map to 1645. 12. All three terms were more or less imprecise. Wagacho quite clearly indicated "Japan," but the boundaries of "Japan" were less than clear. Kara and Tenjiku together comprised ikoku, which might be parsed as either "foreign lands" or "strange lands." Kara, if spoken or written phonetically, specified only "the continent" and could be written with the Chinese characters for either "Han" or "Tang" China, "Han" denoting the three kingdoms of archaic southern Korea. Tenjiku, originally a Buddhist term, connoted the land of the historical Buddha. Yet unlike "our land" and "the continent," it was not someplace from which visitors came; nor did people from "our land" ever go there and return to tell of it. My reading of Tenjiku is that it denoted "trans-Kara," which comprised all the earth beyond China/Korea, merging almost imperceptibly from ikoku into ikai, the "other/strange world(s)" of gods and spirits, buddhas, bodhi sattvas, and so on. Cf. Asao Naohiro, "Higashi Ajia ni okeru bakuhan taisei," in Asao, e d . , Nihon no kinsei I sekai shi no naka no kinsei (Chuo Koronsha, 1 991), 60-62. Asao sees a transition from a "three realms (sangoku) world view" to a "global (chikyugi) world view. " 1 3 . As I have shown, however, Tenjiku cannot be summarily equated with "India" but must be understood as "trans-Kara," everywhere beyond China. Bodhisenna, an Indian priest (from Tenjiku) is among those listed in a roster recently discovered in the Shosoin storehouse as participating in the ceremonies installing the Great Buddha in Nara in 752 (Asahi shinbun, April 1 3 , 1996), and a Tenjiku merchant named Kusuha Sainin - most likely a Muslim from Malacca settled in the Osaka area in the fifteenth century. But no Japanese traveler was known to have visited Tenjiku and returned to tell the tale. On Sainin, see Tanaka Takeo, "Kenmin-sen boeki-ka Kusuha Sainin to sono ichizoku," in Sato Shin'ichi, e d . , Nihon jinbutsu-shi taikei 2: chusei (Asakura Shoten, 1959), 193-225. 14. See Narusawa Akira, "Hendo shokoku Nihon," in Gekkan hyakka 1 94, 1 95 (1978). Japanese world maps rooted in a sangoku cosmology date from at least the fourteenth century. See Jukai, Go-tenjiku-zu MS, 177 X 166.5 cm, 1364, in the collection of the Horyuj i, Nara. Reproduced in Muroga and Nobuo Unno Kazutaka, eds., Nihon kochizu taisei, sekai-zu hen (Kodansha, 1 975), pI. 1 .
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
39
15. See Jacqueline Stone, "In the Aftermath of the Divine Winds: The
Mongol Threat and Changing Images of Japan" (paper presented at the annual
meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, 1992). I am grateful to Professor
Stone for providing me with a copy of her manuscript.
16. Jtkai, Go-tenjiku-zu, 11.
17. Nihon koten bungaku taikei, Takagi Ichinosuke, Nishio Minouru,
Hisamatsu Sen'ichi, Aso Isoji, and Tokeido Motoki, eds., vols. 67-68, Nihon
Shoki, Sakamoto Taro, lenaga Saburo, Inoue Mitsusada, and Ono Susumu, eds.
(Iwanami Shoten, 1965, 1967), 67:339. See also Ito Yoshio, "Odo omin:
shinkoku shiso," in Ishigami Eiichi, Takanashi Toshihiko, Nagahara Keiji,
Mizubayashi Takeshi, Murai Shosuke, Yoshie Akio, and Yoshimura Takehiko,
eds., KOza zen-kindai no tennO 4 tOchi-teki kin to tennO-kan (Aoki Shoten,
1995), 257-294. Ito reminds us that the mere appearance of the phrase "there is
a shinkoku" does not constitute shinkoku as a thought system in the early eighth
century: "It is doubtful that this 'idea' (shiso [of Japan as a shinkoku]) had
established itself as an ideology (shiso) in ancient Japan. It is more accurate to
call it a 'notion' (ishiki) of Japan as shinkoku." Ibid., 282.
18. Nihon koten bungaku taikei, vol. 87, JinnO shotO ki; Masukagami,
Iwasa Tadashi, Tokeido Motoki, and Kidb Saizo, eds. (Iwanami Shoten, 1965).
The "Edict Expelling the Padres," or "Bateren tsuiho rei," appears in ShiryO ni
yoru Nihon no ayumi kinsei-hen, Okubo Toshikane, ed. (Yoshikawa Kobunkan,
1955), 51. Ito sees the transformation of shinkoku from a idea to an ideology of
control (shinkoku shiso ga shihai shiso to shite seiritsu suru) as emerging from
the imperial crisis of the Jokyo War (1221). For him, that is, shinkoku is the
central pillar upholding an ideology of nationhood by the time of the Jinno shOtO
ki. Ito, Odo omin, 284-291. On the place of shinkoku ideologies in Hideyoshi's
worldview, see Takagi Shosaku, "Hideyoshi, Ieyasu no shinkoku-kan to sono
keifu," in Shigaku zasshi 101, no. 10 (1992).
19. See Ito, Odo omin, and Sato Hiroo, "Shinkoku shiso," in Nihon shi
kenkyii 309 (February 1995), for valuable discussions of the variability and con-
testedness of shinkoku in ancient and medieval Japan. See also Takagi, "Hide-
yoshi, Ieyasu." Takagi examines the varying understandings of shinkoku visible
in Hideyoshi's and Ieyasu's worldviews and policies.
20. I think here of the unexpected best-seller, Chi no gihO, Kobayashi
Yasuo and Funabiki Takeo, eds. Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1993), which has
sold over 340,000 copies, ten times more than any other title the press has ever
published. It should not be imagined that sangoku cosmologies went softly into
that good night of the "early modern," however. As late as the middle of the
nineteenth century, Japanese Buddhists were continuing to attempt the subsum-
ing of "modern," "scientific" geographic knowledge into Tenjiku-centered Bud-
dhist cartography. See Egon, Nansenbushut saiken zusetsu, woodblock printed
map, 71.5 X 39.5 cm, 1845, in Muroga and Unno, Nihon kochizu, 27.
21. See Ronald P. Toby, "The 'Indianness' of Iberia and changing Japanese
Iconographies of Other," in Stuart Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings: Ob-
serving, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between Europeans and
39
1 5 . See Jacqueline Stone, "In the Aftermath of the Divine Winds: The Mongol Threat and Changing Images of Japan" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, 1 992). I am grateful to Professor Stone for providing me with a copy of her manuscript. 1 6 . Jukai, Go-tenjiku-zu, 1 1 . 1 7 . Nihon koten bungaku taikei, Takagi Ichinosuke, Nishio Minouru, Hisamatsu Sen'ichi, Aso Isoji, and Tokeido Motoki, eds., vols. 67-68, Nihon Shoki, Sakamoto Taro, Ienaga Saburo, Inoue Mitsusada, and ano Susumu, eds. (Iwanami Shoten, 1 965, 1 967), 67:339. See also Ito Yoshio, " ado omin: shinkoku shiso," in Ishigami Eiichi, Takanashi Toshihiko, Nagahara Keiji, Mizubayashi Takeshi, Murai Shosuke, Yoshie Akio, and Yoshimura Takehiko, eds., Koza zen-kindai no tenno 4 tochi-teki kino to tenno-kan (Aoki Shoten, 1 995) , 257-294. Ito reminds us that the mere appearance of the phrase "there is a shinkoku" does not constitute shinkoku as a thought system in the early eighth century: "It is doubtful that this 'idea' (shiso [of Japan as a shinkoku)) had established itself as an ideology (shiso) in ancient Japan. It is more accurate to call it a 'notion' (ishiki) of Japan as shinkoku. " Ibid., 282. 1 8 . Nihon koten bungaku taikei, vol. 87 , Jinno shoto ki; Masukagami, Iwasa Tadashi, Tokeido Motoki, and Kido Saizo, eds. (Iwanami Shoten, 1 965) . The "Edict Expelling the Padres," o r "Bateren tsuiho rei," appears in Shiryo ni yoru Nihon no ayumi kinsei-hen, akubo Toshikane, ed. (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1955), 5 1 . Ito sees the transformation of shinkoku from a idea to an ideology of control (shinkoku shiso ga shihai shiso to shite seiritsu suru) as emerging from the imperial crisis of the Jokyu War ( 1 221 ) . For him, that is, shinkoku is the central pillar upholding an ideology of nationhood by the time of the Jinno show ki. Ito, a do omin, 284-291 . On the place of shinkoku ideologies in Hideyoshi's worldview, see Takagi Shosaku, "Hideyoshi, Ieyasu no shinkoku-kan to sono keifu," in Shigaku zasshi 1 0 1 , no. 10 ( 1992). 19. See Ito, a do omin, and Sato Hiroo, "Shinkoku shiso," in Nihon shi kenkyu 309 (February 1 995) , for valuable discussions of the variability and con testedness of shinkoku in ancient and medieval Japan. See also Takagi, "Hide yoshi, Ieyasu." Takagi examines the varying understandings of shinkoku visible in Hideyoshi's and Ieyasu's worldviews and policies. 20. I think here of the unexpected best-seller, Chi no giho, Kobayashi Yasuo and Funabiki Takeo, eds. Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1 993), which has sold over 340,000 copies, ten times more than any other title the press has ever published. It should not be imagined that sangoku cosmologies went softly into that good night of the "early modern," however. As late as the middle of the nineteenth century, Japanese Buddhists were continuing to attempt the subsum ing of "modern," "scientific" geographic knowledge into Tenjiku-centered Bud dhist cartography. See Egon, Nansenbushu saiken zusetsu, woodblock printed map, 7 1 .5 x 39.5 cm, 1 845 , in Muroga and Unno, Nihon kochizu, 27 . 21 . See Ronald P. Toby, "The 'Indianness' of Iberia and changing Japanese Iconographies of Other," in Stuart Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings: Ob serving, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between Europeans and
40
40 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era (London: Cambridge University Press,
1994), 324-351.
22. For a description of Xavier, see my translation of the Kirishitan
monogatari's account of his arrival. Toby, "'Indianness'" 326.
23. See C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650 (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1951). Boxer's book,
written in the aftermath of the Pacific War and the author's incarceration in a
Japanese POW camp, is redolent of a sense that the ultimate Japanese rejec-
tion of Christianity derived from a combination of Japanese intransigence and
cruelty. Cf. George Elison, Deus Destroyed: The Image of Christianity in
Early-Modern Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974). Elison de-
picts the Jesuit mission as doomed to failure by the Jesuits' own intransigence
and - although Elison does not use the term - racism. Neither author seriously
considers the fundamental contradiction between the permeable Japanese reli-
gious culture, quite comfortable with a multiplicity of religions, and the dichoto-
mous approach of (especially Counter-Reformation) Christianity, which de-
manded Christian adherence to the exclusion of all other practices and beliefs.
24. See Ichimura Yiji, Sakoku: yuruyakana jOhO kaikaku (Kodansha,
1995), 99-103. Ichimura seems to date this phenomenon to the appearance of
Terashima Ryoan's Wakan sansai zue (1713) and to a Kohara Keizan painting of
foreigners in Nagasaki, Ikoku jinbutsu zukan (1718), which "includes some copy-
ing [of earlier works]" but essentially "depicts people who voyaged to Nagasaki,"
thus enabling "Japanese to begin to see [these foreigners] with their own eyes and
draw them from life." Ichimura overlooks the century of so-called Nanban art
depicting not only Europeans but Africans, Indians, people from various parts of
Southeast Asia, Chinese, Koreans, and Tatars.
25. The term is from Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America (New
York: Harper Collins, 1985). Todorov argues that for both Europeans and
Caribs the perceived differences between them were so much greater than those
among Europeans or Caribs as to constitute what might be called a "different
sort of difference," which he terms "radical alterity."
26. Toby, "'Indianness'." See also Toby, "The Mountain that Needs no
Interpreter," unpublished MS 1998.
27. I exclude works of portrait sculpture depicting Chinese Buddhist prel-
ates who immigrated to Japan, such as the statue of Ganjin in Tshadaiji, simply
because they do not specify a setting. It might also be argued - as in the case of
the Tosei eden, an illustrated scroll narrating the discovery of Ganjin and his
arrival in Japan - that Buddhist prelates constitute a class of supra-ethnic beings,
whose monastic status unifies them outside ethnicity. Thus, Ganjin, born in Tang
China, and the Japanese monk Enchin, who visited Tang, are equally uncon-
strained by representation of "ethnic" or "national" content.
28. The Tosei eden, completed in 1298, is reproduced in most standard
collections of emaki, including Shinsha Nihon emakimono zensha, 30 vols.
(Kadokawa Shoten, 1975-1980), vol. 21, TOseiden emaki, Kameda Tsutoma,
ed., and Nihon emaki taisei, 29 vols. (Chug Koronsha, 1977-1983), vol. 16,
TOseieden, Kikutake Jun'ichi and Ono Katsutoshi, eds. (1978). The MOko sharai
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era (London: Cambridge University Press, 1 994) , 324-35 l . 22. For a description of Xavier, see my translation of the Kirishitan monogatari's account of his arrival. Toby, '"Indianness' '' 326. 23. See C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650 (Berke ley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1 95 1 ) . Boxer's book, written in the aftermath of the Pacific War and the author's incarceration in a Japanese POW camp, is redolent of a sense that the ultimate Japanese rejec tion of Christianity derived from a combination of Japanese intransigence and cruelty. Cf. George Elison, Deus Destroyed: The Image of Christianity in Early-Modern Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 974). Elison de picts the Jesuit mission as doomed to failure by the Jesuits' own intransigence and - although Elison does not use the term - racism. Neither author seriously considers the fundamental contradiction between the permeable Japanese reli gious culture, quite comfortable with a multiplicity of religions, and the dichoto mous approach of (especially Counter-Reformation) Christianity, which de manded Christian adherence to the exclusion of all other practices and beliefs. 24. See Ichimura YUj i , Sakoku: yuruyakana joho kaikaku (Kodansha, 1 995), 99-103. Ichimura seems to date this phenomenon to the appearance of Terashima Ryoan's Wakan sansai zue (1713) and to a Kohara Keizan painting of foreigners in Nagasaki, Ikoku jinbutsu zukan (1718), which "includes some copy ing [of earlier works] " but essentially "depicts people who voyaged to Nagasaki," thus enabling "Japanese to begin to see [these foreigners] with their own eyes and draw them from life." Ichimura overlooks the century of so-called Nanban art depicting not only Europeans but Africans, Indians, people from various parts of Southeast Asia, Chinese, Koreans, and Tatars. 25. The term is from Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America (New York: Harper Collins, 1985). Todorov argues that for both Europeans and Caribs the perceived differences between them were so much greater than those among Europeans or Caribs as to constitute what might be called a "different sort of difference," which he terms "radical alterity. " 26. Toby, " 'Indianness'." See also Toby, "The Mountain that Needs no Interpreter," unpublished MS 1 998. 27. I exclude works of portrait sculpture depicting Chinese Buddhist prel ates who immigrated to Japan, such as the statue of Ganjin in Toshodaiji, simply because they do not specify a setting. It might also be argued - as in the case of the Tosei eden, an illustrated scroll narrating the discovery of Ganjin and his arrival in Japan - that Buddhist prelates constitute a class of supra-ethnic beings, whose monastic status unifies them outside ethnicity. Thus, Ganj in, born in Tang China, and the Japanese monk Enchin, who visited Tang, are equally uncon strained by representation of "ethnic" or "national" content. 28. The Tosei eden, completed in 1298, is reproduced in most standard collections of emaki, including Shinshu Nihon emakimono zenshu, 30 vols. (Kadokawa Shoten, 1975-1 980), vol. 21 , Toseiden emaki, Kameda Tsutoma, e d . , and Nihon emaki taisei, 29 vols. (ChUo Koronsha, 1 977-1983), vol. 16, Toseieden, Kikutake Jun'ichi and Ono Katsutoshi, eds. ( 1978). The Moko shurai
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries 41
ekotoba, dated 1292, is in Nihon emaki taisei, vol. 14, MOko shtrai ekotoba,
Minamoto Toyomune and Ogino Minahiko, eds. (1978).
29. See Izumi Mari, "TOsenzu no keishb: Z aishokan-zu byobu o megutte,"
in Firokaria 5 (March 1988), 102-129. Izumi makes a strong argument for the
existence of a fifteenth-century screen painting - no longer extant - depicting
the arrival of a Chinese ship in a Japanese port.
30. For the Kibi Daijin nittO ekotoba, which is in the collection of the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, see the reproductions in Nihon emaki taisei, vol.
3 Kibi Daijin nittO emaki, Komatsu Shigeni, ed. (1977). Hakurakuten is included
in all standard collections of NO texts, including Nonomura KaizO and Otani
Tokuzb, ed., Yokyoku 250-ban sha (Akao ShObundo, 1978), 35-37. More conve-
niently, see Nihon koten bungaku taikei, vols. 40-41, Yokyokusht, Yokomichi
Mario and Omote Akira, eds., 41:308-10.
31. These include, for example, the NO play Fujisan, in which a Chinese
comes to Japan seeking the elixir of immortality (fushi, which can be read as
fuji) and - most prominently - the tamatori or Taishokan cycle of tales, in which
the Chinese sends an ambassador to Japan to seek the hand of a Fujiwara
princess as consort to the Tang emperor. For an example of the latter, see the NO
play Ama, in Nonomura and Otani, Yokyoku, 608-11, Fujisan, ibid., 658-60.
32. The best reproductions of the Uesugi, Funaki, and Machida screens are
in Ishida Naotoyo, ed., Rakucha rakugai-zu taikan, 3 vols. (Shogakkan, 1987).
More readily available reproductions of the Uesugi, Funaki, and Okayama
screens are Hayashiya Tatsusaburo, Yamane YtzO, and Takeda Tsuneo, eds.,
Kinsei fazoku zufu, vols. 3-4, Rakucha rakugai (Shogakkan, Showa: 1983) and
Kyoto National Museum, Rakuchu rakugai-zu (Kadokawa Shoten, 1966). The
dating of most rakucht rakugai-zu byobu rests on internal evidence, and "dat-
ing" involves two separate questions: of the "time" depicted and of the date of
composition. The Uesugi screen is in dispute on both counts. Imatani Akira, at
the early end, argues in KyOto 1547-nen: egakareta chasei toshi (Heibonsha
Image Reading Series, 1988) for a brief window in 1547 for both "dates" and
rejects the traditional attribution to Kano Eitoku. Imatani's claim was immedi-
ately disputed by Takahashi Yasuo, in Rakucha rakugai: kanky6 bunka no
chtseishi (Heibonsha Image Reading Series, 1993), who left dating more open.
Kuroda Hideo has recently offered, in his Nazotoki: Rakucha rakagai-
zu (Iwanami Shoten, 1996), a strong argument that the Uesugi screen was
painted by Eitoku in 1564-65. Kuroda bases his argument on internal sources
but most especially on a number of documentary sources, including a notice of
1574 in the Uesugi family papers that, "In the third month of the same year Oda
Nobunaga of O[wari] Province sent Sassa Ichinosuke as an envoy to the Eppu
[the capital of Echigo Province] and presented a pair of folding screens. The
artist was Kano Genshiro Sadanobu, [also known as ] the lay monk Eitoku-sai.
He painted it on the third day of the ninth month of the eighth year of Eiroku
(1565). It [shows] everything in Kyoto. We sent a letter of acknowledgment."
33. The Edo meisho-zu byobu is in the collection of the Idemitsu Museum,
Tokyo; the Edo-zu byObu is in the collection of the National Historical Museum,
Sakura.
41
ekotoba, dated 1292, is in Nihon emaki taisei, vol. 1 4, Moko shurai ekotoba, Minamoto Toyomune and Ogino Minahiko, eds. (1978). 29. See Izumi Mari, "Tosenzu no keisho : Taishokan-zu byobu 0 megutte," in Firokaria 5 (March 1 988), 102-129. Izumi makes a strong argument for the existence of a fifteenth-century screen painting - no longer extant - depicting the arrival of a Chinese ship in a Japanese port. 30. For the Kibi Daijin nitto ekotoba, which is in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, see the reproductions in Nihon emaki taisei, vol. 3 Kibi Daijin nitto emaki, Komatsu Shigeni, ed. (1977). Hakurakuten is included in all standard collections of No texts, including Nonomura Kaizo and O tani Tokuzo , e d . , Yokyoku 250-ban shu (Akao Shobundo , 1978), 35-37. More conve niently, see Nihon koten bungaku taikei, vols. 40-41 , Yokyokushii , Yokomichi Mario and Omote Akira, eds . , 41 :308-10. 31. These include, for example, the No play Fujisan, in which a Chinese comes to Japan seeking the elixir of immortality (tushi, which can be read as fuji) and - most prominently - the tamatori or Taishokan cycle of tales, in which the Chinese sends an ambassador to Japan to seek the hand of a Fujiwara princess as consort to the Tang emperor. For an example of the latter, see the No play Ama, in Nonomura and O tani, Yokyoku, 608-1 1 , Fujisan, ibid. , 658-60. 32. The best reproductions of the Uesugi, Funaki, and Machida screens are in Ishida Naotoyo, e d . , Rakuchu rakugai-zu taikan, 3 vols. (Shogakkan, 1987). More readily available reproductions of the Uesugi, Funaki, and Okayama screens are Hayashiya Tatsusaburo, Yamane Ylilzo, and Takeda Tsuneo, eds., Kinsei fuzoku zufu, vols. 3-4, Rakuchu rakugai (Shogakkan, Showa: 1983) and Kyoto National Museum, Rakuchu rakugai-zu (Kadokawa Shoten, 1966). The dating of most rakuchu rakugai-zu byobu rests on internal evidence, and "dat ing" involves two separate questions: of the "time" depicted and of the date of composition. The Uesugi screen is in dispute on both counts. Imatani Akira, at the early end, argues in Kyoto 1547-nen: egakareta chusei toshi (Heibonsha Image Reading Series, 1988) for a brief window in 1547 for both "dates" and rejects the traditional attribution to Kano Eitoku. Imatani's claim was immedi ately disputed by Takahashi Yasuo, in Rakuchu rakugai: kankyo bunka no chuseishi (Heibonsha Image Reading Series, 1993), who left dating more open. Kuroda Hideo has recently offered, in his Nazotoki: Rakuchu rakagai zu (Iwanami Shoten, 1 996) , a strong argument that the Uesugi screen was painted by Eitoku in 1564-65. Kuroda bases his argument on internal sources but most especially on a number of documentary sources, including a notice of 1574 in the Uesugi family papers that, "In the third month of the same year Oda Nobunaga of O[wari] Province sent Sassa Ichinosuke as an envoy to the Eppu [the capital of Echigo Province] and presented a pair of folding screens. The artist was Kano Genshiro Sadanobu, [also known as ] the lay monk Eitoku-sai. He painted it on the third day of the ninth month of the eighth year of Eiroku ( 1565). It [shows] everything in Kyoto. We sent a letter of acknowledgment." 33. The Edo meisho-zu byobu is in the collection of the Idemitsu Museum, Tokyo; the Edo-zu byobu is in the collection of the National Historical Museum, Sakura.
42
42 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
34. This is the case with the sixteen cartouches spread across the lower edge
of the world map that is paired with the screen depicting the Battle of Lepanto.
See Repanto sent6-zu-Sekai chizu byobu, pair of six-panel screens, color on
paper, 153.5 x 370 cm, in the collection of the Kosetsu Bijutsukan, Kobe.
Reproduced in Genshoku Nihon no bijutsu 20 Nanban bijutsu to yoga, Sakamoto
Mitsuru, Sugase Tadashi, and Naruse Fujio, eds., 2nd ed. (Shogakkan, 1990),
pl. 5. Cited below as Lepanto Sekai chizu by6bu.
35. Niji-hachi toshi-zu -Bankoku-zu byobu, pair of eight-panel screens,
color on paper, 179 x 490 cm, in the Imperial Household Collection. Repro-
duced in Genshoku Nihon, pl. 23.
36. Ibid., 40. Cited below as the imperial Bankoku-zu byobu.
37. Changes in cartography raise separate - though related and quite
complex-issues that are outside the scope of this essay. On the Ricci map, see
G. F. Baddeley, "Father Matteo Ricci's Chinese World-Maps, 1584-1608," in
The Geographical Journal (October 1917) and Ayusawa Shintaro, Mateo Ritchi
no sekaizu ni kan suru shiteki kenkyu: kinsei Nihon ni okeru sekai chiri chishiki
no shuryu (published as Yokohama Shiritsu Daigaku kiy&, Series A-4, no. 18
[1953]).
38. Bankoku jinbutsu-zu, map, 1647, in the collection of the Faculty of
Letters Museum, Kyoto University. Cited below as Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu.
I follow the furigana phonetic gloss of this version. There are numerous versions
of this chart, published between 1647 and 1688; there are even variants within
the 1647 printings. See the example in the Mody Collection in N. H. N. Mody, A
Collection of Nagasaki Colour Prints and Paintings Showing the Influence of
Chinese and European Art on that of Japan (Kobe: J. L. Thompson and Co.
Ltd., 1939; reprint, Rutland, VT, and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc.,
1969), pl. 23. The Mody Collection example lacks the furigana of the Kyoto
University example. They vary slightly in internal detail, but they share the same
gaze, directed at the "variety of peoples" to "discriminate the quality of each
people." The Mody Collection was destroyed in the 1945 air raids on Kobe.
39. Perhaps because it is difficult to depict tattoos on a figure only a few
inches high, the people of Rataran - mapped as an island south of Japan and east
of Luzon and probably the "same" as the Island of Thieves (Ilha de Ladroes) in
early Nanban-style world maps - are also explained verbally: "These savages
figure their bodies with ink and like only to steal and raid" (Dojin sumi o motte
bunshin, moppara tOzoku o konomu). The tattooing is invisible in all examples
of the 1647 edition I have seen, but it is clearly marked in the 1652 version,
Bankoku sOzu, sekai ninkei zu, hand-colored wood-block print, 1652, 65.5 x
41.5 cm, in the collection of the Kobe City Museum. See Muroga and Unno,
Nihon kochizu, vol. 1, 148-49.
40. This image and its accompanying explanation are similar to those in an
undated Kano-school hanging scroll (which is likely from the early seventeenth
century) in the Mody Collection, depicting a black "Barajiru" couple standing
by a grate with three white human limbs roasting over a roaring fire: "The
people of this country do not make houses; they clear away earth, make a hole,
and use that for their residences. They eat human flesh; but they [only] eat men,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
34. This is the case with the sixteen cartouches spread across the lower edge of the world map that is paired with the screen depicting the Battle of Lepanto. See Repanto sento-zu -Sekai chizu byobu, pair of six-panel screens, color on paper, 153.5 x 370 cm, in the collection of the Kosetsu Bijutsukan, Kobe. Reproduced in Genshoku Nihon no bijutsu 2 0 Nanban bijutsu to yoga, Sakamoto Mitsuru, Sugase Tadashi, and Naruse Fuj io, eds. , 2nd ed. (Shogakkan, 1 990) , pI. 5 . Cited below as Lepanto Sekai chizu byobu. 35 . Niju-hachi toshi-zu -Bankoku-zu byobu, pair of eight-panel screens, color on paper, 179 x 490 cm, in the Imperial Household Collection. Repro duced in Genshoku Nihon, pI. 23. 36. Ibid., 40. Cited below as the imperial Bankoku-zu byobu. 37. Changes in cartography raise separate - though related and quite complex - issues that are outside the scope of this essay. On the Ricci map, see G. F. Baddeley, "Father Matteo Ricci's Chinese World-Maps, 1584-1608," in The Geographical Journal (October 1 917) and Ayusawa Shintaro, Mateo Ritchi no sekaizu ni kan suru shiteki kenkyu: kinsei Nihon ni okeru sekai chiri chishiki no shuryu (published as Yokohama Shiritsu Daigaku kiyo, Series A-4, no. 18 [1953] ). 38. Bankoku jinbutsu-zu, map, 1 647, in the collection of the Faculty of Letters Museum, Kyoto University. Cited below as Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu-zu. I follow the furigana phonetic gloss of this version. There are numerous versions of this chart, published between 1647 and 1 688; there are even variants within the 1647 printings. See the example in the Mody Collection in N. H . N. Mody, A Collection of Nagasaki Colour Prints and Paintings Showing the Influence of Chinese and European Art on that of Japan (Kobe: 1. L. Thompson and Co. Ltd. , 1 939; reprint, Rutland, VT, and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc., 1 969), pI. 23. The Mody Collection example lacks the furigana of the Kyoto University example. They vary slightly in internal detail, but they share the same gaze, directed at the "variety of peoples" to "discriminate the quality of each people." The Mody Collection was destroyed in the 1 945 air raids on Kobe. 39. Perhaps because it is difficult to depict tattoos on a figure only a few inches high, the people of Rataran - mapped as an island south of Japan and east of Luzon and probably the "same" as the Island of Thieves (Ilha de Ladroes) in early Nanban-style world maps - are also explained verbally: "These savages figure their bodies with ink and like only to steal and raid" (Dojin sumi 0 motte bunshin, moppara tozoku 0 konomu) . The tattooing is invisible in all examples of the 1 647 edition I have seen, but it is clearly marked in the 1652 version, Bankoku sozu, sekai ninkei zu, hand-colored wood-block print, 1 652, 65.5 x 4 1 .5 cm, in the collection of the Kobe City Museum. See Muroga and Unno, Nihon kochizu, vol. 1 , 148-49. 40. This image and its accompanying explanation are similar to those in an undated Kano-school hanging scroll (which is likely from the early seventeenth century) in the Mody Collection, depicting a black "Barajiru" couple standing by a grate with three white human limbs roasting over a roaring fire: "The people of this country do not make houses; they clear away earth, make a hole, and use that for their residences. They eat human flesh; but they [only] eat men,
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
43
and do not eat women. They use birds and the seven beasts [?] to make their
clothing." See Mody, Collection, pl. 1. European models surely lie behind this
image, as they do behind most of the unfamiliar jinrui.
41. For a convenient introduction and a textual history of the Shanhaijing
in Japan, see Koma Miyoshi, SengaikyiO: Chiagoku kodai no shinwa sekai
(Heibonsha Library, 1994), 179-95. Shanhaijing was known in Japan from an-
cient times, but the earliest datable Japanese printed editions are a seven-
volume edition noted in a catalog of 1670 and a six-volume edition mentioned in
a 1675 annotated listing. Ibid., 189.
42. The ambiguity of Ezo and Ryukyu and their peoples in Japanese cogni-
tion is symbolized by the exclusion of both from the first "official" maps of
Japan, compiled by the bakufu in 1655, while only a decade earlier the bakufu
had commanded the mapping of Ryukyu as a Japanese province. See Toby, "The
Ragged Edge."
43. Nishimura Tei, Nanban bijutsu (KOdansha, 1958), 89. Nishimura identi-
fies the nationalities of the sixteen peoples represented as: Spaniards, Romans,
Muscovites, Abyssinians, Senegalese, Greenlandians(?), Turks, Sumatrans, Bra-
zilians, French, Irelandians, Tartarians, Canarians, Malabarians, People of Ilha
de Ladroes (Nusuhito-jima no hito or the Island of Thieves, an island in the
Marianas that appears in Magellan's log in March 1521), and Magalanicans
(what Nishimura identifies as an "Australoid" people). Each nation is identified
as the object of an anthropological, rather than a geographical, gaze- in other
words, as "the people of" such-and-such place rather than as the place itself. The
inclusion of the Muscovites, an Eastern Rite people, and the Catholic "Ire-
landians," while the Protestant "Englandians" are excluded, is indicative of the
Counter-Reformation Iberian gaze inherent in this work.
44. E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Picto-
rial Representation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960; Bollingen Pa-
perback Edition, 1969), 82, 85, 86.
45. The Lepanto screen-map represents most "peoples" in bi-gendered
pairs, initially evocative of Noah's Ark, and it is likely that they are spousal
couples, as the Eskimo(?) - the man supports a kayak in his left hand and holds
a bow in his right - woman nuzzles an infant. There is one adult triad - one man
and two women-among the peoples coded, by (un)dress and skin color, as
barbarous. In addition, in the 1647 "anthropology," some "peoples" are repre-
sented by same-sex pairs and some, like Toroko (Turkey), by two men and one
woman. My identification of these "couples" as Chinese and Japanese is consti-
tuted in part by my own conditioned expectations, as none of them is identified.
46. Two hundred fifty years later, Etsuko Inagaki Sugimoto recalled from
her own childhood the pain of having wavy hair, a pain so strong that she must
separate herself from "the little girl who was myself, when I remember how
many bitter trials she had to endure because of her wavy hair . . . 'Etsuko,'
[Mother] said, 'do you not know that curly hair is like animal's hair? A samurai's
daughter should not be willing to resemble a beast ... '" A Daughter of the
Samurai (Rutland, VT, and Tokyo, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., 1966), 15-16.
47. See Yokoyama Toshio, Japan in the Victorian Mind: A Study of Stereo-
43
and do not eat women. They use birds and the seven beasts [?] to make their clothing." See Mody, Collection, pI. 1 . European models surely lie behind this image, as they do behind most of the unfamiliar jinrui. 4 1 . For a convenient introduction and a textual history of the Shanhaijing in Japan, see Koma Miyoshi, Sengaikyi5: Chagoku kodai no shinwa sekai (Heibonsha Library, 1 994), 179-95. Shanhaijing was known in Japan from an cient times, but the earliest datable Japanese printed editions are a seven volume edition noted in a catalog of 1670 and a six-volume edition mentioned in a 1 675 annotated listing. Ibid., 189. 42. The ambiguity of Ezo and Ryukyu and their peoples in Japanese cogni tion is symbolized by the exclusion of both from the first "official" maps of Japan, compiled by the bakufu in 1655 , while only a decade earlier the bakufu had commanded the mapping of Ryukyu as a Japanese province. See Toby, "The Ragged Edge." 4 3 . Nishimura Tei, Nanban bijutsu (Kodansha, 1 958), 8 9 . Nishimura identi fies the nationalities of the sixteen peoples represented as: Spaniards, Romans, Muscovites, Abyssinians, Senegalese, Greenlandians(?), Turks, Sumatrans, Bra zilians, French, Irelandians, Tartarians, Canarians, Malabarians, People of Ilha de Ladroes (Nusuhito-jima no hito or the Island of Thieves, an island in the Marianas that appears in Magellan's log in March 1521), and Magalanicans (what Nishimura identifies as an "Australoid" people). Each nation is identified as the object of an anthropological, rather than a geographical, gaze - in other words, as "the people of" such-and-such place rather than as the place itself. The inclusion of the Muscovites, an Eastern Rite people, and the Catholic "Ire landians," while the Protestant "Englandians" are excluded, is indicative of the Counter-Reformation Iberian gaze inherent in this work. 44. E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Picto rial Representation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1 960; Bollingen Pa perback Edition, 1 969) , 82, 85 , 86. 45 . The Lepanto screen-map represents most "peoples" in bi-gendered pairs, initially evocative of Noah's Ark, and it is likely that they are spousal couples, as the Eskimo(?) - the man supports a kayak in his left hand and holds a bow in his right - woman nuzzles an infant. There is one adult triad - one man and two women - among the peoples coded, by (un)dress and skin color, as barbarous. In addition, in the 1 647 "anthropology, " some "peoples" are repre sented by same-sex pairs and some, like Toroko (Turkey), by two men and one woman. My identification of these "couples" as Chinese and Japanese is consti tuted in part by my own conditioned expectations, as none of them is identified. 46. Two hundred fifty years later, Etsuko Inagaki Sugimoto recalled from her own childhood the pain of having wavy hair, a pain so strong that she must separate herself from "the little girl who was myself, when I remember how many bitter trials she had to endure because of her wavy hair . . . 'Etsuko,' [Mother] said, 'do you not know that curly hair is like animal's hair? A samurai's , daughter should not be willing to resemble a beast. . . " A Daughter of the Samurai (Rutland, VT, and Tokyo, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., 1 966) , 15-16. 47. See Yokoyama Toshio, Japan in the Victorian Mind: A Study of Stereo.
44
44 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
typed Images of a Nation, 1850-80 (New York: The Macmillan Press, 1987) for a
study of the representation of Japan and Japanese in the British popular press.
48. See Ronald P. Toby, "Ketojin' no tOjo o megutte: kinsei ni hon no taigai
ninshiki/tasha-kan no ichi sokumen," in KyOkai no Nihonshi, Murai Shbsuke,
Sato Shin, and Yoshida Nobuyuki, eds. (Yamakawa Shuppan, 1977): 245-91.
See also Kuroda Hideo, "Hige no chisei to kinsei: kami kara naniga wakaruka,"
in Kaiga shiryO no yomikata, vol. 1, Shtkan Asahi hyakka Nihon no rekishi
bessatsu -rekishi no yomikata, (Asahi Shinbunsha, 1988), 26-31.
49. Reproduced in Yoshiaki Shimizu, ed., Japan: The Shaping of Daimyo
Culture (Washington, DC: The National Gallery, 1988).
50. See Hiroshi Wagatsuma, "The Social Perception of Skin Color in Ja-
pan," in Daedalus (Spring 1967) 407-43. The Japanese woman is not the only
whitened figure in the Shbho Bankoku jinbutsu zu, however. The woman of Da-
ming (China) is likewise whitened, as are two men (or a man and a woman; it is
hard to be sure) from the "Land of Giants" (ChOjin).
51. Inagaki Korb, Sekai bankoku chikyu zu, hand-colored woodblock
print, 127.5 x 42.5 cm, in the collection of the Kobe City Museum. Published,
Teradaya Shinshirb and Iseya Heizaemon, 1708. Reproduced in Muroga and
Unno, Nihon kochizu, 151. Anonymous Nendaiki shin-e shO (1708) reproduced
in Muroga and Unno, Nihon kochizu, 46.
52. The transformation of the deliberately anachronistic designation of Ko-
rea as KOrai, which had appeared in bankoku maps and "anthropologies," into
the politically "correct," contemporary Chosen began with Ishikawa Toshiyuki's
Bankoku sOkai-zu, hand-colored woodblock print, 127 x 57.5 cm, in the collec-
tion of the Kobe City Museum. Published, Sagamiya Tahei, 1688. Inagaki's map
marked the beginning of the change, as well.
53. Nishikawa Joken, Shijunikoku jinbutsu zusetsu, 2 vols. Enbaiken
Zohan, 1720), reprinted in Nishikawa Tadasuke, ed., Nishikawa Joken isho,
vol. 3 (Nishikawa Tadasuke, 1898). For a nineteenth-century descendant of
Nishikawa's anthropology, see, for example, Sugiya Yukinao, Kai jinbutsu zu,
MS, color on paper, dated Bunsei 10 (1827), in the Spencer Collection, New
York Public Library, which replicates illustrations from Shijanikoku jinbutsu
zusetsu and preserves the distinction of Ming - now nearly two centuries gone -
and Qing.
54. Wang Jin, Sancai tuhui, 106 juan (1607; 1609; facsimile, 6 vols., Cheng-
wen Chupan-she, 1970); Xuefu chuanbian, MS, 1607, in the collection of Ybmei
Bunko, Tokyo. The Xuefu chuanshu bears a publication date of 1607, but its
preface is dated 1609. I have not yet seen copies of Wanjin buqiuren, 18 juan in 5
ce, MS, 1604, or Jushu bolan, 6 juan in 5 ce, MS, 1604, in the collection of the
Naikaku Bunko, Tokyo. For a brief introduction to these encyclopedias, see
Tanaka Takeo, "Sogo ninshiki to joho," in Arano Yasunori, Ishii Masatoshi, and
Murai Shosuke, eds., Ajia no naka no Nihonshi V: ji'ishiki to sOgo rikai, 6 vols.
(Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1993), vol. 5, Ji'ishiki to sOgorikai, 205-42.
55. See especially Iwasaki Yoshie, Amino Yoshihiko, Takahashi Kiichi, and
Shiomura KO, eds., Nanajtichiban shokunin utaawase, Shinsen kyOka-sha,
Kokin ikyoku-shu, in Shin koten bungaku taikei, vol. 61 (Iwanami Shoten,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
typed Images of a Nation, 1 850-80 (New York: The Macmillan Press, 1987) for a study of the representation of Japan and Japanese in the British popular press. 48. See Ronald P. Toby, "Ketoj in' no toj o 0 megutte: kinsei ni hon no taigai ninshiki/tasha-kan no ichi sokumen," in Kyokai no Nihonshi, Murai Shosuke, Sato Shin, and Yoshida Nobuyuki, eds. (Yamakawa Shuppan, 1977) : 245-9 1 . See also Kuroda Hideo, "Hige no chusei to kinsei: kami kara naniga wakaruka," in Kaiga shiryo no yomikata, vol. 1 , Shilkan Asahi hyakka Nihon no rekishi bessatsu -rekishi no yomikata, (Asahi Shinbunsha, 1988), 26-3 1 . 49. Reproduced in Yoshiaki Shimizu, e d . , Japan: The Shaping of Daimyo Culture (Washington, DC: The National Gallery, 1988) . 50. See Hiroshi Wagatsuma, "The Social Perception of Skin Color in Ja pan," in Daedalus (Spring 1967) 407-43. The Japanese woman is not the only whitened figure in the Shoho Bankoku jinbutsu z u, however. The woman of Da ming (China) is likewise whitened, as are two men (or a man and a woman; it is hard to be sure) from the "Land of Giants" (Choj in). 51. Inagaki Koro , Sekai bankoku chikyu zu, hand-colored woodblock print, 1 27.5 X 42.5 em, in the collection of the Kobe City Museum. Published, Teradaya Shinshiro and Iseya Heizaemon, 1708. Reproduced in Muroga and Unno, Nihon kochizu, 1 5 1 . Anonymous Nendaiki shin-e sho (1708) reproduced in Muroga and Unno, Nihon kochizu, 46. 52. The transformation of the deliberately anachronistic designation of Ko rea as Korai, which had appeared in bankoku maps and "anthropologies," into the politically "correct," contemporary Chosen began with Ishikawa Toshiyuki's Bankoku sokai-zu, hand-colored woodblock print, 127 X 57.5 em, in the collec tion of the Kobe City Museum. Published, Sagamiya Tahei, 1 688. Inagaki's map marked the beginning of the change, as well. 53. Nishikawa Joken, Shijilnikoku jinbutsu zusetsu, 2 vols. Enbaiken Zohan, 1 720), reprinted in Nishikawa Tadasuke, e d . , Nishikawa Joken isho, vol. 3 (Nishikawa Tadasuke, 1 898). For a nineteenth-century descendant of Nishikawa's anthropology, see, for example, Sugiya Yukinao, Kai jinbutsu z U, MS, color on paper, dated Bunsei 1 0 (1827), in the Spencer Collection, New York Public Library, which replicates illustrations from Shijilnikoku jinbutsu zusetsu and preserves the distinction of Ming - now nearly two centuries gone and Qing. 54. Wang Jin, Sancai tuhui, 106 juan (1 607; 1 609; facsimile, 6 vols., Cheng wen Chupan-she, 1970); Xuefu chuanbian, MS, 1 607, in the collection of Yomei Bunko, Tokyo. The Xuefu chuanshu bears a pUblication date of 1 607, but its preface is dated 1 609. I have not yet seen copies of Wanjin buqiuren, 18 juan in 5 ce, MS, 1 604, or Jushu bolan, 6 juan in 5 ce, MS, 1 604, in the collection of the Naikaku Bunko, Tokyo. For a brief introduction to these encyclopedias, see Tanaka Takeo, "Sogo ninshiki to j oho ," in Arano Yasunori, Ishii Masatoshi, and Murai Shosuke, eds., Ajia no naka no Nihonshi V: ji'ishiki to sogo rikai, 6 vols. (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1993), vol. 5, Ji'ishiki to sogorikai, 205-42. 55. See especially Iwasaki Yoshie, Amino Yoshihiko, Takahashi Kiichi, and Shiomura Ko , eds. , Nanajilichiban shokunin utaawase, Shinsen kyoka-shil, Kokin ikyoku-shil, in Shin koten bungaku taikei, vol. 61 (Iwanami Shoten,
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
Three Realms/Myriad Countries
45
1993); Umeda Yukio and Hayashi Yoshikazu, eds., Kaiho Yisetsu: Shokunin
ezukushi (Kybwa Kikaku, 1983). Note particularly Amino's essay, "Shokunin
utaawase kenkyu o meguru 2, 3 no mondai" in Iwasaki, et. al., Nanajtichiban,
580-90, as well as Amino, Shokunin utaawase (Iwanami, 1992) and Amino, ed.,
Shokunin to geino (Yoshikawa KObunkan, 1994).
56. Nakamura Tekisai, Kinmo zui (Yamagataya, 1666; reprint, 1668). I
have used the 1668 edition and the facsimile edition, Kinsei bungaku shiryo ruija
Sanko bunken hen 4 Kinmo zui (Benseisha, 1976). A somewhat later encyclope-
dia, Anon. Jinrin kinmOzui (Osaka & Edo: Heirakuji, Murakami Seizaburb,
and Murakami Gorobei, 1690), excludes all aliens but covers 496 Japanese sta-
tuses, crafts, and occupations, illustrating an awareness of the rapid occupa-
tional specialization characteristic of the seventeenth century. Facsimile edition,
Tanaka Tachiko & Tanaka Hatsuo, eds. (Watanabe Shoten, 1969). The rapid
emergence of new crafts and occupations is underscored by comparison with
Nanajt-ichiban shokunin utaawase, circa 1500, which depicts 142 occupations (in
71 pairs), and KaihO Yusetsu's vision of "all the occupations" (Shokunin ezu-
kushi, circa 1650), which was limited to 120 occupations.
57. Tekisai, Kinmo zui, 4:10b. Chugoku; Kara; Morokoshi. Chuka wa
onaji. Kochira Chugoku o shoshite, Kan to ii, TO to iu. Saiiki-jin yonde Shintan
to nashi, Shina to nasu.
58. The only exception is "The Body" (vol. 5), which includes some bare-
bones explanations that might be useful to a physician.
59. Terashima Ryoan, Wakan sansai zue, 105 vols. (1713; facsimile ed., 2
vols., Tokyodo Shuppan, 1984). Cf. the modern-print editions, in Nihon shomin
seikatsu shiryO shisei, vols. 29-30 (San'ichi ShobO, 1980) and the eighteen-
volume ToyO Bunko edition, Terada Isao, Takeshima, and Higuchi Motomi,
eds., (Heibonsha, 1985-91), which reproduce all illustrations and transcribe the
entire text into modern print. There are numerous mistranscriptions in the
Heibonsha edition, and it should be used with care. It is not clear when the Sancai
tuhui was first imported into Japan, but as noted earlier, some of the illustrations
in Kinmo zui quote illustrations in the Ming encyclopedia, so it was in circulation
in Japan well before Terashima Japanized it. See Oba Osamu, "Nihon ni okeru
Chugoku jisho no yunyu," in Kansai Daigaku Tozai Gakujutsu Kenkyusho
kenkyu kiyO 27 (1994), 1-24. Oba lists Sancai tuhui as imported in 1757, but this is
clearly not the first time it was imported.
45
1 993); Umeda Yukio and Hayashi Yoshikazu, eds., Kaiho Yasetsu: Shokunin ezukushi (Kyowa Kikaku, 1 983). Note particularly Amino's essay, "Shokunin utaawase kenkyu 0 meguru 2, 3 no mondai" in Iwasaki, et. al . , Nanajaichiban, 580-90, as well as Amino, Shokunin utaawase (Iwanami, 1 992) and Amino, ed., Shokunin to geino (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1 994). 56. Nakamura Tekisai, Kinmo zui (Yamagataya, 1 666; reprint, 1 668). I have used the 1668 edition and the facsimile edition, Kinsei bungaku shiryo ruija Sanko bunken hen 4 Kinmo zui (Benseisha, 1 976). A somewhat later encyclope dia, Anon. linrin kinmozui (Osaka & Edo: Heirakuji, Murakami Seizaburo, and Murakami Gorobei, 1 690), excludes all aliens but covers 496 Japanese sta tuses, crafts, and occupations, illustrating an awareness of the rapid occupa tional specialization characteristic of the seventeenth century. Facsimile edition, Tanaka Tachiko & Tanaka Hatsuo, eds. (Watanabe Shoten, 1 969). The rapid emergence of new crafts and occupations is underscored by comparison with Nanaja-ichiban shokunin utaawase, circa 1500, which depicts 142 occupations (in 71 pairs), and Kaiho Yusetsu's vision of "all the occupations" (Shokunin ezu kushi, circa 1650), which was limited to 120 occupations. 57. Tekisai, Kinmo zui, 4: 10b. Chugoku; Kara; Morokoshi. Chuka wa onaji. Kochira Chugoku 0 shoshite, Kan to ii, Ti:') to iu. Saiiki-jin yonde Shin tan to nashi, Shina to nasu. 58. The only exception is "The Body" (vol. 5 ) , which includes some bare bones explanations that might be useful to a physician. 59. Terashima Ryoan, Wakan sansai zue, 105 vols. ( 1 7 13 ; facsimile ed., 2 vols., Tokyodo Shuppan, 1984). Cf. the modern-print editions, in Nihon shomin seikatsu shiryo shasei, vols. 29-30 (San'ichi Shobo , 1980) and the eighteen volume Toyo Bunko edition, Terada Isao, Takeshima, and Higuchi Motomi, eds., (Heibonsha, 1 985-91 ) , which reproduce all illustrations and transcribe the entire text into modern print. There are numerous mistranscriptions in the Heibonsha edition, and it should be used with care. It is not clear when the Sancai tuhui was first imported into Japan, but as noted earlier, some of the illustrations in Kinmo zui quote illustrations in the Ming encyclopedia, so it was in circulation in Japan well before Terashima Japanized it. See Qba Osamu, "Nihon ni okeru Chugoku jisho no yunyu," in Kansai Daigaku Tozai Gakujutsu Kenkyasho kenkya kiyo 27 (1994), 1-24. Qba lists Sancai tuhui as imported in 1757, but this is clearly not the first time it was imported.

Chapter 2 Chapter 2
Narrating Nation, Race, and National
Culture: Imagining the Hanzu
Identity in Modern China
Kai-wing Chow
Most Chinese would agree that the largest ethnic group in China is the
Hanzu, literally meaning the "Han lineage" or "Han nationality."' This
is not only the official view of the People's Republic of China, but it is
also taken for granted by those who consider themselves Chinese (Zhong-
guo ren) regardless of political allegiance.2 The term has been institution-
Narrating Nation, Race� and National Culture: Imagining the Hanzu Identity in Modern China
alized as a central category in a taxonomy of ethnic groups of China both
on the mainland and across the strait in Taiwan. Eric Hobsbawm lists
China, Korea, and Japan as a few of the extremely rare examples of
historic states composed of a population that is ethnically almost or
Kai-wing Chow
entirely homogeneous.3 His remark attests to the universal acceptance of
the concept as an ethnic category in China in our time. However, this
does not mean that the term or the identity has never been contested.
Recent studies have sought to problematize the ways in which the Han
identity is constructed in relation to other ethnic groups. This pertains
more to the specific ways the identity is being reproduced and reinforced
in narratives, visual arts, and other forms of cultural production. While
studies devoted to problematizing the term are not lacking, a study of the
politics of its invention in relation to cultural imperialism and domestic
politics has not been undertaken.4
This chapter seeks to recover the historicity of the ideological con-
struct Hanzu in two sets of historical forces in the late Qing. First, I
will situate the genesis of this concept in the discourses on "race" and
nation-state that were introduced to the Chinese as scientific knowledge
and as a progressive form of government in the late Qing. These scientific
and political discourses provided the frame of reference for the Chinese in
47
Most Chinese would agree that the largest ethnic group in China is the Hanzu, literally meaning the "Han lineage" or "Han nationality. " 1 This is not only the official view of the People's Republic of China, but it is also taken for granted by those who consider themselves Chinese (Zhong guo ren) regardless of political allegiance.2 The term has been institution alized as a central category in a taxonomy of ethnic groups of China both on the mainland and across the strait in Taiwan. Eric Hobsbawm lists China, Korea, and Japan as a few of the extremely rare examples of historic states composed of a population that is ethnically almost or entirely homogeneous.3 His remark attests to the universal acceptance of the concept as an ethnic category in China in our time. However, this does not mean that the term or the identity has never been contested. Recent studies have sought to problematize the ways in which the Han identity is constructed in relation to other ethnic groups. This pertains more to the specific ways the identity is being reproduced and reinforced in narratives, visual arts, and other forms of cultural production. While studies devoted to problematizing the term are not lacking, a study of the politics of its invention in relation to cultural imperialism and domestic politics has not been undertaken.4 This chapter seeks to recover the historicity of the ideological con struct Hanzu in two sets of historical forces in the late Qing. First, I will situate the genesis of this concept in the discourses on "race" and nation-state that were introduced to the Chinese as scientific knowledge and as a progressive form of government in the late Qing. These scientific and political discourses provided the frame of reference for the Chinese in 47
48
48 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
making sense of their new experience with imperialism - first European
and later Japanese - in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Postcolonial theories have recently shifted the focus of attention
from European origins of discourse on the Orient to discursive resis-
tance and appropriation by local cultures.5 In retracing the historical
conditions under which the identity of Hanzu was invented, this chapter
seeks to show how European discourses of race, nation, and history
were resisted and reconfigured as they were appropriated by the Chi-
nese in the production of knowledge of China itself. In this process, the
ideas of race, nation, and history as objects of discourse produced on
China were grafted onto indigenous discourses conducted in the Chinese
language.6
Translation across cultures and languages is never a neutral or objec-
tive transmission of ideas between the host and guest languages.7 Inter-
cultural translation always results in "semantic hybridity." It always
takes place in a context in which ideological and political forces inter-
sect. The political conditions under which ideas were translated signifi-
cantly shaped the choice of terms and hence the meaning of the loan
concepts that came to be embraced. The blending of different shades of
meaning from both foreign ideas and domestic concepts is contingent
upon the specific ways in which foreign ideas were appropriated. The
consequence is the creation of a new term with meanings that are not
entirely foreign to the user of the guest language while carrying some
shade of new meanings from the host language. The new identity Hanzu
was such a product of semantic hybridity. The second objective of this
chapter is therefore to show how the history of the creation and choice
of Chinese terms in rendering notions of race and nation-state was an
integral part of the ideological battle between the reformists and the
revolutionaries in the late Qing, on the one hand, and between Chi-
nese intellectuals and European and Japanese cultural imperialism on
the other.
British Imperialism and Decentering China in the "World"
The term Hanzu is a racialized concept of the vague ethnic rubric of
Hanren (people of Han), one of several identities loosely used to distin-
guish inhabitants of China from the "barbarians" beyond the frontier
before the nineteenth century.8 The racialization of the concept of
Hanren was a cultural corollary of the encroachment of European impe-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
making sense of their new experience with imperialism - first European and later Japanese - in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Postcolonial theories have recently shifted the focus of attention from European origins of discourse on the Orient to discursive resis tance and appropriation by local cultures.5 In retracing the historical conditions under which the identity of Hanzu was invented, this chapter seeks to show how European discourses of race, nation, and history were resisted and reconfigured as they were appropriated by the Chi nese in the production of knowledge of China itself. In this process, the ideas of race, nation, and history as objects of discourse produced on China were grafted onto indigenous discourses conducted in the Chinese language. 6 Translation across cultures and languages is never a neutral or objec tive transmission of ideas between the host and guest languages.7 Inter cultural translation always results in "semantic hybridity. " It always takes place in a context in which ideological and political forces inter sect. The political conditions under which ideas were translated signifi cantly shaped the choice of terms and hence the meaning of the loan concepts that came to be embraced. The blending of different shades of meaning from both foreign ideas and domestic concepts is contingent upon the specific ways in which foreign ideas were appropriated. The consequence is the creation of a new term with meanings that are not entirely foreign to the user of the guest language while carrying some shade of new meanings from the host language. The new identity Hanzu was such a product of semantic hybridity. The second objective of this chapter is therefore to show how the history of the creation and choice of Chinese terms in rendering notions of race and nation-state was an integral part of the ideological battle between the reformists and the revolutionaries in the late Qing, on the one hand, and between Chi nese intellectuals and European and Japanese cultural imperialism on the other. British Imperialism and Decentering China in the "World" The term Hanzu is a racialized concept of the vague ethnic rubric of Hanren (people of Han), one of several identities loosely used to distin guish inhabitants of China from the "barbarians" beyond the frontier before the nineteenth century. 8 The racialization of the concept of Hanren was a cultural corollary of the encroachment of European impe-
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 49
rialist regimes on China in the nineteenth century. It is not a coincidence
that it was Great Britain that defeated the Qing government in the
Opium War because it had taken the lead in colonialization in Asia by
the 1830s. Great Britain had defeated other European powers in various
Asian countries and had established itself as the most powerful and
rapidly expanding empire. It had also become the major producer of
discourse on China in Europe.
After the Opium War, the British began to disseminate in China
their own narratives of China, which had been developing in Britain
since at least the mid-eighteenth century. The Jesuits' admiration for
China during the Enlightenment was replaced by increasingly negative
and contemptuous representations in the late eighteenth century.9 These
images were provided by merchants, naval officers, and frustrated diplo-
matic personnel like Macartney, whose perception of their experience
was shaped primarily by their unpleasant encounter with Chinese mer-
chants and local officials.10 By the end of the eighteenth century,
whatever esteem the British held for China had dissipated amid contemp-
tuous and harsh portraits- its people poor, superstitious, and conserva-
tive, its government despotic and corrupt.11 These images and accounts
contributed to the making of a specific British orientalism on China that
sought to objectify it in space, time, and history in its knowledge of the
"World," a world driven by the forces of commerce and knowledge of
science and technology and dominated by superior "races."
In his study of the Spanish invention of America, Jose Rabasa un-
veils the hidden Eurocentrism in cartography symbolized by the atlas.
The atlas, or World map, defines "Europe as a privileged source of
meaning for the rest of the world."12 The spatialization of the globe in
the World map is a totalizing imaginary of territorial space.13 The atlas
"charted" the territory of the globe against the history of European
expansion.
In British literature produced in the nineteenth century, the early
name for China, Middle Kingdom, could not be literally understood in
the modern European episteme. The spatial centrality implied in the
term Middle Kingdom was at odds with European cartography that put
Greenwich at the center, that is, at the beginning and end of the lati-
tudes of the globe. The sinocentric scheme of the geopolitical tianxia
(the realm under heaven) was replaced by the Eurocentric scheme of the
"World." This world, World, is capitalized and italicized in this chapter
to highlight its Otherness to nonnative speakers of English, as if it has
49
rialist regimes on China in the nineteenth century. It is not a coincidence that it was Great Britain that defeated the Qing government in the Opium War because it had taken the lead in colonialization in Asia by the 1830s. Great Britain had defeated other European powers in various Asian countries and had established itself as the most powerful and rapidly expanding empire. It had also become the major producer of discourse on China in Europe. After the Opium War, the British began to disseminate in China their own narratives of China, which had been developing in Britain since at least the mid-eighteenth century. The Jesuits' admiration for China during the Enlightenment was replaced by increasingly negative and contemptuous representations in the late eighteenth century. 9 These images were provided by merchants, naval officers, and frustrated diplo matic personnel like Macartney, whose perception of their experience was shaped primarily by their unpleasant encounter with Chinese mer chants and local officials, l o By the end of the eighteenth century, whatever esteem the British held for China had dissipated amid contemp tuous and harsh portraits - its people poor, superstitious, and conserva tive, its government despotic and corrupt, 11 These images and accounts contributed to the making of a specific British orientalism on China that sought to objectify it in space, time, and history in its knowledge of the "World," a world driven by the forces of commerce and knowledge of science and technology and dominated by superior "races. " I n his study of the Spanish invention o f America, Jose Rabasa un veils the hidden Eurocentrism in cartography symbolized by the atlas. The atlas, or World map, defines "Europe as a privileged source of meaning for the rest of the world. "12 The spatialization of the globe in the World map is a totalizing imaginary of territorial space. 1 3 The atlas "charted" the territory of the globe against the history of European expansIon. In British literature produced in the nineteenth century, the early name for China, Middle Kingdom, could not be literally understood in the modern European episteme. The spatial centrality implied in the term Middle Kingdom was at odds with European cartography that put Greenwich at the center, that is, at the beginning and end of the lati tudes of the globe. The sinocentric scheme of the geopolitical tianxia (the realm under heaven) was replaced by the Eurocentric scheme of the "World." This world, World, is capitalized and italicized in this chapter to highlight its Otherness to nonnative speakers of English, as if it has
50
50 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
been translated into Chinese. By bracketing its normalcy, its apparent
significance is problematized to restore the historicity of its meaning.
Narratives of the World authorized by the British began to be repro-
duced in China in the Chinese language. By the 1830s, among those who
went to China, Protestant missionaries from England became important
producers of "knowledge" for the Europeans.14 The "China" in these
materials was no longer zhongguo, the Middle Kingdom, a name that
literally put China at the center of its world tianxia (the realm under
heaven) both culturally and politically. It was but one of the many
countries that occupied the margin or even the threshold of the World.15
Although British missionaries in their books and magazines pub-
lished in Chinese used the Chinese' own name zhongguo, its meaning
indicated that China was now a country among many in the World,
which was rendered as wanguo, meaning "ten thousand countries."16 It
was one of the countries that needed to be taught the advances in Euro-
pean culture. This attitude was best illustrated in the objectives of the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, which were published in
1834 in a missionary journal. Members of the society published books to
"enlighten the mind of the Chinese, and to communicate to them the
arts and sciences of the West."17 The title of the magazine was China
Repository, not Middle Kingdom Repository.
China is relocated in the geocultural space called the World, in
which the British were unquestionably the most dominant nation in the
nineteenth century. It was in this new World that the Chinese had to find
a place, to invent a history and a new identity for China. The British
orientalist discourse on "China" was the primary source of information
from which early reformists such as Wei Yuan drew.18 It was in this new
spatio-temporal space, not the tianxia, that the Hanzu identity became a
figure of the modern Chinese nation.
China without History
Two metanarrative schemes were introduced to the Chinese as universal
pattern of the history of the World: the Hegelian philosophy of history
and the Social Darwinian theory of the "natural" history of the World.
The demise of the sinocentric geopolitical scheme - tianxia - brought
about in its wake an erasure of China's own history. There was no
history of the Middle Kingdom on the new World map or in the Hegelian
narrative of the history of the World. China did not have a history
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
been translated into Chinese. By bracketing its normalcy, its apparent significance is problematized to restore the historicity of its meaning. Narratives of the World authorized by the British began to be repro duced in China in the Chinese language. By the 1830s, among those who went to China, Protestant missionaries from England became important producers of "knowledge" for the Europeans,14 The "China" in these materials was no longer zhongguo, the Middle Kingdom, a name that literally put China at the center of its world tianxia (the realm under heaven) both culturally and politically. It was but one of the many countries that occupied the margin or even the threshold of the World. IS Although British missionaries in their books and magazines pub lished in Chinese used the Chinese' own name zhongguo, its meaning indicated that China was now a country among many in the World, which was rendered as wanguo, meaning "ten thousand countries. "16 It was one of the countries that needed to be taught the advances in Euro pean culture. This attitude was best illustrated in the objectives of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, which were published in 1834 in a missionary journal. Members of the society published books to "enlighten the mind of the Chinese, and to communicate to them the arts and sciences of the West. "I? The title of the magazine was China Repository, not Middle Kingdom Repository. China is relocated in the geocultural space called the World, in which the British were unquestionably the most dominant nation in the nineteenth century. It was in this new World that the Chinese had to find a place, to invent a history and a new identity for China. The British orientalist discourse on "China" was the primary source of information from which early reformists such as Wei Yuan drew. 18 It was in this new spatio-temporal space, not the tianxia, that the Hanzu identity became a figure of the modern Chinese nation. China without History Two metanarrative schemes were introduced to the Chinese as universal pattern of the history of the World: the Hegelian philosophy of history and the Social Darwinian theory of the "natural" history of the World. The demise of the sinocentric geopolitical scheme tianxia brought about in its wake an erasure of China's own history. There was no history of the Middle Kingdom on the new World map or in the Hegelian narrative of the history of the World. China did not have a history -
-
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 51
because it was not a nation. It was yet to become a subject that could
make and write its own history. Only a nation could survive the competi-
tion and progress of the modern World. In Hegel's view, only European
nations had undergone "enlightenment" and moved beyond the stage
where mind and nature were in unity. Liberation of the mind from
nature enabled Europe to become the subject of its own history, gaining
freedom by overcoming nature. In contrast, China and the Orient re-
mained constrained by nature/primitiveness, a past that the European
had left behind.19 With scientific methods, the Europeans could study
their own past in oriental cultures and hence "discover" their history.
The Hegelian mode of historical narrative was disseminated by mis-
sionary organizations like the Guangxue hui. In 1894, the British mis-
sionary Timothy Richard published a translation of Robert Mackenzie's
The 19th Century, a History: The Times of Queen Victoria with a Chinese
title, Taixi xinshi lanyao, which Liang Qichao hailed as the best written
work on European history.20 The book numbered thirty thousand in its
first printing, an unprecedented volume at that time.21 In the words of
Collingwood, it presents the nineteenth century as "a time of progress
from a state of barbarism, ignorance, and bestiality which can hardly be
exaggerated, to a reign of science, enlightenment, and democracy."22
The central message of the book was that the history of Europe had
been one of progress and the great strides Europe had made could serve
as the model for China.23
Indeed, there was little trace of China in Mackenzie's book. It was
mentioned only twice: once in the context of the British colonialization
of Asia and again with regard to missionary work.24 Mackenzie said:
"China was later entered by the door which the English opened in their
determination to force the use of opium on that empire."25 Through
translated works like the Nineteenth Century and other missionary writ-
ings introducing European history and politics, the new intellectuals
read about the fundamental principles that constituted a nation-state.
Chinese intellectuals looked to language, custom, history, and religion
for the common bond of a nation. They found none. There was no
national language. The majority of China's four hundred million people
spoke dialects that were mutually incomprehensible. Only a fraction of
the population knew the official language and the writing system. When
they looked into the past, they found the rise and fall of dynasties. There
was no state that belonged to all members of the same political regime.
The belief in the Mandate of Heaven lost ground with the rejection of
51
because it was not a nation. It was yet to become a subject that could make and write its own history. Only a nation could survive the competi tion and progress of the modern World. In Hegel's view, only European nations had undergone "enlightenment" and moved beyond the stage where mind and nature were in unity. Liberation of the mind from nature enabled Europe to become the subject of its own history, gaining freedom by overcoming nature. In contrast, China and the Orient re mained constrained by nature/primitiveness, a past that the European had left behind.l9 With scientific methods, the Europeans could study their own past in oriental cultures and hence "discover" their history. The Hegelian mode of historical narrative was disseminated by mis sionary organizations like the Guangxue hui. In 1 894, the British mis sionary Timothy Richard published a translation of Robert Mackenzie's The 19th Century, a History: The Times o/ Queen Victoria with a Chinese title, Taixi xinshi lanyao, which Liang Qichao hailed as the best written work on European history. 20 The book numbered thirty thousand in its first printing, an unprecedented volume at that time.21 In the words of Collingwood, it presents the nineteenth century as "a time of progress from a state of barbarism, ignorance, and bestiality which can hardly be exaggerated, to a reign of science, enlightenment, and democracy. "22 The central message of the book was that the history of Europe had been one of progress and the great strides Europe had made could serve as the model for China.23 Indeed, there was little trace of China in Mackenzie's book. It was mentioned only twice: once in the context of the British colonialization of Asia and again with regard to missionary work.24 Mackenzie said: "China was later entered by the door which the English opened in their determination to force the use of opium on that empire. "25 Through translated works like the Nineteenth Century and other missionary writ ings introducing European history and politics, the new intellectuals read about the fundamental principles that constituted a nation-state. Chinese intellectuals looked to language, custom, history, and religion for the common bond of a nation. They found none. There was no national language. The majority of China's four hundred million people spoke dialects that were mutually incomprehensible. Only a fraction of the population knew the official language and the writing system. When they looked into the past, they found the rise and fall of dynasties. There was no state that belonged to all members of the same political regime. The belief in the Mandate of Heaven lost ground with the rejection of
52
52 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the tianxia by Europeans. A political regime could no longer be justified
in terms of virtuous leadership but only in the sovereignty of the
people - the Chinese nation.
Liang Qichao explained the problem Chinese nationalists faced.
"The Twenty-four Histories are not histories; they are but family pedi-
grees of twenty-four surnames. . . Historians of our country think that
tianxia belong to the emperor. Therefore, their histories only record
how a given dynasty came to power, how it ruled, and how it lost its
regime. . . Histories of the past were all written for the rulers and their
officials; none was written for nationals (guomin). Their biggest flaw is
that they did not know the distinction between the imperial regime and
the state (guojia), knowing no state apart from the court .... There-
fore, there were debates over orthodox and illegitimate regimes. . . A
has the Mandate of Heaven, and B is a rebel. . . . Historians of the last
few thousand years were responsible for China's inability to develop
nationalism."26 Clearly, for Liang the Twenty-four Dynastic Histories
were no history because the subject of history is moral leaders who had
received the Mandate of Heaven. There were no national heroes, no
national martyrs, and no abstract objects with which the entire popula-
tion could identify. Liang knew very well that traditional Chinese histori-
cal works were written in the Confucian scheme of narration. From the
Confucian viewpoint, history was the story of the rise and fall of dynas-
ties. But dynastic continuity was not important. It was the belief in a
moral cosmos that granted and withdrew its mandate to and from human
leaders that really provided the continuity.
Liang Qichao's complaints about China's lack of history illustrate a
critical difference between traditional Chinese historical narratives and
the Hegelian historical scheme. The succession of dynasties did not take
place within a linear temporality as did European history. Continuity in
marking time therefore entailed identifying a succession of dynasties.
Because traditional histories were written for the emperors and their
dynastic regimes, they used the founding year or emperor's reign period
as time markers. Time was narrated in a linear temporality without a
teleology and was subsumed under a moral cosmos whose will was car-
ried out by human agents in cycles of dynastic change.
The belief that China under the Manchu regime was a guo (state)
was rendered problematic by the nationalists, whose rejection of Man-
chu rule was not so much based on the Mandate of Heaven as on the
modern notion of sovereignty. Sovereignty resided in the people, the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the tianxia by Europeans. A political regime could no longer be justified in terms of virtuous leadership but only in the sovereignty of the people - the Chinese nation. Liang Qichao explained the problem Chinese nationalists faced. "The Twenty-four Histories are not histories; they are but family pedi grees of twenty-four surnames . . . . Historians of our country think that tianxia belong to the emperor. Therefore, their histories only record how a given dynasty came to power, how it ruled, and how it lost its regime . . . . Histories of the past were all written for the rulers and their officials; none was written for nationals (guomin). Their biggest flaw is that they did not know the distinction between the imperial regime and the state (guojia) , knowing no state apart from the court. . . . There fore, there were debates over orthodox and illegitimate regimes . . . . A has the Mandate of Heaven, and B is a rebel. . . . Historians of the last few thousand years were responsible for China's inability to develop nationalism."26 Clearly, for Liang the Twenty-four Dynastic Histories were no history because the subject of history is moral leaders who had received the Mandate of Heaven. There were no national heroes, no national martyrs, and no abstract objects with which the entire popula tion could identify. Liang knew very well that traditional Chinese histori cal works were written in the Confucian scheme of narration. From the Confucian viewpoint, history was the story of the rise and fall of dynas ties. But dynastic continuity was not important. It was the belief in a moral cosmos that granted and withdrew its mandate to and from human leaders that really provided the continuity. Liang Qichao's complaints about China's lack of history illustrate a critical difference between traditional Chinese historical narratives and the Hegelian historical scheme. The succession of dynasties did not take place within a linear temporality as did European history. Continuity in marking time therefore entailed identifying a succession of dynasties. Because traditional histories were written for the emperors and their dynastic regimes, they used the founding year or emperor's reign period as time markers. Time was narrated in a linear temporality without a teleology and was subsumed under a moral cosmos whose will was car ried out by human agents in cycles of dynastic change. The belief that China under the Manchu regime was a guo (state) was rendered problematic by the nationalists, whose rejection of Man chu rule was not so much based on the Mandate of Heaven as on the modern notion of sovereignty. Sovereignty resided in the people, the
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 53
nation, not in rulers and their officials. Revolutionaries later argued that
China under the Qing regime was not a nation-state because it had lost
its sovereignty to foreigners (wairen).27
In the widely publicized and circulated text Geming jun (Revolution-
ary army), Zhou Rong deplored that "the Chinese do not have history.
The so-called Twenty-four Dynastic Histories in China are but a huge
history of slavery. As slaves, the Chinese could not have a history of
their own making. During the period of about 1,700 years from the end
of the Han dynasty up to the present, Chinese in its entire territory
became enslaved by different races (yizhong) for 358 years. Chinese
north of the Yellow River were enslaved by different races for 759 years.
Alas! How could the descendants of the Yellow Emperor have been so
heartless as to allow their kin of the main branch to be enslaved with
their homeland by outside races?"28 But did not the Chinese boast of
their long written history? The answer to this puzzling question can be
found in an unequivocal remark made by a Chinese student in Japan. He
lamented: "Our Zhongguo does not have a national history."29 This
student simply echoed what Liang Qichao and others had said about the
new and yet empty space of China in the history of the modern World.30
Social Darwinism and the Chinese Nation as a Han Race
Chinese reformers like Liang Qichao sought to build a nation-state ca-
pable of resisting the European imperialist powers. Despite their self-
criticism for the lack of a national history, Chinese reformers did not sing
in unison when it came to the question of what constituted the Chinese
nation. Chinese intellectuals seeking to understand and render the for-
eign idea of "nation" were in muddy water, for narration of the Chinese
nation crossed paths with the discourse on the evolution of human races.
Since 1898, the enterprise of nation building had been perceived as an
53
nation, not in rulers and their officials. Revolutionaries later argued that China under the Qing regime was not a nation-state because it had lost its sovereignty to foreigners (wairen).27 In the widely publicized and circulated text Geming jun (Revolution ary army ) , Zhou Rong deplored that "the Chinese do not have history. The so-called Twenty-four Dynastic Histories in China are but a huge history of slavery. As slaves, the Chinese could not have a history of their own making. During the period of about 1 ,700 years from the end of the Han dynasty up to the present, Chinese in its entire territory became enslaved by different races (yizhong) for 358 years. Chinese north of the Yellow River were enslaved by different races for 759 years. Alas! How could the descendants of the Yellow Emperor have been so heartless as to allow their kin of the main branch to be enslaved with their homeland by outside races?"28 But did not the Chinese boast of their long written history? The answer to this puzzling question can be found in an unequivocal remark made by a Chinese student in Japan. He lamented: "Our Zhongguo does not have a national history. "29 This student simply echoed what Liang Qichao and others had said about the new and yet empty space of China in the history of the modern World. 30
integral part of the broader struggle between races. The white race in
the Social Darwinian narrative scheme and European imperialism in the
Hegelian narrative of history constituted the primary Other before 1903.
Social Darwinism and the Chinese Nation as a Han Race
When Yan Fu published his translation of Thomas Huxley's On
Evolution in 1898, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution became a house-
hold phrase.31 In Yan's translation, the dual meanings of race as lineage
and race as type were readily grafted onto the Chinese term zhong or
zhongzu. In Yan's writing, the nature of China's resistance against
European encroachment was understood in terms of a Social Darwinian
Chinese reformers like Liang Qichao sought to build a nation-state ca pable of resisting the European imperialist powers. Despite their self criticism for the lack of a national history, Chinese reformers did not sing in unison when it came to the question of what constituted the Chinese nation. Chinese intellectuals seeking to understand and render the for eign idea of "nation" were in muddy water, for narration of the Chinese nation crossed paths with the discourse on the evolution of human races. Since 1898, the enterprise of nation building had been perceived as an integral part of the broader struggle between races. The white race in the Social Darwinian narrative scheme and European imperialism in the Hegelian narrative of history constituted the primary Other before 1903. When Yan Fu published his translation of Thomas Huxley's On Evolution in 1898, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution became a house hold phrase.31 In Yan's translation, the dual meanings of race as lineage and race as type were readily grafted onto the Chinese term zhong or zhongzu. In Yan's writing, the nature of China's resistance against European encroachment was understood in terms of a Social Darwinian
54
54
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
version of the World view. China's struggle for survival against the Euro-
pean powers was conceptualized as a war between the yellow and white
races. European imperialism was justified as the story of the white race's
success in creating modern nations that were able to subjugate inferior
races in the natural selection process. Darwin's ideas of survival of
the fittest and natural selection gained popularity as Western learning
spread from the city ports to inland cities through the rapid proliferation
of reformist journals after 1895.32
The intervention of Social Darwinism in the imagining of the Chi-
nese nation is evidenced in the change of neologisms for identifying the
Chinese as a racial group. Before 1900, many reformists justified their
demand for more extensive reforms in terms of a struggle for survival of
the yellow against the white race. This discourse on "race war" (zhong-
zhan) developed in the context of political reformism under the Manchu
regime. The broad racial identity of "yellow race" served the purpose
well for reformers like Kang Youwei and Yan Fu. For them, the threat
came primarily from the imperialist powers. The "yellow race," among
whose peoples the Chinese were the most civilized, was an identity
broad enough to include the Manchus. The reformists talked about
"preserving the [yellow] race" (baozhong), which included both the Han
and the Manchus.
To render, or rather imagine, the Western concept of "race" in the
Chinese language, a host of classifiers like zhong, zu, renzhong, and
even the most general term ren were used. In the reformist journal
Xinmin congbao, one author called the Chinese race Huangzu (yellow
lineage), another preferred zhongguo renzhong.33 Liang Qizhao called it
Huangren (yellow people) and Huazu (flower lineage). The term
Huaren (Flower people) taken as the synonym for Chinese was com-
monly adopted by missionaries. Like the missionaries, Tan Sitong in his
Renxue also referred to the Chinese as Huaren. But the new collective
identity of the Chinese (huaren, huazu, huangren) was unable to formu-
late a revolutionary language directed against the Manchus. In order to
articulate a distinction between the Manchus and themselves, the revolu-
tionaries began to search for new identities for the Chinese nation.
In 1901, Guomin bao published an anti-Manchu article entitled "An
Essay on the Destruction of the Country" (Wang guo bian). The author
used the term hanzong to differentiate the Manchus from the Han Chi-
nese.34 Zhang Binglin in his strident denunciation of the Manchu govern-
ment used hanren and hanzu and hanzhong interchangeably. 35 The essay
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
version of the World view. China's struggle for survival against the Euro pean powers was conceptualized as a war between the yellow and white races. European imperialism was justified as the story of the white race's success in creating modern nations that were able to subjugate inferior races in the natural selection process. Darwin's ideas of survival of the fittest and natural selection gained popularity as Western learning spread from the city ports to inland cities through the rapid proliferation of reformist journals after 1895.32 The intervention of Social Darwinism in the imagining of the Chi nese nation is evidenced in the change of neologisms for identifying the Chinese as a racial group. Before 1 900, many reformists j ustified their demand for more extensive reforms in terms of a struggle for survival of the yellow against the white race. This discourse on "race war" (zhong zhan) developed in the context of political reformism under the Manchu regime. The broad racial identity of "yellow race" served the purpose well for reformers like Kang Youwei and Yan Fu. For them, the threat came primarily from the imperialist powers. The "yellow race," among whose peoples the Chinese were the most civilized, was an identity broad enough to include the Manchus. The reformists talked about "preserving the [yellow] race" (baozhong) , which included both the Han and the Manchus. To render, or rather imagine, the Western concept of "race" in the Chinese language, a host of classifiers like zhong, zu, renzhong, and even the most general term ren were used. In the reformist journal Xinmin congbao, one author called the Chinese race Huangzu (yellow lineage), another preferred zhongguo renzhong.33 Liang Qizhao called it Huangren (yellow people) and Huazu (flower lineage). The term Huaren (Flower people) taken as the synonym for Chinese was com monly adopted by missionaries. Like the missionaries, Tan Sitong in his Renxue also referred to the Chinese as Huaren. But the new collective identity of the Chinese (huaren, huazu, huangren) was unable to formu late a revolutionary language directed against the Manchus. In order to articulate a distinction between the Manchus and themselves, the revolu tionaries began to search for new identities for the Chinese nation. In 1901 , Guomin bao published an anti-Manchu article entitled "An Essay on the Destruction of the Country" (Wang guo bian). The author used the term hanzong to differentiate the Manchus from the Han Chi nese.34 Zhang Binglin in his strident denunciation of the Manchu govern ment used hanren and hanzu and hanzhong interchangeably. 35 The essay
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 55
was written specifically to rebut Liang Qichao's argument against an
anti-Manchu revolution. Liang argued that both the Manchus and the
Han belonged to the same yellow race and that even the Japanese,
separated from China by an ocean, should be accepted because they
belonged to the same race and used the same writing system.36 Writing
in 1903, Wang Jingwei also used the terms hanren and han renzhong. He
said, "China (Zhongguo) is the Chinese' China; who are the Chinese? It
is the Han race (Han renzhong)."37 Even though some began to use
hanzu in 1903, most revolutionaries used hanzhong or han renzhong and
hanzu interchangeably as late as 1905 and 1906.38
In Zou Rong's Geming jun, terms such as hanzhong and huang han
minzu figured prominently. The term hanzu was not used as often, but it
was employed in a chart showing Hanzu as a branch of the "Chinese
races" (Zhongguo renzhong), which included Japanese, Koreans, and
Tibetans! This chart clearly shows that Chinese intellectuals felt uneasy
calling Han a race if Han was to be distinguished from other Asian
peoples like the Japanese and Koreans. By calling Han a zu, that is, a
branch or lineage of the yellow race, or in Zou's case the "Chinese
race," they could distinguish themselves from other Asian peoples.39
But this uneasiness surfaced only in the presence of the idea that Japa-
nese and Koreans belong to the yellow race.
There were other popular texts, songs, and dramas written to mobi-
lize the masses for the revolutionary cause. Chen Tianhua's Meng
huitou (Expeditious retreat) and Jingshi zhong (Awakening bell) were
among the most important. These texts were widely distributed and
performed.40 In them, hanzhong, hanren, and hanzu were interchange-
able.41 The term hanzu was increasingly used to distinguish Han Chi-
nese from the Manchus in revolutionary writings.42 An anti-Manchu
author in Minbao claimed that: "what is called zhongguo is the zhong-
guo of the Hanzu."43
The differential functions of zhong and zu in Chinese had not been
clearly established to correspond to species and subspecies. Some argued
that the "Han and the Manchus do not belong to the same zhong." This
differentiation could not have been valid if by zhong the author meant
the yellow race.44
Hanzu was only one of several names given to this imagined nation
in history. The vector of discursive movement from a variety of names to
Hanzu is the result of the momentary shifting of the discursive Other,
from European imperialism to its domestic enemy, the Manchus. The
55
was written specifically to rebut Liang Qichao's argument against an anti-Manchu revolution. Liang argued that both the Manchus and the Han belonged to the same yellow race and that even the Japanese, separated from China by an ocean, should be accepted because they belonged to the same race and used the same writing system.36 Writing in 1903, Wang Jingwei also used the terms hanren and han renzhong. He said, "China (Zhongguo) is the Chinese' China; who are the Chinese? It is the Han race (Han renzhong)."37 Even though some began to use hanzu in 1903, most revolutionaries used hanzhong or han renzhong and hanzu interchangeably as late as 1905 and 1906.38 In Zou Rong's Geming jun, terms such as hanzhong and huang han minzu figured prominently. The term hanzu was not used as often, but it was employed in a chart showing Hanzu as a branch of the "Chinese races" (Zhongguo renzhong), which included Japanese, Koreans, and Tibetans! This chart clearly shows that Chinese intellectuals felt uneasy calling Han a race if Han was to be distinguished from other Asian peoples like the Japanese and Koreans. By calling Han a zu, that is, a branch or lineage of the yellow race, or in Zou's case the "Chinese race," they could distinguish themselves from other Asian peoples.39 But this uneasiness surfaced only in the prest�nce of the idea that Japa nese and Koreans belong to the yellow race. There were other popular texts, songs, and dramas written to mobi lize the masses for the revolutionary cause. Chen Tianhua's Meng huitou (Expeditious retreat) and Jingshi zhong (Awakening bell) were among the most important. These texts were widely distributed and performed.40 In them, hanzhong, hanren, and hanzu were interchange able.41 The term hanzu was increasingly used to distinguish Han Chi nese from the Manchus in revolutionary writings.42 An anti-Manchu author in Minbao claimed that: "what is called zhongguo is the zhong guo of the Hanzu. "43 The differential functions of zhong and zu in Chinese had not been clearly established to correspond to species and subspecies. Some argued that the "Han and the Manchus do not belong to the same zhong. " This differentiation could not have been valid if by zhong the author meant the yellow race.44 Hanzu was only one of several names given to this imagined nation in history. The vector of discursive movement from a variety of names to Hanzu is the result of the momentary shifting of the discursive Other, from European imperialism to its domestic enemy, the Manchus. The
56
56 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
term hanzhong is not intelligible within the Social Darwinian frame-
work, which most reformists and revolutionaries had embraced as a
gongli (universal principle). Major races popularized in Yan Fu's writ-
ings included only a few: the white, yellow, black, and red.45 The Man-
chus could only be a branch of the yellow race because it was hardly
possible to argue that the Manchus did not belong to the yellow race.
Therefore, when Zhang Binglin rebutted Liang Qichao's claim that the
Manchus belonged to the same race, he did not dispute Liang's point. It
was "logical" to downgrade the Han to the status of a branch, a lineage
of the yellow race.
To define the Chinese nation in terms of the Han race, as the revolu-
tionaries did, would require exclusion of other ethnic minority groups. If
the Manchus were not included in the Chinese nation, the Mongols,
Tibetans, Uighurs, and many other ethnic minority groups would also be
excluded. This problem provided the reformists with a powerful weapon
against the revolutionaries, who were advocating splitting the territorial
integrity of China.46 But before 1911 the problem was either ignored or
brushed aside by the revolutionaries. In response to Kang Youwei,
Wang Jingwei argued that overthrowing the Manchu government would
not lead to the carving up of China.
Imagining "Race" in the Chinese Language: The Chinese
Nation as a Han Lineage
The successful grafting of foreign concepts onto the indigenous language
depends to a large extent on whether the new concepts in their linguistic
rendering in the target language acquired intelligibility. The gradual
emergence of the term hanzu as the preferred rendering of the concept
"race" can be explained in part in terms of the growing popularity of
adopting lineage terminology in imagining the Chinese nation in the
early twentieth century. The figure of the Chinese nation as a lineage
was commonly deployed in revolutionary writings.47 Chen Tianhua, in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
term hanzhong is not intelligible within the Social Darwinian frame work, which most reformists and revolutionaries had embraced as a gongli (universal principle). Maj or races popularized in Yan Fu's writ ings included only a few: the white, yellow, black, and red.45 The Man chus could only be a branch of the yellow race because it was hardly possible to argue that the Manchus did not belong to the yellow race. Therefore, when Zhang Binglin rebutted Liang Qichao's claim that the Manchus belonged to the same race, he did not dispute Liang's point. It was "logical" to downgrade the Han to the status of a branch, a lineage of the yellow race. To define the Chinese nation in terms of the Han race, as the revolu tionaries did, would require exclusion of other ethnic minority groups. If the Manchus were not included in the Chinese nation, the Mongols, Tibetans, Uighurs, and many other ethnic minority groups would also be excluded. This problem provided the reformists with a powerful weapon against the revolutionaries, who were advocating splitting the territorial integrity of China.46 But before 1911 the problem was either ignored or brushed aside by the revolutionaries. In response to Kang Youwei, Wang Jingwei argued that overthrowing the Manchu government would not lead to the carving up of China.
his widely disseminated text Jingshi zhong (Awakening bell), resorted to
a similar strategy. He said:
Only the Chinese do not know racial (zhongzu) distinctions. .
When the Mongols and the Manchus came, they provided them with
Imagining "Race" in the Chinese Language: The Chinese Nation as a Han Lineage
military service and paid taxes. When the Westerners (xiyang ren)
came, they served in their army and paid taxes. . . Even animals
The successful grafting of foreign concepts onto the indigenous language depends to a large extent on whether the new concepts in their linguistic rendering in the target language acquired intelligibility. The gradual emergence of the term hanzu as the preferred rendering of the concept "race" can be explained in part in terms of the growing popularity of adopting lineage terminology in imagining the Chinese nation in the early twentieth century. The figure of the Chinese nation as a lineage was commonly deployed in revolutionary writings.47 Chen Tianhua, in his widely disseminated text Jingshi zhong (Awakening bell), resorted to a similar strategy. He said: Only the Chinese do not know racial (zhongzu) distinctions . . . . When the Mongols and the Manchus came, they provided them with military service and paid taxes. When the Westerners (xiyang ren) came, they served in their army and paid taxes . . . . Even animals
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 57
know how to protect their own species; the Chinese are not even
animals! As the old saying goes: no one loves people of other sur-
names (waixing). In case of a feud between two lineages, one always
fights on the side of his kinsmen. But all the ordinary xing originated
in one xing. Hanzhong is a large xing; Huangdi is the grand first
ancestor (da shizu). All those who are not Hanzhong are not the
descendants of Huangdi. They belong to other surnames. One must
not help them. If you do, you abandon your ancestors (zuzhong)
and you are animals!48
As I argue elsewhere, from 1900 on the political writings of Zhang
Binglin shifted from "race war" to the struggle between the Han Chi-
nese and the Manchus. Zhang appropriated lineage terminology and
57
know how to protect their own species; the Chinese are not even animals! As the old saying goes: no one loves people of other sur names (waixing) . In case of a feud between two lineages, one always fights on the side of his kinsmen. But all the ordinary xing originated in one xing. Hanzhong is a large xing; Huangdi is the grand first ancestor (da shizu) . All those who are not Hanzhong are not the descendants of Huangdi. They belong to other surnames. One must not help them. If you do, you abandon your ancestors (zuzhong) and you are animals!48
drew on his immense knowledge of classical scholarship in his imagining
of the Chinese as a lineage.49 In his anti-Manchu writings, he deployed
lineage terminology to arouse anti-Manchu sentiments. He argued that
the Han Chinese were descendants of Huangdi and analogized their
subjugation by the Manchus as the adoption of a descent-line heir
(zongzi) from a different surname into one's own lineage (yixing wei
hou).50 He accused the Han Chinese of having forgotten their "great
descent line" (dazong).51 In Zhang's rhetoric directed against the Man-
chu regime, there was a growing tendency to imagine the Han as a
lineage using terms familiar to most members of the Chinese educated
elite.
In 1900, Zhang coined the term zhongxing, apparently as an abbre-
viation of zhongzu and "surnames" (xingshi).52 As will be discussed,
the invention of this term might be a result of Zhang's attempt to resist
Japanese influence in cross-cultural translation. The term clearly was
designed to exclude the Manchus by means of surnames. Zhang fully
developed the idea later in 1904 in two chapters entitled "Xu zhong-
xing."53 In these chapters, he saw the central importance of keeping
accurate genealogical records as a way to prevent mixing with "barbari-
ans." He lamented that the lines of descent had been blurred, espe-
cially after Ming Taizu ordered the abandonment of barbarian sur-
names. He proposed that all surname groups be examined in order to
identify barbarian descent groups. Once these boundaries were clari-
fied, he argued, it would be much easier to mobilize the people against
the Manchus.54
Despite the use of the term zhongxing to render race, underscoring
As I argue elsewhere, from 1900 on the: political writings of Zhang Binglin shifted from "race war" to the struggle between the Han Chi nese and the Manchus. Zhang appropriated lineage terminology and drew on his immense knowledge of classical scholarship in his imagining of the Chinese as a lineage.49 In his anti-Manchu writings, he deployed lineage terminology to arouse anti-Manchu sentiments. He argued that the Han Chinese were descendants of Huangdi and analogized their subjugation by the Manchus as the adoption of a descent-line heir (zongzi) from a different surname into one's own lineage (yixing wei hOU) .50 He accused the Han Chinese of having forgotten their "great descent line" (dazong) .51 In Zhang's rhetoric directed against the Man chu regime, there was a growing tendency to imagine the Han as a lineage using terms familiar to most members of the Chinese educated elite. In 1900, Zhang coined the term zhongxing, apparently as an abbre viation of zhongzu and "surnames" (xingshi) .52 As will be discussed, the invention of this term might be a result of Zhang's attempt to resist Japanese influence in cross-cultural translation. The term clearly was designed to exclude the Manchus by means of surnames. Zhang fully developed the idea later in 1904 in two chapters entitled "Xu zhong xing. "53 In these chapters, he saw the central importance of keeping accurate genealogical records as a way to prevent mixing with "barbari ans. " He lamented that the lines of descent had been blurred, espe cially after Ming Taizu ordered the abandonment of barbarian sur names. He proposed that all surname groups be examined in order to identify barbarian descent groups. Once these boundaries were clari fied, he argued, it would be much easier to mobilize the people against the Manchus.54 Despite the use of the term zhongxing to render race, underscoring
58
58 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the kinship bond, Zhang's notion of Hanzu also has historical and cul-
tural dimensions. For him, the formation of sociopolitical groups such as
a state or a race depends on "language, custom, and history."55 These
social groups could not exist if one of the three was lacking. "The Man-
chus destroyed China (Zhina) and destroyed its history." Zhang actually
referred to the Manchu government's attempts to destroy records of
resistance by Ming loyalists and the references to barbarians in Chinese
texts by means of literary inquisitions.56 Clearly, by zhongxing Zhang
meant a combination of race and lineage. He was aware of the mixing of
races. Through wars, migrations, adaptations to different ecological envi-
ronments, sexual reproduction, and social classes, races lost their origi-
nal distinctiveness. Therefore, existing "races that belong to the same
group may have been different in the past; different races existing today
may belong to the same group."57 These races were called "historical
nations" (lishi minzu). They were changed by different customs, lan-
guages, and crossbreeding. The criterion for distinguishing races was
therefore based on history.
No one exercised more caution in adopting Japanese neologisms
than Zhang Binglin, a point to which we will return shortly. 58 He coined
the term zhongxing not only as an attempt to deploy lineage terminology
in the discourse on nation to exclude the Manchus but also as a discur-
sive weapon with which to battle Japanese authority in translating West-
ern knowledge. This caution is evidenced most clearly in his creation of
terms like zhongxing for the English word race, which the Japanese
rendered as jinsiu in Kanji, that is, renzhong (human types). It comes as
no surprise that Zhang, as a leading scholar trained in philology and
classical studies in the Hanxue fashion under Yu Yue, sought to create
Chinese neologisms of his own. But these neologisms were not created
at will; their choices were shaped by social practice. No language could
be more powerful than lineage terms, which were laden with meaning
and references to social experiences to which many Chinese could re-
late. To be a Han Chinese was to be a member of the mammoth Han
lineage, a descendant of Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor of the Han race!
Huangdi as the First Ancestor of the Hanzu
The idea that Huangdi was the primogenitor of the "Chinese" was al-
ready being circulated in the writings of reformists such as Zhang Jian:
"Today, we Chinese, descendants of the glorious Yellow Emperor, of
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the kinship bond, Zhang's notion of Hanzu also has historical and cul tural dimensions. For him, the formation of sociopolitical groups such as a state or a race depends on "language, custom, and history. "55 These social groups could not exist if one of the three was lacking. "The Man chus destroyed China (Zhina) and destroyed its history. " Zhang actually referred to the Manchu government's attempts to destroy records of resistance by Ming loyalists and the references to barbarians in Chinese texts by means of literary inquisitions. 56 Clearly, by zhongxing Zhang meant a combination of race and lineage. He was aware of the mixing of races. Through wars, migrations, adaptations to different ecological envi ronments, sexual reproduction, and social classes, races lost their origi nal distinctiveness. Therefore, existing "races that belong to the same group may have been different in the past; different races existing today may belong to the same group. "57 These races were called "historical nations" (lishi minzu). They were changed by different customs, lan guages, and crossbreeding. The criterion for distinguishing races was therefore based on history. No one exercised more caution in adopting Japanese neologisms than Zhang Binglin, a point to which we will return shortly. 58 He coined the term zhongxing not only as an attempt to deploy lineage terminology in the discourse on nation to exclude the Manchus but also as a discur sive weapon with which to battle Japanese authority in translating West ern knowledge. This caution is evidenced most clearly in his creation of terms like zhongxing for the English word race, which the Japanese rendered as jinsiu in Kanji , that is, renzhong (human types). It comes as no surprise that Zhang, as a leading scholar trained in philology and classical studies in the Hanxue fashion under Yu Yue, sought to create Chinese neologisms of his own. But these neologisms were not created at will; their choices were shaped by social practice. No language could be more powerful than lineage terms, which were laden with meaning and references to social experiences to which many Chinese could re late. To be a Han Chinese was to be a member of the mammoth Han lineage, a descendant of Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor of the Han race! Huangdi as the First Ancestor of the Hanzu The idea that Huangdi was the primogenitor of the "Chinese" was al ready being circulated in the writings of reformists such as Zhang Jian: "Today, we Chinese, descendants of the glorious Yellow Emperor, of
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 59
Yao and Shun, have become backward and lethargic."59 It is worthy of
note that even though Huangdi was already being hailed as the first
ancestor of the Chinese in the late 1890s his discursive significance in
reformist writings did not lie in his status as the first ancestor of the Han
race; instead, it signified the coincidence of the meaning of yellow in the
name Huangdi and the yellow race.60
The growing popularity of the political symbolism of Huangdi is
owing, perhaps, to the popular appellation of the yellow race, Huang
zhong ren, a category in the Social Darwinian taxonomy. Second, Chi-
nese students studying in Japan were introduced to Terrien de La-
couperie's theory of the origins of the Chinese.61 Huangdi was a hero of
the yellow race but he was also a Chinese. The idea of Huangdi as an
ancestor in this context was subservient to his yellow race identity. But
as revolutionary polemics began to underscore the differentiation be-
tween Han and the Manchu branches within the yellow race, the signifi-
cance of Huangdi shifted to a narrower definition. His importance as the
ancestor of the yellow race was to be overshadowed by his status as the
first ancestor of the Han lineage in revolutionary writings. Huangdi as
the ancestor of the Hanzu became the dominant image in Hanzu dis-
course. Beginning on July 5, 1903, members of the Junguo min jiaoyu
hui, which was founded by Chinese students in Tokyo, began to wear a
pin with the image of Huangdi as a symbolic commitment to the over-
throw of the Manchu regime.62
In 1905, Zhang Binglin's friend Huang Jie called a new history he
wrote the Huang shi (History of the yellow).63 Echoing Liang Qichao's
view, Huang Jie dismissed traditional historical writings as the pedigrees
and genealogies of the ruling families. The History of the Yellow began
with Huangdi and organized peoples according to the descent-line sys-
tem (zhongfa), a term often associated with the discourse and practice
of lineage organization.M The first chapter, entitled "Records of Races"
(Zhongzu shu), traced the origin of the Chinese race to Huangdi, who
migrated from West Asia and settled in the Yellow River plain. Follow-
ing Zhang Binglin, he used a quasi-linguistic argument to substantiate
his claim.65 Huang Jie accepted de Lacouperie's idea that all human
races originated in West Asia. While Huangdi moved east and founded
the Chinese civilization, the branch that migrated west founded the
"Western civilization." Therefore, Huang Jie concluded, the first phase
of the development of "Western [European] history" had to have begun
with "Eastern countries" (Dongfang zhu guo) like Greece, Babylon,
59
Yao and Shun, have become backward and lethargic."59 It is worthy of note that even though Huangdi was already being hailed as the first ancestor of the Chinese in the late 1890s his discursive significance in reformist writings did not lie in his status as the first ancestor of the Han race; instead, it signified the coincidence of the meaning of yellow in the name Huangdi and the yellow race.60 The growing popularity of the political symbolism of Huangdi is owing, perhaps, to the popular appellation of the yellow race, Huang zhong ren, a category in the Social Darwinian taxonomy. Second, Chi nese students studying in Japan were introduced to Terrien de La couperie's theory of the origins of the Chinese.61 Huangdi was a hero of the yellow race but he was also a Chinese. The idea of Huangdi as an ancestor in this context was subservient to his yellow race identity. But as revolutionary polemics began to underscore the differentiation be tween Han and the Manchu branches within the yellow race, the signifi cance of Huangdi shifted to a narrower definition. His importance as the ancestor of the yellow race was to be overshadowed by his status as the first ancestor of the Han lineage in revolutionary writings. Huangdi as the ancestor of the Hanzu became the dominant image in Hanzu dis course. Beginning on July 5 , 1903, members of the Junguo min jiaoyu hui, which was founded by Chinese students in Tokyo, began to wear a pin with the image of Huangdi as a symbolic commitment to the over throw of the Manchu regime.62 In 1 905, Zhang Binglin's friend Huang Jie called a new history he wrote the Huang shi (History of the yeUow).63 Echoing Liang Qichao's view, Huang Jie dismissed traditional historical writings as the pedigrees and genealogies of the ruling families. The History of the Yellow began with Huangdi and organized peoples according to the descent-line sys tem (zhongfa) , a term often associated with the discourse and practice of lineage organization.64 The first chapter, entitled " Records of Races" (Zhongzu shu), traced the origin of the Chinese race to Huangdi, who migrated from West Asia and settled in the Yellow River plain. Follow ing Zhang Binglin, he used a quasi-linguistic argument to substantiate his claim.65 Huang Jie accepted de Lacouperie's idea that all human races originated in West Asia. While Huangdi moved east and founded the Chinese civilization, the branch that migrated west founded the "Western civilization. " Therefore, Huang Jie concluded, the first phase of the development of "Western [EuropeanJ history" had to have begun with "Eastern countries" (Dongfang zhu guo) like Greece, Babylon,
60
60
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Egypt, and Persia. What needs to be noted is that in Huang Jie's narra-
tion of the origin of the Chinese as a branch of the yellow race, while
accepting the orientalist division of the World into East and West, he
challenged Europe's claim to be the successor of the civilizations of
Mesopotamia and Egypt. To call these Eastern countries is: (1) to lay
claim to this "common" source of World civilization, and (2) to call into
question Europe's appropriation of Greek, Egyptian, Babylonian, and
Persian civilizations as its own. By applying the orientalist notion with
greater vigor, Huang Jie was not only able to challenge Europe's narra-
tion of the origins of modern Europe, but he made an even stronger
claim for China as the successor of these great civilizations because they
were all situated to the east of Western Europe in Asia. They were
therefore countries located in the East, of which China had been the
center of civilization for thousands of years. To be sure, Huang Jie's
view presented no challenge to European discourse because it was writ-
ten in Chinese.
Like Liang Qichao, Huang Jie could not comprehend why the Chi-
nese were classified as a Mongolian race (menggu zhong).66 In the
Chinese memory, the Mongols were "barbarians." This racial category
simply could not be made intelligible to the Chinese because the term in
Chinese signified a barbarian tribe that had been expelled by the Chinese
hero Ming Taizu. The new meaning of the Chinese term Mengu (derived
from the imported European discourse on race) clashed with the histori-
cal meaning of the Chinese term. Huang Jie not only rejected the label
Mongolian as the racial type of the Chinese, but he argued that the
Chinese race should be called yellow because Huangdi, the Yellow Em-
peror, had derived his title from the "virtue of the earth" (tude), which
was yellow in color.67 Clearly, Huang Jie was not bickering over the
rendering of a term. Translating presumably scientific knowledge of the
human races is challenged because the Chinese term itself had been an
object of discourse on China's relationship with peoples who had been
relegated to the category of barbarian.
The point I want to make is that discursive hierarchy could be sub-
verted when it was first translated into a remotely different language and
grafted onto indigenous discourses - the pervasive historical tradition of
China. It is highly questionable whether foreign concepts and discourse,
much less epistemes, could be transplanted in the soil of another culture
without losing some of their cognitive functions in the host languages.
Chinese readers with little or no knowledge of European languages
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Egypt, and Persia. What needs to be noted is that in Huang lie's narra tion of the origin of the Chinese as a branch of the yellow race, while accepting the orientalist division of the World into East and West, he challenged Europe's claim to be the successor of the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. To call these Eastern countries is: (1) to lay claim to this "common" source of World civilization, and (2) to call into question Europe's appropriation of Greek, Egyptian, B abylonian, and Persian civilizations as its own. By applying the orientalist notion with greater vigor, Huang lie was not only able to challenge Europe's narra tion of the origins of modern Europe, but he made an even stronger claim for China as the successor of these great civilizations because they were all situated to the east of Western Europe in Asia. They were therefore countries located in the East, of which China had been the center of civilization for thousands of years. To be sure, Huang lie's view presented no challenge to European discourse because it was writ ten in Chinese. Like Liang Qichao, Huang lie could not comprehend why the Chi nese were classified as a Mongolian race (menggu zhong) . 66 In the Chinese memory, the Mongols were "barbarians." This racial category simply could not be made intelligible to the Chinese because the term in Chinese signified a barbarian tribe that had been expelled by the Chinese hero Ming Taizu. The new meaning of the Chinese term Mengu (derived from the imported European discourse on race) clashed with the histori cal meaning of the Chinese term. Huang lie not only rejected the label Mongolian as the racial type of the Chinese, but he argued that the Chinese race should be called yellow because Huangdi, the Yellow Em peror, had derived his title from the "virtue of the earth" (tude) , which was yellow in color. 67 Clearly, Huang lie was not bickering over the rendering of a term. Translating presumably scientific knowledge of the human races is challenged because the Chinese term itself had been an object of discourse on China's relationship with peoples who had been relegated to the category of barbarian. The point I want to make is that discursive hierarchy could be sub verted when it was first translated into a remotely different language and grafted onto indigenous discourses - the pervasive historical tradition of China. It is highly questionable whether foreign concepts and discourse, much less epistemes, could be transplanted in the soil of another culture without losing some of their cognitive functions in the host languages. Chinese readers with little or no knowledge of European languages
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 61
could not have understood the "literal" meanings, much less the com-
plex usage of terms like race, nation, and feudal. When Chinese terms
like zongfa, zongzu, and minzu were used, it was impossible to suspend
or erase their wide range of semantic references, which historical and
classical scholarship had generated since the early Qing.68 In fact,
the imagining of the Chinese nation was mediated largely through the
figure of lineage (zongzu). Like Zhang Binglin, Huang Jie applied the
lineage model as a metaphor in imagining the new Chinese nation.
Narrating the Chinese Nation in Modernist History
How can one establish the continuity of the Han lineage when tradi-
tional Chinese histories followed a narrative scheme based on the Confu-
61
could not have understood the "literal" meanings, much less the com plex usage of terms like race, nation, and feudal. When Chinese terms like zongfa, zongzu, and minzu were used, it was impossible to suspend or erase their wide range of semantic references, which historical and classical scholarship had generated since the early Qing.68 In fact, the imagining of the Chinese nation was mediated largely through the figure of lineage (zongzu) . Like Zhang Binglin, Huang Jie applied the lineage model as a metaphor in imagining the new Chinese nation.
cian view of history? As pointed out earlier, Liang Qichao was among
the few who attacked dynastic historical narratives. Loyalists who had
figured prominently in the Twenty-four Dynastic Histories were now
Narrating the Chinese Nation in Modernist History
ridiculed as the slaves and bootlickers of the imperial family (zhongchen
wei yixing zhi zhougou jianu).69 This dramatic reversal of the value of
loyalty was made possible only by shifting away from the dynastic histori-
cal narrative that privileged the imperial regime. The succession of dy-
nasties no longer was regarded as a "historical necessity" explained and
legitimized by the notion of the Mandate of Heaven.
To narrate the Chinese nation as a subject in history, intellectuals
had to look to the Other, through which they could find continuity.
Only by narrating the struggle of various dynasties against a general-
ized enemy, the barbarians, could continuity be located in the new
historical narrative. Even though the various dynasties were founded
by different houses, and in many cases by barbarians, they were ho-
mogenized into one subject in a constant struggle against the faceless
barbarians, homogenized into an enemy of the Han lineage. The na-
tional identity of the Chinese was imagined in historical narratives of
barbarian invasion.
In the biographical section of the Xinmin congbao, one author
called King Wu-ling of Chao in the warring states period the "first great
man since Huangdi." The biography in fact was narrated as the national
history of the Chinese. It was "the history of the Chinese minzu in
competition with other races. For four thousand years, the inferior races
in the north never stopped threatening Zhongguo. . . . From the time of
Huangdi on, our lineage (wozu) began to multiply and scatter on the
How can one establish the continuity of the Han lineage when tradi tional Chinese histories followed a narrative scheme based on the Confu cian view of history? As pointed out earlier, Liang Qichao was among the few who attacked dynastic historical narratives. Loyalists who had figured prominently in the Twenty-four Dynastic Histories were now ridiculed as the slaves and bootlickers of the imperial family (zhongchen wei yixing zhi zhougou jianu) . 69 This dramatic reversal of the value of loyalty was made possible only by shifting away from the dynastic histori cal narrative that privileged the imperial regime. The succession of dy nasties no longer was regarded as a "historical necessity" explained and legitimized by the notion of the Mandate of Heaven. To narrate the Chinese nation as a subj ect in history, intellectuals had to look to the Other, through which they could find continuity. Only by narrating the struggle of various dynasties against a general ized enemy, the barbarians, could continuity be located in the new historical narrative. Even though the various dynasties were founded by different houses, and in many cases by barbarians, they were ho mogenized into one subject in a constant struggle against the faceless barbarians, homogenized into an enemy of the Han lineage. The na tional identity of the Chinese was imagined in historical narratives of barbarian invasion. In the biographical section of the Xinmin congbao, one author called King Wu-ling of Chao in the warring states period the "first great man since Huangdi." The biography in fact was narrated as the national history of the Chinese. It was "the history of the Chinese minzu in competition with other races. For four thousand years, the inferior races in the north never stopped threatening Zhongguo . . . . From the time of Huangdi on, our lineage (wozu) began to multiply and scatter on the
62
62
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Central Plain."70 The subject of history was no longer emperors and
loyal officials but heroic leaders of the entire Han lineage.
An editorial in the Guomin riri bao (National daily), following the
example of Japanese discourse on the nation, argued that the "national
spirit" (guohun) of the Chinese was none of those characteristic of Euro-
pean and American nations: not the spirit of trade, spirit of religion,
spirit of the knight, or spirit of the citizen but "nationalism" (minzu
zhuyi).71 The author then outlined Chinese history in a three-age
scheme: the ancient period (gudai), middle period (zhongshi), and mod-
ern period (jinshi). The ancient period was the time when "our lineage"
(wuzu) was victorious: "Huangdi expelled barbarians in the four direc-
tions and unified the various groups, resulting in the founding of a
"nation-state of the Han race" (Han zhong minzu di guojia). At that
time, the Han race was battling the Miao race in the south. "The Han
race was committed to nationalism, expansionism, and taking every bit
of land. With unrivaled bravery and intelligence, both Huangdi and his
officials conquered in all directions, overpowering all who were in their
way."72 When the "Hound barbarians" (rong) sacked the capital, it
marked the beginning of the defeat of the Han by an "external race"
(waizu).73 In traditional historical accounts, it was the Zhou court that
was sacked. In the new narrative, it was the Chinese as a race and a
mammoth lineage that was defeated.
Nowhere was the desire to narrate the ancient Hanzu as an aggres-
sive and expansionist people more notable than in Song Jiaoren's writ-
ings. In 1905, he wrote a preface to a history that he never completed. In
this preface, "Hanzu qinlue shi xu," Song argued that the foundation of
a nation rested on paiwai zhuyi (expulsion of foreigners) and progressive
government policies. The objective of his historical work was to trace
over the last five thousand years how the Han race had conquered other
races (waizu) since the times of Huangdi.74 The first ancestor of the
Hanzu, Huangdi, was portrayed as an aggressive conqueror. This was
not only disseminated as the history of the Chinese, but it was drama-
tized in popular plays and texts for the masses. Theatrical performances
aimed at arousing national sentiments propagated ideas like "Huangdi's
conquest of Qiyu."75
Huangdi was no longer portrayed as just a political leader in ancient
China. He was a common ancestor of the mammoth lineage, the Hanzu.
By representing the mythical figure Huangdi as a conquering leader, the
Chinese intelligentsia sought to create a history of the Chinese as an
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Central Plain. "70 The subject of history was no longer emperors and loyal officials but heroic leaders of the entire Han lineage. An editorial in the Guomin riri bao (National daily) , following the example of Japanese discourse on the nation, argued that the "national spirit" (guohun) of the Chinese was none of those characteristic of Euro pean and American nations: not the spirit of trade, spirit of religion, spirit of the knight, or spirit of the citizen but "nationalism" (minzu zhuyi) Jl The author then outlined Chinese history in a three-age scheme: the ancient period (gudai) , middle period (zhongshi) , and mod ern period (jinshi) . The ancient period was the time when "our lineage" (wuzu) was victorious: "Huangdi expelled barbarians in the four direc tions and unified the various groups, resulting in the founding of a "nation-state of the Han race" (Han zhong minzu di guojia) . At that time, the Han race was battling the Miao race in the south. "The Han race was committed to nationalism, expansionism, and taking every bit of land. With unrivaled bravery and intelligence, both Huangdi and his officials conquered in all directions, overpowering all who were in their way. "72 When the "Hound barbarians" (rong) sacked the capital, it marked the beginning of the defeat of the Han by an "external race" (waizu) .73 In traditional historical accounts, it was the Zhou court that was sacked. In the new narrative, it was the Chinese as a race and a mammoth lineage that was defeated. Nowhere was the desire to narrate the ancient Hanzu as an aggres sive and expansionist people more notable than in Song Jiaoren's writ ings. In 1905, he wrote a preface to a history that he never completed. In this preface, "Hanzu qinlue shi xu," Song argued that the foundation of a nation rested on paiwai zhuyi (expulsion of foreigners) and progressive government policies. The objective of his historical work was to trace over the last five thousand years how the Han race had conquered other races (waizu) since the times of Huangdi.74 The first ancestor of the Hanzu, Huangdi, was portrayed as an aggressive conqueror. This was not only disseminated as the history of the Chinese, but it was drama tized in popular plays and texts for the masses. Theatrical performances aimed at arousing national sentiments propagated ideas like "Huangdi's conquest of Qiyu. "75 Huangdi was no longer portrayed as j ust a political leader in ancient China. He was a common ancestor of the mammoth lineage, the Hanzu. By representing the mythical figure Huangdi as a conquering leader, the Chinese intelligentsia sought to create a history of the Chinese as an
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 63
aggressive, mobile, and outward-looking people, a race that had proven
successful in surviving the ruthless competition dictated by the evolution-
ary law of the Darwinian world. This history provides the ground for the
Hanzu to rebound from the conquest by the Manchus.
63
aggressive, mobile, and outward-looking people, a race that had proven successful in surviving the ruthless competition dictated by the evolution ary law of the Darwinian world. This history provides the ground for the Hanzu to rebound from the conquest by the Manchus.
Historical Time Reinvented
Huangdi not only provided the genesis of the Han race but also served
conveniently as the beginning of a new temporality - a linear one - in
Historical Time Reinvented
which a history of the Han race could be narrated. After abandoning the
dynastic narratives, Chinese intellectuals had to find a new temporality
to rechronologize China's past. As Paul Ricoeur has argued, there is a
"structural reciprocity" between temporality and narrativity.76 And "the
world unfolded by every narrative work is always a temporal world."77
The Christian calendar had been used by missionaries in their Chinese
magazines and publications. It was integral to the European episteme
and the geocultural scheme of spatial structure - the World. Any serious
attempt to resist or challenge this European episteme had to reject one
or both of these time- and space-structuring schemes.
To imagine a historical narrative of the Chinese nation differently
from the Hegelian narrative of history called for the creation of an alterna-
tive temporality. Chinese intellectuals had been experimenting with vari-
ous alternative time-marking schemes. As early as 1897, Liang Qichao
was interested in searching for an alternative time-marking scheme in
order to narrate the continuity of China's past. In the Qingyi bao, he
wrote an essay entitled "Jinian gongli" (universal principle of dating) to
explain why it was necessary to use a new time-marking scheme. He
recommended the birthday of Confucius as the beginning of the Chinese
chronology of history. 78 The choice of Confucius's birth date was a logical
one in view of the reformers' attempts to establish Confucianism as
China's religion in order to mobilize the masses to save China.79
Unlike the reformists, the revolutionaries began to advocate a new
chronological scheme based on the birthday of Huangdi. Zhang Binglin
and others chose Huangdi as the first person standing at the dawn of this
new temporality. As Huangdi rapidly emerged in the discourse on the
Hanzu as the undisputed "first ancestor" (shizu), no one was better
qualified to unveil the drama of the Chinese nation.80s In May and June,
Chinese student magazines began to date their issues by the alleged year
of the birth of Huangdi. In August 1903, Liu Shipei published an article
Huangdi not only provided the genesis of the Han race but also served conveniently as the beginning of a new temporality - a linear one - in which a history of the Han race could be narrated. After abandoning the dynastic narratives, Chinese intellectuals had to find a new temporality to rechronologize China's past. As Paul Ricoeur has argued, there is a "structural reciprocity" between temporality and narrativity. 76 And "the world unfolded by every narrative work is always a temporal world. "77 The Christian calendar had been used by missionaries in their Chinese magazines and publications. It was integral to the European episteme and the geocultural scheme of spatial structure - the World. Any serious attempt to resist or challenge this European episteme had to reject one or both of these time- and space-structuring schemes. To imagine a historical narrative of the Chinese nation differently from the Hegelian narrative of history called for the creation of an alterna tive temporality. Chinese intellectuals had been experimenting with vari ous alternative time-marking schemes. As early as 1897, Liang Qichao was interested in searching for an alternative time-marking scheme in order to narrate the continuity of China's past. In the Qingyi bao, he wrote an essay entitled "Jinian gongli" (universal principle of dating) to explain why it was necessary to use a new time-marking scheme. He recommended the birthday of Confucius as the beginning of the Chinese chronology of history. 7S The choice of Confucius's birth date was a logical one in view of the reformers' attempts to establish Confucianism as China's religion in order to mobilize the masses to save China.79 Unlike the reformists, the revolutionaries began to advocate a new chronological scheme based on the birthday of Huangdi. Zhang Binglin and others chose Huangdi as the first person standing at the dawn of this new temporality. As Huangdi rapidly emerged in the discourse on the Hanzu as the undisputed "first ancestor" (shizu), no one was better qualified to unveil the drama of the Chinese nation.so In May and June, Chinese student magazines began to date their issues by the alleged year of the birth of Huangdi. In August 1903, Liu Shipei published an article
64
64 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in Guomin riri bao urging the adoption of Huangdi's birthday as the
beginning of a new chronological scheme.81 Huangdi was hailed as the
first ancestor of the four hundred million Hanzhong and the creator of
"civilization" (wenming). The author explained why Confucius's birth-
day was not adopted. Since the reformists like Kang Youwei and Liang
Qichao sought to preserve the Confucian "religion," they had chosen
Confucius's birthday. But "our objective is to preserve the race (bao
zhong). Therefore, we choose Huangdi for keeping chronology." He
pointed out that "when the Hanzu is in danger of extinction, any attempt
to preserve it requires the exaltation of Huangdi. Because Huangdi is
Hanzu's Huangdi, to use his birthday to mark time has the effect of
arousing the national consciousness of the Hanzu."82 At the end of the
essay was a short chronological table, and Liu underscored three prin-
ciples on which the table was based: nation, polity, and culture.83
The chronological table listing twenty dates is clearly a narrative
emplotment of a Chinese collectivity in terms of its continual struggle
between the Hanzu and the barbarians. Of the twenty years under which
an event was recorded, nine involve either the expulsion of or invasion by
barbarians, including the sacking of Beijing by the allied forces during the
Boxer Uprising. Liu Shipei assembled a congeries of events in order to
reconfigure that past into a short history of the Chinese nation.84
By May 1903, when the third issue of the magazine Jiangsu was
published, it had abandoned the dating method based on the Qing
emperor's reign. Instead, it dated the publication in the 4,394th year
since the birthday of Huangdi. In October, Zhang Binglin dated his
memorial essay dedicated to Shen Yuwen, a martyr of the revolutionary
cause, as 4,394 years from Huangdi.85 The article was included in a
widely distributed revolutionary anthology entitled Huangdi hun (The
soul of Huangdi) published in 1904.86 The same year, when Guomin bao
(Chinese national magazine) reissued a selection of articles it had pub-
lished several years earlier in Tokyo, the birthday of Huangdi was also
used as the dating system.87
The different and competing schemes proposed and experimented
with by scholars shed light on the project of narrating a new history of
the Chinese nation as Hanzu. The various attempts to develop alterna-
tive time-marking schemes by both the reformists and the revolutionar-
ies attest to resistance to objectification in the temporality of the He-
gelian scheme of history. By using the birthday of either Confucius or
Huangdi, the Chinese intellectuals sought to avoid making European
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in Guomin riri bao urging the adoption of Huangdi's birthday as the beginning of a new chronological scheme.81 Huangdi was hailed as the first ancestor of the four hundred million Hanzhong and the creator of "civilization" (wenming) . The author explained why Confucius's birth day was not adopted. Since the reformists like Kang You wei and Liang Qichao sought to preserve the Confucian "religion," they had chosen Confucius's birthday. But "our objective is to preserve the race (bao zhong) . Therefore, we choose Huangdi for keeping chronology. " He pointed out that "when the Hanzu is in danger of extinction, any attempt to preserve it requires the exaltation of Huangdi. Because Huangdi is Hanzu's Huangdi, to use his birthday to mark time has the effect of arousing the national consciousness of the Hanzu. "82 At the end of the essay was a short chronological table, and Liu underscored three prin ciples on which the table was based: nation, polity, and culture.83 The chronological table listing twenty dates is clearly a narrative emplotment of a Chinese collectivity in terms of its continual struggle between the Hanzu and the barbarians. Of the twenty years under which an event was recorded, nine involve either the expulsion of or invasion by barbarians, including the sacking of Beijing by the allied forces during the Boxer Uprising. Liu Shipei assembled a congeries of events in order to reconfigure that past into a short history of the Chinese nation.84 By May 1903, when the third issue of the magazine liangsu was published, it had abandoned the dating method based on the Qing emperor's reign. Instead, it dated the publication in the 4,394th year since the birthday of Huangdi. In October, Zhang Binglin dated his memorial essay dedicated to Shen Yuwen, a martyr of the revolutionary cause, as 4,394 years from Huangdi. 85 The article was included in a widely distributed revolutionary anthology entitled Huangdi hun (The soul of Huangdi) published in 1904.86 The same year, when Guomin bao (Chinese national magazine) reissued a selection of articles it had pub lished several years earlier in Tokyo, the birthday of Huangdi was also used as the dating system.87 The different and competing schemes proposed and experimented with by scholars shed light on the project of narrating a new history of the Chinese nation as Hanzu. The various attempts to develop alterna tive time-marking schemes by both the reformists and the revolutionar ies attest to resistance to objectification in the temporality of the He gelian scheme of history. By using the birthday of either Confucius or Huangdi, the Chinese intellectuals sought to avoid making European
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 65
history the standard reference in temporality and hence in historical
65
history the standard reference in temporality and hence in historical narrative schemes.
narrative schemes.
Japanese Orientalism and Narrating China as an
Asian Nation
Benedict Anderson has stressed the central role of modern print in the
dissemination of the ideology of the nation-state.88 Woodblock as well as
Japanese Orientalism and Narrating China as an Asian Nation
movable type printing methods had been widely used since the sixteenth
century in China. Printed texts served as a major avenue for the introduc-
tion and dissemination of discourses of the nation.89 Throughout most of
the second half of the nineteenth century, the discourse on the Chinese
nation was produced and disseminated through modern presses sup-
ported by private and public organizations in the treaty ports.9 Since the
1860s, European missionaries had been active in shaping the agenda of
reforming the Chinese government. Reformist leaders like Kang Youwei
and Liang Qichao learned about the West through Chinese printed
sources produced by missionary agencies such as the Guangxue hui (Soci-
ety for the Promotion of Learning).
The defeat of China by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War convinced
many Chinese reformers that the success of Japanese reforms could
provide a useful model for China. From 1896 on, Japan emerged as the
mediator in introducing knowledge of the West. The European orien-
talization of China was now filtered through a second layer of orien-
talizing in Japanese discourse on shina, the Japanese name of China in
Kanji. The dramatic success of Japan in the Sino-Japanese War firmly
established the belief that the Japanese had acquired the Western knowl-
edge necessary for building a modern nation. This body of knowledge
was available in Japanese translations. China would have similar success
if this body of knowledge in Japanese books were translated into Chi-
nese. The reformists Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were among the
first to turn to Japanese books as a shortcut to Western knowledge.
At the Datong Translation Bureau, where Kang and Liang were
involved, the choice of books for translation was "primarily those in
Japanese, and books in European languages would be chosen as supple-
ments."91 When Liang Qichao published the Shiwu bao in 1896, he in-
cluded a section on the translation of foreign newspapers. Although
there already were translations of Japanese newspapers, these were
foreign-language newspapers published in Japan.92 But from the third
Benedict Anderson has stressed the central role of modern print in the dissemination of the ideology of the nation-state.88 Woodblock as well as movable type printing methods had been widely used since the sixteenth century in China. Printed texts served as a major avenue for the introduc tion and dissemination of discourses of the nation.89 Throughout most of the second half of the nineteenth century, the discourse on the Chinese nation was produced and disseminated through modern presses sup ported by private and public organizations in the treaty ports.90 Since the 1 860s, European missionaries had been active in shaping the agenda of reforming the Chinese government. Reformist leaders like Kang Youwei . and Liang Qichao learned about the West through Chinese printed sources produced by missionary agencies such as the Guangxue hui (Soci ety for the Promotion of Learning). The defeat of China by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War convinced many Chinese reformers that the success of Japanese reforms could provide a useful model for China. From 1896 on, Japan emerged as the mediator in introducing knowledge of the West. The European orien talization of China was now filtered through a second layer of orien talizing in Japanese discourse on shina, the Japanese name of China in Kanji. The dramatic success of Japan in the Sino-Japanese War firmly established the belief that the Japanese had acquired the Western knowl edge necessary for building a modern nation. This body of knowledge was available in Japanese translations. China would have similar success if this body of knowledge in Japanese books were translated into Chi nese. The reformists Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were among the first to turn to Japanese books as a shortcut to Western knowledge. At the Datong Translation Bureau, where Kang and Liang were involved, the choice of books for translation was "primarily those in Japanese, and books in European languages would be chosen as supple ments. "91 When Liang Qichao published the Shiwu baa in 1896, he in cluded a section on the translation of foreign newspapers. Although there already were translations of Japanese newspapers, these were foreign-language newspapers published in Japan.92 But from the third
66
66
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
issue on there was a special section called "Dongwen baoyi" (Translation
of Japanese newspapers).93 Following the abortion of the Hundred Days
Reform in 1898, the number of students studying in Japan began to
increase sharply. By rendering into Chinese large numbers of Japanese
translations of Western works, Chinese students studying in Japan helped
to disseminate a wide range of Western learning to the Chinese literate
public. The drastic increase in the number of students studying in Japan
after 1905 eventually established Japan as the more influential source of
orientalist narratives of China.
Terms that had originated in missionary publications were gradually
replaced with Japanese neologisms. Words like wanguo and tianyan
were replaced with shijie and jinhua.94 Unlike European languages, the
Japanese written language used a large number of Chinese characters.
As early as 1647, the Japanese had used terms like wanguo and shijie.95
Calling China Zhongguo, the "Middle Kingdom," in Japanese Kanji is
to marginalize Japan itself. In the late nineteenth century, the Japanese
began to replace the word zhongguo with shina, a two-character translit-
eration of the English word China.
Beginning in the late 1870s, some Japanese scholars attempted to
study China in order to help liberate Asia from the yoke of European
imperialism.96 As Stephan Tanaka has argued, the transliteration of the
English term China into the Japanese Kanji shina had become an object
in Japan's narration of its Orient: "Japanese were using the West and
Asia as other(s) to construct their own sense of a Japanese nation as
modern and oriental."97 The term shina was the Other through which
Japanese toyoshi historians narrated the origins of modern Japan. Chi-
nese scholars like Liang Qichao in the last decade of the nineteenth
century had adopted the Japanese term shina as a synonym for zhong-
guo. The growing negative connotation of the term became so strong
that Chinese students in Japan protested its usage but to no avail.98
Hanzu in Yazhou
Aijaz Ahmad has criticized Edward Said's Orientalism for presenting
only "the history of Western textualities about the non-West quite in
isolation from how these textualities might have been received, ac-
cepted, modified, challenged, overthrown or reproduced by the intelli-
gentsias of the colonialized countries."99 Indeed, the West's discourse on
China's geopolitical space in its World was not easily passed as objective
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
issue on there was a special section called "Dongwen baoyi" (Translation of Japanese newspapers).93 Following the abortion of the Hundred Days Reform in 1 898, the number of students studying in Japan began to increase sharply. By rendering into Chinese large numbers of Japanese translations of Western works, Chinese students studying in Japan helped to disseminate a wide range of Western learning to the Chinese literate public. The drastic increase in the number of students studying in Japan after 1905 eventually established Japan as the more influential source of orientalist narratives of China. Terms that had originated in missionary publications were gradually replaced with Japanese neologisms. Words like wanguo and tianyan were replaced with shijie and jinhua. 94 Unlike European languages, the Japanese written language used a large number of Chinese characters. As early as 1647, the Japanese had used terms like wanguo and shijie. 95 Calling China Zhongguo, the "Middle Kingdom," in Japanese Kanji is to marginalize Japan itself. In the late nineteenth century, the Japanese began to replace the word zhongguo with shina, a two-character translit eration of the English word China. Beginning in the late 1870s, some Japanese scholars attempted to study China in order to help liberate Asia from the yoke of European imperialism.96 As Stephan Tanaka has argued, the transliteration of the English term China into the Japanese Kanji shina had become an object in Japan's narration of its Orient: "Japanese were using the West and Asia as other(s) to construct their own sense of a Japanese nation as modern and oriental. "97 The term shina was the Other through which Japanese toyoshi historians narrated the origins of modern Japan. Chi nese scholars like Liang Qichao in the last decade of the nineteenth century had adopted the Japanese term shina as a synonym for zhong guo. The growing negative connotation of the term became so strong that Chinese students in Japan protested its usage but to no avai1.98 Hanzu in Yazhou Aijaz Ahmad has criticized Edward Said's Orientalism for presenting only "the history of Western textualities about the non-West quite in isolation from how these textualities might have been received, ac cepted, modified, challenged, overthrown or reproduced by the intelli gentsias of the colonialized countries."99 Indeed, the West's discourse on China's geopolitical space in its World was not easily passed as objective
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 67
knowledge in the nineteenth century. It was challenged in narratives
authorized by the Chinese themselves. To relocate China in the World
map without accepting the West's totalizing narrative of China's inferior-
ity did not begin with the late Qing reformers. Wei Yuan in his Illus-
trated Gazetteers of Maritime Countries (Haiguo tuzhi) had already
pointed out that Asia was the cradle of the major world religions: Confu-
cianism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity (Catholicism). Astronomy,
mathematics, and machines (qiqi) originated in Asia and were later
disseminated to Europe.100 It is important to note how Wei Yuan re-
garded Christianity as a product of Asia, not Europe.
The geographical space in which many Chinese intellectuals imag-
ined the history of the Chinese nation was not the World but Yazhou
(Asia). By using Asia as the geographical space, many Chinese intellec-
tuals sought to reestablish the leading role of China in Yazhou, not in the
World. Yazhou is China's world, just like the World is Europe's. Chinese
intellectuals sought to counter and appropriate orientalism in narrating
China in Asia or, as it was rendered in Chinese, Zhongguo in Yazhou.
This new geopolitical site of Yazhou was accepted by both the Chi-
nese and the Japanese. It provided them with a new concept with which a
new and yet contentious relationship was created. Though separated by
sea, both countries were now located in Yazhou. But China and Japan no
longer had the lord-vassal relationship of the China-centered Tianxia.
Furthermore, the Chinese and Japanese belonged to the same "yellow
race." The racial bond and new spatial link provided a fertile ground for
imagining a solidarity between China and Japan against the white race's
threat. Beginning even before the Hundred Days Reform, reformists
and future revolutionaries were attracted to the idea of an alliance be-
tween China and Japan in resisting Russian encroachment.101 Reformists
like Kang Youwei, Tang Caichang, and Liang Qichao and revolutionar-
ies like Sun Yat-sen in the 1890s entertained the idea of forming a
federation with Japan in order to resist European imperialism.102 In
1897, Zhang Binglin wrote an article urging cooperation between China
and Japan to protect Yazhou from the Russians and Europeans.103 Japa-
nese advocates of an alliance between China and Japan had been argu-
ing for such alliance in terms of the same race and writing system
(tongwen tongzhong). Both the Chinese and the Japanese belonged to
the "yellow race" or "yellow men" (huangren). On the Japanese side,
toyoshi scholars advocated solidarity among leaders of the yellow race in
Yazhou to resist European imperialism. In April 1898, a branch of the
67
knowledge in the nineteenth century. It was challenged in narratives authorized by the Chinese themselves. To relocate China in the World map without accepting the West's totalizing narrative of China's inferior ity did not begin with the late Qing reformers. Wei Yuan in his Illus trated Gazetteers of Maritime Countries (l-/aiguo tuzhi) had already pointed out that Asia was the cradle of the major world religions: Confu cianism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity (Catholicism). Astronomy, mathematics, and machines (qiqi) originated in Asia and were later disseminated to Europe. I OO It is important to note how Wei Yuan re garded Christianity as a product of Asia, not Europe. The geographical space in which many Chinese intellectuals imag ined the history of the Chinese nation was not the World but Yazhou (Asia). By using Asia as the geographical space, many Chinese intellec tuals sought to reestablish the leading role of China in Yazhou, not in the World. Yazhou is China's world, just like the World is Europe's. Chinese intellectuals sought to counter and appropriate orientalism in narrating China in Asia or, as it was rendered in Chinese, Zhong guo in Yazhou. This new geopolitical site of Yazhou was accepted by both the Chi nese and the Japanese. It provided them with a new concept with which a new and yet contentious relationship was created. Though separated by sea, both countries were now located in Yazhou. But China and Japan no longer had the lord-vassal relationship of the China-centered Tianxia. Furthermore, the Chinese and Japanese belonged to the same "yellow race." The racial bond and new spatial link provided a fertile ground for imagining a solidarity between China and Japan against the white race's threat. Beginning even before the Hundred Days Reform, reformists and future revolutionaries were attracted to the idea of an alliance be tween China and Japan in resisting Russian encroachment.l Oi Reformists like Kang Youwei, Tang Caichang, and Liang Qichao and revolutionar ies like Sun Yat-sen in the 1890s entertained the idea of forming a federation with Japan in order to resist European imperialism.1 02 In 1897, Zhang Binglin wrote an article urging cooperation between China and Japan to protect Yazhou from the Russians and Europeans. 1 03 Japa nese advocates of an alliance between China and Japan had been argu ing for such alliance in terms of the same race and writing system (tongwen tongzhong) . Both the Chinese and the Japanese belonged to the "yellow race" or "yellow men" (huangren) . On the Japanese side, toyoshi scholars advocated solidarity among leaders of the yellow race in Yazhou to resist European imperialism. In April 1 898, a branch of the
68
68
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Association for Elevating Yazhou was founded in Shanghai, with the
Japanese ambassador in Shanghai as president and Zheng Guanying as
vice president.104
The coincidence of the desire for cooperation in the early phase
resulted in the founding of the Association for Elevating Asia. But as
Chinese became more alarmed at Japanese ambitions in Yazhou trans-
lingual discourses on toyoshi and zhongguo in Yazhou clashed. In fact,
the theory of the Western origins of the Chinese took on a different
meaning in Japan's toyoshi narration of China. It served the purpose of
uprooting the Chinese from the new geopolitical sphere of Yazhou. If
the Chinese were not the original inhabitants of China but were immi-
grants from western Asia, the Chinese could not claim legitimate posses-
sion of territory. By bifurcating China's culture into antiquity and the
contemporary, the toyoshi historians asserted that they had inherited
the spirit of ancient Chinese culture, and in order to liberate the Chinese
from European imperialists the Japanese would have to assume leader-
ship by moving to the continent as immigrants themselves.
In the case of China, the "barbarians" in Yazhou were the Others
through which Chinese nationalists narrated the origins and history of
the Chinese nation. Even though Huangdi had come from the "West,"
meaning west of the Yellow River plain, he was not a Westerner or
European. He was from West Asia. In a way similar to Japanese histori-
ans' attempt to imagine Japan's toyo in order to create a new history for
modern Japan, Yazhou came to serve a similar narrative function in
imagining the history of the Han race/nation. The Hanzhong belonged
to the yellow race, but they were not the same as the Manchus, the
Mongols, or the Japanese. They comprised a race, or more precisely a
lineage, with a glorious past interrupted by occasional invasions by bar-
barians, of which the Manchus were only the most recent.
While the toyo the Japanese scholars narrated is located in Asia,
Chinese scholars sought to create discursive space in Asia for China. It is
important to note the difference in the preference for toyo, somewhat
equivalent to the English term Asia, and the Chinese preference for
Yazhou. Toyo in both Japanese and Chinese literally means "eastern
ocean"; yazhou in both languages means "continent." The choices of
ocean and continent clearly reflected a discursive privileging of the geo-
graphical space in which Japan and China found themselves. In his "A
General Discourse on the Geography of Asia," Liang Qichao praised
Yazhou as the home of the highest mountain, the largest population, the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Association for Elevating Yazhou was founded in Shanghai, with the Japanese ambassador in Shanghai as president and Zheng Guanying as vice president.104 The coincidence of the desire for cooperation in the early phase resulted in the founding of the Association for Elevating Asia. But as Chinese became more alarmed at Japanese ambitions in Yazhou trans lingual discourses on toyoshi and zhongguo in Yazhou clashed. In fact, the theory of the Western origins of the Chinese took on a different meaning in Japan's toyoshi narration of China. It served the purpose of uprooting the Chinese from the new geopolitical sphere of Yazhou. If the Chinese were not the original inhabitants of China but were immi grants from western Asia, the Chinese could not claim legitimate posses sion of territory. By bifurcating China's culture into antiquity and the contemporary, the toyoshi historians asserted that they had inherited the spirit of ancient Chinese culture, and in order to liberate the Chinese from European imperialists the Japanese would have to assume leader ship by moving to the continent as immigrants themselves. In the case of China, the "barbarians" in Yazhou were the Others through which Chinese nationalists narrated the origins and history of the Chinese nation. Even though Huangdi had come from the "West," meaning west of the Yellow River plain, he was not a Westerner or European. He was from West Asia. In a way similar to Japanese histori ans' attempt to imagine Japan's toyo in order to create a new history for modern Japan, Yazhou came to serve a similar narrative function in imagining the history of the Han race/nation. The Hanzhong belonged to the yellow race, but they were not the same as the Manchus, the Mongols, or the Japanese. They comprised a race, or more precisely a lineage, with a glorious past interrupted by occasional invasions by bar barians, of which the Manchus were only the most recent. While the toyo the Japanese scholars narrated is located in Asia, Chinese scholars sought to create discursive space in Asia for China. It is important to note the difference in the preference for toyo, somewhat equivalent to the English term Asia, and the Chinese preference for Yazhou. Toyo in both Japanese and Chinese literally means "eastern ocean" ; yazhou in both languages means "continent. " The choices of ocean and continent clearly reflected a discursive privileging of the geo graphical space in which Japan and China found themselves. In his "A General Discourse on the Geography of Asia," Liang Qichao praised Yazhou as the home of the highest mountain, the largest population, the
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 69
deepest sea, the largest plateau, and the greatest plain. It was inhabited
by many races, including the yellow, the white, and the Malay. It was
also the place where the World's great religions originated: Confucian-
ism, Buddhism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manichae-
anism. Viewed from the vantage point of history and geography, Europe
and Africa were but the vassals of Asia. After heaping praise on the
continent, Liang stepped back and reminded his readers that "What
makes Asia Asia lies in the future, not in the present!"105
Clearly, Liang's essay should not be read as an attempt to introduce
to Chinese readers the correct position of China in the geography of the
Asian continent. It is a narrative for the future, a narrative intended to
assert autonomy from domination by European discourse on the World.
This introduction of Western knowledge is in fact a discursive resistance
to or counternarrative of orientalist spatialization of the globe. The
"present Asia" in the early twentieth century was a geopolitical arena
dominated by European imperialist nations, and China was only an
objectified and voiceless entity. This is not the future any Chinese aspir-
ing to exercise sovereignty hoped to have, and it is not really an Asia
where China could participate as a subject. Liang continued, pointing
out various areas like India, Afghanistan, Vietnam, Thailand, and
Burma where Europeans had established colonies. Countries on the
Asian continent that had not been colonized were very few. The rising
power of Japan was too obvious to warrant mention. Even though China
was under threat from both Europeans and Japanese, Liang could not
resist raising the question: "As for our Zhonghua, is it not located at the
center of Asia?"106 As the remarks by Liang clearly show, the dislocation
of Zhonghua in the World created a profound identity crisis that sought
to relocate the Chinese nation in the center of Yazhou.
National Essence of the Hanzu
After the Subao case in the summer of 1903, with the arrest of Zhang
Binglin and Zhou Rong, the author of the revolutionary tract "Geming
jun" (the revolutionary army), the revolutionary movement gained
greater momentum. The abolition of the civil service examination in
1905 brought many Chinese students to Japan. In their quest for Western
and Japanese learning in Japan, many Chinese students and scholars
suffered from a profound anxiety about the loss of cultural identity.
While committed to forging a revolutionary rhetoric against the Manchu
69
deepest sea, the largest plateau, and the greatest plain. It was inhabited by many races, including the yellow, the white, and the Malay. It was also the place where the World's great religions originated: Confucian ism, Buddhism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manichae anism. Viewed from the vantage point of history and geography, Europe and Africa were but the vassals of Asia. After heaping praise on the continent, Liang stepped back and reminded his readers that "What makes Asia Asia lies in the future, not in the present! "1 05 Clearly, Liang's essay should not be read as an attempt to introduce to Chinese readers the correct position of China in the geography of the Asian continent. It is a narrative for the future, a narrative intended to assert autonomy from domination by European discourse on the World. This introduction of Western knowledge is in fact a discursive resistance to or counternarrative of orientalist spatialization of the globe. The "present Asia" in the early twentieth century was a geopolitical arena dominated by European imperialist nations, and China was only an objectified and voiceless entity. This is not the future any Chinese aspir ing to exercise sovereignty hoped to have, and it is not really an Asia where China could participate as a subject. Liang continued, pointing out various areas like India, Afghanistan., Vietnam, Thailand, and Burma where Europeans had established colonies. Countries on the Asian continent that had not been colonized were very few. The rising power of Japan was too obvious to warrant mention. Even though China was under threat from both Europeans and Japanese, Liang could not resist raising the question: "As for our Zhonghua, is it not located at the center of Asia?"1 06 As the remarks by Liang clearly show, the dislocation of Zhonghua in the World created a profound identity crisis that sought to relocate the Chinese nation in the center of Yazhou. National Essence of the Hanzu After the Subao case in the summer of 1 903, with the arrest of Zhang Binglin and Zhou Rong, the author of the revolutionary tract "Geming jun" (the revolutionary army) , the revolutionary movement gained greater momentum. The abolition of the civil service examination in 1905 brought many Chinese students to Japan. In their quest for Western and Japanese learning in Japan, many Chinese students and scholars suffered from a profound anxiety about the loss of cultural identity. While committed to forging a revolutionary rhetoric against the Manchu
70
70
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
government, Zhang Binglin was deeply concerned about the threat to
Chinese culture: language, scholarship, and history. Chang Hao argues
that the "national essence" (guocui) Zhang promoted was primarily a
"response to the growing impact of the West in China." By that he
means the cultural identity crisis created by Western culture and Zhang's
belief in fostering nationalism by promoting consciousness of the "value
of tradition." These were two powerful intertwined feelings.107 But by
1905 the Japanese impact was no doubt much more direct if not greater
than that of European orientalism on the discourse on the Chinese
nation. This was particularly the case with Japanese influence on educa-
tional reform.08
The Japanese toyoshi historians' narratives of an inferior and back-
ward China caused alarm among Chinese intellectuals who had experi-
enced the orientalization of shina in Japan. The founding of the National
Essence Journal (Guocui xuebao) was a very important event in the
history of Chinese resistance to Japanese orientalism. The small group
that founded the journal in 1905 was concerned that China's identity
embodied in language, scholarship, history, and literature would be lost
amid the strident call to adopt Western and Japanese cultures. One of
the founders, Huang Jie, clearly was aware of the need to narrate the
history of the Chinese nation with Chinese as the narrators. The produc-
tion of knowledge of the Chinese nation was now controlled by the
Japanese, who had taken over from the Europeans as a result of their
newly recognized national power, their proximity, and the large number
of Chinese students studying in Japan. He said: "What destroyed the
national learning of China was not Europe but Japan. Why? It is simply
because the Japanese used the same writing system and it is easily con-
fused . . . Japanese and the Chinese belong to the same race but differ-
ent subgroups (tongzhong yilei). Competition between subgroups within
the same race will be easily absorbed (tonghua). . . . Therefore, unless
we distinguish Japan from China, it will not be possible to distinguish
Europe from China."109 The more immediate threat to Chinese learning
was the assimilating power of Japanese, which employed large numbers
of Chinese characters with newly invested meanings. The Chinese lan-
guage would be reinvented in the hands of the Japanese if the Chinese
took the shortcut of adopting Japanese neologisms.110
There are two points worthy of note. First, the danger of consuming
discourse or knowledge through the same writing system far exceeded
the threat from discourse produced in an alien language. The Japanese
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
government, Zhang Binglin was deeply concerned about the threat to Chinese culture: language, scholarship, and history. Chang Hao argues that the "national essence" (guocui) Zhang promoted was primarily a "response to the growing impact of the West in China. " By that he means the cultural identity crisis created by Western culture and Zhang's belief in fostering nationalism by promoting consciousness of the "value of tradition. " These were two powerful intertwined feelings. 107 But by 1905 the Japanese impact was no doubt much more direct if not greater than that of European orientalism on the discourse on the Chinese nation. This was particularly the case with Japanese influence on educa tional reform. l OS The Japanese toyoshi historians' narratives of an inferior and back ward China caused alarm among Chinese intellectuals who had experi enced the orientalization of shina in Japan. The founding of the National Essence Journal (Guocui xuebao) was a very important event in the history of Chinese resistance to Japanese orientalism. The small group that founded the journal in 1905 was concerned that China's identity embodied in language, scholarship, history, and literature would be lost amid the strident call to adopt Western and Japanese cultures. One of the founders, Huang Jie, clearly was aware of the need to narrate the history of the Chinese nation with Chinese as the narrators. The produc tion of knowledge of the Chinese nation was now controlled by the Japanese, who had taken over from the Europeans as a result of their newly recognized national power, their proximity, and the large number of Chinese students studying in Japan. He said: "What destroyed the national learning of China was not Europe but Japan. Why? It is simply because the Japanese used the same writing system and it is easily con fused . . . . Japanese and the Chinese belong to the same race but differ ent subgroups (tongzhong yilei) . Competition between subgroups within the same race will be easily absorbed (tonghua) . . . . Therefore, unless we distinguish Japan from China, it will not be possible to distinguish Europe from China. "109 The more immediate threat to Chinese learning was the assimilating power of Japanese, which employed large numbers of Chinese characters with newly invested meanings. The Chinese lan guage would be reinvented in the hands of the Japanese if the Chinese took the shortcut of adopting Japanese neologisms.1l 0 There are two points worthy of note. First, the danger of consuming discourse or knowledge through the same writing system far exceeded the threat from discourse produced in an alien language. The Japanese
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 71
rhetoric of tongwen tongzhong (same writing, same race) was regarded
as deceiving and dangerous. A distinction had to be made to define the
Otherness of the Japanese and their culture, especially their language. It
is ironic that the term guocui is itself a Japanese neologism. For national-
ists like Zhang Binglin, the preservation of Chinese culture was crucial
to the project of nationalist revolution. Without identifying with a spe-
cific culture and a determination to protect it from extinction, the call
for the overthrow of the Manchu regime on the grounds of its inability to
resist European inroads would be meaningless. The preservation of the
Chinese race (baozhong) would be in vain if it were achieved at the
expense of losing their culture and identity. As Zhang saw it, the Chi-
nese writing system was the foundation of the culture of the Hanzu. The
Han race needed to have a writing system of its own, the Hanwen. While
the Japanese could borrow Chinese characters, they had to be differenti-
ated from the Hanzu within the yellow race.
Language of the Hanzu
The modern nation as the Chinese intellectuals imagined it was to be
constituted not only by kinsmen of the same lineage but by people
speaking and writing the same language. Early on, advocates of nation
building had included in their agenda efforts to reform the Chinese
writing system. To both reformist nationalists like Liang Qizhao and
revolutionary nationalists like Zhang Binglin, the modern Chinese na-
71
rhetoric of tongwen tongzhong (same writing, same race) was regarded as deceiving and dangerous. A distinction had to be made to define the Otherness of the Japanese and their culture, especially their language. It is ironic that the term guocui is itself a Japanese neologism. For national ists like Zhang Binglin, the preservation of Chinese culture was crucial to the project of nationalist revolution. Without identifying with a spe cific culture and a determination to protect it from extinction, the call for the overthrow of the Manchu regime on the grounds of its inability to resist European inroads would be meaningless. The preservation of the Chinese race (baozhong) would be in vain if it were achieved at the expense of losing their culture and identity. As Zhang saw it, the Chi nese writing system was the foundation of the culture of the Hanzu. The Han race needed to have a writing system of its own, the Hanwen. While the Japanese could borrow Chinese characters, they had to be differenti ated from the Hanzu within the yellow race.
tion would require a common language, both spoken and written. But,
as one contemporary scholar has pointed out, the Chinese language "is
rather more like a language family than a single language made up of a
Language of the Hanzu
number of regional forms. The Chinese dialectal complex is in many
ways analogous to the Romance language family in Europe. . . To take
an extreme example, there is probably as much difference between the
dialects of Peking and Chaozhou as there is between Italian and French;
the Hainan and Min dialects are as different from the Xi'an dialect as
Spanish is from Rumanian. There are literally scores of mutually non-
intelligible varieties of Chinese."'11
European missionaries had been complaining about the difficulty of
learning the Chinese writing system. They used the romanization method
to facilitate the learning of various dialects. Indeed, the presence of vari-
ous dialects created great obstacles for those who believed in the need for
a "national language." As early as 1896, Liang Qizhao had publicized the
The modern nation as the Chinese intellectuals imagined it was to be constituted not only by kinsmen of the same lineage but by people speaking and writing the same language. Early on, advocates of nation building had included in their agenda efforts to reform the Chinese writing system. To both reformist nationalists like Liang Qizhao and revolutionary nationalists like Zhang Binglin, the modern Chinese na tion would require a common language, both spoken and written. But, as one contemporary scholar has pointed out, the Chinese language "is rather more like a language family than a single language made up of a number of regional forms. The Chinese dialectal complex is in many ways analogous to the Romance language family in Europe . . . . To take an extreme example, there is probably as much difference between the dialects of Peking and Chaozhou as there is between Italian and French; the Hainan and Min dialects are as different from the Xi'an dialect as Spanish is from Rumanian. There are literally scores of mutually non intelligible varieties of Chinese." 111 European missionaries had been complaining about the difficulty of learning the Chinese writing system. They used the romanization method to facilitate the learning of various dialects. Indeed, the presence of vari ous dialects created great obstacles for those who believed in the need for a "national language." As early as 1 896, Liang Qizhao had publicized the
72
72
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
need to bridge the divide between spoken languages and the written
language of the Chinese. Drawing on the insights of Huang Zunxian, he
called for increasing literacy among the Chinese as an integral part of
educational reform, which in turn was crucial to the success of nation
building. He was delighted to introduce in Shiwu bao (Current affairs) a
system of phonetic transcription of Chinese written in English by Shen
Xue, a medical student from Shanghai. Since then, there had been several
attempts to create phonetic systems to facilitate the spread of literacy. 112
As many reformers saw it, creating a national language out of the
classical one would involve two tasks: to increase literacy by overcoming
the obstacle of having to learn large numbers of characters with the
creation of phonetic symbols, and, second, to unify pronunciation. The
first focuses on various methods for phoneticizing Chinese characters.
Since 1896, there had been two major approaches to the creation of
phonetic symbols. One group advocated the use of European alphabets,
while the other recommended creating new phonetic symbols out of
Chinese characters in a manner similar to the Japanese system.113
Increasing literacy also entails the spread of a standard spoken lan-
guage. Language reform advocates seeking to solve this problem natu-
rally took Mandarin, the official language (guanhua) of the imperial
government, as the logical standard. A newspaper published in Wuxi in
1898 carried the title Zhongguo guanyin baihua bao (Newspaper in the
plain language with official pronunciation). The editor explained, "To
exalt the baihua and abandon the wenyan is the only possible way to
assert the intelligence and talent of we yellow men."114 The "plain lan-
guage," baihua, was only plain to the Beijing dialect speakers, not to
speakers of other dialects. Nonetheless, the standardization of pronun-
ciation did not evoke much debate, and most either accepted it or pre-
sumed that guanhua was the national language.115
In addition to attempts to create systems of phonetic symbols to
promote the Beijing dialect, some saw the need to explain why the
presence of diverse dialects did not prevent the Chinese population from
being considered members of the same Chinese nation, the Hanzu.
Zhang Binglin was well aware of the presence of many different dialects,
but he believed that linguistic unity had existed in ancient China. It is
precisely in language that he found the essence of the Chinese nation
and the fountain of Chinese culture. For him, the Chinese language was
inseparable from the history of the Han Chinese, the Hanzu. Drawing
upon his formidable knowledge of the classics and philology, he argued
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
need to bridge the divide between spoken languages and the written language of the Chinese. Drawing on the insights of Huang Zunxian, he called for increasing literacy among the Chinese as an integral part of educational reform, which in turn was crucial to the success of nation building. He was delighted to introduce in Shiwu baa (Current affairs) a system of phonetic transcription of Chinese written in English by Shen Xue, a medical student from Shanghai. Since then, there had been several attempts to create phonetic systems to facilitate the spread of literacy. 112 As many reformers saw it, creating a national language out of the classical one would involve two tasks: to increase literacy by overcoming the obstacle of having to learn large numbers of characters with the creation of phonetic symbols, and, second, to unify pronunciation. The first focuses on various methods for phoneticizing Chinese characters. Since 1 896, there had been two major approaches to the creation of phonetic symbols. One group advocated the use of European alphabets, while the other recommended creating new phonetic symbols out of Chinese characters in a manner similar to the Japanese system. l 1 3 Increasing literacy also entails the spread of a standard spoken lan guage. Language reform advocates seeking to solve this problem natu rally took Mandarin, the official language (guanhua) of the imperial government, as the logical standard. A newspaper published in Wuxi in 1898 carried the title Zhanggua guanyin baihua baa (Newspaper in the plain language with official pronunciation). The editor explained, "To exalt the baihua and abandon the wenyan is the only possible way to assert the intelligence and talent of we yellow men. "114 The "plain lan guage," baihua, was only plain to the Beijing dialect speakers, not to speakers of other dialects. Nonetheless, the standardization of pronun ciation did not evoke much debate, and most either accepted it or pre sumed that guanhua was the national language.115 In addition to attempts to create systems of phonetic symbols to promote the Beijing dialect, some saw the need to explain why the presence of diverse dialects did not prevent the Chinese population from being considered members of the same Chinese nation, the Hanzu. Zhang Binglin was well aware of the presence of many different dialects, but he believed that linguistic unity had existed in ancient China. It is precisely in language that he found the essence of the Chinese nation and the fountain of Chinese culture. For him, the Chinese language was inseparable from the history of the Han Chinese, the Hanzu. Drawing upon his formidable knowledge of the classics and philology, he argued
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 73
that a common spoken language had predated the writing system. By
means of careful study of local dialects, it was possible to show links
between new characters and words and earlier stages of the archaic
language by identifying phonetic family resemblances and ideographic
forms.116
But for some anarchists what China needed was a new language,
not reform of the existing Hanwen. Anarchists like Wu Zhihui called
for the abolition of the Chinese writing system and the adoption of
Esperanto (the universal language), which he rendered as wanguo
xinyu or shijie yu (new language of the World). In the anarchist journal
Xing Shiiji (New century), first published in 1907, Wu Zhihui explained
why Chinese characters should be abolished. First, Han writing (Han-
wen) should be abolished because it was "barbaric" and not suitable for
educating the people. Second, the Chinese writing system was used by
only a narrow circle of people. Wu said: "Han writing is family writing,
not that of a society. It is the writing of aristocrats, not that of the
common people."117 The Chinese writing system indeed was accessible
only to a small fraction of the population. Wu's statement reminds us
that a very small group produced the various discourses on nation and
modernity. What needs to be noted is Wu's reference to Chinese writing
as Hanwen, that is, "writing of the Han." Unequivocally, he was think-
ing of the writing of the Hanzu. Even Chinese writing now became the
writing of the Hanzu. It was natural and logical to call Chinese charac-
ters Hanzi or Hanwen and the Chinese language Hanyu.
For Zhang Binglin, to abolish the Chinese writing system would be
to surrender the authority to produce knowledge of Chinese culture and
history, without which the Hanzu could not survive. He refused to sub-
ject the Chinese writing system to the European discourse of languages
of the World because an alien language cannot "objectively" translate
cultural differences.118 To abandon one's own language, whether spoken
or written, is to forfeit one's subjectivity and throw oneself at the feet of
the users of an alien language. Without linguistic autonomy, there will
be no authorial power and one only exists as an object of discourse
imagined and prescribed as "knowledge" for consumption.
That reformers and revolutionaries alike did not quarrel over which
dialect would become the national tongue does not come as a surprise.119
The specific linguistic competence that the officials and gentry had
worked very hard to acquire during many years of studying and working
in the bureaucracy provided them with the most convenient means of
73
that a common spoken language had predated the writing system. By means of careful study of local dialects, it was possible to show links between new characters and words and earlier stages of the archaic language by identifying phonetic family resemblances and ideographic forms. 1 16 But for some anarchists what China needed was a new language, not reform of the existing Hanwen. Anarchists like Wu Zhihui called for the abolition of the Chinese writing system and the adoption of Esperanto (the universal language), which he rendered as wanguo xinyu or shijie yu (new language of the World) . In the anarchist journal Xing Shiiji (New century), first published in 1 907, Wu Zhihui explained why Chinese characters should be abolished. First, Han writing (Han wen) should be abolished because it was "barbaric" and not suitable for educating the people. Second, the Chinese writing system was used by only a narrow circle of people. Wu said: "Han writing is family writing, not that of a society. It is the writing of aristocrats, not that of the common people. "117 The Chinese writing system indeed was accessible only to a small fraction of the population. Wu's statement reminds us that a very small group produced the various discourses on nation and modernity. What needs to be noted is Wu's reference to Chinese writing as Hanwen, that is, "writing of the Han. " Unequivocally, he was think ing of the writing of the Hanzu. Even Chinese writing now became the writing of the Hanzu. It was natural and logical to call Chinese charac ters Hanzi or Hanwen and the Chinese language Hanyu. For Zhang Binglin, to abolish the Chinese writing system would be to surrender the authority to produce knowledge of Chinese culture and history, w�thout which the Hanzu could not survive. He refused to sub ject the Chinese writing system to the European discourse of languages of the World because an alien language cannot "objectively" translate cultural differences.118 To abandon one's own language, whether spoken or written, is to forfeit one's subjectivity and throw oneself at the feet of the users of an alien language. Without linguistic autonomy, there will be no authorial power and one only exists as an object of discourse imagined and prescribed as "knowledge" for consumption. That reformers and revolutionaries alike did not quarrel over which dialect would become the national tongue does not come as a surprise.119 The specific linguistic competence that the officials and gentry had worked very hard to acquire during many years of studying and working in the bureaucracy provided them with the most convenient means of
74
74
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
communication. Mastering guanhua had been essential to an official ca-
reer in the imperial system. Officials and gentry from outside the capital
and the Beijing area were mostly bilingual, speaking a local dialect,
which was their mother tongue, and Mandarin. But it was not the tongue
of the entire populace.
The vision of a modern Chinese nation was reserved to those who
had knowledge of and access to the official language. The creation of a
national language would entail the suppression and marginalization of
local dialects such as Cantonese, Fujianese, and Shanghainese in the
new national public arena. This voluntary suppression of local dialects in
the invention of a national language can be found in Liang Qichao's
narration of China's geography. Following his "A General Discourse on
the Geography of Asia" was a geography of Zhongguo. Liang said:
"Zhongguo is a natural unified country: racial homogeneity, linguistic
unity, dogmatic unity, uniform custom, all of which are rooted in its
geography. It is what makes China inferior in contrast to Europe, and it
is what makes China superior to the latter as well."120
The narration of the Chinese nation was undertaken by a small
group of literate people who were caught in the radical changes in the
political system that would affect their career trajectories. They came
from different provinces of the Manchu empire. They were mostly bilin-
gual, conversant in their own dialects and the official language of the
Manchu court. They were unified by a common classical education,
which explained to some degree why very few questioned the privileging
of the Beijing dialect and writing system. It also explains why the deploy-
ment of lineage terminology in imagining the Chinese nation was a
common strategy in their writings and why their familiarity with the
ancient history of China made it easy to accept Huangdi as the first
ancestor of the Hanzu. In narrating the modern Chinese nation by
means of the figure of the Han lineage, the revolutionaries homogenized
various ethnic groups into a nationality, the Hanzu; they privileged the
official spoken and written language as the national language, the
Hanwen, suppressing and marginalizing local dialects and cultures.
Conclusion
Narratives of the Chinese nation in the late Qing were produced by the
British, Chinese, and Japanese in at least three languages. A change in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
communication. Mastering guanhua had been essential to an official ca reer in the imperial system. Officials and gentry from outside the capital and the Beijing area were mostly bilingual, speak ing a local dialect, which was their mother tongue, and Mandarin. But it was not the tongue of the entire populace. The vision of a modern Chinese nation was reserved to those who had knowledge of and access to the official language. The creation of a national language would entail the suppression and marginalization of local dialects such as Cantonese, Fujianese, and Shanghainese in the new national public arena. This voluntary suppression of local dialects in the invention of a national language can be found in Liang Qichao's narration of China's geography. Following his "A General Discourse on the Geography of Asia" was a geography of Zhongguo. Liang said: "Zhongguo is a natural unified country: racial homogeneity, linguistic unity, dogmatic unity, uniform custom, all of which are rooted in its geography. It is what makes China inferior in contrast to Europe, and it is what makes China superior to the latter as well. " 1 20 The narration of the Chinese nation was undertaken by a small group of literate people who were caught in the radical changes in the political system that would affect their career trajectories. They came from different provinces of the Manchu empire. They were mostly bilin gual, conversant in their own dialects and the official language of the Manchu court. They were unified by a common classical education, which explained to some degree why very few questioned the privileging of the Beijing dialect and writing system. It also explains why the deploy ment of lineage terminology in imagining the Chinese nation was a common strategy in their writings and why their familiarity with the ancient history of China made it easy to accept Huangdi as the first ancestor of the Hanzu. In narrating the modern Chinese nation by means of the figure of the Han lineage, the revolutionaries homogenized various ethnic groups into a nationality, the Hanzu; they privileged the official spoken and written language as the national language, the Hanwen, suppressing and marginalizing local dialects and cultures. Conclusion Narratives of the Chinese nation in the late Qing were produced by the British, Chinese, and Japanese in at least three languages. A change in
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 75
the power relationship between China and Britain after the Opium War
had brought about an identity crisis for the Chinese. Confronted with
superior technology and military power, the Chinese were forced to
abandoned their own worldview - the tianxia - which centered China
among "barbarians." The uprooting of Zhongguo from its own world
was accompanied by the erasure of its history and identity. The Hegelian
narrative scheme located China at the beginning of World history where
the mind was still not liberated from nature, denying its subjectivity. In
their quest for a subject, the Chinese came across Darwin's theory of
races competing for survival. The Chinese in the social Darwinian
scheme belonged to the yellow race. This new identity served the reform-
ists' call for extensive reform under the Manchu government well. It also
provided a fictive tie for an alliance between China and Japan in a battle
against the white race.
This racialized identity of the Chinese was rendered impotent by
the revolutionary movement, which sought to overthrow the Manchu
regime. The notion of a war between the yellow and white races could
not articulate the power struggle between the Manchus and the Chi-
nese. Building on the institutionalized distinction between Han and
Manchus, Chinese intellectuals imagined the new identity as Hanzu, a
Han lineage, a branch of the yellow race to be distinguished from the
Manchus. In addition, the Hanzu identity was crucial to distinguishing
the Chinese from the Japanese after the Sino-Japanese War. Solidarity
among peoples of the yellow race, which included Japanese, Chinese,
and other groups, provided justification for Japan's assertion of leader-
ship among Asian countries in a battle against European imperialism. It
provided justification for the Japanese colonization of Asia. The narra-
tion of Chinese identity after the defeat of China in 1895 had to confront
a Japanese form of orientalism - the toyoshi - which sought to objectify
China as its Orient. The idea of war between the yellow and white races
had been appropriated by the Japanese imperialists, and the Chinese
nation could distinguish itself from the Japanese only as a branch of
the yellow race, that is, the Han lineage.
The Chinese nation imagined as a mammoth kin group came to be
narrated as a full-fledged lineage with its "first ancestor" Huangdi and
for many a history of migration from West Asia. The identification of
Chinese as descendants of Huangdi greatly facilitated the acceptance of
the fictive kinship bond of the Chinese nation. The Chinese and their
75
the power relationship between China and Britain after the Opium War had brought about an identity crisis for the Chinese. Confronted with superior technology and military power, the Chinese were forced to abandoned their own worldview - the tianxia - which centered China among "barbarians. " The uprooting of Zhongguo from its own world was accompanied by the erasure of its history and identity. The Hegelian narrative scheme located China at the beginning of World history where the mind was still not liberated from nature, denying its SUbjectivity. In their quest for a subject, the Chinese came across Darwin's theory of races competing for survival. The Chinese in the social Darwinian scheme belonged to the yellow race. This new identity served the reform ists' call for extensive reform under the Manchu government well. It also provided a fictive tie for an alliance between China and Japan in a battle against the white race. This racialized identity of the Chinese was rendered impotent by the revolutionary movement, which sought to overthrow the Manchu regime. The notion of a war between the yellow and white races could not articulate the power struggle between the Manchus and the Chi nese. Building on the institutionalized distinction between Han and Manchus, Chinese intellectuals imagined the new identity as Hanzu, a Han lineage, a branch of the yellow race to be distinguished from the Manchus. In addition, the Hanzu identity was crucial to distinguishing the Chinese from the Japanese after the Sino-Japanese War. Solidarity among peoples of the yellow race, which included Japanese, Chinese, and other groups, provided justification for Japan's assertion of leader ship among Asian countries in a battle against European imperialism. It provided justification for the Japanese colonization of Asia. The narra tion of Chinese identity after the defeat of China in 1895 had to confront a Japanese form of orientalism - the toyoshi - which sought to objectify China as its Orient. The idea of war between the yellow and white races had been appropriated by the Japanese imperialists, and the Chinese nation could distinguish itself from the Japanese only as a branch of the yellow race, that is, the Han lineage. The Chinese nation imagined as a mammoth kin group came to be narrated as a full-fledged lineage with its "first ancestor" Huangdi and for many a history of migration from West Asia. The identification of Chinese as descendants of Huangdi greatly facilitated the acceptance of the fictive kinship bond of the Chinese nation. The Chinese and their
76
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Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
first ancestor were re-presented in historical narratives as aggressive and
expansionist. No longer positioned at the center of tianxia, this Chinese
nation as a Han lineage was expected to occupy the center of the Asian
continent - Yazhou. As an Asian nation, China had to authorize its own
knowledge against Japan's orientalist discourse on China. Before 1911,
the Chinese nation imagined as a Han lineage was able to exclude both
the Manchus internally and the Japanese externally.
I have argued that the discourse of nation could not be understood
primarily in terms of the internalization of oriental narratives by the
colonized. Discourses on the nation and modernity in the late Qing
period were not purely derivative because of systematic intervention at
three levels: language, discourse, and social practice. Narratives of the
nation were a result of appropriation, reconfiguration by indigenous
discourse, and resistance to European and Japanese orientalism.
But there were serious limitations to using the Hanzu identity to
bind the nation together. In the case of Zhang Binglin, the narratives of
the Chinese nation were couched in the difficult wenyan style, a style
even the newly educated found difficult to comprehend. In all cases, the
metaphor of lineage imposed serious constraints on the claim to moder-
nity because of the close identification of lineage with traditional and
outdated forms of organization. Finally, the Hanzu identity presented as
a racially and culturally homogenized lineage has contributed to sup-
pressing the enormous diversity of local cultures and dialects.
The identity of the Hanzu as the major nationality of the Chinese
population was accepted by both the Communist and Nationalist govern-
ments. Chinese writing is accordingly called Hanwen or Hanzi. The
Mandarin dialect became the Hanyu. The historicity of the term Hanzu
was erased when it acquired normalcy in the subsequent narration of
China's past in standard histories. It has become an essentialized iden-
tity that most Chinese take for granted. The Hanzu identity allows politi-
cal leaders to hide conflicts and tensions between ethnic groups within
the Hanzu, which include Shanghainese, Fujianese, Cantonese, and
other local dialect speakers. This myth also sustains a belief that there is
a majority ethnic group, the Hanzu, that is running the government,
therefore justifying domination over "minority ethnic groups" such as
the Tibetans and the Uighurs, who are "less civilized and advanced."
The hegemonic power derived from the sense of the Han majority in
part explains why those who identify themselves as Hanzu hardly ques-
tion the meaning of being Han Chinese.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
first ancestor were re-presented in historical narratives as aggressive and expansionist. No longer positioned at the center of tianxia, this Chinese nation as a Han lineage was expected to occupy the center of the Asian continent - Yazhou. As an Asian nation, China had to authorize its own knowledge against Japan's orientalist discourse on China. Before 191 1 , the Chinese nation imagined as a Han lineage was able to exclude both the Manchus internally and the Japanese externally. I have argued that the discourse of nation could not be understood primarily in terms of the internalization of oriental narratives by the colonized. Discourses on the nation and modernity in the late Qing period were not purely derivative because of systematic intervention at three levels: language, discourse, and social practice. Narratives of the nation were a result of appropriation, reconfiguration by indigenous discourse, and resistance to European and Japanese orientalism. But there were serious limitations to using the Hanzu identity to bind the nation together. In the case of Zhang Binglin, the narratives of the Chinese nation were couched in the difficult wenyan style, a style even the newly educated found difficult to comprehend. In all cases, the metaphor of lineage imposed serious constraints on the claim to moder nity because of the close identification of lineage with traditional and outdated forms of organization. Finally, the Hanzu identity presented as a racially and culturally homogenized lineage has contributed to sup pressing the enormous diversity of local cultures and dialects. The identity of the Hanzu as the major nationality of the Chinese population was accepted by both the Communist and Nationalist govern ments. Chinese writing is accordingly called Hanwen or Hanzi. The Mandarin dialect became the Hanyu. The historicity of the term Hanzu was erased when it acquired normalcy in the subsequent narration of China's past in standard histories. It has become an essentialized iden tity that most Chinese take for granted. The Hanzu identity allows politi cal leaders to hide conflicts and tensions between ethnic groups within the Hanzu, which include Shanghainese, Fujianese, Cantonese, and other local dialect speakers. This myth also sustains a belief that there is a majority ethnic group, the Hanzu, that is running the government, therefore justifying domination over "minority ethnic groups" such as the Tibetans and the Uighurs, who are "less civilized and advanced. " The hegemonic power derived from the sense of the Han majority in part explains why those who identify themselves as Hanzu hardly ques tion the meaning of being Han Chinese.
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
77
NOTES Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 77
NOTES
1. Whether the concept of "ethnicity" is a suitable analytical tool in the
study of Chinese history is open to debate. Pamela Crossley cautions against the
hasty adoption of the term ethnicity in studying Chinese social history ("Think-
ing about Ethnicity in Early Modern China," Late Imperial China 11, no. 1 [June
1990]): 1-35.
2. "China's population of one billion includes many nationalities. Over
90% of the population are Han." This statement appears in "An Outline of
Chinese History" by Zhu Jiazhen of the Institute of Economics, Chinese Acad-
emy of Social Sciences, in Xue Muqiao, ed., Almanac of China's Economy
(Hong Kong: Modern Cultural Company, [1981] 1982), 3.
3. Eric J. Hobsbawn, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990), 66.
4. This belief in the existence of a huge population called the Hanzu or
"Chinese nation" (Zhonghua minzu) is beginning to come under scrutiny as
interest in the study of ethnic and national identities in anthropology and cultural
theories spills over into the China field. See Symposium on Ethnicity in Qing
China, Late Imperial China 2, no. 1 (June 1990); "Dimension of Ethnic and
Cultural Nationalism in Asia: A Symposium," Journal of Asian Studies 53, no. 1
(1994). Recent studies of national identities and ethnicity by scholars such as
Pamela Crossley, Emily Honig, Prasenjit Duara, and Dru Gladney do not focus
on the genesis of the Hanzu concept. See Pamela Crossley, Orphan Warriors:
Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1990); Emily Honig, Subei People in Shanghai, 1850-1980 (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic
Nationalism in the People's Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University, East
Asian Council, 1991); and Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narra-
tives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
5. For criticism of Edward Said's failure to consider the reception, resis-
tance, and appropriation of Western orientalism by the colonized, see Aijaz
Ahmad, "Orientalism and After," in In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures
(London: Verso, 1992), 159-220.
6. Recent studies of Chinese identities have come to focus on the coau-
thorship of China as an object of orientalist discourse. See Lydia Liu, Trans-
lingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity -China,
1900-1937 (Stanford University Press, 1995).
7. See Liu's introduction to Translingual Practice.
8. Other common identities include "people of Huaxia" (Huaxia zhi ren)
and "people of Zhongguo" (Zhongguo zhi ren).
9. For a discussion of the Jesuits' narratives of China, see David E.
Mungello, Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985).
10. Leann Chen, "Cross-Cultural Dialogue: Eighteenth-Century British
Representations of China," Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Champaign-
Urbana, 1996). For Macartney's mission, see James Hevia, Cherishing Men from
1 . Whether the concept of "ethnicity" is a suitable analytical tool in the study of Chinese history is open to debate. Pamela Crossley cautions against the hasty adoption of the term ethnicity in studying Chinese social history ("Think ing about Ethnicity in Early Modern China," Late Imperial China 1 1 , no. 1 [June 1990)): 1-35. 2. "China's popUlation of one billion includes many nationalities. Over 90% of the population are Han. " This statement appears in "An Outline of Chinese History" by Zhu Jiazhen of the Institute of Economics, Chinese Acad emy of Social Sciences, in Xue Muqiao, e d . , Almanac of China 's Economy (Hong Kong: Modern Cultural Company, [1981] 1982) , 3. 3. Eric 1. Hobsbawn, Nations and Nationalism since 1 780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) , 66. 4. This belief in the existence of a huge population called the Hanzu or "Chinese nation" (Zhonghua minzu) is beginning to come under scrutiny as interest in the study of ethnic and national identities in anthropology and cultural theories spills over into the China field. See Symposium on Ethnicity in Qing China, Late Imperial China 2, no. 1 (June 1 990 ); "Dimension of Ethnic and Cultural Nationalism in Asia: A Symposium," Journal of Asian Studies 53, no. 1 ( 1 994). Recent studies of national identities and ethnicity by scholars such as Pamela Crossley, Emily Honig, Prasenjit Duara, and Dru Gladney do not focus on the genesis of the Hanzu concept. See Pamela Crossley, Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1 990) ; Emily Honig, Subei People in Shanghai, 1 850-/980 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University, East Asian Council, 1 991); and Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narra tives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 995). 5. For criticism of Edward Said's failure to consider the reception, resis tance, and appropriation of Western orientalism by the colonized, see Aijaz Ahmad, "Orientalism and After, " in In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (London: Verso, 1992) , 159-220. 6. Recent studies of Chinese identities havl� come to focus on the coau thorship of China as an object of orientalist discourse. See Lydia Liu, Trans lingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity -China, 1 900-1937 (Stanford University Press, 1995). 7. See Liu's introduction to Translingual Practice. 8. Other common identities include "people of Huaxia" (Huaxia zhi ren) and "people of Zhongguo" (Zhongguo zhi ren). 9. For a discussion of the Jesuits' narratives of China, see David E. Mungello, Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985). 10. Leann Chen, "Cross-Cultural Dialogue: Eighteenth-Century British Representations of China," Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Champaign Urbana, 1996) . For Macartney's mission, see James Hevia, Cherishing Men from
78
78
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793 (Durham: Duke
University Press, 1996).
11. Not all the negative portraits were new. Montesquieu was among the
few who thought China's government was despotic when most Enlightenment
thinkers held China in high regard for its excellent rule. But by the end of the
eighteenth century in Britain only the negative images of China found audience.
The different uses of China to serve polemical purposes in British domestic
politics played a significant role in the popularization of negative images. Unlike
French radical thinkers, who used China as a weapon to criticize religious intoler-
ance and aristocratic privileges at home, British conservatives tended to use
China as an example of stability and the preservation of tradition to resist
polemics for change and material progress. See P. J. Marshall and Glyndwr
Williams, The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of the World in the
Age of Enlightenment (London: Dent, 1982), 132-33, 141-44, 169-76.
12. Jose Rabasa, Inventing A-M-E-R-I-C-A: Spanish Historiography and
the Formation of Eurocentrism (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993),
181. See especially chapter 5, "Allegories of Atlas."
13. As Rabasa points out, "Since the totality of the world can never be
apprehended as such in a cartographical objectivation, maps have significance
only within a subjective reconstitution of the fragments" (ibid., 186).
14. For discussion of change in the British representation of China in the
second half of the eighteenth century, see Hevia, Cherishing Men, 68-74. See
also Lianhong Chen, "A Cross-Cultural Dialogue: Eighteenth-Century British
Representation of China," Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Champaign-
Urbana, 1996, chap. 2.
15. Although he described China as the oldest empire, Hegel nonetheless
remarked that "China and India lie, as it were, still outside the world's history"
(The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree [New York: Dover, 1956], 209).
16. There are of course exceptions. As late as 1892, a book on the geogra-
phy of the World by Timothy Richard used the term tianxia in its title. The book
was serialized in Wanguo gongbao in 1893 before its printing as a single volume.
But this book had a different title, which does not include the term tianxia. See
Xiong Yuezhi, Xixue tong jan yu wan Qing shehui (The coming of Western
learning and society in the late Qing) (Shanghai: Renmin chubanshe, 1994),
593-94.
17. Fred W. Drake, "Protestant Geography in China: E. C. Bridgman's
Portrayal of the West," in John K. Fairbank,, ed., Christianity in China: Early
Protestant Missionary Writings (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Har-
vard University, 1985), 94-95.
18. For example, in the section on America in his Haiguo tuzhi (An illus-
trated treatise of the maritime kingdoms), Wei Yuan copied verbatim much of
Bridgman's Short Account of the USA. See ibid., 101.
19. Hegel, Philosophy, 120-21.
20. Robert Mackenzie, The 19th Century, a History: The Times of Queen
Victoria (London: Nelson and Sons, [1880] 1889).
21. Gu Changsheng, Chuanjiaoshi yu jindai Zhongguo (Missionaries and
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1 793 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996) . 1 1 . Not all the negative portraits were new. Montesquieu was among the few who thought China's government was despotic when most Enlightenment thinkers held China in high regard for its excellent rule. But by the end of the eighteenth century in Britain only the negative images of China found audience. The different uses of China to serve polemical purposes in British domestic politics played a significant role in the popularization of negative images. Unlike French radical thinkers, who used China as a weapon to criticize religious intoler ance and aristocratic privileges at home, British conservatives tended to use China as an example of stability and the preservation of tradition to resist polemics for change and material progress. See P. J. Marshall and Glyndwr Williams, The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment (London: Dent, 1982), 132-33 , 141-44, 169-76. 12. Jose Rabasa, Inventing A-M-E-R-I-C-A: Spanish Historiography and the Formation of Eurocentrism (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), 1 8 1 . See especially chapter 5, "Allegories of Atlas. " 1 3 . As Rabasa points out, "Since the totality o f the world can never be apprehended as such in a cartographical objectivation, maps have significance only within a subjective reconstitution of the fragments" (ibid. , 186). 14. For discussion of change in the British representation of China in the second half of the eighteenth century, see Hevia, Cherishing Men, 68-74. See also Lianhong Chen, "A Cross-Cultural Dialogue: Eighteenth-Century British Representation of China," Ph. D . diss . , University of Illinois, Champaign Urbana, 1996, chap. 2. 15. Although he described China as the oldest empire, Hegel nonetheless remarked that "China and India lie, as it were, still outside the world's history" ( The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree [New York: Dover, 1956] , 209). 16. There are of course exceptions. As late as 1892, a book on the geogra phy of the World by Timothy Richard used the term tianxia in its title. The book was serialized in Wanguo gongbao in 1893 before its printing as a single volume. But this book had a different title, which does not include the term tianxia. See Xiong Yuezhi, Xixue tong jan yu wan Qing shehui (The coming of Western learning and society in the late Qing) (Shanghai: Renmin chubanshe, 1994), 593-94. 1 7 . Fred W. Drake, "Protestant Geography in China: E . C. Bridgman's Portrayal of the West," in John K. Fairbank" e d . , Christianity in China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Har vard University, 1985 ), 94-95. 1 8. For example, in the section on America in his Haiguo tuzhi (An illus trated treatise of the maritime kingdoms), Wei Yuan copied verbatim much of Bridgman's Short Account of the USA. See ibid., 1 0 1 . 19. Hegel, Philosophy, 120-21 . 20. Robert Mackenzie, The 19th Century, a History: The Times of Queen Victoria (London: Nelson and Sons, [1880] 1889). 2 1 . Gu Changsheng, Chuanjiaoshi yu jindai Zhongguo (Missionaries and
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 79
modern China) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1981), 168-69. The
book was in such great demand that there were at least twenty-five pirated
editions by 1898. See Xiong, Xixue tong, 601.
22. R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1961), 145.
23. Xiong Yuezhi, Xixue tong, 597-601.
24. Mackenzie, Nineteenth Century, 177, 211.
25. Ibid., 211.
26. Liang Qichao, "Zhongguo zhi jiu shixue" (Old historical studies of
China) in Yinbing shi wenji (Collected Writings of the Studio of Sipping Ice)
(Taipei: Xinqing shuju, 1967), 3:97 (hereafter YBSWJ).
27. Xinhai keming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji (Selection of discourses
on current affairs in the decade before the 1911 Revolution) (Hong Kong:
Sanlien shudian, 1962), vol. 1, pt. 1, 63-64 (hereafter SLXJ).
28. Zou Rong, Geming jun, in Xinhai geming ziliao congkan (Beijing), vol.
1, p. 353 (hereafter XHGM).
29. Zhejiang chao (Current of Zhejiang), no. 2 (1903): 59 (hereafter ZJC).
30. See Hung-yok Ip's chapter on Hu Shih in this volume.
31. Although Yan Fu began writing about Darwin's theory of evolution in
1895, Darwinism was not widely known to Chinese intellectuals until 1898. See
James Reeve Pusey, China and Charles Darwin, (Cambridge: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1983), 45, 91.
32. Hao Chang, "Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890-
8," in The Cambridge History of China, (London: Cambridge University Press,
1980), 11:334-36.
33. Xinmin congbao, nos. 42-43, pp. 1-3 (hereafter XMCB).
34. Guomin bao,1901 (hereafter GMB) in SLXJ, 90-94.
35. The term Hanren had been used to distinguish the Manchus and Mon-
gols in the Qing government policy of appointment. It was in fact a full-fledged
discourse the Manchus had helped create, and it was sustained throughout most
of the Qing period. See Crossley, Orphaned Warriors.
36. GMB, 1901, in SLXJ, 94-99.
37. ZJC, 1903, in SLXJ, 504.
38. SLXJ, 527, 553, 561, 841, 893, 896, 900. Jiansu, 1904, in SLXJ, 837-49.
39. Zou Rong, Geming jun (The revolutionary army), in XHGM, 1:333-
64.
40. Li Xiaoti, Qingmo xiachen shehui qimeng yundong, 1901-11 (The En-
lightenment movement of the lower social strata in the late Qing, 1901-1911)
(Taipei: Academic Sinica, 1992), 201-10.
41. Chen Tianhua, Meng huitou (Expeditious Retreat), in XHGM, 2:129.
42. XHGM, 2:179, 190, 195, 197, 203, 349, 385.
43. Ibid., 190.
44. SLXJ, 391.
45. Frank Dikitter, Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford: Stan-
ford University Press, 1992), 67.
46. Indeed, this became a problem in the wake of the 1911 Revolution.
79
modern China) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1981 ) , 1 68-69. The book was in such great demand that there were at least twenty-five pirated editions by 1 898. See Xiong, Xixue tong, 601 . 22. R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1 961 ) , 1 45 . 23. Xiong Yuezhi, Xixue tong, 597-601 . 24. Mackenzie, Nineteenth Century, 1 77, 21 1 . 25. Ibid., 2 1 1 . 26. Liang Qichao, "Zhongguo zhi j iu shixue" (Old historical studies of China) in Yinbing shi wenji (Collected Writings of the Studio of Sipping Ice) (Taipei: Xinqing shuju, 1 967 ) , 3:97 (hereafter YBSWJ). 27. Xinhai kerning qian shinian jian shilun xuanji (Selection of discourses on current affairs in the decade before the 1 9 1 1 Revolution) (Hong Kong: Sanlien shudian, 1 962) , vol. 1 , pt. 1 , 63-64 (hereafter SLXJ). 28. Zou Rong, Geming jun, in Xinhai geming ziliao congkan (Beijing), vol. 1 , p. 353 (hereafter XHGM). 29. Zhejiang chao (Current of Zhejiang) , no. 2 ( 1 903 ) : 59 (hereafter ZJC) . 30. See Hung-yok Ip's chapter on Hu Shih in this volume. 3 1 . Although Van Fu began writing about Darwin's theory of evolution in 1 895, Darwinism was not widely known to Chinese intellectuals until 1 898. See James Reeve Pusey, China and Charles Darwin, (Cambridge: Harvard Univer sity Press, 1 983 ) , 45 , 9 1 . 3 2 . Hao Chang, "Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 18908," in The Cambridge History of China, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1 980 ) , 1 1 :334-36. 33. Xinmin congbao, nos. 42-43 , pp. 1 -3 (hereafter XMCB). 34. Guomin bao, 1 901 (hereafter GMB) in SLXJ, 90-94. 35. The term Hanren had been used to distinguish the Manchus and Mon gols in the Qing government policy of appointment. It was in fact a full-fledged discourse the Manchus had helped create, and it was sustained throughout most of the Qing period. See Crossley, Orphaned Warriors. 36. GMB, 1 901 , in SLXJ, 94-99. 37. ZJC, 1 903, in SLXJ, 504. 38. SLXJ, 527, 553, 5 6 1 , 841 , 893, 896, 900. Jiansu, 1 904, in SLXJ, 837-49. 39. Zou Rong, Geming jun (The revolutionary army), in XHGM, 1 :33364. 40. Li Xiaoti, Qingmo xiachen shehui qimeng yundong, 1 901 -11 (The En lightenment movement of the lower social strata in the late Qing, 1901 -1911 ) (Taipei: Academic Sinica, 1 992 ) , 201-10. 41. Chen Tianhua, Meng huitou (Expeditious Retreat), in XHGM, 2: 129. 42. XHGM, 2: 179, 1 90, 1 95 , 1 97, 203, 349, 385 . 43 . Ibid., 1 90. 44. SLXJ, 391. 45. Frank Dikotter, Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford: Stan ford University Press, 1 992 ) , 67. 46. Indeed, this became a problem in the wake of the 1911 Revolution.
80
80
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
When the provinces declared their independence from the Manchu court in
1911, the Mongol king also declared independence in the name of being a nation
that had been under Manchu rule.
47. Dikotter, Discourse, 117-19.
48. XHGM, 2:130-31.
49. Kai-wing Chow, "Imagining Boundaries of Blood," in Frank Dikotter,
ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London: Hurst,
1997).
50. For discussion of the different approaches to lineage organization and
ancestor worship, see Kai-wing Chow, The Rise of Confucian Ritualism: Ethics,
Classics, and Lineage Discourse (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994),
chaps. 3 and 4.
51. Zhang Binglin, Zhang taiyan quanji (complete works of Zhang Binglin)
(hereafter ZTYQJ).
52. Chow, "Imagining Boundaries," 17, n. 49.
53. ZTYQJ, 170-90.
54. Ibid., 110.
55. Ibid., 468.
56. Ibid., 467-69.
57. Ibid., 170.
58. As Charlotte Furth has observed, Zhang Binglin was "especially resis-
tant to classification." She means there are elements in Zhang's thought that
cannot be classified as conservative. Conservatism, as it has been used in China
studies, derives its intelligibility from Eurocentrism. Any resistance to or attack
on Western values is conservative. See Charlotte Furth, "The Sage as Rebel:
The Inner World of Chang Ping-lin," in Charlotte Furth, ed., The Limits of
Change: Essays on Conservative Alternatives in Republican China (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1976), 114.
59. Quoted in Marianne Bastid, Educational Reform in Early 20th-Century
China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1988),
52.
60. Kang Youwei, for example, included the Manchus in the descendants of
Huangdi.
61. Martin Bernal, "Liu Shih-p'ei and National Essence," in The Limits of
Change, 89-99.
62. Dai Xueji, "Qing mo liu Rih rihchao yu Xinhai geming" (Studying in
Japan and the 1911 Revolution in the late Qing) in Jinian Xinhai geming qishi
zhounian xueshu taolunhui lunwenji (Symposium held in celebration of the sev-
entieth anniversary of the 1911 Revolution) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1983),
590 (hereafter JNXH).
63. Beginning in early 1905, Huang Jie published Huang shi, (Taipei:
Wenhai chubanshe) as a series on the "national history" of the yellow race in the
Guocai xuebao (Journal of national essence).
64. Ibid., 1:45. See also Chow, Rise of Ritualism, chaps. 3 and 4.
65. Huang Jie, Huang shi, 1:47-51.
66. Dikotter, Discourse, 86.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
When the provinces declared their independence from the Manchu court in 1 91 1 , the Mongol king also declared independence in the name of being a nation that had been under Manchu rule . 47. Dikotter, Discourse, 1 17-19. 48. XHGM, 2:130-31 . 49. Kai-wing Chow, " Imagining Boundaries of Blood," in Frank Dikotter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London: Hurst, 1 997) . 5 0 . For discussion of the different approaches t o lineage organization and ancestor worship, see Kai-wing Chow, The Rise of Confucian Ritualism: Ethics, Classics, and Lineage Discourse (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1 994), chaps. 3 and 4. 5 1 . Zhang Binglin, Zhang taiyan quanji (complete works of Zhang Binglin) (hereafter ZTYQJ). 52. Chow, " Imagining Boundaries," 17, n . 49. 53. ZTYQJ, 170-90. 54. Ibid., 1 10. 55. Ibid., 468. 56. Ibid . , 467-69. 57. Ibid. , 1 70 . 5 8 . A s Charlotte Furth has observed, Zhang Binglin was "especially resis tant to classification." She means there are elements in Zhang's thought that cannot be classified as conservative. Conservatism, as it has been used in China studies, derives its intelligibility from Eurocentrism. Any resistance to or attack on Western values is conservative. See Charlotte Furth, "The Sage as Rebel: The Inner World of Chang Ping-lin," in Charlotte Furth, ed. , The Limits of Change: Essays on Conservative Alternatives in Republican China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 976), 1 14. 59. Quoted in Marianne Bastid, Educational Reform in Early 20th-Century China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1 988) , 52. 60. Kang Youwei, for example, included the Manchus in the descendants of Huangdi. 61 . Martin Bernal, "Liu Shih-p'ei and National Essence," in The Limits of Change, 89-99. 62. Dai Xueji, "Qing mo liu Rih rihchao yu Xinhai geming" (Studying in Japan and the 1 91 1 Revolution in the late Qing) in Jinian Xinhai geming qishi zhounian xueshu taolunhui lunwenji (Symposium held in celebration of the sev entieth anniversary of the 1911 Revolution) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1 983) , 590 (hereafter JNXH) . 6 3 . Beginning in early 1 905 , Huang Jie published Huang shi, (Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe) as a series on the "national history" of the yellow race in the Guocai xuebao (Journal of national essence). 64. Ibid., 1 :45. See also Chow, Rise of Ritualism, chaps. 3 and 4. 65. Huang lie, Huang shi, 1 :47-5 1 . 66. Dikotter, Discourse, 86.
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 81
67. Huang Jie, Huang shi, 1:55-58.
68. For debates over approaches to lineage organization and ancestor wor-
ship in the early Qing, see Chow, Rise of Ritualism, chaps. 3 and 4.
69. YBSWJ, chap. 3, 121.
70. XMCB, nos. 40-41, 1.
71. Guomin riri bao huibian (Collection of the National Daily), in Zhonghua
minghuo shiliao congbian (Collection of historical sources of the Republic of
China) (Taibei: Dangshi shiliao bianznan weiyuanhui, 1968), vol. A15.1, 78-80
(hereafter ZHMGSLCB).
72. Ibid., 81.
73. Ibid., 82.
74. Song Jiaoren, 5-6 (hereafter SJRJ).
75. Li, Qingmo di xiac shehui Qimeng yundong (The Enlightenment in the
lower social strata in the late Qing) (Taibei: Academic Sinica, 1992), 202-9.
76. Paul Ricoeur, "Narrative Time," in W. J. T. Mitchell, ed., On Narrative
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 165.
77. Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and
David Pellauer (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1984), 1:3.
78. YBSWJ, chap. 3, 122.
79. Ibid., chap. 6. See also Wang Er-min, "Qingji zhishi fenzi di zijue"
(The self-consciousness of intellectuals in late Qing), in Zhongguo jindai sixiang-
shi lun (On the history of modern Chinese thought) (Taipei: Huashi chubanshe,
1977), 136.
80. Kai-wing Chow, "Imagining Boundaries."
81. Bernal, "Liu Shih-p'ei," 99; Dikbtter, Discourse, 116.
82. Guomin riri bao huibian, 275-76.
83. Ibid., 278-79.
84. Ibid.
85. Zhang Binglin, in SLXJ, 245.
86. Bernal, "Liu Shih-p'ei," 99.
87. Guomin riri bao huibian, in ZHMGSLCB, vol. A4, 2.
88. Anderson, Imagined Communities. For criticism of his stress of print
capitalism as the exclusive factor in imagining a national identity in China and
the presumed unity in the imagination of a nation, see Duara, Rescuing History,
52-56. Another problem with Anderson's argument with regard to China's
history is the dismissal of the role of woodblock printing in creating imagined
communities long before Europeans imagined themselves as belonging to
nation-states.
89. Of the various kinds of movable type used for Chinese characters dur-
ing the Qing, woodblock type was the inexpensive printing method most widely
used by commercial, government, and private publishers. With their woodblock
type, itinerant printers traveled from village to village to print genealogies in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. See Zhang Xinhui, Zhongguo yinshua shi
(A history of printing in China) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1989),
389, 678-832, 701-8.
90. Hao Chang, "Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890-8,"
81
67. Huang lie, Huang shi, 1 :55-58. 68. For debates over approaches to lineage organization and ancestor worship in the early Qing, see Chow, Rise of Ritualism, chaps. 3 and 4 . 6 9 . YBSWl, chap. 3, 121 . 70. XMCB, nos. 40-41 , 1 . 7 1 . Guomin riri bao huibian (Collection of the National Daily), in Zhonghua minghuo shiliao congbian (Collection of historical sources of the Republic of China) (Taibei: Dangshi shiliao bianznan weiyuanhui, 1 968 ) , vol. A 1 5 . 1 , 78-80 (hereafter ZHMGSLCB). 72. Ibid. , 81. 73. Ibid. , 82. 74. Song liaoren, 5-6 (hereafter SlRl). 75. Li, Qingmo di xiac shehui Qimeng yundong (The Enlightenment in the lower social strata in the late Qing) (Taibei: Academic Sinica, 1 992 ) , 202-9. 76. Paul Ricoeur, "Narrative Time," in W. 1. T. Mitchell, e d . , On Narrative (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 1 65. 77. Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1984 ) , 1 :3 . 7 8 . YBSWl, chap. 3, 1 22. 79. Ibid., chap. 6 . See also Wang Er-min, "Qingji zhishi fenzi di zijue" (The self-consciousness of intellectuals in late Qing), in Zhongguo jindai sixiang shi lun (On the history of modern Chinese thought) (Taipei: Huashi chubanshe, 1 977 ) , 136. 80. Kai-wing Chow, "Imagining Boundaries. " 8 1 . Bernal, "Liu Shih-p'ei," 99; Dikotter, Discourse, 1 16. 82. Guomin riri bao huibian, 275-76. 83. Ibid. , 278-79. 84. Ibid. 85. Zhang Binglin, in SLXl, 245. 86. Bernal, "Liu Shih-p'ei," 99. 87. Guomin riri bao huibian, in ZHMGSLCB, vol. A4, 2. 88. Anderson, Imagined Communities. For criticism of his stress of print capitalism as the exclusive factor in imagining a national identity in China and the presumed unity in the imagination of a nation, see Duara, Rescuing History, 52-56. Another problem with Anderson's argument with regard to China's history is the dismissal of the role of woodblock printing in creating imagined communities long before Europeans imagined themselves as belonging to nation-states. 89. Of the various kinds of movable type used for Chinese characters dur ing the Qing, woodblock type was the inexpensive printing method most widely used by commercial, government, and private publishers. With their woodblock type, itinerant printers traveled from village to village to print genealogies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. See Zhang Xinhui, Zhongguo yinshua shi (A history of printing in China) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1 989 ) , 389, 678-832, 701-8 . 90. Hao Chang, " Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890-8 , "
82
82
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in Dennis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, eds., The Cambridge History of China,
vol. 11, Late Ch'ing 1800-1911, part 2 (London: Cambridge University Press,
1980), 274-338.
91. Tan Ruqian, Zhongguo yi Riben shu zonghe mulu (Union catalog of
Chinese translations of Japanese books) (Taipei, 1980), 58.
92. Shiwu bao, in Shen Yunlong, Jindai zhongguo shiliao congkan (Col-
lectanea of historical sources on modern China) (Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe,
1985), ser. 3, vol. 322, 26, 29, 43, 111.
93. Ibid., 1, 67, 133.
94. The replacement was gradual. For example, Sheng Jun still used
tianyan rather than jinhua for evolution in his essay on Zheng Chao's historical
scholarship. Xinmin congbao (New citizen journal) nos. 42-43 (reprint, Taibei:
Yiwen, 1966), 3.
95. Ronald P. Toby's chapter in this volume.
96. Shi Xiaojun, Zhong Ri liangguo xianghu renshi di bianqian (Develop-
ment of Sino-Japanese relations) (Taipei: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1992), 245-46.
97. Stefan Tanaka, Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History (Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1993), 18.
98. Shi, Zhong Ri, 232-34.
99. Aijaz Ahman, In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (London:
Verso, 1992), 172.
100. Wei, Haiguo tuzhi (Illustrated treatise on the maritime kingdoms),
74:1-2.
101. Wu Yannan, "Zhongguo shehui wenhua xingtai yu lian Ri sichao"
(Social and cultural consciousness in China and the idea of forming an alliance
with Japan), in Jin sanbai nian Zhong Ri guanxi yantouhui lunwenji (Symposium
on Sino-Japanese relations during the last three hundred years) (Taipei: Institute
of Modern History, Academic Sinica, 1996), 1:306-22.
102. Wu, "Zhongguo," 319-22.
103. Zhang Binglin, ZTYQJ, 5-6.
104. Wu, "Zhongguo," 311.
105. YBSWJ, chap. 3, 132.
106. It is worth noting that later in the same essay he used shina for China.
His essay was based on a Japanese text, and it is clear that the discursive negativ-
ity of the term shina was not recognized by him.
107. Chang Hao, Chinese Intellectuals in Crisis: Search for Order and Mean-
ing (1890-1911) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 118-19.
108. Bastid, Educational Reform, 44-58.
109. Huang Jie, preface to the first issue of the National Essence Journal
1(1905):15.
110. The threat was serious even though a quarter of the Japanese neolo-
gisms were invented by Chinese collaborators in missionary translation projects.
See Liu, Translingual Practice, 18; Federico Masani, "The Formation of Modern
Chinese Lexicon and Its Evolution toward a National Language," Journal of
Chinese Linguistics, monograph series no. 6, 1993, 157-223.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in Dennis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, eds. , The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1 1 , Late Ch'ing 1 800-1 91 1 , part 2 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1 980) , 274-338. 9 1 . Tan Ruqian, Zhongguo yi Riben shu zonghe mulu (Union catalog of Chinese translations of Japanese books) (Taipei, 1 980) , 58. 92. Shiwu bao, in Shen Yunlong, Jindai zhongguo shiliao congkan (Col lectanea of historical sources on modern China) (Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1 985), ser. 3 , vol. 322, 26, 29, 43, 1 1 1 . 93. Ibid., 1 , 67 , 1 33. 94. The replacement was gradual. For example, Sheng Jun still used tianyan rather than jinhua for evolution in his essay on Zheng Chao's historical scholarship. Xinmin congbao (New citizen journal) nos. 42-43 (reprint, Taibei: Yiwen, 1 966) , 3 . 9 5 . Ronald P. Toby's chapter i n this volume. 96. Shi Xiaojun, Zhong Ri liangguo xianghu renshi di bianqian (Develop ment of Sino-Japanese relations) (Taipei: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1 992), 245-46. 97 . Stefan Tanaka, Japan 's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History (Berke ley: University of California Press, 1 993) , 1 8 . 9 8 . Shi, Zhong Ri, 232-34. 99. Aijaz Ahman, In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (London: Verso, 1 992) , 172. 1 00. Wei, Haiguo tuzhi (Illustrated treatise on the maritime kingdoms), 74: 1 -2. 101. Wu Yannan, "Zhongguo shehui wenhua xingtai yu lian Ri sichao" (Social and cultural consciousness in China and the idea of forming an alliance with Japan), in Jin sanbai nian Zhong Ri guanxi yantouhui lunwenji (Symposium on Sino-Japanese relations during the last three hundred years) (Taipei: Institute of Modern History, Academic Sinica, 1996), 1 :306-22. 1 02. Wu, "Zhongguo," 319-22. 103. Zhang Binglin, ZTYQJ, 5-6 . 1 04. Wu, "Zhongguo," 3 1 1 . 1 05 . YBSWJ, chap. 3 , 1 32. 106. It is worth noting that later in the same essay he used shina for China. His essay was based on a Japanese text, and it is clear that the discursive negativ ity of the term shina was not recognized by him. 1 07. Chang Hao, Chinese Intellectuals in Crisis: Search for Order and Mean ing ( 1890-191 1 ) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 987) , 1 18-1 9 . 1 08. Bastid, Educational Reform, 44-58. 109. Huang Jie, preface to the first issue of the National Essence Journal 1 (1 905 ) : 1 5 . 1 10. The threat was serious even though a quarter of the Japanese neolo gisms were invented by Chinese collaborators in missionary translation projects. See Liu, Translingual Practice, 1 8 ; Federico Masani, "The Formation of Modern Chinese Lexicon and Its Evolution toward a National Language," Journal of Chinese Linguistics, monograph series no. 6 , 1 993, 1 57-223.
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture
Narrating Nation, Race, and Culture 83
111. Jerry Norman, Chinese (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1988), 187.
112. Masani, "Formation," 109-11. It should be pointed out that Shen's
phonetic system was designed to transcribe the Fujian, not the Beijing, dialect.
113. Chen Wandao, "Ming yilai Zhongguo yuwen di xinchao" (New trends
in Chinese language since the Ming dynasty), in Zhongguo wenzi Ladinghua
wenxian (Sources of romanization of Chinese writing) (Ladinghua chubanshe,
n.p., [1940]), 3-5.
114. Masani, "Formation," 111-12.
115. Compare this to the use of the Japanese language as a distinguishing
criterion in the February 28 Incident discussed in Jiu-jung Lo's chapter in this
volume.
116. Furth, "Sage as Rebel," 125-28.
117. Zhan Wei, Wu Zhihui yu Guoyu yundong (Wu Zihui and the national
language movement) (Taipei: Wen shi zhe chubanshe, 1992), 44-49.
118. Liu, Translingual Practice, 245-46.
119. Even the Cantonese Li Jinhui promoted Mandarin. See Andrew E
Jones's chapter in this volume.
120. YBSWJ, chap. 3, 138.
83
1 1 1 . Jerry Norman, Chinese (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1 988), 1 87. 1 1 2. Masani, "Formation," 109-1 1 . It should be pointed out that Shen's phonetic system was designed to transcribe the Fujian, not the Beijing, dialect. 1 1 3 . Chen Wandao, "Ming yilai Zhongguo yuwen di xinchao" (New trends in Chinese language since the Ming dynasty), in Zhongguo wenzi Ladinghua wenxian (Sources of romanization of Chinese writing) (Ladinghua chubanshe, n.p. , [1940]), 3-5 . 1 14. Masani, "Formation," 1 1 1-12. 1 15 . Compare this to the use of the Japanese language as a distinguishing criterion in the February 28 Incident discussed in Jiu-jung Lo's chapter in this volume. 1 1 6. Furth, "Sage as Rebel," 125-28. 1 17. Zhan Wei, Wu Zhihui yu Guoyu yundong (Wu Zihui and the national language movement) (Taipei: Wen shi zhe chubanshe, 1 992), 44-49. 1 18. Liu, Translingual Practice, 245-46. 1 1 9. Even the Cantonese Li Jinhui promoted Mandarin. See Andrew F. Jones's chapter in this volume. 1 20. YBSWJ, chap. 3, 138.

Chapter 3 Chapter 3
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia:
The Discourse on Nation and Ethnicity
in Imperial Japan
Kevin M. Doak
Geography, like the nation, is very much a state of mind. Concepts of
place and spatial relationships involve a web of imaginative acts and
projections of interests and desires by those who are empowered with
the representation of space. Cultural and geographical imaginations
draw from and act on both the hard limits imposed by the presence of
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia: The Discourse on Nation and Ethnicity in Imperial Japan
physical terrain and the past of earlier representations that we often
call "tradition." And yet the power of geographical mapping lies not
only in specific natural features but in the cultural and political re-
sources of strategic representations.1 As such, the imaginative construc-
Kevin M. Doak
tion and reconstruction of nations and regions are historical projects.
They draw from the events of their time, as well as the constantly
changing discursive frameworks that are available to them, in order to
present the image of a necessary relationship among contiguous politi-
cal bodies. What makes the process especially complicated and fascinat-
ing is that often regional mapping, such as the Japanese construction of
a modern East Asia in the twentieth century, is simultaneously imposed
on national mapping and changing concepts of the region are often
interwoven with, and interdependent on, changing definitions of the
nation.
Modern Japanese attempts to construct a new geography of East
Asia provide a good example of the intersection of national and regional
imaginations. As many historians have pointed out, the emergence of
the modern Japanese state required a new relationship to East Asia and
especially to China.2 The Tokugawa bakufu found in neo-Confucianism
a modus vivendi with the Qing policy that China was not merely a nation
85
Geography, like the nation, is very much a state of mind. Concepts of place and spatial relationships involve a web of imaginative acts and projections of interests and desires by those who are empowered with the representation of space. Cultural and geographical imaginations draw from and act on both the hard limits imposed by the presence of physical terrain and the past of earlier representations that we often call "tradition." And yet the power of geographical mapping lies not only in specific natural features but in the cultural and political re sources of strategic representations.! As such, the imaginative construc tion and reconstruction of nations and regions are historical projects. They draw from the events of their time, as well as the constantly changing discursive frameworks that are available to them, in order to present the image of a necessary relationship among contiguous politi cal bodies. What makes the process especially complicated and fascinat ing is that often regional mapping, such as the Japanese construction of a modern East Asia in the twentieth century, is simultaneously imposed on national mapping and changing concepts of the region are often interwoven with, and interdependent on, changing definitions of the nation. Modern Japanese attempts to construct a new geography of East Asia provide a good example of the intersection of national and regional imaginations. As many historians have pointed out, the emergence of the modern Japanese state required a new relationship to East Asia and especially to China.2 The Tokugawa bakufu found in neo-Confucianism a modus vivendi with the Qing policy that China was not merely a nation 85
86
86 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
among others but the Central Kingdom, the center of the cultured
world.3 The new modern Meiji state turned to the West for theories of
political legitimacy and found its strongest support in the theories of the
independent modern state. Consequently, almost from its inception the
modern Japanese state was hostile to any concept of the East Asian
region that was not premised on the principle of national autonomy. I do
not intend to rehash the well-worn issues of the Westernized Japanese
state and its aggression in "traditional" East Asia in the Sino-Japanese
and Russo-Japanese Wars. The fact that in both wars Japanese officials
publicly denounced their enemies for violating Korean national auton-
omy suggests the rise of a new independent factor in the politics of the
region: a new concept of nation and national autonomy that would have
to be taken seriously even as it could be used for various purposes by
different parties.
The problem of region and nation in modern East Asia cannot be
reduced to an ideological expression of political or economic motives
any more than the nation itself can be explained as merely a function of
economic or political forces. Leading theorists of nationalism have dem-
onstrated, quite convincingly I believe, that the nation requires indepen-
dent consideration, as it makes distinctive claims on people's allegiances
even while it can be used by the political state, class, gender, or other
interests.4 Issues of cultural and ethnic identity frequently cut across
class lines, and these kinds of identity questions are the very stuff of
nations, if not necessarily of states. Building on the important distinction
between "nation" and "state" that theorists of nationalism have opened
up, I want to draw attention to a less studied facet of Japanese interven-
tion in modern East Asia: the role that ethnic concepts of the nation, as
distinct from the political state, played in Japanese attempts to reorga-
nize East Asia as an arena of ethnic national cooperation under Japa-
nese state leadership, thus giving the region a new identity distinct from
those of modern (Western) independent states. This reimagination of
East Asia as an arena of ethnic national identities drew from new defini-
tions of the nation as an ethnic people (minzoku) that were enjoying
wide circulation during and after World War I. Yet, even as Chinese,
Koreans and others in East Asia sought to appropriate this discourse on
ethnic nationalism for their own needs, imperialists in Japan responded
and attempted to reshape ethnic nationalism as the basis of their own
New Order in East Asia.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
among others but the Central Kingdom, the center of the cultured world.3 The new modern Meiji state turned to the West for theories of political legitimacy and found its strongest support in the theories of the independent modern state. Consequently, almost from its inception the modern Japanese state was hostile to any concept of the East Asian region that was not premised on the principle of national autonomy. I do not intend to rehash the well-worn issues of the Westernized Japanese state and its aggression in "traditional" East Asia in the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. The fact that in both wars Japanese officials publicly denounced their enemies for violating Korean national auton omy suggests the rise of a new independent factor in the politics of the region: a new concept of nation and national autonomy that would have to be taken seriously even as it could be used for various purposes by different parties. The problem of region and nation in modern East Asia cannot be reduced to an ideological expression of political or economic motives any more than the nation itself can be explained as merely a function of economic or political forces. Leading theorists of nationalism have dem onstrated, quite convincingly I believe, that the nation requires indepen dent consideration, as it makes distinctive claims on people's allegiances even while it can be used by the political state, class, gender, or other interests.4 Issues of cultural and ethnic identity frequently cut across class lines, and these kinds of identity questions are the very stuff of nations, if not necessarily of states. Building on the important distinction between "nation" and "state" that theorists of nationalism have opened up, I want to draw attention to a less studied facet of Japanese interven tion in modern East Asia: the role that ethnic concepts of the nation, as distinct from the political state, played in Japanese attempts to reorga nize East Asia as an arena of ethnic national cooperation under Japa nese state leadership, thus giving the region a new identity distinct from those of modern (Western) independent states. This reimagination of East Asia as an arena of ethnic national identities drew from new defini tions of the nation as an ethnic people (minzoku) that were enjoying wide circulation during and after World War I . Yet, even as Chinese, Koreans and others in East Asia sought to appropriate this discourse on ethnic nationalism for their own needs, imperialists in Japan responded and attempted to reshape ethnic nationalism as the basis of their own New Order in East Asia.
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 87
Constructing a Modern Vocabulary for National Identity in
87
Constructing a Modern Vocabulary for National Identity in East Asia
East Asia
Definitions and descriptions serve not merely as reflections of realities
but as powerful tools in shaping perceptions of, and even contributing to
the construction of, social realities. One place to begin to appreciate how
concepts and narratives of national identity were changing in early-
twentieth-century Japanese discourse on East Asia is a 1916 volume en-
titled The Nations of the Far East. The Nations of the Far East is a valu-
able text for decoding changes in early-twentieth-century Japanese dis-
course on East Asia. A syncretic volume in an encyclopedic series, the
volume was a summary of "state of the field" work on East Asian history
and ethnology, but it also sought to make these professional findings
known to a broad audience. Apparently written by Nakamura Kyishire,5
a leading Japanese authority on Chinese history, the text employed pho-
netic furigana throughout so that it would be accessible even to readers
with a limited grasp of written Japanese. To a rare degree, The Nations of
the Far East sought to bridge the gap between the Japanese elite discourse
on East Asia and a more popular audience that included ordinary people,
both in the homeland and in the colonies, as well as government bureau-
crats and colonial officials who were increasingly in charge of day to day
affairs throughout much of the "Far East."
If Nakamura's text sought to reach a broad audience, it also had
ambitions of transforming how Japanese thought of themselves and their
neighbors in the region. Nakamura combined narrative and semiology to
suggest something more significant than a mere theoretical debate over
the meaning of terms. Writing about and responding to current events in
Europe and Asia that were transforming nations and nationalist dis-
course, Nakamura outlined a new vocabulary for understanding and talk-
ing about national identity. New events seemed to require a new language
for representing the nation, and Nakamura responded with both a narra-
tive on the origins of ethnic identity in East Asia and a summary of new
scientific nomenclature that established new relationships between the
critical components of nationalist discourse: the people, ethnicity, race,
and the state. Although Nakamura was an influential historian, the ques-
tion of his influence on specific individuals through this text is less impor-
tant than the question of how this vocabulary of the nation developed
in the context of growing Japanese imperialism in East Asia. Of course,
Definitions and descriptions serve not merely as reflections of realities but as powerful tools in shaping perceptions of, and even contributing to the construction of, social realities. One place to begin to appreciate how concepts and narratives of national identity were changing in early twentieth-century Japanese discourse on East Asia is a 1916 volume en titled The Nations of the Far East. The Nations of the Far East is a valu able text for decoding changes in early-twentieth-century Japanese dis course on East Asia. A syncretic volume in an encyclopedic series, the volume was a summary of "state of the field" work on East Asian history and ethnology, but it also sought to make these professional findings known to a broad audience. Apparently written by Nakamura Kyushiro ,5 a leading Japanese authority on Chinese history, the text employed pho netic furigana throughout so that it would be accessible even to readers with a limited grasp of written Japanese. To a rare degree, The Nations of the Far East sought to bridge the gap between the Japanese elite discourse on East Asia and a more popular audience that included ordinary people, both in the homeland and in the colonies, as well as government bureau crats and colonial officials who were increasingly in charge of day to day affairs throughout much of the "Far East." If Nakamura's text sought to reach a broad audience, it also had ambitions of transforming how Japanese thought of themselves and their neighbors in the region. Nakamura combined narrative and semiology to suggest something more significant than a mt�re theoretical debate over the meaning of terms. Writing about and responding to current events in Europe and Asia that were transforming nations and nationalist dis course, Nakamura outlined a new vocabulary for understanding and talk ing about national identity. New events seemed to require a new language for representing the nation, and Nakamura responded with both a narra tive on the origins of ethnic identity in East Asia and a summary of new scientific nomenclature that established new relationships between the critical components of nationalist discourse: the people, ethnicity, race, and the state. Although Nakamura was an influential historian, the ques tion of his influence on specific individuals through this text is less impor tant than the question of how this vocabulary of the nation developed in the context of growing Japanese imperialism in East Asia. Of course,
88
88
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
his text was a self-conscious attempt to explain key concepts like "the Far
East," "the (ethnic) nation" and "race" to a broad reading public in
Japan, and as such it was no mere description of an objective reality in the
Far East. It sought to codify and popularize key understandings of the
nation and national integrity, ethnicity, and the state, that would inform
subsequent articulations of the problem, even as those later articulations
would revise or revert to Nakamura's basic assumptions about national
and East Asian identities.
Nakamura stated at the outset that the Great War was demonstrat-
ing - even as he wrote - how the problem of ethnic nationality was not
fully contained within the contemporary international system, which was
based on "the authority of the geographical boundaries and historical
relations among existing states."6 This situation was both an opportunity
and a concern for Imperial Japan, Nakamura concluded, since Japan was
simultaneously alone as an independent state in the Orient and a mem-
ber of the Western powers. Imperial Japan's ambivalent position - in
but not of the Orient - seemed to Nakamura to call for a reconceptuali-
zation of the meaning and scope of the modern Far East. Nakamura
understood that specific conceptualizations of geopolitical space repre-
sented different ways of identifying the subject and therefore carried
with them differences in political analysis, and he reviewed various alter-
natives to the concept of the "Far East." He offered the example of the
Japanese term kyokuto, a neologism that could refer to either the "Far
East" or the "Extreme East" but in either case had sought to depict a
region that, in contrast to the eastern or southeastern European nations
(i.e., the Balkans) of the "Near East," lay at the extreme edge of the
East. Within this geopolitical imagination, Nakamura concluded that the
"Extreme East" was less appropriate as an alternative to "the Far East,"
since it would most accurately refer only to Japan.7
Nakamura's point was not to reify a Western global taxonomy but to
highlight certain unresolved tensions within it as a first step toward a
new imagination of the Far East. He was dissatisfied with the artificial
and inadequate Western view of the Orient, which neatly categorized
the region into the Near East, the Middle East, and the Far East:
[T]here is no consensus on the range of Eastern countries comprised
by the term "the Far East." Usually, when we speak generally of the
foreign relations of the Far East, we speak of the foreign relations
between Imperial Japan and China, but [Ernest John] Harrison's
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
his text was a self-conscious attempt to explain key concepts like "the Far East," "the (ethnic) nation" and "race" to a broad reading public in Japan, and as such it was no mere description of an objective reality in the Far East. It sought to codify and popularize key understandings of the nation and national integrity, ethnicity, and the state, that would inform subsequent articulations of the problem, even as those later articulations would revise or revert to Nakamura's basic assumptions about national and East Asian identities. Nakamura stated at the outset that the Great War was demonstrat ing - even as he wrote - how the problem of ethnic nationality was not fully contained within the contemporary international system, which was based on "the authority of the geographical boundaries and historical relations among existing states."6 This situation was both an opportunity and a concern for Imperial Japan, Nakamura concluded, since Japan was simultaneously alone as an independent state in the Orient and a mem ber of the Western powers. Imperial Japan's ambivalent position - in but not of the Orient - seemed to Nakamura to call for a reconceptuali zation of the meaning and scope of the modern Far East. Nakamura understood that specific conceptualizations of geopolitical space repre sented different ways of identifying the subject and therefore carried with them differences in political analysis, and he reviewed various alter natives to the concept of the "Far East." He offered the example of the Japanese term kyokut6, a neologism that could refer to either the "Far East" or the "Extreme East" but in either case had sought to depict a region that, in contrast to the eastern or southeastern European nations (i.e., the Balkans) of the "Near East," lay at the extreme edge of the East. Within this geopolitical imagination, Nakamura concluded that the "Extreme East" was less appropriate as an alternative to "the Far East," since it would most accurately refer only to Japan.? Nakamura's point was not to reify a Western global taxonomy but to highlight certain unresolved tensions within it as a first step toward a new imagination of the Far East. He was dissatisfied with the artificial and inadequate Western view of the Orient, which neatly categorized the region into the Near East, the Middle East, and the Far East: [T]here is no consensus on the range of Eastern countries comprised by the term "the Far East." Usually, when we speak generally of the foreign relations of the Far East, we speak of the foreign relations between Imperial Japan and China, but [Ernest John] Harrison's
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 89
understanding of the Far East in his Peace or War East of Baikal
(1910) means the Far Eastern countries of Japan (which includes
Korea), China (which comprises four parts, the Manchu, Mongol,
Turk, and Tibetan), Eastern Siberia, and the Philippine Islands. Ac-
cording to the definition the English China hand Archibald Little
provides in The Far East (1905), Far East is a general term for Japan,
China (including also its various peripheries), Siam, Annam, Chosen
(his book was published the year before the Japanese annexation of
Korea), and most of the Malay Peninsula.8
Once he had uncovered these and other differences in how the term Far
East was actually used, and thus having undermined any natural connec-
tion between the term and its referent, Nakamura was free to provide his
89
understanding of the Far East in his Peace or War East of Baikal (1910) means the Far Eastern countries of Japan (which includes Korea) , China (which comprises four parts, the Manchu, Mongol, Turk, and Tibetan), Eastern Siberia, and the Philippine Islands. Ac cording to the definition the English China hand Archibald Little provides in The Far East (1905) , Far East is a general term for Japan, China (including also its various peripheries), Siam, Annam, Chosen (his book was published the year before the Japanese annexation of Korea), and most of the Malay Peninsula.8
own definition: "In this book, I will use the term Far East as a general
term to refer to those oriental countries in a region that is at the extreme
edge of the East; that is, the region that includes Imperial Japan and the
eastern part of the Asian continent."9
Significantly, Nakamura's geographical imagination included only
one concrete reference to an existing state in the Far East - Imperial
Japan. And his definition of Far East made possible a quite restrictive
and peculiar understanding of the region. As the organization of his text
made clear, his definition followed Harrison but excluded Eastern Sibe-
ria and the Philippines. The arbitrariness in the general usage of the
term allowed Nakamura to construct a Far East that focused on China as
a multinational region secured by the region's only modern state, Impe-
rial Japan.
Underlying Nakamura's recognition of the Japanese imperial state
as including Korea was a specific imagination of the Far East as a field of
competing ethnic nationalities in which ethnicity was a historical and
dynamic marker of non-Western identity in contrast to the Western
privileging of the political state as the fundamental unit of modern collec-
tive identity. Nakamura, who had studied in Germany in 1902, shared
with German nationalists a juxtaposition of "the legal and rational con-
cept of citizenship" and "the infinitely vaguer concept of 'folk."'10 Yet,
while nationalists in Germany, Central Europe, and elsewhere saw
volkish nationalism as a challenge to Western political nationalism,
Nakamura was more cautious. He agreed that the Great War had height-
ened a sense of difference between political boundaries drawn by em-
pires and ethnic national identities. For Nakamura, the lessons of the
Once he had uncovered these and other differences in how the term Far East was actually used, and thus having undermined any natural connec tion between the term and its referent, Nakamura was free to provide his own definition: "In this book, I will use the term Far East as a general term to refer to those oriental countries in a region that is at the extreme edge of the East; that is, the region that includes Imperial Japan and the eastern part of the Asian continent."9 Significantly, Nakamura's geographical imagination included only one concrete reference to an existing state in the Far East - Imperial Japan. And his definition of Far East made possible a quite restrictive and peculiar understanding of the region. As the organization of his text made clear, his definition followed Harrison but excluded Eastern Sibe ria and the Philippines. The arbitrariness in the general usage of the term allowed Nakamura to construct a Far East that focused on China as a multinational region secured by the region's only modern state, Impe rial Japan. Underlying Nakamura's recognition of the Japanese imperial state as including Korea was a specific imagination of the Far East as a field of competing ethnic nationalities in which ethnicity was a historical and dynamic marker of non-Western identity in contrast to the Western privileging of the political state as the fundamental unit of modern collec tive identity. Nakamura, who had studied in Germany in 1 902, shared with German nationalists a juxtaposition of "the legal and rational con cept of citizenship" and "the infinitely vaguer concept of 'folk. "'1 0 Yet, while nationalists in Germany, Central Europe, and elsewhere saw volkish nationalism as a challenge to Western political nationalism, Nakamura was more cautious. He agreed that the Great War had height ened a sense of difference between political boundaries drawn by em pires and ethnic national identities. For Nakamura, the lessons of the
90
90
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
war for "the problem of the Far East" were to highlight the nature of a
national identity that was not reducible to existing state structures.11 The
region would have to be reshaped in accordance with these new prin-
ciples of nationality.
Nakamura's approach to the Far East anticipated what Anthony D.
Smith has recently termed Western and non-Western models of national-
ism. In the Western model of the nation, political and legal criteria of
membership predominate, whereas "a rather different model of the na-
tion sprang up outside the West. . . . Its distinguishing feature is its
emphasis on a community of birth and native culture."12 Nakamura
employed this ethnic approach to national identity in his narration of
Chinese history, but he left the status of Japanese nationality unclear,
perhaps recognizing in Japan's case only Smith's point that "every nation-
alism contains civic and ethnic elements in varying degrees and different
forms."13 While Nakamura recognized ethnic differences in Japan, he
also felt such differences had not served as an obstacle to the construc-
tion of the modern state (Korean annexation was the exception to the
rule, but an exemption that caused little concern given Nakamura's low
regard for Korean ethnic viability). China, however, was a space where
five major competing ethnic nations (Han, Manchu, Mongol, Uighur,
and Tibetan) vied for dominance.14 Although Nakamura accepted the
existence of a Japanese nationality that approximates a civic model of
the nation (kokumin),15 he remained uninterested in the possibility of a
modern Chinese version of a civic nation (guomin) that might transcend
ancient ethnic divisions in China. Instead, he offered separate narratives
of these ethnic nations in China to demonstrate how ethnic nationality
had predated and problematized the movement toward a Chinese politi-
cal state, and he emphasized how political boundaries and a sense of a
common ethnic nation had rarely coincided in the long span of Chinese
history.
Given the central importance that this distinction between the ethnic
nation (minzoku) and the political nation (kokumin) or state (kokka)
would play in his narratives, Nakamura first offered definitions of the key
Japanese terms in discussing international relations in the Far East: the
ethnic nation (minzoku), the political nation (kokumin), and race
(jinshu). He began with a lengthy exegesis of tile term minzoku that
would provide the foundation for his and many subsequent Japanese
imaginations of national identity in twentieth-century East Asia. He ex-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
war for "the problem of the Far East" were to highlight the nature of a national identity that was not reducible to existing state structures. 11 The region would have to be reshaped in accordance with these new prin ciples of nationality. Nakamura's approach to the Far East anticipated what Anthony D . Smith has recently termed Western and non-Western models of national ism. In the Western model of the nation, political and legal criteria of membership predominate, whereas "a rather different model of the na tion sprang up outside the West. . . . Its distinguishing feature is its emphasis on a community of birth and native culture. " 12 Nakamura employed this ethnic approach to national identity in his narration of Chinese history, but he left the status of Japanese nationality unclear, perhaps recognizing in Japan's case only Smith's point that "every nation alism contains civic and ethnic elements in varying degrees and different forms."13 While Nakamura recognized ethnic differences in Japan, he also felt such differences had not served as an obstacle to the construc tion of the modern state (Korean annexation was the exception to the rule, but an exemption that caused little concern given Nakamura's low regard for Korean ethnic viability). China, however, was a space where five major competing ethnic nations (Han, Manchu, Mongol, Uighur, and Tibetan) vied for dominance. 14 Although Nakamura accepted the existence of a Japanese nationality that approximates a civic model of the nation (kokumin) , 15 he remained uninterested in the possibility of a modern Chinese version of a civic nation (guomin) that might transcend ancient ethnic divisions in China. Instead, he offered separate narratives of these ethnic nations in China to demonstrate how ethnic nationality had predated and problematized the movement toward a Chinese politi cal state, and he emphasized how political boundaries and a sense of a common ethnic nation had rarely coincided in the long span of Chinese history. Given the central importance that this distinction between the ethnic nation (minzoku) and the political nation (kokumin) or state (kokka) would play in his narratives, Nakamura first offered definitions of the key Japanese terms in discussing international relations in the Far East: the ethnic nation (minzoku), the political nation (kokumin) , and race (jinshu). He began with a lengthy exegesis of the term minzoku that would provide the foundation for his and many subsequent Japanese imaginations of national identity in twentieth-century East Asia. He ex-
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 91
plained that the term minzoku was a neologism, like Far East, and that it
corresponded to certain aspects of the English word nation, the French
term peuple, and the German word Volk, all of which originally had
different emphases but had recently coalesced around the concept of a
distinct national people that shared certain attributes. Nakamura listed
these attributes as (1) a common ancestral blood lineage, (2) historical
and spiritual unity, (3) common culture, (4) common religion, (5) com-
mon language and customs, (6) a sense of community or shared economic
interest, (7) a common state structure that increases the sense of shared
economic interests, and (8) a sense of economic or industrial community.
Nakamura listed these ingredients in more or less chronological order,
arguing that nations were not entirely modern phenomena but were
rooted in ancient tribal histories and lineages that had gained a political
sense of community with the arrival of the West in the early modern era
and a common economic interest only with the emergence of recent
economic rivalries, by which he must have meant imperialism.16 These
constitutive elements, along with Nakamura's insistence that this sense of
nationality (minzoku) must be distinguished from the legal-political con-
cept of the nation (kokumin) and the state (kokka), mark out a concept
of ethnic nationality as a distinct form of national identity. 17
As the site where racial and political identities converged, the ethnic
nation best captured for Nakamura the tensions of similarity and differ-
ence that shaped social and political life in early-twentieth-century East
Asia. While he insisted on the distinction between a concept of the ethnic
nation and that of physical race, he found racial arguments useful in
providing explanations for the macroformation of a Far Eastern context
and for the microformation of individual ethnic nations. He drew from
the racial classifications of physical anthropologists like Bernier, Keane,
and Flower to argue that humanity was divided into five races (yellow,
white, black, dark [Malay] and red copper), of which the yellow and
white were "historical" races and the black, dark and red were passive
races that had yet to make any significant contribution to history.18 And,
while the white race had the upper hand in the modern era, in the premod-
ern and especially the medieval era the Asian race had contributed nearly
everything of significance to world history: paper, printing, gunpowder,
the magnetic needle, and even the Christian savior had all come from the
East.19 Nakamura used this world historical narrative to supplement West-
ern racial theories, including notions of progressivism, to counter beliefs
91
plained that the term minzoku was a neologism, like Far East, and that it corresponded to certain aspects of the English word nation, the French term peuple, and the German word Yolk, all of which originally had different emphases but had recently coalesced around the concept of a distinct national people that shared certain attributes. Nakamura listed these attributes as (1) a common ancestral blood lineage, (2) historical and spiritual unity, (3) common culture, (4) common religion, (5) com mon language and customs, (6) a sense of community or shared economic interest, (7) a common state structure that increases the sense of shared economic interests, and (8) a sense of economic or industrial community. Nakamura listed these ingredients in more or less chronological order, arguing that nations were not entirely modern phenomena but were rooted in ancient tribal histories and lineages that had gained a political sense of community with the arrival of the West in the early modern era and a common economic interest only with the emergence of recent economic rivalries, by which he must have meant imperialism.16 These constitutive elements, along with Nakamura's insistence that this sense of nationality (minzoku) must be distinguished from the legal-political con cept of the nation (kokumin) and the state (kokka) , mark out a concept of ethnic nationality as a distinct form of national identity. 17 As the site where racial and political identities converged, the ethnic nation best captured for Nakamura the tensions of similarity and differ ence that shaped social and political life in early-twentieth-century East Asia. While he insisted on the distinction between a concept of the ethnic nation and that of physical race, he found racial arguments useful in providing explanations for the macroformation of a Far Eastern context and for the microformation of individual ethnic nations. He drew from the racial classifications of physical anthropologists like Bernier, Keane, and Flower to argue that humanity was divided into five races (yellow, white, black, dark [Malay] and red copper ) , of which the yellow and white were "historical" races and the black, dark and red were passive races that had yet to make any significant contribution to history. 18 And, while the white race had the upper hand in the: modern era, in the premod ern and especially the medieval era the Asian race had contributed nearly everything of significance to world history: paper, printing, gunpowder, the magnetic needle, and even the Christian savior had all come from the East.19 Nakamura used this world historical narrative to supplement West ern racial theories, including notions of progressivism, to counter beliefs
92
92
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in Western/white superiority, and to suggest the racial and historical supe-
riority of the East.
Yet, Nakamura did not completely accept the racial collectivization of
modern Asia as a homogeneous entity opposed to the West. In place of
racial ties, he emphasized that the modern world required a more specifi-
cally national sense of identity, an identity that should be neither too
broad in a physical, racial sense nor too invested in the Western form of
the political state. Modern Asia, as Nakamura understood the region, was
a complex arena where racial similarities and national differences were
synthesized within a sense of ethnic nationality - the result of the histori-
cal and cultural mediation of race. Nakamura conceded that the subject
referred to as "the (ethnic) nations of the Far East" could be described in
other terms (the denizens of Asia, the yellow race, the Asian lineage), but
he concluded that they really referred to (1) the Japanese (including the
Koreans), (2) the Chinese (shina kokujin), and (3) the various Indian
peoples. No nation was simply a single tribe, and Nakamura recognized
the presence of thirteen different tribal groups within the Japanese em-
pire (including, of course, the Korean, Ainu, and Ryukyuan peoples).20
Such tribal diffusion was not unique to Imperial Japan but was characteris-
tic of all the nations of the Far East to varying degrees. Even China, which
Nakamura understood through the five major ethnic divisions of Han,
Manchu, Mongol, Uighur and Tibetan, was more complex than such
major ethnic national categories suggested.
And yet, what we call one Han people is not a single, independent
(ethnic) nation. An extremely complicated series of migrations and
miscegenation since the beginning of history has resulted in tribal
(shuzoku) differentiation within the Han people. The greatest divi-
sion is between the southern Han (the southern Chinese) and the
northern Han (northern Chinese), but in addition there are so many
tribal groups that it is almost impossible to count them all.21
The key point here is that, whereas the coherence and independence of
the core Japanese ethnic nation within the multitribal Japanese empire
was never called into question, the Han ethnic nation had been divided
and subdivided until it was no longer recognizable as "a single, indepen-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in Western/white superiority, and to suggest the racial and historical supe riority of the East. Yet, Nakamura did not completely accept the racial collectivization of modern Asia as a homogeneous entity opposed to the West. In place of racial ties, he emphasized that the modern world required a more specifi cally national sense of identity, an identity that should be neither too broad in a physical, racial sense nor too invested in the Western form of the political state. Modern Asia, as Nakamura understood the region, was a complex arena where racial similarities and national differences were synthesized within a sense of ethnic nationality - the result of the histori cal and cultural mediation of race. Nakamura conceded that the subject referred to as "the (ethnic) nations of the Far East" could be described in other terms (the denizens of Asia, the yellow race, the Asian lineage), but he concluded that they really referred to (1) the Japanese (including the Koreans), (2) the Chinese (shina kokujin) , and (3) the various Indian peoples. No nation was simply a single tribe, and Nakamura recognized the presence of thirteen different tribal groups within the Japanese em pire (including, of course, the Korean, Ainu, and Ryukyuan peoples). 20 Such tribal diffusion was not unique to Imperial Japan but was characteris tic of all the nations of the Far East to varying degrees. Even China, which Nakamura understood through the five major ethnic divisions of Han, Manchu, Mongol, Uighur and Tibetan, was more complex than such major ethnic national categories suggested.
dent (ethnic) nation." The contrast with Japan could not be greater, and
in fact this conviction that Japan was different from China served as the
underlying assumption of Nakamura's entire text.
And yet, what we call one Han people is not a single, independent (ethnic) nation. An extremely complicated series of migrations and miscegenation since the beginning of history has resulted in tribal (shuzoku) differentiation within the Han people. The greatest divi sion is between the southern Han (the southern Chinese) and the northern Han (northern Chinese), but in addition there are so many tribal groups that it is almost impossible to count them all. 2 1 The key point here is that, whereas the coherence and independence of the core Japanese ethnic nation within the multitribal Japanese empire was never called into question, the Han ethnic nation had been divided and subdivided until it was no longer recognizable as "a single, indepen dent (ethnic) nation. " The contrast with Japan could not be greater, and in fact this conviction that Japan was different from China served as the underlying assumption of Nakamura's entire text.
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 93
Narrating Nations, Negating the State: China as an
93
Narrating Nations, Negating the State: China as an Ethnic Arena
Ethnic Arena
Having laid out the conceptual terms that would organize his imagina-
tive geography of the "Far East," Nakamura turned away from the
ethnic and tribal problems of Japan and Indian peoples to a narrativi-
zation of the five ethnic nations that constituted China. Chapter 2 dwelt
on the complexities of the "Han ethnic nation" for more than two hun-
dred pages, while chapter 3 dispensed with the intricacies of the Man-
chu, Mongolian, Uighur, and Tibetan ethnic nations by providing, in a
little more than a hundred pages, separative narratives of each. Al-
though Nakamura had noted the complex nature of such ethnic groups
in his introduction, once he turned to his five narratives internal differ-
ences gave way to a narrative of distinct ethnic nations, their rivalries,
and their subjugations.
Ethnic diversity and instability led Nakamura to open his account
with the question of what to call the Chinese. He noted that they had
called themselves Han in their foreign relations since the Han period
but in more recent times had called themselves the Central Kingdom
People (zhongguo ren) or related terms like the Central Flower ethnic
nation (zhonghua minzu). Nakamura rejected both of these terms, as
the former implied disrespect toward other nations and the abbreviated
version of Flower Tribe (huazu) was too easily confused with the
Japanese term for nobility (kazoku). And anyway, he concluded, "the
names China (shina) and Chinese (shinajin) have been used by foreign-
ers for a long time, and recently the Chinese have taken to using these
names themselves."22 The point was to displace any notion of China as
a unified country and to project instead a view of the Asian continent
as a field where ethnic national rivalries were played out. As Nakamura
put it in describing late Ming China, "the Chinese continent was a
Sumo ring for the Han and Manchu ethnic nations, just as it was in the
case of the [Han] Song and the [Mongol] Yuan."23 But the continent
was a unique ethnic arena or at least it was culturally an East Asian
arena (hence the metaphor of a Sumo ring). From the outset, Naka-
mura repossessed China for the Far East by rejecting the theories of
Lacouperie and others who argued for the 'Western origins of Chinese
civilization and accepting instead Friedrich Hirth's conclusions, which
drew on art to argue for the independent origins of Chinese civiliza-
tion.24 In doing so, Nakamura reminds us that art and aesthetics can be
Having laid out the conceptual terms that would organize his imagina tive geography of the "Far East," Nakamura turned away from the ethnic and tribal problems of Japan and Indian peoples to a narrativi zation of the five ethnic nations that constituted China. Chapter 2 dwelt on the complexities of the "Han ethnic nation" for more than two hun dred pages, while chapter 3 dispensed with the intricacies of the Man chu, Mongolian, Uighur, and Tibetan ethnic nations by providing, in a little more than a hundred pages, separative narratives of each. Al though Nakamura had noted the complex nature of such ethnic groups in his introduction, once he turned to his five narratives internal differ ences gave way to a narrative of distinct ethnic nations, their rivalries, and their sUbj ugations. Ethnic diversity and instability led Nakamura to open his account with the question of what to call the Chinese. He noted that they had called themselves Han in their foreign relations since the Han period but in more recent times had called themselves the Central Kingdom People (zhongguo ren) or related terms like the Central Flower ethnic nation (zhonghua minzu) . Nakamura rejected both of these terms, as the former implied disrespect toward other nations and the abbreviated version of Flower Tribe (huazu) was too easily confused with the Japanese term for nobility (kazoku) . And anyway, he concluded, "the names China (shina) and Chinese (shinajin) have been used by foreign ers for a long time, and recently the Chinese have taken to using these names themselves. "22 The point was to displace any notion of China as a unified country and to project instead a view of the Asian continent as a field where ethnic national rivalries were played out. As Nakamura put it in describing late Ming China, "the Chinese continent was a Sumo ring for the Han and Manchu ethnic nations, just as it was in the case of the [Han] Song and the [Mongol] Yuan. "23 But the continent was a unique ethnic arena or at least it was culturally an East Asian arena (hence the metaphor of a Sumo ring). From the outset, Naka mura repossessed China for the Far East by rejecting the theories of Lacouperie and others who argued for the 'Western origins of Chinese civilization and accepting instead Friedrich Hirth's conclusions, which drew on art to argue for the independent origins of Chinese civiliza tion.24 In doing so, Nakamura reminds us that art and aesthetics can be
94
94
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
mobilized to mark off the cultural nation as a particularistic field with
its own standards of legitimacy and argumentation - standards that can
be quite compatible at times with exceptionalist and homogenizing ap-
proaches to national identities.
Chinese history, as Nakamura told it, was a story of ethnic strife.
The underlying theme of his narrative was the struggle of the Han ethnic
nation to control affairs in its own country and its own destiny and the
continued frustration at being ruled by ethnic minorities. Like all great
tragedies, the history of Han China began with a golden age, the con-
quest of the Miao people by the Han under the leadership of their
founding hero, the Yellow Emperor, around 2700 B. c.25 During the Xia,
Shang, and Zhou periods, the Han ethnic nation pursued a policy of
national unification against the pressures of various other ethnic groups,
a policy that Nakamura explicitly called "revering the emperor and expel-
ling the barbarians" (joi), thus associating it with the late-nineteenth-
century Japanese nationalist campaign to throw out the West.26 Predict-
ably, the Jin and Han periods were reduced to the building of the Great
Wall to keep out non-Han ethnic groups and to Ban Chao (32-102 A.D.)
and his policy of "using barbarians to control barbarians" (iyi zhiyi).
Next Nakamura suggested that between the Han and the Sui periods
the Han ethnic nation had lost so much of its earlier strength against other
ethnic nations that the former "Great Han" (da Han) or "Strong Han"
(qiang Han) was now described in the historical records as the "Han
children" (Han zi).27 But the Tang period, not surprisingly, was repre-
sented as a restoration of Han power. As Nakamura wrote, "In short, the
Han period was a glorious period for the Han ethnic nation, but with the
period of invasions by the five barbarian groups (Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei,
Di, Qiang) the Han ethnic nation entered a period of terror. And if one
can say that the Sui period was a return of the pendulum for the Han
ethnic nation, then the Tang period truly should be called a period of the
highest, crowning glory for the Han ethnic nation."28
The Song period was also an important pivotal moment in Naka-
mura's narrative of the Han ethnic nation. It drew upon the Han pe-
riod's foundational work in political institutions and the Tang period's
development of Han ethnic culture in cultivating a Han ethnic national
sense of identification with China. But this ethnic national identity was
cultivated in the context of increasing oppression of the Han ethnic
nation by other "ethnic nations" throughout the Song period: first, the
Khitan and the Xi Xia, then the Jurchen, and finally the "great oppres-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
mobilized to mark off the cultural nation as a particularistic field with its own standards of legitimacy and argumentation - standards that can be quite compatible at times with exceptionalist and homogenizing ap proaches to national identities. Chinese history, as Nakamura told it, was a story of ethnic strife. The underlying theme of his narrative was the struggle of the Han ethnic nation to control affairs in its own country and its own destiny and the continued frustration at being ruled by ethnic minorities. Like all great tragedies, the history of Han China began with a golden age, the con quest of the Miao people by the Han under the leadership of their founding hero, the Yellow Emperor, around 2700 B.C.25 During the Xia, Shang, and Zhou periods, the Han ethnic nation pursued a policy of national unification against the pressures of various other ethnic groups, a policy that Nakamura explicitly called "revering the emperor and expel ling the barbarians" (j6i) , thus associating it with the late-nineteenth century Japanese nationalist campaign to throw out the West.26 Predict ably, the Jin and Han periods were reduced to the building of the Great Wall to keep out non-Han ethnic groups and to Ban Chao (32-102 A . D. ) and his policy of "using barbarians to control barbarians" (iyi zhiyi) . Next Nakamura suggested that between the Han and the Sui periods the Han ethnic nation had lost so much of its earlier strength against other ethnic nations that the former "Great Han" (da Han) or "Strong Han" (qiang Han) was now described in the historical records as the "Han children" (Han zi) .27 But the Tang period, not surprisingly, was repre sented as a restoration of Han power. As Nakamura wrote, " In short, the Han period was a glorious period for the Han ethnic nation, but with the period of invasions by the five barbarian groups (Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Di, Qiang) the Han ethnic nation entered a period of terror. And if one can say that the Sui period was a return of the pendulum for the Han ethnic nation, then the Tang period truly should be called a period of the highest, crowning glory for the Han ethnic nation."28 The Song period was also an important pivotal moment in Naka mura's narrative of the Han ethnic nation. It drew upon the Han pe riod's foundational work in political institutions and the Tang period's development of Han ethnic culture in cultivating a Han ethnic national sense of identification with China. But this ethnic national identity was cultivated in the context of increasing oppression of the Han ethnic nation by other "ethnic nations" throughout the Song period: first, the Khitan and the Xi Xia, then the Jurchen, and finally the "great oppres-
95
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 95
sion" (dai appaku) of the Mongols, which culminated in the Yuan dy-
nasty.29 The overthrow of the Mongol Yuan dynasty was attributed
solely to the fact that "the Han ethnic nation could not long bear being
oppressed by the Mongols."30 Nakamura asserts, with citations from
Chinese historical documents, that Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the
Ming dynasty, acted self-consciously as a representative of Han ethnic
national resentments against the Mongols.31 Here Nakamura connects
his narrative on China with his own concerns in an unusually candid
manner. In a chapter subsection entitled "Late Song-Early Ming and
Our Japanese," Nakamura suggests that the Japanese learned loyalty
from the Song Han Chinese and, pausing to remind his readers that
Coxinga (Zheng Chenggong) was half Han Chinese and half Japanese,
noted that "the people of our country were filled with sympathy for the
Ming and did not welcome the Qing court's rule over China."32
Nakamura's narrative of Han China concludes where it began, with
arguments against Qing ethnic minority rule over the Han Chinese and
with doubts about the viability of a truly multiethnic Chinese polity.
Here narrative form served to reinforce analytic definitions. The Qing
policy toward ethnic nationality was not unique but merely one of a
limited set of possibilities in ethnic relations that Nakamura had outlined
in his preface:
The Manchu court's policy toward the Han ethnic nation was
extremely multidimensional, but it may be summarized as . . . (2)
an actual case in which the ethnic nation (minzoku) and the political
nation (kokumin) are not the same, that is, where members of the
same political nation are not of the same ethnic nation . . . [in this
case,] the conquering minority, possessed of extraordinary power,
tries to absorb the conquered majority and assimilate them.33
In short, the Manchus tried to avoid becoming assimilated into the Han
Chinese and rather sought to assimilate the Han into the Manchu. Sig-
nificantly, Nakamura drew from Wang Jingwei, a future collaborator
sion" (dai appaku) of the Mongols, which culminated in the Yuan dy nasty. 29 The overthrow of the Mongol Yuan dynasty was attributed solely to the fact that "the Han ethnic nation could not long bear being oppressed by the Mongols. "30 Nakamura asserts, with citations from Chinese historical documents, that Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, acted self-consciously as a representative of Han ethnic national resentments against the Mongols.31 Here Nakamura connects his narrative on China with his own concerns in an unusually candid manner. In a chapter subsection entitled "Late Song-Early Ming and Our Japanese," Nakamura suggests that the Japanese learned loyalty from the Song Han Chinese and, pausing to remind his readers that Coxinga (Zheng Chenggong) was half Han Chinese and half Japanese, noted that "the people of our country were filled with sympathy for the Ming and did not welcome the Qing court's rule over China. "32 Nakamura's narrative of Han China concludes where it began, with arguments against Qing ethnic minority rule over the Han Chinese and with doubts about the viability of a truly multiethnic Chinese polity. Here narrative form served to reinforce analytic definitions. The Qing policy toward ethnic nationality was not unique but merely one of a limited set of possibilities in ethnic relations that Nakamura had outlined in his preface:
with the Japanese in China, who shared Nakamura's belief in the impor-
tance of maintaining even slight ethnic differences (between the Han
and Manchus) as a form of resistance against complete political and
cultural domination.34
But Nakamura realized that his narrative ended before the story was
over. What to do about the fact that some Chinese protested that in the
The Manchu court's policy toward the Han ethnic nation was extremely multidimensional, but it may be summarized as . . (2) an actual case in which the ethnic nation (minzoku) and the political nation (kokumin) are not the same, that is, where members of the same political nation are not of the same ethnic nation . . . . [in this case,] the conquering minority, possessed of extraordinary power, tries to absorb the conquered majority and assimilate them.33 .
In short, the Manchus tried to avoid becoming assimilated into the Han Chinese and rather sought to assimilate the Han into the Manchu. Sig nificantly, Nakamura drew from Wang Jingwei, a future collaborator with the Japanese in China, who shared Nakamura's belief in the impor tance of maintaining even slight ethnic differences (between the Han and Manchus) as a form of resistance against complete political and cultural domination.34 But Nakamura realized that his narrative ended before the story was over. What to do about the fact that some Chinese protested that in the
96
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Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"New China" these ancient ethnic squabbles were subsumed in the new
modern national identity of "Republican" China?35 Nakamura's re-
sponse was two pronged. First, he pointed to the 1911 Wuchang Uprising
that had spawned the Chinese Revolution as proof of enduring ethnic
tensions between the Han and Manchu ethnic nations.36 And he drew for
good measure on the authority of a litany of Japanese sinologists, includ-
ing Inoue Tetsujiro, Ichimura Sanjiro, Hattori Unokichi, Shiratori Kura-
kichi, Kuwabara Jitsuzo, Naito Konan, Inaba Kunzan, and even Profes-
sor Edward Alsworth Ross of the University of Wisconsin, whose 1914
The Changing Chinese Nakamura considered an authoritative introduc-
tion to Han ethnic nationality.37 In fact, Nakamura concluded his narra-
tive of the Han ethnic nation with fifty-five pages of text devoted to
establishing the "ethnic nationality of the Han people" [Kanjin minzo-
kusei], more pages than any of the remaining four ethnic nations of
China received for their entire narratives.38 History and science joined in
confirming for Nakamura that Han ethnic national consciousness was
here to stay and that China should belong to the Han Chinese.
Perhaps conscious of the general audience his book was designed to
reach, Nakamura did not want his study to be considered "pure scholar-
ship" or for the implications of his work to remain understated. In his
conclusion, Nakamura made explicit his hopes that his book would redi-
rect Japanese attention back to the Orient before the West, currently
absorbed in war in Europe, could return.
How can we Japanese ignore East Asia at this point in time? We must
step forth, go to the continent, and do our utmost to manage affairs
there. Given the state of affairs, those who cannot leave Japan must
lend a hand. Those who cannot lend a hand must open their eyes
and pay attention. To fail to pay careful attention to the Far East
arena will have profound implications for the fate of our country.
How can we not study the situation of the ethnic nations in the Far
East?39
Yet the political implications of Nakamura's call in 1916 for engagement
in East Asia from an ethnic national perspective are not without ambiva-
lence. His book was promoted and read by liberals and populists in Japan,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"New China" these ancient ethnic squabbles were subsumed in the new modern national identity of "Republican" China?35 Nakamura's re sponse was two pronged. First, he pointed to the 1911 Wuchang Uprising that had spawned the Chinese Revolution as proof of enduring ethnic tensions between the Han and Manchu ethnic nations.36 And he drew for good measure on the authority of a litany of Japanese sinologists, includ ing Inoue Tetsujiro, Ichimura Sanjiro, Hattori Unokichi, Shiratori Kura kichi, Kuwabara Jitsuzo , NaitO Konan, Inaba Kunzan, and even Profes sor Edward Alsworth Ross of the University of Wisconsin, whose 1914 The Changing Chinese Nakamura considered an authoritative introduc tion to Han ethnic nationality. 37 In fact, Nakamura concluded his narra tive of the Han ethnic nation with fifty-five pages of text devoted to establishing the "ethnic nationality of the Han people" [Kanjin minzo kusei] , more pages than any of the remaining four ethnic nations of China received for their entire narratives.38 History and science joined in confirming for Nakamura that Han ethnic national consciousness was here to stay and that China should belong to the Han Chinese. Perhaps conscious of the general audience his book was designed to reach, Nakamura did not want his study to be considered "pure scholar ship" or for the implications of his work to remain understated. In his conclusion, Nakamura made explicit his hopes that his book would redi rect Japanese attention back to the Orient before the West, currently absorbed in war in Europe, could return.
and Yoshino Sakuzo and Tokutomo Soho, two of the most influential
liberals in Japan at the time, both wrote glowing introductions to it. It is
important to recall that during World War I and immediately afterward,
How can we Japanese ignore East Asia at this point in time? We must step forth, go to the continent, and do our utmost to manage affairs there. Given the state of affairs, those who cannot leave Japan must lend a hand. Those who cannot lend a hand must open their eyes and pay attention. To fail to pay careful attention to the Far East arena will have profound implications for the fate of our country. How can we not study the situation of the ethnic nations in the Far East?39 Yet the political implications of Nakamura's call in 1916 for engagement in East Asia from an ethnic national perspective are not without ambiva lence. His book was promoted and read by liberals and populists in Japan, and Yoshino Sakuzo and Tokutomo Soho, two of the most influential liberals in Japan at the time, both wrote glowing introductions to it. It is important to recall that during World War I and immediately afterward,
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 97
many Japanese intellectuals joined liberals and other leftists around the
world in espousing ethnic nationalism as a critique of imperialism and
colonialism.40 Nonetheless, ultimately the historical significance of Naka-
mura's text was not in bringing down imperialism but ironically in en-
hancing a discursive framework that combined an ethnic national view of
East Asia with a sense of Japanese entitlement, a sense that the Japanese
must adopt an activist stance in reforming political structures in the new
East Asia to reflect modern ethnic national identities.
DissemiNation: Imagining Ethnicity/Enforcing Empire
I have spent considerable time discussing a single text, Nakamura's The
Nations of the Far East, in detail. This text deserves close analysis not
97
many Japanese intellectuals joined liberals and other leftists around the world in espousing ethnic nationalism as a critique of imperialism and colonialism.40 Nonetheless, ultimately the historical significance of Naka mura's text was not in bringing down imperialism but ironically in en hancing a discursive framework that combined an ethnic national view of East Asia with a sense of Japanese entitlement, a sense that the Japanese must adopt an activist stance in reforming political structures in the new East Asia to reflect modern ethnic national identities.
because it was original or compelling or the only text that influenced
Japanese thinking about the nation. Rather, The Nations of the Far East
deserves our attention precisely because it was both ordinary and ex-
DissemiNation: Imagining Ethnicity/Enforcing Empire
ceptional: ordinary in that it summarized a widely shared understanding
of the conceptual underpinnings of national and regional identity around
the time of World War I, but exceptional in that Nakamura sought to
bring that conceptual apparatus to a more popular audience through a
text that was both readable and widely available. I am not interested in
trying to establish how wide the readership of this single text was or in
measuring its precise degree of influence over the thinking of specific
individuals. As a historical text, The Nations of the Far East claims our
attention not because of influence but because of its social nature: the
way in which it embodied and disseminated a historically specific under-
standing in Japanese society of national and ethnic identity in East Asia,
and particularly how such forms of collective identity were seen in rela-
tionship to the modern state. We now need to step back from Naka-
mura's text to see how this grammatology of the nation responded to
new events and places in the years after World War I, especially in the
context of growing Japanese imperialism in East Asia.
If World War I provided the framework for Nakamura's understand-
ing of the problem of ethnic national domination, regional events in-
creasingly played a role in shaping the development of the discourse
on ethnic nationalism and imperialism in East Asia. In 1918, Uchida
Ryohei, a leading activist in the Japanese nationalist movement, dis-
missed Chinese calls for national independence by reasserting his theory
that China was not a state. China, he asserted, "may have the name of
I have spent considerable time discussing a single text, Nakamura's The Nations of the Far East, in detail. This text deserves close analysis not because it was original or compelling or the only text that influenced Japanese thinking about the nation. Rather, The Nations of the Far East deserves our attention precisely because it was both ordinary and ex ceptional: ordinary in that it summarized a widely shared understanding of the conceptual underpinnings of national and regional identity around the time of World War I , but exceptional in that Nakamura sought to bring that conceptual apparatus to a more popular audience through a text that was both readable and widely available. I am not interested in trying to establish how wide the readership of this single text was or in measuring its precise degree of influence over the thinking of specific individuals. As a historical text, The Nations of the Far East claims our attention not because of influence but because of its social nature: the way in which it embodied and disseminated a historically specific under standing in Japanese society of national and ethnic identity in East Asia, and particularly how such forms of collective identity were seen in rela tionship to the modern state. We now need to step back from Naka mura's text to see how this grammatology of the nation responded to new events and places in the years after World War I , especially in the context of growing Japanese imperialism in East Asia. If World War I provided the framework for Nakamura's understand ing of the problem of ethnic national domination, regional events in creasingly played a role in shaping the development of the discourse on ethnic nationalism and imperialism in East Asia. In 191 8, Uchida Ryohei, a leading activist in the Japanese nationalist movement, dis missed Chinese calls for national independence by reasserting his theory that China was not a state. China, he assert1ed, "may have the name of
98
98
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
an independent country, but the reality [of an independent Chinese
state] is almost completely absent."41 China's political problems indi-
cated to Uchida deeper cultural and moral failings that ultimately had
left the Chinese people completely bereft of any belief in the state.42
Before China could be a state, it had to become a nation - and many
Japanese felt willing and able to teach the Chinese what a nation was and
how to become one.
Uchida's assumption that China was not a state was informed by a
widespread belief among Japanese political theorists in the years after
World War I that the nation, as an ethnological concept, was a moral and
cultural prerequisite to a secure, independent, political state.43 The
sinologist Hattori Unokichi argued that Confucianism was an ethnic na-
tional doctrine (minzoku-teki kyogi), but that in the modern era Japan
had succeeded better than the Chinese in adopting "the teachings of
Confucius," which, unlike "Confucianism," incorporated the progressive
spirit required by the modern age.44 By thus juggling Confucianism as an
East Asian culture with Japan's own particular national culture, Hattori
could suggest both a sense of pan-Asianism and a rationale for Japanese
leadership in a new East Asian regional order. As Stefan Tanaka points
out, "Hattori turned Confucianism into an alternative to Wilsonian inter-
nationalism."45 Yet, it is important to grasp that Hattori's Confucianism
only opposed Wilsonian internationalism to the degree that he believed
Wilson's principle of (ethnic) national self-determination would lead im-
mediately to ethnic nation-states in Asia that would be independent of
Japan's influence but dependent on the West. That is, Hattori followed
Nakamura in accepting Wilson's principle of "ethnic national self-
determination" (minzoku jiketsu) and in suggesting that an ethnic na-
tional approach to the East Asian region could serve as a replacement for
the Wilsonian concept of an international order composed of autonomous
states anchored in the European-dominated League of Nations.
Korea represented an early test case for these ideas about ethnic
national identity as distinct from the modern political state. After the
March 1, 1919, movement for independence, Saito Makoto was ap-
pointed governor-general of Korea and Japanese policy in Korea began to
emphasize "cultural containment."46 One of the targets of cultural con-
tainment was the Korean ethnic national historians (Minjok sahakka)
such as Sin Ch'aeho and Ch'oe Namson, who sought to write narratives
that "aimed at enhancing the inherent national ideas, elevating the Ko-
rean spirit, and emphasizing traditional ideas of cultural superiority to
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
an independent country, but the reality [of an independent Chinese state] is almost completely absent."41 China's political problems indi cated to Uchida deeper cultural and moral failings that ultimately had left the Chinese people completely bereft of any belief in the state.42 Before China could be a state, it had to become a nation - and many Japanese felt willing and able to teach the Chinese what a nation was and how to become one. Uchida's assumption that China was not a state was informed by a widespread belief among Japanese political theorists in the years after World War I that the nation, as an ethnological concept, was a moral and cultural prerequisite to a secure, independent, political state.43 The sinologist Hattori Unokichi argued that Confucianism was an ethnic na tional doctrine (minzoku-teki kyogi) , but that in the modern era Japan had succeeded better than the Chinese in adopting "the teachings of Confucius," which, unlike "Confucianism," incorporated the progressive spirit required by the modern age.44 By thus juggling Confucianism as an East Asian culture with Japan's own particular national culture, Hattori could suggest both a sense of pan-Asianism and a rationale for Japanese leadership in a new East Asian regional order. As Stefan Tanaka points out, "Hattori turned Confucianism into an alternative to Wilsonian inter nationalism."45 Yet, it is important to grasp that Hattori's Confucianism only opposed Wilsonian internationalism to the degree that he believed Wilson's principle of (ethnic) national self-determination would lead im mediately to ethnic nation-states in Asia that would be independent of Japan's influence but dependent on the West. That is, Hattori followed Nakamura in accepting Wilson's principle of "ethnic national self determination" (minzoku jiketsu) and in suggesting that an ethnic na tional approach to the East Asian region could serve as a replacement for the Wilsonian concept of an international order composed of autonomous states anchored in the European-dominated League of Nations. Korea represented an early test case for these ideas about ethnic national identity as distinct from the modern political state. After the March 1 , 1 91 9, movement for independence, SaitO Makoto was ap pointed governor-general of Korea and Japanese policy in Korea began to emphasize "cultural containment. "46 One of the targets of cultural con tainment was the Korean ethnic national historians (Minjok sahakka) such as Sin Ch'aeho and Ch'oe Namson, who sought to write narratives that "aimed at enhancing the inherent national ideas, elevating the Ko rean spirit, and emphasizing traditional ideas of cultural superiority to
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 99
compensate for Korea's political defeat in the real world."47 The high
point in the Korean expropriation of the discourse on ethnic nationality
was reached when Yi Kwang-su explicitly proposed a "reconstruction of
the Korean ethnic nation" in the May 1922 issue of Kaebyok. Yi's em-
brace of ethnic Korean nationality, while stopping short of an outright call
for political independence, was written within and against the dominant
discourse on Korean ethnic nationality that came from the government-
general. Only one year earlier, in 1921, the education office of the
government-general had published a volume called ChOsenjin, which
listed strengths and weaknesses in the Korean ethnic character as part of
an overall argument that Korean ethnicity should be assimilated into the
Japanese ethnic nation.48 In Japan, Nakayama Kei reinforced this rejec-
tion of Korean ethnicity in his article "A Basic Policy for Assimilating the
Korean Ethnic Nation: We Must Convert All Korean Names to Japanese
Names," published in Nihon oyobi nihonjin. Nakayama was quite seri-
ous, and he did not stop at changing names: he proposed a series of
reforms that meant cultural genocide for Koreans.49
As a nation annexed to the Japanese imperial state, Korea was a
particularly advantageous space for exploring some of the complexities
and contradictions in the discourse on ethnic nationalism in East Asia. Yi
Kwang-su drew from this Japanese discourse on the separation of an
ethnic nation from the state to suggest that Korean nationalism was alive
and well even without the reality of an independent Korean state, but he
was criticized by fellow Koreans for this camouflaged "betrayal against
his nation."50 Even as they concluded that Koreans were not a viable
ethnic nation, Japanese colonial officers shared Yi's ethnic nationalist
assumptions, as did Japanese intellectuals like Nakayama, who suggested
cultural genocide (chosen minzoku naru mono ga naku naru yo ni suru
koto) as the only solution for ending discrimination against Koreans.51
Throughout all these arguments ran a consistent belief in the centrality of
ethnic national identity as a form of national identity that was distinct
from the political nationalism centered on the modern state. But the
argument for assimilating Korean ethnic identity into the Japanese eth-
nic nation - an argument that Nakamura Kytishiro had shared and had
explicitly tied to a sense of the historical rather than racial nature of the
ethnic nation - remained the exception to the dominant imagination of
an ethnically subdivided Far East. Because Korea had been annexed to
Japan since 1910 and because of what were perceived as unusually close
cultural similarities between Koreans and Japanese, undermining ethnic
99
compensate for Korea's political defeat in the real world."47 The high point in the Korean expropriation of the discourse on ethnic nationality was reached when Yi Kwang-su explicitly proposed a "reconstruction of the Korean ethnic nation" in the May 1922 issue of Kaebyok. Yi's em brace of ethnic Korean nationality, while stopping short of an outright call for political independence, was written within and against the dominant discourse on Korean ethnic nationality that came from the government general. Only one year earlier, in 192 1 , the education office of the government-general had published a volume called Chosenjin, which listed strengths and weaknesses in the Korean ethnic character as part of an overall argument that Korean ethnicity should be assimilated into the Japanese ethnic nation.48 In Japan, Nakayama Kei reinforced this rejec tion of Korean ethnicity in his article "A Basic Policy for Assimilating the Korean Ethnic Nation: We Must Convert All Korean Names to Japanese Names," published in Nihon oyobi nihonjin. Nakayama was quite seri ous, and he did not stop at changing names: he proposed a series of reforms that meant cultural genocide for Koreans.49 As a nation annexed to the Japanese imperial state, Korea was a particularly advantageous space for exploring some of the complexities and contradictions in the discourse on ethnic nationalism in East Asia. Yi Kwang-su drew from this Japanese discourse on the separation of an ethnic nation from the state to suggest that Korean nationalism was alive and well even without the reality of an independent Korean state, but he was criticized by fellow Koreans for this camouflaged "betrayal against his nation. "50 Even as they concluded that Koreans were not a viable ethnic nation, Japanese colonial officers shared Yi's ethnic nationalist assumptions, as did Japanese intellectuals like Nakayama, who suggested cultural genocide (chosen minzoku naru mono ga naku naru yo ni suru kOlO) as the only solution for ending discrimination against Koreans.51 Throughout all these arguments ran a consistent belief in the centrality of ethnic national identity as a form of national identity that was distinct from the political nationalism centered on the modern state. But the argument for assimilating Korean ethnic identity into the Japanese eth nic nation - an argument that Nakamura Kyiishiro had shared and had explicitly tied to a sense of the historical rather than racial nature of the ethnic nation - remained the exception to the dominant imagination of an ethnically subdivided Far East. Because Korea had been annexed to Japan since 1910 and because of what were perceived as unusually close cultural similarities between Koreans and Japanese, undermining ethnic
1 00
100 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
national identity would apply only to Korea. As Nakayama concluded,
"With ethnic nations other than Korea, Japan must always interact
equally, within a greater Asian federation (dai-ajia renpO)."52 Nearly all
sides of the debate agreed that it was not healthy for a political state to
encompass multiple ethnic nations.
Korea may have been exceptional, but it was not isolated from events
that were shaping nationalist discourse in East Asia. The Korean
government-general was concerned about the potential of an anti-
imperialist ethnic nationalism stemming from the Soviet Union and work-
ing through China to disrupt the Japanese empire. A 1930 report of the
Korean Police Affairs Bureau entitled The International Communist
Party and the Chinese Revolution discussed topics like "Soviet Russian
policy for the East," "China's Red Revolution," and "the International
Communist Party and China's Guomindang." It provided a narrative of
the Chinese Revolution that detailed Sun Yat-sen's alleged turn to revolu-
tionary ethnic nationalism, noting that after China's defeat in the Sino-
Japanese War, Sun had "advocated ethnic nationalism (minzokushugi) as
a means of overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing a Han state
(Hanjin no kuni)."53 Sun's ethnic nationalism was said to have gradually
changed its meaning until 1921, when he had moved beyond a celebration
of Han ethnic identity located within a broader pan-Asianism. He now
agreed with Lenin that "the weak ethnic nations (jakushO minzoku) of
the Orient must work together with the proletariat of Europe and the
United States to strike back at world imperialism from both sides." Sun,
the report concluded, was now a thorough Bolshevik and the Chinese
national Revolution had been hijacked by the Soviet Union and its policy
that "all ethnic nationalist movements must first be linked to Soviet Rus-
sia."54 The Police Affairs Bureau report emphasized that ethnic national
formation did not take place in a vacuum and if Japan did not actively
engage in shaping the results of ethnic nationalism in East Asia the Soviet
Union would. From this vantage point, the threat posed by communism
was as much centered on propagating revolutionary ethnic nationalism
and anti-imperialism as on fomenting class consciousness and proletarian
strife in Japan's cities.
The New (Ethnic) Order in East Asia, 1938-45
The concerns expressed by Imperial Japan's civil servants over the use of
ethnic nationalism as an anti-imperialist tool were not merely theoreti-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
national identity would apply only to Korea. As Nakayama concluded, "With ethnic nations other than Korea, Japan must always interact equally, within a greater Asian federation (dai-ajia renpo) . "52 Nearly all sides of the debate agreed that it was not healthy for a political state to encompass multiple ethnic nations. Korea may have been exceptional, but it was not isolated from events that were shaping nationalist discourse in East Asia. The Korean government-general was concerned about the potential of an anti imperialist ethnic nationalism stemming from the Soviet Union and work ing through China to disrupt the Japanese empire. A 1930 report of the Korean Police Affairs Bureau entitled The International Communist Party and the Chinese Revolution discussed topics like "Soviet Russian policy for the East," "China's Red Revolution," and "the International Communist Party and China's Guomindang." It provided a narrative of the Chinese Revolution that detailed Sun Yat-sen's alleged turn to revolu tionary ethnic nationalism, noting that after China's defeat in the Sino Japanese War, Sun had "advocated ethnic nationalism (minzokushugi) as a means of overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing a Han state (Hanjin no kuni). "53 Sun's ethnic nationalism was said to have gradually changed its meaning until 1 92 1 , when he had moved beyond a celebration of Han ethnic identity located within a broader pan-Asianism. He now agreed with Lenin that "the weak ethnic nations (jakusho minzoku) of the Orient must work together with the proletariat of Europe and the United States to strike back at world imperialism from both sides. " Sun, the report concluded, was now a thorough Bolshevik and the Chinese national Revolution had been hijacked by the Soviet Union and its policy that "all ethnic nationalist movements must first be linked to Soviet Rus sia. "54 The Police Affairs Bureau report emphasized that ethnic national formation did not take place in a vacuum and if Japan did not actively engage in shaping the results of ethnic nationalism in East Asia the Soviet Union would. From this vantage point, the threat posed by communism was as much centered on propagating revolutionary ethnic nationalism and anti-imperialism as on fomenting class consciousness and proletarian strife in Japan's cities. The New ( Ethnic ) Order in East Asia, 1 938-45 The concerns expressed by Imperial Japan's civil servants over the use of ethnic nationalism as an anti-imperialist tool were not merely theoreti-
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 101
cal, nor were they misplaced. The full potential of ethnic nationalism as
a critique of imperialism was not revealed until after Prime Minister
Konoe Fumimaro announced a "New Order in East Asia" in November
1938. While no one seemed to know precisely what this New Order
meant, the proclamation was a discursive intervention that renewed
excitement over the ethnic nation as a substitute for the state as the basic
organizational unit for political arrangements in East Asia. The question
remained, however, whether ethnic nationalism could be controlled to
Imperial Japan's advantage. The sinologist and spy Ozaki Hotsumi sug-
gested otherwise, adopting a Marxist attack on the civic state and adjust-
ing Uchida's theory that China was not a state to argue that China's lack
of a civic state was a virtue Japan should follow. Ozaki placed the prob-
lem of ethnic nationalism, which he defined as a comprehensive repre-
sentation of all the Chinese people, at the center of the New Order in
East Asia, and he believed that the Soviet Union had a unique history in
encouraging Chinese ethnic nationalism.55 But Ozaki pushed his attack
on Western civic nationalism in the wrong direction for Imperial Japan;
he was arrested in 1941 for espionage and executed with his coconspira-
tor Richard Sorge in 1944. Although he was a spy against Imperial
Japan, Ozaki's actions were motivated by a patriotism that cannot be
understood without serious consideration of his support for ethnic na-
tionalism and how he connected it with a belief in a new East Asia
constructed around ethnic national cooperation.
As Ozaki's case revealed, the proclamation of a New Order in East
Asia in 1938, which followed the outbreak of war with China, unleashed a
wide variety of competing claims in Japan as to how East Asia ought to be
refashioned. Most of these claims promoted the ethnic nation as the new
organizing principle of the region. New organizations and reformed old
ones appeared, all devoted to the problem of how to solve the crisis in
East Asia. Lt. Gen. Ishiwara Kanji formed the East Asia League (TOa
remmei) in 1939 around the principle that all the ethnic nations of East
Asia should unite in a "Great Harmony" (daidO danketsu) with Japan at
the center. In the same year, the Institute for Common East Asian Cul-
ture (Tba debun shoin) was elevated to university status. Along with such
institutional efforts to reconceive East Asia, the years 1938-45 witnessed
a tremendous spate of books, pamphlets, and articles on ethnic nations
and East Asia.56 With such a wide range of ideas and opinions, there was
considerable disagreement over concepts and methods, but there was
almost unanimous agreement that the relationship between the ethnic
101
cal, nor were they misplaced. The full potential of ethnic nationalism as a critique of imperialism was not revealed until after Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro announced a "New Order in East Asia" in November 1938. While no one seemed to know precisely what this New Order meant, the proclamation was a discursive intervention that renewed excitement over the ethnic nation as a substitute for the state as the basic organizational unit for political arrangements in East Asia. The question remained, however, whether ethnic nationalism could be controlled to Imperial Japan's advantage. The sinologist and spy Ozaki Hotsumi sug gested otherwise, adopting a Marxist attack on the civic state and adjust ing Uchida's theory that China was not a state to argue that China's lack of a civic state was a virtue Japan should follow. Ozaki placed the prob lem of ethnic nationalism, which he defined as a comprehensive repre sentation of all the Chinese people, at the center of the New Order in East Asia, and he believed that the Soviet Union had a unique history in encouraging Chinese ethnic nationalism.55 But Ozaki pushed his attack on Western civic nationalism in the wrong direction for Imperial Japan; he was arrested in 1941 for espionage and executed with his coconspira tor Richard Sorge in 1944. Although he was a spy against Imperial Japan, Ozaki's actions were motivated by a patriotism that cannot be understood without serious consideration of his support for ethnic na tionalism and how he connected it with a belief in a new East Asia constructed around ethnic national cooperation. As Ozaki's case revealed, the proclamation of a New Order in East Asia in 1938, which followed the outbreak of war with China, unleashed a wide variety of competing claims in Japan as to how East Asia ought to be refashioned. Most of these claims promoted the ethnic nation as the new organizing principle of the region. New organizations and reformed old ones appeared, all devoted to the problem of how to solve the crisis in East Asia. Lt. Gen. Ishiwara Kanji formed the East Asia League (Toa remmei) in 1939 around the principle that all the ethnic nations of East Asia should unite in a "Great Harmony" (daido danketsu) with Japan at the center. In the same year, the Institute for Common East Asian Cul ture (Toa dobun shoin) was elevated to university status. Along with such institutional efforts to reconceive East Asia, the years 1938-45 witnessed a tremendous spate of books, pamphlets, and articles on ethnic nations and East Asia.56 With such a wide range of ideas and opinions, there was considerable disagreement over concepts and methods, but there was almost unanimous agreement that the relationship between the ethnic
102
102 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
nation (minzoku) and the political state (kokka), rather than Japanese
imperialism per se, was the key to remedying the long-standing instability
in the East Asian region.
The debates raised during the late 1930s and early 1940s over a
separate ethnic national identity and a common East Asian tradition are
fascinating in themselves, but space does not permit much more than a
cursory examination of them here. Perhaps the most intriguing issue to
emerge was whether, given the historicist and socially determined char-
acter of the ethnic nation, the concept of ethnic nation could be ex-
panded beyond existing national cultures to form an entirely new ethnic-
ity that encompassed much of East Asia.57 This theoretical pan-Asian
ethnicity was a new approach to the problem of ethnic national identity,
and it was greatly encouraged by Foreign Minister Matsuoka Yosuke's
proclamation of a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in August
1940. Just a few months before Matsuoka's official proclamation, sinol-
ogist Tachibana Shiraki had argued that "there is no other way to satisfy
the demands of ethnic nationalism, the emancipation of the oriental
ethnic nations, than to settle the issue by forming all the ethnic nations
of the Orient into a single group."58 Tachibana's call for a pan-Asian
ethnic national identity was echoed by the editors of the journal East
Asia (TOa) in their September 1940 issue:
Seen in its entirety, East Asia is the victim of oppression by the non-
East Asian powers. . . In this sense, Japan, Manchuria, and China
possess a common fate. Consciousness of this common fate will re-
move the obstacles posed by a provincial ethnic nationalism to the
inauguration of an East Asian New Order. Above and beyond this
ethnic consciousness, which sees Japan, Manchuria, and China in
opposition, there is an ethnic national consciousness (minzoku ishiki)
that sees East Asia as one body and that springs from a philosophy of
East Asia as a community of fate. . . . We call this ethnic nationalism,
which has its basis in East Asia, East Asian ethnic nationalism (tOa
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
nation (minzoku) and the political state (kokka) , rather than Japanese imperialism per se, was the key to remedying the long-standing instability in the East Asian region. The debates raised during the late 1930s and early 1940s over a separate ethnic national identity and a common East Asian tradition are fascinating in themselves, but space does not permit much more than a cursory examination of them here. Perhaps the most intriguing issue to emerge was whether, given the historicist and socially determined char acter of the ethnic nation, the concept of ethnic nation could be ex panded beyond existing national cultures to form an entirely new ethnic ity that encompassed much of East Asia.57 This theoretical pan-Asian ethnicity was a new approach to the problem of ethnic national identity, and it was greatly encouraged by Foreign Minister Matsuoka Yosuke's proclamation of a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in August 1940. Just a few months before Matsuoka's official proclamation, sino 1ogist Tachibana Shiraki had argued that "there is no other way to satisfy the demands of ethnic nationalism, the emancipation of the oriental ethnic nations, than to settle the issue by forming all the ethnic nations of the Orient into a single group."58 Tachibana's call for a pan-Asian ethnic national identity was echoed by the editors of the journal East Asia ( Toa) in their September 1940 issue:
minzokushugi).59
The author(s) of this essay went on to say that since this monolithic East
Asian ethnic nationalism was founded in response to a common experi-
ence of oppression by Western colonization, it need not remain limited
to East Asia. Indeed, "East Asian ethnic nationalism possessed the
necessity of expanding into Asian ethnic nationalism" since "it is pre-
Seen in its entirety, East Asia is the victim of oppression by the non East Asian powers . . . . In this sense, Japan, Manchuria, and China possess a common fate. Consciousness of this common fate will re move the obstacles posed by a provincial ethnic nationalism to the inauguration of an East Asian New Order. Above and beyond this ethnic consciousness, which sees Japan, Manchuria, and China in opposition, there is an ethnic national consciousness (minzoku ishiki) that sees East Asia as one body and that springs from a philosophy of East Asia as a community of fa teo . . . We call this ethnic nationalism, which has its basis in East Asia, East Asian ethnic nationalism (toa minzokushugi) .59 The author(s) of this essay went on to say that since this monolithic East Asian ethnic nationalism was founded in response to a common experi ence of oppression by Western colonization, it need not remain limited to East Asia. Indeed, "East Asian ethnic nationalism possessed the necessity of expanding into Asian ethnic nationalism" since "it is pre-
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 103
cisely in the concept of East Asia as a community of fate and in the
promotion of East Asian ethnic nationalism that one finds the future of
East Asia, [which is] the future of Asia."6
The rhetoric employed in this article refers directly to one of the key
elements in prevailing definitions of the nation in interwar Japanese
political discourse. In suggesting that the concept of the ethnic nation
(minzoku) could be expanded from the boundaries of the modern state,
or even the nation-state, to a transnational region like Asia, the au-
thor(s) drew on a definition of the nation as a community of fate that
was associated with Otto Bauer, Joseph Stalin, and Ramsay Muir -
much the same leftist discourse on the nation that informed Nakamura's
text. And yet this strategy of rejecting previous understandings of the
ethnic nation as too narrow and offering instead an ethnic nationalism
that was regional returned to Nakamura's distinction between ethnic
nation and race, if only to rearrange the terms and scopes of definition.
Why not simply suggest a common Asian racial (jinshu-teki) identity,
instead of this cumbersome concept of an ethnic nation (minzoku) that
was not a state (kokka) and was broader in scope than traditional no-
tions of the ethnic nation? Others certainly did. But the leftist discourse
on the nation as a populist and historically constructed identity that was
not reducible to the state held out greater promise than the concept of a
biological race of absorbing nationalist aspirations throughout Asia
while at the same time avoiding the question of a variety of independent
nation-states in the region. This belief in the malleability of the ethnic
nation enhanced its prestige as a non-Western alternative to the bour-
geois Western state. For many Japanese working in this tradition, the
advantage of ethnic national identity over race reflected a confidence
that cultural and ethnic identities were separate from states but also a
concern that other ethnic nations eventually might insist on their own
independent states. The call for a single, pan-Asian, ethnic nationalism
was one, if rather extreme, response to the post-Versailles call for "one
nation, one state," and in this case, of course, the one state was Imperial
Japan.
Not all Japanese imperialists were willing to blend their identities
with those of Chinese, Mongolians, Tibetans, and others. In fact, most
Japanese advocates of ethnic nationalism upheld the distinction among
the ethnic nations of East Asia even when they called for some form of
East Asian "cooperation." Kamei Kan'ichiro, former intelligence ana-
lyst for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Social Masses' Party Diet
103
cisely in the concept of East Asia as a community of fate and in the promotion of East Asian ethnic nationalism that one finds the future of East Asia, [which is) the future of Asia."6O The rhetoric employed in this article refers directly to one of the key elements in prevailing definitions of the nation in interwar Japanese political discourse. In suggesting that the concept of the ethnic nation (minzoku) could be expanded from the boundaries of the modern state, or even the nation-state, to a transnational region like Asia, the au thor(s) drew on a definition of the nation as a community of fate that was associated with Otto Bauer, Joseph Stalin, and Ramsay Muir much the same leftist discourse on the nation that informed Nakamura's text. And yet this strategy of rejecting previous understandings of the ethnic nation as too narrow and offering instead an ethnic nationalism that was regional returned to Nakamura's distinction between ethnic nation and race, if only to rearrange the terms and scopes of definition. Why not simply suggest a common Asian racial ( jinshu-teki) identity, instead of this cumbersome concept of an ethnic nation (minzoku) that was not a state (kokka) and was broader in scope than traditional no tions of the ethnic nation? Others certainly did. But the leftist discourse on the nation as a populist and historically constructed identity that was not reducible to the state held out greater promise than the concept of a biological race of absorbing nationalist aspirations throughout Asia while at the same time avoiding the question of a variety of independent nation-states in the region. This belief in the malleability of the ethnic nation enhanced its prestige as a non-Western alternative to the bour geois Western state. For many Japanese working in this tradition, the advantage of ethnic national identity over race reflected a confidence that cultural and ethnic identities were separate from states but also a concern that other ethnic nations eventually might insist on their own independent states. The call for a single, pan-Asian, ethnic nationalism was one, if rather extreme, response to the post-Versailles call for "one nation, one state," and in this case, of course, the one state was Imperial Japan. Not all Japanese imperialists were willing to blend their identities with those of Chinese, Mongolians, Tibetans, and others. In fact, most Japanese advocates of ethnic nationalism upheld the distinction among the ethnic nations of East Asia even when they called for some form of East Asian "cooperation." Kamei Kan'ichiro, former intelligence ana lyst for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Social Masses' Party Diet
104
104
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
member, returned to Japan in April 1938 after eight months in the
United States and Nazi Germany where he had gathered information for
Prime Minister Konoe and the army. What Kamei found overseas
prompted him to propose a new direction for the nations of East Asia,
one in which ethnic differences would remain crucial. Kamei, who spent
the war years as the director of the Foundation for Technology in the
Holy War (Zaidan hojin seisen gijutsu kyokai), insisted that "without
liberating the oppressed ethnic nations of East Asia, there can be no
promotion of an East Asian ethnic national culture. . . . The reason is
that without the particularity of each ethnic nation there can be no
ethnic national culture, and without [individual] ethnic national cultures
there can be no cultural exchange."61 Of course, Kamei did not mean
liberation from Japanese imperialism but Japanese liberation of Asia
from the West. Practically on the eve of Pearl Harbor, Kamei wrote that
the coming war would be
a holy war for the liberation of the oppressed ethnic nations from
Anglo-Saxon economic internationalism. That is, the goal of the
Axis powers is the construction of a greater familistic world and the
repair and firming up of those states that float around like jellyfish.
In other words, the goal is to build a new world order, with ethnic
nations (not races [minshu]) -which are living communities -as the
structural unit, rather than modern states that are nothing more than
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
member, returned to Japan in April 1938 after eight months in the United States and Nazi Germany where he had gathered information for Prime Minister Konoe and the army. What Kamei found overseas prompted him to propose a new direction for the nations of East Asia, one in which ethnic differences would remain crucial. Kamei, who spent the war years as the director of the Foundation for Technology in the Holy War (Zaidan hojin seisen gij utsu kyokai), insisted that "without liberating the oppressed ethnic nations of East Asia, there can be no promotion of an East Asian ethnic national culture . . . . The reason is that without the particularity of each ethnic nation there can be no ethnic national culture, and without [individual] ethnic national cultures there can be no cultural exchange."61 Of course, Kamei did not mean liberation from Japanese imperialism but Japanese liberation of Asia from the West. Practically on the eve of Pearl Harbor, Kamei wrote that the coming war would be
lifeless mechanisms.62
Kamei shared Nakamura's distinction between individual ethnic nations
and race and Nakamura's insistence that the ethnic nation is not purely
biological but also includes cultural and historical elements. Cultural
distinctiveness was important, for it would respond to the nationalist
aspirations of various peoples in East Asia, including a Japanese sense of
pride in achieving East Asia's only powerful empire.
To Kamei, what was at stake was not merely a new order for East Asia
but a seismic shift of global proportions. He believed two ethnic national
policies were competing for dominance in the world. The League of
Nations world order cynically promised ethnic self-determination as a
means of perpetuating English imperialism, while the Marxist answer, an
ethnic national policy of "liberating the oppressed ethnic nations" (hi-
appaku minzoku no kaihO), simply reflected the Soviet Union's desire for
a holy war for the liberation of the oppressed ethnic nations from Anglo-Saxon economic internationalism. That is, the goal of the Axis powers is the construction of a greater familistic world and the repair and firming up of those states that float around like j ellyfish. In other words, the goal is to build a new world order, with ethnic nations (not races [minshu}) - which are living communities -as the structural unit, rather than modern states that are nothing more than lifeless mechanisms. 62
world conquest. Japan, however, offered a third alternative, a "new eth-
Kamei shared Nakamura's distinction between individual ethnic nations and race and Nakamura's insistence that the ethnic nation is not purely biological but also includes cultural and historical elements. Cultural distinctiveness was important, for it would respond to the nationalist aspirations of various peoples in East Asia, including a Japanese sense of pride in achieving East Asia's only powerful empire. To Kamei, what was at stake was not merely a new order for East Asia but a seismic shift of global proportions. He believed two ethnic national policies were competing for dominance in the world. The League of Nations world order cynically promised ethnic self-determination as a means of perpetuating English imperialism, while the Marxist answer, an ethnic national policy of "liberating the oppressed ethnic nations" (hi appaku minzoku no kaih6) , simply reflected the Soviet Union's desire for world conquest. Japan, however, offered a third alternative, a "new eth-
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 105
nic national policy," which, in cooperation with totalitarian Germany and
Italy, would usher in a new era of true national cooperation and
coprosperity.63 Not surprisingly, the details of Japan's "new ethnic na-
tional policy" were sketchy, but Kamei did offer three points at which
Japan's policy was different from the other two: a distinction between the
ethnic nation and race, ethnic national policy wedded to a concept of
regional-destined cooperative bodies, and new relations between the lead-
ing and the led states.64 Informing Kamei's expropriation of the liberal
discourse on the ethnic nation that Nakamura had outlined earlier were
two key characteristics that Roger Griffin has recently identified as cen-
tral to fascism everywhere: "a revolutionary, forward-looking thrust" and
"a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism."65 Griffin's analysis
helps clarify the relationship between ethnic nationalism and fascism at a
theoretical level, but for readers of Kamei's text, there could be no ques-
tion of Kamei's fascist sympathies.66 My point is not to portray wartime
Japan as a monolithic fascist polity, as the question of Japanese fascism
has been widely debated and the complexities of Japanese politics during
the war years are now well known.67
But it is important to recognize the role that ethnic definitions of the
nation, and especially a reimagination of East Asia as a realm of ethnic
nationalities, played in shaping the political consciousness of those in
wartime Japan who openly supported fascism. A crystallization of these
tendencies occurred late in 1942, when the Institute for Research on the
Ethnic Nation (Minzoku kenkyisho) was founded and Takata Yasuma
was named its director. In the institute's Bulletin, published in 1944,
Takata emphasized that the institute's work in clarifying the problem of
the ethnic nation was central to "the Japanese ethnic nation's unprece-
dented experiment. . . in liberating East Asia and promoting the con-
struction of a New Order in East Asia."68 Takata's essay in the Bulletin
employed Kamei's distinction between the English "liberal" ethnic na-
tional policy, which emphasized distance between ethnic nations (kyori
seisaku), and Japan's ethnic national policy, which encouraged closeness
(sekkin seisaku), in working toward the same goal, which was, of course,
"the liberation of East Asia." The problem was how to pursue a policy
of proximity without falling into complete assimilation and thereby "en-
dangering Japan's position in East Asia."69 The dilemma Takata identi-
fied was common to fascism everywhere. Takata's colleague Nakano
Seiichi suggested that a solution might be found in M. H. Boehm's
attempt to overcome the "modern Western European thesis . . . that
105
nic national policy, " which, in cooperation with totalitarian Germany and Italy, would usher in a new era of true national cooperation and coprosperity. 63 Not surprisingly, the details of Japan's "new ethnic na tional policy" were sketchy, but Kamei did offer three points at which Japan's policy was different from the other two: a distinction between the ethnic nation and race, ethnic national policy wedded to a concept of regional-destined cooperative bodies, and new relations between the lead ing and the led states.64 Informing Kamei's expropriation of the liberal discourse on the ethnic nation that Nakamura had outlined earlier were two key characteristics that Roger Griffin has recently identified as cen tral to fascism everywhere: "a revolutionary, forward-looking thrust" and "a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism."65 Griffin's analysis helps clarify the relationship between ethnic nationalism and fascism at a theoretical level, but for readers of Kamei's text, there could be no ques tion of Kamei's fascist sympathies.66 My point is not to portray wartime Japan as a monolithic fascist polity, as the question of Japanese fascism has been widely debated and the complexities of Japanese politics during the war years are now well known.67 But it is important to recognize the role that ethnic definitions of the nation, and especially a reimagination of East Asia as a realm of ethnic nationalities, played in shaping the political consciousness of those in wartime Japan who openly supported fascism. A crystallization of these tendencies occurred late in 1942, when the Institute for Research on the Ethnic Nation ( Minzoku kenkyusho ) was founded and Takata Yasuma was named its director. In the institute's Bulletin, published in 1944, Takata emphasized that the institute's work in clarifying the problem of the ethnic nation was central to "the Japanese ethnic nation's unprece dented experiment . . . in liberating East Asia and promoting the con struction of a New Order in East Asia."68 Takata's essay in the Bulletin employed Kamei's distinction between the English "liberal" ethnic na tional policy, which emphasized distance between ethnic nations (kyori seisaku) , and Japan's ethnic national policy, which encouraged closeness (sekkin seisaku) , in working toward the same goal, which was, of course, "the liberation of East Asia. " The problem was how to pursue a policy of proximity without falling into complete assimilation and thereby "en dangering Japan's position in East Asia."69 The dilemma Takata identi fied was common to fascism everywhere. Takata's colleague Nakano Seiichi suggested that a solution might be found in M. H. Boehm's attempt to overcome the "modern Western European thesis . . . that
1 06
106 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
equated the ethnic nation (minzoku) and the state (kokka)."70 The dis-
tinction between the ethnic nation and the state, which Nakamura had
employed to suggest the legitimacy of national aspirations throughout
Asia, was reemployed now in asserting Japanese rights over other ethnic
nations in Asia.
Interwar discourse on East Asia in Japan was a complicated interweav-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
equated the ethnic nation (minzoku) and the state (kokka). "70 The dis tinction between the ethnic nation and the state, which Nakamura had employed to suggest the legitimacy of national aspirations throughout Asia, was reemployed now in asserting Japanese rights over other ethnic nations in Asia.
ing of various elements, but at its core it focused on a sense that the
twentieth century required a new geocultural structure in the region that
was premised on national identities, in contrast to both the cultural
hegemony of traditional China as the Middle Kingdom and the cultural
hegemony of the West through the political form of the modern state.
With the emergence of a new sense of the nation as an ethnic people
separate from (and at times hostile to) the political state, Japanese impe-
rialists, ideologues, civil servants, and others were able to portray mod-
ern China as a nation in search of a state, while Korea's ethnic identity
could be negated in favor of an ethnically assimilated Japanese empire.
The same logic of ethnic nationality appealed to those Japanese inter-
ested in dividing China into different ethnic groups and thereby provid-
ing the grounds for legitimizing the new nation-state of Manchukuo. In
part, the power and durability of the concept of the ethnic nation as the
organizing principle for a New Order in East Asia rested on its ability to
respond to both longings for traditional cultural identities in a disorient-
ing new era and nationalist aspirations to resist modern forms of imperi-
alism and colonization.
As a political concept, the ethnic nation drew both from the reim-
agined cultural traditions of the newly conceived historical subjects of
the region and from a modern sense that the basic unit of political
membership in the world was the nation. This dual promise of the ethnic
nation as affording a more progressive political identity than dynastic
Confucianism as well as a more traditional identity than the modern
state lay at the very heart of Japanese imperialism in East Asia. We
should not forget that this discourse on East Asia as a geocultural arena
of ethnic identity projected Japanese concepts of self-identities and as-
sumptions onto others in East Asia with little concern for how well such
concepts fit actual lived experiences in the region. Such an awareness,
however, does not diminish the importance of this early-twentieth-
century Japanese representation of East Asia once we accept that all
geographical representations are in part imaginative constructions of
Interwar discourse on East Asia in Japan was a complicated interweav ing of various elements, but at its core it focused on a sense that the twentieth century required a new geocultural structure in the region that was premised on national identities, in contrast to both the cultural hegemony of traditional China as the Middle Kingdom and the cultural hegemony of the West through the political form of the modern state. With the emergence of a new sense of the nation as an ethnic people separate from (and at times hostile to) the political state, Japanese impe rialists, ideologues, civil servants, and others were able to portray mod ern China as a nation in search of a state, while Korea's ethnic identity could be negated in favor of an ethnically assimilated Japanese empire. The same logic of ethnic nationality appealed to those Japanese inter ested in dividing China into different ethnic groups and thereby provid ing the grounds for legitimizing the new nation-state of Manchukuo. In part, the power and durability of the concept of the ethnic nation as the organizing principle for a New Order in East Asia rested on its ability to respond to both longings for traditional cultural identities in a disorient ing new era and nationalist aspirations to resist modern forms of imperi alism and colonization. As a political concept, the ethnic nation drew both from the reim agined cultural traditions of the newly conceived historical subjects of the region and from a modern sense that the basic unit of political membership in the world was the nation. This dual promise of the ethnic nation as affording a more progressive political identity than dynastic Confucianism as well as a more traditional identity than the modern state lay at the very heart of Japanese imperialism in East Asia. We should not forget that this discourse on East Asia as a geocultural arena of ethnic identity projected Japanese concepts of self-identities and as sumptions onto others in East Asia with little concern for how well such concepts fit actual lived experiences in the region. Such an awareness, however, does not diminish the importance of this early-twentieth century Japanese representation of East Asia once we accept that all geographical representations are in part imaginative constructions of
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 107
spatial relationships. Yet, in both the specificity of its terms and the
power of its narratives, this discourse on East Asia in Imperial Japan
ironically helped establish the contours of subsequent attempts to imag-
ine East Asia as a coherent and meaningful geographical space.
107
spatial relationships. Yet, in both the specificity of its terms and the power of its narratives, this discourse on East Asia in Imperial Japan ironically helped establish the contours of subsequent attempts to imag ine East Asia as a coherent and meaningful geographical space.
NOTES
Research for this chapter was supported in part by an Asia Library
Travel Grant from the Center of Japanese Studies, the University of Michigan.
1. See Martin W. Lewis and Kiren E. Wigen, The Myth of Continents: A
Critique of Metageography (Berkeley and London: University of California
NOTES
Press, 1997), for an exploration of the imaginative aspects of geography. For a
provocative application of the concept of "geographic imagination" to Japanese
history, see Karen Wigen, "The Geographic Imagination in Early Modern Japa-
nese History: Retrospect and Prospect," Journal of Asian Studies 51, no. 1
(1992): 3-29. Wigen adopts a microapproach to the problem of geography,
looking at a specific region in Japan rather than Japan's position in the East
Asian region, but her theoretical insights into the constructed nature of geogra-
phy apply to the approach I am suggesting here.
2. See, for example, Harry D. Harootunian, "The Functions of China in
Tokugawa Thought," and Bunso Hashikawa, "Japanese Perspectives on Asia:
From Dissociation to Coprosperity," both in Akira Iriye, ed., The Chinese and
the Japanese (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); Marius B. Jansen,
Japan and Its World: Two Centuries of Change (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1980); and Toyama Shigeki, Meiji ishin (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1951).
3. On the problem of China as a transnational cultural model (zhong-hua,
chunghwa, chuka) in the context of emerging nativism/nationalism in Japan, see
Harootunian, "Functions"; Stefan Tanaka, Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into
History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), esp. 203-5; and Ronald
P. Toby, "Contesting the Centre: International Sources of Japanese National
Identity," International History Review 7, no. 3 (1985): 347-518.
4. See especially Anthony D. Smith, "Capitalism and Nationalism," in
Nationalism and Modernism (London: Routledge, 1998), 47-69. See also Rogers
Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the
New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Walker Connor,
Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1994); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983);
and Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1992). In Japanese, see Yamauchi Masayuki, Minzoku mondai
nyutmon (Tokyo: Chub Koronsha, 1996).
5. The only information about the author given in the text is that he was a
"Nakamura, Bachelor of Literature, who is conversant in history and currently
lectures on oriental history at the Tokyo Higher Normal School" (Preface to
Nakamura [Kytshiro?], KyokutO no minzoku [Tokyo: Minyisha, 1916], 3).
Research for this chapter was supported in part by an Asia Library Travel Grant from the Center of Japanese Studies, the University of Michigan. 1 . See Martin W. Lewis and Karen E. Wigen, The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1997), for an exploration of the imaginative aspects of geography. For a provocative application of the concept of "geographic imagination" to Japanese history, see Karen Wigen, "The Geographic Imagination in Early Modern Japa nese History: Retrospect and Prospect," Journal of Asian Studies 5 1 , no. 1 (1992): 3-29. Wigen adopts a micro approach to the problem of geography, looking at a specific region in Japan rather than Japan's position in the East Asian region, but her theoretical insights into the constructed nature of geogra phy apply to the approach I am suggesting here. 2. See, for example, Harry D. Harootunian, "The Functions of China in Tokugawa Thought," and Bunso Hashikawa, "Japanese Perspectives on Asia: From Dissociation to Coprosperity, " both in Akira Iriye, e d . , The Chinese and the Japanese (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); Marius B . Jansen, Japan and Its World: Two Centuries of Change (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); and Toyama Shigeki, Meiji ishin (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1951). 3. On the problem of China as a transnational cultural model (zhong-hua, chunghwa, chuka) in the context of emerging nativism/nationalism in Japan, see Harootunian, "Functions"; Stefan Tanaka, Japan 's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), esp. 203-5; and Ronald P. Toby, "Contesting the Centre: International Sources of Japanese National Identity, " International History Review 7, no. 3 ( 1985): 347-51 8. 4. See especially Anthony D . Smith, "Capitalism and Nationalism," in Nationalism and Modernism (London: Routledge, 1998), 47-69. See also Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983); and Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). In Japanese, see Yamauchi Masayuki, Minzoku mondai nyumon (Tokyo: ChUo Koronsha, 1996). 5. The only information about the author given in the text is that he was a "Nakamura, Bachelor of Literature, who is conversant in history and currently lectures on oriental history at the Tokyo Higher Normal School" (Preface to Nakamura [KyUshiro?], Kyokuto no minzoku [Tokyo: MinyUsha, 1916], 3).
108
108 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
After an exhaustive search, and textual comparison with Nakayama Kyishiro's
(1874-1961) Toyoshi kOza dai-ni-ki zenpen (Tokyo: Ytizankaku, 1940), I have
concluded that the two men were one and the same. Nakayama, born Naka-
mura, was a renowned historian of China who graduated from Tokyo Imperial
University in 1899, studied in Germany, and was a lecturer at the Tokyo Higher
Normal School around 1910. He received his doctorate in 1925. On Nakamura/
Nakayama's name change, see Dai jimmei jiten: gendai hen (Tokyo: Heibonsha,
1955), 9:508.
6. Nakamura, 1.
7. Ibid., 4.
8. Ibid., 5.
9. Ibid., 6.
10. Han Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Back-
ground (New York: Collier, 1944), 331.
11. Nakamura, 1-2.
12. Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (Reno: University of Nevada
Press, 1991), 11. This Western versus non-Western model of nationalism has
been criticized for extolling the West for possessing a superior model of national
identity. See Ronald Beiner, ed., Theorizing Nationalism (Albany: SUNY Press,
1999). My point, however, is that the same dichotomy between Western and
Eastern forms of national identity could be used to extol the virtues of the non-
Western ethnic nationalism as a pretext for reorganizing the region under Japa-
nese leadership.
13. Smith, National Identity, 13.
14. Nakamura, 35-37.
15. Eiko Ikegami argues for the Japanese concept of kokumin as an ap-
proximation of citizen and civic nation in her "Citizenship and National Identity
in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1889: A Comparative Assessment," in Charles Tilly,
ed., Citizenship, Identity, and Social History (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1996). Yet, as she admits, the concept is closer to that of the political
nation than the citizen.
16. Nakamura, 6-9. Nakamura's list is not at all an idiosyncratic one. Most
early-twentieth-century commentators on the problem of the nation came up
with a similar list. In 1913, Stalin identified the elements of the nation as lan-
guage, territory, economic life, psychological makeup and a community of cul-
ture. See Joseph Stalin, "Marxism and the National-Colonial Question," re-
printed in Omar Dahbour and Micheline R. Ishay, eds., The Nationalism
Reader, 192-97 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press). In his 1917 Nation-
alism and Internationalism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917) - which had a con-
siderable influence on Japanese theorists of the nation - Ramsay Muir explored
the roles of geography, race, language, religion, common history, community of
economic interest, and the shared sentiment of being a nation as the key ele-
ments in the nation. While most theorists emphasized that no element or combi-
nation of elements was determinative for all cases, they were responding to
Ernest Renan, who as early as 1882 had explored race, language, religion,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
After an exhaustive search, and textual comparison with Nakayama Kyushiro's (1874-1961) Toyoshi koza dai-ni-ki zenpen (Tokyo: Yuzankaku, 1940), I have concluded that the two men were one and the same . Nakayama, born Naka mura, was a renowned historian of China who graduated from Tokyo Imperial University in 1 899, studied in Germany, and was a lecturer at the Tokyo Higher Normal School around 1910. He received his doctorate in 1925. On Nakamura/ Nakayama's name change, see Dai jimmei jiten: gendai hen (Tokyo: Heibonsha,
1955), 9:508. 6. Nakamura, 1 . 7. Ibid. , 4. 8. Ibid. , 5 . 9 . Ibid., 6. 10. Han Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Back ground (New York: Collier, 1 944), 331 . 1 1 . Nakamura, 1 -2. 12. Anthony D . Smith, National Identity (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1 991), 1 1 . This Western versus non-Western model of nationalism has been criticized for extolling the West for possessing a superior model of national identity. See Ronald Beiner, e d . , Theorizing Nationalism (Albany: SUNY Press, 1999). My point, however, is that the same dichotomy between Western and Eastern forms of national identity could be used to extol the virtues of the non Western ethnic nationalism as a pretext for reorganizing the region under Japa nese leadership. 13. Smith, National Identity, 1 3 . 14. Nakamura, 35-37. 1 5 . Eiko Ikegami argues for the Japanese concept of kokumin as an ap proximation of citizen and civic nation in her "Citizenship and National Identity in Early Meiji Japan, 1868-1 889: A Comparative Assessment," in Charles Tilly, e d . , Citizenship, Identity, and Social History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Yet, as she admits, the concept is closer to that of the political nation than the citizen. 16. Nakamura, 6-9. Nakamura's list is not at all an idiosyncratic one. Most early-twentieth-century commentators on the problem of the nation came up with a similar list. In 1913, Stalin identified the elements of the nation as lan guage, territory, economic life, psychological makeup and a community of cul ture. See Joseph Stalin, "Marxism and the National-Colonial Question," re printed in Omar Dahbour and Micheline R. Ishay, eds., The Nationalism Reader, 192-97 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press). In his 1917 Nation alism and Internationalism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917) which had a con siderable influence on Japanese theorists of the nation - Ramsay Muir explored the roles of geography, race, language, religion, common history, community of economic interest, and the shared sentiment of being a nation as the key ele ments in the nation. While most theorists emphasized that no element or combi nation of elements was determinative for all cases, they were responding to Ernest Renan, who as early as 1882 had explored race, language, religion, -
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 109
community of interest, and geography before concluding that the nation (which
he did not want to equate with the state) was merely a spiritual principle. See
Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" in The Nationalism Reader, 143-55.
17. Nakamura argued that "the (ethnic) nation (minzoku) approaches
things from a blood and cultural perspective; the (political) nation (kokumin)
approaches things from a political and legal perspective: the two are not the
same" (10).
18. Ibid., 18-28.
19. Ibid., 28-30.
20. Ibid., 34-35.
21. Ibid., 35.
22. Ibid., 39.
23. Ibid., 121.
24. Ibid., 41-46.
25. Ibid., 47-48.
26. Ibid., 50. Later, Nakamura suggests that "one can understand how the
attitude toward Western countries [in late Tokugawa period Japan] grew so
deeply entrenched by recognizing that . . . the ethnic exclusive consciousness of
the Song and Ming people was directly transmitted to the late Edo period 'men
of high purpose' (bakumatsu no shishi)" (129).
27. Ibid., 57.
28. Ibid., 72-73.
29. Ibid., 89.
30. Ibid., 104-5.
31. Ibid., 106-7.
32. Ibid., 124-31.
33. Ibid., 133-34.
34. Ibid., 135-45.
35. The Japanese/Chinese term for a republic (dai kyOwa koku, da gong he
guo) more explicitly signifies (ethnic) harmony than the English republic.
36. Nakamura, 180-83.
37. Ibid., 186-207. Most of the Japanese sinologists Nakamura lists are
discussed in Tanaka, Japan's Orient, especially on pages 192 and 235-37.
Nakamura summarizes Ross's arguments on pages 207-40. Ross treats the Chi-
nese as a "race" in the most crudely racist manner (see Edward Alsworth Ross,
The Changing Chinese [New York: Century, 1914]). For example, in chapter 3,
"The Race Mind of the Chinese," Ross contrasts the "yellow men" of China
with the Anglo-Saxon "race" (51-69, at 52). His appeal for Nakamura appears
curious, given Nakamura's insistence on the distinction between [ethnic] nation
(minzoku) and race (jinshu) and his explicit rejection of race to describe the
Chinese as a group. In his summary of Ross, Nakamura does not translate Ross's
use of race as minzoku, nor does he miss the ethnic focus of Ross's analysis -
which in spite of the use of the term race does distinguish the Chinese from other
"yellow men" like the Japanese. Consequently, although Nakamura does trans-
late Ross's transethnic Anglo-Saxon race as anguro sakuson jinshu, he coins the
109
community of interest, and geography before concluding that the nation (which he did not want to equate with the state) was merely a spiritual principle. See Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" in The Nationalism Reader, 143-55 . 1 7 . Nakamura argued that "the (ethnic) nation (minzoku) approaches things from a blood and cultural perspective; the (political) nation (kokumin) approaches things from a political and legal perspective: the two are not the same" (10). 18. Ibid. , 18-28. 19. Ibid. , 28-30. 20. Ibid., 34-35. 21. Ibid . , 35. 22. Ibid. , 39. 23. Ibid., 121. 24. Ibid. , 41-46. 25. Ibid. , 47-48. 26. Ibid. , 50. Later, Nakamura suggests that "one can understand how the attitude toward Western countries [in late Tokugawa period Japan] grew so deeply entrenched by recognizing that . . . the ethnic exclusive consciousness of the Song and Ming people was directly transmitted to the late Edo period 'men of high purpose' (bakumatsu no shishi)" (129). 27. Ibid. , 57. 28. Ibid., 72-73. 29. Ibid. , 89. 30. Ibid. , 104-5. 3 1 . Ibid . , 106-7. 32. Ibid., 124-31 . 33. Ibid. , 133-34. 34. Ibid. , 135-45. 35. The Japanese/Chinese term for a republic (dai ky6wa koku, da gong he guo) more explicitly signifies (ethnic) harmony than the English republic. 36. Nakamura, 180-83. 37. Ibid. , 186-207. Most o f the Japanese sinologists Nakamura lists are discussed in Tanaka, Japan 's Orient, especially on pages 192 and 235-37. Nakamura summarizes Ross's arguments on pages 207-40. Ross treats the Chi nese as a "race" in the most crudely racist manner (see Edward Alsworth Ross, The Changing Chinese [New York: Century, 1914]) . For example, in chapter 3 , "The Race Mind of the Chinese," Ross contrasts the "yellow men" of China with the Anglo-Saxon "race" (51-69, at 52). His appeal for Nakamura appears curious, given Nakamura's insistence on the distinction between [ethnic] nation (minzoku) and race ( jinshu) and his explicit rejection of race to describe the Chinese as a group. In his summary of Ross, Nakamura does not translate Ross's use of race as minzoku, nor does he miss the ethnic focus of Ross's analysis which in spite of the use of the term race does distinguish the Chinese from other "yellow men" like the Japanese. Consequently, although Nakamura does trans late Ross's transethnic Anglo-Saxon race as anguro sakuson jinshu, he coins the
110
110 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
terms minshitsu and min'i to translate Ross's race fiber and race mind of the
Chinese, which Ross argues are distinct from those of the Japanese. See
Nakamura, 206-20.
38. One crude but suggestive measure of the historical significance Naka-
mura attaches to the various other ethnic nations in China is the length of
narrative history each receives: Manchus, 43 pages; Mongols, 47 pages; Uighurs
10 pages; Tibetans, 8 pages. The combined length of their narratives, presented
as chapter 3, "The Four Ethnic Nations of the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs, and
Tibetans" ("Dai san-sho: Man Ma Ui ZO no yon minzoku") is, at 108 pages long,
only slightly more than half the 202 pages that narrate the Han ethnic nation in
chapter 2: "The Han Ethnic Nation" (Dai ni-sho: Kan minzoku"). The history of
China was mainly, one was supposed to conclude, the history of the Han ethnic
nation.
39. Nakamura, 351.
40. On the liberal discourse on ethnic nationalism in Japan around the time
of World War I, see my "Culture, Ethnicity, and the State in Early Twentieth
Century Japan," in Sharon Minichiello, ed., Japan's Competing Modernities:
Issues in Culture and Democracy, 1900-1930, 181-205 (Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1998).
41. Uchida Rybhei, "Shinajin no ganchu ni kokka nashi," Chiugai (January
1918); reprinted in Taisho dai-zasshi, 157-62 (Tokyo: Ryudo Shuppan, 1978).
42. Ibid., 160-61.
43. A succinct general history of the relationship between ethnic national-
ism and the events surrounding World War I may be found in Habu Nagaho and
Kawai Tsuneo, "Minzokushugi shisb," in Tamura Hideo and Tanaka Hiroshi,
eds., Shakai shisO jiten, 326-46 (Tokyo: Chio Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1982). There
are also many testimonies in interwar primary sources that assert ethnic national-
ism (minzokushugi) came into the public eye most forcefully after World War I,
and especially with President Woodrow Wilson's support for "ethnic nation self-
determination" (minzoku jiketsu). See for example, Kamei Kan'ichirb's state-
ment that "the word ethnic nation (minzoku) first appeared in print in actual
world politics after the Versailles Treaty" (Kamei Kan'ichiro, Dai tOa minzoku no
michi [Tokyo: Seiki Shobb, 1941], 301).
44. Tanaka, 149.
45. Ibid., 185.
46. Lee Joung-sik, "Nature and Characteristics of Nationalist Movement in
Korea," Korea Journal 6, no. 1 (1966): 9-10.
47. Lee Ki-Baek, "Historical View of Nationalism in Korea under Japanese
occupation," Bulletin of the Korean Research Center 27 (December 1967): 18.
48. Yun Kon-cha, "Minzoku genso no satetsu: 'Nihon minzoku' to iu jiko
teiji," ShisO 834 (December 1993): 25.
49. Nakayama Kei, "Chosenjin no na o zenbu nihon na ni henzubeshi-
chbzen minzoku doka no konpon saku," Nihon oyobi nihonjin (September
1924), reprinted in Taisho dai-zasshi, 156 (Tokyo: Ryado Shuppan, 1978). In
addition to providing examples of Japanese versions for some major Korean
surnames that played on linguistic similarities (Kim becomes Kaneda; Yi be-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
terms minshitsu and min'i to translate Ross's race fiber and race mind of the Chinese, which Ross argues are distinct from those of the Japanese. See Nakamura, 206-20. 38. One crude but suggestive measure of the historical significance Naka mura attaches to the various other ethnic nations in China is the length of narrative history each receives: Manchus, 43 pages; Mongols, 47 pages; Uighurs 10 pages; Tibetans, 8 pages. The combined length of their narratives, presented as chapter 3 , "The Four Ethnic Nations of the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs, and Tibetans" ("Dai san-sho: Man Mo Ui Zo no yon minzoku") is, at 108 pages long, only slightly more than half the 202 pages that narrate the Han ethnic nation in chapter 2: "The Han Ethnic Nation" (Dai ni-sho: Kan minzoku"). The history of China was mainly, one was supposed to conclude, the history of the Han ethnic nation. 39. Nakamura, 351 . 40. On the liberal discourse on ethnic nationalism in Japan around the time of World War I , see my "Culture, Ethnicity, and the State in Early Twentieth Century Japan," in Sharon Minichiello, ed., Japan 's Competing Modernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy, 1 900-1 930, 181-205 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1 998). 4 1 . Uchida Ryohei, "Shinajin no ganchu ni kokka nashi," Chr1gai (January 1918); reprinted in Taisho dai-zasshi, 157-62 (Tokyo: Ryudo Shuppan, 1 978). 42. Ibid. , 1 60-6 1 . 43. A succinct general history of the relationship between ethnic national ism and the events surrounding World War I may be found in Habu Nagaho and Kawai Tsuneo, "Minzokushugi shiso," in Tamura Hideo and Tanaka Hiroshi, eds., Shakai shiso jiten, 326-46 (Tokyo: Chuo Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1 982). There are also many testimonies in interwar primary sources that assert ethnic national ism (minzokushugi) came into the public eye most forcefully after World War I , and especially with President Woodrow Wilson's support for "ethnic nation self determination" (minzoku jiketsu) . See for example, Kamei Kan'ichiro's state ment that "the word ethnic nation (minzoku) first appeared in print in actual world politics after the Versailles Treaty" (Kamei Kan'ichiro, Dai t6a minzoku no michi [Tokyo: Seiki Shobo , 1 941 ] , 301 ) . 44. Tanaka, 149. 45 . Ibid., 185. 46. Lee Joung-sik, "Nature and Characteristics of Nationalist Movement in Korea," Korea Journal 6, no. 1 ( 1 966): 9-10. 47. Lee Ki-Baek, "Historical View of Nationalism in Korea under Japanese occupation," Bulletin of the Korean Research Center 27 (December 1 967): 18. 48. Yun Kon-cha, "Minzoku genso no satetsu: 'Nihon minzoku' to iu jiko teiji," Shiso 834 (December 1993): 25. 49. Nakayama Kei, "Chosenjin no na 0 zenbu nihon na ni henzubeshi chozen minzoku doka no konpon saku," Nihon oyobi nihonjin (September 1 924) , reprinted in Taisho dai-zasshi, 156 (Tokyo: Ryudo Shuppan, 1 978). In addition to providing examples of Japanese versions for some major Korean surnames that played on linguistic similarities (Kim becomes Kaneda; Yi be-
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 111
comes Inou), Nakayama offered a thirty-year plan for abolishing the Korean
language, intermarriage with Japanese, and allowing Koreans to serve as impe-
rial officials and be subject to the draft. He also foresaw little Korean resistance
to this plan since "when the Koreans see this, when they see that as Japanese
with a superior culture they are treated identically to native Japanese, their
former feelings of enmity will be swept away, and they will be happy to be
Japanese" (156).
50. Song Uk, "Han'guk Chisigin kwa Yoksa j k HyOnsil," Sasanggye,
April 1965, 215, cited in Lee, "Historical View," 8.
51. Nakayama, 154. Nakayama expressed the concept that I am calling
cultural genocide in a variety of ways. Along with the expression just quoted,
"chosen minzoku naru mono ga naku naru yo ni suru koto" make that which
defines the Koreans as an ethnic nation disappear), he expressed this same goal
as "karera ga chOsenjin de aru to iu koto no shOko zenbu inmetsu seshimuru
koto" (make them destroy all evidence that they are Koreans) (156).
52. Ibid., 156.
53. ChOsen sOtokufu keimukyoku, ed., Kokusai kyOsantO to shina kakumei
(Seoul: Chikazawa Insatsubu, 1930), 58.
54. Ibid., 114-116, 144. The phrase "weak ethnic nations" (jakushO min-
zoku) was often used interchangeably with "the oppressed ethnic nations" (hi-
appaku minzoku) in 1930s leftist affirmations of ethnic nationalism as an anti-
imperialist force. Both were also red flags, although ambivalent ones, to Japanese
imperialist officials, who knew their Soviet origins but could also adapt them to
mean the oppression of oriental nations by the West instead of the imperialist
oppression suggested in Marxist usage.
55. Ozaki Hotsumi, Gendai shinaron (Tokyo: KeisO ShobO, [1939] 1964,
141-42, 211-12. How central the problem of ethnic nationalism was for Ozaki
can best be discerned from his section on minzoku undo no tokushitsu (148-67).
See also the discussion of his concern with minzoku in Tanaka, 223.
56. The range of works that appeared during these years is too numerous
for a comprehensive listing, but the following sample provides a sense of the
magnitude of this discursive emphasis on ethnicity as the determinant unit of
East Asia: Komatsu Kentaro, Minzoku to bunka (Tokyo: RisOsha, 1939);
Izawa Hiroshi, Minzoku toso shikan (Tokyo: Sangabo, 1939); Takata Yasuma,
Toa minzoku ron (1939); Tanase JOji, Toa no minzoku to shakyO (Tokyo:
Kawade Shobo, 1939) (Tanase who worked for the Toa kenkyfsho actually
wrote three books on the problem of ethnic nationality in East Asia); Ma-
tsuoka Juhachi, Shina minzokusei no kenkyiu (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1940);
Kamei Kan'ichirO, Dai tOa minzoku no michi (Tokyo: Seiki Shobo, 1941);
Koyama EizO, Minzoku to jinkO no riron (Tokyo: Haneda Shoten, 1941)
and Minzoku to bunka no sho-mondai (Tokyo: Haneda Shoten 1942); Kaigo
Katsuo, TOa minzoku kyoiku ron (Tokyo: Asakura Shoten, 1942); the twelve-
volume Minzoku sOsho (Ethnic nation series) published by Rokumeikan in
1943, of which eight volumes dealt with Asian ethnic nations (the other three
were devoted to the Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Slav ethnic nations); Ogawa
YatarO, ed., Nihon minzoku to shin sekaikan (Osaka: Kazuraki Shoten, 1943);
111
comes Inou), Nakayama offered a thirty-year plan for abolishing the Korean language, intermarriage with Japanese, and allowing Koreans to serve as impe rial officials and be subject to the draft. He also foresaw little Korean resistance to this plan since "when the Koreans see this, when they see that as Japanese with a superior culture they are treated identically to native Japanese, their former feelings of enmity will be swept away, and they will be happy to be Japanese" ( 1 56). 50. Song Uk, "Han'guk Chisigin kwa Yoksa j ok Hyonsil," Sasanggye, April 1 965, 215, cited in Lee, "Historical View, " 8 . 5 1 . Nakayama, 1 54. Nakayama expressed the concept that I am calling cultural genocide in a variety of ways. Along with the expression just quoted, "chosen minzoku naru mono ga naku naru yo ni suru koto" make that which defines the Koreans as an ethnic nation disappear), he expressed this same goal as "karera ga chosenjin de aru to iu koto no shoko zenbu inmetsu seshimuru koto" (make them destroy all evidence that they are Koreans) (156). 52. Ibid. , 156. 53. Chosen sotokufu keimukyoku, ed . , Kokusai kyosantO to shina kakumei (Seoul: Chikazawa Insatsubu, 1 930), 58. 54. Ibid . , 1 14-1 1 6, 1 44. The phrase "weak ethnic nations" (jakusho min zoku) was often used interchangeably with "the oppressed ethnic nations" (hi appaku minzoku) in 1930s leftist affirmations of ethnic nationalism as an anti imperialist force. Both were also red flags, although ambivalent ones, to Japanese imperialist officials, who knew their Soviet origins but could also adapt them to mean the oppression of oriental nations by the West instead of the imperialist oppression suggested in Marxist usage. 55. Ozaki Hotsumi, Gendai shinaron (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, [1939] 1 964, 141-42, 21 1-12. How central the problem of ethnic nationalism was for Ozaki can best be discerned from his section on minzoku undo no tokushitsu (148-67). See also the discussion of his concern with minzoku in Tanaka, 223. 56. The range of works that appeared during these years is too numerous for a comprehensive listing, but the following sample provides a sense of the magnitude of this discursive emphasis on ethnicity as the determinant unit of East Asia: Komatsu Kentaro, Minzoku to bunka (Tokyo: Risosha, 1 939); Izawa Hiroshi, Minzoku toso shikan (Tokyo: Sangabo, 1 939) ; Takata Yasuma, Toa minzoku ron (1939); Tanase Joji, Toa no minzoku to shukyo (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo, 1939) (Tanase who worked for the Toa kenkyusho actually wrote three books on the problem of ethnic nationality in East Asia); Ma tsuoka Juhachi, Shina minzokusei no kenkyu (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1940) ; Kamei Kan'ichiro , Dai toa minzoku no michi (Tokyo: Seiki Shobo, 1941 ) ; Koyama Eizo , Minzoku to jinko no riron (Tokyo: Haneda Shoten, 1 941) and Minzoku to bunka no sho-mondai (Tokyo: Haneda Shoten 1942); Kaigo Katsuo, Toa minzoku kyoiku ron (Tokyo: Asakura Shoten, 1942); the twelve volume Minzoku sosho (Ethnic nation series) published by Rokumeikan in 1 943, of which eight volumes dealt with Asian ethnic nations (the other three were devoted to the Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Slav ethnic nations); Ogawa Yataro, ed., Nihon minzoku to shin sekaikan (Osaka: Kazuraki Shoten, 1 943);
1 12
112 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Hirano Yoshitaro, Minzoku seijigaku no riron (Tokyo: Nihon Hyironsha,
1943); and Minzoku kenkyajo kiyO (Tokyo: Minzoku Kenkyujo, 1944). Numer-
ous translations on Chinese ethnicity also appeared, including Suyama Taku's
translation of Henry Rudolph Davies's Yun-nan: The Link between India and
the Yangtze (with a preface by Okawa Shfmei) as Shina minzoku ron (Tokyo:
Keii Shobo, 1940). Oguchi Goro, an employee of the intelligence bureau
of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, translated Song Wen-bing's Zhong-
guo minzu shi as Shina minzoku shi (Tokyo: Daitb Shuppan, 1940).
57. Perhaps the most consistent advocate of a common East Asian ethnic
identity was Prof. Komatsu KentarO of Kansai Gakuin University. In his Min-
zoku to bunka (Tokyo: RisOsha, 1939), Komatsu had made it clear that "the
ethnic nation (minzoku) is not limited simply to blood groups . . . [R]ather, the
ethnic nation . . . is a complex social group" (40-41). A few years later,
Komatsu offered this ethnic concept of the nation in which blood mattered but
was not the sole criterion, as the key to "forming a Greater East Asian ethnic
nation." As he put it, "Those called the yellow race (kiiro jinshu) who live in
Greater East Asia have intermarried due to regional proximity. . . . This situa-
tion has given rise to a distinctive race (tokushoku aru jinshu) and is the basic
premise for considering the Greater East Asia ethnic nations as a single ethnic
nation (dai tOa minzoku o hitotsu no minzoku to miru konpon-teki no joken)"
(Komatsu Kentaro, "Dai toa minzoku no keisei," in Ogawa, Nihon minzoku,
109-10).
58. Ozaki, Gendai shinaron, 240 (also cited in Tanaka, 224). Tachibana
made these comments in the midst of a roundtable discussion held on May 31,
1940, on "The Social Composition of the Orient and the Sino-Japanese Future"
with Ozaki, Hosokawa Karoku, and Hirano Yoshitaro. The proceedings were
published in the summer-fall 1940 issue of Chti kOron.
59. "TOa minzokushugi no kOyo," Toa 13, no. 9 (1940): 1-2.
60. Ibid., 2.
61. Kamei, Dai tOa minzoku, 225 (Tokyo: Seiki Shobo, 1941).
62. Ibid., 261-62. The emphasis is mine, although the interjection about
race in contrast to the ethnic nation is Kamei's.
63. Ibid., 174-78.
64. Ibid., 178-81.
65. Roger Griffin, Introduction to Fascism (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1995), 4.
66. Among his many books, Kamei also wrote Nachisu kokubO keizai ron
(The Nazi theory of national defense economics) (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shup-
panbu, 1939), in which his Nazi sympathies are also explicit. The fact that he was
arrested and convicted for criticizing Prime Minister Toj o in 1942 (his sentence
was suspended) is only further evidence of the extremist nature of his national-
ism and the complicated relationship between the modern Japanese state and
ethnic nationalism. Many extreme nationalists, like Kamei and Nakano Seigo,
were critical of Tajo. For a general outline of the relationship between the
wartime Japanese state and ethnic nationalists, see my "Nationalism as Dialec-
tics: Ethnicity, Moralism, and the State in Early Twentieth Century Japan," in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Hirano Yoshitaro, Minzoku seijigaku no riron (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1943); and Minzoku kenkyujo kiyo (Tokyo: Minzoku Kenkyuj o, 1 944). Numer ous translations on Chinese ethnicity also appeared, including Suyama Taku's translation of Henry Rudolph Davies's Yun-nan: The Link between India and the Yangtze (with a preface by O kawa Shumei) as Shina minzoku ron (Tokyo: Keio Shobo, 1940). Oguchi Goro, an employee of the intelligence bureau of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, translated Song Wen-bing's Zhong guo minzu shi as Shina minzoku shi (Tokyo: Daito Shuppan, 1940). 57. Perhaps the most consistent advocate of a common East Asian ethnic identity was Prof. Komatsu Kentaro of Kansai Gakuin University. In his Min zoku to bunka (Tokyo: Risosha, 1939), Komatsu had made it clear that "the ethnic nation (minzoku) is not limited simply to blood groups . . . . [R]ather, the ethnic nation . . . is a complex social group" (40-41). A few years later, Komatsu offered this ethnic concept of the nation in which blood mattered but was not the sole criterion, as the key to "forming a Greater East Asian ethnic nation." As he put it, "Those called the yellow race (kiiro jinshu) who live in Greater East Asia have intermarried due to regional proximity . . . . This situa tion has given rise to a distinctive race (tokushoku aru jinshu) and is the basic premise for considering the Greater East Asia ethnic nations as a single ethnic nation (dai toa minzoku 0 hitotsu no minzoku to miru konpon-teki no joken) " (Komatsu Kentaro, "Dai toa minzoku no keisei," in Ogawa, Nihon minzoku, 1 09-10). 58. Ozaki, Gendai shinaron, 240 (also cited in Tanaka, 224). Tachibana made these comments in the midst of a roundtable discussion held on May 3 1 , 1 940, on "The Social Composition of the Orient and the Sino-Japanese Future" with Ozaki, Hosokawa Karoku, and Hirano Yoshitaro. The proceedings were published in the summer-fall 1940 issue of Chua koron. 59. "Toa minzokushugi no koyo," Toa 1 3 , no. 9 ( 1 940): 1 -2. 60. Ibid. , 2. 61. Kamei, Dai toa minzoku, 225 (Tokyo: Seiki Shobo, 1 94 1 ) . 62. Ibid . , 261-62. The emphasis is mine, although the interjection about race in contrast to the ethnic nation is Kamei's. 63. Ibid. , 1 74-78. 64. Ibid., 178-8 1 . 6 5 . Roger Griffin, Introduction to Fascism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1 995), 4. 66. Among his many books, Kamei also wrote Nachisu kokubo keizai ron (The Nazi theory of national defense economics) (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shup panbu, 1 939) , in which his Nazi sympathies are also explicit. The fact that he was arrested and convicted for criticizing Prime Minister Tojo in 1 942 (his sentence was suspended) is only further evidence of the extremist nature of his national ism and the complicated relationship between the modern Japanese state and ethnic nationalism. Many extreme nationalists, like Kamei and Nakano Seigo, were critical of Toj o. For a general outline of the relationship between the wartime Japanese state and ethnic nationalists, see my "Nationalism as Dialec tics: Ethnicity, Moralism, and the State in Early Twentieth Century Japan, " in
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia
Narrating China, Ordering East Asia 113
James W. Heisig & John C. Maraldo, eds., Rude Awakenings: Zen, the Kyoto
School, & the Question of Nationalism, 174-96 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1994).
67. See, for example, George Macklin Wilson, "A New Look at the Prob-
lem of 'Japanese Fascism,'" Comparative Studies in Society and History 10, no. 4
(1968): 401-12; Peter Duus and Daniel I. Okimoto, "Fascism and the History of
Prewar Japan: The Failure of a Concept," Journal of Asian Studies 39, no. 1
(1979): 65-76; Miles Fletcher, "Intellectuals and Fascism in Early Showa Ja-
pan," Journal of Asian Studies 39, no. 1 (1979): 39-63; and Gregory Kasza,
"Fascism from Below? A Comparative Perspective on the Japanese Right, 1931-
1936," Journal of Comparative History 19, no. 4 (1984): 607-29.
68. Takata Yasuma, "SOkan no ji" in Minzoku kenkyitsho kiyi, 1.
69. Takata Yasuma, "Minzoku seisaku no kicho," in ibid., 17-18.
70. Nakano Seiichi, "TOa ni okeru minzoku genri no kaiken," in ibid., 45.
1 13
James W. Heisig & John C. Maraldo, eds., Rude Awakenings: Zen, the Kyoto School, & the Question of Nationalism, 174-96 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994). 67. See, for example, George Macklin Wilson, "A New Look at the Prob lem of 'Japanese Fascism,' " Comparative Studies in Society and History 10, no. 4 (1968): 401-12; Peter Duus and Daniel l . Okimoto, "Fascism and the History of Prewar Japan: The Failure of a Concept," Journal of Asian Studies 39, no. 1 (1979): 65-76; Miles Fletcher, "Intellectuals and Fascism in Early Showa Ja pan," Journal of Asian Studies 39, no. 1 (1979): 39-63 ; and Gregory Kasza, "Fascism from Below? A Comparative Perspective on the Japanese Right, 19311936," Journal of Comparative History 19, no. 4 (1984): 607-29. 68. Takata Yasuma, "Sokan no ji" in Minzoku kenkyusho kiyo, 1 . 69. Takata Yasuma, "Minzoku seisaku no kicho ," in ibid. , 17-18. 70. Nakano Seiichi, "Toa ni okeru minzoku genri no kaiken," in ibid., 45.

PART 2 PART 2
Nostalgia and Loss in the Formation of
Modern National Identity
Nostalgia and Loss in the Formation of Modern National Identity

Chapter 4 Chapter 4
Discoveries of the HOryuji
Stefan Tanaka
Today the Hotyuji is synonymous with beginnings, origins, antiquity,
Discoveries a/ the HiJryiiji
and so on, temporal metaphors that establish its authenticity and impor-
tance as an archetypal Japanese temple. I have been struck by the num-
ber of times important figures in the Meiji period are said to have
"discovered" the Horyuji (or parts thereof). There is no doubt that
Stefan Tanaka
today the Horyuji is a central artifact in the history of Japan; that is the
issue in this essay, exploring the reasons why a lesser temple has gained
this preeminent stature.1
These discoveries of the Horyuji are indicative of a reconceptualiza-
tion of society and the world in which elements of the past, indeed, the
past itself, gain new meaning. The use of the word discovery in reference
to man-made objects signifies that such objects must be "forgotten,"
that is, displaced as unimportant, and then resignified according to a
different meaning system that revalues certain aspects of that object. In
modern societies, that meaning system is a new epistemology in which
time becomes the primary basis upon which society is organized. Discov-
ery makes claims for the originary moment of a continuous narrative, in
this case of the nation-state. It provides that moment from which devel-
opment can be described as well as the point from which distinctions
(hence unity) occur. In the case of the archipelago, Meiji intellectuals
discovered artifacts, such as the Horyuji, to give meaning to an idea of
Japan, a unitary place both connected to and apart from the continent.
An interesting aspect of modernity is the rather paradoxical contra-
distinctions that are sublated, for example, separation and totalization,
the universalizing epistemology that is based upon careful distinctions
from outsiders, and mobility and stability, claims to newness that require
an elevation of the old. Henri Lefebvre describes this obsession with
pasts:
117
Today the Hotyuji is synonymous with beginnings, origins, antiquity, and so on, temporal metaphors that establish its authenticity and impor tance as an archetypal Japanese temple. I have been struck by the num ber of times important figures in the Meiji period are said to have "discovered" the Horyuji (or parts thereof) . There is no doubt that today the Horyuji is a central artifact in the history of Japan; that is the issue in this essay, exploring the reasons why a lesser temple has gained this preeminent stature.1 These discoveries of the Horyuji are indicative of a reconceptualiza tion of society and the world in which elements of the past, indeed, the past itself, gain new meaning. The use of the word discovery in reference to man-made objects signifies that such objects must be "forgotten," that is, displaced as unimportant, and then resignified according to a different meaning system that revalues certain aspects of that object. In modern societies, that meaning system is a new epistemology in which time becomes the primary basis upon which society is organized. Discov ery makes claims for the originary moment of a continuous narrative, in this case of the nation-state. It provides that moment from which devel opment can be described as well as the point from which distinctions (hence unity) occur. In the case of the archipelago, Meij i intellectuals discovered artifacts, such as the Horyuj i, to give meaning to an idea of Japan, a unitary place both connected to and apart from the continent. An interesting aspect of modernity is the rather paradoxical contra distinctions that are sublated, for example, separation and totalization, the universalizing epistemology that is based! upon careful distinctions from outsiders, and mobility and stability, claims to newness that require an elevation of the old. Henri Lefebvre describes this obsession with pasts:
1 17
118
118 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
This period which sees and calls itself entirely new is overcome by an
obsession with the past: memory, history. History begins hic et nunc,
with the here-and-now, with each passing minute. Historical becom-
ing is immediately upon us, and immediately it becomes history,
known and recognized historicity, historical consciousness, chained
to a vaguely distant past according to which the present vainly at-
tempts to situate itself.2
To articulate that past, a new conceptualization of time was also neces-
sary, that of progress, one that used the past but also separated the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
This period which sees and calls itself entirely new is overcome by an obsession with the past: memory, history. History begins hie et nunc, with the here-and-now, with each passing minute. Historical becom ing is immediately upon us, and immediately it becomes history, known and recognized historicity, historical consciousness, chained to a vaguely distant past according to which the present vainly at tempts to situate itself.2
present from it. This articulation of a different time, moreover, requires
the rearticulation of space, that is, how persons interact with their hu-
man and natural environments. Inside and outside were redefined but in
such a way that outside has been defined in national terms while other
forms of alterity have been occulted (through incorporation) by the new
space of the nation. Describing a passage by Walter Benjamin, Peter
Osborne comments on this reorientation through a shift in the meaning
of tradition:
Yet it contains some of Benjamin's sharpest insights, not only into
modernity as a destruction of tradition, but also into the production
of the idea of tradition within modernity as its inescapable dialecti-
cal other.3
Tradition in the first instance consists of those habitual and customary
codes that connect people to the natural (and supernatural) world. Tradi-
tion in the latter instance is an idea - of course grounded in the empiri-
cism of history - that gains significance within modernity but always as
its other.
To articulate that past, a new conceptualization of time was also neces sary, that of progress, one that used the past but also separated the present from it. This articulation of a different time, moreover, requires the rearticulation of space, that is, how persons interact with their hu man and natural environments. Inside and outside were redefined but in such a way that outside has been defined in national terms while other forms of alterity have been occulted (through incorporation) by the new space of the nation. Describing a passage by Walter Benj amin, Peter Osborne comments on this reorientation through a shift in the meaning of tradition:
The discoveries of the Horyuji - the destruction of Buddhist icons in
the initial years of the Meiji; the first survey of its contents in 1872,
ordered by the central government (Dajokan); the Nara exhibition held
on the grounds of the T6daiji, where artifacts from the Horyuji and
Shos6in were displayed; the discovery of the Kannon in the Hall of
Dreams (Yumedono) by Okakura Tenshin and Ernest Fenollosa; and
the explication of an architectural history of Japan by Ito Chuta - are
indicative of such a transformation of tradition. They indicate a search
Yet it contains some of Benjamin's sharpest insights, not only into modernity as a destruction of tradition, but also into the production of the idea of tradition within modernity as its inescapable dialecti cal other. 3
for new temporal and spatial meanings to incorporate pasts into a uni-
fied nation-state, to what Lefebvre calls a representation of space. Each
Tradition in the first instance consists of those habitual and customary codes that connect people to the natural (and supernatural) world. Tradi tion in the latter instance is an idea - of course grounded in the empiri cism of history - that gains significance within modernity but always as its other. The discoveries of the Horyuji - the destruction of Buddhist icons in the initial years of the Meij i; the first survey of its contents in 1872, ordered by the central government (Daj okan); the Nara exhibition held on the grounds of the Todaiji, where artifacts from the Horyuji and Shosoin were displayed; the discovery of the Kannon in the Hall of Dreams (Yumedono) by Okakura Tenshin and Ernest Fenollosa; and the explication of an architectural history of Japan by Ito Chuta - are indicative of such a transformation of tradition. They indicate a search for new temporal and spatial meanings to incorporate pasts into a uni fied nation-state, to what Lefebvre calls a representation of space. Each
Discoveries of the H6ryiiji
Discoveries of the HOryaji 119
discovery served as an originary moment for a particular narrative about
the past as a symbol of power, as evidence of an imperial legacy, as a
repository of Asian art, and as a historical site and datum for the unfold-
ing of Japan.
1 19
discovery served as an originary moment for a particular narrative about the past as a symbol of power, as evidence of an imperial legacy, as a repository of Asian art, and as a historical site and datum for the unfold ing of Japan.
Heteronomous Traditions
Around the time of the Meiji Restoration, people living in the vicinity of
the Horytiji called it a bimbOtera (poor temple).4 It was in dilapidated
Heteronomous Traditions
condition: after the cadastral survey in 1585, Hideyoshi reduced the
Horyiji's annual stipend to twelve hundred koku, and two decades later
Tokugawa Ieyasu lowered it to a thousand.5 Such a reduction of financial
resources obviously reduced its power and influence and also forced
priests to become rather enterprising. On two or three occasions, they
took sacred objects - especially a statue of and relics related to Shotoku
Taishi- on degaicho to the Ekoin in Edo. (Dl)egaicho were the tempo-
rary unveilings of sacred objects outside temple grounds to tap support-
ers of and foster more support for temple icons, as in the case of the
Horyuji, the Taishi cult which worshiped Shotoku Taishi. They also sold
trinkets - hanging and stone lanterns - at the temple to worshipers of
the Taishi cult for placement before the ShoryOin (Chapel) and Saiendi
(West Round Hall).6
Discovery One: Pasts Prior to History
At the outset of the Meiji period, the new government cut the temple's
stipend to 250 koku and in 1874 reduced it again to 125. But more
troubling than poverty was the discontent directed toward Buddhist
temples at the beginning of the Meiji. One of the first laws of the new
government, separating bodhisattva and kami (shinbutsu kyari), set off
the widespread pillaging of Buddhist temples (haibutsu kishaku), many
of them former sites of political and economic power.7 Buddhist statues
were decapitated; sutras and other texts were destroyed; buildings were
burned, torn down, or sold; and priests and monks retired en masse.8
Destruction at the Kofukuji, the most powerful temple in Nara through
the Tokugawa period, was considerable. Books were either burned (the
bonfire reportedly lasted for more than three months) or their pages
Around the time of the Meiji Restoration, people living in the vicinity of the Horyiiji called it a bimbotera (poor temple).4 It was in dilapidated condition: after the cadastral survey in 1 585, Hideyoshi reduced the Horyiiji's annual stipend to twelve hundred koku, and two decades later Tokugawa Ieyasu lowered it to a thousand.5 Such a reduction of financial resources obviously reduced its power and influence and also forced priests to become rather enterprising. On two or three occasions, they took sacred objects - especially a statue of and relics related to Shotoku Taishi - on degaicho to the Ekoin in Edo. (Degaicho were the tempo rary unveilings of sacred objects outside temple grounds to tap support ers of and foster more support for temple icons, as in the case of the Horyiiji, the Taishi cult which worshiped Shotoku Taishi. They also sold trinkets - hanging and stone lanterns - at the temple to worshipers of the Taishi cult for placement before the Shoryoin (Chapel) and Saiendo (West Round Hall). 6
were used as wrapping paper for lacquerware or as lining for tea boxes.
The three-roofed pagoda was sold for thirty yen, and local officials
Discovery One: Pasts Prior to History At the outset of the Meiji period, the new government cut the temple's stipend to 250 koku and in 1874 reduced it again to 125. But more troubling than poverty was the discontent directed toward Buddhist temples at the beginning of the Meiji. One of the first laws of the new government, separating bodhisattva and kami (shinbutsu kyuri) , set off the widespread pillaging of Buddhist temples (haibutsu kishaku) , many of them former sites of political and economic power.7 Buddhist statues were decapitated; sutras and other texts were destroyed; buildings were burned, torn down, or sold; and priests and monks retired en masse.8 Destruction at the Kofukuji, the most powerful temple in Nara through the Tokugawa period, was considerable. Books were either burned (the bonfire reportedly lasted for more than three months) or their pages were used as wrapping paper for lacquerware or as lining for tea boxes. The three-roofed pagoda was sold for thirty yen, and local officials
120
120 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
proposed to burn down the five-roofed pagoda but demurred, fearing
the spread of fire.9 Fortunately this pagoda was not burned, but it
was saved not to preserve an invaluable artifact but out of the fear
that nearby houses and shops would also be destroyed. In contrast,
the Horyuji was largely spared, probably due to its lower status, rel-
ative isolation, and the popularity of the Taishi cult.10 Nevertheless, the
bimbodera was dilapidated: many monks had retired or left the temple,
local government officials proposed the demolition of the cloister walls
on both sides of the south gate (nandaimon), and cows and horses were
housed inside the cloister.n In other words, the years of relative obscu-
rity throughout the Muromachi and Edo periods facilitated forgetting
or indifference toward the temple that would be critical to its transfor-
mation into a Japanese archetype. It was not completely forgotten; it
was part of that social space of the everyday where farmers could keep
their livestock.
This first discovery of the Horyuji was far from a pivotal moment in
its elevation to archetype. Indeed it was not a discovery at all; instead, it
is indicative of a rejection of the past, the immediate past, and a disre-
gard for the significance of this site in the emergence of a "Japan." In
fact, it shows that time, the past, was not important to the present, that
the temple was indeed part of the present, but one connected to a
disgraced power structure that oversaw local matters. Second, there is
no Japan or East Asia here. The space that the Horyuji represented was
of the immediate environs (the village of Horyuji or Ikaruga) and the
believers who comprised the Taishi cult. It would be a leap to extrapo-
late the latter into evidence of a nation.
Discovery Two: Loss of Function
In May 1871, the Dajokan, concerned about the destruction of objects
from the ancient and recent past, issued an edict on the preservation of
old things. It states:
There are not a few benefits of some artifacts and old things in the
investigation of today's transformation from old to new and of the
history (enkaku) of systems and customs. It is natural to hate the old
and struggle for the new, but actually we should lament the gradual
loss and destruction of evil customs (ryahei).12
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
proposed to burn down the five-roofed pagoda but demurred, fearing the spread of fire.9 Fortunately this pagoda was not burned, but it was saved not to preserve an invaluable artifact but out of the fear that nearby houses and shops would also be destroyed. In contrast, the Horyiiji was largely spared, probably due to its lower status, rel ative isolation, and the popularity of the Taishi cult.1° Nevertheless, the bimbodera was dilapidated: many monks had retired or left the temple, local government officials proposed the demolition of the cloister walls on both sides of the south gate (nandaimon) , and cows and horses were housed inside the cloister. 11 In other words, the years of relative obscu rity throughout the Muromachi and Edo periods facilitated forgetting or indifference toward the temple that would be critical to its transfor mation into a Japanese archetype. It was not completely forgotten; it was part of that social space of the everyday where farmers could keep their livestock. This first discovery of the Horyiiji was far from a pivotal moment in its elevation to archetype. Indeed it was not a discovery at all; instead, it is indicative of a rejection of the past, the immediate past, and a disre gard for the significance of this site in the emergence of a "Japan." In fact, it shows that time, the past, was not important to the present, that the temple was indeed part of the present, but one connected to a disgraced power structure that oversaw local matters. Second, there is no Japan or East Asia here. The space that the Horyiiji represented was of the immediate environs (the village of Horyiiji or Ikaruga) and the believers who comprised the Taishi cult. It would be a leap to extrapo late the latter into evidence of a nation. Discovery Two: Loss of Function In May 187 1 , the Daj okan, concerned about the destruction of objects from the ancient and recent past, issued an edict on the preservation of old things. It states: ...
There are not a few benefits of some artifacts and old things in the investigation of today's transformation from old to new and of the history (enkaku) of systems and customs. It is natural to hate the old and struggle for the new, but actually we should lament the gradual loss and destruction of evil customs (ryuhei) . 1 2
Discoveries of the Horyuji
Discoveries of the HOryfiji 121
This is the first recognition of the importance of the Horyuji as past,
what can be called "discovery." It contained old things, especially those
tied to the emperor. One of the results of the edict was that the Minis-
try of Education sent out an investigatory team, headed by Machida
Hisanari. Machida was a key figure who first recognized the continuity
between modern society and its past while on a study tour in Europe.
The survey began in May 1872 and lasted four months, with the team
visiting Kyoto, Osaka, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Aichi, Watarai, Sakai,
Ashigara, Shiga, Wakayama and Nara.13 Machida was accompanied by
Uchida Masao and Ninagawa Noritane, who was in the exhibition sec-
tion (hakubutsukyoku).14
Although it was not articulated in this way, Machida's observation is
a recognition that modern society has no fixed referent. Modernity,
itself, is the subject.15 One effect is the loss of previous congruence
between meaning and object or, in Benjamin's terms, the destruction of
tradition (as custom and habit). This issue, of course, is not new; intellec-
tuals and commoners in transforming societies have constantly searched
for the limits of change, the point where society will no longer be recog-
nizable to its anterior rather than as another homogenized place. We
must remember that the nation fills this vacuum; the idea of nation
becomes that referent, the particularities of the past, customs destroyed
by modern liberal-capitalist forces, are reemnplotted as "traditions" au-
thorizing the nation as an immanent form.
This survey designed to confirm the existence of and record artifacts
was the first step in preservation efforts, that is, to establish that referent
or the idea of tradition within modernity.16 One of the aspects that
stands out most clearly is that, historical rhetoric notwithstanding, from
this early date the new leadership shows concern for old things along
with an insistence on transformation to the new. To best facilitate that
transformation to the new, the administrative personnel in the DajOkan
saw value in retaining the past, that is, old things. Ninagawa's draft
report of the survey complains of "a foreigner's" observation that Japa-
nese like novelty and shun old things and that people were selling arti-
facts from the temples and shrines of the western capital (Kansai). He
then warns that if this continues in a number of years there will be no
evidence of the ancient country (kuni no jOidai no jiseki).17 Ninagawa is
advocating the establishment of museums as sites for preservation and
display. At this early stage of the new state, we see recognition of the
need for history (enkaku). The past and wide dissemination of this
121
This is the first recognition of the importance of the Horyiiji as past, what can be called "discovery. " It contained old things, especially those tied to the emperor. One of the results of the edict was that the Minis try of Education sent out an investigatory team, headed by Machida Hisanari. Machida was a key figure who first recognized the continuity between modern society and its past while on a study tour in Europe. The survey began in May 1872 and lasted four months, with the team visiting Kyoto, Osaka, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Aichi, Watarai, Sakai, Ashigara, Shiga, Wakayama and Nara.13 Machida was accompanied by Uchida Masao and Ninagawa Noritane, who was in the exhibition sec tion (hakubutsukyoku) . 14 Although it was not articulated in this way, Machida's observation is a recognition that modern society has no fixed referent. Modernity, itself, is the subject. 15 One effect is the loss of previous congruence between meaning and object or, in Benjamin's terms, the destruction of tradition (as custom and habit). This issue, of course, is not new; intellec tuals and commoners in transforming societies have constantly searched for the limits of change, the point where society will no longer be recog nizable to its anterior rather than as another homogenized place. We must remember that the nation fills this vacuum; the idea of nation becomes that referent, the particularities of the past, customs destroyed by modern liberal-capitalist forces, are reemplotted as "traditions" au thorizing the nation as an immanent form. This survey designed to confirm the existence of and record artifacts was the first step in preservation efforts, that is, to establish that referent or the idea of tradition within modernity. 16 One of the aspects that stands out most clearly is that, historical rhetoric notwithstanding, from this early date the new leadership shows concern for old things along with an insistence on transformation to the new. To best facilitate that transformation to the new, the administrative personnel in the Dajokan saw value in retaining the past, that is, old things. Ninagawa's draft report of the survey complains of "a foreigner's" observation that Japa nese like novelty and shun old things and that people were selling arti facts from the temples and shrines of the western capital (Kansai). He then warns that if this continues in a number of years there will be no evidence of the ancient country (kuni no jodai no jiseki) .17 Ninagawa is advocating the establishment of museums as sites for preservation and display. At this early stage of the new state, we see recognition of the need for history (enkaku) . The past and wide dissemination of this
122
122 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
information - the education of the population - would foster belief in
the nation.
But we must not go too far. There is an idea of history, but it is
enkaku (closer to chronicles and accounts, histoire) not rekishi (today's
linear notion of developmental time).18 There is little teleology. At this
point, the Dajokan seemed concerned about destruction and neglect,
but a belief in value did not necessarily correspond to an articulation of
what that value is. Moreover, despite this newfound concern for the
past, not all shared it, especially those, such as temple officials, who
were in dire need of money - why not pawn a statue or painting rather
than watch a mob destroy it - for food or maintenance as well as those
who quickly learned a central tenet of modernity, self-interest.
More important, this event indicates a growing sense of separation
of the present from the past. Things are important because they are old,
not because they are tied to some form of belief or spirituality. The
materiality of the object or textual data takes precedence over the idea
and transmitted knowledge. Buddhist items that lost their connection to
previous ideational and political structures were deemed at this moment
particularly "worthless," their materiality as old not yet established. But
even in the desire to save there is a nostalgia, a fear of loss that is only
possible through recognition that an item is currently of another world.
Here the past becomes foreign.19 It is a separation that is necessary for
the production of history.
We must be careful not to confuse this interest in the past with our
current knowledge of Japanese history. Indeed, these men have largely
been forgotten. I believe that the principal reason for their demise was the
lack of history, especially the history of the nation (and East Asia) as we
know it today. Their past is not yet nation, national, though it is moving in
that direction.20 Ninagawa's invocation of the "foreigner" can at best be
read as a lament that Japan is discarding its charming artifacts; the delinea-
tion of this past as proof of distinct national cultures - Japan, China,
Korea, and so on-is absent. Ninagawa's interest in using artifacts to
educate the inhabitants indicates both an early recognition of the impor-
tance of the past in fostering support for the new government and the still
unformed idea of the nation-state. But, more important, the objects that
these men deemed important indicate that the national history had not yet
been written.
The principal object of the survey's attention was the Shosoin of the
Todaiji, probably because of a connection with the imperial family.21
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
information - the education of the population - would foster belief in the nation. But we must not go too far. There is an idea of history, but it is enkaku (closer to chronicles and accounts, histoire) not rekishi (today's linear notion of developmental time ).18 There is little teleology. At this point, the D ajokan seemed concerned about destruction and neglect, but a belief in value did not necessarily correspond to an articulation of what that value is. Moreover, despite this newfound concern for the past, not all shared it, especially those, such as temple officials, who were in dire need of money - why not pawn a statue or painting rather than watch a mob destroy it - for food or maintenance as well as those who quickly learned a central tenet of modernity, self-interest. More important, this event indicates a growing sense of separation of the present from the past. Things are important because they are old, not because they are tied to some form of belief or spirituality. The materiality of the object or textual data takes precedence over the idea and transmitted knowledge. Buddhist items that lost their connection to previous ideational and political structures were deemed at this moment particularly "worthless," their materiality as old not yet established. But even in the desire to save there is a nostalgia, a fear of loss that is only possible through recognition that an item is currently of another world. Here the past becomes foreign.19 It is a separation that is necessary for the production of history. We must be careful not to confuse this interest in the past with our current knowledge of Japanese history. Indeed, these men have largely been forgotten. I believe that the principal reason for their demise was the lack of history, especially the history of the nation (and East Asia) as we know it today. Their past is not yet nation, national, though it is moving in that direction.20 Ninagawa's invocation of the "foreigner" can at best be read as a lament that Japan is discarding its charming artifacts; the delinea tion of this past as proof of distinct national cultures - Japan, China, Korea, and so on - is absent. Ninagawa's interest in using artifacts to educate the inhabitants indicates both an early recognition of the impor tance of the past in fostering support for the new government and the still unformed idea of the nation-state. But, more important, the objects that these men deemed important indicate that the national history had not yet been written. The principal object of the survey's attention was the Shosoin of the Todaiji, probably because of a connection with the imperial family. 21
Discoveries of the Horyuji
Discoveries of the HOryuiji 123
The survey of the ShosOin, which lasted for twelve days, is indicative
of a veneration for old objects not seen throughout its history. From the
middle part of the Heian period, the objects in this storehouse had been
largely forgotten. Tastes had changed; the Tang culture that such objects
represented were pass6 (tai) having become commonplace from fre-
quency of intercourse as well as a changing style. When they had been
remembered since, it was often for a particular object, called an OjukkO
(an aromatic wood also known as ranjatai) related to an incense-smelling
game popular around the Muromachi period. The storehouse had last
been opened in 1833. The transformation that the 1872 survey set off is
summarized in the introduction to a recent history of the Shosoin: "It is
now always included in history textbooks, and today there is nobody
who does not know of the treasures of the Shosoin. But the attention
paid to these treasures is not very old."22
The transformation of the Shosoin is evident in the ceremony con-
vened to open its doors in 1872. It was a great event; Uchida likened the
excitement to a wedding ceremony or marriage meeting (miai). Nina-
gawa's diary records the anticipation; he writes:
We followed the procedure for removing the treasures from storage.
Present were Governor Shijo and three lower officials; among the
temple priests, one colored robe, three white robes, and six black
robes; ten temple officials; and four carpenters and blacksmiths. At
the storehouse, the previous day a platform across the front about
1.8 meters deep and a ramp were built. On a stage, the priests lined
up on the left and officials on the right; they sat on chairs. After
twelve o'clock we commenced the ceremony. A black-robed priest
123
The survey of the Sh6s6in, which lasted for twelve days, is indicative of a veneration for old objects not seen throughout its history. From the middle part of the Heian period, the objects in this storehouse had been largely forgotten. Tastes had changed; the Tang culture that such objects represented were passe (Wi) having become commonplace from fre quency of intercourse as well as a changing style. When they had been remembered since, it was often for a particular object, called an 6jukk6 (an aromatic wood also known as ranjatai) related to an incense-smelling game popular around the Muromachi period. The storehouse had last been opened in 1833. The transformation that the 1872 survey set off is summarized in the introduction to a recent history of the Sh6s6in: "It is now always included in history textbooks, and today there is nobody who does not know of the treasures of the Sh6s6in. But the attention paid to these treasures is not very old. "22 The transformation of the Sh6s6in is evident in the ceremony con vened to open its doors in 1872. It was a great event; Uchida likened the excitement to a wedding ceremony or marriage meeting (miai) . Nina gawa's diary records the anticipation; he writes:
called the yakushiin and four carpenters went up to the platform and
used a lever to remove the gate bolt from the south door, and then
they removed that of the middle and north. And then the head
priest (shiseibO), wearing a perfumed robe, removed the official
temple seal from the lock on the south; next the yakushiin removed
the bamboo wrapping of the imperial seal from the middle and
north. And then Seko [Nobuyo, the imperial envoy] went up, took
the imperial seal, and showed it to all. We looked. And then the
yakushiin took all seals from the lock. And then they inserted the
key. And then they opened the door, and everyone entered. They
removed ten long boxes, and the temple officials carried them to the
head priest. And then they closed the doors as before and removed
We followed the procedure for removing the treasures from storage. Present were Governor Shijo and three lower officials; among the temple priests, one colored robe, three white robes, and six black robes; ten temple officials; and four carpenters and blacksmiths. At the storehouse, the previous day a platform across the front about 1 .8 meters deep and a ramp were built. On a stage, the priests lined up on the left and officials on the right; they sat on chairs. After twelve o'clock we commenced the ceremony. A black-robed priest called the yakushiin and four carpenters went up to the platform and used a lever to remove the gate bolt from the south door, and then they removed that of the middle and north. And then the head priest (shiseib6) , wearing a perfumed robe, removed the official temple seal from the lock on the south; next the yakushiin removed the bamboo wrapping of the imperial seal from the middle and north. And then Seko [Nobuyo, the imperial envoy] went up, took the imperial seal, and showed it to all. We looked. And then the yakushiin took all seals from the lock. And then they inserted the key. And then they opened the door, and everyone entered. They removed ten long boxes, and the temple officials carried them to the head priest. And then they closed the doors as before and removed
124
124 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the lock. At this time, lots of people came from everywhere to look.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the lock. At this time, lots of people came from everywhere to look. A line formed, and they opened the boxes.23
A line formed, and they opened the boxes.23
The continuous use of "and then" (tsugi) suggests the careful ritual
procedures the priests followed. It also suggests some exasperation at
the length of the ceremony; indeed, the sudden attention of many
people when the boxes were opened suggests a transformation of mean-
ing whereby the ritual had lost significance. Indeed, it was during the
process that Uchida in a conversation with Machida mentioned that his
feelings were like those of a wedding ceremony. The priests were con-
ducting the ritual, for the first time in thirty-nine years, as they remem-
bered it. Their ceremony indicated the value of imagination of what is
not seen. For the survey team, the value was in knowing and seeing,
something to be cataloged and displayed.
They were not disappointed when they finally saw the contents.
Ninagawa's account marvels at the craftsmanship of the objects, espe-
cially the koto, flutes, go boards, and boxes; they return him to the past,
a sense of the eighth century. He writes, "It is sufficient to envision the
ancient system (sei)."24 But the list of objects is different from today's
standard inventory of important objects from that age; in particular,
there are few Buddhist icons. Moreover, in the text I have seen Nina-
gawa does not distinguish what is Japanese from artifacts from the conti-
nent (or even the subcontinent).
The survey culminated three years later with the Nara Exhibition
(Hakurankai), which was held in Todaiji (another survey was conducted
to prepare for this exhibition). A phenomenon of the new international
world of the latter half of the nineteenth century was the plethora of
exhibitions and world's fairs.25 Indeed, one of the reasons for the 1872
survey was to locate material to send to the world's fair in Vienna.
Exhibitions were one of the new organizational forms through which
culture and technology could be distilled into a presentation for large
audiences. Public displays per se were not new, but the purpose was
quite different. A key difference was the prevalence of old objects, which
were usually displayed with little sense of historical order. Meiji displays
were usually public (i.e., sponsored by central and local governments),
presented as new, organized by categories rather than ownership, and
money making (they charged admission).26 Much of the Nara Exhibition
was historical, in particular, artifacts from the ShosOin and Horytiji; Nina-
gawa's hopes had come to fruition. At last, important objects that had
The continuous use of "and then" (tsugi) suggests the careful ritual procedures the priests followed. It also suggests some exasperation at the length of the ceremony; indeed, the sudden attention of many people when the boxes were opened suggests a transformation of mean ing whereby the ritual had lost significance. Indeed, it was during the process that Uchida in a conversation with Machida mentioned that his feelings were like those of a wedding ceremony. The priests were con ducting the ritual, for the first time in thirty-nine years, as they remem bered it. Their ceremony indicated the value of imagination of what is not seen. For the survey team, the value was in knowing and seeing, something to be cataloged and displayed. They were not disappointed when they finally saw the contents. Ninagawa's account marvels at the craftsmanship of the objects, espe cially the koto, flutes, go boards, and boxes; they return him to the past, a sense of the eighth century. He writes, "It is sufficient to envision the ancient system (sei) . "24 But the list of objects is different from today's standard inventory of important objects from that age; in particular, there are few Buddhist icons. Moreover, in the text I have seen Nina gawa does not distinguish what is Japanese from artifacts from the conti nent (or even the subcontinent). The survey culminated three years later with the Nara Exhibition (Hakurankai) , which was held in Todaiji (another survey was conducted to prepare for this exhibition). A phenomenon of the new international world of the latter half of the nineteenth century was the plethora of exhibitions and world's fairs.25 Indeed, one of the reasons for the 1872 survey was to locate material to send to the world's fair in Vienna. Exhibitions were one of the new organizational forms through which culture and technology could be distilled into a presentation for large audiences. Public displays per se were not new, but the purpose was quite different. A key difference was the prevalence of old objects, which were usually displayed with little sense of historical order. Meiji displays were usually public (i.e . , sponsored by central and local governments), presented as new, organized by categories rather than ownership, and money making (they charged admission).26 Much of the Nara Exhibition was historical, in particular, artifacts from the Shosoin and Horyilj i; Nina gawa's hopes had come to fruition. At last, important objects that had
Discoveries of the Horyuji
Discoveries of the Horyutji 125
been seen by so few people could be viewed by the vast public.27 But the
purpose of this exhibition, as well as most others, was to encourage indus-
try. Ninagawa also envisioned a connection between artifacts and the
production of a new arts industry of export items. In these early years,
artlike objects were seen as an important export commodity.
The display of these objects, however, indicates a transformation of
past cultural forms. First, the selection of the Todaiji represents a new
significance: it was a large enclosed site that could contain the exhibi-
tion. It no longer possessed the grandeur, spirituality, power, and wealth
of the past. It was now a public (i.e., empty) space (the closest thing in
1875 to a convention center) whose meaning depended on the contents
of the moment. The exhibition indicates a concern among government
officials to preserve important aspects of the past, especially those con-
nected to the imperial family and art objects, such as the register of
objects donated by Empress Koken to the temple and a cushion that had
once belonged to Shotoku Taishi.28 Religious objects did not dominate;
most of the objects, especially the large statues that now fill the art
history books on Japan, were not included. Those Buddhist icons that
were included were bronze statuettes of kannon and nyorai that demon-
strate the casting skills of Japanese artisans. The more famous of the 140
objects from the Horyuiji included in the exhibit were the Yakushi nyorai
from the main hall (kondO), the guardians Jikokuten and Tamonten, and
the Tamamushi shrine.
Perhaps the best indication of this transformation of meaning is the
removal of the Yakushi nyorai from the main hall of the Horyuji and its
display among many other objects in the Todaiji as an important artifact
of the past. This is a moment in the transformation of icons into aes-
thetic forms that grounds the process of change. The nyorai, the princi-
pal icon of the temple, was separated from that site and resituated in a
temporal framework as something old. The separation reflects that con-
tradistinction of mobility and stability. Old things (kyibutsu) become a
symbol of stability that can ground a rapidly changing society. More-
over, the removal of spirituality from this statue indicates an early stage
at which these objects become aesthetic images that speak for an ab-
stract idea, in this case a national past. Though not well framed yet,
Ninagawa's desire to display artifacts in order to inform the masses is an
early attempt at this integration of aesthetics into the project on moder-
nity. Lefebvre writes, "Aestheticism accepts the premise that there can
be such a thing as an art which can produce constructs and exceptional
125
been seen by so few people could be viewed by the vast public.27 But the purpose of this exhibition, as well as most others, was to encourage indus try. Ninagawa also envisioned a connection between artifacts and the production of a new arts industry of export items. In these early years, artlike objects were seen as an important export commodity. The display of these obj ects, however, indicates a transformation of past cultural forms. First, the selection of the Todaiji represents a new significance: it was a large enclosed site that could contain the exhibi tion. It no longer possessed the grandeur, spirituality, power, and wealth of the past. It was now a public ( i . e . , empty) space (the closest thing in 1875 to a convention center) whose meaning depended on the contents of the moment. The exhibition indicates a concern among government officials to preserve important aspects of the past, especially those con nected to the imperial family and art obj ects, such as the register of objects donated by Empress Koken to the temple and a cushion that had once belonged to Shotoku Taishi.28 Religious objects did not dominate; most of the objects, especially the large statues that now fill the art history books on Japan, were not included. Those Buddhist icons that were included were bronze statuettes of kannon and nyorai that demon strate the casting skills of Japanese artisans. The more famous of the 140 objects from the Horyiiji included in the exhibit were the Yakushi nyorai from the main hall (kondo) , the guardians Jikokuten and Tamonten, and the Tamamushi shrine. Perhaps the best indication of this transformation of meaning is the removal of the Yakushi nyorai from the main hall of the Horyiiji and its display among many other objects in the Todaiji as an important artifact of the past. This is a moment in the transformation of icons into aes thetic forms that grounds the process of change. The nyorai, the princi pal icon of the temple, was separated from that site and resituated in a temporal framework as something old. The separation reflects that con tradistinction of mobility and stability. Old things (kyubutsu) become a symbol of stability that can ground a rapidly changing society. More over, the removal of spirituality from this statue indicates an early stage at which these objects become aesthetic images that speak for an ab stract idea, in this case a national past. Though not well framed yet, Ninagawa's desire to display artifacts in order to inform the masses is an early attempt at this integration of aesthetics into the proj ect on moder nity. Lefebvre writes, "Aestheticism accepts the premise that there can be such a thing as an art which can produce constructs and exceptional
126
126
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
moments while remaining in essence external to everyday life. It accepts
the premise that this art can penetrate everyday life from outside."29 The
icon was now outside, something for people to see (which was not usu-
ally possible in the past), and thus it penetrates the everyday. But it is
always outside, both as the distant past and, as will become evident
later, because of its connection to abstractions of the nation, the impe-
rial family, or fine art. This separation of the past from the present was
important to an emerging idea of the nation-state. It imposed a new
concept of time that organized and constrained people into a common
framework. It was a concept of the past as "experienced" by all. Those
who went to the exhibit saw evidence of the nation-state and experi-
enced the result of a specific sequence of changes that explained the
significance of what they had formerly known as a local site.30
The final moment of this discovery, the divestment of the objects
from their function, developed out of the exhibition and culminated in
1878.31 Chihaya JOcho, the head priest of Horytji, completed negotia-
tions with Machida for the donation of more than 300 objects to the
imperial household. In return, the temple received a donation of ten
thousand yen. From Chihaya's point of view, the donation would help
avoid the dispersal of the temple's objects (interestingly, they were now
seen as an integral collection), remind the government of the temple's
existence, and restore temple finances.32 In other words, it was neces-
sary to save the temple. All objects were not willingly relinquished; in
the early negotiations in 1876, the temple proposed donating 157 ob-
jects. The number was increased after a prefectural (Sakai) survey deter-
mined that the temple's buildings were so dilapidated that they could not
protect the objects. Some of the meaningful objects included on the final
list were shoes placed before the statue of a seated Shotoku Taishi (in
the Shoryoin), the sword from the statue of Mochikuni in the main hall,
and a brazier from the five-roofed pagoda. None of the large statues was
included.33 Yet from the viewpoint of Machida the donation was impor-
tant because it would provide a safe place to store the valued objects; for
Chihaya, the donated money would pay for repairs to the main hall
(kondO). But preservation in this case meant the restoration of struc-
tures of little value (at that time) at the cost of the most valuable objects
in the temple's history, which were shipped to a new museum in Tokyo.
It was the beginning of a system in which the nation-state would become
the abstract system that determined possession, not only in terms of
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
moments while remaining in essence external to everyday life. It accepts the premise that this art can penetrate everyday life from outside." 29 The icon was now outside, something for people to see (which was not usu ally possible in the past), and thus it penetrates the everyday. But it is always outside, both as the distant past and, as will become evident later, because of its connection to abstractions of the nation, the impe rial family, or fine art. This separation of the past from the present was important to an emerging idea of the nation-state. It imposed a new concept of time that organized and constrained people into a common framework. It was a concept of the past as "experienced" by all. Those who went to the exhibit saw evidence of the nation-state and experi enced the result of a specific sequence of changes that explained the significance of what they had formerly known as a local site.30 The final moment of this discovery, the divestment of the objects from their function, developed out of the exhibition and culminated in 1 878.31 Chihaya Jacha, the head priest of Haryiij i, completed negotia tions with Machida for the donation of more than 300 objects to the imperial household. In return, the temple received a donation of ten thousand yen. From Chihaya's point of view, the donation would help avoid the dispersal of the temple's objects (interestingly, they were now seen as an integral collection), remind the government of the temple's existence, and restore temple finances.32 In other words, it was neces sary to save the temple. All objects were not willingly relinquished; in the early negotiations in 1876, the temple proposed donating 157 ob j ects. The number was increased after a prefectural (Sakai) survey deter mined that the temple's buildings were so dilapidated that they could not protect the objects. Some of the meaningful objects included on the final list were shoes placed before the statue of a seated Shatoku Taishi (in the Sharyain), the sword from the statue of Mochikuni in the main hall, and a brazier from the five-roofed pagoda. None of the large statues was included.33 Yet from the viewpoint of Machida the donation was impor tant because it would provide a safe place to store the valued objects; for Chihaya, the donated money would pay for repairs to the main hall (kondo). But preservation in this case meant the restoration of struc tures of little value (at that time) at the cost of the most valuable objects in the temple's history, which were shipped to a new museum in Tokyo. It was the beginning of a system in which the nation-state would become the abstract system that determined possession, not only in terms of
Discoveries of the Horyuji
Discoveries of the Hioryiji 127
physical holding but in the criteria from which the objects gained their
127
physical holding but in the criteria from which the objects gained their meaning.
meaning.
Discovery Three: Purity and the Temporalization of Space
In the 1880s, research on the history of the archipelago, especially a
Discovery Three: Purity and the Temporalization of Space
reevaluation of the past, became quite pronounced. This has often been
mistakenly characterized as an anti-Western, neotraditionalist move-
ment. Yet the purpose was little different from that of Machida's survey
of artifacts: to understand the past in order to best develop a linear
trajectory of progress and educate the people as nationals. The differ-
ence in this period is a transformation in what was valued. This change
was part of a strengthening notion of Japan, especially the delineation of
what is Japanese, and the gradual separation of Japan from outsiders.
History (rekishi) became the primary means of effecting this transforma-
tion. Old objects, increasingly labeled as art, provided ready data for the
"writing" and visualization of that history.
The Horyuji was a central site in this reconfiguration. It was one of
the oldest extant temples, through Buddhism possessed of a history
connected to the continent as well as the imperial family, it had con-
tained a wealth of objects, and it was virtually untouched by the de-
struction of Buddhist icons (haibutsu kishaku). In other words, it con-
tained the data required to shift the past from a chronology of kingship
(i.e., the patronage of ruling families) to a history of Japan tied to the
Eurasian continent.
This shift was marked in 1884 by another commission sponsored by
the Meiji government, this time headed by C)kakura Tenshin (Kakuzo),
Kano Tessai, and Ernest F. Fenollosa. It is this commission that is usu-
ally cited for the discovery of the Kannon in the Yumedono of the
Horyuji. Both Okakura and Fenollosa claimed to have been the discov-
erer, the one who saved Japanese art. Each wrote a history of East Asian
art that has had a major impact on the field of East Asian art history.
Their overall narratives are very similar, almost the same, but the ways
in which they connect Japan to the outside differ. This difference is an
indication of a contestation over possession, whether the art of Japan
was to serve a national or universalistic (i.e., Western) purpose.34
Fenollosa's description, which is often phrased to show how he
"saved" Japanese art, raises the centrality of aesthetics - fine art - in the
In the 1880s, research on the history of the archipelago, especially a reevaluation of the past, became quite pronounced. This has often been mistakenly characterized as an anti-Western, neotraditionalist move ment. Yet the purpose was little different from that of Machida's survey of artifacts: to understand the past in order to best develop a linear trajectory of progress and educate the people as nationals. The differ ence in this period is a transformation in what was valued. This change was part of a strengthening notion of Japan, especially the delineation of what is Japanese, and the gradual separation of Japan from outsiders. History (rekishi) became the primary means of effecting this transforma tion. Old objects, increasingly labeled as art, provided ready data for the "writing" and visualization of that history. The Horyuji was a central site in this rec:onfiguration. It was one of the oldest extant temples, through Buddhism possessed of a history connected to the continent as well as the imperial family, it had con tained a wealth of objects, and it was virtually untouched by the de struction of Buddhist icons (haibutsu kishaku) . In other words, it con tained the data required to shift the past from a chronology of kingship (i.e., the patronage of ruling families) to a history of Japan tied to the Eurasian continent. This shift was marked in 1884 by another commission sponsored by the Meiji government, this time headed by Okakura Tenshin (Kakuzo) , Kano Tessai, and Ernest F. Fenollosa. I t is this commission that is usu ally cited for the discovery of the Kannon in the Yumedono of the Horyuji. Both Okakura and Fenollosa claimed to have been the discov erer, the one who saved Japanese art. Each wrote a history of East Asian art that has had a major impact on the field of East Asian art history. Their overall narratives are very similar, almost the same, but the ways in which they connect Japan to the outside differ. This difference is an indication of a contestation over possession, whether the art of Japan was to serve a national or universalistic (i.e . , Western) purpose.34 Fenollosa's description, which is often phrased to show how he "saved" Japanese art, raises the centrality of aesthetics - fine art - in the
1 28
128
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
formulation of belief in the nation. Thus, Fenollosa describes his "discov-
ery" of the Guze Kannon (Goddess of Mercy), a seventh-century gilt-
wood sculpture:
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
formulation of belief in the nation. Thus, Fenollosa describes his "discov ery" of the Guze Kannon (Goddess of Mercy), a seventh-century gilt wood sculpture:
I had credentials from the central government which enabled me to
requisition the opening of godowns and shrines. The central space of
the octagonal Yumedono was occupied by a great closed shrine,
which ascended like a pillar towards the apex. The priests of the
Horiuji confessed that tradition ascribed the contents of the shrine
to Corean work of the days of Suiko, but that it had not been
opened for more than two hundred years. On fire with the prospect
of such a unique treasure, we urged the priests to open it by every
argument at our command. They resisted long alleging that in pun-
ishment for the sacrilege an earthquake might well destroy the
temple. Finally we prevailed, and I shall never forget our feelings as
the long disused key rattled in the rusty lock. Within the shrine
appeared a tall mass closely wrapped about in swathing bands of
cotton cloth, upon which the dust of ages had gathered. It was no
light task to unwrap the contents, some 500 yards of cloth having
been used, and our eyes and nostrils were in danger of being choked
with the pungent dust...
But it was the aesthetic wonders of this work that attracted us
most. From the front the figure is not quite so noble, but seen in
profile it seemed to rise to the height of archaic Greek art. . . . But
the finest feature was the profile view of the head, with its sharp
Han nose, its straight clear forehead, and its rather large - almost
negroid - lips, on which a quiet mysterious smile played, not unlike
Da Vinci's Mona Lisa's. Recalling the archaic stiffness of Egyptian
Art at its finest, it appeared still finer in the sharpness and individual-
ity of the cutting. In slimness it was like a Gothic statue from
Amiens, but far more peaceful and unified in its single system of
lines.35
Of course, this was not the "discovery" of an unknown object de-
spite the rhetorical flourishes. This passage reads differently when one
knows that artifacts of this temple were cataloged in 1872 and that many
were "donated" to the imperial household in 1878. One of the reasons
why the Yumedono was "forgotten" is that it is an eighth-century octago-
nal structure (not even unique) that had been built in the newer eastern
I had credentials from the central government which enabled me to requisition the opening of godowns and shrines. The central space of the octagonal Yumedono was occupied by a great closed shrine, which ascended like a pillar towards the apex. The priests of the Horiuj i confessed that tradition ascribed the contents of the shrine to Core an work of the days of Suiko, but that it had not been opened for more than two hundred years. On fire with the prospect of such a unique treasure, we urged the priests to open it by every argument at our command. They resisted long alleging that in pun ishment for the sacrilege an earthquake might well destroy the temple. Finally we prevailed, and I shall never forget our feelings as the long disused key rattled in the rusty lock. Within the shrine appeared a tall mass closely wrapped about in swathing bands of cotton cloth, upon which the dust of ages had gathered. It was no light task to unwrap the contents, some 500 yards of cloth having been used, and our eyes and nostrils were in danger of being choked with the pungent dust . . . . But it was the aesthetic wonders of this work that attracted us most. From the front the figure is not quite so noble, but seen in profile it seemed to rise to the height of archaic Greek art. . . . But the finest feature was the profile view of the head, with its sharp Han nose, its straight clear forehead, and its rather large - almost negroid - lips, on which a quiet mysterious smile played, not unlike Da Vinci's Mona Lisa's. Recalling the archaic stiffness of Egyptian Art at its finest, it appeared still finer in the sharpness and individual ity of the cutting. In slimness it was like a Gothic statue from Amiens, but far more peaceful and unified in its single system of lines.35 Of course, this was not the "discovery" of an unknown object de spite the rhetorical flourishes. This passage reads differently when one knows that artifacts of this temple were cataloged in 1872 and that many were "donated" to the imperial household in 1878. One of the reasons why the Yumedono was "forgotten" is that it is an eighth-century octago nal structure (not even unique) that had been built in the newer eastern
Discoveries of the Horyilji
Discoveries of the Hiryiji
129
compound (tOmin). (The main hall, pagoda, and cloister comprise the
western compound, the oldest part of the temple complex.) Like Nina-
gawa's description, multiple pasts are evident, but in Fenollosa's words a
past, Benjamin's tradition as custom and habit, is replaced by the legacy
of anachronistic beliefs. The separation of statues from their former
religiosity (we must remember that many had a hand in this, from the
locals who participated in the destructive haibutsu kishaku movements
to those who pawned or sold temple possessions and priests who "will-
ingly complied" with a call for objects to be preserved and shown in the
museum) facilitated this creation of a pure form shorn of previous mean-
ing and open to new interpretations. The discovery of Fenollosa and
Okakura completed the separation of the contents from their site; now
statues became art, a form judged by its closeness to some pure aesthetic
ideal.
It is at this point that the alterity of the past is reintegrated into the
community - now as the past of the nation-state - and replaced with the
otherness of foreign places. Space is reconceptualized from symbolic
spaces to a unit within which subregions are connected directly to a
center.36 A narrative of development places a certain past into specific
temporal categories that explain the development of the present, that
center. In other words, the stabilization of the past - identification of an
origin - allows for a comparison with foreign places and temporal devel-
opments, reinforcing the past as a national, but now distant, earlier
stage of that nation-state. Through Okakura and Fenollosa's pens, the
Horyuji, or more accurately its statues, represents the originary mo-
ment, the Suiko period (552-645), of Japanese art history. Indeed, it
becomes the first evidence for a history of Japan. We must remember
that the earliest extant Japanese texts date to 710 and 712, the Kojiki and
the Nihon shoki, more than one century after the Horyuji was built.
Okakura proclaims this originary role of the Horyuji statues: "Without
doubt the extant artifacts of the Suiko period are the statues in the
HOryuji."37 The Horyuji and the Suiko period have become virtually
interchangeable; they signify that early moment, the rise from the primi-
tive to a cultural form. It is the beginning of a narrative of progress: the
connection to the continent, the coming of Buddhism, the rise of the
Yamato clan, and the formation of organized government (the Taika
reforms).
The selection of Buddhist icons for this history marks a significant
transition in the valuation of artifacts. Only six years earlier, the objects
129
compound (toin) . (The main hall, pagoda, and cloister comprise the western compound, the oldest part of the temple complex.) Like Nina gawa's description, multiple pasts are evident, but in Fenollosa's words a past, Benjamin's tradition as custom and habit, is replaced by the legacy of anachronistic beliefs. The separation of statues from their former religiosity (we must remember that many had a hand in this, from the locals who participated in the destructive haibutsu kishaku movements to those who pawned or sold temple possessions and priests who "will ingly complied" with a call for objects to be preserved and shown in the museum) facilitated this creation of a pure form shorn of previous mean ing and open to new interpretations. The discovery of Fenollosa and Okakura completed the separation of the contents from their site; now statues became art, a form judged by its closeness to some pure aesthetic ideal. It is at this point that the alterity of the past is reintegrated into the community - now as the past of the nation-state - and replaced with the otherness of foreign places. Space is reconceptualized from symbolic spaces to a unit within which subregions are connected directly to a center. 36 A narrative of development places a certain past into specific temporal categories that explain the development of the present, that center. In other words, the stabilization of the past - identification of an origin - allows for a comparison with foreign places and temporal devel opments, reinforcing the past as a national, but now distant, earlier stage of that nation-state. Through Okakura and Fenollosa's pens, the Horyiij i, or more accurately its statues, represents the originary mo ment, the Suiko period (552-645) , of Japanese art history. Indeed, it becomes the first evidence for a history of Japan. We must remember that the earliest extant Japanese texts date to 710 and 712, the Kojiki and the Nihon shoki, more than one century after the Horyiiji was built. Okakura proclaims this originary role of the Horyiiji statues: "Without doubt the extant artifacts of the Suiko period are the statues in the Horyiij i."37 The Horyiiji and the Suiko period have become virtually interchangeable; they signify that early moment, the rise from the primi tive to a cultural form. It is the beginning of a narrative of progress: the connection to the continent, the coming of Buddhism, the rise of the Yamato clan, and the formation of organized government (the Taika reforms). The selection of Buddhist icons for this history marks a significant transition in the valuation of artifacts. Only six years earlier, the objects
130
130 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
displayed at the Nara Exhibition had spanned time from the seventh
century through the Tokugawa period; many were religious objects, but
most showed the temple's connection to the imperial family. Impor-
tantly, the display was composed of objects from the Shosoin and
Horyuji. But Okakura ignored most of those artifacts, instead focusing
on the large Buddhist statuary he identified as belonging to the Suiko
period. Old things were displaced for objects tied to a specific, originary
era. The objects of the Horyuji that gain importance are those statues
that for various reasons had remained at the temple. Moreover, the
elevation of these Buddhist icons (still with their heads) supplanted
artifacts more closely tied to the imperial family. Objects from the
Shosoin are now located in a time line as Tenpyo (710-94) artifacts,
separating them from the Horyuji. This is especially interesting when
they are placed in the context of the emergence of State Shinto. It seems
to mark that contradistinction of modernity, the stable and mobile, now
as timeless and timeful. Here spirituality is one of those abstractions that
would determine the subjectivity of the nation and establish the grounds
for possession of objects. Buddhist icons become historicized, an impor-
tant example of spirituality in the narrative of national development,
while the imperial system becomes sacred and eternal, removed from
history.
The explanatory power of this origin is twofold: to establish the
ahistorical character of the nation-state and to make connections to the
expanded world, both ancient and contemporary. First, one of the para-
doxes of the modernity is the simultaneity of mobility and stability - the
constant change in a narrative of transformation raises questions, anxi-
eties, and fears brought on by the loss of foundational ideas and sym-
bols. The origin not only marks the first moment of the narrative, but it
also reestablishes those fundamental forms. Suiko marks that moment
when "Japanese" characteristics - always from or compared to foreign
qua national objects - become evident.
The key to the discoveries of Okakura and Fenollosa is in the orga-
nizing structure, a Hegelian notion of aesthetics that establishes these
objects as the fine art of a Japan and connects them to other significant
parts of the world: in Fenollosa's case, ancient Egypt and Greece, Han
China, Gothic France, and Renaissance Italy; and in Okakura's writings
as examples of Japan's superior spirit.38 The temporal markers in
Fenollosa's description make possible a comparative narrative that re-
inforces the idea of the nation. Okakura's version of the opening of the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
displayed at the Nara Exhibition had spanned time from the seventh century through the Tokugawa period; many were religious objects, but most showed the temple's connection to the imperial family. Impor tantly, the display was composed of objects from the Shosoin and Horyuj i. But Okakura ignored most of those artifacts, instead focusing on the large Buddhist statuary he identified as belonging to the Suiko period. Old things were displaced for objects tied to a specific, originary era. The objects of the Horyuji that gain importance are those statues that for various reasons had remained at the temple. Moreover, the elevation of these Buddhist icons (still with their heads) supplanted artifacts more closely tied to the imperial family. Objects from the Shosoin are now located in a time line as Tenpyo (710-94) artifacts, separating them from the Horyuj i . This is especially interesting when they are placed in the context of the emergence of State Shinto. It seems to mark that contradistinction of modernity, the stable and mobile, now as timeless and timeful. Here spirituality is one of those abstractions that would determine the subjectivity of the nation and establish the grounds for possession of objects. Buddhist icons become historicized, an impor tant example of spirituality in the narrative of national development, while the imperial system becomes sacred and eternal, removed from history. The explanatory power of this origin is twofold: to establish the ahistorical character of the nation-state and to make connections to the expanded world, both ancient and contemporary. First, one of the para doxes of the modernity is the simultaneity of mobility and stability - the constant change in a narrative of transformation raises questions, anxi eties, and fears brought on by the loss of foundational ideas and sym bols. The origin not only marks the first moment of the narrative, but it also reestablishes those fundamental forms. Suiko marks that moment when "Japanese" characteristics - always from or compared to foreign qua national objects - become evident. The key to the discoveries of Okakura and Fenollosa is in the orga nizing structure, a Hegelian notion of aesthetics that establishes these objects as the fine art of a Japan and connects them to other significant parts of the world: in Fenollosa's case, ancient Egypt and Greece, Han China, Gothic France, and Renaissance Italy; and in Okakura's writings as examples of Japan's superior spirit.38 The temporal markers in Fenollosa's description make possible a comparative narrative that re inforces the idea of the nation. Okakura's version of the opening of the
Discoveries of the Horyilji
Discoveries of the Horyuji 131
Yumedono differs slightly from Fenollosa's in ways that emphasize the
nation-state. While acknowledging the former spirituality of the Guze
Kannon as a "secret Buddha" (hibutsu), he positions it in a superior
position to European forms:39 "The sculpture of Greece is something to
boast about, but I believe that when contrasted with our art of the Nara
period, the latter is not a bit inferior. It is just that the difficulty is in the
comparison. In judging the source of ideals in such things as religion and
literature, Greece is depictive, Nara is idealistic."40 Nara is both a tempo-
ral category of early Japan and a place, a metonym of Japan.41 Okakura
connects these objects to a framework that explained the development
of the nation by using Greece (i.e., the West) to reinforce the idea of the
nation. Once the parameters of place are established, by placing objects
in subsequent temporal periods such as the Nara, which follows Suiko
(also called Asuka), Buddhist icons become art objects that are used to
demonstrate the development of Japan. Okakura, for example, de-
scribes the qualities of later periods as artistically more refined, charac-
terized by influences principally from the Tang and later Song dynasties.
A second change that stabilizes pasts from alter to same is facilitated
through the identification of essential characteristics made evident
through the careful study of art. Okakura finds a spirituality (Buddhism),
a sense of harmony (the naturalism and serenity of the objects), and
adaptability (the keen sense of adapting important aspects of foreign
cultures and harmoniously assimilating them into one's own). Old things
are celebrated for a "patina of age" that Okakura defines through an
immanent characteristic, the concept of kOtan (refined simplicity), a cele-
bration of a lack of complexity in earlier periods. But spirituality here
shifts from Buddhism as a religion to Buddhist icons as a reflection of
reverence for nature.42 What was once seen as outmoded, is now depicted
as evidence of an earlier, fundamental characteristic of the nation.
Harmony is used to occult the simultaneity of mobility and stability.
The transformation, learning, and adaptation necessary for a develop-
mental, progressive society potentially indicate a lack of continuity, but
harmony demarcates difference along national boundaries that mark
indigenous characteristics in juxtaposition with forces of change from
the outside. Okakura locates this in an innate characteristic of all Japa-
nese, yabi. In his Ideals of the East, he describes this notion of beauty in
terms of harmony: "It modified the tilted roofs of Chinese architecture
by the delicate curves of the Kasuga style, in Nara. It imposed their
feminine refinement on the creations of Fujiwara." In other words, the
131
Yumedono differs slightly from Fenollosa's in ways that emphasize the nation-state. While acknowledging the former spirituality of the Guze Kannon as a "secret Buddha" (hibutsu) , he positions it in a superior position to European forms:39 "The sculpture of Greece is something to boast about, but I believe that when contrasted with our art of the Nara period, the latter is not a bit inferior. It is just that the difficulty is in the comparison. In judging the source of ideals in such things as religion and literature, Greece is depictive, Nara is idealistic."40 Nara is both a tempo ral category of early Japan and a place, a metonym of Japan.41 Okakura connects these objects to a framework that explained the development of the nation by using Greece (i.e . , the West) to reinforce the idea of the nation. Once the parameters of place are established, by placing objects in subsequent temporal periods such as the Nara, which follows Suiko (also called Asuka), Buddhist icons become art objects that are used to demonstrate the development of Japan. Okakura, for example, de scribes the qualities of later periods as artistically more refined, charac terized by influences principally from the Tang and later Song dynasties. A second change that stabilizes pasts from alter to same is facilitated through the identification of essential characteristics made evident through the careful study of art. Okakura finds a spirituality (Buddhism), a sense of harmony (the naturalism and serenity of the objects), and adaptability (the keen sense of adapting important aspects of foreign cultures and harmoniously assimilating them into one's own). Old things are celebrated for a "patina of age" that Okakura defines through an immanent characteristic, the concept of kotan (refined simplicity), a cele bration of a lack of complexity in earlier periods. But spirituality here shifts from Buddhism as a religion to Buddhist icons as a reflection of reverence for nature.42 What was once seen as outmoded, is now depicted as evidence of an earlier, fundamental characteristic of the nation. Harmony is used to occult the simultaneity of mobility and stability. The transformation, learning, and adaptation necessary for a develop mental, progressive society potentially indicate a lack of continuity, but harmony demarcates difference along national boundaries that mark indigenous characteristics in juxtaposition with forces of change from the outside. Okakura locates this in an innate characteristic of all Japa nese, yubi. In his Ideals of the East, he describes this notion of beauty in terms of harmony: "It modified the tilted roofs of Chinese architecture by the delicate curves of the Kasuga style, in Nara. It imposed their feminine refinement on the creations of Fujiwara. " In other words, the
132
132 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
national genius has never been overwhelmed. There has always been
abundant energy for the acceptance and reapplication of the influence
received, however massive.43 "Proof" of this characteristic is provided
by the otherness of the West - gentleness contrasted with harshness,
hills with mountains, and rice paddies with oceans.
Finally, adaptability is a corollary of the idea of harmony. Okakura
writes of Japan's early contacts with China:
The wars and disruptions of China made our country a sanctuary for
her exiles and repository of her art works, and we have deliberately
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
national genius has never been overwhelmed. There has always been abundant energy for the acceptance and reapplication of the influence received, however massive.43 "Proof" of this characteristic is provided by the otherness of the West - gentleness contrasted with harshness, hills with mountains, and rice paddies with oceans. Finally, adaptability is a corollary of the idea of harmony. Okakura writes of Japan's early contacts with China:
sought her teachings by sending over our scholars from the very
earliest times. . . . There has never been any lack of lively national
feeling, or of ability to discriminate what suits our peculiarities and
to reject the dross.44
Here Suiko also serves as the moment that allows the identification and
separation of a Japan (note that the nation is now assumed) from China,
East Asia, and even ancient Greece. Now Buddhist doctrines and icons -
a predominant epistemology of the elite for almost fifteen hundred
years- is foreign. He says, "One can say in actuality of the origin of our
country's art that a major portion came from foreign countries."45 Having
such a foreign heritage is not disgraceful; he acknowledges that Japanese
The wars and disruptions of China made our country a sanctuary for her exiles and repository of her art works, and we have deliberately sought her teachings by sending over our scholars from the very earliest times . . . . There has never been any lack of lively national feeling, or of ability to discriminate what suits our peculiarities and to reject the dross.44
culture was coarse and simplistic before cultural interaction. He points to
the way in which Western civilization (especially the United States, En-
gland, Germany, and France) has incorporated ancient Greece and Rome
as its own. According to Okakura, it is inconceivable to discuss the rich-
ness of Suiko without reference to Japan's earlier occupation of Mimana
(a kingdom on the Korean Peninsula) or its direct contact with the Six
Dynasties.46
In other words, by harking back to the Six Dynasties Okakura con-
nected the archipelago to Eurasia and also provided for the separation of
Japan from China. At that time, Chinese culture was well developed and
Japan's was rather primitive. But Japan adopted the best of the continent
and had become the repository for this new category of East Asian art.
Moreover, the comparison with the formation of the West, especially
ancient Greece, is a common strategy of Okakura's: Japan's development
was part of the same universal process that explains the rise of Western
civilization. The patterns or stages of change are identified by claiming
the past of another for oneself through national divisions.
Here Suiko also serves as the moment that allows the identification and separation of a Japan (note that the nation is now assumed) from China, East Asia, and even ancient Greece. Now Buddhist doctrines and icons a predominant epistemology of the elite for almost fifteen hundred years - is foreign. He says, "One can say in actuality of the origin of our country's art that a major portion came from foreign countries."45 Having such a foreign heritage is not disgraceful; he acknowledges that Japanese culture was coarse and simplistic before cultural interaction. He points to the way in which Western civilization (especially the United States, En gland, Germany, and France) has incorporated ancient Greece and Rome as its own. According to Okakura, it is inconceivable to discuss the rich ness of Suiko without reference to Japan's earlier occupation of Mimana (a kingdom on the Korean Peninsula) or its direct contact with the Six Dynasties.46 In other words, by harking back to the Six Dynasties Okakura con nected the archipelago to Eurasia and also provided for the separation of Japan from China. At that time, Chinese culture was well developed and Japan's was rather primitive. But Japan adopted the best of the continent and had become the repository for this new category of East Asian art. Moreover, the comparison with the formation of the West, especially ancient Greece, is a common strategy of Okakura's: Japan's development was part of the same universal process that explains the rise of Western civilization. The patterns or stages of change are identified by claiming the past of another for oneself through national divisions.
Discoveries of the HiJryilji
Discoveries of the HiOryutji 133
This rather contradictory process is facilitated by slippage in another
totalized form that also establishes separation - a unitary "Asiatic" -
while feigning unity. The idea of a common Asian culture was also new
at this time, made possible by the presence of a West and its category
the Orient. Indeed, the above characteristics should each be seen in
relation to an idealized notion of the West as rational and competitive.
This is evident in the new significance of the Horyuiji as a museum of
East Asian culture. Artifacts of East Asian art, Okakura asserts, have
largely been destroyed by wars or decayed from neglect. Only Japan
has maintained such evidence. He writes, "Japan is a museum of Asi-
atic civilisation; and yet more than a museum, because the singular
genius of the race leads it to dwell on all phases of the ideals of
the past, in that spirit of living Advaitism which welcomes the new
without losing the old."47 Horyuji possesses the qualities - site of ori-
gin, original structures, and an intact collection - that embody and
possess a reunited past and present, the Asiatic. Here the temple gains
a new sacredness as a museum for the early art pieces of Japan (and
thus East Asia); it is important because it housed ancient objects that
simultaneously depict the history of Japan and explain Japan's incorpo-
ration of the best of Asia. But the lines between Japan as East Asian
and East Asia as foreign are quite blurry (and remain so at least up to
1945). Their maintenance relies upon a new faith that an Asia exists -
hard to dispute because of its long presence as an idea in the West -
and that the histories of its subcultures are and have always been
distinctive.
There is a contradiction in this formulation that has troubled subse-
quent writers - the simultaneity of Asia as both a part of Japan's past and
foreign. The resolution was the power of the overarching narrative of a
Japanese art that obscured the details of its foreignness. But this opera-
tion of elision occurs within the multiple images that statues possess. W. J.
T. Mitchell writes, "The true literal image is the mental or spiritual one;
the improper, derivative, figurative image is the material shape perceived
by our senses, especially the eye."48 The potential for two "images," the
material and the true, is not new to modern Japan, but there is a change in
the relation between the figurative and the true. Whereas the two images
were probably closer because they were rarely seen, now the images are
displayed. The "true" has shifted from connections to a religious mean-
ing to a likeness of the Japanese character, and because the figurative is
tied to impropriety and derivation - the foreignness of the icons, for
133
This rather contradictory process is facilitated by slippage in another totalized form that also establishes separation - a unitary "Asiatic" while feigning unity. The idea of a common Asian culture was also new at this time, made possible by the presence of a West and its category the Orient. Indeed, the above characteristics should each be seen in relation to an idealized notion of the West as rational and competitive. This is evident in the new significance of the Horyuji as a museum of East Asian culture. Artifacts of East Asian art, Okakura asserts, have largely been destroyed by wars or decayed from neglect. Only Japan has maintained such evidence. He writes, "Japan is a museum of Asi atic civilisation; and yet more than a museum, because the singular genius of the race leads it to dwell on aU phases of the ideals of the past, in that spirit of living Advaitism which welcomes the new without losing the old. "47 Horyuj i possesses the qualities - site of ori gin, original structures, and an intact collection - that embody and possess a reunited past and present, the Asiatic. Here the temple gains a new sacredness as a museum for the early art pieces of Japan (and thus East Asia); it is important because it housed ancient objects that simultaneously depict the history of Japan and explain Japan's incorpo ration of the best of Asia. But the lines between Japan as East Asian and East Asia as foreign are quite blurry (and remain so at least up to 1945). Their maintenance relies upon a new faith that an Asia exists hard to dispute because of its long presence as an idea in the West and that the histories of its subcultures are and have always been distinctive. There is a contradiction in this formulation that has troubled subse quent writers - the simultaneity of Asia as both a part of Japan's past and foreign. The resolution was the power of the over arching narrative of a Japanese art that obscured the details of its foreignness. But this opera tion of elision occurs within the multiple images that statues possess. W. J. T. Mitchell writes, "The true literal image is the mental or spiritual one; the improper, derivative, figurative image is the material shape perceived by our senses, especially the eye."48 The potential for two "images," the material and the true, is not new to modern Japan, but there is a change in the relation between the figurative and the true. Whereas the two images were probably closer because they were rarely seen, now the images are displayed. The "true" has shifted from connections to a religious mean ing to a likeness of the Japanese character, and because the figurative is tied to impropriety and derivation - the foreignness of the icons, for
134
134 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
example - the priests' recollection that the Guze Kannon came from
Korea is deemphasized.
Okakura and Fenollosa did much to return the Horyuji to a level of
importance it had not seen for over a millennium. But it is an impor-
tance that is completely different, one that is now priceless for the
temple's contents. It reflects the divestment of all meaning previously
held by the temple (and its objects) and its replacement with a collection
of objects that stand as both an expression of Japaneseness and a mo-
ment in the evolution of Japan. The new framework established the
Horyfji as the metonym for the beginning of Japanese history, the point
from which contact was established with the world but also from which
an essence of being Japanese can be extracted.
Discovery Four: Repetition and the Sublation of
Space to Time
The 1880s and 1890s were decades of considerable historical skepticism
and positivistic research. Knowledge of the past that had been handed
down for centuries was questioned and exposed as myth. For example,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
example - the priests' recollection that the Guze Kannon came from Korea is deemphasized. Okakura and Fenollosa did much to return the Horyfiji to a level of importance it had not seen for over a millennium. But it is an impor tance that is completely different, one that is now priceless for the temple's contents. It reflects the divestment of all meaning previously held by the temple (and its objects) and its replacement with a collection of objects that stand as both an expression of Japaneseness and a mo ment in the evolution of Japan. The new framework established the Horyfiji as the metonym for the beginning of Japanese history, the point from which contact was established with the world but also from which an essence of being Japanese can be extracted.
historians disputed Motoori Norinaga's long-accepted interpretation that
the location of Yamatai-koku, the kingdom of Wa (Japan) recorded in
the Wei chih, was in Kyushu. By the end of Meiji, this debate grew into
an institutional rivalry between the history departments of the Imperial
Universities of Tokyo and Kyoto, the former promoting Kyushu and the
Discovery Four: Repetition and the Sublation of Space to Time
latter Yamato. This debate was part of a general historical inquiry that
would lead to the writing of a "proper" history of Japan. Modernity,
paradoxically, needs the past; the nation-state must locate its origins,
explain its connections to other areas, and explicate its development (or
lack thereof).
The problem in this debate (as in all debates over origins) was the
realization that textual data, the Kojiki and Nihon shoki, are unreliable
and empirical data on protohistoric society are needed. As I have shown,
some artifacts, now constituted as art, were emptied of previous signifiers
and became important historical data. But this reorientation did not yet
extend to ancient architecture, especially shrines and temples such as the
Hokoji, ShitennOji, Horinji, and Horyuji, that predates extant written
texts. In contrast to the recognition increasingly accorded to selected
items among their contents, these old structures, though no longer being
torn down, sold, or burned, were suffering from considerable neglect.
The 1880s and 1890s were decades of considerable historical skepticism and positivistic research. Knowledge of the past that had been handed down for centuries was questioned and exposed as myth. For example, historians disputed Motoori Norinaga's long-accepted interpretation that the location of Yamatai-koku, the kingdom of Wa (Japan) recorded in the Wei chih, was in Kyushu. By the end of Meiji, this debate grew into an institutional rivalry between the history departments of the Imperial Universities of Tokyo and Kyoto, the former promoting Kyushu and the latter Yamato. This debate was part of a general historical inquiry that would lead to the writing of a "proper" history of Japan. Modernity, paradoxically, needs the past; the nation-state must locate its origins, explain its connections to other areas, and explicate its development (or lack thereof) . The problem in this debate (as in all debates over origins) was the realization that textual data, the Kojiki and Nihon shoki, are unreliable and empirical data on protohistoric society are needed. As I have shown, some artifacts, now constituted as art, were emptied of previous signifiers and became important historical data. But this reorientation did not yet extend to ancient architecture, especially shrines and temples such as the Hokoji , Shitennoji, Horinj i, and Horyfij i, that predates extant written texts. In contrast to the recognition increasingly accorded to selected items among their contents, these old structures, though no longer being torn down, sold, or burned, were suffering from considerable neglect.
Discoveries of the Hi5ryilji
Discoveries of the HOryiji
135
Indeed, in the case of the Horyuji the poor condition of the buildings was
cited as a reason to remove more artifacts to the imperial household than
originally planned.
A key event in the changing attitude toward these old buildings
occurred in October 1893 with Ito Chuta's lecture on the architecture of
the Horyuji, the last "discovery" of that temple.49 Ito investigated the
HOryuji as a graduate student at the Imperial University (Tokyo) under
the supervision of Tatsuno Kingo. The significance of this discovery is in
the incorporation of architecture into the narrative of Japanese history
and art history: the progressive narrative of architectural history re-
peated, thus further authorizing, the developmental narratives of Oka-
kura and Fenollosa; and, second, it brought spatial forms back into the
social orbit, though now as a site that is only significant in relation to
temporal categories.
Ito proclaimed the HOryuji to be the most important historical build-
ing in Japan: "When searching for the most remarkable lineage, the
oldest, and most superb construction among our country's architecture,
without hesitation, the first about which the public should know is the
Horyuji garan [the western complex, comprising of the main hall, pa-
goda, cloister, and gate] in Yamato. It is certainly no exaggeration to
declare the Horyuji garan as this country's most valuable ancient archi-
tecture."50 It was not the first Buddhist temple built nor the oldest extant
building. But it was believed to be the oldest complex to have survived
relatively intact; temple history claimed that the main complex was origi-
nally built in 607. The importance of originality was also tied to the
separated past that was now representing stability in modern society. Ito
continues, "Only our Horyuji has not altered its old appearance; thus,
we can experience the beauty of over a thousand years, come to under-
stand the ancient sages, and see the true beauty in the antique patina,
novel forms, and original methods."51 Here it is important to remember
that prior to the Meiji the most powerful temples and shrines, such as
the KOfukuji and Ise, were rebuilt periodically as an indication of their
power, wealth, and importance.
Subsequently, in December 1897 a commission on the preservation
of old buildings identified twenty for preservation and recorded sixty
objects as national treasures.52 This, however, was not the first recogni-
tion of or attempt to preserve buildings; in 1880, the Ministry of Home
Affairs had established a capital fund for the preservation of cultural
resources (bunkazai) and old things (furumono). Most temples and
135
Indeed, in the case of the Horyuji the poor condition of the buildings was cited as a reason to remove more artifacts to the imperial household than originally planned. A key event in the changing attitude toward these old buildings occurred in October 1893 with Ito Chuta's lecture on the architecture of the Horyuji, the last "discovery" of that ternple.49 Ito investigated the Horyuji as a graduate student at the Imperial University (Tokyo) under the supervision of Tatsuno Kingo. The significance of this discovery is in the incorporation of architecture into the narrative of Japanese history and art history: the progressive narrative of architectural history re peated, thus further authorizing, the developmental narratives of Oka kura and Fenollosa; and, second, it brought spatial forms back into the social orbit, though now as a site that is only significant in relation to temporal categories. Ito proclaimed the Horyuji to be the most important historical build ing in Japan: "When searching for the most remarkable lineage, the oldest, and most superb construction among our country's architecture, without hesitation, the first about which the public should know is the Horyuji garan [the western complex, comprising of the main hall, pa goda, cloister, and gate] in Yamato. It is certainly no exaggeration to declare the Horyuji garan as this country's most valuable ancient archi tecture."50 It was not the first Buddhist temple built nor the oldest extant building. But it was believed to be the oldest complex to have survived relatively intact; temple history claimed that the main complex was origi nally built in 607. The importance of originality was also tied to the separated past that was now representing stability in modern society. Ito continues, "Only our Horyuji has not altered its old appearance; thus, we can experience the beauty of over a thousand years, come to under stand the ancient sages, and see the true beauty in the antique patina, novel forms, and original methods. "51 Here it is important to remember that prior to the Meiji the most powerful temples and shrines, such as the Kofukuji and Ise, were rebuilt periodically as an indication of their power, wealth, and importance. Subsequently, in December 1897 a commission on the preservation of old buildings identified twenty for preservation and recorded sixty objects as national treasures.52 This, however, was not the first recogni tion of or attempt to preserve buildings; in 1880, the Ministry of Home Affairs had established a capital fund for the preservation of cultural resources (bunkazai) and old things (furumono) . Most temples and
136
136
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
shrines received small grants, hardly enough to begin basic repairs let
alone restoration; the two largest disbursements, 2,400 yen, went to the
Tamunomine Shrine and the Horyiji.
Ito recognized that he was not the first to bring the temple to the
attention of the modern public. In a rather backhanded way, he acknowl-
edges the contributions of foreigners such as Fenollosa and Bigelow; he
says that the temple's fame rose "in part from a strange, twisted interpreta-
tion produced from their curiosity and in part from careful examination of
their new discovery."53 This fame, he argues, resulted from the attention
accorded to the extraordinary sculptures, but it also demonstrates a deval-
uation of the temple itself. This devaluation is evident in Ito's first encoun-
ter, which provides quite a contrast to Fenollosa's impression.
When one arrives at Horyuji and first faces the south gate (nandai-
mon), there is a dignity that has not succumbed to the deep wounds
from battling hundreds of years of rain and dew. The roof is like the
open wings of a phoenix, and its curve resembles the powerful foot-
print of a lion. But, upon entering the gate and visiting the office, its
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
shrines received small grants, hardly enough to begin basic repairs let alone restoration; the two largest disbursements, 2,400 yen, went to the Tamunomine Shrine and the Horyiiji. Ito recognized that he was not the first to bring the temple to the attention of the modern public. In a rather backhanded way, he acknowl edges the contributions of foreigners such as Fenollosa and Bigelow; he says that the temple'S fame rose "in part from a strange, twisted interpreta tion produced from their curiosity and in part from careful examination of their new discovery. "53 This fame, he argues, resulted from the attention accorded to the extraordinary sculptures, but it also demonstrates a deval uation ofthe temple itself. This devaluation is evident in Ito's first encoun ter, which provides quite a contrast to Fenollosa's impression.
considerable dilapidation becomes evident. Floors are rotten, and
weeds are sprouting up; pillars are decayed, and a strange fungus is
apparent. The pitiable head priest, Chihaya, is blind in both eyes and
greets us from his sickbed. The haggard monk solitarily defends the
desolate temple. When one enters the compound (garan), the unpar-
alleled craftsmanship of long ago, the Asuka [Suiko] period, is re-
lived: the wonderful beauty of the layout of the gate, corridors, main
hall, and pagoda tower; the indescribably noble style of that form;
and the remarkable design of the columns, bracketing, rafters,
curved railing, and so on. But, unless one seriously undertakes re-
pairs, the damage will lead to a sorrowful state - the columns will
bend and lean, the main hall will fall into ruins, sacred objects will
scatter, and the tower will collapse-like when the cranes leave.54
We should remember that when Ito visited the temple, Chihaya had
already embarked upon repairs, using the funds from the donation of
artifacts to the imperial household and from the Ministry of Home Af-
fairs. This was the condition of the temple after some repairs!
Its condition notwithstanding, Ito compared the temple to the Par-
thenon of ancient Greece. Like Okakura and Fenollosa, he suggested a
Eurasian connection as far west as ancient Greece. (In 1902, he began a
When one arrives at Horyiij i and first faces the south gate (nandai mon) , there is a dignity that has not succumbed to the deep wounds from battling hundreds of years of rain and dew. The roof is like the open wings of a phoenix, and its curve resembles the powerful foot print of a lion. But, upon entering the gate and visiting the office, its considerable dilapidation becomes evident. Floors are rotten, and weeds are sprouting up; pillars are decayed, and a strange fungus is apparent. The pitiable head priest, Chihaya, is blind in both eyes and greets us from his sickbed. The haggard monk solitarily defends the desolate temple. When one enters the compound (garan) , the unpar alleled craftsmanship of long ago, the Asuka [Suiko] period, is re lived: the wonderful beauty of the layout of the gate, corridors, main hall, and pagoda tower; the indescribably noble style of that form; and the remarkable design of the columns, bracketing, rafters, curved railing, and so on. But, unless one seriously undertakes re pairs, the damage will lead to a sorrowful state - the columns will bend and lean, the main hall will fall into ruins, sacred objects will scatter, and the tower will collapse - like when the cranes leave.54 We should remember that when Ito visited the temple, Chihaya had already embarked upon repairs, using the funds from the donation of artifacts to the imperial household and from the Ministry of Home Af fairs. This was the condition of the temple after some repairs! Its condition notwithstanding, Ito compared the temple to the Par thenon of ancient Greece. Like Okakura and Fenollosa, he suggested a Eurasian connection as far west as ancient Greece. (In 1902, he began a
Discoveries of the Horyiiji
Discoveries of the Horyutji 137
three-year journey on a donkey from Peking to Istanbul to trace this
development, specifically of Buddhist architecture.) And, like his prede-
cessors, he used a progressive time of cultural development that natural-
ized the nation while showing interaction with the continent. A major
difference between his narrative and Okakura's is the reintegration of
nature (as environment) into this history. In other words, architecture
provides the means with which to reintegrate space as a stable form in
the mobility of time - progress.
Ito argued that the Horytiji is located at the crossroads of pre- or
protohistory and history (or History). He acknowledges over a thousand
years of rule since the age of the gods, but he complains that this society
lived in darkness, that "everything, everyone was in a perpetual sleep,
as if dead." This condition is evident in architecture (more accurately,
what he imagined it to be). In its primitive state, architecture in Japan
reflects a simple society, the "perpetual sleep, as if dead." Buildings only
warded off the rain and dew; materials were natural, wood and bamboo.
The shrines of Ise and Izumo are the closest to this early, primitive state.
Then, "like a flash of lightening from the west, this darkness was lifted,
and the realm for the first time became light. Everywhere people rose
from their slumber and became active. This was the arrival of Bud-
dhism."55 At this time, it was not embarrassing, as it would become
later, to admit that early inhabitants, indeed, the mythical rulers, were
primitive. After the introduction of Buddhism, architecture changed:
"In our country architecture (kenchikujutsu) actually began after the
arrival of Buddhism, and we can say that the Suiko style is the origin of
our country's architecture."56 Buildings were larger, materials were
manufactured, and colors (ornamentation) were added. The imposing
structures created a sense of adoration/admiration well beyond their
functional requirements.57 As in art, the architecture of Suiko became
that originary moment, now as the first architectural style (ryiaha) or the
outset (hekitO) of Japanese architectural history that demonstrates trans-
formation and immanence. (Interestingly, the Shinto shrines, Ise and
Izumo, are omitted.)58 Like Okakura, the central premise of Ito's nar-
rative of progress is the need for occasional interchange with outside
cultures. But in this case, rather than basing change on the abstract
conceptual structure of the Hegelian idea, Ito grounds it in nature, the
moment of man's separation from nature in Japan.
This delineation of interaction refines the notions of inside and
outside and change and immanence, the problem of Asia as both the
137
three-year journey on a donkey from Peking to Istanbul to trace this development, specifically of Buddhist architecture.) And, like his prede cessors, he used a progressive time of cultural development that natural ized the nation while showing interaction with the continent. A major difference between his narrative and Okakura's is the reintegration of nature (as environment) into this history. In other words, architecture provides the means with which to reintegrate space as a stable form in the mobility of time - progress. Ito argued that the Horyiiji is located at the crossroads of pre- or protohistory and history (or History). He acknowledges over a thousand years of rule since the age of the gods, but he complains that this society lived in darkness, that "everything, everyone was in a perpetual sleep, as if dead." This condition is evident in architecture (more accurately, what he imagined it to be). In its primitive state, architecture in Japan reflects a simple society, the "perpetual sleep, as if dead." Buildings only warded off the rain and dew; materials were natural, wood and bamboo. The shrines of Ise and Izumo are the closest to this early, primitive state. Then, "like a flash of lightening from the west, this darkness was lifted, and the realm for the first time became light. Everywhere people rose from their slumber and became active. This was the arrival of Bud dhism."55 At this time, it was not embarrassing, as it would become later, to admit that early inhabitants, indeed, the mythical rulers, were primitive. After the introduction of Buddhism, architecture changed: "In our country architecture (kenchikujutsu) actually began after the arrival of Buddhism, and we can say that the Suiko style is the origin of our country's architecture."56 Buildings were larger, materials were manufactured, and colors (ornamentation) were added. The imposing structures created a sense of adoration/admiration well beyond their functional requirements.57 As in art, the architecture of Suiko became that originary moment, now as the first architectural style (ryuha) or the outset (hekitO) of Japanese architectural history that demonstrates trans formation and immanence. (Interestingly, the Shinto shrines, Ise and Izumo, are omitted. )58 Like Okakura, the central premise of Ito's nar rative of progress is the need for occasional interchange with outside cultures. But in this case, rather than basing change on the abstract conceptual structure of the Hegelian idea, Ito grounds it in nature, the moment of man's separation from nature in Japan. This delineation of interaction refines the notions of inside and outside and change and immanence, the problem of Asia as both the
138
138 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
same as and foreign to Japan that is evident in Okakura. Ito uses the
analogy of child rearing to naturalize categories of indigenous, Chinese,
and Western. The child, he argues, learns much from teachers and
friends, not just from one's parents. If one learns only from the latter,
then there would be little change in one's character, that is, little develop-
ment. Teachers and friends represent the outside world. Without educa-
tion, one is always a child. Without the outside world, architecture does
not change, a point proven in Ito's mind by looking at inner African
aborigines and Eskimos - always the child. In architecture, it means to
use the supply of materials, adopt what is suitable using the "knowledge
and natural talents of the people (kokumin)," and gain new skills
through training.59 As the metaphor of the child suggests, there is also
something essential and unique in the child. He states:
It goes without saying that architecture, the architecture of a certain
country, emerges from the conditions of that country's topography
(tochi)-in other words, what I call the national land (kokudo)-
and the needs of the humans that live in that land - what I call the
nationals (kokumin). Of course, in each region of the world there is
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
same as and foreign to Japan that is evident in Okakura. Ito uses the analogy of child rearing to naturalize categories of indigenous, Chinese, and Western. The child, he argues, learns much from teachers and friends, not just from one's parents. If one learns only from the latter, then there would be little change in one's character, that is, little develop ment. Teachers and friends represent the outside world. Without educa tion, one is always a child. Without the outside world, architecture does not change, a point proven in Ito's mind by looking at inner African aborigines and Eskimos - always the child. In architecture, it means to use the supply of materials, adopt what is suitable using the "knowledge and natural talents of the people (kokumin)," and gain new skills through training. 59 As the metaphor of the child suggests, there is also something essential and unique in the child. He states:
no place where the conditions of the national land is the same. ...
To use a metaphor of human life, children are born from a father
and mother and no child is exactly the same. The architecture, the
baby, which is born from the national land as mother and the nation-
als as father, is different throughout the world and none are the
same. . . In other words, in Japan there is what one calls a unique
(tokushoku) Japanese architecture, and naturally (tiozen) it is differ-
ent from the architecture of China and the architecture of Eu-
rope. . . . [T]his is the way the gods have made us. In other words,
Japanese architecture is eternally (eikyii) Japanese architecture; it
will not turn into foreign architecture."60
The similarities to Okakura's history are obvious. We need only
recall the status of these objects in the mid-1870s to see the transforma-
tion that had occurred. Near the end of the nineteenth century, an
understanding of a historical past was emerging, one that made good use
of tropes of modernity that occlude its own historicity. The idea of the
nation is naturalized in several ways. First, the idea of change necessi-
tates a baseline, nature, which is now confined to a series of fixed
conceptual (national) spheres. It is located in an originary moment,
It goes without saying that architecture, the architecture of a certain country, emerges from the conditions of that country's topography (tochi) - in other words, what I call the national land (kokudo) and the needs of the humans that live in that land - what I call the nationals (kokumin). Of course, in each region of the world there is no place where the conditions of the national land is the same . . . . To use a metaphor of human life, children are born from a father and mother and no child is exactly the same. The architecture, the baby, which is born from the national land as mother and the nation als as father, is different throughout the world and none are the same . . . . In other words, in Japan there is what one calls a unique (tokushoku) Japanese architecture, and naturally (tozen) it is differ ent from the architecture of China and the architecture of Eu rope . . . . [T]his is the way the gods have made us. In other words, Japanese architecture is eternally (eikyu) Japanese architecture; it will not turn into foreign architecture. "60 The similarities to Okakura's history are obvious. We need only recall the status of these objects in the mid-1870s to see the transforma tion that had occurred. Near the end of the nineteenth century, an understanding of a historical past was emerging, one that made good use of tropes of modernity that occlude its own historicity. The idea of the nation is naturalized in several ways. First, the idea of change necessi tates a baseline, nature, which is now confined to a series of fixed conceptual (national) spheres. It is located in an originary moment,
Discoveries of the Horyilji
Discoveries of the Horyuji 139
grounded in connections to (and separation from) the natural world, and
explained through the human body. The discussion of change, growth,
and interaction, while located in the certainty of the human body, is a
powerful analogy frequently found in progressive frameworks. But this
change and these very aspects facilitate the naturalization of a space
endowed with certain immutable characteristics that are removed from
the realm of history. The argument is circular, but, because it is located
in unquestioned (national) concepts, the conceived is conflated with the
phenomenal but in a way in which the former defines the latter. As with
the power of icons, the truth resides in an abstraction, not what is readily
visible.
Within this structure, the logic of nation and East Asia remains
unquestioned. History removes its own historicity from contestation; the
nation only develops through interaction with outsiders here, on the
Eurasian continent. This progressive scheme is central to the inversion
of relations between the archipelago and the continent. Ito acknowl-
edges the superiority of Chinese culture (the Six Dynasties) over Japan.
But this superior culture is turned around to indicate connection and
difference: "However, we should observe that the aesthetics of oriental
architecture have separately opened up a common universe [heaven and
earth, kenkon], and within the architectural world demonstrated a new
art form." The "oriental" is never really defined; moreover, Chinese
culture now stands in for Buddhist forms and ideas. That new art form is
that of Japan; in the process of adaptation, it took a middle path, not
opting for the grand, the ornate, or an esoteric transformation. In other
words, it took the best of the East and adapted it to its needs. But this is
not an innocent exercise in self-understanding; it also entails possession
of connections and relations with others. Ito writes:
In looking for representative examples of such architecture, in Korea
all the temples have been destroyed, the region of Inner Asia has long
been in decay, and Greek temples are too varied in their connection.
Fortunately, today Suiko architecture, which reached the pinnacle of
the eave style, is isolated gloomily in a cold village named Horyuji
in the region of the old capital, Nara. The village received its name
from this complex. In other words, the true value for the architectural
world is actually here in Horyiji. In its form, the desires of the
Chinese style are clearly evident. There are faint reminders of the
traditions of an Indian style, and the vestiges of a Greek style remain;
139
grounded in connections to (and separation from) the natural world, and explained through the human body. The discussion of change, growth, and interaction, while located in the certainty of the human body, is a powerful analogy frequently found in progressive frameworks. But this change and these very aspects facilitate the naturalization of a space endowed with certain immutable characteristics that are removed from the realm of history. The argument is circular, but, because it is located in unquestioned (national) concepts, the conceived is conflated with the phenomenal but in a way in which the former defines the latter. As with the power of icons, the truth resides in an abstraction, not what is readily visible. Within this structure, the logic of nation and East Asia remains unquestioned. History removes its own historicity from contestation; the nation only develops through interaction with outsiders here, on the Eurasian continent. This progressive scheme is central to the inversion of relations between the archipelago and the continent. Ito acknowl edges the superiority of Chinese culture (the Six Dynasties) over Japan. But this superior culture is turned around to indicate connection and difference: "However, we should observe that the aesthetics of oriental architecture have separately opened up a common universe [heaven and earth, kenkon] , and within the architectural world demonstrated a new art form." The "oriental" is never really defined; moreover, Chinese culture now stands in for Buddhist forms and ideas. That new art form is that of Japan; in the process of adaptation, it took a middle path, not opting for the grand, the ornate, or an esoteric transformation. In other words, it took the best of the East and adapted it to its needs. But this is not an innocent exercise in self-understanding; it also entails possession of connections and relations with others. Ito writes: In looking for representative examples of such architecture, in Korea all the temples have been destroyed, the region of Inner Asia has long been in decay, and Greek temples are too varied in their connection. Fortunately, today Suiko architecture, which reached the pinnacle of the eave style, is isolated gloomily in a cold village named Horyuji in the region of the old capital, Nara. The village received its name from this complex. In other words, the true value for the architectural world is actually here in Horyiiji. In its form, the desires of the Chinese style are clearly evident. There are faint reminders of the traditions of an Indian style, and the vestiges of a Greek style remain;
140
140 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
thus, interest [in the temple] is gradually increasing. Clearly, this
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
thus, interest [in the temple] is gradually increasing. Clearly, this is the role of the HoryfIji in the architectural world.61
is the role of the Horyuji in the architectural world.61
In this narrative the Horyuji undergoes another transformation as the
model of Suiko architecture. The bulk of Ito's article discusses in detail
the key architectural features that identify the Horyuji as characteristic
of the Suiko style. He listed twenty-four features that set it off from
temples representative of later styles in the Tenchi (Hakuh0) and Tenpyo
eras. Beginning in the seventh century (645) Tenchi was indicative of a
changing influence, from the Six Dynasties to Tang culture. When It0
discusses other temples of this style, the three-story pagodas of the
Horinji and the HOkiji, an interesting shift occurs: the Horyuji becomes
that standard by which these earlier temples are judged. There was some
uncertainty at this time as to whether these pagodas originally had five
stories or three. Nevertheless, Ito says that their forms and techniques
place them on the same plane as the Hiryuji.62 He also mentions the
ShitennOji as being clearly Suiko (built by Shotoku) but ends by noting
that some parts, the overall form and details, were changed by later
generations. Interestingly, the Horyji becomes the standard by which
the other temples of Suiko are measured. Even though the pagodas were
built prior to the Horyuji, the latter is the standard for comparison, and
Ito also claimed in a note that the layout of the ShitennOji is very
strange.63 In other words, the HOryuji has been transformed from datum
to model.
This shift is common in history. Yet it is remarkable in the context of
discussions on the nation in which beliefs about the nation often persist
despite empirical data to the contrary. This is true of the Horyuji. We now
know that the current structures were not built during the Suiko period;
indeed, they are not even on the original site, nor do they have the same
layout as the original. Yet the temple retains its position as the founding
moment, the Suiko style.
Until 1938, scholars engaged in an often heated debate over the
period in which the existing garan of the Horyuji was actually built. The
implications could have questioned the temple's newfound archetypal
status. Contradictory evidence existed that the main temple complex, the
garan, had been destroyed by fire in the seventh century and rebuilt.
Until the Meiji period, most people accepted (if they cared at all) the
official temple account that the garan, though repaired and restored, was
original. Yet numerous textual accounts suggest conflagration; for ex-
In this narrative the HoryfIji undergoes another transformation as the model of Suiko architecture. The bulk of Ito's article discusses in detail the key architectural features that identify the Horyuji as characteristic of the Suiko style. He listed twenty-four features that set it off from temples representative of later styles in the Tenchi (Hakuho) and Tenpyo eras. Beginning in the seventh century (645) Tenchi was indicative of a changing influence, from the Six Dynasties to Tang culture. When Ito discusses other temples of this style, the three-story pagodas of the Horinji and the Hokij i, an interesting shift occurs: the HoryfIji becomes that standard by which these earlier temples are j udged. There was some uncertainty at this time as to whether these pagodas originally had five stories or three. Nevertheless, Ito says that their forms and techniques place them on the same plane as the HoryfIj i.62 He also mentions the Shitennoji as being clearly Suiko (built by Shotoku) but ends by noting that some parts, the overall form and details, were changed by later generations. Interestingly, the Horyuji becomes the standard by which the other temples of Suiko are measured. Even though the pagodas were built prior to the HoryfIj i, the latter is the standard for comparison, and Ito also claimed in a note that the layout of the Shitennoji is very strange.63 In other words, the Horyuj i has been transformed from datum to model. This shift is common in history. Yet it is remarkable in the context of discussions on the nation in which beliefs about the nation often persist despite empirical data to the contrary. This is true of the Horyuj i. We now know that the current structures were not built during the Suiko period; indeed, they are not even on the original site, nor do they have the same layout as the original. Yet the temple retains its position as the founding moment, the Suiko style. Until 1938, scholars engaged in an often heated debate over the period in which the existing garan of the HoryfIji was actually built. The implications could have questioned the temple's newfound archetypal status. Contradictory evidence existed that the main temple complex, the garan, had been destroyed by fire in the seventh century and rebuilt. Until the Meij i period, most people accepted (if they cared at all) the official temple account that the garan, though repaired and restored, was original. Yet numerous textual accounts suggest conflagration; for ex-
Discoveries of the Hi5ryilji
Discoveries of the HiOryutji 141
ample, a passage in the Nihon shoki mentions that the temple at Horyuji
was completely burned in 670, while the JOgu Shotoku Taishi-den Hoke-
tsuki, a biography of Shotoku Taishi, reported a fire at Ikarugadera in
610.64 Around the 1890s scholars such as Suga Masatomo and Okakura
argued that the Nihon shoki could not be ignored, and most agreed that
the temple did burn and was probably rebuilt around 707. Yet architec-
tural evidence suggested that the temple, clearly different from the
eighth-century temples influenced by Tang China, could not have been
rebuilt in what would have been an anachronistic style, and in 1905 two
scholars, Sekino Tadashi and Hirako Takurei, separately wrote essays
arguing that the Horyuji is indeed original and could not have been
rebuilt. One of the strongest points of Sekino's argument was the use of
the Koma shaku (a unit of measure from Kokuri, one of the ancient
kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula) in the existing structure. He argued
that because the principal unit of measure was changed to the Tang shaku
in the Taika reforms (645) the Horyuji could not have burned and been
rebuilt with an anachronistic measure.
In 1938, archaeologists uncovered the remains of the Wakagusa-
dera. For decades, scholars had debated, ignored, conflated the names
used for the Horyuji, Wakagusadera, Ikarugadera, and Horyt gaku-
monji. Texts are ambiguous and often merit their conflation. The dis-
covery of the remains of the garan of the Wakagusadera to the south-
east of the present garan, however, proved the existence of an earlier
temple that had been destroyed by fire. Interestingly, the layout of this
temple was the same as that of the Shitennoji, called strange by Ito
when comparing it to the Horyuji. Since this discovery (as well as
evidence found during the restoration project in the 1930s), few have
disputed the notion that the garan of the Horyuji does not date to 607.
Current scholarship dates the rebuilding to the end of the seventh
century.
Interestingly, this locates the architecture of the Horyuji in the
middle of the Nara not the Suiko period. Indeed, there is no extant
temple complex of Suiko architecture. Yet many books still describe it as
an example of Suiko style; the originary role of the temple lives on. Now
it is important because it is old, very old. It rightfully belongs in the early
moments of narratives of Buddhist architecture. But these narratives are
interesting: while the text often acknowledges this archaeological evi-
dence, the overall narrative maintains the position of Horyuji as in the
Suiko style, as if it had been built in 607. The power, or "true," is more
141
ample, a passage in the Nihon shaki mentions that the temple at Horyiiji was completely burned in 670, while the Jogu Shotoku Taishi-den Hoke tsuki, a biography of Shotoku Taishi, reported a fire at Ikarugadera in 610.64 Around the 1890s scholars such as Suga Masatomo and Okakura argued that the Nihon shoki could not be ignored, and most agreed that the temple did burn and was probably rebuilt around 707. Yet architec tural evidence suggested that the temple, dearly different from the eighth-century temples influenced by Tang China, could not have been rebuilt in what would have been an anachronistic style, and in 1905 two scholars, Sekino Tadashi and Hirako Takurei, separately wrote essays arguing that the Horyiiji is indeed original and could not have been rebuilt. One of the strongest points of Sekino's argument was the use of the Koma shaku (a unit of measure from Kokuri, one of the ancient kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula) in the existing structure. He argued that because the principal unit of measure was changed to the Tang shaku in the Taika reforms (645) the Horyiiji could not have burned and been rebuilt with an anachronistic measure. In 1 938, archaeologists uncovered the remains of the Wakagusa dera. For decades, scholars had debated, ignored, conflated the names used for the Horyiij i, Wakagusadera, Ikarugadera, and Horyii gaku monji. Texts are ambiguous and often merit their conflation. The dis covery of the remains of the garan of the Wakagusadera to the south east of the present garan, however, proved the existence of an earlier temple that had been destroyed by fire. Interestingly, the layout of this temple was the same as that of the Shitennoj i, called strange by Ito when comparing it to the Horyiiji. Since this discovery (as well as evidence found during the restoration project in the 1930s), few have disputed the notion that the garan of the Horyiiji does not date to 607. Current scholarship dates the rebuilding to the end of the seventh century. Interestingly, this locates the architecture of the Horyiiji in the middle of the Nara not the Suiko period. Indeed, there is no extant temple complex of Suiko architecture. Yet many books still describe it as an example of Suiko style; the originary role of the temple lives on. Now it is important because it is old, very old. It rightfully belongs in the early moments of narratives of Buddhist architecture. But these narratives are interesting: while the text often acknowledges this archaeological evi dence, the overall narrative maintains the position of Horyiiji as in the Suiko style, as if it had been built in 607. The power, or "true," is more
142
142
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in the connection to what is not seen, as a likeness of an ideal, than in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in the connection to what is not seen, as a likeness of an ideal, than in phenomenal (figurative) data.
phenomenal (figurative) data.
Epilogue
In 1919, Watsuji Tetsuro published Koji junrei, his ruminations and
Epilogue
impressions of a pilgrimage to Nara. This text proved to be immensely
popular, and, as if produced in the advertising offices of Tsukiji, it
generated ridership for the new railway lines in Yamato. Watsuji's text
achieved the early aspirations of Ninagawa and Machida in the 1870s but
with an accumulation of knowledge and repetition of narrative frame-
work of their successors. His description is filled with now familiar com-
parisons, the columns whose entasis is similar to that of Greek temples,
the distinct curve of the roof compared to temples of Tenpy5 (such as the
Toshodaiji), the statues of Suiko compared to those of the Fujiwara
period, and Fenollosa's Mona Lisa.
Watsuji's discussion of Fenollosa is instructive. It exhibits his accep-
tance of the hagiography that has emerged, of Fenollosa (Watsuji does
not mention Okakura) as the discoverer of the Guze (Yumedono)
Kannon and the savior of Japanese art. The repetition, the narrative of
art history codified by Fenollosa, is evident, as is the struggle for posses-
sion. Watsuji does not agree with Fenollosa's analogies; in particular, he
is wont to point to the complexity and physicality of the West evident
through the Mona Lisa in comparison with the simplicity and transcen-
dence of the Kannon. He writes that the Mona Lisa, produced in a
climate of spiritual unrest and fear where there is a separation of body
and mind, expresses human hope and darkness, whereas the Kannon,
produced in a climate of simple spiritual needs where body and mind
were unified, expresses a freedom produced from deep meditation. In
other words, the Kannon is more transcendent and closer to some kind
of purity, "a mysteriousness difficult to describe."65
Watsuji questions other comparisons in Fenollosa's moment of dis-
covery: he denies any connection to Egyptian sculpture; accepts an eery
similarity between the Gothic statues of Amiens and the Kannon, which
he attributes to a religiosity of a young nation [italics original] (wakai
minzoku); and he virtually denies the Korean influence on this early art
and architecture. Watsuji's passage shows the further domestication of
the temple. He is further removing it from direct comparisons with the
West, instead retaining (and relying upon) an implicit otherness. The
In 1919, Watsuji Tetsuro published Koji junrei, his ruminations and impressions of a pilgrimage to Nara. This text proved to be immensely popular, and, as if produced in the advertising offices of Tsukij i, it generated ridership for the new railway lines in Yamato. Watsuji's text achieved the early aspirations of Ninagawa and Machida in the 1870s but with an accumulation of knowledge and repetition of narrative frame work of their successors. His description is filled with now familiar com parisons, the columns whose entasis is similar to that of Greek temples, the distinct curve of the roof compared to temples of Tenpyo (such as the Toshodaiji), the statues of Suiko compared to those of the Fujiwara period, and Fenollosa's Mona Lisa. Watsuji's discussion of Fenollosa is instructive. It exhibits his accep tance of the hagiography that has emerged, of Fenollosa (Watsuji does not mention Okakura) as the discoverer of the Guze (Yumedono) Kannon and the savior of Japanese art. The repetition, the narrative of art history codified by Fenollosa, is evident, as is the struggle for posses sion. Watsuji does not agree with Fenollosa's analogies; in particular, he is wont to point to the complexity and physicality of the West evident through the Mona Lisa in comparison with the simplicity and transcen dence of the Kannon. He writes that the Mona L isa, produced in a climate of spiritual unrest and fear where there is a separation of body and mind, expresses human hope and darkness, whereas the Kannon, produced in a climate of simple spiritual needs where body and mind were unified, expresses a freedom produced from deep meditation. In other words, the Kannon is more transcendent and closer to some kind of purity, "a mysteriousness difficult to describe."65 Watsuji questions other comparisons in Fenollosa's moment of dis covery: he denies any connection to Egyptian sculpture; accepts an eery similarity between the Gothic statues of Amiens and the Kannon, which he attributes to a religiosity of a young nation [italics original] (wakai minzoku) ; and he virtually denies the Korean influence on this early art and architecture. Watsuji's passage shows the further domestication of the temple. He is further removing it from direct comparisons with the West, instead retaining (and relying upon) an implicit otherness. The
Discoveries of the Horyilji
Discoveries of the Horyiji 143
Kannon is more simple, meditative, and transcendent than anything in
Europe. It is also Japanese, not Korean.
By 1919, the Horyuji had come full circle: from a temple of the
political elite; to a relatively forgotten regional place; and by the Taisho
period, having survived the ravages of the destruction of bodhisattvas,
to a spiritual site as the origin of an interpretive structure of the nation-
state that could be experienced through the growing tourist industry.
This site is an archetype of the spirituality of the national past so stable
that data that contradict it cannot destabilize it. Perhaps now, in an age
of constantly shifting meanings and forms, the temple has attained a
stability beyond any period when it possessed a function as a religious
site. Watsuji begins his encounter with the Horyuji as follows:
On the following day, Mr. E and I set out in the morning for the
Horyuji. The weather was beautiful, and we were in good spirits.
From the [rail] stop for the Horyuji, we proceeded about a mile to
the village along a farm road, and as we got closer we could clearly
see the five-roofed pagoda. Our hearts danced, and we became
143
Kannon is more simple, meditative, and transcendent than anything in Europe. It is also Japanese, not Korean. By 1919, the Horyiiji had come full circle: from a temple of the political elite; to a relatively forgotten regional place; and by the Taisho period, having survived the ravages of the destruction of bodhisattvas, to a spiritual site as the origin of an interpretive structure of the nation state that could be experienced through the growing tourist industry. This site is an archetype of the spirituality of the national past so stable that data that contradict it cannot destabilize it. Perhaps now, in an age of constantly shifting meanings and forms, the temple has attained a stability beyond any period when it possessed a function as a religious site. Watsuji begins his encounter with the HiJryiiji as follows:
happier and happier; it was an exhilarating feeling.66
NOTES
I am thankful to Kevin M. Doak for the topic of this chapter; he
refused my initial suggestions and accepted a topic that at the time was only a
faint idea. Doug Howland, Masao Miyoshi, Suzuki Hiroshi, and Eiji Yutani
provided important help and suggestions that kept me on track.
1. As early as the eighth century, though still listed as one of the seven
great temples of Nara, the prestige and patronage of the Horyuji was declining,
having been eclipsed by the Todaiji.
2. Henri Lefebvre, Introduction to Modernity, trans. John Moore (Lon-
don: Verso, 1995), 224.
On the following day, Mr. F. and I set out in the morning for the Horyiij i. The weather was beautiful, and we were in good spirits. From the [rail] stop for the Horyiiji , we proceeded about a mile to the village along a farm road, and as we got closer we could clearly see the five-roofed pagoda. Our hearts danced, and we became happier and happier; it was an exhilarating feeling.66
3. Peter Osborne, The Politics of Time: Modernity and the Avant-Garde
(London: Verso, 1995), 134-35.
4. Takada Ryoshin, Horyuji no nazo to hiwa (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1993),
22.
5. In comparison, the Kofukuji received more than 15,160 koku, the
NOTES
Todaiji 3,115 koku, and the Toshodaiji, Saidaiji, and Yakushiji 300 koku each
(ibid., 19-20).
6. E Kornicki, "Edo no kaicho," in Kitamura Gyoon, ed., Kinsei kaicho
no kenkya (Tokyo: Meicho Shuppan, 1989). Enterprise was not new to the
Horyuji priests in the Edo period. In the sixteenth century, they sold the contracts
I am thankful to Kevin M. Doak for the topic of this chapter; he refused my initial suggestions and accepted a topic that at the time was only a faint idea. Doug Howland, Masao Miyoshi, Suzuki Hiroshi, and Eiji Yutani provided important help and suggestions that kept me on track. 1 . As early as the eighth century, though still listed as one of the seven great temples of Nara, the prestige and patronage of the Horyflji was declining, having been eclipsed by the Todaiji. 2. Henri Lefebvre, Introduction to Modernity, trans. John Moore (Lon don: Verso, 1 995), 224. 3. Peter Osborne, The Politics of Time: Modernity and the Avant-Garde (London: Verso, 1 995), 134-35. 4. Takada Ryoshin, Horyilji no nazo to hiwa (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1 993), 22. 5. In comparison, the KOfukuji received more than 15,160 koku, the Todaiji 3 , 1 1 5 koku, and the Toshodaiji, Saidaiji, and Yakushiji 300 koku each (ibid., 1 9-20). 6. F. Kornicki, "Edo no kaicho," in Kitamura Gyoon, ed., Kinsei kaicho no kenkyil (Tokyo: Meicho Shupp an, 1 989). Enterprise was not new to the Horyflji priests in the Edo period. In the sixteenth century, they sold the contracts
144
144 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
of some dependent cultivators (myOshushiki) on temple lands (Ikaruga no sho) to
samurai, though because the peasants protested the temple was forced to return
the money. See Katsumata Shizuo, Ikki (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1982), 139-40.
7. This law is usually translated as the Law Separating Buddhism and
Shinto. I have instead followed Allan Grapard's practice, which recognizes the
syncretism of what we now separate as two distinct religions. See Allan G.
Grapard, Protocol of the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
8. James Ketelaar describes the discovery of a graveyard of decapitated
Buddhist statues in Kyushu. It has now been turned into a local shrine, the Hall
of the Headless Kannon (Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and
Its Persecution [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990], 57).
9. Murakami Senjb, Tsuji Zennosuke, and Washio Junkei, Meiji ishin
shinbutsu bunri shiryO, vol. 2 (Tokyo: TOho shoin, 1921), 171-73.
10. In contrast to 104 pages of material on the Kofukuji in ibid., the five
pages on the Horyuji were essentially speculation as to why it did not suffer
much damage. Murakami et al. suggest that in addition to the connection of
Shotoku Taishi to the imperial line the tutelary deity of the Horyuji was not on
the temple premises.
11. Takada Ryoshin, Horyuji, vol. 1, Rekishi to kobunken (Osaka: Hoi-
kusha, 1987), 88.
12. Nara Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan, ed., Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan
hyakunen no ayumi (Nara: Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan, 1996), 6.
13. Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, ed., Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan
hyakunenshi (Tokyo: Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, 1973), 73-74 (hereafter
TKH100). Many of the site visits were rushed (including those to the Shosoin
and Horyuji) because the leaders had to return to Tokyo to participate in the
decision on the location of the proposed national museum. In addition to Ueno,
Oji was being considered.
14. Other members of this team were Kashiwagi Masanori, who copied
text; Yokoyama Matsusaburo, who photographed objects; Kasakura Tetsuno-
suke; and painter Takahashi Yuichi.
15. Drawing from Henri Meschonnic, Osborne writes, "'Modernity,' then,
has no fixed, objective referent. 'It has only a subject, of which it is full.' It is the
product, in the instance of each utterance, of an act of historical self-definition
through differentiation, identification and projection, which transcends the order
of chronology in the construction of a meaningful present" (Politics of Time, 14).
16. TKH100, 75.
17. Ibid., 77. Much of the information from this survey derives from
Ninagawa's unpublished diary, "Nara no setto." See also Christine M. E. Guth,
Art, Tea, and Industry: Masuda Takashi and the Mitsui Circle (Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 1993), 100-109.
18. See Reinhart Koselleck's account on the rise of Geschichte from
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
of some dependent cultivators (myoshushiki) on temple lands (Ikaruga no sho) to samurai, though because the peasants protested the temple was forced to return the money. See Katsumata Shizuo, Ikki (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1 982), 139-40. 7 . This law is usually translated as the Law Separating Buddhism and Shinto. I have instead followed Allan Grapard's practice, which recognizes the syncretism of what we now separate as two distinct religions. See Allan G . Grapard, Protocol of the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). 8. James Ketelaar describes the discovery of a graveyard of decapitated Buddhist statues in Kyushu. It has now been turned into a local shrine, the Hall of the Headless Kannon ( Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and Its Persecution [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1 990] , 57). 9 . Murakami Senj o , Tsuji Zennosuke, and Washio Junkei, Meiji ishin shinbutsu bunri shiryo, vol. 2 (Tokyo: Toho shoin, 1921 ) , 171-73 . 10. In contrast to 104 pages of material on the Kofukuji in ibid., the five pages on the Horyuj i were essentially speculation as to why it did not suffer much damage. Murakami et al. suggest that in addition to the connection of Shotoku Taishi to the imperial line the tutelary deity of the Horyuji was not on the temple premises. 1 1 . Takada Ryoshin, Horyilji, vol. 1 , Rekishi to kobunken (Osaka: Hoi kusha, 1 987) , 88. 12. Nara Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan, e d . , Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan hyakunen no ayumi (Nara: Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan, 1 996), 6 . 1 3 . Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, ed. , Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan hyakunenshi (Tokyo: Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, 1 973), 73-74 (hereafter TKHlOO). Many of the site visits were rushed (including those to the Shosoin and Horyuji) because the leaders had to return to Tokyo to participate in the decision on the location of the proposed national museum. In addition to Veno, Oji was being considered. 1 4. Other members of this team were Kashiwagi Masanori, who copied text; Yokoyama Matsusaburo, who photographed obj ects; Kasakura Tetsuno suke; and painter Takahashi yuichi. 1 5 . Drawing from Henri Meschonnic, Osborne writes, " 'Modernity, ' then, has no fixed, objective referent. 'It has only a subject, of which it is full. It is the product, in the instance of each utterance, of an act of historical self-definition through differentiation, identification and projection, which transcends the order of chronology in the construction of a meaningful present" (Politics of Time, 14). 1 6 . TKHlOO, 75. 17. Ibid., 77. Much of the information from this survey derives from Ninagawa's unpublished diary, "Nara no setto. " See also Christine M . E . Guth, A rt, Tea, and Industry: Masuda Takashi and the Mitsui Circle (Princeton: Prince ton University Press, 1993) , 100-109. 1 8 . See Reinhart Koselleck's account on the rise of Geschichte from histoire in his Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith Tribe (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1 985), 21-38. 19. David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press) , 1 985. '
histoire in his Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith
Tribe (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 21-38.
19. David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press), 1985.
Discoveries of the Horyuji
Discoveries of the HOrytuji 145
20. TKH100, 74-75.
21. Even though they did visit the Horyuji, little has been written about
that visit; see, for example, ibid. Interestingly, a recent history of the Horyuji
omits this survey, instead emphasizing the resourcefulness and resolve of the
head priest at that difficult time. See Takada Ryoshin, Horyuji senyonhyakunen
(Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1994), 89. The desire to tie the past to the emperor is
parallel to the rituals and pageants described by Takashi Fujitani that turned
the emperor into the public centerpiece of the nation (Splendid Monarchy:
Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan [Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1996]).
22. NHK Shosoin Purojekuto. Dokyumento Shosoin: 1200 nen no tobira ga
hirakareta (Tokyo: Nihon hoso shuppan ky6kai, 1990), 178.
23. THK100, 80.
24. NHK Shosoin Purojekuto, Dokyumento Shosoin, 183-84 (the quote
from 184).
25. See for example, Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of
Empire at American International Exhibitions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1984). For the transformation of public displays during the
Meiji, see F. Kornicki, "Public Display and Changing Values: Early Meiji Exhibi-
tions and Their Precursors," Monumenta Nipponica 49, no. 2 (1994): 167-96;
and Yoshimi Shunya, Hakurankai no seijigaku: manazashi no kindai (Tokyo:
Cho Koronsha, 1992).
26. Kornicki, "Public Display."
27. NHK Shosoin Purojekuto, Dokyumento ShOsoin, 185.
28. Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, Horyutji kenno homotsu mokuroku (To-
kyo: Tokyo Hakubutsukan, 1959), 4.
29. Lefebvre, Introduction to Modernity, 216.
30. Norbert Elias, Time: An Essay, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford:
Blackwell, 1992), 28ff., 76-80.
31. For a discussion of the relation between the function and subjectivity of
a divested object, see Jean Baudrillard, "The System of Collecting," in The
Cultures of Collecting, edited by John Elsner and Roger Cardinal (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1994).
32. Takada, Horytuji senyonhyakunen.
33. For a list of the donations, see Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, HOryuji
kenno.
34. See my "Imaging History: Inscribing Belief in the Nation," Journal of
Asian Studies 53 (February 1994): 24-44.
35. Ernest F. Fenollosa, Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art, vol. 1 (New
York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1911), 50-51.
36. Yi-fu Tuan, Passing Strange and Wonderful: Aesthetics, Nature, and
Culture (New York: Kodansha, 1995).
37. Okakura Tenshin, Nihon bijutsushi, in Okakura Tenshin zenshu, vol. 4
(Tokyo: Rokugeisha, 1939), 47.
38. Hegel's history is but one of many linear frameworks from which Japa-
nese intellectuals drew.
145
20. TKHI00, 74-75. 2 1 . Even though they did visit the HoryUj i, little has been written about that visit; see, for example, ibid. Interestingly, a recent history of the HoryUji omits this survey, instead emphasizing the resourcefulness and resolve of the head priest at that difficult time. See Takada Ryoshin, Horyuji senyonhyakunen (Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1 994), 89. The desire to tie the past to the emperor is parallel to the rituals and pageants described by Takashi Fujitani that turned the emperor into the public centerpiece of the nation (Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996]). 22. NHK Shosoin Purojekuto. Dokyumento Shosoin: 1200 nen no tobira ga hirakareta (Tokyo: Nihon hoso shuppan kyokai, 1990), 178. 23. THKI00, 80. 24. NHK Shosoin Purojekuto, Dokyumento Shosoin, 183-84 (the quote from 184). 25. See for example, Robert W. Rydell, All the World 's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Exhibitions, 1 876-1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). For the transformation of public displays during the Meiji, see F. Kornicki, "Public Display and Changing Values: Early Meiji Exhibi tions and Their Precursors," Monumenta Nipponica 49, no. 2 (1994): 167-96; and Yoshimi Shunya, Hakurankai no seijigaku: manazashi no kindai (Tokyo: ChUo Koronsha, 1992). 26. Kornicki, "Public Display. " 27. NHK Shosoin Purojekuto, Dokyumento Shosoin, 185. 28. Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, Horyuji kenno homotsu mokuroku (To kyo: Tokyo Hakubutsukan, 1 959), 4. 29. Lefebvre, Introduction to Modernity, 216. 30. Norbert Elias, Time: An Essay, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 28ff. , 76-80. 31. For a discussion of the relation between the function and subjectivity of a divested object, see Jean Baudrillard, "The System of Collecting," in The Cultures of Collecting, edited by John Elsner and Roger Cardinal (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994). 32. Takada, Horyuji senyonhyakunen. 33. For a list of the donations, see Tokyo kokuritsu hakubutsukan, Horyuji kenno. 34. See my "Imaging History: Inscribing Belief in the Nation," Journal of Asian Studies 53 (February 1994): 24-44. 35. Ernest F. Fenollosa, Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art, vol. 1 (New York: Frederick A . Stokes, 1911), 50-5 1 . 36. Yi-fu Tuan, Passing Strange and Wonderful: Aesthetics, Nature, and Culture (New York: Kodansha, 1995). 37. Okakura Tenshin, Nihon bijutsushi, in Okakura Tenshin zenshu, vol. 4 (Tokyo: Rokugeisha, 1 939), 47. 38. Hegel's history is but one of many linear frameworks from which Japa nese intellectuals drew.
146
146 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
39. The hibutsu were often the most sacred objects of worship in a temple,
shown rarely to enhance their importance. See Donald McCallum, ZenkOji and
Its Icon: A Study in Medieval Japanese Religious Art (Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1994).
40. Okakura, Nihon bijutsushi, 79.
41. In the chronologies used in art history, the Nara period generally ex-
tends from 645 to 794 and is divided into the Hakuho (645-710) and Tenpyo
(710-94).
42. Okakura, Nihon bijutsushi, 86, 263, 172.
43. Okakura Kakuzo, Ideals of the East (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, [1903] 1970),
19.
44. Okakura Kakuzo, "Japanese Temples and Their Treasures," in Col-
lected English Writings, vol. 2 (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1984), 257.
45. Okakura, Nihon bijutsushi, 17.
46. At this moment in the nascent historiography of Japan, Korea could
still be the more advanced country. Okakura acknowledged that Chinese culture
had reached ancient Korea before continuing on the archipelago. He writes that
the Chinese considered it the takarakuni (country of jewels) and that Jingo sent
an expedition because of this wealth. Japanese went over, and through Korea
they learned more and more of China. By the end of the occupation of Korea,
they had surpassed Korean culture (ibid., 17-19).
47. Okakura, Ideals, 7-8.
48. W. J. T. Mitchell, Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1986), 32.
49. Ito published this lecture in the November issue of the journal Kench-
iku zasshi, and it was revised in 1898. See Ito Chuta, "Horyoji Kenchikuron,"
Tokyo teikoku daigaku kiyo 1 (1898): 1-176. I have relied on this latter version.
50. Ibid., 1.
51. Ibid., 175-76.
52. Nara kokuritsu, 126-27.
53. Ito, "Horyoji Kenchikuron," 1.
54. Ito Chuta, "Horyuji homonki," in RonsO zuihitsu, manpitsu (Tokyo:
Hana Shobo, 1982), 642.
55. Ito, "Horyuji Kenchikuron," 174.
56. Ibid., 175.
57. Ibid., 174-75.
58. Isozaki Arata argues that Ise, as we know it today, is not an example of
some pure Japanese architecture that existed prior to the influence of Buddhism.
He points out that the rituals that connect the imperium and the gods was
established in the late seventh and early eighth centuries ("Ise: shigen no
modoki," in Shigen no modoki (Tokyo: Kagoshima Shuppankai, 1996).
59. Ito Chuta, Nihon kenchiku no hensen (Tokyo: Keimeikai, 1934), 18.
60. Ibid., 6-7.
61. Ito, "Horyuji Kenchikuron," 9.
62. Ibid., 169.
63. Ibid., 170.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
39. The hibutsu were often the most sacred objects of worship in a temple, shown rarely to enhance their importance. See Donald McCallum, Zenkoji and Its Icon: A Study in Medieval Japanese Religious Art (Princeton: Princeton Uni versity Press, 1 994). 40. Okakura, Nihon bijutsushi, 79. 41. In the chronologies used in art history, the Nara period generally ex tends from 645 to 794 and is divided into the Hakuho (645-710) and Tenpyo (710-94). 42. Okakura, Nihon bijutsushi, 86, 263, 172. 43. Okakura Kakuzo, Ideals of the East (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, [1903] 1970) , 19. 44. Okakura Kakuzo, "Japanese Temples and Their Treasures," in Col lected English Writings, vol. 2 (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1 984) , 257. 45. Okakura, Nihon bijutsushi, 17. 46. At this moment in the nascent historiography of Japan, Korea could still be the more advanced country. Okakura acknowledged that Chinese culture had reached ancient Korea before continuing on the archipelago. He writes that the Chinese considered it the takarakuni (country of jewels) and that Jingu sent an expedition because of this wealth. Japanese went over, and through Korea they learned more and more of China. By the end of the occupation of Korea, they had surpassed Korean culture (ibid., 17-19). 47. Okakura, Ideals, 7-8. 48. W. 1. T. Mitchell, Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology (Chicago: Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1 986), 32. 49. Ito published this lecture in the November issue of the journal Kench iku zasshi, and it was revised in 1898. See Ito Chuta, "Horyuji Kenchikuron," Tokyo teikoku daigaku kiyo 1 ( 1898): 1-176. I have relied on this latter version. 50. Ibid., 1 . 5 1 . Ibid., 1 75-76. 52. Nara kokuritsu, 126-27. 53. Ito, "Horyuj i Kenchikuron," 1 . 54. Ito Chuta, "Horyuji homonki," in Ronso zuihitsu, manpitsu (Tokyo: Hana Shobo , 1 982), 642. 55. Ito, "Horyuji Kenchikuron," 174. 56. Ibid., 175. 57. Ibid., 174-75 . 58. Isozaki Arata argues that Ise, as we know it today, is not an example of some pure Japanese architecture that existed prior to the influence of Buddhism. He points out that the rituals that connect the imperium and the gods was established in the late seventh and early eighth centuries ("Ise: shigen no modoki," in Shigen no modoki (Tokyo: Kagoshima Shuppankai, 1996). 59. Ito Chuta, Nihon kenchiku no hensen (Tokyo: Keimeikai, 1 934), 18. 60. Ibid., 6-7. 6 1 . Ito, "Horyuji Kenchikuron," 9 . 6 2 . Ibid., 1 69. 63. Ibid., 1 70.
Discoveries of the Horyuji
Discoveries of the Horyuji 147
64. I have reduced this rather heated and complex debate to very basic
components. For more detailed information, see Murata Jiro, Horyuji no
kenkyishi (Osaka: Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1949). In English, see Alexander Co-
burn Soper III, The Evolution of Buddhist Architecture in Japan (New York:
Hacker Art Books, [1942] 1978); and Machida Koichi, "A Historical Survey of
the Controversy as to Whether the Horyt-ji Was Rebuilt or Not," Acta Asiatica
15 (1968): 87-115.
65. Watsuji Tetsuro, "Koji junrei," in Watsuji TetsurO zenshu (Tokyo:
Iwanami Shoten, 1961), 184-85.
66. Ibid., 165.
147
64. I have reduced this rather heated and complex debate to very basic components. For more detailed information, see Murata liro, Horyuji no kenkyushi (Osaka: Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1949). In English, see Alexander Co burn Soper III, The Evolution of Buddhist Architecture in Japan (New York: Hacker Art Books, [1942J 1978); and Machida Koichi, "A Historical Survey of the Controversy as to Whether the Horyu-ji Was Rebuilt or Not," Acta Asiatica 15 (1968): 87-115. 65 . Watsuji Tetsuro, "Koji junrei," in Watsuji Tetsuro zenshu (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1961), 184-85. 66. Ibid ., 165.

Chapter 5 Chapter 5
Political Ritual in the Early
Republic of China
Peter Zarrow
Power is necessarily ritualized as an expression of authority and as a
means of naturalizing rulership. Such ritualization may be nearly in-
visible or may itself be naturalized during periods when political hege-
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
mony faces no direct challenges. Americans today seldom think twice
about such familiar political rituals as the inauguration parade or the
state of the union speech, much less the ceremonial aspects of the secret
service agents, helicopter rides, and limousine processions that surround
Peter Zarrow
the president. Chinese literati in the eighteenth century were intensely
concerned with determining the proper rituals for imperial sacrifices
through textual research, but they never questioned - could never con-
ceive of questioning - the propriety and power of the rituals them-
selves.1 The historicity and the transcendental nature of ritual are gener-
ally taken for granted, at least as long as the cultural systems in which
they are embedded do not themselves suffer from radical questioning.
However, at times of political flux and open struggle, if the system and
not just the personnel question is at stake, all expressions of power may
become suddenly vulnerable. The cultural symbols on which various
rituals, especially symbolic behavior in the political realm depend may
themselves lose their meaning or resonance. If, in spite of its rootedness
in standardized repetitive actions, ritual is always changing, as most
students of the topic agree, it changes more at some times than others.2
The Revolution of 1911 marked such a time in China. Previous
dynastic change had of course brought about new sets of state rituals as
new sets of rulers cemented their control over politics and extended
their hegemony over society. But at the most fundamental level of cul-
tural assumptions - about what legitimates power, where authority origi-
nates, and how elites could ratify themselves and force deference from
149
Power is necessarily ritualized as an expression of authority and as a means of naturalizing rulership. Such ritualization may be nearly in visible or may itself be naturalized during periods when political hege mony faces no direct challenges. Americans today seldom think twice about such familiar political rituals as the inauguration parade or the state of the union speech, much less the ceremonial aspects of the secret service agents, helicopter rides, and limousine processions that surround the president. Chinese literati in the eighteenth century were intensely concerned with determining the proper rituals for imperial sacrifices through textual research, but they never questioned - could never con ceive of questioning - the propriety and power of the rituals them selves.l The historicity and the transcendental nature of ritual are gener ally taken for granted, at least as long as the cultural systems in which they are embedded do not themselves suffer from radical questioning. However, at times of political flux and open struggle, if the system and not j ust the personnel question is at stake, all expressions of power may become suddenly vulnerable. The cultural symbols on which various rituals, especially symbolic behavior in the political realm depend may themselves lose their meaning or resonance. If, in spite of its rootedness in standardized repetitive actions, ritual is always changing, as most students of the topic agree, it changes more at some times than others. 2 The Revolution of 1911 marked such a time in China. Previous dynastic change had of course brought about new sets of state rituals as new sets of rulers cemented their control over politics and extended their hegemony over society. But at the most fundamental level of cul tural assumptions - about what legitimates power, where authority origi nates, and how elites could ratify themselves and force deference from 1 49
150
150
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
others - most previous periods of dynastic interregnum saw relatively
little or only incremental change. Even if the Manchu conquerors in the
seventeen century had not consciously decided to adopt most of the state
rituals and ceremonies of the Ming, and even if they had not simulta-
neously faced the need to find a ritual language for their dealings with
Mongols, Tibetans, and other peoples of the new empire, political ritu-
als would have evolved as the Qing cemented, expanded, and main-
tained their power.3 The situation facing Chinese elites in the early twen-
tieth century, however, had changed beyond recognition. The attempt to
establish a republic and the general rhetoric of democracy and equality,
since they were unprecedented, seemed to disallow use of the ritual
language developed through long years of imperial history. The Qing
had deliberately followed both Han and non-Han models of rulership,
but in terms of the state rituals specified in the Collected Regulations of
the Qing and the Comprehensive Rites of the Qing most followed the
trajectory laid down by previous Chinese dynasties. The Qing's 256 state
rituals, classified under the categories of auspicious, joyous, military,
guest, and misfortune, ranged from the accession of a new emperor to
the throne and the four "Grand Sacrifices" to Heaven, earth, the impe-
rial ancestors, and at the Altar of Soil and Grain down to less august
matters such as the reception of embassies and troop reviews.4 But how
many of these could be of use to a government not headed by an em-
peror and his officials but by a president, his cabinet, and the national
assembly? Did the ritual categories even make sense any more? More
importantly, how much of the vision of reality conveyed by those rituals
was still compelling: to urbanites, rural folk, Confucians, and the youth
educated in a deliberately Westernized curriculum? The most sacred of
imperial rituals, the sacrifices to imperial ancestors and powerful spirits,
were in form much like the sacrifices within individual families and at
local temples that centered around offerings of food and wine. Thus,
even if his right to sacrifice to Heaven was jealously guarded and the
magnificence of courtly rituals was unique, the emperor, especially
through the Grand Sacrifices, exemplified what was thought to be univer-
sal behavior. The emperor, too, after all, was a filial son who took his
place in the cosmic order. Family and local temple sacrifice practices
hardly disappeared in 1911. Nonetheless, whether the political, social,
and cosmic orders were still thought to be homologous or whether,
indeed, the nature of order was itself still valued in the old ways is open
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
others - most previous periods of dynastic interregnum saw relatively little or only incremental change. Even if the Manchu conquerors in the seventeen century had not consciously decided to adopt most of the state rituals and ceremonies of the Ming, and even if they had not simulta neously faced the need to find a ritual language for their dealings with Mongols, Tibetans, and other peoples of the new empire, political ritu als would have evolved as the Qing cemented, expanded, and main tained their power. 3 The situation facing Chinese elites in the early twen tieth century, however, had changed beyond recognition. The attempt to establish a republic and the general rhetoric of democracy and equality, since they were unprecedented, seemed to disallow use of the ritual language developed through long years of imperial history. The Qing had deliberately followed both Han and non-Han models of rulership, but in terms of the state rituals specified in the Collected Regulations of the Qing and the Comprehensive Rites of the Qing most followed the trajectory laid down by previous Chinese dynasties. The Qing's 256 state rituals, classified under the categories of auspicious, joyous, military, guest, and misfortune, ranged from the accession of a new emperor to the throne and the four "Grand Sacrifices" to Heaven, earth, the impe rial ancestors, and at the Altar of Soil and Grain down to less august matters such as the reception of embassies and troop reviews.4 But how many of these could be of use to a government not headed by an em peror and his officials but by a president, his cabinet, and the national assembly? Did the ritual categories even make sense any more? More importantly, how much of the vision of reality conveyed by those rituals was still compelling: to urbanites, rural folk, Confucians, and the youth educated in a deliberately Westernized curriculum? The most sacred of imperial rituals, the sacrifices to imperial ancestors and powerful spirits, were in form much like the sacrifices within individual families and at local temples that centered around offerings of food and wine. Thus, even if his right to sacrifice to Heaven was jealously guarded and the magnificence of courtly rituals was unique, the emperor, especially through the Grand Sacrifices, exemplified what was thought to be univer sal behavior. The emperor, too, after all, was a filial son who took his place in the cosmic order. Family and local temple sacrifice practices hardly disappeared in 191 1 . Nonetheless, whether the political, social, and cosmic orders were still thought to be homologous or whether, indeed, the nature of order was itself still valued in the old ways is open
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 151
to doubt. What is clear, however, is the ongoing need to ritualize politi-
cal behavior in one way or another.
Political ritual thus became part and parcel of the intense struggles
for power that marked the early Republic. The Revolution had led to
the collapse of the Qing dynasty and, it soon became clear, the two-
millenia-old imperial system. The empire was replaced by a "Republic,"
the political and institutional failures of which have long been a major
topic of historical analysis (as they were of contemporary comment).
Since the presidency of Yuan Shikai and the institutions of the early
Republic lasted only a few years, it is virtually inevitable that they be
regarded in terms of failure or perhaps transition. Here, however, I wish
to focus on the play of the different ritual elements - the vocabulary of a
ritual grammar - and the efforts of different social groups to define
ritual. Ritual power and agency suddenly became unusually open to
manipulation in the years after the Revolution. In experiments to define
political rituals in efficacious ways, an inexact process of appropriation
and synthesis both reflected and exacerbated political instability.
Broadly speaking, we might distinguish two basic ritual tendencies
in the early Republic. One was top-down, centering, hierarchical, and
imperial. It can be associated with Yuan Shikai and those who sought to
inherit the centralizing powers of the monarchy. The other tended to be
slightly more bottom-up, horizontal, egalitarian, and republican. It can
be associated with the Tongmenghui revolutionaries surrounding Sun
Yat-sen and local power holders who were immediately aware of the
need to deal with street crowds. The former can be symbolized most
neatly by Yuan's decision to conduct sacrifices to Heaven at the winter
solstice in December 1914. The latter might be symbolized most aptly
by the celebrations of "Double Ten" - the October 10 anniversary of
the Wuchang uprising in 1911, which was taken to represent the begin-
ning of the Revolution. Double Ten celebrations became an instant
popular diversion and perhaps mark urban China's first civic festival.
However, this ideal-type bifurcation between top-down and bottom-up
categories may be misleading in some respects. Reality was not nearly
so simple. Both groups claimed to speak for the nation or people; both
in fact spoke in the argot of modernity: progress, national identity, and
the will of the people. And both sought to discipline the citizenry in an
effort to create a strong and wealthy nation-state.5 Yet it is not quite
adequate to say that the two differed more in techniques than goals. In
151
to doubt. What is clear, however, is the ongoing need to ritualize politi cal behavior in one way or another. Political ritual thus became part and parcel of the intense struggles for power that marked the early Republic. The Revolution had led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty and, it soon became clear, the two millenia-old imperial system. The empire was replaced by a "Republic," the political and institutional failures of which have long been a major topic of historical analysis (as they were of contemporary comment). Since the presidency of Yuan Shikai and the institutions of the early Republic lasted only a few years, it is virtually inevitable that they be regarded in terms of failure or perhaps transition. Here, however, I wish to focus on the play of the different ritual elements - the vocabulary of a ritual grammar - and the efforts of different social groups to define ritual. Ritual power and agency suddenly became unusually open to manipulation in the years after the Revolution. In experiments to define political rituals in efficacious ways, an inexact process of appropriation and synthesis both reflected and exacerbated political instability. Broadly speaking, we might distinguish two basic ritual tendencies in the early Republic. One was top-down, centering, hierarchical, and imperial. It can be associated with Yuan Shikai and those who sought to inherit the centralizing powers of the monarchy. The other tended to be slightly more bottom-up, horizontal, egalitarian, and republican. It can be associated with the Tongmenghui revolutionaries surrounding Sun Yat-sen and local power holders who were immediately aware of the need to deal with street crowds. The former can be symbolized most neatly by Yuan's decision to conduct sacrifices to Heaven at the winter solstice in December 1914. The latter might be symbolized most aptly by the celebrations of "Double Ten" - the October 10 anniversary of the Wuchang uprising in 191 1 , which was taken to represent the begin ning of the Revolution. Double Ten celebrations became an instant popular diversion and perhaps mark urban China's first civic festival. However, this ideal-type bifurcation between top-down and bottom-up categories may be misleading in some respects. Reality was not nearly so simple. Both groups claimed to speak for the nation or people; both in fact spoke in the argot of modernity: progress, national identity, and the wm of the people. And both sought to discipline the citizenry in an effort to create a strong and wealthy nation-state.5 Yet it is not quite adequate to say that the two differed more in techniques than goals. In
1 52
152
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
ritual activities as well as rhetoric, they displayed a different ethos. If
only because Yuan inherited a complex bureaucratic state firmly embed-
ded in a set of practices associated with the imperial monarchy while the
revolutionaries had sought to establish an ethnically based republic,
their ritual strategies naturally differed. The revolutionaries were per-
haps no more likely to turn real political power over to the masses than
was Yuan, but their conception of the social basis of politics was none-
theless considerably broader and their sense of the social forces that
might be politicized was more accurate.
The new leaders of the Republic faced a problem: how to find a new
language of power. Power must always be expressed in some way, and it is
only partially possible to distinguish the expression from the thing itself.
This chapter thus falls into a relatively recent genre of historical analysis
of the "representedness" of power and social construction of symbolic
and ritual representations. Such works should not, in my view, displace
older concerns with who has the guns (who can organize violence), the
role of ideology, the distribution of economic power, and so forth.
Rather, they supplement these Weberian concerns in an effort to answer
larger questions about the nature and mechanisms of power, and they
respond to the inadequacy of purely materialist interpretations of hege-
mony. Previous studies that ignored ritual and ceremonies or treated
them as relatively unimportant decorations on the real structures of
power missed an important element of how power is actually exercised.
Excessively functionalist approaches often assumed that ritual belonged
to the past in contrast to a progressive tendency of growing rationaliza-
tion, secularization, and intellectualization, an assumption that appears
erroneous as soon as one opens one's eyes to the processes of rit-
ualization. Materialistic approaches to history treat ritual as part of the
superstructure, which can only assume that people of the time treated
ritual seriously as a result of false consciousness.
It is certainly true that the meaning and overall importance of politi-
cal ritual vary by time and place - and that they are always rooted in
social relations - but this simply means that ritual has to be studied in its
historical specificity, not that we can afford to ignore it. Ritual strategies
in the early Republic thus reveal differing conceptions of the state and
the nation. This brief chapter focuses on Yuan Shikai and national-level
politics. I do not present a complete survey of political rituals even in
just the few years after the Revolution. For example, I do not discuss the
rituals that surrounded the Revolution itself, the provincial secessions,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
ritual activities as well as rhetoric, they displayed a different ethos. If only because Yuan inherited a complex bureaucratic state firmly embed ded in a set of practices associated with the imperial monarchy while the revolutionaries had sought to establish an ethnically based republic, their ritual strategies naturally differed. The revolutionaries were per haps no more likely to turn real political power over to the masses than was Yuan, but their conception of the social basis of politics was none theless considerably broader and their sense of the social forces that might be politicized was more accurate. The new leaders of the Republic faced a problem: how to find a new language of power. Power must always be expressed in some way, and it is only partially possible to distinguish the expression from the thing itself. This chapter thus falls into a relatively recent genre of historical analysis of the "representedness" of power and social construction of symbolic and ritual representations. Such works should not, in my view, displace older concerns with who has the guns (who can organize violence), the role of ideology, the distribution of economic power, and so forth. Rather, they supplement these Weberian concerns in an effort to answer larger questions about the nature and mechanisms of power, and they respond to the inadequacy of purely materialist interpretations of hege mony. Previous studies that ignored ritual and ceremonies or treated them as relatively unimportant decorations on the real structures of power missed an important element of how power is actually exercised. Excessively functionalist approaches often assumed that ritual belonged to the past in contrast to a progressive tendency of growing rationaliza tion, secularization, and intellectualization, an assumption that appears erroneous as soon as one opens one's eyes to the processes of rit ualization. Materialistic approaches to history treat ritual as part of the superstructure, which can only assume that people of the time treated ritual seriously as a result of false consciousness. It is certainly true that the meaning and overall importance of politi cal ritual vary by time and place - and that they are always rooted in social relations - but this simply means that ritual has to be studied in its historical specificity, not that we can afford to ignore it. Ritual strategies in the early Republic thus reveal differing conceptions of the state and the nation. This brief chapter focuses on Yuan Shikai and national-level politics. I do not present a complete survey of political rituals even in j ust the few years after the Revolution. For example, I do not discuss the rituals that surrounded the Revolution itself, the provincial secessions,
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 153
the Wuchang and Nanjing governments, Sun Yat-sen's brief presidency,
or even the details of Yuan Shikai's monarchical movement of 1915-16.
Nor do I discuss important and closely related topics such as cutting
queues, changing dress habits, and reforming the calendar or the rela-
tionship between family, lineage, and religious rituals, on the one hand,
and political and civic rituals on the other. Rather, I attempt to elucidate
the relationship between state ritual and nation building. For the Chi-
nese nation began to emerge in the interstices of rituals the meanings of
which no one could control and which inevitably brought the nation or
people (minzu) onto the political stage, willy-nilly making China into a
genuine nation-state.
Ritual and Nation
Classical Confucian theory placed ritual (li) at the heart of the state
while it lacked any clear or strong notion of the nation as a discrete
political community marked by strong ties of ethnicity, language, reli-
153
the Wuchang and Nanjing governments, Sun Yat-sen's brief presidency, or even the details of Yuan Shikai's monarchical movement of 1915-16. Nor do I discuss important and closely related topics such as cutting queues, changing dress habits, and reforming the calendar or the rela tionship between family, lineage, and religious rituals, on the one hand, and political and civic rituals on the other. Rather, I attempt to elucidate the relationship between state ritual and nation building. For the Chi nese nation began to emerge in the interstices of rituals the meanings of which no one could control and which inevitably brought the nation or people (minzu) onto the political stage, willy-nilly making China into a genuine nation-state.
gion, and the like. The anthropologist Stephen Feuchtwang has noted
that Chinese elites thought the correct performance of ritual to "have
lasting effect, to exemplify the order of the universe, and to maintain the
correct distinctions" - that li constituted a kind of "ideological con-
Ritual and Nation
trol."6 It should be remembered that ritual and li, a much broader term,
are not semantically coterminous. Ritual was seen as simultaneously
expressing truth (cosmic order) and maintaining morality (social order)
through discrete sets of sacrifices, including imperial sacrifices, which
were both homologous and exemplary. It is worth noting that the
"people," although sometimes excluded from li, played a prominent role
in the Confucian scheme, especially in the Mencius, which postulated
that they formed the basis (minben) of the political system conceived in
largely paternalistic terms. As well, the ancient Chinese certainly pos-
sessed a sense of identity, distinguishing themselves from border peoples
on several grounds.7 Nonetheless, this differed from a modern sense of
nationalism for many reasons. Prasenjit Duara points out that although
political communities existed early, what we mean by nationalism today
could not have developed prior to the competitive international state
system.8 Following Benedict Anderson and Ernest Gellner more closely
than does Duara, I would emphasize, along with discursive practices,
the central role of modern institutions such as the school system, the
press, and other communications media (print capitalism), the general
Classical Confucian theory placed ritual (li) at the heart of the state while it lacked any clear or strong notion of the nation as a discrete political community marked by strong ties of ethnicity, language, reli gion, and the like. The anthropologist Stephen Feuchtwang has noted that Chinese elites thought the correct performance of ritual to "have lasting effect, to exemplify the order of the universe, and to maintain the correct distinctions" - that Ii constituted a kind of "ideological con trol."6 It should be remembered that ritual and Ii, a much broader term, are not semantically coterminous. Ritual was seen as simultaneously expressing truth (cosmic order) and maintaining morality (social order) through discrete sets of sacrifices, including imperial sacrifices, which were both homologous and exemplary. It is worth noting that the "people," although sometimes excluded from Ii, played a prominent role in the Confucian scheme, especially in the Mencius, which postulated that they formed the basis (minben) of the political system conceived in largely paternalistic terms. As well, the ancient Chinese certainly pos sessed a sense of identity, distinguishing themselves from border peoples on several grounds.? Nonetheless, this differed from a modern sense of nationalism for many reasons. Prasenjit Duara points out that although political communities existed early, what we mean by nationalism today could not have developed prior to the competitive international state system.8 Following Benedict Anderson and Ernest Gellner more closely than does Duara, I would emphasize, along with discursive practices, the central role of modern institutions such as the school system, the press, and other communications media (print capitalism), the general
154
154 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
role of the state in promoting industrialization, and other factors that
have increased the agency of the political community.9 Still, the point
remains that many of the ingredients we can identify as nationalism were
long in place before they fused into the political loyalty and psychologi-
cal identity tied to the nation-state. By late imperial times, all Chinese
participated in rituals revolving around the family and lineage, an aspect
of popular culture that had strong if ambiguous political implications.
Although families might, on rare occasions, split away from the state,
for the most part the patriarchal family was seen as analogous to the
structure of the state. Indeed, this was no mere analogy (father:family,
emperor:state) but also a cosmic model in its own right. The system was
paternalistic in both senses of the word: socially, fathers were placed at
the apex, and politically rulers treated the people as children. If the min
were excluded from li in classical Confucianism, such was no longer the
case in the late imperial state. But the question remains: how was ritual
linked to conceptions of the political community?
It may be that the value of loyalty to the emperor became newly
prominent in the development of neo-Confucianism; it is clear, at any
rate, that the late imperial dynasties (Yuan, Ming, and Qing) all empha-
sized loyalty. Loyalty to the throne was apparently subsumed in the even
more basic quality of filiality. The Qing emperors worked hard to display
their filial piety, which exemplified their virtue and therefore expressed
their right to the throne; indeed, filiality nicely linked virtue to birthright
claims.10 Nonetheless, identity remained very fluid, defined largely
through family (and gender) and birthplace, with only a small role allot-
ted to national identity. If Chinese reformers in the early twentieth
century hoped to replace loyalty to the emperor with loyalty to the
nation-state, they found this an unexpectedly difficult task. The transi-
tion was certainly not as automatic as foreign examples seemed to indi-
cate. In the Chinese case, the nation could not be formed in the image of
the monarch as has seemingly happened in Britain, Japan, Germany,
and perhaps Russia. The reasons for this await further analysis. One
factor, of course, was the "foreignness" of the Manchu overlords, which
was being defined as such vis-h-vis the Han Chinese nation precisely at
this time (on the Han, see Kai-wing Chow's chapter in this volume).
Neither the symbolic resources nor the practical powers of the Chinese
monarchy proved capable of generating the reforms that leading mem-
bers of the Chinese elite wanted.
By the time of the 1911 Revolution, republicanism had come to domi-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
role of the state in promoting industrialization, and other factors that have increased the agency of the political community. 9 Still, the point remains that many of the ingredients we can identify as nationalism were long in place before they fused into the political loyalty and psychologi cal identity tied to the nation-state. By late imperial times, all Chinese participated in rituals revolving around the family and lineage, an aspect of popular culture that had strong if ambiguous political implications. Although families might, on rare occasions, split away from the state, for the most part the patriarchal family was seen as analogous to the structure of the state. Indeed, this was no mere analogy (father:family, emperor:state) but also a cosmic model in its own right. The system was paternalistic in both senses of the word: socially, fathers were placed at the apex, and politically rulers treated the people as children. If the min were excluded from li in classical Confucianism, such was no longer the case in the late imperial state. But the question remains: how was ritual linked to conceptions of the political community? It may be that the value of loyalty to the emperor became newly prominent in the development of neo-Confucianism; it is clear, at any rate, that the late imperial dynasties (Yuan, Ming, and Qing) all empha sized loyalty. Loyalty to the throne was apparently subsumed in the even more basic quality of filiality. The Qing emperors worked hard to display their filial piety, which exemplified their virtue and therefore expressed their right to the throne; indeed, filiality nicely linked virtue to birthright claims.l° Nonetheless, identity remained very fluid, defined largely through family (and gender) and birthplace, with only a small role allot ted to national identity. If Chinese reformers in the early twentieth century hoped to replace loyalty to the emperor with loyalty to the nation-state, they found this an unexpectedly difficult task. The transi tion was certainly not as automatic as foreign examples seemed to indi cate. In the Chinese case, the nation could not be formed in the image of the monarch as has seemingly happened in Britain, Japan, Germany, and perhaps Russia. The reasons for this await further analysis. One factor, of course, was the "foreignness" of the Manchu overlords, which was being defined as such vis-a-vis the Han Chinese nation precisely at this time (on the Han, see Kai-wing Chow's chapter in this volume). Neither the symbolic resources nor the practical powers of the Chinese monarchy proved capable of generating the reforms that leading mem bers of the Chinese elite wanted. By the time of the 1 9 1 1 Revolution, republicanism had come to domi-
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 155
nate mainstream nationalist discourse. I am not claiming that the advo-
cates of a constitutional monarchy were marginalized; on the contrary,
they maintained an influential voice right up to the eve of the Revolution.
As is well known, the main spokesman for constitutionalism, Liang
Qichao, essentially argued that the Chinese were not ready for democ-
racy, that the monarchy could guarantee political stability while reforms
were pursued, and that revolution would be disruptive. However, this
means that Liang accepted (as, indeed, he had played a major role in
originally introducing) the basic principle of popular sovereignty. The
rapidity with which local and national elites (including Liang) accepted
republicanism in 1911-12 indicates that the basic premises of republican-
ism had already become widespread.11 Few political activists seem to have
retained any belief in the charismatic authority of the emperor during the
last decade of the Qing. The Chinese nation required fundamentally new
forms of expressing and displaying political leadership and new tech-
niques of linking subjects/citizens to rulers. Such changes could not occur
overnight. The ritual demands of republicanism led to a period of experi-
mentation and struggle over the expression of political power.
Political rituals are solemn and repetitive practices that connect lead-
ers and communities with larger, higher forces, be these God or gods,
transcendental movements of history, the fate of the nation, the future
of the people, or whatever. Such rituals are abstract and symbolic expres-
sions open to various interpretations. Even their inventors may not
know what all the details of a given ritual (are supposed to) mean,
although experts are needed to guide the practitioners, explain the sym-
bols, guard the traditions, and maintain the relevant texts. The range of
political rituals is huge; the question is why some are chosen while other
possible rituals either remain entirely latent or simply do not "take." In
one sense, ritual practices are the opposite of logic and narrative. They
elevate the body over the mind, reflexivity over reflection, and the
immediate moment over a chain of events. In another sense, however,
rituals are performances based on analogy and homology, and so they
tell stories. Body movements are used to mimic natural or social pro-
cesses, and this leads to narration, explanation, and intellectualization.
If set above time, rituals are still inevitably performed in time. If set in a
mythical space designed to capture cosmic forces - like Beijing's Altar
of Heaven - they are still inevitably performed in mundane space.12
Rituals, and especially political rituals, do not hide their essential func-
tionalism. They possess both private and collective meanings tied to
155
nate mainstream nationalist discourse. I am not claiming that the advo cates of a constitutional monarchy were marginalized; on the contrary, they maintained an influential voice right up to the eve of the Revolution. As is well known, the main spokesman for constitutionalism, Liang Qichao, essentially argued that the Chinese were not ready for democ racy, that the monarchy could guarantee political stability while reforms were pursued, and that revolution would be disruptive. However, this means that Liang accepted (as, indeed, he had played a major role in originally introducing) the basic principle of popular sovereignty. The rapidity with which local and national elites (including Liang) accepted republicanism in 1911-12 indicates that the basic premises of republican ism had already become widespread. 11 Few political activists seem to have retained any belief in the charismatic authority of the emperor during the last decade of the Qing. The Chinese nation required fundamentally new forms of expressing and displaying political leadership and new tech niques of linking subjects/citizens to rulers. Such changes could not occur overnight. The ritual demands of republicanism led to a period of experi mentation and struggle over the expression of political power. Political rituals are solemn and repetitive practices that connect lead ers and communities with larger, higher forces, be these God or gods, transcendental movements of history, the fate of the nation, the future of the people, or whatever. Such rituals are abstract and symbolic expres sions open to various interpretations. Even their inventors may not know what all the details of a given ritual (are supposed to) mean, although experts are needed to guide the practitioners, explain the sym bols, guard the traditions, and maintain the relevant texts. The range of political rituals is huge; the question is why some are chosen while other possible rituals either remain entirely latent or simply do not "take." In one sense, ritual practices are the opposite of logic and narrative. They elevate the body over the mind, reflexivity over reflection, and the immediate moment over a chain of events. In another sense, however, rituals are performances based on analogy and homology, and so they tell stories. Body movements are used to mimic natural or social pro cesses, and this leads to narration, explanation, and intellectualization. If set above time, rituals are still inevitably performed in time. If set in a mythical space designed to capture cosmic forces - like Beijing's Altar of Heaven - they are still inevitably performed in mundane space.J2 Rituals, and especially political rituals, do not hide their essential func tionalism. They possess both private and collective meanings tied to
156
156
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
explicit, practical objectives. Yet their meanings are not defined by the
ritual itself but produced from the outside. Whether designed to make
rain or commemorate the war dead, rituals are embedded in the larger
society: produced, enjoyed, and understood in terms of ordinary social
relations.
But what do political rituals have to do with the nation? The quick
answer is that as an invisible abstraction the nation can be made con-
crete in the form of ritual symbolism, like the imagery of stamps, money,
flags, and so forth. More to the point, political ritual refers to at least
two phenomena. First, all power, even simple, personal brute force, is
inevitably ritualized. Kings carry scepters, soldiers wear uniforms and
march in order, and torturers begin by treating their victims with false
courtesy. As force becomes legitimate authority, ritual becomes all the
more important to the maintenance of hegemony. Therefore, second,
political rituals stem from more or less conscious efforts to carry on,
adapt, and on rare occasions, create pageantry.
Such pageantry appeals to three basic audiences. The international
use of political rituals is critical in state to state relations. The British
monarchy became a symbol of the glory of the entire empire under
Victoria.13 European imperial rivalries were expressed in the ceremonial
grandeur of the monarchy. The question of whether royal power was
actually waxing or waning was irrelevant to the political rituals involved.
The growth of rituals of state in the West in the late nineteenth century
thus marked a period of relations among states conceived as sovereign
entities. The Chinese imperial reception of foreign tribute missions also
represents a ritualized foreign policy. Second, elites themselves consume
political rituals as a ratification of their own positions. Rituals bring key
political actors together in such common and solemn causes as an ac-
cession ceremony or funeral. Indeed, rituals may be seen as constitutive
of power; they also help set the parameters within which intraelite
struggles take place. Finally, the populace forms a vast target audience.
If the people accept the notion that the political system possesses some
kind of transcendental nature, they may be more willing to accept a
system that gives them minimal rewards. Political ritual is an intrinsic
part of hegemony; by helping to define the very sense of reality, rituals
channel and limit action.
Thus, in terms of the political community as a whole, the pageantry
that has surrounded power in the twentieth century helped to build the
nation. It created ties between rulers and the ruled, linking them both in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
explicit, practical objectives. Yet their meanings are not defined by the ritual itself but produced from the outside. Whether designed to make rain or commemorate the war dead, rituals are embedded in the larger society: produced, enjoyed, and understood in terms of ordinary social relations. But what do political rituals have to do with the nation? The quick answer is that as an invisible abstraction the nation can be made con crete in the form of ritual symbolism, like the imagery of stamps, money, flags, and so forth. More to the point, political ritual refers to at least two phenomena. First, all power, even simple, personal brute force, is inevitably ritualized. Kings carry scepters, soldiers wear uniforms and march in order, and torturers begin by treating their victims with false courtesy. As force becomes legitimate authority, ritual becomes all the more important to the maintenance of hegemony. Therefore, second, political rituals stem from more or less conscious efforts to carry on, adapt, and on rare occasions, create pageantry. Such pageantry appeals to three basic audiences. The international use of political rituals is critical in state to state relations. The British monarchy became a symbol of the glory of the entire empire under Victoria.13 European imperial rivalries were expressed in the ceremonial grandeur of the monarchy. The question of whether royal power was actually waxing or waning was irrelevant to the political rituals involved. The growth of rituals of state in the West in the late nineteenth century thus marked a period of relations among states conceived as sovereign entities. The Chinese imperial reception of foreign tribute missions also represents a ritualized foreign policy. Second, elites themselves consume political rituals as a ratification of their own positions. Rituals bring key political actors together in such common and solemn causes as an ac cession ceremony or funeral. Indeed, rituals may be seen as constitutive of power; they also help set the parameters within which intraelite struggles take place. Finally, the populace forms a vast target audience. If the people accept the notion that the political system possesses some kind of transcendental nature, they may be more willing to accept a system that gives them minimal rewards. Political ritual is an intrinsic part of hegemony; by helping to define the very sense of reality, rituals channel and limit action. Thus, in terms of the political community as a whole, the pageantry that has surrounded power in the twentieth century helped to build the nation. It created ties between rulers and the ruled, linking them both in
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 157
a larger identity. It symbolized both the state and the nation, forming
the nation-state as an amalgam of shared interests. Ultimately, a kind of
ritual construction of the "people" occurred as they were captured in
their essential quality, whether as subjects of the emperor or citizens of
the Republic. Such rituals as National Day celebrations both unite the
people, overriding distinctions of class and region in the fervor of na-
tional identity, and establish new sources of stratification in terms of
closeness to the center. Who stands on the dais and who stands below,
who speaks and who listens, who marches and who witnesses all serve as
new markers of political elites. The public quality of such occasions -
rulers and ruled (in various degrees) staring directly at one another -
serves to unite and differentiate simultaneously.14 Still, to honor revolu-
tionary martyrs and war dead is to exult in the glory of the nation,
imbuing it with a quality that transcends both rulers and ruled. To com-
memorate the founding moment of the nation-state is to recapture the
most sublime sense of shared purpose.
Finally, political rituals establish claims to the land. When National
Day celebrations are held at the same time in various cities and towns,
this action acknowledges the claims of nationhood across space. Simi-
larly, imperial processions define space by means of routes that tend to
link distant places. Both the imperial state and the modern nation-state
share a need to make territorial claims, though their notions of bound-
aries and centers may be different. Both make use of sacred sites -
Mount Tai in Shandong, Notre Dame in the center of Paris, Arlington
Cemetery outside Washington. Both make use of the principle of simul-
taneity; as all National Day celebrations are held at the same moment,
so, too, did Qing local officials conduct sacrifices to the land and grain
spirits simultaneously - an expression of territorial domination - as well
as laying claim to the territory through other common sacrifices held in
provincial and county capitals. However, imperial ritual is designed to
confirm the monarch's claims over the land and people, and so the
emperor retained unique access to certain rituals; conversely, national
rituals are designed to secure the people's links to the land, and so they
limit the rulers' ritual functions. It is the people who have made the land
sacred with their blood, commemorated by cemeteries, temples, and
statues.
At the same time, however, successful rituals render their mecha-
nisms invisible, for official representations of the group work best if they
are seen as natural rather than constructed. In the formulation of Pierre
157
a larger identity. It symbolized both the state and the nation, forming the nation-state as an amalgam of shared interests. Ultimately, a kind of ritual construction of the "people" occurred as they were captured in their essential quality, whether as subjects of the emperor or citizens of the Republic. Such rituals as National Day celebrations both unite the people, overriding distinctions of class and region in the fervor of na tional identity, and establish new sources of stratification in terms of closeness to the center. Who stands on the dais and who stands below, who speaks and who listens, who marches and who witnesses all serve as new markers of political elites. The public quality of such occasions rulers and ruled (in various degrees) staring directly at one another serves to unite and differentiate simultaneously. 1 4 Still, to honor revolu tionary martyrs and war dead is to exult in the glory of the nation, imbuing it with a quality that transcends both rulers and ruled. To com memorate the founding moment of the nation-state is to recapture the most sublime sense of shared purpose. Finally, political rituals establish claims to the land. When National Day celebrations are held at the same time in various cities and towns, this action acknowledges the claims of nationhood across space. Simi larly, imperial processions define space by means of routes that tend to link distant places. Both the imperial state and the modern nation-state share a need to make territorial claims, though their notions of bound aries and centers may be different. Both make use of sacred sites Mount Tai in Shandong, Notre Dame in the center of Paris, Arlington Cemetery outside Washington. Both make use of the principle of simul taneity; as all National Day celebrations are held at the same moment, so, too, did Qing local officials conduct sacrifices to the land and grain spirits simultaneously - an expression of territorial domination - as well as laying claim to the territory through other common sacrifices held in provincial and county capitals. However, imperial ritual is designed to confirm the monarch's claims over the land and people, and so the emperor retained unique access to certain rituals; conversely, national rituals are designed to secure the people's links to the land, and so they limit the rulers' ritual functions. It is the people who have made the land sacred with their blood, commemorated by cemeteries, temples, and statues. At the same time, however, successful rituals render their mecha nisms invisible, for official representations of the group work best if they are seen as natural rather than constructed. In the formulation of Pierre
158
158 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Bourdieu: "Officialization is the process whereby the group (or those
who dominate it) teaches itself and masks from itself its own truth, binds
itself by a public profession which sanctions and imposes what it utters,
tacitly defining the limits of the thinkable and the unthinkable and so
contributing to the maintenance of the social order from which it derives
its power."15 Yet, since rituals naturally become an arena of political
struggle, a complicated process of masking and unmasking is always
under way. As the social collectivity comes to see itself in political ritu-
als, these rituals thereby become efficacious representations of the na-
tional community. The attempt to objectify social relations inherent in
the ritualization of the social body rests ultimately on the consent of
subordinate groups.16 "Consent" does not necessarily imply either false
consciousness or a lack of resistance; rather, it emerges from a complex
process of struggle and negotiation that is always ongoing. This scarcely
implies consensus, for different groups and individuals ascribe different
meanings to ritual while struggling to adapt and appropriate them. Still,
these very negotiations create a relatively unified social body. Thus, the
failure of China's rituals in the early Republic to become embedded in
the social order no doubt stemmed to a great extent from the inability of
dominant social groups to agree among themselves or to convince the
populace of their authority. This created a disjunction between ritual as
invisible practice and ritual as political empowerment.
Rituals of the Revolution
Still celebrated today on Taiwan, the Double Ten festival commemo-
rates the revolutionary (sacred) founding moment of the Republic. Its
origins, however, lie in the confused tangle of postrevolutionary politics.
For the first few months of 1912, China had two presidents: Sun Yat-sen
in Nanjing and Yuan Shikai in Beijing, but Sun soon resigned in favor of
Yuan in the name of national unity. Yuan served officially first as provi-
sional president and then as president of the Republic of China until he
attempted to become emperor in the autumn of 1915. As the premier
military leader and bureaucratic honcho in late Qing politics even after
his forced retirement, Yuan had led a political network that made him
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Bourdieu: "Officialization is the process whereby the group (or those who dominate it) teaches itself and masks from itself its own truth, binds itself by a public profession which sanctions and imposes what it utters, tacitly defining the limits of the thinkable and the unthinkable and so contributing to the maintenance of the social order from which it derives its power. " 15 Yet, since rituals naturally become an arena of political struggle, a complicated process of masking and unmasking is always under way. As the social collectivity comes to see itself in political ritu als, these rituals thereby become efficacious representations of the na tional community. The attempt to objectify social relations inherent in the ritualization of the social body rests ultimately on the consent of subordinate groups.16 " Consent" does not necessarily imply either false consciousness or a lack of resistance; rather, it emerges from a complex process of struggle and negotiation that is always ongoing. This scarcely implies consensus, for different groups and individuals ascribe different meanings to ritual while struggling to adapt and appropriate them. Still, these very negotiations create a relatively unified social body. Thus, the failure of China's rituals in the early Republic to become embedded in the social order no doubt stemmed to a great extent from the inability of dominant social groups to agree among themselves or to convince the populace of their authority. This created a disjunction between ritual as invisible practice and ritual as political empowerment.
by far the most likely, even inevitable choice for the presidency from the
beginning of the Revolution. Yet he faced a major legitimation problem.
Although Yuan had used his powers to force the abdication of the Qing
Rituals of the Revolution
(which occurred on February 22, 1912), in no way had he made or even
Still celebrated today on Taiwan, the Double Ten festival commemo rates the revolutionary (sacred) founding moment of the Republic. Its origins, however, lie in the confused tangle of postrevolutionary politics. For the first few months of 1 912, China had two presidents: Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing and Yuan Shikai in Beijing, but Sun soon resigned in favor of Yuan in the name of national unity. Yuan served officially first as provi sional president and then as president of the Republic of China until he attempted to become emperor in the autumn of 1 915. As the premier military leader and bureaucratic honcho in late Qing politics even after his forced retirement, Yuan had led a political network that made him by far the most likely, even inevitable choice for the presidency from the beginning of the Revolution. Yet he faced a major legitimation problem. Although Yuan had used his powers to force the abdication of the Qing (which occurred on February 22, 1912), in no way had he made or even
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 159
supported the Revolution. The southern revolutionaries had agreed to
allow Yuan to become president partly in the hope that they could limit
his powers if the capital of the new Republic became Nanjing rather than
Beijing. However, Yuan stayed in Beijing and quickly consolidated his
rule, ignoring the constitution, disbanding the new parliament, assassi-
nating opponents, and ruling, all in all, as a dictator. The legitimacy
problem was compounded by vestigial loyalties in the military and espe-
cially the bureaucracy to old ways of doing things if not active loyalty to
the Qing. Aside from the revolutionaries on one side, Yuan thus had to
deal with extreme conservatives on the other. The unfamiliar terminol-
ogy of republican institutions masked an assumption, widely felt, that
this might simply be an interregnum period between dynastic cycles.
Nonetheless, in the end Yuan felt compelled to acquiesce in the Double
Ten commemoration of the Revolution, and he was even able to co-opt
it by presiding over the Beijing Double Ten celebrations.
Since the meanings of rituals are found in the details, the following
descriptions are as inclusive as space allows. The imperial abdication
was to be celebrated by a holiday on February 12. This in effect com-
memorated Yuan's own role in negotiating the abdication. But Double
Ten struck a stronger cord, especially in South and Central China. By
September of 1912, various groups were calling for "commemoration of
the national day" (guoqing jinian) on Double Ten. Hubei natives living
in Beijing, who naturally felt some pride that the uprising began in their
province, compared the moment to the French July 14, 1789, and the
American July 4, 1776.17 They wanted to see a national Double Ten
celebration; they favored celebrating January 1, the first anniversary of
the Nanjing government, and February 12 as well. Shanghai merchants
were also excited by the idea of Double Ten.18 Even Yuan's own vice
president favored the holiday; after all, Li Yuanhong's political career
had begun when he was pressed into service as the initially reluctant
leader of the Wuchang uprising.
At first, it appeared that Central China might celebrate the October
holiday on its own. But finally, responding directly to the urgings of the
State Council, Yuan proclaimed that all provinces would mark Double
Ten by closing government offices for the day, putting up flags and decora-
tions, conducting military processions, sacrificing to the martyrs of the
Revolution, giving alms to the poor, and banqueting. As well, punish-
ments of criminals such as executions would not be carried out. This last
provision, which might seem to have been unnecessary if government
159
supported the Revolution. The southern revolutionaries had agreed to allow Yuan to become president partly in the hope that they could limit his powers if the capital of the new Republic became Nanjing rather than Beijing. However, Yuan stayed in Beijing and quickly consolidated his rule, ignoring the constitution, disbanding the new parliament, assassi nating opponents, and ruling, all in all, as a dictator. The legitimacy problem was compounded by vestigial loyalties in the military and espe cially the bureaucracy to old ways of doing things if not active loyalty to the Qing. Aside from the revolutionaries on one side, Yuan thus had to deal with extreme conservatives on the other. The unfamiliar terminol ogy of republican institutions masked an assumption, widely felt, that this might simply be an interregnum period between dynastic cycles. Nonetheless, in the end Yuan felt compelled to acquiesce in the Double Ten commemoration of the Revolution, and he was even able to co-opt it by presiding over the Beijing Double Ten celebrations. Since the meanings of rituals are found in the details, the following descriptions are as inclusive as space allows. The imperial abdication was to be celebrated by a holiday on February 12. This in effect com memorated Yuan's own role in negotiating the abdication. But Double Ten struck a stronger cord, especially in South and Central China. By September of 1 912, various groups were calling for "commemoration of the national day" (guoqing jinian) on Double Ten. Hubei natives living in Beij ing, who naturally felt some pride that the uprising began in their province, compared the moment to the French July 14, 1789, and the American July 4 , 1776.17 They wanted to see a national Double Ten celebration; they favored celebrating January 1 , the first anniversary of the Nanjing government, and February 12 as well. Shanghai merchants were also excited by the idea of Double Ten.I8 Even Yuan's own vice president favored the holiday; after all, Li Yuanhong's political career had begun when he was pressed into service as the initially reluctant leader of the Wuchang uprising. At first, it appeared that Central China might celebrate the October holiday on its own. But finally, responding directly to the urgings of the State Council, Yuan proclaimed that all provinces would mark Double Ten by closing government offices for the day, putting up flags and decora tions, conducting military processions, sacrificing to the martyrs of the Revolution, giving alms to the poor, and banqueting. As well, punish ments of criminals such as executions would not be carried out. This last provision, which might seem to have been unnecessary if government
160
160 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
workers were being given a day off, corresponds with the practice of
imperial amnesties on auspicious days and perhaps reflects Yuan's sensi-
tivity to symbolic continuity.
Yuan's encouragement of sacrifices to the martyrs of the Revolution
might seem to have been something of a concession to Tongmenghui
sympathizers in South and Central China. Such sacrifices would have
been performed in Wuchang and Nanjing even without his approval. But
Yuan was able to incorporate them into a larger celebration of his author-
ity. The ceremony to be followed was established by the Home Ministry
(Neiwubu). After people were properly assembled, music would be
played, flowers and fruit would be offered to the spirits, prayers would
be read, people would bow three times, music would be played again,
and then the people would leave.19 Yuan sent the premier as his represen-
tative to one of the most sacred spots of the old Qing empire, the Altar
to Heaven, to conduct sacrifices to the spirits (ling) of the martyrs,
informing them that the imperial system had ended and the Republic
established.20 Sacrifices to the martyrs thus became a coordinated ritual
carried out by officials throughout the land.
In Suzhou, for example, the representative of the Jiangsu military
governor led the ceremony. 21 The ritual hall of the governor's palace was
decorated with lanterns, colored balls, and pine and cypress (the tradi-
tional evergreen symbols of life in death). Soldiers, the police, merchants,
and students were all ordered to show that they had not forgotten the
gratitude owed to the dead and to praise their merit. The soldiers saluted
with their rifles and officers with their swords while the merchants, stu-
dents, gentry, and civil officials removed their hats and bowed three
times, all while military music was being played. Girls from the women's
schools were allowed in at 3:30 and individuals not part of officially recog-
nized groups between 4:30 and 5:30 P.M. A banquet was held for invited
guests, including Westerners. And in Nanjing the sacrifices were per-
formed in the former Qing Wanshougong (Palace of Ten Thousand Years)
under hundreds of electric lights. A schedule similar to Suzhou's was
established so that various groups could display their gratitude.
Military and civil officials thus led a new ritualization of the new
Republic in China's major cities. Bowing replaced the three kneelings
and nine prostrations of the full ketou (kowtow), but the fundamental
act of presenting the spirits with offerings was maintained. In Beijing,
Double Ten was marked by a military procession of some eleven thou-
sand troops, whom Yuan watched with invited guests from a platform in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
workers were being given a day off, corresponds with the practice of imperial amnesties on auspicious days and perhaps reflects Yuan's sensi tivity to symbolic continuity. Yuan's encouragement of sacrifices to the martyrs of the Revolution might seem to have been something of a concession to Tongmenghui sympathizers in South and Central China. Such sacrifices would have been performed in Wuchang and Nanjing even without his approval. But Yuan was able to incorporate them into a larger celebration of his author ity. The ceremony to be followed was established by the Home Ministry (Neiwubu). After people were properly assembled, music would be played, flowers and fruit would be offered to the spirits, prayers would be read, people would bow three times, music would be played again, and then the people would leave.19 Yuan sent the premier as his represen tative to one of the most sacred spots of the old Qing empire, the Altar to Heaven, to conduct sacrifices to the spirits (ling) of the martyrs, informing them that the imperial system had ended and the Republic established.20 Sacrifices to the martyrs thus became a coordinated ritual carried out by officials throughout the land. In Suzhou, for example, the representative of the Jiangsu military governor led the ceremony.21 The ritual hall of the governor's palace was decorated with lanterns, colored balls, and pine and cypress (the tradi tional evergreen symbols of life in death). Soldiers, the police, merchants, and students were all ordered to show that they had not forgotten the gratitude owed to the dead and to praise their merit. The soldiers saluted with their rifles and officers with their swords while the merchants, stu dents, gentry, and civil officials removed their hats and bowed three times, all while military music was being played. Girls from the women's schools were allowed in at 3:30 and individuals not part of officially recog nized groups between 4:30 and 5 :30 P. M . A banquet was held for invited guests, including Westerners. And in Nanjing the sacrifices were per formed in the former Qing Wanshougong (Palace of Ten Thousand Years) under hundreds of electric lights. A schedule similar to Suzhou's was established so that various groups could display their gratitude. Military and civil officials thus led a new ritualization of the new Republic in China's major cities. Bowing replaced the three kneelings and nine prostrations of the full ketou (kowtow), but the fundamental act of presenting the spirits with offerings was maintained. In Beij ing, Double Ten was marked by a military procession of some eleven thou sand troops, whom Yuan watched with invited guests from a platform in
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 161
front of the presidential palace.22 The ceremony started at 6 A.M. at a
pailou (ceremonial arch) built at the Zhonghuamen (China Gate, for-
merly Zhengyangmen). The Qing's abdication edict was written at the
top of the pailou; thus did Yuan remind the nation that the Wuchang
uprising had led to the Republic only by way of the abdication he had
arranged. Military music was played, and Yuan himself was in uniform
as the troops marched west in front of the platform. Yuan was said to
have appeared strong, confident, serious, and alert - the virtues of a
ruler. The military review was followed by a reception for parliamentari-
ans, civil officials, foreign ambassadors and their staffs, reporters, and
living buddhas from Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet.
These official rituals offered the Chinese a shared experience while
carefully differentiating selected groups in a hierarchy that privileged the
official and male. In other parts of China, the day was celebrated with
more popular participation and festivity. Shops in Shanghai were closed.
Flags and five-color lanterns were hung everywhere. In separate events,
there were military salutes, flag-raising ceremonies, award ceremonies,
school exercises, dances, banqueting, firecrackers, fireworks, puppet
shows, and martial arts displays.23 Numerous pailou were erected around
the city and decorated with ilex, pine, and cypress. It was reported that
marchers in processions sung the national anthem. Particularly notable
were the evening lantern processions featuring the five colors of the
Republic (representing the five peoples). In Nanjing, lanterns also dis-
played birds, animals, and flowers.24 However, the local educational
authorities forbade women's schools from holding lantern assemblies
and the police prohibited a prostitutes' assembly. Sun Yat-sen and Wu
Tingfang attended a merchants' banquet in Shanghai. Hubei itself, how-
ever, remained relatively quiet.25
Over the course of the following year, 1913, Yuan moved to domi-
nate Parliament by any means necessary and in the summer easily put
down a brief revolt led by several of the former revolutionaries. Yuan
was formally elected president by the Parliament in 1913. He took the
oath of office on the tenth of October, thus hijacking the holiday en-
tirely. (Yuan had taken the oath of provisional president on March 10,
1912, in Beijing.)26 At 9:30 A.M., Yuan arrived at Tiananmen in a cere-
monial carriage (liche) and, accompanied by a military band, entered
the imperial city. At ten, officers, guards, officials, and other spectators
were led into the Taihedian, where the oath taking would occur. Foreign-
ers were led to a viewing area in the northeast corner. During this time,
161
front of the presidential palace.22 The ceremony started at 6 A . M. at a pailou (ceremonial arch) built at the Zhonghuamen (China Gate, for merly Zhengyangmen). The Qing's abdication edict was written at the top of the pailou; thus did Yuan remind the nation that the Wuchang uprising had led to the Republic only by way of the abdication he had arranged. Military music was played, and Yuan himself was in uniform as the troops marched west in front of the platform. Yuan was said to have appeared strong, confident, serious, and alert - the virtues of a ruler. The military review was followed by a reception for parliamentari ans, civil officials, foreign ambassadors and their staffs, reporters, and living buddhas from Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet. These official rituals offered the Chinese a shared experience while carefully differentiating selected groups in a hierarchy that privileged the official and male. In other parts of China, the day was celebrated with more popular participation and festivity. Shops in Shanghai were closed. Flags and five-color lanterns were hung everywhere. In separate events, there were military salutes, flag-raising ceremonies, award ceremonies, school exercises, dances, banqueting, firecrackers, fireworks, puppet shows, and martial arts displays.23 Numerous pailou were erected around the city and decorated with ilex, pine, and cypress. It was reported that marchers in processions sung the national anthem. Particularly notable were the evening lantern processions featuring the five colors of the Republic (representing the five peoples). In Nanjing, lanterns also dis played birds, animals, and flowers.24 However, the local educational authorities forbade women's schools from holding lantern assemblies and the police prohibited a prostitutes' assembly. Sun Yat-sen and Wu Tingfang attended a merchants' banquet in Shanghai. Hubei itself, how ever, remained relatively quiet.25 Over the course of the following year, 1913, Yuan moved to domi nate Parliament by any means necessary and in the summer easily put down a brief revolt led by several of the former revolutionaries. Yuan was formally elected president by the Parliament in 1913. He took the oath of office on the tenth of October, thus hijacking the holiday en tirely. (Yuan had taken the oath of provisional president on March 1 0, 1912, in Beijing. )26 At 9:30 A. M . , Yuan arrived at Tiananmen in a cere monial carriage (fiche) and, accompanied by a military band, entered the imperial city. At ten, officers, guards, officials, and other spectators were led into the Taihedian, where the oath taking would occur. Foreign ers were led to a viewing area in the northeast corner. During this time,
162
162 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"national music" was played and a 101-gun salute fired. Yuan then
ascended the platform at the north end of the hall, facing south, with
officials on either side of him. When the music stopped, Yuan took the
oath; the audience bowed to him once, and he bowed back. Then Yuan
read a declaration; the audience bowed to him three times, and he
bowed back three times. Finally, music was played as Yuan and the
audience left.
Yuan's inauguration did not follow the enthronement rituals of em-
perors, but in facing south he emulated the single most critical feature
that had marked the enthronement and imperial authority generally
since the most ancient times.27 Again, bowing constituted a modern way
to give and acknowledge obeisance. And since the early eighteenth
century this critical moment of the ascension rituals of the Qing emper-
ors had taken place in the Taihedian. After Yuan's first inauguration, a
second ceremony was performed for the foreigners, illustrating not only
the influence that the Western powers held over China's fate but also
how China was marking itself as a republic in the international commu-
nity. Perhaps there were also elements of the traditional goal of awing
visitors from afar. With Yuan's formal election to the presidency, four-
teen nations recognized the new Republic. It might also be noted that
the Qing emperors had separately performed ascension rituals for differ-
ent audiences, distinguishing the inner court from the civil officials (who
witnessed the Taihedian rituals). At 9 A.M., foreign ambassadors were
carried from Tiananmen in palanquins into the imperial city. After the
oath taking, they were led out of their viewing area through the east
gate and back in through the main gate. As music played, they lined up,
from the British ambassador on the east to the Belgian ambassador on
the west. Then Yuan returned to the platform and bows were ex-
changed. Speeches were translated, and all shook hands. The ambassa-
dors then took palanquins to Tiananmen for the military review, though
their staffs had to walk. This was followed by a third ceremony for the
representatives of the Qing house. The old royalty was brought north
through the middle gate; again, Yuan faced south on the platform as
bows, speeches, handshakes, and more bows were exchanged.
Then the foreign ambassadors, top officials, representatives of the
Qing house, and Yuan Shikai himself witnessed the military proces-
sion.28 For almost four hours, six military units marched in front of the
viewing stands, including infantry, sailors, Yuan's bodyguards, and capi-
tal guards. Yuan wore an army generalissimo uniform with a long sword.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"national music" was played and a lOl-gun salute fired. Yuan then ascended the platform at the north end of the hall, facing south, with officials on either side of him. When the music stopped, Yuan took the oath; the audience bowed to him once, and he bowed back. Then Yuan read a declaration; the audience bowed to him three times, and he bowed back three times. Finally, music was played as Yuan and the audience left. Yuan's inauguration did not follow the enthronement rituals of em perors, but in facing south he emulated the single most critical feature that had marked the enthronement and imperial authority generally since the most ancient times.27 Again, bowing constituted a modern way to give and acknowledge obeisance. And since the early eighteenth century this critical moment of the ascension rituals of the Qing emper ors had taken place in the Taihedian. After Yuan's first inauguration, a second ceremony was performed for the foreigners, illustrating not only the influence that the Western powers held over China's fate but also how China was marking itself as a republic in the international commu nity. Perhaps there were also elements of the traditional goal of awing visitors from afar. With Yuan's formal election to the presidency, four teen nations recognized the new Republic. It might also be noted that the Qing emperors had separately performed ascension rituals for differ ent audiences, distinguishing the inner court from the civil officials (who witnessed the Taihedian rituals). At 9 A . M . , foreign ambassadors were carried from Tiananmen in palanquins into the imperial city. After the oath taking, they were led out of their viewing area through the east gate and back in through the main gate. As music played, they lined up, from the British ambassador on the east to the Belgian ambassador on the west. Then Yuan returned to the platform and bows were ex changed. Speeches were translated, and all shook hands. The ambassa dors then took palanquins to Tiananmen for the military review, though their staffs had to walk. This was followed by a third ceremony for the representatives of the Qing house. The old royalty was brought north through the middle gate; again, Yuan faced south on the platform as bows, speeches, handshakes, and more bows were exchanged. Then the foreign ambassadors, top officials, representatives of the Qing house, and Yuan Shikai himself witnessed the military proces sion.28 For almost four hours, six military units marched in front of the viewing stands, including infantry, sailors, Yuan's bodyguards, and capi tal guards. Yuan wore an army generalissimo uniform with a long sword.
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 163
His blue cap displayed a five-color, five-pointed star, its sides were of
gold chrysanthemum, and it featured a tall white plume. His uniform
was of blue wool, with gold braid and decorative motifs. His boots were
of black leather. His trousers had three red stripes, and his sleeve ends
were red. In all, Yuan's sartorial inclinations seem to have'followed the
late-nineteenth-century European movement of Caesarism.29 National
unity among the new European states focused on a strong ruler, and
Germany's Emperor William I had started something of a fashion in
generalissimo wear. Yuan, too, ruled as a military figure as well as in his
capacity as president.
When the Beijing ceremonies were over, ordinary citizens could
obtain free tickets to enter the imperial city to see where Yuan had taken
the oath of office.30 In terms of the traditional sanctity and perhaps even
taboos surrounding this place, Yuan was acting to secularize rulership.
But in terms of his own power his ritual performances were part of a
process of personifying the new state.
In other parts of China, the 1913 Double Ten was more subdued
than in the previous year. In Nanjing, the holiday seems to have been
dominated by official ceremonies at the expense of popular lantern
assemblies and other displays of bottom-up organization. In Wuchang,
the streets were crowded but there are fewer reports of lantern as-
semblies, flag-raisings, pailou, and the like.31 And reports from Shang-
hai frankly announced that the 1913 festivals were not as rousing as in
1912. One analysis attributed this to the aftereffects of the "distur-
bances" - meaning the summer's revolt of many of the former 1911
revolutionaries against Yuan's government.32 Business had not yet re-
covered. There were even rumors that "rebels" would take advantage
of police laxity on the holiday to attempt to seize arms. Yet it may also
be that the lack of popular enthusiasm reflected urban disillusionment
over Yuan's high-handed ways of accruing power. Short of such a con-
scious political reaction, local social leaders may simply have wished to
lower their profiles, especially at a time when Double Ten was perhaps
losing some of its meaning.
Yuan's domination of Double Ten continued in 1914. On October
10, Yuan arrived on horseback at Tiananmen and was carried to the
balcony in a red-cushioned sedan chair, with guards, some carrying long
lances, in front and behind.33 Yuan stood with the vice president, the
secretary of state, and other ministers - with invited foreigners on the
eastern side of the balcony of Tiananmen - to review twenty-thousand
163
His blue cap displayed a five-color, five-pointed star, its sides were of gold chrysanthemum, and it featured a tall white plume. His uniform was of blue wool, with gold braid and decorative motifs. His boots were of black leather. His trousers had three red stripes, and his sleeve ends were red. In all, Yuan's sartorial inclinations seem to have'followed the late-nineteenth-century European movement of Caesarism. 29 National unity among the new European states focused on a strong ruler, and Germany's Emperor William I had started something of a fashion in generalissimo wear. Yuan, too, ruled as a military figure as well as in his capacity as president. When the Beijing ceremonies were over, ordinary citizens could obtain free tickets to enter the imperial city to see where Yuan had taken the oath of office.3D In terms of the traditional sanctity and perhaps even taboos surrounding this place, Yuan was acting to secularize rulership. But in terms of his own power his ritual performances were part of a process of personifying the new state. In other parts of China, the 1913 Double Ten was more subdued than in the previous year. In Nanjing, the holiday seems to have been dominated by official ceremonies at the expense of popular lantern assemblies and other displays of bottom-up organization. In Wuchang, the streets were crowded but there are fewer reports of lantern as semblies, flag-raisings, pailou, and the like.31 And reports from Shang hai frankly announced that the 1913 festivals were not as rousing as in 1 912. One analysis attributed this to the aftereffects of the "distur bances" - meaning the summer's revolt of many of the former 1911 revolutionaries against Yuan's government.32 Business had not yet re covered. There were even rumors that "rebels" would take advantage of police laxity on the holiday to attempt to seize arms. Yet it may also be that the lack of popular enthusiasm reflected urban disillusionment over Yuan's high-handed ways of accruing power. Short of such a con scious political reaction, local social leaders may simply have wished to lower their profiles, especially at a time when Double Ten was perhaps losing some of its meaning. Yuan's domination of Double Ten continued in 1914. On October 10, Yuan arrived on horseback at Tiananmen and was carried to the balcony in a red-cushioned sedan chair, with guards, some carrying long lances, in front and behind.33 Yuan stood with the vice president, the secretary of state, and other ministers - with invited foreigners on the eastern side of the balcony of Tiananmen - to review twenty-thousand
164
164 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
troops passing below. Yuan specially invited high officials and foreigners
to join him. After the soldiers had passed (taking an hour and ten
minutes), a thousand students selected from Beijing's public schools
came to the parade grounds in black uniforms, with the primary school
students actually joining the procession. The students were then ex-
horted to pursue "civic virtue," "self-dependence," and "military spirit."
No longer would China suffer humiliation because literary qualities were
prized over the military. The review was followed by Yuan's formal
opening of a museum to display art and relics from the old Qing palaces
at Rehe and Mukden (Shenyang). The newspapers soon informed read-
ers that they might tour parts of the old imperial city - formerly forbid-
den them - where they would find Yuan's portrait already installed.34
As well, representatives of the president again conducted sacrifices to
the martyrs of the Revolution.
It seems to me that this can be read as an attempt to instill the values
of the Republic as seen by Yuan Shikai after nearly three years of rule.
Symbolic references to the number five pointed to the five peoples consti-
tuting the Chinese nation. The repeated invocations of revolutionary
martyrs imbued the new regime with some of the sacrality of the dead. In
assuming the right to conduct sacrifices to their spirits, Yuan was treating
them as his ancestors. He thus appealed to common cultural norms not
only by displaying a kind of extended filial piety but also by taking their
charismatic strength into himself, as, indeed, he assumed more and more
of the mantle of a revolutionary leader. (Using traditional parlance, the
revolutionaries who had challenged his power in 1913 were referred to as
bandits and "those who would sow confusion.") Yuan's use of military
symbols also appealed to what had become a widespread value. Militari-
zation had been a radical demand since the turn of the century; by no
means was literary culture - or at least an overemphasis on literary
learning - denigrated simply by the likes of Yuan. Generalissimo wear
and military reviews, then, could reach out to a larger urban public. At
the same time, the Qing house was deliberately reduced to museum
status. Tiananmen, the Gate of Heavenly Peace, which once marked the
entrance to the imperial city, thus became a republican civic monument,
looking outward to the newly opened spaces of the wide boulevard and
square below rather than inward to the palaces. Yuan was achieving
ritual dominance of the new state.
Yuan also showed that he was building a modern nation in a variety
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
troops passing below. Yuan specially invited high officials and foreigners to join him. After the soldiers had passed (taking an hour and ten minutes), a thousand students selected from Beijing's public schools came to the parade grounds in black uniforms, with the primary school students actually joining the procession. The students were then ex horted to pursue "civic virtue," "self-dependence," and "military spirit." No longer would China suffer humiliation because literary qualities were prized over the military. The review was followed by Yuan's formal opening of a museum to display art and relics from the old Qing palaces at Rehe and Mukden (Shenyang). The newspapers soon informed read ers that they might tour parts of the old imperial city - formerly forbid den them - where they would find Yuan's portrait already instaIled.34 As well, representatives of the president again conducted sacrifices to the martyrs of the Revolution. It seems to me that this can be read as an attempt to instill the values of the Republic as seen by Yuan Shikai after nearly three years of rule. Symbolic reference's to the number five pointed to the five peoples consti tuting the Chinese nation. The repeated invocations of revolutionary martyrs imbued the new regime with some of the sacrality of the dead. In assuming the right to conduct sacrifices to their spirits, Yuan was treating them as his ancestors. He thus appealed to common cultural norms not only by displaying a kind of extended filial piety but also by taking their charismatic strength into himself, as, indeed, he assumed more and more of the mantle of a revolutionary leader. (Using traditional parlance, the revolutionaries who had challenged his power in 1913 were referred to as bandits and "those who would sow confusion.") Yuan's use of military symbols also appealed to what had become a widespread value. Militari zation had been a radical demand since the turn of the century; by no means was literary culture - or at least an overemphasis on literary learning - denigrated simply by the likes of Yuan. Generalissimo wear and military reviews, then, could reach out to a larger urban public. At the same time, the Qing house was deliberately reduced to museum status. Tiananmen, the Gate of Heavenly Peace, which once marked the entrance to the imperial city, thus became a republican civic monument, looking outward to the newly opened spaces of the wide boulevard and square below rather than inward to the palaces. Yuan was achieving ritual dominance of the new state. Yuan also showed that he was building a modern nation in a variety
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 165
of legal gestures. One issue of the day had to do with that symbol of
allegiance to the Manchus, queues. In mid-1914, regulations were pro-
posed to prohibit queues for government workers, rickshaw pullers, and
merchants. (Meanwhile, a censor's request to revive the kowtow was
summarily refused.)35 Like the queue and short hair for men and
women, the Double Ten celebrations functioned in a larger discourse of
modernity and national identity. The president, following international
custom, also held formal receptions to meet foreigners and Chinese
individually and in groups. Mongol princes seem to have been especially
well looked after, for obvious reasons of state. In this category, I would
also put the official attempt to celebrate the solar New Year's Day and
curtail the traditional lunar New Year's of early spring, the most impor-
tant holiday in the Chinese calendar. The solar calendar did not have the
same popular appeal as queue cutting or Double Ten, but the govern-
ment celebrated the new New Year's Day by closing offices and inviting
officials and foreigners to banquets.36 Calendar reform was of course
both an aspect of Westernization and a traditional prerogative of new
dynasties.
The military parades conducted in front of Yuan and before officials
in various cities on the one hand represented order, discipline, and the
citizenship of members of a state. On the other hand, mass participation
in National Day festivities represented a sense of the nation as defined by
solidarity and commonality. The great efforts that went into imagining the
nation as the Han race (outlined by Kai-wing Chow's chapter in this
volume) created a problem of dominant and subordinate ethnicities for
the new Republic. It may well be that the political ritualization considered
here thus far was designed to suppress ethnic identity. At one point,
however, while considering plans for Yuan's worship of Heaven in 1914,
the government rejected the use of the Yellow Emperor - Huangdi, the
ancestor of the Han people - to personify Heaven precisely on the
grounds that the Republic had to encompass the five peoples.37 How
republican rituals in fact brought ethnicity into play remains a topic for
further research. Perhaps they ratified the position of the "Han" insofar
as they suggested that Mongols, Tibetans, Uighurs, and especially Man-
chus lacked their own perspectives on the Revolution. Double Ten thus
became an important means of defining a larger Chinese identity. How-
ever, its impact diminished in inverse proportion to Yuan's domination of
the celebrations at the expense of popular pageantry.
165
of legal gestures. One issue of the day had to do with that symbol of allegiance to the Manchus, queues. In mid-1914, regulations were pro posed to prohibit queues for government workers, rickshaw pullers, and merchants. (Meanwhile, a censor's request to revive the kowtow was summarily refused.)35 Like the queue and short hair for men and women, the Double Ten celebrations functioned in a larger discourse of modernity and national identity. The president, following international custom, also held formal receptions to meet foreigners and Chinese individually and in groups. Mongol princes seem to have been especially well looked after, for obvious reasons of state. In this category, I would also put the official attempt to celebrate the solar New Year's Day and curtail the traditional lunar New Year's of early spring, the most impor tant holiday in the Chinese calendar. The solar calendar did not have the same popular appeal as queue cutting or Double Ten, but the govern ment celebrated the new New Year's Day by closing offices and inviting officials and foreigners to banquets.36 Calendar reform was of course both an aspect of Westernization and a traditional prerogative of new dynasties. The military parades conducted in front of Yuan and before officials in various cities on the one hand represented order, discipline, and the citizenship of members of a state. On the other hand, mass participation in National Day festivities represented a sense of the nation as defined by solidarity and commonality. The great efforts that went into imagining the nation as the Han race (outlined by Kai-wing Chow's chapter in this volume) created a problem of dominant and subordinate ethnicities for the new Republic. It may well be that the political ritualization considered here thus far was designed to suppress ethnic identity. At one point, however, while considering plans for Yuan's worship of Heaven in 1 914, the government rejected the use of the Yellow Emperor - Huangdi, the ancestor of the Han people - to personify Heaven precisely on the grounds that the Republic had to encompass the five peoples.37 How republican rituals in fact brought ethnicity into play remains a topic for further research. Perhaps they ratified the position of the "Han" insofar as they suggested that Mongols, Tibetans, Uighurs, and especially Man chus lacked their own perspectives on the Revolution. Double Ten thus became an important means of defining a larger Chinese identity. How ever, its impact diminished in inverse proportion to Yuan's domination of the celebrations at the expense of popular pageantry.
166
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Yuan Shikai's Rituals of the Center 166 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Yuan Shikai's Rituals of the Center
We have already seen how Yuan Shikai associated himself with Double
Ten, although the origins of this holiday had little to do with him. Yuan
oversaw the evolution of a variety of state rituals designed to celebrate
the Republic as well as those that might be called the ceremonies of
power: granting audiences, traveling in state, appearing with body-
guards, and the like. These are nearly universal in the modern world and
apply equally to kings, dictators, presidents, and prime ministers.
Yuan's birthday was marked in expanding style. In 1914, he modestly
declined gifts (gongxian) from the provinces and canceled formal cele-
brations for plans to inspect his troops.38 Nonetheless, local officials and
merchants in Shanghai held their own party in his honor. Foreign con-
suls and merchants paid their respects. The hall where they met was
decorated with flowers and cypress boughs, a symbol of long life, as well
as the national flag, colored lanterns, and red candles. The distinguished
body of men thrice wished Yuan long life.39 It may well be that some of
the attitudes toward imperial birthdays, which were always public and
sometimes extremely grand occasions, had rubbed off on Yuan.40
As for such rituals of state as greeting foreign dignitaries, these are
of course intrinsic to almost any behavior we would recognize as official.
Categorized as "guest rites" (binli), Yuan seems to have taken special
care with them. The American ambassador, Paul Reinsch, recounted the
presentation of his credentials to Yuan as a kind of fairy-tale journey.
Reinsch was a political scientist sharply aware of the importance of
ritual, even if his emphasis on its particular applicability to China may
sound rather orientalist to modern ears.41 Yuan sent an ornate carriage
"enameled in blue with gold decorations" and drawn by eight horses for
Reinsch. The ambassador was accompanied by Yuan's cavalry escort as
well as his own American marines and the legation staff, since, after all,
ceremonial forms had to be upheld by the American side as well. They
arrived at the Zhongnanhai (that part of the imperial city that Yuan had
taken over and is still used by the Communist Party leadership today)
and were taken to Yuan's home, which Reinsch understood to be the
palace where Guangxu had been held virtual prisoner during the last
years of the Qing. Reinsch's reactions perhaps held less awe for the
power and glory of China than those of the ambassadors of earlier
generations looking up to Tiananmen as they approached the imperial
city from the south, but he was nonetheless moved.
We have already seen how Yuan Shikai associated himself with Double Ten, although the origins of this holiday had little to do with him. Yuan oversaw the evolution of a variety of state rituals designed to celebrate the Republic as well as those that might be called the ceremonies of power: granting audiences, traveling in state, appearing with body guards, and the like. These are nearly universal in the modern world and apply equally to kings, dictators, presidents, and prime ministers. Yuan's birthday was marked in expanding style. In 1914, he modestly declined gifts (gongxian) from the provinces and canceled formal cele brations for plans to inspect his troops.38 Nonetheless, local officials and merchants in Shanghai held their own party in his honor. Foreign con suls and merchants paid their respects. The hall where they met was decorated with flowers and cypress boughs, a symbol of long life, as well as the national flag, colored lanterns, and red candles. The distinguished body of men thrice wished Yuan long life.39 It may well be that some of the attitudes toward imperial birthdays, which were always public and sometimes extremely grand occasions, had rubbed off on Yuan.40 As for such rituals of state as greeting foreign dignitaries, these are of course intrinsic to almost any behavior we would recognize as official. Categorized as "guest rites" (binli) , Yuan seems to have taken special care with them. The American ambassador, Paul Reinsch, recounted the presentation of his credentials to Yuan as a kind of fairy-tale journey. Reinsch was a political scientist sharply aware of the importance of ritual, even if his emphasis on its particular applicability to China may sound rather orientalist to modern ears.41 Yuan sent an ornate carriage "enameled in blue with gold decorations" and drawn by eight horses for Reinsch. The ambassador was accompanied by Yuan's cavalry escort as well as his own American marines and the legation staff, since, after all, ceremonial forms had to be upheld by the American side as well. They arrived at the Zhongnanhai (that part of the imperial city that Yuan had taken over and is still used by the Communist Party leadership today) and were taken to Yuan's home, which Reinsch understood to be the palace where Guangxu had been held virtual prisoner during the last years of the Qing. Reinsch's reactions perhaps held less awe for the power and glory of China than those of the ambassadors of earlier generations looking up to Tiananmen as they approached the imperial city from the south, but he was nonetheless moved.
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
167
We alighted at the monumental gate of an enclosure that surrounds
the lovely South Lake in the western part of the Imperial City. .
The remote origin of its buildings, their exquisite forms and brilliant
colouring, as contrasted with the somberness of the lake at that
season, and the stirring events of which they have been the scene,
cannot fail to impress the visitor as he slowly glides across the Impe-
rial lake in the old-fashioned boat, with its formal little cabin, cur-
tained and upholstered, and with its lateral planks, up and down
which pass the men who propel the boat with long poles.42
Unlike many Western visitors, Reinsch quite liked the architecture of
the imperial city, which he found pleasant, spacious, and even reserved.
167
We alighted at the monumental gate of an enclosure that surrounds the lovely South Lake in the western part of the Imperial City. . . . The remote origin of its buildings, their exquisite forms and brilliant colouring, as contrasted with the somberness of the lake at that season, and the stirring events of which they have been the scene, cannot fail to impress the visitor as he slowly glides across the Impe rial lake in the old-fashioned boat, with its formal little cabin, cur tained and upholstered, and with its lateral planks, up and down which pass the men who propel the boat with long poles.42
Conducted through various rooms into Yuan's presence, Reinsch was led
through files of extremely large guardsmen, who reminded him of Freder-
ick the Great's preference for tall men and led him to reflect on the
German influences on modern China in general. Finally, the formal intro-
duction of ambassador to president was made. Reinsch himself felt that
"This rather naive emphasis on externals and on display is born of the old
imperialism, a more significant feature of Chinese political life than it
may seem. . . . The rustle of heavy silks, the play of iridescent colour, the
echoes of song and lute form the theatre - all that exquisite oriental
refinement still seems to linger."43 Reinsch did criticize the audience
room where he formally met Yuan as a "pretentious modern structure
erected by the Empress Dowager." He also "read" the ceremonies to
reach a conclusion about Yuan's character. "Republican in title he was,
but an autocrat at heart. All the old glittering trappings of the empire he
had preserved."44 It is, of course, not literally true that Yuan preserved
Qing ritual in its entirety; it is true that the question of state rituals was
carefully considered and many of the features of the past were deliber-
ately perpetuated.
Here I will focus on the decision to conduct sacrifices to Heaven in
December 1914. As Yuan's presidency faltered under imperialist pres-
sures, debt, and the difficulties of gaining control over the provinces, he
turned increasingly to "traditional" forms of ritualization. I am not sug-
gesting that Yuan attempted to substitute rituals for other forms of
control but simply that in the ritual sphere he embarked on a new and
arguably more conservative course in 1914. Those opposed to Yuan
certainly saw things in this light at the time. All along, of course, he tried
to combine new and old rituals - a formula that was proving successful
Unlike many Western visitors, Reinsch quite liked the architecture of the imperial city, which he found pleasant, spacious, and even reserved. Conducted through various rooms into Yuan's presence, Reinsch was led through files of extremely large guardsmen, who reminded him of Freder ick the Great's preference for tall men and led him to reflect on the German influences on modern China in general. Finally, the formal intro duction of ambassador to president was made. Reinsch himself felt that "This rather naIve emphasis on externals and on display is born of the old imperialism, a more significant feature of Chinese political life than it may seem . . . . The rustle of heavy silks, the play of iridescent colour, the echoes of song and lute form the theatre - all that exquisite oriental refinement still seems to linger. "43 Reinsch did criticize the audience room where he formally met Yuan as a "pretentious modern structure erected by the Empress Dowager. " He also "read" the ceremonies to reach a conclusion about Yuan's character. "Republican in title he was, but an autocrat at heart. All the old glittering trappings of the empire he had preserved."44 It is, of course, not literally true that Yuan preserved Qing ritual in its entirety; it is true that the question of state rituals was carefully considered and many of the features of the past were deliber ately perpetuated. Here I will focus on the decision to conduct sacrifices to Heaven in December 1914. As Yuan's presidency faltered under imperialist pres sures, debt, and the difficulties of gaining control over the provinces, he turned increasingly to "traditional" forms of ritualization. I am not sug gesting that Yuan attempted to substitute rituals for other forms of control but simply that in the ritual sphere he embarked on a new and arguably more conservative course in 1 914. Those opposed to Yuan certainly saw things in this light at the time. All along, of course, he tried to combine new and old rituals - a formula that was proving successful
168
168 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
around the world. However, he inevitably faced a choice between main-
taining new rituals that affirmed the modern nation-state or following
rituals more in line with the old imperial vision of the state. Indeed, the
prospect of establishing his own monarchy eventually proved irresistible
to Yuan, though there is no evidence that he decided to found a new
dynasty before the summer of 1915. Still, by 1914 he was putting greater
emphasis on Confucianism and traditionalism. Speaking in the name of
modernity, Yuan's critics instantly voice the fear that he was preparing
to sacrifice the Republic and restore the monarchy.
Others distrusted even his slight gestures toward nationalism and
popular participation and favored stricter social discipline. Some, though
by no means all, of these conservatives favored the establishment of
Confucianism as the national religion. The Kongjiaohui (Confucian Soci-
ety), for example, urged that Confucianism be established as the national
religion to foster morality and strengthen the state.45 Yuan rejected at-
tempts to establish Confucianism on the practical ground that this would
be divisive (as well as contradicting constitutional guarantees of religious
freedom), but he did give official recognition to Confucianism by treating
it as the moral basis of education (the school curriculum was to include the
Confucian classics) and establishing the Confucian spring and autumn
sacrifices as an affair of state.46 Yuan's relationship with formal Confucian-
ism will be discussed in more detail later. In the end, he was not so much
trying to forge a middle way as to find a means to link his new government
to ultimate sources of power. If aligning himself with a relatively progres-
sive vision of modernity and the nation-state did not do this, he would try
to enlist more traditional symbols in his cause. Yuan did not turn his back
on modernity; clearly, he did not simply revive earlier forms of rit-
ualization but rather modified them in ways explicitly tied to modernity
and the nation. Yet this course soon led him to the disastrous attempt to
found a new dynasty from which the Republic never recovered. Yuan's
dynastic ambitions were couched in terms of constitutional monarchy, but
most of China's leaders feared his increasingly dictatorial tendencies and
disliked the prospect of his son Keding inheriting the throne. His leading
generals thus refused to support him when a rebellion - led by former
Tongmenghui revolutionaries, provincial leaders, and former political
supporters such as the distinguished Liang Qichao - broke out. Yuan
died in June 1916 as he was suing for peace, but the institutions of the
Republic, although theoretically restored, in fact fell to the reality of
warlordism.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
around the world. However, he inevitably faced a choice between main taining new rituals that affirmed the modern nation-state or following rituals more in line with the old imperial vision of the state. Indeed, the prospect of establishing his own monarchy eventually proved irresistible to Yuan, though there is no evidence that he decided to found a new dynasty before the summer of 1915. Still, by 1914 he was putting greater emphasis on Confucianism and traditionalism. Speaking in the name of modernity, Yuan's critics instantly voice the fear that he was preparing to sacrifice the Republic and restore the monarchy. Others distrusted even his slight gestures toward nationalism and popular participation and favored stricter social discipline. Some, though by no means all, of these conservatives favored the establishment of Confucianism as the national religion. The Kongjiaohui (Confucian Soci ety) , for example, urged that Confucianism be established as the national religion to foster morality and strengthen the state.45 Yuan rejected at tempts to establish Confucianism on the practical ground that this would be divisive (as well as contradicting constitutional guarantees of religious freedom), but he did give official recognition to Confucianism by treating it as the moral basis of education (the school curriculum was to include the Confucian classics) and establishing the Confucian spring and autumn sacrifices as an affair of state.46 Yuan's relationship with formal Confucian ism will be discussed in more detail later. In the end, he was not so much trying to forge a middle way as to find a means to link his new government to ultimate sources of power. If aligning himself with a relatively progres sive vision of modernity and the nation-state did not do this, he would try to enlist more traditional symbols in his cause. Yuan did not turn his back on modernity; clearly, he did not simply revive earlier forms of rit ualization but rather modified them in ways explicitly tied to modernity and the nation. Yet this course soon led him to the disastrous attempt to found a new dynasty from which the Republic never recovered. Yuan's dynastic ambitions were couched in terms of constitutional monarchy, but most of China's leaders feared his increasingly dictatorial tendencies and disliked the prospect of his son Keding inheriting the throne. His leading generals thus refused to support him when a rebellion - led by former Tongmenghui revolutionaries, provincial leaders, and former political supporters such as the distinguished Liang Qichao - broke out. Yuan died in June 1916 as he was suing for peace, but the institutions of the Republic, although theoretically restored, in fact fell to the reality of warlordism.
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 169
As early as the winter of 1913-14 Yuan floated plans to revive an
imperial ceremony, the worship of Heaven at the winter solstice, as well
as sacrifices to the earth in the summer and the spring and autumn
sacrifices to Confucius. Yuan thus proposed to emulate two of the four
"grand sacrifices" of the former Qing emperors-to Heaven and earth,
which also comprised a cosmic triad with humanity - and proposed in
effect to substitute the sacrifices to the imperial ancestors and at the
Altar of Soil and Grain with regular sacrifices to Confucius. If Yuan saw
something he wanted in the sacrifices to Heaven and earth that showed
the emperor (or the president) as the unique man who could link the two
with humanity, he seemed more willing to drop the conspicuous filial
symbolism and social and geographic unity of the other two grand sacri-
fices.47 However, while resisting attempts to turn Confucianism into an
established religion, Yuan proposed honoring the founder of Chinese
culture in a new national context. Furthermore, as we will see, he also
proposed turning the sacrifice to Heaven into the unifying symbol of
governance previously part of the sacrifice at the Altar of Soil and
Grain: rituals carried out simultaneously by all officialdom.
Yuan strenuously denied imperial ambitions. The case publicly
made for conducting the sacrifices was essentially utilitarian: that the
moral standards of the people had been declining since the Revolution
and that Heaven and Confucius represented virtue in the popular imagi-
nation. Finding a more modern basis of morality was not yet practical. It
was said that the few years of the Republican era had been racked by
violence while rites and music (liyue, the Confucian code for good gov-
ernment) were ignored. For three years, the worship of Heaven with
burnt offerings had been neglected, with only Kang Youwei urging that
the old rituals be updated.48 Religious scruples about the rituals were
deemed irrelevant to their political purpose. If the government ne-
glected the worship of Heaven, the people would blame the government
in the event of crop failure.49 Despite the practical, even cynical tone of
the explanation, popular sentiment was undoubtedly a real consider-
ation, but this point does not contradict the possibility of real religious
feeling that Yuan's informants may not have wished to convey to the
American. The key point remained that "Although the president was
different from the emperors, he is still in the end the leader of the state
(yiguo yuanshou), representing the nation (guomin) in modifying and
performing the grand sacrifice."50
Yuan proposed a deliberate mixture of traditional and updated rituals.
169
As early as the winter of 1913-14 Yuan floated plans to revive an imperial ceremony, the worship of Heaven at the winter solstice, as well as sacrifices to the earth in the summer and the spring and autumn sacrifices to Confucius. Yuan thus proposed to emulate two of the four "grand sacrifices" of the former Qing emperors - to Heaven and earth, which also comprised a cosmic triad with humanity - and proposed in effect to substitute the sacrifices to the imperial ancestors and at the Altar of Soil and Grain with regular sacrifices to Confucius. If Yuan saw something he wanted in the sacrifices to Heaven and earth that showed the emperor (or the president) as the unique man who could link the two with humanity, he seemed more willing to drop the conspicuous filial symbolism and social and geographic unity of the other two grand sacri fices.47 However, while resisting attempts to turn Confucianism into an established religion, Yuan proposed honoring the founder of Chinese culture in a new national context. Furthermore, as we will see, he also proposed turning the sacrifice to Heaven into the unifying symbol of governance previously part of the sacrifice at the Altar of Soil and Grain: rituals carried out simultaneously by all officialdom. Yuan strenuously denied imperial ambitions. The case publicly made for conducting the sacrifices was essentially utilitarian: that the moral standards of the people had been declining since the Revolution and that Heaven and Confucius represented virtue in the popular imagi nation. Finding a more modern basis of morality was not yet practical. It was said that the few years of the Republican era had been racked by violence while rites and music (liyue, the Confucian code for good gov ernment) were ignored. For three years, the worship of Heaven with burnt offerings had been neglected, with only Kang Youwei urging that the old rituals be updated.48 Religious scruples about the rituals were deemed irrelevant to their political purpose. If the government ne glected the worship of Heaven, the people would blame the government in the event of crop failure.49 Despite the practical, even cynical tone of the explanation, popular sentiment was undoubtedly a real consider ation, but this point does not contradict the possibility of real religious feeling that Yuan's informants may not have wished to convey to the American. The key point remained that "Although the president was different from the emperors, he is still in the end the leader of the state ( yiguo yuanshou) , representing the nation (guomin) in modifying and performing the grand sacrifice. " 50 Yuan proposed a deliberate mixture oftraditional and updated rituals.
170
170 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
There would be a bullock sacrificed, silk and wine offered, bowls, a gold
incense burner, one jade cup, and so forth. The full ketou of three
kneelings and nine prostrations would be performed and ancient music
resuscitated. The worship of Heaven would take place before dawn, as
during the Qing, while the Temple and Altar of Heaven would be fes-
tooned with electric light bulbs to illuminate the ceremony.51 A new
anthem suitable to a republican age would be composed. Yuan would
wear neither modern clothes nor the imperial dress of the Qing but
supposedly would wear the coats of high dukes of the ancient Zhou
dynasty.52 Yuan himself argued that the sacrifices had originated to
honor Heaven as the source of all things and that to eliminate them
would be tantamount to abandoning the creation of a commonwealth
(tianxia weigong) and the linkage of humankind to Heaven.53 The an-
cient rulers understood that Heaven was a barometer of the people's will
and so protected the people impartially, and Yuan pointed out that all
this was perfectly compatible with republican principles.
The greatest break with the past, however, was the decision to allow
the private worship of Heaven (shuren siji) and to mandate local govern-
ment participation. No longer would sacrifices to Heaven be a mono-
poly - though the president would stand as the exemplary and "chief
officiate" (zhuji).54 In February of 1914, Yuan ordered that the worship
of Heaven be made "general" (tong) and that citizens (guomin) "might"
(ke) conduct the appropriate rituals in their homes.55 I have thus far
found only this single official reference to the complete "democratizing"
of the worship of Heaven. It should be noted that the term guomin
possesses a range of meanings, including national citizens and even "na-
tion": no simple translation can do justice to the full meaning of the term.
As opposed to minzu, guomin seems to me to represent a less ethnic
concept of the nation resting on a notion of citizenship, although Yuan
himself may have thought little about these distinctions or even the differ-
ences between subjects of an emperor and citizens of a Republic. As will
be seen, he retained a paternalistic attitude toward the populace. At the
same time, he emphasized that the president would represent the nation
(guomin) in the worship while local officials would represent local people
(difang renmin). Local officials were enjoined to follow the ritual proce-
dures established by the central government, while in Beijing all govern-
ment offices were expected to dispatch a representative to participate in
the main ceremony.56 It is my belief that in practice few if any private
households sacrificed to Heaven, though local officials, following orders,
Constructing Nationhood in Modem East Asia
There would be a bullock sacrificed, silk and wine offered, bowls, a gold incense burner, one j ade cup, and so forth. The full ketou of three kneelings and nine prostrations would be performed and ancient music resuscitated. The worship of Heaven would take place before dawn, as during the Qing, while the Temple and Altar of Heaven would be fes tooned with electric light bulbs to illuminate the ceremony. 51 A new anthem suitable to a republican age would be composed. Yuan would wear neither modern clothes nor the imperial dress of the Qing but supposedly would wear the coats of high dukes of the ancient Zhou dynasty. 52 Yuan himself argued that the sacrifices had originated to honor Heaven as the source of all things and that to eliminate them would be tantamount to abandoning the creation of a commonwealth (tianxia weigong) and the linkage of humankind to Heaven.53 The an cient rulers understood that Heaven was a barometer of the people's will and so protected the people impartially, and Yuan pointed out that all this was perfectly compatible with republican principles. The greatest break with the past, however, was the decision to allow the private worship of Heaven (shuren siji) and to mandate local govern ment participation. No longer would sacrifices to Heaven be a mono poly - though the president would stand as the exemplary and "chief officiate" (zhuji) .54 In February of 1 914, Yuan ordered that the worship of Heaven be made "general" (tong) and that citizens (guomin) "might" (ke) conduct the appropriate rituals in their homes.55 I have thus far found only this single official reference to the complete "democratizing" of the worship of Heaven. It should be noted that the term guomin possesses a range of meanings, including national citizens and even "na tion": no simple translation can do justice to the full meaning of the term. As opposed to minzu, guomin seems to me to represent a less ethnic concept of the nation resting on a notion of citizenship, although Yuan himself may have thought little about these distinctions or even the differ ences between subjects of an emperor and citizens of a Republic. As will be seen, he retained a paternalistic attitude toward the populace. At the same time, he emphasized that the president would represent the nation (guomin) in the worship while local officials would represent local people (difang renmin) . Local officials were enjoined to follow the ritual proce dures established by the central government, while in Beijing all govern ment offices were expected to dispatch a representative to participate in the main ceremony. 56 It is my belief that in practice few if any private households sacrificed to Heaven, though local officials, following orders,
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 171
certainly did so. In Shanghai, special platforms were built as a temporary
Altar to Heaven at the Industrial Training Depot outside the south gate.
Local education officials were in charge of the ceremony.57
It may be that the Temple and Altar of Heaven had been desacra-
lized by repeated secular use. Foreign troops had deliberately dese-
crated the precincts in the wake of the Boxer Uprising, and in the first
years of his administration Yuan had complained about American sol-
diers playing football there. Nonetheless, the architecture, like the idea,
remained. Yuan's sacrifices occurred, then, on the winter solstice, De-
cember 23, 1914. For first time, Heaven was worshiped by the president
and local officials throughout the realm. Yuan fasted for three days
beforehand (not five like the emperor and his entourage had) and left
his presidential palace before dawn on the day in question. Paul Reinsch
recorded that Yuan "drove surrounded by personal bodyguards over
streets covered with yellow sand and lined threefold with soldiers sta-
tioned there the evening before."58 Yuan was accompanied by a number
of his ministers, high officials, and generals to the Temple of Heaven,
where he was then joined by the ritual experts: "the sacrificial meat-
bearers, the silk and jade bearers, the cupbearers, and those who
chanted invocations." Yuan changed into the sacrificial robes in a tent
set up on the grounds and washed his hands. He then signed a ceremo-
nial board with prayers to Heaven in red letters. He ascended the altar
itself, facing north (the direction of submission, as had the Qing emper-
ors) on the second platform, kneeling and bowing four times. His reti-
nue moved ahead to the first platform with the items of sacrifice. The
sacrificial firewood was lit, and then Yuan moved to the first circle, lifted
the tray of silk, which was then placed on a table. Yuan returned to the
second circle for another round of bowing; then the sacrifice of meat and
the reading of prayers followed in the same way. Music, dancing (or
posturing), and incense accompanied the ceremonies. Yuan offered sev-
eral prayers, such as the following:
Heaven, Thou dost look down on us and givest us the nation. All
seeing and all hearing, everywhere, yet how near and how close: we
come before Thee on this winter solstice day when the air assumes a
new life; in spirit devout, and with ceremony old, we offer to Thee
jade, silk, and meat. May our prayer and our offerings rise unto
Thee together with sweet incense. We sanctify ourselves, and we
pray that Thou will accept our offerings.
171
certainly did so. In Shanghai, special platforms were built as a temporary Altar to Heaven at the Industrial Training Depot outside the south gate. Local education officials were in charge of the ceremony. 57 It may be that the Temple and Altar of Heaven had been desacra lized by repeated secular use. Foreign troops had deliberately dese crated the precincts in the wake of the Boxer Uprising, and in the first years of his administration Yuan had complained about American sol diers playing football there. Nonetheless, the architecture, like the idea, remained. Yuan's sacrifices occurred, then, on the winter solstice, De cember 23 , 1 914. For first time, Heaven was worshiped by the president and local officials throughout the realm. Yuan fasted for three days beforehand (not five like the emperor and his entourage had) and left his presidential palace before dawn on the day in question. Paul Reinsch recorded that Yuan "drove surrounded by personal bodyguards over streets covered with yellow sand and lined threefold with soldiers sta tioned there the evening before."58 Yuan was accompanied by a number of his ministers, high officials, and generals to the Temple of Heaven, where he was then joined by the ritual experts: "the sacrificial meat bearers, the silk and jade bearers, the cupbearers, and those who chanted invocations." Yuan changed into the sacrificial robes in a tent set up on the grounds and washed his hands. He then signed a ceremo nial board with prayers to Heaven in red letters. He ascended the altar itself, facing north (the direction of submission, as had the Qing emper ors) on the second platform, kneeling and bowing four times. His reti nue moved ahead to the first platform with the items of sacrifice. The sacrificial firewood was lit, and then Yuan moved to the first circle, lifted the tray of silk , which was then placed on a table. Yuan returned to the second circle for another round of bowing; then the sacrifice of meat and the reading of prayers followed in the same way. Music, dancing (or posturing), and incense accompanied the ceremonies. Yuan offered sev eral prayers, such as the following: Heaven, Thou dost look down on us and givest us the nation. All seeing and all hearing, everywhere, yet how near and how close: we come before Thee on this winter solstice day when the air assumes a new life; in spirit devout, and with ceremony old, we offer to Thee j ade, silk, and meat. May our prayer and our offerings rise unto Thee together with sweet incense. We sanctify ourselves, and we pray that Thou will accept our offerings.
172
172
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
This was followed by Yuan's partaking of wine and meat symbolizing the
blessings he received from Heaven on behalf of the people. Finally, the
jade was offered to Heaven and all the items burned.
The 1914 sacrifices to Heaven turned out to be a unique event in the
history of the Republic. Besieged the following year by opposition to his
monarchical plans, Yuan let the sacrifices fall into abeyance and in time
the grounds of the Temple and Altar of Heaven became a park and
museum. Double Ten did not survive Yuan in good shape either. In
1915, although government offices were closed on October 10, the mili-
tary review was canceled as China headed toward a civil war provoked
by the monarchical movement. Double Ten had to await the rise of the
Guomindang before it could again achieve significance.
Before concluding this section, I would like to add a word on a few
of Yuan's other attempts to ritualize the new state. Official worship of
Confucius in the spring and fall was designed to convey a sense of
continuity across the boundary of revolution.59 The Confucian Associa-
tion (Kongjiaohui) headed by the famous philosopher Kang Youwei and
the eloquent scholar Chen Huanzhang was a powerful grassroots lobby
devoted to making Confucianism a marker of Chinese identity. Tied as
he was, however, to other markers of modernity and the nation (the five
peoples of China were not necessarily all Confucian and Confucianism
as a religion seemed a reactionary step to many), Yuan tried again to
find a middle way. China would have no national religion but would
officially honor Confucius. If filial piety had been a model for loyalty to
the emperor, the republican government hoped to draw a link between
filiality and patriotism. Yuan tried to use Confucius both as a technique
of legitimation - he succeeded to age-old Confucian rites - and as a
means of fostering his conservative notion of state building.
The autumn 1913 Confucian sacrifices were held in the old Imperial
Academy (guozijian), and two leaders of the Republic, Liang Shiyi
(officially representing Yuan) and Tang Hualong, officiated.60 Before
the ceremonies, the offerings were viewed by Beijing's elite, including
foreign reporters, educators, and diplomats. The ritual itself seems to
have been conducted with considerable formality, although it was re-
ported that some felt the ceremonies had deteriorated. In September
1914, Yuan personally led the sacrifices to Confucius as chief priest,
proceeding to the Wenmiao in his armored car through crowds of sol-
diers, as with his worship of Heaven. Although men now exchanged
bows, Confucius still received the full ketou. This was followed by offer-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
This was followed by Yuan's partaking of wine and meat symbolizing the blessings he received from Heaven on behalf of the people. Finally, the jade was offered to Heaven and all the items burned. The 1914 sacrifices to Heaven turned out to be a unique event in the history of the Republic. Besieged the following year by opposition to his monarchical plans, Yuan let the sacrifices fall into abeyance and in time the grounds of the Temple and Altar of Heaven became a park and museum. Double Ten did not survive Yuan in good shape either. In 1 915, although government offices were closed on October 10, the mili tary review was canceled as China headed toward a civil war provoked by the monarchical movement. Double Ten had to await the rise of the Guomindang before it could again achieve significance. Before concluding this section, I would like to add a word on a few of Yuan's other attempts to ritualize the new state. Official worship of Confucius in the spring and fall was designed to convey a sense of continuity across the boundary of revolution.59 The Confucian Associa tion (Kongjiaohui) headed by the famous philosopher Kang Youwei and the eloquent scholar Chen Huanzhang was a powerful grassroots lobby devoted to making Confucianism a marker of Chinese identity. Tied as he was, however, to other markers of modernity and the nation (the five peoples of China were not necessarily all Confucian and Confucianism as a religion seemed a reactionary step to many), Yuan tried again to find a middle way. China would have no national religion but would officially honor Confucius. If filial piety had been a model for loyalty to the emperor, the republican government hoped to draw a link between filiality and patriotism. Yuan tried to use Confucius both as a technique of legitimation - he succeeded to age-old Confucian rites - and as a means of fostering his conservative notion of state building. The autumn 1913 Confucian sacrifices were held in the old Imperial Academy (guozijian) , and two leaders of the Republic, Liang Shiyi (officially representing Yuan) and Tang Hualong, officiated. 60 Before the ceremonies, the offerings were viewed by Beijing's elite, including foreign reporters, educators, and diplomats. The ritual itself seems to have been conducted with considerable formality, although it was re ported that some felt the ceremonies had deteriorated. In September 1914, Yuan personally led the sacrifices to Confucius as chief priest, proceeding to the Wenmiao in his armored car through crowds of sol diers, as with his worship of Heaven. Although men now exchanged bows, Confucius still received the full ketou. This was followed by offer-
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
173
ings of wine, animals, and paper money in the classical fashion, followed
by another four ketou.61
Yuan emphasized that Confucianism was a protean system that had
evolved with the ages.62 Yuan "defended" Confucius from charges that
he had promoted autocracy by pointing out that he was born in an
aristocratic and despotic age: the implication was that Confucius tried to
ameliorate the conditions of his own time but could hardly be judged by
contemporary standards. In this evolutionary scheme, which seems to
have been very effectively promoted by Kang Youwei, Confucius had
promoted the Lesser Peace (xiaokang) while predicting the eventual
Grand Unity. In a curious way, Yuan, who in most ways seemed comfort-
able with autocracy, accepted much of the rhetoric - and some of the
worldview - of the radicals. But like the Confucian publicists he insisted
that Confucius had known about the future democracy of the Grand
Unity and led China toward it as conditions allowed. Heaven had given
birth to Confucius as the teacher of the ages. Yuan thus ordered public
schools to continue sacrifices to Confucius in 1913. The following year,
the Ministry of Education ordered middle and elementary schools to
emphasize self-cultivation and morality using Confucian textbooks.63
Yuan also linked learning (represented by Confucianism) to political
progress, on which in turn the survival of the nation depended.
Yuan also supported worship of the great hero-gods of war and
loyalty, especially Guan Di and Yue Fei. More than most members of
the traditional pantheon, they could be transmuted into symbols of mod-
ern patriotism. Yuan himself did not offer the sacrifices to them but
ordered his minister of war to do this. The 1914 sacrifices were to be
conducted with ceremonies for the martyrs of the Republic.64 Perhaps
this was Yuan's way of diluting any revolutionary messages in the ritual.
The ceremonies of the Confucian sacrifices were to be followed with
different music.65 Additionally, troops were brought in to witness the
ceremonies, bow their heads, file past the spirit tablets of the heroes,
and renew their oaths of allegiance.66 Yue Fei played a special role in the
early Republic. The Qing had not treated him with the same respect
they lavished on Guan Di.67 Yue Fei, after all, was the Han Chinese
hero who had resisted the northern invaders - thought to be relatives
and predecessors of the Manchus - in the twelfth century. It was thus
left for Yuan Shikai to elevate Yue Fei to a status equal with that of
Guan Di. In 1914, it was ordered that they share the highest honors in
what had been Guan Di's bailiwick, the Military Temple (wumiao), and
173
ings of wine, animals, and paper money in the classical fashion, followed by another four ketou. 61 Yuan emphasized that Confucianism was a protean system that had evolved with the ages.62 Yuan "defended" Confucius from charges that he had promoted autocracy by pointing out that he was born in an aristocratic and despotic age: the implication was that Confucius tried to ameliorate the conditions of his own time but could hardly be judged by contemporary standards. In this evolutionary scheme, which seems to have been very effectively promoted by Kang Youwei, Confucius had promoted the Lesser Peace (xiaokang) while predicting the eventual Grand Unity. In a curious way, Yuan, who in most ways seemed comfort able with autocracy, accepted much of the rhetoric - and some of the worldview - of the radicals. But like the Confucian publicists he insisted that Confucius had known about the future democracy of the Grand Unity and led China toward it as conditions allowed. Heaven had given birth to Confucius as the teacher of the ages. Yuan thus ordered public schools to continue sacrifices to Confucius in 1913. The following year, the Ministry of Education ordered middle and elementary schools to emphasize self-cultivation and morality using Confucian textbooks.63 Yuan also linked learning (represented by Confucianism) to political progress, on which in turn the survival of the nation depended. Yuan also supported worship of the great hero-gods of war and loyalty, especially Guan Di and Yue Fei. More than most members of the traditional pantheon, they could be transmuted into symbols of mod ern patriotism. Yuan himself did not offer the sacrifices to them but ordered his minister of war to do this. The 1914 sacrifices were to be conducted with ceremonies for the martyrs of the Republic.64 Perhaps this was Yuan's way of diluting any revolutionary messages in the ritual. The ceremonies of the Confucian sacrifices were to be followed with different music.65 Additionally, troops were brought in to witness the ceremonies, bow their heads, file past the spirit tablets of the heroes, and renew their oaths of allegiance.66 Yue Fei played a special role in the early Republic. The Qing had not treated him with the same respect they lavished on Guan Di.67 Yue Fei, after all, was the Han Chinese hero who had resisted the northern invaders - thought to be relatives and predecessors of the Manchus - in the twelfth century. It was thus left for Yuan Shikai to elevate Yue Fei to a status equal with that of Guan Di. In 1914, it was ordered that they share the highest honors in what had been Guan Di's bailiwick, the Military Temple (wumiao) , and
174
174 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
a new temple was also dedicated to them, where they and twenty-four
associates were represented by their spirit tablets. Yue Fei was termed
martial and loyal (wu zhong). The significance of the rise of Yue Fei lies
in his becoming a symbol of the new nation-state. The Chinese imperial
state had long honored the "sages and worthies" of the Confucian
Temple and had loosely regulated popular religion through its official
pantheon (with both temple and pantheon subject to much political
contestation). But Yuan Shikai was moving to popularize national he-
roes in a new way.
Indeed, Yuan even moved to have one of his ancestors given the
rank of a national divinity.68 As the monarchical movement got under
way in 1915, this seventeenth-century ancestor promised two advan-
tages: such a powerful ancestor gave Yuan a certain charismatic quality
even while his devotion illustrated his filial piety, both imperial attri-
butes; and at the same time this ancestor served as a kind of representa-
tion of the nation, for since he had supposedly resisted the Manchu
invasions of the 1600s he made an apt symbol of Han Chinese claims to
the throne. Petitions were received urging that he be canonized as a
national hero on the same level as Guan Di and Yue Fei. Such a move
would have demonstrated Yuan's filiality while also tending to absolve
him of the crime of betraying the Qing since his higher loyalties lay with
clan and race. Only the failure of the monarchical movement prevented
Yuan's ancestor from achieving this kind of immortality. The worship of
Guan Di and Yue Fei was continued at the Spring Sacrifices of 1916
(March 22), though without Yuan's personal presence.
In sum, the ritualization of the early Republic raises several difficult
questions. Was Yuan's "traditionalism" a step backward into the past?
Was it the beginning of Yuan's monarchical movement? What did
"Heaven" mean to the people? Could the attempt to bind citizens to
Heaven possibly ritualize modern nationalism? These questions cannot
be answered definitively. Yuan's worship of Heaven was simultaneously
designed to unite the nation and constitute his own power. It thus had an
entirely different meaning than the emperor's worship of Heaven, which
constituted imperial power but also generated the literati's hegemony
over Chinese society.69 Yuan himself emphasized the differences.70 He
claimed that he worshiped as the chief representative of the nation,
which was conceived as united through its officials in the ritualization.
The emperor, on the contrary, worshiped not as a representative of the
nation but primarily in his singular role; and, although it might be ar-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
a new temple was also dedicated to them, where they and twenty-four associates were represented by their spirit tablets. Yue Fei was termed martial and loyal (wu zhong) . The significance of the rise of Yue Fei lies in his becoming a symbol of the new nation-state. The Chinese imperial state had long honored the "sages and worthies" of the Confucian Temple and had loosely regulated popular religion through its official pantheon (with both temple and pantheon subject to much political contestation). But Yuan Shikai was moving to popularize national he roes III a new way. Indeed, Yuan even moved to have one of his ancestors given the rank of a national divinity. 68 As the monarchical movement got under way in 1915, this seventeenth-century ancestor promised two advan tages: such a powerful ancestor gave Yuan a certain charismatic quality even while his devotion illustrated his filial piety, both imperial attri butes; and at the same time this ancestor served as a kind of representa tion of the nation, for since he had supposedly resisted the Manchu invasions of the 1600s he made an apt symbol of Han Chinese claims to the throne. Petitions were received urging that he be canonized as a national hero on the same level as Guan Di and Yue Fei. Such a move would have demonstrated Yuan's filiality while also tending to absolve him of the crime of betraying the Qing since his higher loyalties lay with clan and race. Only the failure of the monarchical movement prevented Yuan's ancestor from achieving this kind of immortality. The worship of Guan Di and Yue Fei was continued at the Spring Sacrifices of 1916 (March 22) , though without Yuan's personal presence. In sum, the ritualization of the early Republic raises several difficult questions. Was Yuan's "traditionalism" a step backward into the past? Was it the beginning of Yuan's monarchical movement? What did "Heaven" mean to the people? Could the attempt to bind citizens to Heaven possibly ritualize modern nationalism? These questions cannot be answered definitively. Yuan's worship of Heaven was simultaneously designed to unite the nation and constitute his own power. It thus had an entirely different meaning than the emperor's worship of Heaven, which constituted imperial power but also generated the literati's hegemony over Chinese society. 69 Yuan himself emphasized the differences'?o He claimed that he worshiped as the chief representative of the nation, which was conceived as united through its officials in the ritualization. The emperor, on the contrary, worshiped not as a representative of the nation but primarily in his singular role; and, although it might be ar-
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 175
gued the emperor was a representative of humankind, he also stood in a
unique relationship to Heaven, a claim Yuan never made. Yuan aligned
himself more clearly with humankind. At the same time, Yuan was
clearly trying to assert himself as successor to the emperor and to associ-
ate himself with the charisma of Heaven. There can be no doubt that
Yuan was attempting to create a ritualization of political life based on
ascribing new meanings to old rituals as well as creating new rituals. The
simultaneity of Yuan's sacrifices to Heaven with general solstice sacri-
fices marked a new sense of the nation. However, he was largely seen at
the time as returning to tradition or in terms of "restoring antiquity"
(fugu), and, indeed, Yuan's traditionalism was hard to reconcile with
the militant nationalism that marked many of the urban elites.
No revolution changes the habits and attitudes of a people over-
night. Much of Yuan's behavior can be explained as instinctive to any
high official in late imperial China. Nonetheless, major decisions were
taken about rituals only after considerable discussion and calculation.
The fundamental contradiction between the different types of ritual
Yuan favored lay not in the modern-traditional dichotomy per se but in
the gap between nation and empire. Yuan's authority as president de-
rived from revolution and the creation of a new state, but he apparently
did not completely understand this, still perhaps seeing himself in the
imperial mode. The evidence suggests that urban China took great de-
light in Double Ten festivals, and Yuan's eventual rejection of Double
Ten nicely symbolizes his rejection of the nation. Militarism itself might
be honored by either empire or nation, but patriotic heroes are national
heroes only and armies that swear oaths of allegiance to the abstraction
of the nation are entirely different from imperial armies. For China in
the second decade of the twentieth century armies and militia could well
symbolize the new nation: militarism needed no further justification in a
social Darwinist world. Heaven, however, inevitably remained lodged in
a cosmos of Confucian universalism and hierarchy. It was neither so-
cially nor logically possible to democratize it, though the imperial rituals
of power still possessed a genuine hold over Yuan and much of his
generation.
Chinese State Ritual in International Context
The late nineteenth century seems to have been a period of intense "inven-
tion of tradition" in the West, including many rituals of state.71 Under
175
gued the emperor was a representative of humankind, he also stood in a unique relationship to Heaven, a claim Yuan never made. Yuan aligned himself more clearly with humankind. At the same time, Yuan was clearly trying to assert himself as successor to the emperor and to associ ate himself with the charisma of Heaven. There can be no doubt that Yuan was attempting to create a ritualization of political life based on ascribing new meanings to old rituals as well as creating new rituals. The simultaneity of Yuan's sacrifices to Heaven with general solstice sacri fices marked a new sense of the nation. However, he was largely seen at the time as returning to tradition or in terms of "restoring antiquity" (fugu) , and, indeed, Yuan's traditionalism was hard to reconcile with the militant nationalism that marked many of the urban elites. No revolution changes the habits and attitudes of a people over night. Much of Yuan's behavior can be explained as instinctive to any high official in late imperial China. Nonetheless, major decisions were taken about rituals only after considerable discussion and calculation. The fundamental contradiction between the different types of ritual Yuan favored lay not in the modern-traditional dichotomy per se but in the gap between nation and empire. Yuan's authority as president de rived from revolution and the creation of a new state, but he apparently did not completely understand this, still perhaps seeing himself in the imperial mode. The evidence suggests that urban China took great de light in Double Ten festivals, and Yuan's eventual rejection of Double Ten nicely symbolizes his rejection of the nation. Militarism itself might be honored by either empire or nation, but patriotic heroes are national heroes only and armies that swear oaths of allegiance to the abstraction of the nation are entirely different from imperial armies. For China in the second decade of the twentieth century armies and militia could well symbolize the new nation: militarism needed no further justification in a social Darwinist world. Heaven, however, inevitably remained lodged in a cosmos of Confucian universalism and hierarchy. It was neither so cially nor logically possible to democratize it, though the imperial rituals of power still possessed a genuine hold over Yuan and much of his generation. Chinese State Ritual in International Context The late nineteenth century seems to have been a period of intense "inven tion of tradition" in the West, including many rituals of state,71 Under
176
176 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
pressures of social change and political transformation - especially the
rise of mass politics - European elites turned to symbol and ritual to
augment their authority. At a time when older social hierarchies were
undermined, the relatively new nation-states sought "a strengthening of
the subject's direct bonds to the central rule" even as the ideology of
democracy became a legitimating motif.72 Popular politics in one form or
another was not a technique for disguising power but a reality to which
rulers had to adapt. In distinctive but overlapping ways, the monarchies
of Britain, France, Germany, and Russia were used to cement social ties
and symbolize the nation. The British monarchy, for example, conveyed
a sense of stability and continuity.73 Whether or not monarchs held real
power (as in Russia and Germany), they attempted to stand above the
political fray. In retrospect, this seems a natural function of modern
monarchies.
My point is not that Western examples show what China should or
even might have become; rather, it is that the Chinese Revolution oc-
curred in a particular international context, a fluid context of experimen-
tation in state forms and techniques of rule. By no means were Yuan's
attempts to ritualize his rule doomed simply because of their experimen-
tal nature. China's elites deliberately sought to use those Western politi-
cal forms that appeared useful. On the one hand, to some Chinese
intellectuals the monarchy and any form of autocracy seemed tied to
ignorance and reaction; on the other, many Chinese sought to pre-
serve - and update - aspects of tradition, possibly but not necessarily
including monarchism, that might support a modern nation-state. This
latter view seems to me closer to "mainstream" opinion among Chinese
elites than the better-known radicalism, which explains why Yuan
Shikai began with a certain base of popular support. The subject needs
further research. In any case, the key questions facing the Western
nation-states and China were the same: how to reconcile a sense of
the continuity of the "people" (and "civilization" in the Chinese case)
with the founding of a new order; how to combine the "essence" of the
culture with progress into the future; and how to maintain social order
in a time of fundamental transformation. It is useful to remember that
events in China were not aberrant but themselves part of an internation-
alizing process. However unique China's exact historical course, many
features of the early Republic reflected the "technical innovations" of
rulership being adopted throughout the world, from the appearance of
Yuan's portrait on money and in ritual halls to the construction of new
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
pressures of social change and political transformation - especially the rise of mass politics - European elites turned to symbol and ritual to augment their authority. At a time when older social hierarchies were undermined, the relatively new nation-states sought "a strengthening of the subject's direct bonds to the central rule" even as the ideology of democracy became a legitimating motif. 72 Popular politics in one form or another was not a technique for disguising power but a reality to which rulers had to adapt. In distinctive but overlapping ways, the monarchies of Britain, France, Germany, and Russia were used to cement social ties and symbolize the nation. The British monarchy, for example, conveyed a sense of stability and continuity. 73 Whether or not monarchs held real power (as in Russia and Germany), they attempted to stand above the political fray. In retrospect, this seems a natural function of modern monarchies. My point is not that Western examples show what China should or even might have become; rather, it is that the Chinese Revolution oc curred in a particular international context, a fluid context of experimen tation in state forms and techniques of rule. By no means were Yuan's attempts to ritualize his rule doomed simply because of their experimen tal nature. China's elites deliberately sought to use those Western politi cal forms that appeared useful. On the one hand, to some Chinese intellectuals the monarchy and any form of autocracy seemed tied to ignorance and reaction; on the other, many Chinese sought to pre serve - and update - aspects of tradition, possibly but not necessarily including monarchism, that might support a modern nation-state. This latter view seems to me closer to "mainstream" opinion among Chinese elites than the better-known radicalism, which explains why Yuan Shikai began with a certain base of popular support. The subject needs further research. In any case, the key questions facing the Western nation-states and China were the same: how to reconcile a sense of the continuity of the "people" (and "civilization" in the Chinese case) with the founding of a new order; how to combine the "essence" of the culture with progress into the future; and how to maintain social order in a time of fundamental transformation. It is useful to remember that events in China were not aberrant but themselves part of an internation alizing process. However unique China's exact historical course, many features of the early Republic reflected the "technical innovations" of rulership being adopted throughout the world, from the appearance of Yuan's portrait on money and in ritual halls to the construction of new
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 177
ritual spaces and forms of ritualization. The public display of state ritual
was designed to draw the people into psychological oneness with it,
through both formal means such as those discussed earlier and informal
means such as, to take just one example, sports - another new feature
of international relations.
Chinese in the late Qing and the early Republic were of course most
familiar with Japan. They saw a stable constitutional monarchy in the
Meiji-Taisho polity.74 Yuan Shikai's political adviser was the Japanese
Confucian Ariga Nagao, a man considerably more familiar with China
than was Yuan's constitutional adviser, the American political scientist
Frank Goodnow. Japan had created a dynamic yet orderly society using
some of the same resources of Confucianism evidently available in
China.75 Above all, the emperor emerged as the premier symbol of the
state, growing into a kind of theological essence of the nation itself. The
Japanese emperor became both a Confucian paragon and the center of
Shinto. The ritualization of the Japanese nation-state thus consisted
chiefly of imperial rites. Shinto reemerged in the last years of the nine-
teenth century as a source of imperial mythology: the divine origins of
the emperor and hence of Japan. Shrines to the war dead were built with
government approval, and they became a major focus of official ideol-
ogy, linking harmony, the gods, the ancestors, and the nation. School-
children visited and helped care for Shinto shrines, and priests often
taught in public schools. State sponsored shrines were not only linked
upward to the emperor himself but taught "loyalty and patriotism"
through worship of the war dead. Shinto - focused upward ultimately to
the emperor - gradually helped unify the nation temporally as local com-
munity rites and festivals were replaced with the national ritual calendar
coordinated with the imperial rites. The emperor not only worshiped his
own ancestors, but he prayed for harvests, offered thanks, welcomed the
New Year, and so on, thus becoming a cosmic figure in his own right. It
was a congeries of ritualization named Shinto, especially after the Meiji
Emperor withdrew somewhat from public life after the 1880s, that medi-
ated between the center and localities.
What all this meant, if anything, for Yuan Shikai and other Chinese
must remain speculative for the moment, though the Japanese influence
was almost certainly profound. The early Republic saw considerable dis-
cussion about the desirability of turning Confucianism into a state reli-
gion. Kang Youwei and others urged that China follow the British ex-
ample of an established church. It thus made sense for Yuan, while
177
ritual spaces and forms of ritualization. The public display of state ritual was designed to draw the people into psychological oneness with it, through both formal means such as those discussed earlier and informal means such as, to take just one example, sports - another new feature of international relations. Chinese in the late Qing and the early Republic were of course most familiar with Japan. They saw a stable constitutional monarchy in the Meiji-Taisho polity. 74 Yuan Shikai's political adviser was the Japanese Confucian Ariga Nagao, a man considerably more familiar with China than was Yuan's constitutional adviser, the American political scientist Frank Goodnow. Japan had created a dynamic yet orderly society using some of the same resources of Confucianism evidently available in China.75 Above all, the emperor emerged as the premier symbol of the state, growing into a kind of theological essence of the nation itself. The Japanese emperor became both a Confucian paragon and the center of Shinto. The ritualization of the Japanese nation-state thus consisted chiefly of imperial rites. Shinto reemerged in the last years of the nine teenth century as a source of imperial mythology: the divine origins of the emperor and hence of Japan. Shrines to the war dead were built with government approval, and they became a major focus of official ideol ogy, linking harmony, the gods, the ancestors, and the nation. School children visited and helped care for Shinto shrines, and priests often taught in public schools. State sponsored shrines were not only linked upward to the emperor himself but taught "loyalty and patriotism" through worship of the war dead. Shinto - focused upward ultimately to the emperor - gradually helped unify the nation temporally as local com munity rites and festivals were replaced with the national ritual calendar coordinated with the imperial rites. The emperor not only worshiped his own ancestors, but he prayed for harvests, offered thanks, welcomed the New Year, and so on, thus becoming a cosmic figure in his own right. It was a congeries of ritualization named Shinto, especially after the Meiji Emperor withdrew somewhat from public life after the 1 880s, that medi ated between the center and localities. What all this meant, if anything, for Yuan Shikai and other Chinese must remain speculative for the moment, though the Japanese influence was almost certainly profound. The early Republic saw considerable dis cussion about the desirability of turning Confucianism into a state reli gion. Kang Youwei and others urged that China follow the British ex ample of an established church. It thus made sense for Yuan, while
178
178 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
rejecting the notion of an established church, to favor some kind of state
recognition of Confucianism (closer to Japanese Shinto than the Church
of England). Without the institutional apparatus of Shinto and most
emphatically stripped of its imperial connections, Confucianism was sup-
posed to play a somewhat similar role as a focus of national unity and a
link between center and locality. Not an emperor but the sage of sages
was to provide the focus for popular devotion. Yuan supported the injec-
tion (or retention) of Confucian classics in the basic school curriculum,
treated the Confucian sacrifices in the capital as an affair of state, and
demanded official sponsorship of biennial Confucian rites throughout the
land. However, the movement to turn Confucianism into a modern reli-
gion, which was rooted in local elites not especially concerned with
Yuan's fate, fell apart when his regime collapsed.
The Impotence of Ritual?
Two fundamental problems lay behind the politics of the Republic and
ultimately how power was ritualized at this time. First, the crisis of author-
ity was brought to the fore by the collapse of the imperial system and the
ever-present threats of the foreign powers. Second, the definition of Chi-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
rejecting the notion of an established church, to favor some kind of state recognition of Confucianism (closer to Japanese Shinto than the Church of England). Without the institutional apparatus of Shinto and most emphatically stripped of its imperial connections, Confucianism was sup posed to play a somewhat similar role as a focus of national unity and a link between center and locality. Not an emperor but the sage of sages was to provide the focus for popular devotion. Yuan supported the injec tion (or retention) of Confucian classics in the basic school curriculum, treated the Confucian sacrifices in the capital as an affair of state, and demanded official sponsorship of biennial Confucian rites throughout the land. However, the movement to turn Confucianism into a modern reli gion, which was rooted in local elites not especially concerned with Yuan's fate, fell apart when his regime collapsed.
neseness was ultimately related not just to state claims but to the entire
adjustment to the international nation-state system.76 During the 1895-
1911 period, the construction of nationhood in China revolved around a
slippery discourse of minzu (people, race, nation). The attempts after
The Impotence of Ritual?
1900 on the part of the Qing government to inculcate a state-based nation-
alism failed in no small part because it was unable to attach itself to the
minzu discourse. Even what we might call anti-Manchu constitutionalists
such as Liang Qichao were forced to define Chineseness in the same terms
as ethnic nationalism: peoples marked as distinct by a mix of blood, lan-
guage, territory, and customs and culture, notions that, indeed, Liang did
much to introduce to China. The Revolution, however, brought to the
fore the fundamental contradiction between ethnic and state nationalism
(if these two categories are not diametrically opposed modes of national-
ism, they still remain a heuristically useful distinction). The Han nation
inevitably could be imagined only in some tension with a "China" encom-
passing large minority territories. This dilemma had been foreseen, but its
relentless logic was largely avoided until 1912. If Han Chinese as a minzu
deserved their own nation (territory, state sovereignty), then why not
Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs, Tibetans, and so forth?
Two fundamental problems lay behind the politics of the Republic and ultimately how power was ritualized at this time. First, the crisis of author ity was brought to the fore by the collapse of the imperial system and the ever-present threats of the foreign powers. Second, the definition of Chi neseness was ultimately related not just to state claims but to the entire adjustment to the international nation-state system.76 During the 18951911 period, the construction of nationhood in China revolved around a slippery discourse of minzu (people, race, nation). The attempts after 1 900 on the part of the Qing government to inculcate a state-based nation alism failed in no small part because it was unable to attach itself to the minzu discourse. Even what we might call anti-Manchu constitutionalists such as Liang Qichao were forced to define Chineseness in the same terms as ethnic nationalism: peoples marked as distinct by a mix of blood, lan guage, territory, and customs and culture, notions that, indeed, Liang did much to introduce to China. The Revolution, however, brought to the fore the fundamental contradiction between ethnic and state nationalism (if these two categories are not diametrically opposed modes of national ism, they still remain a heuristically useful distinction). The Han nation inevitably could be imagined only in some tension with a "China" encom passing large minority territories. This dilemma had been foreseen, but its relentless logic was largely avoided until 1912. If Han Chinese as a minzu deserved their own nation (territory, state sovereignty), then why not Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs, Tibetans, and so forth?
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 179
Various answers to this question emerged. Some scholars have seen a
healthy evolution of Chinese nationalism from narrower to broader
scope.77 In this view, the anti-Manchuism of the revolutionary era, itself
more politically focused than the genocidal anti-Manchuism of the
Taiping Rebellion, was replaced with an ethnically inclusive nationalism
the ultimate target of which was imperialist oppression not just of China
but any weak nation. Nationalism, as a kind of process of self-recognition,
naturally proceeds from a narrower ethnic consciousness to a broader
national consciousness based on the multiethnic state and eventually de-
velops into an egoless international utopian state. The particular cosmo-
politanism of Marxism provided another sort of answer (see Hung-yok
Ip's chapter in this volume), emphasizing anti-imperialism and class
struggle, issues that continued to play out in China at least through the
1960s. And in practice the twentieth century has seen various Chinese
governments pursue policies ranging from assimilation (at its extreme,
cultural genocide) to granting a measure of autonomy to officially defined
minority peoples. At the same time, it has become clear that nationalist
discourse during the Republican era developed in new directions such as
gendered authenticity or political progressiveness.78 However, the point
here remains that at the beginning of the Republic the new state under
Yuan Shikai faced the twin tasks of retaining control over the territories of
the Qing (partly in the name of a hegemonic Chinese nationalism that had
blamed the Manchus for betraying China to the imperialist powers) and
asserting its authority over the centrifugal tendencies of Chinese society
itself. Since the imperial state claimed suzerainty over diverse peoples, it
should be no wonder that Yuan turned to what I have loosely labeled
imperial rituals. Yet Yuan was not interested in "traditionalism" for its
own sake or even particularly following past models through inertia;
rather, he was searching for immediately useful techniques of rule. It is
true that Yuan hoped to build a more modern and hence more efficient
and intrusive state, but he planned to do this on the basis of the institu-
tions and relations of power that he had inherited. Yuan was trying to
work out a ritual synthesis appropriate to his needs. His notion of Chinese
nationalism rested on the desire that it be built and shaped by the state.
He did not yet see it as a force that he could mobilize - though of course
he did have to respond to nationalist currents he could not control. Yuan
presented himself as the one man who could save China from disorder and
dismemberment.
Thus, the struggle for power that emerged in the wake of the 1911
179
Various answers to this question emerged. Some scholars have seen a healthy evolution of Chinese nationalism from narrower to broader scope,77 In this view, the anti-Manchuism of the revolutionary era, itself more politically focused than the genocidal anti-Manchuism of the Taiping Rebellion, was replaced with an ethnically inclusive nationalism the ultimate target of which was imperialist oppression not just of China but any weak nation. Nationalism, as a kind of process of self-recognition, naturally proceeds from a narrower ethnic consciousness to a broader national consciousness based on the multiethnic state and eventually de velops into an ego less international utopian state. The particular cosmo politanism of Marxism provided another sort of answer (see Hung-yok Ip's chapter in this volume), emphasizing anti-imperialism and class struggle, issues that continued to play out in China at least through the 1 960s. And in practice the twentieth century has seen various Chinese governments pursue policies ranging from assimilation (at its extreme, cultural genocide) to granting a measure of autonomy to officially defined minority peoples. At the same time, it has become clear that nationalist discourse during the Republican era developed in new directions such as gendered authenticity or political progressiveness,78 However, the point here remains that at the beginning of the Republic the new state under Yuan Shikai faced the twin tasks of retaining control over the territories of the Qing (partly in the name of a hegemonic Chinese nationalism that had blamed the Manchus for betraying China to the imperialist powers) and asserting its authority over the centrifugal tendencies of Chinese society itself. Since the imperial state claimed suzerainty over diverse peoples, it should be no wonder that Yuan turned to what I have loosely labeled imperial rituals. Yet Yuan was not interested in "traditionalism" for its own sake or even particularly following past models through inertia; rather, he was searching for immediately useful techniques of rule. It is true that Yuan hoped to build a more modern and hence more efficient and intrusive state, but he planned to do this on the basis of the institu tions and relations of power that he had inherited. Yuan was trying to work out a ritual synthesis appropriate to his needs. His notion of Chinese nationalism rested on the desire that it be built and shaped by the state. He did not yet see it as a force that he could mobilize - though of course he did have to respond to nationalist currents he could not control. Yuan presented himself as the one man who could save China from disorder and dismemberment. Thus, the struggle for power that emerged in the wake of the 191 1
180
180
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Revolution was partly fought over the definition of the Chinese nation.
Conservative bureaucrats, reformers, former revolutionaries, and Yuan
himself largely were agreed on the goals of a united and disciplined
populace and a strong and wealthy state. They disagreed, of course, on
many issues of political style, pace, strategies, and so forth, and perhaps
above all on whether the "people" were to be active or passive. But
regardless of their disputes it is important to remember that the Chinese
nation was in fact being defined on a daily basis willy-nilly: in hair and
clothing styles, in rhetorical imagination and social movements, and in
the changing rituals of the day. These included not just political ritual
but such quotidian actions as handshaking, which began to supplement
bowing. But these did include political ritual as well, and the struggles
over political ritual at the national and local levels were part of the
ongoing process of defining the Chinese. In other words, not simply the
final forms of political ritualization but their evolving and disputed na-
ture contributed to Chinese identity in the early Republic.
Revolutions create "beginnings" that are particularly open-ended
and fluid. Ritual, on the other hand, usually denotes a sense of timeless-
ness, continuity, and constancy. The point here is not simply that rituals
too are invented and have their own genealogies, histories, and disjunc-
tions but also that even when we discuss ritual genealogically we assume
its success and hence some kind of settledness. Rituals are taken to
"work" or else they are not rituals. Yet there are many examples of
attempted or failed rituals, actions clearly ritual in nature that did not
plant roots in a given society. Times of political upheaval might be
expected to be rich in such "failed rituals." After all, these are times
when various players attempt to claim power, which must be ritually
expressed, even while such rituals cannot possibly erase their own cre-
ation quickly enough to appear natural. Furthermore, the problem of
finding an appropriate, meaningful language of power (meaningful to
both power holders and citizens/subjects) remains particularly unsettled
at such times. How was the notion of the Chinese Republic to be ex-
pressed? Regardless of the precise political institutions that emerged,
the question was never more than partially answered. Specifically in
terms of ritualization, two issues quickly surfaced with the success of the
Revolution.
First, new political rituals had to express the nation as well as the
state. If a distinction is drawn between state building and nation build-
ing, then Yuan Shikai's use of ritual to express his authority might seem
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Revolution was partly fought over the definition of the Chinese nation. Conservative bureaucrats, reformers, former revolutionaries, and Yuan himself largely were agreed on the goals of a united and disciplined populace and a strong and wealthy state. They disagreed, of course, on many issues of political style, pace, strategies, and so forth, and perhaps above all on whether the "people" were to be active or passive. But regardless of their disputes it is important to remember that the Chinese nation was in fact being defined on a daily basis willy-nilly: in hair and clothing styles, in rhetorical imagination and social movements, and in the changing rituals of the day. These included not just political ritual but such quotidian actions as handshaking, which began to supplement bowing. But these did include political ritual as well, and the struggles over political ritual at the national and local levels were part of the ongoing process of defining the Chinese. In other words, not simply the final forms of political ritualization but their evolving and disputed na ture contributed to Chinese identity in the early Republic. Revolutions create "beginnings" that are particularly open-ended and fluid. Ritual, on the other hand, usually denotes a sense of timeless ness, continuity, and constancy. The point here is not simply that rituals too are invented and have their own genealogies, histories, and disjunc tions but also that even when we discuss ritual genealogically we assume its success and hence some kind of settledness. Rituals are taken to "work" or else they are not rituals. Yet there are many examples of attempted or failed rituals, actions clearly ritual in nature that did not plant roots in a given society. Times of political upheaval might be expected to be rich in such "failed rituals." After all, these are times when various players attempt to claim power, which must be ritually expressed, even while such rituals cannot possibly erase their own cre ation quickly enough to appear natural. Furthermore, the problem of finding an appropriate, meaningful language of power (meaningful to both power holders and citizens/subjects) remains particularly unsettled at such times. How was the notion of the Chinese Republic to be ex pressed? Regardless of the precise political institutions that emerged, the question was never more than partially answered. Specifically in terms of ritualization, two issues quickly surfaced with the success of the Revolution. First, new political rituals had to express the nation as well as the state. If a distinction is drawn between state building and nation build ing, then Yuan Shikai's use of ritual to express his authority might seem
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 181
to fall into the category of state more than nation. However, given that a
new nation was coming into being no matter what Yuan wished, rituals
of state necessarily represented the nation. The ritualization of Yuan's
power spoke to China's modernity, to its joining the world nation-state
system, and to both its unity and its hierarchies of status and power. By
linking the people and the land to itself ritually, the new state was
contributing to the construction of the people no less than when it man-
dated compulsory education. The invention of public military parades
and national holidays, for example, were ritual components of a larger
narrative of the Chinese nation. Even Yuan's monarchical movement,
which was proclaimed in the name of the people's will and framed in
terms of elections (rigged elections but all the more ritualistic for follow-
ing steps clear beforehand), was in part the ritual expression of the
nation. Before dismissing Yuan as a mere traditionalist or reactionary, it
should be remembered that imperial cults were explicitly tied to national-
ist goals in Britain, Germany, Russia, and Japan; before World War I,
republics remained the exception. Indeed, kingship proclaimed the an-
cient character of the nation. So, too, did the postrevolutionary rit-
ualization of Confucius.
Second, political rituals had to appeal to the people by expressing a
seamless, continuous culture even while naturalizing a fundamentally
new nation-state. This presented ritual makers with a series of dilem-
mas. The battles over ritual could even cut across the usual political
lines. The former revolutionaries supported Double Ten and opposed
Confucianism. They opposed Yuan Shikai's ritualization of the center,
but they were not necessarily any more populist. When the revolutionar-
ies were still in command of Guangzhou in 1912, for example, they tried
to limit public observations of Confucianism and abolish study of the
classics in the schools. However, great popular participation in the street
festivities surrounding Confucius's birthday in October 1912 illustrated
widespread animosity toward the government.79 When all is said and
done, nonetheless, it is only a slight simplification to claim that Double
Ten on the one side and Heaven on the other constituted two opposite
poles of ritualization of the nation as well as the state. Politically, Yuan
was able to capture Double Ten, but in doing so he inevitably accepted
the new norms of the nation. He abandoned Double Ten only in the
hope that other ritualization would prove more powerful.
Yuan thus sought to link his rule to sources of authority by appropri-
ating, experimenting, and synthesizing, but he could never turn to great
181
to fall into the category of state more than nation. However, given that a new nation was coming into being no matter what Yuan wished, rituals of state necessarily represented the nation. The ritualization of Yuan's power spoke to China's modernity, to its joining the world nation-state system, and to both its unity and its hierarchies of status and power. By linking the people and the land to itself ritually, the new state was contributing to the construction of the people no less than when it man dated compulsory education. The invention of public military parades and national holidays, for example, were ritual components of a larger narrative of the Chinese nation. Even Yuan's monarchical movement, which was proclaimed in the name of the people's will and framed in terms of elections (rigged elections but all the more ritualistic for follow ing steps clear beforehand), was in part the ritual expression of the nation. Before dismissing Yuan as a mere traditionalist or reactionary, it should be remembered that imperial cults were explicitly tied to national ist goals in Britain, Germany, Russia, and Japan; before World War I , republics remained the exception. Indeed, kingship proclaimed the an cient character of the nation. So, too, did the postrevolutionary rit ualization of Confucius. Second, political rituals had to appeal to the people by expressing a seamless, continuous culture even while naturalizing a fundamentally new nation-state. This presented ritual makers with a series of dilem mas. The battles over ritual could even cut across the usual political lines. The former revolutionaries supported Double Ten and opposed Confucianism. They opposed Yuan Shikai's ritualization of the center, but they were not necessarily any more populist. When the revolutionar ies were still in command of Guangzhou in 1912, for example, they tried to limit public observations of Confucianism and abolish study of the classics in the schools. However, great popular participation in the street festivities surrounding Confucius's birthday in October 1912 illustrated widespread animosity toward the government.79 When all is said and done, nonetheless, it is only a slight simplification to claim that Double Ten on the one side and Heaven on the other constituted two opposite poles of ritualization of the nation as well as the state. Politically, Yuan was able to capture Double Ten, but in doing so he inevitably accepted the new norms of the nation. He abandoned Double Ten only in the hope that other ritualization would prove more powerful. Yuan thus sought to link his rule to sources of authority by appropri ating, experimenting, and synthesizing, but he could never turn to great
182
182 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
victories, growing prosperity, or approaching modernity. Yuan had little
maneuvering room since he was facing severe pressure from Japan,
which was becoming the dominant imperial power in China at the onset
of World War I and was deliberately seeking to keep the Chinese govern-
ment weak. The attempts to ritualize Yuan's power, then, occurred in an
atmosphere of increasing adversity. In the end, he simply did not have
the time to establish a new order in his own image. Under these circum-
stances, imperial ritual proved irresistible, leading Yuan toward the di-
sastrous decision to try to found a new dynasty in 1915. In presenting a
Confucian justification for his choice of ritual, Yuan made both himself
and Confucianism seem more reactionary than they actually were. As
Catherine Bell notes, "Ritualization is probably an effective way of
acting only under certain cultural circumstances."80 That is to say, ritual
functions best under some historical circumstances and not under oth-
ers. After all, even when rituals clearly contribute to the maintenance of
patterns of power relations and link these to higher truths, there are still
alternatives, satires, and resistance. Since rituals are inherently loose
and multivalent, they do not function to enforce inflexible social or
political orders. Rather, as in Yuan's case, rituals are consciously and
unconsciously designed to express the transcendental basis of power,
naturalize the relationship of the state to society, and define legitimacy.
It may well be that as far as Yuan was concerned the ritual expression of
the nation was merely an unintended and unwelcome consequence, but
it was also an inevitable consequence of the ritualization of the state.
NOTES
This chapter is based on my essay for the conference Narratives, Arts,
and Ritual: Imagining and Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia,
which was held at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, November
14-17, 1996. I am grateful for the comments of Patricia Ebrey, the discussant;
Kai-wing Chow, Kevin M. Doak, and Poshek Fu, the organizers of the confer-
ence; and the other participants as well as the press's readers. Different versions
of the chapter were presented at the conference State and Ritual in East Asia,
Paris, June 29 to July 1, 1995, and at the 1996-97 Past and Future of Social
Science Seminar, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, December
4, 1996. I am grateful to all the participants in those discussions, and I would
particularly like to thank Catherine Bell, Jiwei Ci, Prasenjit Duara, Clifford
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
victories, growing prosperity, or approaching modernity. Yuan had little maneuvering room since he was facing severe pressure from Japan, which was becoming the dominant imperial power in China at the onset of World War I and was deliberately seeking to keep the Chinese govern ment weak. The attempts to ritualize Yuan's power, then, occurred in an atmosphere of increasing adversity. In the end, he simply did not have the time to establish a new order in his own image. Under these circum stances, imperial ritual proved irresistible, leading Yuan toward the di sastrous decision to try to found a new dynasty in 1915. In presenting a Confucian justification for his choice of ritual, Yuan made both himself and Confucianism seem more reactionary than they actually were. As Catherine Bell notes, "Ritualization is probably an effective way of acting only under certain cultural circumstances."8o That is to say, ritual functions best under some historical circumstances and not under oth ers. After all, even when rituals clearly contribute to the maintenance of patterns of power relations and link these to higher truths, there are still alternatives, satires, and resistance. Since rituals are inherently loose and multivalent, they do not function to enforce inflexible social or political orders. Rather, as in Yuan's case, rituals are consciously and unconsciously designed to express the transcendental basis of power, naturalize the relationship of the state to society, and define legitimacy. It may well be that as far as Yuan was concerned the ritual expression of the nation was merely an unintended and unwelcome consequence, but it was also an inevitable consequence of the ritualization of the state.
Geertz, Russell Kirkland, and Richard Lufrano for helpful comments. This
chapter originated in my current research interest in the decline of theocratic
NOTES This chapter is based on my essay for the conference Narratives, Arts, and Ritual: Imagining and Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia, which was held at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, November 14-17, 1996. I am grateful for the comments of Patricia Ebrey, the discussant; Kai-wing Chow, Kevin M . Doak, and Poshek Fu, the organizers of the confer ence; and the other participants as well as the press's readers. Different versions of the chapter were presented at the conference State and Ritual in East Asia, Paris, June 29 to July 1 , 1 995, and at the 1996-97 Past and Future of Social Science Seminar, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, December 4, 1996. I am grateful to all the participants in those discussions, and I would particularly like to thank Catherine Bell, Jiwei Ci, Prasenjit Duara, Clifford Geertz, Russell Kirkland, and Richard Lufrano for helpful comments. This chapter originated in my current research interest in the decline of theocratic
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 183
thinking in modern China. None of the people named here should be blamed for
the mistakes that remain in what is still a preliminary analysis of this complex
topic.
1. Angela Zito, Of Body and Brush: Grand Sacrifice and Text/Perfor-
mance in Eighteenth-Century China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1997). Zito emphasizes that text-based studies were an intrinsic part of the ritual
process, as officials linked "a performance of texts and a textualizing perfor-
mance" (4). The gentry class, of course, depended on the legitimacy given its
status by the emperor, who stood at the head of the examination system. See
also Kai-wing Chow, The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Late Imperial China:
Ethics, Classics and Lineage Discourse (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1994); and Richard J. Smith, "Ritual in Qing Culture," in Kwang-ching Liu, ed.,
Ritual and Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China, 281-310 (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
2. Covering disparate social systems, see inter alia such works as Clifford
Geertz, Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 1980); Clifford Geertz, "Centers, Kings, and Charisma:
Reflections on the Symbolics of Power," in Sean Wilentz, ed., Rites of Power:
Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics since the Middle Ages, 13-38 (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), from which the contemporary Ameri-
can example is taken; Christel Lane, Rites of Rulers (Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1981); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French
Revolution, trans. Alan Sheridan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988);
and Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1989). See also the essays in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger,
eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1983); and Wilentz, Rites of Power. The study of cultural invention is magnifi-
cently represented in Asian studies by T. Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy: Power
and Pageantry in Modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
Convincing recent analyses of Qing ritualization may be found in: Evelyn S.
Rawski, The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), esp. 197-294; and Zito Body
and Brush.
3. Raswki, Last Emperors, 198, 208.
4. Ibid., 200-201. See also the discussion in Zito, Body and Brush, 81-86.
5. Much of the literature depicts the revolutionaries as progressive and
Yuan as reactionary and an inveterate betrayer. See Jerome Ch'en, Yuan Shih-
k'ai (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972), 195-215. For a more nuanced
view of Yuan as a "modernizing conservative," see Ernest P. Young, The Presi-
dency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977); and "The Hung-hsien Em-
peror as a Modernizing Conservative," in Charlotte Furth, ed., The Limits of
Change: Essays on Conservative Alternatives in Republican China, 171-90 (Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press, 1976).
6. Stephen Feuchtwang, "School-Temple and City God," in G. William
183
thinking in modern China. None of the people named here should be blamed for the mistakes that remain in what is still a preliminary analysis of this complex topic. 1 . Angela Zito, Of Body and Brush: Grand Sacrifice and Text/Perfor mance in Eighteenth-Century China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997) . Zito emphasizes that text-based studies were an intrinsic part of the ritual process, as officials linked "a performance of texts and a textualizing perfor mance" (4) . The gentry class, of course, depended on the legitimacy given its status by the emperor, who stood at the head of the examination system. See also Kai-wing Chow, The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Late Imperial China: Ethics, Classics and Lineage Discourse (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); and Richard 1. Smith, "Ritual in Qing Culture," in Kwang-ching Liu, e d . , Ritual and Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China, 281-310 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). 2. Covering disparate social systems, see inter alia such works as Clifford Geertz, Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton: Prince ton University Press, 1980); Clifford Geertz, "Centers, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power, " in Sean Wilentz, ed . , Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics since the Middle Ages, 13-38 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), from which the contemporary Ameri can example is taken; Christel Lane, Rites of Rulers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981 ); David I . Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution, trans. Alan Sheridan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988) ; and Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (New York: Oxford Univer sity Press, 1 989). See also the essays in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. , The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Wilentz, Rites of Power. The study of cultural invention is magnifi cently represented in Asian studies by T. Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 996) . Convincing recent analyses of Qing ritualization may be found in: Evelyn S. Rawski, The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), esp. 197-294; and Zito Body and Brush. 3 . Raswki, Last Emperors, 1 98, 208. 4. Ibid., 200-201 . See also the discussion in Zito, Body and Brush, 81-86. 5. Much of the literature depicts the revolutionaries as progressive and Yuan as reactionary and an inveterate betrayer. See Jerome Ch'en, Yuan Shih k'ai (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972) , 195-215. For a more nuanced view of Yuan as a "modernizing conservative," see Ernest P. Young, The Presi dency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1 977); and "The Hung-hsien Em peror as a Modernizing Conservative," in Charlotte Furth, ed., The Limits of Change: Essays on Conservative Alternatives in Republican China, 171-90 (Cam bridge: Harvard University Press, 1 976). 6. Stephen Feuchtwang, "School-Temple and City God," in G . William
184
184 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China, 581-608 (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1977), 593. Or, as Angela Zito puts it, as constitutive of a sense
of reality: "Li allows us to see that constructions of the social and its limits are
politically significant because they connect the person and a larger collectivity in
a way that seems 'natural' to participants" (Body and Brush, 49). What ritual
could not do was define the collectivity or community as such.
7. See Frank Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (London:
Hurst, 1992). A distinctive Chinese identity at the level of popular culture is
outlined in Myron L. Cohen, "Being Chinese: The Peripheralization of Tradi-
tional Identity," Daedalus 120, no. 2 (spring 1991): 113-34. James L. Watson
points to the importance of "orthopraxy" or proper ritual/etiquette to the Chi-
nese sense of identity-see "The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elemen-
tary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primacy of Performance," in James L.
Watson and Evelyn S. Rawski, eds., Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern
China, 3-19 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). Conversely, Eve-
lyn S. Rawski provides an important correction to Watson, in the same volume
(20-36). See also James L. Watson, "Rites or Beliefs: The Constitution of a
Unified Culture in Late Imperial China," in Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim,
eds., China's Quest for National Identity, 80-103 (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1993). While the significance of popular religious practices was open to a
wide variety of interpretations, the production of ritual knowledge was taken
seriously by court and local elites, as will be further argued later.
8. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing the Nation from History: Questioning Narra-
tives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 55-81.
9. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins
and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991); Ernest Gellner, Nations and
Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983).
10. Rawski, Last Emperors, 207-10; Zito, Brush and Body, 185-206
passim.
11. The degree to which local elites saw an opportunity to attain greater
power in the Revolution is explored in Joseph Esherick, Reform and Revolution
in China: The 1911 Revolution in Hunan and Hubei (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1976), esp. chap. 7. There is a large literature on the relation-
ship between local elites, nationalism, and the complex devolution of Qing
power; outstanding examples include Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and
Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1986); and Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and
Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1995).
12. In addition to those cited in note 2, works on ritual I have found most
useful (though often adapted for my own purposes or simply misunderstood)
are Catherine Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice (New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1992); Maurice Agulhon, "Politics, Images, and Symbols in Post-
Revolutionary France," in Wilentz, Rites of Power, 177-205; and comments in
Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Stanford: Stan-
ford University Press, 1990).
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Skinner, e d . , The City in Late Imperial China, 581-608 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977) , 593. Or, as Angela Zito puts it, as constitutive of a sense of reality: "U allows us to see that constructions of the social and its limits are politically significant because they connect the person and a larger collectivity in a way that seems 'natural' to participants" (Body and Brush, 49) . What ritual could not do was define the collectivity or community as such. 7. See Frank Dikbtter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (London: Hurst, 1992). A distinctive Chinese identity at the level of popular culture is outlined in Myron L. Cohen , "Being Chinese: The Peripheralization of Tradi tional Identity, " Daedalus 120, no. 2 (spring 1991): 113-34. James L. Watson points to the importance of "orthopraxy" or proper ritual/etiquette to the Chi nese sense of identity - see "The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elemen tary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primacy of Performance," in James L. Watson and Evelyn S . Rawski, eds . , Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China, 3-19 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988) . Conversely, Eve lyn S. Rawski provides an important correction to Watson, in the same volume (20-36) . See also James L. Watson, "Rites or Beliefs: The Constitution of a Unified Culture in Late Imperial China," in Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds. , China 's Quest for National Identity, 80- 103 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1 993). While the significance of popular religious practices was open to a wide variety of interpretations, the production of ritual knowledge was taken seriously by court and local elites, as will be further argued later. 8. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing the Nation from History: Questioning Narra tives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995 ) , 55-8 1 . 9. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections o n the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991 ); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1 983) . 1 0. Rawski, Last Emperors, 207-10; Zito, Brush and Body, 185-206 passIm. 1 1 . The degree to which local elites saw an opportunity to attain greater power in the Revolution is explored in Joseph Esherick, Reform and Revolution in China: The 1 911 Revolution in Hunan and Hubei (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), esp. chap. 7 . There is a large literature on the relation ship between local elites, nationalism, and the complex devolution of Qing power; outstanding examples include Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986 ) ; and Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1 853-1 93 7 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995) . 12. I n addition to those cited i n note 2, works on ritual I have found most useful (though often adapted for my own purposes or simply misunderstood) are Catherine Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice (New York: Oxford Univer sity Press, 1992 ) ; Maurice Agulhon, "Politics, Images, and Symbols in Post Revolutionary France," in Wilentz, Rites of Power, 177-205 ; and comments in Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Stanford: Stan ford University Press, 1990) .
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 185
13. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance, and Meaning of Ritual:
The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition,' c. 1820-1977," in Hobs-
bawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition, 101-64, esp. 120-32 passim.
14. T. Fujitani, in his discussion of the Meiji Emperor, also points to the
disciplinary effect of the emperor's "centralizing gaze" as imperial processions
brought him out into the open where he could see his people (see Splendid
Monarchy, 52-55). I would add that in some cases, especially when the rulers
lack the transcendental claims of royalty, the disciplinary effect of "gazing" may
work both ways: the people also gaze upon their rulers, watching how well they
fulfill the responsibilities of power.
15. Bourdieu, Logic of Practice, 108.
16. Cf. Bell, Ritual Theory, 206-8, 212-18.
17. Shibao, September 24, 1912, 3.
18. Shibao, October 9, 1912, 5.
19. Shibao, October 12, 1912, 4.
20. Shibao, October 17, 1912, 3.
21. Shibao, October 14, 1912, 4.
22. Shibao, October 17, 1912, 3.
23. Shibao, October 9, 1912, 5; October 10, 1912, 5; October 12, 1912, 5.
24. Shibao, October 13, 1912, 3.
25. The Shibao reporter attributed this to a fear that war might return
(October 18, 1912, 3). However, another factor might have been a heavier
government presence.
26. The description below is taken from Shibao, October 11, 1913, 4; Octo-
ber 12, 1913, 4; October 14, 1913, 3-4.
27. Facing south was associated with Chinese rulership from the most an-
cient period, while enthronement was central at least from late imperial times.
From the eighteenth century on, Qing rulers had completed the accession cere-
mony by ascending the throne and facing south, receiving the obeisance of the
princes and officials. See Rawski, Last Emperors, 203-7; and especially her
"The Creation of an Emperor in Eighteenth-Century China," in Bell Yung et
al., eds., Harmony and Counterpoint: Ritual Music in Chinese Context, 150-74
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
28. See also Shibao, October 11, 1913, 4.
29. George L. Mosse, "Ceasarism, Circuses, and Monuments," Journal of
Contemporary History 6, no. 2 (1971): 167-82.
30. Shibao, October 12, 1913, 4.
31. Shibao, October 18, 1913, 4.
32. Shibao, October 13, 1913, 7.
33. The following description is taken from Zhengfu gongbao (Govern-
ment public reports, hereafter ZFGB), September 18, 1914, no. 512 ("cheng");
ZFGB, October 13, 1914, no. 876 ("tonggao"); ZFGB, October 14, 1914, no.
877 ("cheng"); and Peking Daily News (hereafter PDN), October 11, 1914.
34. Shibao, October 30, 1914, 4.
35. PDN, December 29, 1914, 4.
36. See Henrietta Harrison, "Spreading the Revolution beyond Politics:
185
13. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance, and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition,' c. 1820-1977," in Hobs bawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition, 101-64, esp. 120-32 passim. 14. T. Fujitani, in his discussion of the Meiji Emperor, also points to the disciplinary effect of the emperor's "centralizing gaze" as imperial processions brought him out into the open where he could see his people (see Splendid Monarchy, 52-55 ) . I would add that in some cases, especially when the rulers lack the transcendental claims of royalty, the disciplinary effect of "gazing" may work both ways: the people also gaze upon their rulers, watching how well they fulfill the responsibilities of power. 1 5 . Bourdieu, Logic of Practice, 108. 16. Cf. BeII, Ritual Theory, 206-8, 212-18. 17. Shibao, September 24, 1912, 3 . 1 8 . Shibao, October 9 , 1912, 5 . 19. Shibao, October 12, 1912, 4. 20. Shibao, October 17, 1 912, 3 . 21. Shibao, October 14, 1 912, 4 . 22. Shibao, October 17, 1912, 3. 23. Shibao, October 9, 1912, 5 ; October 10, 1912, 5 ; October 12, 1912, 5. 24. Shibao, October 13, 1912, 3 . 25. The Shibao reporter attributed this to a fear that war might return (October 18, 1912, 3 ) . However, another factor might have been a heavier government presence. 26. The description below is taken from Shibao, October 1 1 , 1913, 4; Octo ber 12, 1913, 4; October 14, 1913, 3-4. 27. Facing south was associated with Chinese rulership from the most an cient period, while enthronement was central at least from late imperial times. From the eighteenth century on, Qing rulers had completed the accession cere mony by ascending the throne and facing south, receiving the obeisance of the princes and officials. See Rawski, Last Emperors, 203-7 ; and especially her "The Creation of an Emperor in Eighteenth-Century China," in Bell Yung et aL, eds . , Harmony and Counterpoint: Ritual Music in Chinese Context, 150-74 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996 ) . 28. See also Shibao, October 1 1 , 1 913, 4. 29. George L. Mosse, "Ceasarism, Circuses, and Monuments," Journal of Contemporary History 6, no. 2 ( 1971 ) : 167-82. 30. Shibao, October 12, 1913, 4. 3 1 . Shibao, October 18, 1913, 4. 32. Shibao, October 13, 1913, 7. 33. The following description is taken from Zhengfu gongbao (Govern ment public reports, hereafter ZFGB), September 1 8 , 1914, no. 512 ("cheng"); ZFGB, October 1 3 , 1914, no. 876 ("tonggao"); ZFGB , October 14, 1 914, no. 877 ("cheng"); and Peking Daily News (hereafter PDN), October 1 1 , 1914. 34. Shibao, October 30, 1914, 4. 35. PDN, December 29, 1914, 4. 36. See Henrietta Harrison, "Spreading the Revolution heyond Politics:
186
186 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Queue Cutting, Calendar Reform, and the Revolution of 1911," paper pre-
sented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Washington,
DC, April 1995. As Harrison points out, queue cutting was one of the few
policies of the revolutionary regime that had much local impact (in rural areas).
37. See ZFGB, February 8, 1914, no. 631 ("mingling").
38. Shibao, September 16, 1924; Shibao, September 15, 1924, 3; ZFGB,
September 6, 1914, no. 840 ("cheng"); ZFGB, September 18, 1914, no. 842
("cheng"); ZFGB, September 19, 1914, no. 853 ("cheng").
39. Shibao, September 17, 1914, 7.
40. Qing imperial birthday rituals are discussed in Rawski, Last Emperors,
272-73. The point I would emphasize here is not the specific ceremonies but the
public nature of the occasion.
41. Paul S. Reinsch, An American Diplomat in China (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, Page, 1922).
42. Ibid., 4.
43. Ibid., 3-4, 5.
44. Ibid., 1-2.
45. It is true that some Kongjiaohui members shared the modern discourse
of linear progress and even welcomed the Republic as the fulfillment of Confu-
cian utopian promises; however, the concern for moral and social order predomi-
nated. For typical examples, see "Chi Beijing jiaoyuhui pohuai Kongjiao zhizui"
(Condemnation of the Beijing Ministry of Education for destroying Confucian-
ism), Shibao, April 12, 1913, 6; "Kongjiao xinwen: shen lun Xushi Shaozhen si
tian pei Kong yi" (Confucian news: essay on Xu Shaozhen's essay on worshiping
Confucius with Heaven), Kongjiaohui zazhi, 1, no. 4 (1936): 6-7; Xi Song, "Lun
Cai Yuanpei teyi xuexiao buji Kongzi" (On Cai Yuanpei's proposal to abolish
the worship of Confucius in schools), Shibao, July 20, 1912, 1; and Zhang
Ertian, "Yu ren lun changming Kongjiao yi qianggu daode" (Letter to explain
how Kongjiao can solidify morality), Kongjiaohui zazhi, 1, no. 5 (1913): 21-24.
46. See "Mingling" (commands), Shibao, June 27, 1913, 2; and "Dazong-
tong fu xuexiao ji Kong mingling" (Presidential command reinstating sacrifices
to Confucius in the schools), Kongjiaohui zazhi, 1, no. 6 (1913): 11-12; and
"Mingling," Shibao, February 10, 1914, 2.
47. Zito, Body and Brush, 2-3.
48. Shibao, December 21, 1914, 3.
49. The American ambassador was bemused by this explanation. See
Reinsch, American Diplomat, 24-25.
50. Shibao, December 21, 1914, 3.
51. Shibao, December 18, 1914, 3.
52. PDN, January 16, 1914, 4.
53. ZFGB, December 21, 1914, no. 945 ("mingling").
54. PDN, January 24, 1914, 4; Shibao, December 21, 1914, 3.
55. ZFGB, February 8, 1914, no. 631 ("mingling").
56. Shibao, December 18, 1914, 3.
57. North-China Daily News (hereafter NCDN), December 21, 1914, 15.
58. Reinsch, American Diplomat, 25-26. Reinsch seems to confuse the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Queue Cutting, Calendar Reform, and the Revolution of 191 1," paper pre sented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Washington, DC, April 1 995. As Harrison points out, queue cutting was one of the few policies of the revolutionary regime that had much local impact (in rural areas) . 37. See ZFGB, February 8 , 1914, no. 631 ("mingling"). 38. Shibao, September 16, 1924; Shibao, September 1 5 , 1924, 3; ZFGB , September 6 , 1914, no. 840 ("cheng"); ZFGB, September 1 8 , 1914, no. 842 ("cheng"); ZFGB, September 19, 1914, no. 853 ("cheng"). 39. Shibao, September 17, 1914, 7. 40. Qing imperial birthday rituals are discussed in Rawski, Last Emperors, 272-73. The point I would emphasize here is not the specific ceremonies but the public nature of the occasion. 41. Paul S. Reinsch, An American Diplomat in China (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1922 ) . 42. Ibid., 4. 43. Ibid . , 3-4, 5. 44. Ibid. , 1 -2. 45. It is true that some Kongjiaohui members shared the modern discourse of linear progress and even welcomed the Republic as the fulfillment of Confu cian utopian promises; however, the concern for moral and social order predomi nated. For typical examples, see "Chi Beijing jiaoyuhui pohuai Kongjiao zhizui" (Condemnation of the Beijing Ministry of Education for destroying Confucian ism), Shibao, April 12, 1913, 6; "Kongjiao xinwen: shen lun Xushi Shaozhen si tian pei Kong yi" (Confucian news: essay on Xu Shaozhen's essay on worshiping Confucius with Heaven), Kongjiaohui zazhi, 1 , no. 4 ( 1936) : 6-7; Xi Song, "Lun Cai Yuanpei teyi xuexiao buji Kongzi" (On Cai Yuanpei's proposal to abolish the worship of Confucius in schools), Shibao, July 20, 1912, 1 ; and Zhang Ertian, "Yu ren lun changming Kongjiao yi qianggu daode" (Letter to explain how Kongjiao can solidify morality), Kongjiaohui zazhi, 1 , no. 5 ( 1913 ) : 21-24. 46. See "Mingling" (commands), Shibao, June 27, 1913, 2; and "Dazong tong fu xuexiao ji Kong mingling" (Presidential command reinstating sacrifices to Confucius in the schools), Kongjiaohui zazhi, 1 , no. 6 ( 1913 ) : 1 1-12; and " Mingling," Shibao, February 1 0, 1914, 2. 47. Zito, Body and Brush, 2-3 . 48. Shibao, December 21 , 1 914, 3. 49. The American ambassador was bemused by this explanation. See Reinsch, A merican Diplomat, 24-25. 50. Shibao, December 21 , 1 914, 3 . 5 1 . Shibao, December 1 8 , 1 914, 3 . 5 2 . PDN, January 16, 1914, 4. 53. ZFGB, December 21, 1914, no. 945 ("mingling"). 54. PDN, January 24, 1 914, 4; Shibao, December 21 , 1914, 3 . 5 5 . ZFGB, February 8 , 1914, no. 631 ("mingling"). 56. Shibao, December 18, 1 91 4, 3 . 57. North-China Daily News (hereafter NCDN), December 2 1 , 1 914, 1 5 . 5 8 . Reinsch, American Diplomat, 25-26. Reinsch seems to confuse the
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China
Political Ritual in the Early Republic of China 187
dates, recalling the sacrifices as occurring in December 1913 instead of 1914.
This description is also taken from PDN, December 24, 1914, 4-5; and Shibao,
December 23, 1914, 4.
59. PDN, September 28, 1914, 4; see also note 39.
60. "Benhui jishi: zonghui" (Notes from the headquarters of this associa-
tion), Kongjiaohui zazhi (Journal of the Confucian Association), 1, no. 8 (1913):
1-4; and "'Guozijian Dingji zhi shengyi" (Various ceremonies of the Ding wor-
ship at the Imperial Academy), Shibao, September 11, 1913, 3.
61. PDN, September 29, 1914, 5.
62. "Mingling," Shibao, June 27, 1913, 2; "Dazongtong fu xuexiao ji Kong
mingling" (Presidential order reinstating sacrifices to Confucius in the schools),
Kongjiaohui zazhi 1, no. 6 (1913): 11-12.
63. "Jiaoyubu xuanshi zun Kong zongzhi" (The Ministry of Education an-
nounces its goal of respect for Confucius), Shibao, July 2, 1914.
64. NCDN, November 26, 1914, 7-8. See also Prasenjit Duara, "Super-
scribing Symbols: The Myth of Guandi, Chinese God of War," Journal of Asian
Studies 47, no. 4 (1988): 778-95.
65. PDN, March 27, 15, 4.
66. R. F. Johnston, "Chinese Cult of Military Heroes," New China Review
3, no. 2 (1921): 89-90.
67. Ibid., 83-86.
68. Ibid., 121-22.
69. "For the literati, the imperium consecrated the claim of successful ex-
amination candidates to be the representatives/inscribers of culture in general as
they wrote the emperor's rites" (Zito, Body and Brush, 216).
70. Shibao, December 18, 1914, 3.
71. Hobsbawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition. See also Agulhon,
"Politics."
72. Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in
Hobsbawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition, 263-307, quote is from 266. See
also Mosse, "Caesarism," 167-70.
73. Cannadine, "Context," Although (or because) the institution was politi-
cally weak, its ceremonial splendor contributed to its popularity. Eric Hobs-
bawm ("Mass Producing Traditions," 282) points out that "technically" the politi-
cal use of the monarchy was the same whether monarchs held actual power or
merely symbolized the state, but it seems to me much harder to make power
holders attractive. Such use of "tradition" need not be especially conservative,
but it is fully compatible with moderate progressivism, as Walter Bagehot urged.
Bagehot published his The English Constitution in 1867, combining a journalistic
account of the politics of his day with prescriptions, including the use of the
"dignified" parts of the constitution such as the monarchy, to convey a sense of
continuity even in times of dramatic change.
74. The question of sino-Japanese contacts is discussed in Douglas R. Reyn-
olds, China, 1898-1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan (Cambridge: Har-
vard University Press, 1993); D. R. Howland, Borders of Chinese Civilization:
Geography and History at Empire's End (Durham: Duke University Press,
187
dates, recalling the sacrifices as occurring in December 1913 instead of 1914. This description is also taken from PDN, December 24, 1914, 4-5 ; and Shibao, December 23, 1914, 4 . 5 9 . PDN, September 28, 1 914, 4; see also note 39. 60. "Benhui jishi: zonghui" (Notes from the headquarters of this associa tion) , Kongjiaohui zazhi (Journal of the Confucian Association), 1 , no. 8 ( 1 913 ) : 1-4; and " 'Guozijian Dingji zhi shengyi" (Various ceremonies of the Ding wor ship at the Imperial Academy), Shibao, September 1 1 , 1913, 3. 6 1 . PDN, September 29, 1 914, 5 . 62. "Mingling," Shibao, June 27, 1913, 2; "Dazongtong fu xuexiao ji Kong mingling" (Presidential order reinstating sacrifices to Confucius in the schools), Kongjiaohui zazhi 1 , no. 6 ( 1913 ) : 1 1-12. 63. "Jiaoyubu xuanshi zun Kong zongzhi" (The Ministry of Education an nounces its goal of respect for Confucius), Shibao, July 2, 1914. 64. NCDN, November 26, 1914, 7-8. See also Prasenjit Duara, "Super scribing Symbols: The Myth of Guandi, Chinese God of War, " Journal of Asian Studies 47, no. 4 ( 1988) : 778-95. 65. PDN, March 27, 1 5 , 4. 66. R. F. Johnston, "Chinese Cult of Military Heroes," New China Review 3 , no. 2 ( 1921 ) : 89-90. 67. Ibid . , 83-86 . 68. Ibid., 121-22. 69. "For the literati, the imperium consecrated the claim of successful ex amination candidates to be the representatives/inscribers of culture in general as they wrote the emperor's rites" (Zito, Body and Brush, 216 ) . 70. Shibao, December 18, 1914, 3 . 71 . Hobsbawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition. See also Agulhon, "Politics. " 72. Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Hobsbawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition, 263-307, quote is from 266. See also Mosse, "Caesarism," 167-70. 73. Cannadine, "Context," Although (or because) the institution was politi cally weak, its ceremonial splendor contributed to its popularity. Eric Hobs bawm ("Mass Producing Traditions," 282 ) points out that "technically" the politi cal use of the monarchy was the same whether monarchs held actual power or merely symbolized the state, but it seems to me much harder to make power holders attractive. Such use of "tradition" need not be especially conservative, but it is fully compatible with moderate progressivism, as Walter Bagehot urged. Bagehot published his The English Constitution in 1867, combining a journalistic account of the politics of his day with prescriptions, including the use of the "dignified" parts of the constitution such as the monarchy, to convey a sense of continuity even in times of dramatic change. 74. The question of sino-Japanese contacts is discussed in Douglas R. Reyn olds, China, 1 898-1 912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan (Cambridge: Har vard University Press, 1993 ) ; D . R. Howland, Borders of Chinese Civilization: Geography and History at Empire's End (Durham: Duke University Press,
188
188
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
1996); Lin Mingde, "Qingmo Minchu Riben zhengzhi dui Zhongguo de ying-
xiang" (The influence of Japanese politics on China in the late Qing and early
Republic), in Yue-him Tam, ed., Sino-Japanese Cultural Interchange: The Eco-
nomic and Intellectual Aspects, 3:187-191 (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese
Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1985); Peng Zezhou, Chagoku no
kindaika to Meiji isshen (The modernization of China and the Meiji Restoration)
(Kyoto: D6b6sha, 1976); and Wang Xiaoqiu, Jindai Zhong-Ri qishilu (Modern
Sino-Japanese revelation) (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1987).
75. The following account is based largely on Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern
Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1985); Helen Hardacre, Shinto and the State, 1868-1988 (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1989); Helen Hardacre, "The Role of the Japanese State in
Ritual and Ritualization, 1868-1945," paper presented at the conference Ritual
and State in East Asia, Paris, June 29 to July 1, 1995; Shen Caibin [Chin Saihin],
Tenno to Chugoku kotei (The Japanese and Chinese emperors) (Tokyo: Rokko
shuppan, 1990); and Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy.
76. This is not the place to examine either issue in any depth. For back-
ground, see James Townsend, "Chinese Nationalism," Australian Journal of
Chinese Affairs, no. 27 (January 1992): 97-130; and Duara, Rescuing the Nation.
77. Li Guoqi, "Zhongguo jindai minzu sixiang" (Modern Chinese national-
ist thought), in Zhou Yangshan and Yang Xiaoxian, eds., Jindai Zhongguo
sixiang renwulun: minzu zhuyi (Modern Chinese intellectual figures: National-
ism), 19-43 (Taibei: Shibao wenhua chubanshiye, 1985), 42. Li is specifically
describing Sun Yat-sen's ideas.
78. See the chapters in this volume by Prasenjit Duara, Andrew F. Jones,
and Poshek Fu.
79. "Yuesheng shangtuan zhu sheng zhi renao" (The excitement of Guang-
zhou's merchant groups' commemoration of the sage), Shibao, October 17,
1912, 4; "Zaizhi Yuesheng gejie Kongtan zhudian zhisheng" (A second report
on various commemorations of Confucius's birthday by each circle in Guang-
zhou), Shibao, October 18, 1912, 3.
80. Bell, Ritual Theory, 141.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
1996) ; Lin Mingde, "Qingmo Minchu Riben zhengzhi dui Zhongguo de ying xiang" (The influence of Japanese politics on China in the late Qing and early Republic), in Yue-him Tam, ed., Sino-Japanese Cultural Interchange: The Eco nomic and Intellectual Aspects, 3:187-191 (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1985); Peng Zezhou, Chugoku no kindaika to Meiji isshen (The modernization of China and the Meiji Restoration) (Kyoto: Dobosha, 1976); and Wang Xiaoqiu, Jindai Zhong-Ri qishilu (Modern Sino-Japanese revelation) (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1 987) . 75. The following account is based largely on Carol Gluck, Japan 's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Helen Hardacre, Shinto and the State, 1 868-1 988 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Helen Hardacre, "The Role of the Japanese State in Ritual and Ritualization, 1868-1945 ," paper presented at the conference Ritual and State in East Asia, Paris, June 29 to July 1 , 1995 ; Shen Caibin [Chin Saihin] , Tenn6 to Chugoku kotei (The Japanese and Chinese emperors) (Tokyo: Rokko shuppan, 1990); and Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy. 76. This is not the place to examine either issue in any depth. For back ground, see James Townsend, "Chinese Nationalism," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 27 (January 1 992): 97-130; and Duara, Rescuing the Nation. 77. Li Guoqi, "Zhongguo jindai minzu sixiang" (Modern Chinese national ist thought), in Zhou Yangshan and Yang Xiaoxian, eds . , Jindai Zhongguo sixiang renwulun: minzu zhuyi (Modern Chinese intellectual figures: National ism), 19-43 (Taibei: Shibao wenhua chubanshiye, 1 985 ) , 42. Li is specifically describing Sun Yat-sen's ideas. 78. See the chapters in this volume by Prasenjit Duara, Andrew F. Jones, and Poshek Fu. 79. "Yuesheng shangtuan zhu sheng zhi renao" (The excitement of Guang zhou's merchant groups' commemoration of the sage), Shibao, October 17, 1912, 4; "Zaizhi Yuesheng gej ie Kongtan zhudian zhisheng" (A second report on various commemorations of Confucius's birthday by each circle in Guang zhou), Shibao, October 18, 1912, 3 . 80. Bell, Ritual Theory, 1 4 1 .
Chapter 6 Chapter 6
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic
Korea: The Discourse of Modernity in
Contemporary Historical Fiction
JaHyun Kim Haboush
When one observes the popular discourse of contemporary South Ko-
rea, one is struck by the rapidity with which it shifts and the multiplicity
of its strands. Most contemporary societies exhibit these characteristics,
but in Korea, where social and political changes of gargantuan propor-
tion have occurred at a dizzying pace in recent decades, this seems to be
In Search of HIS T ORY in Democratic Korea: The Discourse of Modernity in Contemporary Historical Fiction
especially pronounced. It is rather difficult to imagine now, less than a
decade later, the frothing euphoria and palpable excitement that the
public exuded over the establishment of a democratically elected civilian
government (munmin changbu) in 1992, ending a decades-long period
JaHyun Kim Haboush
of military rule. In the wake of what was called the miracle on the Han
River, South Korea was transformed from a developing third-world
economy into an industrial and newly developed one in just two or three
decades,' Koreans were anticipating the fruits of full-fledged democracy,
including freedom of speech and ideas.
What made the attainment of the double prize of political and eco-
nomic rewards particularly sweet for Koreans was the deeply felt senti-
ment that they had won them the hard way and through their own efforts
in the face of scorn2 and skepticism3 from the outside. They felt that
during those years of struggle for democracy even the sympathies of
American liberals and intellectuals were tinged with a condescending
sense that the troubled situation in Korea was the expected fate of the
people of a neocolonial society. Unlike their independence from Japan
in 1945, which Koreans felt was given to them,4 or the two subsequent
governments in North and South Korea in 1948, which were seen as not
having been of their own making,5 Koreans seemed to feel a sense of
189
When one observes the popular discourse of contemporary South Ko rea, one is struck by the rapidity with which it shifts and the multiplicity of its strands. Most contemporary societies exhibit these characteristics, but in Korea, where social and political changes of gargantuan propor tion have occurred at a dizzying pace in recent decades, this seems to be especially pronounced. It is rather difficult to imagine now, less than a decade later, the frothing euphoria and palpable excitement that the public exuded over the establishment of a democratically elected civilian government (munmin chongbu) in 1 992, ending a decades-long period of military rule. In the wake of what was called the miracle on the Han River, South Korea was transformed from a developing third-world economy into an industrial and newly developed one in just two or three decades,l Koreans were anticipating the fruits of full-fledged democracy, including freedom of speech and ideas. What made the attainment of the double prize of political and eco nomic rewards particularly sweet for Koreans was the deeply felt senti ment that they had won them the hard way and through their own efforts in the face of scorn2 and skepticism3 from the outside. They felt that during those years of struggle for democracy even the sympathies of American liberals and intellectuals were tinged with a condescending sense that the troubled situation in Korea was the expected fate of the people of a neocolonial society. Unlike their independence from Japan in 1 945, which Koreans felt was given to them,4 or the two subsequent governments in North and South Korea in 1 948, which were seen as not having been of their own making,S Koreans seemed to feel a sense of 189
190
190 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
ownership toward the 1992 democratic government. If they conceded
the government's contribution to the economy, they claimed the entire
credit for the new political system.
This sense of exhilaration was accompanied by a sobering conscious-
ness that the arrival of democracy was an epochal metamorphosis for the
identity of the Korean nation. It was at long last leaving behind victim-
hood, claiming subjectivity and parity with other economically and politi-
cally mature nations. This moment was a happy ending to narratives of
the han (suffering, sorrows, pains) of the Korean people: The people
who had suffered innumerable hardships and trials had finally tri-
umphed through their own efforts, perseverance, and determination.
Indeed, Koreans seemed to share a widespread consensus that the narra-
tives of han and the emotions associated with them should achieve clo-
sure. Although Koreans were aware of the missing element required for
the proper ending of these narratives - a grand finale would require the
reunification of North and South Korea - they felt that South Korea as a
nation had arrived.
The widespread sense of the nation's coming of age elicited a desire
to reevaluate Korea's positionality in relation to its past and global
geography. Two issues in particular were felt to be in urgent need of
reassessment. One was the question of modernity. Although the dis-
course of modernity has been present in Korea at least since the latter
half of the nineteenth century, and it invariably changed in tenor in each
period depending on what Korean perceptions of their relation to mo-
dernity were and what Korea sought from it, its constant leitmotiv has
been the country's thwarted modernity. Another issue was Koreans'
ressentiment of Japan, the former colonizer and the object of hatred,
envy, admiration, and, most conspicuously, competition. Liah Green-
feld points out that in many cases ressentiment of a country or region
that is perceived as having superior cultural resources is an important
condition for generating and sustaining consciousness in developing a
national identity.6 Korean ressentiment of Japan can be described as
having been a main motivating force in Korea's drive for moderniza-
tion. Now that Korea felt that it had achieved modernity and was enter-
ing an international community as a full-fledged member, a reevaluation
of these two issues emerged as dominant in public discourse.
In this chapter, I will take historical fiction as a site of discourse of
national identity. I will discuss the two most popular works of historical
fiction of the early 1990s, Mokmin sims6 (Heartfelt treatise on shepherd-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
ownership toward the 1 992 democratic government. If they conceded the government's contribution to the economy, they claimed the entire credit for the new political system. This sense of exhilaration was accompanied by a sobering conscious ness that the arrival of democracy was an epochal metamorphosis for the identity of the Korean nation. It was at long last leaving behind victim hood, claiming subjectivity and parity with other economically and politi cally mature nations. This moment was a happy ending to narratives of the han (suffering, sorrows, pains) of the Korean people: The people who had suffered innumerable hardships and trials had finally tri umphed through their own efforts, perseverance, and determination. Indeed, Koreans seemed to share a widespread consensus that the narra tives of han and the emotions associated with them should achieve clo sure. Although Koreans were aware of the missing element required for the proper ending of these narratives - a grand finale would require the reunification of North and South Korea - they felt that South Korea as a nation had arrived. The widespread sense of the nation's coming of age elicited a desire to reevaluate Korea's positionality in relation to its past and global geography. Two issues in particular were felt to be in urgent need of reassessment. One was the question of modernity. Although the dis course of modernity has been present in Korea at least since the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it invariably changed in tenor in each period depending on what Korean perceptions of their relation to mo dernity were and what Korea sought from it, its constant leitmotiv has been the country's thwarted modernity. Another issue was Koreans' ressentiment of Japan, the former colonizer and the object of hatred, envy, admiration, and, most conspicuously, competition. Liah Green feld points out that in many cases ressentiment of a country or region that is perceived as having superior cultural resources is an important condition for generating and sustaining consciousness in developing a national identity. 6 Korean ressentiment of Japan can be described as having been a main motivating force in Korea's drive for moderniza tion. Now that Korea felt that it had achieved modernity and was enter ing an international community as a full-fledged member, a reevaluation of these two issues emerged as dominant in public discourse. In this chapter, I will take historical fiction as a site of discourse of national identity. I will discuss the two most popular works of historical fiction of the early 1990s, Mokmin sims6 (Heartfelt treatise on shepherd-
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
191
ing the people, 1992) and YOngwOnhan cheguk (Eternal empire, 1993).
Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the People, a five-volume novel by a
woman writer, Hwang In'gy6ng, is about Ch6ng Yagyong (Tasan, 1762-
1836), the famous scholar of practical learning (sirhak), while Eternal
Empire, which was made into a very popular movie, is by Yi Inhwa, a
professor of Korean literature, and is set in King Ch6ngjo's (r. 1776-
1800) court, where the young Tasan played a small but important role. I
will also examine Mannam (Encounter, 1986), their mid-1980s precur-
sor, which depicts the older Tasan in the last thirty years of his life.7
Written by the well-known author Hahn Moo-Sook (Han Musuk), En-
counter is held in high esteem8 and has enjoyed considerable popularity.
I will attempt to place these works in a wider political and intellectual
context.
In choosing to discuss changes in the social imagination of contem-
porary Korea through its discourse of history, particularly that repre-
sented in fictional narratives of history, I am making two propositions.
The first is that civic discourse is carried out through the discourse of
history in Korea. This is closely related to the Korean concept of his-
tory. History is not an impersonal force to be studied but an ethical
system of justice, of cause and effect. The present is viewed as an
moral confirmation of one's past. Thus, the present state signifies one's
moral worth in its entirety. In this way, it permeates the personal and
national psyche in almost the way that religion does. I would like to
point out that in many societies civic discourse is carried out through the
discourse of religion. This is true of the United States, as Sacvan Berco-
vitch (American Jeremiad) Ernest Tuveson (Redeemer Nation), and
Henry May (The End of American Innocence: Enlightenment in Amer-
ica) have persuasively shown.
There are various ways in which Koreans express their intense and
personal engagement with history. The first is the pervasiveness of the
discourse of history. It is not limited to the academy or the intellectual
community but is carried out in many venues, including television dra-
mas and popular novels, and has become a focal point of national dis-
course. In both the 1980s and 1990s,9 for instance, the best-selling novels
were those that dealt with history.
My second assumption is that by the way in which these best-sellers
construct their narratives they manifest what Raymond Williams refers to
as "structures of feeling"'1 of the time when each of these texts was
produced and consumed and that by a careful reading of these texts we
191
ing the people, 1992) and Yongwonhan cheguk (Eternal empire, 1 993). Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the People, a five-volume novel by a woman writer, Hwang In'gyong, is about Chong Yagyong (Tasan, 17621836), the famous scholar of practical learning (sirhak) , while Eternal Empire, which was made into a very popular movie, is by Yi Inhwa, a professor of Korean literature, and is set in King Chongjo's (r. 17761800) court, where the young Tasan played a small but important role. I will also examine Mannam (Encounter, 1 986) , their mid-1980s precur sor, which depicts the older Tasan in the last thirty years of his life.7 Written by the well-known author Hahn Moo-Sook (Han Musuk) , En counter is held in high esteem8 and has enjoyed considerable popularity. I will attempt to place these works in a wider political and intellectual context. In choosing to discuss changes in the social imagination of contem porary Korea through its discourse of history, particularly that repre sented in fictional narratives of history, I am making two propositions. The first is that civic discourse is carried out through the discourse of history in Korea. This is closely related to the Korean concept of his tory. History is not an impersonal force to be studied but an ethical system of j ustice, of cause and effect. The present is viewed as an moral confirmation of one's past. Thus, the present state signifies one's moral worth in its entirety. In this way, it permeates the personal and national psyche in almost the way that religion does. I would like to point out that in many societies civic discourse is carried out through the discourse of religion. This is true of the United States, as Sacvan Berco vitch (American Jeremiad) Ernest Tuveson (Redeemer Nation) , and Henry May ( The End of American Innocence: Enlightenment in Amer ica) have persuasively shown. There are various ways in which Koreans express their intense and personal engagement with history. The first is the pervasiveness of the discourse of history. It is not limited to the academy or the intellectual community but is carried out in many venues, including television dra mas and popular novels, and has become a focal point of national dis course. In both the 1980s and 1 990s,9 for instance, the best-selling novels were those that dealt with history. My second assumption is that by the way in which these best-sellers construct their narratives they manifest what Raymond Williams refers to as "structures of feeling"l0 of the time when each of these texts was produced and consumed and that by a careful reading of these texts we
192
192 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
may be able to at least partly reconstruct the structures of feeling of those
moments. I believe that these historical novels represent popular aes-
thetic and narrative transformations punctuated by, if not exactly parallel
to, these metamorphoses of national and global geography. What I would
like to do is identify changing modes of narration associated with different
genres and discuss various constitutive elements of them, including their
human and temporal sites and their significations. This will allow me to
examine the way in which the past is reconfigured in relation to changing
perceptions of the present positionality of Korea and the way in which this
was related to the shifting discourse of modernity.
The Search for a National Soul: The 1980s and
Historiographical Metafiction
The 1980s was a decade when Korean intellectuals and the public felt a
deep ambivalence toward their national past and the West. The year
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
may be able to at least partly reconstruct the structures of feeling of those moments. I believe that these historical novels represent popular aes thetic and narrative transformations punctuated by, if not exactly parallel to, these metamorphoses of national and global geography. What I would like to do is identify changing modes of narration associated with different genres and discuss various constitutive elements of them, including their human and temporal sites and their significations. This will allow me to examine the way in which the past is reconfigured in relation to changing perceptions of the present positionality of Korea and the way in which this was related to the shifting discourse of modernity.
1972 witnessed the establishment of the yushin regime, which gave un-
restricted power to Park Chung Hee (Pak Ch6nghfi), the military dicta-
tor who had come to power in a coup d'6tat in 1961. To Koreans' cha-
grin, Park's assassination in 1979 did not usher in democracy. Instead,
another military strongman, Chun Doo Hwan (Ch6n Tuhwan), seized
The Search for a National Soul: The 1980s and Historiographical Metafiction
power and in the famous Kwangju incident, which was to become the
rallying cry of the minjung (mass, people) movement,11 massacred sev-
eral hundred people who rose against him. The American government's
role in these political upheavals was perceived as either active coopera-
tion or at least compliance with the dictatorship. In this political and
intellectual climate, the binaries of West and East were fundamentally
reevaluated. Disillusioned with the West and wishing to tap the people's
sense of empowerment with regard to the nation's political life, dissident
intellectuals wished to seek inspiration and strength in their own tradi-
tion. At the same time, the very movement that they advocated was
based on the premise of the unbearable oppressiveness of the present,
which was seen as a continuation of the past.
As a way to resolve this contradiction, the minjung movement was
launched in which Marxist binaries of freedom versus oppression and
the oppressor versus the oppressed were adopted. The narratives of
struggle between us and them of this period harked back to the early-
twentieth-century revolutionary historian Sin Ch'aeho (1880-1936),
who in his epochal history ChosOn sanggosa (The history of ancient
The 1 980s was a decade when Korean intellectuals and the public felt a deep ambivalence toward their national past and the West. The year 1972 witnessed the establishment of the yushin regime, which gave un restricted power to Park Chung Hee (Pak Chonghiii), the military dicta tor who had come to power in a coup d'etat in 1 96 1 . To Koreans' cha grin, Park's assassination in 1979 did not usher in democracy. Instead, another military strongman, Chun Doo Hwan (Chon Tuhwan), seized power and in the famous Kwangju incident, which was to become the rallying cry of the minjung (mass, people) movement,ll massacred sev eral hundred people who rose against him. The American government's role in these political upheavals was perceived as either active coopera tion or at least compliance with the dictatorship. In this political and intellectual climate, the binaries of West and East were fundamentally reevaluated. Disillusioned with the West and wishing to tap the people's sense of empowerment with regard to the nation's political life, dissident intellectuals wished to seek inspiration and strength in their own tradi tion. At the same time, the very movement that they advocated was based on the premise of the unbearable oppressiveness of the present, which was seen as a continuation of the past. As a way to resolve this contradiction, the minjung movement was launched in which Marxist binaries of freedom versus oppression and the oppressor versus the oppressed were adopted. The narratives of struggle between us and them of this period harked back to the early twentieth-century revolutionary historian Sin Ch'aeho (1880-1936), who in his epochal history Chason sanggasa (The history of ancient
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
193
Korea), adopted a thesis that the history of the nation was a constant
struggle between a (self) and pia (nonself), that is, between Koreans and
non-Koreans. For example, he expressed a strongly irridentist outlook
toward Manchuria, claiming that the territory had belonged to Korea in
ancient times and that it should be restored to it.12 He critiqued the
ruling elite, especially the Confucian elite of the Chos6n period, as
having been insufficiently aware of self and the autonomy of Korean
culture. He described it as having slavishly embraced a cosmopolitan
Confucian culture that had led them to formulate the history of their
nation from a sinocentric perspective. He located a hope for the contin-
uation of indigenous culture in the people who lived with native customs
and beliefs.13 He further assigned to the people the ownership of the
nation, seeking in them the willpower to claim their nation while portray-
ing the elite as having no sense of or desire for nationhood, entranced as
it was with imported Chinese culture and having thus failed to protect
the nation.14 In this context, the narrative of class struggle in which the
minjung movement was framed allowed the dissidents to privilege reli-
gious and artistic traditions such as shamanism, which were seen as
nativistic and of the people.15
However, Confucianism, identified as the intellectual tradition of
scholars and officials who were cast as oppressors, remained problem-
atic. The views of Confucianism within and outside of the academy in the
modern period are too complex to be summarized in this space.16 Suffice
it to say that, except for the study of Confucianism as moral philosophy
and metaphysics at philosophy departments in universities, it was as-
sessed mostly within the framework of modernization theory - that is, by
evaluating whether Confucianism exerted a negative or positive influ-
ence on modernization. As long as Confucianism was viewed as the
ideology responsible for social stagnation and loss of sovereignty, the
verdict on it could not have been anything but disapproving. Confucian-
ism was termed antimodern, antiprogress, and antitechnology, and its
practitioners were criticized for having been concerned only with empty
ideas (kongni kongdam) with no regard for national well-being or the
welfare of the people. In addition, those Confucian officials who were in
power were seen as corrupt and power seeking. Nonetheless, as Confu-
cian views of the moral universe and Confucian family and ritual prac-
tices had long since become inseparable elements of the Korean mental-
ity, it was not easy to dismiss Confucianism as an imported ideology
practiced only by the elite. One can detect in Korean attitudes toward
193
Korea), adopted a thesis that the history of the nation was a constant struggle between a (self) and pia (nonself) , that is, between Koreans and non-Koreans. For example, he expressed a strongly irridentist outlook toward Manchuria, claiming that the territory had belonged to Korea in ancient times and that it should be restored to it.12 He critiqued the ruling elite, especially the Confucian elite of the Chos6n period, as having been insufficiently aware of self and the autonomy of Korean culture. He described it as having slavishly embraced a cosmopolitan Confucian culture that had led them to formulate the history of their nation from a sinocentric perspective. He located a hope for the contin uation of indigenous culture in the people who lived with native customs and beliefs.13 He further assigned to the people the ownership of the nation, seeking in them the willpower to claim their nation while portray ing the elite as having no sense of or desire for nationhood, entranced as it was with imported Chinese culture and having thus failed to protect the nation.14 In this context, the narrative of class struggle in which the minjung movement was framed allowed the dissidents to privilege reli gious and artistic traditions such as shamanism, which were seen as nativistic and of the people. IS However, Confucianism, identified as the intellectual tradition of scholars and officials who were cast as oppressors, remained problem atic. The views of Confucianism within and outside of the academy in the modern period are too complex to be summarized in this space. 16 Suffice it to say that, except for the study of Confucianism as moral philosophy and metaphysics at philosophy departments in universities, it was as sessed mostly within the framework of modernization theory - that is, by evaluating whether Confucianism exerted a negative or positive influ ence on modernization. As long as Confucianism was viewed as the ideology responsible for social stagnation and loss of sovereignty, the verdict on it could not have been anything but disapproving. Confucian ism was termed antimodern, antiprogress, and antitechnology, and its practitioners were criticized for having been concerned only with empty ideas (kongni kongdam) with no regard for national well-being or the welfare of the people. In addition, those Confucian officials who were in power were seen as corrupt and power seeking. Nonetheless, as Confu cian views of the moral universe and Confucian family and ritual prac tices had long since become inseparable elements of the Korean mental ity, it was not easy to dismiss Confucianism as an imported ideology practiced only by the elite. One can detect in Korean attitudes toward
194
194
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Confucianism a certain amount of what Joseph Levenson termed the
dilemma between intellectual rejection and emotional commitment.17
Beyond this, the Koreans exhibited a strong desire to locate moder-
nity within rather than outside their tradition. The practical learning
school, which began in the seventeenth and flourished in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, was touted as the native sprout of modernity. 18
In the 1980s, younger scholars and those in minjung movement circles
singled out the practical learning school as having invigorated nativistic
culture and championed technological innovation in the late Chos6n,
although it could not rescue Korea from bankrupt Confucianism.19 Un-
like effete Confucians, practical learning scholars were embraced as
precursors of the minjung movement.20 Although the academy was in-
creasingly dominated by a minjung historiography of class struggle, histo-
rians of a less ideological stripe also produced sophisticated scholarship
during this period. Such topics as factionalism, which had been viewed
as the embodiment of what was corrupt and evil in Confucian politics
and had been thought to be responsible for the decline and demise of the
Chos6n dynasty, began to be reevaluated.21 Western views of Confucian-
ism also shifted during this period. As the economy of the East Asian
region developed rapidly, Confucianism, which was viewed as a common
heritage of the area, came to be seen as a source of social stability and
economic vigor rather than stagnation.22 Thus, while minjung historians
depicted members of the Confucian elite as oppressors of the people,
this took place within the context of a wide range of contesting images of
Confucianism.
Dissidents' views of the West were no less complex. Although the
leaders of the minjung movement sought to locate the forces for democ-
racy in the history of the people's struggle,23 they were not oblivious to
the idea that the West could at least claim priority of practice. They were
also aware of the irony that, despite their expressed anti-Americanism,
the success of their democracy movement to a great extent depended on
media exposure and pressure from abroad, especially America. More-
over, they had to compete with the government's vision of the Korean
future, that it was leading Korea toward a bright, prosperous future
from a dark age of poverty and that when the economic goal was
achieved democracy would follow. The dissidents countered this by por-
traying the government as causing instead of easing the han of the
people and hence illegitimate. The persuasiveness of the free Korea for
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Confucianism a certain amount of what Joseph Levenson termed the dilemma between intellectual rejection and emotional commitment.n Beyond this, the Koreans exhibited a strong desire to locate moder nity within rather than outside their tradition. The practical learning school, which began in the seventeenth and flourished in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, was touted as the native sprout of modernity. 18 In the 1980s, younger scholars and those in minjung movement circles singled out the practical learning school as having invigorated nativistic culture and championed technological innovation in the late Choson, although it could not rescue Korea from bankrupt Confucianism.19 Un like effete Confucians, practical learning scholars were embraced as precursors of the minjung movement.20 Although the academy was in creasingly dominated by a minjung historiography of class struggle, histo rians of a less ideological stripe also produced sophisticated scholarship during this period. Such topics as factionalism, which had been viewed as the embodiment of what was corrupt and evil in Confucian politics and had been thought to be responsible for the decline and demise of the Choson dynasty, began to be reevaluated.21 Western views of Confucian ism also shifted during this period. As the economy of the East Asian region developed rapidly, Confucianism, which was viewed as a common heritage of the area, came to be seen as a source of social stability and economic vigor rather than stagnation.22 Thus, while minjung historians depicted members of the Confucian elite as oppressors of the people, this took place within the context of a wide range of contesting images of Confucianism. Dissidents' views of the West were no less complex. Although the leaders of the minjung movement sought to locate the forces for democ racy in the history of the people's struggle,23 they were not oblivious to the idea that the West could at least claim priority of practice. They were also aware of the irony that, despite their expressed anti-Americanism, the success of their democracy movement to a great extent depended on media exposure and pressure from abroad, especially America. More over, they had to compete with the government's vision of the Korean future, that it was leading Korea toward a bright, prosperous future from a dark age of poverty and that when the economic goal was achieved democracy would follow. The dissidents countered this by por traying the government as causing instead of easing the han of the people and hence illegitimate. The persuasiveness of the free Korea for
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
195
which they were fighting, however, rested on the country becoming a
proud member of the world rather than being isolated from it.
The approach taken to resolving these contradictions was not to
dissect or discuss them but to construct a holistic image of Korea with
which to transcend them. A spiritual rather than practical solution was
sought. Attention was devoted more to the people than their oppressors.
Intellectuals mythologized both the plight of the people and their struggle
for deliverance. Repeatedly, their han was rendered as epic; redemption
was sought in the recovery of the national soul. The rhetoric of the
minjung movement constantly referred to the importance of the recovery
of this soul, which would lead to the deliverance of the people from their
oppressors, be they colonialists or military dictators.24
Literary production clearly embodied the spirit of this period. Two
major categories of fiction were in vogue and received critical acclaim.
One was the literature of resistance, a crucial ingredient of the minjung
movement, which captured the ideological structures of feeling of the
period vividly.25 A leitmotiv of the minjung movement was the need for
a metamorphosis of the people's self-perception. They were to be re-
imagined as empowered subjects who took control of their and the
nation's destiny, no longer powerless objects upon which society acted at
whim.26 Correspondingly, although minjung literature concentrated on
the lives of the socially downtrodden and the politically oppressed and
often employed the style of social realism, many of these works end on a
note of hope as the socially disadvantaged discover their own resources
and powers and the will to fight.27
It was, however, novels in historical settings that seem to have cap-
tured more poetic structures of feeling and were more popular. They
often depicted the sufferings of individuals or families as the result of
recent historical events such as the Japanese colonization, the Korean
War, and the division of the country. Most popular were multivolume
romans-fleuves, which can be described as historiographical metafic-
tion.28 True, unlike more typical works of historiographical metafiction
such as Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children and Shame, these Korean
novels are less pointedly metaphoric and more psychological.29 Nonethe-
less they fictionalize recent Korean history. They are structured in such a
way that the fates of anonymous protagonists embody and parallel the
sufferings and conflicts of the nation. There are, in a subtext, ruminations
on the metaphysical or fundamental nature of Korean civilization, which
195
which they were fighting, however, rested on the country becoming a proud member of the world rather than being isolated from it. The approach taken to resolving these contradictions was not to dissect or discuss them but to construct a holistic image of Korea with which to transcend them. A spiritual rather than practical solution was sought. Attention was devoted more to the people than their oppressors. Intellectuals mythologized both the plight of the people and their struggle for deliverance. Repeatedly, their han was rendered as epic; redemption was sought in the recovery of the national soul. The rhetoric of the minjung movement constantly referred to the importance of the recovery of this soul, which would lead to the deliverance of the people from their oppressors, be they colonialists or military dictators.24 Literary production clearly embodied the spirit of this period. Two major categories of fiction were in vogue and received critical acclaim. One was the literature of resistance, a crucial ingredient of the minjung movement, which captured the ideological structures of feeling of the period vividly. 25 A leitmotiv of the minjung movement was the need for a metamorphosis of the people's self-perception. They were to be re imagined as empowered subjects who took control of their and the nation's destiny, no longer powerless objects upon which society acted at whim.26 Correspondingly, although minjung literature concentrated on the lives of the socially downtrodden and the politically oppressed and often employed the style of social realism, many of these works end on a note of hope as the socially disadvantaged discover their own resources and powers and the will to fight.27 It was, however, novels in historical settings that seem to have cap tured more poetic structures of feeling and were more popular. They often depicted the sufferings of individuals or families as the result of recent historical events such as the Japanese colonization, the Korean War, and the division of the country. Most popular were multivolume romans-fleuves, which can be described as historiographical metafic tion.28 True, unlike more typical works of historiographical metafiction such as Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children and Shame, these Korean novels are less pointedly metaphoric and more psychological.29 Nonethe less they fictionalize recent Korean history. They are structured in such a way that the fates of anonymous protagonists embody and parallel the sufferings and conflicts of the nation. There are, in a sub text, ruminations on the metaphysical or fundamental nature of Korean civilization, which
196
196 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
might have caused the nation's ill fate. Both the literature of resistance
and historiographical metafiction depict the accumulated han of the
people, although the literature of resistance is more focused on utilizing
these sufferings as psychic resources with which the people might over-
come their plight and fight for their dignity.
The Search for a Heroic Past: Historical Novels
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
might have caused the nation's ill fate. Both the literature of resistance and historiographical metafiction depict the accumulated han of the people, although the literature of resistance is more focused on utilizing these sufferings as psychic resources with which the people might over come their plight and fight for their dignity.
In the political trajectory of the early 1990s, the discourse of identity
drastically shifted its modes of inquiry from the metaphysical or funda-
mental nature of Korean civilization to such specific questions as the roots
The Search for a Heroic Past: Historical Novels
of Korean modernity and the timing of its arrival. Luka6s's study shows
that the historical novel, in its employment and structure, displays a high
degree of political engagement with its nation of subjects.30 For this rea-
son, historical fiction emerges as a site of ideological and political dis-
course about specific questions and events. After Gorbachev ascended to
power in the Soviet Union, for instance, many historical novels devoted to
reassessing Stalin and Stalinism were published, engendering a great deal
of public and media attention.31 Post-Napoleonic Germany between 1815
and 1830 also witnessed a tremendous vogue in historical novels of iden-
tity, mirroring the concerns of its aristocracy and bourgeoisie, who were
called upon to redefine their identities and to shift their Europe-wide,
class-bound ones to region-based national identities.32
Now historical fiction about famous personages symbolizing a shared
"glorious heritage and regrets" rather than the historiographical metafic-
tion of anonymous characters emerged as the preferred medium. Ernest
Renan said that "a heroic past, great men, glory" are the social capital
upon which one builds a concept of nation and that this is true because it
provides "the fact of sharing, in the past, a glorious heritage and regrets,
and of having, in the future, [a shared] programme to put into effect, of
the fact of having suffered, enjoyed, and hoped together."33 Thus, it is not
strange that at this intense political moment history was narrativized as
literature in the public discourse of national identity in Korea.34
All three novels that I will discuss, Encounter, Heartfelt Treatise, and
Eternal Empire, are set in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu-
ries. This is one of several periods in Korean history that have been the
focus of unending debate. The eighteenth century has generally been
viewed as a latter day golden age in Korean history but one whose bril-
liance was followed by decline and fall in the late nineteenth and early
In the political trajectory of the early 1990s, the discourse of identity drastically shifted its modes of inquiry from the metaphysical or funda mental nature of Korean civilization to such specific questions as the roots of Korean modernity and the timing of its arrival. Lukacs's study shows that the historical novel, in its employment and structure, displays a high degree of political engagement with its nation of subjects.3o For this rea son, historical fiction emerges as a site of ideological and political dis course about specific questions and events. After Gorbachev ascended to power in the Soviet Union, for instance, many historical novels devoted to reassessing Stalin and Stalinism were published, engendering a great deal of public and media attention.31 Post-Napoleonic Germany between 1815 and 1830 also witnessed a tremendous vogue in historical novels of iden tity, mirroring the concerns of its aristocracy and bourgeoisie, who were called upon to redefine their identities and to shift their Europe-wide, class-bound ones to region-based national identities.32 Now historical fiction about famous personages symbolizing a shared "glorious heritage and regrets" rather than the historiographical metafic tion of anonymous characters emerged as the preferred medium. Ernest Renan said that "a heroic past, great men, glory" are the social capital upon which one builds a concept of nation and that this is true because it provides "the fact of sharing, in the past, a glorious heritage and regrets, and of having, in the future, [a shared] programme to put into effect, of the fact of having suffered, enjoyed, and hoped together. "33 Thus, it is not strange that at this intense political moment history was narrativized as literature in the public discourse of national identity in Korea.34 All three novels that I will discuss, Encounter, Heartfelt Treatise, and Eternal Empire, are set in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu ries. This is one of several periods in Korean history that have been the focus of unending debate. The eighteenth century has generally been viewed as a latter day golden age in Korean history but one whose bril liance was followed by decline and fall in the late nineteenth and early
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
197
twentieth centuries. The issue under contention is whether one should
view the period in its own right as the culmination of traditional Korean
culture or, alternatively, with a retrospective gaze as one in which modern-
ization could have been initiated but was missed. Small wonder then that,
given the general structures of feeling intent on reexamining the relation-
ship of the Korean past to the present, this prime location of ambiguity
concerning modernity became the site for reevaluation.
Both Tasan and Ch6ngjo were chosen because they are perceived,
separately and together, as embodying the ambiguity of their period.
Tasan was arguably the greatest scholar of the practical learning school,
which is interpreted as straddling the divide between tradition and mo-
dernity. He flirted with Catholicism, and he had a meteoric political
career during the reign of Ch6ngjo who favored him and upon the
king's death spent eighteen years in exile until he was allowed to return
to his home where he lived out the remainder of his life in retirement.
Ch6ngjo is viewed as one of the most accomplished of Chos6n rulers
and his rule as one of the most brilliant. The contemplation of his reign,
however, brings pangs of regret for Korea's potentially great plans and
possibilities, which went unrealized because of his sudden death in 1800.
Subsequent policies of intolerance toward Catholics35 and the general
view of the nineteenth century as a period of slow decline36 render a
special poignancy to his passing.
In discussing the discursive meaning of historical fiction, the decon-
structionist view of a text as a cultural production seems particularly
suitable. To quote the all too famous pronouncement of Roland Barthes,
"a text consists not of a line of words, releasing a single 'theological'
meaning (the 'message' of the Author-God), but of a multi-dimensional
space in which are married and contested several writings, none of which
is original: the text is a fabric of quotations, resulting from a thousand
sources of culture."37 In its discourse of modernity, each of the three
novels selects from among a repertoire of familiar myths, ideas, and
symbols, all of which have multiple layers of intertextuality and poten-
tial interpretation, and employs them in such a way as to create a new
meaning. Tasan and Ch6ngjo were complex figures who lend themselves
to markedly different portrayals. I will discuss the myths, ideas, and
symbols with which the discourse of modernity has been unfolded. Addi-
tionally, I will discuss the ways in which each text selects popular images
of its protagonists and well-known events, supplements them with ficti-
tious or legendary elements, and reassembles these elements to manifest
1 97
twentieth centuries. The issue under contention is whether one should view the period in its own right as the culmination of traditional Korean culture or, alternatively, with a retrospective gaze as one in which modern ization could have been initiated but was missed. Small wonder then that, given the general structures of feeling intent on reexamining the relation ship of the Korean past to the present, this prime location of ambiguity concerning modernity became the site for reevaluation. Both Tasan and Chongjo were chosen because they are perceived, separately and together, as embodying the ambiguity of their period. Tasan was arguably the greatest scholar of the practical learning school, which is interpreted as straddling the divide between tradition and mo dernity. He flirted with Catholicism, and he had a meteoric political career during the reign of Chongjo who favored him and upon the king's death spent eighteen years in exile until he was allowed to return to his home where he lived out the remainder of his life in retirement. Chongjo is viewed as one of the most accomplished of Choson rulers and his rule as one of the most brilliant. The contemplation of his reign, however, brings pangs of regret for Korea's potentially great plans and possibilities, which went unrealized because of his sudden death in 1 800. Subsequent policies of intolerance toward Catholics35 and the general view of the nineteenth century as a period of slow dec1ine36 render a special poignancy to his passing. In discussing the discursive meaning of historical fiction, the decon structionist view of a text as a cultural production seems particularly suitable. To quote the all too famous pronouncement of Roland Barthes, "a text consists not of a line of words, releasing a single 'theological' meaning (the 'message' of the Author-God), but of a multi-dimensional space in which are married and contested several writings, none of which is original: the text is a fabric of quotations, resulting from a thousand sources of culture. "37 In its discourse of modernity, each of the three novels selects from among a repertoire of familiar myths, ideas, and symbols, all of which have multiple layers of intertextuality and poten tial interpretation, and employs them in such a way as to create a new meaning. Tasan and Chongjo were complex figures who lend themselves to markedly different portrayals. I will discuss the myths, ideas, and symbols with which the discourse of modernity has been unfolded. Addi tionally, I will discuss the ways in which each text selects popular images of its protagonists and well-known events, supplements them with ficti tious or legendary elements, and reassembles these elements to manifest
198
198 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
structures of feeling of the time during which each text was produced
and consumed. Although I am not concerned with historical veracity, I
will consider historical and nonhistorical elements to highlight the par-
ticular usage of these elements in the texts.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
structures of feeling of the time during which each text was produced and consumed. Although I am not concerned with historical veracity, I will consider historical and nonhistorical elements to highlight the par ticular usage of these elements in the texts.
Encounter and the Discourse of Spirituality
Within the context of the general literary culture of the mid-1980s, En-
counter, in both its genre and subject, was something of an anomaly.
Encounter and the Discourse of Spirituality
Unlike the more popular multivolume historiographical metafiction with
a cast of thousands,38 Encounter is a straightforward historical novel
about a famous personage. Moreover, while Encounter unfolds along the
intellectual and religious trajectory of Korea in the early nineteenth cen-
tury, it focuses on Tasan's psychological conflicts and spiritual growth.
This emphasis on the interiority of the preeminent scholar's individual
self places it at odds with the more minjung-oriented literature of anony-
mous persons of the 1980s. Tasan, however, received a great deal of
attention from minjung-oriented historians, who saw him as representa-
tive of antiestablishment persons who contributed a great deal to Korean
society. 39 Thus, Tasan's spiritual awakening can be seen as a metaphor of
hope for the political freedom for which Koreans yearned. Moreover, the
way Encounter poses questions and seeks resolutions also shares many
mid-1980s perceptions of the Korean past. In these respects, it is embed-
ded in the structures of feeling of the time of its appearance even while it
looks ahead in its subject.
Encounter displays a holistic approach to history and problematizes
the question of Korean modernity as a fundamental question of state of
being. One immediately notices that the novel's vision of modernity is
distinct from the accepted Western version of secularism and anticleri-
calism. In contrast to the modernity of the Enlightenment model, a
triumph of rationality over religous spirituality, a triumph from which
political freedom, material progress, and scientific and intellectual in-
quiry ensue,40 the vision of modernity that Encounter constructs is a
space beyond rationality, one in which individuals are allowed freedom
to attain religious spirituality and by implication in which society ac-
quires political freedom. In other words, religious spirituality is equated
with freedom rather than tyranny and with progress rather than con-
straint. In fact, the protagonist's search for spiritual completion is de-
picted as heroic in the novel and it seems to parallel the political rhetoric
Within the context of the general literary culture of the mid-1980s, En counter, in both its genre and subject, was something of an anomaly. Unlike the more popular multivolume historiographical metafiction with a cast of thousands,38 Encounter is a straightforward historical novel about a famous personage. Moreover, while Encounter unfolds along the intellectual and religious trajectory of Korea in the early nineteenth cen tury, it focuses on Tasan's psychological conflicts and spiritual growth. This emphasis on the interiority of the preeminent scholar's individual self places it at odds with the more minjung-oriented literature of anony mous persons of the 1 980s. Tasan, however, received a great deal of attention from minjung-oriented historians, who saw him as representa tive of antiestablishment persons who contributed a great deal to Korean society. 39 Thus, Tasan's spiritual awakening can be seen as a metaphor of hope for the political freedom for which Koreans yearned. Moreover, the way Encounter poses questions and seeks resolutions also shares many mid-1980s perceptions of the Korean past. In these respects, it is embed ded in the structures of feeling of the time of its appearance even while it looks ahead in its subject. Encounter displays a holistic approach to history and problematizes the question of Korean modernity as a fundamental question of state of being. One immediately notices that the novel's vision of modernity is distinct from the accepted Western version of secularism and anticleri calism. In contrast to the modernity of the Enlightenment model, a triumph of rationality over religous spirituality, a triumph from which political freedom, material progress, and scientific and intellectual in quiry ensue,40 the vision of modernity that Encounter constructs is a space beyond rationality, one in which individuals are allowed freedom to attain religious spirituality and by implication in which society ac quires political freedom. In other words, religious spirituality is equated with freedom rather than tyranny and with progress rather than con straint. In fact, the protagonist's search for spiritual completion is de picted as heroic in the novel and it seems to parallel the political rhetoric
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
199
of the 1980s, which mythologizes as epic the people's struggle to achieve
freedom.
The problem is that the religious spirituality that the text presents as
a culmination is Catholicism, and Encounter must reconcile this impli-
cation of the superiority of Catholicism with a reluctance to see Korean
tradition as negative and Western tradition as superior. More than that,
the text must go so far as to find a way to concede the nation's spiritual
space to a foreign religion. In most cases, this space is not conceded to
something exterior to native tradition. Chatterjee argues persuasively
that colonial and postcolonial societies maintain their autonomous space
by separating their worlds into an inner spiritual domain and an outer
material domain and that, while they may concede the outer domain,
they preserve their spiritual one.41 Encounter adopts several strategies to
resolve these problems.
First, Encounter eschews the dichotomous division between rational-
ity and spirituality and replaces it with a hierarchy in which spirituality is
placed above rationality but rationality has an important function. In
this framework, the Korean intellectual tradition is represented by Con-
fucianism, which is in turn equated with rationality and is thus, to a
degree, affirmed as a worthy system of values. The academy has long
been divided over whether the practical learning school was a develop-
ment within or in opposition to Confucianism. Encounter avoids this
question altogether and thus is able to present as rational the major
traditional system of values in its entirety. In fact, as if to refute the
charges of backwardness and provincialism leveled against Confucian-
ism, the text engages in long expositions of the virtues of Confucian
metaphysics and its social system. At the same time, the text refers to
the incompleteness of Confucianism by pointing out the inherent limits
of rationality. Rationality, however, is not an obstacle to but a useful
ingredient in achieving spirituality. Likewise, Catholic spirituality is pre-
sented not as something opposed to Confucianism but the state Confu-
cianism could achieve if it were to acquire spirituality. It is interesting to
note that in contrast to the many discussions of Confucian theories there
is virtually no discussion of Catholic theology.
Tasan symbolizes this progression from Confucian rationality to
Catholic spirituality. In the beginning, he appears as a tortured intellec-
tual who, despite his awesome ability to acquire knowledge and his
unsurpassed scholarship, is acutely aware of the incompleteness of his
life and seeks to fill this void. He is also a man of progressive ideas,
199
of the 1980s, which mythologizes as epic the people's struggle to achieve freedom. The problem is that the religious spirituality that the text presents as a culmination is Catholicism, and Encounter must reconcile this impli cation of the superiority of Catholicism with a reluctance to see Korean tradition as negative and Western tradition as superior. More than that, the text must go so far as to find a way to concede the nation's spiritual space to a foreign religion. In most cases, this space is not conceded to something exterior to native tradition. Chatterjee argues persuasively that colonial and postcolonial societies maintain their autonomous space by separating their worlds into an inner spiritual domain and an outer material domain and that, while they may concede the outer domain, they preserve their spiritual one.41 Encounter adopts several strategies to resolve these problems. First, Encounter eschews the dichotomous division between rational ity and spirituality and replaces it with a hierarchy in which spirituality is placed above rationality but rationality has an important function. In this framework, the Korean intellectual tradition is represented by Con fucianism, which is in turn equated with rationality and is thus, to a degree, affirmed as a worthy system of values. The academy has long been divided over whether the practical learning school was a develop ment within or in opposition to Confucianism. Encounter avoids this question altogether and thus is able to present as rational the major traditional system of values in its entirety. In fact, as if to refute the charges of backwardness and provincialism leveled against Confucian ism, the text engages in long expositions of the virtues of Confucian metaphysics and its social system. At the same time, the text refers to the incompleteness of Confucianism by pointing out the inherent limits of rationality. Rationality, however, is not an obstacle to but a useful ingredient in achieving spirituality. Likewise, Catholic spirituality is pre sented not as something opposed to Confucianism but the state Confu cianism could achieve if it were to acquire spirituality. It is interesting to note that in contrast to the many discussions of Confucian theories there is virtually no discussion of Catholic theology. Tasan symbolizes this progression from Confucian rationality to Catholic spirituality. In the beginning, he appears as a tortured intellec tual who, despite his awesome ability to acquire knowledge and his unsurpassed scholarship, is acutely aware of the incompleteness of his life and seeks to fill this void. He is also a man of progressive ideas,
200
200
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
including the abolition of the rigid class system, and yet he has remained
aloof from commoners in the village and others who serve him. Gradu-
ally, he is transformed - he opens himself to his natural self. His decision
to take a local woman as a mistress, his appreciation of her simple and
delicious cooking, and his empathy for the child born of this union are
presented as an acceptance of the noncerebral aspects of self. Once he
embraces emotion and sensuality, which nurture and comfort him, his
rational self is complete and he is ready for spirituality.
It is well known that the historical Tasan was fascinated with Catholi-
cism in his youth, but when Catholicism was declared heterodox he, as
well as his brother Ch6ng Yakch6n (1758-1816), recanted. One of his
brothers, Ch6ng Yakchong (1760-1801) adhered to his Catholic faith
and was martyred in 1801. Tasan's recantation is presented in the novel
as having been born of his reluctance to disappoint King Ch6ngjo, who
had placed so much trust in him,42 but it was nonetheless a source of
constant guilt and pain. These conflicts, which are both supported and
undercut by his rationality, are overcome only when he reembraces
Catholicism. His resubmission to the Catholic faith is presented as an
acceptance of his interior spiritual self; no longer in conflict, he finds
peace and completion. Both conversions are based on rationality, but
the later one is born of the realization of the insufficiency of his rational
beliefs.
The antithesis of Tasan is his nephew, Ch6ng Hasang (1795-1839),
the son of his martyred brother Yakchong. The historical Hasang played
a leading role in the fledgling Catholic community and contributed
greatly to bringing foreign missionaries to Korea. He also wrote the
seminal Sang Chaesang so (A letter to the State Council), a systematic
defense of Catholic faith widely read by Catholics in Asia.43 The novel
portrays Hasang as a man of natural spirituality to whom faith came
providentially but also as a birthright through his father's martyrdom. In
contrast to his conflicted uncle, Hasang grew up tall and physically
strong but illiterate, learning to read and write only as an adult. He is an
idealized representation of the simple goodness of people who work
with their hands, effortlessly achieving unity between faith and reason,
mind and body, and love of God and love of kin. The idealization of
Hasang signifies the obsession of the 1980s with the nobility of working
people and their superiority over persons of intellect. Not only does
Hasang realize his own spirituality with ease, but he offers solace to his
uncle and helps him to realize his own.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
including the abolition of the rigid class system, and yet he has remained aloof from commoners in the village and others who serve him. Gradu ally, he is transformed - he opens himself to his natural self. His decision to take a local woman as a mistress, his appreciation of her simple and delicious cooking, and his empathy for the child born of this union are presented as an acceptance of the noncerebral aspects of self. Once he embraces emotion and sensuality, which nurture and comfort him, his rational self is complete and he is ready for spirituality. It is well known that the historical Tasan was fascinated with Catholi cism in his youth, but when Catholicism was declared heterodox he, as well as his brother Chong Yakchon (1758-1816), recanted. One of his brothers, Chong Yakchong (1760-1801) adhered to his Catholic faith and was martyred in 1 80 1 . Tasan's recantation is presented in the novel as having been born of his reluctance to disappoint King Chongjo, who had placed so much trust in him,42 but it was nonetheless a source of constant guilt and pain. These conflicts, which are both supported and undercut by his rationality, are overcome only when he reembraces Catholicism. His resubmission to the Catholic faith is presented as an acceptance of his interior spiritual self; no longer in conflict, he finds peace and completion. Both conversions are based on rationality, but the later one is born of the realization of the insufficiency of his rational beliefs. The antithesis of Tasan is his nephew, Chong Hasang (1795-1839), the son of his martyred brother Yakchong. The historical Hasang played a leading role in the fledgling Catholic community and contributed greatly to bringing foreign missionaries to Korea. He also wrote the seminal Sang Chaesang s6 (A letter to the State Council), a systematic defense of Catholic faith widely read by Catholics in Asia.43 The novel portrays Hasang as a man of natural spirituality to whom faith came providentially but also as a birthright through his father's martyrdom. In contrast to his conflicted uncle, Hasang grew up tall and physically strong but illiterate, learning to read and write only as an adult. He is an idealized representation of the simple goodness of people who work with their hands, effortlessly achieving unity between faith and reason, mind and body, and love of God and love of kin. The idealization of Hasang signifies the obsession of the 1 980s with the nobility of working people and their superiority over persons of intellect. Not only does Hasang realize his own spirituality with ease, but he offers solace to his uncle and helps him to realize his own.
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
201
Hasang also symbolizes Koreans' inclination to appropriate Chris-
tianity as their own heritage. Through Hasang and other Catholic fig-
ures, Encounter evokes the universality of Christianity and claims Kore-
ans' autonomous discovery of it, thereby subtly circumventing the thorny
issue of the Western origin of Catholicism. To be sure, the story of
Korean Catholics in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is a remark-
able chapter in the annals of Church history. At first, intellectuals, at-
tracted by its theology, converted to it. Soon, without the benefit of a
missionary, it spread to all classes. The Catholic community persevered
despite repeated and severe government persecutions in the nineteenth
century.44 To date, with 103 canonized Catholic saints, Korea boasts the
fourth-largest number of saints of any nation.45 Encounter makes the
most of this story. In addition to a Christian view of a person's ability to
discover the immanence of God, it claims the Catholic heritage as Ko-
rea's own birthright.
If the Hasang of Encounter is an idealization of the historical per-
son, Tasan's return to Catholicism in his old age is even more fanciful.
Although French missionaries and the Catholic Church claim Tasan's
return, nowhere else is this claim supported. Not one piece of Tasan's
copious collection of writings indicates a reembrace of Catholicism.46
That the author of Encounter was a Catholic might explain her rendering
of Tasan's return to religion. It is more significant, however, that spiritu-
ality is made a central ingredient in the meaning of an individual life as
well as a criterion by which the value of systems of thought and religion
are to be measured.47 And in this Encounter shares contemporary struc-
tures of feeling that searched for metaphoric significance for the spiri-
tual life of the nation and its people. It seems that Tasan and Hasang
represent present and future Korea, respectively.
This vision of modernity as a space of freedom is obviously embedded
in the political oppression of the time and the democracy movement in
Korea. Dissident rhetoric presented liberation from oppression as a fulfill-
ment of the people's destiny and the completion of the nation's soul. The
acceptance of the superiority of Catholic spirituality and the appropria-
tion of it as Korea's religious heritage must be viewed in this context. The
Catholic Church played a crucial and visible role in the democracy move-
ment. Images of street demonstrations flitting across television screens
almost every evening during the mid-1980s, for instance, often showed
the My6ngdong Cathedral in downtown Seoul to which demonstrators
retreated and which offered sanctuary to the political activists hunted by
201
Hasang also symbolizes Koreans' inclination to appropriate Chris tianity as their own heritage. Through Hasang and other Catholic fig ures, Encounter evokes the universality of Christianity and claims Kore ans' autonomous discovery of it, thereby subtly circumventing the thorny issue of the Western origin of Catholicism. To be sure, the story of Korean Catholics in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is a remark able chapter in the annals of Church history. At first, intellectuals, at tracted by its theology, converted to it. Soon, without the benefit of a missionary, it spread to all classes. The Catholic community persevered despite repeated and severe government persecutions in the nineteenth century. 44 To date, with 103 canonized Catholic saints, Korea boasts the fourth-largest number of saints of any nation.45 Encounter makes the most of this story. In addition to a Christian view of a person's ability to discover the immanence of God, it claims the Catholic heritage as Ko rea's own birthright. If the Hasang of Encounter is an idealization of the historical per son, Tasan's return to Catholicism in his old age is even more fanciful. Although French missionaries and the Catholic Church claim Tasan's return, nowhere else is this claim supported. Not one piece of Tasan's copious collection of writings indicates a reembrace of Catholicism.46 That the author of Encounter was a Catholic might explain her rendering of Tasan's return to religion. It is more significant, however, that spiritu ality is made a central ingredient in the meaning of an individual life as well as a criterion by which the value of systems of thought and religion are to be measured.47 And in this Encounter shares contemporary struc tures of feeling that searched for metaphoric significance for the spiri tual life of the nation and its people. It seems that Tasan and Hasang represent present and future Korea, respectively. This vision of modernity as a space of freedom is obviously embedded in the political oppression of the time and the democracy movement in Korea. Dissident rhetoric presented liberation from oppression as a fulfill ment of the people's destiny and the completion of the nation's soul. The acceptance of the superiority of Catholic spirituality and the appropria tion of it as Korea's religious heritage must be viewed in this context. The Catholic Church played a crucial and visible role in the democracy move ment. Images of street demonstrations flitting across television screens almost every evening during the mid-1980s, for instance, often showed the Myongdong Cathedral in downtown Seoul to which demonstrators retreated and which offered sanctuary to the political activists hunted by
202
202
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the military government. In these moments, democracy and spirituality
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the military government. In these moments, democracy and spirituality did appear to be inseparably linked.
did appear to be inseparably linked.
Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the People and the
Discourse of Arrested Time
A euphoric sense of accomplishment about their present in the early
1990s seems to have induced the public to eagerly claim indigenous roots
Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the People and the Discourse of Arrested Time
for Korean modernity and to see it as a fulfillment of a great and
thwarted potential in earlier Korean civilization. A troubling element in
this proposition was the timing of its arrival: if Korea had contained the
seeds of modernity and greatness, why did democracy and modernity
arrive only recently? This question required an answer because, stand-
ing at the crossroads, Korea had to come to terms with the suffering and
sacrifices of those who had prepared for this moment. Even during the
most recent dozen years or so, how many dissidents and students had
died, wasted away in jail, or been destroyed in the course of pursuing
democracy? What of the long tragic years before that? How many had
been displaced or killed during the Korean War? And what of coloniza-
tion, the event seen as the source of national tragedy and humiliation,
the mere mention of which causes Koreans to seethe with anger? Why
did Korea have to become Japan's colony for thirty-five years? How
many lived in misery and died in exile? In order to bring closure to the
han of these long years, not only was it necessary to remember those
who had suffered but meaning had to be given to these lives and sacri-
fices. Thus, the historical past once again was appropriated to confirm
the nation's greatness and at the same time provide plausible historical
contingencies for the explanation of the delay in Korea's modernization.
Perhaps better geared to popular taste than the other two books,
Heartfelt Treatise draws upon the timeworn notion that posits Confucian-
ism and practical learning as a dichotomy, assigning to the former engage-
ment with empty theory and an obsession with the past and to the latter
such modern attributes as progressiveness, pragmatism, and an interest in
science and technology.48 A concomitant idea is that it was the corrupt
Confucian elite that suppressed the reform plans of the progressive practi-
cal learning scholars and was thus responsible for the decline of the
Chos6n dynasty. As a way of showing Tasan's anti-Confucian pragma-
tism, the novel depicts him as disparaging his contemporary intellectual
culture as an obsession with how "Confucius said this, Mencius said thus"
A euphoric sense of accomplishment about their present in the early 1990s seems to have induced the public to eagerly claim indigenous roots for Korean modernity and to see it as a fulfillment of a great and thwarted potential in earlier Korean civilization. A troubling element in this proposition was the timing of its arrival: if Korea had contained the seeds of modernity and greatness, why did democracy and modernity arrive only recently? This question required an answer because, stand ing at the crossroads, Korea had to come to terms with the suffering and sacrifices of those who had prepared for this moment. Even during the most recent dozen years or so, how many dissidents and students had died, wasted away in j ail, or been destroyed in the course of pursuing democracy? What of the long tragic years before that? How many had been displaced or killed during the Korean War? And what of coloniza tion, the event seen as the source of national tragedy and humiliation, the mere mention of which causes Koreans to seethe with anger? Why did Korea have to become Japan's colony for thirty-five years? How many lived in misery and died in exile? In order to bring closure to the han of these long years, not only was it necessary to remember those who had suffered but meaning had to be given to these lives and sacri fices. Thus, the historical past once again was appropriated to confirm the nation's greatness and at the same time provide plausible historical contingencies for the explanation of the delay in Korea's modernization. Perhaps better geared to popular taste than the other two books, Heartfelt Treatise draws upon the timeworn notion that posits Confucian ism and practical learning as a dichotomy, assigning to the former engage ment with empty theory and an obsession with the past and to the latter such modern attributes as progressiveness, pragmatism, and an interest in science and technology. 48 A concomitant idea is that it was the corrupt Confucian elite that suppressed the reform plans of the progressive practi cal learning scholars and was thus responsible for the decline of the Choson dynasty. As a way of showing Tasan's anti-Confucian pragma tism, the novel depicts him as disparaging his contemporary intellectual culture as an obsession with how "Confucius said this, Mencius said thus"
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
203
(Kongja wal Maengja wal).49 This fictional Tasan also criticizes Zhu Xi as
follows: "Master Zhu excessively pursued empty theories and concepts in
order to inquire into metaphysical philosophy, but he completely ne-
glected to place scholarship into practice."50 Neither of these remarks
would have occurred to the historical Tasan, a scholar with a traditional
sensibility who worked within neo-Confucian metaphysics.
Unlike Encounter, Heartfelt Treatise uses a more common division
between the spiritual and material domains, assigning the former to
native tradition while conceding the latter to the outsider. This enables
the narrative to admire the novel inventions and scientific progress the
West was making and to lament how Korea, closed to these innovations
and uninterested in them, lagged hopelessly behind. In the spiritual
domain, however, Korean tradition was sufficient. Tasan embodies this
division. He unreservedly admires the technological innovations of the
West, freely admitting that Korea must adopt them in order to improve
people's lives and build a strong nation.51 His assessment of Catholicism
is portrayed in a different light.
First of all, unlike Encounter, Heartfelt Treatise does not privilege
Catholicism as spiritually superior, although it recognizes it as a valid
religion.52 Tasan's involvement with Catholicism is presented as a brief
fascination born of intellectual curiosity, which ends with his realization
that it is incompatible with Korean beliefs and customs and his own
visions and commitments in life.53 Unlike the Tasan of Encounter, he
harbors no regrets or guilt on this matter. Later he comments: "Even if
one learns diligently but does not think for oneself, then one only slav-
ishly follows. Conversely, if one thinks for oneself but does not learn,
one can easily fall into foolish ideas."54 The novel defines spirituality as
residing not merely in a religious quest associated with faith but in a
search for moral perfection based on knowledge and meditation. It re-
jects the dichotomy between the sacredness of otherworldly concerns
and the mundaneness of this world. Tasan does not wish to be elevated
by religious spirituality; rather, he seeks to fulfill himself as an individual
in the intellectual and emotional domains, in his familial relationships,
and as a social being. One should note that this vision of a moral quest is
based on the Confucian ideal, the creed the novel nominally disparages.
Indeed, the portrayal of Tasan in Heartfelt Treatise is the polar oppo-
site of the one in Encounter. Instead of a tortured apostate, Tasan is a
man who achieves harmony and balance in all aspects of his life. The
novel presents his ability to harmonize as the source of his growth and
203
(Kongja wal Maengja wal) .49 This fictional Tasan also criticizes Zhu Xi as follows: "Master Zhu excessively pursued empty theories and concepts in order to inquire into metaphysical philosophy, but he completely ne glected to place scholarship into practice."50 Neither of these remarks would have occurred to the historical Tasan, a scholar with a traditional sensibility who worked within neo-Confucian metaphysics. Unlike Encounter, Heartfelt Treatise uses a more common division between the spiritual and material domains, assigning the former to native tradition while conceding the latter to the outsider. This enables the narrative to admire the novel inventions and scientific progress the West was making and to lament how Korea, closed to these innovations and uninterested in them, lagged hopelessly behind. In the spiritual domain, however, Korean tradition was sufficient. Tasan embodies this division. He unreservedly admires the technological innovations of the West, freely admitting that Korea must adopt them in order to improve people's lives and build a strong nation.51 His assessment of Catholicism is portrayed in a different light. First of all, unlike Encounter, Heartfelt Treatise does not privilege Catholicism as spiritually superior, although it recognizes it as a valid religion. 52 Tasan's involvement with Catholicism is presented as a brief fascination born of intellectual curiosity, which ends with his realization that it is incompatible with Korean beliefs and customs and his own visions and commitments in life.53 Unlike the Tasan of Encounter, he harbors no regrets or guilt on this matter. Later he comments: "Even if one learns diligently but does not think for oneself, then one only slav ishly follows. Conversely, if one thinks for oneself but does not learn, one can easily fall into foolish ideas. "54 The novel defines spirituality as residing not merely in a religious quest associated with faith but in a search for moral perfection based on knowledge and meditation. It re jects the dichotomy between the sacredness of otherworldly concerns and the mundaneness of this world. Tasan does not wish to be elevated by religious spirituality; rather, he seeks to fulfill himself as an individual in the intellectual and emotional domains, in his familial relationships, and as a social being. One should note that this vision of a moral quest is based on the Confucian ideal, the creed the novel nominally disparages. Indeed, the portrayal of Tasan in Heartfelt Treatise is the polar oppo site of the one in Encounter. Instead of a tortured apostate, Tasan is a man who achieves harmony and balance in all aspects of his life. The novel presents his ability to harmonize as the source of his growth and
204
204
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
fulfillment. He achieves greatness because he does not deny but rather
embraces different elements such as emotion and reason and metaphys-
ics and technology. Likewise, he successfully combines his public duty
when he is in office with his personal life as a husband, father, son, and
brother. His outlook on Korean tradition and its relations to the external
world is similarly balanced. He is conscious of Korea's intellectual and
cultural identity but is open to and curious about new ideas and believes
in the necessity of their continuous flow. The vision of modernity de-
picted through Tasan is a society in which intellectual and religious
pluralism is allowed; imported and indigenous ideas coexist, mutually
influencing each other; people of different classes are treated fairly, in
accordance with their abilities; and art and technology exist side by side.
If this vision of a pluralistic society is a clarion call for a democratic
Korea free of the recent political culture of confrontation, the tardy
arrival of democracy and modernity has still to be explained. Tasan lived
in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Modernity came to
Korea in the 1990s. How can one account for this arrested time? In fact,
the dramatic tension in Heartfelt Treatise rests on the discrepancy be-
tween the infinite possibilities Tasan exemplifies and the political ex-
clusion of him, that between the potential for social application of his
ideas and continuous obstruction of their utilization, and the way in
which its protagonist resolves his frustrated dreams. Whereas Encounter
begins when Tasan is an old man in his place of exile, Heartfelt Treatise
begins when Tasan is twenty-one years of age, just before he passes the
civil service examination, and it follows him to his death. The central
event that terminates his dreams of fulfillment is King Ch6ngjo's death
in 1800. As a young man, Tasan exhibits extraordinary talent, which
earns him the high esteem and trust of the king. A special relationship of
affection and respect develops between the middle-aged king and the
young scholar-official. Surrounded by regressive Confucian officials,
Ch6ngjo eagerly awaits the day when he can employ Tasan in a position
of responsibility and with him carry out great reforms for the country.
Ch6ngjo's untimely death at the age of forty-eight puts an end to the
promise of reform and the utilization of Tasan's ideas. Tasan is banished
to the remote countryside, and there, forgotten, lonely, and far from
family and friends, he spends eighteen years.
It is in its interpretation of Tasan's years of exile that Heartfelt Treatise
confronts the question of the long delay in the realization of modernity in
Korea. Were these eighteen years a waste? The novel proposes that,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
fulfillment. He achieves greatness because he does not deny but rather embraces different elements such as emotion and reason and metaphys ics and technology. Likewise, he successfully combines his public duty when he is in office with his personal life as a husband, father, son, and brother. His outlook on Korean tradition and its relations to the external world is similarly balanced. He is conscious of Korea's intellectual and cultural identity but is open to and curious about new ideas and believes in the necessity of their continuous flow. The vision of modernity de picted through Tasan is a society in which intellectual and religious pluralism is allowed; imported and indigenous ideas coexist, mutually influencing each other; people of different classes are treated fairly, in accordance with their abilities; and art and technology exist side by side. If this vision of a pluralistic society is a clarion call for a democratic Korea free of the recent political culture of confrontation, the tardy arrival of democracy and modernity has still to be explained. Tasan lived in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Modernity came to Korea in the 1990s. How can one account for this arrested time? In fact, the dramatic tension in Heartfelt Treatise rests on the discrepancy be tween the infinite possibilities Tasan exemplifies and the political ex clusion of him, that between the potential for social application of his ideas and continuous obstruction of their utilization, and the way in which its protagonist resolves his frustrated dreams. Whereas Encounter begins when Tasan is an old man in his place of exile, Heartfelt Treatise begins when Tasan is twenty-one years of age, j ust before he passes the civil service examination, and it follows him to his death. The central event that terminates his dreams of fulfillment is King Chongjo's death in 1800. As a young man, Tasan exhibits extraordinary talent, which earns him the high esteem and trust of the king. A special relationship of affection and respect develops between the middle-aged king and the young scholar-official. Surrounded by regressive Confucian officials, Chongjo eagerly awaits the day when he can employ Tasan in a position of responsibility and with him carry out great reforms for the country. Chongjo's untimely death at the age of forty-eight puts an end to the promise of reform and the utilization of Tasan's ideas. Tasan is banished to the remote countryside, and there, forgotten, lonely, and far from family and friends, he spends eighteen years. It is in its interpretation of Tasan's years of exile that Heartfelt Treatise confronts the question of the long delay in the realization of modernity in Korea. Were these eighteen years a waste? The novel proposes that,
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
205
during this period of trial, Tasan achieves true greatness. Rather than
succumbing to despair, Tasan devotes his time to scholarship and com-
pletes many tens of treatises perfecting his work. Tasan is even glad that
he has been given this opportunity to pursue his ideas uninterrupted by
the demands of a public career. He writes and teaches disciples. Tasan's
resolution of his years of trial seems to represent an affirmation of Korea's
long years of suffering, suggesting that those years matured and prepared
Korea for its present triumph. In this way, it acknowledges and gives
meaning to all those who paved the way for the greatness of their nation.
The novel, however, still expresses ambivalence over the time gap.
When Tasan is finally recalled from banishment, his disciples express a
hope for his reentry into government: "If someone like our teacher were
to govern the country, we could also make big ships and cannons and build
a wealthy and powerful nation."55 It seems that this might occur. Some of
the officials in power are aware of the crisis the country is in and recom-
mend Tasan as the only person who might lead it out of disaster, but this
hope is again dashed. About this final missed opportunity, the novel
comments: "Had [Tasan] Ch6ng Yagyong entered the cabinet at this time,
the situation would have been quite different. Most likely modern pro-
gressive ideas would have been imported before they arrived in Japan."56
That it arrived in Korea later than in Japan and thus caused long
years of suffering and humiliation certainly rankles. Tasan, however,
spends his final years peacefully at home surrounded by his loving fam-
ily. Historical contingencies did not allow Tasan's genius to be put to use
earlier, but that does not nullify his greatness or his fulfillment. Simi-
larly, the long delay does not deprive those who lived before democracy
of meaning. They shared the common heritage of a nation whose day
has now arrived. In some way, Korea is perhaps stronger and readier as
a result of its many trials.
Eternal Empire and Korea's Search for HISTORY
The missed opportunity for reform occasioned by King Ch6ngjo's death
in 1800 and its signification for Korean history are the central themes of
Eternal Empire. The novel is a short thriller of the deconstructionist
variety reminiscent of Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose. Like the
Italian murder mystery set in a medieval cloister, Eternal Empire at-
tempts to re-create a visceral sense of its historical setting. Unlike the
Italian novel, which relies on a painstaking reconstruction of details, the
205
during this period of trial, Tasan achieves true greatness. Rather than succumbing to despair, Tasan devotes his time to scholarship and com pletes many tens of treatises perfecting his work. Tasan is even glad that he has been given this opportunity to pursue his ideas uninterrupted by the demands of a public career. He writes and teaches disciples. Tasan's resolution of his years of trial seems to represent an affirmation of Korea's long years of suffering, suggesting that those years matured and prepared Korea for its present triumph. In this way, it acknowledges and gives meaning to all those who paved the way for the greatness of their nation. The novel, however, still expresses ambivalence over the time gap. When Tasan is finally recalled from banishment, his disciples express a hope for his reentry into government: "If someone like our teacher were to govern the country, we could also make big ships and cannons and build a wealthy and powerful nation. "55 It seems that this might occur. Some of the officials in power are aware of the crisis the country is in and recom mend Tasan as the only person who might lead it out of disaster, but this hope is again dashed. About this final missed opportunity, the novel comments: "Had [Tasan] Chong Yagyong entered the cabinet at this time, the situation would have been quite different. Most likely modern pro gressive ideas would have been imported before they arrived in Japan."56 That it arrived in Korea later than in Japan and thus caused long years of suffering and humiliation certainly rankles. Tasan, however, spends his final years peacefully at home surrounded by his loving fam ily. Historical contingencies did not allow Tasan's genius to be put to use earlier, but that does not nullify his greatness or his fulfillment. Simi larly, the long delay does not deprive those who lived before democracy of meaning. They shared the common heritage of a nation whose day has now arrived. In some way, Korea is perhaps stronger and readier as a result of its many trials. Eternal Empire and Korea's Search for HISTORY
The missed opportunity for reform occasioned by King Chongjo's death in 1800 and its signification for Korean history are the central themes of Eternal Empire. The novel is a short thriller of the deconstructionist variety reminiscent of Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose. Like the Italian murder mystery set in a medieval cloister, Eternal Empire at tempts to re-create a visceral sense of its historical setting. Unlike the Italian novel, which relies on a painstaking reconstruction of details, the
206
206 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Korean work uses much more rapidly shifting visual images in a cine-
matic style.
It is constructed as the memoir of a fictitious character, Yi Inmong,
a royal historian. It follows the events of one day in 1800. The day begins
at dawn within the palace precinct with Yi Inmong's discovery of the
murder of his fellow historian, one of Ch6ngjo's trusted coterie of junior
scholar-officials, and it ends late at night with an intimation of impend-
ing regicide. The entire day is devoted to a race between the royal party
and the officials of the Noron faction in a search for a secret document.
This document, supposedly written by King Y6ngjo (r. 1724-76) for his
grandson, would enable Ch6ngjo to declare a long-intended yushin, a
restoration of absolute power to the throne. The breathtaking race be-
tween the two groups, in which the young Tasan unwittingly plays a
minor but important symbolic role, ends with a scene in which the royal
historian falls into an abyss with the torn document in his hands, failing
in his mission to deliver it to the king.
The regicide of Ch6ngjo is a rumor that has been widely circulated.
Many seem to believe it. Encounter, for instance, presents it as a fact.57
The commonly offered reason is that Ch6ngjo, hoping to reform the
government according to his vision, was planning to eliminate the Noron
officials, who had long held power and were opposed to royal wishes,
and that the Noron made a preemptive strike. One may not subscribe to
this theory, but it is universally accepted that an intense rivalry existed
between Ch6ngjo's royal party, staffed mostly by members of the Namin
faction, and the Noron officials. It is also popular among professional
historians to see the victory of the Noron bureaucrats as having ad-
versely affected Korea. This is because a polity headed by a powerful
ruler, unlike nineteenth-century Korea, which was headed by suppos-
edly weak and indecisive rulers who squandered national sovereignty, is
viewed as more efficient, especially in times of crisis.58 For some time,
the Noron officials have been seen as corrupt and self-seeking. More
recently, however, academic historians have noted ideological differ-
ences between the rival groups. The royal party was devoted to the
restoration of royal power based on a vision of the ancient sage kings'
era as represented in the Six Classics, while the Noron bureaucrats
subscribed to the neo-Confucian vision of a polity that stressed the
bureaucratic constraint of royal power as described in the Four Books.59
Being a member of the academy and familiar with the recent scholar-
ship, the author gives full play to the ideological schism between the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Korean work uses much more rapidly shifting visual images in a cine matic style. It is constructed as the memoir of a fictitious character, Yi Inmong, a royal historian. It follows the events of one day in 1 800. The day begins at dawn within the palace precinct with Yi Inmong's discovery of the murder of his fellow historian, one of Chongjo's trusted coterie of junior scholar-officials, and it ends late at night with an intimation of impend ing regicide. The entire day is devoted to a race between the royal party and the officials of the Noron faction in a search for a secret document. This document, supposedly written by King Yongjo (r. 1724-76) for his grandson, would enable Chongjo to declare a long-intended yushin, a restoration of absolute power to the throne. The breathtaking race be tween the two groups, in which the young Tasan unwittingly plays a minor but important symbolic role, ends with a scene in which the royal historian falls into an abyss with the torn document in his hands, failing in his mission to deliver it to the king. The regicide of Chongjo is a rumor that has been widely circulated. Many seem to believe it. Encounter, for instance, presents it as a fact.57 The commonly offered reason is that Chongjo, hoping to reform the government according to his vision, was planning to eliminate the Noron officials, who had long held power and were opposed to royal wishes, and that the Noron made a preemptive strike. One may not subscribe to this theory, but it is universally accepted that an intense rivalry existed between Chongjo's royal party, staffed mostly by members of the Namin faction, and the Noron officials. It is also popular among professional historians to see the victory of the Noron bureaucrats as having ad versely affected Korea. This is because a polity headed by a powerful ruler, unlike nineteenth-century Korea, which was headed by suppos edly weak and indecisive rulers who squandered national sovereignty, is viewed as more efficient, especially in times of crisis.58 For some time, the Noron officials have been seen as corrupt and self-seeking. More recently, however, academic historians have noted ideological differ ences between the rival groups. The royal party was devoted to the restoration of royal power based on a vision of the ancient sage kings' era as represented in the Six Classics, while the Noron bureaucrats subscribed to the neo-Confucian vision of a polity that stressed the bureaucratic constraint of royal power as described in the Four Books.59 Being a member of the academy and familiar with the recent scholar ship, the author gives full play to the ideological schism between the
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
207
rival groups in Eternal Empire. Members of both parties are presented
as men of conviction who are completely devoted to their visions of the
Korean polity and its civilization. Not only the royal party but also the
Noron officials, even though they are devious and use wiles, risk their
lives to fight for their visions. The author, however, unabashedly inter-
jects his preference for the royal party:
At this point, we should consider the concept of yushin that Inmong
207
rival groups in Eternal Empire. Members of both parties are presented as men of conviction who are completely devoted to their visions of the Korean polity and its civilization. Not only the royal party but also the Noron officials, even though they are devious and use wiles, risk their lives to fight for their visions. The author, however, unabashedly inter jects his preference for the royal party:
discusses. From today's perspective, Yi Inmong's blind monarchism,
which wholeheartedly seeks to strengthen royal power, might appear
to go against the course of history. Conversely, the Noron viewpoint,
which was opposed to royal power, might seem more progressive.
But what is the course of history? For a hundred years from the
time of Ch6ngjo's murder to the time when our nation was elimi-
nated by Japan, our history was nothing more than the chaos that
followed the disappearance of the sage king. . . . We were elimi-
nated not because we could not adopt "progressive" parliamentary
politics but because we could not install Hongjae yushin, that is, the
absolute royal power of King Ch6ngjo. . . . All states that built inde-
pendent sovereign nations under less competitive and unfavorable
circumstances had to go through a period in which the state possessed
absolute power . . . Because of the Meiji yushin, modern Japan
could exist. Because of the failure of Hongjae yushin, the history of
our nation was set back 160 years. Our misfortune was that we had to
experience Park Chung Hee's October yushin (1972) instead of
Hongjae yushin.60
What is the meaning of this emotional outburst? Is this a lament for the
late arrival of Korean modernity? The loss of 160 years? More than
anything else, it expresses a palpable anger at the fact that because of
this missed opportunity Korea was made inferior to Japan and, worse,
was erased from history.
There have been historical novels about royal persons to whom an
opportunity to fulfill their missions was denied. When the Tonga Ilbo, a
daily newspaper, serialized Mati t'aeja (1926-27), the story of the last
crown prince of Silla when it was annexed by Kory6, and Tanjong aesa
(1928-29), the tale of the boy king whose throne was usurped by his
powerful uncle, King Sejo of the fifteenth century, they became popular
presumably because the Korean public identified the tragic fates of these
At this point, we should consider the concept of yushin that Inmong discusses. From today's perspective, Yi Inmong's blind monarchism, which wholeheartedly seeks to strengthen royal power, might appear to go against the course of history. Conversely, the Noron viewpoint, which was opposed to royal power, might seem more progressive. But what is the course of history? For a hundred years from the time of Chongjo's murder to the time when our nation was elimi nated by Japan, our history was nothing more than the chaos that followed the disappearance of the sage king . . . . We were elimi nated not because we could not adopt "progressive" parliamentary politics but because we could not install Hongjae yushin, that is, the absolute royal power of King Chongj o . . . . All states that built inde pendent sovereign nations under less competitive and unfavorable circumstances had to go through a period in which the state possessed absolute power. . . . Because of the Meiji yushin, modern Japan could exist. Because of the failure of Hongjae yushin, the history of our nation was set back 160 years. Our misfortune was that we had to experience Park Chung Hee's October yushin (1972) instead of Hongjae yushin. 60 What is the meaning of this emotional outburst? Is this a lament for the late arrival of Korean modernity? The loss of 160 years? More than anything else, it expresses a palpable anger at the fact that because of this missed opportunity Korea was made inferior to Japan and, worse, was erased from history. There have been historical novels about royal persons to whom an opportunity to fulfill their missions was denied. When the Tonga !lbo, a daily newspaper, serialized Maui t'aeja (1926-27), the story of the last crown prince of Silla when it was annexed by Koryo , and Tanjong aesa (1928-29), the tale of the boy king whose throne was usurped by his powerful uncle, King Sejo of the fifteenth century, they became popular presumably because the Korean public identified the tragic fates of these
208
208 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
princes with that of their nation.61 In contrast, Ch6ngjo's Korea in Eter-
nal Empire is the very image of prowess. It is portrayed in a startlingly
idealized manner:
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
princes with that of their nation.61 In contrast, Chongjo's Korea in Eter nal Empire is the very image of prowess. It is portrayed in a startlingly idealized manner:
Chos6n at the time was the most advanced country in the world in
terms of its people's literacy, its quantity of publications, the auton-
omy of national finances, national security, and the level of adminis-
trative service to the people. It was a prosperous and peaceful age.
Internally, its people proudly claimed it to be the cultural center;
externally, they practiced diplomacy based on the principle of un-
equal and deferential relations with the powerful and equal and
friendly relations with the rest. . . . Who could have imagined that
such an advanced nation, within a hundred years of King Ch6ngjo's
death and under Noron power, would be reduced to a most back-
ward nation of the worst sort about to become Japan's colony?62
What does this aggrandized image of the Korea of the eighteenth
century signify? What is at work here seems to be inverse logic. By
making the loss incomparably great, it renders greatness to the Korean
past and reclaims this heritage for the present. Because of unfortunate
historical contingencies, Korea was erased from history for thirty-five
years. For the subsequent fifty years, Korea's encounters with history
were not occasions for celebration. Now it wishes to possess history. It
appears that Koreans are not content to merely reclaim the quotidian
Choson at the time was the most advanced country in the world in terms of its people's literacy, its quantity of publications, the auton omy of national finances, national security, and the level of adminis trative service to the people. It was a prosperous and peaceful age. Internally, its people proudly claimed it to be the cultural center; externally, they practiced diplomacy based on the principle of un equal and deferential relations with the powerful and equal and friendly relations with the rest. . . . Who could have imagined that such an advanced nation, within a hundred years of King Chongjo's death and under Noron power, would be reduced to a most back ward nation of the worst sort about to become Japan's colony?62
history that every nation has, but rather they long to possess history in the
Hegelian sense.63 This seems to represent a deep yearning on the part of
contemporary Koreans to be major players on the world scene. They
want to be in the center, not at the periphery, and they wish to influence
and shape world history, not be influenced and shaped by others.
Epilogue
In the years since 1992, when the first civilian government was installed, a
great deal of change has taken place in South Korea. Under Kim Young
Sam (Y6ngsam), the yOksa paro chapki (rectification of history) move-
ment was launched. In 1995, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of
Korean independence from Japan, the top of the building that had housed
the office of the Japanese governor-general was blown up to symbolize
the Korean erasure of colonial memory. Chun Doo Hwan and Roh Tae
Woo (No T'aewu), the two former military generals turned presidents
What does this aggrandized image of the Korea of the eighteenth century signify? What is at work here seems to be inverse logic. By making the loss incomparably great, it renders greatness to the Korean past and reclaims this heritage for the present. Because of unfortunate historical contingencies, Korea was erased from history for thirty-five years. For the subsequent fifty years, Korea's encounters with history were not occasions for celebration. Now it wishes to possess history. It appears that Koreans are not content to merely reclaim the quotidian history that every nation has, but rather they long to possess history in the Hegelian sense.63 This seems to represent a deep yearning on the part of contemporary Koreans to be major players on the world scene. They want to be in the center, not at the periphery, and they wish to influence and shape world history, not be influenced and shaped by others. Epilogue In the years since 1 992, when the first civilian government was installed, a great deal of change has taken place in South Korea. Under Kim Young Sam (Yongsam) , the y6ksa paro chapki (rectification of history) move ment was launched. In 1 995, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of Korean independence from Japan, the top of the building that had housed the office of the Japanese governor-general was blown up to symbolize the Korean erasure of colonial memory. Chun Doo Hwan and Roh Tae Woo (No T'aewu), the two former military generals turned presidents
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
209
who were held responsible for the 1980 Kwangju massacre, were brought
to trial, sentenced to death and life imprisonment, respectively, and later
pardoned. It was not long after this that Kim Young Sam himself suffered
disgrace, with his son convicted of embezzlement and jailed. The presi-
dent was blamed for the corruption and incompetence of his family as well
as his regime. The economic crisis that required an IMF bailout in 1997
and 1998 sealed his reputation and the fate of his party, which lost the
presidential election of 1997 to Kim Dae Jung (Taejung), the leader of the
opposition and the former leader of the democracy movement.
Popular structures of feeling and public discourse continuously
shifted while these changes took place. In the first half of the 1990s, an
obsession with han directed at Koreans' past and their government was
channeled into an intensified ressentiment of Japan. Moreover, the pub-
lic was intent on seeking out and ratifying the greatness of the nascent
cultural development that had been prevented from coming to full fru-
ition by historical contingencies. This desire to affirm the present
through the past was also expressed in other publications and media.
The books Tongiti pogam and T'ojOng pigyOl, both nonfiction best-
sellers, for instance, are respectively about the mystery and efficacy of
native medicine and geomancy. By 1996, public interest had shifted
again. One title that headed the best-seller list was The Story of the
Romans, a translation from Japanese of a popular history of the Roman
Empire.64 It appears that Koreans' longing to be at the center of the
world stage65 has led them to expand their attention beyond their own
history. One heard reports that The Story of the Romans appealed to the
reading public because of its description of the complex negotiations of
power and diplomacy among various countries.
While the election of Kim Dae Jung was hailed abroad as the matur-
ing of Korean democracy, the predominant mood within Korea during
the time of economic difficulty, especially in 1998, seems to have been
one of acute insecurity and self-reproach. Practically everyone confessed
sins of excess that Koreans had collectively committed - their self-
deluded sense of prosperity, their extravagant living on borrowed
money, their arrogance born of shortsightedness, and so on. They can be
divided into two distinct categories. In one, Koreans confessed that in
their greedy pursuit of material wealth they had veered away from their
Korean selves and that they should retreat into a primordial space to
restore the balance between emotion and reason and to recover purity of
being. A melodrama entitled Pulhyoja niin upnida (Your unfilial son is
weeping), which played to sold-out houses, typified this mode. This
209
who were held responsible for the 1980 Kwangju massacre, were brought to trial, sentenced to death and life imprisonment, respectively, and later pardoned. It was not long after this that Kim Young Sam himself suffered disgrace, with his son convicted of embezzlement and j ailed. The presi dent was blamed for the corruption and incompetence of his family as well as his regime. The economic crisis that required an IMF bailout in 1997 and 1998 sealed his reputation and the fate of his party, which lost the presidential election of 1997 to Kim Dae Jung (Taejung), the leader of the opposition and the former leader of the democracy movement. Popular structures of feeling and public discourse continuously shifted while these changes took place. In the first half of the 1990s, an obsession with han directed at Koreans' past and their government was channeled into an intensified ressentiment of Japan. Moreover, the pub lic was intent on seeking out and ratifying the greatness of the nascent cultural development that had been prevented from coming to full fru ition by historical contingencies. This desire to affirm the present through the past was also expressed in other publications and media. The books Tongui pogam and T'ojong pigyol, both nonfiction best sellers, for instance, are respectively about the mystery and efficacy of native medicine and geomancy. By 1996, public interest had shifted again. One title that headed the best-seller list was The Story of the Romans, a translation from Japanese of a popular history of the Roman Empire.64 It appears that Koreans' longing to be at the center of the world stage65 has led them to expand their attention beyond their own history. One heard reports that The Story of the Romans appealed to the reading public because of its description of the complex negotiations of power and diplomacy among various countries. While the election of Kim Dae Jung was hailed abroad as the matur ing of Korean democracy, the predominant mood within Korea during the time of economic difficulty, especially in 1998, seems to have been one of acute insecurity and self-reproach. Practically everyone confessed sins of excess that Koreans had collectively committed - their self deluded sense of prosperity, their extravagant living on borrowed money, their arrogance born of shortsightedness, and so on. They can be divided into two distinct categories. In one, Koreans confessed that in their greedy pursuit of material wealth they had veered away from their Korean selves and that they should retreat into a primordial space to restore the balance between emotion and reason and to recover purity of being. A melodrama entitled Pulhyoja nun upnida (Your unfilial son is weeping), which played to sold-out houses, typified this mode. This
210
210
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
story of a successful businessman who neglects his self-sacrificing mother
but repents after she dies seems to have symbolized the regret and guilt
of the urban middle class. In the last scene, the son, carrying his
mother's ashes in a box strapped to his neck, would leap into the audi-
ence, where his wails reputedly would be echoed by members of audi-
ence. The second type of confession, often voiced by business and politi-
cal leaders, involved lamenting that one had made a terrible mistake by
following the Japanese model, a decision at least partly responsible for
one's financial disasters. Such persons univocally foreswore the imita-
tion of Japan. Did this signify a final release from ressentiment toward
Japan? Although Koreans displayed an unavoidable suspicion toward
America, which directed the reform plans as a condition of the bailout,
their reaction was surprisingly mild. Could it be that Korea is finally
achieving an autonomous discourse of modernity?
What has remained constant throughout is the intense and personal
relationship Koreans seem to feel toward history. The heroization of
King Ch6ngjo as a visionary has been gaining momentum. In 1999 a
popular television drama was devoted to him, and popular as well as
academic books about him continue to appear. Civic discourse has been
continuously conducted through the discourse of history. The emotional
undercurrent one detects in the way this discourse of history is con-
ducted, which is also present in the historical fiction that I discussed,
seems to be rooted in a view of the present as an ethical confirmation of
one's past. As this ethical concept of history is embedded in the vision of
a Confucian moral universe, it will be of interest to see whether it will be
replaced with other concepts of history. At the moment, however, much
as Koreans seek to possess HISTORY in the Hegelian sense, they are
moved less by a desire to command power66 than by a search for confir-
mation of their ethical superiority and moral worth.
NOTES
I would like to thank Nancy Abelmann, Koen de Ceuster, Kevin M.
Doak, Michael Robinson, and Boudewijn Walraven, who read an earlier version
of this chapter and made useful comments.
1. Soon after the civilian government was in place, per capita income
reached ten thousand dollars per annum.
2. Only several decades previously, the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund had scorned Korea as an economic basket case. For a historical
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
story of a successful businessman who neglects his self-sacrificing mother but repents after she dies seems to have symbolized the regret and guilt of the urban middle class. In the last scene, the son, carrying his mother's ashes in a box strapped to his neck, would leap into the audi ence, where his wails reputedly would be echoed by members of audi ence. The second type of confession, often voiced by business and politi cal leaders, involved lamenting that one had made a terrible mistake by following the Japanese model, a decision at least partly responsible for one's financial disasters. Such persons univocally foreswore the imita tion of Japan. Did this signify a final release from ressentiment toward Japan? Although Koreans displayed an unavoidable suspicion toward America, which directed the reform plans as a condition of the bailout, their reaction was surprisingly mild. Could it be that Korea is finally achieving an autonomous discourse of modernity? What has remained constant throughout is the intense and personal relationship Koreans seem to feel toward history. The heroization of King Chongjo as a visionary has been gaining momentum. In 1999 a popular television drama was devoted to him, and popular as well as academic books about him continue to appear. Civic discourse has been continuously conducted through the discourse of history. The emotional undercurrent one detects in the way this discourse of history is con ducted, which is also present in the historical fiction that I discussed, seems to be rooted in a view of the present as an ethical confirmation of one's past. As this ethical concept of history is embedded in the vision of a Confucian moral universe, it will be of interest to see whether it will be replaced with other concepts of history. At the moment, however, much as Koreans seek to possess HISTORY in the Hegelian sense, they are moved less by a desire to command power66 than by a search for confir mation of their ethical superiority and moral worth.
NOTES I would like to thank Nancy Abelmann, Koen de Ceuster, Kevin M . Doak, Michael Robinson, and Boudewijn Walraven, who read an earlier version of this chapter and made useful comments. 1 . Soon after the civilian government was in place, per capita income reached ten thousand dollars per annum. 2. Only several decades previously, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund had scorned Korea as an economic basket case. For a historical
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
211
overview of the economic development of Korea prior to the 1970s, see Edward
S. Mason et al., The Economic and Social Modernization of the Republic of
Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980).
3. The U.S. government, with its usual air of skepticism toward the realiza-
tion of democracy in non-European societies, had cooperated with and acqui-
esced to military dictators. The first American acquiescence was to Park Chung
Hee's military coup in 1961. Then, in 1972, when Park made constitutional
changes called yushin, rendering it virtually impossible to challenge his one-man
rule, the American government said nothing. After Park was assassinated in
1979, Koreans were expecting the establishment of a democratic regime. In-
stead, Chun Doo Hwan took over, and when the people of Kwangju rose against
him in 1980 Chun sent paratroopers to massacre them. The American govern-
ment again acquiesced to the Korean military dictator. This alienated the Ko-
rean public from America, and anti-Americanism became widespread. See Kim
Ky6ng-dong, "Korean Perceptions of America," in Donald N. Clark, ed., Korea
Briefing, 1993 (New York: Asia Society, 1993), 171-83.
4. For an example of this sentiment, see Richard E. Kim, Lost Names
(New York: Praeger, 1970), 182-86.
5. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. 1 (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1980), 135-427.
6. The prominent cases Greenfeld cites include the eighteenth-century
French ressentiment of England and Russian ressentiment of the West. See Liah
Greenfeld, Nationalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 23,
222-35.
7. Mannam has been translated into English under the title Encounter.
See Hahn Moo-Sook, Encounter, trans. Ok Young Kim Chang (Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1992).
8. It received much literary acclaim. It was, for instance, the winner of the
1986 Grand Prix of the Republic of Korea.
9. Some of these titles were sold in the millions of copies. In Sunman,
"Munhak t'ejo, silyong s6j6k posang," Chugan Choson, February 11, 1996.
10. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1977), 162.
11. Yun Chaehyu, "Kwangju iii w6n kwa han," Sin Tonga 335 (August
1987): 495-517.
12. Andre Schmid, "Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics
of Territorial History in Korea," Journal of Asian Studies 56, no. 1 (1997): 26-46.
13. Sin Ch'aeho, Choson sanggosa in Tanje Sin Ch'aeho chOnjip, 2d ed., 4
vols. (Seoul: Hy6ngs61 ch'ulp'ansa, 1987), 1:31-354, esp. 35-47.
14. Michael Robinson, "National Identity and the Thought of Sin Ch'aeho:
Sadajuai and Chuch'e in History and Politics," Journal of Korean Studies 5
(1984): 121-42.
15. Kwang-ok Kim, "Rituals of Resistance: The Manipulation of Sha-
manism in Contemporary Korea," in Charles H. Keyes, Laurel Kendall, and
Helen Hardacre, eds., Asian Visions of Authority, 195-219 (Honolulu: Univer-
sity of Hawaii Press, 1994).
21 1
overview of the economic development of Korea prior to the 1970s, see Edward S . Mason et aI. , The Economic and Social Modernization of the Republic of Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980) . 3 . The U. S. government, with its usual air of skepticism toward the realiza tion of democracy in non-European societies, had cooperated with and acqui esced to military dictators. The first American acquiescence was to Park Chung Hee's military coup in 1961. Then, in 1 972, when Park made constitutional changes called yushin, rendering it virtually impossible to challenge his one-man rule, the American government said nothing. After Park was assassinated in 1979, Koreans were expecting the establishment of a democratic regime. In stead, Chun Doo Hwan took over, and when the people of Kwangju rose against him in 1980 Chun sent paratroopers to massacre them. The American govern ment again acquiesced to the Korean military dictator. This alienated the Ko rean public from America, and anti-Americanism became widespread. See Kim Kyong-dong, "Korean Perceptions of America," in Donald N. Clark, e d . , Korea Briefing, 1 993 (New York: Asia Society, 1993) , 171-83. 4. For an example of this sentiment, see Richard E. Kim, Lost Names (New York: Praeger, 1 970), 182-86. 5. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980) , 135-427. 6. The prominent cases Greenfeld cites include the eighteenth-century French ressentiment of England and Russian ressentiment of the West. See Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992) , 23 , 222-35 . 7. Mannam has been translated into English under the title Encounter. See Hahn Moo-Sook, Encounter, trans. Ok Young Kim Chang (Berkeley: Uni versity of California Press, 1992) . 8. It received much literary acclaim. It was, for instance, the winner of the 1986 Grand Prix of the Republic of Korea. 9. Some of these titles were sold in the millions of copies. In Sunman, "Munhak t'ejo, silyong sojok posang," Chugan Choson, February 1 1 , 1996. 1 0. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford Univer sity Press, 1977) , 162. 1 1 . Yun Chaehyu, "Kwangju lii won kwa han," Sin Tonga 335 (August 1 987): 495-5 17. 12. Andre Schmid, "Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics of Territorial History in Korea," Journal ofAsian Studies 56, no. 1 (1997) : 26-46. 13. Sin Ch'aeho, Choson sanggosa in Tanje Sin Ch'aeho chonjip, 2d ed., 4 vols. (Seoul: Hyongsol ch'ulp'ansa, 1987), 1 :3 1 -354, esp. 35-47. 14. Michael Robinson, "National Identity and the Thought of Sin Ch'aeho: Sadajuui and Chuch'e in History and Politics," Journal of Korean Studies 5 (1984): 121-42. 15. Kwang-ok Kim, "Rituals of Resistance: The Manipulation of Sha manism in Contemporary Korea," in Charles H. Keyes, Laurel Kendall, and Helen Hardacre, eds. , Asian Visions of Authority, 195-219 (Honolulu: Univer sity of Hawaii Press, 1994) .
212
212
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
16. One of the more interesting essays on the topic is John Duncan's "Uses
of Confucianism in Modern Korea," which was presented at the conference
Rethinking Confucianism in Asia at the End of the Twentieth Century, held at
UCLA in June 1999.
17. He used this term in describing the late Qing and early-twentieth-
century Chinese intellectual attitude toward Confucianism. See Joseph Leven-
son, Confucian China and Its Modern Fate: A Trilogy (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1968).
18. Y6ksa hakhoe, ed., Sirhak y:n'gu immun (Seoul: Ilchogak, 1973).
19. Kim Changt'ae, Han'guk sirhak sasang yOn'gu (Seoul: Chibmundang,
1987).
20. Yu W6ndong, Han'guk sirhak kaeron (Seoul: Ch6nghm munhwasa,
1984), 290-324.
21. Yi T'aejin, ed., ChosOn sidae chOngch'isa iii chaejomyOng (Seoul:
P6mjosa, 1985).
22. David Steinberg, "The Transformation of the South Korean Econ-
omy," in Korea Briefing, 1993, 34. There are various works representing this
revisionist mode of thinking. One of them is Gilbert Rozman, ed., The East
Asian Region: Confucian Traditions and Modern Dynamism (Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 1991). Although published in 1991, this reflects shifting
views of Confucianism, which had begun earlier.
23. "Ig6t ch'am k'inil ikunyo," Minju i~ii hamsong 1 (1984): 12-13.
24. See, for example, "Uri kojang iii minjuhwa nin uri soniro," Minju iii
hamsong 1 (1984): 8-9.
25. Kim Yoon-shik cites 1978 as the point at which literature changed from
minjok munhak (national literature) to minjung munhak (people's literature).
See Kim Yoon-shik, "The Korean Novel in an Age of Industrialization," Korea
Journal 29, no. 6 (1989): 26.
26. See, for example, the "S6ngmy6ngs6" (Manifesto) declared by the
Association of Christian Farmers on November 26, 1985.
27. Representative works of this type include Hwang S6gybng's Kaekchi
(Strange land), published in 1971, and Cho Sehii's Nanjangi ka ssoa ollin
chagan kong (A dwarf launches a little ball), published in 1976. See Hwang
S6gy6ng, Kaekchi (Seoul: Ch'angjak kwa pip'y6ngsa, 1974), 5-103; and Cho
Sehii, "A Dwarf Launches a Little Ball," in Peter H. Lee, ed., Modern Korean
Literature, 328-67.
28. Linda Hutcheon claims that historiographical metafiction became popu-
lar in the 1980s because it suited the ambiguity of postmodernism. See her A
Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (New York: Routledge,
1988), 4. This analysis might not be applicable to the Korean case.
29. For a discussion of Rushdie's novels as representative of historiographi-
cal metafiction, see Luisa Juarez Hervas, "An Irreverent Chronicle: History and
Fiction in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children," in Susana Onega, ed., Telling
Histories (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), 76.
30. Gyorgy Lukads, The Historical Novel (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humani-
ties Press, 1978), 332.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
16. One of the more interesting essays on the topic is John Duncan's "Uses of Confucianism in Modern Korea," which was presented at the conference Rethinking Confucianism in Asia at the End of the Twentieth Century, held at UCLA in June 1 999. 1 7 . He used this term in describing the late Qing and early-twentieth century Chinese intellectual attitude toward Confucianism. See Joseph Leven son, Confucian China and Its Modern Fate: A Trilogy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968). 18. Yoksa hakhoe, ed . , Sirhak yon 'gu immun (Seoul: Ilchogak, 1973). 19. Kum Changt'ae, Han 'guk sirhak sasang yon 'gu (Seoul: Chibmundang, 1 987). 20. Yu Won dong, Han 'guk sirhak kaeron (Seoul: Chongum munhwasa, 1 984) , 290-324. 21 . Yi T'aejin, ed . , Choson sidae chongch 'isa ili chaejomyong (Seoul: Pomjosa, 1 985). 22. David Steinberg, "The Transformation of the South Korean Econ omy, " in Korea Briefing, 1 993, 34. There are various works representing this revisionist mode of thinking. One of them is Gilbert Rozman, e d . , The East Asian Region: Confucian Traditions and Modern Dynamism (Princeton: Prince ton University Press, 1991). Although published in 1991 , this reflects shifting views of Confucianism, which had begun earlier. 23. "Igot ch'am k'unil ikunyo," Minju ili hamsong 1 (1 984): 12-13. 24. See, for example, "Uri kojang ui minjuhwa nun uri sonuro," Minju ili hamsong 1 (1984) : 8-9. 25. Kim Yoon-shik cites 1978 as the point at which literature changed from minjok munhak (national literature) to minjung munhak (people's literature). See Kim Yoon-shik, "The Korean Novel in an Age of Industrialization," Korea ]ournaI 29, no. 6 (1989): 26. 26. See, for example, the "Songmyongso" (Manifesto) declared by the Association of Christian Farmers on November 26, 1 985. 27. Representative works of this type include Hwang Sogyong's Kaekchi (Strange land), published in 197 1 , and Cho Sehui's Nanjangi ka ssoa ollin chagiln kong (A dwarf launches a little ball), published in 1976. See Hwang Sogyong, Kaekchi (Seoul: Ch'angj ak kwa pip'yongsa, 1974) , 5-103; and Cho Sehui, "A Dwarf Launches a Little Ball," in Peter H . Lee, ed., Modern Korean Literature, 328-67. 28. Linda Hutcheon claims that historiographical metafiction became popu lar in the 1980s because it suited the ambiguity of postmodernism. See her A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (New York: Routledge, 1988) , 4. This analysis might not be applicable to the Korean case. 29. For a discussion of Rushdie's novels as representative of historiographi cal metafiction, see Luisa Juarez Hervas, "An Irreverent Chronicle: History and Fiction in Salman Rushdie's Midnight 's Children, " in Susana Onega, ed. , Telling Histories (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), 76. 30. Gyorgy Lukacs, The Historical Novel (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humani ties Press, 1 978), 332.
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
In Search of HISTORY in Democratic Korea
213
31. Rosaline Marsh, "Reassessing the Past: Images of Stalin and Stalinism
in Contemporary Russian Literature," in Sheelagh Duffin Graham, ed., New
Directions in Soviet Literature (New York: St. Martin's, 1992), 89.
32. Brent O. Peterson, "German Nationalism after Napoleon: Caste and
Regional Identities in Historical Fiction, 1815-1830," German Quarterly 68, no.
3 (1995): 287.
33. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" In Homi K Bhabha, ed., Nation
and Narration (London: Routledge, 1990), 19.
34. For a discussion of the relationship between history and literature
through the ages, see Susana Onega, "'A Knack for Yarns': The Narrativization
of History and the End of History," in Onega Telling Histories, 7-17.
35. Although there was small-scale punishment of Catholics for not erect-
ing the ancestral tablets or performing requisite mourning rituals before 1800,
full-scale persecution did not begin until 1801 when about three hundred were
killed. See Kim Chang-Seok Thaddeus, Lives of 103 Martyr Saints of Korea
(Seoul: Catholic Publishing House, 1984), 8-10; and James Huntley Grayson,
Early Buddhism and Christianity in Korea (Leiden: Brill, 1985), 70-83.
36. The nineteenth century is not well studied, but this has been assumed.
An attempt to reevaluate this period has begun, but no new ground has been
broken. As an example of the new attempt, see Han'guk y6ksa y6n'guhoe, ed.,
Choson changch'isa, 1800-1863, 2 vols. (Seoul: Ch'6ngny6nsa, 1990).
37. Roland Barthes, "The Death of the Author," in The Rustle of Lan-
guage, trans. Richard Howard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989),
52-53.
38. Such well-known titles as Pak Ky6ngni's Toji (The land), Ch'oe My6ng-
hui's Honpul (Spirit fire), and Cho Ch6ngnae's T'aebak sanmaek (The Taebaek
mountain range) were published either in part or in their entirety during this
period. Kw6n Y6ngmin says that these are novels of han in which the sufferings
and resilience of the Korean people are rendered in an epic mode. See Kw6n
Y6ngmin, Han'guk hyOndae munhak (Seoul: Minumsa, 1993), 340-48.
39. Kang Mangil, ed., Chong Tasan kwa kit sidae (Seoul: Minumsa, 1986);
Kang Man'gil, Han'guk kiindaesa, 150-72.
40. For details, see Ronald Grimsley, From Montesquieu to Laclos: Studies
on the French Enlightenment (Geneva: Droz, 1974); Ulrich Ricken, Linguistics,
Anthropology, and Philosophy in the French Enlightenment: Language Theory
and Ideology (London: Routledge, 1994).
41. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postco-
lonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 6-7.
42. Encounter, 26-27.
43. For a discussion of Hasang's Sang Chaesang so, see Don Baker, "A
Different Thread: Orthodoxy, Heterodoxy, and Catholicism in a Confucian
World," in JaHyun Kim Haboush and Martina Deuchler, eds., Culture and the
State in Late Choson Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 1999),
225-28.
44. Grayson, Early Buddhism, 71-83.
45. For biographies of these 103 saints, see Kim, Lives of Martyr Saints.
213
31. Rosaline Marsh, "Reassessing the Past: Images of Stalin and Stalinism in Contemporary Russian Literature," in Sheelagh Duffin Graham, ed., New Directions in Soviet Literature (New York : St. Martin's, 1992), 89. 32. Brent O. Peterson, "German Nationalism after Napoleon: Caste and Regional Identities in Historical Fiction, 1815-1830," German Quarterly 68, no. 3 (1995): 287. 33. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" In Homi K Bhabha, ed. , Nation and Narration (London: Routledge, 1990) , 19. 34. For a discussion of the relationship between history and literature through the ages, see Susana Onega, '' 'A Knack for Yarns': The Narrativization of History and the End of History, " in Onega Telling Histories, 7-17. 35. Although there was small-scale punishment of Catholics for not erect ing the ancestral tablets or performing requisite mourning rituals before 1 800, full-scale persecution did not begin until 1801 when about three hundred were killed. See Kim Chang-Seok Thaddeus, Lives of 1 03 Martyr Saints of Korea (Seoul: Catholic Publishing House, 1984), 8-10; and James Huntley Grayson, Early Buddhism and Christianity in Korea (Leiden: Brill, 1 985), 70-83. 36. The nineteenth century is not well studied, but this has been assumed. An attempt to reevaluate this period has begun, but no new ground has been broken. As an example of the new attempt, see Han'guk yoksa yon'guhoe, ed., Choson chongch 'isa, 1800-1863, 2 vols. (Seoul: Ch'ongnyonsa, 1990). 37. Roland Barthes, "The Death of the Author, " in The Rustle of Lan guage, trans. Richard Howard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 52-53. 38. Such well-known titles as Pak Kyongni's Toji (The land) , Ch'oe Myong hui's Honpul (Spirit fire), and Cho Chongnae's T'aebak sanmaek (The Taebaek mountain range) were published either in part or in their entirety during this period. K won Yongmin says that these are novels of han in which the sufferings and resilience of the Korean people are rendered in an epic mode. See Kwon Yongmin, Han 'guk hyondae munhak (Seoul: Minumsa, 1993) , 340-48. 39. Kang Mangil, e d . , Chong Tasan kwa k u sidae (Seoul: Minumsa, 1 986) ; Kang Man'gil, Han 'guk kundaesa, 150-72. 40. For details, see Ronald Grimsley, From Montesquieu to Lados: Studies on the French Enlightenment (Geneva: Droz, 1 974); Ulrich Ricken, Linguistics, Anthropology, and Philosophy in the French Enlightenment: Language Theory and Ideology (London: Routledge, 1 994) . 4 1 . Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postco lonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 6-7 . 42. Encounter, 26-27. 43. For a discussion of Hasang's Sang Chaesang so, see Don Baker, "A Different Thread: Orthodoxy, Heterodoxy, and Catholicism in a Confucian World," in JaHyun Kim Haboush and Martina Deuchler, eds . , Culture and the State in Late Choson Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 1 999) , 225-28. 44. Grayson, Early Buddhism, 71-83. 45. For biographies of these 103 saints, see Kim, Lives of Martyr Saints.
214
214
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
46. See Don Baker's foreword to Encounter, xviii-xx. See also Baker,
"Different Thread," 212-17.
47. In the novel, shamanism is depicted as the least spiritual, and thus it is
placed at the bottom of the hierarchy.
48. This view has also elicited critical responses. For an example, see James
B. Palais, Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions (Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1996).
49. Mokmin sims6, 3:225.
50. Ibid., 4:293.
51. Ibid., 4:225-26.
52. Ibid., 4:185-86.
53. Ibid., 1:100-102.
54. Ibid., 3:35-36.
55. Ibid., 5:198-99.
56. Ibid., 5:267.
57. Encounter, 31.
58. Yi S6ngmu, "Sipch'il segi tii yeron kwa tangjaeng," in Yi S6ngmu et
al., ChosOn hugi tangjaeng ti chonghapchk kOmch'al (S6ngnamsi: Ch6ngsin
munhwa y6n'guw6n, 1992), 80-82.
59. For a discussion of H6 Mok, the representative Namin official of the
royal party, see Ch6ng Okcha, "H6 Mok Misu y6n'gu," Han'guk sahak 5 (Octo-
ber 1979): 199-204. For the philosophy of Song Siy61, the founder of the Noron
party, see Son Munho, "Song Siy61 iii ch6ngch'i sasang y6n'gu," Hoso munhwa
nonch'ong 4 (1989): 33-47.
60. Yongwonhan cheguk, 266-67.
61. Cho Tongil, Han'guk munhak t'ongsa, 3d ed. (Seoul: Chisik san6psa,
1994), 5:309-10.
62. Yongwonhan cheguk, 199.
63. Hegel expounded his views on world history in his Philosophy of His-
tory. For Hayden White's discussion of them, see his Metahistory: The Historical
Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1973), 123-31.
64. The Story of the Romans was written by Shiono Nanami, and it was on
the best-seller list for most of 1996 and 1997.
65. This longing to possess history manifests itself in many ways in Korean
life. There appears to be an intense desire to be where things are happening on
the world stage. International forums for sports or art are avidly sought and
enthusiastically embraced. It was interesting to observe how closely the public
watched every step of Korea's bid to sponsor the World Cup in 2002 and how
extensive and detailed the media reports of this process were. The International
Fair of Contemporary Art (FIAC), held in Paris in the fall of 1996, recorded
participation by a dozen galleries from Korea, the second-largest number after
those from the host country.
66. For a discussion of the totalitarian character of Hegel's world history,
see Diane Elam, Romancing the Postmodern (London: Routledge, 1992), 89.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
46. See Don Baker's foreword to Encounter, xviii-xx. See also Baker, "Different Thread," 212-17. 47. In the novel, shamanism is depicted as the least spiritual, and thus it is placed at the bottom of the hierarchy. 48. This view has also elicited critical responses. For an example, see James B . Palais, Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996). 49. Mokmin simso, 3:225 . 50. Ibid . , 4:293. 51 . Ibid . , 4:225-26. 52. Ibid., 4:185 -86. 53 . Ibid. , 1 : 100-1 02. 54. Ibid., 3:35 -36. 55. Ibid. , 5 : 1 98-99. 56. Ibid., 5 :267 . 57. Encounter, 3 1 . 5 8 . Y i Songmu, "Sipch'il segi h i yeron kwa tangj aeng," in Yi Songmu et aI., Choson hugi tangjaeng ui chonghapchok komch 'al (Songnamsi: Chongsin munhwa yon'guwon, 1992), 80-82. 59. For a discussion of Ho Mok, the representative Namin official of the royal party, see Chong Okcha, "Ho Mok Misu yon'gu," Han 'guk sahak 5 (Octo ber 1979): 199-204. For the philosophy of Song Siyol, the founder of the Noron party, see Son Munho, "Song Siyol hi chongch'i sasang yon'gu," Hoso munhwa nonch 'ong 4 (1989): 33-47. 60. Yongwonhan cheguk, 266-67. 61 . Cho Tongil, Han 'guk munhak t 'ongsa, 3d ed. (Seoul: Chisik sanopsa, 1994) , 5:309-10. 62. Yongwonhan cheguk, 199. 63. Hegel expounded his views on world history in his Philosophy of His tory. For Hayden White's discussion of them, see his Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer sity Press, 1973), 123-31 . 64. The Story of the Romans was written by Shiono Nanami, and it was on the best-seller list for most of 1996 and 1 997. 65 . This longing to possess history manifests itself in many ways in Korean life. There appears to be an intense desire to be where things are happening on the world stage. International forums for sports or art are avidly sought and enthusiastically embraced. It was interesting to observe how closely the public watched every step of Korea's bid to sponsor the World Cup in 2002 and how extensive and detailed the media reports of this process were. The International Fair of Contemporary Art (FIAC ) , held in Paris in the fall of 1 996, recorded participation by a dozen galleries from Korea, the second-largest number after those from the host country. 66. For a discussion of the totalitarian character of Hegel's world history, see Diane Elam, Romancing the Postmodern (London: Routledge, 1 992) , 89.
Chapter 7 Chapter 7
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image
of Nation in Communist
Revolutionary Culture
Hung-yok Ip
Historians of China have paid much attention to how nationalism
shaped the political, cultural, and intellectual developments of modern
China. We should note, however, that in addition to acknowledging
nationalism as a shaping force of modern Chinese history, scholars now
also stress the importance of studying nationalism and the concept of
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation in Communist Revolutionary Culture
nationhood as sites where "nonnationalist" perspectives and "non-
national" identifications exerted their influences. Analyzing how the
concern for the nation contributed to an "Enlightenment mode" in vari-
ous narratives of nationhood, Duara at the same time emphasizes that
Hung-yok Ip
nonnational identifications and intellectual positions- for instance, gen-
der and class identities-influenced the individuals' ways of imagining
the nation.1 As he stresses the interplay between national identity and
other identifications,2 Duara actually echoes what Hobsbawm stated a
few years ago: "[National identification] is always combined with identifi-
cations of another kind, even when it is felt to be superior to them."3
Examining how nationalism both shaped and was shaped by history -
this is a dualistic approach to the study of nationalist and national issues.
I find such an approach highly useful, as I am interested in studying
a particular kind of national narrative in communist culture, the narra-
tive that reveals communist intellectuals' ideal image of the nation.4
Wishing the best for one's nation certainly is nationalism, but the con-
tent of the ideal image is conditioned by thinking that may or may not be
of nationalist origins. This chapter addresses the question of how
cosmopolitanism-internationalism helped communist intellectuals imag-
ine the ideal image of nation in the course of revolution.5
215
Historians of China have paid much attention to how nationalism shaped the political, cultural, and intellectual developments of modern China. We should note, however, that in addition to acknowledging nationalism as a shaping force of modern Chinese history, scholars now also stress the importance of studying nationalism and the concept of nationhood as sites where "nonnationalist" perspectives and "non national" identifications exerted their influences. Analyzing how the concern for the nation contributed to an "Enlightenment mode" in vari ous narratives of nationhood, Duara at the same time emphasizes that nonnational identifications and intellectual positions - for instance, gen der and class identities - influenced the individuals' ways of imagining the nation. 1 As he stresses the interplay between national identity and other identifications,2 Duara actually echoes what Hobsbawm stated a few years ago: "[National identification] is always combined with identifi cations of another kind, even when it is felt to be superior to them."3 Examining how nationalism both shaped and was shaped by history this is a dualistic approach to the study of nationalist and national issues. I find such an approach highly useful, as I am interested in studying a particular kind of national narrative in communist culture, the narra tive that reveals communist intellectuals' ideal image of the nation.4 Wishing the best for one's nation certainly is nationalism, but the con tent of the ideal image is conditioned by thinking that may or may not be of nationalist origins. This chapter addresses the question of how cosmopolitanism-internationalism helped communist intellectuals imag ine the ideal image of nation in the course of revolution.5 215
216
216
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Cosmopolitanism-internationalism was, in the context of modern
East Asia, marked by a clear acceptance of the idea of Westernization
and by the belief in Western discourses on progress, culture, nation, and
race. Contributors of this volume note how in the modern period the
West, particularly Europe, prompted East Asians to rethink their na-
tional identity or reimagine the nation.
Tracing the history of hairstyles in late imperial and modern China,
Chi-kong Lai examines how queue cutting symbolized the rejection of
a "backward" Chinese tradition and the adoption of a Westernized
and thus modernist identity. In his chapter on the emergence of the
Hanzu identity, Kai-wing Chow analyzes how in the late Qing period
the Chinese internalized, reconfigured, and resisted European and
Japanese orientalism. And Kevin M. Doak delineates how racial theo-
ries of Western origins were involved in Japanese attempts to re-
structure East Asia as a meaningful geographical space. Exploring the
influences of the West on Chinese perspective(s) on nationhood, my
chapter focuses upon how internationalism-cosmopolitanism became
an integral part of the Chinese Communist reconstruction of the ideal
image of China.
Communism is cosmopolitan - that we all know. And as a matter of
fact, cosmopolitanism-internationalism within Chinese Communism is
not a totally uncharted issue.6 In The State, Identity, and the National
Question in China and Japan, Germaine Hoston deals with the important
question of how Chinese and Japanese thinkers reconciled their commit-
ment to their nations with the Marxist internationalist and stateless ide-
als.7 Dirlik points to May Fourth socialists' cosmopolitanist view on the
Chinese nation: for them, "Global problems were China's national prob-
lems, and China's national problems were global problems."8 Studying
contemporary Chinese intellectuals' nativism and nationalism, Zhao
Suisheng does not forget to mention Mao's Westernized image of the
ideal Chinese nation - that is, a China "catching up to Great Britain and
the United States."9
It is obvious, however, that when historians study Chinese Commu-
nism or nationalism in the Communist Revolution, cosmopolitanism-
internationalism has not attracted as much attention as the Communist
concern for China's national interests and anti-imperialism. Aware of
Mao Zedong's insistence that there was no conflict between nationalism
and the quest for internationalist socialism, Hoston nevertheless empha-
sizes that "the pursuit of China's national interests had constituted the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Cosmopolitanism-internationalism was, in the context of modern East Asia, marked by a clear acceptance of the idea of Westernization and by the belief in Western discourses on progress, culture, nation, and race. Contributors of this volume note how in the modern period the West, particularly Europe, prompted East Asians to rethink their na tional identity or reimagine the nation. Tracing the history of hairstyles in late imperial and modern China, Chi-kong Lai examines how queue cutting symbolized the rejection of a "backward" Chinese tradition and the adoption of a Westernized and thus modernist identity. In his chapter on the emergence of the Hanzu identity, Kai-wing Chow analyzes how in the late Qing period the Chinese internalized, reconfigured, and resisted European and Japanese orientalism. And Kevin M . Doak delineates how racial theo ries of Western origins were involved in Japanese attempts to re structure East Asia as a meaningful geographical space. Exploring the influences of the West on Chinese perspective(s) on nationhood, my chapter focuses upon how internationalism-cosmopolitanism became an integral part of the Chinese Communist reconstruction of the ideal image of China. Communism is cosmopolitan - that we all know. And as a matter of fact, cosmopolitanism-internationalism within Chinese Communism is not a totally uncharted issue.6 In The State, Identity, and the National Question in China and Japan, Germaine Hoston deals with the important question of how Chinese and Japanese thinkers reconciled their commit ment to their nations with the Marxist internationalist and stateless ide als'? Dirlik points to May Fourth socialists' cosmopolitanist view on the Chinese nation: for them, "Global problems were China's national prob lems, and China's national problems were global problems. "8 Studying contemporary Chinese intellectuals' nativism and nationalism, Zhao Suisheng does not forget to mention Mao's Westernized image of the ideal Chinese nation - that is, a China "catching up to Great Britain and the United States. "9 It is obvious, however, that when historians study Chinese Commu nism or nationalism in the Communist Revolution, cosmopolitanism internationalism has not attracted as much attention as the Communist concern for China's national interests and anti-imperialism. Aware of Mao Zedong's insistence that there was no conflict between nationalism and the quest for internationalist socialism, Hoston nevertheless empha sizes that "the pursuit of China's national interests had constituted the
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 217
CCP's [Chinese Communist Party's] most potent basis of legitimacy
because the party claimed to lead a revolution that had begun as a
movement of national liberation." In the post-1976 era, many people,
including scholars in mainland China, understand Communist - or what
they sometimes call Maoist - anti-imperialism as a kind of harmful
isolationism. Experts on China also believe that anti-imperialist nation-
alism and related policies, building a wall around China, were self-
destructive.10 While I do not intend to refute these assertions, I would
like to insist that when studying Communist thinking and culture we
should not let the potency of nationalism as the foundation of the
Communist Revolution blind us to the significance of cosmopolitan-
internationalism. This chapter is an attempt to probe the historical
significance of cosmopolitanism-internationalsm in the Chinese Commu-
nist Revolution by examining the Communist intellectuals' cosmopoli-
tan-internationalist ideal image of the nation. To some extent, I draw
on current scholarship that has already elaborately discussed the integra-
tion of internationalism in the ideological rhetoric on the nation since I
believe that such integration was an important part of the Communist
imagining of an internationalist-cosmopolitan nation. But I mainly con-
strue my study as an investigation of cosmopolitanism at a nonideologi-
cal level, as I focus on how cosmopolitanism operated as a visible
cultural trend, shaping radicals' narratives on China and the world, how
the Communists disseminated the image of China as an internationalist
nation in the context of mass mobilization, and how, apart from discuss-
ing their internationalist view on China as a political entity, revolution-
aries also embraced the ideal of a new Chinese nation as a cosmopoli-
tan cultural unit.11
Envisioning a Cosmopolitan Nation and National Culture:
The May Fourth Era
During the May Fourth period, advocating Westernization as moderniza-
tion, iconoclastic radicals showed great enthusiasm for merging the
nation into the world. What were the assumptions buttressing such
enthusiasm?
The eagerness to "merge" was to a large extent derived from
the iconoclasts' nationalistic concern - their commitment to national
strength, prestige, and survival. Chen Duxiu, expounding the impor-
tance of "being cosmopolitan, not being isolationist," noted that
217
CCP's [Chinese Communist Party's] most potent basis of legitimacy because the party claimed to lead a revolution that had begun as a movement of national liberation." In the post-1976 era, many people, including scholars in mainland China, understand Communist - or what they sometimes call Maoist - anti-imperialism as a kind of harmful isolationism. Experts on China also believe that anti-imperialist nation alism and related policies, building a wall around China, were self destructive'!o While I do not intend to refute these assertions, I would like to insist that when studying Communist thinking and culture we should not let the potency of nationalism as the foundation of the Communist Revolution blind us to the significance of cosmopolitan internationalism. This chapter is an attempt to probe the historical significance of cosmopolitanism-internationalsm in the Chinese Commu nist Revolution by examining the Communist intellectuals' cosmopoli tan-internationalist ideal image of the nation. To some extent, I draw on current scholarship that has already elaborately discussed the integra tion of internationalism in the ideological rhetoric on the nation since I believe that such integration was an important part of the Communist imagining of an internationalist-cosmopolitan nation. But I mainly con strue my study as an investigation of cosmopolitanism at a nonideologi cal level, as I focus on how cosmopolitanism operated as a visible cultural trend, shaping radicals' narratives on China and the world, how the Communists disseminated the image of China as an internationalist nation in the context of mass mobilization, and how, apart from discuss ing their internationalist view on China as a political entity, revolution aries also embraced the ideal of a new Chinese nation as a cosmopoli tan cultural unit.!1 Envisioning a Cosmopolitan Nation and National Culture: The May Fourth Era During the May Fourth period, advocating Westernization as moderniza tion, iconoclastic radicals showed great enthusiasm for merging the nation into the world. What were the assumptions buttressing such enthusiasm? The eagerness to "merge" was to a large extent derived from the iconoclasts' nationalistic concern - their commitment to national strength, prestige, and survival. Chen Duxiu, expounding the impor tance of "being cosmopolitan, not being isolationist," noted that
218
218 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the contemporary world witnesses the existence of various na-
tions .... Even if a nation is strong, it cannot neglect what happens
in the world and isolate itself. Although there are national variations
regarding institutions and culture, definite and obvious is the fact
that a nation's survival depends upon its adjustment to the major
trend of the world.12
Meisner, on the one hand ignoring the nationalist utilitarian basis of
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the contemporary world witnesses the existence of various na tions . . . . Even if a nation is strong, it cannot neglect what happens in the world and isolate itself. Although there are national variations regarding institutions and culture, definite and obvious is the fact that a nation's survival depends upon its adjustment to the major trend of the world.12
Chen Duxiu's position, stressed on the other hand that Li Dazhao did
not voice anything similar to Chen's appeal for cosmopolitanism.13 We
must, however, note Li's insistence on China's attempt to merge with
the major trends of the world: not only did he praise Western culture as
"dynamic,"14 but he stressed that dynamic culture was the trend of the
day. Assuming that China's static culture was in a dangerous position
vis-h-vis the contemporary major trend, he could not help but trumpet
"a change to a dynamic life."'5
It is justified to think, however, that cosmopolitanism did not
merely establish itself upon the grounds of nationalist utilitarianism:
May Fourth iconoclasm embodied not only nation-oriented concerns but
of contempt for the inherent nature of tradition. How could Lu Xun
condemn a tradition of eating people only on nationalistic grounds? By
the same token, when Wu Yu conceptualized the Confucian emphasis on
hierarchy as barbarian and cruel, he revealed great discontent with the
inherent nature of the practice itself.16 Thus, when the iconoclasts es-
poused cosmopolitanism, they also admired the values embedded in the
"advanced" cultural trends of the world.
In addition to calling for China to merge with the advanced currents
of the world, May Fourth iconoclasts demonstrated a longing for the
emergence of a new China in an ideal world marked by unity, egalitarian-
ism, and human brotherhood.
As early as 1917, Li Dazhao had complained of white people's
attitudes toward Asians - their disinclination to treat Asians as humans
according to Western humanitarian principles. Later he suggested the
dichotomy between "Pan . . . ism," and democracy: "pan . . . ism,"
which provided a basis for relationships among different nations, areas,
warlords, and parties, was the reliance on might to suppress others and
gratify one's desires, whereas democracy, composed of equality, liberty
and rationality, was its opposite. In his view, the inevitable result of the
Meisner, on the one hand ignoring the nationalist utilitarian basis of Chen Duxiu's position, stressed on the other hand that Li Dazhao did not voice anything similar to Chen's appeal for cosmopolitanism.13 We must, however, note Li's insistence on China's attempt to merge with the maj or trends of the world: not only did he praise Western culture as "dynamic,"14 but he stressed that dynamic culture was the trend of the day. Assuming that China's static culture was in a dangerous position vis-a-vis the contemporary major trend, he could not help but trumpet "a change to a dynamic life. "15 It is j ustified to think, however, that cosmopolitanism did not merely establish itself upon the grounds of nationalist utilitarianism: May Fourth iconoclasm embodied not only nation-oriented concerns but of contempt for the inherent nature of tradition. How could Lu Xun condemn a tradition of eating people only on nationalistic grounds? By the same token, when Wu Yu conceptualized the Confucian emphasis on hierarchy as barbarian and cruel, he revealed great discontent with the inherent nature of the practice itself.16 Thus, when the iconoclasts es poused cosmopolitanism, they also admired the values embedded in the "advanced" cultural trends of the world. In addition to calling for China to merge with the advanced currents of the world, May Fourth iconoclasts demonstrated a longing for the emergence of a new China in an ideal world marked by unity, egalitarian ism, and human brotherhood. As early as 1 9 17, Li Dazhao had complained of white people's attitudes toward Asians - their disinclination to treat Asians as humans according to Western humanitarian principles. Later he suggested the dichotomy between "Pan . . . ism," and democracy: "pan . . . ism," which provided a basis for relationships among different nations, areas, warlords, and parties, was the reliance on might to suppress others and gratify one's desires, whereas democracy, composed of equality, liberty and rationality, was its opposite. In his view, the inevitable result of the
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 219
confrontation between "Pan . .. ism" and democracy was the latter's
victory in both the international and national arenas.17
Mao Zedong also wished to remove oppression in the international
arena. In 1919, identifying "the doctrine of the common people"
(pingmin zhuyi) - a term with socialist overtones - with democracy, Mao
vehemently proclaimed: "We should use the doctrines of the people to
overthrow all kinds of power [i.e., oppression], including. . . power in
the international realm." Nationalism was embedded in the call for reject-
ing this type of might: "Power in the international arena, namely [in the
form] of Japan, is pressing us hard. We should use every kind of social
movement.., to cope with Japan's oppression."'18
Li's and Mao's visions of an egalitarian international order obvi-
ously came from their discontent with aggression from and domination
by foreign countries. We should note, however, that the commitment to
an international "democratic" order arose not merely from the national-
ist reaction against unequal international relations, a desire based on
nationalist sentiments; it was also linked to the aspiration to build a
better international relationship, one characterized by different races'
love for and willingness to help one another. What Li Dazhao hoped for
was not a confrontation between the Asian and white peoples but close
relationships among different races.19 The eagerness to reject the inter-
national power responsible for China's suffering led Mao to embrace
Kropotkin's idea: "There is a group of people who hope to merge all the
nations on earth into a single whole, to unite all humans and form a big
family. . .. The leader of this group is Kropotkin, a Russian."20 In these
statements, what they cherished was a China that would coexist as other
nations' equal in the new world order. Chen Duxiu even assigned to
those he called "the new Chinese intellectuals" the mission to love and
help different races of the world.21
To be sure, the May Fourth radicals must have been motivated by
nationalism to construct an egalitarian - or "democratic" - international
order, since for them such an order would ensure the independence and
dignity of the weak nations. Even so, nationalism did not narrow radi-
cal intellectuals' cosmopolitan vision to an exclusive concern for the
elimination of oppression but inspired them to appreciate the more
positive elements-love, mutual respect, and mutual aid-at an inter-
national level. In fact, having examined the May Fourth thinking, Mi-
chael Luk believes that radical intellectuals were genuinely interested in
219
confrontation between "Pan . . . ism" and democracy was the latter's victory in both the international and national arenas.17 Mao Zedong also wished to remove oppression in the international arena. In 1919, identifying "the doctrine of the common people" (pingmin zhuyi) - a term with socialist overtones - with democracy, Mao vehemently proclaimed: "We should use the doctrines of the people to overthrow all kinds of power [i.e . , oppression], including . . . power in the international realm." Nationalism was embedded in the call for reject ing this type of might: "Power in the international arena, namely [in the form] of Japan, is pressing us hard. We should use every kind of social movement . . . to cope with Japan's oppression." 1 8 Li's and Mao's visions of an egalitarian international order obvi ously came from their discontent with aggression from and domination by foreign countries. We should note, however, that the commitment to an international "democratic" order arose not merely from the national ist reaction against unequal international relations, a desire based on nationalist sentiments; it was also linked to the aspiration to build a better international relationship, one characterized by different races' love for and willingness to help one another. What Li Dazhao hoped for was not a confrontation between the Asian and white peoples but close relationships among different races. 19 The eagerness to reject the inter national power responsible for China's suffering led Mao to embrace Kropotkin's idea: "There is a group of people who hope to merge all the nations on earth into a single whole, to unite all humans and form a big family. . . . The leader of this group is Kropotkin, a Russian."20 In these statements, what they cherished was a China that would coexist as other nations' equal in the new world order. Chen Duxiu even assigned to those he called "the new Chinese intellectuals" the mission to love and help different races of the world.2 1 To be sure, the May Fourth radicals must have been motivated by nationalism to construct an egalitarian - or "democratic" - international order, since for them such an order would ensure the independence and dignity of the weak nations. Even so, nationalism did not narrow radi cal intellectuals' cosmopolitan vision to an exclusive concern for the elimination of oppression but inspired them to appreciate the more positive elements - love, mutual respect, and mutual aid - at an inter national level. In fact, having examined the May Fourth thinking, Mi chael Luk believes that radical intellectuals were genuinely interested in
220
220
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
international fraternal union and after a new China that could enjoy
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
international fraternal union and after a new China that could enjoy and contribute to it:
and contribute to it:
Chinese intellectuals . . . were also concerned about the future di-
rection of world evolution and speculated on its ultimate destiny.
Completely contrary to their vision of a contemporary world domi-
nated by savage Darwinian struggle, their views on the future were
remarkably optimistic, as they almost invariably looked forward to a
time when a pacifist, humanitarian, and cosmopolitan spirit would
prevail. . . During the First World War period, intellectuals such
as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, and Hu Shi entertained high hopes that
a new international order governed by the democratic principle
would be established after the war.22 And to explain the origin of
this cosmopolitan worldview, Luk emphasizes the influence of tradi-
tion - the "fundamental Chinese belief in a universal order."23
Sometimes, it is not too much to say that the commitment to brother-
hood led to a concern for the well-being and dignity of peoples outside
the Chinese nation. Therefore, Chen Duxiu sang the praises of the
French Revolution in terms of its contribution to all humankind, as Li
Dazhao, applauding the Revolution of "the Russian people," passion-
ately proclaimed: "[W]e long for the victory of the common people in
the world, not that of any particular race; we pray for the liberty of the
common people on this earth, not that of any specific national group."24
Chinese intellectuals . . . were also concerned about the future di rection of world evolution and speculated on its ultimate destiny. Completely contrary to their vision of a contemporary world domi nated by savage Darwinian struggle, their views on the future were remarkably optimistic, as they almost invariably looked forward to a time when a pacifist, humanitarian, and cosmopolitan spirit would prevail. . . . During the First World War period, intellectuals such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, and Hu Shi entertained high hopes that a new international order governed by the democratic principle would be established after the war. 22 And to explain the origin of this cosmopolitan worldview, Luk emphasizes the influence of tradi tion - the "fundamental Chinese belief in a universal order. " 23
More interestingly, not only did the Chinese radicals assume that they
should be concerned about other peoples' existence, but the radical circle
also hoped, if not fancied, that other peoples would sympathize with
China's plight and struggle. Before joining the Communist Party, Zhang
Wentian in 1924 wrote a story entitled "Life's Journey," which was about a
Chinese engineer working in California. There he fell in love with an
American radical who promised to leave the United States for China and
join the revolution led by a patriotic organization called the Great China
Revolutionary Party. Unfortunately, the woman died on the eve of their
departure. The heartbroken engineer returned to China alone, became a
brave revolutionary, and sacrificed his life for the struggle. The story
more or less reveals the wish that China's struggle for a better situation
will become a goal shared by "progressive" Westerners.25
It is clear, therefore, that for the May Fourth radicals a new China
should be a cosmopolitan nation, swimming with the stream of the "ad-
Sometimes, it is not too much to say that the commitment to brother hood led to a concern for the well-being and dignity of peoples outside the Chinese nation. Therefore, Chen Duxiu sang the praises of the French Revolution in terms of its contribution to all humankind, as Li Dazhao, applauding the Revolution of "the Russian people, " passion ately proclaimed: "[W]e long for the victory of the common people in the world, not that of any particular race; we pray for the liberty of the common people on this earth, not that of any specific national group. "24 More interestingly, not only did the Chinese radicals assume that they should be concerned about other peoples' existence, but the radical circle also hoped, if not fancied, that other peoples would sympathize with China's plight and struggle. Before joining the Communist Party, Zhang Wentian in 1924 wrote a story entitled "Life's Journey," which was about a Chinese engineer working in California. There he fell in love with an American radical who promised to leave the United States for China and j oin the revolution led by a patriotic organization called the Great China Revolutionary Party. Unfortunately, the woman died on the eve of their departure. The heartbroken engineer returned to China alone, became a brave revolutionary, and sacrificed his life for the struggle. The story more or less reveals the wish that China's struggle for a better situation will become a goal shared by "progressive" Westerners.z5 It is clear, therefore, that for the May Fourth radicals a new China should be a cosmopolitan nation, swimming with the stream of the "ad-
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 221
vanced" cultures of the world and helping in the construction of an
international union that would transcend national boundaries. Besides
discussing what China should do in order to become a cosmopolitan
nation, the Chinese radicals also cherished a vision of China taking its
place in an international community that would be sympathetic and
characterized by harmony, equal justice, and liberty.
But the imagining of the Chinese nation as a cosmopolitan political
entity was only part of the story regarding the influence of cosmopolitan-
ism on the May Fourth ideal vision of the nation. In the Chinese icono-
clasts' thinking, the image of China as an internationalized nation was
accompanied by that of a cosmopolitan Chinese culture. China's cosmo-
politan culture, in their view, would be marked not only by the adoption
of Western liberal values but by familiarity with Western cultural achieve-
ments and customs.
We should note, interestingly enough, that exploration of the West-
ern cultural dimension was often explained in nationalistic language.
Emphasizing educated youths' responsibility to study and search for
effective means of national survival, an official announcement in New
Youth stated: "At present, our Chinese youths do not have a strong
presence in the international arena and are still in the process of study-
ing [truth and useful knowledge]." It then suggested: "We have to de-
velop a keen interest in the world." "This magazine," said the editor, "is
devoted to the introduction of various dimensions of foreign countries
from interesting happenings to scholarship and intellectual currents."26
As a returned student from the United States, Hu Shi was keenly
disappointed by China's educational system, which, according to him,
had created a generation of students ignorant of the world who would
thus fail China.27
Not unexpectedly, active intellectuals of the May Fourth era were
quite enthusiastic about transmitting knowledge of foreign cultures, es-
pecially those of the West, to a Chinese audience. In New Youth, we find
a wide range of information translated or originally written by the Chi-
nese on topics ranging from Western political institutions and social
conditions to Versailles and the Louvre and literature and the arts.28
There were also writings about such exotica as the rituals involved in a
duel29 and elite fashions involving hunting, horse racing, and the social
life of London.30
But, despite their seriously and publicly proclaimed goal of broad-
ening Chinese readers' intellectual horizons, May Fourth intellectuals
221
vanced" cultures of the world and helping in the construction of an international union that would transcend national boundaries. Besides discussing what China should do in order to become a cosmopolitan nation, the Chinese radicals also cherished a vision of China taking its place in an international community that would be sympathetic and characterized by harmony, equal justice, and liberty. But the imagining of the Chinese nation as a cosmopolitan political entity was only part of the story regarding the influence of cosmopolitan ism on the May Fourth ideal vision of the nation. In the Chinese icono clasts' thinking, the image of China as an internationalized nation was accompanied by that of a cosmopolitan Chinese culture. China's cosmo politan culture, in their view, would be marked not only by the adoption of Western liberal values but by familiarity with Western cultural achieve ments and customs. We should note, interestingly enough, that exploration of the West ern cultural dimension was often explained in nationalistic language. Emphasizing educated youths' responsibility to study and search for effective means of national survival, an official announcement in New Youth stated: "At present, our Chinese youths do not have a strong presence in the international arena and are still in the process of study ing [truth and useful knowledge]." It then suggested: "We have to de velop a keen interest in the world." "This magazine," said the editor, "is devoted to the introduction of various dimensions of foreign countries from interesting happenings to scholarship and intellectual currents. "26 As a returned student from the United States, Hu Shi was keenly disappointed by China's educational system, which, according to him, had created a generation of students ignorant of the world who would thus fail China.27 Not unexpectedly, active intellectuals of the May Fourth era were quite enthusiastic about transmitting knowledge of foreign cultures, es pecially those of the West, to a Chinese audience. In New Youth, we find a wide range of information translated or originally written by the Chi nese on topics ranging from Western political institutions and social conditions to Versailles and the Louvre and literature and the arts.28 There were also writings about such exotica as the rituals involved in a dueF9 and elite fashions involving hunting, horse racing, and the social life of London.3o But, despite their seriously and publicly proclaimed goal of broad ening Chinese readers' intellectual horizons, May Fourth intellectuals
222
222 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
introduced foreign cultures out of a genuine interest in Western accom-
plishments and customs - in short, they reveled in things that had little
relation to the kind of knowledge that might have been useful in China's
salvation. Let us, say, look at Liu Bannong's essay on Western "flower
poems."31 In this article, he translated and wrote commentaries on En-
glish poems, choosing roses, violets, and forget-me-nots as motifs. It is
clear that he savored this aesthetic undertaking when he was elaborating
on the transcendence of Byron's poetry or the subtlety of Horace
Smith's "Hymn of the Flower." A translator's introduction to a play by
Oscar Wilde also betrayed this person's cosmopolitanist longing for cul-
tural sophistication: "Wilde's dramas are marked by local color and a
vivid representation of the English upper class. . . . Foreigners always
find them difficult to understand, but this is the very reason why they
delight me so."32 And when Zhang Wentian read and wrote about
Wilde, contrasting him with the highly esteemed Ibsen, he praised the
former's aesthetic style: "His techniques are unconventional and his
style elegant. He was both a genius and a monster."33
We can say, therefore, that the May Fourth period witnessed the
presence of a cosmopolitan ideal image of the nation consisting of at
least two dimensions - one political, emphasizing China's integration
into the dominant trend of the world and its dignified existence in a
fraternal world order that it would help construct, and the other cul-
tural, aspiring to a new China that could show a substantial degree of
familiarity with foreign cultures.
How, then, did the Commuinist revolutionary culture inherit the
cosmopolitan ideal of the nation - in both its political and cultural
aspects - from China's modernist tradition? Although historians of mod-
ern China always emphasize the importance of the May Fourth tradition
in the emergence of Chinese Communism,34 we still need to analyze
more concretely how the Communist movement continued or discontin-
ued various trends in that tradition, so well known for its eclecticism.35
We do see, however, the continuation of the cosmopolitan ideal image of
the nation in Communist revolutionary culture. Such an image was
probably sustained by a few conditions.
First, many early Communist leaders were active participants in the
May Fourth movement. Second, Communist internationalism and the
Chinese Communists' connection with the Comintern helped perpetu-
ate the cosmopolitan-internationalist expectation of the Chinese nation.
And, third, the impact of the May Fourth movement was still being felt
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
introduced foreign cultures out of a genuine interest in Western accom plishments and customs - in short, they reveled in things that had little relation to the kind of knowledge that might have been useful in China's salvation. Let us, say, look at Liu Bannong's essay on Western "flower poems."31 In this article, he translated and wrote commentaries on En glish poems, choosing roses, violets, and forget-me-nots as motifs. It is clear that he savored this aesthetic undertaking when he was elaborating on the transcendence of Byron's poetry or the subtlety of Horace Smith's "Hymn of the Flower. " A translator's introduction to a play by Oscar Wilde also betrayed this person's cosmopolitanist longing for cul tural sophistication: "Wilde's dramas are marked by local color and a vivid representation of the English upper class . . . . Foreigners always find them difficult to understand, but this is the very reason why they delight me so. "32 And when Zhang Wentian read and wrote about Wilde, contrasting him with the highly esteemed Ibsen, he praised the former's aesthetic style: "His techniques are unconventional and his style elegant. He was both a genius and a monster. "33 We can say, therefore, that the May Fourth period witnessed the presence of a cosmopolitan ideal image of the nation consisting of at least two dimensions - one political, emphasizing China's integration into the dominant trend of the world and its dignified existence in a fraternal world order that it would help construct, and the other cul tural, aspiring to a new China that could show a substantial degree of familiarity with foreign cultures. How, then, did the Commtinist revolutionary culture inherit the cosmopolitan ideal of the nation - in both its political and cultural aspects - from China's modernist tradition? Although historians of mod ern China always emphasize the importance of the May Fourth tradition in the emergence of Chinese Communism,34 we still need to analyze more concretely how the Communist movement continued or discontin ued various trends in that tradition, so well known for its eclecticism.35 We do see, however, the continuation of the cosmopolitan ideal image of the nation in Communist revolutionary culture. Such an image was probably sustained by a few conditions. First, many early Communist leaders were active participants in the May Fourth movement. Second, Communist internationalism and the Chinese Communists' connection with the Comintern helped perpetu ate the cosmopolitan-internationalist expectation of the Chinese nation. And, third, the impact of the May Fourth movement was still being felt
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 223
by the generations growing up years after the heydey of the movement
itself. For instance, Yang Mo, a well-known Communist writer, recalled
that, coming of age in the 1930s, she submerged herself in May Fourth
and Western bourgeois literature.36
In the discussion that follows, I will examine how the cosmopolitan
ideal image of the nation continued to be present in Communist revolu-
tionary culture and at the same time will analyze briefly how to some
degree the ideal itself changed and developed during the protracted
revolutionary process.
An Ideal China as an Internationalist Nation:
Narrative and Mass Mobilization in the
Communist Revolution
223
by the generations growing up years after the heydey of the movement itself. For instance, Yang Mo, a well-known Communist writer, recalled that, coming of age in the 1 930s, she submerged herself in May Fourth and Western bourgeois literature.36 In the discussion that follows, I will examine how the cosmopolitan ideal image of the nation continued to be present in Communist revolu tionary culture and at the same time will analyze briefly how to some degree the ideal itself changed and developed during the protracted revolutionary process.
Some May Fourth intellectuals, not unexpectedly, interwove the cos-
mopolitan perspective on their beloved China with their appreciation of
socialism and the Bolshevik Revolution. The hope that China would
improve itself by keeping up with the most advanced trends of the
world was intertwined with the radical group's admiration for socialist
and communist radicalism. Bolshevism, socialism, and "the people's
union" were now regarded as the vanguard of human culture. When Li
An Ideal China as an Internationalist Nation: Narrative and Mass Mobilization in the Communist Revolution
Dazhao asked the Chinese to accommodate the progressive trend of bol-
shevization, he was thinking about the survival of the Chinese people in
a new, egalitarian, and free world through their adoption of common
people's ethics, which valued hard work.37
In 1920, Chen Duxiu argued that the capitalists' undemocratic, ex-
ploitative treatment of the workers deprived workers of opportunities to
receive an education and therefore would lead to the decline of the race.38
For him, the solution lay in socialism. Chinese laborers must, he insisted,
aspire to a higher level of consciousness, which would be embraced by the
laborers in the world. That, he said, was the awareness that workers
should demand the right of management.39 In his view, China's struggle
for survival depended upon the adoption of the world's most progressive
consciousness by a specific group of Chinese, the working class.
While Chen thought that Chinese laborers should develop an ad-
vanced consciousness, Deng Zhongxia assumed that Chinese workers
would contribute to the birth of a new world. In 1920, explaining why he
and his comrades, the members of a communist study group in Beijing,
were publishing the magazine The Voice of Labor, Deng Zhongxia said:
Some May Fourth intellectuals, not unexpectedly, interwove the cos mopolitan perspective on their beloved China with their appreciation of socialism and the Bolshevik Revolution. The hope that China would improve itself by keeping up with the most advanced trends of the world was intertwined with the radical group's admiration for socialist and communist radicalism. Bolshevism, socialism, and "the people's union" were now regarded as the vanguard of human culture. When Li Dazhao asked the Chinese to accommodate the progressive trend of bol shevization, he was thinking about the survival of the Chinese people in a new, egalitarian, and free world through their adoption of common people's ethics, which valued hard work.37 In 1 920, Chen Duxiu argued that the capitalists' undemocratic, ex ploitative treatment of the workers deprived workers of opportunities to receive an education and therefore would lead to the decline of the race.38 For him, the solution lay in socialism. Chinese laborers must, he insisted, aspire to a higher level of consciousness, which would be embraced by the laborers in the world. That, he said, was the awareness that workers should demand the right of management.39 In his view, China's struggle for survival depended upon the adoption of the world's most progressive consciousness by a specific group of Chinese, the working class. While Chen thought that Chinese laborers should develop an ad vanced consciousness, Deng Zhongxia assumed that Chinese workers would contribute to the birth of a new world. In 1 920, explaining why he and his comrades, the members of a communist study group in Beijing, were publishing the magazine The Voice of Labor, Deng Zhongxia said:
224
224
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"We hope that we can contribute to the Chinese laboring people's soli-
darity and their union with the laborers in other nations. On the basis of
this union, working people can change the world."40 In him, we see a
Marxist version of the expectation that China could help build a new and
united international community.
After the founding of the Communist Party, and during the process of
bolshevization in the 1920s, as the Chinese Communists strove to deepen
their understanding and improve their use of Marxism-Leninism, commu-
nist internationalism became quite an important issue for the CCP's lead-
ing theorists. Drawing on their writings, Michael Luk shows minutely the
Chinese Communists' conceptions of China's relationship with the out-
side world and their discourses on the interplay between nationalism and
internationalism.41 Here I would like to portray the Communist inter-
nationalist-cosmopolitan image of the nation by drawing substantially on
Luk's study.
Driven by patriotism and the need to establish a patriotic public
image, Chinese Communist intellectuals devoted themselves to the task
of defining the nation in the context of Marxist-Leninist theories of
internationalism. To be sure, Chen Duxiu and Li Da preached interna-
tionalism at the expense of nationalism, and the private decisions of the
party in 1922 concentrated on the doctrine of proletarian international-
ism. We should note, nevertheless, that the Communists, however inter-
nationalist, actually spent a huge amount of energy contemplating the
place of China - and at an abstract level the nation - in what they called
the world revolution.42
In the opening issue of the new Xin Qingnian, the Chinese Commu-
nist Party linked China's struggle for survival to the anti-imperialist and
anticapitalist world revolution: "Old Chinese society was not only feu-
dal, but it was to be swallowed up in a wave of world capitalism. It
shares the same fate as the proletariat of the world."43 In the mid-1920s,
important theorists, including Zheng Chaolin, Ren Bishi, and Qu
Qiubai, celebrating the October Revolution, pondered the national
question. In their view, the true solution to the national problem was
only found after the October Revolution, as the Bolsheviks had "put an
end to the Tsarist oppression of the small nationalities and fully realized
the ideal of national equality and sovereignty." Chen Duxiu even cre-
atively suggested that there was a proletarian type of nationalism, the
essence of which was anti-imperialist, as it advocated "self-determina-
tion for all nationalities."44
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"We hope that we can contribute to the Chinese laboring people's soli darity and their union with the laborers in other nations. On the basis of this union, working people can change the world."40 In him, we see a Marxist version of the expectation that China could help build a new and united international community. After the founding of the Communist Party, and during the process of bolshevization in the 1 920s, as the Chinese Communists strove to deepen their understanding and improve their use of Marxism-Leninism, commu nist internationalism became quite an important issue for the CCP's lead ing theorists. Drawing on their writings, Michael Luk shows minutely the Chinese Communists' conceptions of China's relationship with the out side world and their discourses on the interplay between nationalism and internationalism.41 Here I would like to portray the Communist inter nationalist-cosmopolitan image of the nation by drawing substantially on Luk's study. Driven by patriotism and the need to establish a patriotic public image, Chinese Communist intellectuals devoted themselves to the task of defining the nation in the context of Marxist-Leninist theories of internationalism. To be sure, Chen Duxiu and Li Da preached interna tionalism at the expense of nationalism, and the private decisions of the party in 1922 concentrated on the doctrine of proletarian international ism. We should note, nevertheless, that the Communists, however inter nationalist, actually spent a huge amount of energy contemplating the place of China - and at an abstract level the nation - in what they called the world revolution.42 In the opening issue of the new Xin Qingnian, the Chinese Commu nist Party linked China's struggle for survival to the anti-imperialist and anticapitalist world revolution: "Old Chinese society was not only feu dal, but it was to be swallowed up in a wave of world capitalism. It shares the same fate as the proletariat of the world."43 In the mid-1920s, important theorists, including Zheng Chaolin, Ren Bishi, and Qu Qiubai, celebrating the October Revolution, pondered the national question. In their view, the true solution to the national problem was only found after the October Revolution, as the Bolsheviks had "put an end to the Tsarist oppression of the small nationalities and fully realized the ideal of national equality and sovereignty. " Chen Duxiu even cre atively suggested that there was a proletarian type of nationalism, the essence of which was anti-imperialist, as it advocated "self-determina tion for all nationalities."44
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 225
The CCP, moreover, elaborated the question of what the Chinese
nation should do and would achieve in the international revolution by
following the Leninist concept of world revolution. The concept divides
the process into the stages of anti-imperialist and proletarian revolution.
As Luk points out (182):
In 1923, Qu Qiubai first wrote on the importance of the National
225
The CCP, moreover, elaborated the question of what the Chinese nation should do and would achieve in the international revolution by following the Leninist concept of world revolution. The concept divides the process into the stages of anti-imperialist and proletarian revolution. As Luk points out (182):
Revolution of China to the proletarian world revolution. . . Qu
claimed that China had been placed in a particularly important posi-
tion in world politics because it was the "last market" able to accom-
modate the further expansion of capitalist imperialism after the First
World War. If China's National Revolution were to succeed, he pre-
dicted, it would strike a major blow to imperialism and inevitably
precipitate the outbreak of the proletarian revolution of the world.
The role played by China, therefore, was more than that of being
part of the world revolution; it would be essential for the success of the
oppressed peoples' global struggle for liberation. Nevertheless, this was
only a kind of desperate optimism, as Qu talked about China's potential
contribution in a context that emphasized the crucial importance of
China's struggle to survive.45
Luk believes that the influences of Lenin's theories of world revolu-
In 1 923, Ou Oiubai first wrote on the importance of the National Revolution of China to the proletarian world revolution. . . . Ou claimed that China had been placed in a particularly important posi tion in world politics because it was the "last market" able to accom modate the further expansion of capitalist imperialism after the First World War. If China's National Revolution were to succeed, he pre dicted, it would strike a major blow to imperialism and inevitably precipitate the outbreak of the proletarian revolution of the world.
tion on the CCP ideology were "evidently widely felt and lasting,"46 but
we certainly need further research to explore the continuation and modi-
fication of these nationalist and internationalist views on the nation. In
addition, as Hoston puts it, the Shanghai coup in 1927 forced the Chi-
nese Communists to confront this question: "How far could or should
any native communist party sacrifice the interests of its own national
revolution for those of the international revolution, or of its fatherland,
the Soviet Union?" According to her, doubts about the validity of the
Bolshevik path for the Chinese sanctioned "Mao's pursuit of a revolu-
tion that was at once nationalist and socialistic, in isolation from the
Comintern to whose often contradictory policies he merely paid lip ser-
vice."47 Interestingly but ironically, it was Stalin's well-known concept of
"socialism in one country" that bolstered the Chinese conception of an
independent state: determined to build "socialism in one country," Mao,
though regarding the Chinese Revolution as an important part of the
world revolution, aspired mainly to building socialism in China as a
nation with its own distinctive history.48 While Hoston always stresses
The role played by China, therefore, was more than that of being part of the world revolution; it would be essential for the success of the oppressed peoples' global struggle for liberation. Nevertheless, this was only a kind of desperate optimism, as Ou talked about China's potential contribution in a context that emphasized the crucial importance of China's struggle to survive.45 Luk believes that the influences of Lenin's theories of world revolu tion on the CCP ideology were "evidently widely felt and lasting,"46 but we certainly need further research to explore the continuation and modi fication of these nationalist and internationalist views on the nation. In addition, as Hoston puts it, the Shanghai coup in 1927 forced the Chi nese Communists to confront this question: "How far could or should any native communist party sacrifice the interests of its own national revolution for those of the international revolution, or of its fatherland, the Soviet Union?" According to her, doubts about the validity of the Bolshevik path for the Chinese sanctioned "Mao's pursuit of a revolu tion that was at once nationalist and socialistic, in isolation from the Comintern to whose often contradictory policies he merely paid lip ser vice."47 Interestingly but ironically, it was Stalin's well-known concept of "socialism in one country" that bolstered the Chinese conception of an independent state: determined to build "socialism in one country, " Mao, though regarding the Chinese Revolution as an important part of the world revolution, aspired mainly to building socialism in China as a nation with its own distinctive history. 48 While Hoston always stresses
226
226
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the importance of the Chinese Communists' nationalism in their at-
tempts to reconcile nation-oriented concerns with internationalism, I
intend to use the Communists' integration of internationalist language
and ideals in nationalist discourse to highlight the significance of interna-
tionalism for Communist nationalism and culture.
In fact, in the post-1927 course of the Revolution, the CCP contin-
ued to cherish the internationalist ideal image of China and at the same
time seemed to embrace such an image with increasing self-confidence.
During the Yan'an period, the party still celebrated internationalism.
Mao, the arch opponent of the Russian-trained Communists and the
most enthusiastic advocate of sinicization, revealed an internationalist
tone in his essays and speeches. In a speech he gave on the occasion of
the October Revolution, published in Jiefang ribao, he said on behalf
of the party and the Chinese people, "We the Communists . . . soldiers,
and people should unite and struggle . . . so as to defeat Japanese impe-
rialism, to build a nation in which liberty and equality will prevail, and to
participate in international cooperation and [China's] reconstruction as
a new country."49
Similar ideas were echoed in his more serious writing. As the civil
war unfolded, Mao began to contemplate the transition from "new de-
mocracy" to "socialism."50 After all those years of struggle, he finally
had the opportunity to envision the coming of socialism. In On the
People's Democratic Dictatorship, written by him as a party leader to
celebrate the anniversary of the Communist Party, Mao elatedly wrote
about the party's prospects in Marxist internationalist language: "Under
the leadership of the proletariat and the Communist Party, China will
gradually transform itself into an industrial country, will leave the stage
of new democracy, will proceed to socialism and communism, and will
eliminate the class system and realize worldwide harmony."51 Like the
revolutionaries decades earlier, Mao expounded on China's contribution
to the world. Gone, however, was the desperate cry that China, as one
of the weak nations, must struggle in the waves of anti-imperialism in
order to reject foreign oppression and domination. Mao's (or the Com-
munist Party's) optimistic view of China's international contribution
was, we can say, intertwined with a leader's grand vision of nation build-
ing on the eve of victory.
Comparing the iconoclastic intellectuals' representations of China
and those of the socialists and Communists, we see in the latter a much
more prominent presence of the notion that the Chinese laboring class
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the importance of the Chinese Communists' nationalism in their at tempts to reconcile nation-oriented concerns with internationalism, I intend to use the Communists' integration of internationalist language and ideals in nationalist discourse to highlight the significance of interna tionalism for Communist nationalism and culture. In fact, in the post-1927 course of the Revolution, the CCP contin ued to cherish the internationalist ideal image of China and at the same time seemed to embrace such an image with increasing self-confidence. During the Yan'an period, the party still celebrated internationalism. Mao, the arch opponent of the Russian-trained Communists and the most enthusiastic advocate of sinicization, revealed an internationalist tone in his essays and speeches. In a speech he gave on the occasion of the October Revolution, published in liefang ribao, he said on behalf of the party and the Chinese people, "We the Communists . . . soldiers, and people should unite and struggle . . . so as to defeat Japanese impe rialism, to build a nation in which liberty and equality will prevail, and to participate in international cooperation and [China's] reconstruction as a new country. " 49 Similar ideas were echoed in his more serious writing. As the civil war unfolded, Mao began to contemplate the transition from "new de mocracy" to "socialism."50 After all those years of struggle, he finally had the opportunity to envision the coming of socialism. In On the People 's Democratic Dictatorship, written by him as a party leader to celebrate the anniversary of the Communist Party, Mao elatedly wrote about the party's prospects in Marxist internationalist language: "Under the leadership of the proletariat and the Communist Party, China will gradually transform itself into an industrial country, will leave the stage of new democracy, will proceed to socialism and communism, and will eliminate the class system and realize worldwide harmony. "51 Like the revolutionaries decades earlier, Mao expounded on China's contribution to the world. Gone, however, was the desperate cry that China, as one of the weak nations, must struggle in the waves of anti-imperialism in order to reject foreign oppression and domination. Mao's ( or the Com munist Party's ) optimistic view of China's international contribution was, we can say, intertwined with a leader's grand vision of nation build ing on the eve of victory. Comparing the iconoclastic intellectuals' representations of China and those of the socialists and Communists, we see in the latter a much more prominent presence of the notion that the Chinese laboring class
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 227
was important for the fate of their country and the world. We should
note, in addition, that the Communist leaders not only integrated their
internationalist expectation of China into their own narratives but
they made genuine attempts to spread the idea that China and the
Chinese masses were significant for international politics in the context
of mass mobilization.
From the 1920s to the 1940s, revolutionary intellectuals employed
various devices to develop the Chinese peasants' and workers' interna-
tionalist consciousness. Sometimes revolutionary leaders themselves con-
veyed internationalist messages to the masses directly. While organizing
his soviet, Peng Pai explained Marxism to the peasants and workers in a
lively way: "Mr. Marx used his telescope, clearly observing [the capital-
ists' exploitation of the workers]. Therefore, he organized a Communist
Party, which leads the workers and peasants all over the world to struggle
with the rich. He did not pay attention to national boundaries."52
It was possible that the party made particular efforts to cultivate the
soldiers' internationalist consciousness. Gao Xiucheng, who was a cap-
tain at the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, recalled:
During the eight years of resistance against the Japanese, political
education in the military (budui) often had a strong emphasis on the
Soviet Union. I seem to recall that after the Soviet army occupied
Manchuria the party distributed a new textbook. The Soviet Union,
the textbook told us, was the country of Lenin, the main force oppos-
ing fascism. . . . We loved learning all about this and assumed that
the Soviet Union was as lovely as paradise. We sincerely wanted to be
friendly with the "big brother" (lao dage) . . . Before heading for
Manchuria from Qidong, the party had attempted to mobilize the
227
was important for the fate of their country and the world. We should note, in addition, that the Communist leaders not only integrated their internationalist expectation of China into their own narratives but they made genuine attempts to spread the idea that China and the Chinese masses were significant for international politics in the context of mass mobilization. From the 1920s to the 1940s, revolutionary intellectuals employed various devices to develop the Chinese peasants' and workers' interna tionalist consciousness. Sometimes revolutionary leaders themselves con veyed internationalist messages to the masses directly. While organizing his soviet, Peng Pai explained Marxism to the peasants and workers in a lively way: "Mr. Marx used his telescope, clearly observing [the capital ists' exploitation of the workers]. Therefore, he organized a Communist Party, which leads the workers and peasants all over the world to struggle with the rich. He did not pay attention to national boundaries."52 It was possible that the party made particular efforts to cultivate the soldiers' internationalist consciousness. Gao Xiucheng, who was a cap tain at the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, recalled:
army, telling us that we were going to have a union with our big
brother. I cannot describe how happy and excited we were. At that
time, people were enthusiastic and simple.53
It is not clear whether Gao, who was quite well educated by Chi-
nese, and particularly Communist, standards, illustrates for us the inter-
nationalist sentiment of the low-ranking officers and soldiers.54 How-
ever, let us look at how great a stir the impending union caused in the
army in which Gao served as captain: over and over again, the soldiers
tried to brush the dust off their old, dirty uniforms, wiped the badges on
their caps, and cleaned their weapons. What the army wanted was to
During the eight years of resistance against the Japanese, political education in the military (budui) often had a strong emphasis on the Soviet Union. I seem to recall that after the Soviet army occupied Manchuria the party distributed a new textbook. The Soviet Union, the textbook told us, was the country of Lenin, the main force oppos ing fascism . . . . We loved learning all about this and assumed that the Soviet Union was as lovely as paradise. We sincerely wanted to be friendly with the "big brother" (lao dage) . . . Before heading for Manchuria from Qidong, the party had attempted to mobilize the army, telling us that we were going to have a union with our big brother. I cannot describe how happy and excited we were. At that time, people were enthusiastic and simple.53 .
It is not clear whether Gao, who was quite well educated by Chi nese, and particularly Communist, standards, illustrates for us the inter nationalist sentiment of the low-ranking officers and soldiers. 54 How ever, let us look at how great a stir the impending union caused in the army in which Gao served as captain: over and over again, the soldiers tried to brush the dust off their old, dirty uniforms, wiped the badges on their caps, and cleaned their weapons. What the army wanted was to
228
228 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
make a deep impression on the big brother.55 Whether the soldiers did
all this on their own we cannot tell. Moreover, the emphasis on friend-
ship with an ally may be different from internationalism. But the commo-
tion itself certainly conveyed a message to the rank and file, the message
that there was intimate bonding between the two Communist powers.
Such a message, sent in a historical context containing a belief in world
revolution and international harmonious interdependence, was one of
internationalism.
If Gao's recollection, recorded years after the revolutionary days,
does not reveal most accurately the Communist attempts to "interna-
tionalize" the soldiers, there are many examples that demonstrate how
the Communists used literature and the arts to inject the Chinese masses
with internationalist sentiments. Some Communists exploited the sym-
bolism of the color red. In the Sichuan-Shaanxi soviet, the following
inscription, aimed at introducing rural people to the grand vision of
world revolution, was engraved on a stone monument:
The red flag will wave all over the world;
The red light will brighten the five Continents.56
After the Soviet period, Communist cultural workers helped spread
internationalist ideas by relying heavily upon music and the performing
arts. During the 1930s, plays performed in the Jiangxi Soviet Areas
contained loud and clear internationalist messages. For instance, the
play The Roaring Metropolis, which was about the urban Communist
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
make a deep impression on the big brother. 55 Whether the soldiers did all this on their own we cannot tell. Moreover, the emphasis on friend ship with an ally may be different from internationalism. But the commo tion itself certainly conveyed a message to the rank and file, the message that there was intimate bonding between the two Communist powers. Such a message, sent in a historical context containing a belief in world revolution and international harmonious interdependence, was one of internationalism. If Gao's recollection, recorded years after the revolutionary days, does not reveal most accurately the Communist attempts to "interna tionalize" the soldiers, there are many examples that demonstrate how the Communists used literature and the arts to inject the Chinese masses with internationalist sentiments. Some Communists exploited the sym bolism of the color red. In the Sichuan-Shaanxi soviet, the following inscription, aimed at introducing rural people to the grand vision of world revolution, was engraved on a stone monument:
movement, ended with the singing of the "Internationale."57 In another
play, the performers sang a song to stir up the audience's anger against
British imperialism: "Imperialism is fierce and unfair; / let us rise up and
struggle with it. / Unite with workers and peasants of the whole world; /
Support our socialist Soviet Union."58
The red flag will wave all over the world; The red light will brighten the five Continents. 56
Cultural workers of the Soviet period even made use of traditional art
forms in implanting the internationalist ideal into the minds of the rural
masses. For instance, a popular revolutionary song, "The Sweet Os-
manthus of August," borrowing the melody of the folk song "Baduanjin,"
began with these words: "The sweet osmanthus of August blooms every-
where, / and the red flags wave in every corner. /. . . A bright, colorful
new world is emerging. / My fellow workers, my peasant friends, / Let's
sing the 'Internationale' to celebrate our soviet."59
In the Yan'an period, internationalist messages did not subside.
After the Soviet period, Communist cultural workers helped spread internationalist ideas by relying heavily upon music and the performing arts. During the 1 930s, plays performed in the liangxi Soviet Areas contained loud and clear internationalist messages. For instance, the play The Roaring Metropolis, which was about the urban Communist movement, ended with the singing of the "Internationale."57 In another play, the performers sang a song to stir up the audience's anger against British imperialism: "Imperialism is fierce and unfair; / let us rise up and struggle with it. / Unite with workers and peasants of the whole world; / Support our socialist Soviet Union."58 Cultural workers of the Soviet period even made use of traditional art forms in implanting the internationalist ideal into the minds of the rural masses. For instance, a popular revolutionary song, "The Sweet Os manthus of August," borrowing the melody of the folk song "Baduanjin," began with these words: "The sweet osman thus of August blooms every where, / and the red flags wave in every corner. / . . . A bright, colorful new world is emerging. / My fellow workers, my peasant friends, / Let's sing the 'Internationale' to celebrate our soviet. "59 In the Yan'an period, internationalist messages did not subside.
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 229
There was a relatively popular yangge opera entitled Twelve Sickles,
which was about a peasant family that worked hard for the goals of
national resistance and economic production. In the play, the hero sang
so as to educate his wife: "If we the laboring people join the revolution, /
an ideal society will come. / During the new era, all the people in the
world will work hard, / and they will enjoy happiness and justice."60
During World War II, the Communist Party was eager to persuade
the masses that the fate of China as a nation was being influenced by
international politics. The party explained what was going on in the
international arena by means of artistic performances. In all of Central
China (huazhong), Shandong, Guangdong, and the Jin-cha-qi areas,
Communist cultural workers put on performances to celebrate the occu-
pation of Berlin by the Soviet army. 61 A well-known novel about peasant
revolution, The Bitter Flower, describes a parade organized in a village
in Shandong, an event in which the impersonators of Mussolini and his
wife shamelessly degraded "themselves." In the procession, moreover, a
self-abasing Mussolini and a dead Hitler were followed by a defeated
Suzuki. Adopting an international perspective to convey the nationalist
message that the Japanese invasion would soon collapse, the party told
the people that China was an integral part of the world.62
But why did the Communists invoke the internationalist image of
China in the process of rural mobilization? Did they just habitually
adhere to this image wherever they went to launch the revolution? Or
did they believe that the Chinese masses, the peasants included, should
be exposed to the internationalist message(s) and taught to link China
and the world? When we look at Communist attempts to explain interna-
tionalist messages to the rural masses, it is justifiable to say that the
revolutionaries - to some extent at least - were interested in making the
peasant masses more internationalist, as they themselves were devoted
to making China an internationalist nation.
Cosmopolitanism, Literature, and the Arts
In this section, I would like to consider how the Communist incorpo-
rated cosmopolitanism into the new "Chinese culture" that they built in
the revolutionary context. To highlight the significance of cosmopolitan-
ism for their culture, I concentrate on literature and the arts, an area
best known for its nativism and call for localization.
In terms of cultural orientation, there was a significant difference
229
There was a relatively popular yangge opera entitled Twelve Sickles, which was about a peasant family that worked hard for the goals of national resistance and economic production. In the play, the hero sang so as to educate his wife: "If we the laboring people join the revolution, / an ideal society will come. / During the new era, all the people in the world will work hard, / and they will enjoy happiness and j ustice."60 During World War I I , the Communist Party was eager to persuade the masses that the fate of China as a nation was being influenced by international politics. The party explained what was going on in the international arena by means of artistic performances. In all of Central China (huazhong) , Shandong, Guangdong, and the Jin-cha-qi areas, Communist cultural workers put on performances to celebrate the occu pation of Berlin by the Soviet army. 61 A well-known novel about peasant revolution, The Bitter Flower, describes a parade organized in a village in Shandong, an event in which the impersonators of Mussolini and his wife shamelessly degraded "themselves. " In the procession, moreover, a self-abasing Mussolini and a dead Hitler were followed by a defeated Suzuki. Adopting an international perspective to convey the nationalist message that the Japanese invasion would soon collapse, the party told the people that China was an integral part of the world.62 But why did the Communists invoke the internationalist image of China in the process of rural mobilization? Did they just habitually adhere to this image wherever they went to launch the revolution? Or did they believe that the Chinese masses, the peasants included, should be exposed to the internationalist message(s) and taught to link China and the world? When we look at Communist attempts to explain interna tionalist messages to the rural masses, it is justifiable to say that the revolutionaries - to some extent at least - were interested in making the peasant masses more internationalist, as they themselves were devoted to making China an internationalist nation. Cosmopolitanism, Literature, and the Arts In this section, I would like to consider how the Communist incorpo rated cosmopolitanism into the new "Chinese culture" that they built in the revolutionary context. To highlight the significance of cosmopolitan ism for their culture, I concentrate on literature and the arts, an area best known for its nativism and call for localization. In terms of cultural orientation, there was a significant difference
230
230
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
between the May Fourth movement and the Communist Revolution.
Despite some of its veterans' efforts to examine or reexamine Chinese
traditions, the major cultural impact of the May Fourth movement on
modern China was the idea of Westernization. Although during the
1920s and 1930s, the left-wing cultural movement showed a strong de-
gree of Europeanization and Western-trained Communist intellectuals
tried hard to create for themselves Europeanized identities,63 Commu-
nist culture has mostly been noted for the cultural populism of the
Yan'an period.64 It is, therefore, well worth exploring two interrelated
questions: how did cosmopolitanism survive amid the Yan'an populist
policy on culture and what was the status of the cosmopolitan image and
art in the Communist milieu from the 1920s to the 1940s?
Historians believe that after Mao's Talks at the Yan'an Forum on
Literature and Art, using culture as propaganda, the Communist Party
fought Europeanized cosmopolitanism in the realms of literature and
art. Mao only achieved partial success in politicizing and popularizing
the arts, as he allowed cultural works some freedom to interpret his
policy. But still the nativization and localization campaigns were quite
effective. Although Western forms and techniques were used to some
extent, Mao's Talks, aimed at building a nationalist and populist culture,
served as a fundamental text in China's cultural politics. Besides, incom-
plete as the popularization was, the populist-politicized mode of cultural
policy powerfully suppressed the "transcendent spark of creativity."65
Whether this composite analysis is accurate I do not plan to evaluate.
What I want to do here is discuss, in a more focused and systematic way,
the question of how cosmopolitanism was present in Communist culture,
which has drawn historians' attention for its populist and nativist tenden-
cies, and to investigate cosmopolitanism in Yan'an. Let me begin by
reexamining Mao's and Maoist discourses on art and literature.
In Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art, Mao rejected
what he regarded as Trotsky's view that "politics should be Marxist; the
arts should be bourgeois." But, in explaining how art and literature
should serve political purposes, he echoed to some extent the Marxist-
Leninist, and also the Trotskyist, belief that old cultural heritages should
be valued in progressive culture(s):
No matter whether we are concerned about popularization or rais-
ing standards, we should ponder the question of what the source of
literature and art is. . . . Books and existing artistic products ...
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
between the May Fourth movement and the Communist Revolution. Despite some of its veterans' efforts to examine or reexamine Chinese traditions, the major cultural impact of the May Fourth movement on modern China was the idea of Westernization. Although during the 1920s and 1 930s, the left-wing cultural movement showed a strong de gree of Europeanization and Western-trained Communist intellectuals tried hard to create for themselves Europeanized identities,63 Commu nist culture has mostly been noted for the cultural populism of the Yan'an period.64 It is, therefore, well worth exploring two interrelated questions: how did cosmopolitanism survive amid the Yan'an populist policy on culture and what was the status of the cosmopolitan image and art in the Communist milieu from the 1920s to the 1 940s? Historians believe that after Mao's Talks at the Yan 'an Forum on Literature and A rt, using culture as propaganda, the Communist Party fought Europeanized cosmopolitanism in the realms of literature and art. Mao only achieved partial success in politicizing and popularizing the arts, as he allowed cultural works some freedom to interpret his policy. But still the nativization and localization campaigns were quite effective. Although Western forms and techniques were used to some extent, Mao's Talks, aimed at building a nationalist and populist culture, served as a fundamental text in China's cultural politics. Besides, incom plete as the popularization was, the populist-politicized mode of cultural policy powerfully suppressed the "transcendent spark of creativity. "65 Whether this composite analysis is accurate I do not plan to evaluate. What I want to do here is discuss, in a more focused and systematic way, the question of how cosmopolitanism was present in Communist culture, which has drawn historians' attention for its populist and nativist tenden cies, and to investigate cosmopolitanism in Yan'an. Let me begin by reexamining Mao's and Maoist discourses on art and literature. In Talks at the Yan 'an Forum on Literature and A rt, Mao rejected what he regarded as Trotsky's view that "politics should be Marxist; the arts should be bourgeois." But, in explaining how art and literature should serve political purposes, he echoed to some extent the Marxist Leninist, and also the Trotskyist, belief that old cultural heritages should be valued in progressive culture(s): No matter whether we are concerned about popularization or rais ing standards, we should ponder the question of what the source of literature and art is . . . . Books and existing artistic products . . .
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 231
were born as our ancestors and foreigners built upon the founda-
tions of the people's literature and art. We should learn critically
from these traditional and foreign elements, and even from feudal
and bourgeois culture, while we strive to reshape the raw materials
we take from the masses' culture. . . . Such learning determines the
difference between naivete and refinement, the distinction between
crudeness and elegance.66
Suffice it to say that for Mao, the leading populist, the selective integra-
tion of foreign elements was important for the creation of a new culture.
231
were born as our ancestors and foreigners built upon the founda tions of the people's literature and art. We should learn critically from these traditional and foreign elements, and even from feudal and bourgeois culture, while we strive to reshape the raw materials we take from the masses' culture . . . . Such learning determines the difference between na"ivete and refinement, the distinction between crudeness and elegance.66
In charge of the "rectification" of the Lu Xun Arts Academy, Zhou
Yang condemned the academy's eagerness to learn from Western litera-
ture and art and urged Westernized intellectuals to pay more attention to
China's "cultural legacy."67 Even so, he recognized the significance of
studying Western classics: "[Western] skills, compared to our traditional
techniques, are much more advanced, much more scientific. It is entirely
necessary to learn from them."68
In addition to this official theoretical endorsement of cosmopolitan-
ism, Communist "populist" creations also revealed an artistic commit-
ment to cosmopolitanism. In the latter stage of the yangge movement,
some medium- and large-scale operas appeared - Liu Hongying, A For-
midable Militia, and so forth. Their music was more complex than that
of pure yangge: in these creations, the artists attempted to combine
Western music and Chinese folk music.
We can now read a cosmopolitan element in Kraus's representation
of the renowned White-Haired Girl. He subtly observes: "When popu-
lism is dominant (as at Yan'an or in the Cultural Revolution), the
musicians' task is to adopt national forms into modern music that
serves the revolution." Noting the influences of both Western and tradi-
tional folk music on The White-Haired Girl, he chooses to emphasize
cosmopolitan intellectuals' adaptation, forced or autonomous, to native
art as the party carried out the populist policy. "Indeed," he says, "it
was only after the Yan'an Forum that music students were required to
study folk song and local opera."69 Bearing in mind the cosmopolitan
element in Maoist populist discourses and post-1942 artistic creations, I
find it equally accurate to state that The White-Haired Girl was a
product of a cultural context in which the dominance of populism
reduced, but by no means eliminated, the admiration for a cosmopoli-
tan approach to art.70
Suffice it to say that for Mao, the leading populist, the selective integra tion of foreign elements was important for the creation of a new culture. In charge of the "rectification" of the Lu Xun Arts Academy, Zhou Yang condemned the academy's eagerness to learn from Western litera ture and art and urged Westernized intellectuals to pay more attention to China's "cultural legacy. "67 Even so, he recognized the significance of studying Western classics: "[Western] skills, compared to our traditional techniques, are much more advanced, much more scientific. It is entirely necessary to learn from them. "68 In addition to this official theoretical endorsement of cosmopolitan ism, Communist "populist" creations also revealed an artistic commit ment to cosmopolitanism. In the latter stage of the yangge movement, some medium- and large-scale operas appeared - Liu Hongying, A For midable Militia, and so forth. Their music was more complex than that of pure yangge: in these creations, the artists attempted to combine Western music and Chinese folk music. We can now read a cosmopolitan element in Kraus's representation of the renowned White-Haired Girl. He subtly observes: "When popu lism is dominant (as at Yan'an or in the Cultural Revolution), the musicians' task is to adopt national forms into modern music that serves the revolution." Noting the influences of both Western and tradi tional folk music on The White-Haired Girl, he chooses to emphasize cosmopolitan intellectuals' adaptation, forced or autonomous, to native art as the party carried out the populist policy. "Indeed," he says, "it was only after the Yan'an Forum that music students were required to study folk song and local opera. "69 Bearing in mind the cosmopolitan element in Maoist populist discourses and post-1942 artistic creations, I find it equally accurate to state that The White-Haired Girl was a product of a cultural context in which the dominance of populism reduced, but by no means eliminated, the admiration for a cosmopoli tan approach to art. 70
232
232
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Thus, it is clear that cosmopolitanism had its own legitimacy in
officially approved cultural activities. The discourses on cultural popu-
lism approved of a certain degree of cosmopolitanism, which was re-
flected in creative processes that produced populist literature and art.
The Communists strove to create a populist culture that helped win the
masses' support for the Communist Party and the war against Japan. In
so doing, they utilized the resources, including Western/foreign styles
and techniques, that they regarded as useful. But political dimensions,
including the nationalist concern for national resistance, were not all
there was to it. Mao's recognition of foreign cultures' contribution to
elegance and Zhou's emphasis on the superiority of Western techniques
betray the fact that cosmopolitan aesthetics by itself sometimes also
commanded eminent populists' respect.
But how much did the Communists treasure cosmopolitan art and
literature? To measure the status of cosmopolitanism in Communist
culture in general and Yan'an culture in particular, I would like to move
beyond the official dimension and explore the unofficial side of the
Communist milieu from the 1920s to the 1940s.
During the Soviet period, while the party struggled to create a cul-
ture that could help mobilize the masses with very limited resources,
cultural workers still believed in the power of Westernized art, culturally
remote though it was from the Soviet areas, to move audiences. A
salient example was a play written by Qian Zhuanfei, the conception of
which, according to the playwright himself, was inspired by Da Vinci's
painting, the Last Supper.7' Reminiscences of cultural workers in the
Soviet areas show, apart from this uncritical belief in the power of cosmo-
politan art, that there was a tendency to worship foreignness - or rather
"Westernness." The cultural atmosphere was, in other words, marked
by a belief in the superiority of Western cultural accomplishments as well
as the assumption that Western and Westernized styles signified refine-
ment, elegance, and chic.
Faith in Russia as the socialist fatherland together with admiration
for Western art and literature led to a collective understanding that
things from Russia were superior. Li Bozhao was a case in point. A
Communist who received her training in Moscow, she was sent to the
Soviet area in 1931.72 There she became a popular cultural star, teaching
people the dances she had learned in Russia and performing them on the
stage. What deserves our attention is her image in the Soviet area. A
member of the Warrior Troupe of the Central Soviet recalls:
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Thus, it is clear that cosmopolitanism had its own legitimacy in officially approved cultural activities. The discourses on cultural popu lism approved of a certain degree of cosmopolitanism, which was re flected in creative processes that produced populist literature and art. The Communists strove to create a populist culture that helped win the masses' support for the Communist Party and the war against Japan. In so doing, they utilized the resources. including Western/foreign styles and techniques, that they regarded as useful. But political dimensions, including the nationalist concern for national resistance, were not all there was to it. Mao's recognition of foreign cultures' contribution to elegance and Zhou's emphasis on the superiority of Western techniques betray the fact that cosmopolitan aesthetics by itself sometimes also commanded eminent populists' respect. But how much did the Communists treasure cosmopolitan art and literature? To measure the status of cosmopolitanism in Communist culture in general and Yan'an culture in particular, I would like to move beyond the official dimension and explore the unofficial side of the Communist milieu from the 1920s to the 1 940s. During the Soviet period, while the party struggled to create a cul ture that could help mobilize the masses with very limited resources, cultural workers still believed in the power of Westernized art, culturally remote though it was from the Soviet areas, to move audiences. A salient example was a play written by Qian Zhuanfei, the conception of which, according to the playwright himself, was inspired by Da Vinci's painting, the Last Supper. 71 Reminiscences of cultural workers in the Soviet areas show, apart from this uncritical belief in the power of cosmo politan art, that there was a tendency to worship foreignness - or rather "Westernness." The cultural atmosphere was, in other words, marked by a belief in the superiority of Western cultural accomplishments as well as the assumption that Western and Westernized styles signified refine ment, elegance, and chic. Faith in Russia as the socialist fatherland together with admiration for Western art and literature led to a collective understanding that things from Russia were superior. Li Bozhao was a case in point. A Communist who received her training in Moscow, she was sent to the Soviet area in 1 93 1 .72 There she became a popular cultural star, teaching people the dances she had learned in Russia and performing them on the stage. What deserves our attention is her image in the Soviet area. A member of the Warrior Troupe of the Central Soviet recalls:
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 233
Dance was regarded as an elegant, classy form of art. When Com-
rade Li Bozhao organized a dancing class in Ruijin, the Warrior
Troupe sent some members and brought back such programs as
"The Workers' Dance," "The Marine's Dance," and "The Ukrai-
nian Dance" to our own stage. Comrade Li learned them during her
stay at the University of Moscow.73
The same person also observes:
233
Dance was regarded as an elegant, classy form of art. When Com rade Li Bozhao organized a dancing class in Ruijin, the Warrior Troupe sent some members and brought back such programs as "The Workers' Dance," "The Marine's Dance," and "The Ukrai nian Dance" to our own stage. Comrade Li learned them during her stay at the University of Moscow. 73
The opera To Expand the Red Army was the first program we re-
hearsed. Our playwright was Li Bozhao, a woman comrade trained in
Moscow.... Her play was considered orthodox art (zhengtong di
yishu), the yangchun baixue of the Soviet area.74
The same person also observes:
Perhaps it is too much to assert that the deep admiration for Li was
caused solely by her Russian-educated qualification. However, the juxta-
position of Li's Russian-trained background and her contribution still
shows how her cosmopolitan identity impressed, if not overawed, those
in the Soviet area.
The Yan'an period witnessed the further development of a cultural
hierarchy, a stratification corresponding to the individual's or group's
degree of "metropolitanization" or "cosmopolitanization." Under the
The opera To Expand the Red Army was the first program we re hearsed. Our playwright was Li Bozhao, a woman comrade trained in Moscow. . . . Her play was considered orthodox art (zhengtong di yishu) , the yangchun baixue of the Soviet area.74
circumstances, the word tu connoted rusticity, backwardness, and a lack
of sophistication.
When the Struggle Troupe of He Long's army was about to leave for
Yan'an, He told its members: "Don't worry if people there call you
'rustics' (tu baozi)."75 In fact, a member of the troupe recalled several
decades later: "To be honest, on the eve of departure, I was wondering
how people in Yan'an would receive us, a bunch of rustics (tu baozi)
from the battle front."76 The story nevertheless has a happy ending:
arriving in Yan'an in summer 1942 - that is, when the party was imple-
menting the policy of cultural populism - the troupe members found
their artistic style acclaimed by Zhou Yang, who encouraged them not to
be awed by the label "rustics."77
But, despite the official populist approval of tu, the word often seems
to have been used in a negative way at the nonofficial level of Communist
culture. In 1946, the Battle Front Troupe, which served in the Hebei
area, invited a well-known musician to teach its members basic skills like
harmony. The students were acutely aware of the difference between
Perhaps it is too much to assert that the deep admiration for Li was caused solely by her Russian-educated qualification. However, the juxta position of Li's Russian-trained background and her contribution still shows how her cosmopolitan identity impressed, if not overawed, those in the Soviet area. The Yan'an period witnessed the further development of a cultural hierarchy, a stratification corresponding to the individual's or group's degree of "metropolitanization" or "cosmopolitanization." Under the circumstances, the word tu connoted rusticity, backwardness, and a lack of sophistication. When the Struggle Troupe of He Long's army was about to leave for Yan'an, He told its members: "Don't worry if people there call you 'rustics' (tu baozi) ."7S In fact, a member of the troupe recalled several decades later: "To be honest, on the eve of departure, I was wondering how people in Yan'an would receive us, a bunch of rustics (tu baozi) from the battle front. "76 The story nevertheless has a happy ending: arriving in Yan'an in summer 1942 that is, when the party was imple menting the policy of cultural populism - the troupe members found their artistic style acclaimed by Zhou Yang, who encouraged them not to be awed by the label "rustics."77 But, despite the official populist approval of tu, the word often seems to have been used in a negative way at the nonofficial level of Communist culture. In 1946, the Battle Front Troupe, which served in the Hebei area, invited a well-known musician to teach its members basic skills like harmony. The students were acutely aware of the difference between -
234
234
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
their teacher and themselves: showing respect for their esteemed teacher,
they called themselves tu baozi.78 During the civil war, cultural workers
were concerned about the fact that non-Communist intellectuals in the
newly occupied areas tended to consider the Communist arts as tu and
called the Communists tu balu. A member of a troupe in Liaoning re-
counted how the Communists changed this unfavorable impression.
They performed the White-Haired Girl and a few other programs so well
that urban intellectuals, as they elatedly noticed, did not regard the
Communists as rustics anymore!79 To be sure, they did not choose foreign
programs to impress their audience.80 We should note, however, that the
Communist cultural workers were proud of their success in convincing
others that they were not tu but not so concerned about changing the
negative connotation of the term. Their pride revealed their cultural
preference for "modernness."
The populist discourse on art and literature, populist creations that
contained Western elements, and the concern for tu- all this demon-
strates the Communists' expectation that the culture they built would
contain cosmopolitan ingredients and meet international standards.
Observing Contemporary Chinese Culture
Imagining what their nation should become, Communist intellectuals
cherished the hope that it would be cosmopolitan, both politically and
culturally. This imagining, as Communist cultural cosmopolitanism
shows, sometimes unfolded not only at the official but at the informal,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
their teacher and themselves: showing respect for their esteemed teacher, they called themselves tu baozi. 78 During the civil war, cultural workers were concerned about the fact that non-Communist intellectuals in the newly occupied areas tended to consider the Communist arts as tu and called the Communists tu balu. A member of a troupe in Liaoning re counted how the Communists changed this unfavorable impression. They performed the White-Haired Girl and a few other programs so well that urban intellectuals, as they elatedly noticed, did not regard the Communists as rustics anymore P9 To be sure, they did not choose foreign programs to impress their audience. 80 We should note, however, that the Communist cultural workers were proud of their success in convincing others that they were not tu but not so concerned about changing the negative connotation of the term. Their pride revealed their cultural preference for "modernness." The populist discourse on art and literature, populist creations that contained Western elements, and the concern for tu all this demon strates the Communists' expectation that the culture they built would contain cosmopolitan ingredients and meet international standards. -
more casual level. In addition, the cosmopolitan-internationalist imagi-
nation of the nation manifested itself in both the thinking and the action
of mass mobilization. But how can we evaluate Communist cosmopoli-
tanism as an integral part of Communist legacy? Was cultural cosmopoli-
tanism robust enough to remain alive during the upheaval of the mid-
1960s to mid-1970s?
Although this chapter focuses on Communist culture in the pre-
Observing Contemporary Chinese Culture
1949 period, I still contend that the experience of that period is relevant
to our understanding of the post-1949 regime, including the period of
the Cultural Revolution. While the Chinese state appeared to be isola-
tionist and fiercely anti-imperialist, cultural cosmopolitanism may have
been persistent during the Cultural Revolution. It seems unlikely that
the revolutionary frenzy of the time succeeded in compelling educated
Chinese, even in the midst of intellectual and emotional disarray, to
abandon entirely their respect for and memory of cosmopolitan culture.
Imagining what their nation should become, Communist intellectuals cherished the hope that it would be cosmopolitan, both politically and culturally. This imagining, as Communist cultural cosmopolitanism shows, sometimes unfolded not only at the official but at the informal, more casual level. In addition, the cosmopolitan-internationalist imagi nation of the nation manifested itself in both the thinking and the action of mass mobilization. But how can we evaluate Communist cosmopoli tanism as an integral part of Communist legacy? Was cultural cosmopoli tanism robust enough to remain alive during the upheaval of the mid1960s to mid-1970s? Although this chapter focuses on Communist culture in the pre1949 period, I still contend that the experience of that period is relevant to our understanding of the post-1949 regime, including the period of the Cultural Revolution. While the Chinese state appeared to be isola tionist and fiercely anti-imperialist, cultural cosmopolitanism may have been persistent during the Cultural Revolution. It seems unlikely that the revolutionary frenzy of the time succeeded in compelling educated Chinese, even in the midst of intellectual and emotional disarray, to abandon entirely their respect for and memory of cosmopolitan culture.
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 235
Besides, post-1976 developments show very well how cultural cosmo-
politanism survived the Red Guards' merciless onslaughts: in novels and
stories published in the late 1970s, intellectual characters quote numer-
ous foreign figures - Pushkin, Romain Roland, Shakespeare, and so
forth. The authors represent different generations of Chinese writers
from Dai Houying, who obtained her degree before the Cultural Revolu-
tion, to Zhang Kangkang, who had once been a sent-down youth. All
this shows how cosmopolitan literature survived in people's memories
and also possibly in forms ready for republication. Otherwise, the quota-
tions from such a wide range of Western figures would not have been
available. Certainly, cosmopolitanism has often had to struggle to sur-
vive in the Communist tradition. But the fact that it has survived indi-
cates that attention to the cosmopolitanist national narrative will shed
an important light on characteristics of Communist culture and society,
a context that has been only too well known for its revolution-oriented,
nationalist, and populist nature.
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of
Chinese Intellectuals
To discuss the influence of cosmopolitanism on post-1949 Chinese cul-
ture, we may examine how the cosmopolitan narrative of the nation was
accompanied by a cosmopolitan representation of the ideal personality
of Chinese intellectuals.
The cosmopolitan description of revolutionary intellectuals seems to
235
Besides, post-1976 developments show very well how cultural cosmo politanism survived the Red Guards' merciless onslaughts: in novels and stories published in the late 1970s, intellectual characters quote numer ous foreign figures - Pushkin, Romain Roland, Shakespeare, and so forth. The authors represent different generations of Chinese writers from Dai Houying, who obtained her degree before the Cultural Revolu tion, to Zhang Kangkang, who had once been a sent-down youth. All this shows how cosmopolitan literature survived in people's memories and also possibly in forms ready for republication. Otherwise, the quota tions from such a wide range of Western figures would not have been available. Certainly, cosmopolitanism has often had to struggle to sur vive in the Communist tradition. But the fact that it has survived indi cates that attention to the cosmopolitanist national narrative will shed an important light on characteristics of Communist culture and society, a context that has been only too well known for its revolution-oriented, nationalist, and populist nature.
have been a marked, though perhaps not essential, trait of revolutionary
literature under the Communist regime. As a matter of fact, the cosmo-
politan image of revolutionary intellectuals existed as early as the 1920s.
In Zhang Wentian's story "Life's Journey" (Lutu), the Chinese engineer
turned revolutionary also happened to be a man who was able to discuss
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Chinese Intellectuals
literature with refined American women and steal their hearts.81 Yang
Mo's Song of Youth, a novel extremely popular among students and
young intellectuals in the 1950s, echoes the cosmopolitan approach to
the portrayal of radicals and contains several powerful images of radical
intellectuals: Zheng Jin, a Moscow-trained heroine, tells Lin Daojing,
the aspiring revolutionary, how Communists in another prison had
founded a "university," spending their time learning English, Russian,
German, and Japanese.82 And in A Young Newcomer in the Organiza-
tion Department, Wang Meng shows the cosmopolitan aesthetic taste of
two young and idealistic party members: Lin Zhen and Chao Huiwen
To discuss the influence of cosmopolitanism on post-1949 Chinese cul ture, we may examine how the cosmopolitan narrative of the nation was accompanied by a cosmopolitan representation of the ideal personality of Chinese intellectuals. The cosmopolitan description of revolutionary intellectuals seems to have been a marked, though perhaps not essential, trait of revolutionary literature under the Communist regime. As a matter of fact, the cosmo politan image of revolutionary intellectuals existed as early as the 1920s. In Zhang Wentian's story "Life's Journey" (Lutu), the Chinese engineer turned revolutionary also happened to be a man who was able to discuss literature with refined American women and steal their hearts.81 Yang Mo's Song of Youth, a novel extremely popular among students and young intellectuals in the 1950s, echoes the cosmopolitan approach to the portrayal of radicals and contains several powerful images of radical intellectuals: Zheng Jin, a Moscow-trained heroine, tells Lin Daojing, the aspiring revolutionary, how Communists in another prison had founded a "university, " spending their time learning English, Russian, German, and Japanese.82 And in A Young Newcomer in the Organiza tion Department, Wang Meng shows the cosmopolitan aesthetic taste of two young and idealistic party members: Lin Zhen and Chao Huiwen
236
236
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
are intoxicated with Tchaikovsky's Capriccio Italien as its beautiful mel-
ody drifts through the room.83
The motif of these novels, we should note, was the praise of revolu-
tionary intellectuals' political idealism or/and nationalism. Neverthe-
less, the authors' integration of cosmopolitan traits into the images of
heroic revolutionaries reflects their assumption that idealistic intellec-
tuals should at the same time be cosmopolitan.
Growing up in a revolutionary tradition that, however emphatically
populist, harbored cosmopolitan tendencies, Chinese intellectuals and
educated youths developed a keen interest in foreign culture. In My
Fathers, Dai Qing lists her favorite writers: "[Before 1996,] I only
read . . . Pushkin, Dickens, Goethe, and Mark Twain."84 If this seems
only the idiosyncracy of a young woman from an extremely privileged
background, Wang Meng's Long Live My Youth (Qingchun wansui) tells
of some high school students' interest in Western culture(s) in the
Beijing area: Yang Qiangyun, a bright student, enjoys discussing trans-
lated novels with her friend, Li Chun.85 More interestingly, in Wang's
very delightful portrayal of educated youths' life in the 1950s we find an
episode in which a young Communist cadre dons a pair of Western-style
shoes to meet the girl he loves.86
This is not to say that Chinese intellectuals totally despised their
own cultural heritage. However, the evidence we have here warrants the
conclusion that for Chinese intellectuals cosmopolitanism was a valuable
trait. Their admiration for cosmopolitanism, together with the cultural
hierarchy that degraded tu points to the existence of cultural snobbery in
Communist culture. Further exploration of the issue of cultural hierar-
chy will certainly enable us to think more about certain questions. How
did Chinese intellectuals, including many veteran revolutionaries, treat
cultural populism when they did not need to wear their public populist
mask? Did cosmopolitanism become the "unofficial" dominant trend of
post-1949 culture? And how did cultural and political cosmopolitanism
contribute to their elitist perception of the less well educated echelons of
Chinese society?
The Complexity of National Identity
In light of the Communists' cosmopolitan perspective on the nation,
how can we reflect upon the issue of national identity in contemporary
China? Especially interesting here is the question of how Chinese intel-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
are intoxicated with Tchaikovsky's Capriccio Italien as its beautiful mel ody drifts through the room.83 The motif of these novels, we should note, was the praise of revolu tionary intellectuals' political idealism or/and nationalism. Neverthe less, the authors' integration of cosmopolitan traits into the images of heroic revolutionaries reflects their assumption that idealistic intellec tuals should at the same time be cosmopolitan. Growing up in a revolutionary tradition that, however emphatically populist, harbored cosmopolitan tendencies, Chinese intellectuals and educated youths developed a keen interest in foreign culture. In My Fathers, Dai Qing lists her favorite writers: "[Before 1996,] I only read . . . Pushkin, Dickens, Goethe, and Mark Twain. "84 If this seems only the idiosyncracy of a young woman from an extremely privileged background, Wang Meng's Long Live My Youth (Qingchun wansui) tells of some high school students' interest in Western culture(s) in the Beijing area: Yang Qiangyun, a bright student, enjoys discussing trans lated novels with her friend, Li Chun.85 More interestingly, in Wang's very delightful portrayal of educated youths' life in the 1950s we find an episode in which a young Communist cadre dons a pair of Western-style shoes to meet the girl he loves. 86 This is not to say that Chinese intellectuals totally despised their own cultural heritage. However, the evidence we have here warrants the conclusion that for Chinese intellectuals cosmopolitanism was a valuable trait. Their admiration for cosmopolitanism, together with the cultural hierarchy that degraded tu points to the existence of cultural snobbery in Communist culture. Further exploration of the issue of cultural hierar chy will certainly enable us to think more about certain questions. How did Chinese intellectuals, including many veteran revolutionaries, treat cultural populism when they did not need to wear their public populist mask? Did cosmopolitanism become the "unofficial" dominant trend of post-1949 culture? And how did cultural and political cosmopolitanism contribute to their elitist perception of the less well educated echelons of Chinese society? The Complexity of National Identity In light of the Communists' cosmopolitan perspective on the nation, how can we reflect upon the issue of national identity in contemporary China? Especially interesting here is the question of how Chinese intel-
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 237
lectuals switched from the cosmopolitanist mode of the 1980s to the
nativist mode of the 1990s in defining Chinese identity.
Emphasizing that isolationist, anti-imperialist nationalism character-
ized the national identity and project in pre-1976 China, Edward Fried-
man treats the post-1976 national narrative, which privileges the "dyna-
mism of the south," as a negation of the Maoist nationalist-isolationist
discourse and the southern-oriented national identity as a "natural" re-
sponse to the market-oriented activities of southerners.87 But as his-
torians dissect the national narrative of the 1990s they are more sensitive
to how Chinese discourses on the nation and national identity have
changed: while Chinese intellectuals rejected China's backwardness and
identified with the West in order to rejuvenate the nation in the 1980s,
the nationalistic writings in the 1990s emphasize Chinese collective resis-
tance to Western influences, show self-assurance derived from wealth,
and argue for the development of "a new ideological vision that drew
selectively from China's traditional culture."88
By demonstrating the presence of a Communist cosmopolitan angle
on the nation, by revealing the Communists' attempt to "internation-
alize" the masses and revolutionary culture, and by analyzing the unoffi-
cial admiration for a cosmopolitanist cultural identity, the present study
shows how internationalism-cosmopolitanism became an integral ele-
ment of the Communist intellectuals' "revolutionary tradition." It is
worth examining further how the internationalism-cosmopolitanism of
the revolutionary period laid the foundations of a more outward ori-
ented- be it southern or global-national identity in the post-Mao era.
In addition, we should take into account the cosmopolitanist-
internationalist tendency of Communist culture in order to understand
the complexity of the anti-imperialist and nativist trends of the 1990s.
Resentment of the failure of the Chinese bid for the 2000 Olympics,
Wang Qiming's hard-won success in the virtually inhuman American
capitalist system, and Zhou Li's accomplishments as a Chinese business-
woman in Manhattan who is always inspired by her beloved mother-
land's culture89- these examples indicate that in the 1990s the celebra-
tion of the individual's financial success as China's triumph over the
West, the excitement of trumpeting a superior Chinese spirit, and hatred
of the unfair Western treatment of the Chinese always coexist and/or are
intertwined with a yearning to be "oriented toward the world." The
assimilation of cosmopolitan aspirations into Chinese nationalism and
national identity is always an intriguing issue for those interested in the
237
lectuals switched from the cosmopolitanist mode of the 1980s to the nativist mode of the 1990s in defining Chinese identity. Emphasizing that isolationist, anti-imperialist nationalism character ized the national identity and project in pre-1976 China, Edward Fried man treats the post-1976 national narrative, which privileges the "dyna mism of the south," as a negation of the Maoist nationalist-isolationist discourse and the southern-oriented national identity as a "natural" re sponse to the market-oriented activities of southerners.87 But as his torians dissect the national narrative of the 1990s they are more sensitive to how Chinese discourses on the nation and national identity have changed: while Chinese intellectuals rejected China's backwardness and identified with the West in order to rejuvenate the nation in the 1980s, the nationalistic writings in the 1990s emphasize Chinese collective resis tance to Western influences, show self-assurance derived from wealth, and argue for the development of "a new ideological vision that drew selectively from China's traditional culture."88 By demonstrating the presence of a Communist cosmopolitan angle on the nation, by revealing the Communists' attempt to "internation alize" the masses and revolutionary culture, and by analyzing the unoffi cial admiration for a cosmopolitanist cultural identity, the present study shows how internationalism-cosmopolitanism became an integral ele ment of the Communist intellectuals' "revolutionary tradition." It is worth examining further how the internationalism-cosmopolitanism of the revolutionary period laid the foundations of a more outward ori ented - be it southern or global - national identity in the post-Mao era. In addition, we should take into account the cosmopolitanist internationalist tendency of Communist culture in order to understand the complexity of the anti-imperialist and nativist trends of the 1990s. Resentment of the failure of the Chinese bid for the 2000 Olympics, Wang Qiming's hard-won success in the virtually inhuman American capitalist system, and Zhou Li's accomplishments as a Chinese business woman in Manhattan who is always inspired by her beloved mother land's culture89 - these examples indicate that in the 1990s the celebra tion of the individual's financial success as China's triumph over the West, the excitement of trumpeting a superior Chinese spirit, and hatred of the unfair Western treatment of the Chinese always coexist and/or are intertwined with a yearning to be "oriented toward the world." The assimilation of cosmopolitan aspirations into Chinese nationalism and national identity is always an intriguing issue for those interested in the
238
238
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Communist Revolution, the Maoist regime, or the post-Mao Chinese
culture and state.
Also worthy of our attention is Chinese intellectuals' changing
views on the essence of Chinese Communism and culture. In the anti-
traditionalist and cosmopolitan 1980s, alienated intellectuals, both emi-
nent and inconspicuous, did not hesitate to apply the label "peasant"
(nongmin) when they reflected seriously on the Communist Party, many
of its members, and its leaders (particularly Mao). The label itself "con-
notes" very explicitly a substantial amount of contempt for the Commu-
nist Party, the peasantry, and Chinese traditions.90 Intellectuals de-
graded the Communist Party and Chinese culture by marginalizing, or
even deploring, the peasants and "peasantness" in their discourses on
modernization and progress. In the 1990s, however, some Chinese intel-
lectuals and artists began to look to "Mother Earth," presented "a
loving portrayal of peasant culture and traditional values," and eulo-
gized Mao, once insolently called a peasant, as a national hero.91
Lucian Pye observes, and Zhao Suisheng agrees, that Chinese intel-
lectuals failed to create a nationalism that combined elements of tradi-
tion with appropriate features of modern world culture.92 Chinese intel-
lectuals' quick swing from vocal iconoclasm to an equally strident
conservatism, I have to admit, attest to their point. But, on the other
hand, may I suggest that, despite the undeniable contrast between
Western-oriented and China-centered nationalism, iconoclastic cosmo-
politanism and nativism made two uneasy bedfellows in the various
chronological contexts of Chinese Communism. How were aspirations
after Western standards related to anti-Western attitudes? How were
anti-imperialist and nativist trends intertwined with Western-oriented
nationalism? These are important questions for us to ponder if we are
interested in exploring the intellectual-emotional worlds of different
generations of politically active Chinese intellectuals.
NOTES
1. Prajensit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1995), 9-12; also see Lydia Liu, "The Female Body and
Nationalist Discourse: Manchuria in Xiao Hong's Field of Life and Death," in
Body, Subject, and Power in China, edited by Tani Barlow and Angela Zito
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
2. Duara, Rescuing History, 9.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Communist Revolution, the Maoist regime, or the post-Mao Chinese culture and state. Also worthy of our attention is Chinese intellectuals' changing views on the essence of Chinese Communism and culture. In the anti traditionalist and cosmopolitan 1 980s, alienated intellectuals, both emi nent and inconspicuous, did not hesitate to apply the label "peasant" (nongmin) when they reflected seriously on the Communist Party, many of its members, and its leaders ( particularly Mao ) . The label itself "con notes" very explicitly a substantial amount of contempt for the Commu nist Party, the peasantry, and Chinese traditions.90 Intellectuals de graded the Communist Party and Chinese culture by marginalizing, or even deploring, the peasants and "peasantness" in their discourses on modernization and progress. In the 1 990s, however, some Chinese intel lectuals and artists began to look to "Mother Earth," presented "a loving portrayal of peasant culture and traditional values," and eulo gized Mao, once insolently called a peasant, as a national hero.91 Lucian Pye observes, and Zhao Suisheng agrees, that Chinese intel lectuals failed to create a nationalism that combined elements of tradi tion with appropriate features of modern world culture.92 Chinese intel lectuals' quick swing from vocal iconoclasm to an equally strident conservatism, I have to admit, attest to their point. But, on the other hand, may I suggest that, despite the undeniable contrast between Western-oriented and China-centered nationalism, iconoclastic cosmo politanism and nativism made two uneasy bedfellows in the various chronological contexts of Chinese Communism. How were aspirations after Western standards related to anti-Western attitudes? How were anti-imperialist and nativist trends intertwined with Western-oriented nationalism? These are important questions for us to ponder if we are interested in exploring the intellectual-emotional worlds of different generations of politically active Chinese intellectuals.
NOTES 1 . Prajensit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1995), 9-1 2; also see Lydia Liu, "The Female Body and Nationalist Discourse: Manchuria in Xiao Hong's Field of Life and Death, " in Body, Subject, and Power in China, edited by Tani Barlow and Angela Zito (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). 2. Duara, Rescuing History, 9.
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 239
3. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1990), 11.
4. In this chapter, I define communist intellectuals as a group that includes
those who received a high school education, its equivalent (such as training in
technical schools), or more. The Communist Party addressed people at these
levels of education as intellectuals. For the intellectual composition of the first
communists, see Jonathan Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace (New York:
Viking, 1981), 141-42.
5. I define the term cosmopolitanism at two levels: it means, first, longing
for world unity and human brotherhood, and, second, enthusiasm for learning
and absorbing other people's cultures. I use the term as I describe the thinking of
the May Fourth era and the May Fourth and communist intellectuals' interest in
foreign (especially Western) culture. The term internationalism is used to denote
the communist faith in world revolution. I want to point out, however, that
students of Marxism usually consider Marxist internationalism to be a kind of
cosmopolitanism. See Tom Bottomore et al., A Dictionary of Marxist Thought
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), 231-33; and Jozef Wilczynski, An Encyclopedic Dic-
tionary of Marxism: Socialism and Communism (London: Macmillan, 1981).
Sometimes I use the compound cosmopolitanism-internationalism for the com-
posite phenomena that show the influences of both non-Marxist cosmopolitan-
ism and Marxist internationalism.
6. More than two decades ago, in Revolution and Cosmopolitanism, J. R.
Levenson showed ingeniously how the Communist use of the term Chinese
people paired internationalism with nationalism. ([Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1971], 8). In addition, he described how Communist intellectuals in
the 1950s created a cosmopolitan cultural orientation by focusing on the Commu-
nists' use of the concepts of the people and class as justifications for their interest
in Western plays (9).
7. Hoston is sensitive to the conflicts between the nation and humankind
in the Marxists' pursuit of human liberation. (Germaine Hoston, The State,
Identity, and the National Question in China and Japan [Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1994], 9-10.)
8. Arif Dirlik, The Origins of Chinese Communism (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1989), 9. For Dirlik's attention to the cosmopolitan nature of
the May Fourth movement and socialism, see pages 62 and 74.
9. Zhao Suisheng, "Chinese Intellectuals' Quest for National Greatness,"
China Quarterly 152 (spring 1997): 726.
10. Hoston, 102, 398. For mainland scholars' arguments, see Edward Fried-
man, "Reconstructing China's National Identity: A Southern Alternative to
Mao-Era Anti-imperialist Nationalism," Journal of Asian Studies 53, no. 1
(1994): 68-69. In fact, Friedman also thinks that the Maoist attitude was anti-
imperialist and isolationist (67 and 69).
11. In writing this chapter, I do not mean to treat the ideal as a goal
hopelessly detached from reality. I would like to emphasize, on the contrary,
that sometimes the boundary between the ideal and reality was blurred. When
the Communists acted and behaved in congruence with their cosmopolitan-
239
3. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer sity Press, 1 990) , I I . 4. In this chapter, I define communist intellectuals as a group that includes those who received a high school education, its equivalent (such as training in technical schools), or more. The Communist Party addressed people at these levels of education as intellectuals. For the intellectual composition of the first communists, see Jonathan Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace (New York: Viking, 1981), 141-42. 5. I define the term cosmopolitanism at two levels: it means, first, longing for world unity and human brotherhood, and, second, enthusiasm for learning and absorbing other people's cultures. I use the term as I describe the thinking of the May Fourth era and the May Fourth and communist intellectuals' interest in foreign (especially Western) culture. The term internationalism is used to denote the communist faith in world revolution. I want to point out, however, that students of Marxism usually consider Marxist internationalism to be a kind of cosmopolitanism. See Tom Bottomore et aI., A Dictionary of Marxist Thought (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983) , 231-33; and Jozef Wilczynski, An Encyclopedic Dic tionary of Marxism: Socialism and Communism (London: Macmillan, 1981). Sometimes I use the compound cosmopolitanism-internationalism for the com posite phenomena that show the influences of both non-Marxist cosmopolitan ism and Marxist internationalism. 6. More than two decades ago, in Revolution and Cosmopolitanism, J. R. Levenson showed ingeniously how the Communist use of the term Chinese people paired internationalism with nationalism. ([Berkeley: University of Cali fornia Press, 197 1 ] , 8). In addition, he described how Communist intellectuals in the 1950s created a cosmopolitan cultural orientation by focusing on the Commu nists' use of the concepts of the people and class as justifications for their interest in Western plays (9) . 7. Hoston is sensitive to the conflicts between the nation and humankind in the Marxists' pursuit of human liberation. (Germaine Hoston, The State, Identity, and the National Question in China and Japan [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994] , 9-10.) 8. Arif Dirlik, The Origins of Chinese Communism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 9. For Dirlik's attention to the cosmopolitan nature of the May Fourth movement and socialism, see pages 62 and 74. 9. Zhao Suisheng, "Chinese Intellectuals' Quest for National Greatness," China Quarterly 152 (spring 1997) : 726. 10. Hoston, 102, 398. For mainland scholars' arguments, see Edward Fried man, "Reconstructing China's National Identity: A Southern Alternative to Mao-Era Anti-imperialist Nationalism," Journal of Asian Studies 5 3 , no. 1 (1994): 68-69. In fact, Friedman also thinks that the Maoist attitude was anti imperialist and isolationist (67 and 69) . 1 1 . In writing this chapter, I do not mean to treat the ideal as a goal hopelessly detached from reality. I would like to emphasize, on the contrary, that sometimes the boundary between the ideal and reality was blurred. When the Communists acted and behaved in congruence with their cosmopolitan-
240
240
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
internationalist ideal, they were transforming their revolutionary China in the
image they valued. Only in this way did cosmopolitanism-internationalism be-
come a concrete presence in the revolutionary context and the Communist
state.
12. Chen Duxiu Duxiu wencun (Shanghai: Yadong tushuguan, 1922), 1:7.
13. Maurice Meisner, La Ta Chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 37.
14. Li Dazhao, Li Dazhao wenji (The selected writings of Li Dazhao)
(Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, [1917] 1984), 1:439.
15. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1:440.
16. See Lo Mengzheng, "Wusi siqi di Wu Yu," Zhongguo shehui kexue-
yuan jindaishi yanjiushuo, Jinian wusi yundong liushi zhounian xueshu taolunhui
lunwenji (Essays in commemoration of the sixtieth anniversary of the May
Fourth movement) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1979), 2:403.
17. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1:449; 450-51.
18. Mao Zedong, Mao Zedong ji (The works of Mao Zedong) (Hong
Kong: Qindai shiliao gongyingshe, [1919] 1975), 1:54.
19. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1:451.
20. Mao, Mao Zedong ji, 1:59-60.
21. Chen Duxiu, Duxiu wenchun (Collected essays of Chen Duxiu) (Shang-
hai: Yangdong tushuguan, [1919] 1922), 1:366.
22. See Michael Luk, The Origins of Chinese Bolshevism (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1990), 12-13. In fact, prior to the May Fourth generation,
people like Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei had already talked about interna-
tional harmony. See Don Price, Russia and the Roots of the Chinese Revolution
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), chaps. 1, 4, and 6.
23. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 13.
24. Hung-yok Ip, "The Origins of Chinese Communism: A New Interpreta-
tion," Modern China 20, no. 1 (1994): 44; Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1:491-92.
25. See Zhang Wentian, Zhang Wentian zaonian wenxue zuopin xuan (The
early literary writings of Zhang Wentian) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1983).
There is a certain degree of parallel between Zhang's story and Shiba Shiro's
"Kajin no kigu" (Strange encounters of elegant females), which was interpre-
tively and selected translated by Liang Qichao (see Philip Huang, Liang Ch'i-
ch'ao and Modern Chinese Liberalism [Seattle: University of Washington Press,
1973], 48-53). Both stories were about how the nationalist course of an Asian
man aroused the sympathy of Western, progressive women. However, in Zhang's
story there is no discussion of pan-Asianism or Japan's leading role in Asia's
struggle for independence.
26. Xin Qingnian (hereafter XQN) 1, no. 1 (1915):1.
27. XQN 4, no. 1 (1918) 20-26.
28. XQN, vols. 1-7.
29. XQN 1, no. 5 (1916).
30. XQN 2, no. 3 (1916).
31. XQN 3, no. 2 (1917).
32. XQN 5, no. 6 (1918).
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
internationalist ideal, they were transforming their revolutionary China in the image they valued. Only in this way did cosmopolitanism-internationalism be come a concrete presence in the revolutionary context and the Communist state. 12. Chen Duxiu Duxiu wencun (Shanghai: Yadong tushuguan, 1922) , 1 :7 . 1 3 . Maurice Meisner, La Ta Chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 37. 14. Li Dazhao, Li Dazhao wenji (The selected writings of Li Dazhao) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, [1 917] 1 984), 1 :439. 1 5 . Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1 :440. 1 6 . See Lo Mengzheng, "Wusi siqi di Wu Yu," Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan jindaishi yanjiushuo, Jinian wusi yundong liushi zhounian xueshu taolunhui lunwenji (Essays in commemoration of the sixtieth anniversary of the May Fourth movement) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1979), 2:403 . 17. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1 :449; 450-5 1 . 1 8. Mao Zedong, Mao Zedong ji (The works of Mao Zedong) (Hong Kong: Qindai shiliao gongyingshe, [1919] 1 975 ) , 1 :54. 1 9. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1 :45 1 . 20. Mao, Mao Zedong ji, 1 :59-60. 2 1 . Chen Duxiu, Duxiu wenchun (Collected essays of Chen Duxiu) (Shang hai: Yangdong tushuguan, [1919] 1 922) , 1 :366. 22. See Michael Luk, The Origins of Chinese Bolshevism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 12-13. In fact, prior to the May Fourth generation, people like Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei had already talked about interna tional harmony. See Don Price, Russia and the Roots of the Chinese Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 974), chaps. 1 , 4, and 6. 23 . Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 1 3 . 24. Hung-yok I p , "The Origins o f Chinese Communism: A New Interpreta tion," Modern China 20, no. 1 (1994): 44; Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1 :491 -92. 25. See Zhang Wentian, Zhang Wentian zaonian wenxue zuopin xuan (The early literary writings of Zhang Wentian) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1983). There is a certain degree of parallel between Zhang's story and Shiba Shiro's "Kajin no kigu" (Strange encounters of elegant females), which was interpre tively and selected translated by Liang Qichao (see Philip Huang, Liang Ch'i ch'ao and Modern Chinese Liberalism [Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973] , 48-53). Both stories were about how the nationalist course of an Asian man aroused the sympathy of Western, progressive women. However, in Zhang's story there is no discussion of pan-Asianism or Japan's leading role in Asia's struggle for independence. 26. Xin Qingnian (hereafter XQN) 1 , no. 1 ( 1 915) : 1 . 27. XQN 4, no. 1 (191 8) 20-26. 28. XQN, vols. 1-7. 29. XQN 1 , no. 5 (1916). 30. XQN 2, no. 3 (191 6). 3 1 . XQN 3, no. 2 (1917) . 32. XQN 5 , no. 6 (1918).
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 241
33. Zhang Wentian, Zhang Wentian wenji (The Works of Zhang Wentian)
(Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi zhiliao chubanshe, [1922] 1990), 43.
34. See Dirlik, Origins of Communism, 5.
35. Arif Dirlik, "The New Culture Movement," Modern China 3 (1985):
253.
36. Shenyang shifan xueyuan zhongwenxi, Zhongguo dangdai wensue yan-
jiu: Yang Mo (Materials related to Yang Mo) (Shenyang: Shenyang shifan
xueyuan zhongwenxi, 1979), 25.
37. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1:595, 598.
38. Chen, Duxiu wenchun, 1:534; Chen Duxiu, Chen Duxiu wenzhang
xuanbian (Selected works of Chen Duxiu) (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, [1920]
1984), 2:49.
39. Chen, Chen Duxiu, 1:521.
40. Deng Zhongxia, Deng Zhongxia wenji (The works of Deng Zhongxia)
(Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, [1920] 1982), 2.
41. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism.
42. Ibid., 177. Assessing the relative weight of internationalism and nation-
alism in the party's propaganda and ideological development during the 1920s,
Luk thinks that themes of nationalism occupied a central place from 1922 to
1924, while "the spirit of internationalism surged prominently in the next few
years" (182).
43. XQN 1, no. 2 (1923).
44. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 181-82, 180.
45. For how Mao's thinking echoes the wish that China will be important in
the world revolution (but without the desperate tone), see Levenson, Revolu-
tion, 26.
46. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 199.
47. Hoston, 178.
48. Ibid., 66, 379-80.
49. Mao, Mao Zedong ji, 9:83-84.
50. Zhonggong zhongyang dangshi yanjiushi, Zhonggong dangshi daishi
nianbiao (The chronological table of the history of the Chinese Communist
Party) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1987), 201.
51. Mao, Mao Zedongji, 10:300.
52. Peng Pai, Peng Pai wenji (The works of Peng Pai) (Beijing: Renmin
chubanshe, [1927] 1981), 284. Also see Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 183.
53. Quoted in Zhang Zhenglong, Xue bai xue hong (White snow, red
blood) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1989), 26.
54. Ibid., 27.
55. Ibid., 25.
56. Lin Chao, ed., Chuanshaan geming gunqudi shi (The history of the
Chuanshaan Base Area) (Chengdu: Sichuansheng shehui kexueyuan chubanshe,
1988), 261.
57. Wang Mulan, ed., Jiangxi suqu hongse xiju ziliaoji (Sources on the
"Red Opera" in the Jiangxi soviet area) (Tokyo: East Asian Studies Center,
Tokyo University, 1985), 45.
241
33. Zhang Wentian, Zhang Wentian wenji (The Works of Zhang Wentian) (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi zhiliao chubanshe, [1922] 1990), 43 . 34. See Dirlik, Origins of Communism, 5 . 3 5 . Arif Dirlik, "The New Culture Movement," Modern China 3 (1985): 253. 36. Shenyang shifan xueyuan zhongwenxi, Zhongguo dangdai wensue yan jiu: Yang Mo (Materials related to Yang Mo) (Shenyang: Shenyang shifan xueyuan zhongwenxi, 1979) , 25. 37. Li, Li Dazhao wenji, 1 :595 , 598. 38. Chen, Duxiu wench un, 1 :534; Chen Duxiu, Chen Duxiu wen zhang xuanbian (Selected works of Chen Duxiu) (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, [1920] 1984) , 2:49. 39. Chen, Chen Duxiu, 1 :521 . 40. Deng Zhongxia, Deng Zhongxia wenji (The works of Deng Zhongxia) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, [1920] 1982) , 2. 41. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism. 42. Ibid. , 177. Assessing the relative weight of internationalism and nation alism in the party's propaganda and ideological development during the 1920s, Luk thinks that themes of nationalism occupied a central place from 1922 to 1924, while "the spirit of internationalism surged prominently in the next few years" (182). 43. XQN 1, no. 2 (1923). 44. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 181-82, 180. 45 . For how Mao's thinking echoes the wish that China will be important in the world revolution (but without the desperate tone) , see Levenson, Revolu tion, 26. 46. Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 199. 47. Hoston, 178. 48. Ibid., 66, 379-80. 49. Mao, Mao Zedong ji, 9:83-84. 50. Zhonggong zhongyang dangshi yanjiushi, Zhonggong dangshi daishi nianbiao (The chronological table of the history of the Chinese Communist Party) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1987), 201 . 5 1 . Mao, Mao Zedong ji, 10:300. 52. Peng Pai, Peng Pai wenji (The works of Peng Pai) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, [1927] 1 981 ) , 284. Also see Luk, Origins of Bolshevism, 1 83. 53. Quoted in Zhang Zhenglong, Xue bai xue hong (White snow, red blood) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1989) , 26. 54. Ibid . , 27. 55. Ibid ., 25. 56. Lin Chao, e d . , Chuanshaan geming gunqudi shi (The history of the Chuanshaan Base Area) (Chengdu: Sichuansheng shehui kexueyuan chubanshe, 1988), 261 . 57. Wang Mulan, e d . , Jiangxi suqu hongse xiju ziliaoji (Sources on the "Red Opera" in the Jiangxi soviet area) (Tokyo: East Asian Studies Center, Tokyo University, 1985), 45.
242
242 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
58. Ibid., 12.
59. Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun wenyi shiliao xuanbian: Hongjun shiqi
(Historical sources about literature and the arts of the Chinese communist army:
The Soviet period) (hereafter HJSQ) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1986),
1:343.
60. Zhang Geng, Yangge juxuan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe,
1977), 21.
61. Zhongguo renmin fiefangjun wenyi shiliao xuanbian: Kangri zhanzheng
shiqi (Historical sources about literature and the arts of the Chinese communist
army: the period of resisting Japanese invasion) (hereafter KRSQ) (Beijing:
Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1988), 4:291, 3:497, 2:402, 477. In Guangdong, it
was the party branch of the guerrilla force (the Dongjiang zongdui) that orga-
nized performances to celebrate the occupation of Berlin and the defeat of
Hitler (KRSQ, 4:461).
62. Feng Deying, Kucai hua (The bitter flower) (Hong Kong: Sanlian
shudian, 1962), 464.
63. Richard Kraus, Pianos and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1989), 61; Paul Pickowicz, Marxist Literary Thought in China (Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1981), 99-111; Vera Schwarcz, Time for Telling Truth Is
Running Out (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 94-96, 102-3.
64. Kraus, Pianos and Politics, 59-61.
65. Ibid., 61; David Holm, Art and Ideology in Revolutionary China (Ox-
ford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 336-71. For the effectiveness of Yan'an
propaganda art, see Hung Chang-tai's chapter on Yan'an popular culture in his
War and Popular Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
66. For Mao's interpretation of Trotsky, see Mao Zedong ji, 8:134; for his
views on feudal and bourgeois culture, see 8:127. Mao's approval of integrating
traditional and bourgeois elements into socialist culture resonates with Marx's
idea that socioeconomic determination of art does not restrict outstanding artis-
tic achievements' significance for more advanced cultures (see Bottomore, Dic-
tionary, 43). And like Trotsky, Lenin assumed that socialist culture should incor-
porate what was valuable in bourgeois culture (110).
67. Chen Shaoli, ed., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue yundong shiliao zhaibian
(Selected materials related to modern Chinese literature) (Beijing: Beijing
chubanshe, 1985), 2:171-3.
68. Ibid., 172.
69. Kraus, Pianos and Politics, 62-68.
70. KRSQ, 1:114-66.
71. HJSQ, 1:61, 94-95. Also see Kraus, Pianos and Politics, 54. For a
detailed description of arts created from limited resources, see KRSQ, 1:155-
59, 175.
72. KRSQ, 1:60.
73. Ibid., 1:145.
74. Ibid., 1:164.
75. Ibid., 1:427.
76. Ibid., 1:398.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
58. Ibid., 12. 59. Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun wenyi shiliao xuanbian: Hongjun shiqi (Historical sources about literature and the arts of the Chinese communist army: The Soviet period) (hereafter HJSQ) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1986 ) , 1 :343. 60. Zhang Geng, Yangge juxuan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1977 ) , 21 . 6 1 . Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun wenyi shiliao xuanbian: Kangri zhanzheng shiqi (Historical sources about literature and the arts of the Chinese communist army: the period of resisting Japanese invasion) (hereafter KRSQ) (Beij ing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1 988 ) , 4:291 , 3:497 , 2:402, 477. In Guangdong, it was the party branch of the guerrilla force (the Dongjiang zongdui) that orga nized performances to celebrate the occupation of Berlin and the defeat of Hitler (KRSQ, 4:461 ) . 62. Feng Deying, Kucai hua (The bitter flower) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1962 ) , 464. 63. Richard Kraus, Pianos and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989 ) , 6 1 ; Paul Pickowicz, Marxist Literary Thought in China (Berkeley: Univer sity of California Press, 1 981 ) , 99-1 1 1 ; Vera Schwarcz, Time for Telling Truth Is Running Out (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1 992 ) , 94-96, 102-3 . 64. Kraus, Pianos and Politics, 59-61 . 65. Ibid., 6 1 ; David Holm, Art and Ideology in Revolutionary China (Ox ford: Oxford University Press, 1 991), 336-71 . For the effectiveness of Yan'an propaganda art, see Hung Chang-tai's chapter on Yan'an popular culture in his War and Popular Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). 66. For Mao's interpretation of Trotsky, see Mao Zedong ji, 8 : 1 34; for his views on feudal and bourgeois culture, see 8: 127. Mao's approval of integrating traditional and bourgeois elements into socialist culture resonates with Marx's idea that socioeconomic determination of art does not restrict outstanding artis tic achievements' significance for more advanced cultures (see Bottomore, Dic tionary, 43 ) . And like Trotsky, Lenin assumed that socialist culture should incor porate what was valuable in bourgeois culture ( 1 1 0 ) . 67. Chen Shaoli, e d . , Zhongguo xiandai wenxue yundong shiliao zhaibian (Selected materials related to modern Chinese literature) (Beij ing: Beijing chubanshe, 1 985) , 2: 1 7 1 -3. 68. Ibid . , 172. 69. Kraus, Pianos and Politics, 62-68. 70. KRSQ, 1 : 1 14-66. 7 1 . HJSQ, 1 : 6 1 , 94-95 . Also see Kraus, Pianos and Politics, 54. For a detailed description of arts created from limited resources, see KRSQ, 1 : 15559, 175. 72. KRSQ, 1 :60. 73. Ibid., 1 : 145. 74. Ibid. , 1 : 1 64. 75. Ibid. , 1 :427. 76. Ibid. , 1 :398.
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation
Cosmopolitanism and the Ideal Image of Nation 243
77. Ibid., 1:398.
78. Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun wenyi shiliao xuanbian: Jiefang zhang-
zheng shiqi (Historical sources about literature and the arts of the Communist
army: the Civil War period) (hereafter JFSQ) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe,
1989), 2:774.
79. Ibid., 2:535, 539.
80. Ibid., 2:535, 539. Sometimes programs with a more foreign flavor were
performed (see 1:170, 2:558).
81. Zhang, Zhang Wentian.
82. Yang Mo, Qingchun zhi ge (Song of youth) (Hong Kong: Sanlian
shudian, 1960), 390-93.
83. Wang, Butterfly and other stories, 216.
84. Dai Qing, Wo di sige fuchin (My fathers) (Hong Kong: Ming bao
chubanshe youxian gongsi, 1995).
85. Wang, Qingchun wansiu (Long live my youth), 28.
86. Ibid., 212.
87. Friedman, "Reconstructing Identity," 68-79.
88. Zhao Suisheng, "Chinese Intellectuals' Quest for National Greatness,"
China Quarterly 152 (spring 1997): 730-33. Also See Geremie Barme, "To
Screw Foreigners Is Patriotic," China Journal 34 (July 1995): 228-33.
89. Zhou Li, another popular image that represents Chinese success in
American society, can be considered a kind of female equivalent of Wang
Qiming. But the story of her personal struggle in the United States seems to be
less bitter. See Zhou Li, Manhattan China Lady (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe,
1992).
90. For instance, see the conclusion to Yang Zhongmei, Zhuanyi huiyi yu
Yan'an zhengfeng (The Zhuanyi conference and rectification campaign in
Yan'an) (Hong Kong: Benma chubashe, 1989); and Liu Kwang-ching, "World-
view and Peasant Rebellion: Reflections on Post-Mao Historiography," Journal
of Asian Studies 40, no. 2 (1981): 300-302.
91. Barme, "To Screw Foreigners," 225; Zhao, "Chinese Intellectuals'
Quest," 735.
92. Lucien Pye, "How China's Nationalism Was Shanghaied," Australian
Journal of Chinese Affairs 29 (January 1993): 113; Zhao, "Chinese Intellectuals'
Quest," 745.
243
77. Ibid., 1 :398. 78. Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun wenyi shiliao xuanbian: Jiefang zhang zheng shiqi (Historical sources about literature and the arts of the Communist army: the Civil War period) (hereafter JFSQ) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1989), 2:774. 79. Ibid., 2:535, 539. 80. Ibid., 2:535 , 539. Sometimes programs with a more foreign flavor were performed (see 1 : 170, 2:558). 81 . Zhang, Zhang Wentian. 82. Yang Mo, Qingchun zhi ge (Song of youth) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1960), 390-93. 83. Wang, Butterfly and other stories, 216. 84. Dai Qing, Wo di sige fuchin (My fathers) (Hong Kong: Ming bao chubanshe youxian gongsi, 1995). 85. Wang, Qingchun wansiu (Long live my youth), 28. 86. Ibid . , 212. 87. Friedman, "Reconstructing Identity, " 68-79. 88. Zhao Suisheng, "Chinese Intellectuals' Quest for National Greatness," China Quarterly 152 (spring 1 997): 730-33. Also See Geremie Barme, "To Screw Foreigners Is Patriotic," China Journal 34 (July 1 995): 228-33. 89. Zhou Li, another popular image that represents Chinese success in American society, can be considered a kind of female equivalent of Wang Qiming. But the story of her personal struggle in the United States seems to be less bitter. See Zhou Li, Manhattan China Lady (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1 992). 90. For instance, see the conclusion to Yang Zhongmei, Zhuanyi huiyi yu Yan 'an zhengfeng (The Zhuanyi conference and rectification campaign in Yan'an) (Hong Kong: Benma chubashe, 1989); and Liu Kwang-ching, "World view and Peasant Rebellion: Reflections on Post-Mao Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 40, no. 2 (1981): 300-302. 91. Barme, "To Screw Foreigners," 225 ; Zhao, "Chinese Intellectuals' Quest," 735. 92. Lucien Pye, "How China's Nationalism Was Shanghaied," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29 (January 1 993): 1 1 3; Zhao, "Chinese Intellectuals' Quest," 745.

PART 3 PART 3
Diaspora, Gender, and Ambiguity
of Identity
Diaspora, Gender, and Ambiguity of Identity

Chapter 8 Chapter 8
Between Nationalism and Colonialism:
Mainland Emigres, Marginal Culture,
Hong Kong Cinema, 1937-1941
Poshek Fu
Between Nationalism and Colonialism: Mainland Emigres, Marginal Culture, Hong Kong Cinema, 1937-1941 /
Hong Kong has been marginal to twentieth-century Chinese culture.
This marginality is owing both to the fact that Hong Kong is situated at
the periphery of China's geopolity and to a popular stereotype of the city
as a "cultural desert." This imagery began to circulate around the 1920s
among some mainland intellectuals who sought refuge in the British
colony. As children of the May Fourth Enlightenment, they were ill at
ease not only with the "exotic" local dialect but with what they consid-
ered to be its hybridized culture: simultaneously Westernized, feudal,
colonial, and provincial. Westernized as it appeared, Hong Kong had
Poshek Fu
never experienced a cultural revolution comparable to the May Fourth
movement, and its cultural discourse was controlled by colonizers,
taipans, compradors, and Confucian moralists. To many mainlanders it
was a "desert" at the periphery of Chinese culture where no progressive,
diverse modes of cultural practice could possibly take place. This stereo-
typical representation has until recently dominated both the popular and
scholarly imagery of Hong Kong.1
The colony's cinema, its major mass cultural product, has also been
largely ignored by China scholars.2 Movies "made in Hong Kong" were
perceived as merely "made for money": box-office driven, frivolous,
and devoid of artistic and social meaning. One of the early critics was
the Shanghai modernist writer Mu Shiying, who, after a brief stint with
the Cantonese cinema, ridiculed it as "the biggest joke in the world
and the greatest humiliation of the human race."3 Coming from the
center of the new Chinese culture, Mu's smug sense of cultural superior-
ity was all too evident.
247
Hong Kong has been marginal to twentieth-century Chinese culture. This marginality is owing both to the fact that Hong Kong is situated at the periphery of China's geopolity and to a popular stereotype of the city as a "cultural desert. " This imagery began to circulate around the 1920s among some mainland intellectuals who sought refuge in the British colony. As children of the May Fourth Enlightenment, they were ill at ease not only with the "exotic" local dialect but with what they consid ered to be its hybridized culture: simultaneously Westernized, feudal, colonial, and provincial. Westernized as it appeared, Hong Kong had never experienced a cultural revolution comparable to the May Fourth movement, and its cultural discourse was controlled by colonizers, taipans, compradors, and Confucian moralists. To many mainlanders it was a "desert" at the periphery of Chinese culture where no progressive, diverse modes of cultural practice could possibly take place. This stereo typical representation has until recently dominated both the popular and scholarly imagery of Hong Kong.1 The colony's cinema, its major mass cultural product, has also been largely ignored by China scholars.2 Movies "made in Hong Kong" were perceived as merely "made for money" : box-office driven, frivolous, and devoid of artistic and social meaning. One of the early critics was the Shanghai modernist writer Mu Shiying, who, after a brief stint with the Cantonese cinema, ridiculed it as "the biggest joke in the world and the greatest humiliation of the human race."3 Coming from the center of the new Chinese culture, Mu's smug sense of cultural superior ity was all too evident. 247
248
248
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
This marginalization of Hong Kong is integral to what could be
called a Central Plains syndrome (da Zhongyuan xintai), which has been
embedded in the centralizing, anti-imperialist, state-building discourse
underlying the twentieth-century representation of Chinese culture. It
comes as no surprise that a master film historian such as Cheng Jihua
would block out Hong Kong's dynamic contribution to the birth of
Chinese cinema altogether.4 Cheng does include Hong Kong in his au-
thoritative history of the Chinese cinema, but he privileges only the two
periods (the 1930s and late 1940s) during which mainland intellectuals
allegedly policed and guided the local movie scene.5
In fact, since the beginning of the twentieth century Hong Kong has
been a dynamic site of disparate discourses and practices that center
particularly around the notion of mass culture. The colony was the
largest center of dialect filmmaking in Republican China, and after the
Communist takeover it replaced Shanghai to become the "Hollywood of
the East." Although dominated from the outset by commercial con-
cerns, the Hong Kong cinema has a complex history of contestation
between various political and ideological positions and aesthetic orienta-
tions. It was in this way not so different qualitatively from cinema on the
mainland, where, aside from the few canonized leftist films, the domi-
nant mode of the Republican screen was profit-driven, popular entertain-
ment. Likewise, ever since their inception around 1900, Hong Kong
films have been a significant part of the Chinese cinema, connected as
much by business rivalries as by artistic and financial interactions.6
This cinematic connection became particularly intricate during the
first years of World War II, between 1937 and 1941, when the Hong Kong
screen was swarmed with filmmakers, stars, and critics who had fled the
mainland to seek refuge in the colony or stopped over on their way to the
unoccupied interior. Many brought with them a political intensity and
sense of moral urgency, as well as a creeping Central Plains syndrome, to
the ideological contestation in the local cinema between patriotism and
profit and the collision of national demand with local interest. The war-
time Hong Kong cinema therefore provides us with a privileged vantage
point from which to explore the marginalization of Hong Kong in the
Chinese geocultural imagination.
At the same time, the war engendered an incipient sense of local
identity among the Hong Kong people. Identification, broadly defined,
is articulated in terms of the relation of self to Other, subject to object:
we define ourselves in relation to the Other. In a colonial situation, it is
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
This marginalization of Hong Kong is integral to what could be called a Central Plains syndrome (da Zhongyuan xintai) , which has been embedded in the centralizing, anti-imperialist, state-building discourse underlying the twentieth-century representation of Chinese culture. It comes as no surprise that a master film historian such as Cheng Jihua would block out Hong Kong's dynamic contribution to the birth of Chinese cinema altogether. 4 Cheng does include Hong Kong in his au thoritative history of the Chinese cinema, but he privileges only the two periods (the 1 930s and late 1940s) during which mainland intellectuals allegedly policed and guided the local movie scene.s In fact, since the beginning of the twentieth century Hong Kong has been a dynamic site of disparate discourses and practices that center particularly around the notion of mass culture. The colony was the largest center of dialect filmmaking in Republican China, and after the Communist takeover it replaced Shanghai to become the "Hollywood of the East." Although dominated from the outset by commercial con cerns, the Hong Kong cinema has a complex history of contestation between various political and ideological positions and aesthetic orienta tions. It was in this way not so different qualitatively from cinema on the mainland, where, aside from the few canonized leftist films, the domi nant mode of the Republican screen was profit-driven, popular entertain ment. Likewise, ever since their inception around 1 900, Hong Kong films have been a significant part of the Chinese cinema, connected as much by business rivalries as by artistic and financial interactions.6 This cinematic connection became particularly intricate during the first years of World War II, between 1937 and 1 94 1 , when the Hong Kong screen was swarmed with filmmakers, stars, and critics who had fled the mainland to seek refuge in the colony or stopped over on their way to the unoccupied interior. Many brought with them a political intensity and sense of moral urgency, as well as a creeping Central Plains syndrome, to the ideological contestation in the local cinema between patriotism and profit and the collision of national demand with local interest. The war time Hong Kong cinema therefore provides us with a privileged vantage point from which to explore the marginalization of Hong Kong in the Chinese geocultural imagination. At the same time, the war engendered an incipient sense of local identity among the Hong Kong people. Identification, broadly defined, is articulated in terms of the relation of self to Other, subject to object: we define ourselves in relation to the Other. In a colonial situation, it is
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 249
common knowledge that the colonizer, in Sartre's words, "has been able
to become a man through creating slaves and monsters" out of the
natives - lazy, incompetent, and primitive.7 This situation was compli-
cated in the case of Hong Kong because of its marginalization in the
China-centered discourse of nationalism and modernization. Contami-
nated by British colonization, it was seen by the mainland cultural elites
as a land of slavishness, decadence, and backwardness, obstructing the
progress of the national project. The war dramatized this double margin-
ality. While the colonial government excluded the "Chinese," the racial
Others, from the military defense of the colony, the diaspora from the
mainland sought to mobilize the colonized to defend the "motherland"
against Japan. Yet at the same time, they continued to ascribe to them
traits of the contaminating Others.
The war also dramatized Hong Kong's sociocultural difference with
and geopolitical apartness from the mainland. I would argue that it was a
combination of this incipient sense of difference and this double margin-
ality (in the nationalist and colonial discourses) that generated a con-
struction, still tentative, of an ambivalent, hybrid identity that continues
to haunt Hong Kong natives today: they are caught between identifi-
cation with the past and the present, with the centralizing nationalism of
the mainland and the hybrid tradition of Hong Kong. This ambivalent
identity was subtly but powerfully projected in the local cinema. Based
on some recently discovered films, this chapter discusses the industrial
practices and production strategies of the wartime Hong Kong film indus-
try, the ways in which the mainland 6migr6s police and otherize the local
cinema, and its representation of a collective sense of identity for the
colonized subjects.8
1
World War II in China began on July 7, 1937, with the fighting at the
Marco Polo Bridge. Four months later, the premier center of Chinese
filmmaking, Shanghai, fell to Japan. Unlike the war-torn interior, the
British colony of Hong Kong stayed outside the hostilities. As a result,
there was a massive influx of wartime refugees into the colony. Between
July 1937 and July 1938, for example, according to official figures, a
quarter of a million people crossed the border. In the next two years,
another half a million mainland Chinese fled to the "haven of tranquil-
ity," sometimes at a rate of five thousand a day, which increased the
249
common knowledge that the colonizer, in Sartre's words, "has been able to become a man through creating slaves and monsters" out of the natives - lazy, incompetent, and primitiveJ This situation was compli cated in the case of Hong Kong because of its marginalization in the China-centered discourse of nationalism and modernization. Contami nated by British colonization, it was seen by the mainland cultural elites as a land of slavishness, decadence, and backwardness, obstructing the progress of the national project. The war dramatized this double margin ality. While the colonial government excluded the "Chinese," the racial Others, from the military defense of the colony, the diaspora from the mainland sought to mobilize the colonized to defend the "motherland" against Japan. Yet at the same time, they continued to ascribe to them traits of the contaminating Others. The war also dramatized Hong Kong's sociocultural difference with and geopolitical apartness from the mainland. I would argue that it was a combination of this incipient sense of difference and this double margin ality (in the nationalist and colonial discourses) that generated a con struction, still tentative, of an ambivalent, hybrid identity that continues to haunt Hong Kong natives today: they are caught between identifi cation with the past and the present, with the centralizing nationalism of the mainland and the hybrid tradition of Hong Kong. This ambivalent identity was subtly but powerfully projected in the local cinema. Based on some recently discovered films, this chapter discusses the industrial practices and production strategies of the wartime Hong Kong film indus try, the ways in which the mainland emigres police and otherize the local cinema, and its representation of a collective sense of identity for the colonized subjects.8 1 World War II in China began on July 7 , 1937, with the fighting at the Marco Polo Bridge. Four months later, the premier center of Chinese filmmaking, Shanghai, fell to Japan. Unlike the war-torn interior, the British colony of Hong Kong stayed outside the hostilities. As a result, there was a massive influx of wartime refugees into the colony. Between July 1937 and July 1938, for example, according to official figures, a quarter of a million people crossed the border. In the next two years, another half a million mainland Chinese fled to the "haven of tranquil ity," sometimes at a rate of five thousand a day, which increased the
250
250 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
city's total population from less than a million in mid-1937 to 1.7 million
in 1939.9 Some of these "refugees" were social notables such as the
underworld boss Du Yuesheng and the Beijing Opera star Mei Lanfang,
whose wealth and exuberant lifestyles provided an impetus to the con-
sumer economy. But the bulk of the refugees were destitute. They cre-
ated an abundance of cheap labor, which coincided with a large demand
for war materials from "Free China." As a result, there was an "eco-
nomic boom" in the city. Thus, besides the great increase in foreign
trade, the number of factories with more than twenty workers, which
constituted the backbone of Hong Kong's small manufacturing econ-
omy, jumped from 689 in 1937 to 1,200 in 1941.10
The Hong Kong film industry thrived in this favorable environment.
By 1939, the industry boasted more than forty film studios employing
about two thousand people. As an important center of Cantonese pro-
duction since the late 1920s, the industry was dominated by Cantonese-
speaking natives. But the war brought in many Mandarin-speaking film
people from Shanghai, only a few of whom bothered to learn the local
dialect. Thus, in general film directors, cinematographers, and script-
writers were better able to rebuild a career in local production than were
the actors, whose performances were invariably affected by behind the
scenes dubbing.
One major reason for the unwillingness of these Shanghai 6migr6s
to learn the local dialect was their sense of cultural superiority. In their
eyes, the Hong Kong cinema, as a part of the colony's sociopolitical
culture, was "backward." Compared to the prewar Shanghai cinema, it
was small in capitalization, lacked artistic sophistication, and was un-
developed in technology. In fact, prewar Hong Kong was seen as a
colonial backwater in comparison with thriving, glamorous Shanghai,
which was the center of the region's international trade.1' The Hong
Kong cinema was also politically irrelevant. Unlike the mainland film
industry, except for occupied Shanghai, which since 1937 had been cen-
tralized under the Nationalist government in Chongqing to rally the
nation for continued resistance, and unlike Hollywood, which was trans-
formed by its alliance with Washington from "peacetime entertainment
to wartime engagement," the Hong Kong cinema remained aloof from
politics.12
This political aloofness was in fact largely a result of colonialism.
Typical of colonial situations, the Hong Kong government treated the
colonized, to use the apt words of Albert Memmi, as no more than an
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
city's total population from less than a million in mid-1937 to 1 .7 million in 1939.9 Some of these "refugees" were social notables such as the underworld boss Du Yuesheng and the Beijing Opera star Mei Lanfang, whose wealth and exuberant lifestyles provided an impetus to the con sumer economy. But the bulk of the refugees were destitute. They cre ated an abundance of cheap labor, which coincided with a large demand for war materials from "Free China." As a result, there was an "eco nomic boom" in the city. Thus, besides the great increase in foreign trade, the number of factories with more than twenty workers, which constituted the backbone of Hong Kong's small manufacturing econ omy, jumped from 689 in 1937 to 1 ,200 in 1 941. 10 The Hong Kong film industry thrived in this favorable environment. By 1939, the industry boasted more than forty film studios employing about two thousand people. As an important center of Cantonese pro duction since the late 1 920s, the industry was dominated by Cantonese speaking natives. But the war brought in many Mandarin-speaking film people from Shanghai, only a few of whom bothered to learn the local dialect. Thus, in general film directors, cinematographers, and script writers were better able to rebuild a career in local production than were the actors, whose performances were invariably affected by behind the scenes dubbing. One major reason for the unwillingness of these Shanghai emigres to learn the local dialect was their sense of cultural superiority. In their eyes, the Hong Kong cinema, as a part of the colony's sociopolitical culture, was "backward." Compared to the prewar Shanghai cinema, it was small in capitalization, lacked artistic sophistication, and was un developed in technology. In fact, prewar Hong Kong was seen as a colonial backwater in comparison with thriving, glamorous Shanghai, which was the center of the region's international trade.ll The Hong Kong cinema was also politically irrelevant. Unlike the mainland film industry, except for occupied Shanghai, which since 1937 had been cen tralized under the Nationalist government in Chongqing to rally the nation for continued resistance, and unlike Hollywood, which was trans formed by its alliance with Washington from "peacetime entertainment to wartime engagement," the Hong Kong cinema remained aloof from politics. 12 This political aloofness was in fact largely a result of colonialism. Typical of colonial situations, the Hong Kong government treated the colonized, to use the apt words of Albert Memmi, as no more than an
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 251
"anonymous collectivity," a "mark of the plural."13 They were suspicious
and unworthy; they were the Other. Racism was rampant in the colony,
where social life was racially segregated. For example, not only were the
natives forbidden to live in residential areas like the Peak, which were
"reserved" for the Europeans, but they were paid less than Europeans
for the same work on the grounds of race. Only in 1937 were Chinese
allowed to become subinspectors in the police force, and even then they
were placed under the supervision of British officers junior to them.
Sir Alexander Grantham, the first governor of postwar Hong Kong,
summed up the colonial attitude pointedly: "The basis of the [European]
arrogance and [snobbery] is the assumption that the European is inher-
ently superior to the Asian, taking such forms as the exclusion of Asians
from clubs, downright rudeness or a patronizing manner."14
On the other hand, Hong Kong had been a "relative haven of tranquil-
ity" compared to the political turmoil and social chaos of the mainland
since the 1860s. Most Chinese came to the colony to seek refuge from
wars and rebellions. Their obsessions were to survive and, among the
rich, to protect their wealth. Indeed, the small, close-knit local elite was
"created by property-owning lineages," especially from South China.15
This created a strong tradition of political conservatism in the colony.
Exacerbated by colonial prejudice, this tradition bred, in the apt phrase
of two Hong Kong scholars, "a fear of politics" among the local Chinese.16
As a European professor at the elite University of Hong Kong exclaimed,
the Chinese "asked only that they should be left alone, they asked for no
shares in political control . . . They have no spirit of willing sacrifice for
the community."17
No wonder the British made no attempt to involve the locals when
they prepared for the defense of Hong Kong in 1937. To begin with,
partly because of its limited commercial importance, London saw little
strategic value in the colony. Instead, its naval defense in the region was
centered in Singapore.18 In Hong Kong, only British of "European
birth" were subject to conscription. The colonized were relegated to the
racially segregated auxiliary forces (the "Chinese Company") and "ju-
nior positions in civil defense." The colonial government exhibited no
interest in mobilizing the city's media industry for war propaganda,
except for installing in 1939 a chief censor (concurrently the University
of Hong Kong's vice chancellor) to police newspapers, pamphlets, and
entertainment in Chinese.19 The film industry was thus "left alone" in
the wilderness of market calculations.
251
"anonymous collectivity, " a "mark of the plural." 13 They were suspicious and unworthy; they were the Other. Racism was rampant in the colony, where social life was racially segregated. For example, not only were the natives forbidden to live in residential areas like the Peak, which were "reserved" for the Europeans, but they were paid less than Europeans for the same work on the grounds of race. Only in 1937 were Chinese allowed to become subinspectors in the police force, and even then they were placed under the supervision of British officers junior to them. Sir Alexander Grantham, the first governor of postwar Hong Kong, summed up the colonial attitude pointedly: "The basis of the [European] arrogance and [snobbery] is the assumption that the European is inher ently superior to the Asian, taking such forms as the exclusion of Asians from clubs, downright rudeness or a patronizing manner. " 14 On the other hand, Hong Kong had been a "relative haven of tranquil ity" compared to the political turmoil and social chaos of the mainland since the 1860s. Most Chinese came to the colony to seek refuge from wars and rebellions. Their obsessions were to survive and, among the rich, to protect their wealth. Indeed, the small, close-knit local elite was "created by property-owning lineages," especially from South China. 1 5 This created a strong tradition of political conservatism in the colony. Exacerbated by colonial prejudice, this tradition bred, in the apt phrase of two Hong Kong scholars, "a fear of politics" among the local Chinese.16 As a European professor at the elite University of Hong Kong exclaimed, the Chinese "asked only that they should be left alone, they asked for no shares in political control. . . . They have no spirit of willing sacrifice for the community. " 1 7 No wonder the British made no attempt to involve the locals when they prepared for the defense of Hong Kong in 1 937. To begin with, partly because of its limited commercial importance, London saw little strategic value in the colony. Instead, its naval defense in the region was centered in Singapore.18 In Hong Kong, only British of "European birth" were subject to conscription. The colonized were relegated to the racially segregated auxiliary forces (the "Chinese Company") and "ju nior positions in civil defense." The colonial government exhibited no interest in mobilizing the city's media industry for war propaganda, except for installing in 1939 a chief censor (concurrently the University of Hong Kong's vice chancellor) to police newspapers, pamphlets, and entertainment in Chinese.19 The film industry was thus "left alone" in the wilderness of market calculations.
252
252
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Between 1938 and 1940, the heyday of wartime cinema, there were
more than forty movie companies in the colony, most of them small
independents making about one film each year. Only six major produc-
ers boasted their own movie studios and stars under contract. These
included the Daguan (Grandview) Film Company (Chiu Shu-sum/Zhao
Shusheng), Nanyang (South Ocean) Productions (Shao Zuiweng), and
the Nanyue (South Guangdong) Studio (Zhu Qingxian), the latter two
founded by Shanghai businessmen in 1933-35.2o In general, these stu-
dios were poorly equipped, rarely employing more than two cameras on
a shot. The industry was shocked in 1938 when Nanyue imported several
high-voltage projecting lights from Shanghai.21 Independents had to rent
film stars, studio space, and postproduction facilities from the six ma-
jors. Thus, production scheduling was tight and control over film equip-
ment and stars' shooting schedules often led to nasty fights.
The market for wartime Hong Kong films was limited. As the major
center of Cantonese productions, Hong Kong had marketed its products
throughout South and Southwest China prior to the war. After 1938,
when South China was under Japanese rule, its outlet was limited to
Hong Kong, Macao, and the Cantonese communities in Southeast Asia
(mainly in Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines) and the Ameri-
cas.22 After an economic boom between 1937 and 1938, the industry
contracted as a result of the inflationary spiral of 1939, when food prices
began to rise quickly and the export-import trade flattened due to the
Japanese hold on the Pearl Estuary and the onset of the European war.23
This change of fortune was clearly demonstrated in a drop in the indus-
try's gross profits from more than HK$900,000 in 1938 to less than
$500,000 in 1939.24
This sensitivity to market conditions and backward technology dur-
ing the war exacerbated the industry's prewar problems of low-budget
production and "sloppy craftsmanship." The average cost for each Can-
tonese feature-length picture in 1937-39 was about HK$7,000 to $8,000
(contemporary Shanghai films boasted an average of $30,000).25 To beat
the market meant cutting costs. Production companies paid little budget-
ary attention to scriptwriting or cinematography, investing only in the
proven box-office record of movie stars. Restrained by the problems of
scheduling studio space and stars' filming time, these companies were
under tremendous pressure to finish their projects fast. Seven to ten days
per film became the industrial norm during the war.26 Actors were com-
pelled to work hard and fast. The majority of them signed with one of the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Between 1938 and 1940, the heyday of wartime cinema, there were more than forty movie companies in the colony, most of them small independents making about one film each year. Only six major produc ers boasted their own movie studios and stars under contract. These included the Daguan (Grandview) Film Company (Chiu Shu-sum/Zhao Shusheng), Nanyang (South Ocean) Productions (Shao Zuiweng), and the Nanyue (South Guangdong) Studio (Zhu Qingxian), the latter two founded by Shanghai businessmen in 1933-3 5 .20 In general, these stu dios were poorly equipped, rarely employing more than two cameras on a shot. The industry was shocked in 1938 when Nanyue imported several high-voltage projecting lights from Shanghai.21 Independents had to rent film stars, studio space, and postproduction facilities from the six ma jors. Thus, production scheduling was tight and control over film equip ment and stars' shooting schedules often led to nasty fights. The market for wartime Hong Kong films was limited. As the major center of Cantonese productions, Hong Kong had marketed its products throughout South and Southwest China prior to the war. After 1938, when South China was under Japanese rule, its outlet was limited to Hong Kong, Macao, and the Cantonese communities in Southeast Asia (mainly in Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines) and the Ameri cas.22 After an economic boom between 1937 and 1 938, the industry contracted as a result of the inflationary spiral of 1939, when food prices began to rise quickly and the export-import trade flattened due to the Japanese hold on the Pearl Estuary and the onset of the European war. 23 This change of fortune was clearly demonstrated in a drop in the indus try's gross profits from more than HK$900,000 in 1938 to less than $500,000 in 1939.24 This sensitivity to market conditions and backward technology dur ing the war exacerbated the industry's prewar problems of low-budget production and "sloppy craftsmanship." The average cost for each Can tonese feature-length picture in 1937-39 was about HK$7,000 to $8,000 (contemporary Shanghai films boasted an average of $30,000).25 To beat the market meant cutting costs. Production companies paid little budget ary attention to scriptwriting or cinematography, investing only in the proven box-office record of movie stars. Restrained by the problems of scheduling studio space and stars' filming time, these companies were under tremendous pressure to finish their projects fast. Seven to ten days per film became the industrial norm during the war. 26 Actors were com pelled to work hard and fast. The majority of them signed with one of the
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 253
six majors on a one- to three-year basis; during that period, they were
required, on paper, to make between nine to ten films each year. Except
for a few superstars like Sit Gok-sin (Xue Juexiang), who commanded a
salary of about HK$3,000 a film, most people got a basic salary some-
where between $80 to $300 a month, which barely kept them abreast of
the rising cost of living in post-1939 Hong Kong. To survive, most actors
had to find extra work with other independents, which would in turn pay
a fee to their home companies. Movie businessmen could make huge
profits by loaning out their contracted stars. For example, the standard
charge for "borrowing" the leading man Ng Chor-fan (Wu Chufang) from
Nanyang in 1940 was a hefty $1,200 per film. That was why all the majors
required their stars, whether they needed the extra income or not, to
work for other studios. As a consequence, each star would end up making
more than thirty movies a year, usually working on several projects at the
same time. Indeed, Cantonese Opera idols-cum-movie superstars such as
Sit Gok-sin had to be literally dragged, still wearing their stage makeup,
to movie studios after finishing their stage performances at midnight.
One could hardly expect them to perform at a high artistic level under
such conditions. Thus, "sloppy craftsmanship" (cuzhi lanzao) came to be
the standard criticism of the wartime Hong Kong cinema. This "sloppi-
ness" accentuated, as will be shown, the projected image of the Hong
Kong cinema as frivolous and "feudal."
2
Between 1937 and 1941, the film industry turned out an average of more
than 80 features each year. Most pictures were popular genre pieces like
folk dramas, tragic romances, and period pieces adapted directly from
Cantonese operas, folktales, and popular novels. Some were Hollywood
fantasies.27 Just as in wartime Hollywood, where no new "project of
cultural creation" was involved in its filmic expressions in spite of the
war mobilization, Cantonese genres were built on a foundation of the
generic elements developed in prewar films: simple and bipolar narra-
tives, melodramatic aesthetics, emotional identification, and stereotypi-
cal characters. Consciously invoking and appropriating past forms, as
253
six majors on a one- to three-year basis; during that period, they were required, on paper, to make between nine to ten films each year. Except for a few superstars like Sit Gok-sin (Xue Juexiang), who commanded a salary of about HK$3,000 a film, most people got a basic salary some where between $80 to $300 a month, which barely kept them abreast of the rising cost of living in post-1939 Hong Kong. To survive, most actors had to find extra work with other independents, which would in turn pay a fee to their home companies. Movie businessmen could make huge profits by loaning out their contracted stars. For example, the standard charge for "borrowing" the leading man Ng Chor-fan (Wu Chufang) from Nanyang in 1940 was a hefty $1 ,200 per film. That was why all the majors required their stars, whether they needed the extra income or not, to work for other studios. As a consequence, each star would end up making more than thirty movies a year, usually working on several projects at the same time. Indeed, Cantonese Opera idols-cum-movie superstars such as Sit Gok-sin had to be literally dragged, still wearing their stage makeup, to movie studios after finishing their stage performances at midnight. One could hardly expect them to perform at a high artistic level under such conditions. Thus, "sloppy craftsmanship" (cuzhi lanzao) came to be the standard criticism of the wartime Hong Kong cinema. This "sloppi ness" accentuated, as will be shown, the projected image of the Hong Kong cinema as frivolous and "feudal. "
Leo Braudy notes, genre films derive their power from an affinity with
the "existing audience." In fact, all of these filmic elements became
generic because they seemed to "answer well to the experience, intelli-
2
gence, and feelings of the audience."28
Between 1937 and 194 1 , the film industry turned out an average of more than 80 features each year. Most pictures were popular genre pieces like folk dramas, tragic romances, and period pieces adapted directly from Cantonese operas, folktales, and popular novels. Some were Hollywood fantasies.27 Just as in wartime Hollywood, where no new "project of cultural creation" was involved in its filmic expressions in spite of the war mobilization, Cantonese genres were built on a foundation of the generic elements developed in prewar films: simple and bipolar narra tives, melodramatic aesthetics, emotional identification, and stereotypi cal characters. Consciously invoking and appropriating past forms, as Leo Braudy notes, genre films derive their power from an affinity with the "existing audience." In fact, all of these filmic elements became generic because they seemed to "answer well to the experience, intelli gence, and feelings of the audience."28
254
254
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Who was the audience for Cantonese movies in the war years? The
lack of business statistics or company archives has presented a for-
midable challenge to Chinese film historians trying to reconstruct the
demographic and class makeup of the film audience. Judging from the
number and locations of venues, however, it seems that Hollywood and
Mandarin productions attracted the colony's small, close-knit commu-
nity of economic and cultural elites, who were cosmopolitan, bilingual,
and conservative (supporting, if not necessarily serving in, the colonial
parliament, the Legislative Council) and yet racially ambivalent.29
Among the thirty-one theaters in Hong Kong, eighteen catered to Holly-
wood films and two to Mandarin. Among them were the four first-run
venues in town, such as the plush Queen's Theatre in the Central and
the Lee Theatre in Causeway Bay, which had since 1940 shown Manda-
rin films from Shanghai. The Cantonese pictures were mostly shown in
second- and third-run venues like Jiurufang, Chongjing, and Guomin,
which were located in lower-middle and working-class neighborhoods
and staged Cantonese operas alternatively. Ticket prices ranged from
HK$1.20 to $3.00 for Hollywood premiers and four cents to $1.00 for
Cantonese pictures and five to twenty cents for second and third runs.30
Thus, the average moviegoer to whom Cantonese filmmakers appealed
was an illiterate or semiliterate urbanite who was economically disadvan-
taged, steeped in the moral universe of the local performing arts, and
unexposed to the May Fourth discourse of modernity. To many in the
Cantonese audience, motion pictures represented a less expansive and
more regular alternative to opera performances onstage - thus, the
popularity of opera-related films and the immense drawing power of
opera-cum-screen stars in the Cantonese cinema both before and during
the war.31
To modernizing intellectuals from the mainland, Cantonese movies
were without exception frivolous, superstitious, escapist, and racy, serv-
ing only to perpetuate the evils of the feudal mentality. The famous
leftist 6migr6 Cai Chusheng, a Shanghai-born Cantonese film director,
expressed his contempt unreservedly: "Owing to the backwardness of
Hong Kong culture as a whole, it inevitably has a proportional effect on
its cinema. Thus, although Hong Kong has produced many, many mov-
ies, and although 'artists' here claim that Hong Kong has replaced Shang-
hai since its fall to Japan and become the center of Chinese cinema, all of
these movies are frivolous and vulgar commodities. It is impossible . .
to find any title that would make Hong Kong deserving the claim of a
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Who was the audience for Cantonese movies in the war years? The lack of business statistics or company archives has presented a for midable challenge to Chinese film historians trying to reconstruct the demographic and class makeup of the film audience. Judging from the number and locations of venues, however, it seems that Hollywood and Mandarin productions attracted the colony's small, close-knit commu nity of economic and cultural elites, who were cosmopolitan, bilingual, and conservative (supporting, if not necessarily serving in, the colonial parliament, the Legislative Council) and yet racially ambivalent. 29 Among the thirty-one theaters in Hong Kong, eighteen catered to Holly wood films and two to Mandarin. Among them were the four first-run venues in town, such as the plush Queen's Theatre in the Central and the Lee Theatre in Causeway Bay, which had since 1940 shown Manda rin films from Shanghai. The Cantonese pictures were mostly shown in second- and third-run venues like Jiurufang, Chongjing, and Guomin, which were located in lower-middle and working-class neighborhoods and staged Cantonese operas alternatively. Ticket prices ranged from HK$1 .20 to $3.00 for Hollywood premiers and four cents to $ 1 .00 for Cantonese pictures and five to twenty cents for second and third runs.3D Thus, the average moviegoer to whom Cantonese filmmakers appealed was an illiterate or semiliterate urbanite who was economically disadvan taged, steeped in the moral universe of the local performing arts, and unexposed to the May Fourth discourse of modernity. To many in the Cantonese audience, motion pictures represented a less expansive and more regular alternative to opera performances onstage - thus, the popularity of opera-related films and the immense drawing power of opera-cum-screen stars in the Cantonese cinema both before and during the war. 31 To modernizing intellectuals from the mainland, Cantonese movies were without exception frivolous, superstitious, escapist, and racy, serv ing only to perpetuate the evils of the feudal mentality. The famous leftist emigre Cai Chusheng, a Shanghai-born Cantonese film director, expressed his contempt unreservedly: "Owing to the backwardness of Hong Kong culture as a whole, it inevitably has a proportional effect on its cinema. Thus, although Hong Kong has produced many, many mov ies, and although 'artists' here claim that Hong Kong has replaced Shang hai since its fall to Japan and become the center of Chinese cinema, all of these movies are frivolous and vulgar commodities. It is impossible . . . to find any title that would make Hong Kong deserving the claim of a
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 255
cinematic center - that is, the center of national defense films."32 Obvi-
ously, this critique stemmed from anxiety over the decentering of Chi-
nese cinema33 and the insistence that Hong Kong, with its political irrele-
vance and lack of authenticity, remained on its periphery. Yet I have
found no documentary evidence to justify Cai's claim that Hong Kong
was trying to project itself as the new center of Chinese cinema. His
anxiety might have reflected the assumed superiority of the mainland
filmmaking community.
In 1938-41, most of the filmmakers and intellectuals among the
mainland 6migr6s were from Shanghai, the foremost center of Chinese
modernity before the war. It is interesting to note that Shanghai, with its
Westernization and semicoloniality, was itself the object of nationalist
outcry and conservative attacks. It was "the other China." But when
Shanghai intellectuals and artists came to the colony they became the
Chinese by imposing a "slavish" Otherness on the Hong Kong natives.
This happened both because Hong Kong was inferior and alien to Shang-
hai owing to its total contamination by the British colonization34 and, as
Leo Ou-fan Lee points out, because Chinese intellectuals had always
imagined themselves to be the voice of the nation at the center of
national discourses.35
Many of these intellectuals and artists indeed found the colony a
charming yet "soulless" city and its men of culture "dull" and "slavish."
They were nostalgic for the "excitement" and "cultural vitality" of their
war-torn homeland and constantly chastised the city for its "indifference
to the national resistance."36 As the leftist writer Lou Shiyi complained:
"When I know that I have to stay here for a while and to live together
with all these listless, rotten (meilan) people, I become melancholic."37
They justified their melancholic exile as a "sacrifice" necessary to en-
lighten as well as mobilize the colony in China's defense. As one critic
wrote with a biting tone: "Three or four years ago Hong Kong people
had no culture to speak of. Only recently have we mainlanders (waijiang
lao) come and brought culture here."38 That smug sense of cultural
superiority was all too evident.
It was thus only natural that another diasporic filmmaker, Yan Meng,
would castigate local films as inferior to the mainland cinema: "Educated
Chinese are invariably scornful of Cantonese cinema. [Hong Kong film-
makers with social consciences are therefore] full of pain and anguish on
the one hand and deeply humiliated on the other. What we need to do
instead is change our approach to filmmaking."39 This critique obviously
255
cinematic center - that is, the center of national defense films. "32 Obvi ously, this critique stemmed from anxiety over the decentering of Chi nese cinema33 and the insistence that Hong Kong, with its political irrele vance and lack of authenticity, remained on its periphery. Yet I have found no documentary evidence to justify Cai's claim that Hong Kong was trying to project itself as the new center of Chinese cinema. His anxiety might have reflected the assumed superiority of the mainland filmmaking community. In 1 938-41 , most of the filmmakers and intellectuals among the mainland emigres were from Shanghai, the foremost center of Chinese modernity before the war. It is interesting to note that Shanghai, with its Westernization and semicoloniality, was itself the object of nationalist outcry and conservative attacks. It was "the other China." But when Shanghai intellectuals and artists came to the colony they became the Chinese by imposing a "slavish" Otherness on the Hong Kong natives. This happened both because Hong Kong was inferior and alien to Shang hai owing to its total contamination by the British colonization34 and, as Leo Ou-fan Lee points out, because Chinese intellectuals had always imagined themselves to be the voice of the nation at the center of national discourses.35 Many of these intellectuals and artists indeed found the colony a charming yet "soulless" city and its men of culture "dull" and "slavish." They were nostalgic for the "excitement" and "cultural vitality" of their war-torn homeland and constantly chastised the city for its "indifference to the national resistance. "36 As the leftist writer Lou Shiyi complained: "When I know that I have to stay here for a while and to live together with all these listless, rotten (meilan) people, I become melancholic. "37 They justified their melancholic exile as a "sacrifice" necessary to en lighten as well as mobilize the colony in China's defense. As one critic wrote with a biting tone: "Three or four years ago Hong Kong people had no culture to speak of. Only recently have we mainlanders (waijiang lao) come and brought culture here."38 That smug sense of cultural superiority was all too evident. It was thus only natural that another diasporic filmmaker, Yan Meng, would castigate local films as inferior to the mainland cinema: "Educated Chinese are invariably scornful of Cantonese cinema. [Hong Kong film makers with social consciences are therefore] full of pain and anguish on the one hand and deeply humiliated on the other. What we need to do instead is change our approach to filmmaking."39 This critique obviously
256
256
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
grounded itself in the nationalism and Enlightenment values that consti-
tuted the May Fourth discourse of modernity. Thus, for its politically
irrelevant, "frivolous and vulgar" culture, Cantonese cinema in Hong
Kong continued to be the suspicious, illegitimate Other to this enshrining
national tradition.40
The marginalization of Cantonese production did not begin with the
war. Since circa 1931, the Nationalist government had been trying to
outlaw dialect (Cantonese) productions in its effort to create a new
national guoyu (Mandarin) cinema as part of its centralizing, state-
building project. The Nanjing government framed its prohibition in the
nationalist discourse of anti-imperialism and modernization. The Can-
tonese screen was represented as projecting a "feudalistic" and "supersti-
tious" mentality that allegedly impeded China's progress toward moder-
nity and must be swept away. This drive enjoyed widespread support
among the Chinese intellectuals espousing the May Fourth goals of na-
tionalism and enlightenment as well as Shanghai studio heads who had
been competing with their Hong Kong counterparts for market share in
South China, the Americas, and Southeast Asia. To kill off Cantonese
production would assure a larger profit and market control for the Shang-
hai industry. 41
Beneath this virulent representation of Cantonese film as a site of
backwardness and feudalism was the Nationalist government's attempt
to reunify the country by strengthening its hold on Guangdong Province
(formerly headquarters of the anti-Nanjing "separatist regime" of Hu
Hanmin and the militarist Chen Jitang), with which Hong Kong had
close geocultural connections based on kinship, language, and ethnic-
ity.42 The modernizing Chinese intelligentsia rallied behind this state-
building drive. Under a "centralizing nationalist ideology" that pervaded
the intellectual discourse of twentieth-century China, they saw the unpo-
liced perpetuation of a south-centered cultural discourse as in effect a
politico-linguistic weapon against their "hegemonic imaginary" of an
independent nation.43 Cantonese cinema, in this vein, was represented
as promoting a local dialect as well as an alternative imagination of
collective identity based on regional ties, which in their minds impeded
the modernizing project of state building, linguistic unity, and anti-
imperialist autonomy. Underlying this anxiety was the Chinese intellec-
tuals' creeping consciousness of da Zhongyuan xintai, which, by privileg-
ing the "Chineseness" of the northern plain, held in contempt all
cultures on the periphery of the mainland. By the 1930s, the Nationalist
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
grounded itself in the nationalism and Enlightenment values that consti tuted the May Fourth discourse of modernity. Thus, for its politically irrelevant, "frivolous and vulgar" culture, Cantonese cinema in Hong Kong continued to be the suspicious, illegitimate Other to this enshrining national tradition.4o The marginalization of Cantonese production did not begin with the war. Since circa 1 93 1 , the Nationalist government had been trying to outlaw dialect (Cantonese) productions in its effort to create a new national guoyu (Mandarin) cinema as part of its centralizing, state building project. The Nanjing government framed its prohibition in the nationalist discourse of anti-imperialism and modernization. The Can tonese screen was represented as projecting a "feudalistic" and "supersti tious" mentality that allegedly impeded China's progress toward moder nity and must be swept away. This drive enjoyed widespread support among the Chinese intellectuals espousing the May Fourth goals of na tionalism and enlightenment as well as Shanghai studio heads who had been competing with their Hong Kong counterparts for market share in South China, the Americas, and Southeast Asia. To kill off Cantonese production would assure a larger profit and market control for the Shang hai industry. 41 Beneath this virulent representation of Cantonese film as a site of backwardness and feudalism was the Nationalist government's attempt to reunify the country by strengthening its hold on Guangdong Province (formerly headquarters of the anti-Nanjing "separatist regime" of Hu Hanmin and the militarist Chen Jitang), with which Hong Kong had close geocultural connections based on kinship, language, and ethnic ity. 42 The modernizing Chinese intelligentsia rallied behind this state building drive. Under a "centralizing nationalist ideology" that pervaded the intellectual discourse of twentieth-century China, they saw the unpo liced perpetuation of a south-centered cultural discourse as in effect a politico-linguistic weapon against their "hegemonic imaginary" of an independent nation.43 Cantonese cinema, in this vein, was represented as promoting a local dialect as well as an alternative imagination of collective identity based on regional ties, which in their minds impeded the modernizing project of state building, linguistic unity, and anti imperialist autonomy. Underlying this anxiety was the Chinese intellec tuals' creeping consciousness of da Zhongyuan xintai, which, by privileg ing the "Chineseness" of the northern plain, held in contempt all cultures on the periphery of the mainland. By the 1 930s, the Nationalist
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 257
government and the Communists, in pursuing their anti-imperialist agen-
das, had reformulated and celebrated the "old idea" of a primordial
identity for all Han Chinese of a shared origin in the North China Plains.
This Central Plains syndrome represented a hierarchy of cultural differ-
entiation derived from geographic, territorial, and cultural boundaries
between the mainland core and the periphery. Hong Kong was on the
margin, and colonization accentuated its marginality in the Chinese geo-
political imagination.44 Thus, the mainland intellectuals could readily
dismiss its lack of an articulated nationalism and elite culture as repre-
senting a "cultural desert," and they ridiculed and condemned its cinema
as the inferior Other.
In response, the Hong Kong motion picture industry took the lead
in 1936 in lobbying the national government and succeeded in post-
poning the prohibition for three years on the condition that it would pay
the cost of setting up a Central Censorship Bureau in Guangzhou to
expedite the review of dialect movies.45 The bureau had to approve all
the Hong Kong products before public release. By redirecting the
Nanjing government's strategic attention, the war saved the industry
from dissolution. However, a sense of uncertainty and bitterness was
prevalent among local filmmakers, who wondered aloud why the Can-
tonese cinema had been singled out for such an unfair attack and how
long this suspension would last.46 This demoralization, combined with
the problems of low capitalization and primitive technology, aggravated
the "sloppy" tendency of the local film industry. Most studio heads saw
filmmaking as a short-term moneymaking venture, a vehicle of "specula-
tion" to be quickly exploited when the market looked lucrative.
Although the prohibition was postponed, the framing rhetoric of the
cinematic critique remained in the early years of the war, only to be
transformed from a discourse of modernity to one of patriotism. During
the war, the Hong Kong cinema was condemned for its narcotic lure,
which blunted the patriotic spirit of the people. The editor of the
pro-Nationalist 6migr6 magazine Yilin, Peng Yannong, expressed this
rankled vox populi: "[Hong Kong films] are full of sex and ghosts
and monsters. They coincide with the demands of the fascists."47 An-
other critic concurred: "Filmmaking has been known [in China] as a
harbinger of cultural changes (wenhua xianqu). But it is now divorced
from our times, betraying the War of Anti-Japanese Resistance as if it
has forgotten that there is a gap between [Hong Kong filmmakers] and
the homeland. It makes us wonder why there would be people living in a
257
government and the Communists, in pursuing their anti-imperialist agen das, had reformulated and celebrated the "old idea" of a primordial identity for all Han Chinese of a shared origin in the North China Plains. This Central Plains syndrome represented a hierarchy of cultural differ entiation derived from geographic, territorial, and cultural boundaries between the mainland core and the periphery. Hong Kong was on the margin, and colonization accentuated its marginality in the Chinese geo political imagination.44 Thus, the mainland intellectuals could readily dismiss its lack of an articulated nationalism and elite culture as repre senting a "cultural desert," and they ridiculed and condemned its cinema as the inferior Other. In response, the Hong Kong motion picture industry took the lead in 1936 in lobbying the national government and succeeded in post poning the prohibition for three years on the condition that it would pay the cost of setting up a Central Censorship Bureau in Guangzhou to expedite the review of dialect movies.45 The bureau had to approve all the Hong Kong products before public release. By redirecting the Nanjing government's strategic attention, the war saved the industry from dissolution. However, a sense of uncertainty and bitterness was prevalent among local filmmakers, who wondered aloud why the Can tonese cinema had been singled out for such an unfair attack and how long this suspension would last.46 This demoralization, combined with the problems of low capitalization and primitive technology, aggravated the "sloppy" tendency of the local film industry. Most studio heads saw filmmaking as a short-term moneymaking venture, a vehicle of "specula tion" to be quickly exploited when the market looked lucrative. Although the prohibition was postponed, the framing rhetoric of the cinematic critique remained in the early years of the war, only to be transformed from a discourse of modernity to one of patriotism. During the war, the Hong Kong cinema was condemned for its narcotic lure, which blunted the patriotic spirit of the people. The editor of the pro-Nationalist emigre magazine Yilin, Peng Yannong, expressed this rankled vox populi: "[Hong Kong films] are full of sex and ghosts and monsters. They coincide with the demands of the fascists. "47 An other critic concurred: "Filmmaking has been known [in China] as a harbinger of cultural changes (wenhua xianqu) . But it is now divorced from our times, betraying the War of Anti-Japanese Resistance as if it has forgotten that there is a gap between [Hong Kong filmmakers] and the homeland. It makes us wonder why there would be people living in a
258
258
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
dream world, ignoring everything: our homeland, our hometown, jus-
tice, and even their own existence. The only thing they really care about
is money. "48 This equation of entertainment film with dreamy escapism
was typical of the May Fourth tradition of privileging bourgeois realism
as the artistic medium of social engagement, unifying the discursive
positions of both the leftists and rightists. Indeed, in terms of cultural
politics there was little contention between the Nationalists and their
nemesis, the Communists.49 It also brought to the fore the elitism of the
modernizing Chinese intelligentsia, who viewed the predominately mass
appeal Cantonese productions as polluting the people and thereby carry-
ing an odor of treason.
In fact, the marginalization of Hong Kong became the 6migr6 com-
munity's structuring theme for its institutional and cinematic discourses.
In order to rally the colony to China's defense, the mainland filmmakers
sought to create an alternative hegemony, to "cleanse" the local enter-
tainment industry of vices. This space was embedded in the mainland
politics of Nationalist-Communist relations. Under the wartime United
Front, both parties had branches, and various open or semiovert agen-
cies in Hong Kong aimed mainly to take advantage of the city's openness
to reach out to and police the Chinese diaspora communities. For ex-
ample, the Communists had established in late 1937 an Office of the
Eighth Route Army to raise funds from and direct propaganda toward
the Chinese diaspora as well as to gather military intelligence.50
The inland filmmakers involved in creating this alternative hege-
mony included the former Lianhua Studio boss Luo Mingyou, the young
director Yan Meng, leftist filmmakers Situ Huimin and Cai Chusheng,
and Nationalist film critic Peng Yannong, all recently arrived from Shang-
hai. They frequently invoked the authority of the Nationalist govern-
ment to legitimate their policing power. Indeed, they were the nation.
For example, besides involvement in various kinds of patriotic activities
organized by either Nationalist or Communist cells, they sponsored the
annual Guomindang All-Nation Spiritual Mobilization Campaign for the
local cinema in which all participants were required to sit through a long
series of patriotic speeches by prominent artists (e.g., Hong Shen and
Cai Chusheng) and political dignitaries (e.g., Madam Sun Yat-sen) be-
fore swearing unswerving loyalty to Chongqing.51 They also worked with
the Nationalist Overseas Chinese Commission to introduce visiting offi-
cials to local studio heads and filmmakers. So at a welcoming party for
the film censorship chief Xu Hao, who had been sent to bring the local
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
dream world, ignoring everything: our homeland, our hometown, j us tice, and even their own existence. The only thing they really care about is money. "48 This equation of entertainment film with dreamy escapism was typical of the May Fourth tradition of privileging bourgeois realism as the artistic medium of social engagement, unifying the discursive positions of both the leftists and rightists. Indeed, in terms of cultural politics there was little contention between the Nationalists and their nemesis, the Communists.49 It also brought to the fore the elitism of the modernizing Chinese intelligentsia, who viewed the predominately mass appeal Cantonese productions as polluting the people and thereby carry ing an odor of treason. In fact, the marginalization of Hong Kong became the emigre com munity's structuring theme for its institutional and cinematic discourses. In order to rally the colony to China's defense, the mainland filmmakers sought to create an alternative hegemony, to "cleanse" the local enter tainment industry of vices. This space was embedded in the mainland politics of Nationalist-Communist relations. Under the wartime United Front, both parties had branches, and various open or semiovert agen cies in Hong Kong aimed mainly to take advantage of the city's openness to reach out to and police the Chinese diaspora communities. For ex ample, the Communists had established in late 1937 an Office of the Eighth Route Army to raise funds from and direct propaganda toward the Chinese diaspora as well as to gather military intelligence. 50 The inland filmmakers involved in creating this alternative hege mony included the former Lianhua Studio boss Luo Mingyou, the young director Yan Meng, leftist filmmakers Situ Huimin and Cai Chusheng, and Nationalist film critic Peng Yannong, all recently arrived from Shang hai. They frequently invoked the authority of the Nationalist govern ment to legitimate their policing power. Indeed, they were the nation. For example, besides involvement in various kinds of patriotic activities organized by either Nationalist or Communist cells, they sponsored the annual Guomindang All-Nation Spiritual Mobilization Campaign for the local cinema in which all participants were required to sit through a long series of patriotic speeches by prominent artists ( e . g . , Hong Shen and Cai Chusheng) and political dignitaries (e.g. , Madam Sun Yat-sen) be fore swearing unswerving loyalty to Chongqing.51 They also worked with the Nationalist Overseas Chinese Commission to introduce visiting offi cials to local studio heads and filmmakers. So at a welcoming party for the film censorship chief Xu Hao, who had been sent to bring the local
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 259
cinema in line with the official propaganda policy, Cai Chusheng re-
ported at the meeting that Japan was targeting HK$2 million to "buy up"
the Cantonese cinema. In other words, if any studio executive continued
to make frivolous and "trashy" films he must have been "bought" by the
enemy. According to one report, all the guests fell silent.52
These mainland diasporas articulated and circulated their nationalist
discourse in such publications as the Nationalist-sponsored Yilin (The
Arts) and Huashang bao (Chinese business news), which was financed by
the Office of the Eighth Route Army, and they set up networks of elite
mobilization by means of "patriotic" organizations like the Zhongguo
dianying jiaoyu xiehui Xianggang fenghui (Federation of Chinese Film
Education), which was headed by Luo Mingyou, and the Xianggang
Zhongguo dianying bihui (the Chinese Cinema's PEN), headed by Peng
Yannong, both local chapters of national film organizations based in
Chongqing. Probably in an attempt to highlight the "backwardness" of
the local film world, these groups were open only to those locals who were
patriotic and had led a "clean life" free of such vices as opium addiction
and prostitution (although there was no mention of how to test the appli-
cants). Chinese film workers, as everywhere in the world, were publicly
conceived as extravagant, self-indulgent, promiscuous, and scandalous.53
Yet none of these organizations excluded people on the mainland on the
basis of such "cleanliness." To single out the Hong Kong industry was to
underline its inauthenticity and marginality. Parallel to this institutional
discourse was a discursive boundary between patriots and traitors. The
former group included local filmmakers like the opera idols Sit Gok-sin
and Ma Shih-tsan (Ma Shizheng) and cinema stars like Bak Yin (Bai
Yan), Lo Tun (Lu Dun), and Ng Chor-fan, who either identified with the
mainland cause or did not want to offend the northerners. All the rest
were excluded as presumably unclean and unworthy others.
The 6migr6 filmmakers' nationalist discourse centered around two
structuring notions: Hong Kong was a part of the mainland but also
marginal to it. To be truly "patriotic," then, was not only to mobilize the
city to China's defense but also ultimately to subvert Hong Kong, that is,
to leave and discard the colony for the authenticity of China. This theme
came off forcefully in the several "patriotic" films made by the 6migr6s.
Between 1937 and 1941, the China Film Studio of Chongqing had an
office in Hong Kong to acquire film equipment from overseas and re-
cruit personnel from the mainland community. To take further advan-
tage of the colony's openness, in 1939 it founded the Dadi (Good Earth)
259
cinema in line with the official propaganda policy, Cai Chusheng re ported at the meeting that Japan was targeting HK$2 million to "buy up" the Cantonese cinema. In other words, if any studio executive continued to make frivolous and "trashy" films he must have been "bought" by the enemy. According to one report, all the guests fell silent.52 These mainland diasporas articulated and circulated their nationalist discourse in such publications as the Nationalist-sponsored Yilin (The Arts) and Huashang baa (Chinese business news), which was financed by the Office of the Eighth Route Army, and they set up networks of elite mobilization by means of "patriotic" organizations like the Zhongguo dianying jiaoyu xiehui Xianggang fenghui (Federation of Chinese Film Education), which was headed by Luo Mingyou, and the Xianggang Zhongguo dianying bihui (the Chinese Cinema's PEN), headed by Peng Yannong, both local chapters of national film organizations based in Chongqing. Probably in an attempt to highlight the "backwardness" of the local film world, these groups were open only to those locals who were patriotic and had led a "clean life" free of such vices as opium addiction and prostitution (although there was no mention of how to test the appli cants). Chinese film workers, as everywhere in the world, were publicly conceived as extravagant, self-indulgent, promiscuous, and scandalous. 53 Yet none of these organizations excluded people on the mainland on the basis of such "cleanliness." To single out the Hong Kong industry was to underline its in authenticity and marginality. Parallel to this institutional discourse was a discursive boundary between patriots and traitors. The former group included local filmmakers like the opera idols Sit Gok-sin and Ma Shih-tsan (Ma Shizheng) and cinema stars like B ak Yin (Bai Yan), Lo Tun (Lu Dun) , and Ng Chor-fan, who either identified with the mainland cause or did not want to offend the northerners. All the rest were excluded as presumably unclean and unworthy others. The emigre filmmakers' nationalist discourse centered around two structuring notions: Hong Kong was a part of the mainland but also marginal to it. To be truly "patriotic," then, was not only to mobilize the city to China's defense but also ultimately to subvert Hong Kong, that is, to leave and discard the colony for the authenticity of China. This theme came off forcefully in the several "patriotic" films made by the emigres. Between 1937 and 1941 , the China Film Studio of Chongqing had an office in Hong Kong to acquire film equipment from overseas and re cruit personnel from the mainland community. To take further advan tage of the colony's openness, in 1939 it founded the Dadi (Good Earth)
260
260
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Studio to make Mandarin films. Included among its staff were all the
famous Shanghai filmmakers like directors Cai Chusheng, Situ Huimin,
and Fei Mu and female leads Li Lili and Li Zhuozhuo. A year later,
Dadi closed. Cai and Situ then founded the Xinsheng (New Life) Film
Company, which lasted long enough to finish one Mandarin picture. All
four of the releases of Dadi and Xinsheng - The March of Guerrilla
(Youji jingxinqu, directed by Situ Huimin, 1938), The Paradise of the
Solitary Island (Gudao tiantang, directed by Cai Chusheng, 1939), and
Homeland (Baiyun guxiang, directed by Situ Huimin, 1940) - were tar-
geted for China markets as well as the elite sector of Hong Kong. Their
principal roles were played by actors unfamiliar to local audiences, and
their settings were mostly framed on the imagined mainland. Particu-
larly significant was their ideological subtext of da Zhongyuan xintai. All
of these films were either about resistance heroism inside China or local
resisters leaving the colony's decadence and inauthenticity to "return" to
the mainland. They invariably represented Hong Kong as an allegorical
site of evil and backwardness. Moreover, while all the heroes and
heroines in these films were mainland stars, collaborator roles were
mostly given to minor Cantonese comedians whose Mandarin was
awkward - easily evoking the much-denounced image of Wang Jingwei,
the Cantonese-speaking head of the collaborationist regime, among the
(mainland) film audience!
The narrative structure of The March of Guerrilla, the best known
among the four Mandarin films, was typical of this strategy of mar-
ginalization. Directed and written by Cai Chusheng, the film follows two
lovers in a Lake Tai town who are separated by the Japanese occupation.
The enemy destroys their homes and kills their parents. Here private
and public emotions merge into a strong determination to fight for the
nation. The man (played by the Shanghai star Li Qing) goes off to join a
guerrilla group. His fianc6e (Rong Xiaoyi, also from Shanghai) has to
stay behind to care for the family. She is arrested and later raped by the
Japanese.
Recent scholarship demonstrates that national imagery is suffused
with gender politics. In the modernizing discourse of the Chinese state,
which represented a male-defined order, woman was the inessential
other whose body and agency were subsumed under the nationalist
agenda. It denied woman both her identity and her subject position in
the public sphere.54 The traditional allegorization of female chastity with
national purity was reinscribed within the nationalist discourse. The
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Studio to make Mandarin films. Included among its staff were all the famous Shanghai filmmakers like directors Cai Chusheng, Situ Huimin, and Fei Mu and female leads Li Lili and Li Zhuozhuo. A year later, Dadi closed. Cai and Situ then founded the Xinsheng (New Life) Film Company, which lasted long enough to finish one Mandarin picture. All four of the releases of Dadi and Xinsheng - The March of Guerrilla ( Youji jingxinqu, directed by Situ Huimin, 1 938) , The Paradise of the Solitary Island (Gudao tiantang, directed by Cai Chusheng, 1939), and Homeland (Baiyun guxiang, directed by Situ Huimin, 1940) - were tar geted for China markets as well as the elite sector of Hong Kong. Their principal roles were played by actors unfamiliar to local audiences, and their settings were mostly framed on the imagined mainland. Particu larly significant was their ideological subtext of da Zhongyuan xintai. All of these films were either about resistance heroism inside China or local resisters leaving the colony'S decadence and inauthenticity to "return" to the mainland. They invariably represented Hong Kong as an allegorical site of evil and backwardness. Moreover, while all the heroes and heroines in these films were mainland stars, collaborator roles were mostly given to minor Cantonese comedians whose Mandarin was awkward - easily evoking the much-denounced image of Wang Jingwei, the Cantonese-speaking head of the collaborationist regime, among the (mainland) film audience! The narrative structure of The March of Guerrilla, the best known among the four Mandarin films, was typical of this strategy of mar ginalization. Directed and written by Cai Chusheng, the film follows two lovers in a Lake Tai town who are separated by the Japanese occupation. The enemy destroys their homes and kills their parents. Here private and public emotions merge into a strong determination to fight for the nation. The man (played by the Shanghai star Li Qing) goes off to join a guerrilla group. His fiancee (Rong Xiaoyi, also from Shanghai) has to stay behind to care for the family. She is arrested and later raped by the Japanese. Recent scholarship demonstrates that national imagery is suffused with gender politics. In the modernizing discourse of the Chinese state, which represented a male-defined order, woman was the inessential other whose body and agency were subsumed under the nationalist agenda. It denied woman both her identity and her subject position in the public sphere.54 The traditional allegorization of female chastity with national purity was reinscribed within the nationalist discourse. The
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 261
violation of the female body by foreign invaders symbolized the ultimate
victimization of the Chinese state and the need to valorize the nation by
way of mobilizing national loyalties.55 Thus, this imaginative coupling of
raped woman and foreign invaders served to reduce the female to a
signifier of marginalization and sacrifice. This trope of raped woman was
the focus of the narrative structure of The March of Guerrilla. To stay
behind to care for the domestic order rather than joining the local guer-
rilla band, which, significantly, was an all-male force, the Rong Xiaoyi
character was peripheral to the Chinese resistance. It evokes a parallel
with the Crown colony's marginality to nationalist politics. Rong's viola-
tion by the Japanese in the climatic sequence, a powerful symbol of
intimidation and humiliation, dramatizes the need, and even the desire,
for complete sacrifice of the marginal to serve collective interests.
In the rape scene, which is crosscut with a surprise attack on the
Japanese by Li Qing's guerrillas set to a soundtrack of Wagnerian and
Beethovian music, there is none of the erotic allure typical of most rape
fantasies in the Chinese and Hollywood cinemas. Instead, the director
appears to avoid any onscreen sexuality (for fear of being criticized as
frivolous and racy) by only allowing sexual desire to be expressed in
the erotic gaze and lascivious and intimidating laughter of the rapist.
Framed in medium rather than low-angle shots, which creates a sense of
paralyzing intimidation on the victim's part, the sequence projects a
confrontational mood, further accentuated by the strutting caricature of
the Japanese colonel, who appears on the screen to be more a figure ripe
for ridicule than a superhuman fascist. He embodies all the Chinese
racial stereotypes about the enemy: womanizing, alcoholic and dim-
witted. Indeed, after a series of shots/reverse shots of the victim and the
victimizer, the camera stops at a medium closeup that commands re-
spect. Recovering her courage, Rong Xiaoyi picks up a knife and kills
the marauder.
Transforming herself into a woman warrior, Rong Xiaoyi raises a
national flag outside the Japanese compound to direct the guerrilla at-
tack. She is then shot by a malicious collaborator (Hong Kong comedian
Chow Chi-shing/Zhou Zhicheng) who is trying to escape from the at-
tack. When the guerrillas discover her death, they angrily throw Zhou
down the hill in a climax of moral revenge and nationalist passion. The
movie ends with Li Qing leading a horse carrying the rape victim's body
covered with the blue-sky white-sun flag and marching triumphantly
with the all-male troop to a patriotic tune, "Unity Brings Victory."
261
violation of the female body by foreign invaders symbolized the ultimate victimization of the Chinese state and the need to valorize the nation by way of mobilizing national loyalties. 55 Thus, this imaginative coupling of raped woman and foreign invaders served to reduce the female to a signifier of marginalization and sacrifice. This trope of raped woman was the focus of the narrative structure of The March of Guerrilla. To stay behind to care for the domestic order rather than joining the local guer rilla band, which, significantly, was an all-male force, the Rong Xiaoyi character was peripheral to the Chinese resistance. It evokes a parallel with the Crown colony's marginality to nationalist politics. Rong's viola tion by the Japanese in the climatic sequence, a powerful symbol of intimidation and humiliation, dramatizes the need, and even the desire, for complete sacrifice of the marginal to serve collective interests. In the rape scene, which is crosscut with a surprise attack on the Japanese by Li Qing's guerrillas set to a soundtrack of Wagnerian and Beethovian music, there is none of the erotic allure typical of most rape fantasies in the Chinese and Hollywood cinemas. Instead, the director appears to avoid any onscreen sexuality (for fear of being criticized as frivolous and racy) by only allowing sexual desire to be expressed in the erotic gaze and lascivious and intimidating laughter of the rapist. Framed in medium rather than low-angle shots, which creates a sense of paralyzing intimidation on the victim's part, the sequence projects a confrontational mood, further accentuated by the strutting caricature of the Japanese colonel, who appears on the screen to be more a figure ripe for ridicule than a superhuman fascist. He embodies all the Chinese racial stereotypes about the enemy: womanizing, alcoholic and dim witted. Indeed, after a series of shots/reverse shots of the victim and the victimizer, the camera stops at a medium closeup that commands re spect. Recovering her courage, Rong Xiaoyi picks up a knife and kills the marauder. Transforming herself into a woman warrior, Rong Xiaoyi raises a national flag outside the Japanese compound to direct the guerrilla at tack. She is then shot by a malicious collaborator (Hong Kong comedian Chow Chi-shing/Zhou Zhicheng) who is trying to escape from the at tack. When the guerrillas discover her death, they angrily throw Zhou down the hill in a climax of moral revenge and nationalist passion. The movie ends with Li Qing leading a horse carrying the rape victim's body covered with the blue-sky white-sun flag and marching triumphantly with the all-male troop to a patriotic tune, "Unity Brings Victory. "
262
262 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Symbolically, then, the marginal Other is now accepted into the national
body after making the ultimate sacrifice; Rong Xiaoyi becomes an em-
blem of patriotic devotion. Although there is no direct reference to
Hong Kong, the marginality and violation of Rong Xiaoyi and the denial
of her subject position in the form of complete sacrifice would invoke in
some audiences' minds a symbolic parallel to the need to subjugate the
colony to the national cause.56
The March of Guerrilla shows skillful camera control, but it lacked a
realistic and credible appreciation of the Japanese. Trying to rally resis-
tance, the movie was full of clich6s, exaggerations, and bigotry. The
acerbic remark of American producer David Hemstead regarding cheap
Hollywood antifascist farces was equally pertinent to these Mandarin
films: "No Nazi or Japs [sic] will be portrayed as a comic figure for ..
that would only provide a hero or heroine with windmills against which
to battle, and would kill dramatic impact."57 Lacking such "dramatic
impact" and filmed in Mandarin, The March of Guerrilla, like other
Dadi products, did poorly at local box offices.
The 6migr6 filmmakers also worked with local artists to make a few
Cantonese films, among them Situ Huimin's Baoshan in Bloodshed
(Xuejian Baoshan cheng, 1938) and Tan Xiaodan's Little Cantonese (Xiao
Guangdong, 1940) were most well known. Like all the Dadi's Mandarin
films, these were set in the Chinese interior, one in Baoshan near Shang-
hai and another in Canton, and both projected China-centered patriotic
heroism to instill nationalist sentiments in the locals. Xiao Guandong was
particularly emblematic of the Central Plains syndrome. The title phrase
has remained a demeaning, derogatory, "ethnic" slur often directed
against the Cantonese by their northern neighbors, especially the Shang-
hainese, who make offensive fun of their "physical smallness" and "slick-
ness." Both films got rave reviews in 6migr6 publications but had medio-
cre box office returns. In 1940, when Little Cantonese got the honor of
being one of the few Hong Kong films to be released in Chongqing, only a
handful of homesick Cantonese attended.58
3
While mainland filmmakers and critics tried to project and disseminate a
hegemonic nationalist discourse in Hong Kong, the local film industry
was struggling to negotiate the changing politics of the wartime cinema.
Unlike what some recent postcolonial scholars have theorized in other
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Symbolically, then , the marginal Other is now accepted into the national body after making the ultimate sacrifice; Rong Xiaoyi becomes an em blem of patriotic devotion. Although there is no direct reference to Hong Kong, the marginality and violation of Rong Xiaoyi and the denial of her subject position in the form of complete sacrifice would invoke in some audiences' minds a symbolic parallel to the need to subjugate the colony to the national cause.56 The March of Guerrilla shows skillful camera control, but it lacked a realistic and credible appreciation of the Japanese. Trying to rally resis tance, the movie was full of cliches, exaggerations, and bigotry. The acerbic remark of American producer David Hemstead regarding cheap Hollywood antifascist farces was equally pertinent to these Mandarin films: "No Nazi or Japs [sic] will be portrayed as a comic figure for . . . that would only provide a hero or heroine with windmills against which to battle, and would kill dramatic impact."57 Lacking such "dramatic impact" and filmed in Mandarin, The March of Guerrilla, like other Dadi products, did poorly at local box offices. The emigre filmmakers also worked with local artists to make a few Cantonese films, among them Situ Huimin's Baoshan in Bloodshed (Xuejian Baoshan cheng, 1938) and Tan Xiaodan's Little Cantonese (Xiao Guangdong, 1940) were most well known. Like all the Dadi's Mandarin films, these were set in the Chinese interior, one in Baoshan near Shang hai and another in Canton, and both projected China-centered patriotic heroism to instill nationalist sentiments in the locals. Xiao Guandong was particularly emblematic of the Central Plains syndrome. The title phrase has remained a demeaning, derogatory, "ethnic" slur often directed against the Cantonese by their northern neighbors, especially the Shang hainese, who make offensive fun of their "physical smallness" and "slick ness." Both films got rave reviews in emigre publications but had medio cre box office returns. In 1 940, when Little Cantonese got the honor of being one of the few Hong Kong films to be released in Chongqing, only a handful of homesick Cantonese attended. 58 3
While mainland filmmakers and critics tried to project and disseminate a hegemonic nationalist discourse in Hong Kong, the local film industry was struggling to negotiate the changing politics of the wartime cinema. Unlike what some recent postcolonial scholars have theorized in other
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 263
contexts, local filmmakers produced no counternarratives of alternative
identification and cultural alterity with respect to the colonizer or the
"core" culture but rather an uneasy ambivalence accompanying a lim-
ited contest against the 6migr6 discourse of centralizing nationalism.59
Between 1937 and 1941, while Hong Kong stayed out of a war that
brought to China horrendous casualties and calamities, most local studio
heads and filmmakers seemed to be of two minds regarding the role and
function of cinema. This schizophrenia was a result of the colonial his-
tory of Hong Kong. Since 1842, at the end of the Opium War, Hong
Kong had been part of the global system of colonization. Classified as
Huaren (Chinese), the colonized, who were mainly immigrants from
South China, had been racialized and inferiorized in the colonialist dis-
course and excluded from the colony's public sphere. They were socially
marginalized and systematically depoliticized. The colonialist apparatus
had accordingly inscribed itself on the colonized by exaggerating their
conservatism and "fear of politics," resulting in the prevalence of popu-
lar entertainment cinema in prewar Hong Kong. This apathy fed into the
"sojourner mentality" of many of the locals, who, under the colonial
gaze, continued to identify with the mainland, particularly Canton, as
the "homeland" from which they traced their male ancestries, historical
memories, and cultural practices. Yet at the same time, with the increase
in locally born inhabitants from 26 percent (1921) to 32.5 percent (1931),
Hong Kong became a distinct geopolitical space with specific historical
and social formations. Peripheralized by the mainland, this difference
marked out a possible site for the articulation of a local identity.
The war experience presented a moment for identity construction,
and the film industry found itself unknowingly at the center of this histori-
cal uncertainty. Consistent with its policy of racial-political exclusion, the
Hong Kong government had made no effort to mobilize the local motion
picture industry for war preparation. Similarly, the Nationalist govern-
ment and the Communists, aside from rehashing their familiar anti-
imperialist rhetoric of national resistance, offered no practical advice,
guidance, or funding to the studios. However, this did not stop mainland
intellectuals and filmmakers from policing and censuring the Cantonese
cinema in the name of a centralizing nationalist ideology. With no experi-
ence in political cinema, the film industry therefore found itself on its own
in unfamiliar waters, treading a dangerous path between the conflicting
demands of the nation-state and local-colonial conditions.
Although some local film businessmen were interested only in a
263
contexts, local filmmakers produced no counternarratives of alternative identification and cultural alterity with respect to the colonizer or the "core" culture but rather an uneasy ambivalence accompanying a lim ited contest against the emigre discourse of centralizing nationalism.59 Between 1937 and 194 1 , while Hong Kong stayed out of a war that brought to China horrendous casualties and calamities, most local studio heads and filmmakers seemed to be of two minds regarding the role and function of cinema. This schizophrenia was a result of the colonial his tory of Hong Kong. Since 1 842, at the end of the Opium War, Hong Kong had been part of the global system of colonization. Classified as Huaren (Chinese), the colonized, who were mainly immigrants from South China, had been racialized and inferiorized in the colonialist dis course and excluded from the colony's public sphere. They were socially marginalized and systematically depoliticized. The colonialist apparatus had accordingly inscribed itself on the colonized by exaggerating their conservatism and "fear of politics," resulting in the prevalence of popu lar entertainment cinema in prewar Hong Kong. This apathy fed into the "sojourner mentality" of many of the locals, who, under the colonial gaze, continued to identify with the mainland, particularly Canton, as the "homeland" from which they traced their male ancestries, historical memories, and cultural practices. Yet at the same time, with the increase in locally born inhabitants from 26 percent (1921) to 32.5 percent (1931) , Hong Kong became a distinct geopolitical space with specific historical and social formations. Peripheralized by the mainland, this difference marked out a possible site for the articulation of a local identity. The war experience presented a moment for identity construction, and the film industry found itself unknowingly at the center of this histori cal uncertainty. Consistent with its policy of racial-political exclusion, the Hong Kong government had made no effort to mobilize the local motion picture industry for war preparation. Similarly, the Nationalist govern ment and the Communists, aside from rehashing their familiar anti imperialist rhetoric of national resistance, offered no practical advice, guidance, or funding to the studios. However, this did not stop mainland intellectuals and filmmakers from policing and censuring the Cantonese cinema in the name of a centralizing nationalist ideology. With no experi ence in political cinema, the film industry therefore found itself on its own in unfamiliar waters, treading a dangerous path between the conflicting demands of the nation-state and local-colonial conditions. Although some local film businessmen were interested only in a
264
264
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
quick return from low-budget, small-cast, escapist fare, the major stu-
dios, whatever their ideological orientations, could not afford to ignore
the nationalist demands. The future of Cantonese productions as well
as their own reputations were at stake. There were also some film-
makers and artists, notably the famous actors Ng Chor-fan, Bak Yin
and Lo Tun and directors Lee Fa (Li Hua) and Kwan Man-ching (Guan
Wenqing), who were close to the 6migr6 community. Praised in the
6migr6 press as serious, patriotic, and committed artists, they shared
the nationalist vision of a political cinema devoted to modernization
and national autonomy.
Right after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, all the major studio
employees contributed money and volunteered their time to make The
Critical Juncture (Zuihou guantou)- its production crew included every-
body who was anybody in the film world - to drum up support for
China's defense. Screen celebrities also became involved in various fund-
raising activities.60 And between 1937 and 1938, the industry brought out
a large number of war-theme movies. Their titles are revealing: Forward
(Qianjin qu, Daguan Studio), In Defense of South China (Baowei
Huanan, Da Zhonghua Company), and Return to the Homeland (Hui
zuguo qu, Nanyang Productions), which won praise from the Central
Commission of Film Censorship. After the fall of Canton in December
1938, however, the number of resistance-related films declined notably.
Judging from available synopses and movie stills, all of these "patriotic"
films were suffused with commercial elements of scholar-beauty ro-
mances, operatic interludes, and free-for-all farces. In the critical eyes of
the Nationalist government and the mainland intelligentsia, they were
with few exceptions, in the words of the Nationalist film censor Xu Hao,
racy and vulgar and by and large they misrepresented the military-
political situation on the mainland.61 In other words, the Cantonese pro-
ductions remained "backward" amid the rise of patriotic fervor.
What was absent in this diatribe was an emphatic recognition of the
Hong Kong film industry's lack of experience in handling propaganda
and political themes and the geopolitical differences of the colony. With-
out any funding or specific guidance from either the central or the colo-
nial governments, studio heads were uncertain about audience reception
and unable to come up with a coherent production strategy to deal with
the tensely ambivalent situation: China was at war, but Hong Kong
remained "peaceful." How to prioritize production planning? How to
reckon with the geopolitical specificity of Hong Kong?
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
quick return from low-budget, small-cast, escapist fare, the major stu dios, whatever their ideological orientations, could not afford to ignore the nationalist demands. The future of Cantonese productions as well as their own reputations were at stake. There were also some film makers and artists, notably the famous actors Ng Chor-fan, Bak Yin and Lo Tun and directors Lee Fa (Li Hua) and Kwan Man-ching (Guan Wenqing) , who were close to the emigre community. Praised in the emigre press as serious, patriotic, and committed artists, they shared the nationalist vision of a political cinema devoted to modernization and national autonomy. Right after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, all the major studio employees contributed money and volunteered their time to make The Critical Juncture (Zuihou guantou) - its production crew included every body who was anybody in the film world - to drum up support for China's defense. Screen celebrities also became involved in various fund raising activities.60 And between 1937 and 1 938, the industry brought out a large number of war-theme movies. Their titles are revealing: Forward (Qianjin qu, Daguan Studio), In Defense of South China (Baowei Huanan, Da Zhonghua Company), and Return to the Homeland (Hui zuguo qu, Nanyang Productions), which won praise from the Central Commission of Film Censorship. After the fall of Canton in December 1938, however, the number of resistance-related films declined notably. Judging from available synopses and movie stills, all of these "patriotic" films were suffused with commercial elements of scholar-beauty ro mances, operatic interludes, and free-for-all farces. In the critical eyes of the Nationalist government and the mainland intelligentsia, they were with few exceptions, in the words of the Nationalist film censor Xu Hao, racy and vulgar and by and large they misrepresented the military political situation on the mainland.61 In other words, the Cantonese pro ductions remained "backward" amid the rise of patriotic fervor. What was absent in this diatribe was an emphatic recognition of the Hong Kong film industry's lack of experience in handling propaganda and political themes and the geopolitical differences of the colony. With out any funding or specific guidance from either the central or the colo nial governments, studio heads were uncertain about audience reception and unable to come up with a coherent production strategy to deal with the tensely ambivalent situation: China was at war, but Hong Kong remained "peaceful." How to prioritize production planning? How to reckon with the geopolitical specificity of Hong Kong?
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 265
The overwhelming majority of Hong Kong Chinese identified them-
selves as Huaren or Guangdong ren (Cantonese) or Huaqiao (of the
Chinese diaspora), depending probably on the level of collective identifi-
cation that demanded their commitment in a given time or situation.
They were in effect an overseas Chinese community in a colonial situa-
tion. While they supported the territorialized state of Republican China
as a matter of course, they lived in a Westernized, colonial, and highly
commercialized city that was distinct from the mainland. This became
especially obvious during wartime. Most modernizing exile intelligentsia
chose to deny the difference by instead marginalizing Hong Kong culture
as an unseemly hybridity of "new and old, redolent of colonial flavor
and suffused with feudal morality and obscene, degenerate (shangfeng
baishu) literature."62 And they renounced the younger generation of
Hong Kong natives, many of whom had been born there as slavish,
"forgetting that they were in fact Chinese," and "ignorant of Chinese
history and proud of knowing no Chinese."63 These harangues were too
moralistic and impractical for local filmmakers.
At a safe distance from the war, life in Hong Kong rapidly resumed
its normality after the resumption of horse-racing in early 1938. There
was indeed a widespread illusion before 1941 that the Japanese would
not attack Hong Kong for fear of provoking the British, whose priggish
complacency and racist underestimation of Japanese prowess led the
colonial government to claim itself as the "fortress of Asia."64 This
illusionary sense of security, what some mainland intellectuals deni-
grated as an "ostrich mentality," was reinforced by the continual influx
of refugees from across the border.65 Hong Kong was a paradise in a
war-torn world. On the eve of the Japanese invasion on December 8,
1941, the race track and movie theaters were packed.66 Few Hong Kong
people had the moral burden or emotional urgency as the mainland
6migr6s about the war. Indeed, the city's patriotic fervor began to drain
away in 1938 after the fall of Canton late that year.
Patriotic movies sold well as long as popular enthusiasm for the war
remained in force. The return to normalcy in Hong Kong corresponded
to film audiences' demand for entertainment. After 1938, many critically
acclaimed resistance-theme films turned out to be financial disasters.
For example, Ng Chor-fan closed his new film company in frustration
after the very poor opening of its first project, the political satire Two
Lovers in a Silver World (Yinhai yuanyang, 1938).67 The Daguan Stu-
dio's 1938 big-budget release Behind the Shanghai Front (Shanghai
265
The overwhelming majority of Hong Kong Chinese identified them selves as Huaren or Guangdong ren (Cantonese) or Huaqiao (of the Chinese diaspora), depending probably on the level of collective identifi cation that demanded their commitment in a given time or situation. They were in effect an overseas Chinese community in a colonial situa tion. While they supported the territorialized state of Republican China as a matter of course, they lived in a Westernized, colonial, and highly commercialized city that was distinct from the mainland. This became especially obvious during wartime. Most modernizing exile intelligentsia chose to deny the difference by instead marginalizing Hong Kong culture as an unseemly hybridity of "new and old, redolent of colonial flavor and suffused with feudal morality and obscene, degenerate (shangfeng baishu) literature. "62 And they renounced the younger generation of Hong Kong natives, many of whom had been born there as slavish, "forgetting that they were in fact Chinese," and "ignorant of Chinese history and proud of knowing no Chinese. "63 These harangues were too moralistic and impractical for local filmmakers. At a safe distance from the war, life in Hong Kong rapidly resumed its normality after the resumption of horse-racing in early 1938. There was indeed a widespread illusion before 1941 that the Japanese would not attack Hong Kong for fear of provoking the British, whose priggish complacency and racist underestimation of Japanese prowess led the colonial government to claim itself as the "fortress of Asia."64 This illusionary sense of security, what some mainland intellectuals deni grated as an "ostrich mentality, " was reinforced by the continual influx of refugees from across the border. 65 Hong Kong was a paradise in a war-torn world. On the eve of the Japanese invasion on December 8 , 194 1 , the race track and movie theaters were packed.66 Few Hong Kong people had the moral burden or emotional urgency as the mainland emigres about the war. Indeed, the city's patriotic fervor began to drain away in 1938 after the fall of Canton late that year. Patriotic movies sold well as long as popular enthusiasm for the war remained in force. The return to normalcy in Hong Kong corresponded to film audiences' demand for entertainment. After 1938, many critically acclaimed resistance-theme films turned out to be financial disasters. For example, Ng Chor-fan closed his new film company in frustration after the very poor opening of its first project, the political satire Two Lovers in a Silver World ( Yinhai yuanyang, 1 938).67 The Daguan Stu dio's 1938 big-budget release Behind the Shanghai Front (Shanghai
266
266
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
huoxian hou) was a disappointment, despite the drawing power of the
female lead, Bak Yin. Yet at the same time Bak Yin's romantic tragedy,
Madame Butterfly (Hudie furen, based on the 1922 Toll of the Sea),
which exploited her on-screen trademark of tears and feminine passivity
and misery, sold well,68 as did superstar Sit Gok-sin's smashes Thief
Prince (Zei wangzi, 1939) and Gone Was the Love (Hu bu gui, 1940),
both adapted from his prewar Cantonese opera hits. Undoubtedly, there
were several popular patriotic movies, like Lau Fong's (Liu Fang's)
Song of Exile (Liuwang zhe zhi ge, 1941), a moving tale of love and
endurance about a Cantonese refugee music troupe's patriotic commit-
ment. But even these exceptions were spiced with familiar romance and
farcical elements.
Along with the changing market was the colonial government's cen-
sorship. Trying to maintain its "neutrality," it prohibited anti-Japanese
expressions in the public sphere. In 1939, for example, the secretary of
Chinese affairs, who doubled as chief censor, met with local movie busi-
nessmen several times to warn them against screening "explicit anti-
Japanese sentiments."69 In response to the Japanese consul's protest, the
Hong Kong government in 1940 banned the Chongqing-produced victory
short The Battle of Changsha (Changsha huizhan, 1939) and The March of
Guerrilla, which was released in 1941 only after undergoing severe cutting
and with a new title, Song of Righteousness70 (Chengqi ge).
Yet at the same time pressures from the mainland officials and
intelligentsia persisted. In addition to the discursive attack on the Hong
Kong cinema, there were death threats and political assaults. Several
famous film producers and directors received letters from a group
called the Patriotic Youth Corps containing "pictures of pistols and
bullets" and warning them to stop making "racy and feudalistic" pic-
tures.71 Many studio heads and filmmakers found the pressures both
unproductive and unfair. The Daguan Studio producer Chiu Shutai
(Zhao Shutai) aptly expressed the dilemma confronting the film indus-
try: "As a commercial cinema, we certainly have to be concerned with
the educational/inspirational values of filmmaking, serving the interests
of our country and people on the one hand. . . but we cannot ignore
market needs, making movies that suit the audience's entertainment
taste . . . in order to stay afloat."72 The veteran Cantonese film direc-
tor Hou Yiu (Hou Yao), who had been bitterly attacked by the 6migr6
press for his "senseless" films, was even more blunt and bitter in his
dissent. At a meeting with Central Censor Xu Hao and other local
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
huoxian hou) was a disappointment, despite the drawing power of the female lead, Bak Yin. Yet at the same time Bak Yin's romantic tragedy, Madame Butterfly (Hudie furen, based on the 1922 Toll of the Sea) , which exploited her on-screen trademark of tears and feminine passivity and misery, sold well,68 as did superstar Sit Gok-sin's smashes Thief Prince (Zei wangzi, 1939) and Gone Was the Love (Hu bu gui, 1 940), both adapted from his prewar Cantonese opera hits. Undoubtedly, there were several popular patriotic movies, like Lau Fong's (Liu Fang's) Song of Exile (Liuwang zhe zhi ge, 1 941) , a moving tale of love and endurance about a Cantonese refugee music troupe's patriotic commit ment. But even these exceptions were spiced with familiar romance and farcical elements. Along with the changing market was the colonial government's cen sorship. Trying to maintain its "neutrality," it prohibited anti-Japanese expressions in the public sphere. In 1 939, for example, the secretary of Chinese affairs, who doubled as chief censor, met with local movie busi nessmen several times to warn them against screening "explicit anti Japanese sentiments."69 In response to the Japanese consul's protest, the Hong Kong government in 1940 banned the Chongqing-produced victory short The Battle ofChangsha (Changsha huizhan, 1939) and The March of Guerrilla, which was released in 1 941 only after undergoing severe cutting and with a new title, Song of Righteousness70 (Chengqi ge) . Yet a t the same time pressures from the mainland officials and intelligentsia persisted. In addition to the discursive attack on the Hong Kong cinema, there were death threats and political assaults. Several famous film producers and directors received letters from a group called the Patriotic Youth Corps containing "pictures of pistols and bullets" and warning them to stop making "racy and feudalistic" pic tures.71 Many studio heads and filmmakers found the pressures both unproductive and unfair. The Daguan Studio producer Chiu Shutai (Zhao Shutai) aptly expressed the dilemma confronting the film indus try: "As a commercial cinema, we certainly have to be concerned with the educational/inspirational values of filmmaking, serving the interests of our country and people on the one hand . . . but we cannot ignore market needs, making movies that suit the audience's entertainment taste . . . in order to stay afloat. "72 The veteran Cantonese film direc tor Hou Yiu (Hou Yao), who had been bitterly attacked by the emigre press for his "senseless" films, was even more blunt and bitter in his dissent. At a meeting with Central Censor Xu Hao and other local
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 267
Guomindang leaders, Hou urged the national government to either
nationalize the Cantonese cinema, as the Soviets had done with the
Russian film industry, or give it free rein as in the United States. In
other words, he wanted the national government to either back down
or back up its rhetoric with deeds. As soon as he finished the speech,
he was bitterly renounced by the participants.73
While Chiu and Hou used the China-centered nationalist idiom to
enunciate their dissent, some young filmmakers appropriated the famil-
iar language of nationalism to imagine an ambivalent, hybrid, local iden-
tity. This hybridity came out powerfully in a popular Cantonese film,
Two Southern Sisters (Nanguo jiemei hua, 1940). Directed by young
Hong Kong-born directors Lueng Bun (Liang Bin) and Leung Sum
(Liang Shen), it was produced by a small independent company founded
by the female lead Wu Dip-ying (Hu Dieying). Originally a major Can-
tonese opera singer, Wu had risen to become a major Hong Kong actress
after starring in the first Cantonese talkie, Genu qingcao (Romance of
opera stars, 1932), which had been produced by Daguan in San Fran-
cisco.74 The company folded after making this film, which was billed as
the last screen appearance of Wu before her retirement.
Two Southern Sisters was a high-budget and carefully crafted film.
Unlike the Dadi Mandarin productions, its cast was composed entirely
of local stars, including Ng Chor-fan and the buffoon Lau Kuai-hong
(Liu Guikang). And, unlike Mandarin films, the opening sequence of
sampans, fishing boats, subtropical landscapes, and Cantonese folk
songs firmly established the localness of the film. In fact, like most
Cantonese films, it was melodramatically didactic, with a narrative cen-
tered around family relations. Typical of the "hybridism" of local cin-
ema, it combines within the framework of a family drama various ge-
neric elements (romance, thrills, and social satire) and popular themes
(national defense, the stepmother syndrome, and triangular love) spiced
up with a long episode of Cantonese opera, all of which were familiar to
local audiences.
The film is narrated around a romantic triangle between a struggling
artist (Ng Chor-fan) and twin sisters (both played by Wu Dip-ying). The
sisters do not know of each other because they have been separated since
childbirth, the elder (Chow Wen-ying) adopted by a rich businessman
and the younger (Hsiu Dip) raised by her farmer father and stepmother
on an outlying island. Significantly, there is none of the romanticization
of rural idyllic purity that was typical of mainland leftist cinema. Instead,
267
Guomindang leaders, Hou urged the national government to either nationalize the Cantonese cinema, as the Soviets had done with the Russian film industry, or give it free rein as in the United States. In other words, he wanted the national government to either back down or back up its rhetoric with deeds. As soon as he finished the speech, he was bitterly renounced by the participants,?3 While Chiu and Hou used the China-centered nationalist idiom to enunciate their dissent, some young filmmakers appropriated the famil iar language of nationalism to imagine an ambivalent, hybrid, local iden tity. This hybridity came out powerfully in a popular Cantonese film, Two Southern Sisters (Nanguo jiemei hua, 1 940). Directed by young Hong Kong-born directors Lueng Bun (Liang Bin) and Leung Sum (Liang Shen), it was produced by a small independent company founded by the female lead Wu Dip-ying (Hu Dieying). Originally a major Can tonese opera singer, Wu had risen to become a major Hong Kong actress after starring in the first Cantonese talkie, Genu qingcao (Romance of opera stars, 1 932), which had been produced by Daguan in San Fran cisco,?4 The company folded after making this film, which was billed as the last screen appearance of Wu before her retirement. Two Southern Sisters was a high-budget and carefully crafted film. Unlike the Dadi Mandarin productions, its cast was composed entirely of local stars, including Ng Chor-fan and the buffoon Lau Kuai-hong (Liu Guikang). And, unlike Mandarin films, the opening sequence of sampans, fishing boats, sUbtropical landscapes, and Cantonese folk songs firmly established the localness of the film. In fact, like most Cantonese films, it was melodramatically didactic, with a narrative cen tered around family relations. Typical of the "hybridism" of local cin ema, it combines within the framework of a family drama various ge neric elements (romance, thrills, and social satire) and popular themes (national defense, the stepmother syndrome, and triangular love) spiced up with a long episode of Cantonese opera, all of which were familiar to local audiences. The film is narrated around a romantic triangle between a struggling artist (Ng Chor-fan) and twin sisters (both played by Wu Dip-ying). The sisters do not know of each other because they have been separated since childbirth, the elder (Chow Wen-ying) adopted by a rich businessman and the younger (Hsiu Dip) raised by her farmer father and stepmother on an outlying island. Significantly, there is none of the romanticization of rural idyllic purity that was typical of mainland leftist cinema. Instead,
268
268
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
on the one hand, we see the rich sister, well educated and assertive,
devoting herself to a wide variety of fund-raising activities (including
opera singing) to support the Chinese resistance and leaving home when
her father attempts to force her to marry the son of a business partner.
On the other hand, the poor sister tearfully and helplessly suffers the
abuse of her stepmother (her father looks on with pain but is too meek to
intervene). Old-fashioned and passive, she has had little exposure to
modernity and cares little about nationalism or the war. The artist falls in
love with Hsiu Dip when he moves to the fishing village in search of a
peaceful life. He teaches her such modern values as "independence" and
"struggle." One day Hsiu Dip disappears, and the artist goes to the city
to look for her. Instead, in a melodramatic twist, he brings back Wen-
ying, whom he mistakes as Hsiu Dip. The well-educated sister admires
the artist's talents and quickly develops a romantic relationship with him.
The stepmother is threatened by this newly independent-minded daugh-
ter and tries to kill her, but she ends up killing herself. At this juncture,
in another melodramatic turn, Hsiu Dip reappears. The twin sisters
happily rejoin, but they also have to make an agonizing choice: who will
marry the artist? The artist, like the twins' father, is an emasculated
male, weak and indecisive. He is not sure what to do with the two girls he
loves. The decision thus has to be made by the twins.
It is significant to note that Wu Dip-ying, Ng Chor-fan, and most of
the cast (including such famous character actors as Ng Wui/Wu Hui and
Lau Kuei-hong) were closely associated with the mainland filmmakers
and had been critical of the "political apathy" of the local cinema. They
were aware of the contestation within the wartime Hong Kong cinema.
In this context, it is interesting to note that the film ends with Wen-ying,
sadly but determinedly, leaving for the mainland to join the resistance so
that her younger sister can stay and marry the artist and care for the
aged father. Not knowing this, in a climatic sequence Hsiu Dip resolves
to sacrifice her love so that her elder sister can marry the artist. She runs
up a hill yelling frantically "I have to struggle! I have to struggle!" until
the artist finds her and tells her that Wen-ying has left.
The twin sisters' choice became an allegorized site where the identity
of Hong Kong was constructed. Interestingly, unlike the strong male
figure (the guerrilla leader) who defines the heroic spectacle and serves as
the object of woman's sacrifices in The March of Guerrilla, both the father
and the artist in Two Southern Sisters are irrelevant to the choice the
sisters must make except that they created the difficult situation for them.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
on the one hand, we see the rich sister, well educated and assertive, devoting herself to a wide variety of fund-raising activities (including opera singing) to support the Chinese resistance and leaving home when her father attempts to force her to marry the son of a business partner. On the other hand, the poor sister tearfully and helplessly suffers the abuse of her stepmother (her father looks on with pain but is too meek to intervene) . Old-fashioned and passive, she has had little exposure to modernity and cares little about nationalism or the war. The artist falls in love with Hsiu Dip when he moves to the fishing village in search of a peaceful life. He teaches her such modern values as "independence" and "struggle." One day Hsiu Dip disappears, and the artist goes to the city to look for her. Instead, in a melodramatic twist, he brings back Wen ying, whom he mistakes as Hsiu Dip. The well-educated sister admires the artist's talents and quickly develops a romantic relationship with him. The stepmother is threatened by this newly independent-minded daugh ter and tries to kill her, but she ends up killing herself. At this j uncture , in another melodramatic turn, Hsiu Dip reappears. The twin sisters happily rejoin, but they also have to make an agonizing choice: who will marry the artist? The artist, like the twins' father, is an emasculated male, weak and indecisive. He is not sure what to do with the two girls he loves. The decision thus has to be made by the twins. It is significant to note that Wu Dip-ying, Ng Chor-fan, and most of the cast (including such famous character actors as Ng Wui/Wu Hui and Lau Kuei-hong) were closely associated with the mainland filmmakers and had been critical of the "political apathy" of the local cinema. They were aware of the contestation within the wartime Hong Kong cinema. In this context, it is interesting to note that the film ends with Wen-ying, sadly but determinedly, leaving for the mainland to j oin the resistance so that her younger sister can stay and marry the artist and care for the aged father. Not knowing this, in a climatic sequence Hsiu Dip resolves to sacrifice her love so that her elder sister can marry the artist. She runs up a hill yelling frantically "I have to struggle ! I have to struggle ! " until the artist finds her and tells her that Wen-ying has left. The twin sisters' choice became an allegorized site where the identity of Hong Kong was constructed. Interestingly, unlike the strong male figure (the guerrilla leader) who defines the heroic spectacle and serves as the object of woman's sacrifices in The March of Guerrilla, both the father and the artist in Two Southern Sisters are irrelevant to the choice the sisters must make except that they created the difficult situation for them.
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 269
The sisters have to make the choice themselves, and they sacrifice them-
selves for the happiness of the other, not for the men. They are thus
endowed with a subject position that was usually denied to women, who
were on the margins of the patriarchal order. This valorization of the
weak and marginal is, I would argue, an ideological subversion of the
Central Plains Syndrome and allegorically a construction of an identity
about Hong Kong, which was marginal within the China-centered dis-
course of nationalism.
Indeed, the melodramatic and dichotomous ending of Two Southern
Sisters dramatized a vision of local identity that was marked by a double
marginality. Being marginalized by British colonialism and Chinese na-
tionalism in a wartime situation, Hong Kong was unsure and tentative in
defining (and thereby asserting) itself. Thus, unlike Hong Kong Canton-
ese films from the 1960s on (like Lung Kong's Feinu zhengzhuan or
Teddy Girl, Allen Fong's Father and Son or Fuzi qing, Ann Hui's The
Song of Exile or Ketu qiuheng, and Stanley Kwan's Rouge or Yanzhi
kou),75 this film did not consciously engage in evoking a collective mem-
ory of Hong Kong or mapping an alternative discourse surrounding its
colonial situation. Rather, just as Wen-ying returned to the mainland
and Hsiu Dip stayed to marry her lover, there was an ambivalent hy-
bridity in the imagery of Hong Kong the film projected, marking out the
double marginality that framed it.
Unable to identify fully with British colonialism or with Chinese
nationalism, both of which shunned it as inferior and suspicious, Hong
Kong appeared to be positioned uncomfortably in between Chinese
tradition and Western lifestyle, moral commitment to the "homeland"
that was China and emotional attachment to the home that was Hong
Kong. As symbolized in the two mental worlds in which the southern
sisters lived, the cultural identity of Hong Kong consisted of an ambiva-
lent mixture of tradition and modernity, nationalism and local conscious-
ness. This colonial hybridity was threatened under the nationalistic pres-
sures of those in the Chinese diaspora, who imposed their wartime "us
and them" vision on the locals: either patriotic or slavish, Chinese or
traitorous. At the same time, the colonial government excluded the
locals from the defense of their own city because of their racial Other-
ness. Doubly marginalized, the identity of Hong Kong, as Two Southern
Sisters articulated it, took on an ambiguous, almost schizophrenic, turn:
it was torn between centralizing nationalism and local consciousness.
Thus, Wen-ying was made to leave for the mainland while Hsiu Dip
269
The sisters have to make the choice themselves, and they sacrifice them selves for the happiness of the other, not for the men. They are thus endowed with a subject position that was usually denied to women, who were on the margins of the patriarchal order. This valorization of the weak and marginal is, I would argue, an ideological subversion of the Central Plains Syndrome and allegorically a construction of an identity about Hong Kong, which was marginal within the China-centered dis course of nationalism. Indeed, the melodramatic and dichotomous ending of Two Southern Sisters dramatized a vision of local identity that was marked by a double marginality. Being marginalized by British colonialism and Chinese na tionalism in a wartime situation, Hong Kong was unsure and tentative in defining (and thereby asserting) itself. Thus, unlike Hong Kong Canton ese films from the 1960s on (like Lung Kong's Feinu zhengzhuan or Teddy Girl, Allen Fong's Father and Son or Fuzi qing, Ann Hui's The Song of Exile or Ketu qiuheng, and Stanley Kwan's Rouge or Yanzhi kou) ,75 this film did not consciously engage in evoking a collective mem ory of Hong Kong or mapping an alternative discourse surrounding its colonial situation. Rather, just as Wen-ying returned to the mainland and Hsiu Dip stayed to marry her lover, there was an ambivalent hy bridity in the imagery of Hong Kong the film projected, marking out the double marginality that framed it. Unable to identify fully with British colonialism or with Chinese nationalism, both of which shunned it as inferior and suspicious, Hong Kong appeared to be positioned uncomfortably in between Chinese tradition and Western lifestyle, moral commitment to the "homeland" that was China and emotional attachment to the home that was Hong Kong. As symbolized in the two mental worlds in which the southern sisters lived, the cultural identity of Hong Kong consisted of an ambiva lent mixture of tradition and modernity, nationalism and local conscious ness. This colonial hybridity was threatened under the nationalistic pres sures of those in the Chinese diaspora, who imposed their wartime "us and them" vision on the locals: either patriotic or slavish, Chinese or traitorous. At the same time, the colonial government excluded the locals from the defense of their own city because of their racial Other ness. Doubly marginalized, the identity of Hong Kong, as Two Southern Sisters articulated it, took on an ambiguous, almost schizophrenic, turn: it was torn between centralizing nationalism and local consciousness. Thus, Wen-ying was made to leave for the mainland while Hsiu Dip
270
270 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
stayed in Hong Kong. This happy ending was nonetheless marked by an
uneasy compromise, a kind of wishful thinking.
On Christmas Day 1941, after three weeks of brutal shelling and
bombing, Japan took over Hong Kong. The colony now became part of
occupied China in the Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere and was
no longer a wartime paradise. Privation and oppression reigned. The
whole entertainment business fell under Japanese control. Unwilling to
cooperate, many filmmakers and major stars fled to the safety of South-
west China, which led to the effective closing of the cinema until the end
of the war in August 1945.76
Thus, by the 1930s there was an incipient sense of a Hong Kong
identity shaped by its hybridized culture and colonization. The sense
that Hong Kong was linked to China by race, lineage, and language and
yet was different in cultural practices and its geopolitical situation was
now highlighted by the war. However, under the shadow of the China-
centered discourse of nationalism engendered by the modern Chinese
state and cultural elite, with their chauvinistic undertones, wartime was
also an ambivalent moment for imagining a local identity. Hong Kong's
marginalization in Chinese national imagery generated all the contempt
and attacks of the Cantonese cinema, which disempowered and sup-
pressed all the local voices. In fact, Two Southern Sisters was denounced
by the 6migre press as yet another "frivolous, escapist" offering.77 It has
been excluded from all the standard historical accounts of the Chinese
cinema, which include only films made by mainlanders.78
Trinh Minh-ha once remarked that there is a margin in the center
and a center in the margin.79 China's marginalization in twentieth-
century global politics is well known, but much less known is the Chi-
nese marginalization of other places and cultures inside and/or outside
its territorial boundaries. Hong Kong has been one of these Others. In
fact it has been doubly marginalized in the official discourses of Chinese
nationalism and British colonialism. As evidenced in the 1997 crisis, the
Chinese state and cultural elites continue to marginalize Hong Kong by
seeing it as merely an "economic city" of financial prowess but cultural
decadence, "a cultural desert" and, together with the colonial govern-
ment, by denying its people, many of whom have identified with neither
discourse, their right to self-determination. Also the Central Plains syn-
drome has contributed to a widespread belief in both the scholarly and
popular worlds that had they not been confronted with the "crisis of
legitimacy" of 1997 the colonized would not have had the collective
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
stayed in Hong Kong. This happy ending was nonetheless marked by an uneasy compromise, a kind of wishful thinking. On Christmas Day 1 941, after three weeks of brutal shelling and bombing, Japan took over Hong Kong. The colony now became part of occupied China in the Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere and was no longer a wartime paradise. Privation and oppression reigned. The whole entertainment business fell under Japanese control. Unwilling to cooperate, many filmmakers and major stars fled to the safety of South west China, which led to the effective closing of the cinema until the end of the war in August 1945.16 Thus, by the 1930s there was an incipient sense of a Hong Kong identity shaped by its hybridized culture and colonization. The sense that Hong Kong was linked to China by race, lineage, and language and yet was different in cultural practices and its geopolitical situation was now highlighted by the war. However, under the shadow of the China centered discourse of nationalism engendered by the modern Chinese state and cultural elite, with their chauvinistic undertones, wartime was also an ambivalent moment for imagining a local identity. Hong Kong's marginalization in Chinese national imagery generated all the contempt and attacks of the Cantonese cinema, which disempowered and sup pressed all the local voices. In fact, Two Southern Sisters was denounced by the emigre press as yet another "frivolous, escapist" offering.17 It has been excluded from all the standard historical accounts of the Chinese cinema, which include only films made by mainlanders.18 Trinh Minh-ha once remarked that there is a margin in the center and a center in the margin.19 China's marginalization in twentieth century global politics is well known, but much less known is the Chi nese marginalization of other places and cultures inside and/or outside its territorial boundaries. Hong Kong has been one of these Others. In fact it has been doubly marginalized in the official discourses of Chinese nationalism and British colonialism. As evidenced in the 1997 crisis, the Chinese state and cultural elites continue to marginalize Hong Kong by seeing it as merely an "economic city" of financial prowess but cultural decadence, "a cultural desert" and, together with the colonial govern ment, by denying its people, many of whom have identified with neither discourse, their right to self-determination. Also the Central Plains syn drome has contributed to a widespread belief in both the scholarly and popular worlds that had they not been confronted with the "crisis of legitimacy" of 1997 the colonized would not have had the collective
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 271
desire and discursive energy to construct a cultural identity of their own.
Yet this essay demonstrates that this view is wrong. Wartime represented
an important moment in the imagination and projection of Hong Kong's
identity, tentative and hybrid as it was, on the local screen. There must
have been many comparable moments of imagining an alternative vision
of Hong Kong in its colonial history. Further research will tell us.
NOTES
271
desire and discursive energy to construct a cultural identity of their own. Yet this essay demonstrates that this view is wrong. Wartime represented an important moment in the imagination and projection of Hong Kong's identity, tentative and hybrid as it was, on the local screen. There must have been many comparable moments of imagining an alternative vision of Hong Kong in its colonial history. Further research will tell us.
I want to thank James Barrett, Prasenjit Duara, and Daniel Littlefield
for their comments and suggestions. A slightly different version of this chapter
was published in Poshek Fu and David Desser, eds., The Cinema of Hong Kong:
History, Arts, Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Re-
printed with permission of Cambridge University Press.
1. The desert stereotype has been an underlying trope in almost all major
NOTES
academic studies and literary representation of Hong Kong culture. For ex-
ample, see the various essays by Chinese writers collected in Lu Weiluan, ed.,
Xianggang de youyu, 1925-1941 (The melancholy of Hong Kong, 1925-1941)
(Hong Kong: Huafeng shuju, 1983); and Frank Walsh, A History of Hong Kong
(London: HarperCollins, 1993). Until recently, however, no writer has ever
questioned the semantic origin or discursive meaning of this cultural construct. It
is now time to deconstruct it. For a pioneering popular work on reevaluating the
cultural scene in Hong Kong, see Luo Fu, Xianggang wenhua mangyou (Wander-
ing through Hong Kong culture) (Hong Kong: Zhonghua shuju, 1993).
2. Recently, as a result of the critical and immensely popular reception in
film circles of such innovative filmmakers as Jackie Chan, Chow Yun-fat, and
Wang Ka-wei, film scholars have begun to look seriously at the cultural-political
significance of the Hong Kong cinema. But this pioneering trend has focused on
the filmic representation of heavily contested issues of identity politics of the
1980s and 1990s. No systematic study has been devoted to earlier periods. For
two fine examples of these pioneering works, see Rey Chow, "A Souvenir of
Love," Modern Chinese Literature 7 no. 2 (1993): 59-78; and Leo Ou-fan Lee,
"Two Films from Hong Kong: Parody and Allegory," in Nick Browne, ed., New
Chinese Cinemas: Forms, Identities, Politics (Cambridge and New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1994), 202-15.
3. Mu Shiying "Cinematique," Dianying quan (Hong Kong) 2 (February
1937): 2.
4. For a discussion, see Law Kar, "Xianggang zaoqi de dianying guiji,
1909-1915" (Early impressions of the early Hong Kong cinema), in Early Im-
ages of Hong Kong and China (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1995), 27.
5. Cheng Jihua, Zhongguo dianying fazhan shi (A history of Chinese
cinema) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1980).
6. See Paul Pickowicz, "The Theme of Spiritual Pollution in Chinese
I want to thank James Barrett, Prasenjit Duara, and Daniel Littlefield for their comments and suggestions. A slightly different version of this chapter was published in Poshek Fu and David Desser, eds . , The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, A rts, Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Re printed with permission of Cambridge University Press. 1 . The desert stereotype has been an underlying trope in almost all major academic studies and literary representation of Hong Kong culture. For ex ample, see the various essays by Chinese writers collected in Lu Weiluan, ed., Xianggang de youyu, 1 925-1 941 (The melancholy of Hong Kong, 1925-1941) (Hong Kong: Huafeng shuju, 1 983); and Frank Walsh, A History of Hong Kong (London: HarperCollins, 1 993). Until recently, however, no writer has ever questioned the semantic origin or discursive meaning of this cultural construct. It is now time to deconstruct it. For a pioneering popular work on reevaluating the cultural scene in Hong Kong, see Luo Fu, Xianggang wenhua mangyou (Wander ing through Hong Kong culture) (Hong Kong: Zhonghua shuju, 1 993). 2. Recently, as a result of the critical and immensely popular reception in film circles of such innovative filmmakers as Jackie Chan, Chow Yun-fat, and Wang Ka-wei, film scholars have begun to look seriously at the cultural-political significance of the Hong Kong cinema. But this pioneering trend has focused on the filmic representation of heavily contested issues of identity politics of the 1980s and 1 990s. No systematic study has been devoted to earlier periods. For two fine examples of these pioneering works, see Rey Chow, "A Souvenir of Love," Modern Chinese Literature 7 no. 2 (1993): 59-78; and Leo au-fan Lee, "Two Films from Hong Kong: Parody and Allegory," in Nick Browne, ed. , New Chinese Cinemas: Forms, Identities, Politics (Cambridge and New York: Cam bridge University Press, 1 994) , 202-15. 3. Mu Shiying "Cinematique," Dianying quan (Hong Kong) 2 (February 1937): 2. 4. For a discussion, see Law Kar, "Xianggang zaoqi de dianying guiji , 1909-1915" (Early impressions o f the early Hong Kong cinema), in Early Im ages of Hong Kong and China (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1995), 27. 5. Cheng Jihua, Zhongguo dianying fazhan shi (A history of Chinese cinema) (Beij ing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1980). 6. See Paul Pickowicz, "The Theme of Spiritual Pollution in Chinese
272
272
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Films of the 1930s," Modern China 17, no. 1 (1991): 38-75; and Guan Wenqing,
Zhongguo yingtan waishi (An unofficial history of the Chinese screen) (Hong
Kong: Guangjiaojing chubanshe, 1976), 128-96.
7. Jean-Paul Sartre, preface to Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth
(New York: Grove, 1963), 26.
8. Recently an increasing amount of exciting research has been devoted to
decentering China and reconstructing a Hong Kong identity, principally through
film and literature. But this research has focused only on the period after the
1980s. See, for example, Rey Chow, "Between Colonizers: Hong Kong's Post-
colonial Self-Writing in the 1990s," Diaspora 2 no. 2 (1992):151-70; Leo Ou-fan
Lee, "Tales from the 'Floating City,"'" Harvard Asia Pacific Review 1 no. 1
(winter 1996-97):43-49; Leung Ping-kwan, ed., "Xianggang wenhua zhuanzi"
(Special issue on Hong Kong culture), Today 28 (1995):71-257; Luo Feng, Shiji
mo chengshi (Fin-de-siecle city) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995);
and Daisy Ng, "Back to the Future: Imaginary Nostalgia and the Consumer
Culture of Hong Kong," 1996, mimeo.
9. See G. B. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse (Hong Kong: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1978), 11; Walsh, History of Hong Kong, 404; Lin Youlan, Xianggang
shihua (An informal history of Hong Kong) (Hong Kong: Bajiao shufang,
1975), 148-56.
10. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 23-25; Lu Jin, Xianggang zhanggu (An-
ecdotes of Hong Kong), vol. 4 (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojin chubanshe, 1981).
11. For a vivid discussion of prewar Shanghai, see Harriet Sergeant,
Shanghai: Collision Point of Cultures, 1918-1939 (New York: Crown, 1990).
For wartime Shanghai, see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration:
Intellectual Choices under Japanese Occupation, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1993). The term colonial backwater is adapted from Walsh,
History of Hong Kong, 390.
12. See Du Yunzhi, Zhongguo dianyin qishi nian (Seventy years of Chinese
cinema) (Taipei: Zhonghua minguo dianyin tushuguan, 1976), 226-47; and
Thomas Doherty, Projections of War: Hollywood, American Culture, and World
War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 4-39.
13. Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, trans. Susan Miller
(New York: Beacon, 1991).
14. See Walsh, History of Hong Kong, 378-89 (the quote is from 386).
15. For a discussion of the social and political conservatism of the Hong
Kong elites, see Lynn White and Li Cheng, "China Coastal Identities: Regional,
National, and Global," in Lowell Dittmer and Samuel Kim, eds., China's Quest
for National Identity, 154-93 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
16. Lau Siu-kai and Kuan Hsin-chi, The Ethos of the Hong Kong Chinese
(Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1988), 1-4.
17. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 26-27.
18. For two solid discussions of the much understudied British strategy in
Hong Kong, see Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse; and Benjamin Proulx, Under-
ground from Hongkong (New York: Dutton, 1943).
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Films of the 1930s," Modern China 17, no. 1 (1991 ) : 38-75; and Guan Wenqing, Zhongguo yingtan waishi (An unofficial history of the Chinese screen) (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojing chubanshe, 1976), 128-96. 7. Jean-Paul Sartre, preface to Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove, 1963), 26. 8. Recently an increasing amount of exciting research has been devoted to decentering China and reconstructing a Hong Kong identity, principally through film and literature. But this research has focused only on the period after the 1980s. See, for example, Rey Chow, "Between Colonizers: Hong Kong's Post colonial Self-Writing in the 1990s," Diaspora 2 no. 2 (1992):151-70; Leo Ou-fan Lee, "Tales from the 'Floating City, ' " Harvard Asia Pacific Review 1 no. 1 (winter 1996-97):43-49; Leung Ping-kwan, e d . , "Xianggang wenhua zhuanzi" (Special issue on Hong Kong culture), Today 28 (1995):71 -257; Luo Feng, Shiji mo chengshi (Fin-de-siec1e city) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995) ; and Daisy Ng, "Back to the Future: Imaginary Nostalgia and the Consumer Culture of Hong Kong," 1996, mimeo. 9. See G. B. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse (Hong Kong: Oxford Univer sity Press, 1978) , 1 1 ; Walsh, History ofHong Kong, 404; Lin Youlan, Xianggang shihua (An informal history of Hong Kong) (Hong Kong: Baj iao shufang, 1 975), 148-56. 10. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 23-25 ; Lu Jin, Xianggang zhanggu (An ecdotes of Hong Kong), vol. 4 (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojin chubanshe, 1981). 1 1 . For a vivid discussion of prewar Shanghai, see Harriet Sergeant, Shanghai: Collision Point of Cultures, 1 918- 1 939 (New York: Crown, 1990). For wartime Shanghai, see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices under Japanese Occupation, 1 937-1 945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). The term colonial backwater is adapted from Walsh, History of Hong Kong, 390. 12. See Du Yunzhi, Zhongguo dianyin qishi nian (Seventy years of Chinese cinema) (Taipei: Zhonghua minguo dianyin tushuguan, 1 976), 226-47; and Thomas Doherty, Projections of War: Hollywood, A merican Culture, and World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 4-39. 1 3 . Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, trans. Susan Miller (New York: Beacon, 1991 ) . 14. See Walsh, History of Hong Kong, 378-89 (the quote is from 386) . 1 5 . For a discussion of the social and political conservatism of the Hong Kong elites, see Lynn White and Li Cheng, "China Coastal Identities: Regional, National, and Global," in Lowell Dittmer and Samuel Kim, eds., China's Quest for National Identity, 154-93 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1 993). 16. Lau Siu-kai and Kuan Hsin-chi, The Ethos of the Hong Kong Chinese (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1 988) , 1-4. 17. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 26-27. 18. For two solid discussions of the much understudied British strategy in Hong Kong, see Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse; and Benjamin Proulx, Under ground from Hongkong (New York: Dutton, 1 943).
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 273
19. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 29-45.
20. See Xianggang nianjian (Hong Kong annual report) (N.p., 1941). For
the founding and business strategies of these major studios, see Guan,
Zhongguo yintan waishi.
21. Yilin (Hong Kong) 43 (December 1938).
22. Yilin 62 (November 1939).
23. See Lin, Xianggang shihua, 154-56; Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 22-
26; and Nigel Cameron, An Illustrated History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong:
Oxford University Press, 1991), 251-56.
24. Xianggang nianjian, n.
25. Yilin 63 (December 1939); 75 (June 1940). See also Bai Yan, Yige nu
yanyuan de zishu (An actress's autobiography) (Hong Kong: Dahua 1955), 15.
26. See Yilin 50 (March 1939); 72 (April 1940).
27. See Yilin 52 (April 1939); Yilin 53 (May 1939); and Dianyin yu xiju
(Hong Kong) 1, no. 1 (1941).
28. Leo Braudy, The World in a Frame: What We See in Films (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1976), 104-14.
29. The best examples of this conservatism and ambivalence are Sir Robert
Ho Tung and Sir Lo Man-kam. A Eurasian billionaire of his time, Sir Ho had
served in various major advisory positions with the colonial government and had
made countless financial contributions to London, but he was allowed to move
into an exclusive midlevel neighborhood only after his family suffered many
racist attacks. Perhaps as a psychological reaction, he wore only Chinese gowns
despite his Caucasian looks and was well known as a "patriotic businessman" for
sending his only son to serve in the Nationalist Army. He was the chief financier
of the Lianhua Studio. The son-in-law of Sir Ho, Sir Lo was a prominent
London-trained attorney who sat on many government committees. Known as
an outspoken member at the Legislative Council, he often criticized the racist
policy of segregation (which did not change until 1946), yet he was convinced
that the "Chinese did not expect to receive the same salaries as Europeans." See
Walsh, History of Hong Kong, 380-86. For biographical backgrounds of these
men as well as other elites in Hong Kong, a total of eighty-seven, almost all of
them in business, see Wu Xinglian, Xianggang (1937) Huaren mingren shilue
(Who's who in Hong Kong, 1937) (Hong Kong: n.p. 1937).
30. For ticket prices and locations of movie theaters, see Yilin 75 (June
1940); and Wu Hao, Xianggang dianying minzuxue (An ethnography of the
Hong Kong cinema) (Hong Kong: Ciwenhua tang chubanshe, 1993), 3-21. For
two samples of films shown across Hong Kong, see Huashang bao (Hong Kong),
August 20 and 21, 1941.
31. See Yilin 84 (October 1940); 96 (April 1941). The biggest Cantonese
box-office smashes in the war years were Zei wangzi (Thief prince, 1939) and Hu
bu gui (Gone was the love, 1940), both tragic romances based on prewar Canton-
ese opera hits of the same names, starring Sit Gok-sin, who had also been
featured in the stage original. The colonial government seemed to be aware of
the socioeconomic hierarchy of the film audiences. Thus, in 1940 it decided to
273
19. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 29-45. 20. See Xianggang nianjian (Hong Kong annual report) (N. p . , 1 941 ). For the founding and business strategies of these major studios, see Guan, Zhongguo yintan waishi. 21 . Yilin (Hong Kong) 43 (December 1 938). 22. Yilin 62 (November 1939) . 23 . See Lin, Xianggang shihua, 154-56; Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 2226; and Nigel Cameron, An Illustrated History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991), 251-56. 24. Xianggang nianjian, n. 25. Yilin 63 (December 1939); 75 (June 1940) . See also Bai Yan, Yige nu yanyuan de zishu (An actress's autobiography) (Hong Kong: Dahua 1 955), 15. 26. See Yilin 50 (March 1939) ; 72 (April 1940). 27. See Yilin 52 (April 1 939) ; Yilin 53 (May 1939); and Dianyin yu xiju (Hong Kong) 1 , no. 1 (1941) . 28. Leo Braudy, The World in a Frame: What We See in Films (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 976) , 104-14. 29. The best examples of this conservatism and ambivalence are Sir Robert Ho Tung and Sir Lo Man-kam. A Eurasian billionaire of his time, Sir Ho had served in various major advisory positions with the colonial government and had made countless financial contributions to London, but he was allowed to move into an exclusive midlevel neighborhood only after his family suffered many racist attacks. Perhaps as a psychological reaction, he wore only Chinese gowns despite his Caucasian looks and was well known as a "patriotic businessman" for sending his only son to serve in the Nationalist Army. He was the chief financier of the Lianhua Studio. The son-in-law of Sir Ho, Sir Lo was a prominent London-trained attorney who sat on many government committees. Known as an outspoken member at the Legislative Council, he often criticized the racist policy of segregation (which did not change until 1946) , yet he was convinced that the "Chinese did not expect to receive the same salaries as Europeans." See Walsh, History of Hong Kong, 380-86. For biographical backgrounds of these men as well as other elites in Hong Kong, a total of eighty-seven, almost all of them in business, see Wu Xinglian, Xianggang (1937) Huaren mingren shilue (Who's who in Hong Kong, 1937) (Hong Kong: n.p. 1 937). 30. For ticket prices and locations of movie theaters, see Yilin 75 (June 1940); and Wu Hao, Xianggang dianying minzuxue (An ethnography of the Hong Kong cinema) (Hong Kong: Ciwenhua tang chubanshe, 1 993), 3-2 1 . For two samples of films shown across Hong Kong, see Huashang bao (Hong Kong), August 20 and 21, 1941. 3 1 . See Yilin 84 (October 1940) ; 96 (April 1941). The biggest Cantonese box-office smashes in the war years were Zei wangzi (Thief prince, 1939) and Hu bu gui (Gone was the love, 1 940), both tragic romances based on prewar Canton ese opera hits of the same names, starring Sit Gok-sin, who had also been featured in the stage original. The colonial government seemed to be aware of the socioeconomic hierarchy of the film audiences. Thus, in 1940 it decided to
274
274
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
impose an entertainment tax on all prices higher than the twenty cents that were
what most Cantonese moviegoers were paying. See Yilin 75 (June 1940).
32. Cai Chusheng, "Zhanhou de Zhongguo dianying dongtai ji muqian de
gaijin yundong" (Chinese cinema after the outbreak of the war and the present
reform movement), Wenxian 4 (January 1939): I 2-3.
33. There was in fact widespread anxiety in the 6migr6 cultural community
over the decentering of new Chinese culture by the war in general. See Liao
Liao [Sha Kongliao], "Jianli xin wenhua zhongxin" (Establish a new cultural
center), Li bao, April 1938, reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 101-2.
34. See, for example, Tu Yangci, "Jihuai Shanghai" (Nostalgic for Shanghai),
Yuzhou fen, May 1939, reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 157-60. He wrote:
"Shanghai is still very much like a place of Chinese. But in Hong Kong, although
everything is Chinese . . . it has no Chinese flavor, it lacks a Chinese soul."
35. Leo Ou-fan Lee, "Xianggang wenhua de bianyuan xing chutan" (A
preliminary study of the marginality of Hong Kong culture), Today 28 (1995):
75-80.
36. All of these quotes are from Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 107, 157-59,
178, 207-9.
37. Lou Shiyi, "Xianggang de youyu," Xingdao ribao, November 17, 1938,
125-26.
38. Yang Yanqi, "Xianggang bannian" (Half a year in Hong Kong),
Yuzhou feng, May 1941, reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 207-12; Liao
Liao, "Jianli xin wenhua zhongxin."
39. Yilin 84 (October 1940).
40. For a fine study of the Chinese filmic tradition, see Paul Pickowicz,
"Melodramatic Representation and the May Fourth Tradition of Chinese Cin-
ema," in Ellen Widmer and David Dar-wei Wang, eds., From May Fourth to
June Fourth: Fiction and Film in Twentieth-Century China, 295-326 (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1993).
41. For the Nationalist government's suppression of the Cantonese cinema,
see Zhiwei Xiao, "Film Censorship in China, 1927-1937," Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of California, San Diego, 1994, 212-57.
42. For the Nationalist regime's political and military relations with various
provincial authorities, see Lloyd Eastman, "Nationalist China during the Nan-
king Decade, 1927-1937," in Lloyd Eastman et al., The Nationalist Era in
China, 1912-1949, 1-52 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). For a
historical survey of Guangdong-Hong Kong relations, see also Ming Chan, ed.,
Precarious Balance: Hong Kong between China and Britain, 1842-1992 (Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1993).
43. See Prasenjit Duara, "Provincial Narratives of the Nation: Centralism
and Federalism in Republican China," in Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural National-
ism in East Asia, 9-35 (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1994). See also
his Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
44. Edward Friedman sums up the political-cultural meaning of da Zhon-
yuan xintai cogently: "The People's Republic of China in the Mao era presented
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
impose an entertainment tax on all prices higher than the twenty cents that were what most Cantonese moviegoers were paying. See Yilin 75 (June 1 940) . 32. Cai Chusheng, "Zhanhou de Zhongguo dianying dongtai ji muqian de gaijin yundong" (Chinese cinema after the outbreak of the war and the present reform movement) , Wenxian 4 (January 1 939) : 1 2-3 . 33. There was in fact widespread anxiety in the emigre cultural community over the decentering of new Chinese culture by the war in general. See Liao Liao [Sha Kongliao], "Jianli xin wenhua zhongxin" (Establish a new cultural center), Li bao, April 1 938, reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 101-2. 34. See, for example, Tu Yangci, "Jihuai Shanghai" (Nostalgic for Shanghai), Yuzhou fen, May 1939, reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 157-60. He wrote: "Shanghai is still very much like a place of Chinese. But in Hong Kong, although everything is Chinese . . . it has no Chinese flavor, it lacks a Chinese soul. " 35. Leo Ou-fan Lee, "Xianggang wenhua de bianyuan xing chutan" (A preliminary study of the marginality of Hong Kong culture) , Today 28 ( 1995 ) : 75-80. 36. All of these quotes are from Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 107, 157-59, 1 78, 207-9. 37. Lou Shiyi, "Xianggang de youyu," Xingdao ribao, November 1 7 , 1 938, 125-26. 38. Yang Yanqi, "Xianggang bannian" (Half a year in Hong Kong) , Yuzhou feng, May 1 941, reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 207-12; Liao Liao, "Jianli xin wenhua zhongxin." 39. Yilin 84 (October 1 940) . 40. For a fine study of the Chinese filmic tradition, see Paul Pickowicz, "Melodramatic Representation and the May Fourth Tradition of Chinese Cin ema," in Ellen Widmer and David Dar-wei Wang, eds . , From May Fourth to June Fourth: Fiction and Film in Twentieth-Century China, 295-326 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993 ) . 4 1 . For the Nationalist government's suppression of the Cantonese cinema, see Zhiwei Xiao, "Film Censorship in China, 1927-1 937," Ph.D. diss. , Univer sity of California, San Diego, 1 994, 212-57. 42. For the Nationalist regime's political and military relations with various provincial authorities, see Lloyd Eastman, "Nationalist China during the Nan king Decade, 1927-1937," in Lloyd Eastman et al., The Nationalist Era in China, 1912-1 949, 1 -52 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991 ) . For a historical survey of Guangdong-Hong Kong relations, see also Ming Chan, e d . , Precarious Balance: Hong Kong between China and Britain, 1842-1 992 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1993 ) . 43. See Prasenjit Duara, "Provincial Narratives of the Nation: Centralism and Federalism in Republican China," in Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural National ism in East Asia, 9-35 (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1994 ) . See also his Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 995 ) . 44. Edward Friedman sums up the political-cultural meaning of da Zhon yuan xintai cogently: "The People's Republic of China in the Mao era presented
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 275
itself as the heir of a Han people who had come together millennia earlier in the
north China plain of the Yellow River valley, built a great civilization, fought to
preserve it, and expanded over the centuries by civilizing barbarian invaders.
Mao's anti-imperialist revolution was the culmination of this Chinese national
history" ("Reconstructing China's National Identity: A Southern Alternative to
Mao-Era Anti-Imperialist Nationalism," Journal of Asian Studies 53 no. 1
[1994]: 67-91).
45. Wu Chufan, Wu Chufan zizhuan (Autobiography of Wu Chufan) (Hong
Kong: Weiqing shudian, 1956), 1:74-79.
46. See Guan, Zhongguo yingtan waishi, 214-16; and Wu, Wu Chufan,
1:78-80.
47. Yilin 51 (April 1939).
48. Yilin 53 (May 1939), my italics.
49. See Pickowicz, "Theme of Pollution"; and Friedman, "Reconstructing
Identity." For a study of Chinese Realism, see David Der-wei Wang, Fictional
Realism in Twentieth-Century China: Mao Dun, Lao She, Shen Congwen (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
50. After an agreement between Zhou Enlai and Sir Archibald Clark-Kerr,
the British Ambassador to China, the office was founded in the winter of 1937.
Liao Chengzhi, son of the former Nationalist leader and martyr Liao Zhongkai,
headed the office until it closed in December 1941. With his extensive family and
political connections with the business elites in Hong Kong and overseas, he was
able to establish an account at the Sino-Belgium Bank to which overseas Chinese
could make direct contributions to the Communist army. For the Communist
activities, see the memoir of one activist, Liang Shangwan, in his Zhonggong zai
Xianggang (Chinese Communists in Hong Kong) (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojin
chubanshe, 1989).
51. For an example of this political ritual, see Yilin 58 (July 1939).
52. See Wenxian 1 (October 1938), H 5-6.
53. Dianying shenhuo (Hong Kong) 4 (April 1940); Yilin 67 (March 1940).
For discussions of popular stereotypes of Chinese and Hollywood stars, see
Pickowicz, "Theme of Pollution"; and Doherty, Projecting the War, 180-91.
54. See Rey Chow, Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading
between West and East (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990);
Lydia Liu, "Invention and Intervention: The Making of A Female Tradition in
Modern Chinese Literature," in Widmer and Wang, From May Fourth, 194-
220; and Elizabeth Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Femi-
nist Thought (Boston: Beacon, 1988).
55. For a study of the wartime literary appropriation of the female for
nationalist purposes, see Fu, Passivity, chap. 2.
56. For example, see Ye Ming, "Zhengqi ge" (Song of virtues), Huashang
bao, June 14, 1941.
57. Quoted in Doherty, Projecting the War, 132.
58. See Yilin 83 (October 1940).
59. The important postcolonial studies that have influenced much of my
thinking here are inspired by the Subaltern School and the works of Franz Fanon.
275
itself as the heir of a Han people who had come together millennia earlier in the north China plain of the Yellow River valley, built a great civilization, fought to preserve it, and expanded over the centuries by civilizing barbarian invaders. Mao's anti-imperialist revolution was the culmination of this Chinese national history" ("Reconstructing China's National Identity: A Southern Alternative to Mao-Era Anti-Imperialist Nationalism," Journal of Asian Studies 53 no. 1 [1994] : 67-91). 45 . Wu Chufan, Wu Chufan zizhuan (Autobiography of Wu Chufan) (Hong Kong: Weiqing shudian, 1956), 1 :74-79. 46. See Guan, Zhongguo yingtan waishi, 214-16; and Wu, Wu Chufan, 1 :78-80. 47. Yilin 51 (April 1939). 48. Yilin 53 (May 1939), my italics. 49. See Pickowicz, "Theme of Pollution"; and Friedman, "Reconstructing Identity. " For a study of Chinese Realism, see David Der-wei Wang, Fictional Realism in Twentieth-Century China: Mao Dun, Lao She, Shen Congwen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1 992) . 50. After an agreement between Zhou Enlai and Sir Archibald Clark-Kerr, the British Ambassador to China, the office was founded in the winter of 1937. Liao Chengzhi, son of the former Nationalist leader and martyr Liao Zhongkai, headed the office until it closed in December 1941 . With his extensive family and political connections with the business elites in Hong Kong and overseas, he was able to establish an account at the Sino-Belgium Bank to which overseas Chinese could make direct contributions to the Communist army. For the Communist activities, see the memoir of one activist, Liang Shangwan, in his Zhonggong zai Xianggang (Chinese Communists in Hong Kong) (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojin chubanshe, 1989). 5 1 . For an example of this political ritual, see Yilin 58 (July 1939). 52. See Wenxian 1 (October 1938), H 5-6. 53. Dianying shenhuo (Hong Kong) 4 (April 1940); Yilin 67 (March 1940). For discussions of popular stereotypes of Chinese and Hollywood stars, see Pickowicz, "Theme of Pollution"; and Doherty, Projecting the War, 1 80-9 1 . 5 4 . See Rey Chow, Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading between West and East (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Lydia Liu, "Invention and Intervention: The Making of A Female Tradition in Modern Chinese Literature," in Widmer and Wang, From May Fourth, 194220; and Elizabeth Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Femi nist Thought (Boston: Beacon, 1988). 55. For a study of the wartime literary appropriation of the female for nationalist purposes, see Fu, Passivity, chap. 2. 56. For example, see Ye Ming, "Zhengqi ge" (Song of virtues), Huashang bao, June 14, 1941. 57. Quoted in Doherty, Projecting the War, 132. 58. See Yilin 83 (October 1940) . 5 9 . The important postcolonial studies that have influenced much of my thinking here are inspired by the Subaltern School and the works of Franz Fanon.
276
276
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Recently, their problematic and argument have become ever more nuanced and
less totalizing as more scholars and theorists are contesting their relevance in
different national or regional contexts and working to prevent them from slipping
into a mere badge of academic privilege. For some fine examples, see Iain Cham-
bers and Lidia Curtia, eds., The Post-colonial Question: Common Skies and Di-
vided Horizons (London and Routledge, 1996); Partha Chatterjee, The Nation
and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Studies (Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1993); and Henry Louis Gates Jr., "Critical Fanonism," Critical
Inquiry 17 (spring 1991): 457-70.
60. See Guan, Zhongguo yingtan waishi, 216-17; and Wu, Wu Chufan,
1:50-62. See also Yu Mo-wen, "Xianggang dianying de aiguo zhuyi chuantong"
(The patriotic tradition in the Hong Kong cinema), in Law, Early Images, 53-68.
61. Lingxing (Macao) 8 no. 6 (1938).
62. An Ping and Lin Guangtong, Gang Jiu jianying (A sketch of Hong
Kong and Kowloon) (Hong Kong: Gangjiu wenhua chuban gongsi, 1949), 8.
63. See Xu Dishan, "Yinian lai de Xianggang jiaoyu ji qi zhanwang,"
(Hong Kong education in one year and its prospect), Wenyi 487 (January 1939)
and Yang Yanqi, "Xianggang bannian," both reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de
youyu, 133-42, 207-12.
64. See Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 43-111; and Jan Morris, Hong
Kong (New York: Vintage, 1989), 265-92.
65. Tang Hai, Xianggang lunxian ji (The fall of Hong Kong) (Shanghai: Xin
shenhuo chubanshe, 1946).
66. Ibid., 1-6; Ye Dehui, Xianggang lunxian shi (A history of the occupa-
tion of Hong Kong) (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojin chubanshe, 1982), 1-18.
67. Wu, Wu Chufan, 1:65-73.
68. Bai, Yige nu yanyuan, 26-27.
69. Yilin 44 (December 1939).
70. Dianying shenhuo 10 (May 1940); Yilin 74 (May 1940); Yilin 75 (June
1940).
71. Yilin 58 (July 1939).
72. Zhao Shutai, "Jianshe jinbu dianying de renwu" (The responsibility to
create a progressive cinema), Huashang bao, August 1, 1941.
73. Wenxian (October 1938).
74. Guan, Zhongguo yingtan waishi, 137-39.
75. For discussions of these films and contexts of their production, see
Poshek Fu, "The Turbulent Sixties: Modernity, Youth Culture, and Cantonese
Films in Hong Kong," in Law Kar, ed., Fifty Years of Electric Shadows, 34-46
(Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1997); Law Kar, "H.K. Film Market and Trends in
the Eighties," in Law Kar, ed., Hong Kong Cinema in the Eighties, 70-77 (Hong
Kong: Urban Council 1991); Li Chuek-to, Postscript to A Study in Hong Kong
Films in the Seventies, 123-31 (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1984); Luo, Shiji mo
chengshi, 8-75; Stephen Teo, "The Squint-Eyed Gaze," in Law, ed., The Chi-
nese Factor in Hong Kong Cinema, 86-94 (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1990);
and Esther Yau, "Border Crossing: Mainland China's Presence in Hong Kong
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Recently, their problematic and argument have become ever more nuanced and less totalizing as more scholars and theorists are contesting their relevance in different national or regional contexts and working to prevent them from slipping into a mere badge of academic privilege. For some fine examples, see lain Cham bers and Lidia Curtia, eds . , The Post-colonial Question: Common Skies and Di vided Horizons (London and Routledge, 1996 ) ; Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Studies (Princeton: Princeton Uni versity Press, 1993 ) ; and Henry Louis Gates Jf. , "Critical Fanonism," Critical Inquiry 17 (spring 1 991 ) : 457-70. 60. See Guan, Zhongguo yingtan waishi, 216-17; and Wu , Wu Chufan, 1 :50-62. See also Yu Mo-wen, "Xianggang dianying de aiguo zhuyi chuantong" (The patriotic tradition in the Hong Kong cinema), in Law, Early Images, 53-68. 6 1 . Lingxing (Macao) 8 no. 6 ( 1938 ) . 62. An Ping and Lin Guangtong, Gang fiu jianying (A sketch of Hong Kong and Kowloon) (Hong Kong: Gangjiu wenhua chuban gongsi, 1949 ) , 8. 63. See Xu Dishan, "Yinian lai de Xianggang jiaoyu ji qi zhanwang," (Hong Kong education in one year and its prospect), Wenyi 487 (January 1939 ) and Yang Yanqi, "Xianggang bannian," both reprinted in Lu, Xianggang de youyu, 133-42, 207-12. 64. See Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse, 43-1 1 1 ; and Jan Morris, Hong Kong (New York: Vintage, 1989 ) , 265-92. 65. Tang Hai, Xianggang lunxian ji (The fall of Hong Kong) (Shanghai: Xin shenhuo chubanshe, 1946 ) . 66. Ibi d . , 1-6; Ye Dehui, Xianggang lunxian shi (A history of the occupation of Hong Kong) (Hong Kong: Guangjiaojin chubanshe, 1982 ) , 1-18. 67. Wu , Wu Chufan, 1 :65-73. 68. B ai, Yige nu yanyuan, 26-27 . 69. Yilin 44 (December 1 939) . 70. Dianying shenhuo 10 (May 1940 ) ; Yilin 74 (May 1940 ) ; Yilin 75 (June 1940) . 7 1 . Yilin 58 (July 1939 ) . 72. Zhao Shutai, "Jianshe jinbu dianying de renwu" (The responsibility to create a progressive cinema), Huashang baa, August 1 , 1 94 1 . 73. Wenxian (October 1938 ) . 74. Guan, Zhongguo yingtan waishi, 137-39. 75. For discussions of these films and contexts of their production, see Poshek Fu, "The Turbulent Sixties: Modernity, Youth Culture, and Cantonese Films in Hong Kong," in Law Kar, ed., Fifty Years of Electric Shadows, 34-46 (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1 997 ) ; Law Kar, "H.K. Film Market and Trends in the Eighties," in Law Kar, e d . , Hong Kong Cinema in the Eighties, 70-77 (Hong Kong: Urban Council 1991 ) ; Li Chuek-to, Postscript to A Study in Hong Kong Films in the Seventies, 123-31 (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1984 ) ; Luo, Shiji mo chengshi, 8-75; Stephen Teo, "The Squint-Eyed Gaze," in Law, e d . , The Chi nese Factor in Hong Kong Cinema, 86-94 (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1990 ) ; and Esther Yau, "Border Crossing: Mainland China's Presence in Hong Kong
Between Nationalism and Colonialism
Between Nationalism and Colonialism 277
Cinema," in Nick Browne et al., eds., New Chinese Cinemas: Forms, Identities,
Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 180-201.
76. See Wu, Wu Chufan, 2:1-50; and Poshek Fu, "Patriotism or Profit:
Hong Kong Cinema during the Second World War," in Law, Early Images, 69-
79.
77. See Yilin, 74 (May 1940).
78. Cheng Jihua, Zhongguo dianying fazhan shi; and Du, Zhongguo dian-
yin qishi nian.
79. Trinh Minh-ha, "Who Is Speaking: Of Nation, Community, and First
Person Interviews," in Laura Pietropado and Ada Testaferri, eds., Feminisms in
the Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995).
277
Cinema," in Nick Browne et aI. , eds., New Chinese Cinemas: Forms, Identities, Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 180-20l . 76. See Wu, Wu Chufan, 2 : 1 -50; and Poshek Fu, "Patriotism or Profit: Hong Kong Cinema during the Second World War, " in Law, Early Images, 6979. 77. See Yilin, 74 (May 1940) . 78. Cheng Jihua, Zhongguo dianying fazhan shi; and Du, Zhongguo dian yin qishi nian. 79. Trinh Minh-ha, "Who Is Speaking: Of Nation, Community, and First Person Interviews," in Laura Pietropado and Ada Testaferri, eds., Feminisms in the Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1 995).

Chapter 9 Chapter 9
Trials of the Taiwanese as Hanjian or
War Criminals and the Postwar Search
for Taiwanese Identity
Jiu-jung Lo
On August 15, 1945, Japan's surrender to the Allies marked the begin-
ning of the end of its fifty-year occupation of Taiwan.1 The initial eupho-
ria of a happy reunion with the motherland soon dissipated, however. In
just a little more than one year, widespread disillusionment with the
provincial government led to street violence, culminating in the "Febru-
Trials of the Taiwanese as Hanj ian or War Criminals and the Postwar Search for Taiwanese Identity
ary 28 Incident" of 1947. This incident, in which government agents
opened fire on an old female vendor selling cigarettes on the street,
came as the result of a variety of economic, political, and social prob-
lems that faced Taiwanese society after the retrocession. Emerging from
Jiu-jung Lo
this outbreak of hostilities between the Taiwanese and the mainland
Chinese was a collective consciousness that has continued to play a role
in the search for Taiwanese identity even to this day.
In the wake of the incident, the Resolution Committee, a voluntary
body set up by Taiwanese representatives to negotiate with the authori-
ties, put forty-two proposals to the Chen Yi provincial administration
then in control. Of these, Resolution 32 demanded the immediate re-
lease of all the so-called Taiwanese hanjian and war criminals under
custody.2 The fact that this proposal was put forward by a group not as
homogeneous as generally assumed indicated how strongly the Taiwan-
ese as a group must have felt about the matter.3 To a large extent, the
message contained therein reflected the strains already evident in the
postwar relationship between the two groups. Moreover, while Resolu-
tion 32 expressed popular discontent with the Nationalist government's
treatment of the Taiwanese, it highlighted the important question of
what it meant to be a Taiwanese against the background of shifting
279
On August 1 5 , 1945, Japan's surrender to the Allies marked the begin ning of the end of its fifty-year occupation of Taiwan.! The initial eupho ria of a happy reunion with the motherland soon dissipated, however. In just a little more than one year, widespread disillusionment with the provincial government led to street violence, culminating in the "Febru ary 28 Incident" of 1 947. This incident, in which government agents opened fire on an old female vendor selling cigarettes on the street, came as the result of a variety of economic, political, and social prob lems that faced Taiwanese society after the retrocession. Emerging from this outbreak of hostilities between the Taiwanese and the mainland Chinese was a collective consciousness that has continued to play a role in the search for Taiwanese identity even to this day. In the wake of the incident, the Resolution Committee, a voluntary body set up by Taiwanese representatives to negotiate with the authori ties, put forty-two proposals to the Chen Yi provincial administration then in control. Of these, Resolution 32 demanded the immediate re lease of all the so-called Taiwanese hanjian and war criminals under custody. 2 The fact that this proposal was put forward by a group not as homogeneous as generally assumed indicated how strongly the Taiwan ese as a group must have felt about the matter. 3 To a large extent, the message contained therein reflected the strains already evident in the postwar relationship between the two groups. Moreover, while Resolu tion 32 expressed popular discontent with the Nationalist government's treatment of the Taiwanese, it highlighted the important question of what it meant to be a Taiwanese against the background of shifting 279
280
280
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
political circumstances so characteristic of modern Chinese history.
Within a period of half a century, the Taiwanese had been put under the
political domination first of the Qing, then of the Japanese, and finally
of the Republic of China. Under the circumstances, the government's
policy of subjecting the Taiwanese to any form of loyalty test was per-
ceived as an attempt to impose a new identity on them.
If the February 28 Incident marked the beginning of a new collective
consciousness in the postwar period, it also signified a rejection of the
Chen Yi provincial administration as well as of the Chinese identity that
had just recently been resumed. In an attempt to assert their Taiwanese
identity, people resorted to cultural and political symbols that bore
the unmistakable stigma of Japanese colonialism. Thus, at the height of
the street violence many native Taiwanese signaled out their targets by
making them speak Japanese or sing the Japanese anthem as a way to
distinguish mainlanders from the Taiwanese. That the Taiwanese chose
Japanese as the code language to differentiate themselves from the non-
Taiwanese is highly significant. Since collectively the Taiwanese were
comprised of natives of Minnan, people of Hakka descent, the aborig-
ines, there was no common working language. However, most people
had some command of Japanese after half a century of colonial rule.
Accordingly, this linguistic "proficiency" became a convenient tool to
employ as the boundary between "us" and "them."4 One cannot fail to
notice the irony here: many Taiwanese forged a close bond under politi-
cal symbols smacking of Japanese colonial rule, an experience that was by
no means wholeheartedly embraced by all the Taiwanese throughout fifty
years of Japanese occupation.
This chapter deals with the problem of shifting Taiwanese identity
from the perspective of the postwar trial of Taiwanese as hanjian and/or
war criminals. It is assumed that formation of an identity involves con-
stant interaction between how one perceives oneself and how one is
perceived by others. Bringing the Taiwanese to justice against a histori-
cal background in which they maintained close ties with the Japanese is
therefore understood as one way in which the Chinese government and
people expressed their views of the Taiwanese. While that perception
was to some extent influenced by the self-image of the Taiwanese during
the war, it eventually gave birth to a group identity by which Taiwan
people cast themselves as victims of the Nationalist government.
The fact that since 1895 Taiwanese history has been entangled with
those of Japan and China makes it necessary to examine the evolution of
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
political circumstances so characteristic of modern Chinese history. Within a period of half a century, the Taiwanese had been put under the political domination first of the Qing, then of the Japanese, and finally of the Republic of China. Under the circumstances, the government's policy of subjecting the Taiwanese to any form of loyalty test was per ceived as an attempt to impose a new identity on them. If the February 28 Incident marked the beginning of a new collective consciousness in the postwar period, it also signified a rejection of the Chen Yi provincial administration as well as of the Chinese identity that had just recently been resumed. In an attempt to assert their Taiwanese identity, people resorted to cultural and political symbols that bore the unmistakable stigma of Japanese colonialism. Thus, at the height of the street violence many native Taiwanese signaled out their targets by making them speak Japanese or sing the Japanese anthem as a way to distinguish mainlanders from the Taiwanese. That the Taiwanese chose Japanese as the code language to differentiate themselves from the non Taiwanese is highly significant. Since collectively the Taiwanese were comprised of natives of Minnan, people of Hakka descent, the aborig ines, there was no common working language. However, most people had some command of Japanese after half a century of colonial rule. Accordingly, this linguistic "proficiency" became a convenient tool to employ as the boundary between "us" and "them. "4 One cannot fail to notice the irony here: many Taiwanese forged a close bond under politi cal symbols smacking of Japanese colonial rule, an experience that was by no means wholeheartedly embraced by all the Taiwanese throughout fifty years of Japanese occupation. This chapter deals with the problem of shifting Taiwanese identity from the perspective of the postwar trial of Taiwanese as hanjian and/or war criminals. It is assumed that formation of an identity involves con stant interaction between how one perceives oneself and how one is perceived by others. Bringing the Taiwanese to justice against a histori cal background in which they maintained close ties with the Japanese is therefore understood as one way in which the Chinese government and people expressed their views of the Taiwanese. While that perception was to some extent influenced by the self-image of the Taiwanese during the war, it eventually gave birth to a group identity by which Taiwan people cast themselves as victims of the Nationalist government. The fact that since 1895 Taiwanese history has been entangled with those of Japan and China makes it necessary to examine the evolution of
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 281
Taiwanese identity in a historical context. The next two sections deal
with the problems of the Taiwanese under Japanese occupation and how
they were caught in the war between China and Japan between 1931 and
1945. There follows an examination of the charges against the hanjian
and/or war criminals and related problems, including nationality, individ-
ual responsibility, and degree of involvement. The trials of the Taiwan-
ese from the perspective of government policy and its implementation
are then investigated. The purpose is to examine the government's atti-
tude toward the Taiwanese when the latter were denounced as either
hanjian or war criminals. Was the whole incident the result of a deliber-
ate intention on the part of the highest authorities to put the Taiwanese
down, as was widely assumed? What was the role of the judicial and
military/intelligence departments in the prosecution of the Taiwanese?
The final section explores how the Taiwanese attitude about hanjian
changed in a matter of a few months and highlights the impact of the
trials on the local population.
Taiwanese Identity: A Brief Historical Review
During half a century of colonial rule, Taiwanese interaction with the
Japanese can be divided into three modes: resistance, co-optation, and
assimilation. While the overall trend was moving from resistance toward
co-optation and assimilation, it would be misleading to conceive of these
changes as linear developmental phases. Rather, there was a lot of over-
lap involved in which one influence was accompanied by, or intermin-
281
Taiwanese identity in a historical context. The next two sections deal with the problems of the Taiwanese under Japanese occupation and how they were caught in the war between China and Japan between 1931 and 1945. There follows an examination of the charges against the hanjian and/or war criminals and related problems, including nationality, individ ual responsibility, and degree of involvement. The trials of the Taiwan ese from the perspective of government policy and its implementation are then investigated. The purpose is to examine the government's atti tude toward the Taiwanese when the latter were denounced as either hanjian or war criminals. Was the whole incident the result of a deliber ate intention on the part of the highest authorities to put the Taiwanese down, as was widely assumed? What was the role of the judicial and military/intelligence departments in the prosecution of the Taiwanese? The final section explores how the Taiwanese attitude about hanjian changed in a matter of a few months and highlights the impact of the trials on the local population.
gled with, another. The ambivalence built into the Taiwanese relation-
ship with the Japanese was also found in their search for Taiwanese
identity in the postwar political environment.
Taiwanese Identity: A Brief Historical Review
The Taiwan Republic, the first anti-Japanese political body, was
established following the cession of Taiwan to Japan on April 17, 1895.
Within a fortnight, the resistance began losing momentum after its
leader, President Tang Jingsong, the former Qing governor-general, re-
turned to China. When his successor, Liu Yongfu, took the same course
and fled Taiwan in October 1895, the movement was never to recover its
lost ground.5 Although sporadic resistance broke out in various parts of
the island between 1895 and 1910, most anti-Japanese activities did not
uphold pro-Qing nationalistic causes.
For descendants of the early Taiwanese immigrants, who had identi-
fied themselves as ethnic Han Chinese and fled the Manchu conquerors
During half a century of colonial rule, Taiwanese interaction with the Japanese can be divided into three modes: resistance, co-optation, and assimilation. While the overall trend was moving from resistance toward co-optation and assimilation, it would be misleading to conceive of these changes as linear developmental phases. Rather, there was a lot of over lap involved in which one influence was accompanied by, or intermin gled with, another. The ambivalence built into the Taiwanese relation ship with the Japanese was also found in their search for Taiwanese identity in the postwar political environment. The Taiwan Republic, the first anti-Japanese political body, was established following the cession of Taiwan to Japan on April 17, 1 895. Within a fortnight, the resistance began losing momentum after its leader, President Tang Jingsong, the former Qing governor-general, re turned to China. When his successor, Liu Yongfu, took the same course and fled Taiwan in October 1 895, the movement was never to recover its lost ground.s Although sporadic resistance broke out in various parts of the island between 1895 and 1 910, most anti-Japanese activities did not uphold pro-Qing nationalistic causes. For descendants of the early Taiwanese immigrants, who had identi fied themselves as ethnic Han Chinese and fled the Manchu conquerors
282
282
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in the mid-seventeenth century, the Manchus were just as "foreign" as
the Japanese. Emigration from Mainland China to Taiwan sped up in the
early eighteenth century when the Qing government eased its controls
on immigrants. The bulk of immigrants to Taiwan then came as Qing
subjects, a vague concept before the rise of modern Chinese nationalism
in late nineteenth century. Not until the mid-nineteenth century did the
Qing dynasty begin increasing its investment in the infrastructure of the
island. In 1885, Taiwan was made a province of China. The historically
strong anti-Qing feeling on the island gradually subsided.
The 1786 Lin Shuangwen Uprising has been identified as the water-
shed between two types of rebellious activities: one politically moti-
vated, and the other economically. The former often revolved around
secret societies such as the Tiandi Hui and Bagua Hui.6 Whether these
subversive moves suggested the germination of a national identity re-
mains doubtful. Although Ming loyalism, as exemplified in the legend of
Koxinga, was often regarded as the earliest form of Taiwanese national
identity, scholars in recent years have tended to regard such an identity
as a romantic projection that was later imposed on the legendary Taiwan-
ese rebellion against the Qing government. Presented as the ideal of
dynastic loyalty, Koxinga underwent a series of reinterpretations over
time to accommodate changes in the political climate.7 Maurice Meisner
in his study of Taiwanese nationalism came to the conclusion that on the
whole anti-Qing revolts were little more than "local peasant rebellions"
in terms of their "character and motivations."8 Awareness of provincial,
local, and clan identities was apparently stronger than that of national
identity.9
The 1915 revolt of the Xilai Temple marked the end of two decades
of violent resistance to the Japanese. With more and more Taiwanese
having vested interests in the colonial regime, resistance now gave way
to co-optation. Taiwanese people found that they could benefit from
Japanese bureaucratic efficiency and economic prosperity. Eventually,
in fact, even old pro-Qing literati, who initially had shown their con-
tempt for the new regime by going back to China, returned to Taiwan
and became Japanese nationals.10 Indeed, co-optation later became the
very strategy the social elite adopted in their fight for parliamentary
participation and democratic rights in the 1920s.
As early as 1915, similar motivations prompted some Taiwanese
intellectuals to support the Assimilation Society, which held the view
that the Taiwanese should be integrated into Japanese society on an
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
in the mid-seventeenth century, the Manchus were j ust as "foreign" as the Japanese. Emigration from Mainland China to Taiwan sped up in the early eighteenth century when the Qing government eased its controls on immigrants. The bulk of immigrants to Taiwan then came as Qing subjects, a vague concept before the rise of modern Chinese nationalism in late nineteenth century. Not until the mid-nineteenth century did the Qing dynasty begin increasing its investment in the infrastructure of the island. In 1 885, Taiwan was made a province of China. The historically strong anti-Qing feeling on the island gradually subsided. The 1786 Lin Shuangwen Uprising has been identified as the water shed between two types of rebellious activities: one politically moti vated, and the other economically. The former often revolved around secret societies such as the Tiandi Hui and Bagua Hui.6 Whether these subversive moves suggested the germination of a national identity re mains doubtful. Although Ming loyalism, as exemplified in the legend of Koxinga, was often regarded as the earliest form of Taiwanese national identity, scholars in recent years have tended to regard such an identity as a romantic projection that was later imposed on the legendary Taiwan ese rebellion against the Qing government. Presented as the ideal of dynastic loyalty, Koxinga underwent a series of reinterpretations over time to accommodate changes in the political climate.7 Maurice Meisner in his study of Taiwanese nationalism came to the conclusion that on the whole anti-Qing revolts were little more than "local peasant rebellions" in terms of their "character and motivations."8 Awareness of provincial, local, and clan identities was apparently stronger than that of national identity. 9 The 1915 revolt of the Xilai Temple marked the end of two decades of violent resistance to the Japanese. With more and more Taiwanese having vested interests in the colonial regime, resistance now gave way to co-optation. Taiwanese people found that they could benefit from Japanese bureaucratic efficiency and economic prosperity. Eventually, in fact, even old pro-Qing literati, who initially had shown their con tempt for the new regime by going back to China, returned to Taiwan and became Japanese nationals. l O Indeed, co-optation later became the very strategy the social elite adopted in their fight for parliamentary participation and democratic rights in the 1 920s. As early as 1915, similar motivations prompted some Taiwanese intellectuals to support the Assimilation Society, which held the view that the Taiwanese should be integrated into Japanese society on an
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 283
equal basis. However, in view of the staunch nationalist stand of its
sponsor, Count Itagaki Taisuke, this kind of Japanese advocacy for Tai-
wanese assimilation as equals has to be put within the context of pan-
Asianism versus Western imperialism through which Taiwan was to play
a role in contributing to the buildup of Japanese hegemony in East Asia.
The Japanese governor-general in Taiwan found the idea of assimilation
quite unacceptable. However, a leading member of Taiwanese gentry,
Lin Xiantang, in a meeting with Count Itagaki in 1913, embraced it with
great enthusiasm. The fact of the matter is that Taiwanese intellectuals
took it as an opportunity to promote the political rights and social equal-
ity of the Taiwanese.11 In 1918, the Enlightenment Society (Qifa She)
launched a campaign for the abolition of Special Law 63 in Tokyo.12
Meanwhile, the year 1920 saw the birth of the League for the Establish-
ment of the Taiwan Parliament. As it was, Taiwanese people in their
struggle for political autonomy had taken advantage of the tide of democ-
ratization that was sweeping over Japan in the 1920s.13
Although concepts such as democracy and self-autonomy had an
international appeal, echoing U.S. President Wilson's Fourteen Princi-
ples, in Japan they were upheld against the backdrop of rising Japanese
nationalist expansionism in Asia. Under these circumstances, Taiwanese
maneuvering inevitably deepened the ambivalence of their relationship
with the Japanese. As Taiwanese gentry and intellectuals tried to out-
maneuver colonial officials by allying themselves with Japanese liberals,
it became imperative that they operate within the Japanese cultural and
political framework. Engaged in the strategy of resistance through co-
optation, they chose to treat the Japanese not as a homogeneous entity
but as a people of diverse convictions and beliefs. While this perception
was true to a certain extent, they often tended to underestimate the
homogeneity of Japanese society as a whole, especially when it came to
the question of patriotism. By carefully choosing their allies, Taiwanese
intellectuals and members of the elite nevertheless managed to broaden
the scope of their identity spectrum. Much as they were dismayed by the
haughtiness of Japanese colonialists in Taiwan, they were deeply im-
pressed by the decency and open-mindedness of some of the Japanese
friends they made in Japan as well as Taiwan.14
As co-optation became the overriding strategy of survival under the
Japanese occupation, Taiwanese ties with Mainland China weakened.
Indeed, Liang Qichao's advice to his Taiwanese friends during his visit to
Taiwan in 1910 highlighted the Taiwanese literati's attitude toward
283
equal basis. However, in view of the staunch nationalist stand of its sponsor, Count Itagaki Taisuke, this kind of Japanese advocacy for Tai wanese assimilation as equals has to be put within the context of pan Asianism versus Western imperialism through which Taiwan was to play a role in contributing to the buildup of Japanese hegemony in East Asia. The Japanese governor-general in Taiwan found the idea of assimilation quite unacceptable. However, a leading member of Taiwanese gentry, Lin Xiantang, in a meeting with Count Itagaki in 1913, embraced it with great enthusiasm. The fact of the matter is that Taiwanese intellectuals took it as an opportunity to promote the political rights and social equal ity of the Taiwanese.11 In 1918, the Enlightenment Society ( Qifa She ) launched a campaign for the abolition of Special Law 63 in Tokyo.12 Meanwhile, the year 1920 saw the birth of the League for the Establish ment of the Taiwan Parliament. As it was, Taiwanese people in their struggle for political autonomy had taken advantage of the tide of democ ratization that was sweeping over Japan in the 1920s.13 Although concepts such as democracy and self-autonomy had an international appeal, echoing U. S . President Wilson's Fourteen Princi ples, in Japan they were upheld against the backdrop of rising Japanese nationalist expansionism in Asia. Under these circumstances, Taiwanese maneuvering inevitably deepened the ambivalence of their relationship with the Japanese. As Taiwanese gentry and intellectuals tried to out maneuver colonial officials by allying themselves with Japanese liberals, it became imperative that they operate within the Japanese cultural and political framework. Engaged in the strategy of resistance through co optation, they chose to treat the Japanese not as a homogeneous entity but as a people of diverse convictions and beliefs. While this perception was true to a certain extent, they often tended to underestimate the homogeneity of Japanese society as a whole, especially when it came to the question of patriotism. By carefully choosing their allies, Taiwanese intellectuals and members of the elite nevertheless managed to broaden the scope of their identity spectrum. Much as they were dismayed by the haughtiness of Japanese colonialists in Taiwan, they were deeply im pressed by the decency and open-mindedness of some of the Japanese friends they made in Japan as well as Taiwan.14 As co-optation became the overriding strategy of survival under the Japanese occupation, Taiwanese ties with Mainland China weakened. Indeed, Liang Qichao's advice to his Taiwanese friends during his visit to Taiwan in 1910 highlighted the Taiwanese literati's attitude toward
284
284 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
China and Japan. In his conversation with Lin Xiantang, Liang pre-
dicted that in at least thirty years China would no longer have the ability
to help liberate the Taiwanese from colonial rule. He suggested that his
Taiwanese friends adopt the Irish model by associating themselves with
political leaders in Japan to counterbalance Japanese colonialists in Tai-
wan. In other words, instead of seeking help from China, the Taiwanese
should place more emphasis on self-reliance and self-preservation.15
Whether under the influence of Liang Qichao or not, this was indeed the
strategy that Lin Xiantang and Taiwanese intellectuals adopted in push-
ing for the abolition of Special Law 63 and the establishment of the
Taiwanese Parliament in the next two decades.
These movements were active approximately at the same time as the
May Fourth movement in China. Although the latter had inspired a
small group of Taiwanese intellectuals through its nationalist cause and
its introduction of vernacular literature, the Taiwanese nationalist move-
ment followed a separate course. This does not mean that Taiwan had
cut all its ties with China. On the contrary, the subsequent outbreak of
war between Japan and China, as well as Japan's efforts to accelerate
assimilation and mobilize the Taiwanese in preparation for war against
China, further complicated the issue of Taiwan's identity vis-a-vis Japan
and China.
The Taiwanese at War (1937-45)
Taiwanese living in Mainland China during the war can be divided into
four groups. First, there were the Taiwan ronnins. The people of this
group had long been unpopular with the local Chinese because of their
notorious involvement in prostitution and the opium trade. Enjoying
certain privileges under the protection of Japanese extraterritoriality,
their presence in Amoy had always been considered part of the Japanese
conspiracy to wreak havoc.16 Once the war had broken out, they were
given an even freer hand to exploit the chaotic conditions, often in
exchange for insidious services they provided to the Japanese. Many
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
China and Japan. In his conversation with Lin Xiantang, Liang pre dicted that in at least thirty years China would no longer have the ability to help liberate the Taiwanese from colonial rule. He suggested that his Taiwanese friends adopt the Irish model by associating themselves with political leaders in Japan to counterbalance Japanese colonialists in Tai wan. In other words, instead of seeking help from China, the Taiwanese should place more emphasis on self-reliance and self-preservation.1 5 Whether under the influence of Liang Qichao or not, this was indeed the strategy that Lin Xiantang and Taiwanese intellectuals adopted in push ing for the abolition of Special Law 63 and the establishment of the Taiwanese Parliament in the next two decades. These movements were active approximately at the same time as the May Fourth movement in China. Although the latter had inspired a small group of Taiwanese intellectuals through its nationalist cause and its introduction of vernacular literature, the Taiwanese nationalist move ment followed a separate course. This does not mean that Taiwan had cut all its ties with China. On the contrary, the subsequent outbreak of war between Japan and China, as well as Japan's efforts to accelerate assimilation and mobilize the Taiwanese in preparation for war against China, further complicated the issue of Taiwan's identity vis-a-vis Japan and China.
were involved in intelligence work in one way or the other.
Second, there were ordinary Taiwanese who for various reasons had
gone to settle in China. They were, generally speaking, law-abiding
The Taiwanese at War (1937-45)
people. While the ronnins congregated mainly in the coastal provinces
such as Fujian and Guangdong, people of this second group took up
residence in various parts of China, including Manchuria. Their wartime
Taiwanese living in Mainland China during the war can be divided into four groups. First, there were the Taiwan ronnins. The people of this group had long been unpopular with the local Chinese because of their notorious involvement in prostitution and the opium trade. Enjoying certain privileges under the protection of Japanese extraterritoriality, their presence in Amoy had always been considered part of the Japanese conspiracy to wreak havoc.l6 Once the war had broken out, they were given an even freer hand to exploit the chaotic conditions, often in exchange for insidious services they provided to the Japanese. Many were involved in intelligence work in one way or the other. Second, there were ordinary Taiwanese who for various reasons had gone to settle in China. They were, generally speaking, law-abiding people. While the ronnins congregated mainly in the coastal provinces such as Fujian and Guangdong, people of this second group took up residence in various parts of China, including Manchuria. Their wartime
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 285
experiences in China, however, were not entirely negative. In the end,
they came up with various ways to survive; some hid their Taiwan identity,
whereas others were integrated into the Chinese community through
intermarriage. To some extent, how they got along with the local Chinese
depended on their professions; it was, as a rule, easier for physicians and
professionals to win the goodwill of the local people.17
The third group of Taiwanese living in Mainland China were the
paramilitary conscripts. Beginning in April 1941, as part of the Patriotic
Mobilization Movement (Komin hoko undo), Taiwanese were drafted to
serve in the Japanese Army. They went to China and South Asia as
laborers, translators, prison guards, and so on. The majority of them
were low-ranking paramilitary servicemen not involved in active combat
duties.18s The nature of their jobs was such that it often brought them into
direct conflict with the Chinese. Take the function of translation, for
example. In theory, translators served as mere intermediaries between
the Japanese and the Chinese. However, if a certain job involved interro-
gation during which suspects were subjected to physical violence, it was
very difficult for Taiwanese translators to be absolved of complicity even
though they had just stood there watching. The fourth group consisted
mainly of anti-Japanese resistance fighters who came to China to work
with the goal of liberating Taiwan. Toward the end of the war, they
helped the Nationalist government make preparations for the retro-
cession of Taiwan and played important roles in immediate postwar Tai-
wanese politics. However, despite the fact that these resisters shared the
same anti-Japanese stand, this group was far from homogeneous. A
distinction had to be made between people who based Taiwan's libera-
tion on that of China and those who advocated it independent of China's
break with imperialism. Although people of the former group were en-
gaged in anti-Japanese campaigns in Mainland China, they were simulta-
neously involved in Chinese factional strife both within the Nationalist
camp and between the Communists and the Nationalists.19 As for the
latter group, apart from adhering to the Taiwanese identity, they adopted
other identities that reflected different ideologies and political affilia-
tions. Many joined the Chinese Communist Party.
As far as self-identification was concerned, the Taiwanese dual
identity-being both ethnic Han Chinese and Japanese nationals-had
provided them with a wide range of options. At the same time, the fact
that they could change their identities quite easily made them appear
suspicious not only in the eyes of the Japanese but also in those of the
285
experiences in China, however, were not entirely negative. In the end, they came up with various ways to survive; some hid their Taiwan identity, whereas others were integrated into the Chinese community through intermarriage. To some extent, how they got along with the local Chinese depended on their professions; it was, as a rule, easier for physicians and professionals to win the goodwill of the local peopleJ7 The third group of Taiwanese living in Mainland China were the paramilitary conscripts. Beginning in April 194 1 , as part of the Patriotic Mobilization Movement (Komin hoko undo), Taiwanese were drafted to serve in the Japanese Army. They went to China and South Asia as laborers, translators, prison guards, and so on. The majority of them were low-ranking paramilitary servicemen not involved in active combat duties.18 The nature of their jobs was such that it often brought them into direct conflict with the Chinese. Take the function of translation, for example. In theory, translators served as mere intermediaries between the Japanese and the Chinese. However, if a certain job involved interro gation during which suspects were subjected to physical violence, it was very difficult for Taiwanese translators to be absolved of complicity even though they had j ust stood there watching. The fourth group consisted mainly of anti-Japanese resistance fighters who came to China to work with the goal of liberating Taiwan. Toward the end of the war, they helped the Nationalist government make preparations for the retro cession of Taiwan and played important roles in immediate postwar Tai wanese politics. However, despite the fact that these resisters shared the same anti-Japanese stand, this group was far from homogeneous. A distinction had to be made between people who based Taiwan's libera tion on that of China and those who advocated it independent of China's break with imperialism. Although people of the former group were en gaged in anti-Japanese campaigns in Mainland China, they were simulta neously involved in Chinese factional strife both within the Nationalist camp and between the Communists and the Nationalists.19 As for the latter group, apart from adhering to the Taiwanese identity, they adopted other identities that reflected different ideologies and political affilia tions. Many joined the Chinese Communist Party. As far as self-identification was concerned, the Taiwanese dual identity - being both ethnic Han Chinese and Japanese nationals - had provided them with a wide range of options. At the same time, the fact that they could change their identities quite easily made them appear suspicious not only in the eyes of the Japanese but also in those of the
286
286 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Chinese, a dilemma for Taiwanese people on both sides of the Taiwan
Strait. In fact, from 1931 to 1945, a number of anti-Japanese resistance
and espionage conspiracies were uncovered in Taiwan. Whereas war with
China gave the colonial authorities a pretext to get rid of so-called unco-
operative elements, Japan's uncertainty about Taiwanese loyalty at large
sometimes led to large-scale persecutions based on false accusations or
with unsubstantiated evidence. This was especially the case when Japan's
defeat looked imminent toward the end of the war. In the case of Ruifang
anti-Japanese forces, Taiwanese were incriminated by the hundreds for
their alleged involvement in anti-Japanese resistance activities.20
These incidents, however, have to be put in a larger context. Com-
pared to the resistance of the first decade of Japanese rule, underground
sabotage during the war was sporadic and lacked strong anti-Japanese
implications. Many involved conflicts of either local or personal interests.
The fact of the matter was that dramatic changes in Taiwan after 1931 had
changed the relationship between the Taiwanese and Japanese. In 1931,
the Japanese colonial government adopted new measures to impose cul-
tural assimilation on the Taiwanese. Apart from loyalty drills, exempli-
fied into Shinto worship, the Taiwanese were encouraged to live like the
Japanese: adopting Japanese surnames, speaking Japanese, and wearing
Japanese-style clothing. The Taiwanese confronted these changes with
mixed feelings. Although many resented such forceful pressures to inte-
grate, they were at the same time benefiting from the expeditious eco-
nomic development prompted by new Japanese policies. Japan's war with
China not only provided a new impetus for Taiwan's industrialization, but
it forced Japan to revise its colonial trade policy, making the Taiwanese
economy more self-sufficient. As a result, except for the later period of
the war, the Taiwanese during the war enjoyed a relatively high standard
of living. The broadening of the educated population both created an
energetic work force and injected confidence into the hearts of the youn-
ger generation. It made it possible for the Taiwanese to interact with the
Japanese colonialists on a more equal footing.21
Japan loosened its political control over Taiwan after 1942, when it
began to mobilize Taiwanese resources and manpower for the Pacific
War. The colonial government gave permission for local elections to be
held at the city, district, and town levels. It also abolished the long-
standing policy of segregation in the elementary public schools. It
seemed that with its invasion of South Asia in full swing Japan finally
decided to treat the Taiwanese more as their equals than had been the
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Chinese, a dilemma for Taiwanese people on both sides of the Taiwan Strait. In fact, from 1931 to 1945, a number of anti-Japanese resistance and espionage conspiracies were uncovered in Taiwan. Whereas war with China gave the colonial authorities a pretext to get rid of so-called unco operative elements, Japan's uncertainty about Taiwanese loyalty at large sometimes led to large-scale persecutions based on false accusations or with unsubstantiated evidence. This was especially the case when Japan's defeat looked imminent toward the end of the war. In the case of Ruifang anti-Japanese forces, Taiwanese were incriminated by the hundreds for their alleged involvement in anti-Japanese resistance activities.20 These incidents, however, have to be put in a larger context. Com pared to the resistance of the first decade of Japanese rule, underground sabotage during the war was sporadic and lacked strong anti-Japanese implications. Many involved conflicts of either local or personal interests. The fact of the matter was that dramatic changes in Taiwan after 1931 had changed the relationship between the Taiwanese and Japanese. In 193 1 , the Japanese colonial government adopted new measures to impose cul tural assimilation on the Taiwanese. Apart from loyalty drills, exempli fied into Shinto worship, the Taiwanese were encouraged to live like the Japanese: adopting Japanese surnames, speaking Japanese, and wearing Japanese-style clothing. The Taiwanese confronted these changes with mixed feelings. Although many resented such forceful pressures to inte grate, they were at the same time benefiting from the expeditious eco nomic development prompted by new Japanese policies. Japan's war with China not only provided a new impetus for Taiwan's industrialization, but it forced Japan to revise its colonial trade policy, making the Taiwanese economy more self-sufficient. As a result, except for the later period of the war, the Taiwanese during the war enjoyed a relatively high standard of living. The broadening of the educated population both created an energetic work force and injected confidence into the hearts of the youn ger generation. It made it possible for the Taiwanese to interact with the Japanese colonialists on a more equal footing.21 Japan loosened its political control over Taiwan after 1 942, when it began to mobilize Taiwanese resources and manpower for the Pacific War. The colonial government gave permission for local elections to be held at the city, district, and town levels. It also abolished the long standing policy of segregation in the elementary public schools. It seemed that with its invasion of South Asia in full swing Japan finally decided to treat the Taiwanese more as their equals than had been the
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 287
case previously. However, behind all these efforts to incorporate Taiwan-
ese people into the grand scheme of pan-Asianism were doubts about
their true allegiance in moments of crisis.
The Japanese took great pains to keep the Taiwanese isolated from
Mainland China. One way to achieve this was to project a bad image of
China such as that seen from the Japanese point of view. The China the
Taiwanese learned about in textbooks was a backward country that had
nothing to boast of except its "seniority, opium, and bound feet."22 It was
nonetheless an image many Taiwanese intellectuals tried to dismiss. For
some, China in fact had become an emotional as well as a physical shelter
from colonial oppression. A force of "push and pull" had a strong effect,
particularly on Taiwanese youth. At an impressionable age, many were
sensitive to inequality and found the social injustices Taiwanese suffered
under the Japanese provocative. This applied not just to ordinary Taiwan-
ese like Li Youbang and Wu Zhuoliu but to the rich and privileged like
Guo Xiuzong.23 If colonial rule was pushing some Taiwanese away, the
"pull" of China was often met with dubious feelings.
Other than in Amoy and Manchuria, where the Japanese main-
tained a strong presence, the Taiwanese in China often claimed to be
Fujianese or Cantonese. Even in Nanjing, where Wang Jingwei's col-
laborationist government was situated, the Taiwanese were advised not
to reveal their true identity. Neither the Chongqing authorities nor the
Wang Jingwei collaborationist government seemed to have enough confi-
dence in the Taiwanese, which added to their insecurity.24 Disguised
identity was therefore a strategy for survival.
The apprehension of the Chinese, however, was not entirely un-
founded. Because of their historical connections with China, in wartime
the Japanese found the Taiwanese ideal candidates for information gath-
ering and other intelligence duties. In August 1939, the Nationalist gov-
ernment's intelligence agency received word that the Japanese were
planning to step up the influx of Taiwanese to Fujian and Guangdong
Provinces to consolidate Japanese control in the region.25 Nowhere was
this problem more acutely felt than in Amoy, where a large community
of Taiwanese seemed to be posing serious threats to national security.
The Chinese authorities' attitude toward these Taiwanese can only
be described as dubious. On the one hand, they did not want to treat the
Taiwanese too harshly, acknowledging the fact that the majority of them
were of Chinese ethnic descent. On the other hand, they were wary of
the potential danger some unruly Taiwanese posed to national security,
287
case previously. However, behind all these efforts to incorporate Taiwan ese people into the grand scheme of pan-Asianism were doubts about their true allegiance in moments of crisis. The Japanese took great pains to keep the Taiwanese isolated from Mainland China. One way to achieve this was to project a bad image of China such as that seen from the Japanese point of view. The China the Taiwanese learned about in textbooks was a backward country that had nothing to boast of except its "seniority, opium, and bound feet."22 It was nonetheless an image many Taiwanese intellectuals tried to dismiss. For some, China in fact had become an emotional as well as a physical shelter from colonial oppression. A force of "push and pull" had a strong effect, particularly on Taiwanese youth. At an impressionable age, many were sensitive to inequality and found the social injustices Taiwanese suffered under the Japanese provocative. This applied not just to ordinary Taiwan ese like Li Youbang and Wu Zhuoliu but to the rich and privileged like Guo Xiuzong.23 If colonial rule was pushing some Taiwanese away, the "pull" of China was often met with dubious feelings. Other than in Amoy and Manchuria, where the Japanese main tained a strong presence, the Taiwanese in China often claimed to be Fujianese or Cantonese. Even in Nanjing, where Wang Jingwei's col laborationist government was situated, the Taiwanese were advised not to reveal their true identity. Neither the Chongqing authorities nor the Wang Jingwei collaborationist government seemed to have enough confi dence in the Taiwanese, which added to their insecurity. 24 Disguised identity was therefore a strategy for survival. The apprehension of the Chinese, however, was not entirely un founded. Because of their historical connections with China, in wartime the Japanese found the Taiwanese ideal candidates for information gath ering and other intelligence duties. In August 1939, the Nationalist gov ernment's intelligence agency received word that the Japanese were planning to step up the influx of Taiwanese to Fujian and Guangdong Provinces to consolidate Japanese control in the region.25 Nowhere was this problem more acutely felt than in Amoy, where a large community of Taiwanese seemed to be posing serious threats to national security. The Chinese authorities' attitude toward these Taiwanese can only be described as dubious. On the one hand, they did not want to treat the Taiwanese too harshly, acknowledging the fact that the majority of them were of Chinese ethnic descent. On the other hand, they were wary of the potential danger some unruly Taiwanese posed to national security,
288
288
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
especially as China was now at war with Japan. The Fujian provincial
government, under the leadership of Chen Yi, rounded up all Taiwanese
living in the hinterland and sent them to the Chongan Plantation Farm.
Of the 432 Taiwanese of Japanese nationality who went there, 38 were
released on the grounds of old age and frailty.26 In mid-February 1940,
with the permission of the Nationalist government, Li Youbang, leader
of the former Taiwan Independent Revolutionary Party, took these Tai-
wanese, many with professional backgrounds, to Jinhua in Zhejiang
Province. Such was the origin of Taiwan Volunteers (Taiwan yiyong
dui).27 By making visible contributions to the war effort, the group was
created mainly in an attempt to dispel widespread prejudice and hostility
among the Chinese. Whether they did it voluntarily or not is another
matter.28
Taiwanese people's personal safety could have been endangered
because of this deep mistrust.29 Qiu Niantai, a high-ranking Taiwanese
official in the Nationalist Party, was a witness to the vulnerability of the
Taiwanese in wartime China. In late October 1938, as leader of the East
Region Service Corps - a militia group set up to mobilize the youth in
the Hakka region in Guangdong Province after the fall of Guangzhou-
he came across five Taiwanese adolescents who had been sentenced to
death on charges of spying for the Japanese. They claimed that, fleeing
Taiwan, they had been on their way to Chongqing to join the resistance.
Because the incriminating evidence was flimsy and Qiu was a family
friend of one of the group members, he pleaded on their behalf. The
death penalty was dropped.30
If the government's treatment of the Taiwanese in China incurred
resentment, it was rarely made public during wartime, partly owing to
the awkward position of the Taiwanese in straddling two warring states.
In contrast, things began to change after Taiwan's retrocession in 1945.
From then on, the government's handling of problems related to Taiwan
had a direct impact on how well the Taiwanese accepted their newly
acquired Chinese identity. How to incorporate political and legal identi-
ties into a cultural identity was the challenge the Nationalist government
had to face after the Japanese surrender.
Hanjian or War Criminals: Taiwanese on Trial?
In putting Taiwanese on trial, the major point to be clarified concerned
their identity: were they Japanese or Chinese at the time they committed
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
especially as China was now at war with Japan. The Fujian provincial government, under the leadership of Chen Yi, rounded up all Taiwanese living in the hinterland and sent them to the Chongan Plantation Farm. Of the 432 Taiwanese of Japanese nationality who went there, 38 were released on the grounds of old age and frailty. 26 In mid-February 1940, with the permission of the Nationalist government, Li Youbang, leader of the former Taiwan Independent Revolutionary Party, took these Tai wanese, many with professional backgrounds, to Jinhua in Zhejiang Province. Such was the origin of Taiwan Volunteers (Taiwan yiyong dui).27 By making visible contributions to the war effort, the group was created mainly in an attempt to dispel widespread prejudice and hostility among the Chinese. Whether they did it voluntarily or not is another matter. 28 Taiwanese people's personal safety could have been endangered because of this deep mistrust.29 Qiu Niantai, a high-ranking Taiwanese official in the Nationalist Party, was a witness to the vulnerability of the Taiwanese in wartime China. In late October 1 938, as leader of the East Region Service Corps - a militia group set up to mobilize the youth in the Hakka region in Guangdong Province after the fall of Guangzhou he came across five Taiwanese adolescents who had been sentenced to death on charges of spying for the Japanese. They claimed that, fleeing Taiwan, they had been on their way to Chongqing to join the resistance. Because the incriminating evidence was flimsy and Qiu was a family friend of one of the group members, he pleaded on their behalf. The death penalty was dropped.3D If the government's treatment of the Taiwanese in China incurred resentment, it was rarely made public during wartime, partly owing to the awkward position of the Taiwanese in straddling two warring states. In contrast, things began to change after Taiwan's retrocession in 1945. From then on, the government's handling of problems related to Taiwan had a direct impact on how well the Taiwanese accepted their newly acquired Chinese identity. How to incorporate political and legal identi ties into a cultural identity was the challenge the Nationalist government had to face after the Japanese surrender. Hanjian or War Criminals: Taiwanese on Trial?
In putting Taiwanese on trial, the major point to be clarified concerned their identity: were they Japanese or Chinese at the time they committed
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 289
the crime of which they were being charged as hanjian? A semantic
understanding of the word hanjian consisting of the two characters han
and jian seemed to suggest that as an offense of treason it only applied to
Chinese nationals. This was in fact the impression many people, includ-
ing the famous lawyer Li Yichen, held when they used the word hanjian.
Li argued that its applicability to the Taiwanese depended on whether
the person in question was a member of the Republic of China (Zhong-
hua minguo ren). As it was, there was a lot of confusion concerning the
charges for which the Taiwanese were brought to trial.31
The "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian," which provided
the legal foundation for the trials, set no restrictions with regard to the
nationality of hanjian. To illustrate, it defined hanjian as a person who
"collaborates with the enemy state" and exploits his or her connections
with the enemy to "benefit the enemy or violate the interests of the
native country or its people."32 As there was no mention of the national-
ity of hanjian, this left some room for debate. In March 1946, the Com-
mittee for Unified Interpretation of Rules and Regulations of the Judi-
cial Ministry issued interpretation 3,078 to dispel doubts about Taiwan-
ese' legal status and its applicability to the charge of hanjian. First, it
established hanjian as a criminal charge for all individuals, not just those
of Chinese nationality. Accordingly, one Lithuanian, one Hungarian,
one Russian, one French, and two Portuguese were found among the
hanjian tried and sentenced by the Shanghai High Court.33 Second, it
maintained that Taiwanese were not just any foreign nationals; rather,
they were "nationals of the enemy state." Since the Taiwanese' status as
Japanese nationals was a fact established before the war, "they should be
subject to the rules of international law, not to the Regulations for the
Punishment of Hanjian."34
By using nationality as the criterion with which to decide on what
charges Taiwanese should be brought to trial, interpretation 3078 compli-
cated the issue even further. It in fact sent out contradictory messages:
Taiwanese could be tried both as hanjian and not as hanjian. If the hanjian
charge was not contingent upon nationality, then Taiwanese could be
prosecuted on the hanjian charge irrespective of their Japanese national-
ity. At the same time, interpretation 3,078 subscribed to the view that
Taiwanese, as "nationals of the enemy state," should be punished if found
guilty as war criminals and not as hanjian.
The ways in which Taiwanese became Japanese nationals made the
applicability of this criterion highly problematic. After the secession of
289
the crime of which they were being charged as hanjian? A semantic understanding of the word hanjian consisting of the two characters han and jian seemed to suggest that as an offense of treason it only applied to Chinese nationals. This was in fact the impression many people, includ ing the famous lawyer Li Yichen, held when they used the word hanjian. Li argued that its applicability to the Taiwanese depended on whether the person in question was a member of the Republic of China (Zhong hua minguo ren). As it was, there was a lot of confusion concerning the charges for which the Taiwanese were brought to trial.31 The "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian," which provided the legal foundation for the trials, set no restrictions with regard to the nationality of hanjian. To illustrate, it defined hanjian as a person who "collaborates with the enemy state" and exploits his or her connections with the enemy to "benefit the enemy or violate the interests of the native country or its people. "32 As there was no mention of the national ity of hanjian, this left some room for debate. In March 1 946, the Com mittee for Unified Interpretation of Rules and Regulations of the Judi cial Ministry issued interpretation 3,078 to dispel doubts about Taiwan ese' legal status and its applicability to the charge of hanjian. First, it established hanjian as a criminal charge for all individuals, not j ust those of Chinese nationality. Accordingly, one Lithuanian, one Hungarian, one Russian, one French, and two Portuguese were found among the hanjian tried and sentenced by the Shanghai High Court.33 Second, it maintained that Taiwanese were not just any foreign nationals; rather, they were "nationals of the enemy state." Since the Taiwanese' status as Japanese nationals was a fact established before the war, "they should be subject to the rules of international law, not to the Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian. "34 By using nationality as the criterion with which to decide on what charges Taiwanese should be brought to trial, interpretation 3078 compli cated the issue even further. It in fact sent out contradictory messages: Taiwanese could be tried both as hanjian and not as hanjian. If the hanjian charge was not contingent upon nationality, then Taiwanese could be prosecuted on the hanjian charge irrespective of their Japanese national ity. At the same time, interpretation 3,078 subscribed to the view that Taiwanese, as "nationals of the enemy state," should be punished if found guilty as war criminals and not as hanjian. The ways in which Taiwanese became Japanese nationals made the applicability of this criterion highly problematic. After the secession of
290
290
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Taiwan to Japan in April 1895, Taiwanese were given two years to decide
whether they would return to Mainland China or stay on the island and
become Japanese subjects. The majority of the population stayed and
acquired Japanese nationality automatically after a two-year morato-
rium period. For Taiwanese, becoming a Japanese national in 1897 was
therefore not a choice to embrace Japan as a naturalized citizen; the
adoption was forced upon them. Most people simply acquiesced to politi-
cal realities over which they had little or no control.
Apart from the political situations under which the Taiwanese ac-
quired their Japanese nationality, consideration should also be given to
the fluid nature of their nationality, especially when the two countries
with which they were closely related were at war. Conflicts between
China and Japan in the 1930s and 1940s highlighted the ambiguity of
Taiwanese identity in that the people were partly Chinese and partly
Japanese. Whereas their Chinese identity was embedded in ethnic and
cultural ties inherited from their ancestors, their Japanese identity was
the corollary of the change in Taiwan's political status some four decades
earlier.
Even though assuming Chinese identity was a common practice for
many Taiwanese living in wartime China, it became a problem in the
postwar trials. It raised questions as to the standard and identity under
which the Taiwanese could be brought to trial. The verdict of case 131 of
the Hebei High Court ruled that Taiwanese who had posed as Chinese
nationals and worked for the collaborationist government during war-
time should be tried as hanjian, the reason being that the crime in
question had been perpetrated under that assumed identity. Li Yichen, a
lawyer who defended the Taiwanese in the courts, contested this judg-
ment on the grounds that, as a legal concept, nationality was not a
matter of subjective assumption. The law could not recognize a person's
nationality simply on the basis of his or her claims.35 A similar case
involved a native Fujianese who had joined the collaborationist govern-
ment under a false Taiwanese identity.36 Was he to be tried as a Taiwan-
ese or a Chinese?
The first court case in which a Taiwanese stood trial as a hanjian was
heard in the Hubei High Court. Defendant Zhuang Sichuan, who
worked for an official newspaper in Wuhan, was found not guilty. The
judge reasoned that as a Japanese national he was obliged to obey orders
and should not be held responsible for actions taken accordingly.37 Al-
though Zhuang Sichuan was acquitted because of his Japanese national-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Taiwan to Japan in April 1895, Taiwanese were given two years to decide whether they would return to Mainland China or stay on the island and become Japanese subjects. The majority of the population stayed and acquired Japanese nationality automatically after a two-year morato rium period. For Taiwanese, becoming a Japanese national in 1897 was therefore not a choice to embrace Japan as a naturalized citizen; the adoption was forced upon them. Most people simply acquiesced to politi cal realities over which they had little or no control. Apart from the political situations under which the Taiwanese ac quired their Japanese nationality, consideration should also be given to the fluid nature of their nationality, especially when the two countries with which they were closely related were at war. Conflicts between China and Japan in the 1930s and 1940s highlighted the ambiguity of Taiwanese identity in that the people were partly Chinese and partly Japanese. Whereas their Chinese identity was embedded in ethnic and cultural ties inherited from their ancestors, their Japanese identity was the corollary of the change in Taiwan's political status some four decades earlier. Even though assuming Chinese identity was a common practice for many Taiwanese living in wartime China, it became a problem in the postwar trials. It raised questions as to the standard and identity under which the Taiwanese could be brought to trial. The verdict of case 131 of the Hebei High Court ruled that Taiwanese who had posed as Chinese nationals and worked for the collaborationist government during war time should be tried as hanjian, the reason being that the crime in question had been perpetrated under that assumed identity. Li Yichen, a lawyer who defended the Taiwanese in the courts, contested this judg ment on the grounds that, as a legal concept, nationality was not a matter of subjective assumption. The law could not recognize a person's nationality simply on the basis of his or her claims.35 A similar case involved a native Fujianese who had joined the collaborationist govern ment under a false Taiwanese identity. 36 Was he to be tried as a Taiwan ese or a Chinese? The first court case in which a Taiwanese stood trial as a hanjian was heard in the Hubei High Court. Defendant Zhuang Sichuan, who worked for an official newspaper in Wuhan, was found not guilty. The judge reasoned that as a Japanese national he was obliged to obey orders and should not be held responsible for actions taken accordingly. 37 Al though Zhuang Sichuan was acquitted because of his Japanese national-
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 291
ity, other Taiwanese were less lucky. Recognition of Taiwanese' Japanese
nationality could have led to an entirely different scenario in which they
were condemned not as hanjian but as war criminals.
In the "Regulations for the Punishment of War Criminals," promul-
gated on December 24, 1946, articles 2 and 3 defined war criminal in
terms of the actual conduct of both military and nonmilitary personnel.38
Article 6 confirmed the culpability of the Taiwanese for war crimes
despite their Chinese nationality, which had been resumed on October
25, 1945.39 The point was made quite clear in interpretation 3,313, which
had been issued by the Committee for the Unified Interpretation of
Rules and Regulations on December 7, 1946. As the committee saw it,
Taiwanese who had been drafted to serve in various capacities in the
Japanese or collaborationist regime and whose wartime conduct had
violated international law should be tried as war criminals.40 If the law
stated that the Taiwanese were culpable for crimes committed under
Japanese occupation, what did this mean for the Taiwanese people? Was
a war criminal charge the only alternative to that of hanjian?
There were two dimensions to the government's decision to put so
many Taiwanese on trial as war criminals: international and national. As
a member state in the Allied camp, China's prosecution of war criminals
constituted part of the postwar international effort to restore law and
order. As such, it could not be separated from the legal action taken by
the International Military Tribunal in the Far East against war crimes.
According to the resolutions of the thirty-sixth meeting of the War
Crime Investigation Committee of the International Military Tribunal at
Tokyo, the Taiwanese were punishable if they had violated the law while
serving in the Japanese Army. In other words, they were put on the same
footing as Japanese soldiers who had committed offenses in war, and no
allowance was made for them because of their special status. In Taiwan,
the Allies' investigation of war crimes focused on the Japanese soldiers'
ill treatment of Allied prisoners of war. Those suspected of wrongdoing
were arrested by the Americans and sent to Taiwan to be tried by the
British and American authorities. Of the defendants put on trial, eight
were Taiwanese.41 Cases that had nothing to do with Western prisoners
of war were handled by the tribunal of the Taiwan Garrison Command.
For the Taiwanese, the charge of being a war criminal was perhaps
even more unpalatable than that of a hanjian. Although they could not
argue with the American and British authorities, they resented similar
actions taken by the Nationalist government in China. The charge, as it
291
ity, other Taiwanese were less lucky. Recognition of Taiwanese' Japanese nationality could have led to an entirely different scenario in which they were condemned not as hanjian but as war criminals. In the "Regulations for the Punishment of War Criminals," promul gated on December 24, 1946, articles 2 and 3 defined war criminal in terms of the actual conduct of both military and nonmilitary personnel.38 Article 6 confirmed the culpability of the Taiwanese for war crimes despite their Chinese nationality, which had been resumed on October 25, 1945.39 The point was made quite clear in interpretation 3 ,313, which had been issued by the Committee for the Unified Interpretation of Rules and Regulations on December 7, 1946. As the committee saw it, Taiwanese who had been drafted to serve in various capacities in the Japanese or collaborationist regime and whose wartime conduct had violated international law should be tried as war criminals.4o If the law stated that the Taiwanese were culpable for crimes committed under Japanese occupation, what did this mean for the Taiwanese people? Was a war criminal charge the only alternative to that of hanjian? There were two dimensions to the government's decision to put so many Taiwanese on trial as war criminals: international and national. As a member state in the Allied camp, China's prosecution of war criminals constituted part of the postwar international effort to restore law and order. As such, it could not be separated from the legal action taken by the International Military Tribunal in the Far East against war crimes. According to the resolutions of the thirty-sixth meeting of the War Crime Investigation Committee of the International Military Tribunal at Tokyo, the Taiwanese were punishable if they had violated the law while serving in the Japanese Army. In other words, they were put on the same footing as Japanese soldiers who had committed offenses in war, and no allowance was made for them because of their special status. In Taiwan, the Allies' investigation of war crimes focused on the Japanese soldiers' ill treatment of Allied prisoners of war. Those suspected of wrongdoing were arrested by the Americans and sent to Taiwan to be tried by the British and American authorities. Of the defendants put on trial, eight were Taiwanese.41 Cases that had nothing to do with Western prisoners of war were handled by the tribunal of the Taiwan Garrison Command. For the Taiwanese, the charge of being a war criminal was perhaps even more unpalatable than that of a hanjian. Although they could not argue with the American and British authorities, they resented similar actions taken by the Nationalist government in China. The charge, as it
292
292
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
appeared to them, failed to take into account the historically rooted
ambivalence of Taiwanese nationality by denying them their Chinese
identity, on the one hand, and ignoring their bittersweet relationship
with Japanese colonialists on the other.
In addition to nationality, bringing the Taiwanese to justice on
charges of war crimes involved two problems that had no easy solutions:
(1) the volition of the Taiwanese in participating in the war and (2) the
degree of Taiwanese involvement in the war itself. There were two
divergent views as to whether Taiwanese should be tried as war crimi-
nals. The first emphasized the fact that Taiwanese under Japanese occu-
pation were passive agents caught in the political and military fighting
between China and Japan. The underlying assumption was that half a
century of colonization had deprived the Taiwanese of the right and
ability to be their own masters. As a result, Taiwanese who had served as
laborers, translators, spies, and guards in the Japanese Army should not
have to take individual responsibility for what they did in the war; they
were as much the victims of Japanese militarism as were the Chinese.42 It
was repeatedly pointed out that with few exceptions most Taiwanese
conscripts serving in China had played very insignificant roles. A strong
opponent of the government's bringing the Taiwanese to trial on either
hanjian or war criminal charges, Qiu Niantai argued that given Taiwan-
ese's low ranking in the hierarchy of the Japanese civilian and military
services, as well as its great distance from the decision-making center,
they were hardly in a position to commit any atrocity that merited the
label war criminal.43 While there is some truth in these arguments, the
question was how well they would hold up in the trials of war criminals
by the international tribunal.
The second view adopted a primarily humanist approach to the
problem such as that exemplified in the Nuremberg trials. Article 6 of
the "Charter Provisions of the Nuremberg Judgment" classified war
crimes for which individuals or "members of organizations" were punish-
able under the jurisdiction of the Military Tribunal under the following
headings: (1) Crimes against Peace, (2) War Crimes, and (3) Crimes
against Humanity. Any person who had committed crimes falling into
one of these categories was to be indicted. It is noteworthy that "Crimes
against Humanity" included acts committed against "any civilian popula-
tion" even before the war. Article 6 defined war crimes in such a way
that it held that "leaders, organizers, instigators and accomplices partici-
pating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
appeared to them, failed to take into account the historically rooted ambivalence of Taiwanese nationality by denying them their Chinese identity, on the one hand, and ignoring their bittersweet relationship with Japanese colonialists on the other. In addition to nationality, bringing the Taiwanese to justice on charges of war crimes involved two problems that had no easy solutions: (1) the volition of the Taiwanese in participating in the war and (2) the degree of Taiwanese involvement in the war itself. There were two divergent views as to whether Taiwanese should be tried as war crimi nals. The first emphasized the fact that Taiwanese under Japanese occu pation were passive agents caught in the political and military fighting between China and Japan. The underlying assumption was that half a century of colonization had deprived the Taiwanese of the right and ability to be their own masters. As a result, Taiwanese who had served as laborers, translators, spies, and guards in the Japanese Army should not have to take individual responsibility for what they did in the war; they were as much the victims of Japanese militarism as were the Chinese.42 It was repeatedly pointed out that with few exceptions most Taiwanese conscripts serving in China had played very insignificant roles. A strong opponent of the government's bringing the Taiwanese to trial on either hanjian or war criminal charges, Qiu Niantai argued that given Taiwan ese's low ranking in the hierarchy of the Japanese civilian and military services, as well as its great distance from the decision-making center, they were hardly in a position to commit any atrocity that merited the label war criminal.43 While there is some truth in these arguments, the question was how well they would hold up in the trials of war criminals by the international tribunal. The second view adopted a primarily humanist approach to the problem such as that exemplified in the Nuremberg trials. Article 6 of the "Charter Provisions of the Nuremberg Judgment" classified war crimes for which individuals or "members of organizations" were punish able under the jurisdiction of the Military Tribunal under the following headings: (1) Crimes against Peace, (2) War Crimes, and (3) Crimes against Humanity. Any person who had committed crimes falling into one of these categories was to be indicted. It is noteworthy that "Crimes against Humanity" included acts committed against "any civilian popula tion" even before the war. Article 6 defined war crimes in such a way that it held that "leaders, organizers, instigators and accomplices partici pating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 293
to commit any of the foregoing crimes are responsible for all acts per-
formed by any persons in execution of such plan."44 The judgment,
therefore, did not take for granted the correlation between ranks and
responsibility so far as war crimes charges were concerned.45 Moreover,
international law put more emphasis on the action actually taken rather
than the status of the agents in question.
In reality, the responsibility of war criminals in relation to rank is a
much more complex issue despite these classifications. It is notable that
A-class war criminals tried and sentenced by the Tokyo International
Military Tribunal were greatly outnumbered by those under the B and C
classifications. In addition to postwar U.S. strategic considerations, this
phenomenon can be partly explained by the fact that people in the latter
two groups had a greater chance of exposure to the enemy than those
in the first. Apart from a few prominent leading figures in various war
theaters, people in the last two categories as a rule had more personal
contact with the prisoners of war, often on unpleasant terms, and this left
an indelible impression on the victims. As it was, a low-ranking prison
guard or a junior police officer was more likely to incur hostility from
those under his charge than people who gave orders behind the scenes.
As people tried to redress the wrongs they had suffered under the Japa-
nese, it was more likely that they would direct their anger toward the
subordinates than their superiors and more toward the collaborationists
with whom they could communicate than toward the Japanese they knew
little or nothing about.
The postwar prosecution of Japanese war criminals by countries
such as the United States and Great Britain also showed that personal
contact had a direct impact on indictments. Many low-ranking Japanese
soldiers were punished for their personal involvement with the adminis-
tration of prisons in Southeast Asia. Of the 173 Taiwanese prosecuted,
26 received death sentences. Four of these were sentenced by the Ameri-
can tribunal, 26 by the British, 95 by the Australian, 7 by the Dutch, and
41 by the Chinese. The high percentage of British and Australian trials
was obviously correlated with the number of their citizens who had been
captured in Southeast Asia.46 Although judges may have taken into
consideration the ranks, positions, and responsibilities of the defen-
dants, it was not always easy to strike a balance between justice and
personal feelings. Seen in this light, although the argument that the
Taiwanese, as subjects of the Japanese colonial empire, had limited
choices was true to some degree, the Nationalist government showed
293
to commit any of the foregoing crimes are responsible for all acts per formed by any persons in execution of such plan."44 The j udgment, therefore, did not take for granted the correlation between ranks and responsibility so far as war crimes charges were concerned.45 Moreover, international law put more emphasis on the action actually taken rather than the status of the agents in question. In reality, the responsibility of war criminals in relation to rank is a much more complex issue despite these classifications. It is notable that A-class war criminals tried and sentenced by the Tokyo International Military Tribunal were greatly outnumbered by those under the B and C classifications. In addition to postwar U. S . strategic considerations, this phenomenon can be partly explained by the fact that people in the latter two groups had a greater chance of exposure to the enemy than those in the first. Apart from a few prominent leading figures in various war theaters, people in the last two categories as a rule had more personal contact with the prisoners of war, often on unpleasant terms, and this left an indelible impression on the victims. As it was, a low-ranking prison guard or a junior police officer was more likely to incur hostility from those under his charge than people who gave orders behind the scenes. As people tried to redress the wrongs they had suffered under the Japa nese, it was more likely that they would direct their anger toward the subordinates than their superiors and more toward the collaborationists with whom they could communicate than toward the Japanese they knew little or nothing about. The postwar prosecution of Japanese war criminals by countries such as the United States and Great Britain also showed that personal contact had a direct impact on indictments. Many low-ranking Japanese soldiers were punished for their personal involvement with the adminis tration of prisons in Southeast Asia. Of the 1 73 Taiwanese prosecuted, 26 received death sentences. Four of these were sentenced by the Ameri can tribunal, 26 by the British, 95 by the Australian, 7 by the Dutch, and 41 by the Chinese. The high percentage of British and Australian trials was obviously correlated with the number of their citizens who had been captured in Southeast Asia.46 Although judges may have taken into consideration the ranks, positions, and responsibilities of the defen dants, it was not always easy to strike a balance between justice and personal feelings. Seen in this light, although the argument that the Taiwanese, as subjects of the Japanese colonial empire, had limited choices was true to some degree, the Nationalist government showed
294
294
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
great reluctance to grant them full pardons. This was partly due to the
fact that there was an international dimension and partly for fear of
offending the Chinese population.
If neither volition nor a lower rank fully excused a misdemeanor in
war, as the International Military Tribunal at Tokyo showed, was it
justifiable that the Taiwanese should expect full pardons because of their
special status under Japanese colonial rule? For those Chinese who in-
sisted on bringing Taiwanese to justice, it did not matter whether they
were indicted on the charge of hanjian or war criminal. The Chinese saw
the Taiwanese as a group that had enjoyed the best of two worlds in the
protracted war between China and Japan. With this in mind, they would
have asked why collaborationists in France and Norway had been pun-
ished and yet Taiwanese had been allowed to go free. If the marginali-
zation of the Taiwanese in both Chinese and Japanese societies was the
main reason for this public fury, it also explained why the majority
of Taiwanese thought they were not answerable to either of the two
charges. However, the fact that they did stand trial as citizens of the
Republic of China meant that the national, rather than international,
implications of the trials had come to the forefront as the predominant
concerns of the government.
Government Policy on the Trials of the Taiwanese
The postwar government policy toward the Taiwanese was fraught with
contradictions and characterized by indecisiveness. This had much to do
with the overall political situation in postwar China; fierce fighting for
power among the collaborationists, Nationalists, and Communists had
been going on since 1940-41. Japan's defeat narrowed the contest to one
between the latter two parties. The trials of collaborationists was in one
sense an assertion of the political legitimacy of the Nationalist govern-
ment, even though the expediency and ambivalence surrounding war-
time collaboration hardly made it a fit subject for a government demon-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
great reluctance to grant them full pardons. This was partly due to the fact that there was an international dimension and partly for fear of offending the Chinese population. If neither volition nor a lower rank fully excused a misdemeanor in war, as the International Military Tribunal at Tokyo showed, was it justifiable that the Taiwanese should expect full pardons because of their special status under Japanese colonial rule? For those Chinese who in sisted on bringing Taiwanese to j ustice, it did not matter whether they were indicted on the charge of hanjian or war criminal. The Chinese saw the Taiwanese as a group that had enjoyed the best of two worlds in the protracted war between China and Japan. With this in mind, they would have asked why collaborationists in France and Norway had been pun ished and yet Taiwanese had been allowed to go free. If the marginali zation of the Taiwanese in both Chinese and Japanese societies was the main reason for this public fury, it also explained why the majority of Taiwanese thought they were not answerable to either of the two charges. However, the fact that they did stand trial as citizens of the Republic of China meant that the national, rather than international, implications of the trials had come to the forefront as the predominant concerns of the government.
stration of its capacity to administer justice.
In the process of debating whether the Taiwanese should be tried as
hanjian or war criminals, the right of interpretation was of vital impor-
Government Policy on the Trials of the Taiwanese
tance. It determined not just how these individuals were to stand trial but
also whether they should be tried and punished at all. A war was going on
among several government agencies and interest groups, including the
judiciary, the military, the intelligence services, and the Taiwanese. This
The postwar government policy toward the Taiwanese was fraught with contradictions and characterized by indecisiveness. This had much to do with the overall political situation in postwar China; fierce fighting for power among the collaborationists, Nationalists, and Communists had been going on since 1940-41 . Japan's defeat narrowed the contest to one between the latter two parties. The trials of collaborationists was in one sense an assertion of the political legitimacy of the Nationalist govern ment, even though the expediency and ambivalence surrounding war time collaboration hardly made it a fit subject for a government demon stration of its capacity to administer justice. In the process of debating whether the Taiwanese should be tried as hanjian or war criminals, the right of interpretation was of vital impor tance. It determined not just how these individuals were to stand trial but also whether they should be tried and punished at all. A war was going on among several government agencies and interest groups, including the judiciary, the military, the intelligence services, and the Taiwanese. This
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 295
gave rise to a plethora of contradictory messages, which infuriated both
the Chinese and the Taiwanese. While the government's inability to act
promptly and settle the dispute was caused by the complexity of the
problem, it was also an indication of the administration's incompetence
and increasing loss of control.
Upon the Japanese surrender, "Measures on the Management of the
Taiwanese" (Taiwanren guanli banfa), promulgated by the Army's gen-
eral headquarters, provided the legal basis for the handling of the Tai-
wanese. Apart from having them rounded up and kept in custody by
local governments, it stipulated that those who had committed wrongdo-
ings during wartime should be sent to a nearby High Court for further
investigation and prosecution.47 On December 25, 1945, the Nationalist
government enacted the "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian"
(Hanjian shenpan tiaoli). At this early stage, both in China and in
Taiwan, it was assumed that the regulations promulgated for the punish-
ment of Chinese hanjian applied to the Taiwanese as well. As it was,
when the Taiwan Garrison Command issued an order in January 1946 to
round up all hanjian on the island, there was no attempt to draw a
distinction between the Taiwanese and the Chinese.48 The same applied
to Amoy, which had a large Taiwanese population.
In the beginning, the trials of the hanjian were dominated by a
strong military presence. This was largely due to the fact that military
and intelligence personnel were among the first to return to formerly
occupied territory. They accordingly took responsibility for restoring law
and order in the area. For instance, upon recovering Shaoguan in Fujian
Province in early September 1945, the military authorities immediately
ordered that the city gate be closed for three consecutive days, during
which period they rounded up more than two hundred hanjian suspects.
With the help of the local police, these people were sent to the Fuzhou
Garrison Command to be court-martialed.49 In a similar vein, in the
wake of Fuzhou's recovery, its Garrison Command assumed full respon-
sibility for the prosecution of all hanjian, military as well as civilian.50
Even later, when other government agencies became involved in the
trials of hanjian, the military constituted a major force that was not to be
taken lightly.
In Amoy, a committee composed of representatives of the govern-
ment, the party, the police department, intelligence, the military, and the
judicial branches was set up in early October to investigate the crimes and
atrocities perpetrated by the Japanese as well as collaborationists.51 All
295
gave rise to a plethora of contradictory messages, which infuriated both the Chinese and the Taiwanese. While the government's inability to act promptly and settle the dispute was caused by the complexity of the problem, it was also an indication of the administration's incompetence and increasing loss of control. Upon the Japanese surrender, "Measures on the Management of the Taiwanese" (Taiwanren guanli banfa), promulgated by the Army's gen eral headquarters, provided the legal basis for the handling of the Tai wanese. Apart from having them rounded up and kept in custody by local governments, it stipulated that those who had committed wrongdo ings during wartime should be sent to a nearby High Court for further investigation and prosecution.47 On December 25, 1 945, the Nationalist government enacted the "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian" (Hanjian shenpan tiaoli). At this early stage, both in China and in Taiwan, it was assumed that the regulations promulgated for the punish ment of Chinese hanjian applied to the Taiwanese as well. As it was, when the Taiwan Garrison Command issued an order in January 1946 to round up all hanjian on the island, there was no attempt to draw a distinction between the Taiwanese and the Chinese.48 The same applied to Amoy, which had a large Taiwanese population. In the beginning, the trials of the hanjian were dominated by a strong military presence. This was largely due to the fact that military and intelligence personnel were among the first to return to formerly occupied territory. They accordingly took responsibility for restoring law and order in the area. For instance, upon recovering Shaoguan in Fujian Province in early September 1 945, the military authorities immediately ordered that the city gate be closed for three consecutive days, during which period they rounded up more than two hundred hanjian suspects. With the help of the local police, these people were sent to the Fuzhou Garrison Command to be court-martialed.49 In a similar vein, in the wake of Fuzhou's recovery, its Garrison Command assumed full respon sibility for the prosecution of all hanjian, military as well as civilian.5o Even later, when other government agencies became involved in the trials of hanjian, the military constituted a major force that was not to be taken lightly. In Amoy, a committee composed of representatives of the govern ment, the party, the police department, intelligence, the military, and the judicial branches was set up in early October to investigate the crimes and atrocities perpetrated by the Japanese as well as collaborationists.51 All
296
296
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
cases, once established, were forwarded to the prosecution office of the
Fujian First Division High Court for processing. Such was the mission
assigned to the Jin-Xia Committee for the Handling of Hanjian (Jinxia
hanjian chuli weiyuanhui). However, despite the original proposal to
involve all parties concerned in the preliminary investigation work, the
Bureau of Investigation and Statistics of the Military Affairs Committee,
led by Dai Li, appears to have played a dominant role in the identifica-
tion and arrest of hanjian in Jinmen and Amoy. Because 125 out of the
226 hanjian suspects arrested were Taiwanese, the committee felt it had a
stake in the question of whether or not Taiwanese should stand trial as
hanjian or war criminals.52
A tug of war soon developed between the committee and the prose-
cution office of the Fujian First Division High Court. Between April and
May 1946, the media began to raise questions about the court's long
delay in bringing hanjian suspects to trial. In mid-May, members of the
provisional City Assembly also passed resolutions permitting them to
conduct investigations into the handling of hanjian and their property. 53
Chief prosecutor Zhang Shenwei was under tremendous pressure. To-
ward the end of May, he received an intimidation letter signed by the
Amoy Action Troops for the Extermination of Traitors and Corruption
(Xiamen chujian xingdong budui), which threatened to take his life if
justice were not properly done. Zhang, on his part, dropped hints in an
interview with journalists that the government had revised its policy
toward the Taiwanese hanjian even though he refrained from revealing
any details.54
Following instructions from high authorities and acting upon its own
understanding of interpretation 3,078, the prosecution office decided
that the Taiwanese should not be tried as hanjian. Before it released
the Taiwanese suspects on that account, however, it proposed releasing the
ninety-six Taiwanese and putting them once again at the disposal of
the Jin-Xia Committee for the Handling of Hanjian. Rejecting this ges-
ture of courtesy, the committee nevertheless contested the prosecution
office's reading of interpretation 3,078 that Taiwanese could not be tried
as hanjian. Mao Renfeng, deputy chief of the Bureau of Military Investi-
gation and Statistics, argued in a letter to the prosecution office that
despite their Japanese nationality Taiwanese should nevertheless stand
trial on hanjian charges as long as their participation in the war could not
be proven involuntary and their actions had indeed violated articles listed
in the "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian."55
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
cases, once established, were forwarded to the prosecution office of the Fujian First Division High Court for processing. Such was the mission assigned to the Jin-Xia Committee for the Handling of Hanjian (Jinxia hanjian chuli weiyuanhui). However, despite the original proposal to involve all parties concerned in the preliminary investigation work, the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics of the Military Affairs Committee, led by Dai Li, appears to have played a dominant role in the identifica tion and arrest of hanjian in Jinmen and Amoy. Because 125 out of the 226 hanjian suspects arrested were Taiwanese, the committee felt it had a stake in the question of whether or not Taiwanese should stand trial as hanjian or war criminals.52 A tug of war soon developed between the committee and the prose cution office of the Fujian First Division High Court. Between April and May 1 946, the media began to raise questions about the court's long delay in bringing hanjian suspects to trial. In mid-May, members of the provisional City Assembly also passed resolutions permitting them to conduct investigations into the handling of hanjian and their property. 53 Chief prosecutor Zhang Shenwei was under tremendous pressure. To ward the end of May, he received an intimidation letter signed by the Amoy Action Troops for the Extermination of Traitors and Corruption (Xiamen chujian xingdong budui), which threatened to take his life if justice were not properly done. Zhang, on his part, dropped hints in an interview with journalists that the government had revised its policy toward the Taiwanese hanjian even though he refrained from revealing any details. 54 Following instructions from high authorities and acting upon its own understanding of interpretation 3,078, the prosecution office decided that the Taiwanese should not be tried as hanjian. Before it released the Taiwanese suspects on that account, however, it proposed releasing the ninety-six Taiwanese and putting them once again at the disposal of the Jin-Xia Committee for the Handling of Hanjian. Rejecting this ges ture of courtesy, the committee nevertheless contested the prosecution office's reading of interpretation 3,078 that Taiwanese could not be tried as hanjian. Mao Renfeng, deputy chief of the Bureau of Military Investi gation and Statistics, argued in a letter to the prosecution office that despite their Japanese nationality Taiwanese should nevertheless stand trial on hanjian charges as long as their participation in the war could not be proven involuntary and their actions had indeed violated articles listed in the "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanj ian. "55
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 297
The fact that the administration of justice had been heavily influ-
enced by the military was further corroborated by the following inci-
dent. When the prosecution office withdrew its charge against Chen Jie,
who had been accused of collaboration with the Japanese, the Jin-Xia
Committee for the Handling of Traitors protested and demanded a hear-
ing to review the whole case. The prosecution office acquiesced, and the
case was submitted to higher authorities for arbitration.56
On the other hand, the judiciary did not succumb entirely to the
mounting pressure coming from the committee as well as the general
public. Facing strong criticism and accusations of foul play from more
than one party, the prosecution office adopted a lenient approach toward
suspected hanjian in general and Taiwanese suspects in particular. As of
June 20, it had released dozens of Taiwanese hanjian suspects on bail.
According to the chief prosecutor, Zhang Shenwei, the fact that the
Taiwanese held Japanese nationality before the retrocession meant that
they were not answerable to the hanjian charge.57 The Bureau of Military
Investigation and Statistics disagreed. It went to the highest authorities
for clarification as to whether the Fujian First Division High Court had
the right to let Taiwanese hanjian suspects go unpunished. It also
asked Yang Lianggong, the Control Yuan's high commissioner for Fujian
and Taiwan, to conduct an investigation into the matter.58 In the mean-
time, many suspects out on bail took flight and returned to Taiwan. In
February 1947, the Control Yuan found Zhang Shenwei guilty of abusing
his power, but Zhang stayed in office. In April, he was transferred to the
Jiangsu Fourth Division High Court in Huaian, where he continued to
serve as chief prosecutor.59
The Bureau of Military Investigation and Statistics was not the only
intelligence agency that tried to interfere with the judicial branch's han-
dling of the Taiwanese hanjian problem. The Bureau of Central Investi-
gation and Statistics, the intelligence agency of the Nationalist Party,
also expressed deep concern about the government's decision that Tai-
wanese could only be tried as war criminals. Yet the judicial department
was adamant. In March 5, 1947, the Fujian High Court issued Decree
64, citing a government order of October 24, 1946, to the effect that all
Taiwanese suspected of war crimes were to be tried by tribunals under
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense.60 This was less than a week
after the February 28 Incident engulfed Taiwan.
The struggle between the judiciary and the military/intelligence
forces centered on the question of whether Taiwanese should be held
297
The fact that the administration of justice had been heavily influ enced by the military was further corroborated by the following inci dent. When the prosecution office withdrew its charge against Chen Jie, who had been accused of collaboration with the Japanese, the Jin-Xia Committee for the Handling of Traitors protested and demanded a hear ing to review the whole case. The prosecution office acquiesced, and the case was submitted to higher authorities for arbitration. 56 On the other hand, the judiciary did not succumb entirely to the mounting pressure coming from the committee as well as the general public. Facing strong criticism and accusations of foul play from more than one party, the prosecution office adopted a lenient approach toward suspected hanjian in general and Taiwanese suspects in particular. As of June 20, it had released dozens of Taiwanese hanjian suspects on bail. According to the chief prosecutor, Zhang Shenwei, the fact that the Taiwanese held Japanese nationality before the retrocession meant that they were not answerable to the hanjian charge.57 The Bureau of Military Investigation and Statistics disagreed. It went to the highest authorities for clarification as to whether the Fujian First Division High Court had the right to let Taiwanese hanjian suspects go unpunished. It also asked Yang Lianggong, the Control Yuan's high commissioner for Fujian and Taiwan, to conduct an investigation into the matter. 58 In the mean time, many suspects out on bail took flight and returned to Taiwan. In February 1 947, the Control Yuan found Zhang Shenwei guilty of abusing his power, but Zhang stayed in office. In April, he was transferred to the Jiangsu Fourth Division High Court in Huaian, where he continued to serve as chief prosecutor. 59 The Bureau of Military Investigation and Statistics was not the only intelligence agency that tried to interfere with the judicial branch's han dling of the Taiwanese hanjian problem. The Bureau of Central Investi gation and Statistics, the intelligence agency of the Nationalist Party, also expressed deep concern about the government's decision that Tai wanese could only be tried as war criminals. Yet the judicial department was adamant. In March 5 , 1 947, the Fujian High Court issued Decree 64, citing a government order of October 24, 1 946, to the effect that all Taiwanese suspected of war crimes were to be tried by tribunals under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense.60 This was less than a week after the February 28 Incident engulfed Taiwan. The struggle between the judiciary and the military/intelligence forces centered on the question of whether Taiwanese should be held
298
298 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
responsible for what they did during the war. Unlike the judicial depart-
ment, the military/intelligence branches were hardly concerned about
technical questions such as nationality and what it meant to the Taiwan-
ese. For them, it was less a problem of whether Taiwanese should be put
on trial than whether they should be allowed to go unpunished. Conse-
quently, they insisted that justice be done irrespective of Taiwanese legal
status at the time the action in question was perpetrated.61
As government policy wavered between the judicial and the mili-
tary/intelligence groups, the Taiwanese tried to have their voices heard.
After the Japanese surrender, many Taiwanese in China took on a low
profile and accepted what came their way. In Taiwan, the majority of the
population, having been isolated from China for such a long time, went
through a quick change from euphoria to disappointment. At the sugges-
tion of Qiu Niantai, the Taiwanese in China made generous donations to
various government and military agencies in an attempt to win goodwill
and leniency. On August 29 1945, fifteen Taiwanese gentry, including
Lin Xiantang, made a trip to Nanjing and other places in China to pay
homage to Jiang Jieshi and the central government.62 In their interview
with High Court Judge Zheng Lie, they brought up the issue of the
Taiwanese being tried as hanjian.63 Ironically, it was in Shanghai that
they learned of the arrest of Yang Zhaojia, who had been charged with
war crimes. Yang, a Taiwanese member of the gentry who was known to
all members of the group, had earlier been a political activist promoting
the cause of Taiwanese self-government under Japanese rule.64 Although
Yang Zhaojia was released in less than a month and the accusation
proved groundless, the vulnerability of the Taiwanese was obvious.
Even if the Taiwanese voice was slight in the dispute between the
judiciary and the military/intelligence branches, the authorities neverthe-
less had a chance to become acquainted with the Taiwanese perspective.
One of the sources of information came from Qiu Niantai, a so-called half
mainlander (banshan) who had taken upon himself the task of bridging
the gap between the authorities and the Taiwanese. Immediately after the
Japanese surrender, Qiu, the leader of the Guangdong Eastern Task
Force, took some of his followers to Guangzhou. At that time, there were
approximately 20,000 Taiwanese in Guangzhou. Among them, 1,300 sol-
diers and 300 nurses on combat duty were handed over to the Guangdong
military authorities. The Second Field Army set up a Taiwanese camp and
put them on a two-month training program with Qiu Niantai serving as its
consultant. Facing the accusation of collaboration with the enemy, many
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
responsible for what they did during the war. Unlike the judicial depart ment, the military/intelligence branches were hardly concerned about technical questions such as nationality and what it meant to the Taiwan ese. For them, it was less a problem of whether Taiwanese should be put on trial than whether they should be allowed to go unpunished. Conse quently, they insisted that justice be done irrespective of Taiwanese legal status at the time the action in question was perpetrated.61 As government policy wavered between the judicial and the mili tary/intelligence groups, the Taiwanese tried to have their voices heard. After the Japanese surrender, many Taiwanese in China took on a low profile and accepted what came their way. In Taiwan, the majority of the population, having been isolated from China for such a long time, went through a quick change from euphoria to disappointment. At the sugges tion of Qiu Niantai, the Taiwanese in China made generous donations to various government and military agencies in an attempt to win goodwill and leniency. On August 29 1 945 , fifteen Taiwanese gentry, including Lin Xiantang, made a trip to Nanjing and other places in China to pay homage to Jiang Jieshi and the central government.62 In their interview with High Court Judge Zheng Lie, they brought up the issue of the Taiwanese being tried as hanjian. 63 Ironically, it was in Shanghai that they learned of the arrest of Yang Zhaojia, who had been charged with war crimes. Yang, a Taiwanese member of the gentry who was known to all members of the group, had earlier been a political activist promoting the cause of Taiwanese self-government under Japanese rule.64 Although Yang Zhaojia was released in less than a month and the accusation proved groundless, the vulnerability of the Taiwanese was obvious. Even if the Taiwanese voice was slight in the dispute between the judiciary and the military/intelligence branches, the authorities neverthe less had a chance to become acquainted with the Taiwanese perspective. One of the sources of information came from Qiu Niantai, a so-called half mainlander (banshan) who had taken upon himself the task of bridging the gap between the authorities and the Taiwanese. Immediately after the Japanese surrender, Qiu, the leader of the Guangdong Eastern Task Force, took some of his followers to Guangzhou. At that time, there were approximately 20,000 Taiwanese in Guangzhou. Among them, 1 ,300 sol diers and 300 nurses on combat duty were handed over to the Guangdong military authorities. The Second Field Army set up a Taiwanese camp and put them on a two-month training program with Qiu Niantai serving as its consultant. Facing the accusation of collaboration with the enemy, many
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 299
of the Taiwanese in custody were overwhelmed by depression; some at-
tempted suicide. Apart from lending a helping hand to the Taiwanese in
Guangzhou, Qiu did his best to brief the provincial government and
military authorities about Taiwan's conditions under Japanese occupa-
tion. Moreover, at his suggestion Taiwanese made voluntary donations to
the military, the police, and the provincial and city governments as a
gesture of allegiance to the government. These moves helped ease ten-
sions between the Taiwanese and the local community, hence alleviating
some of the hardship of the former.
Qiu Niantai tackled the problem of Taiwanese being treated as
hanjian from a different angle. First, he applied the logic with which
most Chinese were familiar to the Taiwanese issue. He drew a distinc-
tion between "big" and "small" hanjian. He argued that ordinary Taiwan-
ese were not capable of heinous crimes against the interests of China and
its people. The "real" hanjian, according to him, worked behind the
scenes and remained unknown to the public. Although he did not cate-
gorically reject the category of the Taiwanese hanjian, he strongly criti-
cized the government's handling of the Taiwanese issue. In his audience
with Jiang Jieshi and his ministers at Chongqing, he argued that the
Taiwanese should not be punished on either hanjian or war criminal
charges due to their Japanese nationality. He conceded that some war-
time behavior was indeed deplorable and hard to forgive, especially in
view of Taiwanese Chinese ethnicity. Still, a distinction had to be made
between moral and legal justice. What the Taiwanese needed, he said,
was legal rather than moral leniency. That was why, eager as he was
pleading for the Taiwanese, he refrained from calling for an indiscrimi-
nate pardon for all of the Taiwanese because of their Japanese national-
ity. While he objected to bringing Taiwanese to justice on charges of
being either hanjian or of war criminals, he thought they deserved moral
condemnation. The leadership in Chongqing and Guangzhou, according
to Qiu Niantai, listened to his appeal with "great understanding and
sympathy."65
Qiu was one of only a few Taiwanese who had access to and enjoyed
the confidence of the authorities on both the central and local levels.
Even so, he found the incongruity between theory and practice disheart-
ening. In spite of his repeated warnings against alienating the Taiwan-
ese, there was little he could do to have that "understanding and sympa-
thy" translated into concrete action to relieve the Taiwanese of their
plight. His audience with Jiang Jieshi and the government authorities in
299
of the Taiwanese in custody were overwhelmed by depression; some at tempted suicide. Apart from lending a helping hand to the Taiwanese in Guangzhou, Giu did his best to brief the provincial government and military authorities about Taiwan's conditions under Japanese occupa tion. Moreover, at his suggestion Taiwanese made voluntary donations to the military, the police, and the provincial and city governments as a gesture of allegiance to the government. These moves helped ease ten sions between the Taiwanese and the local community, hence alleviating some of the hardship of the former. Giu Niantai tackled the problem of Taiwanese being treated as hanjian from a different angle. First, he applied the logic with which most Chinese were familiar to the Taiwanese issue. He drew a distinc tion between "big" and "small" hanjian. He argued that ordinary Taiwan ese were not capable of heinous crimes against the interests of China and its people. The "real" hanjian, according to him, worked behind the scenes and remained unknown to the public. Although he did not cate gorically reject the category of the Taiwanese hanjian, he strongly criti cized the government's handling of the Taiwanese issue. In his audience with Jiang Jieshi and his ministers at Chongqing, he argued that the Taiwanese should not be punished on either hanjian or war criminal charges due to their Japanese nationality. He conceded that some war time behavior was indeed deplorable and hard to forgive, especially in view of Taiwanese Chinese ethnicity. Still, a distinction had to be made between moral and legal justice. What the Taiwanese needed, he said, was legal rather than moral leniency. That was why, eager as he was pleading for the Taiwanese, he refrained from calling for an indiscrimi nate pardon for all of the Taiwanese because of their Japanese national ity. While he objected to bringing Taiwanese to justice on charges of being either hanjian or of war criminals, he thought they deserved moral condemnation. The leadership in Chongqing and Guangzhou, according to Giu Niantai, listened to his appeal with "great understanding and sympathy. " 65 Giu was one of only a few Taiwanese who had access to and enjoyed the confidence of the authorities on both the central and local levels. Even so, he found the incongruity between theory and practice disheart ening. In spite of his repeated warnings against alienating the Taiwan ese, there was little he could do to have that "understanding and sympa thy" translated into concrete action to relieve the Taiwanese of their plight. His audience with Jiang Jieshi and the government authorities in
300
300
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Chongqing took place as early as November 1945. Upon his arrival in
Taiwan in early March 1946, he went to see Chen Yi and published
articles in Xinsheng bao pleading on behalf of the dozen Taiwanese
gentry prosecuted on war criminal charges. Qiu believed that his argu-
ment and personal appeal affected the government's attitude toward the
Taiwanese. For instance, the Taiwan Garrison Command, according to
him, stopped arresting Taiwanese after his audience with Chen Yi. Also,
some of the gentry were released in a few months.66
Beginning in early 1946, there was a shift in government policy to-
ward the Taiwanese, even though from April to June the dispute over
whether the Taiwanese should stand trial as hanjian or war criminals went
on unabated in Fujian Province. One gets the impression that the govern-
ment, wavering between the judiciary and the military/intelligence
branches, could not decide which side to take. One could reason, how-
ever, that the chief prosecutor of the Fujian First Division High Court,
Zhang Shenwei, could hardly demonstrate his generosity by releasing a
large number of Taiwanese on bail without the tacit approval of the higher
authorities. The fact that he was spared demotion despite the official
condemnation of the Control Yuan indicated that his decision did not go
unsupported. All of this seems to suggest that the government was caught
in a dilemma, for it neither wanted to alienate the Taiwanese, who ex-
pected leniency, nor wished to offend the Chinese, who demanded
revenge.
Part of this indecisiveness was attributable to the lack of a strong
central government as well as the personal politics that had been going
on since the early Republican years. Again, Qiu Niantai's experience
provides a glimpse into the matter. In the wake of the Japanese surren-
der, the jurisdiction of the Taiwanese in Guangzhou had been a cause of
factional strife, as they were approached by different agencies for vari-
ous reasons. As Qiu Niantai revealed, personal relations were vital in
getting things done. He believed his not being on good terms with the
Guangdong provincial government was the main reason why all his de-
mands made on behalf of the Taiwanese were stalled. As it was, the
provincial governor, Luo Zhuoying, declined the million-dollar dona-
tions made by the Taiwanese in Guangdong for refugee relief. Even
within the military circle, there was no consensus as to how to deal with
the Taiwanese issue. Although donations and arguments had won the
Taiwanese people the goodwill of General Zhang Fakui, commander of
the Second Front Army, leaders of the New First Army apparently did
Constructing Nationhood in Modem East Asia
Chongqing took place as early as November 1 945. Upon his arrival in Taiwan in early March 1 946, he went to see Chen Yi and published articles in Xinsheng baa pleading on behalf of the dozen Taiwanese gentry prosecuted on war criminal charges. Qiu believed that his argu ment and personal appeal affected the government's attitude toward the Taiwanese. For instance, the Taiwan Garrison Command, according to him, stopped arresting Taiwanese after his audience with Chen Yi. Also, some of the gentry were released in a few months.66 Beginning in early 1 946, there was a shift in government policy to ward the Taiwanese, even though from April to June the dispute over whether the Taiwanese should stand trial as hanjian or war criminals went on unabated in Fujian Province. One gets the impression that the govern ment, wavering between the judiciary and the military/intelligence branches, could not decide which side to take. One could reason, how ever, that the chief prosecutor of the Fujian First Division High Court, Zhang Shenwei, could hardly demonstrate his generosity by releasing a large number of Taiwanese on bail without the tacit approval of the higher authorities. The fact that he was spared demotion despite the official condemnation of the Control Yuan indicated that his decision did not go unsupported. All of this seems to suggest that the government was caught in a dilemma, for it neither wanted to alienate the Taiwanese, who ex pected leniency, nor wished to offend the Chinese, who demanded revenge. Part of this indecisiveness was attributable to the lack of a strong central government as well as the personal politics that had been going on since the early Republican years. Again, Qiu Niantai's experience provides a glimpse into the matter. In the wake of the Japanese surren der, the jurisdiction of the Taiwanese in Guangzhou had been a cause of factional strife, as they were approached by different agencies for vari ous reasons. As Qiu Niantai revealed, personal relations were vital in getting things done. He believed his not being on good terms with the Guangdong provincial government was the main reason why all his de mands made on behalf of the Taiwanese were stalled. As it was, the provincial governor, Luo Zhuoying, declined the million-dollar dona tions made by the Taiwanese in Guangdong for refugee relief. Even within the military circle, there was no consensus as to how to deal with the Taiwanese issue. Although donations and arguments had won the Taiwanese people the goodwill of General Zhang Fakui, commander of the Second Front Army, leaders of the New First Army apparently did
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 301
not share his views. The plight of the Taiwanese was further exacerbated
by widespread corruption and embezzlement among government offi-
cials and intelligence agents.67
Under these circumstances, confusion about Taiwanese people's sta-
tus related to the trials lingered. In Taiwan, the provincial government
stopped prosecuting the Taiwanese as hanjian even though charges of
war crimes continued to be brought against them. In China, as late as
Autumn 1946 there were still some Taiwanese war criminals serving
prison sentences in Nanjing.68 In November 1946, the central govern-
ment issued an order to the provincial governments banning the indict-
ment of any Taiwanese as a hanjian. However, they were still amenable
to prosecution on war criminal charges should their wartime conduct
prove to have been inappropriate.
This raised questions about what the government's policy toward
the Taiwanese was in relation to hanjian and war criminals and whether
there was a discrepancy between government policy on the highest level
and its implementation on the bureaucratic level. From materials now
available and taking into consideration the shifting character of the Tai-
wanese legal status before, during, and after the Second Sino-Japanese
War, it seems that there was no overall policy toward either the Taiwan-
ese hanjian or war criminals. Even with the help of those Taiwanese who
had maintained various relationships with the Nationalist government,
few people foresaw the entanglements that later arose. The military/
intelligence branches' "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth" approach was
oriented toward protecting Chinese national interests as well their own.
However, as the formulation of government policy needed to be based
on wider considerations, the incongruity resulting from these struggles
for the right of interpretation had undermined the government's credibil-
ity in the eyes of the Taiwanese population.
Changes in the Taiwanese Attitude toward Hanjian
At first, few seemed to question the legitimacy of the Taiwanese being
put on trial as hanjian. This is found to be true not just in the ambigu-
ous interpretation given by the Judicial Ministry, mentioned earlier, but
in contemporary public opinion. The public tended to see the Taiwan-
ese as Chinese who had exploited their privileged status, that is, their
Japanese nationality, to work against the national interests of China and
its people. This sentiment took the strongest form in places where the
301
not share his views. The plight of the Taiwanese was further exacerbated by widespread corruption and embezzlement among government offi cials and intelligence agents.67 Under these circumstances, confusion about Taiwanese people's sta tus related to the trials lingered. In Taiwan, the provincial government stopped prosecuting the Taiwanese as hanjian even though charges of war crimes continued to be brought against them. In China, as late as Autumn 1946 there were still some Taiwanese war criminals serving prison sentences in Nanjing.68 In November 1 946, the central govern ment issued an order to the provincial governments banning the indict ment of any Taiwanese as a hanjian. However, they were still amenable to prosecution on war criminal charges should their wartime conduct prove to have been inappropriate. This raised questions about what the government's policy toward the Taiwanese was in relation to hanjian and war criminals and whether there was a discrepancy between government policy on the highest level and its implementation on the bureaucratic level. From materials now available and taking into consideration the shifting character of the Tai wanese legal status before, during, and after the Second Sino-Japanese War, it seems that there was no overall policy toward either the Taiwan ese hanjian or war criminals. Even with the help of those Taiwanese who had maintained various relationships with the Nationalist government, few people foresaw the entanglements that later arose. The military/ intelligence branches' "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth" approach was oriented toward protecting Chinese national interests as well their own. However, as the formulation of government policy needed to be based on wider considerations, the incongruity resulting from these struggles for the right of interpretation had undermined the government's credibil ity in the eyes of the Taiwanese population. Changes in the Taiwanese Attitude toward Hanjian At first, few seemed to question the legitimacy of the Taiwanese being put on trial as hanjian. This is found to be true not just in the ambigu ous interpretation given by the Judicial Ministry, mentioned earlier, but in contemporary public opinion. The public tended to see the Taiwan ese as Chinese who had exploited their privileged status, that is, their Japanese nationality, to work against the national interests of China and its people. This sentiment took the strongest form in places where the
302
302
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Taiwanese presence had led to a conflict of interest between the Taiwan-
ese and the locals, such as in Amoy. Even in Taiwan, where no similar
conflict of interest existed, the general public did not seem to have
serious objections to the government's bringing the so-called hanjian to
justice.
In Taiwan, the first cry to bring the hanjian to justice came from the
Taiwanese themselves. The term hanjian was defined in a broad sense as
someone who had made usurious gains by conspiring with the Japanese.
Antagonism against this group ran high in the wake of the Japanese
surrender, and posters were found on Taipei streets calling for justice.
Under attack were the so-called imperial running gentry (yuyong shen-
shi); one poster on the Da Qiaotou listed the names of eight Taiwan
members of the gentry who, according to the Traitor Extermination
Corps, as the organization called itself, were guilty of "making improper
profits during wartime."69 Other posters were less strident, but they also
demanded that these men "stand down." Hostility toward those Taiwan-
ese who had secured special privileges by ingratiating themselves with the
Japanese spread throughout the island.70 The imperial running gentry,
however, was by no means the only target of public resentment during
this period. Also under fire were those Taiwanese who had prospered
through dubious connections with the Japanese both in Taiwan and in
other parts of China.
A Mingbao editorial entitled "Punishing War Profiteers" (Decem-
ber 10, 1945) divided war profiteers into three categories: (1) those who
had used their Japanese connections to make a fortune at the expense of
their fellow Taiwanese; (2) those who were taking advantage of the
postwar power vacuum to conduct illicit trading in Japanese military
provisions, which were supposed to be kept intact until handed over to
the Chinese authorities; and (3) those who had taken advantage of their
special status as Japanese subjects to exploit and harass local people in
occupied territories in China or South Asia.71
The editorial singled out war profiteers as the enemies of the Taiwan-
ese people, who were said to have had a hard time under Japanese
occupation. They deserved "heavy and just punishment," which, accord-
ing to the paper, was not just "the kind of action state power should
take" but also represented "the unanimous demand of the people."
Moreover, echoing a recent news report that the investigation of sus-
pected wartime collaborators was under way in Beiping, as the city was
called at the time, it concluded the piece with a firm line: "While Tai-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Taiwanese presence had led to a conflict of interest between the Taiwan ese and the locals, such as in Amoy. Even in Taiwan, where no similar conflict of interest existed, the general public did not seem to have serious objections to the government's bringing the so-called hanjian to justice. In Taiwan, the first cry to bring the hanjian to justice came from the Taiwanese themselves. The term hanjian was defined in a broad sense as someone who had made usurious gains by conspiring with the Japanese. Antagonism against this group ran high in the wake of the Japanese surrender, and posters were found on Taipei streets calling for j ustice. Under attack were the so-called imperial running gentry (yuyong shen shi) ; one poster on the Da Qiaotou listed the names of eight Taiwan members of the gentry who, according to the Traitor Extermination Corps, as the organization called itself, were guilty of "making improper profits during wartime."69 Other posters were less strident, but they also demanded that these men "stand down. " Hostility toward those Taiwan ese who had secured special privileges by ingratiating themselves with the Japanese spread throughout the island.7° The imperial running gentry, however, was by no means the only target of public resentment during this period. Also under fire were those Taiwanese who had prospered through dubious connections with the Japanese both in Taiwan and in other parts of China. A Mingbao editorial entitled "Punishing War Profiteers" (Decem ber 10, 1945) divided war profiteers into three categories: (1) those who had used their Japanese connections to make a fortune at the expense of their fellow Taiwanese; (2) those who were taking advantage of the postwar power vacuum to conduct illicit trading in Japanese military provisions, which were supposed to be kept intact until handed over to the Chinese authorities; and (3) those who had taken advantage of their special status as Japanese subjects to exploit and harass local people in occupied territories in China or South Asia.71 The editorial singled out war profiteers as the enemies of the Taiwan ese people, who were said to have had a hard time under Japanese occupation. They deserved "heavy and just punishment," which, accord ing to the paper, was not just "the kind of action state power should take" but also represented "the unanimous demand of the people." Moreover, echoing a recent news report that the investigation of sus pected wartime collaborators was under way in Beiping, as the city was called at the time, it concluded the piece with a firm line: "While Tai-
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 303
wan's [wartime] situation was different from that of Beiping, the funda-
mental principle of bringing traitors to justice should be applied every-
where. We therefore ask the highest provincial authorities to take heed
of the concern and demands of the people."72
Two points can be made about this editorial. Although it accepted
that a distinction should be made between Taiwan and occupied territory
in China, it did not plead for a full pardon for all Taiwanese on the
grounds of their special status. Instead, it accepted the universal princi-
ple that evildoers should be punished by law, both in Taiwan and in
China.73 Second, it stated that not only collaboration with the Japanese
during wartime was punishable but also any conspiracy involving the
Japanese after August 15, 1945, that violated the interests of the Taiwan-
ese people.74
Long before the Taiwan Garrison Command took action against
hanjian suspects, the trials of hanjian had gotten under way; on October
15, Mingbao published a column called "Prosecution Yamen." Accord-
ing to the editor, the idea was to hold simulated trials on paper to
expose the Taiwanese hanjian. Adopting the form of "letters to edi-
tors," the column provided a public forum in which the public could
lodge their complaints against hanjian. To deter spurious accusations,
contributors were asked to give their identities as well as those of the
people they accused, even though such information would be withheld
from the readers.75 Between October 15, 1945, when the column was
first launched, and November 12, 1945, five articles appeared. With the
identity of the "plaintiffs" unknown, it was virtually impossible to verify
the authenticity of the contents of these accusations, but the cases pro-
vide at least some clues as to the Taiwanese perception of hanjian.
The first letter dealt with the famous case of several Taiwanese gentry
leaders implicated in a Taiwan independence conspiracy plotted by Japa-
nese militarists shortly before Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945.76
The second described a chameleon merchant of Taoyuan who made his
fortune first under the Japanese occupation and then after the surrender
by making use of his Japanese connections. Once the war was over, he
attached himself to the Nationalist government disguised as a patriot.77
The third case concerned a district head who was said to have made the
people of his district donate ten thousand dollars for the establishment of
a local Police Defense Corps in the aftermath of the Japanese surrender.
When the need for this no longer existed, he squandered the money on
treating corps members rather than returning it to the donors.78 The
303
wan's [wartime] situation was different from that of Beiping, the funda mental principle of bringing traitors to justice should be applied every where. We therefore ask the highest provincial authorities to take heed of the concern and demands of the people."72 Two points can be made about this editorial. Although it accepted that a distinction should be made between Taiwan and occupied territory in China, it did not plead for a full pardon for all Taiwanese on the grounds of their special status. Instead, it accepted the universal princi ple that evildoers should be punished by law, both in Taiwan and in China.73 Second, it stated that not only collaboration with the Japanese during wartime was punishable but also any conspiracy involving the Japanese after August 1 5 , 1 945, that violated the interests of the Taiwan ese people.74 Long before the Taiwan Garrison Command took action against hanjian suspects, the trials of hanjian had gotten under way; on October 1 5 , Mingbao published a column called "Prosecution Yamen. " Accord ing to the editor, the idea was to hold simulated trials on paper to expose the Taiwanese hanjian. Adopting the form of "letters to edi tors," the column provided a public forum in which the public could lodge their complaints against hanjian. To deter spurious accusations, contributors were asked to give their identities as well as those of the people they accused, even though such information would be withheld from the readers.75 Between October 1 5 , 1 945, when the column was first launched, and November 12, 1 945, five articles appeared. With the identity of the "plaintiffs" unknown, it was virtually impossible to verify the authenticity of the contents of these accusations, but the cases pro vide at least some clues as to the Taiwanese perception of hanjian. The first letter dealt with the famous case of several Taiwanese gentry leaders implicated in a Taiwan independence conspiracy plotted by Japa nese militarists shortly before Japan's surrender on August 1 5 , 1 945 ,76 The second described a chameleon merchant of Taoyuan who made his fortune first under the Japanese occupation and then after the surrender by making use of his Japanese connections. Once the war was over, he attached himself to the Nationalist government disguised as a patriot,77 The third case concerned a district head who was said to have made the people of his district donate ten thousand dollars for the establishment of a local Police Defense Corps in the aftermath of the Japanese surrender. When the need for this no longer existed, he squandered the money on treating corps members rather than returning it to the donors,78 The
304
304 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
fourth case concerned complaints about a former collaborationist official
who previously had served in the city government in Amoy. After the war
ended, he managed to find himself a middle-ranking position in the
Nationalist government.79 The fifth accusation was directed at a main-
lander, a so-called huaqiao (overseas Chinese). This former dressmaker
of Xinzhu had made improper gains by ingratiating himself with the
Japanese during the war and later with the Nationalist military authorities
after Taiwan's return to China.s80
Opportunism was characteristic of all five complaints. The accused
fit well into the category of "war profiteers," as denounced in the Decem-
ber 10, 1945, edition of Mingbao. The offenses in question involved
either political or economic misconduct. It is significant that the accusa-
tions were made against the postwar background in which Japanese milita-
rists and Nationalists colluded. In addition, personal vendettas and pri-
vate interests were taken into consideration. As shown in the case of the
district head, a violation of people's interests could sometimes lead to a
hanjian charge, even though the action may have taken place after the
war ended and had no Japanese connection. Tensions between the Tai-
wanese and overseas Chinese were also palpable, as in the case of the
Xinzhu dressmaker. The term hanjian, therefore, represented a rather
loose concept. Not until the Taiwan Garrison Command issued a commu-
niqu6 in mid-January 1946 did the Taiwanese people begin to ponder the
real meaning of the hanjian charge. As time went on, public opinion
began to shift.
While the Taiwanese still held that hanjian should be brought to
justice, they began to think twice about who the hanjian were and
whether it was possible to define the charge in clear-cut terms. Also in
question was the degree to which such offenses could be excused by
Taiwan's special status with regard to Japan. Previously, people had
accepted the fact that, despite Taiwan's unique position in comparison
with other parts of China, no allowances should be made for "collabora-
tion beyond necessity." Acknowledging the difficulty of drawing a line
between what was "necessary" and what was not, fewer and fewer
people thought the Taiwanese should be punished for their wartime
activities. Instead, as the argument went, only the people could deter-
mine who the hanjian were.81 After January 16, the author of the
Mingbao column "Hot Talk" called attention to the special condition of
the Taiwanese under Japanese occupation. The majority of Taiwanese
people, he argued, were under pressure to show their faces as loyal
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
fourth case concerned complaints about a former collaborationist official who previously had served in the city government in Amoy. After the war ended, he managed to find himself a middle-ranking position in the Nationalist government.79 The fifth accusation was directed at a main lander, a so-called huaqiao (overseas Chinese). This former dressmaker of Xinzhu had made improper gains by ingratiating himself with the Japanese during the war and later with the Nationalist military authorities after Taiwan's return to China.8o Opportunism was characteristic of all five complaints. The accused fit well into the category of "war profiteers," as denounced in the Decem ber 1 0, 1 945, edition of Mingbao. The offenses in question involved either political or economic misconduct. It is significant that the accusa tions were made against the postwar background in which Japanese milita rists and Nationalists colluded. In addition, personal vendettas and pri vate interests were taken into consideration. As shown in the case of the district head, a violation of people's interests could sometimes lead to a hanjian charge, even though the action may have taken place after the war ended and had no Japanese connection. Tensions between the Tai wanese and overseas Chinese were also palpable, as in the case of the Xinzhu dressmaker. The term hanjian, therefore, represented a rather loose concept. Not until the Taiwan Garrison Command issued a commu nique in mid-January 1946 did the Taiwanese people begin to ponder the real meaning of the hanjian charge. As time went on, public opinion began to shift. While the Taiwanese still held that hanjian should be brought to justice, they began to think twice about who the hanjian were and whether it was possible to define the charge in clear-cut terms. Also in question was the degree to which such offenses could be excused by Taiwan's special status with regard to Japan. Previously, people had accepted the fact that, despite Taiwan's unique position in comparison with other parts of China, no allowances should be made for "collabora tion beyond necessity. " Acknowledging the difficulty of drawing a line between what was "necessary" and what was not, fewer and fewer people thought the Taiwanese should be punished for their wartime activities. Instead, as the argument went, only the people could deter mine who the hanjian were.81 After January 16, the author of the Mingbao column "Hot Talk" called attention to the special condition of the Taiwanese under Japanese occupation. The majority of Taiwanese people, he argued, were under pressure to show their faces as loyal
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 305
Japanese subjects; failing to do so would have jeopardized their personal
as well as their family's safety. As a consequence, they should not be
condemned as either hanjian or imperial running gentry. Moreover, it
made the point that people who "voluntarily and actively helped the
Japanese oppress fellow Taiwanese" or who "solicited favors from the
Japanese and had no sense of national dignity" were imperial running
gentry, but not hanjian. If the Taiwanese under Japanese occupation
were not hanjian, then who were? The answer was that Taiwanese
hanjian were people who made a fortune by collaborating with the Japa-
nese after the retrocession.82
Underlying this change in public opinion was an awareness of a
collective Taiwanese identity shaped by half a century of communal
experience under Japanese colonial rule. Unlike the legal definition pro-
vided by the Nationalist government, a Taiwanese hanjian was defined in
terms of Taiwanese experiences, with particular emphasis placed on the
postwar period. Although Taiwanese stressed the importance of adminis-
tering justice to reward good and punish evil, they were apprehensive
about the strong reactions such moves might trigger, especially in view
of the fact that investigations were to be undertaken by the Taiwan
Garrison Command in which Taiwanese people had increasingly lost
confidence.83 In the January 22 Mingbao edition of the "Forum of Free
Speech," someone writing under the pen name of "mainlander" (neidi
ren) pointed out that Taiwan was not like any of the occupied territories
in Mainland China. Since the condemnation of hanjian was highly emo-
tional, he warned against driving a wedge between the Taiwanese and
mainlanders and causing social unrest.84 As of January 31, when the
official period for reporting on hanjian expired, the Taiwan Garrison
Command had received about three hundred accusations against hanjian
suspects.85
This change in public opinion, such as that demonstrated in Ming-
bao, has to be viewed in a larger context. As mentioned earlier, one of the
major controversies surrounding the trials of the Taiwanese hanjian
centered on whether allowances should be made for the Taiwanese
because of their experiences under Japanese rule. The Taiwan Garrison
Command's decision to go ahead with the trials suggested that it did not
think Taiwanese people deserved special consideration. Nor did it accept
the view put forward by the author of the "Hot Talk" column that the
hanjian charge should be applied only to war profiteers in postwar Tai-
wan. Rather, it tried to subject the Taiwanese to the same rules and
305
Japanese subjects; failing to do so would have jeopardized their personal as well as their family's safety. As a consequence, they should not be condemned as either hanjian or imperial running gentry. Moreover, it made the point that people who "voluntarily and actively helped the Japanese oppress fellow Taiwanese" or who "solicited favors from the Japanese and had no sense of national dignity" were imperial running gentry, but not hanjian. If the Taiwanese under Japanese occupation were not hanjian, then who were? The answer was that Taiwanese hanjian were people who made a fortune by collaborating with the Japa nese after the retrocession.82 Underlying this change in public opinion was an awareness of a collective Taiwanese identity shaped by half a century of communal experience under Japanese colonial rule. Unlike the legal definition pro vided by the Nationalist government, a Taiwanese hanjian was defined in terms of Taiwanese experiences, with particular emphasis placed on the postwar period. Although Taiwanese stressed the importance of adminis tering justice to reward good and punish evil, they were apprehensive about the strong reactions such moves might trigger, especially in view of the fact that investigations were to be undertaken by the Taiwan Garrison Command in which Taiwanese people had increasingly lost confidence.83 In the January 22 Mingbaa edition of the "Forum of Free Speech," someone writing under the pen name of "mainlander" (neidi ren) pointed out that Taiwan was not like any of the occupied territories in Mainland China. Since the condemnation of hanjian was highly emo tional, he warned against driving a wedge between the Taiwanese and mainlanders and causing social unrest.84 As of January 3 1 , when the official period for reporting on hanjian expired, the Taiwan Garrison Command had received about three hundred accusations against hanjian suspects.85 This change in public opinion, such as that demonstrated in Ming baa, has to be viewed in a larger context. As mentioned earlier, one of the major controversies surrounding the trials of the Taiwanese hanjian centered on whether allowances should be made for the Taiwanese because of their experiences under Japanese rule. The Taiwan Garrison Command's decision to go ahead with the trials suggested that it did not think Taiwanese people deserved special consideration. Nor did it accept the view put forward by the author of the "Hot Talk" column that the hanjian charge should be applied only to war profiteers in postwar Tai wan. Rather, it tried to subject the Taiwanese to the same rules and
306
306
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
regulations as were applied to the Chinese. At the same time, the Taiwan-
ese were reminded of their differences from the mainlanders. Nowhere
was this contradiction more obvious than in the discussion of whether the
Taiwanese had a slave mentality after fifty years of Japanese occupation.
Almost from the beginning, the Chinese took it for granted that
after fifty years of foreign rule the Taiwanese must have been somewhat,
if not completely, assimilated. Few people, including the so-called half-
mainlanders, dared to underestimate the effect of Japan's forceful imple-
mentation of its assimilation policy, which had been introduced in 1931.
From the Chinese point of view, such assimilation was evidence that the
Taiwanese people had lost their national identity. The fact that the major-
ity of the Taiwanese were kept out of the center of political power
increased their sense of alienation. Moreover, the language barrier be-
tween the mainlanders and the Taiwanese added to the distress. It re-
minded the Taiwanese of the days when Japanese colonialists had tried
to force all Taiwanese to learn Japanese, arguing that those who "do not
know Japanese are not worthy to be Japanese citizens."86
Particularly irritating were the high profiles of mainlander officials
who dealt with the Taiwanese. Self-styled liberators, they tended to
picture life under Japanese occupation as one of tears and sorrow, thus
overemphasizing the debt Taiwan owed them.87 Once again, the Taiwan-
ese were asked to deny their past, just as they had been expected to do
by the Japanese decades before. Mainlanders for their part could not
understand why so many Taiwanese were constantly looking back, as if
they had not had enough of Japanese colonialism. As they saw it, this
clearly indicated that the Taiwanese were victims of the Japanese enslave-
ment policy and had no national awareness. Consequently, anyone who
criticized the Chen Yi administration by comparing it to that of the
Japanese ran the risk of being labeled a hanjian.
When Fan Shoukang, director of the Education Department, de-
clared in a speech to members of the Taiwan Administrative Cadres
Training Corps that the Taiwanese had been "completely enslaved" by
the Japanese, the general public was furious.88 Despite his denial after-
ward, two members of the Provincial Assembly conducted an inquiry
into the matter and confirmed the report.89 Although the Provincial
Assembly later accepted Fan's word that no such remark had been
made, the damage had been done.9 To say that the Taiwanese had been
slaves under the Japanese did little to help ease the mounting tensions
between the Taiwanese and mainlanders. On the other hand, because
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
regulations as were applied to the Chinese. At the same time, the Taiwan ese were reminded of their differences from the mainlanders. Nowhere was this contradiction more obvious than in the discussion of whether the Taiwanese had a slave mentality after fifty years of Japanese occupation. Almost from the beginning, the Chinese took it for granted that after fifty years of foreign rule the Taiwanese must have been somewhat, if not completely, assimilated. Few people, including the so-called half mainlanders, dared to underestimate the effect of Japan's forceful imple mentation of its assimilation policy, which had been introduced in 1 93 1 . From the Chinese point of view, such assimilation was evidence that the Taiwanese people had lost their national identity. The fact that the major ity of the Taiwanese were kept out of the center of political power increased their sense of alienation. Moreover, the language barrier be tween the mainlanders and the Taiwanese added to the distress. It re minded the Taiwanese of the days when Japanese colonialists had tried to force all Taiwanese to learn Japanese, arguing that those who "do not know Japanese are not worthy to be Japanese citizens. "86 Particularly irritating were the high profiles of mainlander officials who dealt with the Taiwanese. Self-styled liberators, they tended to picture life under Japanese occupation as one of tears and sorrow, thus overemphasizing the debt Taiwan owed them.87 Once again, the Taiwan ese were asked to deny their past, j ust as they had been expected to do by the Japanese decades before. Mainlanders for their part could not understand why so many Taiwanese were constantly looking back, as if they had not had enough of Japanese colonialism. As they saw it, this clearly indicated that the Taiwanese were victims of the Japanese enslave ment policy and had no national awareness. Consequently, anyone who criticized the Chen Yi administration by comparing it to that of the Japanese ran the risk of being labeled a hanjian. When Fan Shoukang, director of the Education Department, de clared in a speech to members of the Taiwan Administrative Cadres Training Corps that the Taiwanese had been "completely enslaved" by the Japanese, the general public was furious.88 Despite his denial after ward, two members of the Provincial Assembly conducted an inquiry into the matter and confirmed the report.89 Although the Provincial Assembly later accepted Fan's word that no such remark had been made, the damage had been done.90 To say that the Taiwanese had been slaves under the Japanese did little to help ease the mounting tensions between the Taiwanese and mainlanders. On the other hand, because
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 307
the statement was made with reference to a time that all Taiwanese had
experienced, it helped bring about a collective Taiwanese consciousness.
The holistic implication underlying enslavement precluded any rational
approach to defusing the strain in the relationship between the Taiwan-
ese and mainlanders. It followed the same pattern as is found in the
Taiwanese change of attitude toward hanjian. As the Taiwanese became
more and more defensive, their initial open-mindedness gave way to
self-pity and resentment.91 Their response to the criticism of "slave men-
tality" was that the Taiwanese had not been enslaved. It was a sweeping
statement with no less of a holistic connotation than that of their counter-
parts.92 In a similar vein, the majority of the Taiwanese tended to see
mainlanders in Taiwan as a homogeneous entity comprised mainly of
social d6class6 and incompetent bureaucrats.93
What was missing in the midst of such a heightened militant and
emotional atmosphere was the recognition that the Taiwanese relation-
ship with the Japanese colonialists had been characterized by complex-
ity and ambivalence. How could Taiwanese people convince the Chi-
nese that "despite their donning Japanese clothing, eating Japanese
food, speaking Japanese, living in Japanese houses, and wearing Japa-
nese slippers, underneath they still carried a Chinese heart, which had
never been enslaved"?94 Facing an unsympathetic regime, defiant Tai-
wanese felt that they needed not to be apologetic for their past, nor
were they to be held responsible for what was the result of a historical
situation over which they had little or no control. As a result of this
realization, there emerged a redefinition of hanjian. While hanjian still
referred to Taiwanese who had made illicit gains either at the expense of
their compatriots or by conspiring with the Japanese, the time span for
perpetration of such misdeeds shifted to the period following retro-
cession. To be sure, Taiwanese still had reservations about the imperial
running gentry and opportunists. However, as these people faced un-
certainty in the postwar climate - some managed to edge into the new
elite circle, while others were incarcerated under war criminal charges -
the initial indignation gradually gave way to sarcasm and tolerance.95
Like other Taiwanese, the imperial running gentry were now perceived
as victims of Japanese colonialism under the "policy oppression" built
into the colonial system as well as the "personal insult" grown out of the
colonialists' prejudices and discrimination. No matter how despicable
these people were, it was maintained, all they did was make things
easier for themselves and their families. Under these circumstances, the
307
the statement was made with reference to a time that all Taiwanese had experienced, it helped bring about a collective Taiwanese consciousness. The holistic implication underlying enslavement precluded any rational approach to defusing the strain in the relationship between the Taiwan ese and mainlanders. It followed the same pattern as is found in the Taiwanese change of attitude toward hanjian. As the Taiwanese became more and more defensive, their initial open-mindedness gave way to self-pity and resentment.91 Their response to the criticism of "slave men tality" was that the Taiwanese had not been enslaved. It was a sweeping statement with no less of a holistic connotation than that of their counter parts.92 In a similar vein, the majority of the Taiwanese tended to see mainlanders in Taiwan as a homogeneous entity comprised mainly of social declasse and incompetent bureaucrats.93 What was missing in the midst of such a heightened militant and emotional atmosphere was the recognition that the Taiwanese relation ship with the Japanese colonialists had been characterized by complex ity and ambivalence. How could Taiwanese people convince the Chi nese that "despite their donning Japanese clothing, eating Japanese food, speaking Japanese, living in Japanese houses, and wearing Japa nese slippers, underneath they still carried a Chinese heart, which had never been enslaved"?94 Facing an unsympathetic regime, defiant Tai wanese felt that they needed not to be apologetic for their past, nor were they to be held responsible for what was the result of a historical situation over which they had little or no control. As a result of this realization, there emerged a redefinition of hanjian. While hanjian still referred to Taiwanese who had made illicit gains either at the expense of their compatriots or by conspiring with the Japanese, the time span for perpetration of such misdeeds shifted to the period following retro cession. To be sure, Taiwanese still had reservations about the imperial running gentry and opportunists. However, as these people faced un certainty in the postwar climate - some managed to edge into the new elite circle, while others were incarcerated under war criminal charges the initial indignation gradually gave way to sarcasm and tolerance.95 Like other Taiwanese, the imperial running gentry were now perceived as victims of Japanese colonialism under the "policy oppression" built into the colonial system as well as the "personal insult" grown out of the colonialists' prejudices and discrimination. No matter how despicable these people were, it was maintained, all they did was make things easier for themselves and their families. Under these circumstances, the
308
308
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
only "offense" they were guilty of was not having shared the suffering of
their compatriots.96 To some extent, this growing tolerance toward the
imperial running gentry reflected Taiwanese discontent under the new
regime. As Ye Rongzhong observed, the profits and privileges the impe-
rial running gentry had extracted under Japanese colonialism were sim-
ply not comparable to the rampant malfeasance and corruption experi-
enced under the Nationalists.97 Facing criticism as well as punishment
for their colonial experiences, many looked back with nostalgia and
developed more sympathy for people who shared the past with them
despite their unsavory conduct.
Concluding Remarks
Postwar trials of the Taiwanese as either hanjian or war criminals were
not isolated events; they must be put in the broader context of half a
century of Taiwanese colonial experiences as well as the chaotic postwar
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
only "offense" they were guilty of was not having shared the suffering of their compatriots.96 To some extent, this growing tolerance toward the imperial running gentry reflected Taiwanese discontent under the new regime. As Ye Rongzhong observed, the profits and privileges the impe rial running gentry had extracted under Japanese colonialism were sim ply not comparable to the rampant malfeasance and corruption experi enced under the Nationalists.97 Facing criticism as well as punishment for their colonial experiences, many looked back with nostalgia and developed more sympathy for people who shared the past with them despite their unsavory conduct.
political situation in China. As far as the trials of the collaborationists in
general were concerned, the judicial system, together with the political
climate under which the Nationalist government brought hanjian to
Concluding Remarks
justice, were far from satisfactory. Public demands for justice and the
lack of a strong central government added to the difficulty of satisfying
all parties concerned. In bringing Taiwanese to trial as either hanjian or
war criminals, the government faced an even greater challenge than the
one pertaining to Chinese collaborationists. Since Taiwanese wartime
activities were inseparable from their colonial experiences under Japa-
nese rule, how to define a hanjian or war criminal against this particular
background became a highly controversial issue. The government ran
the risk of antagonizing the Taiwanese at a time when there was an
urgent need to develop a good rapport. As a result, these trials or
attempts to pass judgment had generated a strong and negative response
among the Taiwanese people in spite of the limited scope of the trials,
both in terms of the number of the people convicted and the punish-
ments imposed.
At the center of the problem was how the Taiwanese were to be
perceived and treated. Were they Taiwanese or Japanese? Should the law
have drawn a clear distinction between cultural/ethnic and legal/political
identity? Under which identity should the Taiwanese have been held
responsible for the offenses they committed during wartime? The Nation-
Postwar trials of the Taiwanese as either hanjian or war criminals were not isolated events; they must be put in the broader context of half a century of Taiwanese colonial experiences as well as the chaotic postwar political situation in China. As far as the trials of the collaborationists in general were concerned, the judicial system, together with the political climate under which the Nationalist government brought hanjian to justice, were far from satisfactory. Public demands for justice and the lack of a strong central government added to the difficulty of satisfying all parties concerned. In bringing Taiwanese to trial as either hanjian or war criminals, the government faced an even greater challenge than the one pertaining to Chinese collaborationists. Since Taiwanese wartime activities were inseparable from their colonial experiences under Japa nese rule, how to define a hanjian or war criminal against this particular background became a highly controversial issue. The government ran the risk of antagonizing the Taiwanese at a time when there was an urgent need to develop a good rapport. As a result, these trials or attempts to pass judgment had generated a strong and negative response among the Taiwanese people in spite of the limited scope of the trials, both in terms of the number of the people convicted and the punish ments imposed. At the center of the problem was how the Taiwanese were to be perceived and treated. Were they Taiwanese or Japanese? Should the law have drawn a clear distinction between cultural/ethnic and legal/political identity? Under which identity should the Taiwanese have been held responsible for the offenses they committed during wartime? The Nation-
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 309
alist government's failure to come to grips with the ambivalence and
complexity of the Taiwanese relationship, entangled with the Japanese as
well as the Chinese in both legal and cultural terms, added to the confu-
sion regarding whether the Taiwanese should have been tried as hanjian
or war criminals. Such identification set the parameters of a new Taiwan-
ese consciousness in that China served as a point of reference to distin-
guish what being a Taiwanese meant, much as Japan did in colonial days.
This collective identity not only submerged other long-standing sub-
identities along the lines of regional and provincial differences, but it
redefined the Taiwanese relationship with Japanese colonialism. The
original demand for self-cleansing within the Taiwanese community was
toned down considerably. This made it possible for many Taiwanese to
express sympathy for those who were regarded as no less the victims of
political changes than ordinary people. As a result, social justice was
compromised and political opportunism condoned to make way for cir-
cumstantial arguments.
As far as the emergence of a Taiwanese identity in the modern period
is concerned, half a century of Japanese colonialism is no less important
than the postwar Nationalist rule. Putting Taiwanese on trial after the war
revealed the fluidity and flexibility of the Taiwanese identity in historical
terms. It involved an ongoing process of two forces interacting with each
other: one that was imposed from without and one that was generated
from within. Because the former usually had the support of state power,
Taiwanese identity was continuously being shaped and reshaped, inter-
preted and reinterpreted to accommodate political changes. To a certain
extent, this group identity was contingent upon how people were treated
by the ruling authorities. Ambivalence was built into the Taiwanese iden-
tity, for it involved a variety of survival strategies. As such, it was often
more circumstantially bound than ideologically oriented.
Before World War II, the same pattern of push and pull was operat-
ing in the Taiwanese relationship with China. For Taiwanese intellec-
tuals with a nationalist inclination, China represented the motherland to
which they could turn when Japanese oppression became unbearable; it
additionally provided a spiritual shelter, bracing them for the injustice
and arrogance of the colonialists. The pull force was the strongest, how-
ever, when this motherland remained distant and abstract in one's imagi-
nation.98 Many became disenchanted when they crossed the Taiwan
Strait and came face to face with reality. Even so, some chose to stay in
309
alist government's failure to come to grips with the ambivalence and complexity of the Taiwanese relationship, entangled with the Japanese as well as the Chinese in both legal and cultural terms, added to the confu sion regarding whether the Taiwanese should have been tried as hanjian or war criminals. Such identification set the parameters of a new Taiwan ese consciousness in that China served as a point of reference to distin guish what being a Taiwanese meant, much as Japan did in colonial days. This collective identity not only submerged other long-standing sub identities along the lines of regional and provincial differences, but it redefined the Taiwanese relationship with Japanese colonialism. The original demand for self-cleansing within the Taiwanese community was toned down considerably. This made it possible for many Taiwanese to express sympathy for those who were regarded as no less the victims of political changes than ordinary people. As a result, social justice was compromised and political opportunism condoned to make way for cir cumstantial arguments. As far as the emergence of a Taiwanese identity in the modern period is concerned, half a century of Japanese colonialism is no less important than the postwar Nationalist rule. Putting Taiwanese on trial after the war revealed the fluidity and flexibility of the Taiwanese identity in historical terms. It involved an ongoing process of two forces interacting with each other: one that was imposed from without and one that was generated from within. Because the former usually had the support of state power, Taiwanese identity was continuously being shaped and reshaped, inter preted and reinterpreted to accommodate political changes. To a certain extent, this group identity was contingent upon how people were treated by the ruling authorities. Ambivalence was built into the Taiwanese iden tity, for it involved a variety of survival strategies. As such, it was often more circumstantially bound than ideologically oriented. Before World War II, the same pattern of push and pull was operat ing in the Taiwanese relationship with China. For Taiwanese intellec tuals with a nationalist inclination, China represented the motherland to which they could turn when Japanese oppression became unbearable; it additionally provided a spiritual shelter, bracing them for the injustice and arrogance of the colonialists. The pull force was the strongest, how ever, when this motherland remained distant and abstract in one's imagi nation.98 Many became disenchanted when they crossed the Taiwan Strait and came face to face with reality. Even so, some chose to stay in
310
310
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
China and tied their destiny to that of the motherland, often because the
push was simply much stronger than the pull.
The majority of Taiwanese people were pragmatists for whom sur-
vival was perhaps more important than national affiliation and for
whom subidentity was stronger than national identity. They might not
have liked the forceful assimilation imposed upon them, nor would they
have relished the idea of becoming Japanese. However, they certainly
welcomed the economic prosperity, relative political liberalization, and
improved standard of living that came along with the Japanese military
confrontation with China. For example, the regional and pragmatic
character of this subidentity found full expression in the worship of the
righteous (yimin) by the Hakka people. As Wu Zhuoliu remembered it,
his grandfather had taken him to the ritual worship of the righteous at
Xinpu when he was a child, and people of fourteen neighboring villages
had gathered to prepare a feast for the spirits of the Temple of the
Righteous (yimin miao). To his surprise, Wu found that he, too, was one
of the descendants of the righteous. It is significant that the enemies
against whom these spirits fought and died in defense of the fourteen
villages included bandits, aborigines, and people from another tribe in
the same region as well as the Japanese, stretching over a long period of
time in local immigration history.99 Here subidentity on the village level
apparently took precedence over national identity. And anti-Japanese
resistance constituted only one aspect of the villagers' self-defense ef-
forts. While subidentities and national identity were not necessarily
mutually exclusive, in this case the latter was apparently overshadowed
by the former. If survival in the sense of defending one's immediate
family and community rather than the nation was considered a value in
itself, then compromise and reconciliation were no less viable alterna-
tives than resistance and confrontation once the latter proved to be
ineffectual.
Paradoxically, in trying to define the Taiwanese in national terms,
the postwar trials of hanjian and war criminals reinforced this emphasis
on self-preservation embedded in the indigenous culture. In an attempt
to distinguish itself from what was Chinese, the Taiwanese identity
eclipsed all other subidentities. However, it needs to be pointed out that
had it not been for other dubious policies and measures, the trials of the
Taiwanese as hanjian or war criminals would probably not have had such
an alienating effect on the Taiwanese at a time when once again they had
to adapt to a new political climate.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
China and tied their destiny to that of the motherland, often because the push was simply much stronger than the pull. The majority of Taiwanese people were pragmatists for whom sur vival was perhaps more important than national affiliation and for whom subidentity was stronger than national identity. They might not have liked the forceful assimilation imposed upon them, nor would they have relished the idea of becoming Japanese. However, they certainly welcomed the economic prosperity, relative political liberalization, and improved standard of living that came along with the Japanese military confrontation with China. For example, the regional and pragmatic character of this subidentity found full expression in the worship of the righteous (yimin) by the Hakka people. As Wu Zhuoliu remembered it, his grandfather had taken him to the ritual worship of the righteous at Xinpu when he was a child, and people of fourteen neighboring villages had gathered to prepare a feast for the spirits of the Temple of the Righteous (yimin miao). To his surprise, Wu found that he, too, was one of the descendants of the righteous. It is significant that the enemies against whom these spirits fought and died in defense of the fourteen villages included bandits, aborigines, and people from another tribe in the same region as well as the Japanese, stretching over a long period of time in local immigration history. 99 Here subidentity on the village level apparently took precedence over national identity. And anti-Japanese resistance constituted only one aspect of the villagers' self-defense ef forts. While subidentities and national identity were not necessarily mutually exclusive, in this case the latter was apparently overshadowed by the former. If survival in the sense of defending one's immediate family and community rather than the nation was considered a value in itself, then compromise and reconciliation were no less viable alterna tives than resistance and confrontation once the latter proved to be ineffectual. Paradoxically, in trying to define the Taiwanese in national terms, the postwar trials of hanjian and war criminals reinforced this emphasis on self-preservation embedded in the indigenous culture. In an attempt to distinguish itself from what was Chinese, the Taiwanese identity eclipsed all other subidentities. However, it needs to be pointed out that had it not been for other dubious policies and measures, the trials of the Taiwanese as hanjian or war criminals would probably not have had such an alienating effect on the Taiwanese at a time when once again they had to adapt to a new political climate.
Trials of the Taiwanese
311
NOTES Trials of the Taiwanese 311
NOTES
The author would like to thank the National Science Council, Republic
of China, for funding the research for this chapter under project no. NSC85-
2411-H-001-005.
1. On April 7, 1895, the Qing government signed the Treaty of Shi-
monoseki, in which Taiwan and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan. Although
Japan surrendered to the Allies on August 15, 1945, the formal retrocession did
not take place until October 25.
2. The definitions of these terms will be discussed later.
3. In recent years, it has been maintained that this body had been pene-
trated by secret agents of the two major intelligence agencies: the Bureau of
Military Investigation and Statistics and the Bureau of Central Investigation and
Statistics. Resolution 32 was allegedly brought up to provide the authorities with
a pretext for military suppression, which subsequently led to the killing of tens of
thousands of Taiwanese. See Chen Cuilian, Paixi douzheng yu quanmou
zhengzhi: er er ba beju de lingyi mianxiang (Taipei: China Times, 1995), 258-68.
4. To see how language was associated with the question of political iden-
tity, see Xu Xueji, "Taiwan guangfu chuqi de yuwen wenti," Si yu yen 29, no. 4
(Dec. 1991): 155-84.
5. Views about the duration of anti-Japanese resistance vary depending on
how one defines resistance as well as the character of the Taiwan Republic. Yuzin
Chiautong Ng, A Study of the Republic of Formosa, 1895: A Chapter in the
History of the Taiwan Independence Movement (Tokyo: University of Tokyo
Press, 1970), 175-85.
6. Wang Yude, Taiwan-Kuman sslu sono lekishi (Tokyo: Kobundo,
1970), 69-72.
7. Ralph C. Crozier, Koxinga and Chinese Nationalism (Cambridge: Har-
vard University Press, 1977), 50-56.
8. Maurice Meisner, "The Development of Taiwanese Nationalism," in
Formosa Today, edited by Mark Mancall (New York: Praeger, 1964), 148.
9. Wang, Taiwan, 72-74.
10. In their analysis of the Taiwanese elite under Japanese occupation, Lai
Tse-han, Raymon Myers, and Wei Wou called attention to the complexity of co-
optation. See Lai Tze-han, Raymon Myers, and Wei Wou, A Tragic Beginning:
The Taiwan Uprising of February 28, 1947 (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1991), 15-23.
11. The Assimilation Society was founded on December 20, 1914, and was
banned by the Taiwanese colonial government on January 23, 1915. See Gao
Riwen, "Taiwan yihu shezhi qingyuan yundong de shidai beijing," Taiwan
wenxian 15, no. 2 (1975): 24-46.
12. Special Law 63, enacted by the Japanese Diet in 1896, gave the Taiwan-
ese colonial governor the supreme power to impose laws on the island to main-
tain order and control.
13. The League for the Establishment of the Taiwan Parliament lasted from
1921 to 1934.
The author would like to thank the National Science Council, Republic of China, for funding the research for this chapter under project no. NSC85241 1 -H-001-005 . 1 . On April 7 , 1 895 , the Qing government signed the Treaty of Shi monoseki, in which Taiwan and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan. Although Japan surrendered to the Allies on August 1 5 , 1945 , the formal retrocession did not take place until October 25 . 2. The definitions of these terms will be discussed later. 3 . In recent years, it has been maintained that this body had been pene trated by secret agents of the two major intelligence agencies: the Bureau of Military Investigation and Statistics and the Bureau of Central Investigation and Statistics. Resolution 32 was allegedly brought up to provide the authorities with a pretext for military suppression, which subsequently led to the killing of tens of thousands of Taiwanese. See Chen Cuilian, Paixi douzheng yu quanmou zhengzhi: er er ba beju de lingyi mianxiang (Taipei: China Times, 1995), 258-68. 4. To see how language was associated with the question of political iden tity, see Xu Xueji, "Taiwan guangfu chuqi de yuwen wenti," Si yu yen 29, no. 4 (Dec. 1991): 155-84. 5. Views about the duration of anti-Japanese resistance vary depending on how one defines resistance as well as the character of the Taiwan Republic. Yuzin Chiautong Ng, A Study of the Republic of Formosa, 1 895: A Chapter in the History of the Taiwan Independence Movement (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1970) , 175-85 . 6 . Wang Yude, Taiwan -Kuman sslu sono lekishi (Tokyo: Kobundo, 1970), 69-72. 7. Ralph C. Crozier, Koxinga and Chinese Nationalism (Cambridge: Har vard University Press, 1977), 50-56. 8. Maurice Meisner, "The Development of Taiwanese Nationalism," in Formosa Today, edited by Mark Mancall (New York: Praeger, 1964) , 148. 9 . Wang, Taiwan, 72-74. 10. In their analysis of the Taiwanese elite under Japanese occupation, Lai Tse-han, Raymon Myers, and Wei Wou called attention to the complexity of co optation. See Lai Tze-han, Raymon Myers, and Wei Wou, A Tragic Beginning: The Taiwan Uprising of February 28, 1 947 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), 15-23. 1 1 . The Assimilation Society was founded on December 20, 1914, and was banned by the Taiwanese colonial government on January 23, 1915. See Gao Riwen, "Taiwan yihu shezhi qingyuan yundong de shidai beij ing," Taiwan wenxian 1 5 , no. 2 (1975): 24-46. 12. Special Law 63, enacted by the Japanese Diet in 1896, gave the Taiwan ese colonial governor the supreme power to impose laws on the island to main tain order and control. 13. The League for the Establishment of the Taiwan Parliament lasted from 1921 to 1 934.
312
312 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
14. Wu Zhuoliu's friendship with Japanese journalists for Dalu xinbao in
Nanjing changed his opinions about Japanese intellectuals. It has to be pointed
out that apart from their intellectual power Wu was particularly impressed with
their open-mindedness, their international worldview, and their freedom from
racial prejudice, qualities he rarely found among Japanese in Taiwan. See Wu
Zhuoliu, Wuhua guo (Taipei: Qianwei, 1993), 129-131.
15. Ye Rongzhong, "Lin Xiantang yu Liang Qichao," in Taiwan renwu
qunxiang, 9-53 (Taipei: Pamier Bookstore, 1985).
16. Lin Zhongsheng, Chen Yisong huiyilu (Taipei: Qianwei chubanshe,
1994), 201-3.
17. Taiwanese Experiences in Mainland China during the Japanese Occupa-
tion, Oral Histories, no. 5 (Taipei: Institute of Modern History, 1994).
18. To show the insignificance of the Taiwanese draftees, the Japanese
military ranking system was reportedly in the order of (1) military servicemen,
(2) military dogs, (3) military horses, (4) military affiliates, and (5) military
laborers. See Lin, Chen Yisong huiyilu, 211-15. Also see Ye Rongzhong. "Tai-
wan guangfu qinahou de huiyi," in Taiwan renwu qunxianglu (Taipei: Pamier
shudian, 1985), 271-74.
19. Wu Zhuoliu, Taiwan lianqiao (Taipei: Qianwei, 1988), 189-97.
20. For instance, Li Jianxing's case involve more than five hundred of Li's
clan members and local miners in Ruifang. Only one hundred survived the war.
See Su Xin, Fennu de Taiwan (Taipei: China Times, 1994), 91-95.
21. Lai et al., Tragic Beginning, 38-41.
22. Wu, "Nanjing zagan."
23. Lan Bozhou, Huang mache zhi ge (Taipei: China Times, 1991).
24. Mr. Zhang, a classmate of Wu Zhuoliu who served in the Wang Jingwei
government, took care not to let his Chinese acquaintances know about his
Taiwanese origins (Wu, Wuhua guo, 124-25).
25. Mintai Guanxi Dangan Ziliao (Xiamen: Lujiang chubanshe, 1993),
106-7.
26. "Chonganxian zhengfu guan yu baosong taimin shourong jingguo ji
chuli gaikuang zhi Fujian sheng zhenji hui daidian" (March 13, 1939), in Fujian
Sheng Danganguan and Xiamen Shi Danganguan, eds., Mintai Guanxi Dangan
Ziliao (Xiamen: Lujiang chubanshe, 1993), 102-3.
27. The Taiwan Volunteers came into existence after more than forty other
Taiwanese anti-Japanese organizations in China under the title of the Taiwan
Revolutionary League. See Lu Fangshang, Taiwan geming tongmenghui yu Tai-
wan guangfu yuntong (1940-1945), Zhongguo xiandaishi zhuanti yejiu baodao,
vol. 3 (Taipei: Zhonghua minguo shiliao yanjiu zhongxin, 1973), 255-315. Also
see Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Bihuang, "Taiwan yiyongdui ji qi zaoqi gongzuo," in
Mintai Guanxi, 255. Zhang was a Communist serving as secretary to Taiwan
Volunteers' leader Li Youbang.
28. Of about five hundred members of the Taiwan Brigade, thirty-two fled
and were served court warrants. Ibid. 116-17.
29. Ibid., 116-18.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
14. Wu Zhuoliu's friendship with Japanese journalists for Dalu xinbao in Nanjing changed his opinions about Japanese intellectuals. It has to be pointed out that apart from their intellectual power Wu was particularly impressed with their open-mindedness, their international worldview, and their freedom from racial prejudice, qualities he rarely found among Japanese in Taiwan. See Wu Zhuoliu, Wuhua guo (Taipei: Qianwei, 1 993) , 129-131 . 1 5 . Ye Rongzhong, "Lin Xiantang yu Liang Qichao," in Taiwan renwu qunxiang, 9-53 (Taipei: Pamier Bookstore, 1 985). 16. Lin Zhongsheng, Chen Yisong huiyilu (Taipei: Qianwei chubanshe, 1 994) , 201-3 . 1 7 . Taiwanese Experiences in Mainland China during the Japanese Occupa tion, Oral Histories, no. 5 (Taipei: Institute of Modern History, 1 994) . 1 8 . To show the insignificance of the Taiwanese draftees, the Japanese military ranking system was reportedly in the order of (1) military servicemen, (2) military dogs, (3) military horses, (4) military affiliates, and (5) military laborers. See Lin, Chen Yisong huiyilu, 2 1 1 - 1 5 . Also see Ye Rongzhong. "Tai wan guangfu qinahou de huiyi," in Taiwan renwu qunxianglu (Taipei: Pamier shudian, 1 985), 271 -74. 19. Wu Zhuoliu, Taiwan lianqiao (Taipei: Qianwei, 1988), 1 89-97. 20. For instance, Li Jianxing's case involve more than five hundred of Li's clan members and local miners in Ruifang. Only one hundred survived the war. See Su Xin, Fennu de Taiwan (Taipei: China Times, 1 994), 91-95. 2 1 . Lai et al., Tragic Beginning, 38-4 1 . 22. Wu, "Nanjing zagan. " 23 . Lan Bozhou, Huang mache zhi ge (Taipei: China Times, 1 99 1 ) . 24. Mr. Zhang, a classmate o f Wu Zhuoliu who served i n the Wang Jingwei government, took care not to let his Chinese acquaintances know about his Taiwanese origins (Wu, Wuhua guo, 124-25) . 25. Mintai Guanxi Dangan Ziliao (Xiamen: Lujiang chubanshe, 1 993) , 106-7. 26. "Chonganxian zhengfu guan yu baosang taimin shaurong jingguo j i chuli gaikuang zhi Fujian sheng zhenji hui daidian" (March 1 3 , 1 939), in Fujian Sheng Danganguan and Xi amen Shi Danganguan, eds. , Mintai Guanxi Dangan Ziliao (Xiamen: Lujiang chubanshe, 1993), 102-3 . 27 . The Taiwan Volunteers came into existence after more than forty other Taiwanese anti-Japanese organizations in China under the title of the Taiwan Revolutionary League. See Lu Fangshang, Taiwan geming tongmenghui yu Tai wan guangfu yuntong (1 940-1 945), Zhongguo xiandaishi zhuanti yejiu baodao, vol. 3 (Taipei: Zhonghua minguo shiliao yanjiu zhongxin, 1 973), 255-3 15. Also see Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Bihuang, "Taiwan yiyongdui ji qi zaoqi gongzuo," in Mintai Guanxi, 255 . Zhang was a Communist serving as secretary to Taiwan Volunteers' leader Li Youbang. 28. Of about five hundred members of the Taiwan Brigade , thirty-two fled and were served court warrants. Ibid. 1 16-17. 29. Ibid. , 1 16-1 8.
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 313
30. After their release, they stayed in the East Region Service Corps and
helped with the interrogation of Japanese prisoners of war. See Qiu Niantai,
Linghai weibiao, 2d ed. (Taibei: Zhonghua Daily News, 1976), 216-21.
31. Li Yichen, "Lun taiji de zhanfan yu hanjian," Falu zhi shi 1, no. 5
(1947): 2.
32. "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian," promulgated December
6, 1945.
33. "Shanghai gaodeng fayuan queding panjue yi ban hanjian yilanebiao"
(October 1945 to December 1947), File no. 013.11:2110, Archive of the Bureau
of History and Translation, National Defence Ministry, Republic of China.
34. Faling Zhoukan 9, no. 12 (1946).
35. Li Yichen, "Lun taiji de zhanfan yu hanjian," Falu zhishi 1, no. 5
(1947): 2-3.
36. "Xie Ni Luxi qisushu," Dagong bao (Tianjin), July 1947.
37. Li, "Lun taiji."
38. Ibid. According to Articles 2 and 3 of the Zhangzheng zuifan shepan
tiaoli, war criminals are personnel who "before the roundup of September 1945
had committed the following acts .. "
39. Ibid. Article 6 stipulated that "war criminals who recovered their Chi-
nese nationality before October 25, 1945, are still governed by this regulation."
The Taiwanese recovered Chinese nationality on October 25, 1945.
40. Interpretation 3,313 (from Judicial yuan to Executive yuan, December
30. After their release, they stayed in the East Region Service Corps and helped with the interrogation of Japanese prisoners of war. See Qiu Niantai, Linghai weibiao, 2d ed. (Taibei: Zhonghua Daily News, 1 976), 216-21 . 3 1 . Li Yichen, "Lun taiji de zhanfan yu hanjian," Falu zhi shi 1 , no. 5 (1947): 2. 32. "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanjian, " promulgated December 6, 1945. 33. "Shanghai gaodeng fayuan queding panjue yi ban hanjian yilanebiao" (October 1945 to December 1 947), File no. 013. 1 1 :21 10, Archive of the Bureau of History and Translation, National Defence Ministry, Republic of China. 34. Faling Zhoukan 9, no. 12 (1946). 35. Li Yichen, "Lun taiji de zhanfan yu hanjian," Falu zhishi 1 , no. 5 (1947): 2-3. 36. "Xie Ni Luxi qisushu," Dagong bao (Tianjin), July 1 947. 37. Li, "Lun taiji." 38. Ibid. According to Articles 2 and 3 of the Zhangzheng zuifan she pan tiaoli, war criminals are personnel who "before the roundup of September 1945 had committed the following acts . . . . 39. Ibid. Article 6 stipulated that "war criminals who recovered their Chi nese nationality before October 25 , 1945 , are still governed by this regulation. " The Taiwanese recovered Chinese nationality on October 25 , 1945. 40. Interpretation 3,313 (from Judicial yuan to Executive yuan, December 7 , 1946), Faling zhoukan 10, no. 4 (January 22, 1947). 4 1 . Iwakawa Takashi, Kodo no zichi to naru domo -BC kyo san ban sayiban (Tokyo: Kyotansha, 1995), 586-95 . 42. See the letter by the National Assembly Taiwanese representative Huang Guoshu pleading on behalf of the Taiwanese on trial in Mintai Guanxi, 143-46. 43. Qiu Niantai, 252. 44. "Charter Provisions of the Nuremberg Judgment," in Documents on the Laws of War, edited by Adam Roberts and Richard Guelff (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1 989), 153-55 . 45. Iwakawa, Kodo no zichi, 41-45. 46. Ibid . , 780-8 1 . 47. Jiangsheng bao, June 6, 1946, June 25, 1946. 48. Dagong bao, January 19, 1946. The Taiwan Garrison Command spent one week encouraging Taiwanese to expose the evildoings of hanjians under the Japanese occupation. Archival files showed that among those exposed were Chinese ex-collaborationists who came to Taiwan to hide. 49. Minzhu bao, September 1 6, 1945. 50. See news report on the execution of Huang Guanqun and Lin Peibin, two Chinese collaborationists, by the Fuzhou Garrison Command (Minzhu bao, January 29, 1946). 5 1 . Minzhu bao, October 22, 1945. 52. Jiangsheng bao, June 19, 1947 . "
7, 1946), Faling zhoukan 10, no. 4 (January 22, 1947).
41. Iwakawa Takashi, Kodo no zichi to naru domo -BC kyo sanban
sayiban (Tokyo: Kyotansha, 1995), 586-95.
42. See the letter by the National Assembly Taiwanese representative
Huang Guoshu pleading on behalf of the Taiwanese on trial in Mintai Guanxi,
143-46.
43. Qiu Niantai, 252.
44. "Charter Provisions of the Nuremberg Judgment," in Documents on the
Laws of War, edited by Adam Roberts and Richard Guelff (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1989), 153-55.
45. Iwakawa, Kodo no zichi, 41-45.
46. Ibid., 780-81.
47. Jiangsheng bao, June 6, 1946, June 25, 1946.
48. Dagong bao, January 19, 1946. The Taiwan Garrison Command spent
one week encouraging Taiwanese to expose the evildoings of hanjians under the
Japanese occupation. Archival files showed that among those exposed were
Chinese ex-collaborationists who came to Taiwan to hide.
49. Minzhu bao, September 16, 1945.
50. See news report on the execution of Huang Guanqun and Lin Peibin,
two Chinese collaborationists, by the Fuzhou Garrison Command (Minzhu bao,
January 29, 1946).
51. Minzhu bao, October 22, 1945.
52. Jiangsheng bao, June 19, 1947.
313
314
314 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
53. Xingguang ribao, May 17, 1946.
54. Xingguang ribao, May 29, 1946.
55. Jiangsheng bao, June 6, 1946.
56. Ibid., June 1, 1946.
57. Ibid., June 26, 1946.
58. Ibid., June 29, 1946.
59. Ibid., April 9, 1947.
60. Ibid., March 5, 1947.
61. This mentality was reflected in its handling of Taiwanese suspected of
involvement in the suppression of the Zhaohe depot in Golangsu, which caused
several deaths to the agents of the Bureau of Military Investigation and Statistics
in May 1940. See in verdict of Hong Wenzhong in Jiangsheng bao, October 8,
1946.
62. Taiwan minzu yundong changdaozhe -Lin Xiantang zhuan (Taipei:
Jinda zongguo, 1991), 112-20.
63. Lin Xiantang Riji, untitled, September 27, 1946, October 1, 1946,
manuscript.
64. Yang Zhaojia, Yang Zhaojia huiyilu (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1977).
65. Qiu Niantai, 246.
66. Ibid., 251-52. What Qiu meant must be that Taiwanese authorities had
stopped making new arrests. As late as November 1946, the newspaper was still
carrying reports about eleven Taiwanese war crimes suspects who were being
sent to Nanjing for trial. Another fourteen from Taiwan, their nationality un-
known, were said to be waiting in Shanghai for trial (Nanjingren bao, November
16, 1947).
67. See Xingguang ribao, May 17, 1946. Iwakawa Takashi wrote about how
Japanese war criminals had secured their release through bribery (Kodo no
zichi, 575-76).
68. Qiu Niantai, 252.
69. Mingbao, October 22, 1945.
70. Li Chunqin, "Taiwan de mimi he gongkai," Xinwen tiandi (Shanghai)
10 (February 20, 1946): 10.
71. "Chengfa zhanzheng lide zhe," Mingbao, December 10, 1945.
72. Ibid.
73. Similar views were expressed in another column, "Hot Talk," in Ming-
bao, November 25, 1945.
74. It will be remembered that, although Japan surrendered to the Allies
on August 15, 1945, formal retrocession of Taiwan to China did not take place
until October 25.
75. Mingbao, October 15, 1945.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid., October 19, 1945.
78. Ibid., October 21, 1945.
79. Ibid., October 23, 1945.
80. Ibid., November 12, 1945.
81. "Reyan," Mingbao, November 25, 1945.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
53. Xingguang ribao, May 17, 1 946. 54. Xingguang ribao, May 29, 1 946. 55. Jiangsheng bao, June 6, 1946. 56. Ibid . , June 1, 1946. 57. Ibid . , June 26, 1 946. 58. Ibid., June 29, 1 946. 59. Ibid., April 9, 1 947. 60. Ibid., March 5, 1 947. 6 1 . This mentality was reflected in its handling of Taiwanese suspected of involvement in the suppression of the Zhaohe depot in Golangsu, which caused several deaths to the agents of the Bureau of Military Investigation and Statistics in May 1 940. See in verdict of Hong Wenzhong in Jiangsheng bao, October 8 , 1 946. 62. Taiwan minzu yundong changdaozhe - Lin Xiantang zhuan (Taipei: Jinda zongguo, 1991 ) , 112-20. 63 . Lin Xiantang Rij i, untitled, September 27, 1 946, October 1 , 1 946, manuscript. 64. Yang Zhaojia, Yang Zhaojia huiyilu (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1 977 ) . 65. Qiu Niantai, 246. 66. Ibid., 251-52. What Qiu meant must be that Taiwanese authorities had stopped making new arrests. As late as November 1 946, the newspaper was still carrying reports about eleven Taiwanese war crimes suspects who were being sent to Nanjing for trial. Another fourteen from Taiwan, their nationality un known, were said to be waiting in Shanghai for trial (Nanjingren bao, November 1 6 , 1 947 ) . 67. See Xingguang ribao, May 1 7 , 1 946. I wakawa Takashi wrote about how Japanese war criminals had secured their release through bribery (Kodo no zichi, 575-76). 68. Qiu Niantai, 252. 69. Mingbao, October 22, 1945. 70. Li Chunqin, "Taiwan de mimi he gongkai," Xinwen tiandi (Shanghai) 10 (February 20, 1 946 ) : 10. 7 1 . "Chengfa zhanzheng lide zhe," Mingbao, December 10, 1 945. 72. Ibid. 73. Similar views were expressed in another column, "Hot Talk," in Ming bao, November 25, 1 945. 74. It will be remembered that, although Japan surrendered to the Allies on August 1 5 , 1 945 , formal retrocession of Taiwan to China did not take place until October 25. 75. Mingbao, October 15, 1 945 . 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid., October 1 9 , 1 945 . 78. Ibid., October 2 1 , 1945 . 79. Ibid., October 23, 1 945. 80. Ibid., November 12, 1 945 . 8 1 . "Reyan," Mingbao, November 25, 1945.
Trials of the Taiwanese
Trials of the Taiwanese 315
82. Ibid., January 18, 1946.
83. Ibid., January 20, 1946.
84. Neidiren, "Hedengyang ren cai shi hanjian," Mingbao, January 22,
1946.
85. Mingbao, February 1, 1946.
86. "Reyan," Mingbao, January 16, 1946.
87. Mingbao, December 2, 1945. "Xinzhuang de feibang" (Slander in a
new bottle), editorial, Mingbao, March 13, 1946. Shu xuan, "Yeman de
jingcha," Zhengqi yuekan 1, no. 4 (July 2, 1947).
88. Mingbao, May 1, 1946.
89. Ibid., May 3, 1946.
90. Ibid., May 8, 1946, May 9, 1946.
91. "Huanying Chen yi zhangguan tongshi shuxie xiwang," editorial, Ming-
bao, October 25, 1945.
92. "Tichang lianjie zuofeng - tairen weishou wu ran," editorial, Mingbao,
March 11, 1946; "Taiwan weichang 'nuhua,'" editorial, Mingbao, April 7, 1946.
93. "Zhengqi xinxiang," Zhengqi yuekan 1, no. 1 (October 1, 1946).
94. Juxian, "Nuhua jiaoyu yu minzu yishi," Mingbao, May 26, 1946.
95. "Reyan," Mingbao, June 4, 1946.
96. Ye Rongzhong, "Taiwan sheng guangfu qianhou de huiyi," in Taiwan
renwu qunxiang (Taipei: Pamier shudian, 1985), 293-95.
97. Ibid.
98. Wu Zhuoliu described such attachment to the imagined motherland as
a sentiment verging on "instinct" that could not be put into words. It "attracts
my heart like the gravity. Just as an orphan who misses the parents he has never
known, he does not care what kind of parents they are "Wu, Wuhua guo, 39-41.
99. Ibid., 45-47.
315
82. Ibid., January 1 8, 1 946. 83. Ibid . , January 20, 1 946. 84. Neidiren, "Hedengyang ren cai shi hanjian," Mingbao, January 22, 1 946. 85 . Mingbao, February 1 , 1 946. 86. "Reyan," Mingbao, January 1 6 , 1 946. 87. Mingbao, December 2, 1 945. "Xinzhuang de feibang" (Slander in a new bottle) , editorial, Mingbao, March 1 3 , 1 946. Shu xuan, "Yeman de jingcha," Zhengqi yuekan 1 , no. 4 (July 2, 1 947) . 88. Mingbao, May 1 , 1 946. 89. Ibid. , May 3, 1 946. 90. Ibid., May 8, 1 946, May 9, 1 946. 9 1 . "Huanying Chen yi zhangguan tongshi shuxie xiwang," editorial, Ming bao, October 25 , 1 945 . 92. "Tichang lianj ie zuofeng - tairen weishou wu ran," editorial, Mingbao, March 1 1 , 1 946; "Taiwan wei chang 'nuhua,' " editorial, Mingbao, April 7, 1 946. 93. "Zhengqi xinxiang," Zhengqi yuekan 1 , no. 1 (October 1 , 1 946). 94. Juxian, "Nuhua jiaoyu yu minzu yishi," Mingbao, May 26, 1 946. 95. "Reyan," Mingbao, June 4, 1 946. 96. Ye Rongzhong, "Taiwan sheng guangfu qianhou de huiyi," in Taiwan renwu qunxiang (Taipei: Pamier shudian, 1 985) , 293-95. 97. Ibid. 98. Wu Zhuoliu described such attachment to the imagined motherland as a sentiment verging on "instinct" that could not be put into words. It "attracts my heart like the gravity. Just as an orphan who misses the parents he has never known, he does not care what kind of parents they are " Wu, Wuhua guo, 39-4 1 . 99. Ibid., 45-47.

Chapter 1 0 Chapter 10
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation:
Music and Media Culture in
Republican Shanghai
Andrew E Jones
For contemporary listeners, one of the most surprising facts about the
Chinese popular music of the 1930s and 1940s is the conspicuous ab-
sence of male performers. Despite the fact that Mandarin popular mu-
sic (commonly known as "modern songs" or shidai qu), and the Shang-
hai entertainment cinema with which it was closely intertwined were
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation: Music and Media Culture in Republican Shanghai
heavily influenced by imports from Hollywood and Tin Pan Alley,
China's "dream factory" never produced male singing stars on the order
of Maurice Chevalier, Bing Crosby, or Dick Powell.1 Instead, it was
dominated by a host of legendary chanteuses, including the "Golden
Andrew F. Jones
Voice" Zhou Xuan, the "Silver Voice" Yao Li, and the actress Wang
Renmei.
This gender imbalance stemmed in part from traditional biases.
Participation in the entertainment industry was often seen as tawdry,
shameful, and beneath the dignity of both men and well-heeled women
alike. In the popular imagination of Republican China, there was often
a very thin line between "selling songs" (mai chang) and selling sexual
services. These biases were reflected and reinforced by the genre's
roots in the seamy urban nightlife of the prerevolutionary era. Those
sing-song girls (geni) who lacked the good fortune or talent to move
out of the lower echelons of the entertainment world often "doubled as
hostesses and even prostitutes" in Shanghai's nightclubs, cabarets, and
jazz cafes.2 But those who succeeded in making it to the top were
transformed into stars through the combined efforts of the city's record
companies, film studios, radio stations, and the popular press.
317
For contemporary listeners, one of the most surprising facts about the Chinese popular music of the 1930s and 1940s is the conspicuous ab sence of male performers. Despite the fact that Mandarin popular mu sic (commonly known as "modern songs" or shidai qu) , and the Shang hai entertainment cinema with which it was closely intertwined were heavily influenced by imports from Hollywood and Tin Pan Alley, China's "dream factory" never produced male singing stars on the order of Maurice Chevalier, Bing Crosby, or Dick Powell.1 Instead, it was dominated by a host of legendary chanteuses, including the "Golden Voice" Zhou Xuan, the "Silver Voice" Yao Li, and the actress Wang Renmei. This gender imbalance stemmed in part from traditional biases. Participation in the entertainment industry was often seen as tawdry, shameful, and beneath the dignity of both men and well-heeled women alike. In the popular imagination of Republican China, there was often a very thin line between "selling songs" (mai chang) and selling sexual services. These biases were reflected and reinforced by the genre's roots in the seamy urban nightlife of the prerevolutionary era. Those sing-song girls (genu) who lacked the good fortune or talent to move out of the lower echelons of the entertainment world often "doubled as hostesses and even prostitutes" in Shanghai's nightclubs, cabarets, and jazz cafes.2 But those who succeeded in making it to the top were transformed into stars through the combined efforts of the city's record companies, film studios, radio stations, and the popular press.
317
318
318 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
These stars - often cast in the guise of an unfortunate sing-song girl
distinguished by her beauty, pathos, lower-class origins, and vulnerabil-
ity to exploitation at the hands of unscrupulous males - played a crucial
role in the development of Shanghai's media culture.3 In popular song,
leftist movies, "soft" entertainment films (ruanxing dianying), and the
popular press alike, sing-song girls and the stars who played them be-
came a privileged site for audience identification and consumption
throughout the 1930s and 1940s. At the same time, they were saddled
with a staggering load of discursive baggage, becoming one of the most
important means by which songwriters, filmmakers, and political po-
lemicists discussed many of the most pressing issues of the day: moder-
nity and antifeudal struggle, shifting gender roles, class inequality, and,
perhaps most significantly, the politics of national salvation.
In this chapter, I intend to cover two aspects of this phenomenon. I
begin by outlining the role of women performers in Shanghai's culture
industry. How and why did the sing-song girl become a crucial figure in
Shanghai's media culture? Part of the answer has to do with the emer-
gence of a (distinctly patriarchal) star system in Shanghai predicated
around the fetishization and mediatized consumption of female perform-
ers. Understanding the way in which this system functioned, in turn, is
crucial to an assessment of the place of the sing-song girl in the discursive
economy of the era. How did leftist musicians and filmmakers come to
appropriate the sing-song girl as a means of figuring national humiliation
and national salvation in the years directly preceding the Sino-Japanese
War? These questions, I argue, provide insight into the constitutive role of
gender in both Shanghai's media culture and the nationalist discourse
with which it came to be suffused in these years.
No discussion of the conjunction between nationalist struggle and
media culture (and particularly popular music) in Republican China
would be complete without a consideration of the career of Li Jinhui.
Li's musical and ideological trajectory - from an idealistic May Fourth
era educator and champion of children's music to the progenitor of a
new brand of urban popular music - is revealing in a number of ways. In
the popular imagination of the day, Li's music came to be inextricably
linked with the sing-song girl and her off-color urban milieu. Perhaps
more important, Li's career is emblematic of the professionalization and
mediatization of Shanghai's entertainment industry in the early 1930s.
The series of training institutes and song and dance troupes Li estab-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
These stars - often cast in the guise of an unfortunate sing-song girl distinguished by her beauty, pathos, lower-class origins, and vulnerabil ity to exploitation at the hands of unscrupulous males - played a crucial role in the development of Shanghai's media culture.3 In popular song, leftist movies, "soft" entertainment films (ruanxing dianying) , and the popular press alike, sing-song girls and the stars who played them be came a privileged site for audience identification and consumption throughout the 1930s and 1940s. At the same time, they were saddled with a staggering load of discursive baggage, becoming one of the most important means by which songwriters, filmmakers, and political po lemicists discussed many of the most pressing issues of the day: moder nity and antifeudal struggle, shifting gender roles, class inequality, and, perhaps most significantly, the politics of national salvation. In this chapter, I intend to cover two aspects of this phenomenon. I begin by outlining the role of women performers in Shanghai's culture industry. How and why did the sing-song girl become a crucial figure in Shanghai's media culture? Part of the answer has to do with the emer gence of a (distinctly patriarchal) star system in Shanghai predicated around the fetishization and mediatized consumption of female perform ers. Understanding the way in which this system functioned, in turn, is crucial to an assessment of the place of the sing-song girl in the discursive economy of the era. How did leftist musicians and filmmakers come to appropriate the sing-song girl as a means of figuring national humiliation and national salvation in the years directly preceding the Sino-Japanese War? These questions, I argue, provide insight into the constitutive role of gender in both Shanghai's media culture and the nationalist discourse with which it came to be suffused in these years. No discussion of the conjunction between nationalist struggle and media culture (and particularly popular music) in Republican China would be complete without a consideration of the career of Li Jinhui. Li's musical and ideological trajectory - from an idealistic May Fourth era educator and champion of children's music to the progenitor of a new brand of urban popular music - is revealing in a number of ways. In the popular imagination of the day, Li's music came to be inextricably linked with the sing-song girl and her off-color urban milieu. Perhaps more important, Li's career is emblematic of the professionalization and mediatization of Shanghai's entertainment industry in the early 1930s. The series of training institutes and song and dance troupes Li estab-
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 319
lished at the time were instrumental in the establishment of a star system
in Shanghai.4 The story of Li's role in Shanghai's emergent recording,
broadcasting, and film industries, moreover, is emblematic of the mass-
mediated culture of consumption that had begun to take shape by the
mid-1930s.
In the wake of the Japanese annexation of Manchuria in 1932, Li's
music (and the new media networks and stars that it had helped to forge)
inexorably came to be implicated in the political and ideological strife of
the period. In leftist attacks on Li's music as a vulgar, even "porno-
graphic," capitulation to commerce at the expense of the imperatives of
nationalist resistance, we see the formation of a dialectic that comes to
inform many of the ideological struggles fought in the realm of popular
culture in general, and popular music in particular, in the ensuing years.
For leftist musicians like Li's former student and nemesis Nie Er - fired
by a vision of a popular music serving as a weapon in the construction of
an enlightened, empowered community of citizens dedicated to the task
of "national salvation" from the twin specters of Western imperialism
and Japanese invasion - Li's brand of shidai qu came to represent a
culture of politically passive, culturally colonized, petit-bourgeois con-
sumers. The culture of consumption, finally, was associated with sexual-
ity and prostitution, with the "fragrant, eye-catching, and fleshy appeal"
(xiangyan rougan) of the sing-song girl.5
The work of leftist musicians like Nie Er and others like him in many
ways represented a frontal attack on this culture of consumption. Was
popular music about the individualized consumption of the mediatized
"body" of the sing-song girl or would it involve the mobilization of the
masses into a collective body singing in unison for national salvation?6 In
promoting a new brand of "mass music," these musicians endeavored to
displace the musical culture represented by Li Jinhui and his "sing-song
girls." But in the presence of a "progressive" discourse (as manifested in
musical and performance practice, leftist cinema, and printed polemics)
in which "woman" often served as a figure for "the nation" and China's
humiliation at the hands of foreign powers was consistently likened to
prostitution, appropriation of the pathos and popularity of the sing-song
girl ultimately proved irresistible to leftist cultural workers.7 This appro-
priation, I argue, often involved both the commercial exploitation of the
sing-song girl's "off-color" mystique and a concurrent recuperation of
that mystique by way of narratives of national resistance.
319
lished at the time were instrumental in the establishment of a star system in Shanghai.4 The story of Li's role in Shanghai's emergent recording, broadcasting, and film industries, moreover, is emblematic of the mass mediated culture of consumption that had begun to take shape by the mid-1930s. In the wake of the Japanese annexation of Manchuria in 1 932, Li's music (and the new media networks and stars that it had helped to forge) inexorably came to be implicated in the political and ideological strife of the period. In leftist attacks on Li's music as a vulgar, even "porno graphic," capitulation to commerce at the expense of the imperatives of nationalist resistance, we see the formation of a dialectic that comes to inform many of the ideological struggles fought in the realm of popular culture in general, and popular music in particular, in the ensuing years. For leftist musicians like Li's former student and nemesis Nie Er - fired by a vision of a popular music serving as a weapon in the construction of an enlightened, empowered community of citizens dedicated to the task of "national salvation" from the twin specters of Western imperialism and Japanese invasion - Li's brand of shidai qu came to represent a culture of politically passive, culturally colonized, petit-bourgeois con sumers. The culture of consumption, finally, was associated with sexual ity and prostitution, with the "fragrant, eye-catching, and fleshy appeal" (xiangyan rougan) of the sing-song girl.s The work of leftist musicians like Nie Er and others like him in many ways represented a frontal attack on this culture of consumption. Was popular music about the individualized consumption of the mediatized "body" of the sing-song girl or would it involve the mobilization of the masses into a collective body singing in unison for national salvation?6 In promoting a new brand of "mass music," these musicians endeavored to displace the musical culture represented by Li Jinhui and his "sing-song girls. " But in the presence of a "progressive" discourse (as manifested in musical and performance practice, leftist cinema, and printed polemics) in which "woman" often served as a figure for "the nation" and China's humiliation at the hands of foreign powers was consistently likened to prostitution, appropriation of the pathos and popularity of the sing-song girl ultimately proved irresistible to leftist cultural workers'? This appro priation, I argue, often involved both the commercial exploitation of the sing-song girl's "off-color" mystique and a concurrent recuperation of that mystique by way of narratives of national resistance.
320
320
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Li linhui and the Development of Urban Media Culture
Li Jinhui and the Development of Urban Media Culture
The richness and complexity of Li Jinhui's legacy has often been ignored
by contemporary Chinese historians eager to deride and disavow the
"decadence" and "depravity" of the popular media culture he helped to
shape in Republican era Shanghai. Condemned by leftist (and later
socialist) critics as a purveyor of pornographic and politically passive
pop songs, Li nonetheless began his career as an ardent patriot and
educator.8 Born in 1891 in Hunan Province to a prominent gentry family,
Li (like many of his May Fourth era contemporaries) involved himself in
a number of republican political causes before migrating to Shanghai in
order to devote himself to teaching Chinese folk music, crafting stan-
dard Mandarin language-teaching curricula for the nation's schools, and
editing a hugely successful children's monthly magazine called Little
Friend (Xiao pengyou). Each of these activities was closely tied to the
larger nation-building project that had so galvanized Li's generation of
Chinese intellectuals, for they involved the promotion of national music,
a national language, and nationalized educational standards.
By the mid-1920s, he began to create a series of fresh, innovative,
musical dramas for children (ertong gewuju) intended to promote "aes-
thetic education" and the use of Mandarin as a national language.9
These dramas - meant to be performed by primary and middle school
students-were nothing if not eclectic, fusing Western musical instru-
ments and dance movements with Chinese folk melodies and simple
Mandarin lyrics singing the praises of beauty, morality, and the natural
world. First published in Li's own magazine, Little Friend, many of these
dramas achieved wide circulation throughout China throughout the
1920s and early 1930s, becoming a staple of arts education curricula in
cities nationwide.
Nor was the popularity of this new form limited to schools. The
promotion of national curricula naturally resulted in the development of
extremely lucrative national markets for Li's creations. Li's language
textbooks and collections of children's songs were widely distributed in
inexpensive paperback form by the same commercial publishing house
(Zhonghua shuju) that published Little Friend. Each of the scripts for
the children's operas, moreover, went through several printings. And by
1927 these paperback editions were matched by a set of accompanying
gramophone records (sung by Li's teenage daughter Minghui) available
from Great China Records (Da zhonghua changpian gongsi).
The richness and complexity of Li linhui's legacy has often been ignored by contemporary Chinese historians eager to deride and disavow the "decadence" and "depravity" of the popular media culture he helped to shape in Republican era Shanghai. Condemned by leftist (and later socialist) critics as a purveyor of pornographic and politically passive pop songs, Li nonetheless began his career as an ardent patriot and educator. 8 Born in 1891 in Hunan Province to a prominent gentry family, Li (like many of his May Fourth era contemporaries) involved himself in a number of republican political causes before migrating to Shanghai in order to devote himself to teaching Chinese folk music, crafting stan dard Mandarin language-teaching curricula for the nation's schools, and editing a hugely successful children's monthly magazine called Little Friend (Xiao pengyou) . Each of these activities was closely tied to the larger nation-building project that had so galvanized Li's generation of Chinese intellectuals, for they involved the promotion of national music, a national language, and nationalized educational standards. By the mid-1920s, he began to create a series of fresh, innovative, musical dramas for children (ertong gewuju) intended to promote "aes thetic education" and the use of Mandarin as a national language.9 These dramas - meant to be performed by primary and middle school students - were nothing if not eclectic, fusing Western musical instru ments and dance movements with Chinese folk melodies and simple Mandarin lyrics singing the praises of beauty, morality, and the natural world. First published in Li's own magazine, Little Friend, many of these dramas achieved wide circulation throughout China throughout the 1920s and early 1930s, becoming a staple of arts education curricula in cities nationwide. Nor was the popularity of this new form limited to schools. The promotion of national curricula naturally resulted in the development of extremely lucrative national markets for Li's creations. Li's language textbooks and collections of children's songs were widely distributed in inexpensive paperback form by the same commercial publishing house (Zhonghua shuju) that published Little Friend. Each of the scripts for the children's operas, moreover, went through several printings. And by 1927 these paperback editions were matched by a set of accompanying gramophone records (sung by Li's teenage daughter Minghui) available from Great China Records (Da zhonghua changpian gongsi).
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 321
Li's combination of educational, artistic, and entrepreneurial ven-
tures was instrumental in the creation of a new figure in Chinese popular
culture: the modern, mass-mediated sing-song girl. In 1926, Li estab-
lished the China Song and Dance Institute (Zhonghua gewu zhuanmen
xuexiao) in Shanghai in order to train (primarily female) talent in the
techniques of drama, dance, and musical performance. The school was
originally intended as a purely educational, philanthropic venture. Li
charged no tuition, and many of his recruits were orphans and the chil-
dren of lower-class families. Performances given by Li's students (often
sponsored by schools and other civic associations) were almost always
benefits. In 1928, he set up a second training institute, the Beauty
School for Girls (Meimei ntixiao).10 In 1929, graduates of both these
institutions were incorporated into his China Song and Dance Troupe
(Zhonghua gewutuan) and Li embarked on a tour of Southeast Asia,
performing his children's operas (along with a handful of the jazzy love
songs he had composed in the preceding years) to receptive audiences in
Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore.
It is important to note that Li undertook this tour with nationalistic
(as well as commercial) objectives firmly in mind. One of these goals
was to promote the use of Mandarin in Chinese communities throughout
Southeast Asia; another was to proselytize the Nationalist cause in the
wake of the successful military campaigns of Chiang Kai-shek's "Revolu-
tionary Army."11 By all accounts (including those of Li Jinhui himself as
well as that of Wang Renmei, one of the young performers with the
troupe), these goals were achieved despite the interference of Dutch and
British colonial authorities throughout the region. Indeed, one of the
proudest moments of the tour was when British members of the audi-
ence in Hong Kong were compelled to stand up along with the rest of the
Chinese spectators as the troupe performed a musical tribute to Sun Yat-
sen and the "de facto national anthem" called "In Memory of the Prime
Minister."12
It was at the conclusion of this same tour, however, that Li first tried
his hand at the mass production of the sort of love songs for which he is
usually remembered. Stranded in Singapore because of a lack of funds,
he closed a deal with a Shanghai publisher to release a compilation of
one hundred Family Love Songs (Jiating aiqing gequ).13 The title of the
collection is somewhat deceptive, for most of these songs, inspired by
American jazz, the music of George Gershwin, and Chinese folk melo-
dies, had more to do with urbane romance than "family values." The
321
Li's combination of educational, artistic, and entrepreneurial ven tures was instrumental in the creation of a new figure in Chinese popular culture: the modern, mass-mediated sing-song girl. In 1 926, Li estab lished the China Song and Dance Institute (Zhonghua gewu zhuanmen xuexiao) in Shanghai in order to train (primarily female) talent in the techniques of drama, dance, and musical performance. The school was originally intended as a purely educational, philanthropic venture. Li charged no tuition, and many of his recruits were orphans and the chil dren of lower-class families. Performances given by Li's students (often sponsored by schools and other civic associations) were almost always benefits. In 1 928, he set up a second training institute, the Beauty School for Girls (Meimei ntixiao).l0 In 1 929, graduates of both these institutions were incorporated into his China Song and Dance Troupe (Zhonghua gewutuan) and Li embarked on a tour of Southeast Asia, performing his children's operas (along with a handful of the jazzy love songs he had composed in the preceding years) to receptive audiences in Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore. It is important to note that Li undertook this tour with nationalistic (as well as commercial) objectives firmly in mind. One of these goals was to promote the use of Mandarin in Chinese communities throughout Southeast Asia; another was to proselytize the Nationalist cause in the wake of the successful military campaigns of Chiang Kai-shek's "Revolu tionary Army. " l1 By all accounts (including those of Li linhui himself as well as that of Wang Renmei, one of the young performers with the troupe), these goals were achieved despite the interference of Dutch and British colonial authorities throughout the region. Indeed, one of the proudest moments of the tour was when British members of the audi ence in Hong Kong were compelled to stand up along with the rest of the Chinese spectators as the troupe performed a musical tribute to Sun Yat sen and the "de facto national anthem" called "In Memory of the Prime Minister. " 12 It was at the conclusion of this same tour, however, that Li first tried his hand at the mass production of the sort of love songs for which he is usually remembered. Stranded in Singapore because of a lack of funds, he closed a deal with a Shanghai publisher to release a compilation of one hundred Family Love Songs (Jiating aiqing gequ) . 13 The title of the collection is somewhat deceptive, for most of these songs, inspired by American j azz, the music of George Gershwin, and Chinese folk melo dies, had more to do with urbane romance than "family values." The
322
322
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
dissemination of this sheet music caused a craze for Li's music, and the
popularity of songs like "Drizzle" (Maomao yu), "Express Train" (Tebie
kuaiche), and "Peach Blossom River" (Taohua jiang) spread rapidly
throughout urban China.
Upon his return to Shanghai in 1930, he quickly organized a new
troupe, the Bright Moon, and embarked on a tour of North and North-
east China that was widely publicized in the national press.14 In 1931,
one hundred of Li's love songs were recorded by the troupe for Great
China Records.15 The popularity of these gramophone records inspired
a raft of imitators, and Li's brand of sinified jazz became a staple in
Shanghai dance halls, nightclubs, and cabarets.
At least part of the appeal for contemporary audiences of this hy-
brid form derived not from the music itself but from a prurient interest
in the bodies of Li's female performers. The Bright Moon troupe's
performances featured sixteen- and seventeen-year-old girls with bared
shoulders and exposed thighs dancing in chorus lines more than a little
reminiscent of the Hollywood musicals of the day. 16 This perception is
echoed by a 1936 commentary by Zhang Zhang on the effect of the
entrance of Li's music into wider commercial circulation:
Song and dance music began with the advent six or seven years ago
of Li Jinhui's musical dramas "The Grape Fairy," "Moonlit Night,"
and "The Magpie and the Child." These minidramas were originally
intended for children and elementary school students. They were
fairy tales, simple to act and sing and suitable for performance by
children. But later, when every school began to arrange shows and
use "big girls" of seventeen or eighteen to perform children's plays,
the result was forced, unnaturally flirtatious, and unbearably maud-
lin. Not a shred of the original innocence was left, and what replaced
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
dissemination of this sheet music caused a craze for Li's music, and the popularity of songs like "Drizzle" (Maomao yu), "Express Train" (Tebie kuaiche), and "Peach Blossom River" (Taohua jiang) spread rapidly throughout urban China. Upon his return to Shanghai in 1 930, he quickly organized a new troupe, the Bright Moon, and embarked on a tour of North and North east China that was widely publicized in the national press.14 In 1 93 1 , one hundred of Li's love songs were recorded by the troupe for Great China Records.15 The popularity of these gramophone records inspired a raft of imitators, and Li's brand of sinified j azz became a staple in Shanghai dance halls, nightclubs, and cabarets. At least part of the appeal for contemporary audiences of this hy brid form derived not from the music itself but from a prurient interest in the bodies of Li's female performers. The Bright Moon troupe's performances featured sixteen- and seventeen-year-old girls with bared shoulders and exposed thighs dancing in chorus lines more than a little reminiscent of the Hollywood musicals of the day. 16 This perception is echoed by a 1936 commentary by Zhang Zhang on the effect of the entrance of Li's music into wider commercial circulation:
it was a hair-raising and salacious vulgarity. Even later, when the
girls who had appeared in these school drama troupes graduated,
people began to organize professional "song and dance troupes,"
which performed for the public, filling their songs with lewd and
decadent words and showing their thighs in order to attract business.
They said they were promoting art, but what they really do is seduce
young people for profit.17
Ironically, Li's own justification for this exploitation of the female
form dovetailed with some of the grander humanist themes of the New
Song and dance music began with the advent six or seven years ago of Li linhui's musical dramas "The Grape Fairy, " "Moonlit Night," and "The Magpie and the Child. " These minidramas were originally intended for children and elementary school students. They were fairy tales, simple to act and sing and suitable for performance by children. But later, when every school began to arrange shows and use "big girls" of seventeen or eighteen to perform children's plays, the result was forced, unnaturally flirtatious, and unbearably maud lin. Not a shred of the original innocence was left, and what replaced it was a hair-raising and salacious vulgarity. Even later, when the girls who had appeared in these school drama troupes graduated, people began to organize professional "song and dance troupes," which performed for the public, filling their songs with lewd and decadent words and showing their thighs in order to attract business. They said they were promoting art, but what they really do is seduce young people for profit.n Ironically, Li's own justification for this exploitation of the female form dovetailed with some of the grander humanist themes of the New
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 323
Culture Movement, the most prominent of which was the liberation of
the body beautiful from feudal shackles.18 Wang Renmei, a long-time
member of the troupe, asserts that
323
Culture Movement, the most prominent of which was the liberation of the body beautiful from feudal shackles.18 Wang Renmei, a long-time member of the troupe, asserts that
"in the Shanghai of the time, feudal power was deeply entrenched,
and young girls wore braids and long gowns and stockings. In the
eyes of these conservatives, it was shocking enough that women
should appear on screen. When Minghui [Li Jinhui's daughter and a
member of the original troupe] appeared on stage with a bob and
bare feet, dancing and singing like a free and unfettered little bird,
they must have thought the end of world had come."19
In an intellectual climate in which China's national weakness vis-h-
vis Japan and the West was often attributed in part to the perceived
physical weakness and poor hygiene of its citizens, these displays of
feminine youth and physicality fed rather neatly into a discourse of
national regeneration. In a 1926 introduction to his children's opera
"in the Shanghai of the time, feudal power was deeply entrenched, and young girls wore braids and long gowns and stockings. In the eyes of these conservatives, it was shocking enough that women should appear on screen. When Minghui [Li Jinhui's daughter and a member of the original troupe] appeared on stage with a bob and bare feet, dancing and singing like a free and unfettered little bird, they must have thought the end of world had come. "19
Three Butterflies (San hudie), Li writes:
Everyone should understand that beautiful people represent the
cream of the human race; beautiful Chinese people, then, are the
pride of the Chinese nation. . . but our habit is to "look down on
outward beauty." This is the shame of the Chinese people, and it is
enough to cause our culture and all that is best about it to fall into
degeneracy.20
The relative strength of European nations, Li goes on to argue, derives
in part from their appreciation for (and open display in public perfor-
mance and the press of) physical beauty. As seemingly eccentric as these
views may seem, Li was not alone in invoking this sort of nationalistic
rhetoric. Writing five years later, in 1931, the prominent film director
In an intellectual climate in which China's national weakness vis-a vis Japan and the West was often attributed in part to the perceived physical weakness and poor hygiene of its citizens, these displays of feminine youth and physicality fed rather neatly into a discourse of national regeneration. In a 1926 introduction to his children's opera Three Butterflies (San hudie) , Li writes:
Sun Yu echoes Li's sentiments in the course of praising the young
women of Li's troupe for embodying just such an ideal. Having attended
one of their performances, Sun is inspired to exclaim: "Let us rise to-
gether and loudly proclaim the rejuvenation (qingchun hua) of the Chi-
nese people!"21
Nationalism notwithstanding, Li's involvement with the culture in-
dustry drew the moralistic ire of contemporary critics and cleared the
way for the fetishization of women's bodies that was later to become so
Everyone should understand that beautiful people represent the cream of the human race; beautiful Chinese people, then, are the pride of the Chinese nation . . . but our habit is to "look down on outward beauty. " This is the shame of the Chinese people, and it is enough to cause our culture and all that is best about it to fall into degeneracy. 20 The relative strength of European nations, Li goes on to argue, derives in part from their appreciation for (and open display in public perfor mance and the press of) physical beauty. As seemingly eccentric as these views may seem, Li was not alone in invoking this sort of nationalistic rhetoric. Writing five years later, in 1 93 1 , the prominent film director Sun Yu echoes Li's sentiments in the course of praising the young women of Li's troupe for embodying just such an ideal. Having attended one of their performances, Sun is inspired to exclaim: "Let us rise to gether and loudly proclaim the rejuvenation (qingchun hua) of the Chi nese people ! "21 Nationalism notwithstanding, Li's involvement with the culture in dustry drew the moralistic ire of contemporary critics and cleared the way for the fetishization of women's bodies that was later to become so
324
324
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
much a part of the Shanghai star system. This was, in part, because his
growing popularity coincided with a period of explosive growth for
Shanghai's mass media industry. Between 1931 and 1932 alone, some
thirty new radio stations were established in the metropolitan Shanghai
area.22 As Zhang Zhang mentioned, a number of song and dance
troupes loosely modeled on Li's Bright Moon and made up of young,
female crooners backed (and managed) by male musicians quickly began
to cater to this new market. The most popular groups (the Rose Troupe,
Hibiscus Troupe, and Shanghai Society, among others) often performed
live at up to six different stations each day, helping to attract listeners
and fill airtime between advertisements.23
The Bright Moon troupe itself soon became a victim of this and
other new technologies and market forces. Presumably sensing the po-
tential of the new sound film technology just arriving on Chinese shores
from the United States, the United Photoplay Company (Lianhua
yingye gongsi) annexed the troupe (renaming it the Lianhua Song and
Dance Team) soon after the completion of a financially unsuccessful
tour in 1931.24 In the same year, Li wrote the musical numbers for one of
China's first musical "talkies," Romance at the Dance Hall (Wuchang
chunse).25 In a sense, the media loop had come full circle; the sort of
seamy milieu in which Li's music had first gained popularity became the
object of filmic representation in movies about the lives of sing-song
girls. The "screen songs" from the movie were certain to be published in
songbooks and film magazines, made into gramophone records, broad-
cast, and ultimately emulated by sing-song girls in the dance halls.
The Sing-Song Girl and the Star System
This media loop, in turn, was fundamental to the creation of the star
system. The growth of the broadcasting industry, the availability of
gramophone records, and the popularity of sound films all ensured that
popular music could move out of the male-dominated world of the night-
club and into a range of social spaces, both public and private: the
cinema, the street corner, and the home.26 These new spaces, of course,
allowed for the creation of new and more heterogeneous (in terms of
both class and gender) audiences.27 In order to keep these new consum-
ers informed, a host of movie magazines, celebrity pictorials, and daily
gossip tabloids known as "mosquito papers" began to be published as
guides to this new consumer culture.28 And, just as in Hollywood, part
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
much a part of the Shanghai star system. This was, in part, because his growing popularity coincided with a period of explosive growth for Shanghai's mass media industry. Between 1931 and 1932 alone, some thirty new radio stations were established in the metropolitan Shanghai area.22 As Zhang Zhang mentioned, a number of song and dance troupes loosely modeled on Li's Bright Moon and made up of young, female crooners backed (and managed) by male musicians quickly began to cater to this new market. The most popular groups (the Rose Troupe, Hibiscus Troupe, and Shanghai Society, among others) often performed live at up to six different stations each day, helping to attract listeners and fill airtime between advertisements.23 The Bright Moon troupe itself soon became a victim of this and other new technologies and market forces. Presumably sensing the po tential of the new sound film technology just arriving on Chinese shores from the United States, the United Photoplay Company (Lianhua yingye gongsi) annexed the troupe (renaming it the Lianhua Song and Dance Team) soon after the completion of a financially unsuccessful tour in 193 1 .24 In the same year, Li wrote the musical numbers for one of China's first musical "talkies," Romance at the Dance Hall (Wuchang chunse) .25 In a sense, the media loop had come full circle; the sort of seamy milieu in which Li's music had first gained popularity became the object of filmic representation in movies about the lives of sing-song girls. The "screen songs" from the movie were certain to be published in songbooks and film magazines, made into gramophone records, broad cast, and ultimately emulated by sing-song girls in the dance halls. The Sing-Song Girl and the Star System This media loop, in turn, was fundamental to the creation of the star system. The growth of the broadcasting industry, the availability of gramophone records, and the popularity of sound films all ensured that popular music could move out of the male-dominated world of the night club and into a range of social spaces, both public and private: the cinema, the street corner, and the home.26 These new spaces, of course, allowed for the creation of new and more heterogeneous (in terms of both class and gender) audiences.27 In order to keep these new consum ers informed, a host of movie magazines, celebrity pictorials, and daily gossip tabloids known as "mosquito papers" began to be published as guides to this new consumer culture.28 And, j ust as in Hollywood, part
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 325
of the business of these publications was to manufacture, organize, and
channel consumer desires through the creation of stars.
Just how these publications tend to channel desire toward fetishized
(and usually female) star images is a question I cannot answer here in
anything more than a piecemeal fashion. I will briefly mention one par-
ticularly illuminating example: a monthly magazine called Pop Star Picto-
rial (Gexing huabao) first published in 1935. Each of the three issues of
the magazine that I have been able to locate follow a similar format. The
face of an established star (Zhou Xuan, Bai Hong, and Xu Lai, respec-
tively, all graduates of Li's Bright Moon Song and Dance Troupe) adorns
the front cover. Sandwiched between pages of gossip, brief star profiles,
information on radio programming, and dance hall advertisements are
photographs of members of Shanghai's various song and dance troupes in
poses typical of the day: lounging in bathing suits at the municipal pool or
modeling stylish outfits in the park.29 As the editor makes clear in the
premier issue, these photos are meant to serve a specific purpose. All too
often, he laments, radio listeners are "unable to distinguish between the
stars. "30
The magazine, then, exists to fill this gap, to offer these (heretofore
invisible) women up to the gaze of the consumer.31 This process of
individualized consumption is furthered by means of articles in which
each singer's voice is characterized in terms of taste (sweet, sour, salty,
etc.) or she is rated in terms of looks. Readers are also invited to identify
uncaptioned photographs of their faces in order to test their knowledge
of the stars. This sort of fetishization, it should be pointed out, was
pervasive at the time. Even in Yisheng, a "serious" monthly devoted to
film and music and edited by leftist musicians Ren Guang, An E, and
Nie Er, we find a spread in which readers are shown cropped pictures of
various body parts (feet, legs, hands, and eyes) and asked to identify the
star to which they belong.32
By 1934, Li Jinhui's own star had been eclipsed by the extraordinary
growth of the star system he had helped to create. Although he contin-
ued to compose and record a staggering number of jazz tunes and
"screen songs," his efforts to put a new, reconstituted Bright Moon
Society on a firm financial footing fell victim to the exodus of his bright-
est stars to more lucrative positions in the broadcasting and motion
picture industries.33 Part of the reason for this, of course, is that the
emergence of mass media and the consolidation of the star system had
created a new sort of hierarchy among female performers. The greater
325
of the business of these publications was to manufacture, organize, and channel consumer desires through the creation of stars. Just how these publications tend to channel desire toward fetishized (and usually female) star images is a question I cannot answer here in anything more than a piecemeal fashion. I will briefly mention one par ticularly illuminating example: a monthly magazine called Pop Star Picto rial (Gexing huabao) first published in 1 935. Each of the three issues of the magazine that I have been able to locate follow a similar format. The face of an established star (Zhou Xuan, Bai Hong, and Xu Lai, respec tively, all graduates of Li's Bright Moon Song and Dance Troupe) adorns the front cover. Sandwiched between pages of gossip, brief star profiles, information on radio programming, and dance hall advertisements are photographs of members of Shanghai's various song and dance troupes in poses typical of the day: lounging in bathing suits at the municipal pool or modeling stylish outfits in the park.29 As the editor makes clear in the premier issue, these photos are meant to serve a specific purpose. All too often, he laments, radio listeners are "unable to distinguish between the stars."30 The magazine, then, exists to fill this gap, to offer these (heretofore invisible) women up to the gaze of the consumer. 31 This process of individualized consumption is furthered by means of articles in which each singer's voice is characterized in terms of taste (sweet, sour, salty, etc.) or she is rated in terms of looks. Readers are also invited to identify uncaptioned photographs of their faces in order to test their knowledge of the stars. This sort of fetishization, it should be pointed out, was pervasive at the time. Even in Yisheng, a "serious" monthly devoted to film and music and edited by leftist musicians Ren Guang, An E , and Nie Er, we find a spread in which readers are shown cropped pictures of various body parts (feet, legs, hands, and eyes) and asked to identify the star to which they belong.32 By 1 934, Li Jinhui's own star had been eclipsed by the extraordinary growth of the star system he had helped to create. Although he contin ued to compose and record a staggering number of jazz tunes and "screen songs," his efforts to put a new, reconstituted Bright Moon Society on a firm financial footing fell victim to the exodus of his bright est stars to more lucrative positions in the broadcasting and motion picture industries.33 Part of the reason for this, of course, is that the emergence of mass media and the consolidation of the star system had created a new sort of hierarchy among female performers. The greater
326
326 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the degree of mass mediation, the larger the potential audience and
profits and the higher the performer's status. Li's brand of live perfor-
mance was no longer fashionable or profitable. Movie stars and record-
ing artists (often chosen from among the same select group of women)
sat atop the pyramid. Those who were able to join broadcasting troupes
or sing at high-class nightclubs were just below them. Cabaret dancers
and cafe singers came next. At the bottom of the pyramid were the
"fallen" women whose tragic stories and dreams of stardom were often
transformed into (touched-up) images on the silver screen: nightclub
hostesses, bar girls, and taxi dancers.
Despite their crucial role in the media industry - and this point will
become significant when we turn to consideration of nationalist dis-
course-most of these women were often regarded as little more than
prostitutes. He Luting's 1934 criticism of the influence of Li Jinhui's
music on urban society is a salient example of this sort of attitude:
[B]ut what [Li Jinhui] represents is the hoodlum proletariat. He
understands the psychology of the hooker and her patrons. He not
only has the power to condemn the proletariat to degeneracy -in a
China that is veering ever closer to complete economic bankruptcy,
even your average petit-bourgeois girl who has read a few books and
knows a few big words and has absorbed Li's influence thereby will
begin to dress up in outrageous outfits, paint her face, and go out to
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the degree of mass mediation, the larger the potential audience and profits and the higher the performer's status. Li's brand of live perfor mance was no longer fashionable or profitable. Movie stars and record ing artists (often chosen from among the same select group of women) sat atop the pyramid. Those who were able to join broadcasting troupes or sing at high-class nightclubs were just below them. Cabaret dancers and cafe singers came next. At the bottom of the pyramid were the "fallen" women whose tragic stories and dreams of stardom were often transformed into (touched-up) images on the silver screen: nightclub hostesses, bar girls, and taxi dancers. Despite their crucial role in the media industry - and this point will become significant when we turn to consideration of nationalist dis course - most of these women were often regarded as little more than prostitutes. He Luting's 1934 criticism of the influence of Li linhui's music on urban society is a salient example of this sort of attitude:
sing for a living. These girls are euphemistically known as "social
flowers," but they're really just whores.34
Nor was this equation exclusively made by "progressive" critics of this
sort. It was, in fact, a rather common notion and one that had a real
impact on both the lives of those who worked in the business and
the innumerable musical and cinematic representations of those lives
churned out by the industry.35 Even a relatively established star like
Yao Li (who worked as a recording artist for Path6 Records, sang for a
number of broadcasters and had an exclusive engagement at a high-
class nightclub called Ciro's) was subject to sexual intimidation on the
job, as is made clear in a 1941 tabloid article about a dispute with a
patron at the club who demanded that she join him at his table upon
completion of her program for the evening.36
That this article - in which a wealthy bully preys on the vulnerability
of a sing-song girl-reads like a scenario from any number of musical
[B]ut what [Li linhui] represents is the hoodlum proletariat. He understands the psychology of the hooker and her patrons. He not only has the power to condemn the proletariat to degeneracy - in a China that is veering ever closer to complete economic bankruptcy, even your average petit-bourgeois girl who has read a few books and knows a few big words and has absorbed Li's influence thereby will begin to dress up in outrageous outfits, paint her face, and go out to sing for a living. These girls are euphemistically known as "social flowers," but they're really just whores.34 Nor was this equation exclusively made by "progressive" critics of this sort. It was, in fact, a rather common notion and one that had a real impact on both the lives of those who worked in the business and the innumerable musical and cinematic representations of those lives churned out by the industry. 35 Even a relatively established star like Yao Li (who worked as a recording artist for Pathe Records, sang for a number of broadcasters and had an exclusive engagement at a high class nightclub called Ciro's) was subject to sexual intimidation on the job, as is made clear in a 1 941 tabloid article about a dispute with a patron at the club who demanded that she join him at his table upon completion of her program for the evening.36 That this article - in which a wealthy bully preys on the vulnerability of a sing-song girl - reads like a scenario from any number of musical
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 327
films from this period is testimony to the kind of intertextual looping
that was characteristic not only of the "sing-song girl" phenomenon in
particular but of the star-making machinery in general.37 This pathetic
vulnerability to oppression (compounded by implied sexual availability),
as Sam Ho points out, was essential to the mass-mediated image of the
sing-song girl.38 And to wake of the Japanese attack on Shanghai's
Zhabei District in 1932, this image became a privileged means of figur-
ing the plight of a nation suffering under the yoke of economic imperial-
ism and military invasion.
Popular Music and National Salvation
In the years of ever-deepening national crisis following the events of 1932,
Li Jinhui and the music he had come to represent underwent a series of
327
films from this period is testimony to the kind of intertextual looping that was characteristic not only of the "sing-song girl" phenomenon in particular but of the star-making machinery in genera1.37 This pathetic vulnerability to oppression ( compounded by implied sexual availability ) , as Sam Ho points out, was essential to the mass-mediated image of the sing-song girI.38 And to wake of the Japanese attack on Shanghai's Zhabei District in 1932, this image became a privileged means of figur ing the plight of a nation suffering under the yoke of economic imperial ism and military invasion.
scathing attacks. These attacks came from both the left and the National-
ist center. They shared, however, a similar set of discursive strategies,
strategies that consistently made use of gendered tropes in order to por-
Popular Music and National Salvation
tray the music as a betrayal of nationalist ideals. Perhaps the most preva-
lent of these tropes - and one that has persisted to the present day on both
sides of the Taiwan Strait - was directly derived from Sima Qian's Han
dynasty text, The Records of the Historian. Indeed, the phrase mimi zhi
yin, or "decadent sounds," appears so frequently and insistently in these
attacks that the semantic field it evokes deserves further exploration. The
phrase appears in the Basic Annals of the Yin Dynasty, and is framed by a
cautionary tale about how the enormously cruel and extravagant Em-
peror Zhou allows the nation to fall to pieces as he carouses with courte-
sans and throws absurdly decadent orgies. His activities are, of course, set
to music: "Zhou ordered the music master Juan to write new lewd tunes
(xin yinsheng), northern district dances (beili zhi wu), and decadent
sounds (mimi zhi yin)." The character mi has several connotations, includ-
ing "waste," "extravagance," and "vulgar commerce" (shangsu mimi).39
The northern districts are where prostitutes plied their trade. Given these
connotations - and the link between music, prostitution, and national
dissolution provided by the surrounding cautionary narrative - it is unsur-
prising that the phrase was enthusiastically taken up by patriots of all
stripes in order to assert that Li's music was a figure for national humilia-
tion and its elimination a step toward national salvation.
Examples of this sort of discourse abound. They are a prominent
feature of the series of attacks on Li Jinhui's music penned by his student
In the years of ever-deepening national crisis following the events of 1932, Li Jinhui and the music he had come to represent underwent a series of scathing attacks. These attacks came from both the left and the National ist center. They shared, however, a similar set of discursive strategies, strategies that consistently made use of gendered tropes in order to por tray the music as a betrayal of nationalist ideals. Perhaps the most preva lent of these tropes - and one that has persisted to the present day on both sides of the Taiwan Strait - was directly derived from Sima Qian's Han dynasty text, The Records of the Historian. Indeed, the phrase mimi zhi yin, or "decadent sounds," appears so frequently and insistently in these attacks that the semantic field it evokes deserves further exploration. The phrase appears in the Basic Annals ofthe Yin Dynasty, and is framed by a cautionary tale about how the enormously cruel and extravagant Em peror Zhou allows the nation to fall to pieces as he carouses with courte sans and throws absurdly decadent orgies. His activities are, of course, set to music: "Zhou ordered the music master Juan to write new lewd tunes (xin yinsheng) , northern district dances (beili zhi wu) , and decadent sounds (mimi zhi yin). " The character mi has several connota tions, incl ud ing "waste," "extravagance," and "vulgar commerce" (shangsu mimi) . 39 The northern districts are where prostitutes plied their trade. Given these connotations - and the link between music, prostitution, and national dissolution provided by the surrounding cautionary narrative - it is unsur prising that the phrase was enthusiastically taken up by patriots of all stripes in order to assert that Li's music was a figure for national humilia tion and its elimination a step toward national salvation. Examples of this sort of discourse abound. They are a prominent feature of the series of attacks on Li Jinhui's music penned by his student
328
328
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Nie Er (using the pen name Black Angel) in 1932.40 They also pervade
the official Nationalist discourse of the period. In 1934, at the height of
Chiang Kai-shek's New Life campaign, a group of centrist musicians
associated with the journal Yinyue jiaoyu (Music education) began a for
the most part ineffectual campaign to ban the dissemination of Li
Jinhui's work. In 1932, Cheng Maoyun, a Guomindang (GMD) official
and the composer of the Nationalist Party anthem, established the
Jiangxi Committee for the Advancement of Musical Education (Jiangxi
tuixing yinyue jiaoyu weiyuan hui). This organization was run by the
Jiangxi Bureau of Education and funded by the GMD. On a local level,
the committee maintained its own orchestra and choir, organized con-
certs and recitals, and promoted the dissemination of patriotic school
songs. Its primary mission, however, lay in enforcing standards of musi-
cal quality and crusading for the elimination of "vulgar" folk and popu-
lar music. Indeed, one project undertaken by the committee involved
detaining blind, itinerant folksingers in order to teach them new, presum-
ably less objectionable material!41 The committee also exerted influence
on the national level through its monthly magazine, Music Education
(Yinyue jiaoyu). The manifesto for the campaign is divided into three
parts, each of which invokes nationalist imperatives - "To Improve the
Quality of the Nation's Citizens," "To Allow for the Elevation of our
National Culture" - and ends with the refrain "We Must Eliminate Popu-
lar Music."42 The music itself is linked with prostitution and moral degra-
dation from the very beginning of the essay:
As for the popular tunes and vulgar ditties that are popular in our
nation's cities, although there are a handful of good songs among
them, the majority describe the amorous relationships between
petty merchants and whores. Their sentiments are not as sincere and
pure as peasant songs, nor do they reflect the real conditions of
folklife, and in this sense they are not worthy of "National Airs" in
the Book of Odes, which create something beautiful out of their
observation of the common. These songs are thoroughly lewd and
obscene, in intention and in sentiment, in terms of their music and
lyrics. Li Jinhui and others like him often take their inspiration from
and even imitate these sorts of ditties. Although the original lyrics
have been replaced with decorative words, the tunes themselves still
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Nie Er (using the pen name Black Angel) in 1 932.40 They also pervade the official Nationalist discourse of the period. In 1 934, at the height of Chiang Kai-shek's New Life campaign, a group of centrist musicians associated with the journal Yinyue jiaoyu (Music education) began a for the most part ineffectual campaign to ban the dissemination of Li Jinhui's work. In 1 932, Cheng Maoyun, a Guomindang (GMD) official and the composer of the Nationalist Party anthem, established the Jiangxi Committee for the Advancement of Musical Education (Jiangxi tuixing yinyue jiaoyu weiyuan hui). This organization was run by the Jiangxi Bureau of Education and funded by the GMD. On a local level, the committee maintained its own orchestra and choir, organized con certs and recitals, and promoted the dissemination of patriotic school songs. Its primary mission, however, lay in enforcing standards of musi cal quality and crusading for the elimination of "vulgar" folk and popu lar music. Indeed, one project undertaken by the committee involved detaining blind, itinerant folksingers in order to teach them new, presum ably less objectionable materia1!41 The committee also exerted influence on the national level through its monthly magazine, Music Education ( Yinyue jiaoyu) . The manifesto for the campaign is divided into three parts, each of which invokes nationalist imperatives - "To Improve the Quality of the Nation's Citizens," "To Allow for the Elevation of our National Culture" - and ends with the refrain "We Must Eliminate Popu lar Music. "42 The music itself is linked with prostitution and moral degra dation from the very beginning of the essay:
lead the hearts of their listeners into degeneracy and cause un-
healthy imaginings. These songs first became popular in schools and
As for the popular tunes and vulgar ditties that are popular in our nation's cities, although there are a handful of good songs among them, the majority describe the amorous relationships between petty merchants and whores. Their sentiments are not as sincere and pure as peasant songs, nor do they reflect the real conditions of folklife, and in this sense they are not worthy of "National Airs" in the Book of Odes, which create something beautiful out of their observation of the common. These songs are thoroughly lewd and obscene, in intention and in sentiment, in terms of their music and lyrics. Li Jinhui and others like him often take their inspiration from and even imitate these sorts of ditties. Although the original lyrics have been replaced with decorative words, the tunes themselves still lead the hearts of their listeners into degeneracy and cause un healthy imaginings. These songs first became popular in schools and
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 329
later spread broadly among the folk. Of late, records and movies are
full of this kind of song, and those who listen are intoxicated by
them and deluded into falling into a cheap sort of enjoyment with-
out any capacity for reflection. This is certainly not the sort of sound
that can Arouse the Nation toward prosperity and power (shu fei
xingguo zhi yin).43
The persistence of this sort of rhetoric is evidenced by a 1936 essay by
329
later spread broadly among the folk. Of late, records and movies are full of this kind of song, and those who listen are intoxicated by them and deluded into falling into a cheap sort of enjoyment with out any capacity for reflection. This is certainly not the sort of sound that can Arouse the Nation toward prosperity and power (shu fei xingguo zhi yin).43
the leftist songwriter He Luting. Especially noteworthy in the following
passage is the seeming inevitability of the equation he draws between
the creators and singers of this music and (female) prostitutes. Accord-
ing to He:
There are two other types of people to which we should pay serious
attention: the first are those who write sexually lewd and obscene
(yindang) songs and who broadcast sexually lewd and obscene songs
over the wireless. They are prostitutes in disguise (bianxiang de
maiyinfu) whose only talent is for poisoning society. The second are
these shameless music merchants who talk a good line about promot-
The persistence of this sort of rhetoric is evidenced by a 1936 essay by the leftist songwriter He Luting. Especially noteworthy in the following passage is the seeming inevitability of the equation he draws between the creators and singers of this music and (female) prostitutes. Accord ing to He:
ing music for the masses but actually take advantage of their special
position to sell as much vulgar and salacious music as they can in
order to poison the Chinese people. We must rise up together to
overthrow these kinds of people.44
Owing to the dual restraint of sporadic GMD censorship and market
pressures, leftists never succeeded in eliminating the culture of consump-
tion to which they were so adamantly opposed. Instead, they appropri-
ated many of its techniques and "infiltrated" some of the mass media
channels through which it was disseminated. The history of this infiltra-
tion, of course, has been exhaustively (if rather superficially) covered by
scholars on the mainland, and it is not my primary concern here.45
Instead, I would like to focus on some of the ways in which gender
(particularly in relation to the sing-song girl) plays itself out in the dis-
course of the left-wing music movement of the mid-1930s.
There is perhaps no better example of the way the Left harnesses
the pathos of the sing-song girl as a figure of oppression, national humil-
iation, and national resistance than Nie Er's song for the 1935 film
There are two other types of people to which we should pay serious attention: the first are those who write sexually lewd and obscene (yin dang) songs and who broadcast sexually lewd and obscene songs over the wireless. They are prostitutes in disguise (bianxiang de maiyinfu) whose only talent is for poisoning society. The second are these shameless music merchants who talk a good line about promot ing music for the masses but actually take advantage of their special position to sell as much vulgar and salacious music as they can in order to poison the Chinese people. We must rise up together to overthrow these kinds of people.44
Children of the Storm (Fengyun ernu), "The Sing-Song Girl under the
Iron Hoof" (Tieti xia de genu).46 The film's scenario, written by Tian
Owing to the dual restraint of sporadic GMD censorship and market pressures, leftists never succeeded in eliminating the culture of consump tion to which they were so adamantly opposed. Instead, they appropri ated many of its techniques and "infiltrated" some of the mass media channels through which it was disseminated. The history of this infiltra tion, of course, has been exhaustively (if rather superficially) covered by scholars on the mainland, and it is not my primary concern here.45 Instead, I would like to focus on some of the ways in which gender (particularly in relation to the sing-song girl) plays itself out in the dis course of the left-wing music movement of the mid-1930s. There is perhaps no better example of the way the Left harnesses the pathos of the sing-song girl as a figure of oppression, national humil iation, and national resistance than Nie Er's song for the 1935 film Children of the Storm (Fengyun emu) , "The Sing-Song Girl under the Iron Hoof" (Tieti xia de genu).46 The film's scenario, written by Tian
330
330
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Han, tells the story of a group of young people in Shanghai who, driven
by misfortune and oppression, gradually devote themselves to the anti-
Japanese war effort in the north of China. The film climaxes with a
stirring rendition of the song that was to become China's national an-
them, Nie Er's "March of the Volunteers" (Yiyong jun jinxing qu), set
to a symbolic montage of Chinese peasants marching toward the Great
Wall.47
The clear-cut attempt to mythologize (and thus mobilize) nationalist
sentiment is leavened with a subplot portraying the life of Ah Feng
(played by Wang Renmei), an orphaned child compelled by poverty to
undertake a career as a "sing-song girl."48 The film follows Ah Feng and
her song and dance troupe to Qingdao, where they are on tour. After
the troupe regales cinemagoers with a "Spanish"-inspired dance routine
(performed by two more graduates of Li Jinhui's own troupe, Zhou
Xuan and Bai Hong), Ah Feng's song inserts a note of patriotic urgency
into a scene that would otherwise have been indistinguishable from a
host of others in the "soft" Chinese musicals of the era. Indeed, the
juxtaposition of sing-song girl and the nation in Xu Xingzhi's lyrics (and
their saturation by the discourse of prostitution as national humiliation)
is transparent to the point of clumsiness:
Everywhere we sell our songs
We perform our dances all around
Who doesn't know that the nation's on the brink of disaster?
So why have we been taken for courtesans?
Because of hunger and cold
We sing our sad songs everywhere
We've tasted all of life's cares
Dancing girls are condemned always to drift
Who's willing to be someone's slave?
Who wants to let our homeland fall into enemy hands?
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Han, tells the story of a group of young people in Shanghai who, driven by misfortune and oppression, gradually devote themselves to the anti Japanese war effort in the north of China. The film climaxes with a stirring rendition of the song that was to become China's national an them, Nie Er's "March of the Volunteers" (Yiyong j un jinxing qu), set to a symbolic montage of Chinese peasants marching toward the Great Wal1.47 The clear-cut attempt to mythologize (and thus mobilize) nationalist sentiment is leavened with a subplot portraying the life of Ah Feng (played by Wang Renmei), an orphaned child compelled by poverty to undertake a career as a "sing-song girl. "4B The film follows Ah Feng and her song and dance troupe to Qingdao, where they are on tour. After the troupe regales cinemagoers with a "Spanish" -inspired dance routine (performed by two more graduates of Li Jinhui's own troupe, Zhou Xuan and B ai Hong), Ah Feng's song inserts a note of patriotic urgency into a scene that would otherwise have been indistinguishable from a host of others in the "soft" Chinese musicals of the era. Indeed, the juxtaposition of sing-song girl and the nation in Xu Xingzhi's lyrics (and their saturation by the discourse of prostitution as national humiliation) is transparent to the point of clumsiness:
The sing-song girl under the iron hoof is pitiful
Whipped until her whole body is torn and bleeding49
Obviously, the lyric signifies a rejection of consumer culture, a disrup-
tion of the circuit of pleasure in which the sing-song girl serves as a
medium for commercial exchange as one who "sells songs" (or, via her
Everywhere we sell our songs We perform our dances all around Who doesn't know that the nation's on the brink of disaster? So why have we been taken for courtesans? Because of hunger and cold We sing our sad songs everywhere We've tasted all of life's cares Dancing girls are condemned always to drift Who's willing to be someone's slave? Who wants to let our homeland fall into enemy hands? The sing-song girl under the iron hoof is pitiful Whipped until her whole body is torn and bleeding49 Obviously, the lyric signifies a rejection of consumer culture, a disrup tion of the circuit of pleasure in which the sing-song girl serves as a medium for commercial exchange as one who "sells songs" (or, via her
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 331
mass-mediated voice, radio advertising and cinema tickets) and by
extension her own body. Implicit here as well is the notion of recupera-
tion, the implication that the oppressed sing-song girl is ready and
willing to be enlisted in the cause of national salvation. This recupera-
tion, though, is equivocal at best. In an industry that functioned by way
of a gendered division of labor in which men wrote lyrics and women
sang them, Xu Xingzhi's lyrics represent just as much of an appropria-
tion (and in a sense a silencing) of the "sing-song girl" as a song in
which the words put in her mouth are nothing more than a titillating
salve to male fantasies or an invitation to commercial exchange.50
Just as significant is Nie Er's musical language. In describing music
in any other terms than the strictly musicological, of course, we con-
demn ourselves to the realm of the merely "adjectival," as Roland
Barthes would have it.51 But these adjectives - and the musical facts to
which they refer - are in a very real sense gendered. Wong Kee-chee has
noted a distinct transformation wrought on the singing styles of the day
by the advent of leftist "mass music" into the urban media market.52
Essentially, Nie and his compatriots in the left-wing music movement
replaced the rather high-pitched, nasal, and melismatic style characteris-
tic of Li Jinhui's more popular tunes - sometimes mocked in contempo-
rary writings as the "little sister style" (meimei qiang) - with a deeper,
open-throated approach to vocal production imported from Western
operatic, martial, and folk music traditions. This shift in vocal produc-
tion, of course, was accompanied by analogous changes in the melodic
and rhythmic profiles of the form.
The ideological implications of this change cannot be overestimated.
To contemporary critics, the former style implied tradition (and specifi-
cally the tradition of the courtesan-cum-sing-song girl in her urban set-
ting), vulgarity, sexuality, vulnerability, and exaggerated femininity. The
latter was implicated with qualities of nobility, grandeur, aggression, and
masculinity. In this light, it is not surprising that a majority of the film
songs produced by Nie Er, He Luting, Ren Guang, and Xian Xinghai
throughout the 1930s were written not for women - as was overwhelm-
ingly the case with the commercial pop music of the period - but for
men.53 Nor is their experimentation with rousing martial choral effects (as
in "The March of the Volunteers" and Ren Guang's adaptation of the
"Song of the Volga Boatmen" for the film The Great Road) insignificant in
terms of gender and ideology.54 Instead, it represented a musical figure
331
mass-mediated voice, radio advertising and cinema tickets) and by extension her own body. Implicit here as well is the notion of recupera tion, the implication that the oppressed sing-song girl is ready and willing to be enlisted in the cause of national salvation. This recupera tion, though, is equivocal at best. In an industry that functioned by way of a gendered division of labor in which men wrote lyrics and women sang them, Xu Xingzhi's lyrics represent just as much of an appropria tion (and in a sense a silencing) of the "sing-song girl" as a song in which the words put in her mouth are nothing more than a titillating salve to male fantasies or an invitation to commercial exchange.5o Just as significant is Nie Er's musical language. In describing music in any other terms than the strictly musicological, of course, we con demn ourselves to the realm of the merely "adjectival," as Roland Barthes would have it.51 But these adjectives - and the musical facts to which they refer - are in a very real sense gendered. Wong Kee-chee has noted a distinct transformation wrought on the singing styles of the day by the advent of leftist "mass music" into the urban media market.52 Essentially, Nie and his compatriots in the left-wing music movement replaced the rather high-pitched, nasal, and melismatic style characteris tic of Li Jinhui's more popular tunes - sometimes mocked in contempo rary writings as the "little sister style" (meimei qiang) - with a deeper, open-throated approach to vocal production imported from Western operatic, martial, and folk music traditions. This shift in vocal produc tion, of course, was accompanied by analogous changes in the melodic and rhythmic profiles of the form. The ideological implications of this change cannot be overestimated. To contemporary critics, the former style implied tradition (and specifi cally the tradition of the courtesan-cum-sing-song girl in her urban set ting), vulgarity, sexuality, vulnerability, and exaggerated femininity. The latter was implicated with qualities of nobility, grandeur, aggression, and masculinity. In this light, it is not surprising that a majority of the film songs produced by Nie Er, He Luting, Ren Guang, and Xi an Xinghai throughout the 1930s were written not for women - as was overwhelm ingly the case with the commercial pop music of the period - but for men.53 Nor is their experimentation with rousing martial choral effects (as in "The March of the Volunteers" and Ren Guang's adaptation of the "Song of the Volga Boatmen" for the film The Great Road) insignificant in terms of gender and ideology. 54 Instead, it represented a musical figure
332
332 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
for collectivity and nationhood, a figure in which the voice of the sing-
song girl was submerged and assimilated into the larger group.
Another crucial determinant of musical meaning is its performative
context and the "metamusical aspects" of performance (or its cinematic
representations).55 This, in fact, strikes me as one of the most important
aspects of leftist efforts in the mid-1930s to shift the locale of music
making away from the nightclub and into the stadiums and parks in
which mass "national salvation song meets" were sporadically held. In
nightclubs and cabarets (and the musical cinema, which often took these
locales as their primary settings) the very setup of the performance space
was redolent of the notion of music as consumption. The sing-song girl
stands isolated on stage behind a microphone, exposed to the gaze of the
audience. The orchestra is hidden toward the back of the stage or in an
orchestra pit in front of her. As Richard Middleton points out, this sort
of spatial interrelationship - in which the mechanics of musical perfor-
mance are elided in order to focus attention on the singer - is one of the
best indicators that we are in the presence of "the star syndrome."56 A
filmic equivalent of this syndrome is evoked in many of the Mandarin
musicals of the late 1930s and 1940s when, as Sam Ho notes, the star
sings out in the open air to the accompaniment of an invisible, off-screen
orchestra!57
The semiotics of performance in the mass singing meetings with
which leftist musicians sought to stir up patriotic fervor in the years
between 1934 and 1937 could not have been more different. Here the
most appropriate metaphor is martial. In one such meeting held in
Shanghai Stadium in 1936, one thousand singers of the People's Anthem
Society (Minzhong geyonghui) were serried into ranks, facing a (male)
conductor who led them in singing what had come to be known as
National Defense Music (Guofang yinyue).58 The fetishized female star
is subsumed by the collective, commercial exchange is replaced with
ideological solidarity and voluntarism, and the (gendered) consumer
becomes a desexed citizen participating in a ritual enactment of national
solidarity.
Even so, the leftist cinema on the eve of the Japanese invasion could
not altogether dispense with the sing-song girl. Part of the reason for
this, of course, was box-office appeal. Filmmaking is capital intensive;
stars like Zhou Xuan and Wang Renmei brought patrons into the
theater. Indeed, much of the appeal to contemporary audiences of a film
like Street Angel (Malu tianshi, dir. Yuan Muzhi, 1937) lay in its skillful
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
for collectivity and nationhood, a figure in which the voice of the sing song girl was submerged and assimilated into the larger group. Another crucial determinant of musical meaning is its performative context and the "metamusical aspects" of performance (or its cinematic representations).55 This, in fact, strikes me as one of the most important aspects of leftist efforts in the mid-1930s to shift the locale of music making away from the nightclub and into the stadiums and parks in which mass "national salvation song meets" were sporadically held. In nightclubs and cabarets (and the musical cinema, which often took these locales as their primary settings) the very setup of the performance space was redolent of the notion of music as consumption. The sing-song girl stands isolated on stage behind a microphone, exposed to the gaze of the audience. The orchestra is hidden toward the back of the stage or in an orchestra pit in front of her. As Richard Middleton points out, this sort of spatial interrelationship - in which the mechanics of musical perfor mance are elided in order to focus attention on the singer - is one of the best indicators that we are in the presence of "the star syndrome. "56 A filmic equivalent of this syndrome is evoked in many of the Mandarin musicals of the late 1930s and 1 940s when, as Sam Ho notes, the star sings out in the open air to the accompaniment of an invisible, off-screen orchestraP7 The semiotics of performance in the mass singing meetings with which leftist musicians sought to stir up patriotic fervor in the years between 1934 and 1 937 could not have been more different. Here the most appropriate metaphor is martial. In one such meeting held in Shanghai Stadium in 1 936, one thousand singers of the People's Anthem Society (Minzhong geyonghui) were serried into ranks, facing a (male) conductor who led them in singing what had come to be known as National Defense Music (Guofang yinyue). 58 The fetishized female star is subsumed by the collective, commercial exchange is replaced with ideological solidarity and voluntarism, and the (gendered) consumer becomes a de sexed citizen participating in a ritual enactment of national solidarity. Even so, the leftist cinema on the eve of the Japanese invasion could not altogether dispense with the sing-song girl. Part of the reason for this, of course, was box-office appeal. Filmmaking is capital intensive; stars like Zhou Xuan and Wang Renmei brought patrons into the theater. Indeed, much of the appeal to contemporary audiences of a film like Street Angel (Malu tianshi, dir. Yuan Muzhi, 1 937) lay in its skillful
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 333
(re)deployment of a sing-song girl singing tunes that were more than a
little reminiscent of Li Jinhui's "Drizzle" in terms of musical style and
melodic contours if not lyrical content.59 Indeed, Zhou Xuan's two musi-
cal sequences in the film, "Song of the Seasons" (Siji ge) and "Sing-Song
Girl at the Ends of the Earth" (Tianya genu) by He Luting and Tian
Han, are still celebrated today as classics in the evolution of Mandarin
pop and are distinctive for the manner in which they invoke not the
turgid strains of Western (and specifically Soviet) martial music, as in
Nie Er's work, but the mellifluous (and to leftist and more conservative
highbrow critics alike, "decadent") melodic material of traditional urban
folk song forms (often referred to as xiaodiao).
I want to briefly focus on one particularly revealing musical se-
quence from Street Angel, a justly famous film. Zhou Xuan, playing a
sing-song girl modeled so closely on her own life that she shares her real
(as opposed to stage) name, Xiao Hong, is called by the proprietor of
the teahouse where she works to sing a song for a gangster to whom he is
trying to sell her as a concubine. The performance context duplicates in
almost every particular the "classic" situation of the sing-song girl. The
singer faces the client; the client gazes appraisingly back at her. The
sing-song girl is on display. She is the fetishized object of a commercial
transaction that is to take place between the gangster and the proprietor,
and the song itself is supposed to be the sales pitch that closes the deal.
As in other commercial films of the era, the camera lingers lovingly
over Zhou Xuan's body (clad in the form-fitting qipao so characteristic of
women's fashions of the 1930s) and facial expressions, emphasizing her
"star quality." At the same time, however, her vulnerability and reluc-
tance to be forced into the role to which she has been assigned are clearly
marked by her refusal to meet the gaze of the gangster and the fidgety
way she braids her hair as she sings. Suddenly, the context of the perfor-
mance is disrupted (and more important, enlarged), for rather than dwell-
ing exclusively on the trio in the teahouse we are shown a visual montage
keyed to Tian Han's song lyrics, which scroll across the bottom of the
screen pursued by a bouncing white ball:
Spring comes, and the window fills with green
A maiden sits by the window embroidering a pair of Mandarin
ducks
Suddenly, a heartless blow
Splits the ducks in two
333
(re)deployment of a sing-song girl singing tunes that were more than a little reminiscent of Li linhui's "Drizzle" in terms of musical style and melodic contours if not lyrical content.59 Indeed, Zhou Xuan's two musi cal sequences in the film, "Song of the Seasons" (Siji ge) and "Sing-Song Girl at the Ends of the Earth" ( Tianya genu) by He Luting and Tian Han, are still celebrated today as classics in the evolution of Mandarin pop and are distinctive for the manner in which they invoke not the turgid strains of Western (and specifically Soviet) martial music, as in Nie Er's work, but the mellifluous (and to leftist and more conservative highbrow critics alike, "decadent") melodic material of traditional urban folk song forms (often referred to as xiaodiao) . I want to briefly focus on one particularly revealing musical se quence from Street Angel, a justly famous film. Zhou Xuan, playing a sing-song girl modeled so closely on her own life that she shares her real (as opposed to stage) name, Xiao Hong, is called by the proprietor of the teahouse where she works to sing a song for a gangster to whom he is trying to sell her as a concubine. The performance context duplicates in almost every particular the "classic" situation of the sing-song girl. The singer faces the client; the client gazes appraisingly back at her. The sing-song girl is on display. She is the fetishized object of a commercial transaction that is to take place between the gangster and the proprietor, and the song itself is supposed to be the sales pitch that closes the deal. As in other commercial films of the era, the camera lingers lovingly over Zhou Xuan's body (clad in the form-fitting qipao so characteristic of women's fashions of the 1930s) and facial expressions, emphasizing her "star quality. " At the same time, however, her vulnerability and reluc tance to be forced into the role to which she has been assigned are clearly marked by her refusal to meet the gaze of the gangster and the fidgety way she braids her hair as she sings. Suddenly, the context of the perfor mance is disrupted (and more important, enlarged) , for rather than dwell ing exclusively on the trio in the teahouse we are shown a visual montage keyed to Tian Han's song lyrics, which scroll across the bottom of the screen pursued by a bouncing white ball: Spring comes, and the window fills with green A maiden sits by the window embroidering a pair of Mandarin ducks Suddenly, a heartless blow Splits the ducks in two
334
334
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Summer comes, and the willow fronds grow long
The maiden has been blown south of the Yangzi River
The scenery's lovely all over the land
Bow how can it compare to the green sorghum fields at home?
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Summer comes, and the willow fronds grow long The maiden has been blown south of the Yangzi River The scenery's lovely all over the land Bow how can it compare to the green sorghum fields at home?
Autumn comes, and the lotus flowers are sweet
The maiden dreams of home night after night
When she wakes she doesn't see the faces of mom and dad
Just the moonlight shining at the foot of the bed
Winter comes, and snow flurries down
When winter clothes are ready I'll send them to my man
The Great Wall built of blood and flesh is long
Would that I could be the ancient Meng Jiang
Autumn comes, and the lotus flowers are sweet The maiden dreams of home night after night When she wakes she doesn't see the faces of mom and dad Just the moonlight shining at the foot of the bed
The heartless blow that separates Xiao Hong from her lover (Mandarin
ducks being a traditional symbol of conjugal bliss) is cinematically visual-
ized as a barrage of Japanese artillery fire. Xiao Hong's difficulties, we
realize, are a consequence of Japanese territorial encroachment; the war
in Japanese-occupied Manchuria has made her a refugee from northern
China and forced her into thralldom as a sing-song girl in Shanghai.
Almost inevitably, the sequence ends with an image that deftly con-
veys both the ancient glory of the Chinese nation and the necessity for
Winter comes, and snow flurries down When winter clothes are ready I'll send them to my man The Great Wall built of blood and flesh is long Would that I could be the ancient Meng Jiang
national defense: the Great Wall. And Xiao Hong, in invoking the
legend of Meng Jiang (a legendary heroine who died during the construc-
tion of the wall), offers herself as a martyr to the nationalist cause.
Through montage, then, the pathos of the sing-song girl becomes an
analogue for China's national crisis. Xiao Hong's oppression at the
hands of the patriarchy is welded to - and ultimately displaced by - a
larger narrative of national salvation. And the filmmakers have had
their cake and eaten it, too: the fetishized star appeal of Zhou Xuan the
sing-song girl is exploited at the same time as it is defused and recuper-
ated by way of the presence of a "larger" discourse.
Street Angel, of course, was not the only Chinese leftist film in which
commercial popular culture (and its modes of signification) are rewritten
by way of nationalist narratives. Indeed, popular songs and the women
who sing them become perhaps the primary vehicle for the articula-
tion of a discourse of national salvation in the leftist cinema of the 1930s.
Examples are legion, ranging from Cai Chusheng's 1935 drama New
The heartless blow that separates Xiao Hong from her lover (Mandarin ducks being a traditional symbol of conjugal bliss) is cinematically visual ized as a barrage of Japanese artillery fire. Xiao Hong's difficulties, we realize, are a consequence of Japanese territorial encroachment; the war in Japanese-occupied Manchuria has made her a refugee from northern China and forced her into thralldom as a sing-song girl in Shanghai. Almost inevitably, the sequence ends with an image that deftly con veys both the ancient glory of the Chinese nation and the necessity for national defense: the Great Wall. And Xiao Hong, in invoking the legend of Meng Jiang (a legendary heroine who died during the construc tion of the wall), offers herself as a martyr to the nationalist cause. Through montage, then, the pathos of the sing-song girl becomes an analogue for China's national crisis. Xiao Hong's oppression at the hands of the patriarchy is welded to - and ultimately displaced by - a larger narrative of national salvation. And the filmmakers have had their cake and eaten it, too: the fetishized star appeal of Zhou Xuan the sing-song girl is exploited at the same time as it is defused and recuper ated by way of the presence of a "larger" discourse. Street Angel, of course, was not the only Chinese leftist film in which commercial popular culture (and its modes of signification) are rewritten by way of nationalist narratives. Indeed, popular songs and the women who sing them become perhaps the primary vehicle for the articula tion of a discourse of national salvation in the leftist cinema of the 1930s. Examples are legion, ranging from Cai Chusheng's 1935 drama New
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 335
Woman (Xin nuxing) to Xia Yan and Zhang Shichuan's 1937 production
A New Year's Coin (Yasuiqian). In the former, Li Jinhui's jazzy dance
hall ditty "Peach Blossom River" is quite literally appropriated and
rewritten by a proletarian woman in the form of a nationalist anthem
about foreign imperialism in Shanghai called "Huangpu River."60 A
similar technique is utilized in the former: a song called "The Song of the
Dance Hall" (Wuxie zhi ge) that is performed in a number of contexts by
a sing-song girl throughout the film is transformed at the end of the
movie into a "Song of National Salvation" (Jiuguo zhi ge) stridently
performed over the wireless by a patriotic school choir (thus displacing
the original sing-song girl, who has fallen into a life of taxi dancing and
streetwalking).61
This process of rewriting lends these examples of leftist cinematic
and musical production a curious doubleness precisely because they
cannot erase the physical traces of earlier inscriptions--those of the
star system and the female bodies around which its political and discur-
sive economies pivot. We have already examined how, in Children of
the Storm as much as Street Angel, voyeurism and nationalism go hand
in hand.62 The pathos of the fallen sing-song girl is appropriated by the
discourse of nationalism; her humiliation and salvation figure that of
the nation. Foregrounding the gendered traces of commercial media
culture in these songs and films, and thus deepening our understanding
of the history and mechanisms of nationalist discourse, is one of the
goals of this preliminary study.
A second, and perhaps less obvious agenda, has to do with the
work of Li Jinhui. Just as Nie Er appropriates and rewrites Li's music in
New Woman, leftist critics of the 1930s, as well as historians in the post-
1949 period, rewrite (and in my view radically impoverish) our under-
standing of the career of this pivotal figure. Strangely enough, conven-
tional accounts of Li's trajectory read something like the tales of fallen
sing-song girls: the original innocence of his early nationalistic efforts to
promote children's education is besmirched by his later descent into the
tawdry world of commercial media culture. These accounts obscure the
fact that Li's contributions to Chinese media culture are just as complex
and ambivalent as those of his leftist critics. The sing-song girl was as
much a product of May Fourth era discourses of nation building as of
anything else. The brand of mass-mediated voyeurism that Li helped to
forge, in other words, is as much informed by nationalism as leftist
cinema is informed by voyeurism. The task of the historian, then, is to
335
Woman (Xin nuxing) to Xia Yan and Zhang Shichuan's 1 937 production A New Year's Coin (Yasuiqian) . In the former, Li linhui's jazzy dance hall ditty "Peach Blossom River" is quite literally appropriated and rewritten by a proletarian woman in the form of a nationalist anthem about foreign imperialism in Shanghai called "Huangpu River. "60 A similar technique is utilized in the former: a song called "The Song of the Dance Hall" (Wuxie zhi ge) that is performed in a number of contexts by a sing-song girl throughout the film is transformed at the end of the movie into a "Song of National Salvation" (Jiuguo zhi ge) stridently performed over the wireless by a patriotic school choir (thus displacing the original sing-song girl, who has fallen into a life of taxi dancing and streetwalking).61 This process of rewriting lends these examples of leftist cinematic and musical production a curious doubleness precisely because they cannot erase the physical traces of earlier inscriptions - those of the star system and the female bodies around which its political and discur sive economies pivot. We have already examined how, in Children of the Storm as much as Street Angel, voyeurism and nationalism go hand in hand. 62 The pathos of the fallen sing-song girl is appropriated by the discourse of nationalism; her humiliation and salvation figure that of the nation. Foregrounding the gendered traces of commercial media culture in these songs and films, and thus deepening our understanding of the history and mechanisms of nationalist discourse, is one of the goals of this preliminary study. A second, and perhaps less obvious agenda, has to do with the work of Li linhui. lust as Nie Er appropriates and rewrites Li's music in New Woman, leftist critics of the 1 930s, as well as historians in the post1949 period, rewrite (and in my view radically impoverish) our under standing of the career of this pivotal figure. Strangely enough, conven tional accounts of Li's trajectory read something like the tales of fallen sing-song girls: the original innocence of his early nationalistic efforts to promote children's education is besmirched by his later descent into the tawdry world of commercial media culture. These accounts obscure the fact that Li's contributions to Chinese media culture are just as complex and ambivalent as those of his leftist critics. The sing-song girl was as much a product of May Fourth era discourses of nation building as of anything else. The brand of mass-mediated voyeurism that Li helped to forge, in other words, is as much informed by nationalism as leftist cinema is informed by voyeurism. The task of the historian, then, is to
336
336 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
uncover the traces of each in the other and in doing so complicate our
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
uncover the traces of each in the other and in doing so complicate our understanding of both.
understanding of both.
NOTES
1. The only male singers who recorded consistently for Path6 Records
(Shanghai Baidai changpian gongsi), the premier record label of the day, were
Yan Hua (Zhou Xuan's first husband) and Yao Min (an accomplished songwriter
NOTES
and the older brother of one of the most popular singers of the late 1930s and
1940s, Yao Li). A glance through the Path6 catalog compiled by the Shanghai
branch of the China Records Corporation reveals that a majority of their records
were duets recorded with popular female singers of the era. Significantly, both
Yan and Yao were more extensively involved in songwriting, management, and
production (all roles from which their female counterparts were largely ex-
cluded) than performance.
2. Sam Ho, "The Songstress, the Farmer's Daughter, the Mambo Girl,
and the Songstress Again," in Law Kar, ed., Mandarin Films and Popular Songs,
40's-60's: Catalog of the 17th Hong Kong International Film Festival (Hong
Kong: Urban Council, 1993), 59.
3. I translate the Chinese genii as "sing-song girl" advisedly. As Gail
Hershatter notes, high-class Shanghainese courtesans skilled in the arts of song
and storytelling were respectfully referred to by their clients as xiansheng (liter-
ally, master or firstborn). The term sing-song girl is thus a clever English-
language malapropism based on the Shanghainese pronunciation of xiansheng.
Because of the constant slippage between the notion of singing and selling sexual
services, however, I have elected to retain the English word in this context,
despite the more limited denotative scope of the original Chinese term. See Gail
Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-
Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 41.
4. Indeed, as has often been pointed out, the list of "graduates" from Li's
troupes (which includes Zhou Xuan, Bai Hong, and Wang Renmei) reads like a
litany of Shanghai's brightest stars. As I discuss later in this chapter, the troupe
also produced a leftist musician, Nie Er, who was to become one of the most
vocal critics of Shanghai's entertainment scene as well as the author of the song
"The March of the Volunteers" (Yiyongjun jinxing qu), which was later adopted
as China's national anthem. For an account of Nie's participation in and later
disaffection from the troupe, see Wang Yizhi, Nie Er zhuan [A biography of Nie
Er] (Shanghai: Shanghai yinyue chubanshe, 1992).
5. Wang Yuhe, Zhongguo jinxiandai yinyue shi (A history of modern
Chinese music) (Beijing: Beijing renmin chubanshe, 1984), 118.
6. One of the most interesting, and certainly the most frightening, vision
of this sort of musical culture was formulated by a prominent music educator and
nationalist intellectual, Xiao Youmei, in a 1934 radio address entitled "The
Power of Music." In the address, which was reprinted in a number of scholarly
1 . The only male singers who recorded consistently for Pathe Records (Shanghai Baidai changpian gongsi), the premier record label of the day, were Yan Hua (Zhou Xuan's first husband) and Yao Min (an accomplished songwriter and the older brother of one of the most popular singers of the late 1 930s and 1 940s, Yao Li). A glance through the Pathe catalog compiled by the Shanghai branch of the China Records Corporation reveals that a majority of their records were duets recorded with popular female singers of the era. Significantly, both Yan and Yao were more extensively involved in songwriting, management, and production (all roles from which their female counterparts were largely ex cluded) than performance. 2. Sam Ho, "The Songstress, the Farmer's Daughter, the Mambo Girl, and the Songstress Again," in Law Kar, e d . , Mandarin Films and Popular Songs, 40's-60's: Catalog of the 1 7th Hong Kong International Film Festival (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1993) , 59. 3. I translate the Chinese genii as "sing-song girl" advisedly. As Gail Hershatter notes, high-class Shanghainese courtesans skilled in the arts of song and storytelling were respectfully referred to by their clients as xiansheng (liter ally, master or firstborn). The term sing-song girl is thus a clever English language malapropism based on the Shanghainese pronunciation of xiansheng. Because of the constant slippage between the notion of singing and selling sexual services, however, I have elected to retain the English word in this context, despite the more limited denotative scope of the original Chinese term. See Gail Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 997) , 4 1 . 4. Indeed, as has often been pointed out, the list of "graduates" from Li's troupes (which includes Zhou Xuan, Bai Hong, and Wang Renmei) reads like a litany of Shanghai's brightest stars. As I discuss later in this chapter, the troupe also produced a leftist musician, Nie Er, who was to become one of the most vocal critics of Shanghai's entertainment scene as well as the author of the song "The March of the Volunteers" (Yiyongjun jinxing qu), which was later adopted as China's national anthem. For an account of Nie's participation in and later disaffection from the troupe, see Wang Yizhi, Nie Er zhuan [A biography of Nie Er] (Shanghai: Shanghai yinyue chubanshe, 1 992) . 5 . Wang Yuhe, Zhongguo jinxiandai yinyue shi (A history of modern Chinese music) (Beijing: Beijing renmin chubanshe, 1 984) , 1 1 8. 6. One of the most interesting, and certainly the most frightening, vision of this sort of musical culture was formulated by a prominent music educator and nationalist intellectual, Xiao Youmei, in a 1 934 radio address entitled "The Power of Music. " In the address, which was reprinted in a number of scholarly
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 337
and popular journals in the mid-1930s, Xiao claims that "The last and most
readily apparent power is that musical rhythm is capable of conducting the
greatest masses, capable of synchronizing the movements of the entire [Chinese]
nation." The necessary corollary to this sort of argument, of course, is that forms
of music that do not achieve nationalist aims must be eliminated or suppressed.
See Xiao Youmei, "Yinyue de shili" (The power of music), Yinyue jiaoyu 3
(March 1934): pp. 9-13. The article was reprinted in Yisheng 5 (October 1935).
7. Gail Hershatter provides a revealing study of the origins of this dis-
course on prostitution in her "Modernizing Sex, Sexing Modernity: Prostitution
in Early Twentieth-Century Shanghai," in Christina K. Gilmartin, Gail Her-
shatter, Lisa Rofel, and Tyrene White, eds., Engendering China: Woman, Cul-
ture, and the State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 147-74.
8. For a critical biography of Li Jinhui's life and music, see Sun Ji'nan, Li
Jinhui pingzhuan (Li Jinhui: A critical biography) (Beijing: Renmin yinyue
chubanshe, 1993).
9. The most famous of these "children's operas" include The Grape Fairy
(Putao xianzi, 1923), Three Butterflies (San hudie, 1926), and The Magpie and
the Little Child (Maque yu xiaohai, 1927). Many of Li's children songs continue
to circulate today. For a contemporary critical assessment of these works, see
Sun Ji'nan, 34-62.
10. This was not, of course, a cosmetic institute. Instead, the name of the
school reflected Li's belief that "just as butterflies are the glory of the insect
world, beautiful people are the cream of humanity." See Wang Yuhe, 92.
11. Li Jinhui, "Wo he Mingyue gewu she" (The Bright Moon Society and
myself), Wenhua shiliao 4 (January 1983): 210. Interestingly, the tour was en-
dorsed by the prominent leftists Tian Han and Zheng Zhenduo, both of whom
heartily endorsed Li's nationalist agenda.
12. Ibid., 211. For Wang Renmei's account of the incident, see Xie Bo, ed.,
Wode chengming yu buxing: Wang Renmei huiyi lu (My success and misfortune:
The reminiscences of Wang Renmei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe,
1985), 75.
13. Li Jinhui, Jiating aiqing gequ (Twenty five family love songs) (Shang-
hai: Shanghai wenming shudian, 1929).
14. For a review of their performance in Tianjin, see Qiu Chen, "Mingyue
gewu yu kaiming" (Ming Yeoh Musikverein at the Kaiming), Beiyang huabao 19
(August 1930): 2.
15. Interestingly, this company was established by no less a personage as
Chiang Kai-shek, and it claimed the distinction of being the sole Chinese-owned
record company in Shanghai in a market dominated by Path6 (owned by the
English multinational Electrical and Musical Industries or EMI). For an account
of the early development of the Chinese record industry, see Li Qing et al.,
Guangbo dianshi qiye shi (neibu shiliao) (Internal documents on the history of
the broadcasting and television enterprise) (Shanghai: Zhongguo changpian
gongsi, 1994). For a history of the global diffusion of the recording industry, see
Pekka Gronow, "The Record Industry Comes to the Orient," Ethnomusicology
2, no. 25 (1981): 251-84.
337
and popular journals in the mid-1930s, Xiao claims that "The last and most readily apparent power is that musical rhythm is capable of conducting the greatest masses, capable of synchronizing the movements of the entire [Chinese] nation." The necessary corollary to this sort of argument, of course, is that forms of music that do not achieve nationalist aims must be eliminated or suppressed. See Xiao Youmei, "Yinyue de shili" (The power of music), Yinyue jiaoyu 3 (March 1934): pp. 9-1 3. The article was reprinted in Yisheng 5 (October 1935). 7. Gail Hershatter provides a revealing study of the origins of this dis course on prostitution in her "Modernizing Sex, Sexing Modernity: Prostitution in Early Twentieth-Century Shanghai," in Christina K. Gilmartin, Gail Her shatter, Lisa Rofel, and Tyrene White, eds . , Engendering China: Woman, Cul ture, and the State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 147-74. 8. For a critical biography of Li linhui's life and music, see Sun li'nan, Li finhui pingzhuan (Li linhui: A critical biography) (Beijing: Renmin yinyue chubanshe, 1993). 9. The most famous of these "children's operas" include The Grape Fairy (Putao xianzi, 1923), Three Butterflies (San hudie, 1926), and The Magpie and the Little Child (Maque yu xiaohai, 1927). Many of Li's children songs continue to circulate today. For a contemporary critical assessment of these works, see Sun li'nan, 34-62. 10. This was not, of course, a cosmetic institute. Instead, the name of the school reflected Li's belief that "just as butterflies are the glory of the insect world, beautiful people are the cream of humanity. " See Wang Yuhe, 92. 1 1 . Li linhui, "Wo he Mingyue gewu she" (The Bright Moon Society and myself) , Wenhua shiliao 4 (January 1983): 210. Interestingly, the tour was en dorsed by the prominent leftists Tian Han and Zheng Zhenduo, both of whom heartily endorsed Li's nationalist agenda. 12. Ibid., 2 1 1 . For Wang Renmei's account of the incident, see Xie Bo, e d . , Wode chengming y u buxing: Wang Renmei huiyi lu (My success and misfortune: The reminiscences of Wang Renmei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1985), 75 . 13. Li Jinhui, fiating aiqing gequ (Twenty five family love songs) (Shang hai: Shanghai wenming shudian, 1929). 14. For a review of their performance in Tianjin, see Qiu Chen, "Mingyue gewu yu kaiming" (Ming Yeoh Musikverein at the Kaiming), Beiyang huabao 19 (August 1930): 2. 1 5 . Interestingly, this company was established by no less a personage as Chiang Kai-shek, and it claimed the distinction of being the sole Chinese-owned record company in Shanghai in a market dominated by Pathe (owned by the English multinational Electrical and Musical Industries or EMI) . For an account of the early development of the Chinese record industry, see Li Qing et ai., Guangbo dianshi qiye shi (neibu shiliao) (Internal documents on the history of the broadcasting and television enterprise) (Shanghai: Zhongguo changpian gongsi, 1994) . For a history of the global diffusion of the recording industry, see Pekka Gronow, "The Record Industry Comes to the Orient," Ethnomusicology 2, no. 25 (1981): 251-84.
338
338
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
16. Li repudiated his use of "American thigh dancing" in a post-1949 self-
criticism. See Sun Ji'nan, 118.
17. Zhang Zhang, "Yinyue yishu wang na'er qu?" (Quo vadis, musical
art?) Yinyue jiaoyu 8 (August 1936): 84.
18. Ibid., 80.
19. Xie Bo, 145. For an extremely illuminating look at the issue of gender
and performance in the May Fourth era, see Catherine Chow Hui-ling, "Nii
yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, 'xin ntixing' lunshu: wanqing dao wusi shiqi Zhongguo
xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan" (Actresses, realism, and the dis-
course of the "new woman": The performance of gender in China's modern
theater from the late Qing to the May Fourth period), Jindai Zhongguo fund, shi
yanjiu (Research in modern Chinese women's history) 4 (August 1996): 87-133.
20. Li Jinhui, "Juantou yu" (Introduction), in San hudie: dumu gewu juben
(Three butterflies: Script for a one-act musical drama) (Shanghai: Zonghua
shuju, 1926), 4-5.
21. Sun Yu, "Qingchun de biaoxian" (Manifestation of youth). Yingxi
zazhi 1 (July 1931): 42.
22. See the Shanghai tong she (Shanghai Experts Society), eds., Shanghai
yanjiu ziliao xuji (Shanghai research materials), vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai
shudian, 1984), 717.
23. Interview with Yao Li, Hong Kong, October 20, 1995. See also the
broadcasting column in Yule (Variety weekly), 2, no. 1 (January 1, 1936): 5.
24. For commentary on this development, see Sun Yu and Si Kong,
"Zhongguo de gewu" (Chinese musical drama), Yingxi zazhi 1 (July 1931):
39-40.
25. According to Sun Ji'nan, the film was produced by the Tianyi Studio in
1931; Li provided three songs for the soundtrack. It is, like so many other films
of its era and genre, no longer extant. The first Chinese talkie, Genii Hong
Mudan (Sing-song girl Red Peony), produced in 1930 by Mingxing, told the
story of a traditional-style courtesan and featured several Peking opera arias.
26. Shui Jing notes that in the 1940s almost every "corner store" in Shang-
hai's residential districts was equipped with a radio and a gramophone and that
such spaces became a prime site for popular music consumption. See his Liuxing
gequ cangsangji (Record of the odyssey of pop music) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe,
1981), 8. As the 1930 ad copy in a record trade journal indicates, the expansion
of the media into private space was essential to the growth of the industry: "IN
THE HOME. . . New Moon Records are the most elegant and proper sort of
leisure product." See Xinyue ji (New Moon collection) 1 (August 1930): 39.
27. It comes as no surprise, for instance, that one frequently finds advertise-
ments for gramophone records and radio equipment in the women's magazines
of the period. See, for example, the string of RCA/Victor print ads that ran in
the popular wartime journal Niisheng (Women's voice).
28. The magazine Yule is perhaps the best example of this phenomenon
because it was expressly formulated as a journalistic guide to a variety of modish
urban leisure activities (filmgoing, dancing, listening to the wireless, dog racing,
and more).
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
16. Li repudiated his use of "American thigh dancing" in a post-1949 self criticism. See Sun Ji'nan, 1 1 8 . 1 7 . Zhang Zhang, "Yinyue yishu wang na'er qu?" (Quo vadis, musical art?) Yinyue jiaoyu 8 (August 1 936): 84. 1 8 . Ibid. , 80. 19. Xie Bo, 145. For an extremely illuminating look at the issue of gender and performance in the May Fourth era, see Catherine Chow Hui-ling, "Nu yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, 'xin nuxing' lunshu: wanqing dao wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan" (Actresses, realism, and the dis course of the "new woman" : The performance of gender in China's modern theater from the late Qing to the May Fourth period), lindai Zhongguo [una, shi yanjiu (Research in modern Chinese women's history) 4 (August 1 996) : 87-1 33. 20. Li Jinhui, "Juantou yu" (Introduction) , in San hudie: dumu gewu juben (Three butterflies: Script for a one-act musical drama) (Shanghai: Zonghua shuju, 1 926), 4-5 . 2 1 . Sun Yu, "Qingchun de biaoxian" (Manifestation of youth). Yingxi zazhi 1 (July 193 1 ) : 42. 22. See the Shanghai tong she (Shanghai Experts Society), eds., Shanghai yanjiu ziliao xuji (Shanghai research materials), vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian, 1984), 717. 23. Interview with Yao Li, Hong Kong, October 20, 1 995. See also the broadcasting column in Yule (Variety weekly) , 2, no. 1 (January 1 , 1 936): 5 . 24. For commentary on this development, see Sun Yu and Si Kong, "Zhongguo de gewu" (Chinese musical drama) , Yingxi zazhi 1 (July 193 1 ) : 39-40. 25. According to Sun Ji'nan, the film was produced by the Tianyi Studio in 1 93 1 ; Li provided three songs for the soundtrack. It is, like so many other films of its era and genre, no longer extant. The first Chinese talkie, Gena Hong Mudan (Sing-song girl Red Peony), produced in 1930 by Mingxing, told the story of a traditional-style courtesan and featured several Peking opera arias. 26. Shui Jing notes that in the 1940s almost every "corner store" in Shang hai's residential districts was equipped with a radio and a gramophone and that such spaces became a prime site for popular music consumption. See his Liuxing gequ cangsang ji (Record of the odyssey of pop music) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1 981) , 8. As the 1930 ad copy in a record trade journal indicates, the expansion of the media into private space was essential to the growth of the industry: "IN THE HOME . . . New Moon Records are the most elegant and proper sort of leisure product." See Xinyue ji (New Moon collection) 1 (August 1 930): 39. 27. It comes as no surprise, for instance, that one frequently finds advertise ments for gramophone records and radio equipment in the women's magazines of the period. See, for example, the string of RCA/Victor print ads that ran in the popular wartime journal Niisheng (Women's voice). 28. The magazine Yule is perhaps the best example of this phenomenon because it was expressly formulated as a journalistic guide to a variety of modish urban leisure activities (filmgoing, dancing, listening to the wireless, dog racing, and more).
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 339
29. Another important aspect of the star-making machinery and pop
fandom in Shanghai was the practice of collecting photographs of various per-
formers. Movie magazines often ran advertisements for photo studios that were
selling shots of the stars.
30. "Chuangkan ci" (Editor's introduction), Gexinghuabao 1 (March 1935).
31. It should be noted that there are precedents for this kind of "consumer
guide" approach in earlier urban tabloids that catered to the prostitution trade.
Also, many of the formats and representative strategies adopted by film maga-
zines and tabloids in China were, I suspect, adapted from American magazines
and Hollywood celebrity tabloids.
32. See Yisheng 2 (July 1935): 13.
33. Li recorded almost fifty sides for the American RCA/Victor label in
1934 alone, according to Liang Maochun in his article "Dui woguo liuxing yinyue
lishi de sikao" (Thoughts on the history of Chinese popular music), Renmin
yinyue 7 (1988): 33. The exodus of talent to the cinema is strikingly illustrated by
a two-page photo spread published in Yingmi zhoubao (Film fan weekly) in 1934
and entitled "From the Musical Stage to the Movies." The spread features
several of Li's female proteges, including Zhou Xuan, Bai Hong, Li Lihua, and
Jiang Manjie. See "Cong getai dao yinmu" (From the musical stage to the silver
screen), Yingmi zhoubao 8 (November 14, 1934).
34. Luo Ting, "Guanyu Li Jinhui" (On Li Jinhui), Yinyue jiaoyu 2 (Decem-
ber 1934): 34.
35. The first months of 1934 alone brought several musicals, including
Renjian xianzi (Heavenly girl on earth) and Jianmei yundong (Sports move-
ment). The trend, of course, was in part a reaction to a spate of Hollywood
musicals inundating the Shanghai market at the time, the most notable of which
were a string of Warner Brothers productions choreographed by Busby Berkeley
(42nd Street, Gold-Diggers of 1933, and Footlight Parade, among others). For a
contemporary critique of this trend, see Wu Duanfeng, "Zhongguo dianying
zuijin zhi xin de qingxiang" (The latest trends in Chinese movies), Yingmi
zhoubao 8 (November 14, 1934): 130.
36. "Jingren xiaoxi" (Shocking news), Shanghai yingxun, August 23,
1941, 31.
37. The most obvious example is Zhou Xuan. An orphan, she faced the
threat of being sold into prostitution several times before making it big in the
music business. And in many of her films she plays a character who is in all
essential respects Zhou Xuan. An example of classic postwar productions that
embody this sort of plot structure and media looping is Zhou's The Song of the
Sing-Song Girl (Genii zhi ge, 1948). Prewar examples also exist, although they
are often difficult to find due to the ravages of time, war, and (at least on the
mainland) historians and archivists who have tended to exclude nonleftist films
from the cinematic canon. One interesting example of the motif is Song of
Everlasting Regret (Changhen zhi ge, 1936), a commercial melodrama directed
by Shi Dongshan and starring Wang Renmei as a divorced housewife who tries a
new career in the music business, becoming an exploited sing-song girl at a radio
station and eventually a murderess.
339
29. Another important aspect of the star-making machinery and pop fandom in Shanghai was the practice of collecting photographs of various per formers. Movie magazines often ran advertisements for photo studios that were selling shots of the stars. 30. "Chuangkan ci" (Editor's introduction), Gexing huabao 1 (March 1935 ) . 3 1 . I t should b e noted that there are precedents for this kind o f "consumer guide" approach in earlier urban tabloids that catered to the prostitution trade. Also, many of the formats and representative strategies adopted by film maga zines and tabloids in China were, I suspect, adapted from American magazines and Hollywood celebrity tabloids. 32. See Yisheng 2 (July 1935): 1 3 . 3 3 . Li recorded almost fifty sides for the American RCA/Victor label in 1934 alone, according to Liang Maochun in his article "Dui woguo liuxing yinyue lishi de sikao" (Thoughts on the history of Chinese popular music), Renmin yinyue 7 (1988): 33. The exodus of talent to the cinema is strikingly illustrated by a two-page photo spread published in Yingmi zhoubao (Film fan weekly) in 1934 and entitled "From the Musical Stage to the Movies." The spread features several of Li's female proteges, including Zhou Xuan, Bai Hong, Li Lihua, and Jiang Manj ie . See "Cong getai dao yinmu" (From the musical stage to the silver screen), Yingmi zhoubao 8 (November 14, 1934) . 34. Luo Ting, "Guanyu Li Jinhui" (On Li Jinhui), Yinyue jiaoyu 2 (Decem ber 1934): 34. 35. The first months of 1934 alone brought several musicals, including Renjian xianzi (Heavenly girl on earth) and Jianmei yundong (Sports move ment). The trend, of course, was in part a reaction to a spate of Hollywood musicals inundating the Shanghai market at the time, the most notable of which were a string of Warner Brothers productions choreographed by Busby Berkeley (42nd Street, Gold-Diggers of 1 933, and Footlight Parade, among others). For a contemporary critique of this trend, see Wu Duanfeng, "Zhongguo dianying zuijin zhi xin de qingxiang" (The latest trends in Chinese movies), Yingmi zhoubao 8 (November 14, 1934): 130. 36. "Jingren xiaoxi" (Shocking news), Shanghai yingxun, August 23, 1 941 , 3 1 . 3 7 . The most obvious example i s Zhou Xuan. A n orphan, she faced the threat of being sold into prostitution several times before making it big in the music business. And in many of her films she plays a character who is in all essential respects Zhou Xuan. An example of classic postwar productions that embody this sort of plot structure and media looping is Zhou's The Song of the Sing-Song Girl (Genu zhi ge, 1948). Prewar examples also exist, although they are often difficult to find due to the ravages of time, war, and (at least on the mainland) historians and archivists who have tended to exclude nonleftist films from the cinematic canon. One interesting example of the motif is Song of Everlasting Regret (Changhen zhi ge, 1 936 ) , a commercial melodrama directed by Shi Dongshan and starring Wang Renmei as a divorced housewife who tries a new career in the music business, becoming an exploited sing-song girl at a radio station and eventually a murderess.
340
340
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
38. Sam Ho, 56.
39. This is as defined in the Ciyuan (Etymological dictionary) (Hong Kong:
Shangwu yinshuguan, 1980).
40. For an exhaustive account of the Black Angel debate, see Wang Yizhi,
181-201.
41. See Ma Hiao-Ts'iun, 47.
42. Cheng Maoyun, "Li Jinhui yiliu juqu heyi bixu quti" (Why the music of
Li Jinhui and his ilk must be eliminated), Yinyue jiaoyu 1 (January 1934): 71-3.
Cheng is best known for having written the tune for the GMD's party anthem.
43. Ibid., 71. Given the crypto-fascist bent of the GMD's New Life cam-
paign, it is interesting to note Cheng's use of discursive strategies common to
other fascist movements of the era: an apotheosis of the rural "folk," an idealized
national past coupled with a disdain for "degeneracy," and a concomitant drive for
tight government restrictions on "unorthodox" forms of cultural expression.
44. He Luting, "Zhongguo yinyue jie xianzhuang ji women dui yinyue
yishu yingyou de renshi" (The present state of China's music world and the
attitude we should take toward musical art), Mingxing banyuekan 5, no. 6
(1936).
45. For the left-wing "new music" movement, see Wang Yuhe. For left-
wing involvement in the cinema of the 1930s, see Cheng Jihua.
46. The film was directed by Xu Xingzhi for the leftist-dominated Diantong
[Denton] Studio. For the film's scenario, see Chen Bo, ed., Zhongguo zuoyi
dianying yundong (The Chinese left-wing film movement) (Beijing: Zhongguo
dianying chubanshe, 1995), 283-84.
47. For an account of the genesis of the film and the national anthem, see
Tian Han, "Fengyun ernii he yiyong jun jinxingqu" ("Children of the Storm"
and "The March of the Vounteers"), in ibid., 366-67.
48. Again this is an example of intertextual looping: Wang was herself
orphaned as a teenager.
49. Music by Nie Er, words by Xu Xingzhi. See Qingnian yinyue yanjiu she
(Youth Music Research Society), eds., Xin Shanghai mingge sanbai qu (Three
hundred popular songs of new Shanghai) (Shanghai: Shanghai gequ she, 1935),
86.
50. In all fairness, however, it is interesting to note that the singer Wang
Renmei saw the song as "a true-to-life picture of the life of the girls in the Bright
Moon Society." See Xie Bo, 161.
51. Roland Barthes, Image-Music-Text (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977).
52. Wong Kee-chee, personal interview, Hong Kong, October 20, 1995.
53. Examples abound in the classic leftist films of the period, including the
1937 films Song at Midnight (Yeban gesheng) and Crossroads (Shizi jietou).
54. The Great Road (Dalu), also made in 1935, was directed by Sun Yu and
produced by Lianhua (United Photoplay).
55. See Richard Middleton, Studying Popular Music (Milton Keynes, En-
gland: Open University Press, 1990), 242.
56. Ibid., 242.
57. Ho, 59.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
38. Sam Ho, 56. 39. This is as defined in the Ciyuan (Etymological dictionary) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1980) . 40. For an exhaustive account of the Black Angel debate, see Wang Yizhi, 181-201 . 4 1 . See Ma Hiao-Ts'iun, 47. 42. Cheng Maoyun, "Li linhui yiliu j uqu heyi bixu quti" (Why the music of Li linhui and his ilk must be eliminated), Yinyue jiaoyu 1 (January 1934): 71-3 . Cheng is best known for having written the tune for the GMD's party anthem. 43. Ibid., 7 1 . Given the crypto-fascist bent of the GMD's New Life cam paign, it is interesting to note Cheng'S use of discursive strategies common to other fascist movements of the era: an apotheosis of the rural "folk," an idealized national past coupled with a disdain for "degeneracy, " and a concomitant drive for tight government restrictions on "unorthodox" forms of cultural expression. 44. He Luting, "Zhongguo yinyue jie xianzhuang ji women dui yinyue yishu yingyou de renshi" (The present state of China's music world and the attitude we should take toward musical art), Mingxing banyuekan 5 , no. 6 (1936). 45. For the left-wing "new music" movement, see Wang Yuhe. For left wing involvement in the cinema of the 1 930s, see Cheng Jihua. 46. The film was directed by Xu Xingzhi for the leftist-dominated Diantong [Denton] Studio. For the film's scenario, see Chen Bo, ed., Zhongguo zuoyi dianying yundong (The Chinese left-wing film movement) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1995), 283-84. 47. For an account of the genesis of the film and the national anthem, see Tian Han, "Fengyun emU he yiyong j un jinxingqu" ("Children of the Storm" and "The March of the Vounteers"), in ibid., 366-67. 48. Again this is an example of intertextual looping: Wang was herself orphaned as a teenager. 49 . Music by Nie Er, words by Xu Xingzhi. See Qingnian yinyue yanjiu she (Youth Music Research Society), eds., Xin Shanghai mingge sanbai qu (Three hundred popular songs of new Shanghai) (Shanghai: Shanghai gequ she, 1935), 86. 50. In all fairness, however, it is interesting to note that the singer Wang Renmei saw the song as "a true-to-life picture of the life of the girls in the Bright Moon Society. " See Xie Bo, 1 6 1 . 5 1 . Roland Barthes, Image-Music- Text (New York : Hill and Wang, 1 977). 52. Wong Kee-chee, personal interview, Hong Kong, October 20, 1 995. 53. Examples abound in the classic leftist films of the period, including the 1937 films Song at Midnight ( Yeban gesheng) and Crossroads (Shizi jietou). 54. The Great Road (Dalu) , also made in 1935, was directed by Sun Yu and produced by Lianhua (United Photoplay). 55. See Richard Middleton, Studying Popular Music (Milton Keynes, En gland: Open University Press, 1 990) , 242. 56. Ibid., 242. 57. HO, 59.
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation
The Sing-Song Girl and the Nation 341
58. Wang Yuhe, 146. This martial metaphor, of course, is given concrete
expression in the concluding montage of Children of the Storm. For a photo-
graph of this particular meeting, see the Zhongguo yinyue cidian (Dictionary of
Chinese music) (Beijing: Renmin yinyue chubanshe, 1984), 471.
59. Zhi Er, "Cong 'Malu tianshi' de gequ shuoqi" (On the songs of Street
Angel), Xinhua huabao 7 (1937).
60. In fact, the film's music (including this adaptation of Li's original tune
to leftist purposes) was composed by Nie Er.
61. In a final case of media looping, the sing-song girl in question is played
by Gong Qiuxia and named (nearly eponymously) Jiang Xiuxia.
62. Rey Chow has noted a similar tendency in the literary discourse of the
era in her Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading between East
and West (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991). See also Chow, 86.
341
58. Wang Yuhe, 1 46. This martial metaphor, of course, is given concrete expression in the concluding montage of Children of the Storm. For a photo graph of this particular meeting, see the Zhongguo yinyue cidian (Dictionary of Chinese music) (B eijing: Renmin yinyue chubanshe, 1 984) , 471 . 59. Zhi Er, "Cong 'Malu tianshi' de gequ shuoqi" (On the songs of Street Angel) , Xinhua huabao 7 (1937). 60. In fact, the film's music (including this adaptation of Li's original tune to leftist purposes) was composed by Nie Er. 6 1 . In a final case of media looping, the sing-song girl in question is played by Gong Qiuxia and named (nearly eponymously) Jiang Xiuxia. 62. Rey Chow has noted a similar tendency in the literary discourse of the era in her Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading between East and West (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991). See also Chow, 86.

Chapter 1 1 Chapter 11
Narratives of Exile and the Search for
Homeland in Contemporary Korean
Japanese Writings
John Lie
Korean Japanese constitute a group that is at once visible and invisible,
homogeneous and heterogeneous. Their visibility is exemplified by the
traditional Korean costume that schoolgirls commuting to ethnic Korean
schools wear (at least those schools affiliated with Soren, the pro-North
Korean organization in Japan). But the vast majority of perhaps a million
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland in Contemporary Korean Japanese Writings
Koreans in Japan "pass" as Japanese, as they are physically indistinguish-
able and culturally assimilated into Japanese society. Virtually all of them
speak Japanese fluently and, especially for later generations, very few
aspects of their lives render them distinct from their Japanese counter-
John Lie
parts. Even eating kimch'i (a paradigmatic Korean food)- long a telltale
sign of Koreanness - has become popular among urban Japanese.1
Korean Japanese - constituting less than 1 percent of the total Japa-
nese population - seem to be a relatively homogeneous group. Nearly all
of them are colonial-period migrants and their descendants. However,
besides their divergent contemporary fortunes - whether measured as
academic attainment or income inequality - another profound rift di-
vides them: the cold war division between North and South Korea. The
geopolitical division was refracted among Korean Japanese in the form of
two organizations, Soren and Mindan, which are allied with North and
South Korea, respectively. Divided loyalties to the two nation-states have
impeded the solidarity of Korean Japanese. Indeed, their heterogeneity
is exemplified by a lack of consensus on what to call them.
What united those in the Korean diaspora in Japan until very recently
was their intention to return to Korea. But the Korean War, continuing
tensions on the peninsula, the poverty of Korea, and the sheer gravity of
343
Korean Japanese constitute a group that is at once visible and invisible, homogeneous and heterogeneous. Their visibility is exemplified by the traditional Korean costume that schoolgirls commuting to ethnic Korean schools wear (at least those schools affiliated with Soren, the pro-North Korean organization in Japan). But the vast majority of perhaps a million Koreans in Japan "pass" as Japanese, as they are physically indistinguish able and culturally assimilated into Japanese society. Virtually all of them speak Japanese fluently and, especially for later generations, very few aspects of their lives render them distinct from their Japanese counter parts. Even eating kimch 'i (a paradigmatic Korean food) - long a telltale sign of Koreanness - has become popular among urban Japanese. ! Korean Japanese - constituting less than 1 percent of the total Japa nese population - seem to be a relatively homogeneous group. Nearly all of them are colonial-period migrants and their descendants. However, besides their divergent contemporary fortunes - whether measured as academic attainment or income inequality - another profound rift di vides them: the cold war division between North and South Korea. The geopolitical division was refracted among Korean Japanese in the form of two organizations, Soren and Mindan, which are allied with North and South Korea, respectively. Divided loyalties to the two nation-states have impeded the solidarity of Korean Japanese. Indeed, their heterogeneity is exemplified by a lack of consensus on what to call them. What united those in the Korean diaspora in Japan until very recently was their intention to return to Korea. But the Korean War, continuing tensions on the peninsula, the poverty of Korea, and the sheer gravity of 343
344
344
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
everyday life have bound many Koreans to Japan. Reflecting their desire
to return to their homeland one day, many of them continued to identify
themselves as Koreans, whether as "overseas nationals of North Korea"
or "resident Koreans in Japan." Korean Japanese are, in this sense, exiles,
"someone who inhabits one place and remembers or projects the reality
of another."2 This is especially true for Korean Japanese intellectuals,
who have written eloquently about their exiled conditions in Japan and
their longing to return to their homeland.3
In this chapter, I explore three distinct resolutions of the problem-
atic of exile by considering the recent writings of Kim Sok-pom, Yi
Yang-ji, and Yi Hoe-song - three well-known writers of Korean descent
in Japan. In particular, I focus on the writings - fictional and nonfic-
tional- that depict experiences of actual return to Korea, their pre-
sumed homeland. By exploring their disparate ways of coming to terms
with their return and their conditions of exile, I want to draw attention
not only to the diversity of the Korean diaspora in Japan but to different
modes of exilic and diasporic identity.
Kim Sok-pom's Utopia
Kokoku kO (To the ancestral land) is an account of Kim Sok-pom's trip
to South Korea and in particular to Cheju-do.4 Cheju-do is an island off
the southwestern coast of South Korea and is the locale of Kim's best-
known novel, Kazanto (Volcano Island). The multivolume novel re-
counts the 1947 uprising in which many insurgents sympathetic to com-
munism were killed. Although Kim was born in Osaka, Cheju-do is not
only an important locus of his fiction but a place he calls his ancestral
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
everyday life have bound many Koreans to Japan. Reflecting their desire to return to their homeland one day, many of them continued to identify themselves as Koreans, whether as "overseas nationals of North Korea" or "resident Koreans in Japan." Korean Japanese are, in this sense, exiles, "someone who inhabits one place and remembers or projects the reality of another. "2 This is especially true for Korean Japanese intellectuals, who have written eloquently about their exiled conditions in Japan and their longing to return to their homeland.3 In this chapter, I explore three distinct resolutions of the problem atic of exile by considering the recent writings of Kim Sok-pom, Yi Yang-ji, and Yi Hoe-song - three well-known writers of Korean descent in Japan. In particular, I focus on the writings - fictional and nonfic tional - that depict experiences of actual return to Korea, their pre sumed homeland. By exploring their disparate ways of coming to terms with their return and their conditions of exile, I want to draw attention not only to the diversity of the Korean diaspora in Japan but to different modes of exilic and diasporic identity.
land (kokoku) as well.
Although Kim had not been to Korea in more than forty years, he
had repeatedly sought, but failed, to visit South Korea. Like many other
Kim Sok-pom's Utopia
Koreans in Japan, his intention to return to Korea was dashed by the
political turbulence that culminated in the Korean War. Several planned
trips were stymied either by the South Korean government's refusal to
grant a visa or by other unfortunate occurrences.
Kim had, however, spurned an earlier opportunity to travel to South
Korea for political reasons: "The reason I could not return to my coun-
try for over forty years is, in a word, the political one of the division
between North and South Korea" (Kokoku kO, 6). In 1981, his fellow
editors at the journal Kikan Sanzenri traveled to South Korea. The
Kokoku ko (To the ancestral land) is an account of Kim Sok-pom's trip to South Korea and in particular to Cheju-do.4 Cheju-do is an island off the southwestern coast of South Korea and is the locale of Kim's best known novel, Kazanto (Volcano Island). The multivolume novel re counts the 1947 uprising in which many insurgents sympathetic to com munism were killed. Although Kim was born in Osaka, Cheju-do is not only an important locus of his fiction but a place he calls his ancestral land (kokoku) as well. Although Kim had not been to Korea in more than forty years, he had repeatedly sought, but failed, to visit South Korea. Like many other Koreans in Japan, his intention to return to Korea was dashed by the political turbulence that culminated in the Korean War. Several planned trips were stymied either by the South Korean government's refusal to grant a visa or by other unfortunate occurrences. Kim had, however, spurned an earlier opportunity to travel to South Korea for political reasons: "The reason I could not return to my coun try for over forty years is, in a word, the political one of the division between North and South Korea" (Kokoku ko, 6). In 198 1 , his fellow editors at the journal Kikan Sanzenri traveled to South Korea. The
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 345
journal was founded by former members-turned-critics of Soren; Kim
himself had left the organization in 1968 because of his opposition to its
rigid hierarchy. Kim, however, refused to join his coeditors in their 1981
trip because he wished to protest the South Korean military dictatorship
that had just massacred civilians in the 1980 Kwangju Uprising. Kim also
resigned from the journal. Therefore, he was in opposition to both the
North and South Korean regimes, their respective organizations (Soren
and Mindan) in Japan, and close allies who had left Soren with him in
the late 1960s.5
Thus, Kim's insistently independent position precludes his loyalty to
ready-made identities: North Korea, South Korea, Soren, or Mindan.
Furthermore, his chosen language of writing - Japanese - and his break
with Kikan Sanzenri led him to write for the Japanese reading public.
Indeed, his magnum opus, KazantO, was published by Bungei Shunji,
one of the leading Japanese publishers, and his stories and essays repeat-
edly appear in quality papers and leading journals.
Because of his long absence, moreover, Kim's relationship to Korea
exists almost solely in the realm of memory and imagination. There are
only two tangible connections to Korea that he mentions. First, he has a
stone that he received from a Japanese friend who had visited Cheju-do.
He would "occasionally smell the faint aroma of the ocean," which he
detected in the stone. Second, Asahi Shinbun - the leading Japanese
daily - chartered a small plane to fly him near Cheju-do in 1984 in order
to see the "Volcano Island" about which he had been writing.6
Kim's 1988 trip is, then, an effort "to bury forty years of time in two
hours [the flight time from Tokyo to Seoul]" (Kokoku kO, 21). The
much-anticipated return is, however, anticlimactic. Kim recognizes very
little of Seoul or Cheju-do. "As I walked, I looked for the shape of the
past. . . Cheju-do was utterly transformed. . . The shape of the past
was virtually absent" (Kokoku kO, 90). The site of a massacre, for
example, has become a tourist site. Memory serves him poorly; in fact,
the photographs he had seen prior to his trip afford him the few glimpses
of recognition that he experiences. The South Koreans he encounters
outside of his admirers confound - in fact, shock - him: the daredevil
taxi drivers, the rude waitresses, the arrogant subway station attendants,
and so on (Kokoku kO, 50). He refuses to recognize that the rhythm and
the resonance of his everyday life are fundamentally Japanese. The disso-
nance he senses in South Korean life is an accurate measure of his forty-
year residence in Japan.
345
journal was founded by former members-turned-critics of Soren; Kim himself had left the organization in 1968 because of his opposition to its rigid hierarchy. Kim, however, refused to join his coeditors in their 1981 trip because he wished to protest the South Korean military dictatorship that had just massacred civilians in the 1980 Kwangju Uprising. Kim also resigned from the journal. Therefore, he was in opposition to both the North and South Korean regimes, their respective organizations (Soren and Mindan) in Japan, and close allies who had left Soren with him in the late 1 960s.5 Thus, Kim's insistently independent position precludes his loyalty to ready-made identities: North Korea, South Korea, Soren, or Mindan. Furthermore, his chosen language of writing - Japanese - and his break with Kikan Sanzenri led him to write for the Japanese reading public. Indeed, his magnum opus, Kazant6, was published by Bungei Shunjii, one of the leading Japanese publishers, and his stories and essays repeat edly appear in quality papers and leading journals. Because of his long absence, moreover, Kim's relationship to Korea exists almost solely in the realm of memory and imagination. There are only two tangible connections to Korea that he mentions. First, he has a stone that he received from a Japanese friend who had visited Cheju-do. He would "occasionally smell the faint aroma of the ocean," which he detected in the stone. Second, Asahi Shinbun the leading Japanese daily - chartered a small plane to fly him near Cheju-do in 1984 in order to see the "Volcano Island" about which he had been writing.6 Kim's 1988 trip is, then, an effort "to bury forty years of time in two hours [the flight time from Tokyo to Seoul] " (Kokoku k6, 21). The much-anticipated return is, however, anticlimactic. Kim recognizes very little of Seoul or Cheju-do. "As I walked, I looked for the shape of the past. . . . Chej u-do was utterly transformed . . . . The shape of the past was virtually absent" (Kokoku k6, 90). The site of a massacre, for example, has become a tourist site. Memory serves him poorly; in fact, the photographs he had seen prior to his trip afford him the few glimpses of recognition that he experiences. The South Koreans he encounters outside of his admirers confound - in fact, shock - him: the daredevil taxi drivers, the rude waitresses, the arrogant subway station attendants, and so on (Kokoku k6, 50). He refuses to recognize that the rhythm and the resonance of his everyday life are fundamentally Japanese. The disso nance he senses in South Korean life is an accurate measure of his forty year residence in Japan. -
346
346
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Given that Kim's adult experiences have been inescapably Japanese,
it should not be surprising that he should recognize so little of the South
Korea that he revisits after forty years. To be sure, the massive transfor-
mation of South Korea ensures that very little of it would remain the
same after nearly half a century. But there is more: despite his emotional
attachment to Cheju-do, Kim was in fact born in Osaka and the most
extended period of his stay on the island was only for half a year when he
was thirteen (Kokoku kO, 37).
Kim ends his narrative by announcing that a "united Korea. . . is
my country (sokoku)" (Kokoku ko, 138). The remembered past is prob-
lematic, however, because Korea was colonized by Japan; hence, the
desire for a return cannot be to the past but to a future ideal. Recogniz-
ing, moreover, that Korea is not the place of his birth, he acknowledges
that his "ancestral land" (kokoku) is a place of conscious construction
shaped at once by his ethnic or national consciousness (minzokuteki
jikaku) and his anti-Japanese thought (shisO) (Kokoku kO, 113). Kim's
ancestral country or homeland is a projection of his desires for a reuni-
fied Korea.
By posing a utopia, Kim rejects identification with all the actually
existing Korean nation-states and Korean Japanese organizations. Confi-
dent in his identification as a Korean (albeit exiled in Japan), he lives in
fact as a Japanese and writes for the Japanese public. Although com-
pletely dependent on the Japanese intellectual establishment (his Japa-
nese publisher defrayed his travel expenses and even sent "bodyguards"
for him), he nonetheless castigates Japan (anti-Japanese sentiment is one
of the two pillars of his thought).
Kim's exile, in other words, is sustained by his denial of his diasporic
status. Kim's fictional focus is a Korean past that he barely remembers;
his imagined community of a unified Korea exists in the undefined fu-
ture, while his concrete community remains the Japanese public. Long-
ing for a return to an imaginary homeland, the exile remains beholden to
an actually existing host country that he castigates. It is a private and
comfortable exile, devoid of danger or desperation. Worst of all, by
averting his gaze from his diasporic status, Kim elides all the concrete
problems that exist for Korean Japanese.7
Yi Yang-ji and the Irreconcilable Gulf
Toward the end of Kokoku ko, Kim mentions a meeting with another
Korean-Japanese writer, Yi Yang-ji. Over a drink at an open-air stall, he
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Given that Kim's adult experiences have been inescapably Japanese, it should not be surprising that he should recognize so little of the South Korea that he revisits after forty years. To be sure, the massive transfor mation of South Korea ensures that very little of it would remain the same after nearly half a century. But there is more: despite his emotional attachment to Cheju-do, Kim was in fact born in Osaka and the most extended period of his stay on the island was only for half a year when he was thirteen (Kokoku k6, 37) . Kim ends his narrative by announcing that a "united Korea . . . is my country (sokoku)" (Kokoku k6, 138). The remembered past is prob lematic, however, because Korea was colonized by Japan; hence, the desire for a return cannot be to the past but to a future ideal. Recogniz ing, moreover, that Korea is not the place of his birth, he acknowledges that his "ancestral land" (kokoku) is a place of conscious construction shaped at once by his ethnic or national consciousness (minzokuteki jikaku) and his anti-Japanese thought (shis6) (Kokoku k6, 1 13). Kim's ancestral country or homeland is a projection of his desires for a reuni fied Korea. By posing a utopia, Kim rejects identification with all the actually existing Korean nation-states and Korean Japanese organizations. Confi dent in his identification as a Korean (albeit exiled in Japan) , he lives in fact as a Japanese and writes for the Japanese public. Although com pletely dependent on the Japanese intellectual establishment (his Japa nese publisher defrayed his travel expenses and even sent "bodyguards" for him) , he nonetheless castigates Japan (anti-Japanese sentiment is one of the two pillars of his thought). Kim's exile, in other words, is sustained by his denial of his diasporic status. Kim's fictional focus is a Korean past that he barely remembers; his imagined community of a unified Korea exists in the undefined fu ture, while his concrete community remains the Japanese public. Long ing for a return to an imaginary homeland, the exile remains beholden to an actually existing host country that he castigates. It is a private and comfortable exile, devoid of danger or desperation. Worst of all, by averting his gaze from his diasporic status, Kim elides all the concrete problems that exist for Korean Japanese.7 Yi Yang-ji and the Irreconcilable Gulf Toward the end of Kokoku k6, Kim mentions a meeting with another Korean-Japanese writer, Yi Yang-ji. Over a drink at an open-air stall, he
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 347
is surprised to learn that Yi, who had been studying traditional Korean
dance in Seoul, is relieved to be speaking Japanese with him (Kokoku
kO, 133). Although Yi considers Yamanashi Prefecture (where she can
see Mount Fuji) to be her home (furusato), Kim reflects that Cheju-do is
his home even as he acknowledges that he was born in Osaka. He
conjectures that the difference between them is generational (Kokoku
kO, 133).
The relief that Yi expresses is a central tension in her novella
"Yuhi," which takes place on the day when Yuhi, a Korean Japanese
woman studying at S (Seoul National) University, leaves South Korea
for Japan.8 The anonymous narrator, who works at a small publishing
company, begins by reflecting on her misgivings about not seeing Yuhi
off at the airport. The story intertwines the narrator's recollections of
Yuhi and her conversations with her aunt, with whom she lives in a
house in an old, quiet neighborhood of Seoul.
Yuhi's return to her homeland - the constant refrain of uri nara (our
country in Korean) marks the story - was, we learn toward the end of
the story, motivated by her desire "to defend her own country against
her father" (Yi Yang-ji zensha, 440). Because of unsavory business deal-
ings with deceitful fellow Koreans in Japan, her father had repeatedly
expressed his dislike for Korea and Koreans during her childhood. Grow-
ing up among Japanese, she learned little about Korea except through
her father's lamentations, while she did not experience discrimination by
Japanese people. "Yes, I was surprised to hear about [discrimination
against Koreans in Japan] in the past, but I have never been directly
discriminated against or bullied" (Yi Yang-ji zensha, 410). She has com-
plex feelings about Yi Kwang-su, the early-twentieth-century author
notorious for his pro-Japanese, collaborationist writings.9 She decided to
study abroad (ryagaku) in South Korea because she was attracted to the
music of the Korean flute (taegtim).
The narrator's depiction of Yuhi is predominantly linguistic; the
narrative reveals Yuhi's problems with Korean and her continuing at-
tachment to the Japanese language. Despite majoring in linguistics at a
prestigious university, Yuhi commits simple solecisms and, like native
Japanese speakers, cannot properly pronounce Korean words (Yi Yang-
ji zenshi, 413). The narrator is surprised and exasperated by Yuhi's
inability to make Korean her own. Yuhi's mode of language acquisition
is to memorize and regurgitate; it is fundamentally textual and a rec-
ognizably Japanese mode of language learning. She reads her large
Korean-language dictionary cover to cover (she underlines the word for
347
is surprised to learn that Yi, who had been studying traditional Korean dance in Seoul, is relieved to be speaking Japanese with him (Kokoku k6, 133). Although Yi considers Yamanashi Prefecture (where she can see Mount Fuji) to be her home (furusato ) , Kim reflects that Cheju-do is his home even as he acknowledges that he was born in Osaka. He conjectures that the difference between them is generational (Kokoku k6, 133). The relief that Yi expresses is a central tension in her novella "Yuhi," which takes place on the day when Yuhi, a Korean Japanese woman studying at S (Seoul National) University, leaves South Korea for Japan.8 The anonymous narrator, who works at a small publishing company, begins by reflecting on her misgivings about not seeing Yuhi off at the airport. The story intertwines the narrator's recollections of Yuhi and her conversations with her aunt, with whom she lives in a house in an old, quiet neighborhood of Seoul. Yuhi's return to her homeland - the constant refrain of uri nara (our country in Korean) marks the story - was, we learn toward the end of the story, motivated by her desire "to defend her own country against her father" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 440). Because of unsavory business deal ings with deceitful fellow Koreans in Japan, her father had repeatedly expressed his dislike for Korea and Koreans during her childhood. Grow ing up among Japanese, she learned little about Korea except through her father's lamentations, while she did not experience discrimination by Japanese people. "Yes, I was surprised to hear about [discrimination against Koreans in Japan] in the past, but I have never been directly discriminated against or bullied" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 410). She has com plex feelings about Yi Kwang-su, the early-twentieth-century author notorious for his pro-Japanese, collaborationist writings.9 She decided to study abroad (ryugaku) in South Korea because she was attracted to the music of the Korean flute (taegum) . The narrator's depiction of Yuhi is predominantly linguistic; the narrative reveals Yuhi's problems with Korean and her continuing at tachment to the Japanese language. Despite majoring in linguistics at a prestigious university, Yuhi commits simple solecisms and, like native Japanese speakers, cannot properly pronounce Korean words ( Yi Yang ji zenshu, 413). The narrator is surprised and exasperated by Yuhi's inability to make Korean her own. Yuhi's mode of language acquisition is to memorize and regurgitate; it is fundamentally textual and a rec ognizably Japanese mode of language learning. She reads her large Korean-language dictionary cover to cover (she underlines the word for
348
348
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"torture"). Her writing skills, not surprisingly, far surpass her oral abili-
ties. At the same time, Yuhi refuses to watch television and rarely goes
out. Indeed, the narrator's first outing with Yuhi turns into a disaster,
as Yuhi grows increasingly ill while mingling with the crowd in the
bustling city.
The flip side of Yuhi's inability to master Korean is her attachment
to the Japanese language. The narrator is troubled to find more than ten
boxes of Japanese books in Yuhi's room and relates how she has heard
Yuhi speak Japanese when she enters the house or late at night when
Yuhi is alone in her room. Most striking, the narrator finds what turns
out to be Yuhi's keepsake for her - a brown envelope containing 448
pages of writing in Japanese, a language the narrator cannot read.
Language is not the only thing that separates the narrator from
Yuhi. The narrator realizes that she does not understand Yuhi and feels
ambivalent about her and her diasporic, non-Korean status.10 The narra-
tor is angry that Yuhi was able to enter S University, the most prestigious
school in South Korea, because of special provisions for overseas Kore-
ans. She is troubled that Yuhi finds fault with her country. Yuhi accuses
the South Koreans of taking advantage of foreigners, of not apologizing
when they step on others' feet, and of other sorts of rude behavior such
as spitting in restaurants. The violence and the aggression that Yuhi
experiences in Seoul is exemplified by her discovery that there is a
dearth of passive-voice expressions in the Korean language. The narra-
tor retorts: "Yuhi, you are a cheapskate. Koreans in Japan (zainichi
dOhO) are Japanese. No, they look down on Koreans more than Japa-
nese and resent (urandeiru) Koreans" (Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 426). The
narrator insists that Yuhi has "only seen one side of South Korea. You
just don't know South Korea" (Yi Yang-ji zensha, 436).
The narrator is, of course, correct, for Yuhi's experience of South
Korea is textual and passive. Although she loves the view of the rocky
mountain visible from the neighborhood, she refuses to hike there. Al-
though she idolizes the sounds of the Korean flute, she will not take
lessons. Yuhi's quest for uri nara (our country) is, like Kim's search for
the "ancestral land," idealistic. The narrator's aunt, who remains
empathetic throughout, observes that Yuhi "probably came just with
ideals, without knowing anything about South Korea" (Yi Yang-ji
zensha, 436). In part because of the school tie - her husband had gradu-
ated from the prestigious S University - the aunt sees a parallel between
her deceased husband and Yuhi. Because he hated Japan as a colonizer,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
"torture"). Her writing skills, not surprisingly, far surpass her oral abili ties. At the same time, Yuhi refuses to watch television and rarely goes out. Indeed, the narrator's first outing with Yuhi turns into a disaster, as Yuhi grows increasingly ill while mingling with the crowd in the bustling city. The flip side of Yuhi's inability to master Korean is her attachment to the Japanese language. The narrator is troubled to find more than ten boxes of Japanese books in Yuhi's room and relates how she has heard Yuhi speak Japanese when she enters the house or late at night when Yuhi is alone in her room. Most striking, the narrator finds what turns out to be Yuhi's keepsake for her - a brown envelope containing 448 pages of writing in Japanese, a language the narrator cannot read. Language is not the only thing that separates the narrator from Yuhi. The narrator realizes that she does not understand Yuhi and feels ambivalent about her and her diasporic, non-Korean status. lO The narra tor is angry that Yuhi was able to enter S University, the most prestigious school in South Korea, because of special provisions for overseas Kore ans. She is troubled that Yuhi finds fault with her country. Yuhi accuses the South Koreans of taking advantage of foreigners, of not apologizing when they step on others' feet, and of other sorts of rude behavior such as spitting in restaurants. The violence and the aggression that Yuhi experiences in Seoul is exemplified by her discovery that there is a dearth of passive-voice expressions in the Korean language. The narra tor retorts: "Yuhi, you are a cheapskate. Koreans in Japan (zainichi doho) are Japanese. No, they look down on Koreans more than Japa nese and resent (urandeiru) Koreans" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 426). The narrator insists that Yuhi has "only seen one side of South Korea. You just don't know South Korea" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 436) . The narrator is, of course, correct, for Yuhi's experience of South Korea is textual and passive. Although she loves the view of the rocky mountain visible from the neighborhood, she refuses to hike there. Al though she idolizes the sounds of the Korean flute, she will not take lessons. Yuhi's quest for uri nara (our country) is, like Kim's search for the "ancestral land," idealistic. The narrator's aunt, who remains empathetic throughout, observes that Yuhi "probably came just with ideals, without knowing anything about South Korea" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 436). In part because of the school tie - her husband had gradu ated from the prestigious S University - the aunt sees a parallel between her deceased husband and Yuhi. Because he hated Japan as a colonizer,
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 349
he could never master Japanese or even watch Japanese television, even
when his business took him to Japan repeatedly.
For Yuhi, the difference between the Korea of her ideals and the
reality of Seoul is irreconcilable. Recounting the moment when she could
not continue to write during an examination, Yuhi says that she could not
form the four letters of the Korean alphabet (han'gal) for uri nara
(Yi Yang-ji zensha, 437). Although she "believes in King Sejong [the
fifteenth-century monarch who oversaw the creation of the Korean alpha-
bet], [she doesn't] like the han'gal of today" (Yi Yang-ji zensha, 437). She
finds it hypocritical that other students are writing uri nara. The disso-
nance of the Korean she hears outside she finds ugly and intolerable; it is
like "tear gas" (Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 437).
In contrast, Yuhi loves the neighborhood of the narrator and her
aunt because it is peaceful; the Korean they speak is not ugly. Yuhi's ties
to contemporary South Korea, which she otherwise finds so repugnant,
are to her tape of Korean flute music and written texts. The two people
she likes - the narrator and her aunt - are themselves alienated. The
narrator is on the verge of depression when Yuhi arrives and deals with
texts at her work (not unlike Yuhi). The widowed aunt refuses to move
to an apartment in Kangnam, which represents Seoul's modern face,
and stays in a traditional Korean-style house in an older neighborhood.
The gulf between the ideal and the reality of homeland that Yuhi
expresses in a Korean that she has not mastered is but an instance of her
profound ambivalence about South Korea.1 After all, her father, not
her Japanese friends and neighbors, despised Korea, and it was her
intention to redeem Korea against her father's charges. Finding Yuhi
drunk one night, the narrator notes that she writes in Korean "I am a
fraud. I am a liar" (Yi Yang-ji zensha, 429). Soon thereafter Yuhi writes
"I cannot love" - in effect, she cannot love the actual uri nara she
finds - but goes on to note that she loves the sound of the Korean flute,
the sound of the ideal uri nara (Yi Yang-ji zensha, 430).
The story ends with the narrator saying "ah," a common letter in
both the Japanese and Korean alphabets, but she is unable to follow it
with another sound. The ambiguity of the sound - it is impossible to
decipher whether it's Japanese or Korean - marks the two worlds of
Japan and Korea as incompatible.
It would be simple to depict Yi Yang-ji's Yuhi as a Korea hater, just
as it would be easy to celebrate Kim Sok-pom as a Korea lover. Kim is
surprised that Yi Yang-ji is relieved to be speaking Japanese, while Yuhi
349
he could never master Japanese or even watch Japanese television, even when his business took him to Japan repeatedly. For Yuhi, the difference between the Korea of her ideals and the reality of Seoul is irreconcilable. Recounting the moment when she could not continue to write during an examination, Yuhi says that she could not form the four letters of the Korean alphabet (han 'gul) for uri nara ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 437). Although she "believes in King Sejong [the fifteenth-century monarch who oversaw the creation of the Korean alpha bet] , [she doesn't] like the han 'gUl of today" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 437). She finds it hypocritical that other students are writing uri nara. The disso nance of the Korean she hears outside she finds ugly and intolerable; it is like "tear gas" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 437). In contrast, Yuhi loves the neighborhood of the narrator and her aunt because it is peaceful; the Korean they speak is not ugly. Yuhi's ties to contemporary South Korea, which she otherwise finds so repugnant, are to her tape of Korean flute music and written texts. The two people she likes - the narrator and her aunt - are themselves alienated. The narrator is on the verge of depression when Yuhi arrives and deals with texts at her work (not unlike Yuhi) . The widowed aunt refuses to move to an apartment in Kangnam, which represents Seoul's modern face, and stays in a traditional Korean-style house in an older neighborhood. The gulf between the ideal and the reality of homeland that Yuhi expresses in a Korean that she has not mastered is but an instance of her profound ambivalence about South Korea.l1 After all, her father, not her Japanese friends and neighbors, despised Korea, and it was her intention to redeem Korea against her father's charges. Finding Yuhi drunk one night, the narrator notes that she writes in Korean "I am a fraud. I am a liar" ( Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 429). Soon thereafter Yuhi writes "I cannot love" - in effect, she cannot love the actual uri nara she finds - but goes on to note that she loves the sound of the Korean flute, the sound of the ideal uri nara (Yi Yang-ji zenshu, 430) . The story ends with the narrator saying "ah," a common letter in both the Japanese and Korean alphabets, but she is unable to follow it with another sound. The ambiguity of the sound - it is impossible to decipher whether it's Japanese or Korean - marks the two worlds of Japan and Korea as incompatible. It would be simple to depict Yi Yang-ji's Yuhi as a Korea hater, just as it would be easy to celebrate Kim Sok-pom as a Korea lover. Kim is surprised that Yi Yang-ji is relieved to be speaking Japanese, while Yuhi
350
350 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
cannot adequately speak Korean. But the similarities are telling. Both
of them - as we will see also for Yi Hoe-song's narrator - are troubled
by the rude public behavior of South Koreans; South Koreans, for exam-
ple, bump into people without apologizing. The labyrinthine roads and
the congested public spaces, although to superficial observers no differ-
ent in Tokyo than in Seoul, baffle them. The Korea they imagine is
rooted in the past: the imaginary reconstruction of Cheju-do for Kim,
and the mythical past of King Sejong for Yuhi.
Most important, however, for all the ostensible differences, both
return to Japan. Kim, despite his discussions of ancestral land and home-
land, treats the return to Japan as unproblematic, as something obvious.
Ironically, it is Yuhi, who belongs more unquestionably in Japan, whose
return (she has, after all, spent much more time in South Korea) is seen
as problematic, a sign of defeat. But Yuhi herself experiences none of
the problems that confront her coethnics in Japan.
What I wish to suggest here is that Japan is for all intents and
purposes a home for both Kim and Yuhi. It is the country in which their
everyday lives are embedded, from the ability to navigate urban crowds
and familiarity with landscapes and the built environment to language
(written for Kim, oral for Yuhi). The return to a homeland (kokoku for
Kim, uri nara for Yuhi) is impossible. Hence, homeland is idealized by
both - the future utopia of a unified Korea for Kim, the distant past of
King Sejong and the Korean flute for Yuhi. Trapped between the ideal-
ized homeland and its alien reality, both find themselves snugly, if ines-
capably, at home in Japan.
Between the Living and the Dead
Yi Hoe-song's Shisha to seisha no ichi (The market of the living and the
dead) is another narrative of return.12 The thinly veiled work of fiction
recounts the Korean Japanese writer Munsok's trip to South Korea.
What differentiates his narrative from the other two is that, rather than
seeking a return to an idealized past or an imagined future, he resolves
to ground himself in the worldwide Korean diaspora, which transcends
existing national divisions.
The novel recounts a Korean Japanese author in his sixties who
returns to South Korea for the first time in twenty-three years. Like
Kim, Munsok - who is based closely on Yi Hoe-song himself - has left
the North Korea-affiliated organization in Japan, regards South Korea
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
cannot adequately speak Korean. But the similarities are telling. Both of them - as we will see also for Yi Hoe-sang's narrator - are troubled by the rude public behavior of South Koreans; South Koreans, for exam ple, bump into people without apologizing. The labyrinthine roads and the congested public spaces, although to superficial observers no differ ent in Tokyo than in Seoul, baffle them. The Korea they imagine is rooted in the past: the imaginary reconstruction of Cheju-do for Kim, and the mythical past of King Sejong for Yuhi. Most important, however, for all the ostensible differences, both return to Japan. Kim, despite his discussions of ancestral land and home land, treats the return to Japan as unproblematic, as something obvious. Ironically, it is Yuhi, who belongs more unquestionably in Japan, whose return (she has, after all, spent much more time in South Korea) is seen as problematic, a sign of defeat. But Yuhi herself experiences none of the problems that confront her coethnics in Japan. What I wish to suggest here is that Japan is for all intents and purposes a home for both Kim and Yuhi. It is the country in which their everyday lives are embedded, from the ability to navigate urban crowds and familiarity with landscapes and the built environment to language (written for Kim, oral for Yuhi). The return to a homeland (kokoku for Kim, uri nara for Yuhi) is impossible. Hence, homeland is idealized by both - the future utopia of a unified Korea for Kim, the distant past of King Sejong and the Korean flute for Yuhi. Trapped between the ideal ized homeland and its alien reality, both find themselves snugly, if ines capably, at home in Japan. Between the Living and the Dead Yi Hoe-sang's Shisha to seisha no ichi (The market of the living and the dead) is another narrative of return. 1 2 The thinly veiled work of fiction recounts the Korean Japanese writer Munsak's trip to South Korea. What differentiates his narrative from the other two is that, rather than seeking a return to an idealized past or an imagined future, he resolves to ground himself in the worldwide Korean diaspora, which transcends existing national divisions. The novel recounts a Korean Japanese author in his sixties who returns to South Korea for the first time in twenty-three years. Like Kim, Munsak - who is based closely on Yi Hoe-sang himself - has left the North Korea-affiliated organization in Japan, regards South Korea
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 351
as the southern ancestral land (sokoku), and has been denied a visa to
enter South Korea. Furthermore, Munsok feels elated to be in South
Korea (his impulse is to kiss the floor after he passes through customs
at the Kimpo Airport in Seoul), but everyday life there confounds him.
He fears the "unknown world" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 6) and repeat-
edly remarks on the rudeness of people who bump into him on the
street. Like Kim and Yuhi, then, Munsok realizes that the tempo and
texture of life in Seoul are far from that in Japan. His discomfort in
South Korea is due in part, like that of Yuhi, to his inadequate com-
mand of Korean.
Munsok's narrative is interspersed with accounts of visiting and re-
visiting peoples and sites important to him and reflections on his past
that focus on Korean and diaspora politics. The reflections articulate his
misgivings about the politics of both North and South Korean regimes.
For example, he drives down to Kwangju with a famous dissident poet
and several others to pay homage to those who died during the Kwangju
Uprising. In the process, however, he also thinks back on his encounters
with Korean expatriates in Germany, particularly those sympathetic to
the North Korean regime. On another occasion, he meets a friend from
his college days with whom he had worked in an effort to return Korean
Japanese to North Korea. "It was almost sad that the dream of returning
to the 'North' had become a nightmare" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 186). He
muses on the powerful rhetoric of the North Korea-affiliated organiza-
tion and how its followers reproduce it.13 For example, the owner of a
"soap land" (a bathhouse that often doubles as brothel) remains loyal to
the North Korea-affiliated organization and donates his earnings to the
North Korean regime.
Munsok also feels distant from South Korea and South Koreans.
Although he is glad to be in South Korea, he continually senses some
distance. He is angry with a publisher who has not properly paid him his
royalties. This is not because of the money but because he feels that the
publisher has treated him like a "foreigner," not a brethren (dOhO).
Although Munsok favors reunification - "What's bad is the division be-
tween North and South" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 208) - his identification
with his homeland, unified or not, is far from complete.
Rather, Munsok is concerned about the fate of the Korean diaspora:
"What the Korean people expect is. . . not rapprochement based on
the benefits and costs of the divided nation-state, but pan-ethnic soli-
darity (hanminzokuteki dOhOai)." Munsok's concern about the Korean
351
as the southern ancestral land (sokoku) , and has been denied a visa to enter South Korea. Furthermore, Munsok feels elated to be in South Korea (his impulse is to kiss the floor after he passes through customs at the Kimpo Airport in Seoul), but everyday life there confounds him. He fears the "unknown world" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 6) and repeat edly remarks on the rudeness of people who bump into him on the street. Like Kim and Yuhi, then, Munsok realizes that the tempo and texture of life in Seoul are far from that in Japan. His discomfort in South Korea is due in part, like that of Yuhi, to his inadequate com mand of Korean. Munsok's narrative is interspersed with accounts of visiting and re visiting peoples and sites important to him and reflections on his past that focus on Korean and diaspora politics. The reflections articulate his misgivings about the politics of both North and South Korean regimes. For example, he drives down to Kwangju with a famous dissident poet and several others to pay homage to those who died during the Kwangju Uprising. In the process, however, he also thinks back on his encounters with Korean expatriates in Germany, particularly those sympathetic to the North Korean regime. On another occasion, he meets a friend from his college days with whom he had worked in an effort to return Korean Japanese to North Korea. " It was almost sad that the dream of returning to the 'North' had become a nightmare" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 186). He muses on the powerful rhetoric of the North Korea-affiliated organiza tion and how its followers reproduce it.13 For example, the owner of a "soap land" (a bathhouse that often doubles as brothel) remains loyal to the North Korea-affiliated organization and donates his earnings to the North Korean regime. Munsok also feels distant from South Korea and South Koreans. Although he is glad to be in South Korea, he continually senses some distance. He is angry with a publisher who has not properly paid him his royalties. This is not because of the money but because he feels that the publisher has treated him like a "foreigner, " not a brethren (doho) . Although Munsok favors reunification - "What's bad is the division be tween North and South" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 208) - his identification with his homeland, unified or not, is far from complete. Rather, Munsok is concerned about the fate of the Korean diaspora: "What the Korean people expect is . . . not rapprochement based on the benefits and costs of the divided nation-state, but pan-ethnic soli darity (hanminzokuteki dohoai) . " Munsok's concern about the Korean
352
352
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
diaspora leads him to insist on his diasporic identity as a Korean Japanese.
He claims an "appreciation" (kanmei) - even "pleasure" (keraku) - of
being and continuing to be a resident Korean in Japan (zainichi) (Shisha
to seija no ichi, 210). His diasporic and pan-ethnic vision is, moreover,
nonracial. As he states early on: "In our clan, Japanese blood, Ainu
blood, and Russian blood are all mixed and melted" (Shisha to seija no
ichi, 59). He came to this realization after visiting Korean ethnics in
Sakhalin, Central America, and elsewhere; in each of these places, Kore-
ans have intermarried with different ethnic groups.14 Hence, for Munsok
there is no simple return to the imagined homeland that is Korea, unified
or not.
What concerns Munsok is rather that "the living should pay homage
to the dead" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 213). It is in this spirit that he seeks
to honor the memory of Kim San, the Korean revolutionary who fasci-
nated Helen Foster Snow and led her to write - indeed, coauthor - a
book on his life, Song of Ariran.15 "In my youth, I read Song of Ariran
as my Bible" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 114). He encourages South Kore-
ans to lobby the South Korean government to honor Snow, who is living
in a home for the elderly.
In praising the dead, Munsok hopes not only to carry on their spirit,
as it were, but also to live as a diasporic Korean. He notes the remark of
a Korean expatriate in Germany, who says that Koreans who live in
Germany act like Germans, while those who live in France act like the
French. His resolution to reside in Japan as a resident Korean affiliated
with neither Korea is grounded in his belief that this will be a reminder,
"a cause of conscience," for both Japan and Korea (Shisha to seija no
ichi, 210). In grounding himself in the Korean diaspora, Munsok avoids
the trap of glorifying the mythical past or the utopian future.
From Exile to Diaspora
Exile is a condition that yearns for a simple remedy: a return to a home
or a situation ex ante. Whether Adam and Eve's expulsion from the
Garden of Eden or Ovid's banishment from Rome, Western literature is
rife and replete with the theme of exile and the concomitant longing for
return.16 Indeed, the pathos of exile resonates widely across disparate
cultures and historical periods, from the elegiac poetry of the T'ang
dynasty to the contemporary lamentations of African intellectuals.
Lewis Nkosi, for example, writes: "If for no other reason than nostalgia,
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
diaspora leads him to insist on his diasporic identity as a Korean Japanese. He claims an "appreciation" (kanmei) - even "pleasure" (keraku) of being and continuing to be a resident Korean in Japan (zainichi) (Shisha to seija no ichi, 210). His diasporic and pan-ethnic vision is, moreover, nonracial. As he states early on: "In our clan, Japanese blood, Ainu blood, and Russian blood are all mixed and melted" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 59). He came to this realization after visiting Korean ethnics in Sakhalin, Central America, and elsewhere; in each of these places, Kore ans have intermarried with different ethnic groupS.14 Hence, for Munsok there is no simple return to the imagined homeland that is Korea, unified or not. What concerns Munsok is rather that "the living should pay homage to the dead" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 213). It is in this spirit that he seeks to honor the memory of Kim San, the Korean revolutionary who fasci nated Helen Foster Snow and led her to write - indeed, coauthor - a book on his life, Song of Ariran. 15 "In my youth, I read Song of Ariran as my Bible" (Shisha to seija no ichi, 1 14). He encourages South Kore ans to lobby the South Korean government to honor Snow, who is living in a home for the elderly. In praising the dead, Munsok hopes not only to carry on their spirit, as it were, but also to live as a diasporic Korean. He notes the remark of a Korean expatriate in Germany, who says that Koreans who live in Germany act like Germans, while those who live in France act like the French. His resolution to reside in Japan as a resident Korean affiliated with neither Korea is grounded in his belief that this will be a reminder, "a cause of conscience," for both Japan and Korea (Shisha to seija no ichi, 210). In grounding himself in the Korean diaspora, Munsok avoids the trap of glorifying the mythical past or the utopian future. -
From Exile to Diaspora Exile is a condition that yearns for a simple remedy: a return to a home or a situation ex ante. Whether Adam and Eve's expulsion from the Garden of Eden or Ovid's banishment from Rome, Western literature is rife and replete with the theme of exile and the concomitant longing for return. 16 Indeed, the pathos of exile resonates widely across disparate cultures and historical periods, from the elegiac poetry of the T'ang dynasty to the contemporary lamentations of African intellectuals. Lewis Nkosi, for example, writes: "If for no other reason than nostalgia,
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 353
a desire to refresh childhood memories, exiles always hope for a return
to their roots, to the graves of their ancestors."17
In posttraditional societies, the rapid tempo of change leads to a
pervasive sense of displacement that potentially renders everyone an
exile, even those who experience no spatial movement. In this regard,
W. C. Spengemann writes: "Nostalgia - literally 'homesickness' - ranks
high among the motives of modern historians. The genre we call history
has evolved over the last four centuries as the antidote to an epidemic
of homesickness in Western society, a growing feeling that radical and
unprecedented changes in the shape and meaning of life were severing
the present from the remembered past."18 We moderns are, in this
sense, all exiles; exile is a condition endemic to modernity.
In temporal displacement, the search for home (the remembered
past) is inextricable from the condition of exile (the lived, and ever
changing, present). The very passage of time makes return impossible.
This is true for time travelers or historians, exiles or migrants. John
Berger writes: "Every migrant knows in his heart of hearts that it is
impossible to return. Even if he is physically able to return, he does not
truly return, because he himself has been so deeply changed by his
emigration. It is equally impossible to return to that historical state in
which every village was the center of the world."19 The impossibility of
return to the remembered past precludes, to be sure, neither the inces-
sant search for the past nor a searing critique of the present.
My concern is, however, with the social and the spatial and the more
common meaning of exile. A ubiquitous ideology of modernity in this
regard is nationalism, which in Ernest Gellner's definition is "a theory of
political legitimacy, which requires that ethnic boundaries should not cut
across political ones."20 In the age of nationalism and the nation-state,
every instance of banishment or displacement outside of one's own na-
tional borders is an instance of exile. Every migrant, under the reign of
nationalist ideology, is an alien, an exile. Hence, it is not surprising that
a constant yearning for a return to homeland, the only place where one
can truly belong, has become endemic in the era of nation-states.
Intellectuals are-by their very ability to articulate their griev-
ances - the loudest voices to call for, and even demand, a return to their
homelands. Their presumed privilege as intellectuals, however, often
enmeshes them in their condition of exile. As Rob Nixon writes of V. S.
Naipaul: "The irony here ought not to be missed: Naipaul, secure, es-
teemed, and integrated into the high culture of metropolitan England,
353
a desire to refresh childhood memories, exiles always hope for a return to their roots, to the graves of their ancestors. " 17 In posttraditional societies, the rapid tempo of change leads to a pervasive sense of displacement that potentially renders everyone an exile, even those who experience no spatial movement. In this regard, W. C. Spengemann writes: "Nostalgia - literally 'homesickness' - ranks high among the motives of modern historians. The genre we call history has evolved over the last four centuries as the antidote to an epidemic of homesickness in Western society, a growing feeling that radical and unprecedented changes in the shape and meaning of life were severing the present from the remembered past. "18 We moderns are, in this sense, all exiles; exile is a condition endemic to modernity. In temporal displacement, the search for home (the remembered past) is inextricable from the condition of exile (the lived, and ever changing, present). The very passage of time makes return impossible. This is true for time travelers or historians, exiles or migrants. John Berger writes: "Every migrant knows in his heart of hearts that it is impossible to return. Even if he is physically able to return, he does not truly return, because he himself has been so deeply changed by his emigration. It is equally impossible to return to that historical state in which every village was the center of the world. " 19 The impossibility of return to the remembered past precludes, to be sure, neither the inces sant search for the past nor a searing critique of the present. My concern is, however, with the social and the spatial and the more common meaning of exile. A ubiquitous ideology of modernity in this regard is nationalism, which in Ernest Gellner's definition is "a theory of political legitimacy, which requires that ethnic boundaries should not cut across political ones. "20 In the age of nationalism and the nation-state, every instance of banishment or displacement outside of one's own na tional borders is an instance of exile. Every migrant, under the reign of nationalist ideology, is an alien, an exile. Hence, it is not surprising that a constant yearning for a return to homeland, the only place where one can truly belong, has become endemic in the era of nation-states. Intellectuals are - by their very ability to articulate their griev ances - the loudest voices to call for, and even demand, a return to their homelands. Their presumed privilege as intellectuals, however, often enmeshes them in their condition of exile. As Rob Nixon writes of V S . Naipaul: "The irony here ought not to be missed: Naipaul, secure, es teemed, and integrated into the high culture of metropolitan England,
354
354 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
asserting his homelessness, while considerable numbers of genuinely
disowned people battle to be acknowledged as legitimate members of the
society he is at liberty to reject rhetorically, although he depends on it in
every way."21 Here the supposed agony of an intellectual exile is but an
expression of bad faith: a cosmopolitan writer laments his displacement
and impugns his host country, all the while benefiting from his exiled but
exalted status. The two ostensibly contradictory positions - exiles' inces-
sant longing for return and their entrapment in their host country - are
in fact part and parcel of the very condition of an exile who longs for a
mythical past or a utopian future. Because a return to the original condi-
tion is impossible, there is a temptation to idealize the remembered and
imagined homeland and denigrate the host country. This is all the more
striking when one is basically a denizen of the host country.
Living as a Korean Japanese and dependent on Japan in nearly every
way, Kim can nonetheless state that anti-Japanese thought is a major
pillar of his philosophy in part because he has an idealized vision of
homeland. Yuhi's homeland is similarly mythical, albeit projected into a
distant past. Like Kim, she cannot abide by the reality of everyday life in
contemporary South Korea. Unable to denigrate Japan as Kim does, she
takes refuge in the Korean texts and flute, on the one hand, and Japa-
nese books on the other. Neither Kim nor Yuhi can ground their lives in
any existing group or place. In their line of reasoning, the condition of
exile, the desire for return, and the impossibility of return are one and
the same state of mind or process. Furthermore, by drawing a sharp
boundary between homeland and host country, national boundaries are
reified.
There is, however, another resolution to the dialectic of idealization
and disappointment: to seek a homeland in the very condition of exile, as
solidarity among diasporic people. This is, as we have seen, the path that
Yi Hoe-song suggests. In an era when nation-states are hegemonic, one
must in fact belong to one or another. Displacement in this context is
inevitably exile. When nation-states are increasingly in eclipse, an alterna-
tive to exile, or diasporic identity, emerges. Instead of belonging to a
nation-state, there is a new, dispersed sense of peoplehood. By grounding
oneself in the transnational diaspora, one avoids the contradictory posi-
tion between an impossible return and an idealized homeland.
A diasporic identity offers a deterritorialized and deracialized no-
tion of solidarity.22 Recognizing the transnational diaspora makes pos-
sible a postnational source of identity. In the transition from the national
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
asserting his homelessness, while considerable numbers of genuinely disowned people battle to be acknowledged as legitimate members of the society he is at liberty to reject rhetorically, although he depends on it in every way. "21 Here the supposed agony of an intellectual exile is but an expression of bad faith: a cosmopolitan writer laments his displacement and impugns his host country, all the while benefiting from his exiled but exalted status. The two ostensibly contradictory positions - exiles' inces sant longing for return and their entrapment in their host country - are in fact part and parcel of the very condition of an exile who longs for a mythical past or a utopian future. Because a return to the original condi tion is impossible, there is a temptation to idealize the remembered and imagined homeland and denigrate the host country. This is all the more striking when one is basically a denizen of the host country. Living as a Korean Japanese and dependent on Japan in nearly every way, Kim can nonetheless state that anti-Japanese thought is a major pillar of his philosophy in part because he has an idealized vision of homeland. Yuhi's homeland is similarly mythical, albeit projected into a distant past. Like Kim, she cannot abide by the reality of everyday life in contemporary South Korea. Unable to denigrate Japan as Kim does, she takes refuge in the Korean texts and flute, on the one hand, and Japa nese books on the other. Neither Kim nor Yuhi can ground their lives in any existing group or place. In their line of reasoning, the condition of exile, the desire for return, and the impossibility of return are one and the same state of mind or process. Furthermore, by drawing a sharp boundary between homeland and host country, national boundaries are reified. There is, however, another resolution to the dialectic of idealization and disappointment: to seek a homeland in the very condition of exile, as solidarity among diasporic people. This is, as we have seen, the path that Yi Hoe-song suggests. In an era when nation-states are hegemonic, one must in fact belong to one or another. Displacement in this context is inevitably exile. When nation-states are increasingly in eclipse, an alterna tive to exile, or diasporic identity, emerges. Instead of belonging to a nation-state, there is a new, dispersed sense of peoplehood. By grounding oneself in the transnational diaspora, one avoids the contradictory posi tion between an impossible return and an idealized homeland. A diasporic identity offers a deterritorialized and deracialized no tion of solidarity. 22 Recognizing the transnational diaspora makes pos sible a postnational source of identity. In the transition from the national
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 355
to the postnational, or from exile to diaspora, the dialectic of exile and
complicity is transcended as well as the idealization of the homeland or
the denigration of the host country. Simultaneously, the diasporic stand-
point challenges and destabilizes fixed national boundaries. No longer
divided into "us" and "them" within national borders, the transition
from exile to diaspora locates homeland in the global dispersion of
people. To quote John Berger again: "The one hope of recreating a
center now is to make it the entire earth. Only worldwide solidarity can
transcend modern homelessness. Fraternity is too easy a term; forget-
ting Cain and Abel, it somehow promises that all problems can be
soluble. In reality many are insoluble - hence the never-ending need for
solidarity."23
Conclusion
In the very late twentieth century, we continue to experience rumblings
of nationalist sentiments that result in human tragedies. The desire for
return among diasporic peoples is in many ways part and parcel of the
dominant ideology of nationalism, which offers little room for ethnic
355
to the postnational, or from exile to diaspora, the dialectic of exile and complicity is transcended as well as the idealization of the homeland or the denigration of the host country. Simultaneously, the diasporic stand point challenges and destabilizes fixed national boundaries. No longer divided into "us" and "them" within national borders, the transition from exile to diaspora locates homeland in the global dispersion of people. To quote John Berger again: "The one hope of recreating a center now is to make it the entire earth. Only worldwide solidarity can transcend modern homelessness. Fraternity is too easy a term; forget ting Cain and Abel, it somehow promises that all problems can be soluble. In reality many are insoluble - hence the never-ending need for solidarity. "23
heterogeneity within a nation-state. As class politics wane among rich
nation-state, another politics-that waged between those inside and
those outside or between those who belong and those who do not - has
Conclusion
come to the fore: the battle over migration, the reassertion of a national
identity, and other struggles over belonging are some of the manifesta-
tions of the politics of inside and outside or of belonging and exclusion.
In this context, the identity of diasporic peoples, especially postcolo-
nial peoples in their former colonizer countries, faces a crossroads: to
return to a country of "origin" or to "de-exile" themselves and carve out
a place as a diasporic people. Korean-Japanese narratives of exile are in
this regard concrete instances of a wider phenomenon, and their distinct
resolutions of the problematic of exile and identity will, for Korean
Japanese as well as all other diasporic peoples, have profound signifi-
cance on the shape of the twenty-first century.
NOTES
1. On Korean Japanese in general, see, for example, Harajiri Hideki,
Nihon teiju Korian no nichijo to seikatsu (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1997). They
In the very late twentieth century, we continue to experience rumblings of nationalist sentiments that result in human tragedies. The desire for return among diasporic peoples is in many ways part and parcel of the dominant ideology of nationalism, which offers little room for ethnic heterogeneity within a nation-state. As class politics wane among rich nation-state, another politics - that waged between those inside and those outside or between those who belong and those who do not - has come to the fore: the battle over migration, the reassertion of a national identity, and other struggles over belonging are some of the manifesta tions of the politics of inside and outside or of belonging and exclusion. In this context, the identity of diasporic peoples, especially postcolo nial peoples in their former colonizer countries, faces a crossroads: to return to a country of "origin" or to "de-exile" themselves and carve out a place as a diasporic people. Korean-Japanese narratives of exile are in this regard concrete instances of a wider phenomenon, and their distinct resolutions of the problematic of exile and identity will, for Korean Japanese as well as all other diasporic peoples, have profound signifi cance on the shape of the twenty-first century.
NOTES 1 . On Korean Japanese in general, see, for example, Harajiri Hideki, Nihon teiju Korian no nichij6 to seikatsu (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1997). They
356
356 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
face fundamental challenges to their existence in many aspects of their lives.
Here, let me just consider one: name. Many resident Koreans in Japan attend
school or work using a Japanese alias. Even for those who use their Korean
names there are ambiguities about whether to use Japanese or Korean readings
of their Chinese character-based names. Needless to say, an individual may very
well shift position over time. For example, Yi Hoe-song has only recently begun
to use the Korean reading of his name; previously, he used the Japanese rendi-
tion, Ri Kaisei. The problem, to be sure, is not resolved so easily. Yi in fact uses
Lee - a common Chinese reading of the surname that Koreans pronounce as Yi.
For the sake of consistency, I have opted to render all names in their Korean
form, using the McCune-Reischauer system. In general, I use Korean Japanese,
Koreans in Japan, and the Korean diaspora in Japan interchangeably.
2. Michael Seidel, Exile and the Narrative Imagination (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1986), ix.
3. Needless to say, the same cannot be said unequivocally about the Ko-
rean diaspora in the United States. The notion of exile as "a form of disposses-
sion that retained - imaginatively - the claim ot possession" (Seamus Deane,
Strange Country: Modernity and Nationhood in Irish Writing since 1790 [Oxford:
Clarendon, 1997], 94) is weakly held among Korean Americans. Indeed, for
Asian American writers in general "home" has been a contested concept. See,
for example, Dorinne Kondo, "The Narrative Production of 'Home,' Commu-
nity and Political Identity in Asian American Theater," in Smadar Lavie and Ted
Swedenburg, eds., Displacement, Diaspora, and Geographies of ldentity, 97-117
(Durham: Duke University Press, 1996).
4. Kim Sok-pom, Kokoku kO (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1990).
5. See Kim Sok-pom, "Zainichi" no shiso (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1981).
6. Cf. Rob Nixon, London Calling: V. S. Naipaul, Postcolonial Mandarin
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 174: "Counseling despair is the
traveler's prerogative, a luxury available to all for whom withdrawal by boat or
air provides a personal solution, relieving them of the pressure to act."
7. See Takeda Seiji, "Zainichi" to iu konkyo (Tokyo: Kokubunsha, 1983),
118-19.
8. The story first appeared in the literary journal GunzO in 1988 and was
collected in Yuhi, published by Kodansha, the following year. The pagination is
from Yi Yang-ji, Yi Yang-ji zensha (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1993). Norma Field offers
an insightful but withering reading of "Yuhi"-"reactionary," "distasteful"-
which I find insufficiently empathetic about Yuhi's, and by extension Yi Yang-
ji's, struggle for a viable identity ("Texts of Childhood in Inter-Nationalizing
Japan," in Laura Garcia-Moreno and Peter C. Pfeiffer, eds., Text and Nation:
Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and National Identities, 143-72. [Colum-
bia, SC: Camden House, 1996]).
9. The narrator is puzzled by Yuhi's literary taste, which values both Yi
Kwang-su and Yi Sang. Although dissimilar in many ways, a striking unity
between the two is the profound influence of and interest in Japan.
10. The story expresses two common stereotypes that South Koreans hold
for Korean Japanese - possible entanglements with the North Korean regime
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
face fundamental challenges to their existence in many aspects of their lives. Here, let me just consider one: name. Many resident Koreans in Japan attend school or work using a Japanese alias. Even for those who use their Korean names there are ambiguities about whether to use Japanese or Korean readings of their Chinese character-based names. Needless to say, an individual may very well shift position over time. For example, Yi Hoe-song has only recently begun to use the Korean reading of his name; previously, he used the Japanese rendi tion, Ri Kaisei. The problem, to be sure, is not resolved so easily. Yi in fact uses Lee - a common Chinese reading of the surname that Koreans pronounce as Yi. For the sake of consistency, I have opted to render all names in their Korean form , using the McCune-Reischauer system. In general, I use Korean Japanese, Koreans in Japan, and the Korean diaspora in Japan interchangeably. 2. Michael Seidel, Exile and the Narrative Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), ix. 3. Needless to say, the same cannot be said unequivocally about the Ko rean diaspora in the United States. The notion of exile as "a form of disposses sion that retained - imaginatively - the claim ot possession" (Seamus Deane, Strange Country: Modernity and Nationhood in Irish Writing since 1 790 [Oxford: Clarendon, 1997] , 94) is weakly held among Korean Americans. Indeed, for Asian American writers in general "home" has been a contested concept. See, for example, Dorinne Kondo, "The Narrative Production of 'Home,' Commu nity and Political Identity in Asian American Theater, " in Smadar Lavie and Ted Swedenburg, eds., Displacement, Diaspora, and Geographies of Identity, 97-1 17 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996) . 4. Kim Sok-pom, Kokoku ko (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1990). 5 . See Kim Sok-pom, "Zainichi" no shiso (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo , 1981 ) . 6. Cf. Rob Nixon, London Calling: V. S. Naipaul, Postcolonial Mandarin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) , 174: "Counseling despair is the traveler's prerogative, a lUXury available to all for whom withdrawal by boat or air provides a personal solution, relieving them of the pressure to act." 7 . See Takeda Seiji, "Zainichi" to iu konkyo (Tokyo: Kokubunsha, 1983), 1 18-1 9 . 8. The story first appeared i n the literary journal Gunzo in 1988 and was collected in Yuhi, published by Kodansha, the following year. The pagination is from Yi Yang-ji, Yi Yang-ji zenshl1 (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1993). Norma Field offers an insightful but withering reading of "Yuhi" - "reactionary, " "distasteful" which I find insufficiently empathetic about Yuhi's, and by extension Yi Yang ji's, struggle for a viable identity ("Texts of Childhood in Inter-Nationalizing Japan," in Laura Garda-Moreno and Peter C. Pfeiffer, eds . , Text and Nation: Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and National Identities, 143-72. [Colum bia, SC: Camden House, 1996] ). 9. The narrator is puzzled by Yuhi's literary taste, which values both Yi Kwang-su and Yi Sang. Although dissimilar in many ways, a striking unity between the two is the profound influence of and interest in Japan. 10. The story expresses two common stereotypes that South Koreans hold for Korean Japanese - possible entanglements with the North Korean regime
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland
Narratives of Exile and the Search for Homeland 357
(particular to Korean Japanese) and the propensity to play around (general to
diasporic Koreans). This is a major theme of Yi Yang-ji's earlier story, "Kazu-
kime." It is possible to detect the narrator's jealousy of diasporic Koreans in the
affection her aunt shows for Yuhi (Korean Japanese) as a substitute for the
aunt's daughter (now Korean American). The narrator's aunt, for instance, calls
her daughter in the United States after she reminisces about Yuhi with the
narrator.
11. The distinction she draws between the reality of contemporary South
Korea and the serene ideal of uri nara is redolent of the distinction that Hannah
Arendt drew between "pariah" and "parvenu" Jews: "It is the tradition of a
minority of Jews who have not wanted to become upstarts, who preferred the
status of 'conscious pariah.' All vaunted Jewish qualities - the 'Jewish heart,'
humanity, humor, disinterested intelligence - are pariah qualities. All Jewish
shortcomings - tactlessness, political stupidity, inferiority complexes and money-
grubbing - are characteristics of upstarts" (The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and
Politics in the Modern Age [New York: Grove, 1978], 66).
12. Yi Hoe-song, Shisha to seija no ichi (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjl, 1996).
13. See Sonia Ryang, North Koreans in Japan (Boulder: Westview, 1997),
esp. chap. 2.
14. See Yi Hoe-song, Sakhalin e no tabi (Tokyo, Kodansha, 1983).
15. Nym Wales [Helen Foster Snow] and Kim San, Song of Ariran (San
Francisco: Ramparts, 1941).
16. See, for example, Paul Tabori, The Anatomy of Exile: A Semantic and
Historical Study (London: Harrap, 1972); John Glad, ed., Literature in Exile
(Durham: Duke University Press, 1990); and Marc Robinson, ed., Altogether
Elsewhere: Writers on Exile (Winchester, MA: Faber and Faber, 1994).
17. Lewis Nkosi, "Ironies of Exile," Times Literary Supplement, April 1,
1994, 5.
18. W. C. Spengemann, "Old America," London Review of Books, Janu-
ary 7, 1988, 20.
19. John Berger, And Our Faces, My Heart, Brief as Photos (London:
Writers and Readers, 1984), 67.
20. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1983), 1.
21. Nixon, 43. Irony inflects the exile literature. Although an exiled writer
may bemoan the loss of artistic powers, the work of art may in fact belie the
deleterious impact of exile. Gareth D. Williams argues: "Ovid remains firmly in
control of the abilities which are misleadingly portrayed as all but destroyed by
exile" (Banished Voices: Readings in Ovid's Exile Poetry [Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1994], 99). I should add, however, that the most recent
works of V. S. Naipaul suggest an acceptance of his new homeland, England
(The Enigma of Arrival [New York: Knopf, 1987]), and his partial solidarity with
other diasporic peoples (A Way in the World [New York: Knopf, 1994]). See also
Michael Gorra, After Empire: Scott, Naipaul, Rushdie (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1997), chap. 2.
22. See inter alia Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, "Beyond 'Culture':
357
(particular to Korean Japanese) and the propensity to play around (general to diasporic Koreans). This is a major theme of Yi Yang-ji's earlier story, "Kazu kime." It is possible to detect the narrator's jealousy of diasporic Koreans in the affection her aunt shows for Yuhi (Korean Japanese) as a substitute for the aunt's daughter (now Korean American). The narrator's aunt, for instance, calls her daughter in the United States after she reminisces about Yuhi with the narrator. 1 1 . The distinction she draws between the reality of contemporary South Korea and the serene ideal of uri nara is redolent of the distinction that Hannah Arendt drew between "pariah" and "parvenu" Jews: "It is the tradition of a minority of Jews who have not wanted to become upstarts, who preferred the status of 'conscious pariah.' All vaunted Jewish qualities - the 'Jewish heart,' humanity, humor, disinterested intelligence - are pariah qualities. All Jewish shortcomings - tactlessness, political stupidity, inferiority complexes and money grubbing - are characteristics of upstarts" ( The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age [New York: Grove, 1978] , 66). 12. Yi Hoe-song, Shisha to seija no ichi (Tokyo: Bungei Shunj u , 1996) . 13. See Sonia Ryang, North Koreans in Japan (Boulder: Westview, 1997), esp. chap. 2. 14. See Yi Hoe-song, Sakhalin e no tabi (Tokyo, Kodansha, 1983). 15. Nym Wales [Helen Foster Snow] and Kim San, Song of A riran (San Francisco: Ramparts, 1941). 16. See, for example, Paul Tabori, The Anatomy of Exile: A Semantic and Historical Study (London: Harrap, 1972); John Glad, ed. , Literature in Exile (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990) ; and Marc Robinson, ed., Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile (Winchester, MA: Faber and Faber, 1994) . 17. Lewis Nkosi, "Ironies of Exile," Times Literary Supplement, April 1 , 1994, 5 . 1 8 . W. C. Spengemann, "Old America," London Review of Books, Janu ary 7, 1988, 20. 19. John Berger, And Our Faces, My Heart, Brief as Photos (London: Writers and Readers, 1 984), 67. 20. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 1 . 21 . Nixon ? 43. Irony inflects the exile literature. Although an exiled writer may bemoan the loss of artistic powers, the work of art may in fact belie the deleterious impact of exile. Gareth D. Williams argues: "Ovid remains firmly in control of the abilities which are misleadingly portrayed as all but destroyed by exile" (Banished Voices: Readings in Ovid's Exile Poetry [Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press, 1 994] , 99). I should add, however, that the most recent works of V S. Naipaul suggest an acceptance of his new homeland, England ( The Enigma of A rrival [New York: Knopf, 1987] ), and his partial solidarity with other diasporic peoples (A Way in the World [New York: Knopf, 1994]). See also Michael Gorra, After Empire: Scott, Naipaul, Rushdie (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997 ), chap. 2 . 22. See inter alia Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, "Beyond 'Culture':
358
358
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Space, Identity, and the Politics of Difference," Cultural Anthropology 7 (1992):
6-23; James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology 9 (1994): 302-38;
John Lie, "From International Migration to Transnational Diaspora," Contempo-
rary Sociology 24 (1995): 303-6; and R. Radhakrishnan, Diasporic Mediations:
Between Home and Location (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1996).
23. Berger, 67.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
Space, Identity, and the Politics of Difference," Cultural Anthropology 7 (1992): 6-23; James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology 9 (1994): 302-38; John Lie, "From International Migration to Transnational Diaspora," Contempo rary Sociology 24 (1995): 303-6; and R. Radhakrishnan, Diasporic Mediations: Between Home and Location (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996). 23. Berger, 67.
Chapter 12 Chapter 12
The Regime of Authenticity:
Timelessness, Gender, and National
History in Modern China
Prasenjit Duara
The Spartan song -"We are what you were, we will be what you
are" -is, in its simplicity, the abridged hymn of every patrie.
- Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?"
... what I have tried to maintain for many years, is the effort to
isolate some of the elements that might be useful for a history of truth.
The Regime of Authenticity: Timelessness, Gender, and National History in Modern China
Not a history that would be concerned with what might be true in the
fields of learning, but an analysis of the "games of truth," the games
Prasenjit Duara
of truth and error through which being is historically constituted as
experience.
- Michel Foucault, "The Use of Pleasure:
The History of Sexuality"
The nation is the guardian of an unchanging truth it believes itself to
embody. This self-conception of the nation's timelessness has been little
understood in the scholarship of nationalism that has, at least since
Benedict Anderson, better understood the nation as the agent or subject
The Spartan song - " We are what you were, we will be what you are " -is, in its simplicity, the abridged hymn of every patrie. - Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?"
of linear history.' I want here to probe the relationship between the
concepts of time and timelessness in national histories through what I
call the "regime of authenticity." In the second part of the chapter, I
examine the effects of this regime by focusing on the example of women
as embodiments of authenticity in twentieth-century China.
Nation and History
The modern territorial nation and linear history have an intimate rela-
tionship. Indeed, one might say that they coproduce each other as the
359
. . . what I have tried to maintain for many years, is the effort to isolate some of the elements that might be useful for a history of truth. Not a history that would be concerned with what might be true in the fields of learning, but an analysis of the "games of truth, " the games of truth and error through which being is historically constituted as experience. - Michel Foucault, "The Use of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality"
The nation is the guardian of an unchanging truth it believes itself to embody. This self-conception of the nation's timelessness has been little understood in the scholarship of nationalism that has, at least since Benedict Anderson, better understood the nation as the agent or subject of linear history. 1 I want here to probe the relationship between the concepts of time and timelessness in national histories through what I call the "regime of authenticity. " In the second part of the chapter, I examine the effects of this regime by focusing on the example of women as embodiments of authenticity in twentieth-century China. Nation and History The modern territorial nation and linear history have an intimate rela tionship. Indeed, one might say that they coproduce each other as the 359
360
360 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
principal mode of belonging in the twentieth century. Individuals learn
to identify with nation-states that have supposedly evolved over a long
history to reach the self-conscious unity of the two and are thus poised to
acquire mastery over the future. The linear history of modern nation-
states projects a territorial entity (the nation) backward in time as the
subject (or actor or agent) that evolves or progresses to the present and
future. In projecting the presently constituted or claimed territorial
nation - the "geobody" in Thongchai Winichakul's apt neologism2 -
into the past, national Histories seek to appropriate for the present
nation-state the peoples, cultures, and territories that actually had scant
relations with the old empires. The Chinese Republic (1912-49) was no
exception and claimed sovereignty over peoples in lands where the mod-
ern notion of sovereignty was irrelevant to the historical relationship
between the Chinese imperial center and these local polities.3
To be sure, even with national history there is much contestation over
the nature of the national people. Whether one constitutes the people
according to theories of the primordiality of race, language, culture, or
even class or religion embedded in different narratives produces a signifi-
cantly different profile of the nation and the geobody (e.g., compare early
Guomindang (GMD) and Chinese Communist Party maps). But each of
these contesting narratives makes its claim in the same linear historical
mode. In the late Qing (1644-1911), revolutionary nationalists depicted
the evolving nation in terms of the history of the awakening of a race in its
opposition to other races. The constitutional reformers sought to create a
wider nation by invoking the evolution of a common culture from the
seeds of Confucianism and thus incorporate the Manchus and other mi-
norities, whereas the National Essence school emphasized recovering the
originary unity of the linguistic community. In these narratives, the nation
as a preexisting unity, like a species, is shown to have evolved since
ancient times, overcome strife and obstacles - whether in the form of
barbarism or superstition - in the middle period, and be poised in its self-
awareness to gain mastery in the competition among nations. Even the
Chinese Communist Party, which sought to repudiate all older narratives
of community as bogus and establish the sovereignty of the working
classes or "the people," strove to depict the consciousness of the working
masses in the same historical mode.
Why did this mode became so necessary to depicting the nation from
at least the end of the nineteenth century? There are several convergent
reasons. Central among them is that the nation-state staked its sover-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
principal mode of belonging in the twentieth century. Individuals learn to identify with nation-states that have supposedly evolved over a long history to reach the self-conscious unity of the two and are thus poised to acquire mastery over the future. The linear history of modern nation states projects a territorial entity (the nation) backward in time as the subject (or actor or agent) that evolves or progresses to the present and future. In projecting the presently constituted or claimed territorial nation - the "geobody" in Thongchai Winichakul's apt neologism2 into the past, national Histories seek to appropriate for the present nation-state the peoples, cultures, and territories that actually had scant relations with the old empires. The Chinese Republic (1912-49) was no exception and claimed sovereignty over peoples in lands where the mod ern notion of sovereignty was irrelevant to the historical relationship between the Chinese imperial center and these local polities.3 To be sure, even with national history there is much contestation over the nature of the national people. Whether one constitutes the people according to theories of the primordiality of race, language, culture, or even class or religion embedded in different narratives produces a signifi cantly different profile of the nation and the geobody ( e . g . , compare early Guomindang (GMD) and Chinese Communist Party maps). But each of these contesting narratives makes its claim in the same linear historical mode. In the late Qing (1644-191 1 ) , revolutionary nationalists depicted the evolving nation in terms of the history of the awakening of a race in its opposition to other races. The constitutional reformers sought to create a wider nation by invoking the evolution of a common culture from the seeds of Confucianism and thus incorporate the Manchus and other mi norities, whereas the National Essence school emphasized recovering the originary unity of the linguistic community. In these narratives, the nation as a preexisting unity, like a species, is shown to have evolved since ancient times, overcome strife and obstacles - whether in the form of barbarism or superstition - in the middle period, and be poised in its self awareness to gain mastery in the competition among nations. Even the Chinese Communist Party, which sought to repudiate all older narratives of community as bogus and establish the sovereignty of the working classes or "the people," strove to depict the consciousness of the working masses in the same historical mode. Why did this mode became so necessary to depicting the nation from at least the end of the nineteenth century? There are several convergent reasons. Central among them is that the nation-state staked its sover-
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 361
eignty on the notion of the oneness of the territorial state and a self-
conscious people (awakened to their primal unity). As Hegel strove to
demonstrate, self-consciousness emerged only in societies with states that
recorded and recognized their progress in history.4 Indeed, it was only
territorial nations with historical self-consciousness that, in the world of
competitive capitalist imperialism in the late nineteenth and early twenti-
eth centuries, claimed rights in the international system of sovereign
states. Such nation-states claimed the freedom, even the right, to destroy
nonnations such as tribal polities and empires. This is how we can under-
stand Hegel's belief that the British defeat of China was not only in-
evitable but necessary.5 This observation also alerts us to another factor
necessitating the historical mode for nation-states: its linear directionality
made it future oriented and performative. It is only through the evolution
of self-consciousness that the nation will be positioned to move competi-
tively into modernity. In other words, this mode of history is necessary for
the nation-state because it is performative: its conception of the past will
enable it to propel the nation in a desired future direction.
But history is not only about linear evolution; it is also about time-
lessness.6 To be recognizable as the subject of history, the core of the
nation has to be unaffected by the passage of time. This core often
refers to the unity of a people and its territory. In the nation's evolution,
there are historical vicissitudes during which a people may be driven out
of its territory or enslaved or become separated and lose consciousness
of its original unity. But the historical destiny of the nation lies in the
fulfillment or restoration of this unity and sovereignty of a people.
National history is fully teleological in that its ends are to be found in its
beginnings.
Yet even the evidentiary pyrotechnics of nationalist history are in-
adequate to sustain the irony of "unity within change." This should
come as no surprise given that historically people did not think in terms
of their unity for future nationalisms or in terms of territorial sover-
eignty. Thus, the unchanging unity of the nation over time, its timeless-
ness, has to be marked by signs of its authenticity. The truth of this
originary unity is simulated and sublimated by the values of the pure, the
honorable, the good, and the spiritual. It is their immateriality, after all,
that renders them insusceptible to historical corrosion.
Ernest Renan who confronted the problem of the nation's history as
early as 1882, decisively rejected the idea of a materialistic determina-
tion of a nation whether by language, race, or geography. He stressed
361
eignty on the notion of the oneness of the territorial state and a self conscious people (awakened to their primal unity). As Hegel strove to demonstrate, self-consciousness emerged only in societies with states that recorded and recognized their progress in history. 4 Indeed, it was only territorial nations with historical self-consciousness that, in the world of competitive capitalist imperialism in the late nineteenth and early twenti eth centuries, claimed rights in the international system of sovereign states. Such nation-states claimed the freedom, even the right, to destroy nonnations such as tribal polities and empires. This is how we can under stand Hegel's belief t.hat the British defeat of China was not only in evitable but necessary. 5 This observation also alerts us to another factor necessitating the historical mode for nation-states: its linear directionality made it future oriented and performative. It is only through the evolution of self-consciousness that the nation will be positioned to move competi tively into modernity. In other words, this mode of history is necessary for the nation-state because it is performative: its conception of the past will enable it to propel the nation in a desired future direction. But history is not only about linear evolution; it is also about time lessness.6 To be recognizable as the subject of history, the core of the nation has to be unaffected by the passage of time. This core often refers to the unity of a people and its territory. In the nation's evolution, there are historical vicissitudes during which a people may be driven out of its territory or enslaved or become separated and lose consciousness of its original unity. But the historical destiny of the nation lies in the fulfillment or restoration of this unity and sovereignty of a people. National history is fully teleological in that its ends are to be found in its beginnings. Yet even the evidentiary pyrotechnics of nationalist history are in adequate to sustain the irony of "unity within change. " This should come as no surprise given that historically people did not think in terms of their unity for future nationalisms or in terms of territorial sover eignty. Thus, the unchanging unity of the nation over time, its timeless ness, has to be marked by signs of its authenticity. The truth of this originary unity is simulated and sublimated by the values of the pure, the honorable, the good, and the spiritual. It is their immateriality, after all, that renders them insusceptible to historical corrosion. Ernest Renan who confronted the problem of the nation's history as early as 1882, decisively rejected the idea of a materialistic determina tion of a nation whether by language, race, or geography. He stressed
362
362
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the role of "human will" in its formation. "Man is everything in the
formation of this sacred thing which is called a people. Nothing [purely]
material suffices for it.'7 What he calls the soul or the spiritual principle
of the nation is none other than the "will to perpetuate the value of the
heritage that one has received in an undivided form. Man, Gentleman,
does not improvise. The nation, like the individual, is the culmination of
a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. . . The Spartan
song-'We are what you were, we will be what you are'-is, in its
simplicity, the abridged hymn of every patrie."8 It is significant that the
spiritual principle enabling this continuity is the will to live together in
the present, the will that mandates the necessary forgetting of the mixed
and bloody origins of nations.9 Here it is none other than human will-
the will of the present projected unchanged into the past and future -
that constitutes the telos of history.
The Aporias of Time and the Order of Authenticity
The split or aporia in linear history (especially but not only of the na-
tion) between evolution and progressive mastery of the future, on the
one hand, and the unchanging essence of the past, on the other, is a
problem that is structurally distinctive to it. Linear history embeds a
notion of time in which all is in flux, but it also locates an unchanging
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
the role of "human will" in its formation. "Man is everything in the formation of this sacred thing which is called a people. Nothing [purely] material suffices for it."7 What he calls the soul or the spiritual principle of the nation is none other than the "will to perpetuate the value of the heritage that one has received in an undivided form. Man, Gentleman, does not improvise. The nation, like the individual, is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. . . . The Spartan song - 'We are what you were, we will be what you are' - is, in its simplicity, the abridged hymn of every patrie. "8 It is significant that the spiritual principle enabling this continuity is the will to live together in the present, the will that mandates the necessary forgetting of the mixed and bloody origins of nations.9 Here it is none other than human will the will of the present projected unchanged into the past and future that constitutes the telos of history.
core at the heart of change. Many analysts of nationalism have observed
this split in the time of the nation, but since few have viewed it as a
problem rooted in the phenomenology of linear time they have only a
The Aporias of Time and the Order of Authenticity
partial understanding of it.
Thus, for instance, Partha Chatterjee has discussed it as a dual
tendency among nation-states, particularly in the colonial world: the
forward march to modernity expresses the aspiration to join the ranks of
global capitalist nations, and the emphasis on distinctive traditions re-
flects a desire to defy this order.10 He has also shown how Indian nation-
alists developed the notion of a realm of inner sovereignty incorporating
the core traditions of the nation. Within this inner realm, Indian nation-
alists were unchallengeable, unlike their situation in the public realm of
political and economic nationalism, where they faced unequal competi-
tion with their British colonial masters.11 Chatterjee, however, does not
seek to provide an explanation of how and why this aporia emerges.
Joseph Levenson, who made a similar distinction between history
and value among Chinese nationalists, did provide an explanation that is
The split or aporia in linear history (especially but not only of the na tion) between evolution and progressive mastery of the future, on the one hand, and the unchanging essence of the past, on the other, is a problem that is structurally distinctive to it. Linear history embeds a notion of time in which all is in flux, but it also locates an unchanging core at the heart of change. Many analysts of nationalism have observed this split in the time of the nation, but since few have viewed it as a problem rooted in the phenomenology of linear time they have only a partial understanding of it. Thus, for instance, Partha Chatterjee has discussed it as a dual tendency among nation-states, particularly in the colonial world: the forward march to modernity expresses the aspiration to join the ranks of global capitalist nations, and the emphasis on distinctive traditions re flects a desire to defy this order. 10 He has also shown how Indian nation alists developed the notion of a realm of inner sovereignty incorporating the core traditions of the nation. Within this inner realm, Indian nation alists were unchallengeable, unlike their situation in the public realm of political and economic nationalism, where they faced unequal competi tion with their British colonial masters. 11 Chatterjee, however, does not seek to provide an explanation of how and why this aporia emerges. Joseph Levenson, who made a similar distinction between history and value among Chinese nationalists, did provide an explanation that is
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 363
psychologically particularistic.12 Levenson's interpretation of the mod-
ern construction of "eternal tradition" in China was that it was psycho-
logically comforting to modern Chinese intellectuals who needed to as-
sert the particularity of Chinese history in the face of the overwhelming
superiority of scientific civilization and values. While this may have been
true for some intellectuals at some time and place, the reconstruction of
tradition had other meanings and functions not reducible to salving the
inferiority complex of Chinese intellectuals. All nations and societies
that see themselves as subjects progressing or evolving through linear
time need to constitute an "unchanging core" in order to recognize them-
selves in their ever-changing circumstances, hence the role of sacred
national symbols or core values in Britain or France or America as
embodied in the royalty, the Constitution, or simply tradition.
Modern linear history is distinguished from traditional histories prin-
cipally in that the meaning that the latter almost always seek in history
refers to an earlier, presumed existent ideal or to a transcendent time of
god. Traditional historiography mostly has a cyclical structure whereby
time will reproduce, return to, or approximate a "known certainty." Lin-
ear history often dispenses with god and replaces it with the model of a
unified actor - the subject, the nation - moving forward in time and con-
quering uncharted territories. The historical transition from the transcen-
dent time of god to the secular, linear history of modern society is the
subject of a masterly treatment of J. G. A. Pocock in The Machiavellian
Moment.13 Simply put, the "Machiavellian moment" refers to the relation-
ship of virtue to history. Both Christian and Renaissance humanist concep-
tions of time gave true meaning to the divine or rational virtue that existed
outside time - to the secular or temporal time of history. Pocock argues
that, while such humanists as Machiavelli believed that the citizen ful-
filled himself through civic virtue rather than ecclesiastical sacraments,
they were still unable to develop a theory of history or what Pocock calls
historicism. Natural law was rational, unchanging, and true; history was
irrational, fickle, and corrupting. The "moment" consists of the deferral
of the inevitable collapse or corruption of virtue in mundane time.
In Puritan America, this deferral was sustained by various strategies
such as imperialism and the spread of yeoman property ownership,
which would continue to extend civic virtue. The Puritan extension of
timeless grace into this temporal world ultimately had the effect of devel-
oping a secular history through the search for the kingdom of god on
earth - the city on the hill. But, although it transmutes into a modern
363
psychologically particularistic. 12 Levenson's interpretation of the mod ern construction of "eternal tradition" in China was that it was psycho logically comforting to modern Chinese intellectuals who needed to as sert the particularity of Chinese history in the face of the overwhelming superiority of scientific civilization and values. While this may have been true for some intellectuals at some time and place, the reconstruction of tradition had other meanings and functions not reducible to salving the inferiority complex of Chinese intellectuals. All nations and societies that see themselves as subjects progressing or evolving through linear time need to constitute an "unchanging core" in order to recognize them selves in their ever-changing circumstances, hence the role of sacred national symbols or core values in Britain or France or America as embodied in the royalty, the Constitution, or simply tradition. Modern linear history is distinguished from traditional histories prin cipally in that the meaning that the latter almost always seek in history refers to an earlier, presumed existent ideal or to a transcendent time of god. Traditional historiography mostly has a cyclical structure whereby time will reproduce, return to, or approximate a "known certainty. " Lin ear history often dispenses with god and replaces it with the model of a unified actor - the subject, the nation - moving forward in time and con quering uncharted territories. The historical transition from the transcen dent time of god to the secular, linear history of modern society is the subject of a masterly treatment of 1. G . A. Pocock in The Machiavellian Moment. 1 3 Simply put, the "Machiavellian moment" refers to the relation ship of virtue to history. Both Christian and Renaissance humanist concep tions of time gave true meaning to the divine or rational virtue that existed outside time - to the secular or temporal time of history. Pocock argues that, while such humanists as Machiavelli believed that the citizen ful filled himself through civic virtue rather than ecclesiastical sacraments, they were still unable to develop a theory of history or what Pocock calls historicism. Natural law was rational, unchanging, and true; history was irrational, fickle, and corrupting. The "moment" consists of the deferral of the inevitable collapse or corruption of virtue in mundane time. In Puritan America, this deferral was sustained by various strategies such as imperialism and the spread of yeoman property ownership, which would continue to extend civic virtue. The Puritan extension of timeless grace into this temporal world ultimately had the effect of devel oping a secular history through the search for the kingdom of god on earth - the city on the hill. B ut, although it transmutes into a modern
364
364 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
history, Pocock argues that right through the nineteenth century this Old
World preoccupation with virtue as a sacred, rational, and timeless value
persisted in America and the vision of history as dynamic and creative in
its "linear capacity to bring about incessant qualitative transformations
of human life" took a long time to make its appearance.14
Pocock gives us a historical perspective from which to try to under-
stand the transformation of the relationship between the timeless as
virtuous or sacred and the temporal as ultimately corrosive, even though
I do not concur with this rather panglossian vision of linear history.
Certainly, the Chinese conception of the dynastic cycle embeds some-
thing very like the Machiavellian moment in the cycle of virtue and
corruption, and the Tongzhi Restoration (1861) has been interpreted
precisely as an effort to extend the regime of virtue in the face of impend-
ing collapse. Where he leaves us without much help, however, is with
regard to the question of what happens to timeless virtue when linear
histories become hegemonic in the era of capitalism and nation-states.
As we have seen, the meaning of History is not wholly or simply ac-
cepted as the "incessant qualitative transformations of human life"; the
unchanging may not have the dominant role it once played in traditional
histories, but it has not disappeared.'5
Born amid the loss of a known, if hard to attain, certainty, linear
history is posited upon a linear, preexisting conception of time into
which it can be seen to fall or unfold.16 As such, it cannot rid itself of
the anxieties of a linear conception of time. According to Paul Ricoeur,
the concept of linear time is a series of nows, of unrelated instants. The
anxiety - sorrow for the fleeting past, dread of the future - (distentio in
St. Augustine, inauthenticity in Heidegger) associated with this linear
representation of time cannot be fully overcome by the phenomenologi-
cal philosophy of time nor by narratives of continuity. The aporias of
time, between the deadness of the past and the contemporary experi-
ence of it and between mortal time and cosmological time, persist.'7
Linear history has to develop an artifice that will allow historians to
narrate over the succession of "nows" to negotiate or conceal this
aporia. We may think of this artifice as none other than the subject of
history - the nation, race, or class. The subject enables history as the
living essence of the past but also simultaneously as being free from the
hold of the past: that which evolves is that which remains even as it
changes.'8 Thus, the subject is a figure that is necessary for linear history
from both a phenomenological and a political point of view.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
history, Pocock argues that right through the nineteenth century this Old World preoccupation with virtue as a sacred, rational, and timeless value persisted in America and the vision of history as dynamic and creative in its "linear capacity to bring about incessant qualitative transformations of human life" took a long time to make its appearance. 14 Pocock gives us a historical perspective from which to try to under stand the transformation of the relationship between the timeless as virtuous or sacred and the temporal as ultimately corrosive, even though I do not concur with this rather panglossian vision of linear history. Certainly, the Chinese conception of the dynastic cycle embeds some thing very like the Machiavellian moment in the cycle of virtue and corruption, and the Tongzhi Restoration (1861) has been interpreted precisely as an effort to extend the regime of virtue in the face of impend ing collapse. Where he leaves us without much help, however, is with regard to the question of what happens to timeless virtue when linear histories become hegemonic in the era of capitalism and nation-states. As we have seen, the meaning of History is not wholly or simply ac cepted as the "incessant qualitative transformations of human life"; the unchanging may not have the dominant role it once played in traditional histories, but it has not disappeared. IS Born amid the loss of a known, if hard to attain, certainty, linear history is posited upon a linear, preexisting conception of time into which it can be seen to fall or unfold.16 As such, it cannot rid itself of the anxieties of a linear conception of time. According to Paul Ricoeur, the concept of linear time is a series of nows, of unrelated instants. The anxiety - sorrow for the fleeting past, dread of the future - (distentio in St. Augustine, inauthenticity in Heidegger) associated with this linear representation of time cannot be fully overcome by the phenomenologi cal philosophy of time nor by narratives of continuity. The aporias of time, between the deadness of the past and the contemporary experi ence of it and between mortal time and cosmological time, persist. 1 7 Linear history has to develop an artifice that will allow historians to narrate over the succession of "nows" to negotiate or conceal this aporia. We may think of this artifice as none other than the subject of history - the nation, race, or class. The subject enables history as the living essence of the past but also simultaneously as being free from the hold of the past: that which evolves is that which remains even as it changes.18 Thus, the subject is a figure that is necessary for linear history from both a phenomenological and a political point of view.
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 365
We have seen that the unchanging essence of the past is often en-
dowed with a special aura of sanctity, purity, and authenticity at the
heart of a modern discourse of progressive change that is otherwise
entirely synchronous with the quickening pace of change - the transfor-
mative drive - of global capitalism. It is possible to think of the aporia of
linear history as demarcating two regimes, that of capitalism and that of
(national or transnational) authenticity, which institute two poles of au-
thority. Certainly linear, measurable time is necessary for capitalism,
where time is money, but the corrosive effects of capitalism (where all
that is solid melts into air) is also made visible by this very conception of
time. It is not simply the disruption caused by rapid material change that
necessitates the production of an abiding truth. It is ultimately the domi-
nant temporal conception that exposes this change as having no goal or
meaning - a "series of nows" - which necessitates a continuous subject
of History to shore up certitudes, particularly for the claim to national
sovereignty embedded in this subject.
The opposition between authenticity and capitalism is an old one,
and I need to outline the specificity of my argument. The tradition of
modern writing on "authenticity" tends to locate it as the positive (both
ethically and ontologically), if fleeting or evanescent, term in the opposi-
tion between the self and the market or modernity. Alessandro Ferrara
argues that it derives from Rousseau's notion of authenticity as "man in
the state of nature." The tradition develops through the thought of
Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger and in such contempo-
rary thinkers as Daniel Bell and Christopher Lasch, who deplore the
corrosion of authenticity and the reduction of self to pure exteriority.19
Notably, this tradition focuses on the authenticity of the self or per-
sonhood. Ferrara also identifies an assumption of authenticity in the
thought of social thinkers like Marx and Durkheim whether located in
the concept of the worker, or the "species being," or in ideas of commu-
nity or "gemeinschaft." Here the role of such concepts as Marx's "alien-
ation," Weber's "rationalization," or Durkheim's "anomie" seem to indi-
cate that authenticity is under constant threat of erasure. Most of all, for
all of these thinkers the loss of authenticity spells the destruction of
social identity. 20
The authentic that I want to explore here refers primarily neither to
Selfhood nor for that matter to any ontological category. Authenticity in
my formulation refers primarily to an order or regime simulated by
representations of authoritative inviolability. It derives this authority
365
We have seen that the unchanging essence of the past is often en dowed with a special aura of sanctity, purity, and authenticity at the heart of a modern discourse of progressive change that is otherwise entirely synchronous with the quickening pace of change - the transfor mative drive - of global capitalism. It is possible to think of the aporia of linear history as demarcating two regimes, that of capitalism and that of (national or transnational) authenticity, which institute two poles of au thority. Certainly linear, measurable time is necessary for capitalism, where time is money, but the corrosive effects of capitalism (where all that is solid melts into air) is also made visible by this very conception of time. It is not simply the disruption caused by rapid material change that necessitates the production of an abiding truth. It is ultimately the domi nant temporal conception that exposes this change as having no goal or meaning - a "series of nows" - which necessitates a continuous subject of History to shore up certitudes, particularly for the claim to national sovereignty embedded in this subj ect. The opposition between authenticity and capitalism is an old one, and I need to outline the specificity of my argument. The tradition of modern writing on "authenticity" tends to locate it as the positive (both ethically and ontologically), if fleeting or evanescent, term in the opposi tion between the self and the market or modernity. Alessandro Ferrara argues that it derives from Rousseau's notion of authenticity as "man in the state of nature." The tradition develops through the thought of Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger and in such contempo rary thinkers as Daniel Bell and Christopher Lasch, who deplore the corrosion of authenticity and the reduction of self to pure exteriority. 19 Notably, this tradition focuses on the authenticity of the self or per sonhood. Ferrara also identifies an assumption of authenticity in the thought of social thinkers like Marx and Durkheim whether located in the concept of the worker, or the "species being," or in ideas of commu nity or "gemeinschaft. " Here the role of such concepts as Marx's "alien ation," Weber's "rationalization," or Durkheim's "anomie" seem to indi cate that authenticity is under constant threat of erasure. Most of all, for all of these thinkers the loss of authenticity spells the destruction of social identity. 20 The authentic that I want to explore here refers primarily neither to Selfhood nor for that matter to any ontological category. Authent�city in my formulation refers primarily to an order or regime simulated by representations of authoritative inviolability. It derives this authority
366
366
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
from "being good for all times," which is tantamount to being beyond
the reach of time. My understanding of the regime differs fundamentally
from the modern conception of authenticity as an attribute of some
endangered being; rather, the regime is a power that repeatedly consti-
tutes itself as the locus of authenticity - akin to Foucault's "games of
truth." The hegemony of linear time accompanying the transforming
drive of capitalism necessitates the repeated constitution of the unchang-
ing subject of history precisely because it is this very combination of
capital and linear time that erodes it and simultaneously exposes the
spectacle of erosion.
So far, I have deliberately spoken of the regime of authenticity
without human actors - as if it had an automaticity. I do believe that the
predominance of linear time internalized by nation-states necessitated
the production of the authentic across different societies. The fundamen-
tal aporia of linear time is expressed in the nation-state's need to recon-
cile the demands of an unchanging unity of nationhood with a changing
modern future. Thus, the agents most interested in constituting and
policing the regime of authenticity are representatives of the national
community (such as nationalist intellectuals) or the state. We should not
see these agents as simply balancing or policing the boundaries between
the regimes of authenticity and the market, although they do both.
Rather, attention to constitution and reconstitution allows us to see a
complex relationship between the two orders. To be sure, there is no
shortage of instances in which authenticity is mobilized to oppose capital-
ism and modernity, as fundamentalist and nativist movements the world
over (whether the Taliban or Showa restorationists) have shown. On a
more everyday level, however, the regime of authenticity authorizes a
range of representational practices that are in constant traffic with the
practices of the capitalist order, a traffic that produces an elaborate
economy of authorization and delegitimation that the nation-state would
like to control.
Nation-State, Authenticity, and Gender
The question of the nation's historical unity is, of course, inseparable
from the problem of its contemporary diversity. The idea of a collective
actor or subject - the self-conscious, sovereign nation-people - that a
national history ultimately presupposes is actually always being chal-
lenged, whether through counterhistories or political opposition by dif-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
from "being good for all times," which is tantamount to being beyond the reach of time. My understanding of the regime differs fundamentally from the modern conception of authenticity as an attribute of some endangered being; rather, the regime is a power that repeatedly consti tutes itself as the locus of authenticity - akin to Foucault's "games of truth." The hegemony of linear time accompanying the transforming drive of capitalism necessitates the repeated constitution of the unchang ing subject of history precisely because it is this very combination of capital and linear time that erodes it and simultaneously exposes the spectacle of erosion. So far, I have deliberately spoken of the regime of authenticity without human actors - as if it had an automaticity. I do believe that the predominance of linear time internalized by nation-states necessitated the production of the authentic across different societies. The fundamen tal aporia of linear time is expressed in the nation-state's need to recon cile the demands of an unchanging unity of nationhood with a changing modern future. Thus, the agents most interested in constituting and policing the regime of authenticity are representatives of the national community (such as nationalist intellectuals) or the state. We should not see these agents as simply balancing or policing the boundaries between the regimes of authenticity and the market, although they do both. Rather, attention to constitution and reconstitution allows us to see a complex relationship between the two orders. To be sure, there is no shortage of instances in which authenticity is mobilized to oppose capital ism and modernity, as fundamentalist and nativist movements the world over (whether the Taliban or Showa restorationists) have shown. On a more everyday level, however, the regime of authenticity authorizes a range of representational practices that are in constant traffic with the practices of the capitalist order, a traffic that produces an elaborate economy of authorization and delegitimation that the nation-state would like to control. Nation-State, Authenticity, and Gender The question of the nation's historical unity is, of course, inseparable from the problem of its contemporary diversity. The idea of a collective actor or subject - the self-conscious, sovereign nation-people - that a national history ultimately presupposes is actually always being chal lenged, whether through counterhistories or political opposition by dif-
The Regime ofA uthenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 367
ferent ethnicities, races, classes, or other expressions of difference. The
demand of the nation-state that we exist first and foremost as national
subjects turns out to be a demand that is mostly hortatory. The nation-
state exhorts its citizens to "ask not what the nation can do for you but
what you can do for the nation." In reminding us that we exist first and
foremost for the nation, the nation-state strives every day to produce the
idea that the nation is prior to us. The regime of authenticity contributes
significantly to this production through representations that simulate the
priority of the nation. Because of its inviolability, this representation is
able to preempt challenges to the nation.
The subject of history is identified by the simulacra of authenticity
and purity and of associated notions of honor, morality, and spirituality.
It is the order of the sacred within the secular, the essence of the past in
the present. Perhaps the best-known signifier that simulates the authen-
ticity of the primordial nation is the national flag; and there is perhaps
no other symbol whose desecration incites such strong feelings of dis-
honor. In China, some of the more familiar representational practices
that sustain the order of authenticity include the movement in politics
and culture to identify essences and search for roots. Some of these are
the early-twentieth-century search for "national essence" associated
with Zhang Taiyan, the National Culture of Hu Shi, the New Life essen-
tialism of the GMD, the folkloric or people's culture movement among
communists and noncommunists, the "native place" or "search for
roots" literature of more recent times, and what Rey Chow has called
the "primitive passions" in contemporary Chinese cinema.21
What kinds of beings or objects are selected to represent the authen-
tic? To be sure, the authentic tends to be differently represented by
different powers, whether it be the nation-state or nationalist intellec-
tuals or militarists, and at different moments in time, depending, say,
upon whether the women's movement has flowered or the aboriginal has
been domesticated by state making. But at the outset there appear to be
two desiderata for the role: that the representation, or perhaps represen-
tative, be productive of deep affect; and that it be denied agency in the
public realm. While the requirement that agency be denied should lead
obviously to objects and institutions, such as the American Constitution
or the memorialization of martyrs, the living embodiment of authentic-
ity appears to be able to move people more. Thus it is that woman, the
child, the rustic, the aboriginal, and royalty often embody the simulated
authenticity of the nation. Each has been associated with deep, although
367
ferent ethnicities, races, classes, or other expressions of difference. The demand of the nation-state that we exist first and foremost as national subjects turns out to be a demand that is mostly hortatory. The nation state exhorts its citizens to "ask not what the nation can do for you but what you can do for the nation." In reminding us that we exist first and foremost for the nation, the nation-state strives every day to produce the idea that the nation is prior to us. The regime of authenticity contributes significantly to this production through representations that simulate the priority of the nation. Because of its inviolability, this representation is able to preempt challenges to the nation. The subject of history is identified by the simulacra of authenticity and purity and of associated notions of honor, morality, and spirituality. It is the order of the sacred within the secular, the essence of the past in the present. Perhaps the best-known signifier that simulates the authen ticity of the primordial nation is the national flag; and there is perhaps no other symbol whose desecration incites such strong feelings of dis honor. In China, some of the more familiar representational practices that sustain the order of authenticity include the movement in politics and culture to identify essences and search for roots. Some of these are the early-twentieth-century search for "national essence" associated with Zhang Taiyan, the National Culture of Hu Shi, the New Life essen tialism of the GMD, the folkloric or people's culture movement among communists and noncommunists, the "native place" or "search for roots" literature of more recent times, and what Rey Chow has called the "primitive passions" in contemporary Chinese cinema.21 What kinds of beings or objects are selected to represent the authen tic? To be sure, the authentic tends to be differently represented by different powers, whether it be the nation-state or nationalist intellec tuals or militarists, and at different moments in time, depending, say, upon whether the women's movement has flowered or the aboriginal has been domesticated by state making. But at the outset there appear to be two desiderata for the role: that the representation, or perhaps represen tative, be productive of deep affect; and that it be denied agency in the public realm. While the requirement that agency be denied should lead obviously to objects and institutions, such as the American Constitution or the memorialization of martyrs, the living embodiment of authentic ity appears to be able to move people more. Thus it is that woman, the child, the rustic, the aboriginal, and royalty often embody the simulated authenticity of the nation. Each has been associated with deep, although
368
368
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
different, symbolic effects in various historical cultures, including the
invocation of motherhood or virginity among women, innocence and
naturalness among children and the primitive, rootedness among peas-
ants, and timelessness in the royalty. Each has also had a dependent
status. The problem arises, of course, not only from the question of their
agency, which might challenge the representation of their timelessness,
but simply in the fact that their lives will change in time.
To be sure, such a problem also arises with representative objects
such as a constitution, a monument, or a flag. Here it is that their
changing meaning or interpretation must be discounted, as can be seen
in the effort to restore the original intent of the U.S. Constitution. With
certain social practices or traditions, like annual festivals, their his-
toricity is concealed by their pace of change, which is not synchronous
with change in other spheres. But the most powerful embodiments, the
human ones, are also the most ephemeral, since the risk of them not
living up to the unchanging ideal in time is considerable. These symbolic
figures must be encased or contained within representational and often
physical or spatial apparatuses that conceal their lived reality: the home,
the reservation, or the castle. Even so, when, for instance, the women's
movement seeks to blur the line between the domestic and the public,
the embodiment of authenticity must be found in someone other than
women.
In the remainder of this chapter I will focus on the representation of
women - in body and spirit - as a very significant site upon which re-
gimes and elites in China responsible for charting the destiny of the
nation have sought to locate the unchanging essence and moral purity of
the nation. I want to show how and why women became this privileged
site in China and to probe a few instances of how the representation of
authenticity may have affected the subjectivity of women and shaped the
social understanding of gender roles.
Recent studies of gender histories in the West (especially in Latin
America22) have shown how women and their bodies, systematically
excluded from the public sphere during much of the modern period,23
have served as a crucial medium for the inscription and naturalization of
power. "Explored, mapped, conquered, and raped, the female body and
its metaphorical extension, the home, become the symbols of honor,
loyalty, and purity, to be guarded by men."24 In Japan, the historical
model of the self-sacrificing and frugal samurai woman became general-
ized as the model of feminine virtue in the Meiji era for the entire
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
different, symbolic effects in various historical cultures, including the invocation of motherhood or virginity among women, innocence and naturalness among children and the primitive, rootedness among peas ants, and timelessness in the royalty. Each has also had a dependent status. The problem arises, of course, not only from the question of their agency, which might challenge the representation of their timelessness, but simply in the fact that their lives will change in time. To be sure, such a problem also arises with representative objects such as a constitution, a monument, or a flag. Here it is that their changing meaning or interpretation must be discounted, as can be seen in the effort to restore the original intent of the U. S . Constitution. With certain social practices or traditions, like annual festivals, their his toricity is concealed by their pace of change, which is not synchronous with change in other spheres. But the most powerful embodiments, the human ones, are also the most ephemeral, since the risk of them not living up to the unchanging ideal in time is considerable. These symbolic figures must be encased or contained within representational and often physical or spatial apparatuses that conceal their lived reality: the home, the reservation, or the castle. Even so, when, for instance, the women's movement seeks to blur the line between the domestic and the public, the embodiment of authenticity must be found in someone other than women. In the remainder of this chapter I will focus on the representation of women - in body and spirit - as a very significant site upon which re gimes and elites in China responsible for charting the destiny of the nation have sought to locate the unchanging essence and moral purity of the nation. I want to show how and why women became this privileged site in China and to probe a few instances of how the representation of authenticity may have affected the subjectivity of women and shaped the social understanding of gender roles. Recent studies of gender histories in the West (especially in Latin America22) have shown how women and their bodies, systematically excluded from the public sphere during much of the modern period,23 have served as a crucial medium for the inscription and naturalization of power. "Explored, mapped, conquered, and raped, the female body and its metaphorical extension, the home, become the symbols of honor, loyalty, and purity, to be guarded by men. "24 In Japan, the historical model of the self-sacrificing and frugal samurai woman became general ized as the model of feminine virtue in the Meiji era for the entire
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 369
nation; here national authenticity came to serve economic growth.25 By
the 1920s, the Modern Girl, active in the public sphere of work and
politics, came to threaten "the patriarchal family and its ideological
support, the deferring woman who was presented in state ideology as the
'Good Wife and Wise Mother.' "26 According to Miriam Silverberg, she
became the symbol of all that was non-Japanese and modern in contrast
to the Meiji image of the woman who served as "'the repository of the
past,' standing for tradition when men were encouraged to change their
way of politics and culture in all ways."27 The Modern Girl of the 1920s
became the target of conservatives appalled by rapid change all around
them, but she became so only because she, no less than the Meiji
woman, occupied a special place within the order of authenticity, a place
she was beginning defiantly to transgress.
In China, the representation of woman as the essence of national
virtue was dramatized most clearly during wartime when the imagery
of the raped woman came to represent the defiled purity of the invaded
nation. Wartime literature during the Japanese invasion (1931-45) was
full of this motif- to the extent that the woman writer Xiao Hong
even sought to subvert this by having her protagonist raped by a Chi-
nese soldier.28 Moreover, as work on wartime popular culture reveals,
the resistance, no matter how modernist in ideology, tended to revert to
traditional dramatic motifs of the fallen, heroic, or sacrificed heroine to
represent the invaded nation. But the motif is by no means restricted
to wartime.29
Nationalist Patriarchy
Early nationalists and reformers in the first decades of twentieth-century
China were committed to the liberation of women. But they were also
committed to a vision of abiding national virtue, which they tended to
locate in women more often than in men. The principal reason for this
was that most of these nationalists and reformers emerged from the
habitus of the gentry and inherited the patriarchal traditions of this
society and its ideals of womanly virtue. Contemporary research on late
imperial China shows the pervasiveness of the rhetoric of female virtue
and sacrifice, exemplified most particularly in the cult of chaste widows
and virtuous wives.30 This patriarchal legacy was witnessed and sus-
tained in the heightened concern with preserving female virtues during
369
nation; here national authenticity came to serve economic growth.25 By the 1920s, the Modern Girl, active in the public sphere of work and politics, came to threaten "the patriarchal family and its ideological support, the deferring woman who was presented in state ideology as the 'Good Wife and Wise Mother. ' "26 According to Miriam Silverberg, she became the symbol of all that was non-Japanese and modern in contrast to the Meiji image of the woman who served as " 'the repository of the past,' standing for tradition when men were encouraged to change their way of politics and culture in all ways. "27 The Modern Girl of the 1920s became the target of conservatives appalled by rapid change all around them, but she became so only because she, no less than the Meiji woman, occupied a special place within the order of authenticity, a place she was beginning defiantly to transgress. In China, the representation of woman as the essence of national virtue was dramatized most clearly during wartime when the imagery of the raped woman came to represent the defiled purity of the invaded nation. Wartime literature during the Japanese invasion (1931 -45) was full of this motif - to the extent that the woman writer Xiao Hong even sought to subvert this by having her protagonist raped by a Chi nese soldier.28 Moreover, as work on wartime popular culture reveals, the resistance, no matter how modernist in ideology, tended to revert to traditional dramatic motifs of the fallen, heroic, or sacrificed heroine to represent the invaded nation. But the motif is by no means restricted to wartime.29
the early twentieth century when the increasing integration of China into
Nationalist Patriarchy Early nationalists and reformers in the first decades of twentieth-century China were committed to the liberation of women. But they were also committed to a vision of abiding national virtue, which they tended to locate in women more often than in men. The principal reason for this was that most of these nationalists and reformers emerged from the habitus of the gentry and inherited the patriarchal traditions of this society and its ideals of womanly virtue. Contemporary research on late imperial China shows the pervasiveness of the rhetoric of female virtue and sacrifice, exemplified most particularly in the cult of chaste widows and virtuous wives.3o This patriarchal legacy was witnessed and sus tained in the heightened concern with preserving female virtues during the early twentieth century when the increasing integration of China into
370
370
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
global capitalism produced rapid change in gender relations among ur-
ban families. "Virtuous and chaste girls' schools" (zhennh yixue; baonh
yixueyuan) sprouted everywhere during this period, and the journals
about women, such as the Funh Zazhi of the early 1920s, were filled
with anxious essays about the problem of gender mixing.31 Female virtue
became a metonym for Chinese civilizational truths.
This legacy can also be seen in the efforts of nationalists to improve
the status of women under the higher goal of national strengthening. The
abolition of footbinding, women's education, and the need for prenatal
care, became major issues in the reform movement of the late nineteenth
century led by Kang Youwei and his colleagues because, as Kazuko Ono
writes, these issues became "linked to the nation's survival or demise,
its strength or weakness, through the education of children."32 While
there were some notable efforts by women writers themselves to dissoci-
ate women's liberation from the national cause,33 throughout most of the
twentieth century the legitimacy of the former continued to remain depen-
dent on the latter. Like many other early-twentieth-century patriarchal
nationalisms, women were to be liberated for and by the nation; they
were to embody the nation, not to be active agents shaping it.
Even as this nationalism was authenticated, or rather authenticized,
by appropriating certain ideals of womanly virtue from historical patriar-
chy, this rhetoric was simultaneously infused with values from the pro-
gressive discourses of modern nationalism. Women were to participate
as modern citizens in the public sphere of the nation, but they were also
expected to personify the essence of the national tradition. I use the
expression "nationalist patriarchy" to specify this depiction of woman as
the soul of tradition within modernity. 34 Nationalist patriarchy is domi-
nated by the tension between the desire to modernize (the lives of
women as well) and to conserve the truth of their regime in the bodies of
women.
Consider a lecture by the leading GMD nationalist Wang Jingwei in
a girls' school in 1924, which addresses the contemporary discussion of
feminine purity and civilizational truth as much as questions of social
reform. Wang observes that the conflict between the old and the new in
society can be seen as the clash between the school, which is the nucleus
of the new thought, and the family, which preserves the old ways. He
urges that in order for China to progress in this competitive world of
nation-states it will be important for students to take control of society
and reform its evil customs. He recognizes that it will be easy for them to
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
global capitalism produced rapid change in gender relations among ur ban families. "Virtuous and chaste girls' schools" (zhennh yixue; baonh yixueyuan) sprouted everywhere during this period, and the journals about women, such as the Funh Zazhi of the early 1920s, were filled with anxious essays about the problem of gender mixing.31 Female virtue became a metonym for Chinese civilizational truths. This legacy can also be seen in the efforts of nationalists to improve the status of women under the higher goal of national strengthening. The abolition of footbinding, women's education, and the need for prenatal care, became major issues in the reform movement of the late nineteenth century led by Kang Youwei and his colleagues because, as Kazuko Gno writes, these issues became " linked to the nation's survival or demise, its strength or weakness, through the education of children."32 While there were some notable efforts by women writers themselves to dissoci ate women's liberation from the national cause,33 throughout most of the twentieth century the legitimacy of the former continued to remain depen dent on the latter. Like many other early-twentieth-century patriarchal nationalisms, women were to be liberated for and by the nation; they were to embody the nation, not to be active agents shaping it. Even as this nationalism was authenticated, or rather authenticized, by appropriating certain ideals of womanly virtue from historical patriar chy, this rhetoric was simultaneously infused with values from the pro gressive discourses of modern nationalism. Women were to participate as modern citizens in the public sphere of the nation, but they were also expected to personify the essence of the national tradition. I use the expression "nationalist patriarchy" to specify this depiction of woman as the soul of tradition within modernity.34 Nationalist patriarchy is domi nated by the tension between the desire to modernize (the lives of women as well) and to conserve the truth of their regime in the bodies of women. Consider a lecture by the leading GMD nationalist Wang Jingwei in a girls' school in 1 924, which addresses the contemporary discussion of feminine purity and civilizational truth as much as questions of social reform. Wang observes that the conflict between the old and the new in society can be seen as the clash between the school, which is the nucleus of the new thought, and the family, which preserves the old ways. He urges that in order for China to progress in this competitive world of nation-states it will be important for students to take control of society and reform its evil customs. He recognizes that it will be easy for them to
The Regime ofA uthenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 371
succumb to the control of the family and be assimilated into society, but
he implores them not to take this path. He suggests that it is particularly
important for girls' schools to nourish a spirit of social reform among
their students since in their present state they stand as obstacles to
national progress.35
Having framed his talk within the evolutionary discourse of moder-
nity, Wang's second theme concerns the importance of choosing the right
kind of education. He suggests that although Chinese tradition includes a
lot that is bad it has one strength, the cultivation of a long tradition of self-
sacrifice (xisheng) among females, whether in their natal homes, where
they willingly sacrifice their happiness for the sake of their parents, or
later, when they sacrifice for their husbands or their sons in old age.
Doubtless, the old society often used this blind self-sacrifice to bury
women's freedom. But women should know that the responsibility of the
individual is heavy and should not be exploited (liyong) by society. If they
then sacrifice themselves out of true conviction (zhenzhende qinggan),
then such conduct is proper and indeed highly admirable. This spirit of
self-sacrifice actually forms the indispensable basis of all morality -
Confucian, Buddhist, and Christian. "Chinese women are rich in the
spirit of self-sacrifice. If we can properly direct this spirit toward . . . [the
collectivity] and use it, then we can, on the one hand, perhaps preserve a
little of the essence (jingsui) of the teachings of several thousand years
and, on the other, still plants the roots of modern liberatory thought. In
seeking education for girls, I hope we can uphold our mission to inherit
the past to enlighten posterity (chengxian qihou)."36 The Chinese woman
for Wang is both modern citizen and locus of unchanging authenticity.
Nationalist patriarchy demands a self-sacrificing woman as the symbol of
national essence.
Note, however, the different representational strategies for contain-
ing or framing woman's authenticity in Chinese and Indian nationalist
patriarchies. In India, according to Chatterjee, the realm of inner sover-
eignty constructed by the nationalists became located in the home and
woman became idealized as the bearer of the most sacred values of this
inner space. Thus, from our point of view, Indian national patriarchy
evolved a spatial representation that contained women's authenticity
within the domestic space so that its corrosion in real life could not be
scrutinized in the public sphere. In contrast, the authenticity of women
in Wang's patriarchal model does not use a spatial strategy but rather
depends upon historical representations. Thus, while twentieth-century
371
succumb to the control of the family and be assimilated into society, but he implores them not to take this path. He suggests that it is particularly important for girls' schools to nourish a spirit of social reform among their students since in their present state they stand as obstacles to national progress.35 Having framed his talk within the evolutionary discourse of moder nity, Wang's second theme concerns the importance of choosing the right kind of education. He suggests that although Chinese tradition includes a lot that is bad it has one strength, the cultivation of a long tradition of self sacrifice (xisheng) among females, whether in their natal homes, where they willingly sacrifice their happiness for the sake of their parents, or later, when they sacrifice for their husbands or their sons in old age. Doubtless, the old society often used this blind self-sacrifice to bury women's freedom. But women should know that the responsibility of the individual is heavy and should not be exploited (liyong) by society. If they then sacrifice themselves out of true conviction (zhenzhende qinggan) , then such conduct is proper and indeed highly admirable. This spirit of self-sacrifice actually forms the indispensable basis of all morality Confucian, Buddhist, and Christian. "Chinese women are rich in the spirit of self-sacrifice. If we can properly direct this spirit toward . . . [the collectivity] and use it, then we can, on the one hand, perhaps preserve a little of the essence (jingsui) of the teachings of several thousand years and, on the other, still plants the roots of modern liberatory thought. In seeking education for girls, I hope we can uphold our mission to inherit the past to enlighten posterity (chengxian qihou) . "36 The Chinese woman for Wang is both modern citizen and locus of unchanging authenticity. Nationalist patriarchy demands a self-sacrificing woman as the symbol of national essence. Note, however, the different representational strategies for contain ing or framing woman's authenticity in Chinese and Indian nationalist patriarchies. In India, according to Chatterjee, the realm of inner sover eignty constructed by the nationalists became located in the home and woman became idealized as the bearer of the most sacred values of this inner space. Thus, from our point of view, Indian national patriarchy evolved a spatial representation that contained women's authenticity within the domestic space so that its corrosion in real life could not be scrutinized in the public sphere. In contrast, the authenticity of women in Wang's patriarchal model does not use a spatial strategy but rather depends upon historical representations. Thus, while twentieth-century
372
372
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
women were not necessarily discouraged from involvement in the public
sphere, nationalist patriarchy in China sought to mobilize the weight of
these historical representations to discipline women's bodies within the
public sphere as figures of self-sacrifice. We shall see this in several
examples shortly.
The tension within nationalist patriarchy inherent in the notion of
woman as the soul of tradition within modernity was most visible in
conservative Chinese nationalism, but it was also present, albeit more
subtly, among other nationalists in China. The May Fourth representa-
tion of the radically anti-Confucian, indeed, antifamilial, nationalist
woman, would on first glance appear to repudiate "nationalist patriar-
chy." Indeed, these two conflicting representations of women yielded a
great deal of violence in the 1920s and 1930s - especially after the split
between the GMD and the Communist Party in 1927- when thousands
of "modern" women were killed by the GMD forces because they were
accused of "free love" or sometimes simply because they had bobbed
hair, unbound feet, or a local reputation for opposing familial author-
ity.37 While they were surely killed because they were marked by these
signs as Communist (whether or not they were), the causal logic worked
in both directions. Communism itself was illegitimate, significantly, be-
cause such women and their behavior despoiled the innermost purity of
Chinese culture.
One might thus expect the inheritors of the radical tradition of May
Fourth, the Chinese Communist Party, to have dispensed with this tradi-
tional image of the self-sacrificing woman, especially given their commit-
ment to progressive work among women. Yet they too found the figure
of woman to be a most amenable site at which to locate a Communist or
Nationalist essence in the march toward progress (change). While the
Communists were opposed to capitalism, their conception of progress
necessarily entailed a "continuous revolution" in society. Even more, as
extreme proponents of linear history, they ironically risked producing
still greater anxiety by exposing the spectacle of erosion that more mod-
erate versions concealed. Thus, despite the Communist will to repudiate
the entire past, to forge ahead and master the future, they still needed to
identify an abiding Communist-Nationalist essence and anchor it within
the individual self. The feminist Meng Yue argues that in the literature
of the People's Republic before 1980 the triumph of class struggle was
secured through the figure of the desexed, unbodied woman - the figure
of purity. Ideally, both men and women gained their sense of the authen-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
women were not necessarily discouraged from involvement in the public sphere, nationalist patriarchy in China sought to mobilize the weight of these historical representations to discipline women's bodies within the public sphere as figures of self-sacrifice. We shall see this in several examples shortly. The tension within nationalist patriarchy inherent in the notion of woman as the soul of tradition within modernity was most visible in conservative Chinese nationalism, but it was also present, albeit more subtly, among other nationalists in China. The May Fourth representa tion of the radically anti-Confucian, indeed, antifamilial, nationalist woman, would on first glance appear to repudiate "nationalist patriar chy. " Indeed, these two conflicting representations of women yielded a great deal of violence in the 1920s and 1930s - especially after the split between the GMD and the Communist Party in 1927 - when thousands of "modern" women were killed by the GMD forces because they were accused of "free love" or sometimes simply because they had bobbed hair, unbound feet, or a local reputation for opposing familial author ity. 37 While they were surely killed because they were marked by these signs as Communist (whether or not they were) , the causal logic worked in both directions. Communism itself was illegitimate, significantly, be cause such women and their behavior despoiled the innermost purity of Chinese culture. One might thus expect the inheritors of the radical tradition of May Fourth, the Chinese Communist Party, to have dispensed with this tradi tional image of the self-sacrificing woman, especially given their commit ment to progressive work among women. Yet they too found the figure of woman to be a most amenable site at which to locate a Communist or Nationalist essence in the march toward progress (change). While the Communists were opposed to capitalism, their conception of progress necessarily entailed a "continuous revolution" in society. Even more, as extreme proponents of linear history, they ironically risked producing still greater anxiety by exposing the spectacle of erosion that more mod erate versions concealed. Thus, despite the Communist will to repudiate the entire past, to forge ahead and master the future, they still needed to identify an abiding Communist-Nationalist essence and anchor it within the individual self. The feminist Meng Yue argues that in the literature of the People's Republic before 1980 the triumph of class struggle was secured through the figure of the desexed, unbodied woman - the figure of purity. Ideally, both men and women gained their sense of the authen-
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 373
tic Communist self (the Self that realizes the abiding, if latent, collectiv-
ism and selflessness of the propertyless) through the model of the self-
denying, sacrificing, sexless woman. Meng writes, "On the one hand,
the state's political discourse translated itself through women into the
private context of desire, love, marriage, divorce and familial relations,
and on the other, it turned woman into an agent politicizing desire, love,
and family relations by delimiting and repressing sexuality, self and all
private emotions."38
Meng Yue's analysis is not directly concerned with the problem of
timeless authenticity, but we can see that not only did such a woman
enshrine all that was pure and true in Communist discourse but she also
symbolized that unchanging core - the stillness of the true - whereby
communism could recognize itself in the march of change. Thus, her
study shows us that the project of authenticity cannot be equated with
tradition, nor is its advocacy limited only to conservatives. It is a prob-
lem of societies living under the hegemony of linear time. The tendency
for women to play this role in socialist China as much as in the early
Nationalist patriarchies has, I believe, to do with the abiding power of
historical discourses of women (subterranean in the Communist case)
and, second, with the absence of any political agency among women as
specifically women.39 In both societies, it is their passivity, their being
spoken for, that represents the political meaning of their gender.
The Social Life of Embodied Authenticity
How is woman as a figure of authenticity received in society? While a
comprehensive response to this question is impossible in this chapter, I
select three cases to suggest how the question might be more meaning-
fully specified according to differences of gender and social circum-
stances. Further, where this figure does affect real women these cases
suggest how the tension between citizenship and authenticity, so impor-
tant in Nationalist patriarchy, is played out in their lives.
Lu Xun's story "Soap" (1924) uses fiction to present a dense social
and psychological analysis of the figure of woman as the soul of "tradi-
tion within modernity" and especially of the different meanings this
373
tic Communist self (the Self that realizes the abiding, if latent, collectiv ism and selflessness of the propertyless) through the model of the self denying, sacrificing, sexless woman. Meng writes, "On the one hand, the state's political discourse translated itself through women into the private context of desire, love, marriage, divorce and familial relations, and on the other, it turned woman into an agent politicizing desire, love, and family relations by delimiting and repressing sexuality, self and all private emotions. "38 Meng Yue's analysis is not directly concerned with the problem of timeless authenticity, but we can see that not only did such a woman enshrine all that was pure and true in Communist discourse but she also symbolized that unchanging core - the stillness of the true - whereby communism could recognize itself in the march of change. Thus, her study shows us that the project of authenticity cannot be equated with tradition, nor is its advocacy limited only to conservatives. It is a prob lem of societies living under the hegemony of linear time. The tendency for women to play this role in socialist China as much as in the early Nationalist patriarchies has, I believe, to do with the abiding power of historical discourses of women (subterranean in the Communist case) and, second, with the absence of any political agency among women as specifically women.39 In both societies, it is their passivity, their being spoken for, that represents the political meaning of their gender.
figure might have had for men and women in Republican China. Simin
has bought a cake of foreign, scented soap for his wife. His wife is
pleased but also embarrassed by the coded message that she should
The Social Life of Embodied Authenticity
make herself cleaner and more alluring. When Simin had wanted to
How is woman as a figure of authenticity received in society? While a comprehensive response to this question is impossible in this chapter, I select three cases to suggest how the question might be more meaning fully specified according to differences of gender and social circum stances. Further, where this figure does affect real women these cases suggest how the tension between citizenship and authenticity, so impor tant in Nationalist patriarchy, is played out in their lives. Lu Xun's story "Soap" (1924) uses fiction to present a dense social and psychological analysis of the figure of woman as the soul of "tradi tion within modernity" and especially of the different meanings this figure might have had for men and women in Republican China. Simin has bought a cake of foreign, scented soap for his wife. His wife is pleased but also embarrassed by the coded message that she should make herself cleaner and more alluring. When Simin had wanted to
374
374
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
open the soap package at the store to check its quality, he was taunted by
some schoolgirls with bobbed hair with a foreign word he does not
understand (it turns out to be old fool). Highly agitated, he now orders
his school-going son to check its meaning and begins to rave and rant
about the moral havoc that the new schools are playing on China, espe-
cially the schools for girls. He says, "Just think it is already in very poor
taste the way women wander up and down the streets, and now they
want to cut their hair as well. Nothing disgusts me as much as these
short-haired schoolgirls. What I say is: There is some excuse for soldiers
and bandits, but these girls are the ones who turn everything upside
down. They ought to be very severely dealt with indeed."40
Simin then goes on to contrast this behavior with that of a filial girl
of eighteen or nineteen begging outside a store, who turned over all
the money she had received to her blind grandmother. The crowds that
gathered to watch the two not only did not give much money but made
jeering remarks about how she would not look bad at all if someone
scrubbed her with two cakes of soap. Simin sees this as evidence of
the catastrophic decline of morality in modern China. Later, at dinner,
when Simin's wife can no longer take his irritability, she hints that he
secretly harbors sexual longing for the beggar girl, which he tries to
cover up by exalting her filial and self-sacrificing conduct. In utter frus-
tration, she exclaims: "If you buy her another cake and give her a good
scrubbing, then worship her, the whole world will be at peace."41 Later,
she adds, "We women are much better than you men. If you men are not
cursing eighteen or nineteen-year-old girl students, you are praising
eighteen or nineteen-year-old girl beggars: such dirty minds you have."42
At this moment, Simin is rescued from this tirade by the arrival of
some friends who have come to remind him about the urgent need to
publicize the title of the essay and poetry contest for their Moral Reform
Literary Society (Yifeng Wenshe). The title of the essay had been
drafted as "To Beg the President to Issue an Order for the Promotion of
the Confucian Classics and the Worship of the Mother of Mencius, in
Order to Revive this Moribund World and Preserve our National Char-
acter." Thinking about the beggar woman, Simin suggests that the poem
should be entitled "Filial Daughter" to eulogize her and criticize society.
In the following exchange, one of his friends laughs uproariously upon
hearing the jeering comments about giving her a good scrubbing. Simin
is acutely pained by his friend's laughter because, as Lu Xun hints, it
suggests to him the truth of his wife's words, which he has repressed.
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
open the soap package at the store to check its quality, he was taunted by some schoolgirls with bobbed hair with a foreign word he does not understand (it turns out to be old fool) . Highly agitated, he now orders his school-going son to check its meaning and begins to rave and rant about the moral havoc that the new schools are playing on China, espe cially the schools for girls. He says, "Just think it is already in very poor taste the way women wander up and down the streets, and now they want to cut their hair as well. Nothing disgusts me as much as these short-haired schoolgirls. What I say is: There is some excuse for soldiers and bandits, but these girls are the ones who turn everything upside down. They ought to be very severely dealt with indeed. "40 Simin then goes on to contrast this behavior with that of a filial girl of eighteen or nineteen begging outside a store, who turned over all the money she had received to her blind grandmother. The crowds that gathered to watch the two not only did not give much money but made jeering remarks about how she would not look bad at all if someone scrubbed her with two cakes of soap. Simin sees this as evidence of the catastrophic decline of morality in modern China. Later, at dinner, when Simin's wife can no longer take his irritability, she hints that he secretly harbors sexual longing for the beggar girl, which he tries to cover up by exalting her filial and self-sacrificing conduct. In utter frus tration, she exclaims: "If you buy her another cake and give her a good scrubbing, then worship her, the whole world will be at peace. "41 Later, she adds, "We women are much better than you men. If you men are not cursing eighteen or nineteen-year-old girl students, you are praising eighteen or nineteen-year-old girl beggars: such dirty minds you have. "42 At this moment, Simin is rescued from this tirade by the arrival of some friends who have come to remind him about the urgent need to publicize the title of the essay and poetry contest for their Moral Reform Literary Society (Yifeng Wenshe) . The title of the essay had been drafted as "To Beg the President to Issue an Order for the Promotion of the Confucian Classics and the Worship of the Mother of Mencius, in Order to Revive this Moribund World and Preserve our National Char acter. " Thinking about the beggar woman, Simin suggests that the poem should be entitled "Filial Daughter" to eulogize her and criticize society. In the following exchange, one of his friends laughs uproariously upon hearing the jeering comments about giving her a good scrubbing. Simin is acutely pained by his friend's laughter because, as Lu Xun hints, it suggests to him the truth of his wife's words, which he has repressed.
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 375
Lu Xun sets up the duality between Chinese and foreign, East and
East, and old and new as the basic framework of the story. The foreign
and new - schoolgirls, bobbed hair, modern education, English words,
the heavy sound of the leather shoes worn by Simin's son - are an intru-
sive and disruptive presence for Simin. Lu focuses our attention on the
power of a new (if mere) commodity, soap, to disturb his protagonist
with its capacity to arouse desire and throw his world out of kilter. It is
clear that what Simin finds most disturbing is the unmooring of gender
and sexual norms by the changes he sees around him. He responds not
only with vituperative rhetoric against the need for girls to go to school
(thus keeping them within the domestic sphere) but by valorizing the
conduct of the pure and filial beggar woman. For Simin, she represents
everything that is eternal and pure in Chinese tradition, and he wants
the poetry contest to immortalize her purity. This effort to restore the
moral authenticity of the nation via the beggar woman thus has to exalt
her poverty (filial even in desperate need) and desexualize her as the
object of men's (especially his) desire.
As Carolyn Brown has pointed out, the one person in "Soap" who is
able to see through this trope of woman is none other than the only
woman unrepresented by the male characters - Simin's wife. Brown
writes, "with the character Mrs Sumin, he [Lu] empowers a semi-
traditional woman with speech and the capacity to 're-read the male
text,' making her the locus of his own value."43 Thus, with characteristic
irony Lu Xun suggests a robust skepticism toward the project of authen-
ticity among those like Mrs. Simin, who could well have been objectified
by this project. The reader will not miss the final irony of Mrs. Simin
being given voice by Lu Xun, the man.
My second instance is of a woman, a nationalist, writing about the
future of Chinese women in 1903. Calling herself only a "certain south-
ern woman," this nationalist accepts all the historical pieties and clich6s
about women. She declares that there are three special qualities of
Chinese women that will allow them to surpass the women of Europe
and America. Women have the heart of steadfastness (jianzhi xin) and
the heart of benevolence (ciai xin) but also the heart of vengefulness
(baofu xin). As in Wang's speech, she recounts the constancy with
which women give their love as filial daughters and chaste wives despite
the severe restraints of a patriarchal ideology. If only women were
enlightened about the value of the nation, they could transfer this stead-
fast love and undying loyalty to the nation. Similarly, if with their heart
375
Lu Xun sets up the duality between Chinese and foreign, East and East, and old and new as the basic framework of the story. The foreign and new - schoolgirls, bobbed hair, modern education, English words, the heavy sound of the leather shoes worn by Simin's son - are an intru sive and disruptive presence for Simin. Lu focuses our attention on the power of a new (if mere) commodity, soap, to disturb his protagonist with its capacity to arouse desire and throw his world out of kilter. It is clear that what Simin finds most disturbing is the unmooring of gender and sexual norms by the changes he sees around him. He responds not only with vituperative rhetoric against the need for girls to go to school (thus keeping them within the domestic sphere) but by valorizing the conduct of the pure and filial beggar woman. �or Simin, she represents everything that is eternal and pure in Chinese tradition, and he wants the poetry contest to immortalize her purity. This effort to restore the moral authenticity of the nation via the beggar woman thus has to exalt her poverty (filial even in desperate need) and desexualize her as the object of men's (especially his) desire. As Carolyn Brown has pointed out, the one person in "Soap" who is able to see through this trope of woman is none other than the only woman unrepresented by the male characters - Simin's wife. Brown writes, "with the character Mrs Sumin, he [Lu] empowers a semi traditional woman with speech and the capacity to 're-read the male text,' making her the locus of his own value. "43 Thus, with characteristic irony Lu Xun suggests a robust skepticism toward the project of authen ticity among those like Mrs. Simin, who could well have been objectified by this project. The reader will not miss the final irony of Mrs. Simin being given voice by Lu Xun, the man. My second instance is of a woman, a nationalist, writing about the future of Chinese women in 1903. Calling herself only a "certain south ern woman," this nationalist accepts all the historical pieties and cliches about women. She declares that there are three special qualities of Chinese women that will allow them to surpass the women of Europe and America. Women have the heart of steadfastness (jianzhi xin) and the heart of benevolence (ciai xin) but also the heart of vengefulness (baofu xin) . As in Wang's speech, she recounts the constancy with which women give their love as filial daughters and chaste wives despite the severe restraints of a patriarchal ideology. If only women were enlightened about the value of the nation, they could transfer this stead fast love and undying loyalty to the nation. Similarly, if with their heart
376
376
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
of benevolence and compassion women could achieve education and
participate equally in public affairs, then the nation would certainly have
equality, public harmony, and love of the race, which China so utterly
lacks. Finally, the label of women as vengeful is turned to national advan-
tage. Although it is said that a woman's heart is most poisonous, the
southern woman regards it as women's exceptional virtue (te meixing).
The Chinese people lack a sense of hatred for, and can even collaborate
with, their conquerors. But once women learn about the brutality of the
alien Manchus, their thirst for revenge will strengthen their hatred and
cause them to devise plans to oppose them.44
On a first reading, the text does all that we have suggested. National-
ist patriarchy appears to have succeeded not only in instilling or preserv-
ing historical patriarchy's stereotypes of essential female values in the
self-representation of this woman but to have also elicited her desire to
contribute these timeless qualities to the national cause. However, a
closer reading reveals that the southern woman is engaging in a strategic
rereading of nationalism in order to empower women. Each of the catego-
ries she discusses has been a means of subjecting women, not only in the
sense of subordinating them but also by giving them the categories with
which to think about their subjectivity. But nationalism's progressive side
gives her a new context in which to revalue these categories. By investing
them with unexpected power, both constructive and destructive, she not
only seeks to empower women but potentially gives them far greater
agency in the nation-building project than men, who are neither stead-
fast, compassionate, public minded, nor patriotic. Second, running
through the text is the plea that these conditions can only be achieved if
women receive education. The southern woman recognizes that this is an
age of opportunity for women that must not be missed. There are even
enlightened men who advocate the education of women. "Although they
may not truly mean what they say, our generation can seize their words
(jie bi koutouchan zhi li) and implement our agenda."45 The tension
between citizenship and authenticity in the southern woman's narrative
yields a covert agency that seeks to undermine the dependency of women
by using the language of timeless authenticity.
My third instance comes from a group of women in Manchukuo.
The Japanese-sponsored regime of Manchukuo in Northeast China
(1932-45) was perhaps the East Asian regime most committed to con-
serving "tradition within modernity." While the Manchukuo regime ad-
vocated one of the most comprehensive modernization programs in Asia
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
of benevolence and compassion women could achieve education and participate equally in public affairs, then the nation would certainly have equality, public harmony, and love of the race, which China so utterly lacks. Finally, the label of women as vengeful is turned to national advan tage. Although it is said that a woman's heart is most poisonous, the southern woman regards it as women's exceptional virtue (te meixing) . The Chinese people lack a sense of hatred for, and can even collaborate with, their conquerors. But once women learn about the brutality of the alien Manchus, their thirst for revenge will strengthen their hatred and cause them to devise plans to oppose them.44 On a first reading, the text does all that we have suggested. National ist patriarchy appears to have succeeded not only in instilling or preserv ing historical patriarchy's stereotypes of essential female values in the self-representation of this woman but to have also elicited her desire to contribute these timeless qualities to the national cause. However, a closer reading reveals that the southern woman is engaging in a strategic rereading of nationalism in order to empower women. Each of the catego ries she discusses has been a means of subjecting women, not only in the sense of subordinating them but also by giving them the categories with which to think about their subjectivity. But nationalism's progressive side gives her a new context in which to revalue these categories. By investing them with unexpected power, both constructive and destructive, she not only seeks to empower women but potentially gives them far greater agency in the nation-building project than men, who are neither stead fast, compassionate, public minded, nor patriotic. Second, running through the text is the plea that these conditions can only be achieved if women receive education. The southern woman recognizes that this is an age of opportunity for women that must not be missed. There are even enlightened men who advocate the education of women. "Although they may not truly mean what they say, our generation can seize their words (jie bi koutouchan zhi Ii) and implement our agenda. "45 The tension between citizenship and authenticity in the southern woman's narrative yields a covert agency that seeks to undermine the dependency of women by using the language of timeless authenticity. My third instance comes from a group of women in Manchukuo. The Japanese-sponsored regime of Manchukuo in Northeast China (1932-45) was perhaps the East Asian regime most committed to con serving "tradition within modernity. " While the Manchukuo regime ad vocated one of the most comprehensive modernization programs in Asia
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 377
outside of Japan, it sought its legitimation in the "spiritual civilization"
of East Asia. In this context, the regime supported and promoted a large
number of Chinese societies and organizations that had emerged in the
early part of the twentieth century committed to the conservation of
Eastern and Chinese civilizational traditions in the modernizing process.
Through them, the regime promoted the representation of the new fam-
ily: pure, selfless, and committed to the moral regeneration of the
world. As we might expect, women became the principal vehicles of the
new morality. Repositories of all that was good and timeless in East
Asian traditions, women's bodies and minds became the site for a dis-
course of self-sacrifice, righteousness, and moral regeneration.46
Oral histories of Chinese women from the mid-1930s are available
for one such organization, the Morality Society (Daodehui), which was
founded in 1918 and continues its activities to this day in Taiwan. This
was a modern, Confucian, philanthropic society also engaged in the
moral education of the public. It employed a large number of women
lecturers, mostly from middle-class backgrounds, who frequently joined
the society to find meaning in their mundane lives. Many had experi-
enced considerable suffering as second wives or concubines or in un-
happy marriages. The personal narratives of these women reveal the
ways in which their lives and behavior enunciated their expected role as
moral paragons sacrificing themselves in order to serve their families
and the nation.47 Much like the "southern woman," while interpreting
their behavior as consonant with the pedagogy of virtue and self-
sacrifice, they frequently deployed this pedagogy to grant themselves
some agency. This operation typically involved their detaching the self
from one kind of pedagogical value but continuing to derive meaning
from the constitutive representation by emphasizing another of its val-
ues. Thus, Grandmother Cai confesses her unfilial behavior as a youth
when she defied the wishes of the elders and went off to study. Now she
has devoted herself to vegetarianism, spiritual discipline, and the educa-
tion of her children and grandchildren. She thus finesses filiality not only
with the new, superior card of universal education but with the end play
of devotion to spiritual virtues.48 Mrs. Sun cites the words of a leader:
"In devoting herself, the woman must not weary the husband; rather,
she should be able to help the husband obtain virtue." She thus insists
that it is appropriate for her to set up a business and become financially
independent in order to fulfill her familial duties to her sick husband and
impoverished brother.49
377
outside of Japan, it sought its legitimation in the "spiritual civilization" of East Asia. In this context, the regime supported and promoted a large number of Chinese societies and organizations that had emerged in the early part of the twentieth century committed to the conservation of Eastern and Chinese civilizational traditions in the modernizing process. Through them, the regime promoted the representation of the new fam ily: pure, selfless, and committed to the moral regeneration of the world. As we might expect, women became the principal vehicles of the new morality. Repositories of all that was good and timeless in East Asian traditions, women's bodies and minds became the site for a dis course of self-sacrifice, righteousness, and moral regeneration.46 Oral histories of Chinese women from the mid-1 930s are available for one such organization, the Morality Society (Daodehui), which was founded in 1918 and continues its activities to this day in Taiwan. This was a modern, Confucian, philanthropic society also engaged in the moral education of the public. It employed a large number of women lecturers, mostly from middle-class backgrounds, who frequently joined the society to find meaning in their mundane lives. Many had experi enced considerable suffering as second wives or concubines or in un happy marriages. The personal narratives of these women reveal the ways in which their lives and behavior enunciated their expected role as moral paragons sacrificing themselves in order to serve their families and the nation.47 Much like the "southern woman," while interpreting their behavior as consonant with the pedagogy of virtue and self sacrifice, they frequently deployed this pedagogy to grant themselves some agency. This operation typically involved their detaching the self from one kind of pedagogical value but continuing to derive meaning from the constitutive representation by emphasizing another of its val ues. Thus, Grandmother Cai confesses her unfilial behavior as a youth when she defied the wishes of the elders and went off to study. Now she has devoted herself to vegetarianism, spiritual discipline, and the educa tion of her children and grandchildren. She thus finesses filiality not only with the new, superior card of universal education but with the end play of devotion to spiritual virtues.48 Mrs. Sun cites the words of a leader: "In devoting herself, the woman must not weary the husband; rather, she should be able to help the husband obtain virtue." She thus insists that it is appropriate for her to set up a business and become financially independent in order to fulfill her familial duties to her sick husband and impoverished brother. 49
378
378 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
A Mrs. Chen reported, "I was once sent to Beijing to lecture on
morality, but my husband followed me and insisted that I return home.
Why is it that men can bully women so? I asked the teacher if I should
return. He replied, 'You may return. What do you have to fear? All you
have to know is whether or not you have the will.' I returned. In Tianjin
I was asked whether I had returned of my own free will. I nearly wept. I
had resolved to return because I remembered that I could not violate my
parents' command (ming). The next time I left, I went away for four
years. And so I am what I am today. The important thing is to know your
own will (zhi). It is how and why people make up their minds that is
important, not the decision itself."50 Mrs. Chen performs two speech
acts that make her narrative both moving and complex. She appeals to
moral service itself as a higher form of self-sacrifice, transcending family
and filiality, and subtly reinterprets the Confucian notion of resolve/will
or zhi. Lizhi (to establish resolve) had been part of a set of injunctions
often used to constrain the behavior of women. By reinterpreting it,
Mrs. Chen could not only supersede filiality and family but she was able
to be true to her subjectivity, inscribed by the Morality Society, while
recovering some agency as an enunciating subject.
I have presented these three instances to probe the ways in which
the patriarchal representation of woman as the embodiment of eternal
truths had a social effectivity. The figure of woman was so embodied not
for some arbitrary reason but because in the early twentieth century the
impact of capitalist and urbanizing forces and the accompanying tempo-
ral conception threatened the Confucian image of the family and gender
roles as the bedrock of society and culture. Lu Xun perceived the social
basis of this representation with characteristic clarity. Although "Soap"
is fictional, its descriptive component is consistent with his understand-
ing of the subject as a social phenomenon. In his 1918 essay "My Views
on Chastity,"51 Lu identifies and indicts modern gentry patriarchs, in-
cluding Kang Youwei (the leader of the 1898 reform movement who
became president of the Morality Society in the 1920s), who employed
the language of traditional essences to ultimately exploit women. To be
sure, as a radical thinker Lu's critique does not necessarily represent the
wider view of woman as embodied authenticity. The self-understandings
of the southern woman and the women of the Morality Society as embod-
ied authenticity show that, while the two types of women were widely
separated in time and political ideology, in both cases women sought to
deploy the tensions between citizenship and authenticity to their advan-
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
A Mrs. Chen reported, " I was once sent to Beijing to lecture on morality, but my husband followed me and insisted that I return home. Why is it that men can bully women so? I asked the teacher if I should return. He replied, 'You may return. What do you have to fear? All you have to know is whether or not you have the will.' I returned. In Tianjin I was asked whether I had returned of my own free will. I nearly wept. I had resolved to return because I remembered that I could not violate my parents' command (ming) . The next time I left, I went away for four years. And so I am what I am today. The important thing is to know your own will (zhi) . It is how and why people make up their minds that is important, not the decision itself."so Mrs. Chen performs two speech acts that make her narrative both moving and complex. She appeals to moral service itself as a higher form of self-sacrifice, transcending family and filiality, and subtly reinterprets the Confucian notion of resolve/will or zhi. Lizhi (to establish resolve) had been part of a set of injunctions often used to constrain the behavior of women. By reinterpreting it, Mrs. Chen could not only supersede filiality and family but she was able to be true to her subjectivity, inscribed by the Morality Society, while recovering some agency as an enunciating subject. I have presented these three instances to probe the ways in which the patriarchal representation of woman as the embodiment of eternal truths had a social effectivity. The figure of woman was so embodied not for some arbitrary reason but because in the early twentieth century the impact of capitalist and urbanizing forces and the accompanying tempo ral conception threatened the Confucian image of the family and gender roles as the bedrock of society and culture. Lu Xun perceived the social basis of this representation with characteristic clarity. Although "Soap" is fictional, its descriptive component is consistent with his understand ing of the subject as a social phenomenon. In his 1918 essay "My Views on Chastity," Sl Lu identifies and indicts modern gentry patriarchs, in cluding Kang Youwei (the leader of the 1898 reform movement who became president of the Morality Society in the 1 920s), who employed the language of traditional essences to ultimately exploit women. To be sure, as a radical thinker Lu's critique does not necessarily represent the wider view of woman as embodied authenticity. The self-understandings of the southern woman and the women of the Morality Society as embod ied authenticity show that, while the two types of women were widely separated in time and political ideology, in both cases women sought to deploy the tensions between citizenship and authenticity to their advan-
The Regime of A uthenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 379
tage. The women of the Morality Society sought to express some agency
within the constraints of an organization, a regime, and, most of all, a
faith to which they subscribed. As for the case of the southern woman, I
turn to it in the conclusion to reveal how the events of her life may help
us grasp her text in its world.
Conclusion
379
tage. The women of the Morality Society sought to express some agency within the constraints of an organization, a regime, and, most of all, a faith to which they subscribed. As for the case of the southern woman, I turn to it in the conclusion to reveal how the events of her life may help us grasp her text in its world.
This chapter has explored two dimensions of the regime of authenticity:
its constitution in relation to linear time, capitalism, and the nation-state
system; and the role of gendered authenticity in society and women's
Conclusion
subjectivity. How the notion of authentic female virtue was internalized
is of course directly relevant to the role and even the efficacy of the
timeless in containing the spectacle of corrosion wrought by linear, capi-
talist time. To what extent did individual Chinese develop their sense of
identity from, or in relation to, this essentialized image of the authentic
Chinese?
From Lu Xun's point of view, there would appear to be a healthy
skepticism among people about these representations. Certainly, the
three cases suggest that even when the subject appears to be in-
terpellated by these representations they are often enunciated differ-
ently by different social groups - women, men, the radical, and the
religious - and can sometimes even subvert the pedagogy. But the ac-
counts of the women also reveal that the self is formed with reference to
the codes of authenticity. In Mrs. Chen's case, we saw how she produced
agency in the very act of reproducing the ideal of the self-sacrificing
woman. With the southern woman, the self emerges from a traffic be-
tween this prescriptive code and the ideals of the Enlightenment. In-
deed, these codes may have been so much a part of her self that they also
caused her much anguish.
The southern woman turns out to be Chen Xiefen, founder of the
first woman's journal, Nhxuebao, and the daughter of Chen Fan, the pub-
lisher of the radical journal Subao in Tokyo in the early 1900s. While in
Japan, her father promised her as a concubine to a Macao merchant. A
storm of protest raised by progressive and famous revolutionary women
like Qiu Jin succeeded, in the end, in calling off the union.52 But in the
midst of this protest Xiefen consented, saying, "I cannot but obey my
father (shichu fuming, bude bucong)." We have seen how she had been
able to subtly subvert the rhetoric of women's timeless qualities by
This chapter has explored two dimensions of the regime of authenticity: its constitution in relation to linear time, capitalism, and the nation-state system; and the role of gendered authenticity in society and women's subjectivity. How the notion of authentic female virtue was internalized is of course directly relevant to the role and even the efficacy of the timeless in containing the spectacle of corrosion wrought by linear, capi talist time. To what extent did individual Chinese develop their sense of identity from, or in relation to, this essentialized image of the authentic Chinese? From Lu Xun's point of view, there would appear to be a healthy skepticism among people about these representations. Certainly, the three cases suggest that even when the subject appears to be in terpellated by these representations they are often enunciated differ ently by different social groups - women, men, the radical, and the religious - and can sometimes even subvert the pedagogy. But the ac counts of the women also reveal that the self is formed with reference to the codes of authenticity. In Mrs. Chen's case, we saw how she produced agency in the very act of reproducing the ideal of the self-sacrificing woman. With the southern woman, the self emerges from a traffic be tween this prescriptive code and the ideals of the Enlightenment. In deed, these codes may have been so much a part of her self that they also caused her much anguish. The southern woman turns out to be Chen Xiefen, founder of the first woman's j ournal, Nhxuebao, and the daughter of Chen Fan, the pub lisher of the radical journal Subao in Tokyo in the early 1900s. While in Japan, her father promised her as a concubine to a Macao merchant. A storm of protest raised by progressive and famous revolutionary women like Qiu Jin succeeded, in the end, in calling off the union.52 But in the midst of this protest Xiefen consented, saying, "I cannot but obey my father (shichu fuming, bude bucong). " We have seen how she had been able to subtly subvert the rhetoric of women's timeless qualities by
380
380
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
invoking its power, but perhaps this invocation also revealed the power
of this language - which continued to call for her self-sacrifice - over
her. A women's movement subordinated to state nationalism meant that
women would continue, even in the People's Republic, to embody the
authentic virtue of self-sacrifice.53 Self-sacrifice as the abiding truth of
communist nationalism was needed by the state not only to demand such
sacrifice from others but to contain the spectacle of corrosion, which
would in time erode the founding reason for its power.
Thus, no matter how the popular appropriation of the images of
authenticity may support, inflect, subvert, or parody this nationalism,
for ruling regimes the representations remain of the most solemn signifi-
cance. Regimes stake their legitimacy to a great extent on their role as
custodians of the authenticity of the "body cultural," and, as the hege-
mony of linear time exposes its corrosion, they repeatedly have to recon-
stitute it. The inviolability that pervades and issues from these images of
authenticity is a unique and potent source of authority that regimes hope
to monopolize in the face of opposition from within. But of course this
source of authority can also be turned against the state, as, for instance,
in the case of fundamentalism in Iran, in the American militia move-
ments, or in the Cultural Revolution. These are instances of how a
referential traffic between the regime's ideals of authenticity and their
popular appropriations actually sustains the regime of authenticity. Just
as often, nation-states require the inviolability to counter the critique of
its institutions and policies made by other nation-states or by the domi-
nant ideology (capitalist modernity) of the system of nation-states as a
whole. An example is the argument made in the People's Republic today
that resorts to the authority of socialist authenticity in the face of criti-
cism of its human rights record ("We believe that feeding our people is
more important than the rights of a few"). Consider also the example of
Lee Kuan-yew or Mahathir Mohammed, who, like the Japanese champi-
ons of the unique Asiatic culture of an earlier period, contest the right of
Western nations to impose the standards of democracy precisely by re-
sorting to the inviolability and superiority of a Confucian or Islamic
essence as the foundation of their societies.
As we look outward from the last decade of the twentieth century, at
a time of accelerating globalization and the transformation of customary
notions of sovereignty, there appears to be an increasing commodifica-
tion of the symbols of authenticity. This would appear to breach the
demarcation of the two spheres of the market and authenticity, and in
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
invoking its power, but perhaps this invocation also revealed the power of this language - which continued to call for her self-sacrifice - over her. A women's movement subordinated to state nationalism meant that women would continue, even in the People's Republic, to embody the authentic virtue of self-sacrifice.53 Self-sacrifice as the abiding truth of communist nationalism was needed by the state not only to demand such sacrifice from others but to contain the spectacle of corrosion, which would in time erode the founding reason for its power. Thus, no matter how the popular appropriation of the images of authenticity may support, inflect, subvert, or parody this nationalism, for ruling regimes the representations remain of the most solemn signifi cance. Regimes stake their legitimacy to a great extent on their role as custodians of the authenticity of the "body cultural," and, as the hege mony of linear time exposes its corrosion, they repeatedly have to recon stitute it. The inviolability that pervades and issues from these images of authenticity is a unique and potent source of authority that regimes hope to monopolize in the face of opposition from within. But of course this source of authority can also be turned against the state, as, for instance, in the case of fundamentalism in Iran, in the American militia move ments, or in the Cultural Revolution. These are instances of how a referential traffic between the regime's ideals of authenticity and their popular appropriations actually sustains the regime of authenticity. Just as often, nation-states require the inviolability to counter the critique of its institutions and policies made by other nation-states or by the domi nant ideology ( capitalist modernity) of the system of nation-states as a whole. An example is the argument made in the People's Republic today that resorts to the authority of socialist authenticity in the face of criti cism of its human rights record ( "We believe that feeding our people is more important than the rights of a few" ) . Consider also the example of Lee Kuan-yew or Mahathir Mohammed, who, like the Japanese champi ons of the unique Asiatic culture of an earlier period, contest the right of Western nations to impose the standards of democracy precisely by re sorting to the inviolability and superiority of a Confucian or Islamic essence as the foundation of their societies. As we look outward from the last decade of the twentieth century, at a time of accelerating globalization and the transformation of customary notions of sovereignty, there appears to be an increasing commodifica tion of the symbols of authenticity. This would appear to breach the demarcation of the two spheres of the market and authenticity, and in
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 381
some cases it is possible that such a commodification, as with the British
royalty, has already eroded its symbolic capacity to represent the identifi-
able core of an evolving nation. But we also see a paradoxical develop-
ment in which the discourse of cultural authenticity intensifies with the
commodification of its symbols. Thus, in China today, where the tor-
nado of global capitalism has whipped up an unprecedented pace of
change, we are also witnessing a wave of nationalism not seen in a long
time. The nationalist rhetoric resorts to arguments about national invio-
lability based upon old and new images of authenticity. More novel is the
relationship between authenticity and the market. Nowadays in Beijing,
popular theme restaurants known as the yiku fandian (recalling "eat
bitterness") have appeared. Many of those youth who were sent down to
the rural areas to serve the people during the Cultural Revolution now
spend lavishly to relive the experience and eat the unappetizing food of
those days. For many, this is not merely nostalgia but a reaching back to
the most important experience of "Redness," or communist authentic-
ity, that they ever had, one that testifies to communism as a continuing
source of this nation's regime of authenticity. What this commodified
authenticity means for the new nationalism, subject formation, and
women may be well worth exploring.
NOTES
This essay first appeared, with minor differences, in History and
Theory 37, no. 3 (1998): 287-308. I would like to thank the participants of the
conference Narratives, Arts, and Ritual: Imagining and Constructing Nation-
hood in Modern East Asia at Urbana for their comments. Thanks are also due to
Homi Bhabha, John Davidann, Joan Judge, Claudio Lominitz, Viren Murthy,
Brian Porter, Shu-mei Shih, Aram Yengoyan, and especially Haiyan Lee for
their help.
1. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins
and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1991) I use the capital H to designate this
381
some cases it is possible that such a commodification, as with the British royalty, has already eroded its symbolic capacity to represent the identifi able core of an evolving nation. But we also see a paradoxical develop ment in which the discourse of cultural authenticity intensifies with the commodification of its symbols. Thus, in China today, where the tor nado of global capitalism has whipped up an unprecedented pace of change, we are also witnessing a wave of nationalism not seen in a long time. The nationalist rhetoric resorts to arguments about national invio lability based upon old and new images of authenticity. More novel is the relationship between authenticity and the market. Nowadays in Beij ing, popular theme restaurants known as the yiku fandian (recalling "eat bitterness") have appeared. Many of those youth who were sent down to the rural areas to serve the people during the Cultural Revolution now spend lavishly to relive the experience and eat the unappetizing food of those days. For many, this is not merely nostalgia but a reaching back to the most important experience of "Redness," or communist authentic ity, that they ever had, one that testifies to communism as a continuing source of this nation's regime of authenticity. What this commodified authenticity means for the new nationalism, subject formation, and women may be well worth exploring.
mode of writing the progressive, linear History of the Enlightenment associated
with nation-states.
2. Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a
Nation (Honolulu, 1994).
NOTES
3. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narra-
tives of Modern China (Chicago, 1995), chap. 1.
4. Georg W. E Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree (New
York, 1956), 2.
5. One might say that it is this three-way relationship between a people, a
This essay first appeared, with minor differences, in History and Theory 37, no. 3 (1998): 287-308. I would like to thank the participants of the conference Narratives, Arts, and Ritual: Imagining and Constructing Nation hood in Modern East Asia at Urbana for their comments. Thanks are also due to Homi Bhabha, John Davidann, Joan Judge, Claudio Lominitz, Viren Murthy, Brian Porter, Shu-mei Shih, Aram Yengoyan, and especially Haiyan Lee for their help. 1 . Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1991 ) I use the capital H to designate this mode of writing the progressive, linear History of the Enlightenment associated with nation-states. 2. Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu, 1994) . 3 . Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narra tives of Modern China (Chicago, 1995), chap. l . 4 . Georg W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. 1. Sibree (New York, 1956) , 2. 5 . One might say that it is this three-way relationship between a people, a
382
382
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
territory and a History that distinguishes contemporary nationalism from other
types of identitarian movements that preceded nationalism. Historically, commu-
nities, and not necessarily religious ones, have often had a strong sense of Self
versus Other and had developed hard boundaries in relation to outsiders
(Duara, Rescuing History, chap. 2). What these movements lacked was not self-
consciousness or identity per se (contra Anderson, Imagined Communities;
Roger Rouse, "Questions of Identity: Personhood and Collectivity in Trans-
national Migration to the United States," Critique of Anthropology 15, no. 4
[1995], 351-80; and others) but the historical claim arising from the idea of a
sovereign people within a delimited territory. Thus, Brian Porter has advised me
that European nationalisms before the late nineteenth century - such as the
Polish one - often identified the nation with a spirit, of, say, "freedom," and not
with a territorially bounded people. This appears to resemble Hegel's spirit,
which manifests itself over a variety of spaces and times, but of course Hegel's
teleology assures its ultimate realization in the spacetime of Prussia. Is this final
moment in Hegel the point at which the relationship between spirit and space-
time gets reversed? When does the geobody begin to limit the scope of spirit of a
people and become its only legitimate vehicle?
6. The unchanging subject is not timeless in the strict sense of being
outside of time but rather in the sense of being unaffected by time.
7. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" in Nation and Narration, edited by
Homi Bhabha (London, 1990), 18.
8. Ibid., 19.
9. Ibid., 11, 15.
10. Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A De-
rivative Discourse (London, 1986).
11. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postco-
lonial Histories (Princeton, 1993).
12. Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and Its Modern Fate: A Trilogy
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1965).
13. J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Thought and
the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, 1975).
14. Ibid., 551.
15. Johannes Fabian sees much greater continuity between modern linear
time and sacred time. In linear time, Judeo-Christian time is secularized, general-
ized, and universalized, but it is the message that is transformed, not the ele-
ments of its code. The code consists of faith in a "covenant between Divinity and
one people, trust in divine providence as it unfolds in a history of salvation
centered on one Savior. . . . They stress the specificity of Time, its realization in
a given cultural ecology" (Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its
Object [New York, 1983], 2). Fabian's concern is with anthropology's concept of
time, which, having absorbed the Judeo-Christian conception, remains a knowl-
edge that is superior to and different from the time of the savage (10, 26-27).
Here timelessness is displaced from the self and becomes a property of the
savage; secular time becomes "a means to occupy space, a title conferring on its
holders the right to "save" the expanse of the world for history" (146).
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
territory and a History that distinguishes contemporary nationalism from other types of identitarian movements that preceded nationalism. Historically, commu nities, and not necessarily religious ones, have often had a strong sense of Self versus Other and had developed hard boundaries in relation to outsiders (Duara, Rescuing History, chap. 2). What these movements lacked was not self consciousness or identity per se (contra Anderson, Imagined Communities; Roger Rouse, "Questions of Identity: Personhood and Collectivity in Trans national Migration to the United States," Critique of Anthropology 1 5 , no. 4 [1995] , 351-80; and others) but the historical claim arising from the idea of a sovereign people within a delimited territory. Thus, Brian Porter has advised me that European nationalisms before the late nineteenth century - such as the Polish one - often identified the nation with a spirit, of, say, "freedom," and not with a territorially bounded people . This appears to resemble Hegel's spirit, which manifests itself over a variety of spaces and times, but of course Hegel's teleology assures its ultimate realization in the spacetime of Prussia. Is this final moment in Hegel the point at which the relationship between spirit and space time gets reversed? When does the geobody begin to limit the scope of spirit of a people and become its only legitimate vehicle? 6. The unchanging subject is not timeless in the strict sense of being outside of time but rather in the sense of being unaffected by time . 7 . Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" in Nation and Narration, edited by Homi Bhabha (London, 1990) , 18. 8 . Ibid., 1 9 . 9. Ibid., 1 1 , 1 5 . 10. Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A De rivative Discourse (London, 1 986). 1 1 . Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postco lonial Histories (Princeton, 1993). 12. Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and Its Modern Fate: A Trilogy (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1965) . 1 3 . 1. G . A . Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, 1 975). 14. Ibid . , 55 1 . 1 5 . Johannes Fabian sees much greater continuity between modern linear time and sacred time. In linear time , Judeo-Christian time is secularized, general ized, and universalized, but it is the message that is transformed, not the ele ments of its code. The code consists of faith in a "covenant between Divinity and one people, trust in divine providence as it unfolds in a history of salvation centered on one Savior. . . . They stress the specificity of Time, its realization in a given cultural ecology" ( Time and the Other: How A nthropology Makes Its Object [New York, 1 983] , 2). Fabian's concern is with anthropology's concept of time, which, having absorbed the Judeo-Christian conception, remains a knowl edge that is superior to and different from the time of the savage (10, 26-27). Here timelessness is displaced from the self and becomes a property of the savage; secular time becomes "a means to occupy space, a title conferring on its holders the right to "save" the expanse of the world for history" (146).
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 383
16. Moishe Postone has usefully clarified the differences between capitalist
and precapitalist conceptions of time as the difference between time as an inde-
pendent variable in capitalism and a dependent variable in the latter. As an
independent variable, capitalist time is conceived as a preexisting and abstract
measure of events and processes (such as labor) whereas the "concrete" time of
precapitalist societies is dependent upon and shaped by events. The former is
linear in direction, whereas the latter is characterized less by direction than by its
dependent status (Time, Labor and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of
Marx's Critical Theory [Cambridge, UK, 1993], 200-201).
17. Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, vol. 3. (Chicago, 1988), 138-41; vol.
1 (Chicago, 1984), 1-30. Jacques Derrida has called the elusive "now," which is
always being-past or being-future, the "intemporal kernel of time. . . ." Jacques
Derrida, "Ousia and Gramme: Note on a Note from Being and Time," in
Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1992) 40.
18. Note that because the Historical subject cannot fully overcome the
aporias of time, it is an aporetic subject, embodying, on the one hand, progres-
sive change, and, on the other, timelessness, of concern to us here.
19. Alessandro Ferrara, Modernity and Authenticity: A Study of the Social
and Ethical Thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Albany, 1993), 30, 148-50.
20. Ibid., 47-50, 86-90.
21. Rey Chow, Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and
Contemporary Chinese Cinema (New York, 1995), 21-23. There is a growing
literature about nostalgia in modern nationalism, embodied in such genres as
"homeland" literature, which is related to but differs from my analysis. See, for
instance, Marilyn Ivy's lucid and representative Freudian analysis of the "dis-
courses of the vanishing" in modern Japan (Discourses of the Vanishing: Moder-
nity, Phantasm, Japan [Chicago, 1995]). Simply put, the logic of nostalgia fol-
lows that of the fetish and is an effort to make a whole by means of a substitute
representation of the lost object, even as the representation signifies that the
lack perdures. Note that unless there is a recognition of actual loss one cannot
have nostalgia. The attitude that underpins authenticity in my understanding is
not necessarily one of nostalgia or mourning but a range of feelings about the
possible erosion of the true. These include fear, militancy, heightened devotion,
discipline, self-abnegation, dutifulness, and vigilance. Moreover, loss is not only
existential but may be experienced as dishonor, desacralization, and defilement
(by way of commodification or sexualization). To the extent that the objects of
nostalgia are essentialized as the truth of the nation - as, for instance, with the
"native place" - the logic of nostalgia described by Ivy and others presents a
particular mode within the regime of authenticity.
22. Anna Maria Alonso, "Gender, Power, and Historical Memory: Dis-
courses of Serrano Resistance," in Feminists Theorize the Political, edited by
Judith Butler and Joan Scott (New York, 1992); Jennifer Schirmer, "The Claim-
ing of Space and the Body Politic within National-Security States: The Plaza de
Mayo Madres and the Greenham Common Women," in Remapping Memory:
The Politics of Timespace, edited by Jonathan Boyarin (Minneapolis, 1994).
383
16. Moishe Postone has usefully clarified the differences between capitalist and precapitalist conceptions of time as the difference between time as an inde pendent variable in capitalism and a dependent variable in the latter. As an independent variable, capitalist time is conceived as a preexisting and abstract measure of events and processes (such as labor) whereas the "concrete" time of precapitalist societies is dependent upon and shaped by events. The former is linear in direction, whereas the latter is characterized less by direction than by its dependent status ( Time, Labor and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory [Cambridge, UK, 1 993], 200-201 ) . 1 7 . Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, vol. 3 . (Chicago, 1988), 1 38-41; vol. 1 (Chicago, 1984), 1 -30. Jacques Derrida has called the elusive "now," which is always being-past or being-future, the "intemporal kernel of time . . . . " Jacques Derrida, "Ousia and Gramme: Note on a Note from Being and Time," in Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) 40. 18. Note that because the Historical subject cannot fully overcome the aporias of time, it is an aporetic subject, embodying, on the one hand, progres sive change, and, on the other, timelessness, of concern to us here. 19. Alessandro Ferrara, Modernity and Authenticity: A Study of the Social and Ethical Thought ofJean-Jacques Rousseau (Albany, 1 993) , 30, 148-50. 20. Ibid., 47-50, 86-90. 21 . Rey Chow, Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema (New York, 1 995), 21-23. There is a growing literature about nostalgia in modern nationalism, embodied in such genres as "homeland" literature, which is related to but differs from my analysis. See, for instance, Marilyn Ivy's lucid and representative Freudian analysis of the "dis courses of the vanishing" in modern Japan (Discourses of the Vanishing: Moder nity, Phantasm, Japan [Chicago, 1995]). Simply put, the logic of nostalgia fol lows that of the fetish and is an effort to make a whole by means of a substitute representation of the lost obj ect, even as the representation signifies that the lack perdures. Note that unless there is a recognition of actual loss one cannot have nostalgia. The attitude that underpins authenticity in my understanding is not necessarily one of nostalgia or mourning but a range of feelings about the possible erosion of the true. These include fear, militancy, heightened devotion, discipline, self-abnegation, dutifulness, and vigilance. Moreover, loss is not only existential but may be experienced as dishonor, desacralization, and defilement (by way of commodification or sexualization). To the extent that the objects of nostalgia are essentialized as the truth of the nation - as, for instance, with the "native place" - the logic of nostalgia described by Ivy and others presents a particular mode within the regime of authenticity. 22. Anna Maria Alonso, "Gender, Power, and Historical Memory: Dis courses of Serrano Resistance," in Feminists Theorize the Political, edited by Judith Butler and Joan Scott (New York, 1992); Jennifer Schirmer, "The Claim ing of Space and the Body Politic within National-Security States: The Plaza de Mayo Madres and the Greenham Common Women," in Remapping Memory: The Politics of Timespace, edited by Jonathan Boyarin (Minneapolis, 1 994).
384
384 Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
23. Joan Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French
Revolution (Ithaca, NY, 1988).
24. Schirmer, "Claiming of Space," 196.
25. Sharon H. Nolte and Sally Ann Hastings, "The Meiji State's Policy
toward Women, 1890-1910," in Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945, edited
by Gail Lee Bernstein (Berkeley, 1991), 171-72.
26. Miriam Silverberg, "The Modern Girl as Militant," in Bernstein, Recre-
ating Japanese Women, 263.
27. Ibid., 264. My chapter is also a response to a question that has followed
me since childhood, namely, why did modern Indian women wear the sari, while
men dressed in Western clothes.
28. Lydia Liu, "The Female Body and Nationalist Discourse: The Field of
Life and Death Revisited," in Scattered Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Trans-
national Feminist Practices, edited by Inderpal Grewal and Caren Kaplan (Min-
neapolis, 1995).
29. Chang-tai Hung, War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern
China, 1937-1945 (Berkeley, 1994); Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Col-
laboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford,
1993).
30. See Katherine Carlitz, "Desire, Danger, and the Body: Stories of
Women's Virtue in Late Ming China," in Engendering China: Women, Culture,
and the State, edited by Christina Gilmartin et al. (Cambridge, 1994); Susan
Mann, "Widows in the Kinship, Class, and Community Structures of Qing Dy-
nasty China," Journal of Asian Studies 46, no. 1 (1987); 37-56; and Mark Elvin,
"Female Virtue and the State in China," Past and Present 104 (1984): 111-52.
31. See, for example, Yan Shi, "Nannu tongxue yu lian'ai shang de zhidao"
(Coeducation and guidance on amorous relationships), Funh zazhi 9, no. 10
(1923); and Wang Zhuomin, "Lun wuguo daxue shang buyi nannh tongxiao"
(On the inappropriateness of coeducation in our universities), Funh zazhi 4, no.
5 (1918).
32. Kazuko Ono, Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1950,
ed. and trans. Joshua Fogel (Stanford, 1989), 27.
33. See Jindai Zhongguo nuquan yundong shiliao, 1842-1911 (Documents
on feminist movements in modern China, 1842-1911), vols. 1-2, edited by Li
Youning and Zhang Yufa (Taipei, 1975), 463-67.
34. The expression "nationalist patriarchy" is taken from Chatterjee, Na-
tion, 1993.
35. Wang Jingwei, "Duiyu nhjiede ganxiang" (Reflections on women's
world), Funh zazhi 10, no. 1 (1924): 106-7.
36. Ibid., 108. The notion of self-sacrifice, of course, pervades this entire
topic and deserves more discussion. Several scholars have argued that self-
sacrifice is critical to establishing the claim to nationhood. See Renan, "What Is
a Nation?"; Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National
Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995), 216-18; and
John D. Kelly, "Diaspora and World War: Blood and Nation in Fijii and Hawai'i"
Public Culture 7, no. 3 (1995): 489. Martyrdom is the root sacrificial form that
Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia
23 . Joan Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY, 1988) . 24. Schirmer, "Claiming of Space," 196. 25. Sharon H . Nolte and Sally Ann Hastings, "The Meiji State's Policy toward Women, 1890-1910," in Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1 945, edited by Gail Lee Bernstein (Berkeley, 199 1 ) , 171-72. 26. Miriam Silverberg, "The Modern Girl as Militant," in Bernstein, Recre ating Japanese Women, 263 . 27. Ibid., 264. My chapter is also a response to a question that has followed me since childhood, namely, why did modern Indian women wear the sari, while men dressed in Western clothes. 28. Lydia Liu, "The Female Body and Nationalist Discourse: The Field of Life and Death Revisited," in Scattered Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Trans national Feminist Practices, edited by Inderpal Grewal and Caren Kaplan (Min neapolis, 1995). 29. Chang-tai Hung, War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1 937-1 945 (Berkeley, 1 994); Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Col laboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1 937-1945 (Stanford, 1 993). 30. See Katherine Carlitz, "Desire, Danger, and the Body: Stories of Women's Virtue in Late Ming China," in Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State, edited by Christina Gilmartin et al. (Cambridge, 1 994); Susan Mann, "Widows in the Kinship, Class, and Community Structures of Qing Dy nasty China," Journal of Asian Studies 46, no. 1 (1987); 37-56; and Mark Elvin, "Female Virtue and the State in China," Past and Present 104 (1 984): 1 1 1-52. 3 1 . See, for example, Yan Shi, "Nannu tongxue yu lian'ai shang de zhidao" (Coeducation and guidance on amorous relationships), Funh zazhi 9, no. 10 (1923); and Wang Zhuomin, "Lun wuguo daxue shang buyi nannh tongxiao" (On the inappropriateness of coeducation in our universities), Funh zazhi 4, no. 5 (1918). 32. Kazuko Ono, Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1 950, ed. and trans. Joshua Fogel (Stanford, 1989), 27. 33. See Jindai Zhongguo nuquan yundong shiliao, 1 842-1911 (Documents on feminist movements in modern China, 1842-191 1 ) , vols. 1 -2, edited by Li Youning and Zhang Yufa (Taipei, 1975), 463-67. 34. The expression "nationalist patriarchy" is taken from Chatterjee, Na tion, 1993. 35 . Wang Jingwei, "Duiyu nhjiede ganxiang" (Reflections on women's world), Funh zazhi 10, no. 1 (1924): 106-7. 36. Ibid., 1 08. The notion of self-sacrifice, of course, pervades this entire topic and deserves more discussion. Several scholars have argued that self sacrifice is critical to establishing the claim to nationhood. See Renan, "What Is a Nation? " ; Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995), 216-18; and John D . Kelly, "Diaspora and World War: Blood and Nation in Fijii and Hawai'i" Public Culture 7 , no. 3 (1 995): 489. Martyrdom is the root sacrificial form that
The Regime of Authenticity
The Regime of Authenticity 385
sanctions and sanctifies rights for the wronged. Historically, the sacrifice of the
pure and authentic often redeemed the desire for wealth, lust, and power (Rich-
ard Von Glahn "The Enchantment of Wealth: The God Wutong in the Social
History of Jiangnan," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 51, no. 2 [1991]). The
same mechanism may perhaps be at work in the national martyr, but the sacrifi-
cial action here also produces the authentic.
37. Norma Diamond, "Women under Kuomintang Rule: Variations on the
Feminine Mystique," Modern China 1, no. 1 (1975): 6-7.
38. Meng Yue, "Female Images and National Myth," in Gender Politics in
Modern China, edited by Tani E. Barlow (Durham, 1991), 118.
39. See Mayfair Mei-hui Yang, "From Gender Erasure to Gender Differ-
ence: State Feminism, Consumer Sexuality, and a Feminist Public Sphere in
China," manuscript, 17.
40. Lu Xun, "Feizao" (Soap), in Lu Xun Quanji (Complete works of Lu
Xun) (N.p., 1924), 2:193. The English translation is in Lu Hsun, Selected Stories
of Lu Hsun, trans. Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang (New York, 1960), 167.
41. Lu, "Feizao," 199; Lu, Stories, 171.
42. Lu, "Feizao," 200; Lu, Stories, 171.
43. Carolyn T. Brown, "Woman as Trope: Gender and Power in Lu Xun's
"Soap," in Barlow, Gender Politics, 77. I would like to acknowledge my debt to
Carolyn Brown's reading of "Soap," which inspired my own analysis.
44. Chu'nan nuzi (A certain southern woman), "Zhongguo nhzide qiantu"
(The future of Chinese women), in Jindai Zhongguo nhquan yundong shiliao,
1842-1911, edited by Li Youning and Zhang Yufa ([1903] 1975), 394-95.
45. Ibid., 395.
46. Prasenjit Duara, "Of Authenticity and Woman: Personal Narratives of
Middle-Class Women in China," 1995, manuscript.
47. These narratives are taken from the Oral Records of Morality Seminars
of the Third Manzhouguo Morality Society held in 1936 in Xinjing (Changchun).
Participants in the seminar made presentations about how their lives were
guided by the appropriate morality organized around five categories drawn from
the classical Confucian tradition.
48. Ibid., 137.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid., 181-82.
51. Lu Xun, "Wozhi jielieguan" (My views on chastity), in Lu Xun Quanji,
vol. 1 (Taipei, [1918] 1989), 101-13.
52. Lh Meiyi and Zheng Yongfu, Zhongguo Funh Yundong, 1840-1921
(The Chinese women's movement, 1840-1921) (Zhengzhou, 1990), 210-13; see
also Charlotte L. Beahan, "Feminism and Nationalism in the Chinese Women's
Press, 1902-1911," Modern China 1, no. 4 (1975): 389, 394.
53. See Yang, "Gender Erasure," for the "state feminism" of the People's
Republic.
385
sanctions and sanctifies rights for the wronged. Historically, the sacrifice of the pure and authentic often redeemed the desire for wealth, lust, and power (Rich ard Von Glahn "The Enchantment of Wealth: The God Wutong in the Social History of Jiangnan," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5 1 , no. 2 [1991]). The same mechanism may perhaps be at work in the national martyr, but the sacrifi cial action here also produces the authentic. 37. Norma Diamond, "Women under Kuomintang Rule: Variations on the Feminine Mystique," Modern China 1 , no . 1 (1975): 6-7 . 38. Meng Yue, "Female Images and National Myth," in Gender Politics in Modern China, edited by Tani E . Barlow (Durham, 1991), 1 18. 39. See Mayfair Mei-hui Yang, "From Gender Erasure to Gender Differ ence: State Feminism, Consumer Sexuality, and a Feminist Public Sphere in China," manuscript, 1 7 . 40. Lu Xun, "Feizao" (Soap), in Lu Xun Quanji (Complete works of Lu Xun) (N. p . , 1 924), 2:193. The English translation is in Lu Hsun, Selected Stories of Lu Hsun, trans. Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang (New York, 1960), 167. 41. Lu, "Feizao," 199; Lu, Stories, 1 7 1 . 42. Lu, "Feizao," 200; Lu, Stories, 1 7 1 . 43. Carolyn T. Brown, "Woman a s Trope: Gender and Power i n L u Xun's "Soap," in Barlow, Gender Politics, 77. I would like to acknowledge my debt to Carolyn Brown's reading of "Soap," which inspired my own analysis. 44. Chu'nan nuzi (A certain southern woman), "Zhongguo nhzide qiantu" (The future of Chinese women), in Jindai Zhongguo nhquan yundong shiliao, 1 842-1911, edited by Li Youning and Zhang Yufa ([1903] 1975), 394-95. 45. Ibid. , 395. 46. Prasenjit Duara, "Of Authenticity and Woman: Personal Narratives of Middle-Class Women in China," 1 995, manuscript. 47. These narratives are taken from the Oral Records of Morality Seminars of the Third Manzhouguo Morality Society held in 1 936 in Xinjing (Changchun). Participants in the seminar made presentations about how their lives were guided by the appropriate morality organized around five categories drawn from the classical Confucian tradition. 48. Ibid., 137. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid . , 181-82. 5 1 . Lu Xun, "Wozhi jielieguan" (My views on chastity), in Lu Xun Quanji, vol. 1 (Taipei, [191 8] 1 989), 101-1 3 . 52. Lh Meiyi and Zheng Yongfu, Zhongguo Funh Yundong, 1840-1 921 (The Chinese women's movement, 1840-1921 ) (Zhengzhou, 1 990) , 210-13; see also Charlotte L. Beahan, "Feminism and Nationalism in the Chinese Women's Press, 1902-191 1 , " Modern China 1 , no. 4 ( 1 975): 389, 394. 53. See Yang, "Gender Erasure," for the "state feminism" of the People's Republic.

Contributors
Kai-wing Chow, Associate Professor, Department of East Asian
Languages and Cultures and Department of History, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Kevin M. Doak, Associate Professor, Department of East Asian
Contributors
Languages and Cultures and Department of History, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Prasenjit Duara, Professor, Department of History, University of
Chicago.
Poshek Fu, Associate Professor, Department of History, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
JaHyun Kim Haboush, Professor, Department of East Asian
Languages and Cultures, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Hung-yok Ip, Associate Professor, Department of History, State
University.
Andrew E Jones, Assistant Professor, Department of East Asian
Languages and Cultures, University of California, Berkeley.
John Lie, Professor and Chair, Department of Sociology, University
of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Jiu-jung Lo, Associate Researcher, Institute of Modern History,
Academia Sinica, Taiwan.
Stefan Tanaka, Associate Professor, Department of History,
Kai-wing Chow, Associate Professor, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures and Department of History, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Kevin M. Doak, Associate Professor, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures and Department of History, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
University of California, San Diego.
Ronald P. Toby, Professor and Chair, Department of East Asian
Languages and Cultures, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Peter Zarrow, Senior Lecturer in Chinese History, University of New
Prasenjit Duara, Professor, Department of History, University of Chicago.
South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
387
Poshek Fu, Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. JaHyun Kim Haboush, Professor, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Hung-yok Ip, Associate Professor, Department of History, State University. Andrew F. Jones, Assistant Professor, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, University of California, Berkeley. John Lie, Professor and Chair, Department of Sociology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Jiu-jung Lo, Associate Researcher, Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, Taiwan. Stefan Tanaka, Associate Professor, Department of History, University of California, San Diego. Ronald P. Toby, Professor and Chair, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Peter Zarrow, Senior Lecturer in Chinese History, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. 387

Index
Ahmad, Aijaz, 66
Altar of Soil and Grain, sacrifice at,
Index
169
Altar to Heaven, 160, 171, 172
Ama (Nd), 41n. 31
Amoy Action Troops, 296
Anderson, Benedict, 15-16, 65, 153,
359
Architecture: Chinese, 167; Japanese,
135, 137-40, 141
Arendt, Hannah, 357n. 11
Ariga Nagao, 177
Art, 93-94; Japan as curator of, 133
Art, Japanese, 129, 141, 146n. 41; aes-
thetics of, 125-26, 127-28; architec-
ture, 135, 137-40, 141; comparison
to Greek, 128, 130-31, 136-37;
paintings, 22, 24, 40n. 24, 41n. 32,
43n. 45. See also Iconography, Japa-
nese
Asahi Shinbun (newspaper), 345
Asia: modern, 92; naming of, 6, 68-
69; racism toward, 218-19
Assimilation Society, 282
Association for Elevating Yazhou, 68
Authenticity: and the Modern Girl,
369; and struggle with capitalism,
365-66; symbols of, 367-68, 380-
81; of women, 12, 370-72
Awakening Bell (Jingshi zhong;
Chen), 55, 56
Bagehot, Walter, 187n. 73
Bagua Hui, 282
Bai Yan. See Bak Yin
Bak Yin (Bai Yan), 259, 264, 266
Ban Chao, 94
Bankoku jinbutsu-zu (Shdho;
panopticon), 26-27, 29, 30, 38n. 11
Bankoku sOkai zu (Ishikawa;
panopticon), 31
Bankoku sozu (panopticon), 26, 30,
38n. 11
Bankoku-zu byObu (panopticon), 29
Baoshan in Bloodshed (Xuejian
Baoshan cheng; film), 262
Barthes, Roland, 197, 331
"Basic Policy for Assimilating the Ko-
rean Ethnic Nation" (Nakayama),
99
Battle Front Troupe, 233-34
Battle of Changsha (Changsha
huizhan; film), 266
Ahmad, Aijaz, 66 Altar of Soil and Grain, sacrifice at, 169 Altar to Heaven, 1 60, 171, 172 Ama (No), 41n. 31 Amoy Action Troops, 296 Anderson, Benedict, 15-16, 65, 153, 359 Architecture: Chinese, 167; Japanese, 135, 137-40, 141 Arendt, Hannah, 357n. 1 1 Ariga Nagao, 177 Art, 93-94; Japan as curator of, 133 Art, Japanese, 129, 141, 146n. 4 1 ; aesthetics of, 125-26, 127-28; architec ture, 135, 137-40, 141; comparison to Greek, 128, 130-31 , 136-37; paintings, 22, 24, 40n. 24, 41n. 32, 43n. 45. See also Iconography, Japa nese Asahi Shinbun (newspaper), 345 Asia: modern, 92; naming of, 6, 6869; racism toward, 218-19 Assimilation Society, 282 Association for Elevating Yazhou, 68 Authenticity: and the Modern Girl, 369; and struggle with capitalism, 365-66; symbols of, 367-68, 3808 1 ; of women, 12, 370-72 Awakening Bell (Jingshi zhong; Chen), 55, 56
Beauty School for Girls (Meimei
niixiao), 321, 337n. 10
Behind the Shanghai Front (Shanghai
huoxian hou; film), 265-66
Bell, Catherine, 182
Benjamin, Walter, 118
Bercovitch, Sacvan, 191
Berger, John, 353, 355
Bagehot, Walter, 1 87n. 73 Bagua Hui, 282 Bai Yan. See Bak Yin Bak Yin (Bai Yan), 259, 264, 266 Ban Chao, 94
Bankoku jinbutsu-zu (Shoho; panopticon), 26-27, 29, 30, 38n. 1 1 Bankoku sakai z u (Ishikawa; panopticon), 31 Bankoku sazu (panopticon), 26, 30, 38n. 11 Bankoku-zu byabu (panopticon), 29 Baoshan in Bloodshed (Xuejian Baoshan cheng; film), 262 Barthes, Roland, 197, 331 "Basic Policy for Assimilating the Ko rean Ethnic Nation" (Nakayama), 99 Battle Front Troupe, 233-34 Battle of Changsha ( Changsha huizhan; film), 266 Beauty School for Girls (Meimei nuxiao), 321, 337n. 10 Behind the Shanghai Front (Shanghai huoxian hou; film), 265-66 Bell, Catherine, 182 Benjamin, Walter, 1 18 Bercovitch, Sacvan, 191 Berger, John, 353, 355 Bitter Flower (Kucai hua; Feng), 229 Black Angel. See Nie Er Blau, Willem, 25-26 Bodhisenna (Indian priest), 38n. 13 Boehm, M. H . , 105-6 Bolshevization, 223 , 224 Bourdieu, Pierre, 157-58 Boxer Uprising (1900) , 64, 171 Bo Zhuyi, 22, 23-24 Braudel, Fernand, 1 5 , 37n. 5 Braudy, Leo, 253 Bright Moon Society, 322, 324, 325 Brown, Carolyn, 375
Bitter Flower (Kucai hua; Feng), 229
Black Angel. See Nie Er
Blau, Willem, 25-26
Bodhisenna (Indian priest), 38n. 13
Boehm, M. H., 105-6
Bolshevization, 223, 224
Bourdieu, Pierre, 157-58
Boxer Uprising (1900), 64, 171
Bo Zhuyi, 22, 23-24
389
390
390 Index
Buddhism, 18-19; in Japan, 7, 119-
20, 137, 144n. 7
Bulletin (Institute for Research on the
Ethnic Nation), 105
Bungei Shunji (publishing company),
345
Bureau of Central Investigation and
Statistics, 297
Bureau of Investigation and Statistics
of the Military Affairs Committee,
296, 297
Cai Chusheng, 254-55, 258, 259, 260
Calendar, Chinese, 63-65, 165
Index
Buddhism, 18-19; in Japan, 7 , 1 1 920, 1 37 , 144n. 7 Bulletin (Institute for Research on the Ethnic Nation), 105 Bungei Shunju (publishing company), 345 Bureau of Central Investigation and Statistics, 297 Bureau of Investigation and Statistics of the Military Affairs Committee, 296, 297
Cantonese: films in, 253-54, 256-57,
260-62, 264-66, 267-70
Caron, Francois, 37n. 5
Cartography, 19, 25-26, 30, 38n. 11,
43n. 42, 49
Catholicism, 37n. 7, 40n. 23, 203; Je-
suits, 20, 21, 49; in Korea, 197,
199, 200, 201-2, 213n. 35
CCP. See Chinese Communist Party
Central Censorship Bureau, 257
Central China syndrome. See Central
Plains syndrome
Central Flower ethnic nation
(zhongghua minzu), 93
Central Kingdom People (zhongguo
ren), 93
Central Plains syndrome, 9-10, 248,
257, 262, 270-71. See also Da
zhongyuan xintai
Chang Hao, 70
Changing Chinese (Ross), 96
Chao, King Wu-ling, 61
"Charter Provisions of the Nurem-
berg Judgment" (Guelff and Rob-
erts), 292-93
Chatterjee, Partha, 199, 362, 371
Chen Duxiu, 217-18,219-20,223,224
Chen Fan, 379
Cheng Jihua, 248
Cheng Maoyun, 328
Chen Huanzhang, 172
Chen Jie, 297
Chen Tianhua, 55, 56
Chen Xiefen, 375-76, 379-80
Chen Yi, 279, 280, 288, 300, 306
Chiang Kai-shek, 321, 337n. 15
Chihaya (priest), 136
Chihaya JOcho, 126
Children of the Storm (Fengyun ernu;
film), 329-30
China, 47-76, 85-107, 215-38, 359-
81; and absence of nationhood, 50-
53, 97-98; calendar of, 63-65; and
Communist Revolution, 8-9, 223-
29, 230; Confucianism in, 63, 64,
168, 172-73; and cosmopolitanism-
internationalism, 9, 215-17; and de-
mocracy, 154-55; ethnic nations
within, 90, 93-97, 110n. 38; influ-
ence of West on, 48, 60-61, 65-66,
236; intelligentsia of, 233-34, 238,
239n. 4, 258, 265; and Japan, 67-
68, 75, 85-86, 132, 139, 219, 249;
and militarism, 175; Mongols, 60,
94-95; nationalism in, 178, 179,
224-26; origin of name, 4, 5-6, 93;
Cai Chusheng, 254-55 , 258, 259, 260 Calendar, Chinese, 63-65, 165 Cantonese: films in, 253-54, 256-57, 260-62, 264-66, 267-70 Caron, Fran90is, 37n. 5 Cartography, 19, 25-26, 30, 38n. 1 1 , 43n. 42, 49 Catholicism, 37n. 7 , 40n. 23, 203; Je suits, 20, 2 1 , 49; in Korea, 197, 1 99, 200, 201 -2, 213n. 35 CCP. See Chinese Communist Party Central Censorship Bureau, 257 Central China syndrome. See Central Plains syndrome Central Flower ethnic nation (zhongghua minzu), 93 Central Kingdom People (zhongguo ren), 93 Central Plains syndrome, 9-10, 248, 257, 262, 270-71 . See also Da zhongyuan xintai Chang Hao, 70 Changing Chinese (Ross), 96 Chao, King Wu-ling, 61 "Charter Provisions of the Nurem berg Judgment" (Guelff and Rob erts), 292-93 Chatterjee, Partha, 199, 362, 371 Chen Duxiu, 217-18, 219-20, 223, 224 Chen Fan, 379 Cheng Jih ua, 248 Cheng Maoyun, 328 Chen Huanzhang, 172 Chen Jie, 297
Chen Tianhua, 55, 56 Chen Xiefen, 375-76, 379-80 Chen Yi, 279, 280, 288, 300, 306 Chiang Kai-shek, 321 , 337n. 15 Chihaya (priest), 136 Chihaya Jacha, 126 Children of the Storm (Fengyun emu; film), 329-30 China, 47-76, 85-107, 215-38, 35981 ; and absence of nationhood, 5053, 97-98; calendar of, 63-65; and Communist Revolution, 8-9 , 22329, 230; Confucianism in, 63, 64, 168, 172-73; and cosmopolitanism internationalism, 9, 215-17; and de mocracy, 1 54-55; ethnic nations within, 90, 93-97, 1 10n. 38; influ ence of West on, 48, 60-61 , 65-66, 236; intelligentsia of, 233-34, 238, 239n. 4, 258, 265; and Japan, 6768, 75, 85-86, 132, 139, 219, 249; and militarism, 175 ; Mongols, 60, 94-95 ; nationalism in, 178, 1 79, 224-26; origin of name, 4, 5-6 , 93; patriarchy in, 154, 317, 369-73; pro paganda of, 227-29, 232, 241n. 42, 258-59; and relationship between ritual and nation, 153-58; and So viet Union, 227-28, 232-33; and Taiwan, 279-80, 282, 306-7; threat to culture of, from Japan, 70-7 1 , 82n. 1 10; and women, 368-69, 37073; Wuchang Uprising, 96, 1 5 1 , 159, 1 6 1 . See also Culture, Chinese; Identity, Chinese; Identity, Hanzu; Manchu; Narratives, Chinese; Qing dynasty; Revolution of 191 1 ; Ritu als, political China Film Studio of Chongqing, 259-60 China Repository (magazine), 50 China Song and Dance Institute (Zhonghua gewu zhuanmen xuexiao), 321 China Song and Dance Troupe (Zhonghua gewutuan), 321
Index
Index
391
Chinese Communist Party (CCP),
217; and Marxism-Leninism, 224-
25; propaganda of, 227-29, 232,
241n. 42, 258-59
Chineseness, defined, 178
Chi no gihO (Kobayashi and
Funabiki), 39n. 20
Chiu Shutai (Zhao Shutai), 266, 267
Ch'oe Namson, 98-99
Chongan Plantation Farm, 288
Chong Hasang, 200-201
Ch6ngjo, 197, 200, 210; death of,
204, 205, 206
Ch6ng Yagyong. See Tasan
Ch6ng Yakch6n, 200
Ch6ng Yakchong, 200
Ch6n Tuhwan (Chun Doo Hwan),
192, 208-9
Chosenjin (government pamphlet), 99
Chos6n dynasty, 193, 194
Chow, Kai-wing, 4-5, 6, 216
Chow, Rey, 367
Christian Century in Japan (Boxer),
40n. 23
Chun Doo Hwan (Chon Tuhwan),
192, 208-9
Cinema: Hong Kong, 9-10, 247-71,
271n. 2; in Cantonese, 253-54,
256-57, 260-62, 264-66, 267-70;
censorship of, 266-67; comparison
of Cantonese and Mandarin, 268-
69; criticism of, 247, 254-58, 264;
growth of, 250; hybridism of, 267-
71; impact of war on, 248-49, 252-
54, 262-63; in Mandarin, 256, 259-
62, 268-69; symbolism of women
in, 260-61
Collected Regulations of the Qing, 150
Collingwood, R. G., 51
Colonialism. See Imperialism
Committee for the Unified Interpreta-
tion of Rules and Regulations, 289,
291
Communism, 100; and cosmopolitan-
ism, 216-17, 222-23, 234-35; and
cosmopolitanism-internationalism,
215-17, 224, 237; and imperialism,
217
Communist Revolution (China), 8-9,
223-29; comparison to May Fourth
movement, 230
Comprehensive Rites of the Qing, 150
Confucianism, 153, 194; in China, 63,
64, 168, 172-73; in Japan, 98, 177;
in Korea, 193-94, 199, 202-3; and
Yuan Shikai, 168, 169, 172-73,
177-78
Confucian Society (Kongjiaohui),
168, 172, 186n. 45
Confucius, sacrifices to, 172-73
Control Yuan, 297, 300
Cosmopolitanism, 239n. 5; and the
arts, 229-34; and communism,
216-17, 222-23, 234-35; and the
ideal image, 235-36; of May Fourth
Era, 217-23; Western influence on,
221-22. See also Internationalism
Cosmopolitanism-internationalism,
239n. 5, 239-40n. 11; and commu-
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 217; and Marxism-Leninism, 22425 ; propaganda of, 227-29, 232, 241n. 42, 258-59 Chineseness, defined, 178 Chi no giho (Kobayashi and Funabiki), 39n. 20 Chiu Shutai (Zhao Shutai), 266, 267 Ch'oe Namson, 98-99 Chongan Plantation Farm, 288 Chong Hasang, 200-201 Chongjo, 197 , 200, 210; death of, 204, 205 , 206 Chong Yagyong. See Tasan Chong Yakchon, 200 Chong Yakchong, 200 Chon Tuhwan (Chun Doo Hwan), 1 92, 208-9 Chosenjin (government pamphlet), 99 Choson dynasty, 1 93, 194 Chow, Kai-wing, 4-5 , 6, 216 Chow, Rey, 367 Christian Century in Japan (Boxer), 40n. 23 Chun Doo Hwan (Chon Tuhwan), 192, 208-9 Cinema: Hong Kong, 9-10, 247-71 , 271n. 2; in Cantonese, 253-54, 256-57, 260-62, 264-66, 267-70; censorship of, 266-67; comparison of Cantonese and Mandarin, 26869; criticism of, 247, 254-58, 264; growth of, 250; hybridism of, 2677 1 ; impact of war on, 248-49, 25254, 262-63; in Mandarin, 256, 25962, 268-69; symbolism of women in, 260-61 Collected Regulations of the Qing, 150 Collingwood, R. G . , 51 Colonialism. See Imperialism Committee for the Unified Interpretation of Rules and Regulations, 289, 291 Communism, 100; and cosmopolitan ism, 216-17, 222-23 , 234-35 ; and cosmopoli tanism-internationalism,
391
215-17, 224, 237; and imperialism, 217 Communist Revolution (China), 8-9, 223-29; comparison to May Fourth movement, 230 Comprehensive Rites of the Qing, 150 Confucianism, 153, 1 94; in China, 63, 64, 1 68, 172-73; in Japan, 98, 1 77; in Korea, 193-94, 1 99, 202-3 ; and Yuan Shikai, 168, 169, 172-73, 177-78 Confucian Society (Kongjiaohui), 1 68, 172, 1 86n. 45 Confucius, sacrifices to , 172-73 Control Yuan, 297, 300 Cosmopolitanism, 239n. 5 ; and the arts, 229-34; and communism, 216-17, 222-23, 234-35; and the ideal image, 235-36; of May Fourth Era, 217-23 ; Western influence on, 221-22. See also Internationalism Cosmopolitanism-internationalism, 239n. 5 , 239-40n. 1 1 ; and commu nism, 215-17, 224, 237 Coxinga (Zheng Chenggong), 95, 282 Critical Juncture (Zuihou guantou; film) , 264 Crossley, Pamela, 77n. 1 Culture, Asian, 133 Culture, Chinese: influence of West on, 232, 236; literature, 235-36, 373-75 . See also Sing-song girls Culture, Japanese: architecture, 135, 1 37-40, 1 4 1 ; foreign influence on, 1 32. See also Art, Japanese; Litera ture, Japanese Culture, Korean. See Literature, Ko rean Culture, popular: and ideological struggle, 319; role of, in identity for mation, 9-10, 1 1 Dadi Studio, 259-60, 262 Daguan Film Company, 252 Dai Li, 296 Dai Qing, 236
392
392 Index
Dajokan, historical preservation by,
120-21, 122
Datong Translation Bureau, 65
Da Zhongyuan xintai, 256, 275n. 44.
See also Central Plains syndrome
Decree 64, 297
Democracy: in China, 154-55; in Ko-
rea, 189-90, 201-2; and national-
ism, 219-20; and struggle against
Pan. . . ism, 218-19; in Taiwan,
283
Deng Zhongxia, 223-24
Deus Destroyed (Elison), 40n. 23
Diaspora: Chinese, 9-10; Korean, 11,
356n. 3
Dirlik, Arif, 216
Doak, Kevin M., 4, 5-6, 216
Double Ten celebrations, 151,158-
61, 163-65, 172, 175, 181
Duara, Prasenjit, 11-12, 153, 215
Du Yuesheng, 250
East Asia, 85-86, 194; influence of
West on, 216; nationalism within, 1,
87-92, 102, 103-7; New Order in,
100-107; representation of women
in, 368-69
Index
Dajokan, historical preservation by, 120-2 1 , 122 Datong Translation Bureau, 65 Da Zhongyuan xintai, 256, 275n. 44. See also Central Plains syndrome Decree 64, 297 Democracy: in China, 154-55 ; in Ko rea, 189-90, 201-2; and national ism, 219-20; and struggle against Pan . . . ism, 218-19; in Taiwan, 283 Deng Zhongxia, 223-24 Deus Destroyed (Elison), 40n. 23 Diaspora: Chinese, 9-10; Korean, 1 1 , 356n. 3 Dirlik, Arif, 216 Doak, Kevin M . , 4, 5-6, 216 Double Ten celebrations, 1 5 1 , 1586 1 , 163-65, 172, 175 , 181 Duara, Prasenjit, 1 1-12, 153, 215 Du Yuesheng, 250
East Asia League (Toa remmei),
101
Edo meisho-zu byobu (painting), 24
Edo-zu byobu (painting), 24
Eiei (monk), 22
Eiko Ikegami, 108n. 15
Eitoku (painter), 41n. 32
Ekotoba, 22-23
Enchin (monk), 40n. 27
Encounter (Mannam; Hahn), 191,
196, 198-202, 211n. 7, 211n. 8
Encyclopedism, 32-36, 45n. 56
English Constitution (Bagehot), 187n.
73
Enlightenment Society (Qifa She),
283
Esperanto (universal language), 73
"Essay on the Destruction of the
Country" (Guomin bao), 54
Eternal Empire (Yongwonhan cheguk;
Yi), 191, 196, 205-8
Etsuko Inagaki Sugimoto, 43n. 46
Exile, 352-54; defined, 353; literature
of, 352-54, 357n. 21
Ezo (Japan), 43n. 42
Fabian, Johannes, 382n. 15
Family Love Songs (Jiating aiqing
gequ; Li), 321
Fan Shoukang, 306
Far East: defined, 88-89; ethnic na-
tions of, 92
Far East (Little), 89
Fascism: in China, 159; in Japan, 105
February 28 Incident (1947), 279,
280, 297
Federation of Chinese Film Educa-
tion (Zhongguo dianying jiaoyu
xiehui Xianggang fenghui), 259
Fei Mu, 260
Fenollosa, Ernest E, 118, 127-28,
142
Ferrara, Alessandro, 365
Fetishization: of sing-song girls, 333;
East Asia, 85-86, 194; influence of West on, 216; nationalism within, 1 , 87-92, 102, 103-7; New Order in, 100-1 07; representation of women in, 368-69 East Asia League (Toa remmei), 101 Edo meisho-zu byobu (painting), 24 Edo-zu byobu (painting), 24 Eiei (monk), 22 Eiko Ikegami, 108n. 1 5 Eitoku (painter), 41n. 32 Ekotoba, 22-23 Enchin (monk), 40n. 27 Encounter (Mannam; Hahn), 1 9 1 , 196, 198-202, 21 1n. 7 , 21 1n. 8 Encyclopedism, 32-36, 45n. 56 English Constitution (Bagehot), 187n. 73 Enlightenment Society (Qifa She), 283 Esperanto (universal language ), 73 "Essay on the Destruction of the Country" (Guomin bao), 54
Eternal Empire ( Yongwonhan cheguk; Yi) , 191 , 1 96, 205-8 Etsuko Inagaki Sugimoto, 43n. 46 Exile, 352-54; defined, 353; literature of, 352-54, 357n. 21 Ezo (Japan) , 43n. 42
Fabian, Johannes, 382n. 15 Family Love Songs (Jiating aiqing gequ; Li), 321 Fan Shoukang, 306 Far East: defined, 88-89; ethnic nations of, 92 Far East (Little), 89 Fascism: in China, 1 59; in Japan, 105 February 28 Incident (1947) , 279, 280, 297 Federation of Chinese Film Educa tion (Zhongguo dianying jiaoyu xiehui Xianggang fenghui), 259 Fei Mu, 260 Fenollosa, Ernest F. , 1 18, 127-28, 142 Ferrara, Alessandro, 365 Fetishization: of sing-song girls, 333 ; of women's bodies, 323-24, 325 Feuchtwang, Stephen, 153 Formidable Militia (Liu Hongying; op era) , 231 "Forum of the Free Speech" (Mingbao), 305 Forward ( Qianjin qu; film), 264 Foucault, Michel, 359 Four Books, 206 Freud, Sigmund, 16 Friedman, Edward, 237, 274n. 44 Fu, Poshek, 9-10 Fujian, phonetic transcription of, 72 Fujisan (No), 41n. 31 Funh Zazhi ( j ournal), 370 Furth, Charlotte, 80n. 58 Fusho (monk), 22 Fuzhou Garrison Command, 295 Ganjin (monk), 22, 40n. 27 Gao Xiucheng, 227-28
Index
Index
393
Gellner, Ernest, 153, 353
"General Discourse on the Geogra-
phy of Asia" (Liang), 68-69, 74
Gombrich, E. H., 27, 29
Gone Was the Love (Hu Bu gui; film),
266
Goodnow, Frank, 177
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 196
Grantham, Sir Alexander, 251
Great Britain, 49; imperialism of,
249, 263; narratives of, on China,
49-50; racism of, 265
Great China Records (Da zhonghua
changpian gongsi), 320, 322, 337n.
15
Great Wall of China, 94
Great War, 89-90, 110n. 43
Griffin, Roger, 105
Guan Di, 173-74
Guanhua. See Mandarin
Guan Wenqing, 264
Guomin bao (magazine), 64
Guomindang All-Nation Spiritual Mo-
bilization Campaign, 258
Guomin riri bao (newspaper), 62, 64
Guo Xiuzong, 287
Guze Kannon (Goddess of Mercy
sculpture), 128, 131, 134, 142
Hahn Moo-Sook (Han Musuk), 191
Hakurakuten (NO), 22, 23
Han, nation of, 94-96
Han'gul (Korean alphabet), 349
Hanjian,279-310; defined, 289, 302,
304-5, 307; government policy on,
294-301; vs. war criminals, 288-94;
military influence on, 295-98,
Gellner, Ernest, 153, 353 "General Discourse on the Geogra phy of Asia" (Liang), 68-69, 74 Gombrich, E . H . , 27 , 29 Gone Was the Love (Hu Bu gui; film), 266 Goodnow, Frank, 177 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 196 Grantham, Sir Alexander, 25 1 Great Britain, 49; imperialism of, 249, 263; narratives of, on China, 49-50; racism of, 265 Great China Records (Da zhonghua changpian gongsi), 320, 322, 337n. 15 Great Wall of China, 94 Great War, 89-90, 1 l 0n. 43 Griffin, Roger, 105 Guan Di, 173-74 Guanhua. See Mandarin Guan Wenqing, 264 Guomin bao (magazine), 64 Guomindang All-Nation Spiritual Mobilization Campaign, 258 Guomin riri bao (newspaper), 62, 64 Guo Xiuzong, 287 Guze Kannon (Goddess of Mercy sculpture), 1 28, 131, 134, 142
314n. 61; and Mingbao, 302-6; Tai-
wanese attitude toward, 301-8. See
also War criminals
Han Musuk (Hahn Moo-Sook), 191
Hanren, 79n. 35
Hanwen (writing system), 71, 73, 76
Hanyu. See Mandarin
Hanzi. See Hanwen
Harrison, Ernest John, 88-89
Hattori Unokichi, 98
Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the
People (Mokmin simso; Hwang),
190-91, 196, 202-5
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 50-
51, 78n. 15, 361, 382n. 5
Hegemony, political ritual and, 156
He Luting, 326, 329
Hemstead, David, 262
Hibutsu (sacred objects of worship),
146n. 39
Hirako Takurei, 141
Hirth, Friedrich, 93
History: and nation-state, 121-22,
124-25, 126, 129, 215, 359-62; and
political ritual, 152; struggle be-
tween capitalism and authenticity
within, 365-66; and timelessness,
362-64
History of Ancient Korea (Choson
sanggosa; Sin), 192-93
History of the Yellow (Huang shi;
Huang), 59
Hobsbawm, Eric, 47, 187n. 73, 215
Hahn Moo-Sook (Han Musuk), 191 Hakurakuten (No), 22, 23 Han, nation of, 94-96 Han'gul (Korean alphabet), 349 Hanjian,279-3 10; defined, 289, 302, 304-5 , 307; government policy on, 294-301 ; vs. war criminals, 288-94; military influence on, 295-98, 314n. 6 1 ; and Mingbao, 302-6; Tai wanese attitude toward, 301-8. See also War criminals Han Musuk (Hahn Moo-Sook), 191 Hanren, 79n. 35 Hanwen (writing system), 7 1 , 73, 76 Hanyu. See Mandarin Hanzi. See Hanwen Harrison, Ernest John, 88-89
393
Hattori Unokichi, 98 Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the People (Mokmin simso; Hwang), 190-9 1 , 1 96, 202-5 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 5051 , 78n. 1 5 , 361, 382n. 5 Hegemony, political ritual and, 1 56 He Luting, 326, 329 Hemstead, David, 262 Hibutsu (sacred objects of worship), 146n. 39 Hirako Takurei, 141 Hirth, Friedrich, 93 History: and nation-state, 121-22, 124-25, 126, 129, 2 1 5 , 359-62; and political ritual, 152; struggle be tween capitalism and authenticity within, 365-66; and timelessness, 362-64 History of Ancient Korea ( Choson sanggosa; Sin), 192-93 History of the Yellow (Huang shi; Huang), 59 Hobsbawm, Eric, 47, 1 87n. 73, 215 Hokoji (temple), 134-35 Homeland (Baiyun guxiang; film), 260 Hong Kong, 247 , 249-50; mar ginalization of, 247-49, 257 , 258, 260, 265, 270; racism in, 25 1 , 263, 273n. 29. See also Cinema, Hong Kong Horinji (temple), 134-35, 140 Horyiiji (temple) , 7 , 1 17-43, 143n. 1 , 143-44n. 6 ; architecture of, 135, 139-40; debate over origins of, 141; discoveries of, 1 18-19, 126, 13032; government support of, 1 1 9, 126, 136; and historical reevalua tion, 127-34; importance of, 1 29, 1 30-32, 133-34; and Ito Chuta, 135-40; neglect of, 1 1 9-20; preser vation of, 120-27 Hoston, Germaine, 216-17, 225-26 "Hot Talk" (Mingbao), 304-6 Ho Thng, Sir Robert, 273n. 29
394
394 Index
Hou Yiu (Hou Yao), 266-67
Huangdi, 58-61, 62; and Chinese cal-
endar, 63-65
Huang Jie, 59-61, 70
"Huangpu River" (song), 335
Huang zhong ren (Social Darwinism
category), 59
Huang Zunxian, 72
Huashang Bao (newspaper), 259
Hu Dieying (Wu Dip-Ying), 267
Hundred Days Reform (1898), 66
Hu Shi, 220, 221
Ichimura Yiji, 40n. 24
Iconography: European, 25; Japa-
Index
Hou Yiu (Hou Yao), 266-67 Huangdi, 58-6 1 , 62; and Chinese calendar, 63-65 Huang Jie, 59-61 , 70 "Huangpu River" (song), 335 Huang zhong ren (Social Darwinism category), 59 Huang Zunxian, 72 Huashang Bao (newspaper), 259 Hu Dieying (Wu Dip-Ying), 267 Hundred Days Reform (1 898), 66 Hu Shi, 220, 221
nese, 21-22, 24, 26-32, 40n. 24,
41n. 32, 43n. 45
Icons, Buddhist, 125, 129-30
Ideals of the East (Okakura), 131-32
Identity: cultural ties of, 1-2, 3, 93-
94; defined, 15-16; and gender poli-
tics, 215; and the media, 2, 3-6;
and nostalgia, 6-9
Identity, Chinese, 9-10, 236-38; and
family, 153-54; and gender politics,
11-12, 260-61; influence of West
on, 216; and political ritual, 165,
180. See also China; Identity,
Hanzu
Identity, diasporic, 9-10, 11, 354-55,
356n. 3
Identity, East Asian, 87-92, 103-7
Identity, Hanzu, 5, 47-76, 92, 190,
216; defined, 48-49; Han nation,
94-96; historical revisionism of,
61-65; and Huangdi, 58-61, 62,
63-65; influence of Japan on, 69-
71; influence of West on, 74-75;
language of, 71-74; Manchu exclu-
sion from, 54-56, 75, 76; and me-
dia, 65-66; and race, 53, 54, 56-58;
and Social Darwinism, 53-56; in
Taiwan, 281
Identity, Hong Kong, 248-49, 265.
See also Cinema, Hong Kong
Identity, Korean, 11, 98-100, 190-91,
192-96. See also Korea
Identity, Taiwanese, 10, 279-310; du-
ality of, 280-81, 285-88, 290, 308-
10; history of, 281-84. See also
Hanjian; Taiwan
Identity of France (Braudel), 15
Ikoku jinbutsu zukan (Kohara), 40n.
24
Illustrated Gazetteers of Maritime
Countries (Haigo tuzhi; Wei), 67
Imperialism, 96-97; British, 249, 263;
Chinese, 282; and communism,
217; in Hong Kong, 263
Imperialism, Japanese: in China, 97-
100, 219, 252; in Hong Kong, 270;
in Korea, 202; in Taiwan, 279, 281,
282-83
Imperial Japan. See Japan
Inagaki Koro, 30-31
In Defense of South China (Baowei
Huanan; film), 264
India, 371. See also Tenjiku
Institute for Common East Asian Cul-
ture (TOa dObun shoin), 101
Ichimura Yflj i, 40n. 24 Iconography: European, 25 ; Japa nese, 21-22, 24, 26-32, 40n. 24, 41n. 32, 43n. 45 Icons, Buddhist, 125, 129-30 Ideals of the East (Okakura), 131 -32 Identity: cultural ties of, 1-2, 3, 9394; defined, 15-16; and gender poli tics, 215; and the media, 2, 3-6; and nostalgia, 6-9 Identity, Chinese, 9-10, 236-38; and family, 153-54; and gender politics, 1 1-12, 260-61 ; influence of West on, 216; and political ritual, 165, 1 80. See also China; Identity, Hanzu I dentity, diasporic, 9-1 0, 1 1 , 354-55 , 356n. 3 Identity, East Asian, 87-92, 103-7 Identity, Hanzu, 5 , 47-76, 92, 1 90, 216; defined, 48-49; Han nation, 94-96; historical revisionism of, 61-65; and Huangdi, 58-6 1 , 62, 63-65 ; influence of Japan on, 697 1 ; influence of West on, 74-75; language of, 71-74; Manchu exclu sion from, 54-56, 75, 76; and me dia, 65-66; and race, 53, 54, 56-58; and Social Darwinism, 53-56; in Taiwan, 281 Identity, Hong Kong, 248-49, 265. See also Cinema, Hong Kong
Identity, Korean, 1 1 , 98-1 00, 1 90-91 , 192-96. See also Korea Identity, Taiwanese, 10, 279-310; du ality of, 280-81 , 285-88, 290, 30810; history of, 281 -84. See also Hanjian; Taiwan Identity of France (Braudel), 15 Ikoku jinbutsu zukan (Kohara), 40n. 24 Illustrated Gazetteers of Maritime Countries (Haigo tuzhi; Wei), 67 Imperialism, 96-97; British, 249, 263 ; Chinese, 282; and communism, 217; in Hong Kong, 263 Imperialism, Japanese: in China, 97100, 219, 252; in Hong Kong, 270; in Korea, 202; in Taiwan, 279, 281 , 282-83 Imperial Japan. See Japan Inagaki Koro, 30-31 In Defense of South China (Baowei Huanan; film), 264 India, 371 . See also Tenjiku Institute for Common East Asian Cul ture (Toa dobun shoin), 101 Institute for Research on the Ethnic Nation (Minzoku kenkyusho), 105 Intelligentsia, Chinese, 233-34, 238, 239n. 4, 258, 265; and criticism of Hong Kong cinema, 255-57; and marginalization of Hong Kong, 265; and May Fourth movement, 217-23, 230 Intelligentsia, Taiwanese, 282-84 International Communist Party and the Chinese Revolution (Korean Po lice Affairs Bureau), 1 "Internationale" (song), 228 Internationalism, 239n. 5 ; in China, 224, 227-29. See also Cosmopolitan ism International Military Tribunal, 291 , 292 International Monetary Fund, 2101 1 n. 2
Index
Index
395
Interpretation 3078, 289, 296
Ip, Hung-yok, 8-9
Ise (shrine), 146n. 58
Ishikawa Toshiyuki, 31
Ishiwara Kanji, 101
Isozaki Arata, 146n. 58
Itagaki Taisuke, Count, 283
Ito Chuta, 118, 135-40
Japan, 15-36, 86, 89, 133, 177, 287;
Interpretation 3078, 289, 296 Ip, Hung-yok, 8-9 Ise (shrine), 146n. 58 Ishikawa Toshiyuki, 31 Ishiwara Kanji, 101 Isozaki Arata, 146n. 58 Itagaki Taisuke, Count, 283 Ito Chuta, 1 18, 135-40
and assimilation of Taiwan, 282-83,
286-87, 289-90, 306; and Bud-
dhism, 7, 119-20, 144n. 7; cartogra-
phy of, 19, 30, 38n. 11, 43n. 42;
and China, 5-6, 67-68, 75, 85-86,
132, 139; and Christianity, 37n. 7,
40n. 23; and classification of for-
eigners, 26-32, 34-35, 42n. 39,
43n. 43, 43n. 45; Confucianism in,
98, 177; cosmological theory of,
18-19; and East Asia, 85-86; and
East Asian identity, 103-7;
encyclopedism in, 32-36; end of
sangoku, 20-21, 35-36; ethnic na-
tionalism of, 101; historical skepti-
cism within, 134, 140-41; iconogra-
phy of, 21-22, 26-32, 40n. 24, 41n.
32, 43n. 45; influence of West on,
16, 17, 19, 20-21, 25, 65-66; and
Korea, 110-11n. 49, 146n. 46, 190,
202, 209, 210; and reevaluation of
the past, 127-34; representation of
women in, 368-69; Shintoism in, 7,
177; tribal diffusion of, 92; and
view of Otherness, 4; World order
of, 104-5. See also Art, Japanese;
Literature, Japanese; Culture,
Japanese; Horyiji; Imperialism,
Japanese
Jesuits (Society of Jesus), 20, 21, 49.
See also Boxer Uprising; Catholi-
cism
Jiang Jieshi, 298, 299
Jiangsu (magazine), 64
Jiangxi Committee for the Advance-
ment of Musical Education (Jiangxi
tuixing yinyue weiyuan hui), 328
Jinno shOtO ki (Kitabatake), 19
Jinrin KinmOzu (encyclopedia), 45n.
56
Jinrui (description of peoples), 25, 26
Jinshu (race), 90, 91
Jin-xia Committee for the Handling
of Hanjian (Jinxia hanjian chuli
weiyuanhui), 296, 297
JOgo Shotoku Tashi-den Hoketsuki (bi-
ography of Shotoku Taishi), 141
Jones, Andrew E, 11
Junguo min jiayou hui (student organi-
zation), 59
Jushu bolan (encyclopedia), 32
Kamei Kan'ichiro, 103-5, 112-13n.
66
Kang Youwei, 54, 65, 67,370,378; and
Confucianism, 64, 169, 172,177
Kano Tessai, 127
Kara, 18, 38n. 12
Kazuko Ono, 370
Ketou (kowtow), 160, 172-73
Kibi Daijin nittO ekotoba (legend of
Japan, 15-36, 86, 89, 133, 177, 287; and assimilation of Taiwan, 282-83, 286-87, 289-90, 306; and Bud dhism, 7 , 119-20, 144n. 7; cartogra phy of, 19, 30, 38n. 1 1 , 43n. 42; and China, 5-6 , 67-68, 75, 85-86, 132, 139; and Christianity, 37n. 7, 40n. 23; and classification of for eigners, 26-32, 34-35, 42n. 39, 43n. 43, 43n. 45; Confucianism in, 98, 177; cosmological theory of, 18-19; and East Asia, 85-86; and East Asian identity, 103-7; encyclopedism in, 32-36; end of sangoku, 20-21 , 35-36; ethnic na tionalism of, 101; historical skepti cism within, 134, 140-4 1 ; iconogra phy of, 21-22, 26-32, 40n. 24, 41n. 32, 43n . 45; influence of West on, 16, 17, 19, 20-2 1 , 25, 65-66; and Korea, 1 10-l 1n. 49, 146n. 46 , 190, 202, 209, 210; and reevaluation of the past, 127-34; representation of women in, 368-69; Shintoism in, 7, 177; tribal diffusion of, 92; and view of Otherness, 4; World order of, 104-5 . See also Art, Japanese; Literature, Japanese; Culture, Japanese; HoryOji ; Imperialism, Japanese Jesuits (Society of Jesus), 20, 2 1 , 49. See also Boxer Uprising; Catholi cism Jiang Jieshi, 298, 299 fiangsu (magazine), 64 Jiangxi Committee for the Advance-
395
ment of Musical Education (fiangxi tuixing yinyue weiyuan hui), 328 finno shof{j ki (Kitabatake) , 19 finrin Kinmozu (encyclopedia), 45n. 56 finrui (description of peoples), 25 , 26 finshu (race), 90, 91 Jin-xia Committee for the Handling of Hanjian (finxia hanjian chuli weiyuanhui), 296, 297 JOgo Shotoku Tashi-den Hoketsuki (bi ography of Shotoku Taishi), 141 Jones, Andrew F. , 1 1 funguo min jiayou hui (student organi zation) , 59 fushu bolan (encyclopedia), 32 Kamei Kan'ichiro, 103-5 , 1 12-1 3n. 66 Kang Youwei, 54, 65, 67, 370, 378; and Confucianism, 64, 169, 172, 177 Kano Tessai, 127 Kara, 18, 38n. 12 Kazuko Ono, 370 Ketou (kowtow), 160, 172-73 Kibi Daijin nitto ekotoba (legend of Kibi no Makibi), 22, 23-24 Kibi no Makibi, legend of, 22-23 Kikan Sanzenri ( journal), 344-45 Kim Dae Jung (Taejung) , 209 Kim Haboush, Jahyun, 8 Kim San, 352 Kim Sok-pom, 1 1 , 344-46; comparison to Yi Yang-ji , 349-50 Kim Young Sam (Yongsam) , 208-9 Kinmo zui (Nakamura), 4, 33 Kitabatake Chikafusa, 19 KOfukiji (temple), 1 19 Koji funrei (Watsuji), 142-43 Kojiki (ancient text), 129, 134 Kokka (political state), 90, 9 1 , 102, 105-6 Kokumin (political nation), 90, 95 , 108n. 1 5 , 138; comparison with minzoku, 109n. 17
396
396 Index
Koma shaku (unit of measure), 141
Komtasu Kentar0, 112n. 57
Konoe Fuminaro, 101
Korea, 18, 189-210, 343-55; Ameri-
can influence on, 192, 194, 210,
211n. 3; Catholicism in, 197, 199,
200, 201-2, 213n. 35; Confucianism
in, 193-94,199, 202-3; cultural con-
tainment of, 98-99; and Japan,
110-11n. 49, 146n. 46, 190, 202,
209, 210; of Kim SOk-pom, 344-46;
and longing for world stage, 209,
214n. 65; militarism of, 192; and
modernity, 190, 197, 198, 203, 204;
practical learning in, 202-3; spiritu-
ality in, 198-99; transition to de-
mocracy, 189-90; of Yi Hoe-song,
350-51; of Yi Yang-ji, 347-50. See
also Identity, Korean; Literature,
Japanese; Literature, Korean
Kropotkin, Petr, 219
Kuroda Hideo, 41n. 32
Kusuha Sainin (Tenjiku merchant),
38n. 13
Kwangju Uprising (1980), 209, 345,
351
Kwan Man-ching (Guan Wenqing),
264
Lacouperie, Terrien de, 59
Lai, Chi-kong, 216
Language: in China, 51, 71-74; and
conflict between Japan and China,
6, 70-71. See also Cantonese; Man-
darin
Lau Kuai-hong (Liu Guikang), 267
League for the Establishment of the
Index
Koma shaku (unit of measure), 141 Komtasu Kentaro , 1 1 2n. 57 Konoe Fuminaro, 101 Korea, 1 8, 189-210, 343-55; Ameri can influence on, 1 92, 194, 210, 21 1n. 3; Catholicism in, 1 97, 199, 200, 201 -2, 2l3n. 35; Confucianism in, 193-94, 1 99, 202-3 ; cultural con tainment of, 98-99; and Japan, 1 10-1 1n. 49, 1 46n. 46, 1 90, 202, 209, 210; of Kim Sok-pom, 344-46 ; and longing for world stage, 209, 214n. 65; militarism of, 192; and modernity, 190, 197, 1 98, 203, 204; practical learning in, 202-3 ; spiritu ality in, 198-99; transition to de mocracy, 1 89-90; of Yi Hoe-song, 350-5 1 ; of Yi Yang-ji, 347-50. See also Identity, Korean; Literature, Japanese; Literature, Korean Kropotkin, Petr, 219 Kuroda Hideo, 41n. 32 Kusuha Sainin (Tenjiku merchant), 38n. 13 Kwangju Uprising (1 980) , 209, 345, 351 Kwan Man-ching (Guan Wenqing), 264
Taiwan Parliament, 283
Lee Fa (Li Hua), 264
Lefebvre, Henri, 117-18, 125-26
Left-wing music movement: and gen-
der, 329-33; and sing-song girls,
332-35
Lenin, Vladimir I., 100
Letter to the State Council (Sang
Chaesang so; Chong), 200
Leung Sum (Liang Shen), 267
Levenson, Joseph, 194, 362-63
Liang Bin (Lueng Bun), 267
Liang Qichao, 65, 67, 68-69, 155,
168; advice to Taiwanese, 283-84;
and Chinese calendar, 63-64; and
Confucianism, 64; on ethnic nation-
alism, 178; on history, 51, 52; on
language, 71-72, 174; on race, 53,
54, 55, 56
Liang Shen (Leung Sum), 267
Liang Shiyi, 172
Liao Chengzhi, 275n. 50
Liberation Daily (Jiefang ribao; news-
paper), 226
Li Bozhao, 232-33
Li Da, 224
Li Dazhao, 218-19, 220, 223
Lie, John, 11
"Life's Journey" (Lutu; Zhang), 220,
235
Li Hua (Lee Fa), 264
Li Jinhui, 318-19, 323, 325-26, 327-
29, 335-36; and development of ur-
Lacouperie, Terrien de, 59 Lai, Chi-kong, 216 Language: in China, 5 1 , 71-74; and conflict between Japan and China, 6, 70-71 . See also Cantonese; Man darin Lau Kuai-hong (Liu Guikang), 267 League for the Establishment of the Taiwan Parliament, 283 Lee Fa (Li Hua), 264 Lefebvre, Henri, 1 17-18, 125-26 Left-wing music movement: and gender, 329-33; and sing-song girls, 332-35 Lenin, Vladimir I . , 100 L etter to the State Council (Sang Chaesang so; Chong), 200
Leung Sum (Liang Shen), 267 Levenson, Joseph, 194, 362-63 Liang Bin (Lueng Bun), 267 Liang Qichao, 65 , 67 , 68-69, 155, 168; advice to Taiwanese, 283-84; and Chinese calendar, 63-64; and Confucianism, 64; on ethnic nation alism, 178; on history, 5 1 , 52; on language, 71-72, 1 74; on race, 53, 54, 5 5 , 56 Liang Shen (Leung Sum) , 267 Liang Shiyi, 172 Liao Chengzhi, 275n. 50 Liberation Daily (Jiefang ribao; newspaper), 226 Li Bozhao, 232-33 Li Da, 224 Li Dazhao, 218-19, 220, 223 Lie, John, 1 1 "Life's Journey" (Lutu; Zhang), 220, 235 Li Hua (Lee Fa) , 264 Li Jinhui, 318-19, 323, 325-26, 32729, 335-36; and development of ur ban media culture, 320-24 Li Lili, 260 Lin Shuangwen Uprising (1786), 282 Lin Xiantang, 283, 284 Literature, Chinese, 373-75 ; and the ideal image, 235-36 Literature, exile, 352-54, 357n. 2 1 . See also Literature, Japanese Literature, Japanese, 22, 23-24, 34355; Kim Sok-pom, 344-47; Yi Hoe song, 350-52; Yi Yang-ji, 346-50 Literature, Korean, 1 89-210, 21 1n. 9, 2l3n. 38; comparison of historical novels, 203, 204; Encounter, 1 9 1 , 196-202, 21 1n. 7 , 2 1 1 n. 8; Eternal Empire, 1 9 1 , 1 96, 205-8; Heartfelt Treatise on Shepherding the People, 190-91 , 1 96, 202-5 ; historiographi cal fiction, 192-96; and modernity, 197, 198, 203, 204. See also Litera ture, Japanese Little, Archibald, 89
Index
Index
397
Little Cantonese (Xiao Guandong;
film), 262
Little Friend (Xiao pengyou; maga-
zine), 320
Liu Bannong, 222
Liu Guikang, 267
Liu Shipei, 63-64
Liu Yongfu, 281
Li Yichen, 289, 290
Li Youbang, 287, 288
Li Yuanhong, 159
Li Zhuozhuo, 260
Lo, Jiu-jung, 10
Lo Man-kam, Sir, 273n. 29
Long Live My Youth (Qingchun
wansui; Wang), 236
Lo Tun (Lu Dun), 259, 264
Lou Shiyi, 255
Lu Dun (Lo Tun), 259, 264
Lueng Bun (Liang Bin), 267
Luk, Michael, 219-20, 224, 225
Lukacs, Gyorgy, 196
Luo Mingyou, 258, 259
Luo Zhuoying, 300
Lu Xun, 218, 373-75, 378
Lu Xun Arts Academy, 231
Macartney, George, 49
Machiavellian Moment (Pocock), 363
Machida Hisanari, 121, 126
Madame Butterfly (Hudie furen;
film), 266
Manchu, 4-5, 150, 178-79; foreign-
ness of, 154, 281-82; relationship
LittLe Cantonese (Xiao Guandong; film), 262 LittLe Friend (Xiao pengyou; magazine), 320 Liu Bannong, 222 Liu Guikang, 267 Liu Shipei, 63-64 Liu Yongfu, 281 Li Yichen, 289, 290 Li Youbang, 287, 288 Li Yuanhong, 159 Li Zhuozhuo, 260 Lo, Jiu-jung, 10 Lo Man-kam, Sir, 273n. 29 Long Live My Youth (Qingchun wansui; Wang), 236 Lo Tun (Lu Dun), 259, 264 Lou Shiyi, 255 Lu Dun (Lo Tun), 259, 264 Lueng Bun (Liang Bin) , 267 Luk, Michael, 219-20, 224, 225 Lukacs, Gyorgy, 196 Luo Mingyou, 258, 259 Luo Zhuoying, 300 Lu Xun, 218, 373-75 , 378 Lu Xun Arts Academy, 231
to Han, 54-56, 68, 75-76, 95-96;
and Zhang Binglin, 54-55, 57-58.
See also Qing dynasty
Manchukuo (1932-1945), 106, 376-77
Manchuria, 193
Mandarin, 72, 74, 76, 320; films in,
256, 259-62, 268-69
Mao Renfeng, 296
Mao Zedong, 216, 219, 226, 230-31,
242n. 66
March of the Guerilla (Youji
jingxinqu; film), 260-62, 266
"March of the Volunteers" (Yiyong
jun jinxing qu; national anthem),
330
Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937),
10, 249, 264
Market of the Living and the Dead (Shi-
sha to seisha ni ichi; Yi), 350-52
Martyrs, sacrifices to, 173-74
Marxism: in China, 224-25, 227; and
Korea, 192; and Mao Zedong,
242n. 66
Ma Shih-tsan (Ma Shizheng), 259
Matsuda Osama, 35
Matsuoka YOsuke, 102
Maut t'aeja, 207
May, Henry, 191
May Fourth movement, 217-23, 230
"Measures on the Management of the
Taiwanese" (Ttaiwanren guanli
banfa), 295
Media, 3-6, 81n. 88; and Hanzu iden-
tity, 65-66; and history, 191; and
identity, 2, 3-6; in Shanghai, 318,
324
Macartney, George, 49 Machiavellian Moment (Pocock), 363 Machida Hisanari, 1 2 1 , 126 Madame Butterfly (Rudie furen; film) , 266 Manchu, 4-5 , 150, 178-79; foreign ness of, 154, 281 -82; relationship to Han, 54-56, 68, 75-76, 95-96; and Zhang Binglin, 54-55, 57-58. See also Qing dynasty Manchukuo (1932-1945 ), 106, 376-77 Manchuria, 193 Mandarin, 72, 74, 76, 320; films in, 256, 259-62, 268-69 Mao Renfeng, 296 Mao Zedong, 216, 219, 226, 230-3 1 , 242n. 66 March of the Guerilla ( Youji jingxinqu; film), 260-62, 266
397
"March of the Volunteers" ( Yiyong jun jinxing qu; national anthem), 330 Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937), 10, 249, 264 Market ofthe Living and the Dead (Shi sha to seisha ni ichi; Yi), 350-52 Martyrs, sacrifices to, 173-74 Marxism: in China, 224-25 , 227 ; and Korea, 192; and Mao Zedong, 242n. 66 Ma Shih-tsan (Ma Shizheng), 259 Matsuda Osama, 35 Matsuoka Yosuke, 102 Maut t'aeja, 207 May, Henry, 191 May Fourth movement, 217-23, 230 "Measures on the Management of the Taiwanese" (Ttaiwanren guanli banfa}, 295 Media, 3-6 , 81n. 88; and Hanzu iden tity, 65-66; and history, 1 9 1 ; and identity, 2, 3-6; in Shanghai, 318, 324 Medieval Shinto, 18-19 Meg Jiang (legendary heroine), 334 Meij i Restoration, 6 , 7 . See aLso Horyiij i Mei Lanfang, 250 Meisner, Maurice, 218, 282 Memmi, Albert, 250-51 Mencius, 153 Meng huitou (Chen), 55 Meng Yue, 372-73 Middle Kingdom, 49-50. See aLso China Middleton, Richard, 332 Militarism: in China, 175; in Korea, 192; of Yuan Shikai, 1 64 Mimi zhi yin (decadent sounds), 327 Mindan (Korean organization), 343 Mingbao (newspaper), 302-6 Ming dynasty, 3 1 , 93, 95 Ming Taizu, 57, 60 Minjung movement, 1 92, 193, 194, 195
398
398 Index
Minzoku (ethnic nation), 6, 95, 101-
3, 105-6, 112n. 57; compared to
kokumin, 90-91, 95, 109n. 17
Minzoku jiketsu (ethnic national self-
determination), 98
Minzoku to bunka (Komtasu), 112n.
57
Mitchell, W. J. T., 133
Modern Girl, 369
Modernity, 121, 144n. 15, 190, 217-
18, 353; and Confucianism, 193-94;
in Korean literature, 197, 198, 203,
204; and separation from past, 117-
18, 122, 126
MOko Shitrai ekotoba (painting), 22
Monarchy: in Japan, 177; modern
function of, 176, 187n. 73
Mongols, 60, 94-95
Montesquieu, 78n. 11
Morality Society (Daodehui), 377-79
Motoori Norinaga, 134
Muir, Ramsay, 108n. 16
Mu Shiying, 247
Music Education (Yinyue jioayou;
magazine), 328
My Fathers (Wo di sige fuchin; Dai),
236
Myongdong Cathedral, 201
"My Views on Chastity" (Wozhi
jielieguan; Lu), 378
Nagasaki, 21
Naipaul, V. S., 353-54, 357n. 21
Nakamura Kyushiro, 99, 107-8n. 5;
on ethnicity of China, 93-97; on
Far East, 87-92. See also
Nakayama Kei
Nakamura Tekisai, 4, 33-34
Nakano Seiichi, 105-6
Index
Minzoku (ethnic nation), 6, 95, 1013, 105-6, 1 12n. 57; compared to kokumin, 90-91 , 95 , 109n. 17 Minzoku jiketsu (ethnic national self determination), 98 Minzoku to bunka (Komtasu), 1 12n. 57 Mitchell, W. 1. T. , 133 Modern Girl, 369 Modernity, 1 2 1 , 144n. 1 5 , 190, 21718, 353; and Confucianism, 193-94; in Korean literature, 197, 1 98, 203 , 204; and separation from past, 1 1718, 122, 126 Moko Shilrai ekotoba (painting), 22 Monarchy: in Japan, 1 77; modern function of, 176, 187n. 73 Mongols, 60, 94-95 Montesquieu, 78n. 1 1 Morality Society (Daodehui), 377-79 Motoori Norinaga, 134 Muir, Ramsay, 108n. 16 Mu Shiying, 247 Music Education ( Yinyue jioayou; magazine), 328 My Fathers (Wo di sige fuchin; Dai), 236 Myongdong Cathedral, 201 "My Views on Chastity" (Wozhi jielieguan; Lu) , 378
Nakayama Kei, 99, 100, 107-8n. 5.
See also Nakamura Kyushiro
Name of the Rose (Eco), 205-6
Namin faction, 206-7
Nanban bijutsu (Nishimura), 43n. 43
Nanyang Productions, 252
Nanyue Studio, 252
Nara Exhibition, 124-25, 130
Nara period, 141, 146n. 41
Narratives, Chinese, 49-50, 61-63,
65-67, 70, 375-80; by Kamei
Kan'ichiro, 103-5; by Uchida
Ryohei, 97-98. See also Nakamura
Kyashiro
Nation, elements of, 108-9n. 16
Nation, ethnic: concept of, 106; and
race, 91-92; and relationship to
state, 101-2, 106
National Day celebrations, 157, 165
National Defense Music (Guofang
yinyue), 332
National Essence Journal (Guocui
xuebao), 70
Nationalism, 1-2, 383n. 21; in China,
178, 179, 224-26; and democracy,
219-20; in East Asia, 1, 87-92,
102-7; ethnic vs. state, 178; Indian,
362; models of, 90, 108n. 12; nation
vs. state, 86
Nationalism, ethnic: as critique of im-
perialism, 96-97, 100-101, 102-4;
Nagasaki, 21 NaipauI, V. S . , 353-54, 357n. 21 Nakamura Kyushiro, 99, 107-8n. 5 ; on ethnicity o f China, 93-97 ; on Far East, 87-92. See also Nakayama Kei Nakamura Tekisai, 4, 33-34 Nakano Seiichi, 105-6 Nakayama Kei, 99, 100, 107-8n. 5 . See also Nakamura Kyushiro Name of the Rose (Eco), 205-6 Namin faction, 206-7 Nanban bijutsu (Nishimura), 43n. 43 Nanyang Productions, 252 Nanyue Studio, 252
Nara Exhibition, 124-25, 130 Nara period, 141, 146n. 41 Narratives, Chinese, 49-50, 61-63, 65-67, 70, 375-80; by Kamei Kan'ichiro , 103-5 ; by Uchida Ryohei, 97-98. See also Nakamura Kyushiro Nation, elements of, 108-9n. 16 Nation, ethnic: concept of, 106; and race, 91-92; and relationship to state, 101-2, 106 National Day celebrations, 157, 165 National Defense Music (Guofang yinyue), 332 National Essence Journal (Guocui xuebao), 70 Nationalism, 1-2 , 383n. 2 1 ; in China, 178, 1 79, 224-26; and democracy, 219-20; in East Asia, 1 , 87-92, 102-7; ethnic vs. state, 178; Indian, 362; models of, 90, 108n. 12; nation vs. state, 86 Nationalism, ethnic: as critique of im perialism, 96-97, 100-101, 102-4; in East Asia, 102-3 ; in Japan, 101, 1 12-1 3n. 66; in Korea, 98-1 00; and World War I , 1 10n. 43 Nationalist Overseas Chinese Commis sion, 258 Nations of the Far East (Nakamura), 5-6 , 87-92, 97 Nation-state: authenticity of, 366-69; and history, 359-62; and presuppo sition of history over people, 36667; symbols of, 367-68 Nazi Theory of National Defense Eco nomics (Nachisu kokubo keizai ron; Kamei), 1 12-13n. 66 Nendaiki shin-e sho (panopticon), 30, 31 New Century (Xing Shiji; journal) , 73 New Culture movement, 322-23 New Woman (Xin nuxing; film), 33435 New Youth (Xin Qingnian; maga zine), 221 , 224
Index
Index
399
Ng Chor-fan, 253, 259, 264, 265, 267
Nhxuebao (journal), 379
Nie Er, 319, 328, 329-30, 336n. 4
Nihon shoki (Taro et al.), 19, 129,
134, 141
Ninagawa Noritane, 121-26
Nineteenth Century, a History: The
Times of Queen Victoria (Mac-
kenzie), 51
Nishikawa Joken, 31-32
Nishimura Tei, 43n. 43
Nixon, Rob, 353-54
Nkosi, Lewis, 352-53
Noron faction, 206-7
North Korea, 351
Nostalgia: role of, in formation of
identity, 6-9
No T'aewu (Roh Tae Woo), 208-9
Office of the Eighth Route Army,
258, 259, 275n. 50
Okakura Tenshin (KakuzO), 118, 127,
129-32, 141
Ng Chor-fan, 253, 259, 264, 265 , 267 Nhxuebao ( journal), 379 Nie Er, 319, 328, 329-30, 336n. 4 Nihon shoki (Taro et al. ) , 19, 129, 1 34, 141 Ninagawa Noritane, 121-26 Nineteenth Century, a History: The Times of Queen Victoria (Mac kenzie), 51 Nishikawa Joken, 31-32 Nishimura Tei, 43n. 43 Nixon, Rob, 353-54 Nkosi, Lewis, 352-53 Noron faction, 206-7 North Korea, 351 Nostalgia: role of, in formation of identity, 6-9 No T'aewu (Roh Tae Woo) , 208-9
Okinawa Prefecture, 37n. 6
Omura Sumitada, 21
On Evolution (Darwin), 53
On the People's Democratic Dictator-
ship (Mao), 226
Opium War, 49, 263
Orientalism: Japanese, 65-66, 70;
Western, 66-67
Orientalism (Said), 66
Osborne, Peter, 118, 144n. 15
Otherness, 2-3, 4
Ozaki Hotsumi, 101
Pageantry, 156-57
Pak Ch6nghui (Park Chung Hee), 192
Paolo (Catholic convert), 37n. 7
Paradise of the Solitary Island (Gudao
tiantang; film), 260
Park Chung Hee (Pak Ch6nghui), 192
Path6 Records (Shanghai Baidai
changpian gongsi), 336n. 1
Patriarchy: in China, 12, 318, 369-73;
in India, 371
Patriotic Mobilization Office (Komin
Office of the Eighth Route Army, 258, 259, 275n. 50 Okakura Tenshin (Kakuzo) , 1 18, 127, 129-32, 141 Okinawa Prefecture, 37n. 6 O mura Sumitada, 21 On Evolution (Darwin), 53 On the People's Democratic Dictator ship (Mao) , 226 Opium War, 49, 263 Orientalism: Japanese, 65-66, 70; Western, 66-67 Orientalism (Said), 66 Osborne, Peter, 1 1 8, 144n. 15 Otherness, 2-3 , 4 Ozaki Hotsumi, 101
hoko undo), 285
Patriotic Youth Corps, 266
Peace or War East of Baikal (Harri-
son), 89
"Peach Blossom River" (Taohua
jiang; song), 322, 335
Peng Pai, 227
Peng Yannong, 257-58, 259
People's Anthem Society (Minzhong
geyonghui), 332
Pocock, J. G. A., 363-64
Pop Star Pictorial (Gexing huabao;
magazine), 325
Postone, Moishe, 383n. 16
Power: and political ritual, 152, 156,
176
Practical learning, 194, 202-3
"Prosecution Yamen" (Mingbao),
303-4
"Punishing War Profiteers" (Chenga
zhangzheng lide she; Mingbao),
302-3
Pye, Lucian, 238
Qian Zhuanfei, 232
Pageantry, 156-57 Pak Chonghui (Park Chung Hee) , 192 Paolo (Catholic convert), 37n. 7 Paradise of the Solitary Island (Gudao tiantang; film), 260 Park Chung Hee (Pak Chonghui), 192 Pathe Records (Shanghai Baidai changpian gongsi), 336n. 1 Patriarchy: in China, 12, 318, 369-73; in India, 371
399
Patriotic Mobilization Office (Komin hoko undo), 285 Patriotic Youth Corps, 266 Peace or War East of Baikal (Harri son) , 89 "Peach Blossom River" ( Taohua jiang; song), 322, 335 Peng Pai, 227 Peng Yannong, 257-58, 259 People's Anthem Society (Minzhong geyonghui), 332 Pocock, 1. G. A . , 363-64 Pop Star Pictorial ( Gexing huabao; magazine), 325 Postone, Moishe, 383n. 16 Power: and political ritual, 152, 156, 176 Practical learning, 1 94, 202-3 "Prosecution Yamen" (Mingbao), 303-4 "Punishing War Profiteers" (Chenga zhangzheng lide she; Mingbao), 302-3 Pye, Lucian, 238 Qian Zhuanfei, 232 Qing dynasty, 3 1 , 49, 1 66, 282, 3 1 1n. 1; collapse of, 151, 158-59, 1 6 1 ; loss o f belief i n authority of, 155; rituals of, 1 50, 162, 1 69; and state nationalism, 178 Qiu Niantai, 288, 292, 298-300 Qu Qibai, 225 Rabasa, Jose, 49 Racism, 218-19, 251 , 263, 265, 273n. 29 Rakuchil rakugai-zu byobu (Funaki; painting), 24 Rakuchil rakugai-zu byobu (Okayama; painting), 24 Rakuchil rakugai-zu byobu (Uesugi; painting), 24 Rationality, relationship to spiritual ity, 199-200
400
400
Index
Records of the Historian (Sima Qian),
327
Rectification of history movement
(Yoksa paro chapki), 208-9
"Regulations for the Punishment of
Hanjian" (Hanjian shenpan tiaoli;
Chinese Army), 289, 295, 296
"Regulations for the Punishment of
War Criminals" (Zhangzheng
zuifan shepan tiaoli; Chinese
Army), 291
Reinsch, Paul, 166-67, 171
Renan, Ernest, 108-9n. 16, 196, 359,
361-62
Renxue (Tan), 54
Resolution 32, 279, 311n. 3
Resolution Committee, 279
Return to the Homeland (Hui Zuguo
qu; film), 264
Revolutionary Army (Geming jun;
Zhou), 53, 55
Revolution of 1911, 8, 79-80n. 46,
150-51; political rituals of, 158-65.
See also Wuchang Uprising
Ricci, Matteo, 26
Richard, Timothy, 78n. 16
Ricoeur, Paul, 63, 364
Ri Kaisei. See Yi Hoe-song
Rituals, political (China), 149-82,
183n. 1; and identity, 165, 180; in-
ternational context of, 175-76; and
officialization, 157-58; pageantry
of, 156-57; and power, 152, 156,
176; purposes of, 155-57, 177, 180-
82; of the Revolution of 1911, 158-
65; and worship of war martyrs,
173-74; of Yuan Shikai, 151-52.
See also Double Ten celebrations
Roaring Metropolis (play), 228
Roh Tae Woo (No T'aewu), 208-9
Romance at the Dance Hall (Wuchang
chunse; film), 324
Romance of the Opera Stars (Genu
qingcao; film), 267
Ronnins, 284
Ross, Edward Alsworth, 96, 109-
10n. 37
Ruifang forces, 286
Rulership, models of, 150
Russo-Japanese War, 86
Ryukyu, 43n. 42
Saito Makoto, 98
Sam Ho, 327, 332
Sancai tuhui (encyclopedia), 32-33
Sangoku (three realms), 18-20
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 249
Sekai chizu byObu (panopticon),
29-30
Sekino Tadashi, 141
Self-sacrifice, 371, 384-85n. 36
"Semantic hybridity," 48
Senkaku Island, 37n. 6
Shanghai, 249, 250, 255
Shanjaijing (archaic Chinese text), 27,
29
Shen Xue, 72
Shen Yuwen, 64
Shina, 66. See also Zhongguo
Shinkoku (Divine Land), 19
Index
Records of the Historian (Sima Qian), 327 Rectification of history movement (Yoksa paro chapki), 208-9 "Regulations for the Punishment of Hanj ian" (Hanjian shenpan tiaoli; Chinese Army) , 289, 295 , 296 "Regulations for the Punishment of War Criminals" (Zhangzheng mifan shepan tiaoli; Chinese Army) , 291 Reinsch, Paul, 166-67 , 171 Renan, Ernest, 108-9n . 16, 196, 359, 361 -62 Renxue (Tan), 54 Resolution 32, 279, 3 1 1 n. 3 Resolution Committee, 279 Return to the Homeland (Hui Zuguo qu; film), 264 Revolutionary Army ( Geming jun; Zhou) , 53, 55 Revolution of 1 9 1 1 , 8, 79-80n. 46, 150-5 1 ; political rituals of, 158-65 . See also Wuchang Uprising Ricci, Matteo, 26 Richard, Timothy, 78n. 16 Ricoeur, Paul, 63, 364 Ri Kaisei. See Yi Hoe-song Rituals, political (China), 149-82, 1 83n. 1 ; and identity, 165 , 1 80; in ternational context of, 175-76; and officialization, 157-58; pageantry of, 156-57; and power, 1 52, 156, 176; purposes of, 155-57, 177, 18082; of the Revolution of 191 1 , 15865; and worship of war martyrs, 173-74; of Yuan Shikai, 151-52. See also Double Ten celebrations Roaring Metropolis (play) , 228 Roh Tae Woo (No T'aewu), 208-9 Romance at the Dance Hall ( Wuchang chunse; film) , 324 Romance of the Opera Stars (Genu qingcao; film), 267 Ronnins, 284
Ross, Edward Alsworth, 96, 109IOn. 37 Ruifang forces, 286 Rulership, models of, 150 Russo-Japanese War, 86 Ryukyu , 43n. 42 Saito Makoto, 98 Sam Ho, 327, 332 Sancai tuhui (encyclopedia) , 32-33 Sangoku (three realms), 18-20 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 249 Sekai chizu byobu (panopticon) , 29-30 Sekino Tadashi, 141 Self-sacrifice, 371 , 384-85n. 36 "Semantic hybridity," 48 Senkaku Island, 37n. 6 Shanghai, 249, 250, 255 Shanjaijing (archaic Chinese text), 27, 29 Shen Xue, 72 Shen Yuwen, 64 Shina, 66. See also Zhongguo Shinkoku (Divine Land) , 19 Shintan , 18 Shinto, 7 , 18-19, 177 Shitennoji (temple), 134-35, 140, 141 Shiwu bao (newspaper), 65-66, 72 Shokunin ezukushi (encyclopedia), 32 Shokunin uta awase (encyclopedia) , 32 Shosoin (temple), 122-25 Shotoku Taishi, 22, 1 19 Shotoku Taishi eden (pictorial biography) , 22 Silverberg, Miriam, 369 Sin Ch'aeho, 98-99, 1 92-93 "Sing-Song Girl at the Ends of the Earth" ( Tianya genu; song) , 333 Sing-song girls (genii), 317-36, 336n. 3; creation of, 321-24; fetishization of, 333; and left-wing music move ment, 332-35 ; and media culture, 318; and the star system, 324-27 ,
Index
Index
401
332; symbolism of, 11, 319, 327,
329, 330-31; vulnerability of, 326-
27, 329
"Sing-Song Girl under the Iron Hoof"
(Tieti xia de genu; song), 329
Sino-Japanese War, 65, 86, 100
Sit Gok-sin (Xue Juexiang), 253, 259,
266
Situ Huimin, 258, 260
Six Classics, 206
Six Dynasties, 132
Smith, Anthony D., 90
Snow, Helen Foster, 352
"Soap" (Lu), 373-75, 378
Social Darwinism, 50, 53-56
Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge, 50
Society for the Promotion of Learning
(Guangxue hui), 51, 65
Society of Jesus. See Jesuits
Song Jiaoren, 62
Song of Ariran (Kim and Snow), 352
Song of Everlasting Regret (Changhen
zhi ge; film), 339n. 37
Song of Exile (Liuwang zhe zhi ge;
film), 266
"Song of National Salvation" (Jiuguo
zhi ge; song), 335
Song of righteousness (Chenqi ge;
film). See March of the Guerilla
"Song of the Dance Hall" (Wuxie zhi
ge; song), 335
"Song of the Seasons" (Siji ge; song),
333
Song of Youth (Mo), 235
Song period, 94
Soren (Korean organization), 343,
345
Sorge, Richard, 101
Soviet Union, 100, 101, 104, 196,
227-28
Special Law 63, 283, 284, 311n. 12
Spengemann, W. C., 353
Spirituality, and rationality, 199-200
Stalin, I. V., 108n. 16, 196
State, Identity, and the National Ques-
tion in China and Japan (Hoston),
216
Steele, M. William, 37n. 9
Story of the Romans (Shiono), 209,
214n. 64
Street Angel (Malu tianshi; film),
332-34
"Structures of feeling," 191-92
Struggle Troupe of He Long's army,
233
Subao (journal), 379
Subao case, 69
Suga Masatomo, 141
Suiko period (552-645), 129, 139-40,
141
Sumiyoshi Daimyojin (god), 22,
23-24
Sun Yat-sen, 67, 100, 151, 158, 161
Sun Yu, 323
"Sweet Osmanthus of August"
(song), 228
Tachibana Shiraki, 102
Taiwan, 279-310; anti-Japanese senti-
332; symbolism of, 1 1 , 319, 327, 329, 330-3 1 ; vulnerability of, 32627, 329 "Sing-Song Girl under the Iron Hoof" ( Tieti xia de genu; song) , 329 Sino-Japanese War, 65, 86, 100 Sit Gok-sin (Xue Juexiang), 253, 259, 266 Situ Huimin, 258, 260 Six Classics, 206 Six Dynasties, 132 Smith, Anthony D . , 90 Snow, Helen Foster, 352 "Soap" (Lu), 373-75, 378 Social Darwinism, 50, 53-56 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 50 Society for the Promotion of Learning (Guangxue hui), 5 1 , 65 Society of Jesus. See Jesuits Song Jiaoren, 62 Song of Ariran (Kim and Snow), 352 Song of Everlasting Regret (Changhen zhi ge; film), 339n. 37 Song of Exile (Liuwang zhe zhi ge; film), 266 "Song of National Salvation" (Jiuguo zhi ge; song), 335 Song of righteousness ( Chenqi ge; film). See March of the Guerilla "Song of the Dance Hall" (Wuxie zhi ge; song), 335 "Song of the Seasons" (Siji ge; song), 333 Song of Youth (Mo), 235 Song period, 94 Soren (Korean organization), 343, 345 Sorge, Richard, 101 Soviet Union, 100, 101, 104, 196, 227-28 Special Law 63, 283, 284, 31 1n. 12 Spengemann, W. c . , 353 Spirituality, and rationality, 199-200 Stalin, I . V. , 108n. 16, 196
401
State, Identity, and the National Ques tion in China and Japan (Hoston), 216 Steele, M. William, 37n. 9 Story of the Romans (Shiono), 209, 214n. 64 Street Angel (Malu tianshi; film), 332-34 "Structures of feeling," 191 -92 Struggle Troupe of He Long's army, 233 Subao (journal), 379 Subao case, 69 Suga Masatomo, 141 Suiko period (552-645), 129, 139-40, 141 Sumiyoshi Daimyojin (god), 22, 23-24 Sun Yat-sen, 67, 100, 1 5 t 1 58, 1 61 Sun Yu, 323 "Sweet Osmanthus of August" (song), 228
Tachibana Shiraki, 102 Taiwan, 279-310; anti-Japanese senti ment of, 285 , 286; and assimilation by Japan, 282-83 , 286-87, 289-90, 306; and China, 279-80, 288, 3067; democracy in, 283; intelligentsia of, 282-84; marginalization of, 294; and occupation by Japan, 279, 281 , 282-83 ; war profiteers of, 302-4, 307-8 ; and World War II, 284-88. See also Identity, Taiwanese; Hanjian Taiwanese nationalist movement, 284 Taiwan Garrison Command, 295, 300, 305-6, 313n. 48 Taiwan Republic (anti-Japanese politi cal body) , 281 Taiwan Volunteers (Taiwan yiyong dui), 288, 312n. 27 Taixi xinshi lanyao (Richard), 51 Takata Yasuma, 105 Takeshima Island, 37n. 6
402
402 Index
Talks at the Ya'an Forum on Litera-
ture and Art (Mao), 230-31
Tanaka, Stefan, 7, 66, 98
Tang Caichang, 67
Tang Hualong, 172
Tang Jingsong, 281
Tang period, 94
Tanjong aesa, 207
Tan Sitong, 54
Tasan (Ch6ng Yagyong), 191, 197,
198; fictional portrayal of, 202-5;
symbolism of, 199-200, 201
Temple and Altar of Heaven, 160,
171, 172
Temple of the Righteous (yimin
miao), 310
Tenjiku, 18, 38n. 12, 38n. 13
Terashima Ryoan, 34
Thief Prince (Zei wangzi; film), 266
Thousand Character Classic (Ch'ien
Tzu Wen; Chou), 23
Tiandi Hui, 282
Tian Han, 329-30
Tianxia (realm under heaven), 49-50,
52
Time, concepts of, 364, 382n. 15,
383n. 16
Toby, Ronald P., 4
Todorov, Tzvetan, 40n. 25
To Expand the Red Army (opera),
233
T'ojong pigyol, 209
Tokugawa Ieyasu, 119
Tokutomo Soho, 96
Tonga Ilbo (newspaper), 207
Tongui pogam, 209
Tongzhi Restoration (1861), 364
TOsei eden (painting), 22
To the Ancestral Land (Kokoku kO;
Kim), 344-47
Toyo, 6, 68
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 19, 21, 119
Traitor Extermination Corps, 302
Treaty of Shimonoseki, 311n. 1
Trinh Minh-ha, 270
Tuveson, Ernest, 191
Twelve Sickles (Yangee juxuan; op-
era), 229
Twenty-four Dynastic Histories, 52,
61
Two Lovers in a Silver World (Yinhai
yaunyang; film), 265
Two Southern Sisters (Nanguo Jiemei
hua; film), 267-70
Uchida Masao, 121, 123, 124
Uchida Ryihei, 97-98
United China Photoplay (Lianhua
yingye gongsi), 324
"Universal Principle of Dating"
(Jinian gongli; Liang), 63
Voice of Labor (magazine), 223-24
Volcano Island (KazantO; Kim), 344,
345
Wagacho, 38n. 12. See also Japan
Wakagusadera (temple), 141
Wakan sansai zue (encyclopedia), 34
Wang Jingwei, 55, 56, 95, 287, 370-71
Wang Qiming, 237
Wang Renmei, 317, 323, 332-33
Index
Talks at the Ya'an Forum on Literature and A rt (Mao) , 230-31 Tanaka, Stefan, 7 , 66, 98 Tang Caichang, 67 Tang Hualong, 172 Tang Jingsong, 281 Tang period, 94 Tanjong aesa, 207 Tan Sitong, 54 Tasan (Chong Yagyong), 1 9 1 , 1 97, 1 98; fictional portrayal of, 202-5 ; symbolism of, 199-200, 201 Temple and Altar of Heaven, 160, 171 , 172 Temple of the Righteous (yimin miao), 310 Tenjiku, 18, 38n. 12, 38n. 13 Terashima Ry6an, 34 Thief Prince (Zei wangz i; film) , 266 Thousand Character Classic ( Ch 'ien Tzu Wen; Chou), 23 Tiandi Hui, 282 Tian Han, 329-30 Tianxia (realm under heaven), 49-50, 52 Time, concepts of, 364, 382n. 1 5 , 383n. 16 Toby, Ronald P. , 4 Todorov, Tzvetan, 40n. 25 To Expand the Red A rmy (opera) , 233 T'ojong pigyol, 209 Tokugawa Ieyasu, 1 19 Tokutomo Soh6 , 96 Tonga Ilbo (newspaper) , 207 Tongui pogam, 209 Tongzhi Restoration (1861), 364 Tasei eden (painting), 22 To the Ancestral Land (Kokoku ka; Kim), 344-47 Taya, 6 , 68 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 19, 2 1 , 1 1 9 Traitor Extermination Corps, 302 Treaty of Shimonoseki, 3l ln. 1 Trinh Minh-ha, 270 Tuveson, Ernest, 191
Twelve Sickles ( Yangee juxuan; op era), 229 Twenty-four Dynastic Histories, 52, 61 Two Lovers in a Silver World ( Yinhai yaunyang; film), 265 Two Southern Sisters (Nanguo Jiemei hua; film) , 267-70
Uchida Masao, 1 2 1 , 123, 124 Uchida Ry6hei, 97-98 United China Photoplay (Lianhua yingye gongsi), 324 "Universal Principle of Dating" (Jinian gongli; Liang) , 63 Voice of Labor (magazine), 223-24 Volcano Island (Kazanta; Kim) , 344, 345
Wagach6, 38n. 12. See also Japan Wakagusadera (temple), 141 Wakan sansai zue (encyclopedia) , 34 Wang Jingwei, 55, 56, 95, 287, 370-71 Wang Qiming, 237 Wang Renmei, 317, 323, 332-33 Wanjin buqiuren (encyclopedia) , 32 Wankoku (geographical framework), 4 War criminals: defined, 291 -93, 313n. 38; and imbalance of justice and personal sentiments, 293-94; and relationship between military rank and moral responsibility, 285, 292, 293-94, 312n. 18. See also Hanjian Watsuji Tetsur6 , 142-43 Weber, Eugene, 15-16 Wei Yuan, 50, 67 White-Haired Girl (opera), 231 , 234 Wilde, Oscar, 222 Williams, Raymond, 191 -92 Wilson, Woodrow, 1 l0n. 43 Winnichakul, Thongchai, 16, 360 Women: authenticity of, 12, 370-72; and China, 368-69, 370-73; fe tishization of, 323-24, 325; repre-
Index
Index
403
sentation of, 368-69; and symbol-
ism in film, 260-61; and symbols of
tradition within modernity, 373-79
Wong Kee-chee, 331
World, 63, 67; Eurocentric scheme of,
49-50
World Bank, 210-11n. 2
World order, 104-5
World Revolution, Leninist concept
of, 225
World War I, 89-90, 110n. 43
World War II, 249, 284-88
Worship of Heaven, 169-72, 175
Worship of the Righteous (yimin),
310
Wuchang Uprising (1911), 96, 151,
159, 161. See also Revolution of
1911
Wu Chufang, 253, 259, 264, 265, 267
Wu Dip-ying (Hu Dieying), 267
Wu Tingfang, 161
Wu Yu, 218
Wu Zhihui, 73
Wu Zhuoliu, 287, 310, 315n. 98,
321n. 14
Xavier, Francisco, 20, 37n. 7
Xianggang Zhongguo dianying bihui
(Chinese cinema award), 259
Xiao Hong, 369
Xiao Youmei, 336-37n. 6
Xilai Temple revolt (1915), 282
Xinmin congbao (journal), 54, 61-62
sentation of, 368-69; and symbol ism in film, 260-61 ; and symbols of tradition within modernity, 373-79 Wong Kee-chee, 331 World, 63, 67; Eurocentric scheme of, 49-50 World Bank, 210-1 1n. 2 World order, 104-5 World Revolution, Leninist concept of, 225 World War 1 , 89-90, 1 10n. 43 World War II, 249, 284-88 Worship of Heaven, 169-72, 175 Worship of the Righteous (yimin), 310 Wuchang Uprising (191 1 ) , 96, 1 5 1 , 159, 1 6 1 . See also Revolution of 1911 Wu Chufang, 253, 259, 264, 265 , 267 Wu Dip-ying (Hu Dieying), 267 Wu Tingfang, 161 Wu Yu, 218 Wu Zhihui, 73 Wu Zhuoliu, 287, 310, 3 15n. 98, 321n. 14
Xinsheng Film Company, 260
Xuefu chuanbian (encyclopedia),
32-33
Xue Juexiang, 253, 259, 266
Xu Hao, 258-59, 264, 266
Xu Xingzhi, 330-31
Yahiro (Catholic convert), 37n. 7
Yakushi nyOrai (Horyiji icon), 125
Yan Fu, 53-54
Yangee movement, 231
Yang Lianggong, 297
Yang Mo, 223
Yang Zhaojia, 298
Yan Hua, 336n. 1
Yan Meng, 255-56, 258
Yao Li, 317, 326
Yao Min, 336n. 1
Yazhou, 6, 67-69
Xavier, Francisco, 20, 37n. 7 Xianggang Zhongguo dianying bihui (Chinese cinema award), 259 Xiao Hong, 369 Xiao Youmei, 336-37n. 6 Xilai Temple revolt (1915), 282 Xinmin congbao (journal), 54, 61-62 Xinsheng Film Company, 260 Xuefu chuanbian (encyclopedia), 32-33 Xue Juexiang, 253, 259, 266 Xu Hao, 258-59, 264, 266 Xu Xingzhi, 330-31
Ye Rongzhong, 308
Yi Hoe-song, 11, 350-52
Yi Inmong (fictional character), 206
Yi Kwang-su, 99, 347
Yilin (magazine), 257, 259
Yisheng (magazine), 325
Yi Yang-ji, 346-50
Yongjo, King, 206
Yoshino Sakuzo, 96
Young Newcomer in the Organization
Department (Wang), 235-36
Your Unfilial Son is Weeping (Pulhoya
nun upnida), 209-10
Yuan dynasty, 95
Yuan Shikai, 8, 166, 179, 183n. 5;
birthday ritual of, 166; combining
tradition and modernity in rituals,
169-70, 174-75; and Confucianism,
168, 169, 172-73, 177-78; and Dou-
Yahiro (Catholic convert), 37n. 7 Yakushi nyorai (Horyilji icon) , 125 Yan Fu, 53-54 Yangee movement, 231 Yang Lianggong, 297 Yang Mo, 223
403
Yang Zhaojia, 298 Yan Hua, 336n. 1 Yan Meng, 255-56, 258 Yao Li, 3 17, 326 Yao Min, 336n. 1 Yazhou, 6, 67-69 Ye Rongzhong, 308 Yi Hoe-song, 1 1 , 350-52 Yi Inmong (fictional character), 206 Yi Kwang-su, 99, 347 Yilin (magazine), 257, 259 Yisheng (magazine), 325 Yi Yang-ji, 346-50 Yongjo, King, 206 Yoshino Sakuzo, 96 Young Newcomer in the Organization Department (Wang) , 235-36 Your Unfilial Son is Weeping (Pulhoya nun upnida), 209-10 Yuan dynasty, 95 Yuan Shikai, 8 , 1 66, 179, 1 83n. 5 ; birthday ritual of, 1 66; combining tradition and modernity in rituals, 169-70, 174-75 ; and Confucianism, 1 68, 169, 172-73, 177-78; and Dou ble Ten celebrations, 158-61 , 16364, 165, 1 8 1 ; dynastic ambitions of, 168, 174; generalissimo attire of, 162-63; inauguration of, 161-63; political rituals of, 151-52, 166-75 ; revolts against, 161, 163, 168; and Worship of Heaven, 1 69-72; and worship of martyrs, 173-74 Yl1bi, 131-32 Yue Fei, 173-74 "Yuhi" (Yi), 347-49, 356-57n. 10, 357n. 1 1 Yumedono (compound of Horyilji), 128-29 Yushin regime, 192 Zarrow, Peter, 7-8 Zhang Binglin, 63, 64, 67, 80n. 58; anti-Manchu writings of, 5, 54-55, 56, 57-58; on Chinese culture, 697 1 ; on language, 72-73
404
404
Index
Zhang Fakui, 300-301
Zhang Jian, 58-59
Zhang Shenwei, 296, 297, 300
Zhang Wentian, 220, 222
Zhang Zhang, 322, 324
Zhao Shutai (Chiu Shutai), 266, 267
Zhao Suisheng, 216, 238
Zheng Chenggong (Coxinga), 95, 282
Zheng Guanying, 68
Zheng Lie, 298
Zhongguo, 6, 50, 55, 66, 74
Zhongxing (race), 57-58
Zhou Li, 237
Zhou Rong, 53, 69
Zhou Xuan, 317, 332, 339n. 37
Zhou Yang, 231, 233
Zhuang Sichuan, 290-91
Zhu Xi, 203
Zhu Yuanzhang, 95
Zito, Angela, 183n. 1
Index
Zhang Fakui, 300-301 Zhang Jian, 58-59 Zhang Shenwei, 296, 297, 300 Zhang Wentian, 220, 222 Zhang Zhang, 322, 324 Zhao Shutai (Chiu Shutai), 266, 267 Zhao Suisheng, 216, 238 Zheng Chenggong (Coxinga), 95, 282 Zheng Guanying, 68 Zheng Lie, 298
Zhongguo, 6, 50, 5 5 , 66, 74 Zhongxing (race) , 57-58 Zhou Li, 237 Zhou Rong, 53, 69 Zhou Xuan, 317, 332, 339n. 37 Zhou Yang, 231 , 233 Zhuang Sichuan, 290-91 Zhu Xi, 203 Zhu Yuanzhang, 95 Zito, Angela, 1 83n. 1