Confucian Ethics in Retrospect and Prospect

3Cimllly COmCS from the book of /t;{endus where it SII)'S.

Now things of the s.•tmc kind arc all nlil\c. Why should \\C have doubas "hen it comes to m:~ n '! Tltc s:'lge and I are of the same kind .. .. Should hearts pro\'c to be ;m exception by posscssi11g nothing in CQmmon'! What is common 10 all hearts'! Re-ason nod rightness. The s:1ge is simply the mO\n uus common c Icmcnt .m my hcart. " I•trst to d'LSCO\'Ct ••' o\li.Ji.l"l !l?i.r, . J)l ~llf!:( \!!.. ~o;r ·!~ol?i\ ~A i(:j liA! Z. ? 'I'(MJ.! ~~

I••HJ'i
:l'l~l: II.! r.1 t!!.

11'1 A;t t:Jft

•f.•.(:fTrfuJt-'\ IL Howcn:r. in this passage Mcncius is not talking shout fellow discipleship: he is indeed m:1ki.ng a unh·crs:Jl claim that the S<J.gcs ~nd all other human bdngs nrc of the same kind in tcm1s of their minds wherein "reason and rightness.. lie. In other \\Ords. 1\'tencius defines " ler· in moral tenns in ~ univcrs-.listic way: he is not interested in arti.tic.:i:tl social boundaries here. And it is pr-ecisely this unique philosophicul undcrpinnins of lei that Zhu Xu" il.IHcd to introduce in his own intcqlrctation ofpeng. Zhu

of pt~ng \ \itS predic1ned on his Lhc entire first book of dtc Analects. whose csscnrial

Xi's

or

intcrprct~tion

undcrslanding meaning. he argued. focused on the idea of le~ming (rue .l}~). He expressed this most uncqui\·ocally \\ hen he summarized the gist of lhc first book as follows: "This is the- fi rsl hook or t_hc Analet·u·. so most of the sayings recorded center on the idc::1 of working on the fu n d;~mc n t. h is the gate lo entering into the WJy, :'Uid the. foun dation of the accumulation Of\·irtuc.s ~t

~ 8 :<:.tta. • •~• ~• *z.a . ~Am:<:. N. m•z. ~:" Else\\ here. he also said. "Thl~ book (i.e .• the lirst book of the AtUI/(!CISJ is. abo,·e all else. lo spell out the ooe fundament ~t -·[;lfol;tl!.$\:ilJi -f
15 Zhu Xi him:;cJI' oonl'c:,.,""-'\l lh:at he WtlS c..wit~J bc)Otltl \\ Nds wltcn h~! a.i a h.•cn;lgcr rc~d the line "The ~Jig<..-s und I t'r the ~me kmd·· in the ,\ le~tciuJ , l~C3U ~ he thought h-.: could bc,ome ll saec 3$ \\"~II. &'C l.t JtnsJ.::, Zlw:• )'llh!l. j mm JO.I. 7.26l l. itS n.c. J.,ou. tr., Mt:nciw~ Ol:tnnondsworth: r ...·nguin I3ouk:;, 1970), GA. 7.

r

164.

,. Zhu Xi. J.m~vu11jl:hu in Sl$'/m :lumg.Juji:ltrt, p.47. Zhu Xi, LJm: 1)'lfl<•i .jurm 21 ,2:488.

11

~ :\ nothcr Sons schobr l hcns Ruxic who W;:t:; a comcmporJJ)· senior to Zhu Xi ~ti :K.'I hc.l d the $11.1llC \ icw tctwrding the fin;~. cJmpM· (,_,f l h~ A.tm/e,·IJ'. s-;c Z.h.:.-ng Ruxic. Lmt)·'ll J I)"'JilW .JII fm I. in (lmdlng S#;,, lJtllmtdw , 199: 11 3

.!2

Just like Han Yu who disparnged book knowledge for its O\\ n s.akc. Zhu Xi. citing Yin Hcjing ;J I MI~!'; (106 1·1132). who was a student of Cllcng Yi. staled that ''learning refers to lc;nnins to be hum;;m. When one lcams to become a sage, one is simply practicing to the fullest the w:.y of

being humon

19i~Wii1~.

m!;!. 'i\1:\A tll.

INfo :rib!·~A.

iiJ:~;ii:lrli<JlA

2.UiifUe... $0 So. for Zhu Xi. learning goes beyond boot learning and should be intcgrntcd to the 'cry essence of one being humnn. As Donicl K. Gardner sums il up most succinctly. ··1,..caming - defining it and tran.~mitting it-- nas: at lhc hc3rt ofChu Hsi's IZhu Xi's:)lifelong miss-ion." 31 To Zhu Xi. authentic learning can only be found in Confueion ICout the sage and l being of the same ki nd runs counter to the rclationship-b:tscd nature of pt.>ng :ts D:to Xi::m glossed it That is. fellow discipleship is possible onl~· \\ hen it is formed <'nd defined \\ith rcfcr.:ncc to a common mentor. Yet the Mend nn c laim attempts to break down :tU nnificinl distinctions bclwccn hum:tn beings nnd appeals only to their inn:ttc mornl wonh that is their common ontological ~cc Zhu Xi, "Oot /'.lmns Jingfu wennlu" ~i~fHjl :kl~~ FJ ("Rcsronsc--:: h> Zhang J in~fu 's Qucn,>$·'). l111iau j i l.fj J~m . j ua 11 32. in Qinding .~•ii/.;u $}

c)li(IIIJ/111. 11~3 : 71 8

*~ (;ardner, Lowrning w he a ."\(fb.'t' . p.l:l 81 Zhu Xt. ..Do Zhan~ Jingfu \ H ." llmu"' m Qi11diug SiL·11 qumulm, 11<13;? I fl. SJ Zlm Xi. J.m~vuu jlrlm. in his SisiiU :JumXJit jizlm. p.47. In his C()ilUUi.,Uary (In the litll! ming mmgtle 19JUJJt·~ (making •)nc ·~ Jum i ll(IUS \'iflul! rmullt'i..~l) itt the (Lr~t lihnptcr of the D<«ue 7::.*-. l.Jm Xi :sui..J. "The lcarn<.·r should build on l\ hilt he ha~ dis;xwcr<.'\1 (nl hi~ m(lraJ nature( wht.'1Cb~· he manil'csiS 11 :tnd J(.'(;.(l\'crs his orif!.tnal sta1C 'f~-(a·f.tllH &J1Hiliu J!Ijij~ l;.l1UJC 1JJ •· Sec his l'Ja\Wt: z/J(mj!jll A. ~!! ~t'} in Si.tlm :lumlfiujtrhu. p 47.

53

ground. h is difficult to imagine th:n Zhu Xi was not acutely aware of ll\is subvcrSi\'C nature of the Mcncian claim vis.Ji·Yis Bao Xian's time-hallowed

and historically informed gloss. On the other h:md. Zhu Xi wns nlso well prepared to substitute Bao Xinn·s historicnl gloss "ith the ri:1dically new tu\dcrstMding of pmg or his own. "Fellon' discipleship,.. as Zhu Xi undcrslood it. had now trnnsfonncd from a rcl:uion·spccific conccpl that ddi ncd the inLcrt)crsonal rcbtionship between tno indh·idu"-IS with reference to 1hcir common mcmor. 10 a quasi-metaphysical concept that

dcfmc.d hum:)n n."lturc. and prescribed the moral potcnli:t.litics or all humnn beings '' ith reference-to the perfected nature of tbc s~gcs. Zhu Xi warned his students ·'not to miss the imponam words when rc3ding 3 conuucntary;• :llld he proudly confessed tll3t he ··weighed C\'Cry ''ord he decided to use before com milling it t<> \\l'iting .lf fl:.fl~£14< . ;;J"~ Tifill 11 I' -~·•>
Just as liu Chang's hislorical concern was 10 rc'ive the aulhoriry of Confueinn mentorship in the c:~rty years of the Northern Song. Z.hu Xi's commentary rcnectt:d il quite different t>rcoccupat.ion peculiar to his own time in the first dccad" of the Southern Song ( 1127-1279). Aller NOfthcm Song Confuc-ians had struggled to institute educational reforms for one 3.Dd alutlf centuries, Confudan academics sp:." ned ~II over the tcrritmics of the Song empire. Aspiring scholars no longer needed to go into the mountains to study io seclusion or i:n r.nonasteriC'S. Siate-sponsorcd :teodcmics were all stan~cd with scholars of Confucian lcamjng \\bo scrl·cd as mentors for the stud"•nt_s. Thus 7.hu Xi was no longer preQC(;upicd with the reassert ion of the :tuthority of Confucian mcntorship. In f:tct, Zhu Xi confessed lh:n he did not n::olizc that there \\crc studcnls just r~bout l\\0 scncnuions before his lime who did no1 believe in their teachers unlit l1e l'e3d about il in 1he wor'-s of the Cheng brothers fi! t\;,}L}I}. ~~~ Zhu 's 3pparcnt ostonishnu:·-nt indicates

~· J.i Jmg(k·.. L/11d yulei. j rrnn 11. I: 192. ' ll)JS is o j)Osition that Zhu oflt.TI rcpc3tcd. Sec, f
X1

Lh:u the mnhorit\' of the Confucian teacher in his time was d rtuallv taken . for gr:mted.' . Meanwhile. C\'Cn as Confucian academics dolled nll OYer the country and the she<=r number of students '' ho were fello" disciples to one

'

another steadily increased. the ltlea of fellow disei p l e~h ip became familiari~ed eventually. 111 Jn comp::..rison to the strict obscr,·nnce of a unique lincas,c of textual transmission by all d iseiJJIC$ under a common .scriptlu'3 1 m:1ster in the Han period. physical mobility 3nd intellectual c~cbangc among students from different academics in Sons times rendered fe llow discipleship a kss fonnal and more flu id c.oncc.pt A special glos." to high light this commonplace relationship \\Ould then be as poinllcss as one

that glossed a common kinship term. If we look at Xing Bing ·s Jft')lA\ (932- 1010) co mmeJtt:try on Anale~Is kno"n as J.unyu :lmslut f:eMH;I:.V.t, which '"'s lhc sw.tc•sanctiom.·d standard commentary on the e l:ls.sic since the ye-ar of 91)9 in the Northern Song, we can clearly sec the Han·dynasly meaning of pens becoming obsolete in the tenth century. On Annlc•cr~· I. L Xing Bing considered pen~ :111d )OU to be different on]) in degree. not in kind, They both mean .. friend," As Xing put il. "'!'eng n.re (frie nds( that arc not close to us whereas yvu :nc Jfricnds J thot nrc intimate 10 us /VJJ1iffjfl:

tll .••,

~· Aubthcr war to Jook at the cstablislKxl t~uthorit~· and cultuml status of

the ConiUdun

l~
in lhc <tthem

!$(In~

is 10 ~tnai~"..:C lht.: di ;:i~;Ussi on of U1c

role of the tc.:tchcr by ~holors or the time. For insc:mcc, \Vu Ruyu ~'WH:U (tl m.id-1 }11' u:ntury ), composed OO I..'::iS.JY ca.lled "Shi.\lllt
ancr il:m Yu's f:mu.·d c:ssay of thc smnc litlc in \\hich he 3r~u"-..1 that :l te:t c h~.,­ ~al i flcd him self to be such on the basis of hi,_ le.:trning :end mor;~l chaf:'lcter. No"'hcrt m his cS)I.:)~' did he rcti-r lO the moral obligall(m (If the rcuch<.-r 10 tr:u.l :;mitthc Cm).fuciwl Wny. Thus we ca1' :;cc thut lht: c;-.:istcnlinl c:-.: i£CI'.\Cf of lhc No•tb(.11) Son~ to I"C.")tlrf'CCl lh~ c,mruci:IJl Way seems h~ have bu.:n quietly thsplaccd. Se<: Wu K u~·u, 'lh1m:h(li :tulwo ''\l.YlH:HSl,j"(m slums. m Qmdmg Si!·tJ f£:UI1!hu ..fo<J:IJ·14. . , hlf tnstancc. two hwu1tcJ thousaud cand1datc.s took J)rd..:dur:tl in the laTe IWt:IJl h C("lt1ur)', !-;() the slh.:er ~11.e (If the student populattQn m Son_e: Chinn cnn be imagined John \V. Ch.:tl'fc , -c.ctuc:~ l u>n ::u~ cs:un i n :tli~,ns

Es:w n ilt :ltion:~

i.n Sung Society (960·12"79).- f'ltl> J i~ s.. llnivcts:ity o( Chic:tg
l.lwl (.If).; .:oul(l c.: hOt.r.;c in

Cc~tlfu ciu:fs

1 ~son . Xtn~ Bing

lime. 1\;rhups Lbr this

rnendo::hip W:l.S C01l'$ld(.1\.'d mnrc inhm:ltC than fclJ(l\\" diSCIPI'-'Ship.

55

If the cultural authority of the Confucian teacher was full~ regained. it was m;tdc possible Oflly under lhc protection of the instiuuion or

Confucian academy. But Confuci:m mcntorship was lost to tltc Buddhists in tlu:-ccniUrics past for a more fundamcnutl reason. Thnt is.. the Buddhists were considered to be more capable

th:~n

the Confucians of cxplicming

issues related to metaphy sical spccul;ttion t~nd personal salvation. Empero r Tni:r.Q11l,: and Zhito Pu \ \Crt: con\inced ubout this. and Ouynng Xiu

confim1cd it While the institution of Coofuci:m academy could pro,·idc the ph)'sical conditions tbr schol~s to re-examine the Confucian clossics, it could not put the classic-S in a position to matc.h Buddhi:u scriJllures on mctaph~·s ica l :md sotcriological issues. 'fo do so \\Ould cnt:til a rejuvenation of the Confucian classics thcmsclns. It was ot dtis p:uticular historicaJ j uncture that Zlm Xi carne on the scene of the ongoing enterprise of reintl!rpreting the Confu cian undition since ahe e:uly Nonhem Song.9"1 Zhu Xi w::mted to :.dvocate n m!w ,.;,.~ion of Confuci:m hum:mity th:.t w::t.~ nnchorcd on his Buddhisl·inspircd metaphysics and his rcrc.odi.ng of the Fout· Books. It wns bis intention 10 privilege the Four Books 0\1Cr the Five Classics in the b::tSic Confucian curricuJum.9 ' He repeatedly insisted dtat e ,·eryonc:. not just scholars. reod the Ana!tu:ts 3S it c,ont:Iiocd everything thcr~ was to know.,~ 11lis was a possionatc his1oric appeal 10 refashion

hlUn;:an beings in the Confuci;:an way. h presupposes lhat tl1c Four Books l l) be true of the ~c1cty in the tenth ccnttu:r 3." wc.ll Sec ( hu.t.nt! Knn. Lwi)!JI iiJ'fc yiJim..Jrt(JIJ I. 1:5. ~.> F(•l' '' discus~ion rical contc.'it for Z.hu Xi ·s

cv1dcntly found this

tnmsfol'matilm

llt~ the-ConfuctAn

tt:td!luln, ~'C (J:trdntt•, I.R.rmrmg m he tt S'rtgr.,

pp.57-~ l. 91

Wbilc ZJ.m Xi t::> br oo OlCons :t ulilit:t.ri:10, ouc of bis rcaoons for pri\'ikgin~ the four Dooks On;t the Fin:: Ch.usics i.s that it n.:quil\::1 less cmut U• (Cad the: l'o,Jftncr With tx:Uer rctUI'Il whcrc:ts the c.ppos:itc is true fOt' the ktllcr. ~ l.1 Jing\lc, ZJud J7tlt•J, jumr I 'J~ 2 428. For :1 discus.:::il1n l•f tht.• luswrical circum~1:t nc~ surrouodm,g Zhu Xi's pri,·i!q;ing the Four Books O \'cr the Five Classics. Sl.~ U:u1i<:l K G:u-.Jncr. Clm JlJI a11d th.: Twh.wu:h; ·"•.'w·C mifirciau /?('jl~·ctiofl <m tJh~ C()njucion CiJuOn (C:unbridgc (Mass.I nnd Ltmdon· Council ()!'I HaS;! ;\si:m Sludtt.~. H :l"'~t rd Unt\'crsity, Haf\':trtl Ens! f\~i:ln Mtmogr:tJ1hS No.ll8. 19~6}, c h. J. Elscwh(..'f(', (j;lfdncr al!:'(l pomiS oul lh:u "the cumcul:tr sluH t<• the F<M.tr Uooks was <::<•nlcm{xn'iU\(,'0\ts \\ttb the htcruti 1\!trcal from national politic:s'' and Zhu Xi's 11 im~l f '·:-~a "' his cunicu1um ;s:s JXOViding literati \\'ith t\ trJining Ihat '' a:. cxplki l l~· Jlbt )lrfJfl!~iotlal : it wol..; tneant b~· hirn u• he an altcrnatn'c h' cXnmm:lllOn-onentt.-d teaming, fur lhtlsc st."t:'king spinlunl advance , n(l! tnnlcri:.l ::td\·ancc rcstti1U\S from success in the ex:.ol.i.n::tlioos." Simply put lhu Xi wtullt-,1 to tr"Jusfortu learning "from prul'c.:lsi(luuJ j)l'l.llllt:ition f ('ll' puhlic SCI'' 'i<.-c to a n1cauinoful way of life in itse l f.<~ v(~eUC$ o r impoc1mlcc dl~;.'fc t•rc (~1flhl!t:f !Llli,Jlt1..1fr81l~~. :~J-trll~{jfif'1-f) Li Jint:dc. 7./Jiitf.vuiiJi,jmm 120. 7:21-191

.!6

were rclcHtnl to the human c.ondilion of all.9·' Zhu Xi's philosophical posicion on human nature thus took on an undertone of mom I egalitarianism. And it was imperative that he present nn nrgmncnt for this pres upposition. Thus he fou11d it necessary to "rite his 0 \\ n comnu:n1.t1rics on tl1c Fo ur Books. nu~·re is no bcuer place than Anflfecu 1. 1 to send the explicit mcsSo'lgc 10 his readers t h ;~l "they and the s.:~gcs nrc of the same kind."' DEFAM ILIARIZ ING THE " FRIEND" -- MAO QILING f inally. let lL~ look :n how one Qing dassicist read Zhu Xi's commcmary on the Annfects in a dinCrcnt timcfrnm c. As will be clear

presently, historical displacement c-:10 mercilessly dispose one scbol:u to make a fool of the earnest imcntion of another. In hjs retirement from an illustrious oiTic.ial ca.rccr. Mao Qilins :l§ (ij-B'!: (1623- 1716) \\'rotc a book c..1llcd l .ltn.\'11 .tiqiu pion :ia;·r~t.f~:::R~ for the sole pu.,,ose for crilicizing

Zbu Xi's CODlmentD.ry on the Analects. rvlethodologieally. M:lO's single criterion of truth lies in classical texts from pre-Han times ns \\Cll ns commenlarinllitcn1ture from Ihe Han dyn::~ sty. If a rending cnn be jusliried on philologic.1l grounds wilh reference to such early tlns.sical texts. il is deemed a ' alid one. Mc.iJsurcd ngainst such a philologkn1ynrdstjck. there is only one esegettc:~l mc1hOO possible in Mao·s henm::neutics. and by imp lic-:~tion. only one kind of ttuth to be disCO\'Crcd. '10 Moo, this is the t~uth of the orisinal iluthor. 9J Since Han scholars li\'cd in a time close enough to dtc pre-Han original amhors.. and they had the fonunc to r~cch·c oral instructions on these early clnssicnl 1exts from a lineage of text •>J i'.hu X i 's (iltl<~>phy atltc: j'Pi:(Grcat Lcamm~). As Dante! K. Gardner ho..-. «'lll~t\\XJ, Lhc ancien! K-xt of the lfi1:mi' \\ ~1.s pri m :•ril~ \ 'iC \\cd as "a po lilical IX1c:1k for the us..: c,r the rulc..-r :~l•)n..:." b("Cau.se ''it riX.~·Il\koJ cxh.."llsiw lcnrning which co,dd be used in the :tdministr:tlion of ~ovcmmcnt, " 1\$ we know, the

uncic:nt

D(l.\'uc: wa~ o..iginally o chapter in the l.fii. but 2 hu Xi c~1nt~::Lcll it and ~uK>thc.:r chapter called Zlwllg)'f)IIS l~r J;H (Thl!' Mean) fl'•' m tl1e sau\c cla-.si.. : m)t) g_J\)Uj)\"'<.1 them mth the Jl,altJcls oald M('tK'i ll.f h) fonn 1be iiCH.:alk:d Fo"r Boots. But by rc·orgMizing and rc-intcrprc-lin;; the IJa.fll(' tc:-..1. Zhu Xi \\anted to promolc it as :t lc:-a lhitl~o:ontai ncd ..:1 W~r Qf cuhin1l in~ the ~lf arlll g~.wcmin~ o th<.TI th3t w~.s tn he studied by C\'C~·onc. nN ju:-.1 P•' liti<:JII le~tdcn: ... i\s c.:ardn¢1' f" ''s al. "In Chu's IZhu' sJ und.::rsla.nJing. the 1(I-hsnch's LL\-n'11t''sj nacs."'lagc bCf!lln W1th the p1'cmisc that oil men W(.'f'C capublc of pcrl'cctiug lhcru.sch'c.i und. ind~..x.J. ~lmuld :;trivc to do .«<>. thro u ~h a proc;.c$.-:; tl r .:iell'-cultiv:uion: · 'f}m:;, h'l.! concludc.s Ihal u h l Chu's hand ::~. the t.:nlirc O licn t :uk~l or the 7'<'·hVItt~h text had ch:mgcd: :1 oon of 'dcmocmll:t.a tion· of the work had takcnJ:Iocc " Sec Gordner. Chu Hsi <md tlur 1'o.Jrsurh, pp.S 1 rutd 58. Jn his commcnllu) · on the Analccu l im Xi nlso :timed al rccO\"'Crint;. the lllC~JI'Iin ~ of {()!.~ vriginal mnh...)r, Sec his nuniJUllklnS OJ} A u(llc:t:IS 2.11 in s,.s/m lmowen , p. (.:U .. J45

57 uansmiucrs. tllC) could speak for the original authors. Beginning wilh He Van. in 1\'lao·s j udgment the original mc:ining of the Analetts had been lost~$

In his commentary on Analects 1.1 ~13o C·riticizcd Zlm Xi's reading of the lirst awo pans of Lhe chapter, and \\ ith rea:ud to Zhu's gloss on peng, he cited Sao Xi:m ·s ,·1cw :md S;tid i( was Ihe: ancient gloss - n ame~·. "p~oplc \\ ho sh:.rc the :;:arne gate arc-called peng.- He then hastened IQ add that textual support for such view could be found in the Slmowen .iiczi. the Han tommcnuuics on the Odes, Zuothutm as \\'ell as the Gongyang :!man ld)I"JFIJUJ. »t II} i 11~I;. 1:1hQ)C_& (l."'fi;i;, 1c ~~fol;, 1: ~)": fiJi;i; ~'ft.~ . Here. Mao made it very dear thm his frnmc of rcfcrcnee wns philology nnd HM-
'Jflf.ll:t );:i7H4!ril'fiilftl 13 J•l· fJ! 71~ ~U fiill"lZl:t). He argued chat pmg ""' originally the appellation for "sntc .. (JVLLHJlJ Z ~) and this "gntc"'

r·

actually referred to 1J1at Which gu:ndcd the donnitorics of dlC SltUkml.'t (l~t: f~ff; A~) rather than the gate that lx:longcd to the tct1chcr. People who shared the same gate were cOl lied ptmg. Md hence, the original mc:ming of fJen!'! was ··fellow disciple.- o.nd it could not be altered (~t~ ...i ~*~~. ~~

nf M·I!!J."' While Mao himselr did not offer any independent cridcncc 10 corroborate w ith the H3tl glosses he cited. his intcrprctJtkm, in f:1ct. can find support in the Analects .itself. ln lfualet:Is 2.9 we nrc told tbnt Confucius was impressed with Van Hui illili!Jc\'co 1hough this fa,·o ritc disciple of his appeared to be stupid and never disagreed witlt his tcndter during instntction. Titis is bcc.ausc the Master. b~· observing Y:m Hui's private conduct, noted thnt it could a;aunlly throw light on what he had taught ·n1c fo.ct thai Confucius could obstn·e Ute i.utc~tion of his disciples in pri\3te suggests that the disciJ>lcs did notlh·c far away from their master. Furthcnnorc, :teconling- to the "'Xucji'. ··~,;c chapter of the- Ll)i. we lcom that in nncient tJmcs studentS returned to their qu:nters at the conclus ion of insuuction jij .~ ~ .(( )i.. such quancrs could only be wh:lt we call

')} Mav Qiling. Lm~y, j tqtu pltm. l'rcfacc. in Qhtdwg Si!m qulmJitu. 210 •134-135 % Moo Qilin~. IAI")''Jt jiqw pian, ju~m 1. m IJmding Stb t lf'Uuulm. 210: 1:\7. rn his monumcntnl .:;ludy of the Analu •t.t calk-d I.Ut~Wl -=l1.mgyi :I~ ,1fi JEJft. Liu lhonsn ~~~'/!.f*J ( J19t-1&55) argues thll pmg mc:ms ··dlsctplc-- «lr ·'student:"' hi.;; emphasis is lln the rcl3tiunship bct\\ecn pc'n~ rutd tl1c t<:~chcr. rfllhcr lhau pcmg t hr.:m~hcs Sw 1. 1111)11 :ltotg1i (Beijing. Zbvngluus ~h uj u . 1998), p 4.

Jli

dormitories toda~·.91 On the other hand. Mao ''as also aware of the locus classicus of the tcnn umgle1 in lhc A1~m·ms but he insisted that it only referred to -ordinary people" in general and therefore i1 did not ac1ually mean "p
it became a mctonym for fellow students who sl-urcd the same donnitory. As such. Moo's analysis can add much to Bao Xian's gloss \\hich cmplo~· cd the same historicisl principle of exegesis. While Mao's arudysis dcfamiliarizcs tOr us the ide:~ of fellow discipleship nnd helps us understnnd tlu: earliest selling of Confucius·s teaching environment. \\C should not forgec llis own concerns as a clnssicis1 of his time in 1he early eightecnlh ccnturv. Toward the end of the ~C\"Cntccnth century when l:uter-d:w follo".crs of Wang "'{angming l:~i;tl (I.Jn. J52.K) w~rc embroiled in ·a \·chcmcni contestation with t11osc of the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi for the truth iu the Confucian classics. ncitJtcr seemed to be able to defend their claim on objccth·c C\idcnc.c. A hermeneutic momcnlum was beginning 10 pi<;k up Jt th•n time when Qing dassicisls in the scvcm~Xnth century focused their intclkctmd cncr~;.ics on detcm1ining the tlulhenticit)' of em;h Confucian classic on fllt ilological grounds. They wanted to ::~uthcntieate not only the texts but the mcaning·s of the texts :1s well. This " 'as considered the ()Ill}' OltiCctiVC Cl'i iCtil')ll !O :ldjudic:JIC. the intCIJCCtuol dcbaiCS 0''CI' intcrprcti\'C meaning. ~ Thus began the so-called C\'idential research sw· Sec L~'ii. Jttatl ~S. iu Rtlflll Yu.un. SIII:JmyiiiJ: :htq/m, 5.65 1. Kon,ll Yincb'~ il ·~'{.i! (.S74-64R) Standard ComvHmlarmr (:hf!nKJ·Y 1E ;(i: ) el:~boratcd on th1s line· Wh~o the smc:k.-nls b«iunc liri.'ti. lbcy C(l~tld r~irc 10 their rc!!ulo.r qu;utcrs "ht.,'T'C th~ <:ouiJ dist:uss (what lln.J' had lcJm-t:Uf wtth their fricmls, SQ that th~.-·y \Hmld nol l>c: nhlc tH nsSQciatc thcm:;ch•cs \\ ith b:!d compnmt:s ~·p-}':;t.· m.t\.Ct•{f',if; J,V2. ~ . 3 V~JtJi I~Jo•i. 1fHII~Yk . .1~ 11rft: il~ li!. Ibid Th..: J cch>i\c ('I'Q Qf for the c..'\.i!'lcocc of dormitc.wics f t.lr the disciple.') <:tf C•1nfl'I:IU:i iX a fragm~"lll:uy n:cOrd frt~tn tbt.•/1unng/au f.~ \1:, C-.>3\ld l(lr\.'tl hy WJ.ng Xiang .1: ~ n.nd Miuo Xi !i~ in the year of ? 16. ll1c original work. which h:xl !On£, be-en lost, consisted of O\'CT 1,OOU ch3ptcrs (pian ff.'i) on tombs und t;ru\'Csitc:s from previous times. The surYi vin~ record in question notes that "The Hall o!' l..c.:unin~:t of c,,nfuciu~ i~ localt:.l bcl\\t."Cn Rivt:r Si lv its norlh a1 ~J Ri\'t.":f Z.ho lo ils soulh, and the dormi1ont.'S for lh.;.·_di$Ctplc:.: sun·ivc C\·c.,:n l\'1:ry ~!rl"l>:ii!: i~M(tllJ l:lt, i:li7J(liJ J~ IIi. 5l.'lh';fi/l ::/l·f·Iii -:!1 J~1:ti'HT. Quotoo in Kong Chua.n 1Lf~ (0 <.·.arly 12";. ~cntury) comptled. D<mgjltl ztJjl !;l!~~'ii :Z

in QhulitJ]; St!.."U tjllnJt.lllll,juo'lll.:l-la @'F. •l46:86. 'I$ Mac, Qiling. IAIIIJ''lt JUJW pltm . ju;ul 1. in Qmdi"X StA"'t lJIWmlw. 210' 1:17. '>> S<:c Yu Yinf!:shi {J~ /I~It;l, "Qin~'tl:.i sisiangshi de ytgc xm jk·shi" i~H\: J-!.U!hl!(ltJ- (I!I!ijJi-1f:J irl Jais u.~J,· y11 sixiw1x f!~ !J.! !JIU!J:!ll (raibci. t.ianJillg

59

(ka"cJumg.xue ~ ;11 !}~) that charnc.tcrilcd much of Qing-d)'R3sty scl:tob rsh.ip. .Mao's com.mcotary on the Analccl.r :md hjs c riticism of Zhu Xi's i llustr<~ tc such hermcnculic:al primacy in the seventeenth century. C ONCLUDING JU:MARKS M:~o

Qiling complained th31 Song-dynasty scholars such as Zhu Xi

imposed their own t\."3dings on the Annlecrs at the expense of its orig).nal meanings. 100 We can appreciate M~o 's own historical concerns and his privileging philology O\'Cf ph ilosophy. but his hcnncncutic vision cfTcc.tiY'Ciy murowcd his imagination :md immunized his s,·mpillhy fo r scholars like Zhu Xi who also had their 0'' n historical conccms C\'Cn though they respected the- historicisl p1inciplc of exege-sis as well. A philosopher may be searching for the ultim::Hc truth that is universal :mel c \·c.n transcends time <Jnd space. but his seardt w ill ne\'cFLhclcs:; be infonncd. shaped, and therefore, confined by the historical conce-rns of his own time. He can only search tbr the uni\'Crs:tltmtb and investigate it in his panicular cuhuml historici t~·. 1'his a.rticlc has tried to document the symbiotic rci:Hionship b;; tw~n tbe search for ph.ilosoph.ic truth and tbe cuhurul ond historical circumstances that mo th·::~ ted il and churacteri'l.cd its outc-ome. In philosophical hermeneutics there m:.'l) never be a;uy "&rc:u chain of being" ot ovcrnll grnnd sch~:mc lho.t unifies the od~·ssc,· of iiS historical undcnakins. The intellectual historiun, i_n cluutint: the \'icissitudes or the philosopher's search for uninrsll truth in the shining c-urrents of history. should resist the tcmptt~ tion to -arrange things in ;t tight pnttcm without gaps:· for ·'only in this fashiot' can the historic<'! I im<'lgination be ~n<:hored in something ::1pproaching real ity." IGI He has to respect the h-cnnencutic diO'crcnt cs between Bao Xion aud Hmt Yu. or between Zhu Xi and fl.·t no Qilin&. and try to aptJI'CCinlc each of them in th<:ir uniqliC: C·ulturnl and hisrorie.al circumsl.:.nccs. As a result, we m~'Y all s~o.-c the philosopher's truth inn bcUcr light

chubonsh iy~ gon g~i.

1976}. pp 121-1$6. ··&nne Prd imin:aJy

O h$C.."f\' ~ t ion.:.

'.)11

1hc Rise of Ch'ing Intellectualism.'· in T.flng lfllll./()m'IIO/ rifiiii~I;.·.Ie Suulh!s, New Serits 11 .1 It 2 (Occc mb~t 1975). ~nd IJCnJOOiin A. Elm
l'hiltUtJpll)' to J>hi/osuph,1·: lntdltrt.'fttctl (IJ«I Socictl Asp<'cl.s t?{ CIIWIJ!l• l11 l.af(' flupel'ial China, tlan·urd E:t:>t J\$ian f\•fonogruph II() (Cru.nb rid~;c . Mass:

Council on East A :si~n Swdics. I hu ,·an.l 'Univ,,:r:;-ity. 1990 rcprinl) tr.o'> tvbo Qlling, /..Jtn:t:u pqm pum. Prefxe. 10 Qmdlng S#;u

tpranslm ,

210, 134. 10 1

11. Stunrt f(up.hcs. Coll.scioumt•.u and Scdi!ty: The Ui!dl'iCIIlalit)ll rif 109tJ-19JQfNcw Yt..•lk: Vinwg..: Books. 1977. n:vi~xl cd•tion). p 23. RlrtVf'<(lll .''Xx:Jrrl1'lt1Jfl[dtl

Chaaucr Ill

Mu siclyuel in Classical Confucianism: On the Recently Discovered Xing Zi Ming Clw .fohmmn l .m

I NTROOU(;riON

Yue. as one of the Six Arts pertaining to classkal naining of Confuci:m liter:ui, has~ rather ambiguous n~~at urc ns to its thcorctkal suuus. when comp:ued ~spccitllly with shi lpne.try l. not only because of the

historical fact that the B()flk ofMu.sif: [Ytteslml was lost aOcr the bumin&of books in Qin Drn3sty, butnlso due to the complicated relationship between

yuc and li. Besides, on the linguistic nnd scm3tltic lc\'cl the Chinese character ~ • which rcprcsC1ltS music. is endowed "ith double pronunciations )ttu: 'lc nod double rucaoi.ugs ruusicfplcasu.r c. The recent disco"crcd Xing Zi A1ing Clw. among otl1cr bamboo slips of Guodi.an. with a major tre-atise OnJme, provides us with a mm· clue to re-think the aesthetic meaning of .HI.: in ckts.sic:d Confueil.llism. This is the mnin purpose of this p.1pcr. By the stn11ct~ of iJitertcxtualily i!pplicablc 10 the rcndinu nnd incerprcuuion of h!XI, the firsc pan of this paper is to co1nmst the lcxts on )TIC in Xing Zi A-ling Chu with otlter nncicm texts in the JJ./i. Zlwu n. luo Zlmtm, Xun Zi. Slli .li. etc .. 10 idcnt iJ~· problems to be re-defined :md re-undcrstood, such as the ideas of music pursued by Confucian scholars. the crisis ofZhcng :md Wei music as new sounds :md melodies criticized by Confucians. the ploce of music in the sclf-.cuhi\•ntion offunzi. etc. The second part o f this p.3pcr \\ill focus on the aesthetic meaning of musk by referring to Confucian theory of qing (sentiment, affection, $itualion)! Ollso b.1SCd on lhe Xing tHiHg rJw. which has dcall with the in-depth rclntion bctwecnJU£' and qlng.

z;

I NTERTKXTUA I.ITV AND THE INTERPRETATION OF XING Z1

MING CHU l11c text entitled Xmg Zl Ming Clw. written on bamboo slips discoYcrcd at Guodian in 1993. has been considered br scholars as one of the most important uneanhcd documcnls pcrt.lining to the theory of music in P•·c·Qin ·s Confucianism. Rescnrcl1crs could fiud. in its tn~nscribcd version. esl!lblished by Jing-f\·k n Museum ond publisht!d by Wcn-Wu Publishe-r in 1998. tlult one third otthc text. distributed among G7 pieces of b.1mboo slii>S. are devoted 10 the discussion or music. It would be probably too rash to claim thot :t new theoretical undcrst:tnding of cl:tSsiclll

.lolrmmo /..;u

Confucian music could be built upon this newly unearthed text. bcc:Juse of the fmg,menUu) character of lhc te:xl ilsclf ~md the uncertainty of its nuthorship. Nc,·crthclcss: it provides us undoubtedly wi1h at lc:.st a new ,·icw and il critical rcncction on the insufficiency of the rccch cd cheorics. \\hieh \\CI'C- br~scd on other con vcm ion::~l 1cxts th<'lt considered Confucian music mostly from ils cuhurnl ideological function in keeping peace ::md hann(lll)' in lhc society. tather th<~ n ~5 an iUtcfact \\ ith wl1ich people con enjoy more or less purely aesthetic ,·aluc. A eompar:lth·c S(udy of tltc similllm~t between the tro.nscribed rcxt of Xing Zi J\Ji11g CJw and other known tCXlS in Lite 1J .li. flu: Ji. llwnx )'(mx. Xun Zi, etc .. allows many scholars to infer that the texts of )(ing Zi Mmg Clru could be attributed to the so ct:tllcd Zi Si and Mcncius' school (Si A1etlf:

Xue Pw). (Li Xuc Qin 1999: 75-79. lioo Ming Chun 1999: 36-74). One of the <:ontribulions of this line of research consists in hn' ing tmccd some tcxl~ of the U .II, cspec i.tlll~· th.:u of the Yuc Jl, b:u~k to Lhc: period of W:u-ring StaK-s. lt concerns olso some problems in,•oh·cd in the dcb:m:s be-tween scholars of Jill wcm and gu wen about the aulhor:;oltip of Yiu..> Jr. 1 The mo.in lure rest of this paper is not to get Uwoh·cd in the debate about the authenticity of author. Instead. the problem th<1t we arcc.onccmcd with in 1his p.1pcr is how to achic,·c an in-depth understanding of the :ltstltcticlanistic meaning of music tyuel in Confuci;:mism. through the application of the reading strategy of intcrtcxtuality or inter(cxtual analysis to lhc Xing Zi Afing C~u. The tcnn "intcr1cxtu:llity"' h~,s been coined by Julia Kristen in 1967: and developed by Roland Borthcs later (Roland Runhcs 1977: 155-IM). According to Julia Kristcva. C\ '( ty text is ··consll'uctcd as a rnosoic of quomtions.. , and '"abso(ption and transformation of attothcr··. Kristcva claimed that tending is on on·going dialogue between the writing subject the addtcsscc (or idc.al reader). and exterior teXIS. and she suggested to ,·icw a text by both horizontal and vertical axes. since -the word's status is thus defined horizontaU~· (the word in the text belongs to both writing subject ~md addressee) as \\Cil ns 1 In the \:Onlpilmion of l-'1\·c Classics of Confuci:.mt~. !he thi.'OTJ of music was :tt1tlngcd i.n the HO<.,k of R•lc., . A\';¢.llrdmg to the cs:pl:u.Htt i~)n or Ou Wen scholors. tt wnl' due hl the diJI.U(lp:or.mcc uf thc-lJo.Jk tifMusic after Qm ·s

t1rc. N-.:-,·cnhch..~:; .

nc-c-~:!cU ing to Jm W1.11 $Chul ~rs~ und...-n;t tlllllin~.ll OOok t1l lh~! thcmy of music never cx:1.;:tcd before. what has really cxisK'tl was the

(](l(;umcnts \ )ll the niles of nmssc somHL Sitlee then:: is noc etl\1U£.h docum cnL~ ltl ccrhfy the orig_iua.t source of the tc.xa in tl1c rm: Jt. ~llC sd10I:lrs claim(.\~ lm\.1' that lhc J"ut• .Ji wa~ crcatl;!d b~· Htto :>cholur:> and falsdy nllribuhxl to Prc-Qio Conf'uchm.s &tine olhl.!f:) ciHin.OO lhal thl;! " ritcr '-'r fr~t~ ./1 \\ ~1$ n:HntXI (iLYil Shun N1 , :• Confucian scholar in !'iJ>nn!!: ~nd 1\UI\ tmn p.:riod z "llu:- \\\)r\1 int.::tlcxtuality \\'tLll uS<.-d by Jullo Kt1stcv;~ to cxpk•in the lmll.-tp~l:;itiQn in tcxtu.:tl sy~lcm. ··A Ia plu<.-c de lo notion d ' intcr.;ubj<.x.1intC. :iinshtlk ccl!c d'Jrue,•lc-Stlwlile. ct lc l:Ln,g:•gc P<~tiquc- $C hi. tmmv•n~. e<.lntlll~ dcml)/t'.. (Juh:. Knste,·n 1%('· l46) ,

,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

\'Crtically (the "ortl in the text is oriented CO\\;m.Js an anterior or synchronic liiCrm)' corpus} (Julin Kristcva 1986: 3~37), Rol:md Barthes develops this idea of tcxnt.nl inters~tion and considers C\'CJ') ' text as 1hc outc.omc of intcrconnc:ction of cultuml artifacts. He said.

One or the paths of this dcconslruction-rcconslruction is to JX:I'mutc- texts. scrups of text$ that have existed or c-.:iitt around and linally within the text being considered: any text is an intertcxt: olher 1cxts arc present in it tH ''arying le\'cls. in more or less recognisable fonus: tltc text$ of the previous and s urrounding cuhurc. (Roland Barthes 198 I:

74) Thac is- 10 s.ay. a tcxa is: ne\'er n solitary work done by an isolated writer, but a network of \\Tilings by quoting one ICxt from Wu)thcr. or by nHuding one text lo another. through n.nd by " hich a co•llinu:.1l deferment of ::m idl!3 or a meaning in a panicular cuhure would be able 10 continue. ln \'icw of liternry texts in Chinese classics. this type of irucnc.x t u:dil~ could be found everywhere since the tirnc of Confucius. who claimed rhat "I transmit buc do not inno,·atc.- (Ann/(',·fs, 7:1}.) In this paper. the study of Xmg li A1ing Clm would be n good example for decoding Chinese textual meaning by intcrtextual annl~ sis. \\ bich lakes Xi,g Zi A·ling Clm as :m intcrconncctctl body or cuhur:1l texts from both synchronic (horiwntol) and d i::~ ch.ronic ( ,·crticul) \'icws. According to the results of sc.icntific ..:,-.:amin::uion of all c.-.:cnvotcd relics in the Guodian Chu tomb. it is supposed that lhose ba,mboo s lips and !heir wcltinss l\'Cre pcesumably no la,tcr th::m JOO DC. tho.t is. in the midd le~ Line period of Warring States. n,c owner of these scripts was supposed to OC :1 Confucian scholar of Chu.:. arguabty a te:~chcr of the crown prince Hcng. good at both Confucian Classics and 03oist, ns e''idcuccd by the co-cxistcnc.e of fmgments related to both Zisi and Lao;.o;l (Li Xuc Qin 199'): 13-1 4. Pang Pu 1~)~)~): 23 - 24). Some parts of the unc::uthed texts. including Xing Zi Mmg Chu. arc nppan:nl.l ~· rchucd to other Confucinn Classics. Some schoh•rs nssumc lhiil tbc author " as prcsumubly n follower of Zisi ~nd Mcncius, Tltc 1ex1. supposed to be used by the O\\llCf :tS leaching mntcrials. could be viewed horizont:tll~·. us h::~,· ing an dialectic rc:lntion \M;twccn writing subjci:l (comJ>ilcrsltcacl•crs), addressee (readers/students). and \'Crtically. as intcr:lcting \\ith prcrious texts and various fonns of its contemporary

cultures. B~ contrasting the text on musk in Xmg Zi Mi,g Chu with olhcr texts quoted from other Confucian classic, or when ulludcd to the other texts. or otherwise in coMcction with the cultur.tl fonn of the day. two main

This text is trnnslutcd from Chinc-~c by the.author of dtis p:~pcr. .. The own1.'f of the tomb \\aS presunutbly rclah,:~.t n ilh Chen Linn!!. a Confuc1::tn ::chol ~r. recon:kd in t he ,\f~ucilt$ , (.f13118 Gmmg Hui 200J· 160· 162) 3

.lolrmmo /..;u

questions c.an be asked anc.l examined: l) the an i.stlc mcruting of music in classical Confucianism: 2) the aesthetic foundation of Confudan music on the concept of qing (sentiment). Some other questions relevant to Chinese m:sthctic of music " ill also be discttsscd. such ns the ideal of music. that Confucian sc.holars: were pui'Suing: the symbolic me.lning o f ritual music; the crisis of Zhmg anti m.•t music as new sounds and melodies critici7..cd by them. und t.hc ph~c o f music in the lOur \\ays o f sclf·cuhi\·ating o f af rmzl. Til£ ARTISTIC M EANING Of" MUSIC IN CO Nt' UCIANJSM

z,

Generally speaking. Xing JHmg CJm. as a Confuci.1n 's teaching m:ttcrial. is an antclc talking about cuhiv::uion to become n.jrmzi b~· w:ty of music. gi"cn r.hat music is supposed to contain spiritual power Llun may ha"e innucnce on thl! formation of hum:m nature. In it. there i.~ a pru-ticular p:trag,raph that cJucid:.tts the cducatiorull role of music as one of the three nr1s by which the Sa&cs tc.l)chcs lhc rcaliznlion of Dao in hum.,_n per~on lluu ::II lows him!hcr 10 get olong with all things. It reads, TI1c DiiO is a \\3Y of gelling along with all beings. l11e major concern of Dao consists in the art of mind. Among the four ArtsiWays to the Dao. ooly the Art!Woy of being human is the \\3) ahrough \\ hkh Dao could mnnifcst itself. The other ahr~c sns/w:lys. (e.g, the an of poetry. the :U1 of hjstory. ;and the uri of ritual music (If yucJ,) urc human W:'l) s o f expressing the 0.10. Poclry. hislory :md ritual

music. all these three are originally produced bf hum:ln beings. Poetry is \'Crscd by copablc persons. bisto~· is uarmtcd by cap:1bk persons. the c·i tu;-,1 music is perfonned by capnblc pe-rsons. ~ [Jiji(,·, llf.VJ:t l!l. J-LliJ, •C· !Ii?.~ :t. ili!L41ti, 1111lAi:i!

Jt -' jiJ:/l·, il1.Z.1fut!.. ~~-~ . i!f. WI!~ - JtiG; Hll"f'trA. ,;;1. 1Tl4.7.l.Z. ill. ;!1. :frtlriz tl!. m~. l iiMJ:ttl! . J (X~IC:l79) i!~oofjtl iJ! ,

Three points implied in thi5 plt:tgr:lph dcscn·c our 3ttcntion: I) Dao mcons humon 0JO to l,;Ct along with a\1 beings. indudin& those from Hc.;-,\'cn. from Eanh. and :unonc people. 2) The ways of D:to cont:tin two lcn~ls: human D:to :~.nd ducc ruts (san .-.·lw) including shi (poetry), :.·h tt (11istoty) and liyue (ritual music).6 :- Cngli:;.h text i.s tnmsl:th.'ld from Cbin.;:;c b)' th..: author of lhis p~tpc:r A<.:cordmg 10 the :umot3110n by l.i Ling. here "cloo sr slm'· shCiuld be

t.

111\dcr:>t OOd OS C()JlSISt il\g Ul four :ltlS:. say. tltt Of nltnd. till (If pOctf)'. art Of

history nnd art of ritual music; whereas "'.~·ntr $lui ' (thn:c orts) m..::tns. resv..:..:tivcly. :.·It! (pl)clt)'). slm (hisl0l)') tuxl II ) 'lit" (ritual mu::.ic). F(1r the C(>hm"ffce of mC
,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

(jj

3) The son .~Jw ore originaJiy produt ed by those who arc capable of carrying oul human Dno. Our funhcr question nO\\' is how to lUtderstand the formational mewting of "'li yuc·· in the context of Confucian culture•! How s hould we undcrstMd ahc meaning of II J1te'! l.l o f yrt<', o•· ym• o f If! What kind o f music. docs the Jl ym~ refer to'? Why Confucian scholm cmphasi1..c the sclf·c.ulti\ating func1ion of li yuc'? \\'h:.t ha\c the~ karncd rtom li )/Itt:'? Fnnhem10rc. what is the :mistic me:ming of II yue from the dew pint or Confucian oesthetic.s·?

RELIGIO US t' UNCTION Ot' RITUAl, MUSIC IN ZHOU llVN.\STV It '' as an old tmdition in Confucian Clthurc to consider music as having a trnnsforming power on indi' idu:1l mind!hcnrt and on social customs. Since Zhou ~·nasty. music h:ts been considered :.s one important

subject in the curriculum including fou.r disciplines for cultivating 1he sons of royal fam il)' and emincnl people sclcc1ed from the S1a1e to be prominent future lenders. ln tbe Book of JUtes, il W:\S said in the chn.ptcr ..On Royal Rcgultuion.. (mwx Zlu) th:n,

The (bo31'd for) the direction of Music gave nil honour to its four subjcc.ts or instruction. and arranged the lessons in them. following closely the poems. histories. ccrem(lnics. ond music of the former ki.ngs~ in o rder to complclc its scholurs .... Tite eldest son or the king mtd his other sons. the eldest son or all the fcudll princes , the sons. b}' thcits "h·cs proper, or high ministers. Grco.t offices. and oOiccrs of the ltit;hcst cnulc. and chc eminent and selcc.t scllohus from (:111) the states. nil repaired (to their instruclion). entering the schools according to c.hcir years. (Janles Legge 1%7: 232-233) t\Jso in the ch11ptcr VU ... King Wen as Son and Heir.. Sht Ztj , it " 'AS said also,

(rJ~u

Wang

In the cducution of the crown princ-e s adopted by the founders of the three dynasties. the subjects were the ruh!s of propriety :md music (James Lcssc 1967: 349) A'cording to t.hc chapter "' Spring Ministry'' (CJwn
""y/nn. in~h:"'l of being 1'\:tll.l s-:p~rald~· as Hm difl"i."1\:lll mls· ~rl vf It ~nd :111 '.II' ytw (Li Ling 20<12: 10)

.lolrmmo /..;u

66

\'aluc 1:

mca1t

harmon). respect moderation. pict). friendship: and taught

them the six :ntiSt forms or musical language: ligurati\'CfiCSS. discourse. ironic. n<~rrnth·c. speech. wording. After they became capable of pcrfom1ing music in ethic sense ond expressin g music in various forms of m usical language. the heir-sons and eminent young schol:trs were tauslu the six pieces of ritu:~l d;mcc inherited from prcYious dynasties: (..'ltiUd (}arc ::mel (;rund 5icmfl. Grand .Wan. Gram/ Chime.. Grand Xtu. ( ;rand Huo, ;~nd (;rand 'fkli 11lC objccth'C Of teaching the hcir·SOUS tO play shon Outc, string music, and to perform the ritual dance of \'O.l'ious kinds consisted in cuhivating thd r capacit)' to conduct ceremonies with ritual music. r.uhcr

than to become profcssion.1l musicians such as voc-alist. ins1nunenta1ist or composer. nil these roles ofien played by the so-called gu mcnx ~U~ (the blind). As to the value of mu sic. wlut lms been $tressed in the Zhtml.i :mel l.i .II was its religious function in the rituals of sac.rilicial offering. such 015 the socriricc to He:wen and Eanh onercd b) Son or Hcm-·en. that to the spirits of the land :md gr:~ ins by princ-es of the states. and the five S.icrificcs of the house offered by great officers.~ All ceremonies of offerings \\Crc :1ccompanicd with pcrron nance of differen t ritual music. songs :1ncl cbnccs. II> Tbc si..x pieces of ritu>~l dance- .:~.rc the ritu:.l music of the si..'( dynasties in ancient China. Somehow like other ancient ci\ ili:tations in the t\Orld. the complete repcnoircs of their music pcrfonn:l.ncc \\'Crc lost. but in

China. !l.Omc tc:d u:'ll descriptions about the titles. pe:rfonnanccs, nnd religious and soci;'ll·polilical flmctions of its uncicnt ritunl music slill remained and could be read in some ICXIS in the Zlmo ZJuum. l.ulf Yu. 1.t J1, Zl:ou Ll. Guo 1'11. LiJ Shi Clrun Qiu. etc., which could still fC\~caJ to us a certain idea 3boul music in prc.Qin China. ; ,'\ccording to the ..:c,mmcnl:try or IA:li\Q Zhongshu. quol'--d by Zheng Xuan m h1s :lJUJOtmi l)J')S (11'1 /.1 Jr, t~ m t:~n ill£ of rle=hf! c.ould b~ undt~Ood 1's th~ person cupab1c to perform. I oocept Zhcng Xuan's (.'Olllmcnt~· that \lnd-:r:>l11nds d1c _ytJerfonnunce, 8 CC ·•Sprin~ ~;1iniS1r) fCiwnk!-U~m] w1H1 thl! (h•cr.,J~,.'Cr vf RiiUal :\iiairs [Z..lnsbor in the /Jo()k tif21rou Li. i -}:;.iil 9!¥JJ.V~J .Z.tF.. f). ff.ttlY.lf Z. ·1}~~ . iii
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II R..lyal Rcgul~lion" in the Book ojUil("~'. vvl. I. r~ 7·~7(1"! . :;n (;; f,Ht,f!l . ;k;l(tl:/l l~ . J 1 °Cf. "Srsi n}! Mini~lr) ·· (Cinw~;uan'( i.n lhc Zllou U. i J)~}~jfi)Ji~z.. l;J. ;!;' !;.( •J' li.t'i~ . JH; l4 i!1i, lfr.;J;: ~.. .W•~I"J. l;.l i~ /Of . J ll# fA , 't~lll!J:ri , 1$

ml!.ii<. 11 :s. !~Mit. ij~itJPt . ~k 'l'l . ~Jiemll . JH~m'i'. if• >Jii.li · ~;J;; !J., I;( f.'! Ill J!l , Jj ~ ~ JII), •J' /:\ , jlli;):l!t. I;( j ( $\; Itt, )j ~1f.>f< lll . il()l! ~~ . 1*-A·"" · W~Jt Jfl , J ~JuJ!!.

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(j J

Apparently. in referring to the abovementioned texts. Xhrx Zi A-ling ('hu's mentioning of \\atching the ri tu:d dances of l.ai and Wu. Slrtro and

Xin. could be understood ns dealing with the religious ,·aluc of ritual music· from an aesthetics poinl of' icw. 1t rends.

In watchins the
J

(XZMC: 180) It can be sure that, learning ritual music. for the lu:ir-sons, is diffcrcnl from learning music for self-e-ntertainment and for passing through leisure Lime. For them, tl1c- JlU I-p<JSC of learning mu!iic is to cultiv.,tc- lheir spiri ll~.t11 senslbilil) to the rc,·caling of Hca\'en, E:lflh. and ancestors, through their troining in the art of sounds. This means the religious func-tion of 1i1ual musk has its aeslhctie· foundmion in human mind. as expressed by the word "tpng" in Xmg Zi ,14/ng Clw. Before we discuss in more details the relation between music and tjing. we have to rc,icn· briclly the shlO of musical ,·nluc in Confucinn thoughl from religious func tion to more humanistic concerns.

CONFUCIAN IDEA OF MUSIC AS A WAY OF CULTIVATING A COMPLETE PERSO N

Alor)g with the collapse ofZhou aristocracy and the rise of various schools of thoughts in the periods of late Spring and Autumn and early Warring Slates. education was not uny more the privilege of roynl family members. In this process. the value of music in the cuhiuuion of hum::u1 mind dcgcncmtcd. Lao:rJ cmphasi7Cd the quietness and sile-nce of Nature. :md critici:r.cd tlmt loo rn:my sounds (fi\'c tones) wo uld ma.kc people deaf. In the ft1o:i we lind n chapter a&ainst music and there we rc:.d the criticism that in du l g~n cc in the plc:tsurc of music \\:tS a c:tuse of cortuption. Among various i.ntellc-ctu.al schools. the ConfuC-ian wo.s the o nl~ school thai kept the trodition:\1 ide:t or education and putt he cmptl :~si s on the cuhural mcanint-t of music. Confucius himself was :~ man of music, he used to sing. 10 piny music>31 instruments such as chime. qin and .~. and he C\ 'Cn knew how 10 compose. He had pul to right order the rcpcnoircs of music for odes. and

II The author or Ihis P;:JI>Cr translates this: tc.'\1 in rclt:-rcnce to Confucm{ words o:bout Shoo MJ Wu m tlt<· Lrm h1: " the Ma5.1<"r .s:.ld of tile SJwo that 1t wos pct1'cctly beautifu l :.nd nlso perfectly good. lie soid of the lli1 thot il wa.'> p\:rf~.-ct l r hc~IU Uful but not pt.:Jfc-.:t l~· tt'xxl: · (;lualecl~~. J;2 ; ) (James Lc~t~c 1991 ; J (~)

.lolrmmo /..;u

concctcd their tones after his trip from \Vci back (O Lu. •z. He has discussed the pcrfonmmcc of music with the Grand ~'fusic Master of Lu in saying. ''how to play music may be known. AI the commencement of 1hc piece. all tl1e-pmts should sound together. As il proceeds. they should be in ham1ony ''hile sc,·c •':'llly distinct and no,,ing "'ithout brc:tk. and thus on to the conclusion ... (A11tikt:t.t,l:23) Conf'ucius taught disciples music us one of the si,x arts. and considered music esse-ntial clement to the completion of cuhivation of a .fun:i or a condition sine qua non oro complete person. D Music. as csscmialto a complete person. did not consist merely in music."ll pcrfonnancc such as playing an instn1mcn1. but in the rcaliz:'llion. through music. of lhc human Oao. e.g. lhc virtue of humrutity (rrm). without \\hicb mus ic. ns an art of sound. \\OUid bocomc meaningless. Confucius said: " If a man be without the virhi¢S proper 10 humanity. \\h:u has he to do with musicT (Anllh•cJS 3:3) Only with the hunun 030 of rru. would musit become properly n human an of sound. and dtcrcb) the foil on in~;t question. proposed by Confucius himself, would hare the possibility of finding 3U answer: "R..itooL ritunl. docs it mean no more than gems ru1d silk'! Music. music. docs it mean no more titan bells and drum s?~ (Am:dtt'/;,.' 17:11) Basically, this question proposed by Confucius himself has touched upon a crucinl problem in Chinese aC'Sthctics of music:. and would arouse n series of questions on the essence ~md the existence or music ns an art How the !'()Unds of bdls and drums could be music~ ! and be considered as belonging to the art of music'! If the answer is that their 5ounds art: produced merely by the ~rformam:c of a musician. then. "hat kind of music pl3ycr could be c.onsidcrcd a..; a music.ian-lrlist? If the ::mswcr is 1hat those who know how to piny bells and drums and perform in a \\llY that is p•·opcr to music. llten lltc: que-stion will turn bn.ck: What is music'? Who is musician'! In contemporary western pbHosopby. Martin Hcidcggcr has bkcn ·'the Coming of BeingiTruth in thing'" us the starting point for answering the question on the origin of work or ;ut.(Man:in Hcidcsgcr 1971 : 17-76) Confucinns would t;.kc diflC~nl approtJch than the ontological one t01.kcn by 11

Confucius $lid, '·I returned fnmt Wet to J.u. ond then the mlL"iic wo.'i

r
lh~

pi<.'\:\.'S in the

1\l~· al stlJlf.S

tllXI Jl l"3isc:

son ~s ~· II L0Uihl

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proper pl;tees:'' {Ana/i.•('rs. 9 1.5) (.l~ntes l .t:~gc 1 991 : '2 2 1) ., Confucius s:tid. "lt ts by the 00...--s th:"tl 1hc mind is ;)roused. It ts by the ru!C'~~ of propriety tlwt the thlut•Ch.-r tS \:.)1abhshed. Jt 1S ffCom music dtut the linish i$ n:ccivcd." (Ana/~ cu 8:8}, (21 1). h\ UtJSWt.Ting Zilu'$ q uc.'Stion ubou t a

complclc pcr~.m. Confuciu$ ::.>::tid. "~uppo:;c ;:J man whh lhc J.:nowl'-'\.1!-
,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

Martin Hcidcggcr in 31\S\\Cring these questions. They took ethical approach to consider !he artistic \aluc of " music" and " musidan", In the J.; J ; (1J1e Hook o.f'/Utes). it was said. All modulations of sound wkc 1hcir rise fmm the mind of m:m: and music is the intcrcommunicalion of them in their rc.la tiQn~ <Jnd dirfcrc n cc~. Hence. C\'Ctl if beasts know sound, but the~r know not its modul:ttions; and masses of t.bc common people know the. modulations, but they do not know mu!lic. "It is only the superior man who c.an (really) know music. (Hlwk o/Rtte, \'OI.ll. J:1mcs Legge )9(,7; 95) l11 Confucian thought. music should always go along with pmcttce of li (ritual, propriety). Anyone '' ho is good nt musical sounds, bul no1 famili.ttr with li, won't deseroe the n.:tme of a good mac;ici.ttn. Lh:tt is, n musician us a complete person. One SIOJ)' told th;u Kui \\US reputed til the pr3ctice of musical sounds, but there was .3 mmor that Kui had onl~t one leg. Duke Ai of lu doubted about it and went to nsk Confucius. Confuc ius explained that Kui \\aS not a person with one lc~. but 3 m
home, Zi Gong asked n question suspccti.l)g whether Kui is a good musician. Confucius explniJJ<:d. "To be versed in the ceremonial usages. and not \'Crsed in music. \\C call being poor!}' furn i);hcd. To be ''ersed in mus:ic, and not \Crscd in the ceremonial u~gcs. we call being onc·sidcd. Now Khuci (K,li) \HlS noted for his :tC<1U:Jinlanc.e with mus ic. and not for h is acquaint3ncc with ceremonies, :1nd therefore his name has been tmnsmincd with the .-ccount of him (which ~·our question implies)." Book of Rite, vol.ll . ( 275-276)

II is clear !hen. ror Confucius. Kui was a man who knew enough music.ll sounds ;~nd performed music well. but his one-sided knowlcdgt \\AS

not enough for him 10 become a good musician i.n 1hc sense of ho\'ing o

rc:tl kno" ledge of music ns completing hunun personal it)·. QfN(j AS THE AESTHETIC FOUNDATION Of CONFUCIAN MUSIC

Titc purpose of learning music was not merely to know musical sounds. btu r:Jthcr 10 cuhiv:uc the c:tJX,ttity of rc:Jiizing human D::ao in its completeness. TI1c humanistic meaning of music based on Confucian tllCO I)' of self-culthntion no" g.radu.1H)t lOOk more significant role- than its religious func tion l.n Xmg Zt Ming Chu. the cultiv:Uion of music as ru1 ar( should go tllonc with the cuhiv:uion of It (rule of propriety), :~1J i (J>OCU)1), and s1w

70

.lolrmmo /..;u

(History). c-onsidered os the son sfm (dtrcc :t.ns}. constituting thereby an intc:Qr~ucd nay orientated to the human Ono. By learning .\·Jri. shu, li, yue. the t:tpacity ofpm;i would gmdually dcn:lop under tltc 1c:1ching of the ~1gcs. "hich tonsist<:d in the fonnntion of human capncity or uni.(,·iog all things by ana logy. teaming lessons fmm observing the sequence of things, measuring hum::m activities by cxomin ing the righteousness of will, ::mel ordering human fc.-clings in cxprc:ssing tlu:.m o ut and in tccci\ ing them in.,.~, T he capac.ily obtained front the training of .~·lu. shu, fi ym: functions as a \\'hole. " 'ithout neglecting one or the other. no matter b~t way of san sh11 (three ans) or liu yt (si:o.: arts). It makes sense that in Xmg Zi Mmg Ow, the emphasis on music·s vahK: or sclf-cultiYating did n01 neglect at all its relation with pocny (capacity of lrutguagc). with ritual propriety. and with history. According to Xing A~ttng Clw, the realization of human Dno should starts from c:ulth·nting the C!lp.lcity of feel ing (qlng). Xing Zi ,t_,fJ'ng

z,

C/111 soid: ·'The Dao b<;ins in qing (Dao shi yu qincr '\7MC: 17?). As Tang Yi·jic has \\Cit JlOintcd out, .. it mates sense to s.ar ·Dao begins in qing' rathe-r thM ·&o arises from lJing'. bcCllusc 0:1o exists from the start o n occount or humon qmg rather thM cmergin:,: o ut of qmg:· ( fang Yijic 2003: 27l)Tans Yi':jic explains in h is notes that. ..This is not to say that it cannot emerge at all. tbr it can nlso emerge out of nuiona1ity or study."

(fang Yijic 2003: 27?) Most of schoklrs · discu)-sion.s on qlng in Conli•ci~m cl:'lSsks focus on tt!c sbtus of qmg. referring gcncmlly to the p.sychological fo m1s o f emotion. such ns the SCH'n tJings (joy. anger. sadness. fear. lo\'e. d isliking. liking) in the 1.1Ji. u or the six qlng ( lil.:c.s n.nd d islikes, delights and lln£1!(S, 16 griefs And jo~ s) io Xun Zi. in the eoutc:d of their ethical discussion about the relatio n lx.:t\\Ccn human miJtd (xln) and human nmurc. Zlwnx Ytms(s explanation of the moral function of XI , nu, n;,Jc (pleasure. anger. sorrow, joy), 17 o.nd Zbu Xi's annolll.tions o n the concept of zhoog he (Equiljbrium h annony) in his long Ytmg Zlumg .lu. (Z hu Xl. 30) ha\'C \\CU pro\·ided us whh the eth ical model of interpreting the meaning of human :.ffcttivily

.., r ~vtAU:Jtmrr·i(~ffz . CV.l tz;f;i'iff;;;lilz . ~nJt )aimf:iiJJrz . JCTrrtfTitllAZ. . ?l.il!11):H:.t:/ i. fl. fli"liJ.~tW+ 1 • t·tl! . J (.I'Z.\/C: 17<JJ

l'i(

u "\Vlutl me the fcdintz~ of 111\!'111 Th~.-.r arc jl'Y· ~ngcr, $:1\lne;s~. fct1r. Love. i.hshking. Iikins These S(.·ven feeli ng~ belong to men wtthout IJH:ir learning tht:m " ("T he L1 Yun.·•. Hfl()/wfWt~.f: 379). 16 "'The hkcs :wJ dishl:cs. J chg.hts aod ant;(,·s, ~rid's und joys of the 1.utw-c ore cnlkd cmotiuo:5."' ("Rcctifyio:;. Namc:s". !J.qm l'w(Xunll). (l)urh)ll WatSc..llt 1% 3: 139). ,. -whtk then:: :.n.:: no shmngs of plcMmrc, anger. sorrow. or JO)'. lhc rntnd moy be s:~id to be ill 1hc sttnc of Equilibrium. \Vh(1l 1bose f(x·lu\g? have been sltm:d. nnd they acl in their due dcgn:c. th\.'JC ensues whnt mny be co1kxl I he stat~ vf Hannvny. ·· Cf.. 1'he Doctruw (if tltc Mt:rm, Cbapl.::r L (J~n.cs Legge 1991: :<84)

,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t \'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

71

(qin:~). but they lcfi t11c aesthetic dimension of focling untouched. But tl\is aesthetic dimension agit;uc-s alw:1ys in the c.rc;ati,·ity of pOetry and music. nnd exists \'h·idly in the daily life of people. The interpretation of qiug in Xing Zi Afing Ci111. follo\\ing Zouf.: J'i:) ng. h:~d :~ lso laid the foundation of feeling (tJing) on hum:m n:uurc (xing). 16 but its emphasis "'OS put on the aesthetic function of qing in its cxprc.ssion through yucllc (music/ pleasure.) and li (rituaVpro1Jricty). In .Xhtg Zi J\1mg ('hu. the tcrnl .. qmg" is understood as the beginning of openness to the other in terms of " allthings~, and ')•r as the ending, the final fulfilment. toward which hwnan feeling tends: and those \\hO w1dcl':stand feeling can express it properly. and those who understand )II can realize it in oneself

properly. r:lfl~.i!!to'i. t'! 'i.:·.i!! ~. (XZWJ: 179).

1<1llit H;e lli:t .

~~~~ '/.HieA:t .

J

In short. according to the Confucian trndition. the learning of music ru.d ritual propriety is to cuhivatc the-cnpac.ity of~ complete person as 10 his,:ber acslltetic feel ing. \\hich is rooted in human affc.:tivity (qing), to be intcgr:.tcd with hislbcr moral feeling and religious sentiment which arc C:<J)fc.sscd through yi and /i.

TU£ AESTHETIC DIMENSION OF VUEILE IN XING Zl MING CIIU

Aport from its ethical function in Confudan culture, music, together with rituul JH'ot>ricty. has also 0111 4tCsthctjc dimension as \\CII, Tilis consists in the pl~asur\! (/eJ mrained by a s~rmp:uhetic feeling that is able to shilfe the world of others b}' npprchcndins \'ntious 3ffections commtmicntcd through sounds produced by others. Sounds (IIJd Alusi~. Musi c 1Picasure 1md Rifunl Propncty

The /look t~f" Musit· said that " music produces plc:LSurc~ •• \\ hat tl1c nature of man c.nnnol be without". (Hook ufRit~.:, rol./1. 127) Enjo~·i ng the l'lrt of music '' ith pleasure by sing_ing songs. ))laying insuumcnts. or enjoying n bc:tutiful melody just b) listening. is the common oesthctk experience of music among people. A famous story about Confucius sutd~·ing Chinese-lute under Shi XiJng tells that fo•· Confucius. the aesthetic pleasure of music an docs not consisl only in the rhlthm and melody, or pktying on the matbcmotic su·ucturc of sounds. bul in the exis tential meaningfu lness con\'cycd through the sounds of the music. undt'f'Siood in a humanistic way. This docs not mean Confucian theory of music has neglected the embodiment of music in sounds. On the cotltro.t:'-'· it clnims that only those \\hO kno"' sounds nrc-able 10 tnlk bout music. TI1e Book(>/ .~1u.wc said, " Hcnc.c with him \\hO docs not know the sounds we cannot

tt

··Qins 3rise.s from xinQ(tJ!ng shengyu xlng)" (XZ.lfU· I79)

71

.lolrmmo /..;u

speak about the airs. and wilh him \\bO docs not know the airs \\C cannot SJ,lCak about Ihe music." (Book ofRrte, m/.11. 95) By ncstltctic feeling. human being is acc:cssiblc to \"arious kinds of pleasures in sounds as well as in music. and CJljoy the c;~pcricn cc of bein& rC\'Calcd through 1hcm. Xing ftifmg Clw has: \i\ridty dl'Scribcd the

z,

variety of plcosurcs in the acsthclic: experience of listenin g, suc:h as listening to tl1c- round of laus hing that m.ake$ o ne lhcly h<~ t)J)) : in hearing the b.1llad, one feels contented and cxc.itcd ~ in listening to the melody of qin and se. I) profound feeling or praisin~ is inspired: in \\lltchins lhc d3ncc or

l..ai and tlu: dance of Wu. there arises 3 reeling of being arranged in order: in watc·hing the dance of ,')'hd nature :md i1s st:lrti.ng qing. :md the more SOlootbly it would be in c xprc-ssi.ng oul\Htrd and in n:cciving in\\nrd. This is lhc Wil~' of rca l i~ing onc·s "inue.

r JCM~ttll~. Jt&ml1!41 1kb'l.

JC:JL~>.tlli.ill

<JWD,

•;JJC~ tll .

J

(XZMC: I80). One of the meanings of connecting ft with J'lle cons ists in the fact thnt tl1c prncticc of ritual propriety should be rc:~lizcd with spiritu ~l pleasure in mind. &iren that the true mcnning of U is based on the feeling of rcspcc:l. In daily life. a sincere smiling is enough to display the pleasure of heart in tl1e friend!~· cx~;h;m sc of ugrccnblc wonb. As 10 the diplomatic mee-ting, ;:unong na tions, a conccu in the- ll
is the deep side of ritual proprict~" fft, ilt:ti~i!¥!t!!.. ~. IIIZ.iA:f.l!.

ll!.. J (XZMC:I ~0). ~ f~R~ I DI.~····~·~·· · •n•iliME.m < •l euz.• c ~~ · •~•ili••·~nK.m~ •ili•~ · ~•u . m~ !.tJl!!.J>r({.•. I ~l'l.MC: I 80). "' r JL.fl!.?i*Jt:.c·?.H;t . lftJtffrt.). i!!tJ.t~ . :f!411;(ii!\Z.J:J! b , J ~I'Z.I/C· I SO)

,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

13

Confucius once described tl1e prcscnw.tion of music in diplom:nic cmmcsr and C:'IOplnincd lhc symbolic fu nction of music pcrfonncd in the diplom:'l tic ceremony during the \'isit of n mler. This happened in Confucius· leisure time nt home. aficr he hi!d talked lo his disciples Zi Zhang. Zi Gong and Van You. on the \'alue of li. \\>'hen one l'ulcr is \ isitiog another. they bow to C;tth o ther. each counoously declining to tnkc the precedence, and t.ben cn(cr the sate. As soon as lhcr hzh'C: done so. the instruments of music. su.q>c.ndcd from their frames. sui.kc up. They 1hen bow and gh·c plncc 10 each other again . and :tsccnd to the hall. :md when they have gone up. the music stops . In the cou.rt below. the dnnccs Hsiang (}(itmg} and Wu nre perfonned 10 the m usic of the Outc. and that of lbia (Xia) pn.">Cccds in due order \\ith (the br3ndi~ing of feathe-rs and) fife s. (:\Ocr tbis). the stands with their offerings arc set out the 'n.rious ceremonies llnd musical performances so on in regular order. nnd the array of offictrs prO\'idcd disch3rge ll1cir functions. In this way 1l1e superior man perceives the lo,·ing regard (which directs th e entertaiiun cnt). They ntO\'C forward in perfect circles: tlte~ return nnd f'o nn again Lhe square. The bells of 1l1c equipages :1rc umcd to th-e Klwi-khi (Cm-Qi): when the guest goes out they si.ng the J'iUJg(Ytmg}: whe n the th ings ar c being lakcn nwa~·. they sin¥ the Klum-yu: nnd thus the superior mM (sees that) lhcre is- not :1 s ingle thing for ' ' hicb there is not its proper ceremonial us..ogc. (Book af Rile. \ 01.11. 17~-2 75 )

In reading Confucius' detailed d escription of the d iplom::uic counc.sy and music p.crfomwd in the court loday we still can feel the m3gniticcncc of II :md yue in Ancient China. The focus of Confucius was the symbolic function of music in showing their cuhh·atcd good feeling. ' irtue and historical kno" ledge. as the text goes on to sa)'. the striking up of the instruments of met:tl. when llu.')' enter the gate. serves to ind ica1c their good feeling: tl1c singing of the Klung 1\fiao (Qing A11no). when they hit\'C gone up to the l1all. shows t11c \'inuc (they should eulti\'alc): the performance of the Hiumg (Xitmg) to 1l1c fl ute in ll1c eoun below. reminds 1h em of c\·ents (of history). Thus the superior men of antiquj(y did not need to set fonh their \'iews to one :mother in words: it \HIS enough for them to show 1hcm in their music and ceremonies. (llo(lkofRiu:. \'ol.ll. 274)

7~

.lolrmmo /..;u

[t was by the aesthetic feeling. e.g. the sense of beau~·~ and the moral fcx:ling. e.g. the sentiment of rcspc~l. th;~ t J. superior man of antiquity could set fordt tlteir vic" s and communicate with e:.ch other without the necessity of using vc rb;~l l:mguagc, Just as the .rmg Zi Mlng (:lw said.

''Being in trust without words arc: those ''ho ha\c the scnsl! of beaut)·· - ~

o:i rfrjf;l,

-rf')I IIJ,r,'l!! J (XZMC:

18 1)

T11e ICmporary pleasure brouglu aboul by the musical sounds would not be enough lo C:lll'}' on the fon:nntion of individm1r s virtues ::md people ·s ethos. There is no need to say it is not good ~nough for the good b'twcmancc of 3 count'). Confucius· criticism o n the sonJ;,S of Zhcng and

Wei wns in the context of his reply to Ynn Yuan's question on the b"C.WCnlmcnt of a St:'ltc. ·For Lhc purpose of scn•ing as Music of 3 Sl:ttt:. Confucius recommended the dance of .'Wwo and alerted rulers to keep away from the sounds of Zhcng. due to the latter's cxccssh·c indulgence in the pleasures of sounds. which \\3S unqlllllificd to sene in tltc ri1ual ceremony inn temple or in the courl {Analea~ IS: II) II seems lhat Confucius didn'l deny the cogniti\·c ,·~luc of sounds of Zheng that rcYtalcd local pc:oplc·s ethos. WluH makes Confuc ius discontented was the mixuuc of court music ofya with 1hc popu l~r music or Zl.eng. (Analecr.~ 17: I R) Altbough purctr melodic aspect of music is not enough for ~ing pctfonucd in the sncrcd ritual. as music-or ya is, it is still quite t)ractical f01' the lraining of musical skill of an instrumemalist or ''ocalist. That's why Xit11: Zi ;\lil1g Clm s:tid. '"Tite :tncient music is good for mind. :tnd the new sound!i arc good for the fingers. botb arc for the culti\'ation of the people." r)i:o1o!l!liiJ.G•. 1,1*il(!Jfi. \lffJI)t)l.-ti· I!!. J (XlMC; IMO) Alan& "ith its affirmation of ac-slhctic \"nluc of music. Xing Zi .~ 'lmg Clm didn't ignore the acstl1ctic quality of the ftc ling or grief. In this 5cnsc it is quite differen t from Zi Zh.:mg who took grief and joy as bell'!n~ing to l\\ 0 scp~rate categories of cr~ ing and music: "to grief. lhct'e belong crying and 1c.vs; to joy, soncs and dancing" (7Jmo Z/mnn:70R). By corUttlSt, Xing Zi }.Jing C/111 considered pleasure ::tnd s,rief as a pair of feelings duu produc.c each other: -The extreme dC\'clopmem of musicfplcasurc accompanies itself certainly with grief. Ctying. will be grief too. All of ohcm routh human feelings. K.3')1l)!:JZ•;1!;. Ji:ifi'!lt. l'i5Dttli ·Ill. ] (XZMC:: I 80) l l1e aesthetic pleasure produce.~ a sense of being tlpcn to other's joy. whereas lhc feeling or grief produces 3 sympathetic feeling up:.m other's sorron·. A sound of crying cxprcs~s the fee ling of grief as well as th:tt of plc.."lSWC. It is only in the highest fom1 of music cndo" cd wilh highest pleasure thnt would contain a comprehensive feeling of symp.11hy cnpoblc of discerning ,·nrious S.l31C-S: of mind from sounds produced by others. Humnn mind tends 10 play with various kinds of sounds. in nhic::h cry ins is but one kind of dcdphernble sounds among others.

r

,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

7j

CONCLUSION [t is a t ommon sense 10 s.1y that, in general. Chinese Confucinn culture. reputed as 01 li yu~ culture. has ah,nys put its emphasis on the cducatior-ll function of music on the formation of indi\'iduol moral tharactcrs and. furthcnnorc. that of people's ethos. Most of the discussions on music. in ;~ ncicn t Confucian d~JC-umc nts focused ah\ il) s on t11c rcligklllS meaning or ritual n1us ic and its cduc.1tionat and ethical cOCci. especially by emphasizing the lellt'nins of the gcnndiosc music ol'yn. In this historic:U nnd Mi,,~ Clm shons us a ideological contc~ l the newly disCO\'Cred XiiJX \'Cf)' inii:TC'Sting case. in which we find n continuity of the same Confucinn stcrcotypic.tl idcn in co11sidcring music as one of d1c ducc ans (san shu). as essential ways of rcalil.ing dtc human Oao. \\ hich apparently bad followed the s:une cl3ssical Confucian tradition, On the other hand. Xmg 7J ,\-fmg Chu hos pr<widcd us with sc.m1ethlng new, that is. the aesthetic \":'llue of qing, the nnistic vnlue of musicul sounds. and the di:alecticnl rclution between the fl!cling of ple-asure and that of gcief in music. It considet·s the quality of musical sounds out of other sounds. both physical and human. and relates thc111 to the irreducible aesthetic and affccti\'e din1Ct1Sions of hum:tn existence. all in promocing them with ethical and religious \'illucs. In this sense. c\·en if the XiiJK Zi ;\;finK Chu may not be tnkcn as grc:u as other Confucian classical texts. nc, crthcless. it can illuminate us with n rcm:.rl.::.blc aesthetic of music-:'lmt the nourishing multiplicity of Confucian music culture i.n the Prc-Qi.o Ertt.

z,

REFERENCES

Book of Rit<S. vol. I & ,·o J. II . tronslated by lames Legge (New York: Unircrsit_y Bool.:s. 1967 The Chinese C/m;s"·~· m N•·e Volumes. translated by James Legge (Taipei: SMC Publishing lnc .. l991). 111e Collected Annutolions ry· l ffm Fei Zi. \'Ol. 12. Chapter 33 "Waichu Shuo Zuo X•o",cditcd by Wnns Xiang Sheng (Tnipei: Vi Wen Publisher. 1983). H sun Tzu(XunZJ}. ltanslalcd by Bunon Watson (New York: Columbia Uni\'CI'Sil)' Press. 1963) Studies on Guo Dian Chu Bamboo SJip.l' (Shcn Yang: Lin.o Ling Education Publishing Co.. 1999) ··transcripts and Annouuions or Xing Mmg Clm~ in (iuodinn })amboo Slips ofCim ]Qmb. edited by Jing-.1\·Jcn Muscmu (Bdjing: Wen-Wu Publisher Co.. 1998) ?Jmo Zhunn'', in The Chin~.r" Cla.Q·irs m Ptrc J1J/um ~.f. V. UnltSialcd by Ja1.11Cs Legge (Ta_ipci: SMC Publ.i.shi.ns J.nc .. 1?91)

z,

76

.lolrmmo /..;u

.Wcomlar Rc:.wttrce~· Roland Barthcs... From Work to Tc~:l'' in Jmn!{e•:\1u...,·tc--1'cxt1 trans hued by Slcphcn Hcnth (GinsgO\\ : Fontan.1ICollins. 1977). Roland B:ttthes, " Tiux>r~· of the Te-x t... in Untymg 1he 7ftrt, cd. By Robert Young (Boston: Routledge & Kcg;an P;~u l, In I). f\·li.lrtin H cidcg~;cr. "T he Origin or t11c- Work o f ArC in foc:lrJ~ l .nngrragc. TlwugiU. translated by Alben Hofstadtcr (New York: Harper &

Ro-v. 1971). Jiang Guang Hui. - Guodi:tn Chu Bamboo Slips and E.arlr Confuci3nism" in H1:.·tory rij'71umghh· in Chine,,·e CJm:s"·~:. Vol I. Chapter 4 (Beijing: Chinese So.:i:tl Sciences Publisl1cr. 2003). Julia Kristcva. -Lc mot lc dialogue ct Jc roman:· In Rt:~:Jrerches pour rme sbntmnly.se (Paris: Editions du Scuil. 1969), Julil Krisrcva. .. Word, Dilloguc and Novcr, in 1he Kristc1·ts llctwk r, edited bJ Toril Moi (Q,, rord: BliiCk"cll. 198<.). Li Ling. Records ~{ PrrHljTcadlng fJn 7hrtt• l'lecc.\'
(Shcn Yang: Liao Ling Education

Publishing Co.. I?'J'J) Li Xuc Qin. '"lmpon:snl Disc-o \'cry on th e Pri:"-Qin Confucian Writi.ng,s- in ,\'tmlics on (juQdian (,'/w Bamboo Slips (Shcn Yang; Liao Li.ng

Edue
Theory of.'(;,, Xing in Guodian Chu Bamboo Slips" in Studies on Guodion Clw Bamboo Slips (Shcn Yang: Liao Ling Education Publishing Co.. 1'1J')).

Tnng Yijic. ··Emo lion in Prc-Qin Rui.st r-.·l oral Theory: An Exp lan:uion o f ·Oao Begins in Qing .... tmnslated by Brinn Oruy:-. and Hai-m ing Wen , in Philosophy Eas1 mul We:.:, Vol.33, No, 2 (H3\\tlii : Uni,·crsity of Hawaii Press. l OCH) Zhu Xi . C~.~tlectc:d Amrotdfirms t?/' Four II<Joks f ,)J Shu .h ZhttJ

(Chang Sho: Yuc Lu Shu She. 1985). p.JO.

GLOSSARY D(lc} ~111 yu qing 5i1 MjN~ t.~

gu mcmg ~-:U.S funz/1'1'1' l ai nud Wn

f.{ ill:

,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t \'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

II Jlll?nl~ lm Yi~if_~

qtngM· (Jing ,\·hettg ,ru xing ti7'1~.0~i't san shu _: W r

.\1wo :md Xw

MJ.l

Jlt
tuu:.a

77

Chapter IV

ls Menci us a Motivationallnternalist? Anh 1ium Ntf}~n

INTRODVCfiON According to many c:o nuncnt~t ors. Mcncius is a motin1tional intcrnali sl. someone '' 110 holds that if nn agent believes a <:Crtain nc-lion to be mornlly good or riGht. thl!tt nectss."U'ily he or she is moti,·mcd to pcrfom1 iL For i.nsta.llcc. Xiushc.ns l iu claims that for Mcncius. j ud gments of nm :md .vi arc " imernar· in thot they both "necessarily im•o h·cfsf motivation... (Liu 2002: 101) Liu ch:1metcrii:cs intcrnalism as the ,·icw that there is :1 "'nocc.ss:uy connection between mornl judgment and mothation ..... {lhid.:l02). Given thai ren and yJ are ·'internal.. in 1hc sense that they ··nc<:·CSS.1rily invoh·c)sf moth·:1tiont" ''there is 3 necessary conn~t ion between :a judgment or n:" (and p) and a motio.cotion to act in ace.ordancc with such a judgment~ (lbid.:ll S). Mcnc ius is thus a moti\':JtiOn:"ll intCTo:tliU thcnc<:forth, the qualifyin£ "motil':ltioml'' will be dropped). Setting aside the fact th"l Liu 's arf:jumcnt for the claim Lh:tt Mcncius is :~n intcmaliSt is problematic. one particular problem \\ith :utributing intcrn:Jiism 10 Mend us is 1A:7 of the Mmtius. In this passage, King Xuan :tcknowlcdges that be is nwo.rc of the suflCring of his people. th:.t it is ~n to alleviate their suffering. am/lhat, yet, he docs not feel motiv:llcd to do so. Many commcntntors haYc tried to tK'commodatc IA:7 within the iutcmalist reading of Mcncius. but I will show tll..11 their attempts fall short I will argue tlmt IA:7 shO\\S that Mendus cannot be an intemalist as strictly understood in the contcmponuy mctn~th i c;~l debate. I will further argue tbal for Mcncius the connection between a mornl judgment nnd moti\ mion is no1 contingent as c.xtcm:dists hold. I will sho" ' thm there is 3 position in the contemporary mctll.cthicol dcOOte that is beh \ ccn internal ism and cxtcrn
8(}

Artlr1ium Nt~y<'"

others had tJ10ught. but r:nhcr -rdt pained br its being led ''ithou1 guih 10 the place of dcalh." 1 Mcncha.s goes on; "Your conduct was an :utifice of

benevolence."' The fact that the people ore not lo,·cd and protected is due only to ·)our Majesty"s no1 exercising the royDI S\\Oy. ... because you do not do it, not because you are not able to do it: · For Mcncius. compassion acts o.s the motivation to nllc,·i~tc !iurTcring. If the L:ing doe.s not lun c compilssion then the l~ck of compassion is sunicic-nt to expl..1in why he ··docs no t do i t:· In IA:7,

£\·lencius tries to convince the ki n~; that he is ll compass10nate pccson and hence is ..able tO do il .. i.e-. tO aiJC\'iatc tl1C suffering or his people. Mcncius · tasL: is to explain to the king why he is " able to do h.. :md yet ..docs nol do i1." why th e king fails to show compassion in this cnsc. If imcrnalism is true. the king cannot fai l to be moti\·atcd. 1ndccd. if strong in1c.rnali$m is true, the judgmtnl thm h~o: ought to nllcvi3tc suffering. n judgment of rtm, is alone $ufficicnt to motiv:ttc without the ~gene~· o r tln nffcc1h"c state such ns Clencius diognoscs the king 's J>ro blcm. he cannot be an intcrnalisl weak or strong. What then might support the c:,sc for :lllributing intcm :~lis m to 1\·lcnc:ius'? Liu believes that there is te:..:tu:tl evidence to support it. A$ we h;:n·c seen. Liu attribulcs intcmalisrn to Mc.·ncius on lhc bnsis that for Menci u~ ren and Ji ore- '"internol.- Liu gi"C'S ns h! ~tua l evidence 6A:4, where l\.·lcncius agrees with Gaozi thilt rtn is ··internal" bul disagrees with him onyi. \\'h ich is '"c:~ te mal- for Gaozi. in s istin~ tlmt it too is .. intcrnili.Howcver, 3 closer look a1 this possagc reveals that the sense of "inlcmal" and -cxtcrno.l" here is nol the srunc ns that in intcmalism and C:\icrnalisw. Here. "inremal'" means the moti\'i11ional force. or the explanation for the moliv::uing :JO'ccth-c state (e.g. comp:tssion). lies within the agent and docs not dcpcod on ~xtemal circumsttmccs. The lo\'C for a brother is ·•intern:. I- and does nol depend on the fact that someone is a brother. for otherwise someone who lo\'eS h is brother would h3\'C to lo,·c someone else ·s brother. By c.onlJltSL my rcuction to o white objc<.: ( is '"external'' because it is the whiteness that m:lkcs me so react, :md react in the same way ro anr "bite objecl not something .. in.. me. All this is s1rai~;hlforward enough but it docs not make Mcucius tln intcrnalist At best. GA:-1- mcrcl~· ~ys that if one is morcd to acl benevolently or righteously then the moth·:lting for.;c, or the explanation: lies in o ne's 0\\11 psychological make· up. including one's tendency to j udge what is benevolent or righteous. It docs not s.--.y 3n)'thing nbout the connc<:tion

Ill

between n judgment of l 't:tr or yi und tJ1c motiv:nion to net. let nlonc saying that the connection is one ofnc.'tessity as stipulated by inlcrnalists. Indeed. nn C)I."Ccmalist can accept that whnt is required to moth-ate an ngcnt is .. intcmar in the sense stipulated in 6/\:~. sud1 >~s the desire to ilppcar bcnC\'Oicnt or righteous, ot the judt;mcnt that one ought to be so. Such furaher moti,·ating factor is external to the connection between a moral judgment and moti\ation \\ hile slill " intcrnal- to the agent in the sense of 6A:4.

Apllrt from 6A:4, other textWll C\' idcncc is hnrd to come b~. In the end, iL seems thm the strongest case for attributing internalism to r..lcncius is the plain fact th:n he c:mnot be an cx.tcrnalist. Gh·cn wh:lt ~knci us has to S3Y about t11c ..four sprouts" and bjs conuncms on the behaviour ofpas1 s.1gts. such as King Shun m 4BI9. Mcncius cnnnot be an extemalist, someone "ho denies any nec-essary connection between judgments of 11m and yi on the one hAnd .1nd motiv:uiCJn on the other. But \\hatc,cr tbc reason for attributing intcrnalism to Mcncius. I A:7 has to be contended wi1h. In his ea1·lier r~m:uk on it~ Nivison claims that whlt t>.-tcncius is trying to do is to persuade tbc king to extend the comp.ilssion that he once showed to the ox to his own J)Cople. (Nh ison 1980) Since ther~ is no relcmnt difTcrcnce bccwccn. the sufTcring of the ox and chc suffering of his people. it would be inconsistent to hm·c comp:lssion for t11c former and not for the Iauer. Howe\ cr. Ni,'ison himself admits thm his uc\!otml is pu;o.7.ling. for the followi ng reason. Nivison t.1l.:cs it th:·U there is C\"idcncc tO show t.h;at fi.·Jcncius diJfcrcnti::HC$ between having 01 Sood reason to ha\'C compassion and actually having com passion~ If so d1cn Mc-nciui> should know llult his strategy " ill at best get the king to sec. that tltcre is a good reason \\ hy he should hnvc comp3Ssion for his people. How docs Mencius get fro m there to geu i n~ the king to R'CI the compassion itself! How does one co from getting the king to sec that he should extend contp:lSsion from the ox to the people. to getting him to "·do il' \\hen it is clt-.ar that he is '":Jblc to" and yet docs not dn it11ndccd. if intern:. !ism is tmc. why is there a problem for the king at :.II'! TI1crc arc-other problems with Nh·ison·s reading of JA:7. For one thing. his account makes the ruther intlllaus iblc assumption that Mcncius tnkcs the k ing 's reasoning ability to be so defecti\'e ~ not ro see Lhat he should extend cc,)mpa~sion from the ox lo his people. Aflcr aU. the p.1ss.agc mokcs clc:tr 1h.at the reason \\h) the king fe lt pity for the ox is precisely the fnc t tl1l t he extended, to the ox, lhe compassion for an imlginary innocent man being led to the plocc of death. The king is clearly caiXJblc of the kind of extension that Ni\"ison says l\·fcncius is trying 10 ctTcet with his strategy. Another problem has been noted by OJ\·id Wong ond Shun Kwong-loi. (Wong 1991: Shun 1991 ) Thus. even if Mencius succoods in getting the f..ing to fed eompassion for his people. by the strntcsy identified by Ni\·ison. lhc king's comp\i..<;sion will be seen as being justified by the rcqui_rcmcnt of logical con.sistcncy. ruther thon b~· the actual suffering of his IX"Oplc. and as such it is not true c-ompassion.

82

A rtlr1ium Nt~y<'"

Shun. in particular. suggests that to O\Crcomc this problem. ''c ha'c to interpret Mcncius us trying to get the king to ncquirc the desire to nllc\iatc the suffering of his people. n desire simil:u to that which motivated him to SjXli"C· the ox. for Shun. i£ dtc king is rcnll) compassionate, he mllSI desire the ullc,·iation of suffering. In u more rc<:·cnt account of IA:7. Nivison seems to h;m: o:~bandoncd his curlier reading (namely. ''hut Mcncius uics to do is to g~t the king to be consistcnl about how he one~ rch about the ox and how he

should feel obout his people). In this later vcl'siotL Nh·ison ncc.cpts lhm the king docs h:t\'C o Cdntp:tssion for his peOJ))C (thus he is not inconsistcnl) and that he is moth•:ucd to relieve the suffering of his people (wb.ich follows from an intcmalist re3ding). Gh·cn all this. the k.ing's failure to act is due to his mistaken belief that his moti\':Hion is not strong enough. that h~ (the king) lacks tl "suffi cient strength of disposition" to tlCL (Ni,·ison 1996) IL is a case of "I:)Ck of will" (act•dia) (o.s distinct from ""cnkl1CSS of will"' •• aknuia). Howc,·cr. while this 11C\\ read ins is closer to the marL::. it is not clc:u how it can be reconciled "ith tl1c internal ism th:tt Ni\'ison attributes to l\'lendus. lf motil'ation is linked to judgment by ncccss it~·. hol\ c.au either ot.•t:dia or ah•trlua possible? Funhennorc. the reading docs not quite explain how f\.-tencius manages to solve th~ moral problem for the king. unless one assumes nnhcr implausibly tltnt tbc mere recognition of a lack of will somehow restores in the agent the requisite will. Twealdng the l.:ing's cognith·c mcch:mism alone d(X-'S not S(.'Cm to be what .Mencius tries to do. As we ha\'e seen. Shun Kwong-loi suggest$ that '' hnt Mcncius tries to do is to instill in the king the desire to nllc\'ialc the suiT~!ring of his peopl~. th:n is, t\\Caking the &.ing's: alfeclh'C mechanism. l llis is still problematic-. Judccd. 04\'id \Voug docs not think that this is \\llat 1\tcncius tries to do. If the. kintt·s desire is the justifYing reason for his comp..1ssion. it is still not true compassion. Mencius· strategy '"would still be inconsistent with the pcrspccti\'c of the ouly compassionate person. because fMcncius''l a.rgument would identify 1hc rc:tSon to aet as lying in the King's ileSire. and not in the suffering he desires to allc\'intc~· (Wong l99L: .J2). For Wong. the correct rending. of IA:7 requires us to auribute t() Mcncius a \icw about moral moth·ation th:n departs 11om th~ Humean position lhnt only n desire (or pMi:iOn) can m()ti\':ttc. a po$ition thut as-sumes a distinction bctwcx:n reason and emotion. On Wong's reading, there is no place for the distinc.tiOtl between re:tSon and emotion in Mencius' philosophy. An emotion ha~ a eogniti\'C component, and in the case of compassion. it is the p<::rccpt.iott of sulTc:ring. It is tJ1is togniti\C compon.:nt tll~ t functions to SUJ)J>Iy the reason to act - .. .compassion typically in\'oh·cs at least implicit rccognjtion of n reason to act iu a certain WJY ... ·· (Ibid.: 32). Thus. if nsl:cd '·Why did y0t1 do it (i.e. acting co~npassiona tely)T. the compassion3tc person ··would identify his perception of the acm..1l or possible su(fcring of another us the cause rmd us a jU$!i{"i.n g reason for \\hat he does.- (Ibid.) With this in mind. says Wonc. ''e c.1n sec thai

8.1

Mcnciu.s's strategy in tA. :7 is (I) ··w bring before (the king's) mind a past acti(ln of his 1hat conslilutcd a paradigm scenario for compassion." (2) to help 1hc ··the king to verify the emotion thou moved him to spare 1hc ox." (3) to idcn ti~r " fo r the king the ox·s sutTcring ns both the c.ausc and justjfying l'eason for his netion.. (p.37). and (4) to gi\ C "the L:ing a \\'a) ' fo r the motive force of the instinc.tunlly compassionate response to enter into practical dclillC;r.uion.- (Jbid.: 39). The "instinctually c(nnpassiofl.;)U: response.. is one of the four innate tendencies, or instincts. or impulses, that Mcncius identifies clscw'bcrc (2A:6). no.mcly the scnsitivily to otherS· suOCriug t11at is the beginning of nm (the oll•cr three being the instincts to feel shame. to feel modesty. and to feel rightness and wrongness. which 3J'C t11c beginnings respectively of yi. li and C'hi). The crucial step in Mcncius·s str~ucgr is (4). the showing of .. 3 way for lthc king's) eom pass i onaH.~ impuls¢ to 1>1! channeled into practical deliberation: · (Ibid.) \Von ~:s rcadio& of IA:7 c.an O\ Cf'C-Omc the difficulties in Nivison ·s and Shun ·s readings, bot :u a cost and not without some questions. The w.ni1t cost for Craig lha.r.:t. is t],at Wong's rending -goes considcrabl) beyond the C\'idc:ncc of the text- (lham 1??1: .J5) lhara seems to be right in claiming that Mencius' str.ncgy as Wong understands it requires the king to come to o high feYcl of abstract undcrst::mding before he can feel c.omp:assion for his pcoplc (Jlart i cularl~· in terms of the fOur slcps I identified :.bo\'c). He seems to be right in his claim that "lhcrc i:i no e\'idcncc th:~ l Mcncius thinks t h;~C the king must co me to thi:i nbSinl<'l lc\'Cl of understanding.- (lbid.: SI), As for questions. lhnm asks. quite reasonably. \\h)' the king did not need to be shO'i\'n ···a l:\ay' to ·channel' compassion.. f(OJU the imo.gin::uy innocent man to the ox. a.nd ye t hos to be shown a WJ)' when it comc.s to his l>eoptc. (Ibid} But the more imponant question that lham asks is how it is possible, on Wong's acc-ount of emotion. for someone to net on o. ocrtain emotion (e.g. jealousy) without thinking llHU the cognith e component of it (e.g. the perception that one's spouse is unfahhful) is a justi l~· in g reason for so ncting. (Ibid.: 41) Jn any c..Jsc. to auribute this view of emotion to Mcncius is also to ··go considerably beyond the C\'idencc: of the text." Nowhere in the M~urciu s con we find :1 word "th:~.t c:1n translate diree1ly as 'emotion·: · ( Ibid.: 4M) ~'lenciU$ only speak:; of the four instincts. or impulses.. in xln (hc.:trt·mind) but they arc not emotions and do not ha\'c il cogniti\'e component that an agent can recognize as a reason for action. lhnrn points oul, coJTcctly it seems. that the action of t11c. compassionate man in the C.'<:l.mple of the child about to fall into a well is an ·' instincti\'e sympathetic" response: .. Ccnainly there arc no cognith•c emotions in l,this j cx3mplc ... .. (Ibid.: SO) Jhnn)s o" n reading of IA:7 is alarm in g!~· simple: Accordi.ng to r..·tcucius. nil human bci.ngs ha\""C a " mi.ndthal c.annoc be.a r 10 sec 1hc suffering of others. The king·s

Artlr1ium Nr'Y<'"

doubt t.hm this is ttuc of himself is sltO\\ n to be false through Mcncius' c.-.:planation of the king's bch:wior townrd the ox. At tl1is point all Mcncius is doing is u:Jiing the king to look ngnin nl himself. to sec thnt l1c has s·uch tl mind ... and urging him 10 experience the suffering: of his people ns vividly O$ he did the suffering ofthcox (lbid.: 5 1). What is so nlanning: aboul lhls reAding is th:n it ouributcs to f\·fenci us the belief tllat the king is just l:1cldng in imagination and Lhtttthc cure lies simply in getting the king to sec surrcring more "vhidly." lf this is t.ruc then we can still safely attribute intcrnalism to Mcncius. because the problem with the kjng then is just that he has not fo rmed a j udgment of ren about his pcop&e, Ho"e,·cr. the p.1s:sase ma k~s it clear enough that the ki.ng knows lh::.t his people an: not b:1ppy, th:.tt they fed unlo\'c:d and tmprotc:ctcd. :1nd that he ought to do somcthin& nbout iL. This is prec iscl~ why he asks Mcncius whether he has what it takes to lo,·c and prolcct them. His problem is that such perception somehow docs not -evoke feelings of eomp3Ssion·· in him. Docs he have to "experience the suffering" by suiTcring the suffering itself:~ But this is certainly 10 go further beyond the e\idcnc:c of the text than lham has accused Wong of doing. AJso, in his response to Jhara. Wong points out. correctly, that lham's reading docs not L1kc account of Mcncius' cmphasi!i elsewhere (e.g. 3A:7) on the process of mornl development. from the primitive stining,s of the four impulses in the hcurt-m i11d to u millurc display of re, . )'I, II nnd chi.

l l1cre docs not seem to be any wa~· of getting orouud the f.oclth:n there is somcl1ow a discormcetion between Lhc king·s j udgment of n·n about his people and the motin11ion 10 3CI accordingly, which is not possible ifin tcmalism is true. But ifMcncius is not an intcrMiist. must he be an c~tcma l ist'? On lhc surface. this conclusion seems inc\·itablc. insofar as either there is or there isn't a ncccssal}' conncc1ion bclwccn a mor;~ l judgment and moti\'3tion. As mentioned abon. it is probt~b ly to a\'Oid landing Mcncius in the cxtcmalist camp tkal many commentators attribute intcmnlism to him, for it is much more impbusible to suppose that for Mcncius the rcb tionship between 3 rnornl j udgment and nrotin'llion is purely contingent. TI•c evidence so far suggests that Mcncius takes it to be lhc case that there is a wry suons connccrion bctw«:n the t\\0. but not so strong as to rule out the possibility of someone. such 3S King Xuan. who judges that it is rc, or )'i to do something but is not motivated 10 do it As it happens, it is possible to .1rguc that both intcma.lism and cxtern\llism t~rc false. 3Jld that something in between is the corr«t \'iew of moral moti, ation. Such a view has been defended by E\'an Simpson. (Simpson 19C'J9) In wh:1t follows. I will show th;rt Simpson's uccouot ha$ the best clumc:c of capturing Mcncius· posilion on rnornl motivation.

BETWEEN INTERNALISM AND EXTERNALISM According to Evnn Simpson, both in tcm:~ lism and externalism nrc- fn lsc. He docs not directly show thnt they nrc false. Instead. he defends an account of moml motivotjon 1hat. if tl'ue. entails that intcrn:dism ;md cxtcmolism :uc false. His account i11vokcs a logical relations hip that he calls "logi<.:al dcpcudcnc) .- which is \\cakcr than logic.:ll necessity. Some kind of things. A. Jol!ic.ally depends on another kind, B, lf it is logically impossible fot A tJtings oh\ays to occur without B things. but logicall~· possible for tltc lir.a sometimes to occur \\ itltout the second. ",.iltgcnstcin has argued that h is impossible for pain always

to occur without pain bchm·ior. but logically possibJc for it sometimes to occur without pain bchn.vior. If this is right then pain logi call~' depends on pain be-havior but it is not logically requ ired for every· instance of pain to be mtmifcstcd in behavior, which would be tbc C:: -O.Se if Lhc:: two .:uc rcltucd b>• logic.11nc~cssit) . Simps01.1 then c laims lhnt :.1 moral considcrntion of a certain kind logica ll~· depends on moral moti\-'ation: the [WO arc not eomi.ngeotly rda.ted no r arc they rc:::l3tcd by logical ne<:cssitr. If this is righl then internalism is false because it requires the two to be related by logic.1l necessity, and e~tcmal i s m is false because h claims the 1\YO arc only contingently related. Simpson defends the claim that moml beliefs arc logically dcpc-ndcnl on motin$ by giving :l psycho·scmantic account of m0r:1l dispositions. He obscn ·es thnl many aOC.ctivc slates have ;a cognitive content \\ itlt a dispositional propcn) . For example. fear <:ontnins in it the belief in impending d:mser " hic.h disposes 1he agen1 10 ~c 1 so as 10 :hoid tltc dangct. 'l11c relaoonship between the belief (in im~nding danger) and the moti\•ouion to act (to a\'Oid d:lngcr) is one of logical deiJendency: one can somctimcs recogniJ..c the situation as dangerous without being moti\'o.tcd to :1ct to a,·oid the danger. but it is not possible to rcoognil.c danger without C\'Cr being so moti\'atcd. WithoUl the (danger-.a\'oiding) disposition. or in the tot;al absence of the motivation (to ~1.\'oid dangcr).lhc ngcnt indeed c;mnot be s;~id to understand the conc.c pt that C.\prcsscs the belief in question (1l1c concept of danger in the example here). The same thing is true about moral emotions and the beliefs cont.'lincd in them. Simpson ·s example is pity which et.lntains the belief dw.l $0ntC<.lnc is suffering :1nd that it is :1 bad thing. T his belief in turn logically depends on the 11gcnt being moth·:ucd to act to relie\'e the suffering: to htJ\'C such belief the agent must be (logic..11ly) sometimes motiv:ucd to act to reliC\'C tlte suffer ing. Without sometimes being so motivated, the agent cannot be said to understand the meaning of the concept of sufl~c rin g. hence e:mnot believe that anyone is suffering. 1111d insofnr ns such belief is p~rt of the emotion of pit)'. cannoc be said to be cop.:1.blc of feeling pity. Like'' iS¢. one C·:tnnot properly lcm11 the mc.:ming of danger without cxpcriendng fCar, as the "fearless l'geot docs .not uodcrstnnd why one should be concerned abom danger.- (Ibid.: 207)

Artlr1ium Nr'Y<'"

Ho,,c,·cr, since the relationship between n uonnathc reason and its moti\:Uing counterpart is one oflogic:il dependency r:uhcr than logtcal necessity. it is possible that on occnsions. a person who sees :1 normative rcJson is not mothatcd. Whnt happens on those occasions is thut a ccrlt'lin "defc.ating condition obtains:· (Ibid.: 20-*), the sor1 of thing that motinltcs cxtcm:llists to cbim that the rcl:uionship is only continscnt. In the-cosc of pily, the :l!;Ct1l ma) have been owr·c .~ poscd 10 sulfc1·ing and may h;:l\'c. become i1\s.cnsiti\e . In 1hc case of danger, an agent may succeed in training himself or herself ro overcome fear (as Simpson bclic,cs the ancient Stoics tried to do). Ho\\C.\'Cr. w1likc extcmali5t'l, S impson insists that the relation of logical dependency presumes that a motivation is psycho·scmantically induced by a mor:tl judgment rather than just comingcnd)' occurs with the latter. Like the intcrnnlislS. Simpson rakes the moti, ation tO be "necessarily present" with a norm:UiH! bl!lief. but unlike them. Simpson ncccpts that it is pOS.."iiblc for "a defct~ting condition [to') obtnin(s). innhich c~sc d1c presumption lofn motin1tion) is fnlsilicd in that instance but not gcnc-mlly." (lbid.:204) What is interesting 3bout Sitnpson 's aeeowtt is the idc3 tluu a moral judgment has an anCcti\'e comcnt, and a moral affection has a cognith·c content Logic31 dependency arises from the psyd'lO·scmantit intcrpl3y between the cogniti\'C 3nd the affccti\'C in j udgments ond emotions. This fits in pclfcctly well with the Mcnci:u1 notion of xiu. typically transi:Ucd as "'heart-m ind." As if' well known, and as SITC$Cd by Wong in his account of IA;7, Mcncius docs not sec n sharp dist.i.nction betwocn the cogniti\'C and the affccti\'C, The mind in xin hos an nffccti\'C content. and its heart depends on cognition. Indeed, il is ft) t this reason tl1aL in nuributiug intenuJis m to lo.'lcncius. man~· comme.nt3tors do not sec the mcta·cthic:'ll )Jroblcm that Miclloel Smith u ies 10 O\'crcomc in his T/rt• 1Hr>rall'roblt'm. (Smith 1995) According to Smi1l1. common sense tells us tb:tt (1) the j udgment -It is right that I 0" expresses :t belief about an objccth·c matter of fact about what is right for me to do. (2) if' I jud~c that "h is right th3t I 0.. then. celcris paribus. I am motiYtUcd to 0. :md (3) I :.1m moti\'i.llc:d to 0 just in co.sc I hO!YC ;m otppropriatc desire (nnd a me;~.ns ·cnd belief for the auainmcnl or 0). (Ibid.: 12). These thrc:c propositions arc "placitudt-s" !Mt ore diO'icult 1o deny. The problem is that the three :uc mutuully inconsistent (2) says tltat :some beliefs arc ncccssaril)' conm.."Ctcd with moti\'ation :111d (3) says that whm motivates is il desire. Yet following Hun1e. beliefs ond desires ore distinct entities and so the-re c:tnnot be .m~ noccss:u1· connection between them. T he moral problem is how to reconcile these three propositions. Smitl1's solution to the problem lies in the aoccptanec of the following principle: .. Our 0-ing in circumslnnces C is right if tUld only if we would desire th::~t \\C 0 in C. if \ \C were fully rntional. \\here 0-ing in C is ~n 01tt of Lhc appropri:ue subst.1ntial kind.'' (Ibid.: 184). Thus. what we lx:lic\'c is the right thing to do. we will hu\c the desi.rc. or wi.ll be motin,lcd, to d
ra1ionaL Ha' ing dtc belief without being moti\•atcd means one is not "filily rational," In tcmlS of IA:7. if Smith is right then either the king docs not stc that it is right to lo'c nnd protect his people or the king is not full) r:uion31. The Iauer possibility seems consistent with Nivision·s earlier rc:ading of lA: ?. according to which Mc:ncius' strnlcgy is to point out to the king a l"olilurc. of ratit)nality, namely the failure. to sec that there is no rclcv:mt difTcrencc between the ox and his people. HO\VC\'cr. ns we h•wc seen, rending the king 's problem ns one of fo.ilurc of rationality (of \\hatevcr kind) ha.~ many diOicuhics. The altcrn:uh'c is ttl re-ad Mcncius' strategy as gcuing the ld ng to sec th:H lo\'ing nnd protecting his people is the right thing to do. The motivation will come by nceessit)'. gi,·e n tluat he is fu1ly rational. Unfortunately. this nhc-math'C is nlso troublesome. As we have seen, there is textu:tl C\ idl!nce to show lh31 the king knows well enough th:n his people are not happy :1nd knows nell enough thattnking_ core of the J>eoplc- is the riglll thing to do. that it is part of the mi:tndatc of Hc:n en. Wh:n encoume,cs commentalors such :'IS Wonc to attribute iutcrnnlism to McnciltS. in ,·jew of these difficulties. is the fact thnt i\·fencius docs not sec n distinclion between reason and emotion. between mind and hcan, wedded as he is 10 the notion of xm, which is both hcnn and mind. Indeed. with xin. rc.:~son and emotion. or beliefs and de-sires. arc not distinct existences. and so there is no reason why " It is right th3t I 0" c-:1nnot moti\':'Ue, so Ions as it is a product of the hc:art·mind, With xhl, there is no .. moral problem·· of the sort Smith tries to rcsol ,.c. This is not to sa~· that. with xin. \\C C·an unproblcmalicully muibute intcrn:tlism h.) Mcncius. ll1ctc is still IA:7 to explain. We h:t\C seen that Wong's expl:tnntion bas many difficulties. Rctutniug to SimiJSon·s <'Iecount. anot11er nuracti\'c feature is tJ1c llSycho·scmantie process tJ1at underlies tJtc logical dependency betwee-n a moral j udgment ~d moti,·ation. The trouble with intemalism is that it sees t11c link bctwei:n moral judgments and motivation as a matter of Jocic:d entailment. hence 35 3 mallcr of logic. But as a critic. James Dreier. has put it. ··cnttliling isn't alw:ays ex.planing:· (Dreier 1996: 364) \V1uu we need is nn ·•anal) sis to help us to understand how a moral belief C·Ould moti\'atc essentia ll ~·. r:nhcr than merely in conjunction with a complemenwry desire.'' but, Dreier complains. ''(c) x~c tly what else is require-d is nom; too clciU'... .. (Ibid.) With his pS)·cho·scmamic :u:count, SirnJ>SOil can explain how ..n moral belief could motiv:ue" : it could motiv:'ltc because be-ing moth·ntcd is pan of tho process of acquirinJ;: the belief. Tills fits in \\Cll with the Mcncian idc:J of sclf-cultiv;uion. As mentioned earlier. Mcncius claims that moral judgments. of rt>11 and JY for instance~ originntc from ccrroin innate tendencies. or instincts. or impulses. rcfencd nt 2A:6 as the "four Sprouts.- or ·'four beginnings.- But these "sprouts.'' or "beginnings." need to be nurtured. \Vc need to learn to associ~uc appropri.tuc judgments to feel.ings rooted in the four ..sprouts.'' We need to learn to dc\'elop xm.

A rtlr1ium Nt~y<'"

88

For nllthc reasons abo\'C. \\C can build on Simpson's accounl of moral moth 'ation to gh·c n reading of I A:7thatavo ids the difficulties lhat

other rcndings focc. The first thing to notice is that between cognition. or n t:crlnin

nff~li\'t

:1

ccrmin

stining. nnd an ac;;tion in response to it

there is a whole chain of occurrences. C\'Cn 1hough the :'ICtion eon be immediate (as in Mcncius· example of a m.nn ::~cting to S;J.\'C a child the moment he obscr\'tS that it is about to fall into a well). Indeed. c:Ycn a cognil ion c.nn be nnjX\cked i nto a chain of occurrences. As is well known, there is o difT'crcncc.between -seeing.. and ~seeing AS'' or belwecn ..b.1S1C

seeing'' and ..~ognitivc seeing.·· It takc.s some cogniti\C ability to sec tho.t the images depicted on th e tclc,·ision screen arc images of people ~JOins wilhout food having no sheller and being mcdic31Jy neglected. h takes somewhat more cogniti\'C input to sec that hunger. homclcssncss and neglect arc being dcpicced, and C\Cn more 10 see tluu ahe people depic1ed are su1Tering. Cognitive seeing just is the process of learning concepK As concepts &CI .. thickeJ.- more fcnmin& is f'C(Juircd. Conccpls like suiTeriH& arc ''thicker· lhan concepts like h ongcr and homclcssncss. which in IUrn arc thicker than conccplS of lnck of food and L1.c.k of shelter. One crut sec that some l)COplc li\'c under ccrt.1in conditions without S'-"'Cing hunger or homelcssness. and one can sec hunger and homclcssncss without seeing s uffering. Mornl cognition is C\'Cn thicker. Thus. it 1nkcs much more 10 go from seeing suffering 10 socing that one ought to help Lhc JX."Oplc suffering. or to rclicH: suffering, In most cases, 1hc "more" just is 1hc psycho-scm.;mtic process th~t Simpson speaks o f. 'Th.i s process. a.s we h:wc seen. \\ ill lend to thkk notions that cntnil motiv:uions. \\here the .. entniling" is not j ust 3 logic.ol proce;ss, but one that depends in turn on tbc ps~c:ho ·S-emnnti c process of lc:uning. Finally. C\CU when there is a motiV<1tion. mttn)' steps muy ha\ C to be tron·crscd before an action i$ undenaken. As Simpson has pointed out the fuct that someone has a motive to commit murder is not sufficient proof that he or she is the

murderer. Thus. many things happen bet,,·ccn certain basic seein g.s. or ccrt.lin emotional stirrings. nnd nppropri.11c actions. The relationship of logicaJ dcpcndcnc~· holds bCh \CC11 many pairs of occurrenc-es in this long chain, Since n "defeat ing condition·· may exist between n pair of occum:nces related by Josical dependency, i1 is possible fo r the motin'llion to take il momlly justiliable ae.tion not to exist (and indeed. for the action not to be pcrfonned even when dtcre is a moth ·mion to do so •• greed may moth·ato someone to murder his or her rich uncle but cowardice oficn defc;~ts the :~cl ion). It follows that to motivate someone to take an appropri:uc action, we ha,·c to do more than convincing him or h er of a nonnnti\·c reason for ac.ti.ug. \Vc ha,·e to undcrstru1d whnt conditions might d~:fcat the moti\nting j ud ~m en t. or the moth tHing affective st~tc . th~ t we m ~y presume co follow n norm.1liYe reason by \'irtuc o f the relnlionsh.ip o f logkn1 dcpcndeocy nod $0tnchow neutr::tli~e

them. We c:tn now sec that this is what underlies {'"fcucius' strategy in IA;7,

KING XUAN'S EDUCATION

The key to Simpson ·s account of moral motiv:uion is the p$ycho scmantic cxplaMtiotl of moral j udgments and feelings. TI1is 4

explanation, in tum. assumes that :1 j udgment (e.g. of danger. or surfcring) has an nJlCcti,·c content (c.s. fear, or compassion), and eon\'crscly. This assumption is taken to the c;-.:trcme in the Mcncia.n c.oncept of .\'ht, \\ hich. as we haYc sctn. is b01h cognitive and affective. mind and heart. 1'his is what mnkcs Simpson's oe<:ount pat1ieularly appropriate for rc:tding IA:7. lndced. "e c;tn argue thnt Mcncius operates \\ itl1 something YCI)' much like it in mind gh·cn his emphasis on defea ting conditions in par3sraph 8: ..... the superior m:tn .. . hj,\·ing seen (3nimal~>) :.li\'C, . .. C:lnnot beat tO sec them d ie : hu,ins heard their dyin&cries.... cunnot bear to cat their ncsh. Thc1-efore he keeps 01way from his sl:rughtcrhou5:c and cook-room ... In this p3ssage. Mcneius t..'lkes it that the scc:ins and hearing animals suffering will, Ci\'en xln. make a person feel compassion for them and rcluc.t:mt to cat meat, but since •'the gentleman" has to cat meat ( prtsumabty \'Cgctarianism was not rut option tOr Mcncius). he has to block his own compassion br keeping out of slaughterhouses and cook-rooms. The nature of the heart-mind, :rin. is mystc:riou10 unless we t:'l.kc it that the gentleman bas learned to recognize the cries of animals bci.ns slaughtered r.s suiT'c;ring. to rclau; sutTcring to his own feeling of pity. and to i dcnl i f~ in the feeling of pity the tend~nc.y to net to nile\ imc the suiTI!ring. C!c:uly tltcn. something like a relationship of logical dependency. which is btl.sed on ., psycho·semuntic JHOCCSS. is nssumc
<)(}

Artlr1ium Nt~y<'"

SltlTcr just as much. or did he ha,·c no compassion for it? On Nh,ision's reading. Mcncius tries to get the king to be consistent between the ox and rus ))<X')plc, bUI th~t ICtl\'CS the kjng inc.onsis-tcnt between the ox and the sheep. But \\C ~an now soy that between the recognition of the sheep's fate and the cotnpassion for il. there stru1d some defeating conditions. One of them is the fac l that the s.acrifici.nl cere-mony t:ould not be :abandoned: " 1he kmg said, How can (the. consccnuion of ahe bell with blood] be. omitlcd? Change it for a sheep.. (paragraph 4). Another explicitly identified by Mcncius for the '-ing is the fac t that the king ..Sth\ L11c ox and had not seen the sheep'' (par3gmph 8).

On my reading. the ldng's problem is. lbr Mcncius. that he docs not know what defeating condition stands between his re<:ognition of the suiT'eri11g of his people and the motivation to take appropriate actions to allevime it He l.;nows- whnt s-uffering mean$ :md by 1hc rehllionship of logic.ol dependency. he expec-ts to feel c:omp :~.s.sion tmd to be doing somet.hin& about his people ·s surrcring. Since he docs not feel ahe. comJ)assion. he has doubt about his hean-mind. asl:ins rvtc-ncius " hcther he bas what it takes (0 be benevolent to his people. ~·lencius assures hint tbal there is nothing wrong \\ ith his ltearHnind. citing lhe incident of the o~ . Also~ gh•en th:u eomp3ssion psychreoccupation with lerritorial conqucsls (parngraplt$

91

14·16). Mcncius' sumcg) then. is to identify for the king the defe-ating condhion so that he cnn reconnect h is cognition of suffer ing with his

feelings and the npproprintc action. This of course will not be sufficient to t,«::l the king to ::1ct: the dcfcnting condition has to be rcmo,·cd. The nc,xt part of Mcncius· stratCS) is to sho\'' the king th:u the condition thought to clefcal the king ·s action to help his people rc:~lly docs not do so at ull. Mcncius then tries to con\ incc the king t1lill his dcl)irc to secure his

kingdom would in filet be met lf he we re to oct on his compassion for his people (parngrophs 17-lg). lnstcnd of dcfe.:tting tJ\c nppropriatc action, on ''hich the king"s compassion and his cognitjon of suffering logic-ally depend. his tcrri1ori.al desire calls for it Once the king has understood this. 3.11 that rcm:1ins for Mcncius to do is to spell out for the king w b~t h~s to be done in order to enrich his pooplc (paragraphs 19-2-t}. In h is response to lhar.t. Wong claims tht'l t lhJUa's rcadins of 1A:7 - dnes nothing LO moke sense of the pl:'tnt metaphor.. lhm Mcncius

to c;.;.plai_n the prOtcss or moral dc, clopmcl.lt. (Wonz 1991: 57) Wong is ccrl3inly right in clainling thm Mcncius pl3ccs a great deal of stress on moral dc,·elopment. 3nd that an~· cxplicntion of f\lcncius' theory of mor:1l motiv3tion h:2s to gi\'c the idea of morol tlc\·clopmcnt :2 large role in the theory. Howc\'cr, h is not cntirel~· clear how Wong's

cm plo~s

'"distinction between the innate begUmings of compassion and a fully dc\'clopcd compassion with the cogniti\'C dimension that enables rel i~1blc helping helps to spell out 1hc sct..-d-:md-stalk metaphor." (lr how it "illumi.n:uc(s) the woy thot the seed of comp0$Sion can c:ont;~i.n the contours of ilS full dc\'clopmcnt. and yet need tultivation: · (lbid.) On my reading. rvtcncius · ide:1 of n1orttl de\'clopmcnt c:m l>t:: cashed out cxplic itly in terms of the psycho-scmruuic process of teaming n\oro.l concepts such c:tS pain and suffering. of learning 10 recogni1.c moral fee lings such :'IS compassion and pity, and of le:Jrning to conneet concepts with aOCets and dispositions to act As pointed out .:tbovc. I sec this process as the thic-kening, through cdue:uion. of cognition and aiTcc.tion. from the bare seeing of ccnain images to seeing them as depicting. for example. hunger nnd homeless. to seeing suffering. to seeing thou it is b.1d. to seeing th;lt one ought to do something about it: and from eert:,in primiti\'C anCcthc stirrings to, lbr exAmple. fee lings of symp:alhy, to feelings of comp.:tSsion or bcnc,·olcnec. to desires 10 help. In the ~kuciun frmncwork tl1e main

ingredient that thickens COgnition. the mind, is liiC an'ecti\•c ltiO\'CnlCill. the hC':trt. nnd the main ins,re.dicnt thatlhtct.::cns affection, the hc:'!rt, is dtc eogn.ith·e, inpul the mind. Thus, "hat mainly thkkc11s the scc:ins of hunger and homeless Lo the seeing of suffering is tl1c hcau-fclt tcndcnc} to help the hungry and the homeless, and what mainly 1hickcns the heart-felt tcndcn c;~· to help to the feeling of compassion is the cognition tbat ltungcr and homeless ore bad for those who ha'e 10 endure them. The

ultimate aim of moral dc\'elopmcnt is the dc\'clopmcnl of the heart-mind. xln, thot sees and feels in harr:nony.

Artlr1ium Nr'Y<'"

If I am right what King Xuan has learnt from Mcncius is nol a lesson in hO\\ to be logicnHy consistent ~s Nivison suQgcsts. nor in hO\\

to let tltc -moth·c force·· of the primiti,·c stirrings to do its work in pmcticn] rc<1soning. as Wong tlaims. nor in bow to be imaginnth'c . ;tS lham belilwcs. Wh:'tt the king has le.:)nU fmm Mcncius is th e u·ue nature of the heart-mind. o.nd how :a dc,·clopcd hcan-mind 'M be out of bal::mc.:c <:~nd foil to sec through t1.c: conditions lhul defeat t11c mo' cmcnt fro m o ne .state of the hc;ut·mind to tltc next, on which the fom1cr ps)·cho-scmantico.lly depends, or from the normati,•e rc!lson to wh.·u it logically depends. the motivating condition, in the contemporary language of moral moth·ation.

REFERENCES Dreier.

J:llllCS,

l'.>'Xl, "Review of

J71~

;\luru/ PrtJblt:m,'· Mind.

\1:>1.105: 363-367. ll1:'lm, Craig K., 199 1. .. D:n·id Wane on Emotions in Mcncius,.. Philosophy J:.i.·m and U'Cst. Vo1.41 : 45 ..53. Liu. Xiushcng, 2002. ''Mcngzian lntcrnalism," in X. Liu and P.J.

lv3nhoc {cds ). Hs:ury$ lHJ the> J\lornl Plulosophy of Mcng1i, Indianapolis: Ha
ofChinese PhiliJsophy. \bi.IS: 25-35. Sirnpson, E\'iln, 1999... Between hucru:Jiism ;,nd Externalism in Ethics.- '/1Jf1 Phi/osoplnca/ Quom·r~v. Vo l .4~): 20 1·214. Smith. Michael. 1995. 1Jre t\foral Problem. Oxford: Bl:sckwcll. Wong. Oa\'id B.. l'J?I , "Is Tiu:rc 3 Distinction Between Rc.ason and f..motion in McnciusT' Plulm;nphy Ht~SitJml IJ·b·r. Vol.4:3 1·43. Wong. On\'id. B.. ··Response to Crn.ig Lh;un·s Discussion: · Philosophy Ea:ft tmtl West. \ bl.41 : 55-58. AI p.S7.

ChaptcrV

Xunzi and the Essentialist Mode of Thinking about Human Nature Kim-ch<mg Chmrg INTRODUCTION In his essay "Philosophy of Human Nature.~ Antonio Cuil argues th:.t the tcnn ·' bad.. in Xunzi"s statement thilt ··Human nature is bad•. is to

be t:lkcn in a conscqucntinl sense. This goes against a common tendency

to read Lhc Xunzi in whtn I refer to as the csscnLialist mode of thinking. Jn this paper. I show how it is th:!t the consequential reading of " b.1d" and other features ahat Professor Cua de-scribes offer a understanding ofXunz.i's position as u non-cs:sc n ti~ l is l one.

sif,'llificomt

TilE ESSENTIALIST MODE O .. TIIINKINC Historically, Xunzi's statcmcm thnt ··Human nature is bad (r m : l•i :dng cAZ. tt:l§)'" has been regarded as the opposite of Mcncius's 1 ,;cw ah:tt "(Human) nature is good (.nng .\·hanf.£~).'' It is Mcncius's

considered position th;ll huma.n nnturc is inherent!)' sood. Thus. ghcn Xunzi's opposition to 1\·t encius. it has seemed natural to take him to mean tb::ll human narurc is inhe-rently b.ld. Howe,'Cr. it is wrong to think thnt if Xunzi denies an inherent goodness. he must therefore be com milled to the belief in an inherent badness. The mode in which Mcncius thinks of muurc or xiug rl: rcn.mins deeply entrenched if one w.kcs th.i s 10 ~ Xunzi's considered view. In his criticism of Mcncius. howen:r. Xunzi targets not onlr the idea that x;ng is good. He also ~mcmpts to undermine " hut I shul.l refer to ns the." csscntiilli!>1" mode of thinking ;~.bout x;ux. 11 is imponant to spell O\Jt "hatlhis essentialist mode of thinkin& is n.nd whnt Xum•J's position is in rckttion to it ln this rc g:~.rd , the 1c1m Fu r the ~li.lh:mcnt b}' Xunzi. Sc.:'c John Knoblock. XwiSi: . l 1i-rmslation ami Slmly of rh.: ComJ,fde Jf{lr/w· (Stanlbni: Stanford Uni\"(.'niity P~':Ss. I994). \\.\lumc: 3 . 1~ 2 3. "Man ·~ Natu re •s E\''11 .. L• Oishcng. Xtm:l.llt hi .:w =r·M~ ~ ('f:~ibci: Xucsbcn11 Slmjo. 1994). Xittg H Pi<m. The slntcmcnt j$ repeated .:ie'tcn•l limes t hmu~hlllll Oook 2:1 F\•r lh~ st:1h.:mcnt of Mcnciu s ·~ position. 1

sec the p:IS:>.agc GA'6 m the bilingual cd•l•on \"If D .C. Lau. •Ht• ttthJ~· (Hong Kon s : 'fh(: t:hilltsl· Utu\'l·r":tity Press. 1984 ). I shall folio'' Knobi(J(~k ·s

pa:;sagc numhcrings in the. rcli:rcncc.s to the .\ 'uuzi and Lau 's pllS:iagcm.unbcring.s in 1\:L'crcncc:l lOlhc .\ feucnu.

lJingtW pla)S a pivotal role. With reference to Mcncius·s usc of the term fJing i.n rcspoosc lo :~ qucstioo about what be mcoos by m ;~ n 's xmg being

good. A.C. Grah>lm has given Ihe folio\\ in ~; deftnilion; ..The t(inx of X is what makes it a genuine X, \\ hat C\CI)' X has and \\ithout '' hich would not be an X ." 1 We mn~ bre:tk this dO\\n ns follO\\S. Ta.kc .1n entity c~Jlcd ''X"" (in this in.stttncc, - man·· ). l11cn: is some. essential ("'genuine- ) ch3ractcrislic of X 1ha1 ma~cs it what it is. This characteristic is -css.cntial" in the sense lh:ll c01ch and C\'c rr member of dtc class ··X" ncl.ics.sarily possesses it An cntil)' that lacks this characteristic is not "X". According to Graham. in the J\fencm3· and the prc..Qin philosophicalce;'\IS in gencr::tl. the tenu fJin;: refers to this essential c-haracteristic in the way j ust defined. 3 Let us sec how this esscn1ialist mode of thinking nbout humnn nature applies to Mencius by referring to p;u-t of Xun~ i · s :tntt.lysis of his \'icw that human nature is ~ood . According tO Xun01.i. underlying this' ic" is a tendency to think of human nature as an original unadorned state "ith a bcnefiein.l resource. in the way th::n eyesight belongs to the eyes (Xun;i 23. I d). ·n te eyes and eyesight arc inseparably linked such that "ithoutthc forme r, there would not be the Iauer. In other words. the eyes arc essential to the ZJ.bility to sec. Sim.iln.rly, for Mcncius. the resource of goodr:lcss is inseparably linked to each and e\Cf)' person at birth. The I>OSScssion of this resource is inscplr3ble fro m and thl!refore essen1ial to" luu a man is, l11i$ is indeed tl.1 c \\11}' Mcncius thamctc:ri~c:s rcu A or " man-. An~r the example of the child obout to foil in1o a \\ell (Mcncius 2A:6) he cnumennc:s c.:ach of the fo ur sprouts of the he.ll't·mind (compassion. sbamc. courtc:S) a.nd modesty. right and wrong) and says that whoever is dC:\'(1id of :my of them is not a mnn UCi ron yc ·11~)... t!!). Thus, for Mc:ncius, tlu: possession of ench of the follr sprouls is I he distinguishing fea ture of each man qua man. As he soys in 46:19, "Slight is ll1c differcnte belwecn man and dH~ brutes. The common man loses this d.istinguisbinS feature. '' hilc Lhc gcntlc m <~n rcuins iL- We need not go into the sense in which some people arc said to "lose" this distinguishing fca1urc, and c-en3inly there is n philosophical difficulty here for Mcncius. But consistent with : /\. C. Gra.h:un. '·'01e Backc;round uf Lhc )..kncinn Th(."\11}' of I Iuman Nalurc." in SllldH:J' fn C/dnr:u Plnlo:wp!~)' {.t: PltJ/QJO/l hitxll Lfla(:furt (Singapore: The hlslilulc of EO\st Asi:m Phikn;nphies. 19&i). p.33 I h:we :o.·ubs1jtut00 tJing ftl l' ch 'iug. ·' Gf!th:un. " Tik' Uu<:ktz.rotmJ... ... Ibid. pp.59·66, " APP''lldtx : The Mcotoins of <:h'ing." ln 311 cxuroinution o r the \' Ur iu u;o; USC$ Qf qing in tlu:

Pn:-Qin

1~1::1. ""l.ln~· l'.ti

Shun says - 1 mn indincd w agr\.-..: with A.C

Gmh:,m's inh:qm.."'3110n of ch 'mg m tcnns of what a thing is genuinely hkc "

llowc\'('r. he cautions :isainst limbam's trunsl:ttJou ( l f llu~ term us ...essence" bccnusc of iL'i Aristl)ldum o.ssocinticm.'>. Sa: Shun, .\I..•Jtcius (tlld J::a,.Jy ('Ju,est- Tltougltt (Stauft.tl'd Uuin,,·sity Pre:is. 1997). pp. 184-185.

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Lhis way of rcg.11ding the distinguishing feature of man. Mcncius \\Ould s.1y of someone who fails to c:>iprcss nny sign or the sprouls of goodness thnt he is not a ren or man. We lut\'C described what I h;l\c referred to ns the csscnti<1list mode or thinking obout human n:uure and how rvlcnciu:fs \'iew of hurnan nature bclonss to this mode. The question to be considered is: Docs Xun~i think of humon natUI'C in this mode'! F.lsc\\ here, J ha\'C argued th:at Xunzi's view of xmg amounts to the second of the (our positions mentioned b~ Mcnc ius ~s disciple Gongduzi. that it Jw the cnp3city to become good or to become bad (ke yi 11 e; slum iif tj. .l;) W. ke J'l wei bu 4 shnnfiJ l;.l!~..f' 1!i). A.C. Grahtun has 3S.Soci:~tcd this position with n prc·,.,·l coci:'ln figure n3mcd Shih Shih who is s.1id to have thought that "there is both good and bnd in m.:m's nature. I[ we pick ou1 wb.:n is good in man's nature ttnd by nou1ishing dc\'clop it. l11c good grons: if "c nourish and develop the bad in our n:uurc the bad grows... According to Graham. this is "clearly a justification" of the second position mentioned by Gongdu1.i.:. I( this means that botJ1 goodness nud bndncss arc inherent in the nruurc of each :md C\'CI)' person IJIIfl man. then this amounLS 10 lhc csscnti3list mode of thinking about human n011ure. ANTONIO CUAAND TIIREE FEATU RES OFTIIEXUNZ/

Ignoring the question of whether it would be coherent to talk of a person ·s nature being both lnhei'C'nl~v good and bad at the same time, 1 think that h would be a mistake to attribute this mode of thinking to Xunzi. ln wlmt follm\s. r shall rtrer 10 some fcmurc.s ofXUJui's position on human n:uurc th:-tt would not fit the csscn1ialist mode. 1'hcsc fc:nurcs ba,·c been clearly described b)-· Anton.io Cua in his CS&:l)'. "Philosophy of Human Naturc." 6 (n the bcsinning of this essay. Cua 5a)'S that the concep1 of hum:tn nature is n " Ouid" notion. lie is not me-rely reminding us of the C\'idcnt f::.ct lh:lt there arc \'ntious .:.ceounts of hum~ niUure. In tl1c ch~(llcr "'S&Il!::tling Xunz.1"' m my hool:, E(lr/y r fmjitr.unt t,'il:lc.t OJ'Cn Coun. forthcoming). Sec aiSll my PllP'-"'1' (i.u Chu1csc). "Xunz• und tJtc Four Vicwl' on Jfuman N:.tun:."' XCCU f>ltilosophical JmmKJI I I (lXccmbc:r 2003) ISS-210. Th~.: four positton:; rncntion...'\1 by Gongduzi in ;\ f~lll"lliS GA ;(~ arc th:n ( I ) xing 1$ neither ~ood nor noi·BOOd. (2} ,;ing ha:> the CapJCit~· h) lX'\:OJilC gooJ 01' h'l bC..:OmC bnd. (J) dlO::fC arc ;r;ug lh:'U :l((: S()l)(J, t'\tld tlux-c ru\1 xing tluJt are bad . and (4} xiug is good. l'OS1b0n (2) h:as to be: ch:orlr d i st in J;ui~h ...-d frmn (3). ·n1c IaUer· sbtc:> d.l.ity of Amcnca Press. 2005). pr..'·33. 1

(t'hic~tgo:

96

Instead. he ho1ds tJuu

an~·

particular account of humw1 nature rcOcc1s a

ccrU'Iin moral ,·ision. idcnl or nonn. This is demonstrated in his analysis of

Xunzi's thesis that -human n;uure is bad." What Xunzi means, according to Cuu. js that 1hcrc is n moth·a tiona] stnltlUll: of desires and feelings that would tend 10w:ud strife ond disorder if len unrestrained. This is a ••quas i ~mp i rical .. claim.

and it is , ·nlid:ucd by the implied mornl point of view that strife and disorder arc unrlesir.:1blc. In other words. i1 is ahc.

consequences oi such a situation that would be bad. For Xunzi. there is nol11ins intrinsically b3d nbout desires and fcclinys. As Cu~ ~ys. ··To

eharactcrit.c man ·s nmurc as ' bad' is, in cfTcct. a sho-nband \\ ar of asserting the nature of these conscqucm::cs.'"1 To those f:nuili;ar with d.iscussions on human oalurc ar:nong lhc prc-Qin philosophe-rs. 1hc \\Ord .-:flu id.. might bring to mind the analog) that Gaozi uS&o."S in his description of human nalurc. According 10 Gao'i.i (Mc:m:iu.l· 6A:2). nature or xmg docs not distinguish between g.oodlbOO in the "llY thDI \HUct docs not distinsuish bch,ccn cast/west. The. i1nplic-ation is th:n n:~ture is mor:llly neutral :.md conceptions of n:uure as good or bad ru'C imposed by indh•iduals or communities. Cu:t docs not refer to Oaot.i here btu to a similar analogy or Xunzi 's l>Cl\\ccn 1he acquisition or rhual principles and the molding or clay: "In a way, man's ruuurc. tUldcrstood in 1cnns of his basic motivational structure. is not bad in itscl(. but it is bad in the way he tCJJds to actualiz.c this basic nature. and this from the moral point of view. Xunzi. throughout. is inshacnt on man as a raw m::ucrial for moral tr.msfonnntion. Mom is. like a piece of cloy to be molded inlo a proper shape. to be transformed b~• /i-mornlity." 8 lienee. according It) Cua, the.~ arc 1hc thtcc m:.in f~-ltur\::s or Xunzi's account of human n:Hurc:: ( 1) His st:~tcment lhat ~Mo.n 's xmg is bad .. refers to the consequences of indulging its motiv:uio-nal :muclurc of desires and feelings~ (2) There is nothing inherently b:td about man·s xmg •• it is utomlty neutral: and (3) Mnn 's 1·fng consists of a basic ..rnw material" that CM be shaped or transformed. In liJC rest of lhis paper. I ' Ibid p ~. 8 E''Cn if Xuu7.i tniniS\.-enr· or Hobbc$'s ~•ccou nl of the smte of ruu-ure: ..Now. let u.s try to unogutc a situatk"'O wb.."t'c m:.·. do awa~· Wtth lhc :authority of lords
or

the whole world would t)llickly ensure their mutual

destmction If we ('(lnSld(,. !he l.mplicatjous of tlt~c focu . 11 is plain that hum:m nature is c\·il and thot any t:tood in humans is ncquircd by con~i ous c.:~crtion... (K tX.lblli'Ck ·s ttmlt\lati()n)

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shall do the following. FirsL I shall build upon the first ''' o features that Cua describes throuQh a reading of relc\':mt passages in the Xun;1 , Second. I shall discuss the third fconurc •• the so-culled .. mw material" of luttu.rc nnd ils trnnsfom1ation. This would im·oh·e o distussion of the rclntion between cJhrg and xlng in 1hc text and hO\\' tronsformation is possibl ~. IIIUS lc:tding to a fu ller de-scription of Xunzi's non~s5cnt ia list position. In the course or discus!;ill£ lhc three fc.:<~lurcs 111CIItioncd ilbo\·c. certain questions will inevitably arise. For instance, if \\C argue th:u fOr Xunzi nature is lxld only in a consequential sense, hO\\' do we account for the f:tct that Xunf.i constantly talks about the 11ec.:d for transforming one ·s nature ·~docs not the need for lr3nslbnnation assume that man's nature is cssenti:tUy bad in the firs t place'! Funhcnnorc. what is this ..raw m:ttcrbl" th:u man is said to possess. even if for the s..'lkc of argument it is granted th:tt ic is not inherently bad in the first plx -c ·! Surely, this "raw material'" must rcCer to Lhc contents t)f one ·s nature qua m:1n and thi!> would mean thnt it is cssentio.ll)' possessed by man - hO\\ then <;an there be an~ reading of humrtn nature in a non-cs:seJ1tialist mode'! Titcse questions iudicotc thtlt the css.cutiolist mode of thought is not etlsr to shnke oJJ' and will rend 10 (fOJ> UJ> throughout the discussion. TilliS. discussing 1hc fc:~turcs of Xunzfs position would :tt the same cime inYolvc unveiling essentialist tlssumptions. The response to the questions posed will ultimately hell' us to dcYclop " hat I think is a proper :'lc.count ofXunzi's posicion and 10 undcrst:md how there can be a nQn..csscncialist conception of human nature. TilE M EANING Ot" "XIN(i 1.~ HMJ"

P:1ss3gc 23. la of the Xing E Pwn t-b~ i:l of the Xwm begins: Tite xing of man is bad (e). His (c;~prcss i ons ol) goodness is (the result oJ} tonslitutiYc :teti,·ily (wei f4). The xing or man is such thut he is born with a liking of benefit (Should this be allowed 10 be) indulged in (.~hun shi AfiJ.i!). suifc will rui.sc and titu:tlistie deference ( t.'l mng ii:Hi'l) wi ll be lost. (My '"'"'~Ilion)

II might ()!! held that suictly speaking. since the context of discussion is xing and wh:tt m3tl is born with, Xunzi is not entitled to speak or the J'Uics and bc-h a\ ior of ritu:llistic dcfctc nc.c being .. lost- if xmg is indulged in. But this. assumes that in this passage he has in mind a st;uc of nature where ritualistic rules arc non--existent For in such a state of nature. rules of ritu:tl cannot be "losf' since Otcy arc non-existent. Howcv\:r. Xunzi mentions t.hc loss of the niles of ritual as a c:onje<.:turc about the consequences. -- what would h:~ppcn if people do not conduct

Lhemseh c-s on Lhe basis of ritua l and instead allow Lhclr naiUral dispositions to h~wc free rcin'!Q Titc aboYc pnssage c-ontinues: (Man is) bom with ( the tendencies IO\\:.ll'd ft.!eli ngs or) envy and hate. (Should this be allowed to be) indulged in,

violence and crime will utisc and loyally <1nd trustwonhiness will be lost (Mnn is) born with the desires (FU 'W-:) of the cars and the eyes. havinG a liking for sounds and colors. (Should this be aiiO\\cd to be) indulged in. dissoluteness and disorder will thus arise "bile ritunl principles and culturnl fonn \\ill be lost (1\i y uansl:uion) Although tl1is i$ !timilosr to the initial sc.ction quoted <~bO\'c, it adds the tendencies toward fi'~lings of envy and hate and the sensory desires to the (fesill: for benefit :~.s wh:u man is born possessing. Again. the sues.~ is on \\ ltat \\Ould happen should the desires and feelings be given free rein ~~ there WOIIld be disorder and the lOSS ol' ritu:;d principles and -cultuml fonn·· (wen li )C~If) that constitute the soci::.l order. Xunz.i says next:

Tims (wantonly) following mosu ·s Kinx a nd indulging man's qing will inevitably result in strife "hich amounts ro uansgrcssion of soc ill divisions (ti:n ~}) and disorder. uhim~ltcly ending up in (n sitll..~lion of) l~'fannic:~1l Yiolcnce. (My tmnslation) We shall be discussing in dCiail the rchn ion between th-e tcnns xlng :md qmg loltcr. But note the scp:mttc mention of xlng and qing in this section of tl1c pass3ge. n,is indicates that they arc not used interchangeably here. Having men1ioncd the wanton follm' ing of xh1g. there seems no reason for Xun:d to rcpc.nt himself by mentioning tlte indulgence of tJfllg if it is interchangeable \\ ith xing. And Xwt7.i docs not seem to be using qmg in 1hc sense of wh:lt is ''genuine" here citl1cr. It is therefore prob:ablc that qmg rctCrs to the feelings or emotions (of e m ) ' and hntc) that Xunzi had mentioned carlicr. 10 Xun1..i is say in:; that if 9 Cua tmta..'ibtcs xltrg :s " n:tturc" and qlng a:~ ... t~"Ciiugs". &:<: Cuo. "Phi loSC~pb)' of 1Jumon Natun:.•" p.7. KrNblock hns "iobnm .nature'· l(n xiug and ~ nu lu r~ l i11cl in~lli un ~.. for t}urg in lht~ pas:,agc J folluw Cu:,·:; usc of "ft.....:hngs" for 'Jiftg Bll1 both conflml that xl!lf.: :.nd qurg arc two scp;1rmc items her.;.·, 10 On p. 31 of his cs:s11y Cu:1 notc:s thnt '·Xun:~_j thus may be rceordcd .:ts I~Pl'sing a ,,,ucdy for the hum~m p1 t.~l icl:lmcnl bcs..·l by m..a.n·s b:t:,ic thlturc,He ;uJds the inu.:rcsting rcm3rk that ··xunzi could agree w1th Hume 'th::H if

Xrm:1 ot11f11mtm N~tltlf\'

Y9

people ;.ue allowed to gi\'e free rein to their scnso~ desires (xing) and dispositional frc lings (tpng) this would result in the consequences mentioned. The pass>Jgc 23. 1 :~. conclu-des: Therefore then-: must be the rrnnsfonnation (lwa ft ) brought t~bout by tc::.dtctsJ1aws and the- way of rilual principles before there can be deference. conlbnnicy to cultural fomt and ultimately orderly so,·crnanc.e. fro1u this pcrspccti\'C it is clear that man's xillf:! is bad and (the expressions ol) goodness is (the rcsull oQ constitutive aclil'ity (w et). {My t.r:mslntion) Xunzi is careful to say th:n it is .. from this perspective. . th3t rmg is b:~d . What is this pcrspcctivc't This must refer to wh:~.t he has rcpctttcdly s tressed throughout the passng,e, namely. tl1<1t Otc indulgence of tJu: dcsir<: fOr benefit the sensory desires and the disposition to feel en\'y and h-ate will rcsuh in disorder :md the loss of cultural form and ritual prind plcs. An impon.anl corolla.ry is t11at ll1e structures of cultural form and rituo.l principles arc not inborn. Instead. they have been constituted to rein in 1he desires ;md ICclings -- both to con.trol/rcgulatc and to trooslbrro tbcm so as to ensure social order. At the same time. as Xunz.i says c)SC\\ here. the human prcdtcament i ~ ~:uc h that resource-s are ~:can:-e . and eomprchcnsi\"e:ly speaking there m<1y not be enough to s.:tlisfy the desires of C\ el)•onc. TI1us. the social divis ions instituted b~· ritu:.l pri.ne-iplcs ore. necessaJ)' to a llocate the rc-so\ue.cs :lccording to diffe-rent f.1milial and social mnl.:inss and other criteria (Xun:i I0.1, 19. la). 11 l11c above connrms Cmfs ano.lysis -· Xun:d's statcmciH - nature is b.1dwin 23.1a stresses the consequences of allowing the indulge nce of man 's nature. "badness·' being rcgordcd from the ,·iewpoint of the morn I idcalisti.; norm of social order. MORAL NEUTRALITY OF XING

In passage 23.1b an analog)' is made with the process of suaigbtening a piece of \\OOd. Xutl)'.i s:tys that ruan:s xing is bad and can be "strnightenedw (jiao shiit6li) or made upright (ZI1t'Hg jE) through a process involving tcochcrs/laws and ritu31principles. Following the tlbovc anal,> sis of 23.Ja. we ntn) say that the same conscqucntiolscns.c of " bad-

mi-'11 were supphcd " ith e\'crything m the same ttbundam:l.', or if ("\'Cry one bad the some :~O'C!.1io.o :~nd 1codcr rcgnrrl t'()r CYCIJOOC as for blm~lf; ju5tic:c ;.Inti in~usttcc would be CtJlln,g nKul.. ind. ·1 Jn fii.7 lhcre IS <~IS() a r~t'l!f1.'JlCC to jura shior to ~orrect one's ,,;,,gxmg. ·1he qm~trius iJ otk'll JCfcrrcJ to M something Otnl p~o.·oplc mdutgc (: ons ~t fur in~ ancc, 6.2) and that J)t'OI)II! nc..-ed to restrain (ro:u if.. fo r ins.1ancc. 6 3)

100

J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

npplics here too. Tlmt is. xi11g needs to be ··straightened'" to PfC\'CJII soci:.tl disorder and it is from this perspcc.thc that xiug is txtd. n But we should consider an ahcmativc reading. There is a c:tsc for x;n~ nccds to be ·•str.aightcncd·· it must be inhcrcntl)

saying that if

undcsimblc. Gi,·en th at Xu n ~i repeatedly mentions the need for xtng to be trttnsfonn cd. isn't this a pc:5simis(i<; view of :rmg :and docs not this imply that it is inherently bad after all'! At the end o f 23.1b. Xun:r-i distiu:;uishcs bctw\!Cn du~ gentleman (J'tmzi ;H -f) and the petty person (~imm:n .1j' }...). The assumption is thnt both sh are the same Xing or fJingx;ng ~IT tt. However, the fo nncr ha s uJ:~dcrsonc lhc. tr:m.5fort'(l:l.lion brought about by

tcacl1crsll::tws and the tlccumuhuion of cultural form und ritual principles. The l:mer has wantonly c~prcSk"'<< his qfngxlng. ac ti n~: indiscriminately :md ' iolaling ritll41 principles. Xunzi ogllin concludes: " From this pcrsp..:-ctivc. it is clc.ur tlmt man's Niug is bad, and his (expressions of) goodness is the resuh of constitutive ~ct hity."' Suppose we 1ake this last suucmcnt to mean thot xing is inherently bad. This \\OUid menn dJtH the gcmlcman has. somehow. managed to break S\\ ay from this xmg. But there is a difficulty here; hc:m is it possible to do so. given the assumption of inherent lmdncss'! Xunzi s hows he is om arc of the problem when he postulates the o~iect i on in 23.2n that " If m:m ·s .":trablc from the eyes. l11is comparison lhrows doubt on 1he existence of suc:h ;m organic: resource and Xum·j dismis5Cs the idea by s:.yins that the-moment t.mc is born. one \\ Uuld ha\ c 1110\'cd aw:lr from any supposed unadorned stale in which such a resource is said to abide. The assumption of an inherent OOdnc.ss tlnd the. o.llcgcd impossibility of cst.:lblishing rilu:ll principles arc comucrcd by an analogy between a sage's estabJishing ritual principles and 3 palter's molding a clay \'CSSCV in 23.23 and 23.4a. We would not assume that the \"'CSsclidish is part of the potter's xing. Sim ilarly. we should not assume that rilual principles jnhcrc in the stlgc's :ting. In other words, lh.erc is a ~mcturc 10 rilutd principles th:u ctmnot (logicoll>' speaking) be s~id to belong to ma.n·s ~.-mg. If goodness is somclhint that is con sti!Uii\ cly structured, then people must howe the. capacities th<'lt would :.llow lOr this (and i1 does not follow either that these must be inborn moral capacities). Sec my full discussion of this in <·Xunzi'lS Spilcmatie Critique of 1'/,·tu.wpl~·,; l!ft.st tuu.J ll~·t S3:2 (2003). 215-2:13. :Hid in Early Gll{fitCIOJt l:.lhiCJ. t:

t\fcueius: ·

Xtm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~

l ot

\Vc therefore team that for Xu.n.d. xi nf{ is neither inltercntl~· good nor bad. For him. xmg is :a biological concept consisting of ccrtJin desires ~nd foclings. HoweYer. for the same re-ason chrn there is nothing inherently ( morally) good nbout these desires and feelings. there is alro notlting inhcremly (motall)) bad about them either. Xunzi argues that (the goodness of) ritu:al principle has a ccrbin comstilutiYc struclurc that needs to be worked U1)0J1, <md it "ould be falludou~ to assume that :;uch a stnactur~ is inbom. As he S:l) s later in the Xmg E P;rm (Xrmzl 23..5b), c\'cryonc has the cnpacity co become a sage, ahJtough JOt \llrious reasons. not C\cryonc trMsl:ncs Lhis into the ability to do so., ' If goodness is 3 constitudvc stmcturc. then badness must be the undcsiwblc consequences of failing to csmblishlmaint:lin such 3 smtcturc.

XING, QING AND THE POSSIBILITY OF TRANSFORMATION

\Ve hu,·c so far confirmed the firSI h\O fc~.."C(,)lOC so. It is the :;amc in tht: cre:;c oru Yu and i.n lhat of 3 Ji\!.'' lh.tu~h the tcnn h~ noc m cnti on~o.'\1 we knV'' that Xuru:i is n:f..:tTing ,..._, xmg because he :;;1ys thm all persons ha\""C something Ill ~ommo n .. 'he sensor)· tlOd app<1ttl\'C dci"ircs. und the ntrnst$ it \\ilh u-d o r what I ha\'e tr.msla.h.'\i as ··..:<,nSitluth·c ••cth·ity•·.

102

J..:mr-<:l lf'Jng Chong

feel en' y and bate on the other. I suggcs1cd that it is best to think of lJinx in this passage as rcrcrring 10 the feelings/emotions. B.-..scd upOn this. the binomi~ l qm,~'l.·ing can sometimes be regarded as n more inclush ·c reference to '·cmoliOnill nnd sensory nnturc.- However. qingxing seems a lso to be intcreh:mge:tble '' ith xt~rg. In the first sentence of 2J.Ie. for in sbncc. afte r referring. to the conten ts ofxing ~ the de-sires (1,;11) fo r: food (\\ hen hungry). Wilrllllh (when feel ing co ld). and rest (when fc:clin::; tired).

Xunzi says: ''l11csc arc man's qmgxmg.- But it docs not m~lllcr very much \\ hcthct we Llkc xing ot qingxing as intcrchangcnblc or not so long as \ \ C bear in mi11d tbat their contents include both the scnsc.wy desire-s and certain dispositional feelings/emotions. r• Howcn;r. unJi.ke Knoblocl.:. I wo uld hesitate to trnns late xing as "essential mnurc·· or (JI)rgxing as "csscnLi:JI qualities inherent in his nature". '~ These lrAnslasions 31'C line i f we remember all that Xunzi hos 11 In a J)\.-'fSOn:•l corrc:>JX111d.:r)(..~. Anh1nio <.:u:r h:t." not"-d lh:tl Ku(lhltlCk's IJ'1on found hen: rcn :hi qmg no l l"l$ ·'the c::;:scnliul nalun: t1t" humons'' hut ~•:; "thl.! w:·~· hum:m:; :\rc .. :tnd t(U~•I ifk,t by ··~·s we k11ow frvm ubs-..'1..,1i n~ hum.sn bcha,·ior" or "nonnal bch:.ln or" or for shon . " hum :ln ..:-cmdilion cltau~ qiu:: A.Z.W;•fh". In J .S. we ha\'c - that tmc who hus j u:st wasltcd his bOO)' will shal.:c ,)ut his robes and thai out who ha:c j ust waslh.il h is hair will d o~t ofi his C}IJ) IS lx."'I::J USC o r !he ~S('tll i nl n:uurc (qmg) M hum:m!i .. f.t Dishcng and .hnns ct.ol. rcg.1rd qiug h ere o~ rc11 :hi cho11g qiug or "the

,,.,,:In

common cbamctccistic (bctaa,·ior) <.,f man.·· (n J 10.

\\'~

h;wc

"l'hu:~ .

the

~ en l lcn lan llt.ll-x.l 1101 k U\'C

his (l'\\ n lt\IUSC. yel lhc essential nature (qinJ.!) of <sll lh:u is \\ ithiu the :;eas tS c~l ~blil>hed ami ~r ccu m ulated lht."fc " l.1 (l'iutslau:s qill!! here .:.s qit1g :titlg fflll~ or ..the circum:>tnnoc:c'' and Jt3ng ct :~I. tr:mslotcs it as shi qm g m·f:i \ll" ··ao·aitl>". ):or llll ("
cSSOJy. I howe not

di :~cus:;cd

ulhcr <J.:ip¢cts

(l f

lhl.! term

q iu[!. .

For tt full

Chen l.haoy1og. Ruj/(1 Jl/cJ.rue .w .Ji,gdian Q1J011sM (Ta1hci '1'111\\'!Ul Uaxuc Chub:m Zhong.·~: m, 2005), <:hl'lph."f :\ Chen tr:li::..$ the dcvdopmen( of lhc tcnn from Confucius 10 Mcncius <Jnd Xun.zt. h lo S. ll . Xunz.i say:;: ..It is by fixin~ the mind CIII lh!.! 1-'\)!11. dc\·i.sing \HI~ ~ and mc:ms to rc~r hzc it. and cflbctuating. 11 through lh..: habitumkm o f ~u stom t b:u the u\ OOOit\:11\lf C is lt::msfonned (lnw xing H:.tt). J3y w\it)'ins ;~ II these Jkcr~ clcrn"·uts and p.. : nnittlng no e.l uulity of goals: m d1c mind. accurnulak d dfon is p<:rfccccd Tile hobituatifJn of custom modiftc:S the d cn.x:ti<m Qt' wrll ::uhl, tf c..'Ontmn...'l..l fur a f(mg time, \\ 111 :1hcr it~ very sub~1 am:c (,,;:hi '{~ftl) ... \Vc Ol)tc ft\)()J thi. -c tb"t for Xunzi ¥inj:. is :-..."~mcthins tlHil can be hll(l CJI ll"t'ln:,ft..~rm l.\1. ~·nll l.h<.~ l~L.'il swtcmc nt swtes 1h3t thc.: ''!iub:~ t ancc- CJ.~l be alh.:rcd But JUSI as one shN1ld be e~rc ful abo4.1t treahng .\·lug as "CS.."'-'flli:Jl discussion

S(o;:

Xtm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~

103

in mind "hen tall.. ing obout xing or qiugxiug is Lh:tt lllc desires and dispositional f\.-clings arc wh:1t we nrc born with. and that these arc morally ncutrnl. But the terms -essential'" and ..inherent" tend to contribute to the idea tht~ t there is something deeply untlmngeablc and SL:ltic about xlng or fJingxfng and gcnemlly speaking this is not the case fOr Xum::i. 16 This is espcci:llly clc..'V \\ hen Xun~.i refers to (Jing instead of xing. Tltus \\hilc .\'iHg and qing:~.·mg, may be interchangeable. we would need to be

more cautious :tboutthc relation bc1wecn 11mg and xmg.

Consider the co~luding section of passage 4.10 ' ' here qing is rcfencd to. but not xinx. B.eforc this section. Xunzj first refers to man's being born petty, lo,·ing benefit a nd being concerned with satisfying appctitire desires •• more or less the standard e.ontcnts of xing. Nex1, he says th:n once they ha,·c gone beyond t11c barest necessities. people "ill not be content \\ith anything less th:m "hat 1hcy h:wc leorncd to .sa, or. X unzi is not merely tllluding LO the fact th:tt people desire or want luxury nnd wcahh. but also to their copatit)' for refinement Lu~ucy and \\cahh :uc only possible llm:>ugh rerincm~nt But significantly, this r~lincmcnt at the same time reflects the encompassing categories of rituol principles 11 (1VII yi zhi lmrgf=ld2.~t). Referring to these-. he asks: ·• Arc they not the mc:.ns by wh.ich we li\'e together in societies. by which we protect and nurtUI'C cm::h other. by which '' c hedge in our faults and refine each other. and by \\hich together we bccoma: 1ranquil and securcT Thus. people who bch:t\'C like the tynm.nical Jic and Robber Zhi arc said to be /ouru!! or uncuhit'atcd. and i1 is the task of the humane person to trnnsfOrm them. Xunzi concludes: wise and benevolent L:ingsJ13ng and Wu )j, ·cd. the world followed them and order prcYnilcd. and

But when (the

\\hen ('the cruel and tyrannical kingsl lie and Zbou Xin Ji,ed. the \\OI'ld foliO\\'cd them and w3S ch:\C.ltic. llo'' could this be if such were conLro.ry to the (qing or mo.n) (nm zhi tJi"g )...1_ t/i} bcc.:msc certainly it is as possible

n:1turc". I lhink the l<.11Tl ··sub:lt3no:x;" :as J transl:111on r,"r zhl migh1 lx~ 100 ::.1n)ng since 11 tmplicii :;;(nnc:llun;:; unchan~cubl c. Perhaps ..quahtte~i' mc.y be bcucr.

16 I mguc lh:H J'f. n yl f:.:& uud h yl It, ~~ ar~ c..:quin1h:nt as .. ritual tyinapko..-;" m l?nr~' Crmji1cmn l·':thicJ. ··F.nc(,mpas...;;mg c~1K-goncs'" folkms l.t Oishc.:nl!'S~plnnctiou •..lf n:n )'I :In wng ''s It .v• :ltltou,:: lt:i lG~Z.m~. Sec

Li . p.67. note 17 lllu!llk Antonio Cu:.t for thi::~ rcf~;.•rctlcc l<.l U .

, . T h is SC\.'fllS to tl1lly w tlh whJt Kwong.Jm !\hlm So'I~'S in his discu:;«:lon qing iu the pre-Qu\ h:.~xls, thut "'SlC!mctimc.s l11<: lqmgl of X's can be t'ctttt.ux:.s lhnt obt:~ in of x •:; 0:5 11 dU$s but not of eoch nu...'mhl:r of the d o.s.s. os when thc(lf

t.lifl!.:-r~.1lCC

in the abilitic:1 ,,r lhc Cl..llllln..m p..::oplc is d~ri b<\l

tas

the fqmx) of

1hc common pcnp1c.'' Sec Shun. ,\/entm( rmd £ar(v Cinnt~\·~~ Thought ,

r.185

/OJ

J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

fo r a man to be like the one as like the other? (KnoblocL: 's translation. except for the bra<:kctcd words) This question c-art be ptphrascd thus: ··How is it possibJc for bene\'Oicnt or tyrannical kings to innuence people into being good or bad. i f this were contr.ti'J to the qing of manor• Gi, ·cn "hat was s.:Jid earlier. the tc.nn {jill)], doc.s not refer just to the conu:nts of xmg (pe.Uincss. IO\'C of benefit and basic scnsoryfappctith·c desires) btll also to other fncl,>? about

mt'ln such AS the Cllp:teil) for refinement '' hich is at tJtc same time intimately linked to tJ1c c.ap3city for tmnsformation according to riLuo.t principles. 'fhc tpng of man is such that it is equally possible for :myonc to be<:omc good (cuJti,·3tcd) or to become b3d (uncultivated). Gh-cn the possibility of going either '' ay. <Jing in this sense c:umot be said to refer to soml! essential quality that is static and unchangeable, Consider :\ISO the next pass:1gc, 4.11: ll is ll1c f.qlng of manJ th:u for food he desires the meat of postured :111d gmin ·fcd oni.rnO:ls. that he desires clothing dC(omtcd with JXltlcrns and brocades. that 10 travel he wants a horse :md carriage. and even that he wnnts weahh in abc fom1 of surplus money nod hoards of provisions so that even in lean periods su-ctching o,·cr ye-ars, he will not know in!'uffi cicncy. Such is the lqing of manJ. (Knob lock'~ trnnsl;~(io n except for the brnc~c l cd 11 ords)

In mentioning the qing of man. Xun1j refers 10 the desire for food. clothing and so on. :Jnd these seem to be ahc same M tl1c sensory and appetitive desires of xing. Howc\'cr. this is nol the case. Notice that the items mentioned nrc rcrwcmcnts tlut Xun1j has associated with the establishment or ritual principlc.s. In addition. Xumd mentions the desire for surplus no& as moth ·atcd by ~;reed but pmdcncc. ·rhc remainder or ahe p•.1Ssngc follow ing m;~kcs it clc.1r thou prudence is not a universal trnit because there arc cxtr;wagana individuals who fail to think long tcnn and impoverish themselves as o result i '

~ In sornc pl:tct~ (4.12. 11.4. 11.7ll} X1.uw l is much IJn,,t<.k.' f th:m what I h:n·c h~h.."\1 in lh;,: discu:;sion. I " '·mid 1

prefer to usc " wants" here to d istinguish lhC.'fll from the haste hi;.)logic.-.1 Fot iu.~IO.nce. 1>..-~de wcuhh. d1is could include honol' aud power (-U 2). Further items mdudc wonting the existence of rcgulntion:1 nnd

dc~ircs.

*'and~1rd:;, \ti..W~nllllC1li~I.J (ln.liJl31lC~~

offici;TS and

r~bclho us

tllld cdict:t. puni::.-IUll~'lll i'~)C llCgligcnt statt:s. for rt:pu1alion. at.!..:ompllstlmc-nl and

X tm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~

105

\Vc can nO\\ summati1..c the relation between l.:in}! nnd qing with reference to Xunzi's ,·icw of human nature. Xing is :t biological t ()ncept in that it refers to whilt aU men arc born with. That is. it refers to the basic sensory and appctith'e desires. ln conjunction with tbcsc desires. Xun:t.i says thnt m:tn is: bom \\'ith a lo,·e of bcncfia. fee lings of e nvy :md hate. ::md is pett-y. The tcnn IJing could! :as we h:aYc seen. refer to these-desires <:~nd ft.·dings. fn this rc::;unl. Xunzi 111ight usc 1hc more inclusi' e qingxilrg. Howe,·er, ..the qmg of mmf' also refers to o tJ1cr g~ncral f3cts about people: tJtcy ha,•e " 'ants and ca~citics tbat go be~ ond the bosk scnSOI) and appctiti\e des ires and feelings. ll•at is. people want surplus items of wealth and luxury. 1'hc~ wants imply the need for security. and the capacities for prudence, rclinemcm and hence for establishing rilUal principles. 19 The content~ of xing arc essential only because they arc basic to biological life :utd !rurvival As ~um·j ~ys in another c.ontcxt, without these desires we would be dead."0 lllCJ. arc not essential in the sense of bcinc "hat is distincti\'c about mO\n qun n1:ln. l11is biologic:.! .. raw nt3tcrial" can be uan.sfonncd because in addition, the lJing of man is such that people possess the capacity for refi nement. Howc\'c r, some people do not succ~d in refining and cu hiv~ ti ng thcmsch·c s because or a lack of teachers nnd models. or bcc.ausc they do not work hard and cumuJativclr. Nc\'cnhdc.ss. there is no inherent or essential badness that would pre\'Cnt them from transforming thcmsch·c s. This is wbcrc Xu n ~i cnn be cnsily misunderstood if he is read i.n the e ssentialist mode . For instance. some '' ritcrs hn'c claimed that Xunl.i is inc.onsistcnt. He is tJllcge-d 10 h:we held on the-one hand thai nature is bad or that people ILB\'C a ~lowly characte(' but on.. the other band th:n people arc born with ..an inmuc moral sense (ri:i)." • 1 But we haH; seen :u~htc\·cmcnt s, ~u

:md so on ( IJ .7b). The qiug of m~n rcfcfli 10 w:mts lh ~l cxtcttd the wa.y to oomforts t"u\d lu:-..1tri\.'S cuj(•)''"'d by the kms. llowc\~cr. to lutw

.:all these, rcg.u1;:~ttons u.rc n...-cc.,.sruy . 1 ~ S<.1: 2:Z.S:a Xunzi ::.:ty$ tlwt '"1 1:1\'in~ ~ll!sirc: and h:l\ in~ no d~irc., these :trc diOCrau c:.ncgoncs •• (the difference hchn:cn) Jdi.: nnd death. no1 (the dafrc,·c::ncc bctwi!'Cn) order ~md di oordc t~·· This 1S 311 ~pp ~lfCnt Cl)ticism of Song X ing \\ ho held that it is Lhc iJIIIg o f m:m to ha, ·c few dc:;ircs (:sec I 8. 10). l'> Oon:1kl J, M•.mro. ..,, Vill:tin in the Xmr:J... in l'hilir J lvun11oc . ...-d . C/Ji,t'$t: l.fmgwJgt·. Tlumglu. nmi C'ul111r.:: .VIwsor~ a nd ill~ Cr#llt:.fi (Chi-ca gw

Open Com1, 1996). r . t 9::(, Munro :if SUC!I that Xun7J W:l.:S nl(l((! COCl CI(."I"IICd with ll1c JUC-ilsurcs to pc'CYcnt social chaos t\nd his J iscussi(,nS obout human 1.utw'C were scetmdm)·. In thj:s regard. I think that in principle Munru ..x1uld agr~'\: wuh C u:f~ anu ly~i~ lh~1 1 "bttd" for X \Jn.~_j is lo li~,: lal.cn in " consequcnt1::11 sense. But I \tXMIId disagree w1th Munm ·s rcmari;: that Xun7.t lclt hi$ d1~.~ol') of humon nul\u'c in ..~ ruCS$... on the oontrcuy. I thin~ that Xun~i w"s rcmarl:ohly consistent in his remark!' 3bout human n.:tJun:. l'l I ha\'c JiS\.'\IS·~~'d Ihi~ (!Lnd < .llllcl llli:,.Ulings or y i) jn Jll(.l f C <.kl:iil !U l_h..: ch ap1 1.~r \m '"Siluallng Xunzi" 1n my £nr~l' Conji,t:fmr E l illt'S

/()(;

Lh:u

J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong Xun~i 's

statement

tlU~t ~nat ure

is bad'' is to be w.kcn in a

consequential and not nn inherent sense. Although Xun1.i docs s-1~· that people nrc born with a liking for benefit. pettiness. ru1d feelings of ctn-y nnd hate. there is nothing essential about these such th11t n person cannot 00 tr:msfonned. The belief th:u Xun~i is being inconsistent must be based in part on the tendency to ahink that the "badness" and ahc '' lowly'' <:~spcc.ts of c-haracter must be deeply essential such that it would b<,:. inconsistent to S:lY th:1t anyone can be tr.msfonued . Therefore. the charge of inconsistency ' vould stic.k only if the essentialist mode of thought is gl'3ntcd.

1'his charge of inconsistency is :lbcHcd by a mist:skcn reading of

what Xtmzi means by .vi in t11c present context. He docs not think of it as '"innate moral se-nse." Instead. for Xunzi. yi refers to an ability that the spcci~ has in controst to other animals - 10 make social dist.inclioos ttnd to institute and :.1pply ritu:'IJ pr~ciples that constitute the •oencrul struC-Il(rc or society nnd social rclt1tions.· 1 I sh~ll say more 3bout this Spc'C-ics ability sl1only . 11u~ t'e3ding of XunJj in tl1c csscnti:'llist mode is also evident in the nrgumcnt tb..at Xunzi would hoxc great diO'iculty in explaining how i t is that the sagc·kings could ·'h...a\'C created morality unless mornlit)' were already a pan of their na1urc.·· :l M

human

A NON-ESSENTIALIST DEFINITION OF TilE HUMAN There m :~y now be nn objection th:ll if we t;~_kc Xuo:ti '~ position to be thilt A'mg has tJu: c:1paci1y to b<.:- g<Jud w1d 1lu: cap:tcit)' to b!!- bad. this would be 100 loose 10 qualify 3S o. theory :'lbout humo.n n:llurc. There arc otlcost tlucc elements tlt.at any thcoty of human nature must CO\'C.r. In tltc :.ccount of Xun1.i thiit I hol\'C given so flU'. I seem to ha,·c cmph:~csizcd only two. Firs1. tJu~rc mus1 be a discussion or the biological f:~.cts nbout mrut. Second. d1cso f.1cts must be w1h·crst~ l. Thus. although I hm·c referred to the unh crs.1l contents of ).'illg and tJhlg (remembering that ccn:~in W:lnts and c:~ pacitics may not be univcrs:tlty rc01li:tcd). n third clement needs to be brought into the. pkturc. Thott is. we con~idcrcd

~l ]),,vid B Wt,ug., "Xu1rt:1 ,m Mor:•l Moliv:tlion: · in Pit•lip J. lv~mlu'll:, ..:xl , Chim•.w l.nnguugc. Thoughl . nnd Cullum: Nn 1.ttJII nnd /Ju· Cn'li(',f {Ciu..:·Jgo: Open CoUJ1, 1996). p.2«>. 1k, 'C. he i:t citint;:. 0~\ id Ni\'ison. "IIS.On Tzu :md Chu.un£ T~. " iJt Chiltt•u. 1'L•xts ami PhU<)cStJpltic:tll CmJfa u : IJ:;stl)'.f dr:tltCllletllo Angus C. Gm/I(Jm. u.l Henry Ros-..'1110111 (L
Xrm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~

107

nc.:d to consider what il is that constitutc.s the humaJI. :<~ It would be insufficicnl for Xun1.i to talk about human nature: wilhout any mention of whnt it is to be human. And in fact. when I s.1id that in referring to yr Xunzi is not talking obout nn innate mornl sense but to a species nbilh~·. J h;we ad milled thlll Xun?j docs define "hac it is to be h uman. nms. it could be obj ected that contrary to what I h ;~,·c said. reference to what constitutes the es senc-e of human nature-is una,·oidablc after 01ll My reply is lh:n although Xnnzi docs define the human, there is an impontlnl s)hik>sophical sense in which this is not an csscntiallst definition. FirsL 110tc d1at the defmition ii gh·en independently of the concept :rwg. fn the passage :iA. Xunzi ~ys : What is it thnt makes a mnn human? I say that il lies in his ability to draw bound:lries (b ian >$'~) . To desire food when hungty. 10 desire warmth when eo ld. to d esire rest

when tired, and to be fond of \\ hat is benclici:tl and to h..1tc wh:1t is h:1nnful •• these charoctcristics man is born possessing. :t.nd he docs not ha\'c to wait to de,·e lop them. 1"hcy arc idcntk al in the case a Yu and in thn.t of a Jic. But even so. what roakcs a mao rc;~lly but:non lies not pri m :1r il~ in his being a ffaciall)• lmirlessJ biped. but rather in his :1bility tn drow bc.'ltmdaries (Knoblock 's t:rnnsla.tion)lS

or

Here. Xunzi denies th:u the biologic:ll contents of xtng constitute the humrut even though they :l!C uuh·crso.Uy sb:l!cd. £,·en the ape has these sensory :md 3J>JJCtiti\'C desires as well the desire for benclit and the aversion to harm. Xun1.iJ like Mcnd us. goes on to mention 3 difrercncc bctwet:n hum:m beings ond other nnimnls. Howe\'c r. Knoblock's tran.slatil)R of rem zlri .nta y l wei ren :he he )'I ye J...LtfrliJ.l,~,A..X fiif C 12 ::.s " \Vb.:lt is it that ma.kcs a mon humanT hides a.n important diO'c rcnce. Xun1.i doe:; tlot ask. "What maJ..cs o mow lnnnanT' In other words.. he. docs no t refer to thlll which each and every person is alleged to possess before he/she qualifies to be hwnD.n. As we ha,·c seen, for Mcncius. what is disaincth c about eoch person tJUlf nmn in thi.s regard is the possession of the four sprouts. Lad; ing :my of th~. someone "ould not be entitled to be called n ..m:m··. A more literal transl:~tion of Xunzi 's question would be "What mal:es 1.nan "man"' ? The (\\O occu.rrcnccs of "'man"' in lhis <(ucstion are U$ed in a eollccth·c ~c nsc. :md there is no reference to any

:• Th\'1\! ts 3 tcx1u al prC~bkm here Sec the e:..,l:mahon m Knobkx:k 's

trmudol!on (If tbc .\"rm: 1 Volume ( (1!lSIS). p.297, n\"•tc 54 (nstcad of Knoblock's "' fc~tht."fl cs." bir)(:d'' l hove "fncia11y hoirJcss" to mokc sense of the $imi l :!_~i ty bt;J\\'~;c u man and 3JlC ~m~;c I find "'I'C:.uhcrks:i bip(,."\1.. nllbcr odd. ·' Cua, "' Philosoph~· or Hum;~n Nawrc," 1h1d pp.2 1·22

/OS

J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

indi,idual person. In otbcr words. Xtuvj is asking ''hat charnctcri1.es the human species as a'' hole. as distincl from other :mim:lls. His :.nswcr. in o word. is bion or the ability to ..draw boundaries". Xunzi goes on 10 gi\ C two examples of \\ hnt lu;. mcnns by hitm, First. there is the 4Jin

N between father and son. This docs not just mean

··nutural nO"ct:tion- (Knobloc.k's translation) but implic.s rhc relation of filial piety and the ritual bch:wior that constitmcs, including the du1ics

31\d obligations gorcm.ing the rclntionship. Second. although rutimals rccogni1.c sexual differences. they lack nmr nn zlli bie VJ kZ.JJtJ or the "distinction between man and womao.'' ln other words. fo r tbc species hum>ln being. the diiTcrcncc between progenitor :~nd orrsprins and bcm·een the sexes is not simply biological, but sociall~ constituth·e. Xunzi also talks of this socinll~· constituti\'c :tbility in tcrna of the concept of yl. To rcpc<JL tltis h:1s been wrongly eoustrucd as the Jnuscssion of an innate moral sense. Instead, it is the spcctcs ability to make social distinctions and to institute and :1pply ritual principles t1111t constitute the general slructurc of society and social relations. In one sense. this could be referred to ns no "csscn1i.11"' eh:mtctcristic because it distinguishes man from other ;1nirnnls. However. this species ability to make constituthc f\llcs and to struc.ture hunum rel:uions opens up the possibility of t11ere being dirrcrt'nt social struc.turcs. C\"en though Xunzi himself emphasizes ccrtnin riwalistic fonns. In this sense therefore, this species ability is nt.'H "c.sscnti:~li sr•. With reference 10 Xm11:i's emphasis on the tcnu ~·e1 as opposed to xmg. it is 3ppropriate to call this species ability a -conslimth•c " ability, or the ability for ..connituti\'c acth·ity''. Although the ~bility to const.itule the general ;1m<:l\lrc of society and social relations dislinguishcs the species man from other Mitu:Jis. it logically docs not preclude the possibility of there being different fonns ofuansfommtion and diffcrcm social struciUrcs.

CONCLUSION Let us conclude with a question that has disturbed many. In 23.2b, Xunzi says that -Man desires to do good because his nature is b3d... He cotuinucs:

Those with ,-c~· little think longingly aboul ha\"ing much. the ugly abolll being beautiful. those in cmmpcd t)U.1rtcr!' about Sp.1cious ~;urroundin gS. the poor about wealth. the base about eminence -- indc.c d wh:tiCYcr a man 1~<::1\s within himsclf he is sure to desire from "ithout. Thus, 1hosc '' ho nre alr~ady rich do not wish tOr ''nluablcs nor do lhc eminent wish for high position. tOr indeed \\htUC.\ 'Cf :1 person has within he docs not seck l"rom without. I_From this pcrspecth'c man desires to do

Xtm:i rm //unum Kn111~

109

good bccouscl his nmurc is lbodl. (Knoblock"s tmnslation except for the bracketed words) To J.lmost every render of the Xunzi this is extremely pu1..:ding if

not absln'd, HO\\' can it be said that man desires to do good because his nature is b.:td'! Xunz:i b:tSC>S this statement upon a c;.omp::trison with the f~ ct that "Those with \'cry liulc think longiusly "bout ha\'ing much, the ugl~· about being be:mtiful.. . the poor about wealth ..... and so on. And con,'erscly. "those who 4rc. ::drco.dy rich do not wish for \'al.unblcs nor the cminenl wish for high position ... .. and so ou. In his analysis of this passage, Cua has noted that these examples arc plausible although not wth·er531ly Lrue. Ncnthclcss. Cua obseroes that d1c pass:sgc "'appears to em bod~· a conceptual poiut about the notion of desire independently of " hether Xun'Ti h:.s successfullv defended his thesis thai man's nature is b::~eJ.'. 16 Cua notes that there is~a difference between the conccptunJ point nbout desire. namely. th.nt it implies wantios somcth in~ tl1at one )i)CkS. and the nlOr~ subst:mtive claim that man's nature is bad. The fonnet• docs not establish the latter. Tilis is right and luckily. XUJt7j's stntcmcm thn.t ··nature is bad- does not rest on this conccpiUal point <'I lone. Nc,·cnhclcss. the idea that ··man desires to do good because his ruuurc is bn.d'' is not absurd. It is th0\1ght 10 be so only because in an essentialist sense or what human nature is. this would be sclf·eontr.tdictof)·. If a man is b.1d in the essentialist sense he c:mnot intelligibly be said to desire somcthi.ng thai goes agOJinsl his nature. But if "c U1l..c "bod .. in the sense of the unwelcome consequences of indulging the desires and fee lings (xlng) :t.l\ C ua h:t.li suggested, then the idc:l that (in contemplating these consequences) n mlll \\Ould desire to do good is intelligible. l11is is CSJ>CClally so if in addition we rcncct upon "hat (for Xunzi) C\'Cr)' person has in tenus of his or her qirtg- the w:mt of things tb:tt go beyond the basic sensory' and appctiti"c desires. dtc nocd for security. and the capadtics for prudence and refinement These desires. wants and c:~ padties prov1dc an intelligible framework for the idea that a mom desires to do good bcx.;~usc his n;uurc is b.:ld. In other words. he comemphues thou it \\Ould be good to rnasimit,.c his wonts and cupjcities M Sec AotOOJQ $ . Cun, Etlu'cu/ ArttwteltWII(m: A Stut(l' iul/Jr1u 1''!rt ·~ .\lora/ /£pi,ttemaluxy (IIonolulu: Univcr.5tlr of tlawaii Pl'c~. 1985). ,,.26. '' hl·rc Cml C~Jdtu n:; his usc of " t.:1tiouoJe" for h 11:, (II' whirl sinolc•g1.stS:

commonly tr~u1shr1e ::~:t " lmtt<:m'". Eric llutwn, " Moo·al Rcu souin~ in An.'U(ltlC J.nd Xun:t..i." Joumal of CMttt:.\'L" J>hilos<Jphy 29.3 (2002), ha$ quc.-.tionc:d Cu~t's us..: o( '·ro.uivrwlc... llc s~t)S, lOr in~I!Ulcc. tlud •·it tx~::>i l l\cl)' ob~u-cs imPQn:tnt aspccc:; of Xmtzi ·s thought rather lhan illuminr~tmg them .. llowcv('r, I thm.k thot thctc OJX: "'illl!X-' r1ant US(X:cts of XlUl7.t 's lhougbf' whCJ'(" ·•rationale'"' is n most appmpnulc:. h:nn to u:;c. Sec the di:;cu:uion in note. 9 of I he ~}j Ht pl cr •.m "Xucrt:i';; Criti
1/G

rutd he realit.cs that this would fail if he makes no dTorc and instead a11ows lhc indulgence of his basic desires and rc'Ciings. To round up the whole discussion. the following points and qunlilicntions should be made. First if it is agreed that Xunzi's considered positio n o n human nature is the second listed by Gougduzi. namely. that :ring has the capacity (O beco me good or to become b:ld (;md tltc.rc is cvidc.tJcc to :tffirm this). then Xunt.i \\Ou1d entertain ahc.

possibility that the required tr
succeed in building 3 ··good- structure. :md also that panic.ular indi\'iduals may fai l in transforming thcmsch·cs. 'This would be consislcnt with what I hare referred to as his '·non-csscntialisc position. Second. Xunzi refers to the cumul:uh·e cffons of earlier sagc:- kings in establishing riuml principles. It is. hO\\C\C!r. difficuh to 1\cc.ept th:ll :llly plrticul:u individual or individu3IS came up with the ritual principles. But c.onsistcntly \\ith Xun~i ·s pos ition. \\C can uudcrstand lhc constituti\'c establishment of ritual principles O\W tinlc. Tltcre is no one set of well dcfmcd principles that can be drmm up. In the Li l.tm Pian nnd in the rue Lun l'itm. \\'C find 311 ~xamination or different ritual prac-tices. Xun'l.i talks in detail about the principles of division and h.1m1ony iovol\'c d. nnd this include-s pass:.ges where he describes the aesthe<:i7.ation o f the feelings and emotions. Clearly. Xw17j is reading backwards. He is not saying ahat these arc ahc actual principles ah:u were firsl d rawn up and th;at gayc rise to :m ordered society. Instead. st:.rting from the ritual principles nnd the ideals that ltc \'i:tlucd. he u ied to deduce \\hat Ctk1 has referred lO as their "rmionalc". n l l1c Lhitd point I would like to rai1c is not o qualific:uion but more a ttucstion for further cxplor;;ttion. In addition 10 the regulative and supportive functions of the ritual principles or li ~.tL Cun has also memorably n:fc:ned to its "ennobling funcl i on ~ and he has offered us n \-cry gO<Jd explanation <Jf what lhts is in his work. n Briefly, we can say tl1;at the rites tmn.sfonn emotions such as joy and sorrow through conceptions of whm is (c.on$idcred as) aesthetic and moral. In this rct;ard ,

the raw emotional capacities do not thcmschcs dclerminc \\h:n i5 t~cs thctically appropri:ltc or morolly proper. 'l11us. the emotions too con be stntcturcd differently and t.'lkc different fom1s. But arc \\C ju.sl talking of rcsaraining nod s tru~turing lhc emotions 3ccording to ccrl:~in fo nus, or arc we suggesting th:~ t 30 emotion c.1n be trnnsfomtcd to the extent Lh t~t it is no longer the "same" ? The possibility of ·'ennobling" the feelings and

- St.!-c fhr tnS~ an<.·c !he essay , ··The Elhical and the Rchgious Oimcns.ons of L1 (l'ropm.'-'ty)," m J/umnn A'nsun.t, Uitmrl, cmtiiJiswrp. Se-i: :also ~- oosic Conc~~llii of Confuci.m Ethics: · in Cua' s .\lortll l 'i.\·imt and TIYuhllun - £3J tf.l':t i11 Clw:es~ J)Juc;~ ( Wa~hingh.m, ]) C . Th~ CMholic

Univcrsi ly of J\mcn.;a Pn.:ss, 199N)

Xun:i tm llmmm N t llllrt'

I ll

emotions tends Lo suggest the Iauer. and an exploration of this qucslion should l:tkc funhcr wh.al Cua has said aboullhis function of lt. CIIINESE GLOSSARY bla" .i:li ci rmJg at·~\!!

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nan "'' zhi bie 9~ }£ Z ~J1

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qinx kuong f~Hfl t]ing xing

qiugxfng

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m

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112 ~·ing

fj'

Xing E Pimt 11:1£l1~ xing slum

11-:i<:·,

Xunzi Jislri t;J 7·-*l~ff XtuJ:J Qutm Yi fij -f·~ ~li .1'1 ~ yi zlli ;fj; 11 )11

h1~

zlu:ng if: ZQI/g

~it

Chapter VI

Do Sages Have Emotions? Altm K. /.. C/um INTRODVCfl ON

Conlcmpornry diSJ;ussions of Confucian philosophy mny tend to pri\'ilcgc ecn"in key ethical concc~lts such as ..bcnc, olcncc" (rcu { :) ~n d ·'filial piety- (:a.·iao *). but in u'adilioual Chinn much or the Confucian hcrmcncutic:ll and phiiO!i<.lphical cnu::rprisc rcvoh'Cd :nound the figure or tl1c idcol <-sage"' (~·lrm~rt:n ~A). Vit1ucs arc neither abstract nor self-existing; thC}' arc seen 10 cohere and find profound expression in the being of the sage. In this context. .. s.:tgchood" lhus emerges as .:t critical concern in Confucian self-understanding. Can Silgch()()d be olt:Jinet..J Crut the .. 3\'Cragc person- (:hongrcn «JlA). indeed. become like Confucius, the sage JUit enellence. who embodies tl1c height of "inuc? Would i1 not seem more likcl) th;~t sagchood is dctcnnined by a sp~.:cia l inborn "nuture·· (:wng tl:) lhat is c.ntr:soricnlly dinCrr:-nt from that of lhc common people'! In this discussion, 1 propose to explore the noture of the sage and spccificall) the pl:tc.c of the emotions (qing t~n in it Docs the sage share 1he same nature ~ · taking nng in the more restricted sense as rcfCrring to hum:~ n 11.1turc •• ns ordin~· human beings'! Despite Mcncius' c.ontidcnt nnd 1 rh.ctorknlly powerful claim thnt "the sage and l nrc the: same in J..ind.prior to 1he fisc or Neo..Confucianism probably the nujocit) of Confucian scholars would tind it difficu h to im.:~ ginc that ordinary individuuls could motch the cxtmordinary attainment of Confucius. In pauit!ular. tlle " ''cragc person seems to be always 1rnpped in a web of desire and emotions lh:11 renders cthic.:ll progress at best a p::tinfully slo"' :md uncertain proposition. 'Otc s:~.gc ideal reaches deep in Lhc Confucian imagination. but sagchood iron i c;~ ll~' seems an unreachable goal. unless a. person is so "ordained" by ..heaven." tlwt is to say. endo wed with a "sage nature" th:lt is - mmquil" or ""still- on accowu of its -purity'" and thus free from the conupting stinings of de-sire-. It "ould ncu be an oversuuemcnt that questions and de-bate on the oaturc of Ihe idc
or

1

.\fcttcilt:J GA.7. us tr:tnsltllr..'\1 in D. C. tau. M~'".,,,,,. (11~)11~ 'K(Ing. 11l~ Chinese Uni,·crsaly Press. 1984), 23 1

A /on A.'. 1.. Chm1

IN

nngcr. and sonow :md joy of human nature arc ''hat is meant b) qing:· :t This suggests that all human beings h3\'c likes and dislikes and other emotions. If these arc seen to be an obstacle to sngchood~ one possible solution ,,·ould be 10 argue thtlt the sage is ··without emotions- (wuqing ,tf.li tN). Though some rn3y find this logic.Uly oompc:lling. it is not "ithaut difficulty, for wuqmg, :11 least in modem Chinese. implies thai someone is ..hcanlcss" or ..unfCcling.." By definition. the sage epitomizes the highest good and brings order and pc:I\:C. i low could he be nnmo' cd by lhc sufferings of the people or be unresponsi,·c 10 their needs? Is it conceh·able th::at the s:agc has a mind th;1t is un.moYtd by passion and dcsi.rc and yet at the 5'1mc lime pos..sc.sscs t1 heart that knows compassion. loathes injustK:.c and delighL;; in rightne-SS"! -Jt is ahc-consm.ncy of the s:.gc-," Cheng Ht)O Ul ~~~ (1032- 1085) once wrote. in reply to :1 qucstjon raised by Zhang Zai •.:tU!< ( 1010 •· 1077), that "he uses bis t}ittg to enable lbc flourish.iog of phe nomena, but llc is without qmg·· (!fl.A...L·,?;. W.lttliJUi/JHtJffiJ~Uf).;t At ftrst glauoc, this appc:1rs self--contradjctory. Doubtless. Cheng Hao \ \ QS trying to rcsol,·c the thorny issue of the cmoti\·c nature of the s:.gc. Nevertheless, the question rcm:~ i ns : docs the S3ge h3\·e qing or not? Perhaps Cheng Hao was exploiting the duJ.l meaning of qiu:.: here: but is he saying that the sage is toutlly unliL:c ordinary human beings? If so. how is the sage :thlc to bring aboul human flourishinff! If not. how is he :~.blc lo ri:;e :tbovc tl1c nppurcntly inherent parliality uod licklenc$S of the humun hc:ut-Jni.nd (.tm ·C..)? To pursue these questions. l begin by roconsU\Jcting a hermeneutical context. focusing especially on the L.tmyu and two of the Guodinn "b:Jmboo texts," in which the dhidc between Ll1c naiUr~ of the sage and that of the anmgc person tomes to the fore. Ag.1inst that ~1ek~round . I will briefly discuss lhc debate on 1he qing of the sage in Wci-Jm (220 -- 420) phi lm•oph~·, before coming bxk to Cheng HaQ's influcntinl '"Lcucr on stilling oncls nature.. (Din:;xing shu). Cheng Hao·s argument can be shown 10 be. indebted 10 lhe earlier Wci-Jin dcb;.lte. More imponantl)', whn.t I hope to achieve in this exercise is to reconstruct some of the questions. assumptions and aJ'gumcnts that underlie the Confuei.:U1 discourse on the sage's xing and qing.

rr:.p.. in Xwm zlmzi .nro;:m lH 7·1!1!'j-= the Chmcse Unh•c.n:;,ty ot' HJ.)ng Kon.g, ln.'>llrutc of Ch1ncsc StuJ1cs, Ancient Chine-se T~t.'l Concordance Series (lJon~ Kon~. Commcrciol Prc.'iS. 1996}, 107; cOnl l~u·c .fohn Kn\•htod; trans, Xmr:i, \'<'1. 3 (Slanfotd· Stonltwd Univcrs11y l'r(.'Ss-, 1994) , 12 7. Tr:m:;:lalJOns :1rc my Q\\11 unlr.:~s sl:tlcd. otherwise. J Cheng ll:u>, -Letter on stillmg one's n31urc.. (DbtJ!Xl"f!. shu ~tl: f!n. in Song J'11(m .\lt e ·fm :.+! J\:~~~KjttOII 13 (f~tip..:i Shijic.: shuju. 1966). 319. .:f. lhc $li~.htly lon~ocr vcn;ion 1.11 J::y C lh!IIJ; p (Hci;in~: l hc.mghuo !)hu;u, : .Ytm:i. ~haptcr 22. "Zhcngming"

~·;I ,

.=·et.:m

1981). 4C{J.

//J

TIT£ SAG£ AND T i lE AVERAGE PERSON

The Lunyu presents :a hermeneutical and philosophical challenge to later schol;us in its ponrnyal of human nalurc and c:.apm;ity. Ahhough the disciple Zig\)ng -=f· fi intim:uc-s that Confucius' view on xing cannot be ''heard; ·.! there lli'C instances in the J.rmyu lhat s.eern IO suggest otherwise and \\OUid compel r.::ncctions on it f\•losl conspicuously. Confucius seems to hold t.b.at people :uc simil:u br nllt1u·c nnd thnt it is pr.~cticc thnt sets them

apart (LY17.2: l1#1l!C 1!!.. l!.'l ~II.iii 1.\;). Further. Confucius distinguishes the highly intelligent (slwng=IJi J ::)ill) from the most foolish (xic~t ~ JJ:\) (LY 17.3). This seems to ::~ li gn with the distinction bctw\:cn - those who arc

born with knowledge.'' whom Confucius ranks as the highest. nnd -those who do notlcam C\Cil \\hen they arc confronted witl1 difficulties.'" that is 10 say. even when the)-· ha\'c a pressing need to do so. Bet" cen the9'.! two groups ar..: ..those who ~qui r~ knowledge through learning" and -lhosc \\he> learn \\hen t he~· nrc confronted with dim,uhics"' (LYI6.9; ~l_:ff-i ~JZ. •r.-J; I!!; >j\ lluJllZ. ti u~ ·Ill: IJ:Ir~i ,' iiZ., .X Jti}~ 1!!: IJililu' -!;·'}\, !1\Wi 7~ f ~). We should also not forget lhat (or Confucius, ..One can speak to those \\ bo nrc abovc D\'Cf3£C about things of thc highest ordcr. but one cannot ~1)1!3k ubout these thingS 10 those who are below average'" (LY6.2 J: ~~· A t;J.

l ·.. ii'J 1)_1 ;m J: lh: *!1 A 1.').1::

1~iifW,~gl·. L!!). TI1c possagcs cited abo\'C can be read in diiTcrent ways. For

example. whereas Huang Kan .2 Cit (488 ·~ 545) surmises that the "ord ..xmg,.. in /.WJJ1t5. 13 refers to Confucius · own unique nlture. Zhu Xi *£{ (1130 •• 1200) explains lhiit Zig(.lllg actuiliiY got to hear Confucius' \ "iC\\ on xmg and was .iust making 3 poinl about how wonderful ttl at W:JS. 5 Regardless of their pr«isc meaning. three preliminary obscr\'ations may be made. ]':irsL in tl•e light or these ll3S~gcs, it is undersLandn.blc how questions aOO.ll xing would enter into the Confucian interpretive l:mdscapc. Socood. lhcsc p;tSSttb~S r:u;cd to be irucrprctcd coosistcnd)·. T hird. their pcrceh cd menning "ould impact on intcrprctalion of other passages in the l .tm)tl, For example. if one bclie\'es that fo r Confucius 1hcrc \\CI'C people who \\Cn: ..bt._)rn wilh knC>wlcdgc/' then one would have 10 :1ddress sensiti\Cly Confucius" discl:1imer that he wus not one \\'ho \\aS born wiah knowledge (LY7.20), lest one ends up branding hint second·ratc. Gi\'cn these hcnncncutical parwncters. ns one enters deeper into the text nod more

" l.m1>"' .$, 13. 11lc numbering ol' the /..wrpt followte tbnt of Ytmg Dojun Subsequent body of 1hc

H.~ !11 tJI~. /.JJnytt J'I:Jm .~.. ~li :.11 i V. (B<.·•jing. ZtlonghLw. 19S2) quot:lt!c.'ns from tbl! l.rm)m (:.bb-rl!\'i:)tOO as 1. Y) will 00 cilt'ti m the

text.

" See Huang. K:m , l.uny u ,1ijit: yi.11m ;(tt;,•HJ~W1~t.(i, Slli.wuyi,g dmslm . :'. llihon (Tuip:.·l: Sbijic. 1!:163}. 45; nnd Zhu Xl, Sislw :lumgprjdm I~!H!F ~i: {>J~ H; (Beijing: Z.h(lng_hua. 198J), 79.

/IIi

A /on A.". 1.. Chm1

generally 1hc received 1ca.chings of Confucius. at some point one \\Ould llCcd to decide whcthl.!r the Sage held a doctrine of l'ing , Perhaps in the eyes of modem scholarship it would be prudent to conclude that the LrmpJ nlonc yields insufficient e,·idencc thal Confiu:ius setiousl) considered tl1e question of :cmg and still less dc,·c loped n thcorr of i t However, in prc·modcm Chin::t the conscmsus is cle-arly lh.:lt the concept ()f !lUman n:llurc is fundamental to CtJnfucian teachings. Tl1crc is ample evidence lh:u xmg did become a maucr of philosophic concern durinl! the \V:trring Strues period. In that conlcxt. one can envisage o degree of irucrprcti"c pi'C iSUJ'C to find a plnce for xiug in Confucius· thinking. as the followers of the Sage sought to prcscrYc, 'odi~'. dclinc and defend his teachings. TI1crc ru·c two mo.in options. if one. judges lhnt Confucius held t1 consistent \·iew of ,xing -· (l) affinn a threefold or fourfold diYision of human beings and allributc the difference tO one·s inborn nature, or {2) pursue .3. non·diserimin:ttory vic" of hum.1n n:Jture :md cmphnsizc the constituti\'C andJor rcguhnivc effect of Jcnrnin& and pr:.ctic.c, Wl1crc:.s a threefold division sinl ply draws a line- in the middle. raking the lead perhaps from Lrmyu 6.21. cited nbovc. a fourfold clas.,~i ficat i on rc.scr\"CS a special place for those who arc ··bom with knowledge·· (LYI(•.? ). i.e.. the s.1ge. ::~part from those who arc above average, u,·crnge. and below :t\'cmgc. Under option (1). whether one adopts a th.rccfold or fourfold class ifac~Hj on . one would han: to ossumc on the principle of consistency tltat Confucius was referring to 1hc ··:w\:ragc," presumably the m::~jority. when he spoke of the $i.milarity of inborn noture. ln "onlmst. if one :uguC$ th1Jt human natun; is sintilar or identical under t)ption (2). one \\Ould sec Lan)'ll 17.2 inn di!Terent lif:,hl as referring 10 hum.lnity :n lar-ge. Th:u human beings tum out to be diflCrcnt :md mny therefore be grouped into three general bands is due to the ciTcet of lcarn in ~;t nod pmcticc. From this angle, it is inconccirable 1hat anyone can be - oom with knowledge•· : what Confucius meant in this instance wns that some were able to nHL~ imi#'.c. their capacity to learn. which is common to all. When he s.,id that he was nol born with knowledge. he was but m:lldng a rhetorical point to cmph;asizc the c cntr.tlit~· of lc:aming. In 1hls \\'3y. coherence is achK:ved. " hich is also to say that as the interpreter makes the necessary c;.onncctions. supplies justiftcntions and brings out the Confucion ricw of sing. the hermeneutic merges with tltc philosnphicul into n single inlt'rprcth·e venture. l11crc nrc- other possibilirics. Pcrhnps Confucius was snying that \\hcrc3S tho sage is blessed with a speciaJ inborn nnturc. ordinary men ood \\Om en share a common nature and the differe nc-es among them arc due to teaming and practice. The suncment in the l..unyu (7.26) that Confucius saw ljuJc hope in c\·er meeting n sage bu1 only a cultured rutd morally accomplished gentleman (jwm J:l·=-f ). for example. may be read in this \\11~·. Allcmo.tive~·. Con(ucius mi~hl be deploying tltc concept of xing in din'crcn1 senses. mctat)hysically in some instartc.es aud concrclcly in tcnns of \'af')';ng cnpacitics in mhcrs. Nevertheless. dte two opuons outlined

Il l

above should suffice 10 gh c a sense or tltc dynamics thm characterizes

lh~:

dcTelopmcnt of early Confucian philosophy. Conc:Ci\':tbly these \\tre

nmong the options considered by the ··eight schools"' of Confucianism that emerged aficr Confucius' de-ath and vied fOf legitimacy and dominancc.6 E\·idence for both opproaches may be found in some of the bamboo texts recently rcco,·crcd from Guodi:m. Although studies on these texts arc still in the-ir infancy and di£T<..·rcnccs of opinion abound on c.,·ctr front the-Guodian

m:Jtcrial seems 10 agree that all human beings arc endowed by heaven wilh an inborn natu re, as distinguished from values and dispositions that arc acquired :utd intcrnoli1.ed. 111erc is also disa~rccmcnt. On tJtc one hand, the tc~t th::at has been n:~mcd Xmg : 1 ming dm tE 1':1 tr; th seems to emph:1sizc tlu: commoual it~· of ring, On the other hnnd. 01 section of the text tlmt now be:us the title ChL•ng ~M wtn :hi J&.Z t.;rf .Z. ma~· be si!Cn to uphold an

cssc11t.ial difference bch,ccn the nature of the sab'C 0\nd lhut of the 3Ycmge person. TI1c Cheng :hi WC:'It zhi sccn\s to suggest

JC1tl:oi>I<WJ•J .i:.. l!flJi'dM~. fll ft\Je ~- ~~·m~ :ffi' il11!!.. M! I1nl!!l:ii!V. f~ Ill. ZH~ WI ~ illiJ":I::klll, lt'l11A-1' "f1M'i!ll!!'I' A.<:tt .

A :;r, ..rell!.

At birlh. Lhc ruuurc of the sage and the nature of the ower:tgc person arc difficuh to distinsuish. However. fo•· ordinary indh·iduals, their nature. remains wh:u il is despite h:wiug 1'CC:civcd insLructions from their masters. Even the way o f the good cannm guide and change them. For the sage. his n::nurc is inl1cront1~· great and profound; it is not something that tl1e: 3\'erage person c.o.n follow and imittuc. This is the reason whr all.houk!,h nil arc endowed \\ ith an inborn muurc. it is nol possible to emulate the sage. This follows the re:1ding of Li Xucqin. 1 The J>nSsase has also be-en re:td in the opposite direction as testifying to the unh'crs:Jlity and eonmtQru~l ily of human nature. Under thut interpretation. us JHOposcd by Guo Yi. the text is saying that at binh. there is no dis1inction between the n.11urc of the s;~gc and lhat of the ::t\'CI"ab'C person. The difference between Litem is due to Lhc fact that ''hcrcas Lite fo rmer is dnmn to and grows wilh the way o r the good. the l:tner remains \tnt hanged dcspilc ha,·inc n.::ceived 6 llu; '·Xmn.w c" ~1.:.;~ d wptcr of the Umt/dzi it.lcutifics ·'cil?hl sclhml:s" t'l!' Con fuci ani~n nfh.'t the MaSJ<.' f's death·. ::c.~ Cht!'n Q 1)WI 1 * 1iftV:. J/tJnfol:l

jishi ~!l~I: Y.~ 'fJ: (Shangltai Shanl!hai rcmnin<::hulmn...Jtc. 1974). 1080. 1 l.i Xuc,tin 4"-'i~I'}J , "Shcng.r.:.'1l ~'1.1 7hongn.'n •• too Clwng :ht w'm :hi ;d1ong yitlutm w~1tti" 'YlAJ! .-p A - tl~ ¢J£:<:JWZ ) (11 _. f)I:)C!;~ . publi::.lt'-XI oohnc :11 hllp/lwww.j Hmtm C'rg!\V~fiLIXUeqin him . August 2:9. 2000.

A /on A.'. 1.. Chm1

118

instructions from their teachers. Thus. ahJtough inborn nature is the same. the avcrngc men and women c:mnot hope to learn to become 3 s.1gc.' Titc two readings pan company not on philological grounds.

;t$

Guo Vi accepts most of Li Xucqin's textual rcconstructioo:9 rnthcr. the diYcrgcnce sterns from the hennencutical issues identilie.d abo,·c and rcl:ucs specifically to the pcrtcivcd doctrine of xlng in Confuc ius, If for Confucius the highly intelligent and the most foo lish "'do not chau~c- (LV 17.3), and if the (flrng zh1 \.fWJ zhi sccl\s to de\'clop Confucius· tcachincs. as Li Xucqin s:ug~es1s. then surcl) there is a b:tsic difference bCh\CCn the nature of the sage :tnd duu of the common. ayeragc pe-t-son. For Guo YL however. the nuthor(s) here went beyond Confucius :~nd introduced for the lirst time in the history of Chinese philosophy the idea that hwu3n nature is unh·crsaUy

the same. On logical grounds. l i Xucqin oiTcrs a s tronger intcrpret:uion, 'lbere i..~ no disagreement oo the text's c.onc.lusion: th3t is, "'lhc people all have xmg, but the sage cannoc be cmui.Jtcd (mu ~). - ll} Til is bess the question. why'! lf one argues thill human nmurc is csscntiall~· lhc same, h seems diflicuh to explain \\hy tltc sage alone is dr:m n to •• or ··is fond or· (xt'ai 'tf, };2J. according to Guo Vi - the way of the good. The Cheng =hi wen :hi. it should be no ted. seems to indicntc that the people not only do not ch:mgc but more fundamcntollr cannot be uans:fonncd b)' moral instruction. Funhcrmorc. if learning is dccisiYc, it is unclc:u- ,;,hy the <wc.ragc person should uot i.1Spire to follow in the foot.SICJJS of the sat;es. 11 The text's strong conclusion, in short seems to point to a c-ategorical diff'ercnce •• a diJTercocc in kind :md not one in degree •• between the nature of the sage and th:u of the average person.

8 Gnu Y1 ~1:m. Guodimr zlmjitm yu xwn Qm Xtll'.~llt1 m:itmg ~:J,I{1'ffm: .!)'Jj>\';~ l}\ IFi .{t~!lt CShauv.lmi; Shan~h~i jit'O)'Udn1ban.sh.:. 2001). 218-221. '.:1 'l'her.: IS one d1fli:rL'flCC in pun~-lullllon. \\'h(·n::as 1.1 XuL·qin reads., ..ufllJt

lkWii!l!!., 3l'J)m·t:o·mr:.li$l!!.." Guo Vi ha' --UilJH~ O!lii! l!!.3l'Jiol. '(JfZ, f>j ~ fsJ: tE.." Guo Yt nute..;; lh(tlthc word ")•f' f~ foliO\\ s Lt Xucqin 's rcmftng, but Li indicates that he td:cs the-word here to he.: "=t•"' ~l(. 10 'l'hc same rc.a."'mg a:; 3li00 sugs~o.-sh..-d by Qtu Xigm ~~:i± m Guod1a11 llmmu :lu!}lmr Wr.t; ~ >t~1'f f:t:i, cditOO b)' 1hc Museum of Jingmcn City (Bc1jmg: \V(•ml'U chuh:miih(·, 19t)S), 170, n.2K: :md h~· Li Lmg -~~ . Guoditm Clmjianjioodu j i $Ur.ti:f~i:;j.~;fl;~ (Rc.ij ing: Rcijinv. Dasuc chuban.l>he-. 2002). 122. Thi' Shtmgslm. sccttcu) 23 . .. Jun Chen"' ~:fl;q! . olso see m~ to s:u_£~!1.~., 111~1 the sogc c.annul be e.nulatcll. s.t."C Shtmg,,Jm ;h(wgyi t'.'•H'nr:ii~. Slrb'tmjing

:lm:tlm cdtllon ( fa ipcc ShiJiC, l9G3). 18.173, 11 Li l.mg tukes: lh is to lllC-an tl1ot C'\'(..'11 the s:as..:: crumot "adJ .. to tht'S(' who

have bcc:n trnn:s-fomtLxl. through Jcaming. I fowevcr, he docs not quite explain \\hal

distingui~h-cs th~.~

127-128

s:1ge from the

~1\'Cf~lg~,: p~...'f~)n

Sec Li Ling. Qp.

ell..

119

TI1c Xing zi minx elm. in contrast is clear!~· or the view that "within the four seas. human nature is one. That human beings appl~ lhcir heart-mind dilfcrcntJy is due to the cLTcc-t of instru,tion'· (I!Y~ZJA:J. Jtt~ - ·1!!.. J~)i) ·t:.• ~ Y( ~1:1!t~t!!). " This scrYcs to ( I) draw out what the text considers to be the correct conclusion of Lhc general :md probably non-contr(wcrsial ~scrtion that "'xmg issues from life. and life slcms from heaven" (f.l '.fl {o~f±l . 6,1 fi ;IC~lJ:" and (2) cxploin \\il)' humon beings tum outlo 1x: dirferent which is ph,:nomeno l ogic;:-~11~ ap(Xlrcnl Although !Ill human beings :trc endowed with nn inborn n:U:urc by hc:wcn. b~· itself tlu.u docs not spcci(,· wheahcl' Lhcy have the sumc nuturc. Indeed, coupled '' ith the obscr\':ttion th:u human beings are different in all sorts of wnys -· Lhc sage. for example. ccrttlinly filr surpasses the overage person in his pcrspicacily and spiritual :mai.Juncnts ~~ this m3)' casi l ~· lead to the opposite com: lusion that inb<>m ll.3turc is not the S3me for all. Howc,•er. to the •.tmg ~' ming elm. what is dccish·e is thm

~ccordi ng

Jt A!ill:·li-tl:. •C·t':,!l!! .o:;. litt)Jtli\t:W,

l·~'ln ti,ii!Hf.

tit

~ifri ffi~.

n.hhough all human beings have xmg~ t11c heart-mind docs not haxc n. fixed direction. nhich is fomtcd ilflcr it has come into contact "ith ph!!nomcna. aroust!.d ancr it finds the coorlitions pleasing. and tixcd .,ncr i1 h as sonc through rcpcatcd pmct1.cc. t< Whatc,·cr else the heart-mind mt~y be, it is the locus of xing. Put diO'crcntly, inborn nature. whatever it:s content c:m be realized only tluoug.h the physical. cognitive and afTC"~:.ti\'c processes of the hcart·mind. A strong rc:tding of xmg would sec it as s.ening the direction of the be:tn·mind. As

Gum/ian Clmmu :lwjian, 179. The bnmlx>o h:xls t:ollcch.'tl by 1l1c Museum includ.: a \\'ork tlwt is :;ubs1:11111ially ll~ same us lhc Xmg 11 mmg elm a!'nJ h::tll- l'k::cu giH.'I:\ the 1illc. Xmgqi"g hm ·tl t,';5((. ~..:: M:l Chcngyuan !!}IT!. if&. cd.. SlumkiWi /Jou "f!.uan cans: Zltlmg11o Clm :lmslm l·.if~ tfj ·ttJ~Wii.l\'!.X~~ft:M' 1~, \'Oinmc I (Shru1gh:.1i: Shan glt:~i guJi chub:tn~c. 2001}. 215-301. 13 GuiNiian Clmmu :huJI<w. 179. Miug rcflf'S It) tbc dcci\.'"C of hea\ cn. bul hl.'l'e i1 m a~· be taken 10 mea11 luun:ul hft.". see flu1hc-r dt~U~ !Oil on 1hc C.flllCCJ)t t!

Sh~m gh :1 i

b::-low. H CimNii<m ClmtmJ :ltll)iw•. Ji9·. cf, Li 'fisnbt)ng 2$S J~!I. Gut,trliuu :hu;um Xing :.t mmg elm .ranjw ~llJ}i1'fffi\ 1•tfi 'J:iH~ I~ (\Vuh:m: Hubd jinoyu clmhoosbc. 2003). 133. 1\ bclpful aonly:;i~ of the Xi11g :i miuJ? elm is l.iang T :ttt ~r;.;. "Xing Zl mtng elm yu t.:;~.>.:ti Rujh1 ~mxiug. lun.. { f.E tl ®:H ) 9'! tM~I fm*·C.· r.tUi. p :tn;o; I and 2. in hHpJ/W\\ w j i:utb0,4.lJ!!/W&··fiL iantthJU 10-0 I Jum

i3ntl
120

.-1fftn K. L Chan

Lhc Xing zi mirtg ~htt s:ccs iL hoWC\'Cr. the hcan~m ind is subjoct to cx1crnal influences. lflhis is true. il c:mnot be said that by nature the sage is blc-ss\.."<1

with an nnwa,·cring heart-mind that is immune to cx1cmnl influences: i.e .. thJt the sage is born with n special nature thnt steers the heart-mind in certuin inl1crcnt directions despite

\'t~ry i ng

circumstance-s. This suggests 1h:u

individual difTc-rcnccs :uc not due to xing: consequently. learning emerges <:~s the- only c~nd i dutc that can account for .such d ifferences. This. then.

n:uurc is the same :tnd that it is learning thm sets human beings apart \\hich in this reading.. or course. i."> meant to brlng out also what Confucius ·'really.. meant in f.tmyu 17.2. rhc question is on what b~si s can one assert that the heart-mind docs not hm·c on) inherent -'direction·· (;hi ~)'! prov ides sufficicnl reason to conclude that inborn

THE CONTENT OF XING TI1e Xing z i mmg l:lm makes another point: .. Dao begins with qmg, is born of x ing- (it!~fHktN. t.~i~M tl:). u Moreover. the text defincS.)'iffg cxplicilly as .. the tt i of pleasure. anger. sorrow. nnd grief' (>!.f. -,·~.t•,"'(l~Z.~·~I:l!!.).16 TtJkcn together. a c.asc can 1>c made that ( 1) tflug is tutdcrstood to mc:111 the emotions: (2) the qing~motlons nn:: constituted by vital "pncumas'" or "energies" (tJi): (3) xin~ is constituted b) tJi. among whk:h arc the of the emotions: and (4) in this scn."c the emotions arc born of :l'ing. This would c~-plain why the hca.rt·mind is ficldc, for qi can be aroused and expend in different d irections "hen they come into contnct

nnd

(/in,g

'I'

"'ith Jlhenomcnn. The 'onccpt of qi. of c.oursc! has a long history. Lca,·ing aside the. origins of the concept. one-may safe ly (:Onc:ludc that by the Wilrring StatC$ period q1 \\3S widely understood as the basic constituent o f the cosmos <'nd the dynamic energies that make. life possible. Life (shcng 1:) may be seen to ha,·c :triS(.."fl from hca\'cn 's "'mandate" or as forming part of a nalural ..order" (mi11g 'lfi!) : but whether tl1c concept of mmJ! is totkcn religiously or n:uuralis ticatly. it docs not quite tell us " hat li fe is. Thm is tlte \\'Otk of xwg, which scr\'CS to define life, articulating its j)C'rcci\'ed contcnL purpose rutd direction. ll would be simplistic to as~umc dmt the concept of xin.t: yielded only one meaning. Nevertheless. polysemy docs net mean anything goes. ,.\'in;: may imitc di\'crsc in tcrpn::i;~.tions. but i1 c:m hardly be di\'orccd

1

" tf1118

m=

~ (;umlian C:lmmu zlmjiim, 179 El~C\\hcn:, the .\'ittg ::i min}; e lm ~llh:s, ISSUt.'S from :rmg" ftitl lh'H~I:. I :SO. Anolhl·r (iuo de:m texc. J'ucong er· C.lf al~1 afli nns, ..,,;,g i~ bom ~.~r xiug'' 1;$!th'H1:. r;,wdiun Clmmu dwjia11,

203 ~ Gu~Hiiau Clumw :lmji(m,

1

.at~, p it~·

tuld i n d i gn~:£l i<.ll\ ,

119. -J}..·t'

J!': sigul.fics not only grief but

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

121

completely from the concept of (Ji. which brc:tJ,.s down phenomena to their underlying processes and constituents. From this pc:rs)X:ctivc, with the concept of qi in the b:~ckground , tbc llrtWIIKZi thus defines .\'lng as l.hc "subst<~nc¢" (tid) of one·s life ('t~;?i· 1:.Z fi I!!). 11 lf xing defines life, "h:.ll. then, constitutes ;,.·ing·t The Xuu:i explains. "'iJmg is the subs1ancc of xing·· (f& l ld'l:2. fllli).18 lnsofbr as qmg issues from xiug. il can be said to be csscnti;al to xmg: by c:x-tcnsiou. qing thus si~ n ifi<.-s \\ hat is "genuinely so" not only of lhings bul also su~ t cs of nfft~irs. 11 As cognili\'c-affcclin:: mun~ments of lhc he3rt-mind. however, qin;: translates into specific emotions sueh as plc;tsurc and ttn~cr. Recall the dclinilion of qing in the Xwtzi cited earlier - likes and dislikes, ple3surc nnd 3ngcr. and sorrow And joy nrc specific emotions ll.nd can be said to be cssC11tial ingredients of xin.~. The Li.fi makes n similar poinL albeit \\ith n dill'ercnt soning of the emotions: '·What is meant b}' human qmg'? 1-lcasurc. ~nge r. sorrow. fear. lon~ :1\'Crsion. and desire ·~ these scnn arc wtlnt humoo bcin&s arc naturally ,;apablc of \\ ithout hn\·ing to acquire through learning·~ o~~r n~'l }. . ttn .g: ~ .f~ t~ f! illtfit ·t::·fi· ~~~;~ riu' !!~). ! o) According Lo the Zmdwtm. "lltc common J'coplc ha\'c likes nntl dislikes, pleasure and anger. and sorrow and joy. which arc born of the six qr ( l~ 'fi AI· :iii Xt ;:t .R !'.!! . ~ IR ~ Ji( ). " Setting :tSido !he c\"idcnt numerological interest. there-cnn IX! little doubt thnt the emotions nrc seen to be t ·onstituted by qt. Because the people ~uc dri\'cn by these emo1ions, the. luo:lumn continues. the mlcr should carefully regulate the ..six dire<:tion.c;" (lw :zh1 J\;~) - or ":u.pinuions,'' in its mol sense of "'brc.:uhing upon'" and b}' c~tcnsion seeking to reach something~· of the bcan·mind that stem from them. On Lhis passage. Kong Yingda il ·Uh:fi {574 ... 648) c:ommcnls. -These •six :/ri~ ircc:tions ' nrc identified ns the six qmg in the 1• Xluumg~i, ch:tpCer 23. "(ft:ng..c;:m~ C:hu~ U!~M.; in GUtl Qmgf:m $1~J.fl t~. 7./urrmx:tJhfu' JiF. 7·-!~Hl! (Dcijint;. Zhonghu.1, 19$5). 810. 111

Xmd, "Z.hengming," inXtm:i zlltm ,, uori''· Ill S<.'C ;\. C. tir:.~h~lm, "'l'hc Mcnci:m Thetll)' o f lluman Nnrurc: · rcpnntcd in Gn\ham, Studh•s in Chim:sc 1'/ulosopll)-' nml Philllsophimllih•nllurc (Singapore: [nstitutc (If Ea:sl Asion Phifosoplucs. I?86. 1

~ On !.his us:~gc of qwg ,

unJ Alban~' : State Uni\'('1:-it)' or New Y\)!'k Pt-cs..;. 1990), $9-60 Sec :tlso 1hc r{'(.-cnl stuclu:s- by Mich :u~l l' ueu, ''The Elh1cs of Responding PropL-rly; The Noti<'n of QwJ; in E<~rly ChiOt..~c 'fht)ught." and ChristOJlh llarbsmcu!r. "The S~;."tllillltic~ of (ling in )1Jc·Ouddhi!!1 Chirlc-.sc.'' in Lo~·t• mrJ /.£motions iu Trrulilitmal Chine.t<' Ut~roture , cdilt-'d hy Jloh',,r Eifring (Lt:illen and Rtl:->tHn: l3nll , 2004). 37~~ and 69-14g, respc:,ll\''ly. z.> Ujr, ch3ptcr 9, ··t.iyun" r.'ll!i!: in Lfji :h~m~;J·i ?n~l!tE -ii. Jmm 22, Shi.w11ji"g :/m.dwcllitil'ln ( r;.Jil'ci. Slujic. 196J). 27b. 71

(#iE:i

luo:l:mm, Duke Zh;,o, year 25. in C'huuqiu Zuo:lman :Jwugy1 ..{~ .fXJ,: (Ikijing: Beijing dasuc dwh.:msbc. 1999). j tum 51. 14;4: cf. Duke..:

Z.h;to, year I, 116)- 1167.

122

.-1fftn K. L Chan

Book of Riu:.s. Within ones<::lf.

the~·

arc ~lied qing: "hen the <Jinx arc

act1vatcd they :~recalled :hi. Qmg and zh1 ~rc one" (~t7\:t.rno~:i1'i..L~tt ·1'EL!.lW1. !ll~il~:.!;. tli;t; ·ill)." Tite tcxa c11titlcd Min t ill jim111 ~;t

XN in the second series of the Shnngbn.i Muscmn bantboo texts.

witlt

parallels in the L~Ji and the Kong:i jwyu ?L-f'·;~hli . likewise Jinl;,s the :hJ-dircctJon of the hC;trt·mind to tJ1c cmotioos and to the forces of q1. !.l The reason \\h)' the Xing :1 mftlg t:Jm considers the hcan-mind 10 be without any inherent direction thus seems dear. The heart-mind is: indeed shaped by :ting. but the important point is thot xing embraces the emotions. which :trc formed by ql . ln Oi)er~t ion:.lterms, ple:'lsure, 3ngcr and

other emotions nrc particul:lf conccntr::ttion and movement of qi: the Zlmnngzi. for example. charnc.terizes o.ngcr in tcmts of concentrated qi ·'rising up without coming down: · l J Rising from xmg through the bc:~rt·mind nod in reaction to extcm:.l i_ n.n\tcnecs, the emotions c;m '\':1~· in strength nod bc::c::omc ''c.'iccssivc.- rcgardlc::ss of the ethie&~J standnrds :~pplicd. whether they ste-m from ccnain intcrnnl mc-cuurc or c....:tcrnal conu·ol. T he LiisiJi clwnqlu .·1 1k:(}: V\. for example, seems to suggest thnt there is an intern:~ I mc01surc (ju: fijJ) regulating human "ap-petites.. (tnn -(t ) and '·desires'· (1'11 f.k). \\hich rue naturally endoncd and common to both s:tgc:-kings and t)·ranas.:f> In contrast. the Xmg : I mmg c-ht1 seems to mla! ritual and moral in.<~~truction to be the stnndard. In either case. the wtdctl~·ins argument is th3t because lite emotions :ttc constituted by ,,,., tJtey can m O\'C the heart-mind in different directions. If inbom nature is cssc.ntially the same for all. nnd if it c.onsists of (JI
or

:!: Clmuqiu Zr~ <J:/w(m :lti'"KJ'i, 1455. 'J'hl! ZuQ:/mwr olso indic-:tll!$ thnt if the "si,'i qr· \\ere in c-xc..::ss. !he people would l o~ thdr "n:uun;- (xwg): ibid . 1449. ZJ Mn Cht."tl).!~'u3n, ecl., Slumglmi JlO'I'IIlgll(m cang Zhanguo C/w : lruJ/m. volul)lc 2 (Shaoghni: Sh:t.ngbni guji, 2002). 169, 172-173. :.• Zhmmg-:1. chJ1ptcr 19... l)as.hcng" i:E4:. Zhmmg:' Jil hl. 650 :J /..1i.5hi d umqiu, choptcr 2,. "Qi.ngyu" Ml'ik; S<.'C Jo hJl Knoblcx:k and

Jc.fl'r..:y Riegel. trans . Press. 2000). 84.

rft(; .·l t~n(l/~· {}/ La

/Juw.:t (Stu.nfon.l: St:~nJ'ou.l Unin:r.:!ily

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

123

\'Crsion sees all fh·c as equal in thm depending on whether they are fully formed in the heart·mind. they may constilule vinuous chnractc:r wilhin or find expression only in morally commendable conduc-t without. Whereas ' 'ittuous eharnc.ter (de tt;;} is u matter of the ·· oao of hca\'cn:· moral conduct (!,·han i!ii) bclonss to the - olo of bum3n beings:' :<. There is no need to adjudie:ue which is 1hc "correcf' or .. original" nrs io n ~ wha1 is more impon:mt tbr our purpose is that they may reflect difiCrcnt thinldng concerning humo.n tultW'C in gcnerol nnd sage nature in p.uticular. The way of hcn\'en seems 10 point to an inborn nature. "herc.ns the '"lY of human beings suggests lcarni.og and effort. Ag..i.n. altbough it is clear 1ha1 ordi.n!lry' indi\'iduals require leamins and elTon 10 become one with tbe. wuy of the bl()()d. the Sil&C prcsems a more challenging problem 10 Confuci:ln philosoph~rs . The \1ltious auempL<; nt resolving lhe problem helped shape tile development of Confucian philosophy; but it would be ru1 o,·crstatcment to say that there was an ··orthodo~ " solution accepted by all. at Jeast prior 10 the ascendancy or··Chcng·Zhu" Nco·Confucianism. HARMONY, NATURAL NESS. AN II T H E W ORKINGS OF Q /N(;

During the-H:m period (20(, BCE -· 220 CE). to be sure. there was siguilic-nnt de\'elopmcnl in mopping out a comprehcnsh·e picltlre of the hum:111 being hosed on " ' h3t may be loosely C:llled the yin·yang; fh·c·phasc cosmology. Howe\'cr. ll1crc is no need 10 rchco:u·sc that dc\·e lopment here, so long as it is: recognized th31 human beings 3rc seen 10 embody the yin and yang qi&forc.cs of the uni\ CI'SC. For example. Wang Chong's I Tc (27 ·~ drc.n tOO) ' icw that xmg is constilulcd by tji is well L:n0\\11, : 7 During the c:uly yc:trs of the Wei dyn:l$1~· (22U •• 265). n fresh dcbltc on the qing of the s.1ge cl\lptcd bet\\ CCn He Van (ii(J.(:. (d. 249) nnd Wang Bi ~r:~r·; (226 ·- 249). As the Stln~uo:hi relates.

fo>J/f.i !;l l~!'ll Jdl\"~~ ¥0~. Jt;.~.JH'I. l.1l (~ ~Joillz. i'ti! o;!FHfiJ. !M~!P. A i.~ L~ A ;!l·1•!"~1 ll!.. fii!V~ A.:r.· Ti.fi'1 !!1.. f.ll19JJ'X, ~~f~)fl 1 .fillj,.il!j .Y,t . :/itl/(iiJ. t&~~ff.qfcJti~l;l. le.\
i;li' ..• "'fi~ I)!.,; l"'';'jili"'" I 'I (~1~17J , ,AZ. :V~• It

:os Sec Pang Pu Ji:lHJL 7./mbo Hi,xi"K piau jiatJ:1m ji yv:mjiu 1'f M1i.1i1;;'i ('l'a ipc•: Wan,iunnlou tu:shu, 2000). I. 11 un~l 29 The Mnwangdui

tn!lUJf·~~

r:m

\'CT>ion ""'~'T· fllilfl:t ('!J:t If. ::f'IIH·Ji.l fif/:t If ... ~'lli 1' i.\JiJJ:tW -':. ~~ . ~'JfFJ.:.IJ:I ,'S(2.ff The Gulxli.m \.'-1'ston, lh'l\\'t'·cr, hn~ f.'Vf.:.T!J.HW~ (.{ tt. tT. 1~1t* l~ Jo'>J~Z tt:Z. fi: tlw.t i~. ''h!ug is wu\lu..: m tiHtl 11 is •llw<•~·, an "umcr" \ inue

:· Sec, tOr C\:::unpk MOll

Zong.~an iJ~.;T- 2. Ct1ixi11g y u.wum/, ;:;J·tt~\!"?f~

11~ (T:.ipd: Xu ~sht.•n g shuju, 199.1), ch;•ptcr

t.

.-1fftn K. L Chan

/U

He Van bclic,·cd that tl'c sage docs not Juwc pleasure and :anger. or sorrow and joy. His mgumcnt ,,·as extremely cogent Zhong Hui and others c"-poundcd it Wang Bi offered n contrarr ,·icw. He bclic,·cd that the sage sutp3sscs 1he common people i n his di\'ine perspicacily. but he is the $o'l mc ::u; cYcryonc in hoving the. fin: emotion$.

Because o f his deep spi1it·likc pcrspicac.il)', he to embody hnnnony and reach the state oJ' Mything (such :as sclf-in tcccst or pani:tl it~ negate harlllt)ny). BcC3usc he shares the emotions. he cannot but ha,·c sorrow and j oy

is thus able not h~wing that ''ould same fi\'C in response

to phenomena. 1-Jowc,·cr. although the affccth ·c capacity of Lite sage responds to things. it is not fcucrcd b) them. Now. if in view of the foc t thtn the s.:.ge is not fi!Ucred by things. one concludes th.lt he does not respond to them n.t :'111. then, indeed. ooc f:.1r misses the mntk.2$

Titis is nn important debate which has a direct bcllting on the dC\'Ciopmcnt of Nco-Confucianism. Studies on Wci·Jin irucllcctual history onen make the point that '' hercas He Yan was arguing that sage nature is ··emotjon.lcss·· (wuqilrK). Wang Bi defended 1he ..affccth ity·· of the sage. This ma~· be easily misunderstood. As- I h:lve addressed thi!' issue in some detail elsewhere. I will onlr give n brief summnry here.;:? Tberc is little disagreement that He Y~ c.on~idcred the 0010 3S the wurcc of 311 be ings. l1 is also s ufficiently dear thtn he acc~ptcd the then pre' oJcnt view th:u ~mg is constihttcd by qt. Three poilus follow fmm this latter claim. f irsL \\tun tJUs means is that xing is understood conc.rctely as a kind of qt..constitutcd ··subst::mc.c - (zlu' {1), which in tum mny be e;\:piOlincd in terms or n person's inborn "cap.'lCit:y'"' (Uti ;.1· ). understood broadly as en"ompassing phy5ical cndo\\ment. intelligence, morol and communic:llive competence and the c.opocity 10 -.tencrutc entoli\1.~ responses. Second. indi\'Kiual nature lnd c.op~cil) em: csscn1ially dctcnnincd by qt, aflhough Je.aming :md pmc1icc, including the usc of certain drugs. m:ty nugmcnt one's capacity to some c~ICUL Third. the sage is categorically diflCrcnt from the an:mgc person in that he is endowed with the finest and richest tfl possible. Simply put. sages arc born. not made. He Yan thus works from a basic fourfold classification of human beings. i.n d.1c. stnsc desc.ribcd abo, c. WJutl complicntcs matters is that He Yan is aiSt.l wcl!.known co ha\"C chnmp10ned a new appro~ch to the Oao as wu, "nothing:· Viewed u1onJ;$ldc his thesis thot the s:~ gc docs OQl ~ Smzguo:hi.JIIIIII 28 ( Hcrjmg· i'honghua, 19g2). 795. n.I. ~

I l1aw cx:unmcd th(~ i.SSU('S

tn

nn ) s.::parutc ,-.,uuys. "'Stlgc Nut\u-c aod

th" L<.l£ic. of Nomclc:)Sflcss: R.:.:onstruc:ting. 1k Yon '~ Exp1ic.ntion of O:~o.., unc.l ·'Ttk! N'aturc ._,!'the S3~'\! and the Ett)l)ti~.ms in Wci-Jin l'hilosophy.-

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

125

experience pleasure and anger. or sorrow and joy. it is understandable why llc has often been credited \\ ith the view that the sage embodies the ..nothingness- of the Dao and is therefore -"ithoUI emotions·· (wuqing) in

tl1e-sense th:H the nature of the sage is ··empty.- like a stone pillar. as it \\ere. de\'Oid of emotifc sub.swnce and cnpaciw. On closer inspection. hoWC\'Cr, He \';m seem$ to hold u \ "'CI)' d ifferent conception o f lhc Dao and the nature of the sugc. From the surviving fragments of He Ymfs ''Discourse on Dao.. and .. Discourse on tJ1c Nnmc.tcss.. .. it is clear thlll he defines Oao as wu not in the sen:1c of absence or negation but in \'iew of its ..completeness.. (q mm ::i?:) •.io) Because the Dao is " undifferentiated and C·ompletc." as the l.aMi puts it (chapter 25). it is nble to bring forth all phcnonu:nOJ. This. to He Y:m. is but another way of s.1ying lh3tthe Oao is the source of qt. Furthennore, the Dao·s complclcness dict:ues llult it mu$1 remain n :~mclcss. Names cntnil dislinc(il)nS: the Dao. in CQrtiJ'a$1, lo~;;.i c on nil fro•lls. As sucl1. the sngc canJlOI be l uc kin~ in nny way. The. asscnion that the sage- remains unmoved by cxtcmal influ ences thus reflects a conception of so..gc n:iturc thai min·ors the Dao in being undiffercntialod ~md complcle. This agrees with the po rtray~ I of sage nature as integr:~ Uy "hi!rmonious" (:Jumghe 111;111) in the third-c:-cntuf)· work. Remmzhi A111.~( (An Account of Human Capacity), As liu Shao ~H!I>. autJtor of the Rt nll'uZIIi argues. the substance of h:tnnouious nature is neccssa.rily "blnnd,- i.e., without distinguishable-lla\OIS_;H This is a logical poin1. for only what is undi flCrenli:~ t cd and com piece c;m gcncr.uc the .. five tastes." i.e .. the bosis of oll spcdfic- fl:~vors. Simi larly~ it is the sage's hannonious and absolutely imp:tnial nature that enables him and bjm alone to :\ceOmplish the projc.'Ct of ideal order (w iping ) .;. ¥ ).3: )<) lie Ywf s IW(I "OJ.scotu·S\:s.. :-.rc p1 'c'.1c:rvc..l in Zh~ng Zban·s 'l!Hi! Ct)mmcnlaJ}' i'n the LI~·:J; see Yang Bojun. Llt':l pshr ~lj-="'(·!J!f~ (Bcijmg:

l bongbuo, t985), tO- ll , ond t21. ~~ Rt·nwurhl. ~.:haJ>h:r 1. " .ltuzhcng" h. W. Cou~.1lm jich~:ng xiubUm cd1l10n {Taipei· Xmwcnfcng, 198.t), \'OI 20. 443.

\VhC!her 1bc :kt£C utonc could rc;Liizc "'greut pcucc'· w:1s the subj,-ct or quc~i on in a ~p~n•tc :tl1iclc. ' ' Wh~tt nr~ the ·Four R(,•) ts Qf Capacit}' tmd Ni•tun.:··r · in Vmccnt Shcn ~nd Wdl:mJ Oxtoby, (.'(Is . fl'rJ·tlom In Clthta m1d riN.· 11'..-.rT J:.

intense dd :xatc during the lion-Wei transition. I considered this

126

.-1fftn K. L Chan

From the Sanguozhi account citctl abo\C. Wang Bi rcoogttii..CS tbat " nothingness·· should be understood in t.;nns of " hannony"' on He Van's ,·icw. Without going into any dct;)il here. W:mg Bi was concerned primarily with the cthicnl and politkal implications of He Yan·s argument. \\hich rule-s out the possibility of :ntaining sagehood. If He Van was concerned that human nature is driven by desire. Wong Bi ~ountcrcd that human beings lllil)' itt !
DC : Council for Rcsc:.roh in Vnlucs nOO Philosophy. 200-1}.

143- 184 . •:J Jhm Yan ·:i Lw1)'U .liJi? ;~JtiSU:ft-¥. i.s :1 c:Qlll'Ctiv.; cfli.m , but thc1\! is some ugrecment Lht1t those. comm..:nt:> not :JSCriboJ to !Ill~' author m the collection reflect He- Yun's own vi~·w. Oo the pluus.:. -zld Y" tla(i ' ~J.~~~ jfl in

the l.ml)·1t. He Y::m 's c.ummcntOI)' rc::~ds:· " :&:, ·£l l!!.. ill •F11/t'O:. l'tl. :ol~ L I(U'C " ; in Lw~L'U jijit• .~·islm . with 1Iunng Kan':s :mb-commcnllll'}'. 64 (sec note 5. .,bo\'c).

Subscqucnl qu'.Ualion:l from lie Y:tn ·s IAWJ'll ~vnuucnt al}' .an: li'(JIU this ~.:d i t i
/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

127

in ensuring llmt onc·s lJing confonn to xi11g (f.f.~t1tf). 3"' This should n01 be c:onJbscd with any :1r1ifieiol attempt to rci.n i.n ouc 's emotions, The s:.gc is mUum1Jy free from lhc burden of desire because he rc.1lil..CS full~· his original nmurc, and in this sense can be said to h:wc embodied ·•naturalness.. (:iran !:If!.\) and returned to his ··roots" iu D:~.o. No doubt, He Yan and Wang Bi would each have their supponers, but one may also assume that to some. neither position seems entirely satisfactol)·. Where:ts lie Ynn's view cffcclivcly remo\·.:s the sage from the ethical and political::.gcnda -- 10 be rcplae.cd by a class of "abo\'C :werage" individuals. like Yon Yu.:tn .iHW~I. Confucius' pri~ed disciple. who by virtue or their superior q/-endo\\ ment ,·is-il-\1iS the common people c.an and sbould be entrusted with the t:uk of S,O\'Crnment - Wang Bi's faith in a simple o.nd ttanquil xi11~ core may appear far too sanguine in d•c face of the oflen brutal contest of p<)\\er and desire in human aiTairs. From another pcrspccti\'c. although it ~ppcars reasonable that no ordinary pc:rson could hope to become like Confucius in ever) respect. it seems counter-intuitive to assert that Confucius did not e;>~pcriencc plcast1re and sorrow. In this regard. Guo Xiang ~UMt. (d. 312) offers un nllcmntiYe to the problem of the (Jing of the ~gc . Like He YD.n. Guo Xi<1ng also argues from the premise that the limit of one's nature and c3pacity is determined by 'fi . Thus. Guo Xiang affirms tl1al there arc those "ho arc born sages by \1irtue of their special inborn nature . .l.' Howe,·er, Guo Xiang also cmph.asi~.cs th:'ll indi,;dual muurc. though diffcrtnl. is "--nth complcle and self-suffic-ient in its own right The unchangeabilil)' of :r:lng and 1hc auainnbilit)' or s3gehood :uc not mutually exclusive. Harking back to the Guodian Cheng :lu wun :lu, Guo Xiang could there fore soy that it is pointless to emulate the sage. Yet sagchood can be auaincd because ··sage" is but the name we give to 1hosc who bn,'c realized fully their inborn nature. 36 He Y:tn is right in recogni1Jog IMl one's qi·constilutcd nature may be ·'thick" or "tltiu" and conscquenaly that indi'liduals differ in their capacity: but. this docs not cnt:tiJ that s;~gchood is the cxclusi\'c prcscn ·c of a- sclctt few. Wang Bi is right in maintaining t11..11S3gchood is an auainnble goaJ. but this docs not \\arrant reducing the diversity of xlng to a common core, The rc•al issue is how one c.ould realize fully one ·s indl vid u~l nttture and :mnin libcrntion from I he tynmn~· of desire. WlH!n Yan Yuan died. Confocius was inconsol:tbl\:: (/,unyu 11.10). This could noi be explalncd s::ttisfactorily if one relics on He Y::m's account ;\I Commcnt!lf) to the: l.w~u, 17.2~ in Lou Yulic t!Ji ~j!fr.t Wang Hi Ji jilM).t lli I~liJUH·;n~ (JJ.-:ijing: Z.honghua, 198()), 631-632. 5 -" Gun Xt::mg, lluumg=i :flu }lF. -f t l: , ch:-.ptcr 5, m Guo Qmgf:m~ 2htttJJIK:i j ishi, 1 9~. n.4. All quot11tions from Guo XiMg ·s llw aupi

("ommenU'l)' ~11c from this \\ ork. '\IS Zlmlmgzl Co~mmmtlll)'. ch I . 22. n. 16

.-1fftn K. L Chan

128

of the ideal sage. To Wang Bi. there is nothing lo explain here. for Confucius is no difTcrcnt from CV\.Tybody else in cxpcricncing sorrow at the passing of n fritnd or loved OOC·. nlthough he is DOl burdened by it rutd remains true to his nature. On Confucius' show of emotion. GtlO Xinng

write-s., ''Just as C\'Cryonc c •icd, Confuc ius also Cl'icd: just as C\'ei)'One wns deeply soddened. Confuci us was :also deeply saddened. This is the way in \\ hid 1 someone wl1o is wuqiu~ ( i.e .. Conrudus (jiiU sage) changc.s with tbing;s:·n Similarly. this is why Q in Yi ~~*· 3 friend of Laozfs. only

gave lltrco perfunctory cries at the latter's funeral: ..The people ntourncd and he also mourned: the people w:~ilcd and he also wailed." u Needless lo Slly. deception cnn be ruled out It is nlso not the c.asc that the Silgc lncks the c;~p.nci t'' to feel sorrow. Rnthcr. ~s Guo Xiang gms on 10 sur. the SJgc recogn i~.cs that ··sorrow aud joy are born of a sense of toss and gain," Life :md dc~ th. rcspecti\·cly the most cherished of 311 goins nnd loJscs. arc but moments o f nalur.lllransfonuotion. Titc s;Jge understands the proccssc.s o f

change and conseq uent!~ docs not attach an~· \'aluc to or im·cst :tny emotion io them. ln this sense. the sage crut be said to be -witbout emotions'" (;hin:n "wqhJg ?a~:J... J!..r,Wi).w What m11kcs this kind of di,·cstmcnt possible is not rut assumed unity or .t:i11;:. but a dc<:p understanding of the workings of qing. The emotions Ill:'!)' be m:'!ny, but thC)' arc derived from one's likes and dislikes.

The luozlwnn, for examp le~ has ::tlrcndy noted 1hnt -pleasure ls born of likes. and anger is born of dislikcs.-Vo Being of ..one heart" (l ixin Tt,C.·) with !mother person. the luoziJuau ~so obscrYCS. means th:lt one's .. likes and disli~cs arc the same as the other's.'''" One of the Guodian bamboo text'i., the litet)t~g )'1

F.thll -

stotes, "When there is life nnd conl\ciousru:ss,

then likes and distikc<S nrc bom.-"': Another Guodian frat:.mc:nt points <.lUI that dislikes arise from one's nature and ~i\·c rise to anger...!1 The Luny1~

:tlso seems to rc~ogn i ze the importance of managing one's likes and dislikes •• as Confucius is repo1tcd to lt.l\ e s3.id. only a person of bcne,·olencc could like or dislike someone, presumably in an ethically responsive and responsible m.aM.e r."" One could further specify. ns the Xun:i docs. thn1

J"

J1

9

Comment~· to l.w');" 11. 10. Js c i!C'd mlluans. K:m. l.tii~J'1t jijie y ishu. Z/tu(m~:iCotttm{:ntmy. ch 3.127. n.l. l lttWIIgtf (\mtmcllf(l")t. ch

J . 128. n. I

"> l "(>zlnrim .l)uJ.:c Zhao, yr. 25, C lnmqiu 7.utdwtm :hen~·1, 14:)5 41 ibid., 1461. 4! aumli(m Clmmu :lmjhm, 193. The lc,'-:t J\:ad~; 1'Et1.0m ffiif:{C~~fM~t. The Xwg 11 mmg elm put' il mor¢ succinclly · ';'l.•ke:; and thslikes arc (JX•r1 of) xll•..t('(~f:it~t.'t ill): G uotlltm Clwmu :lmjttm. Ii9. 11 Gmxlion Clmmu;lmjum. 204. The t~'-:1 n:;•ds: miJ.k!tt-t ~~.6~~ .

4 3. 'J'herc 3JC different intcrpri!t:llions or lhis. A<.-cording 10 the ;O 82). 167;. n.2. this mcttns dt:lt the likes ~nd d1slikl'$ <'f one ''hl' v!'llucs bcm.."\'Oiencc h1t the m:~rl:: ... Llflf)'lt

1/Qu 1/mtJim ~f~ l~. jlt(m

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

129

hwuan beings arc panial to honor and profit in general and arc a\crsc to disgrnc.c and harm: J.~ but the basic assumption remains that human ~ffcc,thity is moti\'atcd b~· likes and dislikes. \VIuu Guo Xi:mg did was to probe deeper jnto the basis of tJittg nnd troce one's likes and dislikes to the vnlue distinclions dull one makes. In Guo Xi3ns ·s intcrprclation, the l.huang=i makes dear tl1al hu1nan ~mo tions nrc derived from ''hilt one likes w1d dislikes, whK:h in tum arc fonncd by cogniti\'c distinctions of "right'· (shi ~~) ond ~wrong" ((C'i :1~) as measured by one ·s self-interest J 6 Without such distintlions. likes ::md dislikes do not :trisc nnd the emotions do nol c:au.se any ripple in the. hcan·mind. In this slate, the hcart·mind may be fil.;cncd to "dcud ushcs:· according 10 the Zlwrmgzl. which Guo Xiang imerprets as H'IUJfng in the sense th:n the s3gc "obidcs by his naturtllly cndO\\'e d nat'urc Md forgets oil cogniti\'t discriminations" (([ l~t'!.~mt~;lil~l=) ..!? In this sense. Guo Xiang also speaks of 1hc "qing of wuqmg" (~li'ti$ :Lf;¥) thnt docs not tmnsgrcss the Iinti IS of OtlC ·s nmure and forms the basis of sagely "non:.clion: ·"'s

TilE STILLNESS OF XING The above nnalysis. though brief. should gh·c an indication of the in which Wci·Jin philosophers tried to come to terms with the issues occasiom.'d by the discourse on xing and tting. cspc:ci:~ll y as they apply to lhe ideal sage. which by the third century had become deeply embedded in tl1c common intcllcctu:JI frame. He Ynn. Wang Bi nnd Guo Xiung might h:H't! been l:nown especially for 1heir contributions to xu(ln.wtc ¥_-l}\, the "lcitming of the my~tcrious Duo:· but they wc.rc ccrbinly not partisan " Daoists- who opposed Confucian learning. XmmXU(' aims at bringing to light the profatUld uutb of Dn.o . ll truth that, it is bcliC\'Cd. Confucius ;md other sages of old nJI recognized and embodied -· llccording to some. by n3lurc. and according to others. in \ arying degree - in their being. In any event little is explained in simply nssening that He Yan. \Vong Bi. or Guo Xiang mode usc of "'Daoisnr" to interpret '·Confuci;mism:' Lubds mny scn'c a useful fun ction, but they arc not sclf~;~o;planator~ and musl not be allo\Yed to llke the pl:..c.c of interpret.:uion. All three considered Confucius to be the highest sage. wol'ked on the / .rm,)IU, and hnd in their own wa~· tried to tlrovidc a col~rcnt account of Ihe recch·cd teachings of Confucius, Lao1.i and o1hcr sages and ncnr·sagcs. They were cquaUy concerned with the wa~

:l~ cit\ll.l in Y:mg Boj un, l.mQ'Il J i: lm. ;;(i He Y~n•s ..:ommcn1ary in thi~ inst
the bcnc\'Oh:nt person i~ ohfc t
4oS

~

l.lO

.-1fftn K. L Chan

central issue of sagchood. tltc -one thread" •• to borrO\\ n mc.tophor from the l.wryu (4.1S) - that captures the essence or 0 :10 and nms through the best that tmdi1ion hos to olfcr: but in cngngins it they pmtcd company o n philosophic grounds. AI the cthic:sl level. to He Yan. be(ausc the sngc is out of reach, the best model is someone li.kc Y::m Yu:m! who is ..close to the way of the sage'' (conuucntary to l.un;,•u I 1.19). Moreover, He Yru1wriac.s:

... ,., "".!'1 ·" " •C' •• 'I".lfd .c ·' i"'H ·"·, -M....·~·, 1.!!:;. )"1.1.1\.' ("J.:'UJ ~±,. UH'i nl );Jti.

!W"·j•· •u .. . ·~· 1'!\ • ~ J:t..

Generally. human beings allow the emotions to dictate their nc1ions. nnd their pknsurc :md 3llgcr deviate from tJ1c

nom1. Yan Yu;m abided by the Dno: his anger was ncYcr with what was d ue

excessive lbul] accorded (commcnl:lry to Ltmyu 6.3).

Striclly speaking. Yan Yuan is also

3

special

ea~.

for even among

Confucius· disciples few c.ould match his ~ttainrncnts.<~Y for He Yan. it would be foolish to e... pcct that the. mwagc person. with bis limited qi--cndowment, could become liL:e Y:m Yuan. 10 W:mg Bi. all tll.1t one needs to say is that Ynn Yuan aspires to become a sage (mu sllcm;: .lltlli!)'~ "'"d so should C\'Ctyonc, especiall)' the l'ulct and those in c harge of go,·emment,

ro

rccogni~dng lhat sngehood is al.rcld~· present in the authenticity of being. Guo Xiang. of course. there is no point in emulating Yau Ymltl either, f01' imilation inevitably dc-tmcts from the proj ect of self-realization. I mention

tbc case or Yan Yuan here because it seems to bear on Cheng Hao's examination of xing and qing. According to the Song )'tum xm! 'rm. Cheng Hao 's nmg.n ng .·lm . seeks to nddrcss Zhang Z:.1i 's concern tlmt human JUllu.rc cnnoot but rcm;1i.n tied to the cxtcmnl world. no matter how h;ud one tries to still iL The text reads: .. In stilling one ·s nniUre., one canno1 render it unmoving, for it l'cmains burdened by cxtcmal things. llow docs one deal witlt thot" ( i.£t1~ li~~~·1!J. \~ .W. ·f- ~H~J. ("I ~IIYI ·111e ideo 1hn1 emotions pose o "burden· (M M"{) that nffi icts ·'virtue'" figures in the Zlruangt i. 5l Both Wnng Di and Guo Xi.ans h3,·c made use or the idea to highlight the danger of being entangled und tied do''" b)' de-sire, C heng Hao begins by 3UacL:ing the implied d iv ide between the ""inner'· (nei I~ ) 3nd the '"outer.. (wai ?'~) in Zh:mg Z3i's question. TI1c stillness of xmg. if attained. pcn·adcs both mo ,·c menc and quietude and admit$ no d iJ;tim:tion between the internal world of the heart-mind and the t> On this poml, ~--c. f(l r c.xsmplc, He Yan·s commcnt:•r:· to IAn{rtt 6 .7.

9.20.

629

~ C'omm..:ntruJ to tl1c l.u11yu. 1 1 . 1 9~ in Lou Yuli<.·. Wcmg J)i ji jior·Mh i.

~~ For cs!lmplc, sec the Zhu(Urg:J. ch 23, 810.

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

/J/

c.s.tcmal world of phenomena. Zllll Xi is ptobably right in suggesting tbat by ··xmg." Cheng Hao mc~1ns the heart-mind.$l Jn any c:1se. this sets the stngc for Cheng Hno's main thesis that the sage may be likened to "heaven

and cntth-: ··Now. jt is the constancy ofhcovcn ond c::nrth thou they usc their heart to benefit all tl1ings but nrc " 'ith out self-interest o r p:uti:~ lity~ (in the s~mc way) it is the con.st;mcy of the S3gc that he uses hisqing lo cnnblc the nourishing of all things but is without qtng- (.X I~Ukl.:~Y;. L.;J.Jt·C.·~71;~J

lilii!\·G': :f!.A.Z'iii'. VJ.Jtb'.'!Uilll''i111flif.I·h'l). The question is. of course. how one should iuterprcr wuqi"g in this contc.xt Whereas the reference 10 the "hcort'' of hcon;n :md carib is lnrgcly mctnphoric. o litc-rnry con\'ention intimating their "seJOess- nurturing funclion. the. rcrcrcnc.c:: to the qing or the sage demands closer philosophic scrutiny. Is Chen~: Hao thinking of a special .. honnonious" sage n:aturc: Lho.t is unditTcrcntintcd nnd complete, or is he nppcaling to ru1 authentic u:Jturc th:tt is inherently still. or tot\ kind of profound understanding of the workings of t}iflg that would free the sage: from au-right and wrong" (sltije1) distinctions'? 'With the sngc idcaJ so defined. Cheng Hao goes on to say that "therefore. in the leaminQof the gcntlcm:-m, thcre is nothing more important th~n being open and absolutely imp:utial. ond in responding to things nod niTa irs accordingly as they come·· (~ 1-Fi:;Z. t~. ~;t!in·H-siiii.k1~. t1UtHfJ ~rt!~). The ntcruting of the lo.st phrllSC is not inuncdintcl~· clear and 1 will come back to it later: but following this the learning of the "gentleman'" (jmm) is contmstcd with piecemeal cffon in tiJing to set rid of this or that desire. which is endless and ultimately futile. As Cheng. fino fromcs his ars,umcnt in terms of "lcarning·· (.rne-), even though he c.oncurs with He Van thnt impartiality is ccntrnl to the s:agc idc:al. it seems unlikely that he was r.lcfcnding a special sage nature thilt is catcgorici!lly dirrcrc::nt from that or the an~mgc person. Although as we shall see shonly a later Confucian interpreter made the case that thcjwt:i ideal should be distinguished from Lh:u or the sage. so far lhc. text seems to point toward a non-disctiminaLOI)' \'icw of :rmg. Human beings 01rc uMble to abide by the Dao •• i.e .. mlllblc to accomplish the learning of tl1c jwtzi and attain sagchood •• because for dilTcrcnt TC.a$ons their qmg arc c louded. Cheng Hno nexl obscr\'CS. Gcncr;~lly. the problem lies in the it: being selfish (: i:;i (] :fl1) and in their application of intelligence (J·ongthl IU ~•') to pursue prh'ntc ends. Ac.ting o ut of self·intcrcs.t. ordinary human beings arc unable to align their action with the " trac<"s'" (Ji i!l:) of the sages •• .1 metaphor that Guo Xinng Crcquently mnkcs usc of in his Zlmun;.:zi commentary. n Concentrating their ~ Zlm:1 yul.-i *Tilfif.(i,;mm95 (Ocijin~: ZhOnfhua. 1986), 2441. UrooJ.: ZapOr)·n h(IS drscussod the couct-pt of "IJ'uoc-s" in Guo Xmng ·s 2htttJJIK=i CrmJJJ!i.'lltmy ot som e length in his recall book. 1'11~: Pc.•tmmbtu Unbouml: tlu: .Vt:o- 'fcwiJI PhlloJup!ty (ifGm1.\'i<mg (Aibl:lny. Stole Unin:r.:!ity of New Y(lrk Pres-;, 2003). 3to· Howc\'cr. .-.ccording lo Zhu X1. ChcnR H~o lS !')

.-1fftn K. L Chan

H2

imcllcctual c-npacity on sclf.g:.in. tltC>' arc unable to sec tltings as lhcr arc or discern tile n:uural course of cn:nts. In stilling one's ntllurc, as Cheng Hno ngnin cmph:1sizcs. the point is not to ht~· blame on th.ings nnd circumstances or to keep out external inJlucnccs. but to underst;utd "h~· qinx nmy be clouded,

HowcYcr, this is not to

s~·

thnt one should 1hcn devote oneself

cxclu~ivcl)

to cuhi\'uting the inner rcollll of the hc.:trt·mind. "'Rilthcc than rcpudiming the cxtcmal and affinning the i nternal. it would be far bcuer 10 for&« botlt !be inlcl1lal and tltc cxtcmal" (!i>!J~:U:11-iliJe i'J, +?"'r-'I ~~Z

w~.l!:i li!). Once they arc both ·'forgoucn.... it is as if a \'Cil h:JS been lifted and the ltc«rHnind is no longer troubled by any stirring of desire or external influences (N~.\!.HlJ tllK~~f, •JC~). This kind of - rorsclfulness.. seems 10 so beyond any dclibcmtc disregard. Witllout selfishness and without any mcnl31 cxcrti.se directed tal sclf·grati fical ion. the hcan.n1ind bc<:omcs still (din}! Ji:!). In stillness. the hcan·mind bcc·omcs clcJr and perspicacious (mlng l§j ) . With such cbtity, there should be no concern th:u th~ hcnfl·ntind would become burdened (lei g{) by things \\ hen it responds to them. TI1e idea of -rorgctfulncss·· is reminiscent of Guo Xitmg's conception of the sat."¢ ideal. TI1c reference to sM and.fef also suggests some recognition of the cogn itiYc basis of qing. Nevertheless. in tracing the stillness of xing to a kind of s.ugcly illumination, Cht.--ng Hno mtry be closer to Wang Bi th3n 10 Guo Xiang. Although the noun phrase shenmmg f*t!J-j docs appear in Guo Xiang 's Zhuan}tzi commcnuvy. miug 191 is used as a \"Crb - to elucidate:. make c;lc:tr · · in the majority of t-ascs thcrc. If one assumes th::u individual nature is complete and sclf·sufficicnt. an awareness :md acceptance of the processes of chant,oe :.1nd a sense of uucr e<Ju:mimiry would prob:tbly be more imporL'\nt than a "spirit·likc ~rspicaci ty;· in which the hc:ll'l·mind functions like il dc:1r tniiTOt in rcOct!ling the ttuc nature of thinss. To Wang Bi. mfng"{)CrSJ>ic:teity is crilicnl because it charactcri1.cs authentic nature. Is that what Cheng H3o has in rnmd :lSwell'! The pleasure and nngcr of the sage. Cheng Hno continues. inYari;~bly accord wilh what ousht to be the case ( ..~~A.LW~1~~.L1:~:ff-: ~AZ .I[6t:).4~Z ·,:;~ ~~). For this ~son, the pleasure nnd anger of the sage arc not tied to the herut·mind bllt rasJ1cr 10 things (.M:~A..t ~~. ~~JH~ •!:\1~1l 1{H~fnlk). This rules out any suspicion that the sage d<X."S not n."Spond to phcnomenu und should address Wong Bi's concern O\ 'Cr He Yan·s conception of the sage: but it a.lso ntJLes clearer tl1e objc.cthe dinu;u.sion of qlng. The immediate conc.lusion here is that ns the. sage ·s qmg is

h<."TC simply I'Cf(..'l'l'iog to tht· tl'ue<:.;; of things cnKl

(lfJ'~)II':S, ~c

/.lm:i ptlci. 95.

2-143. As ,ii seems to p::m1llcl -nalurnlnt:$s" in the next ~nkncc, 1 take it in o ~J'tm ~cr. t XI~i tin: sen~ 3S :'.tllg~c::;ti ng the tr~..:"-~:1 of the :;a~..::;.

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

IJ3

other--directed. there is no ground to renounce the external and seck stillness solely in lhe hearl·mind. The S:tgc 's cmoaions have nothing to do wilh sclf·intc r~st and thus do not dccci\'c or manipul:nc. Yet. how docs one {lStcrtaiu when ought to be the c~sc in mailers of the hcou·t How c.:t.n one be sure that one is responding to phe-nomena in lhe ri s,ht way? lrue,-cstinsly, like He Y3ll in his nsscssmcnt of Yan Yuan. Cheng Hno s in~,;les out ::anger as the most dinicuh emotion to deal with. Anger is quick to rise and dilncult to c.omrol, Cheng Hao says. What is needed is that one ··rorgets- one ·s nnger (:!ii;l t.~) at the point \\bCil it :uiscs nnd CXAnlines lho principles of the cnsc (I'OI!~!.l:.J~1b). lhc w.~sons th:H caused the hc;lfl-mind 10 stir in anger. The sage ahus certainly experiences e-motions. bul in discerni.ng the rigluness of things l1c responds in imp:,niality and is in this sense. wuqlng. CONCL UDI NG REMARKS

Perhaps Cheng Hno was concerned with ccnnin Buddhist or Daoist teachings on interiority. Perhaps he '' as inOucuccd b~· them. The Ding).'iug slru \HIS wriucn when Cheng Hno w:1s about twenty-two or twcntv-threc. :1ccording to Zhu Xi::;.: perlmp5 it docs not rdlc.'(.:t his mature ,·ic~,·s. My point here is not to offer on m;-count of Cheng Hno·s philosoph)'. Rather. the point is more simply that as Confuci::mism unfolds, ecnain critic.ll issues demand c.ont.inual rcne<:tion ;10d fresh interpretation. Cheng Hao was wrcs.tling witl1 the same i ssu~.s. " ithi11 \'cr~ much the same llcrmcncutical p.1ramcters. th:u captivated the world of thought in early medieval China. Once it is recognized that xin~ plays a key role in understanding the tmth of Dao. the question whether sage nature i.s distinct from t11:tt of the a' cmgc person must be interrogated. The Guodiao material helps us sec more cl c:~~ly the \·ibrancy of cruty Confucinn philosophy. The persistent interest in the place of qfng in the sage ide:.l reflects, no doubt, deep conce.rn 11botll the potential dc:structh·e power or desire:. rcsru-dless or\\ bclhcr it is understood in te.m\S of deviation from onc·s ;authentic nuturc or as affceth'e excesses urisins, from self-oriented Yalue distinctions. At the same time, lhc evidence shows th:ll there is strong resistance to eradicn.ting d1c emotions from the S3gc ideal in the Confucian imagimnjon. The contested middle furnishes fcnilc ground for philosophic inno,·;uion. He Van offers essentially n reUgious view of the sage. ''hose ham1011.ious nature docs not OOmit of p;utiality. In tuldng the emotions as ditTcrenti:ucd tJmg. the pmblcm of desire is kept well <)utsidc of ahc being of t1tc sngc. However. while the proble-m of dcsin: mJ.y no longer be pressing. in defining sagchood in 1erms of an inborn sage natu1c. J-le Van eiTcc ti\'el~· renders ih¢ sag<: ethically irtclc ,·om nnd shifts attention to the model of the nc.o.r-sage. rcpn;scntcd espcciattr by Yrut Yuan. To W311g Bi. this is probably 100 high a price to p:t)'. ·nte problem of desire can be

" Zlmzlyufd, 93, 2359

H-1

.-1fftn K. L Chan

resoh'cd. if one tocogni.t.cs thot inborn nature nt ils core is c-haracterized by stillness. From Guo Xinng·s perspcctiYc, this imagined J.'ing core h:~s little basis. for the reality of qi is such that order is lbund in plenitude nnd divcrshr . To someone ll!.:c Liu Mia n .tiP ~ (d. ~05) in t.he T:mg. abe whole idea th.nt the S.'lgc docs not h3\'C emotions is simply nonsense, for qing is

part .,__ n rJ pan.:cl of life endowed

b~·

hca,·c:n . .. Both sages

~nd

\\Orlhic.s ate

within the rc:JJm of cntotions·· (5:H'i"J 1t f£1J'f1fZ l>.f). Nor is il true, uccording to Liu Mian. lhat tl1c sage .. forgets,.. his emotions: thus. Confucius could not but be-sad "hc.n Van Yu:.n died.s.~ To Cheng Hao. this probably misses the fmc r philosoph.i c31 poi.ots thnt need to be addrtsscd. Thcsusgcstion is not th iU Confucius d id not c,\:peric-ncc sorrow. bul mther that his arrccti\'C responses are never panial o r inappropriate. Judging from the JJlngxing shu, lherc is :1 sense- thot stillness belongs to origjnal nou un::. Confucius and Van Yuan share the same essential na ture, though they may take o n different appearance ·· whereas the former is like the ..origin.:.! qi.'' as Cheng Hoo or bis brother Cheng Yi :Ut11 is reponed 10 h:lvc- ~-.id , the laner rnay be likened to the fi rst signs of life in spring, 54 Yet. there- is olso o. sense th:n self-interest -- 1hc likes and dislikes of xing ~· CQtncs \\ itb the o riginal Jl"lCkagc. It is this w hich Icuds to the applicccause in 1\ teucian fashion xmg requires eulti\11tion. The foc us of culth·
$>

LIUMi:m. - 1):1Jint!n;m f'e:i Slumgshu Junwcn ~hu .. rr-Ail~l~ lM1!lilfr..·t

~. i.o 1img Wct~c ui J:tf)C H". Jrtalt 84, lfi!,'}1Wngl! J iJtll tJUfrJJ.~Im, 'I' .:tiwan rt.'Print, \'(lhnn~

1344 ( raipci. Shanpwu. 19"83-1986). 276. ~ Er Cf~ttgjl, 16: nloo n::pc:Hcd m 1233

/)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t?

IJ5

stillness Cheng llao speaks of represents the end state- sage hood •• where the dislinclion between the inner and the outer has been "forgoUen." i.e .. no longer a fitttor in the opcr.stion of the henrt·mind.~ 1 To get there. however. tlu;rc is much nork to be done. not only in rectifying one's hcnrt mind but ulso in discerning the objccti,·c principles of things. This is bu( a sugscstion. appf'0.1Ching Cheng Hao's Dingxing shu from Zhu Xi's i>Crspccth·c. According to Liu Zonifll10U SrJ~~ll'J (1578 •• 16-15)4 the J)ingxi,g slut emphasizes the centrality of tranquility (jing ljf ) . which nonethelesS; docs not exclude mo\'cmcnt (tflmg !f)J). The way of the s.1gc docs not sr:ck u-anquility by shuuing out the extcrn11l world. As the L{ji .states, "When human beings arc bom, they are uanquil. This is the nature of hc:wcn. When mo,·cd by thinss. they become aroused. 11lis is the aJTcct of xing.. CA 'I'.W1i!ii1 . /<411 l!l . ~ O~~~ilii;)]. t~Zi'.ktl!.). 51 Perhaps Liu Zongzhou was also thinking of Guo Xi:mg. who dtcd this pass:»gc in his Z/ruanJ,::i c-ommcnw.ry us weH.~ ln nny event. the st~gc is limlly rooted in trllJl quil i ~· and in that state irucr:.ets with the \\Orld, \\hich ensures ahat he rcm:.ins impervious to the inJlucncc of desire. During the Jiajing rci~n period ( 1522 •• I 566) of the f\·1ing dyn<Jsty. Hu Song .VH1~ (1503 •• 1566) Jcctnred on tJu~ /Jmgxmg shu in tl1c Capit:ll, which :mrnctcd nn audience of O\'Cf 5.000. According to 1-Ju. Cheng Hao 's nnal> sis addresses the stillness of ;l'ing at fl'>ur different levels - lhnt of btaven 01nd e:nth. that of the sage. th:Jt of the gcnth:m:m. and that of ordin\U)' indi\·idunls.00 Perhaps this ncc
l lntzi J'Uid, 95, 244 1 utld 2445 chapter 19, -Yucji"' ~~ifi!, 319 - 320 . !<'.1 ChaJ)h.:r 6. :no. n 7. ll> .YJng rumr ,Yuc 'on. 13. 320. 5'

~ l.ijt,

:t.'>

c1tcd in ,..,'ong J'um1 :ru.• lm , 13,

ChaptcrVll

Locating the Moa·al Self: Emotions anti Human Agency in Song Neo-Confucian Thought'

Thinkers, in both East and WcS1. han philosophized about the

emotions for millennia, and they continue to do so to the present dly. J\ I:~Tgc palt of the attraction of this topic is its clush·cncss and ambimlcncc: the emotions seem to represent purely subjeeti\'C experiences, but gi,·e us: 1\cc.ess to some objeclivc criteri.:t o f ,.3luc. They seem to cman3IC from

within. but oncn they n.rc involunl.i1Q'. arising from cn~nts in the external world. They seem to be unique- 3nd individual. but can also link us to the l:1tgcr hunl:ut community. The emotions. then. scrn as nlcind of interface between the self and the world. and they C3n represent both our passivily 10 the world. as well as lhc expression of our abilhv to assen our presence and our will upon our surroundings.: . TI1is ontological ambi\'alcncc has been an intrinsic fcmurc of early Chine-se discourse on qmg ·W -- the Chinc!C term that is m 0111 closely nssocjiued "ith the bfoadcr cutc&Ot1' or the emotions. As sinoloyists hm'c frcqucndy pointed out, qmg has possessed a dual meaning since earl>' times. referring both 10 ··situation" and ··rcalil) " on the one b::tnd. and -emotions·· on the otiiCI'. TI1is dual mcaJling was potentially \'CIY useful: it could cxpl3in our indh·idual emotions :~s objective and coherent responses to the world, and thus as fumishing a Jjnk between the su ~jcc th·e and objecth·e realities. Such a conception achieved its classic formulation in the Yu~Ji ~:rt'.. or u,•,·o rtl ofMusic. where it is wriucn:

A. :li.t~il'rii, 7C2. tl til. ~~ Jl~ ~!l 1fli ~JJ, ij;Z1ikill. TI1at man is still at birth is his Hca\'Cn~ld owcd nature. Thai he is set into motion ha\i ng been stirred by things is the desires of hi$ nature. (f) Ji m:OC Ch. 37) 1 lhis cssoy Jcwtops ;tUd sh~tchcs out some pOinls I h:1\\: mode in mr Jis:-;crwti()ll. ~· "That Wh.i.;b Enc<,mp~"ii!-s The Myaiud C:tn.:~-; ': Subjcctivitr. KuowlcJgc and the Ethie8 or EmotitJn in Tans .:1nd Son~ Chiu:a: · (l h•n ·<m.l University: 2004) z R<:c1r1ld de Sousa dL'>CUSS(."S some llf tlacse ornbivak1tt uspcc1s of 1hc cmotion.s in temts of a gotic.-; of "nnlinoolt(."S" : the untinomy of rationality, the antinomy of l)bj ..'Ctj,·ity. the ~~n ti ll(lfllY 1..\f ~ct i \'l ly 1111d p:.tssi\'il)'. the antllllll11)' <'f inl c~nty. and the antinomy of dctcnnm,SJn &:c de S.)usa 1987· 1·20.

Curi~

H8

J(r(ig

1l1c carl) Tang commentator of the Wl!imJ: 7JI<~n&,\i ?l.f;;\HE.~ cl:tborutc:s: ;!;· .A.JiJ~.

:>ldif,'; lll;,

JJJ~r.?~l/d1t.-!\,

M'ktH!!.

)Vllhen man is first boru. he docs not yet possess feelings

iN) and desires b~rt ?it). This stillness is endowed from the st;1tc: of what is so of itself. nnd this is his Hca\cn-cndowcd n::nurc. (Kong Yingda 19"")9: 1084)'

(qmg

Tl•c 3SSUIUJllion here is that the xlnx fl:, or the 11101'31 nature. is

originally still. and that the: emotions. or qmg. represent the arousal of this nnturc into .1 state of motion. Motion and stillness thus represent distinct and mutually cxc.tusivc aspects of human experienc-e. connected either to the natun:: or to the realm of feelings. The idcu thnt emotions rcprtsc:ntcd the self roused into motion by things and C\'Cnts in the wor-ld rcnl!'cts a dualistic vision of tltc cosmos. in which the inner nnd outer worlds are corresponding rcoJi1ics. The political appeal of such o. world picture is clear. and it \\ as in\'okcd in co.tly time-s lo lcgitim:uc the authorit~· of statc·organi:i'.ed ritual to shape the minds and bodies of the. subjects. But from 3 philosophical pcrspcc•h·c. tltis vision is somewhat problematic. for if nil motion and chan~c emnnatc from the outs ide. how can \\C account for the possibility of human agency and self·dctcmlination·? The Nco-Co nfucian search for an objcc:ti\'c ground of morality was based on a kind or nnalogy bch,cen the human world and the cosmos. but thinkers like Zhou Dunyi )I,J >f
aesthetic and cosmological tlteorics. TI1cy sougltt to eliminate such dichotomies as inner vs. outer. rutd motion ,., . stillness in accounting for human experience. They explained our thoughts. feelings, and actions as emanating from within. not from without. In so doing. they opened thcorcti<;nl possibilities for en\'isioning human beings :lS agents. and for explaining how human morality was a m:uter of inner sclf·cuhil•alion. In the 7fmg Shu iill ffl . Zl1ou Dunyi dc.scribcs the properly cuhh·:ued self. not as being in a state of stiUncss (fins ii~ ). but 3S encompassing both motion (tkmgg.)J)and slillncss. He makes his point by using motion and stillness DS criteria for defining two other con(,:-cpts: .. wu 'In,.. thing, 3nd ..shm l-ft:· spirit. As Zhou explains, ., thing is th:ll \\ hich crumot be still when it is in motion. and cannot be in motion when it is still.

.\ AU 1ransh•ti on~. :K~mc of which i•ppcar in •») dtssctwtion. :ve m~· O \\ n. For the l\\.'0-Ct,nfucian thinkers di!:lCUSS<.-d hd ow 1 h11vc cunsuhcd the t ran~IMitm~ t'l' WiJtg·l~i l CbtUl. A &mrvr: /)41Q.": In Chil~<.~·c: fltilo:J(IJJh.v. Pnnceton· Pnn..:..:too Unm:rsity Pre:>:;. I %~

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139

For mere 1hings. motion and stillness arc mutually exclushe. In conlrast spirit lhc dacmonic •• th ai "hich is ,\hen •• posses~-s both motion and stillness within itself: it is still while being in motiOIL and it is in motion ''hilc being slill.'' The assumption seems to be· that humnn beings arc si1umcd some\\ herc in·bctwccn lt1J and j·ht,, nnd that if they culti\·ate thcms.ch-cs to become s.ugcs. they can be siren. The perfectly cultiYatcd individual thus cmbodic.s OOth motion and stillness •• in contrast to the myriad ..things". wh.ieh can only embody one state ~• :l timc. The practical impliclltiOn of tJ1is is that the indi,•idull is autonomously capable of virtuous :tnd proper action wil11out being mo\'ed b~ contact '' ith c.\lernal things. People arc agents or tr:msfonnation. and not the objcc1s of tmnsforutntion by things. One of the implications of such a conception of the human is that it ten liule room for the emotions. Zhou had liulc to say d•rc<::dy concerning the realm of emotions, but what he d id soy suggests th:tt he saw them QS posing a Lhreat to the moral henllh of the i.ndi,·idunl: f~Zl'lit!l. lMMii~ :t~?J~fiJJI:. :{' 11:J1'Jib!!M:J!Idib .~ .

•~ fJ)~Jii.( it.. When peopJc prospe-r. tl1cir desires arc SCI in motion and 1heir feeli n&s dominate. Sec.-Lase of their conccm for self·interest. they :m:::.ck one 3nothct. If this is not stopped, it will lead 10 destruction omd the Joss of III'Opcr human rcl:uionships. Thus. they receive punishments so thac they may be governed. (Zhou Ounyi 3(J38).

If Zhou provided the b:asis of :a theory of human :agency by rccosnixi.ng motion as i.n tcrnolly generated. the problem still rcm.ai.ncd as 10 how to m~magc the emotions sons to hannoniLe tl1cm witl1 a Jifc of \'irtuc. Zhang Zai pro,·idcd :mother JI<)SSibility for explaining how motion 3nd change could origi.tutc from within the self. This wos Zhnng·s fam ous yl tl.--b.'lscd philosophy, which cxploined a ll phenomena in the universe by \\'tl)' of a single conc.ept qi, or or ,; tnt force. According to Zhang. qi \\':lS the dynamic substance that pervaded C\'C.f.\' thing. and 311 being and all change were

n;uu.ral ou.td sponttmcous dcYclopmc~:~l s :arisi.os (rom the collcctiou and dispersal of tJi. This theory could provide an account of the emotions as well: lil *2.J,1f.D.ilil~ 4>: '-'.\ JJ}.

N:) ;[·JxJt t.\.

f:l\ iiii '-IJ!I)Ill illiiT 1$. .11&i.Ji'i1 (I'!. WxJili1i" IlL. Ul.·lZ·#Irt!l~~- !'(jl\ :1§2.!Iii"!

' • f~11N ;e,. ill' ,oY r Jill ~ 'ill~~; tl!. ;~; 1f1i .qa JV!fi rlu~~ g,; i'l'i!!. ~IJ nii !!\ 1!J!J~ rrj ·~m~J /f~Uli t•;;;1.1\'~J:·zhou Dunyi: 16/l-'.

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.. '-"'.... I·,"J. Jr.·llr7 In its origin:Jl slate, tJI is \'3euous. c.fcar and wit11out fonn.

When there is stirring !lnd coming into being, il collects together rutd there are images. If Lhcrc nrc forms. there arc .-.Jso Iheir Of)posites. and rhesc opposites in\"'lriably oppose what 1hcy do. lf there is opposition. there is strii'C . and if there is strife. there is imari11blr harmony Jnd resolution.

Tltcrcfore. the fcclinss of IO\'C and hate emerge together lfo m the Grc:~l Void. and in the end th~· rttum 35 the desire

th~ t

is bound up with things. They cmcq;c: suddenly

and quickly come to completion. without 0\dntitting of tl1e slightest interruption. This is how mar\'clous it is! (Zhang Zai 1?71!: 1/ 10) As Zhang explains here. the feelings of Jo,·c :md hate represented

the collc-ction of qi into forms. Since whm possessed form inuuiably [)OSSCSSCd opposing COUnterparts to Which they \\Cre dromn intO connict. they were a source o f contention and strife. both within the self nnd without At this point they constitulcd the realm or··dcsirc th<~t(wasl bound up with things." While this was all part of 1he natural condition of things, the linking of qmg \\' itb strif\: and ''ulncrnbilit)' to -things~ meant that the fcc.lings posed a constant danger to our ability to exercise mastery O\'CI' o nrsch•es. for Cheng Yi !¥~! ( 1033·11 07). tltc conflict bct"ccn morolity and emotions wus C\Cn more direct. Cheng Yi's most importantlhcorctic.al contribmion was his elnborntion of a concept duu would bc<:omc the comcrstonc of Nco--co.nfucinn _rhourhc: II ~ . M was the n~nJHUi\.'c· coherent paucm undetly•ng tdl thtngs. ··All thmgs under Hem·cn. he s:ud. "c~m be understood by \\3)' o f li. If there is a thing. there is in\'i'!riabJy a standard. so each thing must ha,·c ils IC (Cheng Yi 2004:181193). ~torco\'cr. h is the basis of tbc uo.ity of :til tbiog.s: ~hh ough c~b thi ng b:ss its specific li. in the end nil is one /i, Such an idea had n dramatic impact on the <:onccption of the self. for it mt~ml thnt humnn beings poss.csscd an idcntifublc normati\'C structure in common with the rest of Lhc cosmos. It \\liS this structure ttuu Cheng Yi equated with the 1101ion o f xing -- the n:uure. For Cheng Vi, the nature itself was originall)' and \\holly good. In conunst, the emotions and desires represented the realm of qi. and as such. could be l:lkcn as categorically aa>atl from the realm of ti and XutK. Once the go.1l or self-cultivation became dcrintd ns the rcali7ntion of the li within oneself. the emotions become mnrgjnalized ns irrclc\':mt for tltc-achievement of union with the world. But in fact th ey were \\Orsc: Lhtm $ r·\lf It hist<"ric:;l V\'l!l'\';1;\\' of the l;(lfli.X:pt of It :il...~ Will:ird Pct~1'SCI1. '"Another Look al It .. Buiii.:Jtn t)j'SII" 8 anti 1'11<m Sr,dij!3 1S ( 1986): 13·32.

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irrclc\'anl: the~· \\CCC posith'e h harntful lo the rcaliz~uion of one's moral nature. Thus we S(.'C in Cheng Vi's early <.:ssay. ·'On nhat Yam•J lo,·ed lo

learn (J'UFH9r~Huf ~~ a~r

1he r:ubcl' contemious stmc or affairs

bct"~.:"cn

the ruuurc and the fee lings, in '''hich c:.ch side is engDged in a struggle to dominate over the other:

:;!CJI!! fit.tlr. r-1£. h'Z. f.N'i1-\ A JPI' 1!!.1~ nii I!~. Jt;nl 1.!!., :liff.JL~. FW:/H~m' fif. IJ}IiJtililt. JI·~Jfl\i lt l~ 1 lltJ ,.i'JJJ~ '1' "' ?;::. :oo: :1 \; ,." I' ~·· ~J -ru I · ·l:; I'' Ht. "M" •w• ..(<.'X: ,:.(. •~'II, ·IJ.":,;;;J ' " . "CI "' ~' "'l"l "' "'· .

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M• · ~~ "' m ·jpl·-fj .. ; u :11LZ.. nx LI FJ•,.. • J. ••

Hca,·e n and E.-mh is a collection of refined essence. and man bns rocch·ed the most cxcdlent of tbc Fh·c Elements. fn his origin. he is genuine and tranquil. and before he ha~ s1irrcd into acth·ity. the fiyc m or;~ l virtues arc ~omplcte in him. These arc hu.mancnc-ss. righteousness. ritual propril!ty. wisdom. :md tmstworthines.s. Whl!n his form c.omes into being, the esternnl 1hings make tont..'lCI with his form. nnd be stirs within. When he stirs "ithin. the SC\'Cn feeli ngs emerge. These arc joy. :u1gcr, sorrow. ple-3surc. lo ve, hn.tc, :md desire. When his fcclinss become agit..1tcd nod bccontc increasingly numerous. his nature is injured. This is why one who is enlightened restrains his feelings so as to confonn to the state of equilibrium. rcclif) his m ind. ond nourish his nature. 111is is /(J inrfJOSC 1/u: naturt: upan the feeliflgs. One '''hO is stupid docs no1 know to contrc)l lthc fc ~l ingsJ and lets them rcnch the point of dcpr.-,·ity and o ne·sidednc$.5. and so fcucrs his nature :tnd loses it. 11liS Is w impose tlut .fi!eling,,· upon the notur~.

(lbid:l:U577).

Here we sec thai there is a more or less absolute conflict bctwc.cn the n:uurc and the fCi:lings: one either succeeds in o\·crcoming his feelings with his good nature. or else fnils and o.llows his feelings to tnkc o,·cr and ovcrpowcr his nature. 0 \ler time Cheng Yi's views would become more moderate. and he· would later admit that lhe nature and the feelings wcro interdependent ruthe-r tlmn mutually exclusive. but he never succeeded in formulatin& a theory 10 fully CXJ>Iain their relationship, J:uscly because his ,·ision of rc:.lity could not really :.ccount for why the emotions were ncccssru·y. One thing that Cheng Yi did insist on. ho" C\'cr. was the agency the moral subject. We, cnn sec Ibis in his theory of xhr •C.•, or the mind. According to Cheng Yi. the mind in its pcrfcc1 state of original .stillness was

or

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something like the muurc. As he c.xplains. -The mind is originally good. but " 'hen it issues forth in lhoughts. there is that which is good and lhnt \\ hich is not good. Once it h:t.s issued forth. it cnn be called qing; it cn.nnot be coiled xin .~ (lbid. :IS/ 17). As for desire. Cheng Yi discusses it in \ario us ways so as 10 distinguish it fro m the nlind. One way of defi ning the desires is in terms of its movement to .. pursue things··

IM:

A -lr' !~~Jl!•C.· ~.<... ~t·!

El: ·C·!l'I Af.:IIA!Uit;JJ.i!~k Question: '"When people pursue thiogs. is it tbc mind that

docs the pursu i n~;;'l Answer: ''Til e mind docs not go out or come in. What pursues things is desire.,. ( Ibid: 22oJ297). C heng Yi provides an even sni crcr criterion when he posits that c\·cn being stirred nnd -inclined" towo.rds tbinss is dctrimcnml 10

sclf-culti,ation: I~·Mf!.NI< 'itlik.

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In culth ating l11c ntind. nothing is better than lessening your desires. If you do not desire. then you arc not deluded. Desiring isn't necess:uily abou1 indulgence: it is j ust that there is something one is inclin ed towards." ( lbid : 1511 ~5).

In nccord;mc;e. with h is qi·lmsed thl!(wy , C hen;; Yi alro maint<Jins that the cmottons arc not derived from the outside, but arc intcrnllly-gcneratcd. In tcspons.e to the question, "How is it th:tt joy and anger. S3dncss and joy come from the outside'?" Cheng Yi ~tatc.s: They do llOI come from the o utside. They arc stimulated from the outside but issue forth from within (~J; fli.!Hk ~8 ~~$1fotili ~~ '1't!JJ (Ibid: 18il).'' For Chcns Yi, indi,ichuls possessed the means to m;~kc e th ical d ecisiorlS, :md should not place themsch·C$ :.t the mercy of things. His wos a theory of victue that stri,·cd towurds the climin:.1tion of dc,x:ndcncc on the- o utside world . ·The porticuhll' problem that the emotions posed for the c-wly Nco·Coufucinn tl1inL.cn•. then. \\3S tl1at they signaled our \'lllner~bilit~ 10 forces beyond our conerol :md undcnnincd our moral agcnc.y. .-\nd it was Zhu Xi's * .~f ( 1130-1200) philosophical ochic,·cmcnl 10 fonnulol< n theory of the human moral subject that could reconcile the iden or human ::.gcncy with emotional experience. T he mosl d irect way in which he did this was to ehuify the rclaliom;hip bcl\\ccn the nature and the fee lings, the xing and the qmg. in such a way that there was no ncccss.:1r)' opposi1ion between

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Lhc (\\0. In his scardt for a solution he can1c upon the fo rmula of Zhang

Zai:

·C.·. !iHWi 11tl!.. The mind is wh:n unites the n:nurc and the feelings. (Zhu Xi 1985: 5/15).

As Zhu Xi hintsclf would later recount this phruc crunc to him like a rc\'c:lation. since rather than conGci,,ing of the rcl3tiooship bct,,ccn the xing and t}mg m; one of opposition. it placed qmg within :t uip3rlilc

stmcturc. with tlte mind medi:uing between the two. Zhu himself realized \\hal a brc:JI.ahrough this was. for it expl;~incd how the rmturc nnd feelings were distinct :~nd r et could be joim~d together ns Jllft of a single moral identity. This me-ant that the feelings we~ ;a necc-s.so.ry component of the moral life. and not simply a J>I'Oblc:matic aspect of our lmman constitution that we had to contend with in our quest for scJf.cuhi\"ation. But the ,·crb. umg tlf.. that chnrtu::tcri:t.cd the activity the mind. also had a more specific meaning than simply to encompass or unite. II also had the more ac:ti\'c: sense of ruling. nnd referred to the mind's role as ruler of the self:

or

·C.·:t:~ .:<: :1~ ili. J~Jm: \!i':t':VJ. .ll'h~ ilf.D!H!I/)i Jll. &.5!¥11 11/Ui.fd ; * ·IlL if.,!.;W:$!11il!t.! iliG !.Il l~ {EW +1• ·Mil till tl' !;'/. :11, ~ tM ! t..) ·1tl fl'i1-5rJiIll!.. Xin is simply the n:lme we gi,·c to o ruler. In motion :u1d s1il1ncss there is always :.t ruler: iL is not thtlt it docs nol

rwr

func tion in a Slate of stillness, and that onI~· when it is in motion lhcrc is a ruler. When 1 speak of a ·ruler. I refer to ils bringing together and full~· em bod~ ing C\ crything within iLsclr. The mind unilcs and joins together lhc muurc nnd the feelings. But this docs not mean thnc it is a row. undiffcrenti:ll.cd mass togcthtr "ith tl1e nature and the feelings, \\ ith there bcins no distinction. (Zhu Xi 1983: 5/20)

So here we sec that Zhu insists on lhe moral agency of the self, achie\'cd by the ruling Md controlling function or the mind. lu fhct, ·'Without the mind:· O$ he claims elsewhere. t11e self \\Oufd ha\'C no ruler.(Zhu Xi l'J85: 1211). But if tbc mind :~ets as tbc ruler of ahc ooturc a.od f~l.i.ngs. wbat is the relationship bch,cen feelings :md ·•things- ( M'U ~ )7 Is qing still esscntiallr passhc. indie.utins 3 lc,,l!l of humtm \•ulnc.rability to the dictates Qf things. and thus s
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hannony •• "e sec th:u Zhu succeeded in fom10 l:uing an ethical theory in " 'hich the emotions were not si mp!~· ambh·alcnt. bul necessary aspects of the mor.-tl life •• o life that moy be dircc.lcd from within. but oriented to\\ords the \\Orld of things and of the larger humnn c.ommunily. One wa) in which he did this was to open up a space of meaning fOr the mind il$clf. For Zhu Xi. the mind W:l.S u space in which :~II the normotin: principles were present.(' But it was noa simply an empty \'Csscl that could cont:tin things~ it was characterized by a const:tnt movement ro"atds the \\'Orld through the acthitics of pc.recption, thought 3tld wtdcrstanding. h wo.s this. r.uhcr than things per se. tlult cndo\\ cd the spxc of the mind with a wondrous. divine qualhy. And it was through its pcrecptu:.l faculties dun the mind mediated between the self and the external world. One of the implications or this "as that the things of the world no longer rcprcscnh:d objects lhttt ntlnleted or repelled us. ttnd subj~ted u.s to their iJlJlucncc. rnstcnd. they were tl1e objects of our perception. our c.1rc. ::md our respon s i\·en~-ss. They arc whm cnsagcd our faculties and thereby made these fhcultics come alh·c. The goal of sclf-cuhi\'ation was thus about being able to respond properly to the things and circums1anccs around us -~ something th:u depended on our capodty to have f~ l ings as well. A tmly cuJth·t~tcd p-erson wn.s not one who escaped in the world and meditated in silence. but one \\ho could still possess an underlying calmness while uctivcly engaged with the people and lhings thai made up his world, T hus. Zhu defined 1hc \·iftuc of '1ri!!,htncss.- or yi ~-as "Being uble to respond when things arri,·c, and bcinc nble to make decisions when situations 3fisc." (Zhu Xi 1985: 12/28). He also cmplwized thnt tbc true st3tc of calmness •· tling li! •· was one thai did not exclude activity and motion. but· th.at was c:-tpoblc of coc:omp:assins these both these st:ucs. These ideas could be seen in Zhu's ancmpt to articulate the relationship among lhc nnture , the mind, and the feelings in his "Frrsrteuer

(. :\:; Zhu ..:.~pl ainuJ ·•E,'I..'rythin~ Jl():)S~&'i4.~ ~t mint! :md th~ ~p:u;-.: \\ ithin thl:; mmd mm;t be empty This '" like 3 dish ~o.'llmt:~ imng ch1ckcn he1ns or t>is hca.rH. O!lC¢ you cut into 11 you can K-c thcrn. "I he human h~-an is :abo hkc this. But this empty plucc still cucumpa."'-Ses .:md store:> the numy morul pnnciplcs lh:u fill Jh.:~m.;n tliXI Earth 41.nJ 1.'tnbr~.;c past ~ml pr~:~cnl. 13Mcnding this cwn rurthcr. nothing in the world - be it m J-1(.":1\'\..'fl (If flU 1-:..u th - d<X-"-' not come from this Tlus rs tbl! m,u·vc!ous thing known as the human mind! Th~~ t:rin<:tplc.'i that reside in the mind :m: c:lllod 'the nature.· The n !l1\ll'C is like the minJ· ~ ftcld: it lill:s it~ :-.-p:tcc. wu) then: i_s nothiog. bul thc~c priociplcs within it. l 1tc min\! is th..: llwdling JJf{tCc of th~ d<Mnonic iru cll i~l!ll CC, and cunSlilutcs th~ mlc.T over the cnttrc self. The nature IS then the m~nr m(lrnl pnnciplcs; t h t~ tlrc J'lXtived from 11('{1\'(.'tl and ftrlly cuntain(.-d in the mind. Wh<., l they issue forth in the 1\:ahn of wisdom. l.:nowkd~c, rcco1lccllon and conlcmpl:tlion. tl1t:y arc ~11 fc.'\:liut!~ Thcrcr(lrc. I ZI~;u1g 7.aiJ said. ·'111.: mind unih.:s lhc nalurc :-uxl 1hc ti:
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to the gentlemen of Hunan concerning ':Jrmrg' and '/rt .,. (!li! iU! rf.j~r.·i~ ·;~'~' ;fll !:£1 - i!J). Here he critiques Cheng Vi's understanding of the central p:tssagc of the Zhongyong which elaborates the meaning ofwe~{n ~ {~ and yifa B {} --the states before nnd after the arousal of dJc feelings: TI1c state before joy and anger. sadncs.s nnd happiness. have been orouscd is called ·:!long ( 1~_Jr . and when they h..we been aroused and all hil their proper measure. it is called 'I>< ('.II)'. rt .~ :ml!::t.:li ~;;ri;t 'I' . f:l ifii tii•l··11il'o:'o1 ::i:..fll. 'I• l!! ~ .

7i: I';:t;J;:;t;ill. .fill!!. 'fo':K F;t;:fil! 1!!. According to Chcny Yi. the mind represented J ~/(_, the state al\cr the arousal of the fee lings •• while the ll3ture represented we(/0 •• the state before their arousal. Zhu Xi rejected this reading. hO\\C\ cr. For one lhing. it equmed the mind "hh the feel ings and thu.t; fa iled to recognize that the (ccling:s did not simply arise liom within. but :uosc in respOnse to our cneoun1e1' with things. Such a vic"' suggested that it " 'as possible to understand the fc!elings by obscrYing the mind itself •• an ::telh·ity Zhu considered to be quite absurd. 7 It \\'a s only while engaging in the \\Ofld of things that we could both understand the feelings and experience the opcrnlion of the mind. Anolhcr problem with Cheng Yi's t'Co:.diug wos thnt it defined the t,tOOI of scl f~uhi,'ati on as returning to one's original nature. something Zhu did no1 cH:n think was possible. As he declared. "The state before the feelings nrc 01rouscd cannot be sought."' for Zlm Xi. the truly cultivated indh idu31 wns one who was enp.1blc or babncing :~nd ntedio1ting inner rmd outer realitie-s. Only by ::tc hic,~ing -underst:lnding in the C-Ontext of our intcrnetion with Lhc world of things could \\C hope to rcnli1..c our moral potcntinl: " As to self·cx:~min:uion \\hen 1hinss occur and seeking undcrs1anding throug.h inference "hen we come into cont:lct with things, Ibis must nlso serve as the foundntion." 1l1is openness to things did not mean that \\C would lose our sense of rultonomy: since it did not compromise the csscnti:tl \i rtuc the mind to net ns master not only of the S(:)f but also over the things we encountered. u

or

As Zhu insists:

1< ·l~' :r,·A::tffr l;l. ' '" :;'·!l./!i Ill. ·1'i::t: =mlli. 1..1.,,1ia~; ~yii:-r.· IJl 6ir1!11iu':.Ff.1/~'i~ ·r.l!!. i/( 1;/. •t:.'/8!~. li'Hn::i:. PI[ lfJ. ' l hu work:> out h1s rcnsooing 1.n his " Discourse. on o~rvmg lhc mind" (Gmm xln shtw l l1·C.·fiQ). in ZJm )(j 2000 6? /3389.

J./6

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TI1c mind is that by ''hk h man rules himself. It is one. not two: it is :.1 subject. not an objccl: and it commands things. rothcr thnn king commanded by things, Therefo re: if the mind obscn'cs things. the principle of things will be auained. (Zhu Xi 2000: 6713389) But our minds cndow..:d us ' "ith mor<1l agency in yet nnolhcr

wa~·.

As Zlm c laboroucd in the opening PMS3gc of his ··oisooursc on

hwna.ncncss.. ~- the /((•n Slmo i=ffi -- the mind was a force of crcotion: "Hcavcn and Earth takes its production of things as its mind. and in the production of humans and things. Ct);h rcc~i,·cs the mind of Hca,·c n and Earth as its own mind.'" (Zhu Xi 2000: 6713391). By 'irtuc of its original endO\\'mc-nt of rt•n -- the \'irluc of hum:mencss -- the mind p.1r1icip.11ed in the c~·dc of production and crcat.i\-c trMsformation (.lheng ~) that that was constantly at worL: in the cosmos:

;x;, r: :tt..\iil. m<Jil! Lf'ln:t ·CA~~J>Jiii:ff.. til<:. ~'~liliidt naElJ l. tlizttH:!Iti JmFFr.1. .vm. fi Ii .<:. 4'. .>FME !~

a<~t~itll.1iu

ffz. li'J;lt,!t-

Now. ns for humaneness constituting the Wa}·. it is the mind of Hea,cn and Earth to produce things being present in ::sll things. Before the feelings h :~,·c issued forth. this substnncc is already complete: ;~flcr the fcclinJ;S have issued forth. its opcrmions arc inc:dt.1ustiblc. If we arc i ndeed able to embody and preserve it. then the origin of oil goudneu and the root of all action would alwa,ys be present (Zhu Xi 1000: 6713391 ).

Here Zhu brings up a distinction that is crucial for his moral thought. that of substance n . function. This distinction was the basis of Zhu's cl:tim thnl qing was inseparable from t11~ realm of xin;: ~- that it rcpr-.:-scntcd another aspccl of xin;: - and it was also the bJsis of his interpretation of rm. Zhu ·s :u gument was ehat the substance of n:n, like the moral nature, wus inherent within :~ II hum;m beings. ::and that their moral task Wi:IS to 4111ow this n:.n to function in the \\Orld, Thus. rather th;;m retuming to an original state of perfect goodness. we should stri\·c towards the praetic3l relllization of this rt.•n through our feelings of lo,·c ::md C3ring. and tJuough the fostering ofhum311 nourislling. for Zhu Xi. then. to be open 10 emotions did not mean that one was subject to the dctcmlinations of the c:-\tcmn.l world. It was, in fact. :m imponant part of what i1 mcruu to be n moral subject. since the \CI)' reali:t.:Uion of our moral muure depended on its operation m a discernible lcYd - in other words. at the lcYd of its cmotiontll m3nifcstntion. fvlorco,·e r. the hum3n potential for ;:oodncss could onl~· be trul)· realized when \\ t: \\ere in aCii\'e cng:1gcmcnt wi th the world and with ahc larger human

/ .(JCt1l lfl$ the

.\ (rmri.'W!i

/J7

conununily. Such nn engageme nt expanded. mtbcr than compromised. our pcmcr of moral :igCncy. In conlr:tsllo his Nco..Confm;ian predecessors. then.

Zbu Xi s.-aw no inherent contF.I.diction between emotion:~! experience nnd tl1e- moral life. between openness to the norld of tl1ings tmd the task of shapins o urO\\'n dcs1iny. In this \\'ay, Zhu Xi's \'ision succeeded in shO\\'ing

that our emotions, fnr from confin i_ng u.s, could toke us beyond the borders of our own ~I\'C·S into a wo1ld that \\ liS col1cren1 a nd fi lled with mcilni n ~;.

REfERENCES Cheng Vi f.~!!Ji. Yi.,·lm i"!l~l} in J:.'rc/Jt'ng .II -'. .f',!U.L Beij ing;

Zhon£hua shuju. 20
GLOSSARY Cheng Yi U~ft ding <' •

·~

doug j}J he

01

j ing f:1 li £11 uJi ~nc

qi :lll qing 'IIi

rcn f • Rcn Shuo shcn i·~

shcng '-1~

xin ·L·. xing ·tl; tong !ft.

r-···t -liJ .

Curi~

1-18

J(r(ig

Tong Slm iill ill wcif3 *~ fY1ying ZhenJJJ'i 3.it,~ 1f;Jq \\U

~

yi :t'.ia yifi1 e~t } 'U

Iii\

Yucji ~fie Zhang Zai

'JI
Zhou Ounyi Zhu Xi .*:l'~

(r.j:;:t~ii

Chapter VIII

Is Wang Yangming's Notion of Inn ate Moral Knowledge (Liangzhi) Tenable? Jhng 1/utmg

I NTRODUCTION In this a.nicle. I shall cx.:uninc one aspect or Wan~ Ynngming"s idea of litmgzltl. There is no doubt thm /iongzlu is the singular most

impon3nt idea in W::mg' s mature philosophy. He himself c laims th:.t .. since Longchang rlhc tuming point of his philosophy!. my idea has JlC\Cf diYCT1cd from these two words liang z.hi" (Wang: 11 33: references to Wanu hereafter in this :tnidc wilt be indicalcd with page numbers only). He oficn compares his cnlightcnnl(:nt to li<mg:hi \\ ith Ch eng Hao·s to fianli

(hea\'cnly princ iple) (46 1). Cheng cbims that, ''hilc h~ has le:~ rncd a lot from carliel' Confucians, the h\O words titm Ji nrc from his 0\\'0. inner cxpcricnc.c (Cheng & Cheng; 425), Won:; mal;cs a similar cl;~im about his liangzhl. Of course. just as Cheng docs not mean that h~ is tlte rirst to usc the two words tfonU. nor docs Wang me:m that he is the im·cntor of the idea of liangzhi, Aficr oil. it is Mcncius who says tho.t ·'\\ hat a person can do without lc:1ming is litmgmwg !innate moral ability I. while what a person knows witbout thinking is liang=lri, Tbcrc arc no d1.ildrcn who do not know lo\'ing their pnrc;nts. and, \\hen CJO\\ing up. respecting their elder brothers~ (!vlencius 1a l S). W:mg himself clc:trly acknowk"ttgcs his debts to Mencius when hi! St::ltes lh.:tt "Jlang=hi is wh.:tt f\,len ei u..~ regards as hC':'lrt/mind that C\'eryonc has to make distinction bct\\eCn riuht nnd \\TOll&. T11is hc;~,rt/m i nd or dislinguishing between right and wrong is C:'llled liangzhl. be.c:tusc one knows il \\ ithout thinking and is able to practice it without IC3tning" (1063). HowC\'Cr. Wang has a unique unllcrsmnding of lifmgzlri :md regards it ns representing 1he most salient fcnturcs of Confucianism. In tile following. I shall first examine Wn.ng's idea of liangzht as moral knowledge Uu~te in C\'el)·onc. in C·Ontmst to non-moral k11owlcdge Lhat one lms to lcnm: then I shall :maly'l'c \V:mg's \'icw of dis1inc.tion between sages and common people despite the 13ct th.at moral knowledge is i.n.natc in botb~ fi.nally I shall explore the issue of the credibility or WilnJt·s c-onception of moral kt)()\Yiedse as innate. from :t Cl)ntempor::u:r philosophicol point of\ iew. MORAL KNOWLEDGE (l.Jti,W;Zf/T) AS DrFFERENT FROM C OMMON KNOWLEDGE (ZHISHI)

LhmJ;!zhilitcrnr> means the good or moral (liang) knowledge (zhi). This is particularly cle.1r \\ hen Wang m.:~kes the analOg.) between Jiang :md

/50

rrmg 1/nrmg

both meaning ·"good." in the fo llowing claim: ··because no IHumm's nature is not good (slum). so no one's knowlcdyc is not mor-~1 (liang)" (65). Of course. this word lumg :~~lso has the meaning of Rinnntc•· in the sense thut Mcncius uses it. '' hich is also accepted by Wang when he says thnt the slum.

henrlfmind or tiglu and wrong is enlied lumgt hl because it is something one 1 knows without th inking :md is .able to pr~cticc without lcaming. these two meanings o f ll1e word liw1g can help us ha\'c a bcucr undctst.omding o f linngzlli. On the one hand, Jrangzht is inn:ue in the hcan/mind, the great bod)·· of C\'Cryonc. " 'hctl\cr o sage or a stupid man or ' ''oman (yuf u yt(fu) (52). ln Wang's \'it\\. ··t..nowlcdgc is in the original state (bent1) l)f the heart/mind. The hcan/mind naturally has lo..11owlcdgc: h naturally knows fili:U piety when fnthcr is seen. brotherly love when elder brother is met and commiscnnion when an infant is seen about 10 fall into a \\Cll. Therefore. one should not seck lltmgzhi from 1hc outside.. (S). On t_hc o1hcr h!lnd, bccttuM: it is only moml knowled£.C. the koo\\ lcdge necessary fOr n person to bec-ome o morul person. Wm1t: m<~kes it c lear th~t no one. including the s:.gc, is omniscient: that nothing is beyond sages· kno\\Jcdgc mcruls that they know CVCJ!'thing about the heannly principle (tumlt): that noching is beyond sages' abilities means trot they am do ever~ thing according to the hcan:n l~· principle. Because s:tgc!' l"llOW this limdamcntal (htmll) , they l.:now the hca\'cnly principle of C\'crythi.ng and thcn:forc can carry this J)fim;iplc to its full. HowC\"Cr. it is not the case thnt. "ith the Lnowlcdgc of hc:wcnly principle, s3gcs know and can do C\'crylhing under hca\'cn. Things under bc~\'Cn, such as names. ,·:uictics. and systems. as well ;,s &>lants and animals, arc innumerable. Thus. altltough sages arc clea.rb' aware

or the fundamental

how c:ut they know

everything'> YeL if 1hcrc i$ no need to L:now something, sages will not bother 10 know il: and ir 1hcrc is something to be known, s:~gcs com ccrtninly ~sk people about it For c.xami)IC. ·'when Confucius entered the grand temple. he asked c,·cry•thing" IAnalecu 3.151. A prc\"iOUS intc:rprcution of it s:1ys that - the fact th<Jt ConftK.: ius as-k~ the qucs tiotl to ''hich he already has the ans \\cr shows how serious and careful he is.'" TI1is intcrprct.alion is uninlclligiblc. (101· 102)

So clearly. for W:mg. in nddition to Jumg:lu. the morall..'nowlcdge, innate in c,·cryonc's heart/mind. thc:rc is otltcr zhi. knO\\lcdgc. not innate in 1 Tnns Jwtyi (Chun-1} MJ;UI.'S that, ctymo1Qgicn11y. the primury meaning t>f hang ts ··orig.i1wl." with ''gCJod'' tlnly t'l$ i 1~ llcrh'ali\'C mcanin ~ (Tun ~ 1970: 10 1) In Wang, how.;:\"cr. th'-". :;c two mC<Jning$ :n-c ~c lease cqn;~tly 1mportan1

151

nnyonc's heart/mind. \Vhcn l1c says that no knowledge is not good

(lflw~) .

llc refers to the moral knowledge innate in our bean/mind only. The non·morol (though not necessarily immorn1) knowledge is not wh:~.t we nrc born with and hns to be lctrn nnd wh::u sages do not need to learn is \\ hcthcr such knowledge- is uc:ccssar) for moral knowlcd~·c to func tiun. Thus. wh~-n asked "hcthcr moral knowledge of filial piety is enough :tnd \\hcthcr ~\'C should also search for kno\\•lcdgc about how to get " 'arm in the

winter and how to get cool in the sununcr in se.r'\•ing p:trents. Wang st:!tcs: Why should we not search for such knowledge'! We only need to knot\ \\hat is cssemial (tmtmw). We only need to se3r<.:h for such lmowlcdge by sening rid of selfish h uman desifts and prcsenins the hc3,·cnly prineiple. For cx.1mple.

to search '' a)S to pnwidc wannth (to pmcntsl io the winter. we need 10 apply our heart/mind of filittl piety to the u tmost in case there is a sligiH sd(ISb dcsiro mixed in: to search wa)'S 10 pro\ ide coolness [to parents! in tl1e summer. we need also to apply our hc:nt!mind of f1lial piety 10 the uuu ost in

e~sc

tbcrc is a slight selfish desire

mixed in. We only need to obtain this heart/mind. If our he-art/mind is free from selfish desires, is in complclc a.ccord with the hc:n-cnly principle, nnd is sincere i.n serv in~ our parents. then. in the winter. \\C "ill n:lturnlly be- concerned about o ur parents being cold tmd nnturall)1

uy to find wnys to pro,·idc warmtlt: in the summer, we ''ill n:uumllr be concerned \\ ith our J>arents being hot and natur:llly uy to finds ways to keep them cool. Tiley ar~ detailed expressions of our sincere filial hc:utlmind. Only if there is sud13 sincere and lilial hcanimind can there be such dct:.lilcd expressions. As in a ucc. the sincere fil ial hcn.rclmind is the root with m.nnr dctaikd cspn::s.sions ns ilS branches and lc-:ncs. There mus.t first be rooc and onl)' later can there be br:mchcs :1nd k-:we:s. h is not right lO look Rlr br;u:u.:hcs and leaves first and only then ro pl;mL the root. (4·5)

:z f~•ilurc

to u.:ali~i.! thi::; di::;tim~tion bclwu.:n lhc inn:1te mor~l 1\nQwkxl~~ non.mol.ll knO\\Icdgc kads Fang Kch 10 clmm lhat Wang OOillt(ld!Cb himS(:tf. ~·ft<.,· uu:.sa:iug (111 the im\at.:.·n(:;(S of l::nowlt:.-dse. by sayi•lg lhnt -only after la~1mt; it con one- !.:non whether a food is t;ood or not" untl and

a c ~1 u •n:d

·•only oftcr tnwdin~ t'll il l)m unl;! kntJw whether u m:KI is rough .,,r t\!Jh)Olh .. (4-ll) (fong: 206)

rrmg 1/nrmg

/52

ln this example of filial pict~·. Wang cmphnsi7..CS the importance of moral L:nowlcdgc. by \\hich we know not only lhat \\C should sene out parents but nlso 1hat we should look for ways to bcucr serve o ut parents. This knowledge is imullc in us. HO\\C\'cr. the acl\lal knowledge 01\J.out ways

to beucr SCI'\'~ our parents, for cx:un1lle, wn)'S to keep our' parents wann in the winter and cool in the summer. is not inn:atc in us. It is something we h;wc to lcam. Wh..:n he uses the term "'naturally .. in the above passage. he

docs not mc.an that our i nnat~ moral kno,, Jcdgc will naturally lead to such non·moml knowledge; it n.lthcr mc.llnS thot auf innate moral knowledge will

naturally urge us to search for such knowledge. In this sense. r think Moo Zongs:m is right when he says th...1t, for Wang. "Ihe moral knowledge of the

herl\'cnly principle dctem1incs one to serve parents and at the same time to know parents.. (Mou: 178). as it is lmpossible to ser\'c parents \\ il.hout knowing ptlrents (their desin:s. ide:ss, preferences. etc.) 3nd other related thing.~. T:lllg, Junyi sees a closer rdtltionship between mn:lle mor31

knO\\Iedsc and ucquircd non·morul knowledge ''hen he comJ>:trcs the inn:uc moral knowledge as :l (;ube, with the llOIHnoral knowledge necessary for the innate moral J,·nowlcdge to function as one of its faces (fang: 1993: 361). In his \'iew. such non-moml knowledge is not only needed for the moral knowledge to function in the abo\·c sense, it is 31so necessary to make a judgment when one's mornl knowlc.dgc issues two conflicting comrnands. For example. by the innate kno'' ledge. we know we should bi: bolh Jili:d aownrd parcnls and loyal to 1hc ruler, When lhc~:e two arc in conJlict ond con.not be fu lfilkd at the some lime. we also need to hOl\'C the non-mor.~l knowledge 10 mitkC a beltcr decision (sec Tang J993: 365). 3 So. in contrast 10 1hc- ,~iC\\' 1hnt Wang ignore~ or do\\ nplays non·moml knowled¥.c. ~ W3ng recognizes the importance of such knowledge (or moral knowledge. The only con1plaint that one can l Cht-'11£. Chnng-ying also pomts out thai ..sc.-.rchmg for knowledge and lmowlcdge f1.'Sul tm~ from thi~ scwdt must o.lwuys l)¢ ulstrumentat fOI' the ~rr~,rmuncc or nn actton or u type of nd ion which i:s cllnrtl.(.,1Cii:stic a:s \'i1 1uous" (Chcu~ · 40G). P. J, Ivanhoe. l1owcwr. h!ls a diffcrcnl 1111\krst:lllUing In t1 cc)mmcnt cm a prcdotLS ,·c~ton "f lh1s essay. he states. ··w::mg i~ expressing SIOmetbing h~c the dtll'cnmcc bt..'l\\\~ n a fa ...·ulty oc· $11.'1lS1bdit~· Md i1s cxpi'Cision. So \•ision dc.1cs nnl include all the things we mi£-hl $CC in the world. but d cur vision will rc\'..:.&tl :,ueh tl1i11t!-S in the course of C."iJXTit:IJ~.:oC, This iti "by I 1mn..;h•tc litmg:lti us ·pure knowmg,· It is ;m :lcli\'C f>lCUI1y that is free from inlJ)UrihC..'- and hence I'CW;;lls what one should 1h"~ many spcc. tic c:lSc" ( ]Jti\'01C

001UJI1UUI('(l110ll)
Fur c~umpk, Mens Pt.:iyu:ll.l suy::_.: tlwt \Vu1.1g':; pbii<J:iVphy smacks o f

"~>hsc.:un•_m i s•n.

He rc.:j<-x:ls knuwh.xlgc. of l i tt.~r:t l urc :.tt' well as sctcuc..:: and technology·· (Mcng: 315) Chen t.m has a s.innlar comphunt: 1f such thmgs as "polittcnl t'llllals. sociol insh1utions. lk:ltJ'(luomy m:>d C~LkJid:~t·. (lnd l'l:hgious sacrifice"' :arc ·'all con.sidcrod as the n.:~.turcl discovery.'' tltcn we-will be un.:.h1c

to maintain lhc aiSi.'l< 44-·4.S)

uniH.:r~;dily

nnd I.X'utinuit)' l.>f $l1Cb muller:..: (Chen; 29-:l(},

~c

/53

legitimately lodge. as Lao Siguang actually docs. is that \Vang tells us tbat llOn·mor.:d knowledge slloulrl not be sought aOcr if it is not useful for moral knowledge nnd therefore docs not have nn independent role (l:1o: 39?). As ''C can S« from the abo,·c JXISSJ.gc. it is true that Wang docs not reserve nny independent role for non-morall:no,,lcdge. He rcpcntcdly emphasizes that we should only search for such kn owledge when it is necessary for the moral knowledge 10 function and that we should seck s.u ch knowled ge only under the guidance of moral knowledge. Howcwr, if we rcncct upon this

m:mcr, n'c rcalil'..c that nil the non-morol knowledge thnt nc normnlly think

''c should pursue today. includin~ the sciences. medicine. ans. history. and litcmturc. is ncccss.ary for the moral knowl-edge to function better. So W:mg rcolly docs not exclude from his scope anything that we arc actually pursuing today. The o nly thing that he wams to cmphasit;C. which sct:ms to me correct Md impor1.:1nt. is thAt o ur sc:.rch for such knowledge should be b'llidcd by our mor.:~.l knowledge so that we co.n ensure th!lt such non·mOr31 kno'' led sc \ \ ill not be put to inunoml usc. Otherwise. people- '' ith such knowledge may do more hnnnfulthinss than 1l1osc who do not h:l\c it For this reason. Wang complnins : the later sencmtions d o no t understand th31 the most

1Undnmcnta1 in adtic\'ing sngchood is to be in complete accord with the heavenly principle. Instead they seek s:tgchood through l.thc non·mOr.ll.l kno" ·lcdgc :md abil iaics. They thought tbat. si.ncc sngcs know :til and 3rc ;able to do nil. the~· h:.vc to firs1 undcrsumd sages' such f!bilitics to know nod do thinss. Thus they do not direct their cffl)tts toward the hca\'cnly principle. but cxen their encrg.,·. i.u \'ilin. 10 scrutini1.c books. c~aminc the names and ' 'nrtctics of things, and trace and imitate what is done lby sag~sj. lltc result is that t.bc more knowledge acquired. d1e more selfish desires accumulated: the higher their abilitie-s. the more obscured the hcm ·c nly principle. (2~J) In Wang's \ iC\\. sages ha,·e both the innate mornl l.:nowlc
rrmg 1/nrmg

/5-I

quarrels. and rich toclmiqucs of Oowcl) composition can only assist ll1cut 10

co,·er up their artificiality" (~9).~

Bccnusc wh.11 people arc born with is moral knowledge, people with such lnO\\ ledge. of course knO\\ how to act morally in a gi\'cn sirumion. HO\\C\'e r, hO\\' 1hc~ will acwall) net dependS" upon " 'leu kind of actual situ;~tion they arc in, which th ~· cnn only know through cxpcricnc:-c (se-c Tang 1990: 339·340). For this reason. Wang 's inn:uc-moral knowh.-dgc is not foreknowledge. People! "ith such knowledge cannot predict what acrual tlctions they n ill perform. although thC) kno" tllat they ''ill pctform moral actions. ·nms. when asl.cd wl1cthcr being a bso lute.!~· sincere can bring out forcl.:-nowlcdgc. Wang replies:

Sinccrit> is a rc:tl principle. h is nothing but the innate moral knowledge. When it acts \\ Onde-rfully in 1he world, we rcgru-d it n.t; divine Vhtm). .. . S3gcs do not value foreknowledge. TI1cy cannot ll\ oid cJhunitics and happiness when they come. They only know the beginning of things :md nrc good ot handling them situationaUy. t>.foral knowledge is neither foreknow ledge nor rctrospccth·c knowledge. It is knowledge about wh:n is goins on. (I H) THE ORIG IN Ot'THt: DISTINCTION llETWE!:N SAGES AND COMMON PEOPLE We h:wc- seen that \Vlng gets his idc-3 of the inn:uc moral knowled~e.

/iang:hi. from Mcncius. who tolks 3bout /iangncng, inn3tc moral <"~b il i ty, in addition to lumgzhl. We may ahcreforc- \\onder why IJangmmg docs not become a central idea in Wang. The ansncr is pcrtl:.ps that for Wang. people who have the innate moral knowledge will necessarily be able to act In his \'icw. to hm'c morallmowlcdgc and yet be unable to acl m or:~lly is a sclf'"(;ontrndiction. ror knowledge and :action arc one :md the s:;tme thing: -:.s long :;~s knowledge is mentioned. Jclion is already there. and ns long ns action is mentioned. knO\\ ledge: is already there·• (S). If Lhi!> is the ensc, howc\·cr. a nc'' question arises: since according to Wang. cYcryonc is born wilh moral kuowlcdgc. 3nd t\'cryonc who h.ls this moral knowledge will act morally. Ihen '' hy arc there momlly

3 lhu:;. '' b'-"ll compariog the ::;cicntiJic kJlO\\ k-dgc stn:.:s~ iJl the Wc.')tl"l1l lradition m1d mond kfl(_l\\ J,:dgc .;;mph:tsi;AXJ in lhc Cnnl'uci:m trJditi<m. in his

d1scossion of Wang Y:.ngmmg and Zhn Xi's notlnn {If knowledge of/;:~ s ,·lnue ((/exi,g :IIi :Itt) in <Xlntrast to kuowlcdgc ofhe:.ring imd S('("1JI~ {v'('fljicm :hi : lu). T ang Junyi point$ out, ..wilhoul knowlcdsc-uf/o:; \irtuc a.s the master. to<.by's ~ci~.:~uific knt,wh:dgc and tc;chnoll)gy m:1y ~~~J b;.:: liSOO l(_l kill JlC(.ll>lc insh;ad '.II' pcrfccling hum:m hfc.. (T:1ng 1991· .l;(;)

/55

bad people'! In other ''ords. what is the source of immorality? To this. Wang's answer is;

The innate moral knowledge is tfno. T11c moml knO\\ ledge is innmc in human heart/mind. This is true not only of S3gcs and worthy people but nlso of common people. If there ;uc. no material desire~ to obt;eurc the innate ~nornl lmowlcdgc. which is followed and len to function in its " .tl)', then c'crything will be inoccord '' ith . Ho\\•cvcr, common people :ue often obscured h) Jnatcrial des ire~ and therefore cannot fo llow the innate moral

knowlcd~ .

(71)

In Wang's vic''· \\hilc moral knowledge is indeed innate in c,·etyone. it e:m be OblOcurcd by selfish desires. just as the bright sun rna) be bloc.l.;cd by clouds,-:; and 11 shining mirror m!ly be co,·crl!d b~· dLL~t. 1 lbu~. it is important for common people to remo,·c such mntcrinl desires to regain the lost sight of their inn:ue moral knowledge (:hi llangzlu). Thus zhl finng;:lti bocotncs :1 key in WMg's philosophy. As a matter of fact. be even claims th:u. ··teaching studcn1s to learn throughout my life, 1 ha\'C only these three words: zhi hnng zhi'" (5,.3). However. 1 shall lcaYe this importmlt topic of zM Unng;hi for a difTcrcnt OC·C:tsion. In this section. I sJ1all instead explore a diiTcrcm but cqu:tlly importrmt question; where do such malcri;d desires. which obscure ~op l c ·s in1~ tc morul L:.nowlcdgc. come from'/ While m.any scholars think tbnL Wang fails to provide an adcqmllc answer to this question (sec 1-iou: 215 & 224. Ni' ison: 224. Chen: 81, and Cheng: 41!~). P. J. Ivanhoe •rsucs tltal Wang accepts the ,·icw thnt "qi wnurally oocuts in \'arying degrees of ·coarseness· or ' turbidity' aud Lh:u the qu:tli1) of ll1c qi. whic.h different

p:!Oplc rccch·c at bi11h. varies" (h·nnhoc: 82). He lhnhcr argues that "most nco~Confu cim1s bdicnd that qi ncccss..'lfily 'darkens aud obsc-ures' one's pure Md perfect innate moral nature and that bcctluse qi occurs in varinus degrees of 'coorscncss' and ' turbidity." difl'ercnt people arc 'obstnJctcd' to va~· ing degrees JS a mntlcr of princ;iplc'' ( ibid.). Based on this interpretation. Ivanhoe obscn·cs that. in W:lnJ.;'S \icw. "a gi,1cn indi,iduars goodness or wid:cdness -- ~( ICY.l.st at birth -- is n wholly contingent matter" (Ivanhoe: 87). For h·anhoc, this -pn;scnts problems for Wang ·s clnim that everyone can become Yao or Shun and raises serious questions about how much of the tad: of moral self cuhh'ation is truly within :to indi,·idual's power to c.onlf'Ol'" (I\ auhoc: 82).

t. "The J.:now~dgc of the sage is hkc tllc sun in a clear day. the l:nowlcdt=:c of th<.·. WOI'thy is hk(: the :imn in a d::.y with a few movu\~ clt)Uds. while the know1cdsc-of the stupid people is hkc the sun m a cllludy Way" ( 11S). 1 "The ~g\!·s ht;mt/miJtd js lil:c a .sbiuing mimtr wilhout ~mr du:;t ...

while :1 cotnmt)n person· s }l(..-~rtlm ind is hke a mirror wil.h Illyen; o r dust'' ( 386)

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h is true thai Wnng follO\\S the neo.Confuciw1 tmdition to appeal to qt to explain the problem evil. Howc,·cr. my o bser,·ation is lhat Wang's theory is much more complicated. Wang docs :Jttributc c:vil to coarseness nod turbidness of qi. For example. he says lhnt

or

the innalc- moral knowlcdb"C is o riginolly transpare-nt. Tl1use " hose physical 'I' (tJizlu) is not excellent arc not

easily enlightened to it b('causc of the large amount of dregs and heavy layers of obscuration. Those "hose physical qi is exc-ellent ha'c few dregs and little obscuration. Thus. with a liulc effort to regain the innate

moral knowledge. this i.tutotc moral knowledge bccontcs unnsparcmto them. (70) In ru1olhcr place, he lliS.O says lh:Jt lhc physical 91 (qlzlll) is w hat both houses and obscures

the human n:uurc (xing). TilC physical qi \'aries and the human nature follows. Human n:'llurc is like a ball. Jt is bright when fa11ing into 3 dear pool. becomes blurred when falling into turbid water. and becomes lihhy if falling into filthy \Htlcr. The wise people abo,·e arc in tl1c clear pool. common people arc in the turbid w:uer. :md stupid people below arc i.n the fih hy water. ( I035-1036)

In s·uch pas:s:.ges, Wang seems to S.1}' that different people ar~ cndO\\Cd with di.tTcrcnt qt. which dctcm1i.nc \\hcthcr they arc oblc to sec their i_lli\<\IC moral knowlcdb't! dc:ul)' or no«. nnd \\'llcther they will be moral or immoral persons. They seem to conlinn wh::u h ·anhoc s:.ys. Howc\·er. iu some other jnlSSAges. we find \Vang sa.ying that all hum:ms arc endowed with the same pm-c fJi as their distinguishing mark. in contrast to the turbid q1 received by anima ls. Such pure qi. in Wang's view, is identicotlto humtm n;aturc. In n poem. Wnng expressed this idea: ..hum;~n beings and other beings both lla\C: their endowments. Their printil'lc (/J) is the same bul thcir qi arc different. To S!ly thm their tf l arc diiTcrcnt does. not mean that they urc two different kinds of qi. There is only the diflCrcnce between JlUCity and turbidness.. (I I03). From here. we can sec tll<\t the iJI tbat all human beings arc endowed with is pure qi. He docs not mention that diffe rent people ore endowed "ith qi of di.fiCrcnt degrees of purity {people may be cndO\\cd \\ ith different amounts of such pure <Ji but this will only rcsuh in the difference in their in1cllectual. :utisdc. techn.ical. physical. :md other non·moral abilities but not in their moral qunlilics).$ Only bcxJusc of ~ h·nnhoc dis:~srccs with me on I his intcrpn:tation.

In his view. -wlul he is llmt the cndmnnctll vf human$ is more pure :and the cntl(l\\llltnl of ()!her nnimats ts mol\: hnbid The turb1d1ly of the l:tlh:r prevents

(Want_:l is

:..:~yin g

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Lhis can Wang claim th:n qi is compatible" ith humnn n:nurc \\hich is good. since "the good human muun: can only be socn rrom tft . Without t}l . good htun:m nnturc canno1 be seen. f eelings of commiscrnrion. shame :md dislike. deference ::md compliance. Dod right nnd \HOng arc all ttf' : commencing on the Cheng Brot her~· famous stntemcnt duu " lo talk about human nature without talking ;about qi is not comp lete, and to t:~ lk about tJi without mlking

about hun1;:m nature is not illuminJtin::· Wang makes a more r.Wical c.lilim:

.. human nature is

(jl,

and (l i is human nature. Originally there is no

distinction bch\'CCn llum:ltl n:1rurc tuld t)r (63-4). Obviously, Wang cannot make such an identification bct\\CCn bwn::m nature and qj if human ql has certain degree of coarseness and turt>idiry, as Ivanhoe argues If so. how docs \V:mg explain the origin of e\·il in terms of qi'! Chen L..'li. for exnmple. nrgucs that such a conception of <Ji can only c:...:plain tl1c manifcsuuion of the th3t arc not gond,·· which four beginnings, but ''t_hcrc arc :.Jso vnrious W:tng docs not M.tll~·-ze. Thus. Chen thinks th3t WMg·s conception of hcnn!mind with mori'll knowlcd~;c as its fundamental excludes the possibilily of the arising of selfish desires and thtlS C011cludcs th:u W3nc·s explanation of the problem ofc,·iJ is lUlsatisfo.ctOI";\ (Chen: 90). It is possible 1hat Wang indeed docs not lta\'C a satisfactOI'Y explanation of the cril. HoWC\'er. instead or ghing up on this issue too quickly. I would like to present an C:\"J)Crimcntal interpretation. My hmtch is that Wang talks about two kinds of qi in relation to human beings. One is the tfi constiluti\'c of hum:m beings, \\hich makC$ at possible fo r human bciJlgs to appc~r o.s ~ings witb shape (p:m xing). All hum;m beings art: endowed with this same CJi thnt makes human beings different from animals tlnd other beings. \Vans app:ucntlr rcfcts to this tJi "hen he claims thal human qi is idcnlieal to hwno.n nalUrc. \Ve may enll qi i.n this sense the host

'I'

lhclll from ~..:ltmJ; !I .;,limps..: of ull the li :ls humans ~au . This JlTC\ 'Cills annnnls in pnnciplc from undcrsumdang the l)~o ( J1lough the~· can nnd do m:mifc!ll IUJ>CCB of it) ... . (.;(lntro.ay to \\1~tll son~ p(·ople t.h.mk. diff.:-r<:n(;('S m dcgr~c can con$lilulc di OCrcnc~ in l;ind. We talk thi:s \\O)' ollthc lime. For c-:-.:omplc: John is vc1y hea lth~·• .fuhn i~ not 100% hc:!ll_hy. John i:,: sick. wry ~ick. tcrmin:1ll)' ill. dead .. In the same way cxlremcly pure is somcthmg tliffcl\.-"fll lh:m re.:llly tmbid qi. Iutile s;2.nlC Wt,~' that we.~ thiok l)f p11~ Of po1t,ble water as somcthjng diOCrcnl than po1lutcd water'" (privulc communication). This sccm:1 to be u!:lo n pl:u;~ib k inh:rpr~Latkm Tb-.: pn.)blcm ''ilh this inlallfC.:ll.!lion is dutl :,c.unct im~ Wang. like many other Ct·mfuctnns bodl before and afk-r ham. llnnks tht :.1 J it)'e.:n.:noc (lf d~gre..: bul ._,r kmd, the kmd not rc:oult(.'d fmm !'ICcumul:llcd degree

'J'

/ 58

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qi (zJw qt) . Titis tti obviously cannot explain the origin of C\ il. Being co mplcccly pure. it is \\hat distinguishes human beings from othe r beings

nnd unites all human beings together. However, i1 seems that Wnng has in mind a different tJi that is also rclntcd to human life. whic;h he calls J.licn or gues1 tJI (wM qf), ll term thnt frequently :~ppc:us i n his (as well as in his stud~nt Wang Lo ng:~: i '$) writings :md conversations. In Wang's ,·icw. it is pred$CI)' this alien Of guest q1 th:tt aCC(lUill$ f(l l' the Qrigin o f t.:\'il. For example. he: says: ··selfish desires and alien qt :uC' what obscure the hum:m nature.. (71): -since \\'C ncm• all know the key 10 lcAI'Iling. \\'C do not need to \\Of!)'

''here to get st.aned. However. burdened by the-alien (Ji. we arc not

willing to reach our innau: mo r;~l lmowledgc" (428): when one of his students says that it is the o.licn qi that interrupts the origin1l .. joy (lc) enjoyed by human beings togelhcr '' ith other beings. he replies with a resounding '')CS.. (436). While Wang h.:as neYe-l' told us clearly wh.u this alien or guest qi is. \\C can be sure lhut it is not the q/ thnt he idcntilics with hunwn nnturc. It is also clca.r that i1 is this olien oc· gt~ est q/ 1hat is responsible for hunutn C\"il. In order to wtderstond what lhis nlieu or guest qi is :1nd ho\\' it couscs us to h:wc selfish dc.sires tJuu obscure our innate mor<'lllnowlcdgc. it is helpful to sec how this word is used by some nco-Confueians before him. To my knowledge. this word bras been oceasion:.Uy used by Zhang Zai nnd Zhu Xi. However. more helpful clues to its meanings can be found in the Cheng Bn)lhers. Cheng H:1o uses the s:.me word. alien lJ' (ketJi) . saying chat " the principle of rightness {_llili) and the alien qi conquer each other frequently. The dislinclion bci\\ CCn superior persons (itmzi) nnd inferior persons (xiMren) is m:1dc- according 10 the dcsrec 10 \\hich one is conquered by another. ·n,e more the principle of ria;htness so.i.ns the upper ho.nd ... the more the :'llien tti is cx 1 in~u ished- (Cheng & Cheng: 4-5). Thls p3SSC)ge reinforces our idea t11at olicn qt is responsible for human evils. but it s1ill docs not tell us whnt this nlicn qi is. This is made clearer by his younger brother Cheng Yi, who uses a dii1Crcnt but sin1ilar tcnu. external qi (woi qi). and clearly distinguishes i1 from the inlem:.l or host qi c:onslitudn· of humon being. which he rcg_:~.rds ns the qi of genuine origin (:Ju:nyunn :Jti tJI). In his viC\\. this CJi genuine origin

or

is not mixed with external (Jl (wui q1). but absorbs nourishment from the external ql. l et us 1:2kc the fish in "atcr as on analogy. Titc life of fish is not cou.scd by w:ue.r. HoWC\'Cr, onJy by absorbing nourishment from water cau fish lh·c. Human beings li\'c bci \\CCO he:t\'en nnd earth in 1hc same woy as fish li\'C in wa1er. The nourishment humnns receh·c from drinkiug and food is aU from c.-.:tcrnal qi. (170) This pilSS:.gc i.s cxo-cmcly helpful. It I'J.Ot only clearly distii'J.guishcs between the 1\\'0 iJI: (I) the 111 that makes i1 possible for a human being to

/59

nppcar as something" ith shape (l'lm xing). the qi of genuine origin. and (2)

the tft in which human beings lh·c. the c:o:tcmnl cJI. MoreO\'Cr. it c;..xplains the rcl~ti on.ship between these two kinds of qi: the qi of genuine origin is not mi;'icd with the c:o:tcrnal q; (so they nrc scp;mllc) btll depends upon the Iauer for nom·ishmcnt. Thus. if ahe cxtcmal cJi is not turbid, it may conmminatc the internal qf by causing it to haYc in ::appropriate m:ucrizd desires (1m J-lt). There is no dc"l' tc.:..:tual cvidcucc to show whether Wang uses ahc lcnn alien qr in the same sense and whc tlu~r he means the s:~mc thing whcn he s:~.rs that such lllicn qi c-auses people 10 lul\'c in.3ppropri3.tc desires. n bich obscure the mor.tl knO\\ ledge innate in their heart/mind. However. it is 31 least not entirely unreasonable to assume thai Wang may indeed hold a. simil:tr ,·jew, gi,'c n his f.-uni li:trity with and influence by the writings of the Cheng bro thers. Moroo\·cr. il is at least also a plausible way to make Wang's various discussions of qJ consistent with e:.ch other and "ith his more general philosophic:'tl "iews. For extunple. it is in this context th.:tt we can understand why he often uses the Lerm alien qi and mntcri:d desires together (436) :'lnd somc1imcs crcn regard thenl as essentially one thing (70). His discussion of M
or

If. in sp ite of 1he respite people get in the c.by and in the njght and of the effec-t of the morning ai.r on hi.m. sc;lrcel~· any of their likes ond dislikes resemble those of other people, il is bcc.nusc ''' hal they do in 1hc c.ourse of rhe day

once again dissipo.tes \\hat they ha\'e gained. If tbis d iSSipatiOn happens I'CJ>Catedly, then the inn ti'CI1CC Of the night air will no lonccr be able to preserve \\hat was originally in them. and when that happens. they arc not far rcmO\'Cd fro m an animal. {MCmcius6a&) Whal is so good about the n ight t!''{ Wang points out "the moral km')wledge arising in tile night cJi is its o riginal state. because it is not mixed with m:'lteti:.'ll dcr.ircs'· ( Ill)~ nnd there is no mixture()( material desires in the night IJi. bc<.:ausc people l:uJccp in the nightl .. s.ce nt)thins,. hear no thing. th ink nothing. :Jnd do noth ing~ (120). Howc\'et. in his \'icw... Mcncius· talk about · night qi' is ont~· imcndcd for those whose good hcanlmind has already bcc:u lost. to point out \\hero this good hc:utJmind arises so that it can be culti\'atcd and nourished from this point on. Today we ha\C alre-ady clearly known about the mo ral knowledge 3nd .so we o nly need to nlways exert efforts to reach it T here is no reason to tnlk about n ight qt"' (69: sec :1lso 19). Th~ point is that. ''bile it is good to live in the nig.ht fJi. as \\C: \\ill then not be cont..1.fllinnted by the :~lien q r. we cannot alw:1~·s live in the night IJi. i.e .. nl"ays sleep. so thut we see, hear. thinL:. and do t.tothi.ng. Aftc:~: n.ll. what is impammt is not to li\·e in separation from the alien tti. but to get

Jt;O

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nourishment from ami ) c1 not be C()UUollcd by iL Lh ing in complch: separation from lhe alien '1'· of course we ''ill not have any sellish desires. but lhcn we will h~,·c nowhere to get nourishment. How is this possible? In Wnng·s ' 'iew. the most importJ.nt thing is to take hold of ahc will (l'ln :hf): "'Bod thoughts come from populal' qt (XifJI). while good thoughts c:omc from 1hc origin::tl nature. 1l1c original n::tturc is t:·Onqucrcd by the popluar tJi because lhc \\ ill is not established- (24). Thus. commenting on Mcncius· view of the relationship bc1ween qi and will ~'o;fenciuS 1a2), he SQ.)'S lhllt the qi is e.uh.iv3LCd by .taking hold o( LJ1e will. bccaus.e (a~ Mcncius also S3)S} L11c ''ill should be the conun:tnder O\Ct fJi (2.&). The imponancc of establishing the will is most emphatically expressed in the following passage: The" ill is the commander ¢\(~r q1, the life of a person, the root of a trtt, and the: sourec: of w:tter. When the source is blocl.cd. \\iller will cease 10 now: when 1hc root is nol planlcd, a 1r~e will wither; when the life is not continued, a pe-rson will die, o.nd wheo lhc wilJ is not cst:tblished. the qi ''ill make one lose cousciousnc"Ss .. .. Therefot·c. as soon as a slight selfish desire arises. immediately blame the non-cstoblishment of the: will and lhen the prh·a.tc desires "ill rcctdc; as soon as a slight alien •Ji is hcnrd moving. i mm edi~ lcly blame t_hc non-es.tablishmcnl of the will :md the alien (JI' will be gone. When lazy. blame ahc will nnd one "ill not be- lnzr: when ncgligcnl. blame the will and one will not be negligent~ " 'hen ns ir:'l.t{'d, blame- the "ill tutd one ''ill not be ngitnted: when en\'ious. blame the "ill and one w ill not be cnviou$; \\'l1cn nnsry. blame 1hc \\ ill and one will not be angry~ when greedy, blame the will and one will not be greedy; when anog:ml bl:une the will and one will not be arrogant: \\hen stingy. blame the-" ill and one will no1 be stingy. (8?1)

IS WANG'S NOTION OF TilE INNATE MORA L KNOWLE DGE TENABLE?

or

A contcmpomry reader is unlikcl)' 10 be easily c.onvinccd \V::mg's \ricw of the ino:uc mornl knowledge 3nd would perhaps also regard his theory of lJi ns something merely ad hoc. In the Wc!.t. John Locke. who dc\'Otcs the whole of Book I of his An Ess{l)t Om(.-.::ming the H11man IJndcrstrmdmg to this matter, has made perhaps the mos.1 demstating att::tck on the idea of innJ.tc knowledge. It is therefore interesting and importnnt co sec "hcther Wong can withstand this auoct. In L(X;kc ·s ''icw. the strongest support for the theory of inn.11e knowledge is thot such knowledge i.s unh·cr&~lly held, As we have seen. it seems to be also the reason for W:ms to regard moral knowledge i'I S innn1c. ror he thinks th:u all people naiUrnlly

161

have filial piety "hen seeing their falhcrs. brotherly lm•c \\·hen sc.:·dng their elder brolhcrs. and commiscralion when seeing an infanl about to f3 ll inlo n wcJJ. ln Locke's view. howc\'cr. cnn if unh ·crs.1l consensus indeed exists on such maucrs. it c:mnot be dircctl)' counted as a proof for their being innate. ''i f c h en~ cnn be :~ny other way shown, how men m :~r come 10 that univcrs;al agreement in the thing.s the~· do consen t in. wh ic;h I presume mny

be done·· (Locke: I. II . 3). Yet. Locke's main elTon is to argue that no such consensus cxis1s.

While he ntL.'lcks a much broader theory of inn:uc knowledge, he also uses n \\hole chapter (Locke: I. lfl) to 3rguc against the innate moral knowledge. which is the concern of this article. Here. Locke argues thai there is no

wth·cr53l consensus 011 mornl nmtters by citing such immoral and indeed cruel things ns people Iawing their children in the fields to perish by want or wild beas1s. pc."'ple L:illing 1hcir p:uenas renching a certain age, people cnnying the sick out and IJying Lhem on 1he ctuth ~fore they :lrC dc:1d. people burying cl1ilclrcn alh·c or even CJiing their c.hildrcl.l , etc.• wit.hout ml.)' rl!morsc (sec Locke: I. III. 9). In this :upcct, it seems th:u W:m{s 1hoory of iun:ttc moral knowledge docs not fare much bcncr. As \Vu Zhcn points out. ·•some serious theoretical defects of Mcncius' aq;umcflt for tl1e ~oodnc.ss of human natu.rc fro m children's natural feeling of lo\·c and respect arc fully exposed in Wru~g Yangming's conception of rcady·made (xmnd Jcnf.:) moral knowlcd~c" (Wu: 16). Wu further cites Zlmn Ruoshui. 3 COI11CD1 JXU'a~ or Wang, that. in contrast to people kwing their p:m:nts, rcspccling their elder brothers. and showing eommiserntion to people. there ore also people who bent and ydl at their parents. \\'hO l\\ ist lhcir elder brothers· arms in order 10 scab their food to e:n (oris innlly in A4n1c.'iliS 6b l), and \\hO, loving their

own parents nnd respecting tltcir O\\D elder brothers, kill others· parents nnd elder brothers (sec ibid.). Ad,·ocatcs of innate knowledge. of course, arc aware of such counter~xam p l cs. In their view. this docs not show that there is no such inn:uc knowledge. In the wcsL Pl:uo argues 1hat knO\\Icdgc (in contrast 10 opinions) is indeed inn:uc :md is only forgotten when born. Thus. all people '"know and osscnt to them. when th e~· come to tho usc of rcJ.son'' (Locke: I. II. 6). At least in appearance. Wang taLes the same strategy. He argues that moral kno\\ICdgc is indeed inn;-tte, but it i$ obseured by selfish desjrcs as soon as one is born. Thus. there is a need fllr people ro regain the sight of the innate moral knowledge (zh1 lh1ngzhr') by I'CtllO\'ing such sellisJ1 desire-s. In Loc'-:c 's \'iew, however, such a defense is dcfecti,·c. One of its many problems is tJull "'by this they Iinnate idc:lS] arc nor distinguishable from other L:.nowablc truths"' (Locke: r. II. 13). In other words. if so. we cnn claim that any knowledge, C\ 'e n such knowledge as ··it mined yesterday."' is innate by saying thnt lhis L:.nowlcdgc is originally in our mind but is later forgotten until )CStcrd"Y \\C discovered it As \\C ha\'C seen. Wang intends to nH"Il:c n c lct~r distim;lion between moral l..'llOwlcdgc which he cbims is innate :md non·mornl koow.lcdgc wh.ich he belje\'CS is learned. Now from the Loekcnn point of' iC\\, since W:mg thinks tlu'lt pCOIJlc h<wc to clcM up their prh·atc

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162

desires to see tl1cir originall~· innate moral knowledge . .iust as we ha\'C 10 dear up the t louds 10 see lhe sun. why crumot \\e maL:c a similar claim nbom the non·mor;:al l.:nowlcdge (perhaps by rcmodng :J different ~· pe of cloud)'/ Docs ehis mean thru Wang ·s idea of innme moral knowledge is thus entirely untcnOJblc'! It would indeed be should W:mg inlcnd 10 provide on em piric:<~I dC$Gription uf humun hca11/m ind. As we hon c- }ccn, us a psychological description, such a theory may be disconrirmed., However, it is my contenuon that Wang ~s theory· of inn."tte moral knO\\'lcdge is not on cmplricalthcory. It is rather a mc.taphysic3llllcory. as it is obout the original state (benti) of the hcanjmind. Moreover. it is not a metaphysical theory th:u tries to tell us what hlm1an hcan/mind objccti,·cly is. The he~mlmind described in such metaphysics. as n metaphysica l reality. is something. in Richard Rony·s \\Ord ... ,,e c:t.n never L::no''' ourscl\'es 10 h~l\c reached. ::md which we c:m nC\'Cf know we :"lJ'C closins in oo rnlhcr lh:tn \'CCrins on~ from- (Rorty 1996: 75), It is rnthcr to su.:~csl to us '''hot our heart/mind originally should be. In olher words, wh:u \\C har e in Wang is prim:srily a atOrmath·c. rntbcr than dcscripth·c. met:lphysics. It expresses Wang's confidence in human pcr(cctibility. something simil:u to whtu Richard Rony calls '·a faith in the fmurc possibilities of moral humans. a faith which is hnrd to d istinguish from love 1br. and hope for, the humnn commwuty·· (Ron~ 1999: 160). One cannot have such n faith in human pcrf~tibility unles-s one also bclicn~s in the original goodness of human hcartlmi.nd. On this poi.nL. David Ni,·ison h:as made an intcrcs(ins analo&•y. A.ccordin& to Nivison. Pinto's theOIJ or recollection is supposed to solrc this puzzle in cpistemolog)': to le-arn I must be :h \'are of wh:u it is- I om 10 Icam. and this implies that I already kt10\\ i L According to Nivison. Wang's t,ttxxlnc.s s of human hcanlmind is supposctl to soh'e a par:allel puaJc in moral cducalion: "Confucius· proble-m as 3 moral teacher is, in effect, this: the cntcio.l clement in being moml is, ob,·iO\tsly. wa11ling to be. How can one teach a person to be moral'? For to respond to the lesson the siUdcnt must sec it ns :t lesson 10 be learned: and if the student sees that. he or she is nlte4ldy m or:~l" (Ni\'ison; 237),

.-;. Evt:n s J. lht:r~ is ~till ;:,(.un~dtin~ in Wang th:tt is not squarely met by 1-A-x~ke's (.· ntu;ism. In w.-.ng·s \'i"·w. \\lulc one's scUish dcsnc c.1n ind\.·cd ob5~eurc the itututc he:trtfmind, it can nc,·cr do so ~"\)lnJ'k'tcl;-. JU:!'t 11s the 4:h)ud can ncn,. . lUll~· block the sw~:.'lhmc (however d a~ k u cloudy dl'l~' is, th<.,x: is s.1ill

some ~W.l!5binc. so iu~; through d oud!S)_ Thu:s. i.n O I.I C place. \\funs fX' ints

i gnoronf~

~t lso

QUt

tltot

know that th~..-·y oultbt nul to ~tc:.J. lf yuu c:all th ~n thi...-vcs. tht.•y w tll blu$h·· (9:<) . ht ano1hcr place. he says; "thcrcfon:, although i nfi:-nor JX"fSOns (xiaon·n) do i.nmor~ lthings C\'ctywher<.·, wb<..1t S(·<:ing superiot p\:t:iiOns. lh~y will naturally CO\'Cf their immornl t1unf!S l!.ltd shClw the morul thing_!S. This .sllO\\ ~ tlwt lite moral kmm le..lge has S(lntctbiug of which one c-:uuwt be

"the 1hk:vcs

(1063)

163

For this reason. Wang oflcn talks about belief or f.:~ith {\"in) in lh~: innate mor31 knO\\ ledge. Superior persons ..do not worry about other people lacking faith in them: they just nlwa~·s ha,·c faith in the inmate moral knO\\ ledge" (76). In his 'ic'' · this is also the central mcssngc of Confucian cl:usics: '"if you ha\'C fa ith in the inn::ue moral kno'' ledge, ~:md make cfTorts only xco rding to this innolc morallmowlctlgc. then howe ver m;Jny classic.s and canons there arc. they all conform to it. and all heresies and incorrect doctrines wilt be seen through- (73). A question might be

raised !IS to hovi.' one cnn bcliC\'C or luvc faith in somctlling "hose c.xistcncc

is not first established. To tl1is. l bcJic,·c the. best ans,,cr is: pro,·idt:d br Kane In epistemology or theoretical reason, our belief m the existence of :m

objecl is dctennined by our prior experience of the objctl 1-Jowe,·c r. in morality or practical reason. the situation is diiTcrcnl:

By :t concept ot .tn (lbject of pt't)ctic.ll rca.wn I umJcrslhnd the idc.n of nn objt.'<'t as nn-.:rrcct possible throus.h frccdon.1. To be :m object of prac1ical knowledge :lS suc.h signifies, therefore. only the rcl:uion of the will to the action \\hereby it or itS opposilc is brought into being, To decide whether or not sometf'ling is an object of the pure practical rtason is only to disccm the possibili1y or impossibHity of "illing lhc action by which a ccnain object \\Ould be made real. provided we had lhc ability to bring it about. ( K:ml; 59)

Without going into the co mplicated dcrlils of Kant's ethics. \\C only need to )Xl)' :mention to one lhiny that is intmcdintcly rciC\':lnt to our current discussion: the objcc.t of mo•·al belief is not somclhin& that csi5LS prior to our action according to this belief: it is rather the eiTcct of such an :tction. So tho truth of our f:tilh in the innate moral knowledge cannot be dctcnuincd indcpcndcnl of or antecedent to our action according to this belief. Now. in W:mg's view. if we have the belief or failt1 in the innate mor;~ l knowledge and ~ct ;~ceord ing to this f01ith. we wilJ sec this fa ith is true. for one \\ill be a moral person. Wang thus relates his own experience: "Now I h:1ve Chith in the innate mornl knowledge of wh:u is truly right nnd what is rruly wrong. T hus 1 cwt :act nalurnll~· without any need to cover up or conecal anything" (120). In his ,·ie\\, this should be true ofcn!I)'One: .. if one has faith in tl1c innate mornl knowledge and is not disturbed by qi. one can ah\ays be a person in the world of fu.~i or even better" (ibid. ). his important to point out that. while Wang believes in the human moral perfectibility: C\'CJ'}'Onc can bcc.omc a sage. he docs allow the poo.sibility of people born with different non-moml capabilities (cas). The former is so b-.:causc nil human beings arc endowed wilh lhC same pure qi. which is the distinguishing mark of being human. The Iauer is so bcc::msc difTc.rc~:~t people urc endowed with di.O'crcl)l umounts of the equally pure qt. TI1is poinl, 1hat a ll hum:1ns arc endO\\ Cd \\ith the same qualit~' of tfi which

/64

rrmg 1/nrmg

makes it possible for C\CI) one to bcromc a sage. nnd yet with different amounts of qi. which csplains different :tbililics p<..'Ople hmce. is made most ,;\'idly clear in the fnmous pass::age with the analogy of gold . When nskcd \\by Bo~ i and Yiyin ore also called sages \\hen their nbilitics nnd strengths c.rc far bciO\\' those of Confucius, Wang says: Sa~cs arc $41J;CS bccnusc their ht:arllminds arc in comJ'Ilctc accord with the hc.wcnly principle, not mixed with any human desires. '11tis is j ust as pure gold is pute gold bcc3usc of its peJfcetion in qualil)', 1101 mixed \\ itl1 any copper or lead. People who howe reached the state of being in complete accord with tltc he.wcnly principle arc sages. just as gold that has become pcrfC4.'t in quality is pure gold. Howe,·er. sages :uc different rr·om each other in tcnns of :.bility nnd strength. just :1.~ difrcrent pieces of pure b'Oid arc also diiTercnl from each Oll1cr ill terms of 1hc \\ci&fu .... While dirTerCJlt in terms or nbiliry and strength, people- are nll sages as long as the hc~xcnl r principle in them is pure. just as different pieces o f gold nrc pure gold as long as they arc all perfect in qualily, even tllough they weigh differently .... Ta fc.:lrn to become sages. learners ani~· need to get rid of human desires and l'rcscr,·e tile hc:nenly principle. jusl :~.s to become pure gold. the gold only nct.-d to be puri.ficd to be perfect in its quality .... Lotcr generations do not understand that the fundamental to b!t.omc s.agc is to be in complete accord with the hca,·enly principle. Ju.stc:ld they seck to bocomc sngcs b~· merely foc.u s in ~ UI'On s.,gcs· abilities and strcn&ths ... . IAs a re-sult) the more knowledge they acquire, the mar\: human de-sires they produce: the more abilities the~' obUlin. the more obsc-ured the hca\'enly princ.iplc is. This is just like a man, seeing someone \\i th a piece of pure gold or 10,000 pounds. docs not make efforts to rdinc his own gold so that ils quality can match that of the other person's. lnsccad he foolishly p:~ys attention to the weight so that he will also have I 0.000 pOlmds. For that purpose. he mi:occs it with pewter. lead, copper, and iron. Titc heavier it becomes, the lower the degree of purity it h.1s. At the end. tho gold is nowhere to be seen. (62: sec also 32)

ln this passage. Wang makes it clear that. while c\·eryone is born wilh the innate mornl knonledgc. Md therefore can equally be a sage. dim.'ft.·nt P'~Oplc arc bom n ith different degrees Qf physical. irnellectunl. artistic, and other non-moral :tbilities. In :lPJXiar.mtc. W:.ng seems to say that some people fmxc h.ighcr abilities than others. Wung ~s cmpltllSis i_s. howc\'cr. clear: "hatevcr abilities they ha\'c, all sages arc momlly equal.

165 \Vc should nol rank those with higher ubililics abo\'C those ''ho have IO\\Cf abililics . A S3gC who has higher intcllcctu:ll. physical. nnd other non· moral

nbilitics can of course nccompbsh more things thnn a sogc who has lower suth abilities . buc l\C cannol say that the fon ncr is a more moml person

than the buer. 10 Theit' mornl quality is c:
tcnn. whether :1 person is born with high or low intcllcctu::al. physi ~l. <:~rtis tic. etc., abililie5 is entirely a ''natural accident'" (Rawls : (,:t). I think Wang w ill C\'Cn agree with Rawls that 1hc n.1tural talents of those lucky people sho uld be regarded ns ..public :.sse( to be shared b~· those unlucky people. just a..; the uufonunatencss of those unlucky people should be

regarded as something public 10 be shared by those lucky people (sec Rawls: 87).

In addition to the abo,·c-diS<::usscd dW'crc111 degrees of non-moral abililies people are born ''i1h . Wang Also 3dnowledscs the l)<.'tS$ibilit) of diffe.rtnt peOple born with ditTercnt kinds or non-mornl qualities. For cxnn.1plc-some people tend to be flSHictin&(xin.t; Jt) . \\hilc some tend to be slow in action (XItrg hunn): some tend 10 be fi rm (Xing gang), while some rend to be so fi- hCMted (xing rmi)~ some tend to be generous (sht•). while some tend 10 be thrifiy (ji(m), etc. (sec 894), While Wang doc'S not think that such inborn tempcmmems cannot or should not be ch:mgc:d in ccnn s of their partiality (pian). j ust as he docs not think trot one CtlMOt learn 10 incrc.asc the above-mentioned non-moral abilities. he docs think that there is a limit to such change of temperament (a pcrsc.m born with the tempcr.tment of being fusHtcti.ns c:m h.urdly be chnngcd i_nto "' person with the lcmpcnuncnl of slow-acting). j ust ns there is n limit to the int~rc.asc of the non-moral obilitie-s (not e veryone cnn obt.1in Einstein"s intellectual abilities, ho\\C\'Cr hard one tries. although C\ cryonc co.n b<X"omc a sage). We should instead P<"W aucru ion 10 two things. firsl. make sure that no one·s innate moml l;.nowlcdgc is obscured by selfish desires, so that whatc\·er temperament one is born witl1 can be used to do good things: ·'those "ho arc iiml. when doing good things. will ha,·c finn good (gang slum) .. . while those who arc soO·henrtcd. when doing good things. wHI h~wc sofl good (mu y/um)" (128). Second. people with different tcmper:.ments art: good at different things. For t:xamplc. ··some are good at

°

1 Cornmcntin~ on tb~ :~lxm.: pa&~~-.: with th~.! unalol!r of l!Oid '' ith s.1gc. h·anh(lc argues that t\•fcng-li ~1nd Confu~um thinkers in gcnt.-:ntl --rccogni,..cd and ~'d ''OC~hXI thc impor'UUJ<:C of n:nur:~l kmds. to them it was ob'-·' tous that, :ln)()ng lnuuuu beings, tlt('l'i: wos a nill\u·:.l d i\'ffitty of abilities: physic.ul, mcnwJ. urLi$tic. ond 11lllr:tl" {Ivanhoe: 51-52). bJ my \~ l"W. Jt lcasl in theca~ ,,fWong. lhc idt::t lJf U;)ltlr;)l divcr::;-it}' of mQrol :1bilitic!i tunong hunwn bcilll!-S is non-exi<:.H,.':fll. Th~ different :'IITh"~U niS of gold In the passage nrc mc3n1 to shl.'lw that JifftlX.":lli Si1gcs h'1\'C ,.hftt:.·rent non-mon'll abilities. which of cout:;c. \\Ill ufft.-ct how muny morn1thing..s n S.ll_!.c cnn do. llowcvcr. ~ Qiu.n Mu points t)Ut. ·•s..'lgcs arc judJ;!<.xt in tc11ns vi vi11uc ~mJ not in tenus ,1[ tlhilitics {colr (Qian; 21 1)

166

rrmg 1/nrmg

rituals and music. some m go,·cnunenl and cduc.::nion. some nt agriculture .. ('7·.58. sec also 23). So. wilh the hc~ut/m in d not obscur<."
In c-oncluding tl1is articJc. instead of summnrit.ing whal I have argued above. I would lil:c to mal.:c h\0 further points cssen1ial to Wang's

idea of the i.nn.tltc mor3.1 knowledge lhat 1 have not been able to discuss so fur. TI1e first is his idea of inner experience (lirm) \\ ith the innulc moral knowledge in our anempt 10 regain the sight of it (Zht lfangzhf) afier it is obscured by selfish desires. So to regain the sighl of the innate moral knowledge is nut an intellectual efltCI])ti.sc. It is rather an inner experience. a Gestalt switch. in one's hcrutlmind. which .. means 10 rc:tlly get it in oneself (;ide)" (461). The ~ond is his i de;~ of joy in acting according 10 one's moral knowledge. We ha,·e bricn>• mentioned that. for Wang. whoever h:t..~ lhc moral knowledge will never f:til to acl in accord;~nc.c with such knowledge. Howc\'cr. instead of urging people. as Kanl docs. lo O\'t rcomc their n:uuml inclinations in perfonning such moral nctions. Wrmg. arg·ucs that a uuly moral ~rson "ill L'lk~ delight in doing moralthinss and hating evil things as one docs in .. ,o,·iug the beautiful colors and ho.ting the bo\d odors- (6, citing the Crcmlng /,i:tiruinx). Or course. to go tO nny funhe r detail on these h\O topics will be lasks of1wo separate :uticlcs. REFERENCES

Chen. Lai. 19?7. 17rr: Realm bcfU"("('IJ Being nml Nonbem~;: 111'' Spirif of JV..r,Wi }'imgming .f l'lu/Qsqphy (}~u IJ'u llrf{ifm: Wimg }fmgmfng 7Ju::mc tit Jmgshen). Bc~ji n g : Rc.!nmin Chub:mshe.

Clu.'llg, Chung-ying 1991. .. Unity und Crc:~fiyit~· in WANG Dlm~nsftm.s o/Con.fil('ifm nnd Nco-C()njilcitm Philosophy. Albany: State University of New Yort

Yang-ming's PhiiOSOIJhy of Mind.- In his /\"ew PJ'CSS.

Cheng. Hao. and Cheng Yi. 2001. Collect.:d JJhrb· of tlte 1ko ( 'lumg..;· (l:.'r Cheng .If). Beijing: Zhonghu~ Shuju,

Ching. Julia. J976. 10 t1cquirr: ll>i'.1dom: 111c Wny of JY,txG >'ang-ming. New York and London: Columbia Uni\'crsity Press. Fang, Kcli IY't)7. 17rl! Conct•pt <>/ Knowlcdg11 nnd Ac1wn fn the History of C.:hint:$(' fh1/o.)·ophy (lJIQngguo Zht•xuc:;hi Shang cit: Zlm:mg (;111111).

Beijing: Rcnmin Chub;,nshc.

167

Hou. Wailu, etc. 19')7. A /JisiOry
Inmhoc, Philip J. 2002. Ellucs in the Confucian J;nditu:m . 2eJ edition. h1di::mnpolis/Cnmbridgc: Hnckcu. K:tnt. Immanuel. 1936. lritlqu~ 1.~{ Prtlt:'llca/ RM.wm. New Vorl:: ~·l:tc mil l.:m .

l..ao. Sisuang, 2003. A Nell' Hutory (if Chim:se l'hilfMupltp: lilA (XinMw Zlwngguo Zhexm:~:hi: Snn S:lmng). T
Umlc:rstamlinJ.:. London: George Roullcdgc :tnd Sons. JHcmcms. 1970. 1'r.ms. by D. C. Lau. London: Penguin Books. Mcng. Pciyuan 1998. 111e Evolutio'' of Nco-Confucianism ( LiJ,.ltl.! de Yanbitm) . Futltou: Fujinn Rcnmin Ghubanshc. Mon. Zongs::m. 2001, F'rom /.11 Xurngshtm w M11 Ji.~·htm (Cong l.u Xkmgsh(tn tfOt) L1u JiSIJtm). Shang,h.ai: Sh.1ngb:1i Guji Ch u lxln.~e . Nivison. D
Books. Tong_ Junyi (Chun-1). 1970. ·'The Oc\'clopmcnt or the Concept o r Motal Mind from Wnns Yans·ming 10 W:1ng Chi:' In .)elf and Sm:u.>ty in A'l ins tlsought. Edited by Wm. Theodore de Bary. New York: Colurubin Uni\'Crtily. _ _ 1990. An E.fSGJ' on tlte Origl, of Chmc.q~ P/ulos.oplty: Original 1i:ac/Jblf: (lhongg11o ZlrcXIlC Yturnhm: )Jm,~jfan Pian). Taibd: Xucshcng Shuj u. _ _ 1993. An f.'s.my on the Vrigilr of Chmese Jllulo$fJphy: lntrr.Hiudion (Z/t(mgjtli(J Zhcxuo 'Yunulunn: 1)(1()/un Pirm). T:2ibci: Xucsh-cng Shuju.

Wang. Y:1ngming. I Y'J6, ("(Jmplt·w m,rl:s t~(Wtmg Ytmgmmg (IY,LV
CHINESE GLOSSARY bcn•i -*~a eoi :;j·

Chen Lai llii:.>l~

ChenG

Hool~~fj

rrmg 1/nrmg

/I'J8

Cheng Yi PMI! ch.i VIi l\1•1.' Cong /.u Xwngsllan d.1o 1./u .JI:ofum'ift:!rn ~ l lr):IJ~•)l~t(ll l

dcxin&1.hi 1.hi !~ri!Z~li J.:r Cheng Ji _: ,J.~:iJ£ Fang Kcli } j }•{. 1'r. gang shru1l~j jfj Hou Woilu {~<7HM j ian (£1

junzi :U f kct)i -~~t

Lao Siguang §'}Y~. ;t; lc '!I! li J!l

liang I~ liangncng ~~ rm liang:~.hi 1:-l ~I Uxuc de J'anbian F.U~t'f.JUi!~ ~lei Pciyu:m ~l;l)c

Mou Zongsan fl!.;j~ .=, piiUl !lol

qi 1;{ qi:tJli ~ti

rou shru1 ;;(.; 1!f shan

ff

she 17 sbcn ·1'1• Songmmg Lislfc Slu: ..\'w~ I~]J1 R.l~ j,!

tircn ~m. Tllttg Junyi J.!!.'H '!! tianli /~J!I!.

toun.-!O !.!1U.e'i \\'Aiqi ;1-~

Wong Longxi 'F httlll Woms Ya.ngmi.ns J~ ~~t9J

JYmrg li'mgmmg

Qumif1-EI;;;•YJ1:jli

\\Cnjian :d•i L.hiJHJ )l.Z~I wu yu
xiaorcn ,j, A xi;1nctlcng J:W,J«I~.!J£

: 1~

169

xin i;; Xinbiwr Zhong_\"'1lO Zh,·xui!sht: :)mJ Shtmgd'i(.~J;1'1• ~i!t&.~~ : .=::1·.

sing ·l'.t xinggang J
xiqi i"l jj'{ Jhugmilrg Houxue J~uy·iul;; l~ f i~lf.fiJf?'t:

ye qi 'f(~ yi 1i
yufu yulu !& A: !l!~ll Zh:Ul Ruoshui iiH }lie ZhM£ Zai iJt ~t(

.-J,enyuan :dti qi :fi.JeZ.11 >.hi 1'11 >.hi J inng>.hil~H!lll Yltishi '}r~,;a lJJ<mJ;ttO Zhl!rw:s/Ji .')1umg di,! Zhr.ring Gumr•l•~~f.'j.l'J~ ~_tii~J )UUK!.!

llwngJ,rtlt) Z/Utxm: Yurmllm: Yumril«n Nan•~,~'f!.l!!}.~_r.;;ft : j;i.J!l:~ Zl:t>ngj.,"lUi 7Ju:.tue l'ltlmlun: Duulun Pian rp ~~'ff l}! !.;i;(,; : 1!1- =6i ~·~ 'l.hU qiJ, 1!;{ Zlm Xi ~If: >ide ~ f.!

Chapter IX

On Mou Zongsan 's Idea list Confucianism

In contemporary Nco-Confucianism Mou Zortgs:m ( 1909- 1995) h t\S

been identified BS .:t leading figure. His idc.alil'm became :t parndigm in

the modem dc,·c:lopmcnt of Confutinnism. Historically. such

ru1

idealist

trend claims to succeed Mcncius. Lu Xiangslmn and Wang Yungming. \Vhat is inno\'ath·c in Mou Zongs.·u,.s contribution is the employment of n Kantinn theoretical framc\\ork. In tcm1s of the Kantiun ln:t.nsccndcntul

distinction or things-in-themselves and phenomena. he develops

:1

Confucian moral metaphysics. In rca.lity, this results from his hcnncncutical npplicntion of the ia/h((gaw -garbha S) stem. of tl1c A ll'akening of Failh. In o ther \\Ords. " ;lou Zongsan's adherence 10 this Buddhist mo nist doctrine of mind cn:1blcs him to transform Kant's transccndcnt:~l philosophy. As :1 rcsuh . it gives rise too new fonn of Confucian idealism which centers on the no tion of pure moml mind, In p:1nicular. Mou Zon g~n's ~leonto logy ::.nd Jlh:ihung5·ethik srnnts a primacy to the autonomous will. In justifying 1 his idealism . Mou Zongsan criticizes Zhu Xi's rc:.11ism.

ll1is

P<"~J>Cr

aims 10 show how Mou Zongsan·s Confucian !)OSition

results from his hcrmcnculic:tl application of tllc A•r(J/;qning of f-'t,ilh in transforming Kunfs tmnscendcntal philosophy. Reflceti\'ely. two o bscrmtions will be made on Mou Zongsan's Confucian idealism. First, it will pinpoint some csscntial3ffinitics between Mou Zongs.1n's nnd Fichtc"s subjccti\'C idc3lism. Second. n.ficr highlighting ~·lou Zongsan's critique of the Buddhist distinctive teachings. it will point Out thtll there is a conflict between his idealist Confuci:mism :md hi5 praise for the Buddhist perfect teaching$. As 3 result. Mou Zong,s;an hns to f:~c:c o dilcmmu. His way ou1. howe\'cr, see-m s to rctJCill the position of the E~ncrnal School in Ti..1ntai Buddhism. I.

The origination of Mou Zongsan's idealist Confucianism can be ilhtstrated in (t do ubt¢ mtmner. Ncgativ¢1)' spcnking. it aims 10 r:tdicalii"..C Kant ·s tr:mscendcntal phj l osopl:t~· . Posith-cly spe3king. it represents a reconstruction of Lu Xiilngshan nnd Wong Yun&Jning ·s School of Mind in Sung-Ming Nco-Confuci3nism. Accordi•lg to ~~lou Zongs.nn. J.:anfs introduction of the transeendcntnl disainction between thing;.~-i n -themscl"cs and phcnomcnu signifies o ground-br~akin g insight. Kont himself 1

Cf.. M()u

7MiltNUl .

.\'m tJ yu swx 1i

(11w

l\ ftml-5)ubJicmc:Jt om/ lhJt

:\'mult"...S'"bsuu..c.•)(Taipci: ZhCilSlhong. I968), Vol I. Jl I0511'.

172

nonetheless fails 10 appropriately aniculmc such an importanl insight This is bcc.ause Kant ~\SSigns intellectual inluition only to God. As :1 consequence. for htunnn beings thing-in·lhcnw::h·cs remain trnnsccndcnt. But insolbr as human beings. "ith the sensible intuition. com never C\'idcntly grasp

tbings-in-tllcms.el\'cs, the Kamian transccndcn1al distinction lacks o s.olid juslific::uion. l11is indicntcs that there is an apOria in Konl's philosophy. In short. a n1ojor c.;;tusc- or suclt a limiloUion o f Kunt"s philosophy lies in his .shaky doctrine of mom lily.· When addressing free will, Kam can only concchc of it o.s a (oct of rc:tson. He onl~· identifies free \\•ill AS a postulate

for t11c

possibilit~·

of mornlity. Accordingly. free will can never become an

intuitive presentation for human OCings. 1"his is not o nly bccnusc free "ill is lx:yond the rc3Ch of s<:nsiblc intuition. but :llso because intcllccnt..'ll intuition cscJpcS human beings. In t.he face of such :m oporitl in Kn.nfs approach. Mou Zongsln sees the granting of intellecaual iniUition to human beings as: the onlr "~Y out Such ::a bold move ha.~ a double consequence. First. it \\Ould make possible"" imuitivc prcsenuujon of free will. Second. il "ould enable human beings to C\'idcmJ~r grasp things. in-thcmsch·es. While the first is essential for n complete account of the possibility of morality, the second points to an C\'idcntktl justification of the Kanlirut tmnscct~Ciltal distinction. lftt1c first is primarily a concern in cttlics. the second is related to the idea of moral metaphysics. In short for ~·lou Zongsan. our moral consciousness represents a free. infinite mind. nnd hence should be promoted :tS intcllcctu:'l.l intuition. As :t moral subject. the free. infinite mind found$ the pO$Sibility o f mornlity. As :a m cbphysi~l principle, the free. inlinitc mind cre:ucs things-in·th<:mstl\'cS. Uhimntcly speaking. t'IJNlrl from

t\Ssigning inlellcctual intuition to human beings;, neither

m etaphy~ics

nor

ethics can become genuine I~ possible.

Fronl the

pcr~pecti,·c

of Western cuhu..c. Kant's limil:ltioo of

intcllcctu 3l intuition to God is wcll·justiJicd in ,·jews of Christianity. For the latter. it is onl~· God thai is infinite. 01nd lhc gnp between God ;md hum:tn lxings can nc\'er be overcome. In comply ing with the crc:uh·ity of intcllcctu3l intuition, it is logtcnllbr Kant to grant h to God-· the ere:~ tor of the world. Com:lati\'cly. the b.ck of intcllcctu.nl intuition in hum;~n beings should be understood as a sign of their finitude. At &his juncture. 1\'IOu Zongsnn diSCO\'Crs on essential difference bet\\een \\.'estern and Chinese philosophy. He claims lhat uc<:ording to the major K ·hooh of Chinese philosophy (Confucianism. Dooism and Buddhism). in Sl)itc o f their finitude, human beings cnn b~comc infinite. Th:lt is. i.h.erc is no wlbridgcablc gap beh\«'ll the fm ilc .md the i.n.fi.nitc mind for the major trends of Chinese philosoph). In paniculnr. the Confucian moral consciousness signincs :m infin ite mind. Historically, it is in the hand s or philosophers of the School of Miud. such as Lu Xiangshnn ;:Uld Wnng YanQ.ming. that such 1:1 conception o f mornl con~iousncss as on infinite 1 Mou Zun~s:m. ..\'itm .n·ong yu TIJiug.Jr~-lu.•rifJ (rmrJO:r

'"'' :.t sl~n

Xucshcng. 1984). p 6ff.

( f>llt'li( HIIt:rJO

(IINI

l l.i

mind is properly dc,·clopcd. In idcmifying our origin.nl mind as principle (It) and nature (xmg). the School of Mind is able to simultaneously expound the mornl and ontological significance of our infini te original mind. Particularly. tlu:-Sc-hool of Mind introdu~s the follow ing l\\0 m<\iOr theses: (I) '11lc universe is my mind. tmd my mind is the universe'' (Lu X iang.sha n)~

(2) ·· Jn me is Qinn (He-aven). in me Kun (Eanh). I need not seck sa~es pass as shldO\\S. Liang :hi alone is my

clsC\\'hcrc ·· The tJtouso.nd guide'' (Wang Yangmlng). J

For this school. it is the infinite original mind which grotmds the possibility of morality as well as the cosmos. Confuci;u1s basically tutdcrsland our cosmos a.4i moral. Accordingly. moral crc:uivity is tH the same time cosmological crc:ttivity. In re3lity. in nttributlng intellc:c:tu31 inlllition to hu.mnn bcinss. Mou Dongs3n rcplnccs God witJ1 an infinite moral consciousness. Altbough Mou Zongsan 's idealism is Confucian. his thcoreticnJ rmme\\Ol'k is taken liOJn the AwaJ:~:.ninx (~{ Paith. As is \\CII·known. this popular but important text in Chinese Buddhism is a systematic articulation of the doctrine or the tnJiw;:at(t·garblw. Lei us Slart "ith an exposition or Mou Zongsan 's undcrsumding or the Awokcnmg t~{ l·'mJh and then show how he reinterprets its- doctrine in genc.rali.ng h is own idealist Confuc iaoism. In an ::1ppcndix of the Xm 11 ru xing li (17u: A1iiiii-SubsJnncc nntl 1/r~ NtJiurc-.'}'rtbswm:e). ~'fou ZongSJn

points out: beginning. the Au'tlkt'/11-"f:: l~{ Faith 11ic!i h) fundamental position of Mahayana Buddhism in tenus of lhc fr~uue work of ·one mind and its two aspects ': ·The re\rclation of the true mcnning (of the principle of 1\·lahay:ma can be achic\'Cd) by unlblding the d~trin e th:11 the principle of One Mind has two •'t Because these two aspects are mutually inclusi,·e. ·"

From the

'Cl) '

c~:plicatc

the

Wing·t!5it Ch~n. A S n ·;stlom: WtJ.V OjiVmrg fmrg.mmg (New Y(lrl.:; Columbia Umn:rsity Press. 1976), Jl. 3

Prin~.:"'1on T/J(!

246.

·*

Moo Zong~an, Xiu ti )'U xht~ ti (1'1:.: Miud-.S'ulmaJrct.• ond tJt~.• \\ll 1. J>. .580. for the Eng l i~h tn.u&:iJ:IIion . _,r the ,.f ..·aJ:enlrtg of Fault \\C folkm : A:~vagho:'h3. 71r;• JlufiJi(mi"g nj Fal1h, 1rnns. Yosll1t.:) ;\'omn.~-St;b~·uut<.:<).

He maintains that the term '"One Mind" refers exclusively to th~: transccndcnt.:d true mind and not to the lllaymjmtm(l. For Ihe latter is on!~· n mind in the sense ofnn empirical. psychological mind. In lhc AwtiJ:cning qfFaith it is further\\ rittcn; The Mind in tcmts of the Absolute is the o ne World of Reality (cDwnmuUutJu) and the essence of <~11 ph<~scs of

c...:istcnce in lheir lotality. TI1at \\hich is called 'lhe e-ssential ruturc- of the Mind' is unborn nnd is imperishable. ~

According to Mou Zongsan. the concept of -the Mind in tcm1s of the Absolute.. indicates thnt the mind is absolutely pure. The flltlw is there-fore something more- than the srmJYlffl of the fh·e :~ktmdhas (aggregates). It represents the unit~· of tbc true mind and the tulha as the nbsolute principle:. With the rise of tiiC system of the ltlllwgt•Jtl-gt)rhlw. the tmha 3S the :sbso l u t~ principle is identified as our mind. Our mind is then csscntiaUy the mind of the Ullho. That is. the Suchncss is the mind of Suclmess. More importantly. such 3 transcendental tmc mind is identified as

the ground and the origin of all tfhnmms . In this sense, the Awnkenmg oj' /;'a ilh declares: "The Mind in tcmlS of tJ1c Absolute is the one World of Reality (d/J(Intutelhaw) and tJ1c cs.s<:JICC of all phases of existence in their tolality." Further. in the .-hmkmiug ofFaith it is writtco: It is only through illusions thllt all things come to be diCfcrenti:ttcd. If one is freed from illusions. then there \\ill be no :sppcaranccs (lllksona) of objccLo; ('regarded as absolutely independent existences); therefore. 3ll things from the beginning transcend all fonns of vcrbali1.ation. description. and conccpHm.lit..llion and arc. in the final :mallsis. undim:rcntiatcd. free rrom nltcm:u1on. and indestructible. The\· arc onll' of the Onr; Mind: hence tl1c name Suchness."6 ·for Mou.Zon);;snn. the concept of'"onl~· of the One t\•lind" mean!> th:u there is only one single tmnsccndcnml true mind. On the one hund. the mind of the urtha. or the true mind. represents rcalily. On the other hil.l'ld, the nppcar:tnce nnd conccpmaliz:nion of :til things (dhamws) are couscd by illusions. Jllu.sions must therefore be differentiated from the IIuc mind itself. fro m the Buddhist st.:tndpoint. illusions signify the wind of ignorance. or non-enlightenment This indicates thnt the ff~c.:da

(New York: Columbia Univcrs.ily Press. 1967), p. 3 1. 1'b~ A woAcniug of Ftlitlt. p. 32, • Ibid. p JJ. $

/ 7J

cause of the rise of appc:urutcc is empirical and psychological. Appcnrnncc that is t;tus..:d by illusions is c-sscnti3Liy unreaL When one on:rcomcs illusions and return to the Lmc mind. then one can discover thtH all lDWnnas arc ~s scntia ll)' sunyo. On the ol11N hand. as reality. the true m ind is ubsolutc and impcrishob lc.

7

A ll in 311, according to the system o f the toJiwgnta gnrbila, ''the £\·lind in terms of the Absolute" is at the same time the truth (tatha) and the mind. i\s a consequence. the true mind is something more tl1an swryfJfit as an objccti\·c principle. \Vhilc Madhy:.1mika stick to the thesis that whncncr is dcpcndcmly co -::arisen is .n mya, the Awakcnin~ of l;'fJill~fi,/ introduces the 4

concept of the true mind. Besides the concept of emptiness. the doctrine of the UtthtJj;tlfa.gnrhhtl n.lso s peak~ of non~mptincss . On the one hand. with the concept of emptiness. it llims to eliminate all illLL~Ons in order to manifest the reality of the mind. On the. otltcr hand. with the concept of MIH!Inptincss. it urscs us to rctum to the true. mind. For the doclrine of the wthagata-garbha. the true mind hns indcuwnemblc vin ucs and hence is IIOH·e m pl~'.

Ahhough there is, in rcalit)', only one true mind. '·since all lmcnlightcncd men discriminate with their deluded minds from moment 10 moment tltC) arc alienated [from Suchncss): hence. the definition ·em)>ty:· but o m;c th(.•y arc free from their deluded minds. they wHI find th:n there is nothing to be ncgatcd.'' 11 Accordi.ng to ~lou Zong:sw1. this shows th::u ~II the di$tinctions c<Juscd b)' illusions do not proper I) coucspond to the t1'uc 111 ind. Therefore. these distinctions must be dirfcrcntintcd frt)m the true mind. When a ll di~tinctions caused by illusions arc O\'Crc.omc. then it is cruply (swryota). But the eliminiltion tlu:sc distinctions m the same time gi\'CS rise to the 3chic\·cment of the positiye virtues or the true mind. Jn tl1is way, what is truly non·etupty is manifest.~ That is the reason why the Aw(lk.:JJiug <>!Foilh also charat tcri,..es the true mind as "'eu:rna1. pcmuUlCnl. immutable. pure. and sclf-suflicicnt." 10 As Mou Zongs.1n points out. such a qunsi-subst.wtialist fonnulottion of the true mind is ncccss;uy. for tho system of the tarlwgma·gllrhhtl not only maintains the JJurc essenc-e or the u·uc mind. but olso gronts indcnumcntble undefiled and excellent qu~l i tic s tO its very c ~c n cc. In order to differentiate this ~·ste m from Brahmanism. ~lou Zongsan stresses th:u such an "endowment- of indcnumcr>1blc undenied and excellent qualities b}r the true mind - must be understood to be · potential.' for it refers to Buddh:t·nalurc as the ground Iof att:lini.ug Enlightenment) .'' 11 That is to sa) . it is from the standpoint of

or

'Xl ntiyu rmgll, \b). I p. $81. 11rt• A wu!·othrg ofFaith. p. 35. 9 Xilltiyuriu~li. Vol.l,p. 582. 10 J'he :lwakcmng o/Pnith. pp 35·36. 11 X m 11 y u :ciug I I, Vltl I. fl. 582 tt

176 Ou.ddha~J mturc

as a fruit tl1at one can say that lhc true mind i.s endowed with

these qualities. Apart from pi.l cti~:-e. none of lhcm can be achieved.

AI this juncture. Mou Zongsan nlso notes that there is an essential distinction between the system of the

Buddhism. First, the true mind is more

rollurgmo-K<~~'hha

alt.:~n

and

Yog:~carn

"the practical Buddha-tL1furc··

in tJtc sense of Yogaca.m Buddhism. For the true mind gu:mmlcc-s thcllCces,s i t~· of
case of Yognc.am Buddhism, the nchic,·cmcnt of excelle-nt qu3li1ics is mcrcJ~~ o ut of contingency. In contrast with the- system of the tathaglllfl·xarbJw. one can speak of an 01iginal cndO\\IUCnl of excellent qu.alitics --in the sense ofpotcnli.1lhy, .

After the char::tctcril.ation of the essential tHlturc of the tnac mind the Awc;keni,g of Faith gi,cs the foJIO\\ ing description of the defiled phenomena (.Mmsnra); The Mind as 1>hcnomenu (sam.o,•u . m) is t;roundcd on the tmhagma-garblur. \Vh.:u is c-alled the Storehouse Consciousness is that in which ·neither birth nor dcllth (nirvona)' diffuses harmoniously with 'binh and death (snmsnrn). · and yci in which both are neither identical nor diOCrcnt. !!! Mou Zongs:m cxpl:lins th3t il is because of illusions chat the tme mind becomes the mind of phcnomen::a, He further illustrntcs this point in

tenus of the wouer-rippJcs metaphor: Altbougb the mind or phcnOIUCUO (.mmsm·a) IUUSL be grounded in tltc true mind. its direct c.:tusc is ignorance. jusI like water in n pool wns slirrcd by 1he wind. While tl1e absolutely true mind is like water in tranquility. ignorance is like the wind. When the wind blows. it gi\'CS rise to ripples. This signilics the rise of the mind :.s phenomena. Clearly. the ripples 01.rc inscpar.ablc from water. Tiu•l is to say. though their rise must be grounded in \\lUCI'. the dirett cause of their rise is the: blowing of the wind. Simil:ul ~·. the rise of t.hc mind of P..hcnomcna (sum:wra) is insep.amblc from the true mind.' ·

As a rcsuiL as afar as the rise of the o.spcct of samsara is concemcd. it is necessary for us to make a distinction bct\\C:Cn ilS ·•e.ausc" and its "ground." But ~ou 7.ongsan warns us not to con stn~ 1hc rckllion of the true mind and phenomena in tcnns of production. ln reality. QCcording to the system of the tatlw.~.;ato-garhlw. it is the flla)'tn·ipwno nhich produces l!t/1(' tfwo/. enlllg ojF(Iilh. p 36 11 Xm tl y u :ciug tl, Vltl I , p 582

I ll

phenomena. Certainly. since the

alto·m·~Jmuw

i1sclf is grounded in the

tru~:

mind. the true mind is indirectly n:spoosiblc for th e rise of phenomena. On the other hnnd. to the cxtcm th:u the system of the tmhag(l.(a.gnrbha docs not identify the true m ind as the CflliSC or producer o f the \\ Orld. it m ust be dilTcrcnai:ned from Brahmnnism. Mou Zongs.an

s1rcsscs 1hat in spile o f

the

fact tlult the l:mguJgc o f the A,,·tJa.·ning ofFmth is "substantialisC it is nol a mct..physics of substance Meanwhile. Mou Zongsan reminds us thai allhough the true mind is said 10 ~ co,·c rcd b>' obstructions. there is no csscmial connection

between them. That is to say. in ilSclf. lhc U'Uc mind is nc.\'CI' reallr conlaminau:d. by :my obstmcdons. He says: What one finds hc110 is the foct that the rise of the defiled oltrym·{Jntmn is- founded on the 1n1c mind. But even ancr such a ris.e of the ala;ltn'ijunna, Lhc true mind only rctrealS iLSelf into the badground. Ahhou~h it seems that the tm c mind is CJllirety covered by obsmlctions. there is no rent contaminntion :lt ::.U .... When ignor:lllcc is extinguished :'l nd the true mind mllnifcsl'; itself. then the oiOJ'fiW}mnw must be extinguished :ts well. All the ripples must become e!>.iinguishcd in order to return to the true mind in uanquilit). 1"

Ln sum. Mou Zons.san u nderstands the doctrine of the tatha..lJ.llln-gorb/uJ o f the Alfokeuing of I'<•Uir ns a transcendcnlnl nnol) tic. While the uuc mind is sclf-sroundine,, i1 is the 1rans.ccndcnt:tl condition of tbe posstbilit~· o f the defiled mind and the phenomcnol world To the extent that such a doctrine docs no t identify tbe troc mind as the producer o f the world, it has 10 be diiTcremiatcd from Brnhmanism. ArmOO with 1his tutdcrstandiug of the doctrine of tbc 1(11/Uigatn-garbha. Mou Zongsan st~ts to radic.ali1..c Kant's transcendental idealism. With the idcntificatjon of prtrJna as intcllcctnnl intnilion. he proclaims that in contrast to Western philosophy. Buddhism enables u_s to develop a positive ottitnde cowards tbings-in-LIIcmsch cs. As it is particularI~, shO\\ n i_n the system of the ltttlutgtllrl-gtJrbhll, thing:s-in-thcmsch-cs belong 10 the dimension of the tathtJ. The identity of the lrue mind tmd the wtlrtt implies the possibility of the absolute knowledge or thiugs-in-thcmsci\'CS. E)Jistcmological1y. with the help of pra;no human beings c:tn imuith·cly grasp the Suchness of thin gs, i.e .. the tmhn. To t11is cx1cm. it functions as intellectual intuition io tl1c Kanti:tn sense. Ontologically. the true mind makes mnum!J l(l possible. \Vhilc the mind of the talha is :1 fonn of the K:mti:m intellectual intuition. tile tntha is nn cquh,..lcut of noumma. As a Confucian. Mou Zougsan now replaces the Buddhist concept o f pT(yna ' ' ith the notion of U tmg t hi. lntcllcccual intuition in lhc fonn of Uang :lu is fu n damcnt:~lty mor:l-1 in I I

Ibid

intllOrt. More impowuuly. with the help of Litmg zhi. it is possible for human beings to dc\·clop knowledge of things·in·thcmsclvcs. On the other h and. Mou Donssan uics to at count for the possibility of the knO\\ ledge of pheno mena in tcnns o f tl1c lrlnym•fjmma, Since the olt')·tn·fJmmfl is the cause o f the phenomen:tl ''orld. it can sround the possibility of a phcnomc~l ontology. Following Kant. Mou Zongson further replaces tl-..: 1'\l lt Qf the t~layavijnana with understanding (Vc:rstantl). But instead of seeing underst:mding as tl1c cause of the phenomenal world, he idcntific.s the categories of understanding as the conditions of the possibility of knowledge and of objects of kno\\ lcdge. At thi."> juncture. r..lou Zongsan is particularly inOucnccd by Hcidcggcr's ·'ontological interpretation- of Kant's Critique ofPurr: Rea.son. u Lil:c the a!tryur fjnana. understanding is also t;;Oncti\'Od of by Mou Zongsan as a derivative mode of the lrue mind. Since the phenomen:.l world grounds itS possibility in the cntcgorics or underStanding. it must be fin:~.lly grounded in the true mind :.1..~ "ell. Phcnomcm1l onl olos~· is accordint;l)' founded on mmnu:nal ontolO&Y· In brief, Mou Zongsan de,·elops an idealist Confucianism in tile ronn of a

two-layer ontology. Funhcrmorc. imilcad of explaining the rise of the t thl) m·l jumut <1nd hence Lhe phenomenal world with the help of the concept of the OOIH:nlightcruncm. Mou Zongsan introduces t1 Hegelian lclcology. According to the Awakening of Hlilh. it is a sudden non-enlightenment o f the true mind that rc!;ult·s in the mind as phcnomcn:1 (met:lphorkally. the rise of the ripples). Now for him . it is because of the- self-negation of the true mind that the phenomcnol world is mode possible. TI1c rise of the ()hcnomcnnl \\Orld is then nm due to ignorance or non.enlig.htenment. Originally, if one asks for the origiuo:tion of the wind of iguonmc.e. one can C.'(pcGI no funhcr CXJJlaMtion from the system of ll1c wtlwxau,...xarblw. The SrimnladC'w:\·imhanada-sutra thus declares: -rt is \'Cf\' dillicuh 10 understand the fact that the u·ue mind gives rise to defilement.,. 10 In contrast Mou ZongSiln argues ahm there is a h\O· fold reason for the necessity of such a sclf·ncga1ion of the 1n1c mind. First. cxcn a sage (who represents the true mind) needs knowledge. Seco nd. in order to m;mifcst its essence. it is nccCSSilf~' for the true mind 10 concrctitc itself ns undcrs1~ding. 17 Such a thesis reminds us of the Ch risti:m ::account fol'

God's crc3tion of the world. For the LaUer, God creates the world in order to manifcs1 Himself. Like\\ isc. in tenns o f the dialeclic:'l l self-negation o f the true mind. he u·ics to nccount for the possibility of science n.nd democracy. fol' him. the rise of science ood democracy, ns p:trt of the phenomenal u cr . M:u1m I Jcklcgs~.o-r. A~tmt mrd the Pmblem oj .\ {el(lp/~l'SiCI. Iran:;., Jam..::s Chnn!hlll (BioommgMo: lnd1:m:t Unh·crsity Press.. 1% 2): Mou Z.ongs:m, l.hi (/r ziti j uC' )'" zhong guQ :It~ Xllf! (lnldl<·<•tual /nTuiliun (tnd Chim::cc Phi/m.;ophv) (Toipci: Xian~wu, 1971). 16 .. ~· Ibid. p. 583. , . Cf: Xitm .tirmg ,r•tllf ll :1 s/t('n, pp 122·123.

179

world. is telcwloj!icfll in manifesting the true mind. Accordingly. unlike lh~: dc lilcd mind :md appearance ss ripples th:ll arc: subj ected to elimination. science and dcmocrncy will fonn the excellent qualities of the m1c mind in tlu:- morr~l sense. Going bc)•ond Buddhism. he
of s(llnsttrll rutd hence tl-ult or the phenomenal world. B)' contrnsl. in gl'3nting a.u identity of Lhc true mind and its func tion. Mou Zongsan is able to socurc a two-layer o ntology. Melhodologically. he o pts for a top-down :tppro:tch.

Mou Zongsan 's employment of tl1c Awclk
a

n~nec th·c

standpoint. two obscrwl.tious can be llUlde on

Mou Zongsrm ·s ide:tlist Confudonism. First of all, from the perspective of history of Western philosophy, r-.·tou Zongsan's Confucian mor:JJ metaphysics is rcminisc.cnt of Ficthc's subjccti\'C idealism. For both of thc.m, human beings can become infin ite. They :~rc common in granting imcllcetu:tl lntuilion to human beings. As a result humnn beings can take the plnce of God. Second.~·. both maintain that it is in lcrms of moral pra;'\iS that human lk:int:s can become: an absolulc ego. Human beings :u-c said 10 be ab le 10 :utain the s.rotus of holy will in the Kunt.inn sense. lutcUcctuoJ intuition is primarily concciYCd o f by ~lou Zongs:~n and Ficthe to be moral in ch::tr.tcter. Fin:lll~·. for both them. the :tbsoluie ego, ns :1 m01':ll sclf-<:onsciousncss. is responsible for the- crc:uion of our cosmos. Intellectual intuition is hence characterized b'' thcnt to be at tl1c same lime moral and ontologkal. 13 But tltis by no mean's indicates that t\·fo us Zongsan's moral metaphysics is entirely identical \\ith Fichtc's subjccth ·c idc:Jlism. The fonncr ba.sically differs from the latter in the

or

I ll ('.f.: Fichlc. & it'ttct.' of J.:Jtclwled;:i! (Wi.f,h'IU'c!UJ,/isl.:hrt.') Y'ilh Firs/ dtul .<x:,·tmd lntnx /u(;lion:J. \..".! and lrans. l'clcr 11'-~llh :llld Jolut l.:tchs (New York; Applcton·Catlury·Crons. 1970)

folio'' ing I\\ o rcg..'lrds. First it results from a hcrmcncutic.al application of the doctrine of the tmhagtJta·g(lrbhl), Second. it aims- 10 :tCCQIInt for the possibility of democmey ~nd science. Nonetheless, one C..'Ul discern that Mou Zongsnn's Confucinnism generally opts for a direction towards Gcnnan lde:~lism . Secondly, in the conscquc-nc:c of his hcmlcncutical npplic~tion of the Awakcnlug vf F'wlh in atticuhuing his idealist Confuciani~m . fvlou Zongs.1n should identify the system of I he tnfJurgma-gdrhlw as the per.l.: in the development of Buddhism. Hon'C\'Cr. contrary to our expectation, i.n his Fo.x;,t yu bf)ye (l1udd1Jli·Nalrm:. wul Prt?ina) he ruguc.s that the. system of the tallwJ/wgfll(l·gm·bJur is inferior to the Ti'en T 'ai Buddhist perfect teachings. I<J Historically. in contrast to Ouyang Jing\\ u and Lucheng ·s suspicion of 1hc s~·stem of the wlhtlgmn-gmbht). l'v1ou Zonss:.n Siron sly defends its tluthcnlic Buddhist ChllfOCtcr. lie s.ccs the strength of the Awtlkc:nmg of Ft)/th in introducina the doctJinc of che true mind. f or tl\c tmc mind is not only the ontological ground of samst1m, bill :llso th~ transcendental condition of the possibility of cnlightctuncnt. While the problem of the J)(}Ssibilit~· or attaining Buddtmhood is not mi~d ir\ Madhyamika, lhc solution l>mpo:sed by Yogacam Buddhism remains uns:uisf:tctory. Briefly, Yogac..vn Buddhism 1rics to account for chc possibility of ::ntaining Buddhahood in terms of the rise of pure seeds. HO\\C\·cr. due to the c-ontingency in the rise of p11re seeds. it is impossible for Yogac3ra Buddhism Co provide n uni\'crsal ~nd ne<:essory g.round for the sentient bein&s to nuain Ouddll;~hood . By c-ontmst. with the introduction of the true mind of lh~ talhtrgntn-garbhtr, the Awttkenmg ofFtritlr proddes on innate trausccndcntoJ ground for tbc attainment of Buddhahood. Particuliuly. due to its intcmal power sclf"f)rcscntation. the uuc mind of lhc lallfagnta-garbho is able to m:aL:e sudden cnlightcmnent possible. 1n this way. the doctrine of the U\IC mind of the lalhagata·l~arbha ntT'trms tl~t cn:ry sentient being can become o Buddha. II is worthy to note that in :a new s~· ncrecism of Buddhism Mou Zongsan clnssilks tho doctrine of the lalfurgatn-garblm of the AwakcniiiJ: of Pallh us "'distintti\C 1cuchings.'' Namely. he puts the Awokening t~( FtJitiJ together with Hu:.y:an Buddhi.~ . From a historical standpoint. such a move is innovative. A$ u mutter of fuel, Fa:t.ang. the founder of Huuyan Buddhism. though producing a significant commentary on lhe A'tYckeninK of F111th. merely :utributcs the system of d1e uuhagara-garbhn to tl1c ..final teachings." ::o This is bccou.se, for Fa:r..ang. the system of the talhaglJia·gtlfbJw introduces the idea of the non-empty. But. in the eyes of ~·lou Zongsan. sim;.c bolh H uuy~n Buddhism and the doctrine of the fallutpttla-garbJro arc common in bciug founded upon the notion of the true

or

~ Cf.: ·Mou Zong;. Thr-:> poinl IS also fl\ll<:d by M on Z.on~S:"IIl. Cf. · 1bid. 1

181

mind. they

musl belong 10

the sumc Jinc.ngc. More importanlly. coou·ary 10

Faz~m g 's

self'"(;haraelcri:nuion of Huayan Buddhism :IS perfec t teachings. he attributes it -~ t·ogcthcr with tl1c ..fwakcning of Pnith •• as belonging to the lineage of distilltli\C lc..lchings. According to rvtou Zongsan, dislincti\'C teachings ha\'C the fOllowing essential ch:un~t crist i cs. First. distinctive tcJ.chings stress the idea Qf .. self--dwe lling.- A$ pointc-d out b) Zh:mmn •• :1 key figure of Tiantai Buddhism in the Tang

Dynasty. 1'his indkatcs th31 3mk:lion :md the tlhamltiin arc different in essence. Th:u is. affiiction and the dhnnn<11n d\\ ell from each other. Eac·h is rcg:udcd as autonomous. Ap3n fro m .affiiction, there is dlumnttffl. To this cx1eru, the dharmttta is the oth"r lof nfllictionl. Conn~rscly, the

is autonomous . .'\pnrl from the tlittrrmafa, ll1crc is affiiction. To 1his cxt~n t. affiiction is the other (of the dhannata(. Therefore, these two kinds of sclf~othcr rc.lation arc no1 understood in tltc sense pcrf.:ct teachings. A1 this j un c tur~. affiiction constilutcs an obstruction.~~ fflltrnnafu

or

Mou Zongsan furt her cxp l~in s: "To say th:11 the notion of ' diJTcrcncc in essence· implies that each of the two is indcpcndcnt.·· ll Such <1l.:iud of independence docs not exclude an intcr..clationshi11 between the two. When Bffiiction CO\Cts the tcue mind. then affiiction is independent. To tllis extent o.OlictiOil d\\•clls autonomously. But. lu rcal i t~t. the rise or affiiction must depend upon the true mind. To llti.s extent. tltcy are interrelated. Since the rise of affiictiou is not imrinsic to the true mind. there is ::m essential scpamtion between the two. Second. aflliction and the cUwnnma constitute an opposition. Just like the two sides of a coin. il is only by turning O\'Cr that on ~ can reach the other. In gcn(rol. t~ccording the Buddhist clnssifkation. there ;arc ten rc01.lms: fltuldhns. 8odf11.t:nltvas. Proo·ekabuddlw.~ (btlddhas-for-thcsch'CS) . •\ 'Nwaktu (direct disciples of t.hc Buddh:a), heovc:-nly beings, IJSJlr(l (spirits), hwmm beings. dcpart~:d beings. animals (bc:asl$). and dcpnt\'cd men (hells). For di!aincti\'C teachings. while the first is identical with the truth. the other nine ~r~ in the state of non.cnlig.htenmcnt In ordi!r to :utain Buddhahood. it is ncccssar~ for us to destroy all lltc otbcr nine. Particularly. in the Aw11kening of Fi.tUh. tl1c aspect of the mind of the ltllltgawga~garbha signifies the rculm of Buddhas. while the aspect of sam.wrr11 represents the 21

ZhuntM. U'd mo jic Jing .shu ,ii (...J, J!.\'t'g<'.1is 11jl lr11 f ·tmal abrtt Su1ra}. .\lanzi:t,J.y o, Vot 28, p. 829. Thi...; po:ssogc is quoted in Ft>xin y u lXI)""' (!Jtu/,{~tJ -Nown: (uttl l'rtyn(I). J). 693 -· Fo.dn J1' b~~'l' (BuddluN\'aum.· m'KII'Mjftll) . p, 684.

182

other nine rca1Jns. That is to say. il is in tenus of the destruction of lh~: aspect of samsom that o ne c~m return to the tmc mind. Ontologically, the true mind is the ground for the rise of the other nine realms. But it is on ly ''hen these nine realms arc c.xtinguishcd that the true mind can m;:mifcst itself in auaining Buddh:thood. n Third, for distincti,·c teachings. the Buddha consist$ of infini te \ 'ittUC$. That is to say. Bulldh.a ·naturc is absolutely pure.. und the other nine

realms do not belong to its essence. It is only in \~ nuc of overcoming these nine rc:~ lms thot the lluddh:\ can achic,•c the positive \'irtucs. Founh. from a practical standpoint in order to manjfcst itself. the tn1c mind must free hsclf from all evil m~ans to salv:uion. ·rhis is bccm1sc the ''Cry essence of the true mind is absolutely pure. Finally. dislinctivc teachings end up with n doctrine of the appearance of pure Nature (xi ng qf) . In reality. such :. pure Nature (xmg) is nolhing but the true mind. Ae~ordingly, for Mou Zongsnn. it gin s rise to an idcalism.1.:. In the consequence of the methodology of the ~hl'llkcning of l ' alrh as -uansccndental-analytic.- the system of the mflmgma-glJI·blltl results in 3 trt~nsccndcut:tl idcalisut.!l t>.fou Zongsan howc\·cr maintains that distinctive 1cachings cannot represent 1hc peak of Buddhism. for. if there is only a contingent connoction between the J'C3Im of Buddhas nnd 1hc other nine realms. nnd tl1e destruction of these nine realms preconditions the attainment of Buddha hood, then one csn hardly juslify lhc ncccs!<:ity of their csistcncc. :6 r-.'lorc i.mportantly. since the Buddha hns scp3fatcd himself from tbc other nine realms. his essence remnins imperfcxc. 2 On the other hand• .Mou Zongs:.n praises Tiantai Buddhism as the pcrfC'C't teachi.ngs in tu1 authentic sense. h is because such perfect teachings affirm that all the nine- realms arc ontologie-ally equipped in lhc- realm of Buddhas. ln order to auain Buddahood, what Tian tai Buddhism asks us to remO\'C is merely our attach.ntcnt to tho world. bUl not the world itself.::a In brief. pcrfcx:ttcnchings must hn\C the foll owing characteristics: (I) ·n1c dharmntfl is •·identical" with a01ic1ion. Apart from the dhannnta. there is no n.ffiiction. nnd wLc n:rsn: (2) Mind is first of t1J.I understood in tbe s.:nse of a mind o f 3ffiicaion. Even a sin3le instance of mind consists o f affiiction ond the tllwrmaw. Accordingly, the mind con sis t~ of p ure nnd impure possibilities: (3) All dhanna~ ori~i.natc in th e non-dwelling ground. Thill is to Sily, there is no ultimate foundation for the world.t9 Particularly. the mind docs not function as th~ ground of the world.

lJ

" '" "' ,.

Jbid. pp. 695--696 )bid. p. 90 1·. p. 875. Ibid, p. 561. Ibid. p. 698. Ibid. pp. 982·983.

"' cr tbill. PP 697-6!}'1). , cr.:lb>d. r 6&5: p 829: p

9g9·, p. IOJ>

/S.i

"'·lou Z-ongsan insists that Confucianism should be dc\·c:lopcd in lh~: form of perf<x:t teachings. ' 11 Examin"-d ngainst the above cri1Cri3. one

surprisingly discovers that Mou Zongsnn's idealism sntisfics none of them. First. sticking to the frnmC\\Ork of ··one mind hming two aspec-ts·· in the AwttJ.:enlng vf Ftiith , Mou Zongsan gmms il prim:tcy to the aspect of the moral mind which is i:Qmp:tra blc to the tUwrmOia, As :a ft'1Uit. the plh:no mcnal \\Orld, \\ hich is rhc counterpa rt c,1f ,\fJJJu·aru. is only secondary

to the mor<'! l mind. Such an ontological dependence of phenomena upon the moral mind precludes the possibilit)' or an idcmit) bct\\Ccn Lltcm in the sen:1c of perfec:t teachings. Second. f;incc-l\·tou Zongsan identifies the moral

mind whh intcllcc tu:~ l imuhion. it must be purged of any sensibility. Accordingly, it is ;;m infmitc mind rothcr tho.n a mind of :tffiiction. l ike the true mind jn lhc sense of tlu: Awokening of Faith. his moral mind is absolutely pure. Finally. fot Mou Zongs:m. the moral mind functions as the tr:lll.~etndc nt:ll ground of all dharma~. Bul in stressing an infinite mind QS the uhimutc foundation of the l\ Orld. he dcvitues from the Tiantai thesis th
(/harmas arise from the non-dwelling ground. Mcthodologicall~. lhe pcrfea

teachings in the Tiantni Buddhist sense goes lx:) ond the idea of grounding in the transccndcnu:.l as well ns teleological sense. Alltl1is indicates lhat Mou Zongsan·s idc31ist Confucianism cannot 00 qauliflcd a~ the l>t"'l'fe<.t teachin~s in the sense or Tiantai Buddhism. Therefore. he must face the following dilcmmo: On the one h;wd. if he. tnitintains Lh<~t his idcali~ moral metaphysics rcprcs('nts the orthodox of Confucianism. he should prnise the idea of the pure mind in the syste-m of 1hc tmhagow-garbho. On the. othct hand. if he is faithful to his thesis th:ll Confucianism should be de\'clopcd in the form of perfect tcxhings in the sense of Tiantai Buddhism. he has 10 gi,·e up his cl3im th:ll his idel.Jist trend signifies dtc onhodox in Confucianism. Mcl11odologically. he should nbolish the grounding approach. If he could stick to the Tiantai dt>Carine of Buddh3·ttaltlrc. he should then disco"er th:'l.t the mind of the Confuci3n S:~.g,e must 11l..o be equipped with the t.:\'il fflltrnnas. Th:.1l is to Sl1y. such u mind c:an no longer be absolutely pure in essence. Rather. il should be finite. rather lh:'ln infinitc. 12 In rca.lity, when l\'lou Zongs::tn cl:Utns that "Perfect teachings cnn only be I)OSsiblc by reaching the infinite mind," he might h3\'C commiucd to a position similar to the doctrine of the External School in T 'ai T 'icn Buddhism.3' Like the Jnttcr. he linally inlcrprcts the perfect teachings in the Ti:Jmai Buddhist sense in 1crms of a docuinc of pure mi11d. ~~

~--: This :tl~) S,l'''-~ ris..: to $\Jill~ inh::nwl dit)'icuHics in M~u 7.on~;;;an's typology of Sung.Mmg Nco-ConH1eiamsm and his Confucian theory or the hlfh<"S:l good. CJ: : Wins·<~hcuk Ch:ul. " On Mou Zc.' n.:s:.m's Hcl'n'tcnculical

Application of Budilllism"' (Forthcoming). •lJ l'ucm ~·fum bm ( 1'1rc:oT)' rJj t/11( Pcrftc:t Govtl). t>. 332, '' Cf.: Fflxm y u ~~~ (BuddltthVmlln~ 11ml Prapt(l}, p 112.),

P11 rt II Confucian Etbics i.n Comparative Context and in Prospect

Between the Good a nd th e Right: The Midd le Way in Neo-Confucian and Mahayana Moral Ph ilosophy .lmft,, >fm INTRODUC fiON For our purpose \fC can SJ)' " the l'ighr · is lhtu ,,•hich moralily

requires 3nd -rnc good- is lh:n which is \\Otth seeking. A ,fuuc is a disposilion to do'' hat is right in 3 poutic.ul:u respect or to seck what is ~ood in

3

panicular respect. Allhough some would dr.tw our 3llcmion to the

side of virtues, 1 some would bclic,·c that ,·irtuc is moral excellence. a sculcd altitude tlull (Onduces to habitually good action in some aspc-tt and that vinucs could be classified as intcllcccual virtues and

<:orrcctil'c

pr:~ctical vi.rtucs. 1 Coofucius -.nd Ari.stotlc have olmosl 1hc s:mJc idea of "hat virtues arc: they arc especially cxhibilcd b~· what is difficult for humans~ they ::~ rc dispositions Md modes of choice or invoh·c choice; they :\rc stAtes of ch:trnctel' concerned with choice. lying in :t mean.·' The concept of virtue might have been altered or cnricl1cd when what Confucius t:rught was dc\'cloped inro 3 doctrin~ of Nco-Confucianism ~nd when Buddhism ''as naturalized in the soil of Chinese culture. Let us examine the positions of Nco~onfucian and Mahayana ethics on vinucs in relation to the good and the rig.tn in the context of contemporary philosophy. in JXlrticnJ::u-. in the context of tl1c criticism made of rulc-\lction-bascd ethics since the 1950s by Western supporters of 1

Philippo:1 Fovl. I •;,.,.,t'S mul J'ices tmd Oll•i',. Hs.vfJ)'J ,·, .\{om/ Philo.wphy (0:-;l<,rd: 13lncl.>wcll. 1973) R Such an cmph:tl>is mipJll he lhnughl '" h<.."$pc3k :~ t~tthcr nc~:ll i\'¢

,·icw of tl1c. n~tutc oud tend\.'1lCics of lnunan beings. 'l'his ('.ails to

mind Xun7i 's Lhoor:• on hum.:m nntun:. X~i . hmn."\'(.T. wo.'i quite optimistic t"lx'I\U.,thc pos~i bil it~· t'L' whul hmmms might nchk"'·c - M:IC{[\I~Irric, J. •..J Dh.'IIUIUJt) ' Q,((/lris/um l~lluc.
t-.•tcucius:· tlt('Of1' on hum(ut nature. D. C. t.au. tram;., Cmrfm:iu.,: Tlte .·Jua/o~cls Olannund~H>rth. Pcn~'llin. 1979) 9.29. 9:30. Ari.stnllc,:.. ='~•<:omaclwan /?1/IIC$. !) a \ ill Rt'S.'). tnm~. (New York· O'l:f()rd, 1998) 1105b28--1106a 11. 1 106b36- 11 07~25 At kast ))avid 1hunc l ~t~d mond discretion as \me kind of \'Lrtucs in Enquiry ConC'..qming 1/~e Pl'illdple of.\lomi.J (1751 ) 2:1. For a list or \"1 11UCS in Confuciunism ~'C 0 . w. 3

Vvn Norden 1'Vir1u.: Elhic.-. nnd

Cvnfttc i ani~m:·

in Bo

M(l\1, Comptrl'(l/1\'t:

,1ppn:mches to CM~tr."•~ Pl11/o.w phy (13m1ington · i\$hgatc, 2003) I08·1 09.

.Imfo11 }'m r

I 88

\'inuc·bascd cthkal thcoties. and of the criticism of f\bhii~ ana ethics by contemp<)fary Confucians in more recent d<."C~tdcs. I hti\'C chosen as :a focus the Confucian concept qumr. especially in its Nco-Confucian moral imJ>Iicntions. and the equally complex Mahfiy3na notion upfi)'(l (upl1ytr-ktm$tllyt' kusflltl), and their rcl:uioo to the good and the right. I will argue that mtmy studies h~vc exc-essively emphasized the mc<ming of qmm nnd upiJJ u as means (cxpcdicnq• or the cspcdicnt) while o\·crlooking dtcir essence :tS end (1\"n. .Vt or krl.(a/n), as quality of actions and as \ irtucs of persons. As dispositions dtC)' -come to us by nonuc. we tirst acquire tltc p-otentiality aml later exhibit the ac t h·it~ •· through rcpe3tcd pmcticc." As a state or char~ctcr c.1ch is e:~:prcsscd as moral perception. mo.ral reasooi.ng. morul judgmen.l. and moral decision: as well as propel.' net ion directed by the ' inucs: they each fit into a comprchcnsh·e cLhical S\'Stcm rooted in ccnain cardinal \'irtucs. As 1he unification of the affccli\'C Md cogniti\'C virtues o f 11 person. qmm and upliya ideally c nsw c th.1t acL~ \\ ill be rislu and ~'001.1 as the practJcc. rcspc:ctircl ~·. of yi (obli&o-uoriness. oughtncss or righteousness) and lm.mfn (wholesome, wise and sl:ilfu l nction). Tbcy represent the unification of tJtc mo "incommensurable'" \'dom l(M)l) ,\ /rullmpmrliko· 18::ZOJ. ; "J:>;M) is the proper princ1plc/:/mJgqmm for JUd£tng the p:lst :md prcscm. (gtyi, : lri :.ltMgqumr)" Xwrr: Zhcngtniog.22. Wot'k:ln. Uut((ln 1/su, 1":11: L/asic Wn'till~., (Nc\\ Yurl.:: Columbin Uni\'C.·rsity Prc!':i:i. 19G3) 153 und .\'uuzi: A 1'nmslaH01r f1ml S1ml).• of tht C(Jmpld e W<1rk. \'OI 3. }(1l111 Knoblocl: tnms. (Stanford: St:ml'h nl University Press, 199J) <> COI11JMf.:.: U.C. L:tu '~ translati(lO of tlroli~; I (J.;kctt. 200;t) 9G·91·. Am.;$ end RoSCJnorlt. 'l'J.e A ttc'll~· tu of Ctmjitciu,'i: tl Plnlosophlcal Jj yuu/tlfitm (NC\\ York: B:all;mtinc. 1998) 132; Simon Leys. 1'1t l'f A11alcct.t rif C(mfilcius (New Yotk: Nonon l997) 43: rutd (>thcrs 1J".UlS!ations of qutm as "W.:igllin£ things up" or ''c.'\p<:di<:ncc•·. Sec abo C.T. Wei. in Wing·t~il Cltan. Clm Jl.f i und .V .:rJ·Cui!/IJcitJIIiJm 4

Okmtllulu.

U ru\"Cnilt)'

l.ml)1t~•·r:lm

(BCIJmg:

vf l i:I\\ Hii Prc::>s. 1986) 25.5-272, :m
Zhonghu~ .

(U..:·-tjing: Lhol\gl1Ua, 1 979)~ Gon&'Wmg:lmmr/Sprmg ami Autumu Armal.s witlr Cmmwmmy (Taipei: Shangwu. 1973). l lmoz/man ( fnipci: Zhvnglnm. 19'13) a.nd Dong Zh·vng::;hu. Cluwqmfimlu ~:d . Y W. W~ng. C(>nlnlCnli.XI Of'\ hy Song Kuttng: Sun Ytmng ( 'hanghar Sh~ngwu. J97g) I I: 2·3

(iall~'wtg

Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

189

Up.~wr·lll.ruJalya· kllsnla \\3S abbreviated as 1tp(1ya nnd grJdually lost its complete meaning. II has been transl:ucd inlo English as; expediency. ··expedient mcnns: · 1 the com-cnient w::ay. skill -in-mc:ms. skilful menus. Qr e\·en "pedagogical sJ...ill-. 8 h wos rendered in early Chinese Buddhist tc.xiS us 'J'"m which is opposile in meaning 10 sh/;9 or flmgblim, 10 tltr.r!UtntJiuin, or ii/mnquanflmgbiwr. 1l Up-Confucirut...:; about whether the cxpcdicnti'JH(In is still d1e same ns the st.andBrd(jing (social or c u~omMr rules). In light of the considerations lhc l'ro and con, ~

also K. L Shun ,\/rucitt.t and l:.iu'f,l; Chlii•W'' 1'h<mgln (St:mford· S1:ml0rd Um\o'Cr.S ily Press 19')7) 55·56: 65~ A S. Cu.u. cd. Em:yr:lopcclm of Cltin~st· Phi/t).IOfJI~v (New Ymk Routledge. 2003) G25. 1

Kumar:.•jrva. lmn~ , The I.JJIIIJ Sutrtt!Stuldlmrma-pumlitriko-s ulm lj\1l'twjtdumlmty'ing, T{li.,ltri: V9N2(i2·1·6 3 ~ M. Sidl...·•nts. Pcr.fQirtll ftlcntlty anti Huddlrisi!•Mio;loplry: }:'mpry l't·r.son.'t (l lonlf:;hin:: Ashgatc:, 2003) I I 1. r,toLc b. Zhj)' j , lt:iUS.. .~ ftt/t{i.$WI/Oiflfi--U'pti.Jymt{,f,\ /Qfl\~:/ugUOII, J. 1f:us/t(j V4GNI9 11 : I. ··Qtum ll'e / qnanmtm, :/f(JI'f,I'Ong luw.firl..~hi wei sltl/11, jiu jlng :hi ~'111. "

10

llunCin \Vulson, tNn:L 11re Lotu:c Sutm l Smldlwrnm pumlorika·JIIIral .\llaofalitmlmajin;t (New York Cvlumbiu Uni\·cr.:;ily Pn.::;:;. 199.1) 2. 11 l} pfly.t-l:<m&ol)'lt, lnms.. fl\)fll Chin~,."SC by Gaona C. C. Ch311tl. A Tl'"l'tWi t') l of .\.talulJ'(int:t SmmJ-: .' \(>I('C/ultn' from tlw MaiNirttllu)J.'t1w S111n1 (PCt'l.l'l~')rh·anu~. P<.·!UlS)'Ivtu\iUSlate Uni\'...YS:IIY Press. 1983). 268. 427-468; truus. from Tibetan. Upii)'O - ka11.ialytt -ttiima, by M:uk Totz.. 11t~· Skill ;, M~·an.JI Uprlyt,/;.tmftt~ll(t Sun w (New York. P~tnth~;on. 1994) &..-c also 1'a1Jiuj; VI IN310:38, Vl:?N34)·135. nod Vl2N::W6·156.

/WI

.lmfon } 'mr

Zhu Xi took a middle way. He interpreted t11e inherent relation bct\\CCn lh~: and the Jing. unific."
I!

1'/tt> Grcllt I.NwningtDn:tue:l . The eighr steps
/.('llnri ng Jct:.al thc

ptinciplcs for cuhiwtti.ng houl\1urKk..TSlUthl ch:rl Lhc ttllim:uc ::.1:uKIPJint im·~'h'cs rL'C'-'~ni>t.inl:_l ~'n u lt un t~.h:: rc~tl ity bcy·o1ld ~-11 con~1)tut~.l thinkmg uod dcs:cnphon. Ontolugicall~'· oll phCJl<,mcnn urc lUlllUC. If a magic pom::r i.ii apphtd by a (xxlhi.wltL'tl to deal \\ ith human off:1irs and 1.:<1.11)" C)Ut ju~ticc \\C C
Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

191

Founh])•. tltc stance of Confucius and or Aristotle on moral virtues or c~cellcncc 1 ~ is plausible as far ns the application or qtum and uprlya goes but still needs qunlilication. The Buddhist Twofold Tnuh and the Nco-Confucian T\\Ofold (morJI-mctnphysical) Princ.iplcl U posithdy supported the respective Buddhisl :~nd Confucian \\'ays of life and their ::tSsociatcd values. while on the nc-gati\'c side denying their ontological primae)' and the axiQiogicol primacy of 1hosc ways orlifc. In lhe name of yl or .Yin);.."l-'t (the practice of yt). or of compnssion/.tarw1d :tny action '' ill bring about a Double Effect or -double conscqucnc.cs." and we " 'ill ah\'O)'S face the problem of ho\\ to uni(\' Lhe 1ight :md the good in n.ction. 11tc creation of <JIIlln ~Uld upr1yo expresses the human will for the achievement with \'arious m~ns. of the highest good (nirwma or tiannmhc:J'i rcspcct.ivcly; or -- lhc summum bommi). At the same lime. \\C should nol deny t11at the means, as qutm and uphyt~themscl n~s . h:we already become the pcrft.'Ciion of Lhl! virtues or 3n agent renli7.ing the highest good/summum bunum nncJ hence ha'c bc."Comc the end itself. according to many prcscm..<Jay \\ ricers. To be completely vinuous, th.cy s:'ly, is to be cnliglllcned or at one with hc:t\'Cn :~nd e-Mit. Titc Middle Way as the EisiJtfold Path nt hs ordinary le\'c l brings human to renlizc the highc-sl good: while at its u·anscendcnt level it is an ··empty way- - thnl is, we can do better and better but c:m nc\·cr achieve the absolute best. The l\1iddJc Wt:~y thus cnc.our.1gcs the process of adit~/inilllm and so benefits us as long os we li\'C togc.ther in this world. Nco-Confucian quan and ~13 h iy:i n a up
In Chinese philosophy ns early as Confucius' tlme y i (righteousness. oughcncss/obligmorincss) and Ji (profit or interest) were ~p:mucd into two diiTcrcnt ngcnt·rclated ,·alucs in s11ch s:1yings as "The noblcs(jwzzi comprehend .vi ~nd the infcriors/xia(m:·n comprehend II" (4.16). Therefore. central to the history of Chinese philosophy has been a tradjtion of opposing righteousness and profit, "~hich has l:t$tcd until now. In the tenus of AnglQ-Amcri<.:,on ethics. the dcbu.tc is nbout the right 01nd Ute good.

u "~ret;: h:ss not 11ll: .-;pcci:~ llr owr::~l cQtmOt3tion ll.t3t '·,·irtuc'' hus ocquitul in m01.lcm EnMiish. Excdkn~ i:c lcs::; li !t bl~.: to mblc;:td". Ros~. A'toomocl~ew' l;'thiC~S (1998). xxv1, Trad;lloni!lly. ··cx()\'dicn'-'Y" '' not neccs._~mly m(lr;)l csccllcncc io cillK'T <.:biJ'J(:SlC or Gn::t.k i.-thic~. I we moral dJS(~t(·ttotl ( L!I motal cxcdlcnce or vit1ue in contract to mt'l:h:micol sl:ills. which n professional killer JXlS:iC~ E.'IOpeJi~n~y C.:CI. \Jld tK: moral or immonll. the ( fll (ltl in the Analccls (9 29) is moral exocllencc. t11c csccllcn<.:c of a person ..

192

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The good " and the right arc l\\0 vcr~· rough classes of normathc concepts cuslomarily di\'idcd bclwccn the C\'a lu:uh·c and lhc dcon1ic. Th~ C\'3h1.3lh ·c conccpls howe to do with the values thnt things hnvc by being valued or 16 being \aluablc. '·A.xiology"' rtfcrs lo the whole mngc of posili\C :;md negmi,•e \'alues fmrn diS\':'IIuelb3d 10 beinG \'aluc neutrnl, nncl lhen 10 the highest \':tluc1llighcst goodisummum bwwm. Valu;ablc items could be purely intrinsic goods. purely instrumental ~oods or a c:ornbin;ation. Sotrn: mornlists use ~valuable* and - to \';lluc" 10 define the good 11 ns meaning, rcspccLhcly. ""•orlhy of being ,·nJued nnd \\'Orlh)' of be in~ judged good" and '·to be fa,·or:ibl)· disposed 10\,ards. and to j udge good."' Dimensions or distinctions of ,·alucs (such as prudential, aesthetic nnd cthicnl \'aluc. or spccifac Vtllucs such ::tS health. beauty. and welfare) hJ,·c been discussed by many. They stn.ndardly identify one or more ,·aJucs as the only basic cLhical "aluc or ,·alues, the only thing or things.. \\·'hich \ \C ha,·c a moral n:.ason 10 1 promote fOr its or their own s.1ke ' such a..~ h:tppin~:ss or th~: K::mti.:lll good u Tllc good js, n::ry rou~hly. the pm pcrty of n thmg meriting crnumenJotion. fE\·cr slnt:e AtiSlotlc ;.Utd his uh.~J.e,·ru. followcr:\1 failed to include '·!?uot.l'' in the :sd tcmc-of ·'cotq mric:.;" c xcqJI. by making it apply in oil '-'f tllCm. "iOt.Kf' luis ..:.aused bcwildem1ent Jue 1'-l its 111311}' u~-s. Arh totlc in~i.;tcll l h ~ l being, like unity, cnuld nnt be 3 pt.•nus (.\fnnpll).-.fics: 9QRh22·S; 14•1u32·64: 1003b26: 10-1;~36·1~ : book 4. ch. 1·3: book 6 ch I .-nd Xicollutclt~,m Etltia ( 1998) : 1096al 9-29. Out t~ f this aro:sc lh~ tm:die.val tk~Ji nc l)f tr:llll)(.'CililcntaH=-alt t\quin:~:'i li,1t.xl ··);tood" ...bcin~... "one... " true··. "thmg." as tran.:;ccnd&::ntal tcmls applying. to C\'CI)'Ihmg and held that c,·crything real was somehow good. bu l thr.t g,)Otl was prt-dieable in all the clltcgories su11!~ a substrutt.-c:.. quillity, rclotion. ct.,;. cuuld oil be suoU. (Fur Aqum~ un '·gll>lXI .. tnm$Ccndcnlal. ~'C R.W. Mull i~:.tn , trJni>., /)e l'aflrl{e. 3 Vl)):-; (Chkvgv. llcnl)' Hc~ncry. 19S1·:54. <.luc;;stitJn 2 1. Mtick: 5))'1 W. D. R(•ss. 71~ n ght muf the gr)(HI (O>.ibrd: Clarendon. 1930), ch. 3· 7 is inslnrcti\'c to read, 16 'fhc t~ftn .;v:Jiu.;:" i$ from tll~ Llltu1 w,/cn:, me.ming "to be of wonh''. ,. G. II. ,·on. \VrigJ1t, 1'11~ J'miaie.5 ojGoadt'h.'Sof (tondon: Routledge. :md K Ptml. I%.3) hils tl full d i scu~ion of the difl'CII.,U u:;c.s or ~O~•d . r'\lst> .:;.:~ Thnma~ ~an i on , 11'/rm We ()1, 4! m l:'tJclt Orlrrr (Cnmhndgc· H:lrnm Uni\'\.~.S ity Ptcs.-s. 1 99~) 95 and Michll¢1 J. Zimnh.~nnM, Tin~ N(ltrlri.l of/nlrilmc 10 /ui! (l.unham: Rowmnn & Li uld i dd. 200 I) 1-2. Zimmerman di$Ugn.-c.'> with ~m lon on o1h1.'f i ~lk'S of '':aluc but :•gr..'\..":1 to lt:.l! tl11! tcnn "\!OOd". i k sUites that both "valuablt;:" and "lo \':tine" ha,·c ba<>ic >'nd d.:.1wcd scnst.~ The two ~n:)CS oi' ··nduablc" nrc: (bosac) good nnd (dcJiv!.!d) wonhy ot' b&::illS judged good. the two SC!lscs 4.-'f "10 \'a)uc·• (UX: : (b{1s1c) to be fa\'OI'ably disposl·d towards und (dcfin.:d) hl j udge to be gnud. Jlc u)_st) giw..5 B dctai.J..'f.! li:>t of n:Jascd basic and rda.\1.'\J d&::r iwd ~1ls~:s "'t<.l j udge :ts gL'lXI. b~•d Hr neulnll" and "\\(.lrthy u r bc1ng JUdgOO good. b~d M nculr:tl... 111 Nicholas Rc.'ldll'r, 'J'opic.f m Plulmop/, c(J/ Logic ( l.)o(dJ\'X"Jn: U . R(·tJd . 1%9) J(i~ L.W. Sumner, Wdfttt't.', 1/appinl!.\'9, mtd E1hic,, (Oxford: Clon:.'ltdon. 19')6) l.J Smnn..::r pre.."'4.!nt:t nn original theuty llr \\'c lfan;, ilc Clllm..::cts \\ d rm~ cJ('SCiy with h~ppan ess or lire s~usfttcu on. ~ nd proc.:t~IXL,. to defend wdf:mm~ .

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19.1

will (Ross 1930:6). In the Confucian tradition the lisl of goods \\ ould be a1mosl the same. although certain writers do say lhat. whi1c Confu cians reject some of the same candidates for the good life :1s arc rcjeclcd by Aristotelians they June .. positive com:cplion of nourishing diiTcrent from that of any major Wcstcm virtue ethics: one that emphasizes panicip:uion in fam ilial life and in ritual acti,·ity (Van Norden in Mou 2003; lOG). For example, Confucius expresses a prcfci'C!U;c. for acti\ i1ics charactccistK: of a way of life vecy dirTccent from the idc<1ls espoused by any ,·c rsion of Platonism ot Aristotelianism: a life of taking jo~· in simple pleasures " 'ilh friends and loved ones (I I. 26). 19 In my view. pleasure. no mauer how simple. and friendship. and love do come within Aristode 's conception of happiness. ::1> 111 speaking of the right a.n ethical theory is discussing oc1ion (including inaction, such as H7tWt'l in Chinese philosophy). A right action is a permissible thing for you to do. IL mly be e ither obl ig.t~to ry or optional (ncul""lor supcrcroxatory). An oblisatory acl is one th;u morality requires rou to do~ it is not pcnnissible for you to rcfl"ain from doing it ~• TlH: good~ or \'lllucs. arc ccntmlto many ethical sys1cms. Some philosophers. such as Plato nnd J. S. ~..t ill. 3ttribute a dcc1> structure to \'alucs. posting one supreme value from which all other \'oliues arc dcrh·ativc. Others. like G. E. Moore ru1d Da,;d Ross. nsscnt an irreducible ..plura1istu- or independent \1duc.s. with no such deep structure obtaining. Plato. on the other hand. sees his !'Uprcmc ,·aluc ("lhc good") as something lot:llly removed from human life. whcrc;~.s Mill. t\·loore and Ross Yicw goodness ultimately a.s a chamctcristic of mentnl st.olcs or or ac.tion. Th e~ nlso impute ,·aluc dcri,·nti\'cly. and some others impute it intrinsicall), to human bcha,':i oral traits. sn~·ing. "Human charo.ctcr and hun1o.n dispositions b:wc ,·aJuc or \\Ollh. \\ltich belong lo them in lJ1c same- sense as redness bclong!i lo the

ar~uc::; thll n clfttrC is the.only basic c!hicnl nUuc. the only thing which \\C ha v~ a nl\'lC-al r~ :1~'1'1l to l)mmot.; f\.lr ils O\\ n sah , Jn thb \\ ;l)'. his wd l~1 1 i.stn i.s

fk

:.12.:uno,;r the t·atuc pluralism that currently dnmm:ncs mor:•l philosophy. XidwmacfflJ(m l:ilucs, bo()k I pro,·idc$ 1l clBssic accowlt (lf lhc hmnon ~ooJ . 19 Sec nl}'nn W. Van Norden. ··Virtue Ethtcs and Confucinn ism·~ in Ao Mou <"<~ (2(103) 106-107: Sliu~eri:on~. Edw,lfd (2003) 122-123. :u Nic:omaclu:nn erM<:s ( 1998) 1097:,34. When discussin~ lhc cml of ~•ction ~~ hnJ)pmcss /\ t"l~Ol l c c:\flluins "self -sulric1~\1... " l3y Sl!lf-sulrlcicnt \\'\.~ do uot mc;ut lha1 \\ hich is suJi'l<:tcn1 (or o mru1 by himself. .. . liut also fo.• pan.'J.l li, childrciJ, \\ ifc ltnd in J;t.-'llCTtll for hi~ fri~nd:.; and fellow c iti:tco.i . since man t.s btJm for dlill.:tt$hil' ·· ::• The K:mlian C.11CS")ncal impcrattvc i5 a typi~l c."X:.mple of this The fcmnulo ((lt a cutcgoticol imtx-c-:rti\'C is simply "Du X! .. l)(., \\ hut r(·;~SIO'IJ disclo se~ to be lhc intrinsically rig.hl lhing to do. fo r example "·Keep your 1~misc! .. Sec hnmamtcl KlH11. Fmulmll.:trUll Pt•incJpl<s qf tit.-: M.:t(lphy#cs r..if l:.ihics, 1rnns T. K. Abbott (l.ondon: Longman. lOth (.'ihtton, 1% 5) , -J6

Jt).J

.lmfon }'mr

chcrry... :z My vic'' is tJuu tJ1c rcJmjonship bch\CCO the good and the right is this.: from the good we can dcriYc principles: these principles arc not be ~bsolutc. but prima }ilcic ~3 or ovctTidnblc. that is. thnt we <=m~ find ourseh cs in silualions in ''hich differe nt c;onm<::ling principles app]y. We make moml judgments by reasoning nbout ' 'hich one is riglll and should win out in the competition of principles under the c.onditions existins on the occasion at h<md: ahcn \\C must decide co do the morally right
!: l lhn l aird. A Stttdy of /l~alism (Cambridg~: Cnmhridb>c Uui,·crsity Prc$S. 1920). 2il 'f11-.: d a:»ic.: t.""~bjt-'tthist \'i...·w on \ :tlucs "'"' ~;in:n by Pluto. /({•Jm hlic, bed: 2. t~os. G. M. 1\ . Gruhc, (Camhrldgc· Hackcn 19'-JZ)·. Ci E. tvh>I>I'C. /'rincrpirs l:.'thic-(1 (Ctunbndgc: Ctunbtrdgc UntVC1"Stty Press. 1903). ~3.~ discus.-.cs good as n simple ind.clinablc quul i t~· : the. last ~haptcr d i!>CUS...~$ what lh iu~ nr-.: f!(I<.Xt Gcn4;:rall)". their ''k:w is th-t'1 values !IJ\: worlhy of b~in ~ dc~in.xl \\'h~th cr or noc anynnc actually d;,.>sil\!.~ them, their \\"(lf11une~s nl' bi:mg d1.-sircd iS- mdif"!odcn1 of us. ~ J.atm t(w "'at fi r.>1 gkmc<:.'' W. U. Ross \ISI.'.i prmld jude 10 chll.lltCtcrt7..C the :,.1utu.'i uf a priJk:iplc \\h.id 1 prc:;crilx..'":i a duty tbat hl-5 J. pn:;sumptino in iL-; l':t\"QJ bot 111:1) be.: t.WCnilkk, t by anolh<,:;r ;:.1Jch dllly. (n that ~ase. the lau.._,. is one·s all·lhmgs--commlcn..'d dmy Z·• \Vaoey Suum(·r advocmes !In iu.dit('Ct cthicc.J conscqucnti;dist lhoory. ·'The Gnod nnd Ute Rig.ht."' N~"K' E.uay11· em .John Swarl .\fill and UtilittuiOJijJm., cd w. g c(l('l)l.'f Cl :.11. (Crmtl(/hm.lmlf'IWI Qj'/'lllhJ:Ir.J!1IJ)1. S uppl<;{l)l!l)t~uy \'( I I 5.

19791 114.

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QUAN AS A PRINCIPLEIL/ AND AS A VIRTUE: TOE MIDDLE

WAY OFZHU XI 'S MORAL PHILOSOPHY lt was Confucius who first drew philosophers· attention to the concept of quan. Qurm in the Anr1lect.1 h.u two functions: ns disposWon ~:m..d virtue in ''the exercise of discrction/qumr- or in ''e-mploying discrction.. •5 and as tl1c J)rinciplc dccidine! the direc-tion of ac-t ions. As 'irtuc it is exhibited in proper st:1tes or mind and in p_roper actions: ns principle it wciyhs the e,·ent tJtc c.ircwnsw.nccs. the time and the people invohcd inn siluntion. Therefore. its essence-is propriety H (the customary rules) and yi (oughtness/obligatorincss and righteousness). Confucius correctly strcss<:d the ad,·nnocd role of qua11 in mom! self~eulth·3t i on. and he cmphasit..cd lhc function of cogniti\·c excellence nnd the intrinsic ,nJuc of moral character. Mornlity os vinue is in1cmal :snd inlrinsie and must be expressed in the- form of being good:

or

You C-::Ul study "ith some-one. :tnd yet not necessarily pursue the Daoitbc Way together: you can lcnm the same Dao/Way \\ ith someone, and not neccss:uily take your stand with him; you can take your stand with someone but it docs not mc:m that you c:an exercise moral

discrction'quan with him. "One of wisdom is never in two minds" (9. 28129). It is diiJicult for a moml ngenl to nchie\'e the vinuc of rc:.dily adnptin&., to c;hunging or dire circumstances by employing qutm or wngtp1antlt1bit m·r, to bring about nn ideal rc.sulL While most philosophe(S linked this saying with moral sclf~cultiva tion, discussed in the Anal~<:ts 8. 8. 16. 3. :u1d 20. 3. fo r the purpose of "taL: in& one's place/It' or the er.tdu:JJ steps of momJ cultivation taught in 2. 4. I emphasize its essence of making choice between right 3lld \HOng. lying in the mean. in unique circumstances discussed in 9. 3. and of the relation 10 frie nds as discussed in I. 1:' and 9. 25. Here I must cl.:arify the two different mc-:~nings of fJUan. h could be u nuuter or expediency in dc.aling \\ ith non-motu! issues. for inslnnce. o hunter lost in the woods :u night with no bullets lefl. ond unable to usc his gun for sclf~dcfcnsc. builds a fire to keep u pack of woh·cs from o.lUt<:king and killing him. He ma~· be an C\'il person. such as an escaped murderer. or a good person. Based on his practical experiences he made the expedient choke. We may say he wns bold. but this was not the specific cou.rage6'0n~ ~ Sc~.: the note 6 nbovc ~•bQut ll~ tr~m::il~timls

L)f

:lnale:cu 9.29130.

discretion refers. to n kind of cosnitivc Hexibihly that allows ou,·. (O lx11d the mlc-s u1 rc::.-ponsc to cb3.nging or unique c.~i tcuntslances. ~ Sec Bojun Ynng, LmrJ-'U,Vizlm (Dcijing: Z.honghuo. shu j u. 1980). 96. \\here ICNJ'Iuo mlabilm i~ lkfi.tled ~·:, · ··~.·mpk1y i n~ 11Wl-:tl J ill\:retion to ~!apt lo changing situultons. .. ~tingcrJand thm~ s

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Confucius ad\'ocatcd (9. 29. 14. 28). lie bas not used morol discretion 10 make his de1,:ision. unless he did all of these in order to protect ;mother person or persons. who would han died without the hunter's protection. nnd unless the hunter was putting himself in d;mger for the sake of the other pcrson/s - he himself being able to lca\'C the place before tl1c wohcs could ::1pproach him. To exercise moral discre-tion the agent must exercise her moral perception. reasoning. aud dcci sion · m3k in ~;. It is also ucccss01r)' that the agcm is invoh·cd in de-aling witl1 others and is moth'atcd by a sense of obli~tion/oughtness 1'i tmd good ·will only for others. In the Analea~· II . 22, \\C obscr\'c tJ1at Confucius was asked by his disciples Zilu and Ranqiu the s.1mc q"cstion but he ga\·c them diiTcrcnt answers so as to make a distinction bctw~n -cxccssin caution" and ··recklessness or impctuositv" in his moral tenching.:n That illustrates a state of Confucius· chamcicr concerned with choice. lying in 3 menn. In the D(>t:Trme of the Mean Confucius lllUllyztd the tno reASOnS w hy the doo is not pursued nncJ understood: lirst. one cun miss the point of the mcOln by &Oing beyond it or not coming to i t~ and, secondly, "Ther~ is no one who docs 1101 C:lt and drink, but tJ1crc are few who c:m rc..'\JI)r know tJtc fl.:war:·=• this means tJtat quem or moral discretion is the unit~· of <111 vi11ucs Confucius ad\'()Catcd. especially :hi/wisdom (cognilivc) and y i/ righteousncss or oughtncssiobligatoriness expressed ns a.O.Cctivc as wcU as cogoiti\·c responses. :9 and in a sysh,;matic structure of mean/the Middle Wny and 10 wuwei, Only ir one L:nows well all the ,·inucs :md JXlSScsscs them. and the moral princ.iplcs derived from and pcrfcr;ted with the ,·irtues. C3Jl one apply tJuOn!moral discretion for ethical issues as skill full) and accuratcl~· as a food connois!.Cur can apprecimc and distinguish the full O.: h'Or of food. The accumulo:tion of Lhc knowledge :wd lhe cultivmion of the ' 'irlues tiii..C a long time '' hilc the I'Cquisite affect. JlCrccption. reasoning. decision-making. and action·t~ki ng may take only less t11an a second. There arc no absolutely fLxcd rules to follow. Qu.an is impossible without tUlificd \'irtucs intern3lit..ed in one's character as the dri\'ing moti\ation for proper nction. It is :~ pity th:~.t in studies of the Analt!Cls. quan has not been rccognh·.cd as the lUiily of the: cxccllcnccs of the ,·inucs and has not enjoyed the rcput;ation that SillII Clllptlthy hilS Cl~j O)'¢d , We can sec ah:u tJuCm in the Ana/ecu, in f~t. is closely linked 10 sclf·rcflection/si. which bkC$ yi/oughbt<.-ss/obligatoriltcss as the object of moral discretion and shows the afrecti\'C force and cognitive force of mental

z· Slingcd;utd (2003) 119·120. C\)Uipatc u~o Xi:UI and llu~utg Gan \\'ttll latc.r cm;•mcnluri~:;.

ZhQll!t)tJll!l. 4 \V, T . Ch:m. ( 1%3) 9'). l.~~!tc. (199 1) ' ol. 1 : ;iS7. ~> This cnn be fo und m the Aflllh•cr$ 2:17. 5·7. 6:22·23. 14:14. 14:18. 15; & 15:33, 4:10. ~ · 1 6. 5:16, 5:1g. 17:23, 19: I. Jo) .-'\nnlcct.-; 2:4, 14: 13 and most d1scus ston~ of the ."lnah:cu Dnok 10. Rcg.~11ding :1/m. sc~ Oanid G:~rdncr. Zlm .\'r ';,· Ret•dr'11g •!f lit(' An(IIJtcl:i (N'ew York· C<"tmbridg,e Univcrsuy Press, 2003). Ch 2. 1);2-l. 5·12. (dO ::md 4:15 Z1

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ncti\•itics joimly pro\'iding moth'otion for action. for example. -on seeing a chanc·c to prolit they think of appropriate conduclfyi. on socing d;mgcr they nrc ready to gi\·e thdr lit-es" ( 14.12): - in the sight of gain they think about appropriate conduce" (16.10): and ·'thoSC ,ilm:f"moraJly culthatcd scholnrs c.rc quite ncccpt:'lble \\ hO on seeing danger arc ··c.ady to put their li\'CS on the line, who on seeing an opportunity for gain concern thems-elves with what is rcquirt:d by dut)'!)'i"' (19. I) These early discussions rclarcd 10 quan provide a background for the Nco-Confucian dcrelopmcnt of qunn. We will sec btcr thlll lhu Xi mo.kcs yi as a condirion or the npplication or (JIItm \\hen one makes choices among different Hl.lucs. Mcncius notes the i mpor~n cc of qmm as moral discrclion and agrees with Confucius about the difficulties of the npplication of qu{m. He iJlustratcd the dilfcrcncc among the \'irtucs \\ ilhin a cultivated moral agent. and the knowledge or mornl l'ulcs poss-.:sscd by an ordinary person who knt)wS the moral rules. but cannot bkc proper ru:::-tion when needed: .. A corpcnlcr or a c3n'ill&c ...nnker Pill)' s,hc a m;tn his C<.Hilp3SS or T·S((U3rc. but he cannot mlke another skillful in the usc of them.- (76. 5) Mcncius cmplo)red dtc <JUan concept 10 propose a middle way for moral deCiSiOn•making between the ''right" (obsCrV
1

Som(: tnutsialed qmm in tllC AnaiCCIS 9·29/30 tuld the M(·1tcius 4/\:17 as '·the ~-xpcd icnt," which cmpho.sizcs the quun tl~ mcnns ra.lh<..T thnn n unit<..xl vi rtue <,f afl4.~li\ c ami Cl.)ttnitiv~.:- c:xcdkn~c \W ,!iSJ)OSilivn/ch:.rllct.::r, Sec C. T, WCl, IR Wmg•ISi!

Ch~n.

( 1986) , 255·272,

I 98

.Imfo11 }'m r

rutd provides the be-st test of a person's stntc of character. It rc\'caJs lh~: limilalions of gc:nc:n'll. regular mor:1l rules. and il demands lhc exercise of mornl discretion, (}lfl'l11, in dealing with the changing or uncxpcc:tcd situntions. Fourthly. in fa~t (/rt(1fl here is a process ofuni~,· ing the nffcctin; force produced by tht.! senses and cog.niti,·e force produced by lhe cogniti\'C cop.:acitics of o person to seck the un i fic;~tion of rcn/bcncvolcncc. yi/oushtnc:-ssfobligatorinc.ss. om/ zhlif" i:sdorn in ;~ sitll43tion. h r<.:-\'c<~ls the agCflt's charac1er, the principle of action and the choice runong \rtlues. In c-ontrast to Mcncius' o.rgu:tbly vin·uc·bascd model, the Gong,_wmg lluwn found :m explicit con!'cquenti.aiL'it dircc.tion in the-(Juan. ''What does 2 IJIUin mean'! It means to dc,ri:Hc from the staodardpng with good results". ~ Zb~o Qi (c:a. 20J CE) judg.cd 1he-qulm by the "goodness" of the pcn.njssiblc nction: "The lJtum is that whi-ch is a.t Htriancc with Lite standard{/ilrg but is Slill good". " The Han philosopher Dong Zhongshu ( I 7
or

s:. Congyt111g <Jo(,, Clnmqm Gcmgpmg:llll(l. in ShiswUutg Zhushu. Ct>!lll.ncntwy by ! lc Xiu (I lw1) uoJ Xu Yan. {Taog). (DcijiJ)g ~ Zh<.mghu.:t. 19MO) ··T ile Ekvcnllt \ c;~r of Duke l luun..·· ~~ Zha(l Q,,,\ h:n:l Zlnr Lomlfntmm,, on tho: /Jilok (~{Mc>t'ldll$ l0 ShiS:mJing Lh\ISlhll (fkijmg: Zhon~hua. 1996). .}.i i)
Zhcnl'ldl Bicji. 1975). et'mmcntary

b~·

(Z.h(lng((UoZixue Mmsz.Jm.tichcng 13i;Jny•hui, 1978). J·..s.

Song Kunng. cl

~tJ .

Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

qmm shows some

simil:uit~·

to W. D. Ross's prinw

199 /{ICi(~

mtd

all·thingx·comitleretl duties and 10 th e utilitarianism of J. S. Mill . \\hich enlls for weig.hing up posi1h·c nnd ncg::nivc consequences of possible m:tions in order to dcddc. in fight of the higher end f\'lilf fnvors. whether 10 do them or not» There wos o debate among Neo Confucian sc-holars 3bout the <.loctrint put forwal'd by Cheng Yi J!o thai " t1tc e-xpedie-n t qtUJII is the same ns the standard, .111115' :1nd the teaching of Han philosophers thai they arc different ..th3t which is at ''ariancc \\•jtJ, the st3ndard and complies with the W:ty ii the expedient. .. 31 This debate ad,·:tnec:d the dc\'clopmcnt o f Confucian moral philosophy rcg:trding mor::~l character. moral principle. 4

31\d mor011ity as a whole. Cheng Yi' s position is tltal "the Han scholars considered being at \'ariancc with jmg (the stand:.'lrd) nnd in compliance with D t lt) (the Way) 10 be the expedient, quan. Hence, they talked nbout expedient v::ui:llions tlncl lac tics. \\ hich arc. nll fnlsc. The quan (the vinue of mom I discretion nnd the co.rrc~pon~~ng .•giinciplel sh o~Jd lx:- the .s:unl! as ~he moral standard .or pnneaplc'Jmg. He 3l'gued ..m confronuns tl ecruuu e,·cnt, one deals w1th it by assessing it in Oftlcr to have it comply with .vi/righteousne-ss. This is called exercising moml discretion [rather than the cxpcdientj. How could it be eontrnry to Daolr'the Way?" (Cuiynn: 1:6a.). He linked inner goodn ess, righteousness and the ct11it::o--mctaphysical principle. the Way/Dew. in a manner compatible with lhc s1ructurc of his philosc)phy . He cmphash·cd the inlri.nsic value of r:nornlity and the virtue of the ;~.gent whe11 ;~.pplying qubn, "hk:h in\'oh es a rectdincss to tomply with y i und is the same thing as ()taCticin£ the Oao. Chen Yi must h.:'t\c belic,·cd that - the flying of the lum·k, the leaping of fish. o.nd the feeling th:tt one n\ust aJw::ays be doins somcthirtg arc: ::~llli,•cly and dynrunic in the same way ... ~~~ Zhu Xi's approach to tl1is debate is th.rough a middle wny and hence he dc,'Cloped a type of pluralist <:thics. which we should interpret in the spiril that dcontie/nclion· bascd and arcticf\'ittue·bascd models arc ~•ch

lS Jng Quonihu SPPY ~;:cJlliOn (Beij ing: Z.bong.hlUI., 198 1). 1:63. .\' Z.hu Xi. "Luyujizhu"' in 1./m:i Y,Jer (Li Jingdc 1270 r.mJ CIH.1l£huab<.-n I..J73 t..-dition. u:pri.nh:d 19(;1()) 37: 1('>-42 . .~~ Quoh.:\1m 7.hu .~i. '·Lunyu Jizhu" or the r\rmh..:\!ts 9;29iJ.O in Zlual fuel ,H · I647 . •"1 W::tug Y«ngmmp. butnrc·tiom .for Pr·c1climl Ln·i11g mid Other Sec>-CcJI!(ucitm fl'r·itiugs'Cimanrilu. Trans., Wing-tsit ChW1, {New Yurk C<..1 lurnbi:.t Unjvl.!rsity Pr~ss. 1%3) 33 L Sec iil$(.t the l)ook ofSong:J. nv. 239 and lhc .\I~·neil,$ 2A:2

200

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necessary for an adequate and complete Nco..Confucion ethics. in which ,·inucs and principles both may hti\'C intrinsic ,·aluc.'") AI first glance, Zhu Xi's arsumcnt to eliminate the contradiction bctwocn the h\O views is rule/action-based. for the nc:tion-guiding principle is 1he cs:se-ncc of morality; virtues are dcrh·cd from 111c principles :md urc inslrumcnul in performing right actions. He defines the principles jing ::mel quem wilh respect to the competition of rules in a chan ~cd situation: "'TI•c standardf/hrg is the constant principle and the cxpcdicm/qunn is the varying principle \\hen the constant principle \\' ill not '''o rk and there is no other choice."' (Zium fulei 37: 1642) When the consLanl principle cannol be pmcticed and the situation Jeans no ahcmath"C. 1hcre is a need to Corm a new :action-guiding principle (qum1) to dcod with the si1u.1tiou. First. according to his analysis. ··to change.. amounts to what the Han scholars c:.lled "to vary({tm, ntlmtly. 10 be :u \3riante wilh the standard/quan·· (Zhu:i Yule/, 37: 1647). Therefore IJuan is di.ITcrcnt from the stmcbrdjiug. S<."Condly. he snys & hat. ahhough 1hc j lrtg and the qmm arc dim:rcnl. the qunn thai \::t.ries is not necessarily scp::tr:tte from the st:'lndard. (Zimzl r utcl : 37: 1642) The n/J-r!Jings-considcrod decision"' has Ulkcn into ttccowlt the conswnt mlc, which il 0\1Crrides. in order to ensure right action. lltirdly. he s.1ys. -complying \\ith 1hc e~pcdicntlqunn means that the standard is found in it:"' (Zhmci Yulci 1642: 1639) He mndc} ing and quro, two s ides or one coin: qmm is not the standard(,iing and the stnndard.(iing is not (}mm: at the s:lmc lime the standard is within IJuan and t}lltm is l\ithin the standard. This i:i what the Middle \Vay meant in relating quan andp'ng. But we still need to look at Zhu Xi's \\a). in dc:lling with the standard and the-\Vayltk1V. Us-ing 1hc rule-based side of his model, Zhu Xi imcrpretcd the relation between the standard{;mg :~nd the Wayldau. In his viC\\, "being at \':triancc with the Jmx and in t.:OillJlliauce- with the D:toi\Vay to be the cxpcdicntlquan," means th:tt the qr~crn. thoug.h nt \-.uiancc with the low-le,·cl standard. is yet in eomplinncc with the ultim:ttc staudard. the Way/Duo (Zimzi Y,dei 37:l6~7). So. quan lies within the standard and the Way. balancing the (ultim:Jtc) right and the (lempor;~ ry wrong) l~ding 10 (ultimate) good. This is similar to whou we discuss-ed in Mcncius' appro01.ch. Cheng Yi. ns we disc-ussed abo\'C, bcliC\Cd d1at the stand.:lrd is something identical to 1he W:'l)'· Zhu Xi thinL:s .. lhc Dtm is an integr:ned entity \\ hich pcnc.tratcs thcj mg and the qttUJr."l (Zlud }l,}ci 163M) Therefore. lhc Dtw is realized in the}mg as wc11 as in the f{IWII. 1l1is is compatible with Zhu Xi's rnornl-me.tllphysic:JI principle. IJ. Zhu Xi's ethics is b:l.SC'd on his key eonc<:pts of li. qi and uriJi. He s3id. "The grca1 ultim:ttcnll!/i is simply lhe pri11ciple//i oftJ1e highest good/\'irtuc. Each and C\Cry p-:rson has in him the n Consult Louden , H(lbcrt, "Some V1C1! o f V1rt\11! Ethics" A11"•ricmr l'hilo.'wpluC'al QuatC'd)l 1984·2 I: TriaO(•slq. Gte~OI}' . " Viteuc. A<:lion iu~ d lhc Good Life: J\ 'llloory o f Virtue.'>.,. PacificJounwl ofPililru·opi{V. 1988. 111 R\.'CttJI Rus:fs th<..o;) ncs on prirk:ipk.'S ~md Juti..::s ~•ta•1in. Sec W 0 . Ross.

193()· 3·7.

Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

201

grc:u uhimatc and each and C\'CI)' thing in it the great uhimatc'" (lhuzi fu/ei 49; l ib). An c~pcdicnt action qurm msy infringe the c~istcnt moral rules ~nd standards or even principles to the poim of serious offence in cenain ciKumslanccs. it mny be at \n.rinncc with them but must be in complinncc with the ''highest good·· of the ultimate II. the 111ljl . TI1e ultimate moral principlc/li and the metaphysical blwiji in Zhu Xi's philoSQphy ore idcnticak they ilfC- the Hca\·cnly Way or Hca\·c nly PrinciJ)lt as well as being virtues and moral principh!s or humanity, righteousness, propriety. wisdom :md faithfulness in the Nco.Conrucilln mortlli-,.cd metaphysics. 41 f or this reason f ca ll li n twofold principle. One aspect of it is mor:JI and the other metaph~·sical. From li dcrh·c s the internalized \'irtucs (all'ccth·c and cog.nhh ·c) :md the extemalizcd moral principles of ac-tions. Metaphysical principles are imcmalizcd '' ithin a person as the foundational moral attributes or virtues. :n the same time fl provides the foundational moral principle-s...The origin t.)f the IJao is trnccd to Heaven 3nd is um::h:m&ocable. "hile ils t:oncretc substance is complete in ourseh·cs aod fM)' not be departed from ... (Zhu's remark on Zhongrong 1). As illusllated bclo\\, on the one hand. LVlfl[ii with the OJX:r:ltion of the /)ao gi\'es rise to fourltlational mor~l virtues. from which specific instances of each ,·irtue, suult should be n:tturally good. In Zhu Xi's J)luralist mofold principle elhic;al system, /i is possessed by both hcm·cn and the human. Hca,·c;u's wa_y,dtJo is the nltuml aud monll wny/doo of hmmmldnd. Tbat is Zhu Xi's tlatJtonx. There-fore, the lkKJ, in Zhu Xi's \"icw. '·penetrates the standard and the expedient"': th:lt is why Zhu Xi 's arguments arc sometimes rule-b.Jscd. somctim;s virtut·bnscd.-'J Yi (righteousness) DS nfl'cc:th ·c :.s "ell ns cognitive capacities of n p.:cson. and at the same time a principle of :.ction occupies a central position in the applic-:.tion of qtum. Vi guides hwmm actions as heavenly wny/rcawn'li tu1d fOllows and scn·cs hcaYcn us the human \\!ly/reason//1.

~: Zhou Dunyl. rayuu SJuw!J.In Hxp fmK'I/1("' ~fth(! })itrgr(UII (if the Grt.•ttl U/umotc• 111 Cha n 1963: 463 . .u ThL'> i5 somd10w, 5imilar to what William K Frnnl.:cn:. dixu.-;scd in ·'TLk! Ethics ~.lf l.un.: (;:oncciwtl as ;m Ethi~ of Vi11uc" in J<)l(r'Jt(t/ tJ/ R.:ligtous l:.ihic..r.· I (fall 197J).

202

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Principle Li- 7ltfji1Dao

Found;~tion.nl

l

/+~ tvloral Vinucs

Principle

Foundational

!

Moral

!

Specific Vinuc -----<~

Yi

•

+----- Specific Principle

!

'l

The Right (Moml Action) The Good (Non·mor:tl Yo lues)

Zhu Xi's Pluralist Twofold Morai-Mcumhysical Pt incinlc Ethical Svstcm Rc\·ic" ing Cheng Yi 01nd Zhu Xi on the srandutdlj'i11g and the

We-i Zhcngtong thinks that they h:h·e the snmc w\dcrstaoding of the tlao: -Cheng Yi bclic\'cd tlmt the Way is the unh·ersally V:llid princiJ>Ic: he considered all tl1e doctrines of cl1angcs and \iu iation 10 be false: · ( Wd, 258) He also claims ··confusion in the usc of tenns·· to explain the diJJ'ercncc between Cheng.. Zhu nud the Hnu scholars. (Wei. 259) Tvty question is: Wh) did Cheng Vi -consider all the doctrines of changes and v:tri::nion to be false''. if he rc:~lly understood the dextrine of the Way/Dao. cspc:c·i
shared t11c same basis ~nd ns such "e see Zhu Xi on the one hnnd ctiticizc Cheng Yi, and yet on the other repe:llcdly defend him'" ? ( We i, 2 56) In m)' \'icw, Cheng Yi is discu~sing the dtw in its most essential (omt. As I mentioned abo\'c , CIH:ng Yi had a virtuc·bascd ethics in mind, which put<; the Yinues in the dominn.nt position and assigns the \'lrtucs intrinsic value.

Moral principles or duties arc derived fl'om 'inuc to guide right action. for him both the tkKJ and the standard[J;ng are rc~li1.cd in the inner goodness of the <:uhinucd :~sent. A \ 'in1JC such us sincerity or rightcousncssJoughtncss. is the roo1 of moral principles in practice (the quanfmoral d isc retion as n

inner quality is dcri\'ed from the dt10 and complying with the

dtiO ).

How

could the same essence of ,~in u e ma~c the srnndnrd(jing oomcthing scp:~ratl!

from the J a(J'! l.n co~:~trasl to Cheng Yi, Zbu Xi wus tryi_og to approo.ch qtum

Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

20.1

as a moral principle prcseribing action. How could Zhu Xi not criticiLc Cheng Vi sometimes? When i1 comes to the npplication of qu<m, the Yinuc·bascd side of Zhu Xi's model is rathe-r instn1cthc. Zhu Xi \Hlms people not to '\1sc the C:\:J>'."dicnlfqutm for scJf.rationali?.ation.. (jietJlltril yi :l.fhi) in the lfwtl ti1l ei (1960; 37;1637). This k&ys down mor;al ,·irtuc ::.s the foundation of the principles guiding an agent in the applicution of tJttWI so as to a\'oid scllish desire and include consideration for others :tnd for the community in quan moral discretion. To sccute the moral character of tbc agent. tu1d to ensure that the agent will do the ri~ht and to bring about the good. he strouglr cmphasi1..cd bl'mg good. He regarded only a sage as able :tpply the quan

(1 960 37:1634: 1638). He interpreted Confucius intention and concluded th:u Confutius "'docs not allow ordinary people to usc the cxpcdicntlttufm" (1960 37; 1640). But he shows that Confucius gin~s serious consider:.11ion to the purity of virtues and the motivo.tlon of the agent in moral discretion (tflltm). "Manif~ tintt a clein c.llamccer. Iovin& the people nncl :Jbid.ing in the higl1cst good- (lJnxue I) is the end of the Confucian forn\ of life and is how people ought to be. The rules and priltciples of moml sclf-cuJth·otion arc only the mcons while \"irtue is dominant here 3nd h3S intrinsic \'aluc as the end. Qunn in this case is the vinuc of mornl discretion. This :1pproach :\voids some problems or ndc·bascd ethics where n vinuc. such as autonomy. has onl~ instrumental \'aluc: these theories lack 3 moti,ational c.omponcnt. a point which Mill critki:r.cd :md on which later philosophers agreed with him ; such theories reduced all moral judgments to judgments about n.<:tions nnd ncglcx:lcd the spiritual i 37: 1633) Zhu Xj cmphllSizcd, ~The. exercise of moral discretion is a rnaucr of timely equilibrium. \\ithout equilibrium one will ha,'c no way to usc the lJIIOn" (37:1637). hO\\C\'Cf. "'lclquilibrinm/zlumg is u M1ll 197J· Sinul3r cnt•cism or rule-based ethics c:tn be found in Philippa root's, l'iriii~J ond r·tet'S ond 01/J('t• J!ssay.v ilt Mom/ l'lli(o:mplry (Oxford: l)lod:wdl, 1978). 112. Anscombc. E. <·Modem Morol Philosoph)'' in l'h/Jw yp/ty 19;8:33. ;\1~$\bur C. M~clut~ 1\:, Aft~''' r'mu~: ,·l Study m lll(~ri.ll T/J(:ory ( London; I)Ucl;:wonh . 1981) . ct<.~

20.J

.lmfon }'m r

without fi:<ed form. ) ct il c.xisLS in :JII different temporal situations. (Zhongrvng llumg111 2) Zhu Xi considered thnt t)ntm is the "zhCJng of one particul.nr insum( (37: 16.37). It is ··provisional and nol constant." (37:1640) Zhu Xi furtlu::r c-larified equilibrium as •·Jiving" and "dead"'. lfc put Zimo's manner of grasping the middle point as equilibrium in the "dcnd" category, .;$ ~\'hilc taking a right :~c.tion in :.1 timely f:1shion with good intcntiollS nnd mak in ~t things •·cac.h a baktncl! in a dire situation hs a ''li\·in:f equilibrium. To think rcdu etivcly~ qiUm. with the qualilies of righteousness and equilibrium itself bceo.mc :1 specific. principle for exercising moral discretion. 01 course in the same way momI discretionhJitcu: is a vi1t uc of persons. Zhu Xi built a pluralist system for Nco ~Confuci>1 n moral philosophy in a middle way. Criticisms of vinue-basc:d ethics are mM}: for c:oooamplc. one of them is. ho'' could we kno'' hO\\ good and pure the charocter of an :agcn1is. say n s.age like .JW~i or even Yan Hui, one: who still possessed some dispositions of his O\\n but is not as pure ns Confucius who " ns "ithout any hlHnan disposition and \\3S with He.:'l\'cn ttnd Earth?'6 Is Mahayana upil)·a similar to quan and applied in M
TI1c criticism of Mahayana ethics ad,·anccd by contemporary Confucians CO\'Crs four points. first. Ma.luly5na Buddhists :aim to learn n lesson from the dmllcncc of Nco-Confuci;mis:m nnd cngJgc in a n(X;essary and urgent inquiry intO 1hc mom! dimens ion t.)f their own tradition by shifting their tmdition::d emphasis on trnn.scendcntallruth to;:, new emphasis (m worldly tcuth in connt.-ction with C\'Cr') day soc.io-moml practic.e. Secondly. the)' are l!ncouro.ged to reach tt pelfetl undcrsunding of the principle of the l\•Jiddlc Way. as well as of the rc:U mciUJing of the Twofold Truth in M'ahiiy5na Buddhism. Thirdl~·. they :u-e told to treal morality as the ullimale go:al rather lhan a means. discipline, or prerequisite for reaching the ultimate gooJ. 3nd to plncc cqu31 emphasis on momlity/.fi/d. on wisdom/ PN!irlc'l and on medit3tion/t//ryc11Ja. Fourthly. they should build a ne'" ethical system. putting new moral clements into the nncicnt ethics of Zhu Xr and Poxmg Zhang, .hm·Uu .fiji~· (Shanghar Sh~ngwu , 1935) : 1:16 a-b: " ZhuziW('I\Ji" ul CJw:idaquo11 (B(·1jing: Zhonghtlil 2002) 5~: 15lY. Zhu:i fuld. 1960: 1447-1-148. 4S Zhu Xi :md Ltl Zmtiilll. R~:,f/(.CIIort tJII 1'/rlngs
Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

20J

karwulfunhcrs:ll compassion in order to wcklc most if r1ot all. human :~nd sccul:\r problems which they encounter in dail~· lifc-."7 An :.ttempt is mndc here to clarify the responses from Buddhist moralists to the above critidsms. though the re-sponses thc-msckcs were by no means alwal s addressed to pJnicular auac.ks. This has been a common tendency of Buddhist $Chol:us fro m both the East nnd the West. It is convincingly evident t11at during the past SC."\'Ctal dc.cadcs alrn():')t all Buddtlist scholars h3rc consciously nnd \'igorously inquired imo the moral dimension of t11cir phHosophy without ob.'Uldoning Lhcir tltlditiona:l emphasis on u·ansccndcntal truth. c.\ tn \\hen their m:tin iUicrcst is not necessarily in ethics or mom I philosophy. J~ Some of them intcqnctcd mo.rality/.Si/d in Mabiiyfula Buddhism as al) ultimate goal as well as a preliminary condition for tile practice of med itation and acquisilion of

.,. Ch~crl~ Wci-hsun Fu. ''MOr'illity M D~omJ · lhc Nct..Cl,nl'uci;cn ('-t)nfn)nlahon w1th Ml\hllrl'i.oa 1~\Jddhism :· Pbllt>~J.()plry Eost (md lfrs t 23· 3 (1973) 375·3!.16: S...-c olso Fu. ut Will?•l!lit Cb:ln. Clm J/si tmtl St•(,..Cmifucitmi.sm (J Jonolulu: University of I Jawn.ii Prc~s. 19&6)402 tOr fw1h<:f c -.;pJonuion or lhe four tiSJ'I.'Ct..;, "' I want \ 'Cf)' hndly list some r-t' them: R. M fimss. F'entinm rr nm l Ucltgh:m (Uoston: UcACon. 1 9~>6), JJmltllmm il/tcr l't~tnm'f:ll)' {New Yo•k· Stol~ Uni\'Cr!iity of New York Pn:ss, 1993); Sk,fu:n 1:. Tci~. 11u Cltust Ft•stit'al (P1 in C!!tt~n: Priucctou Uni, crsity r•r~.";>;:., 198>1). 1'/~c: Scriptm~ tnt the 1'r:n K ingJ' (Honolulu· tlm \ C.'&"SII~' or H:nv:ui Press, 1994); D .1 K:~ lup~ban:t , IJuddhlu l'l:ilt)$0plry (llonohalu: Uni\'lYS:ity ot" ll ~w:l i i . I 976). 1'1H.t /'mr<:tpfql t?( Buddlu'.tt Psychology (New Yo rk: St~lc: Univcr:-;ity of Nt.·w York Pr~. 1987), A JliJIOt)' tl Duddlns t PldlowtlltJ' (11\l«JOlulu· Univc18ity Pre~'{ of 11:1\\ :,ii. 1 992) ~ M. S1dcril:i. Hmpl)' /\?r,vQUJ (H :unp ~hirc: A~hgJc l e, 2003). J. l... O:lrlicld. Empty H't.>rds (O:·:f(lrd Univ.:n;ity Pre~.. 2002}; Diana Y Paul, Wom('n "' /Jtufdlll.wt (U~cb:le~·: Uni 1.·~ t~it}' of C:dlfomio. f'r<:ss.. I')~5 ): P. E. Ka~~ll.ky . 11~<~ J:',gnn·t·d Oesi)!ll (m the Lat~! Sixtlt C,•uttu~' Sarcophaxus ofLi 1/o (l..urieh : Artibus A !ii .:~c . 1986}. J?m·ly IJmidhJJ/ N(lrl'll llw: At•t (Lunba•n. Ur))n:r:iily J>rcs$ of t\m~ric·:t, 2lXlO}, Chhu•s•1 Bttdrlltiu :lrt (Oxfhrd Unin:r::;ity Pre!'~. 2002); Reginald /\ Hay. Se(.'rt.'l of th~ l 'ajrn IVorld {llo:OtOl)! SI1:J.tnbhab . 2001) . W. Rtthula. J J '/~<,1 t/1<• Buddh.."l Tauglu (New York: Gnwc Wcidcnfcld. l974): lvL L. Cunumngs. TIK· U1·~s Q j ll~e IJuddlur in tit.: rlt•t wu/ Uremwre (if AJio (Ann J\rlx.lf; Unin.:r:;il)' tl f 1\·helugan. Ccntcr for Soulh and Smatheas.1 A:~ nn Sludkoos. 1982)'. J. P. Ki."COIIIl, !1tJll' M11...,~,. Mou l<.cmon r.J . mtr /Jcmbl$ (New Yolk: .St~u.;: Univ1!t~ ly ( I f New York Pre:::~ ::. 19'94): ll FoW'e. The Uc•d 71tn'ntl: BuddltiJI !lppruac/u:.s to .)t:.n wlit) • {P•incclon: P1i.nccton Uni\'crsily Press, 1998). l\'f. Shu\\', Pa.t.,\·iollat<J Enltgl/t,•mm:nt (l,n ncclon: PrinccLon Univ.;:rsity Pn.:ss. 199-'): 1\ . A Ts:1i. 199.t;M;.sler Hsu.1n Hun. 1994; M. W:llshc. Teaclungs ojriK· Hmldlw (Boston: WiOOom Publ ic ;~hons. 1995); J. S. SlJ'()ng. The- BtttldiNr (Onowol'ld, 10tH ): Rolx-rt. A . )o'' ThunnWl, 71te Tiherau n~~)k of tit.: Dc:ad: Til L' Gtvat B04.1k ()j Xotm•t,J l ib
201i

.lmfon } 'mr

wisdom ..a>~ Nou~:bly. in 03n1icn Keown's book. 1/u:. Naw re of /Jurklhist Hth 1 '~·" ( 19l'J2), an innoYaliYC foray into this field is widely <:ited. discussed. ~nd of course. criticized ..Si> His book proYidcs an oYcr01ll ch;aroctcriz:~tion of tlu:- structure of Buddhist ethics. Ocp:Jrting [rom d1c twditjon:Jl emphasis only upon ethics in ahc Buddha's teaching at the c ....:pcnsc of ancntion to l.atcr Buddhism. his book nol only discusses Mah5y5nn ethics. but :also puts the J)UI"SUil of cthicitl ideals in fi rst pl;ac.e, and comprchcnsh·e ly compares Buddhist ethics '' ith Western ethica l theories, such as those of Aris10tlc, Kant and J.S. {\:till. He pla:ccs cqunl emph.-..sis on morolity/SiM. wisd om.iprr~j.llcJ und mcdit:nion/dhyt7n-tl. He intc.rprels and c.xpound~ earlr discourses examining Mahi'iy!ina sclf-:asscssmcnts of 1hc supcriorily of ~'l:lh5y5.na ethics to tll;lt of the Thcmnid:l. and he has pro\i dcd dcbiled references to precepts. \'irtucs. ;md moral models in Buddhism 10 clarify their Y3rious func1ions in Mahiiylin:a ethics, 11 Pc1cr H3f\'C)' (2000, 2<'02) deals with C\'t'l)' nspcct of contemporary clhic:a.l issues. including, the trcaunc:nt 1hc natural world. business. won n.nd peace. s uicide nnd euthan:ls ia. and 3bonion, as well :'IS homos.exullity. All of them pro\i de details of anornJ practice and interpret the Buddhist theories behind the J)r.kcticc. Some tlhilosos)hC1's reglrd Mahily5na upc~~·tt as :'1 bridge between

or

» Cnmpnnng ShcnxiU :md Hmncnt's nndcrst:mdin2- of cnhl;hlcnmt'Tit, K:IIUp3hana 's ;)dU\U"JIIOII f(l( lluulCilS · :~ \'~too W;.l:S ·· ug:,ht sl the b tlCkgl\)lJild or Shc.:nxiu's \ '(.T.SC.. ilnd he approved of ·'.1bandvning the search fur a mclaph)·~ica l entit~· (lh»l i~ ,\nc ·~ (_1\\'11 natur ~.:. idcntificll \\ ith nn ultimttte reality in thl.! hjp.h c~ s'l:1lc M mcdit:llinn) and T\.'f..XlBntzing >ln ull •m:nc gn:al c,f morolity (n ~ mcly

buddhahood. or what was rcfCn.xl h) tn the t•nhnu:cluuliku ''~ the tlhimlwk(i) ·v·r). (Kulupulmna 1992: 23-0
j/uinas/conh.:mplutionllncditation 31ld the hi ~hc;o;t limn of kilO\\ lc.:ls,~/\\ i.:;dom rt-~('tllliZc.:l..i b)1 llk.: Dud\lh:t - 1\no\V h..-·d~c of lhc W!lnint: of inllux~;.~ 'cl.r wos m.X ~ cxphcilly cmphMizcd, though mcnlivnW. in hi:; prcvi~.lU~ w Jit in ~~ (Da\itl J, Kni UJl~1ha11 rt. The: Prwr.Jpl~· of lluddhi>! l'·tycho!o&rv. New Ymk: State UnJ\'crsily elf New Y~:,rk Press 1987, pp, 63-65, 12· 73: IJ11ddhi,fl f.Jin'lo.rCJplrJ•: A lhstoricol . l n Cousins . f_, S, "Good or Slalful'? Kus:ll3 m Canon and Ct>mmcnt.rry", Jwrnnl ofJJuddlll,\'1 l!'thu .-s. l996 No. '3. ~~

K'"•own, 1992 : 129-164 A~ Kco\\n stoles in hi.s book this is o he di:;tingui shc.:~ l\\1.1 kint.l:; (_II' tlpt1yo. e:w loring lhcm \\ ith :, ${110-ctal cmpha~is ( l R morol .-gc.nts,

t.l~.::;cript i \'c ~unt ~.,,f M~lh3yiln :t ~;.1h i~ \\ h~.-rc

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libcrol democracy and Duddhism (Garfield 2002:206·219). Using diiTcrcnt methods. many philosophers have c.xcrtcd themsch·e s on bch:llf of a pcrfetl tmdcrslanding of tho principle of the Middle \Vny and the real meaning of tltc-Twofold Truth in MahUy5na Buddhism.:-z None of them hns c.xdudcd ethical ::~ speets rutd soei.'ll issu~. It has been ~id th:u Jny Gmfic-ld's studr of N5g5rjuna ·s Mulamadyanuktr/.:ttrnkal11u.• Fumlamenwl Wisdtmt of the t\fuldle Jill~ not c,llll) pro\·idcs .- nmgistcriaJ ll
Til£ MIDOLil WAY ANO Tflll l 'WOfOLO TRUTfl: U/llla AND KUSIIL

As noted above. to perfectly tu1dcrst:md Mah5y5Jlu ethics is lo undcrsumd its principle- of the Middle Way and the real meaning of the Twofold Tru1h. 11-.c 1\,•ofl)ld Ttulh tC\'tals the-truth of life and rcoliiV\\'hilc tbe princjplc of the l\liddle Wa~ provides the insight o.nd method ·to deal with them. Mahayana ethics brought about a -shift in the cc1urc of grn\'ity of Buddhist ethics" '''ith :1 new emphasis on moml virtue ~as a dynamic othcr·rcgardjng qu:tlity. rnthcr than primarily concerned with personal dC\'Ciopmcm and self-control'' (Kco\\n 1992: 142: 13 1). The dyrutmic othcr·rcgarding qu:1lity is the \·irtuc of compassion and the pmcticc of ~) ·typically, M. S!dci'IB·.:c 11\cthod 1S :lualytic, J L G~u·fi~ld 's focus 1S on the philosuphy of l:lngut~gc nnd he-nne-ncu1ics., K11lup:.h ana's approach il'O m ::un~· p~)· chOklt!iC~I I. D. J>aul :md R. M G J\l$!1 ·~ IIJlJlm:.n:h is feminist, 1'hcn: arc a)$1.l ethical. political, h iS1nric~1l . tllopr~ phlc;d and tcxhml approach1..>s M. Cummings. P E Km\'1:-.ky. und R. E. Fis..hct 's a tlL"'-iC iiJlPt\)ach wsth intct))rctativc fl(IH.'$ t~ rc tlloo helpful fol' uudcr:.tmu.hng Uuddhist clhtcul, mctaph~~sica l Md

cpistCIIJ<)i<)gic.:slJllim:iJ)IC:;. :<} s~--: MurJ.: Skh.• 'Tils,, 2003: 197· 20? ~Uld .hi\' l,, Garlidd. 2002 92. q Sec A. J. A)·cr. Phi/o,Mphtctll t:uoy.t. (M:•cmilltm, 1954) 2-1:5-246. $ (lute philosophe-rs dist"*ui~h cth•c..·$ find lt\C.J'al philosophy ~•s 1wo difl'i'fcnt area:>- I Jere moral philosophy i:~ U$Cd to n:fcr to thcorcticul rd k-ction on

nto.mlfity t\ hilc d hics i:; u~lto refer k l 1hcy hat·.;: fc3turcs in common.

ti t~ \ tb<.l lc ,lolnbin

of m<.,r'alily. In

f~ll.!t

208

.lmfon }'m r

KuJoltt Up(~la-kausa~va (Sanskril) or ttpt~ra-J.:usala (Pali) is means (upt1ya). \\'hich an: wholesoml!. skillful and wise (lwu.rtrl)'t) or k'm·a/a). The improper emphasis on means (updyn) for a long time o\·erlooked the quality :md the

end of the means -· O\ crlookcd the qualification "" holcsomc. skillful :;md wise- -· J:t~tiS(I/)'il or Jwsala (Arigwwra Nikayo 1.263; Cousins 1996: 154-155). Upt~m-kauS(r~ra c;;m refer to the bQdh iStltl(tvti perfections of moralitr. wilidom . and conc-entration and unification. and the Bodhi~Uva Path i~cludes compassion. wisdom <md updya. ;::. Titcrcforc-. uptlya as :m importllnt fe tuurc of Mahayana ethics must rcl3in the essence of the Twofold Truth and the Middle Way and manifest the moral 'inucs of kusala. especially. compassion. The principle of the Middle Wnyftt,a,jihimo~patip(ldil 56 w~ npplicd in the cnrl~· Buddhisttr:~;dition by the Buddha. In his first scnnon.n the Buddha taught lhat there ''ere two extremes 10 be avoide-d: ove-rindulgc:nce in scn..~u:tlity tmd se-lf·lOrlurt. Duddhis:m is thus the (\·fiddle Way between lhc h\O and bch,ccn some. other p;airs of opposites. such as etcrnalism and :mnihilntionism. In the Eightfold P:'llh/artyn nflh(mgtka magg: (right ,·icws, risbt rcsol\'c, right spcc<:h. right action. right lh·cliltood. right cfl'ort. riglll mindfuhtess and right meditation) which has 1hrcc divisions of wisdom. morality and meditation, m'Oiding all those extremes3s is the middle wny. The l\1iddfe W;~y is the ovcrnU principle of Buddhism '' hilc the Eightfokl Path is the means and end of Buddhist enlightenment :.nd

prO\~ dcs

!'{l('Cilic principles a nd specific ,·irtucs low:mls "'By particip;Hi.ng i.n the Eightfold Path one

cnl ightc n.men lfnirvlin;~,

p.1rticiJ)ates in those \'ulucs. c.xcc:llcnccs or perfections. '' hich arc eonstituli\'e of e.nlisJltcnmcnt. Mmely moralityH-t/a and ins ightful knowlcd~c!pat111t7. lhc following of the EisJttfold P:ult is therefore best lutdcrstood as the gradual culli\'ation or moral and intcll<Xtual ,·inoc(Kcoml ~ ~~)2:107). Some sc.holars thought that mornlity and the EightfOld Path nrc like -titc s~aifo ld" which WOldd be lcfi behind when one achic\·cd ninYmo. but philosophers of recent decades insist that moralit) is the end or nin·ana and must be the state of mind of a cnlighlcncd person. therefore, ku~·ala .1c1ions should be the sponL1ncous response-s of a hmlht.wtiiWI-in-traiJliny or a fully enlig.htencd bof.DJi.MIIfiWt,

q Ab:,ut lht.: pcrf¢1Vti~ms :md lh.: :il:•tz\,~ of the B•>llhi~•th'~• P~1th SIX Jlnrvc\' 2003: 128-130: Kl.'OWn 1~ 92 : 13·1. % 1'h(· J/ujjlrimo Nrkil)'a '1iu~ Colln:tion of tlw .Hiddlc /.c:ngtlr .S.tl)'illg.s. :).S.• 13.5. as a woy to end !tufk riJlS 9.1S. 141:23. d~..1uilcd unalpis. 117:3.. 14 1 13. ,. Dh amm:le-olkkappa v~nana Sutta in Sumyutw ?-,'il.:t~wrt Cormecmd IJisco/lrs('S ~Jj the IJmldha. Ulukkhu Bodhi tra1\i. (Somel'\·iUc: Wisdom, 201»)

55:2.

s( J'he Mt'.Jilmm• ,'to,',kciyu1'he Collt•CI•m• of1'1w .\IJcldfe /.t.'ng_lh So)illgJ, 32 , 9: It , 19·26. 3:1:24, 44:51 , 44·9. I I: 13 etc.

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Tite Buddha also annly7..cd and s-ummed up all the ph) sica! mtd

men LSI phcnomcn.t1 or a person's e:dslcnce as five aggrcgalcs•.d wndas; body/ fonn. feeling. perception. mental fommlions and consciousness.

These appcnr toll person as his or her ··1ruc nnd real" self. According to the Buddha, the fi, c uugregates c.:mnot be identified as 1he self, dmt is. the enduring ond substantial ground of pcrsonol i dentit-y . ~ so-cnlkd self is somclhing "bosu!5: · Tltc notion of the self has only a con ve ntion<~ ! ' 'alidity •• the truth oi existence •• and it docs not signify any ullimatc immutable cntil~' subsisting at tlte core of 11 person, the tnJ.th or rcalit) . It is bcc3use of the anxiety generated by tJte limitations of human sensc·cxpcriencc. knowledge and existence that human beings oOcn uy to go beyond them and posn.datc conceptions of etcmal selves rutd immutable subst:u1ccs. The Tu ofold TrutJ1 deals '' ith (I) our conventional understanding of ourschcs as exi~ting persons us.ing 1he funclions of our fa e-ulties :\s- 1he standard to judge what is rtnl: Md (2) the ultimate reality of the non..esstnce and the non·e.xistcnce. of anything. includin£ ourseh es, nil bcim;; unreal. n"~ former is 1he con,·emional lruth while the Jan'"" is the ullintate truth. In the early Buddhist tmdition. ,·cry ollcn tbe Buddho.tnlks iu tcnns of conventional or rclati\'C truth .mmmuti'w#Wram.:rac('lll loka:wmvrti.wuyo :tccording to which 1)\."''plc and things exist jusl as they appear. but when the Buddhn :1ddrcsscs an audience capable of apprcci::tting his tltought. he speaks in tenus of ultimate trudt~nmmwtWSflt'Cfl parallu;nhnsa()n. which identifies the ultim:ucly real fact (:\Jajjh11ntt Nihty11 5: 11 .S: I2). 'l'hc doctrine of no·scu· is :about the ultimate truth of the self. or nbout the ultimate absen..:-c of a mclnphysicnl self such as Lhe ritmmr. ~~~ \\'l,cn the Buddha taught uh imnle trulh b)' us-ing con' ention31 ltuth, he seemed to be using upt'tya as means. o means derived from one of his 'iuucs or dispositions :md from his goi.xl "ill. and he decided. it seems to usc-con'c11tionaJ trutl1 to teach. The Buddha forcefully expounded his view on the self in his discourscs<·O to rc,·cal the impcnuancnt n3turo of the existence of 3 person m'd the world. to highlight suffering and no-sclf/ilnana'amilmcm and 10 reject the bmhmanical self!iitmnn. the met..1physical self. He st:~ tcs th:lt the impcmt;~nenl is suffering. and nll tb;~.t is impcm1ancnc. suffering :md subject to clto.ngc camtOt be rcsnrdcd as mine, as I or as self. So. the concept of the self ns lrtmtm, as an agent 1hat functions con~iously. is t.hcrcby eliminntcd. The Buddha argues tha t bcc.:ausc we crumot bend the five aggrcgat cs ~~ktlmltt'' to our will. tlte.y cruu1ot be lakcn 35 mine. I. or self and, :xt The Jluddho rtjC\::tod tltc Uralun:u1i<:ul <:On(·Cpt titnum, and dcvelopo:xl hi$ docui nc of non-sclf/mlfilmtm. Accurdio;; It) UrltaJunm,vuh• (/ptmi,Jm l ( 1.4. 1- 1()), u cl:t...sstc;:tl cx.:unph:. lh.: m ~.-·utphyst cs t..l f lhc s.:lf :m~l t)f lh..: '' orld .ur..: combmcd in the one <.'Oflccpl of titnum. the soc1al phlli.l St)phy with Ihe lOur-fold

caS1c S)"5o'l("IU as ils base, {uld th.:: 1noru.l ideal ba5X"XI on th\.· caste s~'s1 cu,, whidt is dcsisnah:d by bralurJan. {II) l;(l/ll)liiiiO />.'il.'lij'il. 2: ,\ fll}jllitlf(l .\'ik(~\·a· 102. 2.$. 11. 22: /)tJ!fUI ,\'ik~iyu, M. Walshc II.IOS (Boston · W1~Jom . 199;)· 22· 1 ~·1). 22.26: 35 20

210

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if,H: insis1 on tf) ing to do so. it will leads to suffcring/dul,kJm. The Buddha is not denying each and e\'cry concept of ··r· in the \\Orld that is associated with 1he aggregates. bul only the m ct~physical self. the project of the mind. Tn the Mohfi,"iina Perfection of \'ilsdont!l'· Buddhist teaching of no sclfto all things in dte-\\'Orld: thus. ulumntclr C\'et)'lhing. including nffl•tuur.d.:. is empty or will•out essence-. and therefore non cxistent. As we discussed abo,·c, om concept of "self' is only the consU\ICtion of our minds as sense experiences or the skondhas. Our "self' is unreal. though we li\·c and fwtction as cxislcnt beings from the sumdpoint of commonsen$(! and convention. At one and the same time. we are real though we pOSSess no eternal ess:enc:c, ond :u-c ult.im:ncly non·c.xistent from the standpoint of ultimate rttllily. Titis kind of vision nnd knowledge le-ads us to peace, liberation and enlightenment or nin•(mtJ. according 10 the Buddhist tradition. lt is the Middle Woy. Generally, the ~'Iiddle Way skillfully a\'oids cxlreme.s and is non-absolutist In moral decision-making. dtc princ iple of the Middle Way allows mornl agents 10 :1chievc a shnrp insight. seeing through lhc faels of the current C\'Cnl 10 disco,cr lhc need to follow the moral precepts and rules or 10 infringe on them to some e xte nt in order to get w holesome results for others and rhr the agent. This alters rulc-worshipi.ng in such a way that it i:i able to deal with c~trcme situations.. This is participating in the Eightfold Path. The l\·fiddlc Way principle demands the conjunction of morality. meditation and wisdom. Therefore. to apply the principle of the Middle Wtty is to regard moral it~· as both a pan and tl1c end or the W:~y :wd not only as the means, especially when :.pplying upllya. The undcrs!Mding of the Middle Way and the Twofold Trutl1 olso helps us to und<.·rstand \\ htrc the 'irtuc -compassion'· comes from and why an :tetion ofupfi)'a is ncccss:ny. Existence is merely a process of mental :md physical phenomena. nnd ultimately there is no e sscn~;;c. subst;mcc or rcol eg~entiL)' "ithin m beyond the process. The '" eh e factors of flependelll
4

6l J\ ft,IJa,¥ttu)'trta; Tms M : 16;670.

,\filrofi1fi;,Jml~{ing1Lutus Sltlro. Tais/lo: T9N262. G".J N U1;arjuna, .\llilamtulJ')-'ttltwkakt.irilici t!J&J FmNlamentol lri...dom of the .\lukil~ rr,,y, ), L. Garfield lran.s.. N1.'\VY'--nk ~ Orxfmd 'Univc.-sily Prt..:ss. 1995. t.l C.on?c Ed.. Irons. The J'crfec/IOII tif Wisdom ;n Elghl T/l()ltS-t)rt(/ Uu<•s am/ ,l.f l'crr.fC'S .''i ummmy (Uolim~s ~ I.'our Season Foundatilln, llJ73) 99. (iS Paiccu-:uwwpptida (P3I i)j1rati~u-.romuJuida (S3n:ikrit). 1'-6 The ·'ftrsl .;:au~·· j;:; ~.lt:nic~.l ht..•:re and thcrt: is no ~;:luc to iJhllc;.uintt th~ lxgmning of Cl\islcn-ce ns ~l f-cx iSICnt 11i$ similar 10 the d<.'flCJldc.:nce <1skcd by <1:-

B.f!hn~m

the- Gt)()d dtulth(! Right

}//

is tltc nature of cxis.tcncc. Niigfi1juna's f\'fiidh~·mikn thcol)' apparently cqu:ttcd emptiness with this principle of tlepemlem tm,,·ing (?\1MK2.. : U~· l 9) ~nd pro,·ided the ground or the Bodhisauvn's mornl moth•1tion of compassion 6! in Mnhiiyiinn Buddhism. Xuanzang·s Wci shifCon s i ous.ncss-ou l yf'{og~dra theOJ)' planted the non-cxis:tcnce of the self and all dharma, including consciousncss!6' in the soil of Chin:::.. Fat..:tn;.f s theory on li/prineiple nnd .rhl/rcality or the Huayan school i5 not only compatible with lltc Tiantai theory on ..yininan.wmqimrfthc l lm~c thouso.nd \\"Otlds imm:mcnl in a.n instance of lhousht." but also tc\•eals the relation between oneself and others. It provides anothc.r reason for compassion and motivation to inspire one to moral actions. ·rhercfore. compassion becomes the key motinuion of the ideal Mahfi)'5nn mornl agenL u bodhis.,twa. With great compassion. bodhisauvas take ,·ows to eliminate the suflCrings of all sentient beings. C\'Cn fl)regoing their own enlightenment or n;nima. All of these things inYoh·e the T "ofold Truth nnd are related to morotlity. Some may :u·gue that it is more plausible that the impc.rsonal OOdncss of s.u ftcriug!dtthklm could better scn·e as the root of the BodhisaU\'
Xu:.tlv.a ng..

~1 S1dcms ind1<.:a1cs that lhi<; can r.;-s1 cntm.::ly on common-sense

ob:;ervu.lions ubout what we do and
212

.Imfo11 }'m r

is caused by our ignorance of our uhimate non~xis tcnce and lh~: oon-e :d~cnc;c of all things. there will be a sharp d istinction between nvoidabJc pain ;:md suffering. lf we hold commonsense to be the foundation of moral moth'a tion in ~·foh.nynnn Buddhism. it will be one-sided and will ignoring a detrimental clemcrH into Mah a~·::~na ethics and momt practices. Compassion as a great virtue in Mah:tyo.na ethics is not only comp.;atiblc prac.tic; a ll ~· \\ ith con\'c:ntional truth bul also. more importantly. wilh ultimate truth. which brings ultimate liberation rutd ends suffering. In point of f.1Ct. it should be stressed that con\'cntionnl U'Uth is sometimes c xtrcm cl~· important. ·nte \\hole doctrine. of karma. as internal merit and rcbiJ'Ib, h:ts i t~ \'ttlidily only in the realm of convcmional truth. That is why by liberating ours-ch·cs from the viewpoint or c.on\·emional uuth we cc:1sc to be subjoca to krumic law. Compassion is fo r niL in rny opinion. not solely for others. from the viewpoint of the T\\ ofold Truth, Kusalya-Up,;ya ns skilful nnd "holesome means m::mifcsts the \'irtuc of Compassion. U/';\YA ,\S M/i;\ NSANDAS liNIJ: THE MIDDLE WAY I N MAHAYANA MORAL PIIILOSOPIIY

The most importam innov:uion in Mah3~' 5na moml philosophy is the complex notion of Skilful Means (upiipn·kausn(J:n) and t.hc cquaiJy complex moml agent b€.)(/hi~·alfvl£1msa. Upc1yo. as mentioned abo,·c. is the sL.;U\JI mc:ms, or expediency. or expedient means, or cnn "pcd:1g0gical skill" according to man~·. Upci)m. gcncrnlly, signifies means thnt otrc sl.:ilful and \\hoksomc. Being ··skilful and wholesome ... tlfXll ·a. similar to Confucian qmm, is not onl}' means but also end (as morality), "'hich shows tbat motolity ~fila in l\,f:th:~yan a ethics is nor only n patt of the path or enlightenmcm but al so tJ1c end of enlilthtcmnent Keown describes two kinds of upilyo. O ne of them refers to lfpitya within normath·c or com·cntional ethits and is applied by Jxxlhiutfll•as-in ·l rllming. who ha\'e cultivated the "'mom! qua,l ities as encompassed in Lhc first li\'C pcrfcctions:·i1> Their mornlit~·/.~1/a (which here could be upiiyn-J.:usnla) and insightful knowlcdgcipru'uia (\\hich bert could be \\ isdom!prrynt;) work lOgcthcr to take a mor~ l :1c1ion skillfully as UJHiya. bn::u:hing minor precepts or rules, these breaches being rcg:trdcd 3S no olfcnccs. The other kind of upiJ)'u is applied by bodhisath·as or BuddJutS who ha,·e perfected the Clu31ities of the SC\ c.nth stlllusattwt p::nh or beyond. By the se,·cnth stage the Bodhisanvns arc pe.rfcctcd in the two dh·isions of the fiJst six smges or ethics and insight nnd cspcciallr HJH1ya. These bodJriscllll'(U' do not concern thcmsch·c s with ··normative The len rl(.'ffC(.'i!\onstpnr~mit~:) arc· I.Gcnc:roshy 2 Mor:tlll~' 3.Pallcncc 4.CoutjSC 5.}-·fcditation 6 Jns i~hti\\'L.'Idom (pmjmr) 1 Skilful }.·tcuns (upayo-kusalyu) S.Now he/Me- is L"Crlain to :allnin Buddlmhood :md his or her V<.m rc~•cb.:s pc,:rfccti\m. 9 Slrcnglh 1O.h no\\ k·dgc (j nana) &'A! 11;)1'\\':)' 200£)· J29 .. 1J I: 37.l· 374: lo\.i.'<)\\ll, 1992· 130 7 "

Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

2/.i

ctJ1ical condud" and act wilh an undefiled irucntion or pure compassion 71 for othe-rs. They c:tn <:-ommit serious oOCnccs nnd transgress the rules without punishment. This upfiyn is bcrond normnthc ethics or Hans-moroL7! HowcH~r. the diffi culties here c.rc, fitst. that in pmctice tlrc.rc is no sharp line dividing minor offenses ftom serious ones. Sct:ondl,·. cx<:cpl for the Buddha and some great bodhimlfwts, such <~S Ou:myin/Avuloktte.{;mra. it is h;ud to jud~;c ''Ito is perfected to which stnge of the l>r>dlusam·a pnth. Thirdly. and mos1 absurdly. gi\·en that m:my bodhis.ath·as in "bha~ ona discoutses. though they ha' c been doclarcd to be celestlal beings and h:wc refused "ha' ing thus gone" (being gone). come back to human life as moral examples (norm.11h·c concepts have 3.irctldy been used by the original texts thcmsch'cs) ;~nd got invoh·c d in normaLi\e moral pmctic-c - helping all sentient beings -- ho\\ can they then not be considered as being moml agents'! And why should we no1 :mo. lp~e what they ha,·e done by means of nonnt~ti,·c ethieo.LconecpL~·! TherefOre, in my 'iew a hodhismtvn cnn be jud&cd within normuthc cth.ics if and only if he or she in Maht~yana Buddhism is i1wolvcd in mo1':tl issues. h is compatible \Vith the Twofold Trutlt. In the Mahtl)'3mt test. Santide,...,·s (685-763) 8/todltlca,,tJV/Jiora, ' ) instructions for burlhisnltwt.~ arc discussed: -The son of1he Conqueror who has <Jdoptcd the Awakcniug Mind with grc.a t resolve in this way should, ever tireless. strive hard not 10 trnnsgrcss the u-aining" (Crosby and Skilton 1996: IV: 1:25). " Realizing this. one should always be s:tri,·ing for ochcr10' wcll·bci.ng.. E\'Cn what is prohibitOO is pcnnittcd for a com pnssion;~tc person "ho sees it will be of benefit- (V: 84: 4 1). We can S<.~ only those bodhiSBtl\'rtS \\ idt c.ompnssion/ 1Wrmu1 and StC:U insighttprtg'JM can prnctiCC Hpli)'a·l:lllalet. (kanmti rhe t and/or mwktm1palirmmin

having rcali7..cd the hig.hcst truth, he should always be zc3lous in pr(l(.urinr;: the wclf:u:c nnd h;~ppincss of beings. And if someone should object. ""lio'" can he .,,.oid commining :m oOCncc (ripallf) while engaged in what is folbiddc:nT IThe reply is th.atl thc lord has t<:~ugh t that what is forbidden mew be performed by one \\hO perceives with th¢ eye of knowledge 3 special benefit for beings therein. And the teachings of the l ord bring about sah-:.tion. But tJ1c TilliS.

H Bound tess syml't:uhy :md pity for another or Olh'-'fS and dcs1rc to help. '_;.Keown. 19'J2• 157-160. SiJctits uho vgrccs t(' divide upt~JY-' iuto two

kind:->: one. i ~ rclntOO h> t: tmns-morallty uoJ iJ:> pract i~·:d by l"'.~o,.lhi ~all \ {:j::\ whv 11:~: ,·~.: insigJu into lhc: grounding of l.h~ u l tun:ll~.:

morolity (Suknts. 2003: 110-11 1. nnt..:: b) 13 Ounp:ux: thJS translution with M. J.. MJtics. l.iJII~<:hle iUtli.'UtiRltfm.\'U.ti,s:,lmJ

Stmtidt:'-'<'

(frvm San.S.:ril). L...mdon.

Kcown· s anm~l auon

Hnl<'l"il18 1/w Pall:

<Jj

Tht! l!c"ldhicat')dWlttlra of thr: /Juddltist Jlt>l.'l Gc<.'r~e All~.o't\Z

(1992: 151 ) and Sktlcon 19%

& UIH' in. 1971: and

.Imfo 11 }'m r

2 /.J

foregoing [exemption) docs not apply to t.:\ cryonc: onl~· to [cases of] the cxcrt:isc of compassion in its highe-st degree by one who is of a compassionntc nature. who is whhoUl a selfish motive. solely concerned with the interests of others and totally dedicated to this [ideal). In this \\3)' there is no ofTcnoc for one who is skilled in mc::ms (upc'i),.,·,.J:u.\'u~va) :md ''ho works for the intc:-rc.sts of ot11c:rs with insight (prujii i) and compassion (kanmtT) 14•

l'oltdwing tllis.. \\C- may formulate a definition of b(ld/Jismfl•a s. /Jodhi:mllt.'IIS :lTC pcrfcclcd in both their moral qua lities and insight. 'rhcir intentions arc pure cnUghtcmucnt of other beings by eliminating their s uiTcri11gs and bringing wclf..1Jc to them. even a1 the expense of fo rgoing their O\\n enlightenment tOw3rds nirYHna. thus manifesting their 1\CCumubted virtues and " isdom a.~ c.omp3ss.ion :md skiHfulness. Their nctionslku.\:t1/a hn\'e been scp;tralcd into t\\O types: lhosc funhcrin& the spiritual perfection of themselves, leading to the 31t3inntent of enlightenment; Md those aiming at krumic merit~ bu ildi.ng/pmMa by scl'\·ing others. Depending on each author·s undcrst3nding of the above fac1ors. each book on Mah5\'5na ethics has its own dclinhion of bodhisatl\':lS: ..beings for cnlighicnmcnC. ··celestial beings". 15 and ..completely enlightened beings". A hmlhistrltm/pusn :\~ moral duty is to eliminate the suffering of any scr:llicnt being and to sprc01d the dtumna witJ1 compassionate ;actions. inc;luding IIJ1<1ya. CH:n by forgoing their own cnlightcnrnenl/nin '(i;m. This by no mcnns claims Mah!l.y3na ethic-s to be -superior"'~~'> or outstanding among the eLhics of other intellectual £astcm :ltld Western philosophies. '"There are- enough •·efcrcm:cs (O precepts. vinues, and moml n1odds to susgcst that Mah5.y5na Buddhism im·o lves a moral pcrsp<'etiYe not merely as 3 world view. but directly JS 3 system. Jn cilher C3SC ongoing research rna) unco\cr tl1c phenomenon thnt Mah5~ iina Buddhist moralil) contains no precepts and '-:.lues which cannot be found in ahcrnatc or t\'Cn stronger form in other m:Jjor <:thic;;tl tr.Jdjtions'· (llindc:ry 1978: 248). In M~l1fiyfinu ethic-s. all diseourscsl\utrm· stilrns discussing btKiht.f iliiWI mot:ll precepts, codes nnd rulei arc cnlled puSi!i iL' in Chinese. There arc csscnti;alh-· three di,·isions: Ftrmrang or th<: IJrahmaiiila-siitrtt (Fanwang 11 and Yingluo ts ) . Yl~/itylehen Or /lr}(/IU.'\.tlll\'tl~{m1tlmoksn

H l'f!IJU:tk(Lftltn{lti's oorumcnt in : bigul/mYt Nlft·(I)'O: 1ht· Book (1/Gr(l((,a/ .)a)'i"f;\ E. M. JJarc lran.-. . (London: SMl.. 1935) 1: 204. Wi l h~rd G. Oxlt•by. 1.->tt tl"od d RcllgtOmJ: £a:Jier'll li·odltu:ms. (ToiUltv;

P·n....-s. 19%) Koown <.-xplorOO the lJUCstion t'f the S:UJli.'tlOrity of t-.hhayana 10 Tht.T!tvnd;J.!)uddhi:ml (C. Dnmicn Kco'm 1992: 137-15-1). 1' Fan'' 'llltgjin!VBmhm:ti!lhl lransl~•led by Kumarajrva (344-4 13) 1(,ulrV Oxfor~f Umv~r~1 1y 1 '

24·1484; Digh(l Nll.:ri)v· I: Tim X11:ang 24· 10 h: 1004

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2/j

tYujia. 79 Oichi.'so Shanjicu) and )'OUJJtJS~iie. •: which arc specific precepts for the lahy. There arc si~ kinds of Chinese tcxts 8 ' and there arc also other scattered siitrns, including Pusnne1J"Icpng with some fony·scvcn rule-s for b(Nfhi.wzums. ~A In China. the )lOC,
On one hand, like all MaMytlnn h!xts on morality, it SU'Csscs the six pcrfcctiotts/lillfltt (sonJc.tUues the ten perfections). and the four major prcecptsfsiMte: controlling greed. stinginess. anger and insolence to others. These precepts cluci~lc snrrJIYj"KJii•, the three modes of Mah5y3nn mornlity: the ethics of tJtc vows of tempcnmc.c. continence, restraint nnd self-control (.'iltmm·artl): the ethics of ac.cumulating vinues. a subjccti,·c person:.! moral pcrfcc ti<m linked to intelk-ctual cuhivalion in the quest rbr cnlightcn.r:tlcnt; Md tbc ethics of contributi.ng 10 the wclfJTC of sentient bcin&s - nn objective n.x:iJJient - oriented precept " hich focuses on the nct.'ds of 01hcrs. h srans "~ith .'Uchongj)'t:, the four " Offences of Dcfl'at," then tltc fott~··Lhtcc secondary codes. though some- trnditional commentaries enumerate them :tS fo•t~·fhc oa· forty~ b: (Talt... 1986:24}. On thc other h3nd. the most striking feature in the whole chapter is the group of seven permissions. wb.ich explicitly :mthorizes the brcnlcing of the lirst SC\'cn rules established in the popularty accepted

;, l'u~nyingluohcn~·cjing. 1iu.dt6 24: 10'20. " YuJia~ltidilun 4 1, ](r;,,lzO 30: I :579.516·521 was tOt th..~ fir:ct llm..:: lmtt.'llatcd and nnm..-d Pu.mdichijiug by Ton \Vu Zhcn uf the Bc1liang dymtsty in 4 1 ~1. Th~,l it wus n:tran:tluh..xl mtJ muuc.:d Pu:.·o~·h,mjl<'J ~'"K b~· Qiunnbumo from l.iu·song d~' n J)u$&lichijin~. Tai.1/u,i 30. 15~ I: 51 1-521 . s: Shou~hislwnjkjint~. Ti•h h6 24 1486, Tnmsl!ll<.:tl by Tau Wu ?..hen a. Youpo~jiCJmg. 'l'ni.;;M 24· J48g. t<J "IlK'}' arc /-'(mwang·pustt·ju!bt·n. f>usa·rhrgluo·OO'I)'CJilt8. }'ujia.dtidihm-pu~ajit•b~" Pwuulichiji11~-.li~hen. and PU$1L' lmnjh:jiiJ,rt.:fiehL' II) s-• f~:,lntt•pU$:.Lneijicjinta. TtlishU 2.S· J487. 1028 Si Sec !he nolc or Yllji:,shichlun

216

.lmfon }'m r

Bralrmqjcila·sl11ralF'onwang. These rules arc abstcution from: taking life.

t:ddng what has nol been given. sexual misconduct. lying. slanderous

speech. harsh speech. nnd frh·olous talk. The tlrst three of thc:m are phrsical m:tions while the remaining arc \ Crb.1l actions.l\6 None of them is unr~latcd to mental elements and memal slates. Breaking these seven rules is "reprehensible by nature," ;md they nrc rcpcotcd in almost ~II Buddhisl tliscOUI'SCS on moralit). In contrast (O the. SC\Cil modes or reprehensible conduct. the seven pcnnittcd olTcnccsill'lllf('~fnnf1 c:tn be samlmilri'led by the folio'' ing: l.Pcnnission to engage in compassionate killing. 1'aking the lii'C of about to commit an act entailing immediate rctribution/(JPUmlt~ro-kamw in order to prevent them suffering the evil in COOSI!qucn CC or that 3Cl, 2. Permission to cng3gc in comp:u sion:ltc stealing. Causing a cruel ruler 10 f
I would like tn focus on the permission to engage in comtl3ssionatc killing to analyze the moral agcnfs \irtuc. imcntion. dccision·maldng. and smtc of mind in an c~trcmc situation. It is sbtcd in the ch'*ptcr on pusajit· that " (c )ven in the c:asc of what is reprehensible b~ nature. the bodhisattva :.cts whh such skill in means (upiiyn J lh:n no fnuh ensues; rather, lhcrc is: :l spread of much merit.'' Thus. the Bodh.isattva mar sec 11 robber engaged in commilling ::t .. great many deeds calling for immediate k:umic retribution-. ~ Dighu .\'ikliF': 1. t<' \\'uwciran rciJd"-'fcd with rcfcn:nccs to 8cxl!Ji.\ a tf'.'ttbhlmu' (A:;angu. /)odlrmrttwtMirmr: being 1lte X l"l!t seetion v.f r1${111gtrpadtJ's J'og(Jc;(rmbltmnih ) ()gtic,irt~blttitlll Sansknl cd Nahnat.:sho Duu (Palna: K fl. J ay:~ swa l N:c.sc.arch Institute, )97~) 95-ll9. aU ikms bcg,tnning. with Aniipnui ;,, ,w{'ifim bt.in ~ collcdcd together; with T3i:shcj 41: 1579.51G-21 { 10.2) which Xu:m~..ang used "huo- (If ··ll•o·· ~• s beginning. :.t)Si.t \\ith Cblin M~.11 in Tatz . .-llxn•iglm:s & u ,·(1ttium ami Otltc,. £.~ .,,~)'·' {f leincmann Educallonal Auslralia. 1932).

Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right

21 7

being about to murder -many hundreds of mognificenl living beings" for the sal;e of a few mutcrial goods. What appears in the botlhu·nm;o's mind is thnt a, Jf I tnkc the Jifc of the: scn1ic:nt being. J m)sclf mnr be: reborn as one of the creatures of hell; b . Beller thnt I will be reborn u creature of hell th:tn thai this robber siiQuld go straisht IQ hell for w hat he doc.s: c. The BodhiSlth'il ascertains 1hat his thought is vinuous or kannic indctcnnin:uc 4nd then feeling constmincd. with a thought only of compassion flU the consequences. he-tales the life of that robber. We may gothcr (a). (b) and (c) osthc followi ng points: a. Killing is reprehensible by muurc. b. Double conscqtaenccs: This killing climinmes 01hcrs' suffering, the robber ·s karmic retribution, and brings suffering only to .. myself''. c. M> intcn.tion is comp.1Ssionatc :md pure (h justifies the rislttncss of m~· action. r understn.nd il is wha1 I ought to do.) d. Consequently, it is better th.'l.t -r· sufiCr in hell than thnt the robber .suiTcrs i11 hell or others surfer from ''hat the robber has done (the good).

c. 1 tnk:c :mother's life onl~· in dire cireumstnnccs for others' benefit where there is no nhemath c choice. Ln the llash· Ptllh tu Awtshmmg, Tsong-Khu-Pa (1357- 1419) n comment on this and c-mphasi;o:cd two points:

m~dc

a. At the time of killing the agent mu!\1 ar.ccrtain th~ Sl.1tc of hL.:; miud to be ,·inuous or konnically indctcrmio.3te, ond entire I)' unmixed with delilcmcm and the like . b. This ac1ion musl be constrained by tltc situ:uion. -There is a p.1uc-ity or alternatives, since he C..'lll find no otltcr mcans.''s1 The JJnslurmJumrimg/Up
~ Mari: T.:~.tz. AswJga:\' Chaptt'l' ou Et!tic.s \tith Jltc Commt·ntary Qj T:,·vng-1\lta-Ptr, TIN: /)cr,,·fc l'<'lh 10 Aw1rkt"-ning, The t •o mtlkte Borll,JOIIVtr (LOfldim; Edwin 1\'lcllcn Press. 1986), 21.1·21 5.

218

.lmfon }'m r

kills the robber :~nd only he suffers in hcll ..for a hundred th ousand cons."'~9 This provides a d~.-"t:: il cd descriplion of how skilful means upt1ytl. insigl11/wisdom and c.ompassion/momlity work together to lend to this double consequence moral action. \\ hicb is ccnainly different fro m the Cath olic Double EIT~t. " hich will be discussed funher o n . The moral dis,crction of this btldhi~;auwt is within norm:uivc ethics,. Wh:u the agent uh imalt ly intends is to eliminate suffeting 0111d benefit and ehlig.htcn other.) (and himself). wl\31 the agent does no t intend as his ultimate goal is just killin g the robber and incurring suffccing in helL What he docs is an actio n. chosen on cl1e basis of deliberation bct,,cen the conflicting \':tlues of the lawful and unlawrut. 1he right and the c,·il, and the good and the b3d . It is the Middle Way. My understanding is tluat t11c Middle \Vay helps people to come to a wise and compassionate linnl decision based on \\hat the real siluntion needs in order to obt3in 3 n.""'Sult in moralit) before the thoughts o f decision arc put into action!>. Howe ver. lhc premise of this decision·mtlking should be based on compassion. und lhus on MniJa)ana Buddhist ctltic.s. h is no t only right but good. From a Buddhist point of ,·icw. lhis concern for others hils no residue of selfishness. When we apply the ide:~ of the Middle W :ty, \\C. kno w that our judgement of an C\'Cilt is not based on Lhc C\"Cnt itself, but on the real situation or circumstances. Some snict teachings arc applied in Ch;:m Buddhist teachings. whereby, good. is not real good. an d bad is no1 real bad. For e\el)•lhing is ""ultinm tcly·' empty. Good and b:.td arc relative. not absolute. This is a view from an ultimate point o f \·i ew, Thus. :t moral judgment on un event, nonn::ui,·cly. is based on considcrtUion$ from nil diffcrcnl nngh:s. such as wh:.t the intention of the agent is and n hal the real situ:llion is and n eeds in ordc:r to make in the end a mornll) satisfying dcctslon best fitting the C\'Cnt C\'Cn though Ibis decision ma)' not be pc1fcct in 1hc absolute. In Buddhism. morol dec-isions or jud~mcnts made on the basis of wisdom m us1also contain compassion. - For pure bodhis:HtYns. tltcir mother (matr) is the perfection of wisdom (prajl'll1 prv.uiMp<Jramltif), and the fotther is skilful in me:u1s (upiiyn·ktmStllyn): the lc~ ck:rs of the world." Accordingly. wisdom whhout skilful means is bondngc. n.nd wisdom 01cquircd through sldlfuJ means is dclivcr:mcc:: sldlfu l means with no" isdom arc bondage. and skilful means

~ TmnsJ~ted from Cluncsc U rd.rfla, gpt,Ja •v.'4'ttd(t.flri,mjuanjms ( 1iih.· ll6

12:345: 156 J l/row ltam· lmdlrisit/WII• ptrripn·c!IIJ) Upii}'ll J:mztt1{ra lrtltl$. from Chinese by Ganna C. C. Chnn~. A li'c'u.smy uj JfahciJ'«IJu Sumu: S.,:/ections fmm tht~ MtJIItn'lllnakuut .Sim"lr (Univcn;ity Purl.:. PA P~;tub)'h':mia Sial..: Unlvcrsll)' Press, 19S3) 427 ·6g~ :and lrnnsl3ted from T1h:tlan l. ipiiy11 knuja~I'O•UI1nttl Malta)'(iuu Sim·al Tlllt Skill in Mtran$ (Upii}nkmtinl}m Smro) (trans. by Mork Tut;r.. New York: Pantheon Booh, 1994) 73·76: Sec 11l 'j\.l P~1 ut

Williams,

Mu/I{JyCJ/1(1 8~Uit0tt_\m

H: rvcy. 2000 135·38

(l.vu.:k,n: Ruu!IC4.1t!,c . 1989) l.J.$ and

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219

nc.quircd through wisdom arc deJi,crnoce.w f or pure bo(uu·:muvas. wisdom and skilful means. or comp:1ssion. must be possessed and U1ili1..cd simuJtnncously in order to achieve tltc ultim;~.tc perfection of spiritual cu hi\';~.tion . Benefiting both others and nn agent they are the achic,·cmclll of per fe<:t spir itunl culth otjon . T he suffering of the mo ral agent in the stOJ) ' demonstrates a srcat in.sight on the part of the Buddha on the way lo cn l i~htc nm cn t. It is u nly at this cot1\'cnti on;.~l lc\·cl th.-.1 a double·

consequence action could become 3 means to benclit others and the :1gcm. r;or lhe 4gcnt. this is a neccssal) mornl process of the pctfcction of wisdom. and for others the 3\'0idancc of suffering and immediate kannic retribution.

JUSTIFICATION AND FURTII£R CONSWE RATJONS Argument (~{/ntentJdn

The dominant role of intention and the function of miJHI h ii\'C been found in various Buddhis1 "ritings which justify 1he application of 11pt''Jy as the mcttns :ss well as the end or the perfections of Bodh.isauva. In the "' f l':lgmcnt or a Commentary to tl1c Twenty Verses From Dunhuant,f we can sec all actions 1he Bodhisauvas take arc justified by their intention: '·With it :\S your lofty intention.. (verse 2b). and we can sec th.1t bodJJisattYa ethics should be received by the candidate with pure intentions by tJ1c candidate who!'c intentions arc lofty •• fn."'C from dillhonesty - and who is desirous of awakcni.ng."' 1 "This uttcmpts to s;~.feg:uard the right ;md the good of :an action by a I>C-l'fcc ted pcrs.on/lwddhistlllm. How then to pro\c that "compnssionate ldlling, l)'ing, stealing. etc." arc not rcprchcn..:;ible·? 'l'hc .. Permission to Murder·· section (reference to lJtll;c /JotU;ismtWl Path: note 3?5) tells us that - the Skill in Metm :~ Scrlp turu shows taking life to be im:prchcn,siblc \\ hen done with dctJchmcnt and so fonh. When it d e\'elops from a rirtuous thought (bccaus.c the thought is conjoined with dcmchmcnt and so fonh). it is "inuous. ;\II those done by body (murder. then. and sexual in terco urse) arc presente-d in relationship 10 lhought."~l And. it continues. the BuddhJ b :~s dccl:u-cd: Mmd precede!> e vents., chief in mind; born from mind l11crc is u positi' -c thought. rutd speech m action fo llow:

w

JJ'e imqih:Jing 1 "11!/dlfrkmininf.-.,tM•m•~ Vll.6.1. VI th. 1\ccordmg 10 12 . COl'U p;~s..'l iou tS the 8(-(:d of Uuddhobood sin(.'\:

.\ldtll~rcmriknmtum , =Jroug.luu

pnwidc!> the l.llQiivation Itt guin cnligbtcnnwnt for the llCI.Jdit nf nthcrs. ? I The aulhor is unknO\\ u. The T''~n1y Vc;r~-s from Ounlnmnil l~l bodhiS:IIt\·a ,·ow~ were 1~ught by the 1113~cr Candmgomin ;r~ n fc11· ~)thcr !ii:·utic.nl bciilf:!S 10 <~Onl(~ forth. See 'l'utz, 1986;31 S. 9 : :'\ppcndix D m Tatz,, 1986: 323. In lhi$ woy. spc~ king hnr.;h \\'Ql'ds. telling a lie. aud (:Stn.ln~i n M llicnds f~:,r lite l)l.:ncfits "'f $1.'tlli\.'UI bcingti ~uc nil il

juSIIfl t.'d.

.Imfo11 }'mr

220

TI1crc is a negative thought. and speech or action folio''· And All the world is guided by thought. completely led by thought E\'Cf)' C\"CO( folio'' s aflcr thought aJonc. YJ

So ;application follows intention. and killing with ;a pure intention is not to be condemned fro m both com"Cntion.al ttnd abw lutc points of vic.·w. It seems 10 me tllat the \'irtuous intention should dclinitely have double consequences: one is good, brin~ benefits or adv:mccmcnt of interests to sentient beings. the other is bad. killing, spe~d..lng harsh words. telling a lie. and estranging friends, etc. Pcr10nning these actions to perfect oneself is the end while performing them with good imcntions becomes the means. We had bcucr distinguish ''hat the pre<:oding discussion calls "double consequence moral action.. from "hnt C;uholic mor.:~. l teaching eolls "double effect''. -Nothing hinders one 3Ct from h3,•ins two effects. only one or " h i ~h is imcndcd. "hile the other is beside t_hc i ntention~ ... the act of sc lf~ efc n sc mar ha\'c two cm~·c t s : one, th~ snvinc of on~·s life, the other. the sl:1~· ing of lhc aggressor:· In addition, there arc three more conditions. In the first place, if one ·s intention is s~wi ng one ·sown life, it is not nnl3wful to kill the aggressor. and it is natural rrom a commonsense mornl pcrspccti,·c . At the same time. the right of self-defense is not llllt onditional. and is only pcm1ittcd in a constrn.incd set of circumstancc.s with the agent not using more ,·iolcncc than ncC(..'S!':try, w In discussions down th.roug.h the centuries to the present day. the doctri.nc has developed more conditions for the principle of Double Effect. One of them focuses on the act~ "The act itself must be ntorally good. or :tt least indiffere nt.·· Two of them stress the good effect: "The good cOCct must flow fl'om the action (in the order causality, though not necessarily in order of time). [n other words. the sood ctTect must be produced directly b~, t11c a~tion. not by its bad effect. Othen\·isc. the :tgcnt would be using a bad means ton good end. '' bich is nC\ 'Cr allo\,ed: · Additionally. -ltlhc good cOCct must be s ufficiently desirable 10 compcns..1tc ror the allowing of the b:ld ciTcct." Comp;aring th.is with the ethical codes of upliya. we sec lh:at only one of tbcsc eondi1ions c-onsiders the stmc or mind of the ageru "ithou1 :tb:tndoning the impon.1ncc of the ~ood effect: "The agent nt:l}' not po.siti,·cJy willlhc b3d cfTcct but may permit it l(hc could ;~tuin the good cfTcc.t without the bad effect. he sJ•ould do so. l11e bad ciTcct is sometimes s3id to be indirectly \'Oh.tnt.1r')'." 9l Therefore. "double eJTccf" is to this

or

9J ?I

Appcndi" p in T:tW.., 198(.. :lB-324. A
W I' Baumanh and Rich:•rd .I H. S .1 •• t:d. On IA~tl". /thmr/iry. <md l'olutcs (C.:tunbr'idgc: llackett, 198~) 226. Sec aiSlO lJ .JI. (J. 43. :u1. 3: J.JJ. Q. 72. art. I tOr c.xplunation:~ t'f why whot is beside intention i5 nccidentnl. 1 j The l"'t1or ,;unditions li~h:d in Gtdc G roup & Catholic "Uni\c-J~it~' or Amcr;c~ t~t 71te ,\ ',•w Cmhollc l:)t<:J•CiopetRo. (TI10111JOn (j(l/~ 2002) 1 02 1 ~ at¥1

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c.s.tenl conscquentiaHsl in na1u.rc. If \\C usc acl·utililarianism as a s1andard to compnre the nolion of IIJU1yo and the principle of Double Effect. we find thnt upiiyn is closer to it. while double cff~t is not Roughly speaking. -act utilitarianism is the view thai the rightness or wrongness of an act depcods only on the lOUt I goodness or badness of its consequences, i.e .. on the cffccl of the-action on lhc. wclfurc of all human beings (or pcrhops ~II scntienl lx:inssr· (Smara nnd Will iams 1967: 1). Act·utilitari:mtsm ad,ocaLc.s Lhc incention to maximaizing the good -~ an intcn1ion upon whic.h a uptl)•a ·~ prac.ting bodhis.1th :.t doc.s act But the Catholic Double Erect principle forbids acting and intending thus by certain forbids :.ctiug and intending thus by certain forb idden means. a constrain! absent alike flom the :tet·utilitari:m teaching and the bodhisn.th':t ethics endorsed at My Hate fo r extreme cases.. Bol.h rtpiiya and Double Effect stress the limited SCI of conditions tmder which it is pcrmissablc to take ano lhcr's life. which seems dissimilar to Fletcher's situ3tion ethics.. Fletcher claim!; that for 3ny mor3l ti£Cnt tlac correct oricnro1ion for decision·makin& should be adopted on the b:lsis of the single principle of lore. "Christian situ:uion ethics hl.S one norm or principle or Jaw {call it what you will) that is binding :t.Ud cxecptioncss. and always good :md right regardless of the circumstance.s. That is •Jon · -~ the agape of the summ:tt)' c.ommandmcn1 to low God and thy neighbor." (1966: 30) Buddhist compassion is the controlling nonn justifying upc'l)-'lt and can m3tch Christian love on the score of inner Qf.lC.'XIncss. \\hilc Double Effect docs not m.akc such strong dcm:mds on the moral ogcnl 's state of mind. I will pro' ide l\\O examples for further inquiry. From one of the Confucian cl:.ssies the Gtw 111. 1/:e ('(Jt1l'el-smion.1 (lj' 1he Swtes, \\C read n chapter "Shao Gong Let His Son Die to Sove the King Xu.:ut of Zhou (r. R27-782).- lc is S;1id that in 824 BCE there was a rebellion. King Xuan wM hidden in Sbao Gong's House. The rebels surrounde-d the house and demanded the king 's life. Sb:to Gong exercised his moml discretion :tnd applied cxpcdicnc)'. He Icc his son go out as King Xuan. ~a u sc the rebels did not know what King Xuan really lool:cd like. 1'his action s.1vcd 1hc life of the-King, Shao Gong considcrc:d that this ls the Wny/Dno of n minister. He said to the King. ·'J ha'c g.h·cn you many sut{:CStions about the policies of the QO\'Crnmcnl. You have nC\'cr listened to me. Th:ll is; lhe c-ause of tod:ty ·s rebellion. Nc.lw 1 let my :son to be killed in-stead of you. A minister in SCf\'ing his ruler in danger ought to take Ihe risk without complaint: if he

Man£~11 \.:>

lbt in "·A Jlisturicol A.nalysis of the PriociJllc of Dt1ublc 4:1 (19 49}. ··~\\ ~;II :.l$ lhc uansl:tlil..lll of the four condii!(!M m Boyle, Joseph "Toward Undcrsl:mdmg 1bc Pnncaplc of D-ouble 1::.m.-ct"' iul:'tltir..s 90. (U!\1\"CI'ility of Ch ic~go Press. 19@) 527 4 3~: t('pl'mled in Woodw.:trd. P. A. cd. Tlu• D(,C'Il'itte of Dmtbll.' Effi•cl: Pltilo:JQpltt.'I'S lfi:bttll! a CottmJ~'t:t'Sia/ MtJr<Jl Princlp/(. (Notcl' D~1m~;. Uniwrsily "f Nt.lt1rc O:a tn~,: l)t\::iS. Jo:K.1lh

nm.:ct- Tlwo/(,gu:al StudieS 10

200 1}S

222

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complains wi1J1 suggestions he should not be nngcry wi1J1 his master. I should scrYc you in this way." 96 a. S h ;~o Gong did not intend to kill his son. b. His intention j s to save the king. c. H~ took an :.ction that j ustified his correct intentiorl \\ hich is identical to the principle of Double Em.:cl. d . T his action fu lfi lls his duty as a ministc.r. AI the s:1me time. c. This action is ~lso obcdicn1 to the dictates of conscqucntialism from Sl13o Gong's perspective. f. According to "vimrc ethics" the minister Sh;~ o Gong can claim th:u be shows his mor.:al ,;nuc in lt.is dceision·maldng. Anothe-r example is taLcn from -Methods of Handling AlTairs- in the Reflection ()lf11ungs m Hand. In his c:omcrs:uion Cheng H:lo happened upt)n the subject of -one '' ho wo...~ :~bo ut to spc.lk but hcsit3ttd nncJ s:toppcd:· He s;1id. "If one should speak. c,·cn if it is to dcmnnd somcone·s head. he must speak as Jing Ko demanded F~m Wuqi's be-3d:· " He must spc3k in such a W3Y that his spee<:b sounds firm and deeisi\'c.. as the Analoc1s 1?:? 3dvocn.tcd. according 10 him. Zhu Xi remarked on Cheng Hao 's teachings on this issue and set a standard for one to :tct. which cmphasizcd the importo.nce of lilprinciplc "Whnt one should spcnk about should be in acc.ord with princ iplciH. The case of Fan Wuqi is not in accord with principle." Th:lt is, to 1.;11 or to commit suicide is nol in ae<:ord with the principle of Nco·Confudanism. Zhu Xi w:mtcd to Slrt:$S sinccrity 1d7L•ng ns n cardinal \'irluc playing 8 crucial role when a moral agent makes a decision to :\CI. He S:lid. ''Master Cheng referred to it simp I ~' to sho" ' that one should speilk even if il is most dtfllcult to do so'" (Ziwngyonx lluonc:n). This cotwerS
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b. Zhu Xi ogrccs " ith Cheng Hao in emphasizing the internal purily of the ~gc:n t. AI the same time he considers that killing in Fan's c~\SC is not in nceordo.ncc with the gcncr:Jl principle ofnn action which is morally nnd mctnphysically in
d. Fan could also claim that he is practicing y i or justice. He did not intend to kill himself (though. as his death seen as means to the result he desired. Catholic Double Effect teaching \\Ould regard it as wrongfully intended). He just intended 10 kill the King of Qin as the meJ\ns It) his ultimate gool Of bringing ju.u ice and pCOCC tO the pCOple during :1 time or \\arfarc. Or he fila.)' even simply say that his intcntjon is to pmcticc yi. nnd notl1ing else.

Titc above examples he lp us to ex:uninc the e.onccpt of qumJ (moral discretion) as a practical moral principle and a.s a virtue or a person rntllcr than as a notional concept for pbying with similar notions in the world of ctl1icaltrnditions. In discussing the human nspirotion 10 pcrf<.:~t i on leading towards nir' llna os o coal in Buddhist ethics, some scholars compare it with Aristotle's tclcolog.icol ethics and advance a.n intcrprctlllion thilt advocates pr.1c.tices directed towards at sclr~p~r fcet i on as summum bonum. Tiley thus address human nature in the interests of fostering cenain human potential which could be regarded as vinucs. -For Aristotle. onlv the wise nrc virtuous and only the ,; n uous arc wisc."~1 Upt~ra as whol~somc in mcmts actually represents compassionate (alTccti\'c) and wise (cognith·c) dcc-ision·m01king and action-t:tking. As mentioned t~bo\"C ~ purt bodlrisalfwr takes perfection of wisdom. including moral and i.nte11ectual pcrfc.."Ctions. as father while Ukmg Jipl'iy u-kusolct ns mother. It pnrnllcls the rcl::ttion bch\CC:n \'irtuc and wisdom in Ari:s:totlc's cthic:;. lit'C is by nature good ac:cordin:; to Aristotle and to good men cxi$tcnce is goc.>d and plcas~nt (Nh:omtrcherm l:'fhiC's ll70:s30-bl9 21 4), so that c\'en wroogfu ll~, taking .:mother's life with good intentions is not o virtuous action. Titc: names of actions such as adultery. theft. and murder ·' already imply badness·· ( 1 006b36~1 1 107a25 )9). Virtue lies in :1 ldnd of mct~n . ~iming :lt what is intcrmi,.-diatc (1 106b?-1106b35 38). The Middle Wo)· of up
22-1

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means and the metaphysics behind such ctltics arc quite Uiffcrcnt from \\ bat cnn be found in the Ntctmtftd1etm f.'lhtc.t , E\'Cn if climin:uing suffering is the duty of tltc mornJ agent. applying upii)'(l is also different from whut we find in Krull's de-ontological ethics. nu:tJphysicnlly and ethically. M}' trnnsl;uion of the lii'St item on 1hc list of Ihe SC\'Cn pcnnissible offences _.s '"i;ompassionatc killing"'. in contrnst to the- precept " no killing'' stipulated in the Rranwjiila .\litrt1 has undctlincd its eth ic;~) mcani n~;:. Bcnc\olcnce and Jove as pure afTcct may brine harm. To justify the bo'I n~· doing:· (DtKHkjmg 63) Tht~.t is, nho you arc m~y impose on you the duty of not ncting <JUh\Drdly. Bodhismtms Juwc their onn duties nnd functions. Compassionate killing is one of them. Secondly. in the J't-lmcius. ..The King XtL'ln of Qi asked. ·was it a fac t th31 Tang (founder of the Shang D)·nasty r. 1751· I739 BC E) banished King J ic>a wicked King (r. IK02·17S·z BCE). and the King Wen ofZhou b.'Ulisbc-d King Zhou of Shang'? ' 'Yes. According to records.' Mcncius replied. ' Is it nil right for a minister to murder his king?' Mcncius said. ' One \\h(l inj ures hum:mity is a b:mdit. One who injures rightc.'Ousncs!' is :t dcstruc;ti\·c person. Such a person is a mere fe llow~ I huve heard ofkilli.ng a mere fellow Zhou. but I ha\C nCK hcm"d of murdering him ns the ruler.... Therefore. the bmfhismtw1 would kill the mere fellow as murderer ot bandit, not llS a man with responsibilities. Th irdly. I would like to usc tl1c h\0 principle-S Zhu Xi added to the exercise of qurm: rishtoousncss and timely cquHibriumi,("hi.rhong. With the \'irtuo of righteousness the boti}J;satll'n decided to override the rule ..no kill ing"' in ccrcain circunt.stanccs in order to practice righteousness and compassion and eliminate a large amount of sutTcting on the p:~n :JII the people invoh·cd. He did so at tbc. right time. His moral discretion made him ch()(Y..;e the appropriate-action bet\\ cen the good and the bad. and b¢t\\Cen extreme hnnn and suflCring and extreme lx."'ncfit for everyone involved. Therefore, his upiiyt1 is a m CUU$ as well as a perfection oflhc middle way. From the standpoint of the ethical :1sscssmcnt of actions, consequences, chnmctcrs: and moth·cs:. we can see both upbya and quhn cited in the ouempt to prO\'idc an ideal action-guiding principle in order to produce right action :Jnd to bring out the best consequences in any given siruation. At the s:~mc time they both require a perfect quality!Yinuc on the p.'Vt of the mo~.tl agent Howc,·cr. each has hs own difficuhics. cth.icol as \\Ctl as rncwphysical and therefore. recourse to the ideal principle ''as limited to Confuci:m s.,g~:s and Mah.3~·5 n :. borUu~·mtwrs rather than being onti lablc for usc by 3\'crnge morol ngcnts. So. !he importanc.c of the charac1er of 1he asenl is cm p h asi~..c d as the- guarantee or his good will,

or

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righteousness or compassion. with tltc elimination of suffering being lh~: only motive or the IfliOn or upt1ya. Gh·cn the uncertain IC\'CI of 'be purity of ch:unc:tcr ~nd intcm of c\·cn the bcst·intcntioncd rulc·brcakcrs. both Nco-Confucianism nnd Mahfiyiioo cthks. inOucnecd by religious and social practices and by on awareness of humon selfishness, brousltl in the powers of supcm:uurnl beings. budhis·au,·as nnd szagcs. ;md pullhc quality of their \·irtue for <Juiln 3nd UfUl)'tl at il lc\"Cl beyond merely human obilitr. thus causing s.omc morn lists to regard 1he upr'l yn 0\S something beyond nonnative ctJ1ics. In my \'icw. Nco·Confucianism and Moh5yfuta ethics h:l\'c rtttiorully e:qJlorcd the necessity of qmm and upi1)'(1 und htwe rationall~ argued for them from virtuc·bascd and mlc·bascd models. Howc\'cr. contrary to what they ha,·e said. it is not necessary to regard such ,·cry gre::u olfcnccs as outside of t.he sphere of nonnative cchics as long as human virtues nud moral principles can handle 1hcm. In fac t. killing is not only a mornl issue; it involves laws. As cxemplnrs of morali ty, sages and bodlusatTa·a s cncourut;cd moml culli\'ation posi1h•cly :.md pro"idcd inspimtion for ave-rage moral agents in the two philosophical lraditions. Neg:llivcly. they bccoute -empty images•· beyond the reach of an avecagc ruomt agent. The Twofold Truth a.nd tl1e "no·sclf"" doctrine can easily m:tke ''ignorant peopfc~ lose the dinx1ion of their liws. The Middle W:ly as a mornl principle or mctltod must be wort.:nblc. its rules or codes must not lay a hca\)' burden on agcniS. The Middle \Vny :.s the Eightfold P:uh is workable in praclke and has its lofty st:1tus. It might be dcsi.rnble for ;altru.ism or fairness to figure more i.n any concept of momlity. bt1t the result or such prim:iplcs could be moral dcs)nlir. deep or undue nwml guilt fcclings nnd inciTccti\C action. The Middle Wny is :timed at reducing these ncgath·c potentialities. 1'bc discussion of the Middle Wa~. ils m11nift:stations or up/iJ 't l :tnd tJttfm <~ nd their consequences on tl1c ogem·s side show chc overly idcalislic t\aturc of the Middle Way. Such discussion encourages the agent to do better and bcucr in a positiYc way, but ncnr the best The M iddle Way. in mornl prncticc, pte\'Cnts cxlrcmc :~ cti on and decision-making. It makes p;:oplc want to create a hnnnonious cm·ironment within their giYcn fom1s of life. l t is prar;tkal in nuwy ways. Neg;lli Ycl~·. it is ·'empty.. for there is no subst.ance there. \\hich ls 10 say. any attion or decision could rcxh some stopping point on the W:l)' -· but nc\Cr the 1ruc dcst.i113tion. REFERENCES Af:guuarlJ Nikl{)'a : 111e !Jtmk of/he Gradual Sayings (1935) Trans.

E, M. Hare. London: PTS Publisher. Aquinns. Thomns. .~·umm o 17u:ology in On Law. A1ornlil): rmd Politit·s ( 1988) William P. Baumorth and Richard J. Regan. S.L cd, lndiMapolis/Combridgc: Ha<:kctc Publishing Co, Ames ond Rosemont ( t'.>C) R,) J11c Anal~t·J.')· of CmifiJdu~·: A Pltilo:wplur tll TrtmsltlfUHJ, New York: B:1llantinc Pub. Group,

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Arisrodc (1998) Nicomadu~a" Ethh':i. trans. W..D. Ross. New York: OxCord Unh·crsity 'Press. Asangn~ldn (1978) Bodlusoi/Yob/mmi: Being the XVth St:cllOII of Asangop(zc/a'J· Yog(JCtrmblwmih. cd. N;din;U;slla Dutt. Pn1m1: K.P. la)nswal Research lnstjlute. Chan, Wing·tsit (1986) ('h u H.ia tmd Neu·Con}ilcltm i.~11 , Honolulu: Uni\'CI'$ity QfH awai' i Press. Chang. Ganna C.c.• A ( 1983) Tretuury (~f Ma1tfiyliflrt Sutrn.f: .Y:Icc·tiousfrom the ~.\4allftratnnklita Stitra. Penns~ h'Mi:t: Penns-~ h'ani:t Sm1c lJni\'crsity l'ress. Cheng. Hao ( 198 1) {:.'r Cheng Qumr.slm, Beijing: Zhonghua Sh1ti11. Cou7.c, Ed .. (1973) tmns., 1Jte Pcr;/ectiou of Wisdom iu Ei.~'' Thousand Lines mrd Its J't>rs~s Summmy. Bolinas: Four Season Founffiujon. Croby, K. nnd Skilto ( 1996) A. 5iamhlel'tt, The HodhiCt'Jf)'t'll·trttirtr, Oxford: Oxford Unin:rsity Press. Cousins. l..S. ( 1996) "Good or SkiiJ&ful ? Kusttlt'l in Canon nnd Commentary;· .luoumnl o[BuddhJSI 1£1!Jics, No.3 . Fletcher (1966) .si·wation Ethic.f. London: SCM Press Fool, Philippa {2002) V/rJtte.-; tmd ~·lc~s tmd Oilier F.:r.m ys m Morol l'fJi losoplfy. Oxford: Blackwell. Gorticld. J.L. (2002) Empty Words: liudrD•ist /'llilosoplly «lid Crvss·CIIIfiJral/11/erpretation. New York: Oxford Uni\'ersily Press. G tmgpmgtluum; S'prmg om/ Aulllmn Annols with (iOnKJ.otmg CtJmmc-nimy ( 1913) T::1ipci: Shangwu. Hnf\C)'. Peter (2000) An Introduc-tion 10 8udt0Jist Elhh-·s: Pomulalft)IU', ,.,f1/ue.1, ami l.'i.ftt(!S, Cambridge: Cambridsc Unh·ersity Press. Humc. D:avid. ( 1998) An Enquiry Concerning the l'rinciplcs of Morals, New York Oxford Uni\'ers-ily Press-. ( 175 1 edition) Hinder)·, R (1978) Comparmiw Hthtcs m Hmd" ond HutldJun

Delhi: Motilal Danasidass Kalupnhana. Oarid. J. (1 ?'-)2) A lliJiory
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J\1/<~ifltima Nikciy(l: The ;'1.1/idtlk Lenxllr /)is,·ourse.;·, ~f fhe BudtDw (199.S) Nanamoli &Sodhi trnns. Boston: Wisdom Publications .. M:nics, M.l. (1971) Enlcn'ng tha / )afh of Enli;.:htcnmcml l?upU$lL\'i"XIlUJl Tire Bodhicorytimfllecit!d U'tJrks. O~ford: OxfQI'tl UniH:I'sity Press.

Moore, GE. (ICXI3) 1-'rmc/pin l:'thicn, Cambridge: Cambridge Un i\ Ctsi l~

J>ress.

Nt:w Catholic f:m:yclfJpc:tlitt (2002.) td. Gale Group & Catholic Uni\·crshy of America. Publisll,~r: Thomsrm Gu!e. 1~ \ 'Ois. 2~'~4 cd. Ross. \V.D. (l930) 1Jrr.- Righi nnd the (J()otl. Oxfo rd: Cloncndon

Prcs.s. Qinn, Zhonsshu (1979) Gmlnzhwbltm, Beij ing: Zhonghua Soddh:ni.'isa. H. ( l970) JJudilhist Ethics: Es.-.·t·nce of /Juddlu.tm. Cro\\ s Ncsc: t\llcn & Unwin. &lddhatissa, H. ( 1997), H11ddhtst I:'Jhlcs. Somerrillc-: Wis.dom . .'><mrytJita Niktrya: Comu.·ctt:d Di:,•cot~rse:,· of tlte Buddha (2000) Bhikkhu Bodhi uan...'i.. Somep, illc:

Wisdom. 55:2. Scanlon. Thomas

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J.f'!Ja/ We Owe to Each Other. Ca01bridge:

Belknap HarYard Unhcrsily Prc.ss. Sidcrits. M. (2003) Per.wmal /denllly and llruldhi.\'1 philosophy: /imply Persons, Hampshire: Ashgntc.

Simo Qian. S/Jiji. ( 1960) Beijing: Zhonghua. Slingerland. Edword G (2003) Conji1cms Ana/vets: With .\ 'dectirm

Protn traditional Commentaries, Jndjanopolis: Hockett Pub. Co. 'fol.d:U .% inslul /)aizcikyiJ ( 1970) compiled by Takakusu Junjiro and Wat.1nabe K:Ugyol;u(Tokyo: Shinshf• Dai.zOi..') 0 k:mko kai. ~5 \'Ois. Totz. Mark ( 199-l) 77rc Skill in A·fenns (Up
t~(

1he /JudtUrtJ , Boston: Wisdom

PublicOltiOn$. Wang. Yangming, Cluumxiln: lnstrrtclio,s jbr /'racticat l.fwnx ami 01her Nt•o.Con.fitdan H'rilillg$, ( 1963) tro.ns., Wing·ts-it Chan, New York: Colwnbia Uni\'crsitr Press. Watson. Burton (1993). trans.. tile J.ows Sutro! .':indt/hnrma-plmdari~·a..,\"tttra•Mmofaltm11mnjing. Uni,·ersit~·

New

York:

Columbia

PJ"ess.

Williams. Paul ( 1989);\.foht'J'd na But/rD1i:;m, London: Roullcdgc. Wright. G.H. Von. ( 1963), 1111.! 11m<:lti'..¥ r~{' (hHxlnc.\·:r. London: Routledge and K. Paul. Ynng, Bojlln (1980), /.rmyuyi:lw. Beijing: Zhooghua.

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Zimmerman. Michael J (2001) 'f11e Nll1u~ of fmriltJic Value. Lanham; Rowman & Littlclicld. Zhu, Xi (1960) Zlm;i )Jdei;Sclccled S(lyings of Zlw Xi. Taipei; Zhcn&zhong. Zhu, Xi and Zhang, Poxing

( 1 9.3~) •

.!Jmilu .!Ute. Shanghai;

Shanf,'lYU. Zhu, Xi 3nd La. Zuqi"n (1?67). Rcjlccl;ou on 71ting.Hll Huml. New York Columbin Uni\'crsity. ZJwo:hutm ( 1973) S'pring ami Atllttmn Annals with a ,·ommcmar;t' ~~f'Zuo Qiuminx. Taipei: Zhongbuashuju.

GLOSSARY Dichi !!HI' Fangbian li [~ Fauwnng-puso-jicbcn ~t~~ fl:t rf~ii!X. * FO$huopus:mcijicjmg ·flt.J.Q i:f.~ii J)~ ~Kf: Gujin z.hi 1J1cngqu:1n j!j'4":G iEfii Guanzhuibi~ :~m1.~ ~ J-.:-f1,: Wi.l:\1)-: :f1f fil'i~

Huish:mgpusa-wendashanquanj ing j icquan y i zi!;hi f-;1~ffi ~.1 tl Sff

Liudu 7\Jj£ Kuiji 1iH~ lianmin t_,ll.fflf Pusadic bij ins·Jicbcn ~'i 00 Jik !<\!~ 1tl1 A< Pusa.nc,jicjing 1';iWi V~ ltX!i¥. l'u.~ylngluobcnyejing F.i:1:MJ;t! Jt~ ~i\\1. Quan -ill. Qumr we ;qumt mou, zltmJ y mrx fum j i:i, slti wei J'hi 111. jill jinx :hi gm.

*

tBiffi'Hii~~t ~fJfJi'ilf.Jt ):ff,',~};H~.

;,·u :t!fii'IL

Sanjujingjic ~~i:fiJ£ Shanqunnfangbian Titl1J1!1! Shitllong !1·} 11• Shou.shisha11iicjing ~ l ·'il1fl'i~~ Sichongjic ·l"lli:Jtlt Tongquandnbian iililiii:ll~ wm,clfilll .fff1~-m Yini:ms.anqian

Youposcj ie

-· :2 ~.;;f-

rflr;f.;f,\;J~

Yurul?Jti yishou >ltc. quan~c. "I~Z ~Ff-~, Iii iJ£ Zhao Qi .Ill l~

Chaplcr XI

Chong Yagyong's Four· Books Learning

Tm: FORMATION OF Til E Z IIU Xl"S FOUR BOOKS LEARNING The Gn:ut L,·urnhrg (:k~) and lhc Do<:lrine r;if the i\ fe1111 ( 1t 1/dh

''ere original!) lwo of 1hc 49 ch.:lptcrs of the Hook afUI/e:r ( Ht'it!). Howc,·c r, C\'Cr since the H~n dynast)'. stholars have 3tt.achcd :J high lc\·ct or importance to these two ch."lptcrs and scp~r.ttc works written for the sole purpose of discussing them h:1xc bccn in circul:ttion. Among the most iltlJ}()l1('1nt of these were th.: Explaining the Doctrine ofthe J\lettn ( 1 1Jilf:\Q) in two ch:ap!CI'S listed in the nweu zhi of the /Inn SJw (i~ iM ·~)CJ.-i) tmd the /:)oplrcm;on and Commentary on thr /Joctrmc l.J.f' tilt' /&1em1 ('IJ J~j{;f.t~i) in 011c juan written by Empc:ror Wu of the linng dynnsty tmd listed in the Jmgfr :Ju of the Sui Shu (I:N1!: ~ tl\.~). Liu Xin ('jlJI~, style Mmc Zijun T!Vl. ?· 23 BC) cl:'lSSificd the c~m !...earning. in one chapter. ilS a general work on Confucionism in his /Jiclu ()J:Ul). (Kong Yingd.1 UUtiiil): 983) In

+

the Tans dynasty. Han Yu (!ff,;.li!!, style name Tui/.hi :ill.£.. 76&-824) S.1\'C' the (lrc.'ilf f .urmmg an extremely high c\·a lualion. at one point citi.ng lhc

phrase and ..seek to be sincere in thoughts and rcctUY the mind-heart.. (;l~~ il~·C.·) fro m lhat \\Oik as

being the basic principle of govcm.ing. (Han Yu: 7- 11) During the Song dyn:lSty. the stolUs of the Great f.l!trrning and the /)tu:lrim: r~ftJu: M.:mr was elcvoted C\'Cn higher. To begin with. Sima Gu:mg (i0'11 !!~Jt. style name H(l~!Juns hi. 10 19- 10R6) separated these 1wo chapters oul' of the Book of fWeJ' and wrote his l!~\'p<>undin~ ()n the, :\111aninK of the Grt'nf l.eorning ( k~·~ Jtr :-Xi) :md £:rpmmding m, 1he :\ fC!tmmg- (~!" lh~ /)llclrim: oflh~: Alerm (rt1 J~L'~tla). A.flcr the Cheng brothers -- Cheng Hno (:fl\~~1. style n:unc Bochunf£:1 f'~. ~nown Inter as Mingd:10 1tfJ.i£t. 1032~108!5) and Cheng Yi (i'~ lf!l style name Zhcngshu n:J){. l n0\\11 later ns Yichu:mfJI )II. 1033-1107) ·- ga\·c prominence to lhcm, there two works came be put on the same IC\ el as the Anafct'IS anti the Mencms. 1 During the SoUihcm Song dynosly. Zhu )(j (~ .t:(, style name Yuonhui JGiil!i . 1130·1200)

foliO\\Cd the lead of the Cheng brothers and began cn:aling these 1wo ch:.ptcrs :IS independent works Ihal could st:~nd oo their owo. He thco wrote his CtJmmt:ntar,v on the Doctrin~ oftlte Mtttm ('I' MU;~ U}) and Commentary

I

Mit)

Thi~

\'icw origmntcd in

Ch~n

Zhcnsun (I:W1fH..f:)'s Slmlu Jll'll

(i':lil.'~Al¥.

t~nd i.s qu
2.l0 on !he GtVat Lc:amin,~ (.k!~! t~1:1i}). which together" ith his CIJmmentary em

1/w Anah'L'IS (~iifHJ5~t) and Commc.•n/ary em the M4!m::lt~s (i[r:1~~~ 1i:) were combined into one work. the Cnllec:ted Commt~ntarie,,. I)IJ the Ft"mr Hook.,· (lill~l<jN1Jji~jl) .

The subsequent increase in Zhu Xi's influence led to the

Four Boola bee-o minc tl1c most fu ndamental Conruckmtcxts and one of the basic teaching matcri;als of Confuci:mism in F.:~st· 1\si:a. Zhu Xi's lumpin&together of the Armlccf:r. the. Great T.eammg. the /)tU:Irlne l~(t/Je A·fum and the ~'-'fencius was not simp!~ based on the content of these tOur books, hut rather bccau..;.;c he saw them ns scpnt3tl! but inleg.ral parts Q( U \\hOle. It is bc."C'ause of tlli$ integrated \iC\\ tiU'll \\C-C3R that in tenus of the history of intellcciUal thought his grouping ur these four works was significant for erc~ting the notion o f ··four Books learning"' (ILH!;I~) . Zhu Xi's Four 'B ooks le:1ming can be explained through an appeal to three scp:u:uc lines o f thought, To begin with. Zhu Xi reinterpreted the dc,·clopmcnt of Confucianism through the cstnblisluncnt of an orthodox

tradition staning wilh Confu cius (A1Ut1N·t.)') :md cxtcndi_ng throug.h Zcngzi (~ -J~. Grt>at Lt•aming). Zisi ( -[-.tl,t. /Jottrim· of The Meat~) rutd Mcneius (,Wend us). Secondly. Zhu Xi used his imcrprci:Hion of the On.>tlf /,earning and the Docrr;nc of the Ml~ml to establish his own wortd,·icw based on nature (fl') ;md principle (.iM.). with which he lhcn went on to establish his own brnnd of Confucianism. laslly, he ;attempted to m;~kc up fo r shortcomings in Confucianism by usins the mctaph~·sic.s fo und in lhc f)ot·lf'me Qj'l/w A·ferm to respond to the intellectual challenges of Buddhism. E,·cr since Ou~·Mg Xi.u (~~A.}~.$. sty le name Vwtgshu A
231

the llca\C11S confer is called 'nature'" c X6l'rt..
to rcsoh·c the question of the relation bcn, ccn the doctrine of the mean and

n;uurc. REACTIONS AGAINST ZRU XI'S FOUR BOOKS LEARN ING IN EAST AS IA The SI)!Cial meaning that Zhu Xi imparted in the Four Books helped him to form ulate a complete philosophkn.l s~·stcm. At the same lime though. it also had the e.fiCct of chtu1gi.ng the status of the other Confuci:m classics. Tn other words, bcginninc in 1he Yuan dynasty, the privileged position of the Four Books in the imperial examin:uion system resulted in the Fh·c Classics. prc \·iou sl~· considered the basic books of Confucianism. being relegated to a subordim'ltC posi1ion. This is not to say 1ha1 this: trnnsition went unopposed by scholars. ln China. opposition 10 the Cllcng-Zhu school of philosoph~· bc~1n '' ith the Song dynasty scholur Yc Shi t.!i~.im. J I.S
set the stage for .. ancient learning- (ii4~. kogaku). a t) pe of scholarship airocd :at discovering t.hc nocicnt meoln.i.ogs of the classic' tlmt c:lO b~· seen as the fi rst deconstruction of the Four Books durins lhc Tokug;m o period and the beginning of a Japanese Confuci:mism strii)J'cd of of Zhu Xi's f ollr Books lc3111ing. 116 Jinsni engaged in a reinterpretation of the text of lhe Four B4.X>kS "hereby he critiqued Zhu Xi's Four Books Lcanling. denied the prh·ilcccd status of the Grr:cll l.eorning, and proposed an emphasis on the ··throe Books'", namely the Annl~:cls. the .\.f,•ncius, :md the Doctrine of the Mum. {lto Jinsoi: 3) A fie• that. Og_1 o Smai (illi'i'f~ 1:1<. 1666- 1?28) took ItO '$opposition to Zhu Xi a step farther with his Daigaku koi (A:~}~M·). In this book. '' hich is replete with critic.isms of Zhu Xi, (Ogy() Sorai, VaignJ...,, Jit1i: 9) OgyO treats the Grta/ J.carnmg as a conuuentary inslcad of a cbssic. (Ibid.) and argues tl~at the Doctrine ofthe A1(.an was intended as n response to Oaoism. As such. he argues. it represent.~ a line of thou~hl that is a1 times inconsistent with the thought of Confucius (OgyO Somi. Chr7y6 l.:ni (rt•J.If/fR.); J-2) and th;1t has COnSiStently resulted in misundCISiandings on the part of l:ncr Contbc iM~> . (Ibid.: 2) If we- take 116 and Og~:O togcLhcr. \\C can see that C\'Cn though Lher didn't attempt to write eommcnrarics to the classics. they did. in fact represent a mo\'cmcm nimcd ::u shining the locus of the sutudnrd texts of Confucianism :may from lhc Four Books and 1owards tJ1c Six Clossics. for ItO. undcrst:mding the "'bloodline" of the A.nalecr,,· and the J\1enc:ius \\Ould enable one 10 comprehend the Six Classics: (hO Jinsoi. GOmO ;tgt: 78) " hich \\ Crt idenlilicd as tbe four classics of the /J(wk ofS(mgs (;.U~). the Buuk v.f'Vocumeuts (l~'ij iS). lhe Book uf Changes ( -Mi:l1~ ). the Annals o.flht• SprmJ; (IJ1d Arltwmr Pericxi (:{f!Y;:#r:). together with the classics detailing rites nnd music Oft~). the Iauer t\\0 being seen as supf)ltmcntnl to the politie
Scmtggyun-g\\an (J£.i1J f!ii) rcbuill and sparJ..cd an in1crcs1 in Song Learning with 1bc cstoablisbmcnt of system of tJt.:ldcmics for the tcachi.o s of the Fh·e· Classics and Four Books (these academics were later to bcc:omc known eollcc.th'el) tiS the Nine Course Acndem)r (hm)). The Choson dynnsty follo\\ed the C.'(amplc established in the Kon)O period of including the Nine Course Acrtdcmy under the Sconggyun·g" an. Tlle Confucian classics were chosen tOr usc in the ci\'11examination system, with Zhu xrs commentaries on the Four Books gh·en the place of honor. After that. c\·cry cduc:t.tcd person in Choson bccarnc acquainted with t.he Four Books through Zhu Xi. During, the middle aod IDle periods of the Choson dyn:.sty. though. the. scllolar Chon1: Y<~&.\'Ong (T:l:';»b", Sl)'le name Ta5an (J~lil), 1762-1836) embarked on a srud~· o( tllc four Books that wns different not only from tlt3t of his contcmpomrics and tlteir emphasis on nature and principle-. but also in that it differed from the interpretations of Zhu Xi and Wang Yongming (3'. ~'M 19J. 1472-1528) in Chino. On the surfnoc. Chons's denial that the-Great Lutrnlng " as wriucn by ~eng:rj (Ch~n* Yngyong, 1fu:lwk ~o-~b"rJty: ~) Qnd his belief thrn_therc was nnctcnt matcnal· tlml SUJlported Ztsn clxum lo the :tuthorslup of the J>c·•ctrmc.• of 1/le Mean appears to be \ "CI")' s imilar to hO 's Three Book Lenrning b:.t.SCd on the Analrcts. the Mmcws. :md the original IC~I or the DcJctrine ofllle ;Hum. Ho\\cvcr. Chong's distinct interpretation of tlte Great /.earning would seem to a llow us to speak or a Four Books tcJming unique to Chong. Zbu Xi's interprctntion of the "inYcstigation of things- <m~)J) .::md ··extending L:nO\\·'Icdgc" (j~ jll) in the Gr~m /.earning \\:lS th~ backbone of his Four Books Lenming. Chong. on tl1c olhcr hand. used his own interpretation or the Gn.~at /.(•rmrln..s: to :mack Zhu Xi Lca.rning. Such a mon is more fund3mcntal and mdical than hO 's dismissal of the Great Learning and. as such. is certainly worth}' of our attention.

ANCHcNT UcARN I.NG IN CHONG YAG YONG'S FOUR BOOKS LEARING A review of Chong's Four Books learning shows :t few b:.sic prcsuppositiun!S in his intcrpl'Ct;tlions Qf th...: f our IklOks. To begin wilh. there is a c.lear predisposition towards •·ancient learning" in Chong's intcrprct:uion of the Confuci3n c lassics. for inst:mcc when he tr.lccs the origins of the Great Lcomh•K and Lhe Docfr im: of the Alum (for example the fonncr being seen as origin3ting in the ''1llc Counsels of Qlo Yao.. ~J~~) dHJptcr of the H4H}k 4~/"/)(}cwnen ls). (Chong Yagrong. Ttu:JwJ.· kongu,J': 42) Chong also finds the lone of discussion of pleasure. ru1gcr, sorro\,. Md joy in the Doctrine 1?{' tlte Afam to be similar 10 tlu.t of Lhe anctcnts.

<*

~ For c:-:ampk rhc T:mg dyn!l.Sty scholar l...u l) cmmg (~~:~~19J ) ::.sscns in his Jin~cllwr Jlrha·cn (~-~Jll!:f¥)t) thul "'The lfi.JClrbJ(~ uj J}a,! .\1~:-wr \\US writta l by K(lngzl"s grandson 10 glonl} lhc ch:u~c•cr ofhl"= t~rt~.~~:stor'"

especially n p._1ssagc in the

.lii~Yll (r~~~th

(Chong Yagyong. Cwungyong

ktnJ!,"lty; 6) Bcc.:~usc Chong linds the tone of discussion on n:llurc :md

principles among IOJtcr scho1;rrs to be different from thiU of the nnc.icnts. he proposes: "the (mean i n~ or the) original text of the /Joctrmc ,.d. tire /l'l ean should be sought using the tone of people of lh:..t time"'. From this we cnn sec that Chong ha$ cornplctcl~· b~·passcd Zhu Xi's tour Book Learning lo base his understanding on
or

+>

235

(pcopk) were no longer able to undertake Lite mandc of their predecessors. The extent to which this culmrc of ours has been blotted out has never been as serious ~sit is tod.1y. My! Everything under the Hcm·cns bcsins " ith one principle, diverges into 10,000 differen t p:u ticlllaritic-s., Md then converges into one principle in the end. For this rc.uron. the teaching of the- ~gcs moves from the comprehensive to the essential. Today. understandings of the classics rue \'aricd :.lnd numerous o.nd '' ithout aor suuctun: \\h3L
the classics would be aU lx1y cxtinguis!1cd. lChong YagyonB. "Ohak Jon- (Tif}J ;A): 25) In this section, Chcu~; uses the phrase " nbruu.lc)n rcmn and fOI"~O thought, and be unified in one dire<:tion·· to describe the ~ate of scholarship io Cboson nt the time. From the sc\·crity and harshucss of his criticism we can sec his dissatisfac tion \\ ith the scholars of his time. ·n,is d i s s~ tisfac tion Led Chons to ad\'oc;utc sirh.ak, (t;l,r}\. pr.lctic:~l lcnming). as when he wrote ·'seck onl)' "hat is right. net only on "hat is right uphold only ''hat is righf'. (Chong Yagrong, ·rap li yehong sc·: 29) in :~n attempt to revitali;,.c Confucianism at its most basic level. TI1c second d i rc~:tion Chong·s .;ancient lean~ in~( tn.kcs might ha\'e originated in an interpretation of Confuci:mism common to both Chin:'! and JapJn that centered on t11c usc of rites and music in go,'Cm::mcc. For our pw·poscs. it would be wonh our whiJc to consider the influence of ItO and Ogyt)s kogaku (:~nci cnt learning), From Chong's 'Upon lon il' (FI -*'i'J'U - ) (Otong Yagyong: -t) we can sec that Chong bclie\C:s Lhc- credit for the transfonn:uion of Japnn from a '"unch ilized country·· that is "infat\J:ttcd with Buddhism. taken wilh the strength of ::ums, ;md (exists) only to prey on c.ounu'ics along tl1c scns" to a one in which -ch ilh·.ation has triumphedand that "obscn'cs rites and propriety and considers the i mplic~uions and r:unifications (of deeds)" belongs entirely to tltc -ancient learning"' school associated with ItO. OgyO and Dazai Shundai ().;:~fr": f.i. 1()80-17-t?). From the school of ~ncicnt learning should be this his incredibly high view quite clear. Furthermore:. \\hen he writes thai "ch ilita tion has lriumplu:d-. rrom the point of view of :lncic-nt learning it should be clear that, on :111 intellectual lc,·cl. be is referring to being able to understand the way of Confucius" Si:-. Cl:lssics .-.nd, on .-. practic.:ll lc\'el. implcmcrlling the rites. music. laws, and gm"Crnmcnt or the ideal ruler.

or

BASIC STRUCTURE OF CHONG YAGYONG'S FOUR BOOKS J, f.ARNING Gi\·cn the desc-ription abon~ of the tcndcnties tow;~rds ancient learning, there are 1\\0 uspccLS of the Four Books Learning as developed by Chong t.tmt wurmnt fut1hcr discussion. The fi rst is the notion tht!t there should be a conncc.tion of some sort between Four Book::; LCilmi n ~t ;~ n d study or the Six Classic-~ . The second is that Four Books Lc3minc should put aside lhc \\'Ot ld viC\\ of U'qi based on lhc dichotomy between bca,·cnly principlclluunan desire (Chong Ya.g.)ong. ' Ohak lon': 19) in order 10 connect discourse on the hc3n·mind and nnturc with that of the rites. music.

penalties and regulations of the ideal ruler. In h.is ·ohak Jon ir Chong states: But "hen stud) ing in ancient times. it

W35

(1il~~iit-).

known that

n:uure was based on He3\'en, that principle originatt'd tfom Hc..'l\'Cn. th.11 morality wt~s the way to achic\'c the Wa~·. dmt filjaJ pict~·. obedience. loyalty and uuo;t ''ere the OOsis of serving Hca,·cn. rites. music. penalties and regulations were the tools for ruli.ng pcopk. :a.nd thot -sccLing to be sincere in thoughts nnd rcc;tifying tl1c mind-heart'' \\Cte the nxis connecting man nnd Hea,'en. Dtis WQS called hcnC\'Oicocc. actiJlS with bcnc\·olc.ncc \\'US called rcciprocil). dcali.ns " ith others with benc,·o knce was c:l11cd respect, and hold ins oneself with benevolence " "'coiled tloc ~Iiddie Wal (rl'.f11Z~Ii). Th>t wos all ~tcre was to it. and there w:~s not nl\lch disc\lssion of it. And c,·c n if there was discussion. it was :lll redundant. repetition. and nothing nC\\. Rites fonnalizc :lction that is in occotdo.ncc with filial piety. obedience. loynhy and U'usl'. those \\hO ;~rc not awi\rc of this say that nru.ncs. objects. systems and techniques (:g:f.n J{.[tl) arc unimport;~nt trappings of the Way. and that there is someone in charge of seeing to the uses of the ritual objccls. Music. pleases (Lhosc) uclin!; in occordancc wilh fil ial piety, obedience. IO) ahy and trus t~ those who are not awill'c of this s:t~ that ch:mting.. singing~ and dancing arc not ··ell!\-ant to the world of tod.ly, that music is just made up or ''oc.als and the sounds of bells and drums. Penalties and regulations guide action that is in accordance with fil ial piety. obedience. loyalty and ll11S t~ lbosc who arc not aware or this say that learning in,·oh·ing the matching of names and reality nnd utilitarinn.ism (l}J;f;!JZ,!',I:) is cJsl aside by the sages. Gestures and dress mainmin ac-tion dt:lt

237

is in accord:mcc with filial piety. obedience. loyally and tmst by providing for differen t countenances for sacrifices.

receiving guests. aucnding the imperial coun. manial displnys. prhatc nudicnccs. and funerals lhat c.1n not be interchanged: those \\ ho ore not :'I ware of this collapse them into a single rite: kneeling. (Chong Yagyo ng: 19)

TI1e :tbove p:tssagc b:ts h\O main points. The (jrst is that Chong bcliC\'CS that the anc ients discussed the relation between Hca,·cn and man in tcnns of Llm~c :tSpccts. IUtm c.ly "'fili3l piety. obedience. loyally 3Jtd trust

were the b:tsis of serving Hc:wcn". "rites, music, penalties and regulations were the tools for ruling people"'. and "seeking to be sincere in tl1oug.hts rutd rcCiifying the mind-l1cart' \\CJ'C the "oxis connccth1g m:m ru1d Hca,cn"'. Since Chong also holds 1h:1.t " riles formalh;e :tel ion 1ha1 is in ac.cordanc.e with fil ia l piety, obedicncc. loyahy find Lrust", "music pleases (those) tu~ 1ing in iiCCordancc ''ith fili nl piety. obedience. loyally and lmsf·. and lluu ..pe-nalties and rcgulacions guide aclion th:H is in accordance wilh fili al picry. obedience. loplty and trust". we can deduce that rites, music, Md pent:~ hies and regulations exist for lhe s.1kCor Iilia) piety. obedience loy3hy :111d trusl From the otbovc. we can SCi: 1h:11 Chong thinks that wha1 is impommt for Confucianism is filial piety. obedience. loyalty :md trust nnd that the usc of ·'seeking to be sincere in thoughts and rcc t il~· ing the mind-h-eart" and rile~ . music.. pena lties and regulalions was tc) glori~,. the way or[llial piety. ol>cdicm:c, loyohy nnd trust. In other words. the purpose of both ·'seeking 10 be sincere in thougl1ts o.nd rccti(r ing the mind-hear( and rites, music , pcnahies and rcgula1ions, the fonner \\ Ofking on the Je,cl of indh·idunl cuhiv.o.tion rutd the l:mcr on the lc, cl of govctttiug the polit), is to ensure 1hat the path of fil iit t)'. obedience. loyalty und trus:t docs not r:tll by the w:~ysi d c. This no1ion is clearly similar 10 ItO· s idea that the AnolecJs and the A1encitiS ..tcoch bcne,·olcncc. proprict~·. rites and wisdom for the purpose of fil ial piety. obedience, l oy.o.h~· .o.nd trusl.. (ItO l insai. 1Jmlw1.1l leihtm : 3·4) and OgyO's cx plan :~tion of the ·'doctrine of the mean.. ns -ch4Jroctcr thtlt is not VCI)' c:o:altcd nnd c.o.sily put into nction. something of the IiLes of filial piety. olx:diencc. loyalty and trust.. ( 0~y0 Somi. Chti}il kai: 1) and points 10 the innucncc of ancient le.o.ming in J.o.pan on Chong, AI the .s~um; time. though, Chong is not simplr bom.m·ing fi om Jap.o.ncse anc.icnt learning. He. marks :m imJJrO\'emcnt on 1hc school or ancient l~mi n g in that he incorpor:ues Iilia I piety, obedience, loynhy and trust. - seeking 10 be sincere in thoughts and rectifying the miud~hcan" rutd rites. music. penalties and regulatjons into his fra mework of four Books Lcarninc. That is to say. the focus of the Annlccts and 1hc M'•nmts is on ftlial piety. obedience. loyalty a:nd tru.sl due to their C.'li: plic~t i on of human n.;uurc and morality: the l)tJ,·trine ofthe ft.lctm nnd th~o: Gn:ml.c:nming foc-us on "seeking to be sincere in thoughts :md ~ti fY ing the m ind-hc:~rt"' in order to explain the rchnionsJ1ip bCh\ CCn "solitary watchfu lucss" ('lti'-'i > and -seeking to be sin~crc in thoughts'". and nature and ch:tmctcr from :m

indh idual and political pcrspeclivc. LikC\\ isc. rites. music. pcnahics mtd rcgulouions arc :t focus of the Gre(ll l...eammg in order 10 explain that the n1le of the ideal king starts with fili:11 piety. obedience. and beneficence. Tn the frnmC\\Ork of Four Books Learning outlined Jbove. the GrrNtt l~ C'tlrning is panicu lnrly imponant bceause "seeking to be sincere in thoughts nnd rcctif)·ing. the m ind-heart" . its ccntrnl conc-e pt. cun serve as on ..a~ is connecting man and H ca\'C tl-. As C hong stute.s :

Sinc.crii) is the thing that per,·o.dcs from the bcginnin~ to the end. it is lh:n "hich makes thoughts sinc-e-re. it is that which rcccificd the mind-hc:lrt, it is that which cuhh"atcs the body. it is that which orders the house nud country. it is lhat \\ hich makes c\·crything unde-r the Heavens trnnquil. Thus the Doctrine of the Mean states: 'Sincerity is the beginning 3nd the end of a.JI things:· (Chong Yrut~')' Ong. Ji'ltlmkkwJJ,'ll.V: IS) From this we cnn sec that he is attempting to usc - scckiztg to be sincere in tho ught- as :2 me:2ns for handling the connection between nature (Hca\'en). charnctcr (m~n) ;md cultivation through go\·.:mmcnt as well as moking a connection with the Doc-lrim: of the .~Jean. As such, -seeking 10 be sincere in thoughts and rcctil)'ing the mind-hcan" can be seen as the main :\xi!' of C hong's Four Bool:s Learning. for this reason, C hong's i.nlcrprct:uion of the (}n·at Lt·aming not on.ly bri.n gs out the unique character of his Four Dooks Learning but also can help explain what \\as rcYolution:lry about his pnnicular Yersion of Four Books lc:lming.

CHONG YAGVONG"S INTERPRETATION OF THE GREAT !.EARNING

Chong's intcrpi'Ctation of the Great Leoming is found in his l\\0 works Tm.'hak knnguy (_;.k:.l}~ iT.~ t/1) :md the 1'ndutk /.;qnguy. T he TtN.!Iwk ktmguy \\as written in 17R9 when Olong was 27 years old. (Chons Yag)'Ong, 10tthak konguy: I) The ]'{'1('/tnk kongro' was written in I~ 15 when Chong \HlS 53 years old ond ca.u be seen as reptcsenting his mature thought. (Chong Yagyoog. Tae/wk l·unguy: 8) TI1c interpretation of the (ircnt IA:arnmg's basic position in the Tachak l"OJJIWJ' is extremely different from that of Zhu Xi. Even the text used is dill'crcnt in stead of quoting fro m Z hu Xi's Commenfllf)' mr the Great Leornmg, Chong quotes from the "ancient" t~xt the Great Lt!nmin;:. To beg iu with. Chong docs not accept that this tc~1 was written by Zen& Zi. clnim ing instend t_hat it is not possible to determine its author. (Chong Yagyong. 1'fu,hak konguy: l) For 1his reason, the text can not be t.liYidcd. us Zhu Xi did. into one section of origin~I classic :md ten s(."CtioRS o f commentary. Instead, it is seen as being made up of 27 s.octions o f o rig inal text. In addhion. Chong accepts neither Zhu Xi's position that the

or

239 Ltomin~ gi\'es nn oullinc of \\ hat eolts titutcs scholarship that "as used in ~ncicnt· times to teach people (L.i Jingdc (~ llit!): 397. 401). nor his notion that in controst 10 the .. lesser lenming-. the "greater lcarnint( constitute-d ··1hc way of exhausting principles, recti~v i ng the mind-1tcan. cuhiv31in~ the sclflo and rulins olhcrs·· (Zhu Xi: I) (ril l!l!!E·.:.O}C.if;Az ili). (Chong Yag.yong, Tac:lmk konguy: 3) C hong also objects to Z hu Xi's \'icw of li tti. preferring instead to belic,·c that the emphasis of the Gr~nf learni,g is not on "illuminaling the mind-he-nri" (Chong Yugyong. Tl~hnk konJ,;uy: 10) ::tnd hos nothing to do ";th discourse on the mmd-h!!:trl :mel nature. (Chon~ Yuy,,rong, Tm.lhak kon{:!uy: 12-3) Chong's interpretation or the (;rrot l.tamlllg does not just diiTer from 2 hu Xi's: it is opposed to Zhu Xi's interpretation. Overall: Chong uses his intcrprclntion of the Grem Lee1ruinj! to provide discussion of the ritc.s. music-. penalties and regulations that is otherwise lacking in the f'our Books. thus raising the status of the Grllnt l.e(rming to that of the six Confuci:m classics. f oJ esilmpJe. he rc~ds the first d mrm;tcr of .k~ (tlm:m:) as .l\ (ta1). and undcrsl.!tnds this schooling as being gi,·e n to princes. On the strcn~th or that. Chong takes the "way" of lOC (ln:tH U.·(lrning as bcinl; the ··"ay of princes". (Chong Yagyong. Tadwk J.:(mguy: 3) What. then, actually m3kc-s up the ..way.. of the Grcm Lt·m-ning'! Chong is of the opinion that what was taught at to the princes at d•is school \\aS the \ \il)' of filial piety :md friendship. (Chong Y3g}'ong. Tm:Jwk l.:tmguy: 3) From this. we C3n sec that he understands the art of ordering :t country and m:tking C\'el')'t.hing under the Heo\'ens tranquil lies in "\'encruting elders". Hhonoring su periors·~ and ··c-aring for the " c-ak". (Chong Yng>·on2. Ttrehak kQng,y: 6) Princes arc thus tnught the way of fili;d piety and rricndship to Si\'C them the. round01tion nccdOO to implement rites. music. penultics and regulations. On Chong's interpretation. lhc thrust or the three main principles of the Gr('nt Le(Jmin~: identified by Zhu Xi. namely ··iuuntinating illustrious \'irtuc" <'9)1!/Jli~>- -=rcnc"ing the people.. (.mR;} and -coming to n::st in supreme goodness- (.Jl:}/.d:i1!V). tnO\'CS nwtty from the c:"\plant:~tion offered by Zhu Xi or "rcstoring the uanscendcn1al and unblemished original n.11u rc bcstO\\'Cd by the llc:m.'ns". "people chllng.ing their old prncticcs to (get lhcm tu) illuminate illustrious ' inuc'' and ··coming to rest in the supreml! goodness of Hc:wcnly principle untainted by personal desire and not mo\ing therefrom"'. (Chong Y:tgyong:. J)mme : luzngju: 1) in tl new directiOit. tlun of "becoming completely com'ctsam with the Iiila! pict) . obedience. and beneficence or one's nature... (Chong Y;~gyonu. Ttwhok J:Un},'lty: 6.10) " the JX.'Ople drawing close 10 each other through tiliul piety. obedience. and bcncficcm:c'" (Chong Yagrong. Tnelutk konxuy; 10) nod "comins 10 rest in the supreme morality of fi lial piecy. respect. trusc. :Jnd beneficence and not mo\'ing therefrom'' (Chong Yagyong, 1'twha~· kt1nguy: 12). Chong goes on to modify Zhu Xi·s "eight steps of cultivation- (J \.P~ 1;1) into his own -si~ means of cxrunining things and extending knowledge" (·r.+

Great

"iii'\'(•~~) (C ho ng Yag_\ong. TtJelwk konguy: 17). a system he cxplit3tcs with

the following di::1g.rar.n; (Ibid)

* !lvi!f !M!Hf

~·

~~a: ;.J

Jl@ll.

!l!'li :>~<

nrlli:Y.

I<'! 'f iili'l

0 7~~

l'ttli IH!.G[j

Jt~~:[J

itl[j!() ¥.IT:A

~u[J«.u r.ttTR0>~·~ f.k~ t·~i!!•l) " 'fr.la]ifi[ q j\;

illll:t~1Jltl

!itlt.~·!illiJ!I )118ii2!J!)~i!i;J!

ll<:llllfr ~

Jll:i\{ijl:t>!

.(i.'l:lih!E)·f,'ff.

•N :iii[I!UJ :.~ "'mjg;_q•.,

~ll\~U:E

1i! U liil:'filh~J.:: Flf

With the a bo,·c di:tgram. Chong is :tttemptins to show tl1a1 ··M tmdcrstandiug of ·cxrunlning lhi11gs' is to be sought in the terms ·root' and ' branch ': an undersland ing of 'c:ct~nding knowledge' is to be sought in the tenus ·nrst' and ·tater···. (Ibid.) As n result, -examining things.. is taken 10 mean ''determining the 'root' nnd 'branch· o fthiugs (J.k.#JZ 1~-*;f~) . while ..extending knowledge" is understood as "knowing to lhc fullest wh:tL i.1i t.rst and last" (¥~J!tJt;Jri~l:·ifi). (Chong Yagyong. Tacrson conlCS last Accordingly,

Chong

Si..'CS

"S('cking to be sinc.crc in thoughts'' as being the first step in

·'examining things and extending kno,,Jcdgc" as \\Cll ns the fu-st step in d ealing wilh one's ~lfai rs . For him. there is not. as there was for Zhu Xi. the need to ha,·c the p redicate the step of "s~king to be sincere in though( on the practices of "examining things'' and "extending knO\\ Icdgc". (Chong YA8)'0ng. Taelwk Jmnguy: 17)

2-11

From the above \\C can sec that Chong bclic,cs that the three main principles of the Gretrt /.et1mmg provide: an O\·crnll framework ~md the ••six means of cx::.mining things and extending knowledge·· QCt ns n methodology and steps that centers around the beginning. end. root. and branch o f

"c:o.:amining things··, "extending knowledge... For' ll1is renson, if the Great learning pro,·idcs :my steps for cultivotion. they nrc based on its three m.:tin principles and arc used to c:O.:JJiain tl1e ciTccts o f those prin~ iplcs . Chonrfs position is that .. nlial piety. olx~ icncc , and bcn~ricencc.. are the three steps based on those three. principles . (Chong Yagyong, Tf1dWk kc:mguy: 12) Were he to ha\'e dra\\'R up 3 chan to illusu·atc tJ1c relation OCh\ccn these three and the three principles. it would have probably looked something like

this:

!fll91 \j)

L "'

L_

Sl'::~t/Jil;l1illl'

m1;11~ u

J1l , .

!MtlliiHC~

;fjr"""'

lll '" "' " ' fi ~ Ill"'Ill"' lil!llili!i! ill EIA'ftt~ 'f:

AAil\d:~ ll! Si liiiA~tUl fir

.!:1 A :X: J.t ~ :!!l

CONCLUSION

Chong Yagy ong's Tt~lwk kanguy is definitely :m imponanl wort\ in the establishment or his Four Books Learning. for that reason. the peculiarities that he exh.ibits in his inu:rprctntio n of the Grc~u L.c3ming nrc also an im po n am part of his Four Books Lc-.trning. From the ubon! discussion, we c.an dr:tw the lb llowint observations about C hong's unique fOrm of Four Boo~ Lc:.nming : ( I) he Gretrt Lenrning forms th e foundation for Zhu Xi's Foul' Bool: Lcnming,. so in order to de,·clop :1 new \'CI'Sion of this learning.

Chang complctelr re.,·runps Zhu Xi"s imerprctntion of the Gn.= at Lt~aming to reorient it toward.s gO\'Cmancc :tnd education. The mos( rcvolutioa\31)'

2~2

reinterpretation offered is or1c that centers on tJ1c h\O terms ""examining things" :md ..ex lending L:nO\\ Icdgc". In Zhu Xi's Commenuuy mr lht Greflf the cxplonn.tion of ..examining things" nnd ··extending knO\\ ledge·· . seen as being the most critical aspccu of the Grcnl /,.c(lmiu~:.

LenminJ:.

c.rc Or'iented to,,ards a process of"rcs:toring one·s natun!- through realizing one 's origins :md returning to the orisinnl t4lturc. In the 1tuhak J.:on,'.,'lty . on the (.lthcr h;md. thc$C two tcm1:; arc not scc.n as ha\'ing any thing 10 do with the removal of obst.1cks in the mind·hc:ut or a return to one's original nature. Instead, these l\\ o terms as seen os indicmins a srorting and n stopping point ftlr the progression flam ··cuJth ati.ng t11c bc.xly'' to ··making cn:rything under the Hc:wcns lranquil". From this tr:msition in interpretation. Chong mo,·cs the emphnsis of the Grt!nl Lenmi,g away from Zlm Xi"s nalluc and tow:nds "\'irtuc··. -action" (lbitf) and a teaching tlun begins "ith oneself and extend$ to others. At the same cimc. "exnmining thing.')"' o.od - extending knm\'lcdgc" 3rc linked up with rites. music, laws. pcnahics ;md rcgulntions. Chon&·s undcrstnndin& o f the three bi•sic principles of ··muminating illustrious virtue", "renewinG the people", and -coming to rest in supreme goodness- follows the Sllmc pattern: ''illumin:uing illustrio us vinue- is taken as referring to the ruler's own un dc~tand i ng of filial piety. fmtemal submission. and mercy; -renewing the people'' becomes mnking the people emulate the ruler and using the principk-s of filial pict). obedience nnd beneficence in their interactions with one another. {2) The second tn.:ljor t:r:msition .awuy from Zhu Xi's Commctr!OIJ' on the Greal f..l:(lming is to tnkc the principle o f "'s iu ccrit~ in though( 10 be the centml message of the (i~at Learning. (Chong Yas,yong, 1hehak konguy. 12. 20. 20·21, 24. 26j This allows him 10 combine the Grt•tJ/ /.eami,~ togclhcr "ith the Dot•trine of tlu: ;\{e(m into a single system through om appeal to lhc Jlhrase "sincerity is the end and bcgirming of all tbiur;s·· Llt:t{ appears ln the latter. But while the Grwtt Lcaming and the Doctrine o.(Jlte Mecm both ha\·ing · ·sincerity" as their tcnual idea. Chong sees the /)m;trmc (~(the A1ean as leaning tow:uds a description of lhc "inner principle" of ·· nature··. while tl1e (Jn•nt LcnrniiiJ: leans tow;nds the ..d;~ily pro,ctice- of " \'irtue-. .. Nmurc'· a.nd "virtue-- . though. a.re inscpo,rnble. jusl as without "rcciprocily.. , the ''mc:.:tns Of pr:'ICliCing hcncvolcnee". there i~ no "bcnc\'olcnc.c". (Chong Yag_\'(.mg. 'Tap Jj ychong sc {Kopswu sipwcl il)': 35-6) (3) Chong uses :1 frmncwort 10 interpret 1hc Four Books tJ1at is buill arowld a. dao of - the basis of sen ins 1-lc-~.'l\'Cn is through filia l piety. obedience. loyalty. and tmst"'. a teaching of ''the tools of o rdering man arc rites. mtlsic. penalties :md r~gulations". and " s,-c:L:ing to be sinc.crc in tl1oug.hts and rectifying the mind-heart nrc wlw.t ~onnc cts man and the HC&\'cns- (a c:onfi)rm:mce of muurc and \'irtuc "ith doo). With this frnme\\ork, the Fo u.r Books are organi7.cd into a \\hole nnd ore able 10 display thci.r own i.o di,;dual characteristics through that whole.

(4) Chong traces the origins of the Great learning back to

lh~:

/Juuk (~{Dm:ummls, saying .. The 'Counsels of Kao Yno· is the origin of the

Gnat Lenrniug and the cssenc.c of the leaching p:1sscd down by l l .IOO

s.1ges:· (Chong Yogyong. Tttehak kmt);-uy. p.42) His intent here is to open up br conne<:ting them \\ i1h the crnditional cl:assics. This in tum could help correct the onrcmphusis th:at scholars of u new space for the Four Books

his time

to Song l.cuming. While tl1c influence of the Japanese ..ancient learning.. school on gzl \'C

Chong's Confucianism is ob,·ious. his undcrstrutding tlnd rcconslruclion of rour Books Lcruning \\as mor~: radical llHH tl1at of the '"ancient lcaruing school". 110 b:ascd his scholarship on two clements: ·'bloodline'· and ·"irnpJjcation.. (~~~~).(ItO l in.s.1i. (j{imti ; iK•: 59) Of these two. -bloodline·~ takes priority and indeed is the b:lsis for h
can say Lhat that among E..'lSt Asinn Confucians. Chong \\ 3S important for being able to truly deconstruct Zhu Xi's Four Books Learning ;:,nd rcconsltuct his own \ CrSion. REFERENCES

Chong Yagyong (T:t~:flli). 1936. Cw•m>O'(mx ~·tmgi{V ( rl~m; ;,t?.i), in Ycyotrmg cens'' ( Y:! ~ ~ ~ 1U ). Korc:~: .Mincok mwumhw.:~ko chWUJ>hansa. 1936. ·· upon lou ir ( IJ *~-·) in Yeyottmg ,·.:use,

\"O I.

I.

J.'l1'cm 12.

··-··- 1936. ··ohak lon'"'

(ii.?~!flii)

in Ycyolnng cen.sc.

\"OI.

I. tw~.:n

10. ·---·- 1936. Tadrak kangu.,r (;lo;:i}l:fi~tiQ.) in reyatang cense. \"OI. 2. --··- 1936, Ta<'hnk bmgi(V (X'f.•:i~ t.~) in Yt•yotrmgt't'n~·e. \"OI. 2. ----- 1936. ·Tap li ychong se· (1$~tji: <]L. {!;) in Yc.rMtmg t~nst.·. vol. L ~ .tw~n 19.

l-Inn Yu (t:~~). ··vuand~o pi;m'' (J!.Uti~) in /ltm CJwngliji Cf!l!J.:•,

\!!!US). Taipei: Hclotushu Chub""shc ( 1975), I t~ Jinsoi ({llqji f :tii');·cMy~ hashiki Joyu" (•f>!;lf~~~ij; ~Ill ) in Scki GiichirO (l~m: ·rJl) cd .. Nihon mc:iko sltisho cluislraku :ensho ( 1:1-* ~~~I!.Y ~FA:I:ff~Gi). J.:an I, TokyO: HQ sbutsuhan ( 1973) f)aihnbt uuhon (J,:f.}~ Jif-19. in St'l>i Giichi~ cd., Nthtm mcikn s.!Jis/JQ cluishnku zer~sl1o. kan l. Tok~·O : HO ··-·- G(imO ugi (lf,~·r ;;;,: ::-~~) . Nihon jurin sousho (n 4;: ff.H~:t1 ;1f) . k(m G. TokyO: HQ shutsuh.:m (1978). Kong Yins da (fi.Wii:ti). 1.!}1 zlteng,l•t (!~;il! il:~~). Taip.hi san" (Jl!i ~Jii [r.[ .=!. i:i Z E )in 0·rmg Wcn.zlumggtmg qumy'i (ID:~)(.,r.!.~i~±-!£) j uan 48. Sibubeiyaojibu (IJQ t111fl'i~ ~~fil:), vol. 6, Shans,hni: Zhonghoa shuju. ·Ohnk Jon'. in Y~.-•ytH(mg cense. \'O l. 1. kwen 10. O~')·o Sorai (~'IHII I;I(J. " B
' _4 _

- --· - Cluiyrj kal (._1. . r.lr·fti·) in Seki GiichirO cd., Nihon mi!;ka .~hlsltt> clui.shtJku : enslw. kon 1. Tok)·O: 1-15 shutsuhao (1973). -···· ··· f)lugal.:u km (X.l}~~~) in Seki GiichirO cd., Nllum melk(l slu's/10 clui:,-Jtflku :t:nslw. k(lll 1. TokyO: HO shutsuhan.

Yc Shi ( ~i@) . Ztmgshujilmgxue tlozhi (~,i&; ~1il}~J.:Fi') in Huang Zong:d ifiA'~~. Son~:,ruan xue·an (A~Jl;!;.l~)jutm 54. Taipei: (iu:mgwcn ShltiU ( 1979). Yen Yuan (~}C) . "Zhuzi ylild ping'· (~~ 7·Jtfma'l') in Ye11 l'tum Ji (ilJI:n'!l\), Beijing: Zhonghua shuju ( I ?~7). Z.hu Xi <*;;t). 1?74. Dame zhtmgiu (Commcnl:uy on the Great Learning). Taipei: Yiwcn yinshuguan.

GLOSSI\RY 'IIPOn ion i l' rl 4;:;:,:1 ·Qhak lou il' ]il}~il!l·Sips.1m kycn~hayk' .=:~U1 ' T.1p li ycbong sc (Kapswu sip"¢1 il)' .J:\'$ifl;;L,I'l('1'1Ji I·.R [ f ·Tap li ychong sc' ~'M!l 11.l!l "Chi•yO hashild loyu" •+•J,If~Hifi ~~~~ ''Jinshiccwcn SllnShou '!J1i san" illi lJriftJ:=f i:t= .. Yuandno pian.. Jf;(i.ij j~

+

·'Zhu::d ) i.ilci ping" *T:::i~i~:li An Hywong :!.(Jf~ Benda

tilill

8emm:i

)1f.~

);•n:J. I'Hfi Cheng Hao 1'Ui! JJit.~tu

Bochun

Cheng Yi f.'t!!fl Chong Yogyong T :J:.'tli Cwtmgyong knn~u y ri'Jilfi'IJi~ Oai Z hcn ~(~.l 0(1/g(lk" kol :k !'Niif. /)no D:tquan )\: ::&;:

m

Oaxue ::J,f~ Dnzai ShundGi ;J.(*ifFt; I!I) '(J

r?t:m:

Gao Y~o !i,!:~tJ Glimii :igi t.lt 1;~ !)": ~ G<mgyong ~ -1~ (;uliang 'fl* Han SJtu ~ ~-~ Han Yu .i!'/,.€1. Hu Guong iiiJJ:~

llo Jinsoi 1J'JiH-:•Il\' l in f{ J iugji :hi ~tlf$ .lill)'ll ~ ~.tt

Junshi lll tl Kog.aku 'i~1}\ Kon~ Yingda 1l~li.ili Kong { L liu .X in ;l;lk Ma Rong m~ P..Hogdao 19Hll M ogun ~1< F!l Ogy;; Sor:oi 1)(~1'.11lt~ Ouyang Xiu ~~H~

Qi

JK

Soouggywt·gwn.n J&£iJQil Sbi .f~

Shu

~{(

Sima Guans u·H~'lt Sn/ S hn l<'il'f Taehnk kml~f!I{J~

;kl}~ 'i7~7N

1trt:hflk lwnguy Af~M~iii~

7i11 ).(

Tasao ;'f£ tlJ Tui~.hi

JtlZ

Wang Ting~iang 1:\!!fl

Wang Ynngming ~E I:jjljiJ Wu Tingllan .5Hf:•}iJ Xic Jin ffif..~'i

Yc Shi ~.i!l Yen Yuan t'oJVi:. Yi Sack Z'f. ~ Yichuan f)t Jlj YiwemhJ ~~ .X:.~~ Yu:uthui J(.&tj Yungshu ,j<;JX

Zcngzi f!,•1~ Zhcng Xuan ~~;-g

Zhcns,shu iE>IX Zlm Xi

*kf

Zijun -f .'l!1 zisi ~r .'&!. Zongsi1Ujia11gxuc ckrzh;

~jJtM:i:~}!:J:;: ~

Chapter >.11

Ito .Jinsa i on Confucius' Aualects; A Type of Confucian Hermeneutics in East Asia Clmn-chie!J lfmmg

INTRODUCTION Confu cius (55 I-479B.C.) occupies the status of incomparable China, Japan. and Exemplar in Ea~t Asia. In the traditio nal cultures Korc.1. he is revered as the One whh sagcty personality. exquisite literary

or

scnsibilit). robust pmxis and humane poliLicnl principles. Vcncrnted as Lhc Sage pnr excellence. Confttcius has exerted far-reaching innucncc throughout E:JSI Asia.

Com mcntaric~

on lhc Anal£'Cls, the received

compiiJ.tion of his didactic dialogues. arc as countless ns the summer stars. Titese commcnml'ies h:we ptolifer:ucd down to the present C\'Cn ahou{tl1 Confucius lh·ed O\'Cr h \ 'O millcnni:t 3go. E,·cn tod:l)'. Confucius' sentiments continue to suffuse the heart i!nd soul of CYCJ)' Confucion scholar in A si;;~ , TI1c present essay examines 116 Jinsai's tJtif_P.{...: ~ ( 1627-1705) interprctntions of the Anolec:ts ~~~{• riA· o f Confucius. 110 was Japan ·s fOremos t scholar -- o f ClasskaJ Confuciru\i$m, patticulAr - of the I iJ' century. lie \'Cneratcd the Analect.s as "the lofliest. the sre;~.test Primal Dook in th e whole uni\Crsc Jil 1: !1~ ~*iii P-i~ - lH ." J He \HOtc two commentaries. Gom6 Jigi,'j'(tft'(f~ and Rong<J KQ,1!'i~M:1l~. devoting much of his life to the latter work. His e ldest son reported. "He bcgon \niting this commentary \\ hen his teeth were still gro\\ing. ... nnd continued re,·ising and ~dd in g to it for about finy years. rcwritin& the manuscript n,·c times."" - ·nms, Jinsni h imself felt confident about the R(mgo K()gJ. claiming that it ;.clucidrue.s what has lain hidden for age.s in Lhc Ana/tc.:ts :md the Ment~trn~ . l 'cnuuc to publici;-c my pcrson~l opinions in th is commentary on what has not been explicitly said before... ~ This indeed

was ItO's most rcprcscntati\'Cwork 'l11c book also represents a type of Confucian hermeneutics in 'Easl Asia. a forceful apologia for Confuc ius :1g;~inst "heresies.. of Daoism. I ItO.llusai f) Iat t:.:if. R()nJw Kcij;i ~~ ~~~ i!i :N. ill s~ki <Jiichil\) l!fl fi.l -fl~ cd . .V1/Iou .\!elkt' SlnsJtiJ~Ciul.~ho.ku Zeuslm rt ~ t', ~Vtl -:aHI:.tl ~f!~ (Tokyo:

Ho Shupp:an. l913), Vol. ~. p. •1. ltt) .tins:.i fJfllif=~, DQ..\·Id .\fort 1U: ~fll\1. in l~·~•wg~t S~bUt\l ~,ok ::l'S ct =..1. <.'\Is.. 1-:hr.vd Slu.w k it l)mul m jJJ(ll..!!!.,\il~ ·..•t 1J! (Tokyo: lw:m3mi Shodcn, 1966, 198 1). Vol. 1, p. 204. 1 RongcJ )\{)gJ. p. 2 ' Rongo . A'()gl. p. 4

2-18

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Ou.ddhism. and Song Nco..Confu ci~ns . Jiusai re--interprets Confucius by offering meliculous aextual exegesis wilh fresh intr.ucxlual tmnolations of the Anah:cls and faithful definitions of such key notions as Jilq ifi and ./t'n t~ ns Confucius himself mcanl them, on the one hand, n.nd by inl~nexlulll collations of tJ1c Analects wit11 other Cbssical \\ritings to sJlO\\ their mutual coherence. on the other.

M.ETIIOOOLOGY OF !TO'S IIERMENEUTICS OF TilE IINM.E:CTS

116 Jin&li tried to understand Confucius a fresh by commcntins on the Anah:cU
ItO"s commenuuies proceed in three steps. He

~;:l osscd

word

meaninas Mter e\·ery sentence in the Analtcls, expresses his imJJfessions

u.llt:r C\'CI)' chapter. and sums up m:utcrs with, "Jj udse. saying, i".tE1.- The two examples below illustrntc how he procei:dcd.

A. In Anolct•fs 1/12 Youzi sa.id. ·'OftJtc tJUngs brought about by lhc rites. h:trmony is the most \'flluablc. Of the wuys of the Fonner Kings. this is the most bc~utifu l. ~md is follo"cd alike in maucrs grc:u an-d sm~ll. li=-f H: I.:I.Z./11. ~11 /-!J't ;\; ·E.Z.lllll'iZ1lf<. ' J•)(IIrZ.:·' The word ')lr' hod been inlcrprctcd nuiousl} for gcncrmjons. For instance. Zhu Xi <*~t'& . Hui:mii~J!I\t . 1130· l200) i.ntcrprctcd it Cl
Lhu Xt.

*·~·~ IAu~·u j1z/ru liii.l~tt.mU

111

his .~islm cllallf!.illji::lm I!Y "fJ

'ii!: l.ij ~~ ,'ft (lleijing: Chung-hua slttt·(·ho. 1983). Volume I, p 5 1.

'}.19

of Rite.d G ;';(. s;;~id. • t~~~ Z !i.l :fn ;1,;f j;;t Li takes hanuony as \'aluable.' H.1n1:1ony mc.:tns no affront. for since excessive Li f~ scpnr:ucs people, in pcrronning l .i one takes hamtony as \'aluablc:' 6 ItO Jinsai tltought people sbould undcrsl.tlnd the Anakcrs b>• rcco\'Cring the word meaning in ils original conte.'(t 3nd should avoid i.tn posing C.'(l rtl·Aualec/S mcrut.ings or conleXIS, as Zlm Xi c learly had done. T11is was how 116 criticized and rcjoctcd Master Zhu Xi. saying.1 An old commcnt:uor said. ' /.i ~~, though solemn in substance fffl. must be unlmrricd and calm in function (vmJK. JtJ). ' Now the Song Confucian scholars originated the thCOI)' of SUbStance \'S. runction. but the studies conduclcd by the sagely 01nc:icnts hOO no suc;h distinction. Wluu were they Ilike)'? l11c w;ay among the sages j ust shuulcd among ethics ond i ts princip l es~ they ~cp1 suh·init to pmctice their concrete dCL'lils, nC\'Cr reflecting bacl: to the calm recesses of the n1ind·hcan in practice. seeking where it is yc1 10 issue in nctiatl. Thus. as to \\hat is called Bcnc,·olcncc, Righteousness. Decorum. and Wisdom. 01c sages prncticcd 111 the level of their already ha\·ing been issued in nction. \\'ithout minding their substance. But. Buddha staytd out of ctbics and its principles to conccntrntc on our sing]c mind-heart and yel could not stop \\ Orldly ghes and t::~kcs ruuong men. In talking obout true vs. fnlsc doctrines, he could not help but adopt the theory of substance \'S. func tion. as a Tang monk said in the Com,wnlflri(•s on lhe HunymJ Sutra ·l1~ ]~?{ ~ tMi,

·Substance and fun ction arc the single origin that thoroughly manifest minutest details lof things!.' Sayings like this became so prevalent nmong Sons Confucian scholars thai they beg;:m to formulate a lhcol)' of Principle. M:utcr-c.."llNgy IQi. it 1. Substance and Function. Benevolence. Righteousness. Decorum :md Wisdom ha\'C their rcs(X.'\Cti\'c substances and func tions. ·s crorc maniJCstin.g' ?.;:~ is substance: 'already manifesting' d !fl is func1ion. The s.1ges' grcJU instructions thus were tom to pieces and turned into words of fu11clion "ithout substance. As long as we stick to the framework of subst:moc.function. we will make light of func1ion in favor of substanc.e and people cruutot but pursue substance by discanling function. The rcsuh has been to promote the

~ RongtJ )\{)gJ. p. 10 ; Rongo A'()g/, p, It

250

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

doctrine of dcsirelcss <(uict emptiness at the expense of Filinlhy. Brolhc-rlincss. loyalty and Fidelily. The "'old commentator.. refers 10 Zhu Xi. ItO J ins;~i claimed thnt the distinctions the Nco-Confucians lt:td dr:h\'n bCh\C<'n inner ond outer ~:md subst;mcc ond function h;ad originated in a Buddhist-like desire for Qrlhodo:-.:y. and that tl1c propagation of such dic-hh: to pursue the will-o"·the-wisp of .. inner substance- such that tltcy tore 10 pieces Confucius' robusl pmx.is of principled ethics. Both of these e.nraordinary cl3ims a\\ait historical cc.mtinnation. to be sure. but ther show how 110 Jinsai cngngcd in this son of "'back to Confucius" project 10 defend Confucius against later heresies. B. The phrase

·· - ~..H~( ;:-

OpfX'.nrs l\\icC in Confucius· Analects.

In Analects 4115, Confucius talks 10 his disciple Zcnc,ti 1'{T about the '"single dU'ead binding" his Dao. then Zcng_zi tells others this mc:ans doing one·s best (;tJtong :~)and using oneself as a measure to gnugc the likes and dislikes or others (shu ,tl). On :mother occasion. r~ordcd in Anulub· 1513. Confucius

cl:~ ims

to ""h;n·c a single thrc3d binding ir all together.- while

denying that he is a m:m of brood learning. liu Boouan :JfiJj'! .lfli( l797- 1855) ~ilid. ~-No one kn~'' what this meant since the times of Elan."

11

Zhu Xi interpreted the phrnsc in tenus of his own philosophical concepts. saying. 9 runs throughour. rcSJJOnding C\'CI) '\\hcre nppropriltcl~· at C \'Cr~· l\\•ist o.nd turn. thus t~ means to "penetrate all- (T'tmg, Jill)... , The sage's hcan·mind is One turn. to function diJTcrcnlly on cncb occasion.... h is onalogous to .. the Hca\'cn and Eanh suw Sincere to the utmOSt without ctasing. !.'lnd all myri!KI things rcspcChYcly obw.in their proper place$: · ... ''Sincere to the utmost without ceasing" is /Jao's substance (7t, t!), the One Origin (Yiben. ·;f9 of myriad things. -All m}rind things rcs~t ivc ly obtaining their proper places" shows JJmis func.tion fll. the 0 11COrigin d i,·cr~i~\' ing in myri:Jd ways. Principle

Clc3rly Zhu Xi tutdcrstood Confucius' "single tlU'cad binding it nil together- in light of his conception th:n . .. PrinciJ>lc is one while iL-; manifcslations arc manv.~ In contrast Jti$ Jins:~i says. 10 lhc~ urc the \\()rd" or Qi.ng :-£h<>lur Liu n Jonan ~~W.f:~ (1791 · 1SSS) m l.mryu ~lu•ngyi .i~ iih tE~f.! (llcijins: Zltooglm:1 ~u.1u. J9l.K'J), Volum-: t , p. 8

152. ., 7.hu Xi . l.mru.JI: Iw. (J. 72. 10 Ro,go ;..;ogl . pp 53 ·54.

251

~ means to "unite ~JL" It means that Ono in its extreme vastness is unit~· \\ithoul mi.Jtturc ;md is sclf·nlt.nined for

good among illl unde-r hca\'en. uniti ng C\'CI'}'thing it is impossible for us 10 obtain by means of

evtr~·"'herc;

much learning.. ... Dt10 is merely 3 sin~lc unity. Ahhough the Fh·c Constancies go in hundreds of ways. and arc extremely ,·:trious: in their diverse ways, through hundreds of dclibcrntions. they all return to this One. this Ultimate One of all under hciWCn that can unite myriads of "good" under hca\·cn. Thus. the Mnstcr mentions no mind·hcart ' \'"in, •1:.0). no principle (L1, J..~). but mentions only ·•a single lhrcnd binding it oll together:·

ItO Jins.1i takes N as a concrete unity

?Jl of aU, unlike Zhu Xi's

·m

abstr;H;t iili that J)CilClrotcs \\hillC\ Cr is. Koyasu Nobukuni r~ 1i. ·~r. (1V33-) rceently deseribcd ItO Jinso.i's hcnnencutic method ~ undctslanding the words br concretely deciphering Lhcit' meanings us Lhcy

appear in each textual instance. as om>oscd to intcrprctinc the words ,·ia abstmet Nco-Confucian theorics.1 1 ItO adopted what Koyasu dubbed the ·'concrete incidence approoch. '' 1"16 Jin.s."li further clucid:uc:s such Ci.mc.:rctc hcnncneutics in laking loynlty (Z/umx. •'J.l) ond rcciprO<:it~· (Shu, t!) ns prnxis of Dno. not ~

scholastic glosses on Dt1o. He sass.12

I j udt;,o.c. saying: The Sages' /Jao merely resid'-~ in tl\c midst of the human ethical constants. the grcatcs1of which is tO s:I\'C people. TilUS. by loynhy and reciprocity, Z~ng"£i dc,·cloped the oac penetrating the Mnster's /Jtro. This \\ aS indeed how lhc Sages' D<w \HIS lransmiued to later students so clearly ~md completely. The Mnstcr thus MS\\Cr Fan Chi's !'!.i_\l que') on Ren by saying. JoyBl 10 people." Zigong -f ii ::sskcd - what would be

· ac

11 Koy:..:;u Nobukun.i. based oo :1 .n.--ccot study of ltO's G<' 1.\ h) J,#, s.:t.id that thi.:i volwne :st.·d :s the. wurd.•i nu:.unin)!s by looJ.:inp into inciJI.'nts of

Ct1nfucius ' and M(.'11Ciu$' ~)flC(Cie m.1rdi11g. 'l11is a Jl jlf(l:11!h i~ dianli.'triclll l'f'p()Scd hl the thC
252

Clnm-<:hi.-lr1-fmwg one "ord to practice through lifc't' The Master said merely. " Probably reciprocity,.. Mencius also said. " Try to redprocntc with others: for seekin g Jcn. nothhtg is elos.:r than th is.- So. we can sec that loyolt~' and reciprocity nrc the uh imatc csscmials of Rcn tMt fonn th e stan :'lnd the fini sh o f the. sage I~· studies. Lo ynh y ;md rcciprocily do nol refer to " the o ne that penetrates- ; they urc th cm ~h· cs that Dno by which to .Pcnemnc things into one. Fomtcr Confucians thought the Master's he:u t ·mind was touillr on e Prin ciple. nc~ibl) rcspond lug to all. Only leng1..i had grasped Confud us· real meaning. and h was so mething thai nol :111 students can underst3tld. So. he used lo)•alty and rcciprocily to instruct us about the meaning of the o ne that penetrates. How could a ll this be the e ase'!

The " former Co nf ucian" mcmioned by ItO Jinsai agoin rc:rcrs to into o ne.. resides only in the ntidst of loyalty and reciprocity, in concrete moral behavior. he was uugcting ZllU Xi's \'ic'' that Dao is above loyalty and n::ciprocity, namely. at one with the m ctaph ~·sicnl Prin ciple (U , JIJ~) 1ha1 gives bin h to Qi 1i( and the my riad things. ''~ In a similar ,·cin, ItO Jinsni commented o n Confucius' Sa) ing recorded in 15/2. u Zhu X i. When ItO Jinsai s:lid th:ll 1' the Doo th:ll ..penetrates all

I jud ge. s:~ying: The ancients co ns idered proc:tidng vinucs to be doin g scholarship. Outside v inue·practicc there "as no so-c.allcd .. scholarship." Thus. once schol:u ship was occomplisbcd. 'irtucs were established of t.hcuasci\'Cs , ln deepening self-cultivation to man:1gc families and all under hea, en, there '' as nothins difficull. Later. people took prncticing \'in.ucs M ,·irtuc· procticc and d oing scholm-sh iJJ 3S scholorshil'· uot rca li/jns tJ1a1 '' c musl take virtue-practice as sdtol:uship itSlel[ Thus. if o ne dc.cidcs to practice sclf·cultimtion. o ne will u sc sltcngth to grasp and bold on. if o ne \\ants to manage the \\Orld. one \ \ill IJ

'l'hi.'> may bC' It6's ·•Jocul!onary

mt(1ltion·· ~ts dclincd

b}' John R. ~:trlc

in Spt:~cl' Act:~ : .111 !l\'!IU.Y in the PhihMophy of l..tmJ!.uaJ_¥. (CambJid)!.c: Cmnbridgc U n h ~'f.)il~ l'rcss. 1965). ~Ul d " A ntXO!l(l())~ \l f lllocutionary l\cts.in K. Gundcl)lll»l 00., l.ung,ag.·. Mlnd, t/lld f..·,,.,.,t'/?(/go! (Minneap•'Jis· UniVI."f.Sll)' M Minncs<>to Pn."!is~ 1975). pp. 33,1-369.

r:;am:z

( 1871-1944) said, ··TJ1i:; Ch:~ph.:r hns onl>· t\\' ' lh:tl pcncl_r:th.-:~ a ll resides <.•i!hcr l•utsadc or insid c loynlty and n::c1procity " How rigbt he is! Sec h.is Lm•J''' ji.dn' ~Sft :UH1

H Ch..:ng ShuJc 1"-'::>siblc meanings, lhc

\>O C

(13.:-ljing: Z lu.m~:J nw Shuju. J9':X.n. Vul. I. p. 267. 15 Ro, go ;..;ogl . Vol 8. p 230

253

maintain it wilh legal rcgulmions. a11d lhosc with liulc knO\\·Jc."CCge will Uy hard to borrow and pretend. Virtues now lie barren. Wh;uc,·c,· is regordcd as abstmct in scholarship e:m :~email)' be found only in co ncrete prncticc. This thesis derives fro m hO ·s d istincti,·e i rucrprc~t i on or Oao in Confu ciu:s.

!ntt•rttxtual Co/u.>n:nct~ with 01hcr C/as.\~ics ItO's second imcrprcli"e method is collating other classical \\·Things wilh Confucius· Analects to idcnti(v and display their mutual atTmities. hO Jinsai expressed his general scmimcm "hen he annotated Anfllec:ts 2'2. The Master said, "The Ode.f arc 1hrec hundred in number, The) c:.n be summed up in o ne phrase. Swcr\'e not fro m the right puth, 'T-El: •. , W..(.... , . .L l ...... """"" · 1·ms:n· sat·d" ~tA ,"('~'o w J . .... 110 .

r

(:;-.n

~·iJ.

- ·ti·

I judge. s.:tying: Benevolence. Righteousness. Principle. and Wisdom ore. c;~llcd \'inucs. they arc the root of tl1c human Way. Loyall>·· Fidelity. RcH:rcncc• .and Rcdprocity are called beha\·ior-cuhi\rznion. Thus, talk about \'ir1ues must be the center. '''bile discourses on culti\'a.tion of t~ havior

must be \\l\iU is essential. which is also \\hat our

Tca.chcr (Conrucius) mcilnl when he said -swer\'c not fro m the righl poth" 10 C·o vcr ..the Odl:s arc throe hundred in number."' Some form er scholars (i. c. Zlm Xi) rcgordcd benevolence as 1hc es-sence of the AnnleL't'·· innate good :lS the essence of tbe Mcneius. holdi.n_ g to tbe Middle. of the Book ofllistury. nnd timeliness. of the Book (1/Chang.:.\·, chus :.ssigning ench Classic-one essence. wi1hout seeing an o,·e.rall unit)'· T hese scholm were unaware of \'atious classics as ""rious rouds converging to one. the one soing back to hundreds of thoughiS. many words pierced into one. Thus, -swco'C not from the right p:nh" is really what begins and completes sagely scholarship.

116 took 1hc mrious s\lgcly words in the Clnssics >'IS pcnctnlblc into o ne . Thus. 110 intcrprttcd the A'wlc<·ts nlso by :;oi.ng through the other classics.

1), C L:lu rr.• 1'/uulnt~/;.>ct.,, p. I I. ltl• Jms.ai. JfU S!ti 1\iJJ!i i\7-i~t.?l. in Scld Gih:hiro Sh l.~/1() ('f1,.1fUibi z,•mJ/1"() (Toky(l· IUl Shupp:m, 1973). 9: I. 16

1'

00. A"i/!Qn .\lo~·u

Firsl hO Jinsai took the J\1/em:itts to be at one " ith Lhc Ana/eel.\. as its dcrh·:u ivc. n and so the \\Ords in lhc former can lead bacL: 10 a corrccl lmdcrslanding of the latter. hO linsai said. 11 The Seven

S~ti ons

comment on the Arwfects. which \\'C

undcrst.::mcl by grasping the A'IL·nciu...,, Not starting nt the iHendus but seeking "hat Conrucius meant br mcrclr looking nt words in the Ann/(•cts, we could become :ll'biua.ry and make mistakes. as with Song scholars saying "benc\·otcncc means l11c orl110dox principle of all under hc;wcn:· Learners should not be unaw:~.re of th is d3ngcr. Thus. ItO linsai ah\3)'S cited the Alen,·iu::; when commenting on the Forcxamplc. lulcited Mcncius' "The org:.1n or the heart can think. Bul. it will ri.nd lhc un_swcr only ir it docs think. ·L·ZLfl"!lJ!Ji • •1.ttJ1:1f.lZ.'' (A1tmcius. VIA: 15) in interpreting " tltink Utrec times bcrorc takinc action .:::.\t!.iffi'~·h'." (Anal.:c:ls 5:20). :o He also cited Mcncius · arguments based on the .. unbc:trablc m ind" and " unbe:uable go,·cmmcnts:· to inlcrpn:l some 21 of Confucius ' comments on benevolence. On huroon mnurc. hO\\ C\ Cr. Confucius· \'iC\\ differs somC\\hat rrom tltac or Mencius, so 110 Jinsai paid crrort to lt:mnonize them, saying. "'

Amll~t·Js.

Confucius said. "Nature lamong hurnansJ is mutu::llly c.IOS('.- Mencius spec.ilically said, .. [Human] noturc is good." so tbcir words seem to differ. Why'! Being a

student of Confucius. how could Mcncius hO\'C mcruu something dirfcrcnl'l His " Hum:m na1urc is good'" was to clucicbtc the mc3~:~ing or '"f::lumOJ.n nature is mutu.:.Uy close.- Sages Yao and Shun differ so much from people on the street. yet they arc said to be close-, for hO\\C\Cr diO"c-rcnt people arc in their pcnonalities. strong or soft, dark or brilliant. the) do not diiTer in the fo au Buds inside. Water may differ in being sweet or bitter, clear or nubid,

yet it 3lwa~'S flows downward. Likewise. what our Te3chcr took 10 "be close" Mcncius said to "be innate!~ good:~ Tims . what Confucius said to be close. Mcncius spccific:~lly snid to be ns irmatcly good. as water flows dO\\ n\\':ard. and thus as f:u :.sour tniC:-naluJC 1R goes. it is cap:tblc of be-coming g.ood. in shor~ .. good." All the-se \\Ords arc S:'lid in lerms innate- quality. 1101 io tenus nf

or

..

Uo,gof:ogi. p. 31 . '' Uo11go Kogi, p. 71.

;)) Rmtj!,a A"oj!i. p. ?0-7 1. 21

:::!

NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l, 70. Ro,go ;..;ogl. p, '2.56· 257

255

reasoning. In regard to reasoning. we cannot

C\'CU

talk

:1bout ourscl\'cs- 3S being far or clos.:.

lt6 Jinsai strcsscs here thnl Confudus and Mcncius \\ere discussing the s.1me points. This " ·ns to target the Song Neo-Confuci:~ns. especially Zhu Xi. with his so-called '"solid scholarship" that we w ill d isc.uss in dcbil in Section 3. Besides being :u one with M<'nclrrs, 110 Jinsai took Confucius 10 be 21 at one " 'ith the Spring tmd Auwmn Annals. Jt6 Jinsai said, polhic:~ l ebb and now of those cbys that our Teacher (Confucius) discoursed :1bout do not

1'hc people, cn:nts. :md

seem \Cry rclc\'tlJ11 to students of '·toda)." Wh} then did Confucian studems 3\'idly rccei,·e those \'Oiumcs? Our leachcr hnd s:aid. .. Rather put down <:learl}· mailers rdcv~:~nt

to spccilic times than wield empty words.., Since

:1ct ion~ it is best to tackle concrete C\'Cnts 3.tld things to obscrH· their rigbts and \HOng. g.:.ins and losses. rather dtrul discourse about

scholarship aims at cffcetivc

general principles. These chapters and the Spring nnd AutumH Amwl~· then m u tuall~· fonn "inside and outside." TI1is is\\ hy these students held ahem dear. hO's \'icw con be contrasted wilh the approaches L:lkc.n by lwo o ther scholars. Pi Xinti IJi. i\l liS (Lumens Jill I"J. 1850-1908) apti)' indicntcd th:1L ..The A1mals ' claim lh.at O\CttJlrowing rebels is Grc:tl Justice tacitly suggc.sts Mcncius' words on c.hangc and establishment or go\·cmmcm: Gongyrmg and Zhu Xi's <:ommcnLs make us grasp Mcncius' intentions: · N to show how the Annnl~· and Mcm:ius fom1 ''lhc inside nnd tbe outside.. to one another. A contemporary Japanese s inologist. Takeucl1i Yoshio t.lt JXJ ,~1 ffl:" (18~6-1966) odoptcd n !>imilt'!r ,·icw. ::s. They both understand the-A.tmtl/.t in terms of the A/tmt'ius. nhilc 116 takes the Annals and the AnaiC'cts 10 fonn the inside and the outside 10 each other, for both books argue front c;oncrclo m:mcrs without wielding empty gcncmlil.•nions. Lilt\\ isc. leO Jinsai sees how the Clas.\ir.:s of/'()etry and Hislory,· 10 agree with the Anale,·ts in that they all discourse on principles without lca,·ing CYcnts. and thus Yicw obstract m~ttcrs in coocrclc tcm1s.. ItO Jinsai commtnts on Confucius' saying (7/18): "Where the M\lstcr used the wrrcct pronunciations \\3S the Odes, the JJtm/.: rif Hi.u ory :md the performanc-e of

::) /~ongo .t\ogi. p. '29. 2.• l,i Xitui Jiu::.r:th~ 1'unxhm #f:~!)i!}~(Ti.libd. lJOkl tu:1hu (!hub:m:illc. 1973). 4 :1-2. ~ Takcuicht y,,:;hio. ·'.\lo Shi do Slum Ju :· in 1'uk<'udti J'm·ltio "L<'mlm Jl \ ~~ ~ffi! 'i'.~((Tokyo: Kadogawa Sl••kn. 1978). 2 :473-485.

256

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

».

rites. In all these cases. he used Ll1c correct pronunciation. T·Jrtlffilff. ( ~.~ ( ll}) tJl itl. f5' !ftl: ;J tl! .··'" oddi• g. ''The Clussi<· o{' Powy c,, ploms feel ins$ and sentiments. the Cllustc af Hfstm·y c:
1 judge. saying: Seeking the Way in the high, seeking mSics ~!'Poetry and History teach "ith mancrs close to buman situations rcleYant lbr daily USC·, r:n:~kin g mailers not far from us humans into the Way. with words not r:u from the human world, And so. as we can persist in adhering to Decency la. we become p:1ragons or human demeanor to kt''P up the worldly ways. This is "hy our Teacher constantly discourses on these three Classics. As for Ouddhisn1 and Daoism. they lean: the world ond break orr with sccularil) to cngnge only wi1h the high nnd ~'lr without regard to t.his world. They thcrefOfc do not rc:~lly attain the principles 5'r. or the Cfo.rsrC.\' tif r•oetry and History·. Besides, :~ !though later Confuei:ms recite the Clfl,i'Sic ~f Pot:lry and read tlte Clas.'l;c of lliJtory. tl1cy seck understanding in too deep. too dimcuh areas ' ' ithout knowing tl1.1 t they should seck it in easy ordinary situations close by. As o result their words and deeds ore often ma ni re st l~· encumbered "'ith t" iSIS and difficuhics. Jading in Yast. right and unhurried composure. lsn 't it true Ihat the TC:IJUlc:d difficulty of rending is not in reading but in reading" ell and righr? 110 Jinsai stressed that the Analects, the Clcu·sics of Puetry and of H ISIOfJ' all begin a1
light on each other.

hO Jinst1i hesitates. howc,·cr. on the intcr-dueidation among the AnnleCI.'t:. the J)m:trint of till! A·fe(ln. ;md the C'fas\·ic of Change due to the ''extremely .high ;and profound M!trit~r eootents of the Jattcrlwo. ItO Jinsai conuncnrcd on Anoh·cls 5/ 16 , "Tile Master said of Ziehan thaLl1c possessed

~cr~;~~,,o;~c gentlc.Jrum on four counts. f i;}Y· (ti! . ·:n:tt-fZ.I!Y:iit~~t '"

~ DC. I.au tr . TIIel lnaln:tf , p 61 . ~ Ucmgo Kogi. p. 103. Rmtfp A·oj!i. p. 104. lJ D. C L~•u tr.• 1'he rlmJiea.~. p. 41. ~, Ro,go ;.;ogl . p. 68

1 'i

257

1 judge. saying: Claiming tltc gentlemanly

wa~·

differs

c<msidc:r.1bly from claiming the sagely "ay. The sagc:ty way is concerned nbom the extremity. the gcndcm:mty wny is concerned with ordinary. riibt and C·ommon rules lhtn apply llu·ousbout myri:'lds of gcncr:nions, su<:h :'IS " 'hat vorious chaplcrs in the f)Octrimt t!f 111..: Mean d iscourse about. S3dly. illc commcntntor undcr.slood the Biyin ~~.:J.

Chapter according to high :'lbstrusc principles. thereby losing much of the otiginal intent

Titis ..commcnt:uor·· who ll6 Jinsai crilic:iled as being too nbstmsc

was Zhu Xi. ) J Wh<~t is difficu lt aboul the ;\h:an lies nol in its mysterious technicalities. As 116 Jins.ai said, ''Tile M.:tm is the moSt d ifficu lt thing 10 pr11cticc in the world, not in undertaking the difficult actions of the world. but in keeping u1> our easy daily routint.~s '' ilhou~ change frt)m start tu fin i$h. This is '"'h)' they say the Mean is impossiblc-:· :ol Thus, 110 Jinsai thought tbat the A{cafJ and the A11nl~c1s can be taken to intcr·c1ucidntc in this light. rtO Jinsai thus unifies various Classic~ with the Atwlecls under the view that they all discourse on daily human cthic~11 ways. 'J'11is hermeneutical method meets :1 difficulty when it coOlcs to 1hc Cla.~·sic of Clumgt•. 110 has lhc following words on Confucius' \\Ords (7!17). '·Grant me ;:~ few more years so th3t I may continue to study the Clumges at the age or f~fty and t slmll. perhaps. be free (rom major errol"$, };(1~\i;{r.r~. ]i -t·t;J. ,f)\ b), oof!;(A~;ki!lt~.''"

I judge. saying: In the ;mcient days of his sagely n1le. Bao Xi i!! ~ looked up and down. fnr and ncar. and created eight trigmms 1hat were modeled ofler po\\el's of dh·inilics and Yicissitudcs of Yin· Yang ~2' I;). the principles of myriad things gh1ing birth and resting, Aficr last days of Yin ,fj1' Dynasty. the Zhou }tii Dynasty arose to c:ompilc appended remarks to tell fort unes. and called 1hc book the 7Jtou 11' H:JM. When our T..::nchc1 came aJong he only ' 1 Zhu Xi ~onuncntcd on. "The way wl1ich tbc !_.!(..'llllcm:lll pur::;au.:s~ re:K:I'kS wide and far. and ~'CI IS: S<."Crcl J !'f'·2.ill ffii~.l,!" in Chapter 12 of the Doc:triuv of the' Ml'u" <1•1.1f . that he pcrsouully cOttl))lk-d. sayi.ul!. "''l11c gentleman ·s l)a(J is inc.\haus11blc. un comai ne~b lc. fl\"'ll as close as 111 the nu.pllal room to 1l1c realm ,)j' the sag.::s. Its cxh!rior has no oulsidc, 1I.S ltUCI'IM has no inside; it can be called -hi fJ." Yet lhc principle Jtl lhot mnkc-s it what i1 is lies hidden and invisible. \Vhill \'1.! CJJ1 k llahlc Of i:> t)IIC within Tltl\ and it::; ' 'llk'f' r1.!:1chc.s no sages kill' \\ or ar..- c.:IJHihlt! ••f kn,m ing " St:c Z!Jt>~r~-onJ.: Zllaugju rJ•J.U·:f;~{,J, in lhu Xi. Si.tlm Zlumgju Zi:/m, p. 22.

n

•~ NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l, 69. 1 ' Ro, go ;..;ogl, p, 103~ 0 C IAIU 1r . 1'/l(t lltllll4•c ts. p. 61

258

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

discoursed on tJ1c Way of fonncr rulers and vinu.cs of Hen·bcncvolcncc f": and )!-righteousness ~. His talks with disciples were simple. and relined, He instructed tl1em untiringly with nothin.g other than discourses OJ1 such \i rtucs in the C/(us·icJ dfJ•O(llry :md NJStory, while '''e me Jcfl with only tlth SU)'ing on the-CIIJs:lic qfChanxe. which prcdously had been a book of divination, so our Teacher went ag11inst the custom of concentrating on the principles of change. Mcucius also oficn quoted from Clos~it,·s of l't~lry and Hisrmy and ar~Ju cd aOOut the $jJring am/ Autumn Annals. but of the Clnssu: (~{Chaugc he left not a single saying with us. for his studies \\ ere com:emed with ::~d ornt i on of bene\'Oiencc and righteousness. and aucnding to filiality ond brotherliness. He bught us to cultivntc our n~turc, while the C/tL'o')·rc of Change talks nbout nothing but profit However. since the book also meticulously details methods of lifc·mnnagcmcm and cxhons people to greatly benefit others. our Tcachc.r also adopted it. Those desiring to learn from Confucius and Mcncius also do well to adore the ('/(u·.r,cs (?{ f'
110 Jinsai look Confhcius 10 be the first person in history to undcrsrand the C/e~ssk u,f'Chungt\ not ns :t lx.10k of divintltit)n. hut as o book of mc.anings, and in that l i~ht to h:muoni1c il with the Anlllecls to inter-elucidate. In sum. ItO Jins3i initiated <1 new Analects scholnrship. He not only traced back to the original meanings of Confucius· sayings in the Analet•fs. btll took all the Cl:~ssics as co·forming "'insides and outsides" by the f:~ct dt;at they all clucid;~.tc grcot principles in da.ily life. ItO Jins::1i pursued both routes so as to refute-Zhu Xi. ITO J INSAI'S PERSP.E CTIVE ON 1.115 ;\ NAUiCTS·SCII OLA.RSHIP AND ITS RECONSTRUCTION

Now lhat we ha\'C seen ItO's hcnncncutic methods. our next question should consider in what context 116 Jinsai admired the Anah~cls as ··the loftiest. the greatest Primal Book in the whole unin:rsc." We can s:lY thot (3; 1) 110 Jinsai understood the Ana/eel:{ world to be pro\·idins the: context of "Om' i.n t11c secular.- and (3:2) offered new i.nlcrprctations or Confucius' key notions, /}(Jo :lnd Uc.•n, in 04lt light. 3:1. The Context of" JJao in the Sc.cular- : ItO Jinsai understood the Ana/~cls' \\Orld to be pro,·iding the context of ..Voo in the secular:· which means that the common :md ine\'itoble moml principles :uc 10 be found only

2J9

in specific concreh: daHy life. TI1c so-called DtHJ exists on I ~ in tltc midst of the intcr·human d~ds and words occurring in d3il)' life. As the 1H~t111 shows. the metnphysicn.l wortd appe~rs only in the common ordimuy world ~nd both worlds co--fom1 a unity in tl1cir shared constitution. ItO Jinsni thus objccu~d to the Song Nco·Confucinnists ''ho h:sd conMructed, \H~ll above the actual life-world. another scp:mllc mebph~·sical world of l.i·Principlc Jtt that SUf)posc.'dly giv-es binh to and CO\etns myriad 1hings in the uni,•crsc. ItO Jinsai denied the e~istence of a tmnscendcnt world abon~ nnd beyond Lhc ac1ual one. and sought human nature onl~· tJuough concrete dail~· life.;\4 116 Jinsai admired Confi1cius" sa~' ing in 6/29, "The Master said . ..Supreme indeed is the fv1can :~sa moral ' 'inue. It hns long been rare among 1hc coononon 1>coplc. 'T-J=I, •t•loli:t.l.'~!il)·il!.. :JPii~'fl li':fi-P,~:-'' llo Jins.1i had n long section of comments concerning this sarin g. M I j udge, saying: The \;rtuc of the Mean is the most difficult \"iltltc under heaven. People discourse about the Doo. TI~r ''ani to reach tl1c highest and most difiicuh Ullimatc in order to get to the Otw, We rcJy on thntst to rc:;~ch the highest and on strhi.ng to do the difficult. But. the \ irtuc of d1c: ~'(can is common. easy. and unhmricd: it is unre-nch.able by thruSt or stri\'ing. This is why people are inc-llp:tblc of the Me:ut. During the 'fhree glorious GcncmtiOttS of Tans and YU. people were simple. com mort pure, witl1out twis[y aniflciality, nnd none were not n.1turnlly in hanuony with tl'lc Tao. Fathers were fatJtcrs. sons were sons. brothers were brotllcrs. and spouses \\ere spouses. n:uumlly without contriYancc or str.mgc m:~.oipulluioo . ~nd dcnlt w tth one- :mother acc-ordiog as \\hat they saw and heard. T11is is "hal is c:aJicd the \'irtuc of the ~tcan , In contmst. L'ltCr people se-ek the 1l10 in lheIO.r nnd seck mAtters in the difficult. The more they try the farthe r il\\ ll)' they get, Tl')1ing to rcp.1ir the situalion. they te-a r things apan funlll!f. Therefore it is said. "'h h:~s long been rare amont the common people.'" This is why our ~~ $<.'(: m) Dougyt~ Ruxrre $111 dt :cl, sh),.,~ ~1!illif'A5Ji,!:~(J~J~"JjtJ! 9!}(Taipci: Himal:tya Found:tlton, 2001), pp. 125·1 i0. t:'ontempornl)' Jap:mcsc schnl:u$ u.tKul imou:~ Jy <~~u\:c Otl JtV's anti·m-::tapltysicul dliU';tclcf. E g.. hhiJa lchut 1 1:i Bl - 1~

said. ··Jinsat·scholllfl)hlp rs ~n ·alNllulc huma.nily•$Chol:tr5hlp· again:d

Ucavcn -ccnlcrcd $Qng SC·h olol'$bip, msistios on undcn;t.:m.diJlg bum.sn.ity

in

tcnu.:s of hum;mity.- Sec J sbid~• 1-::hirv. /16 Jit~·(IJ (Tokyo: Yu.'lhik~t\\'il KObwlkan. 1960, 1973). Koyasu Nubukuni T~i"(Jf; c.-mvincmgly ~aid 110 JinlS"ti'=' world (Jf thought is the "'ctbi<:·.a.l inlCt·lmrnan world;' in his /rri Jumu: J in·mntd sd:ai no shisQ, csp. pp. 27 ·60. ,\~ D. C L~nt tr.• The rlmJiea.~. p. 53. Vi Ro, go /-..,"ogl. p. 9 1.

260

Cl nm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Teacher spccificall~· csbblishcd the 1'rw of the hkan as people's ultimate horil .(m. and this is why the Analt'cts is " the loftiest the grentest Primal Book in the whole unherse." 116 J insni thought that the Amrltxb· is "th e loftiest. the grcatcsl

Prim.:tl Book in du.: whole uni\'crsc- precisely because it eonvcn arc the principles of ordiMry daily li''ing. Such a Dno bears its inc,•itablc tmh·ersality and uni\'crsaJ cffccth·cncss. As Yang Rubin ~tJ.j'j~ roccntly said. " ft6 J insai regarded the content of the rlnltle,·ss to be none too m ~· stcrious or profound. but j ust the uninrs::al. conunon. and practicable mane~ to be learned. This was the s
3:2tt. ItO's New Jntcrprcwtions of Confucius (1) : Underslandins by Its C lassic:tl Meaning: ItO Jins:ti conducted such mw1
Jt'"·

I judge. sa) ing: SOJ.&C:S tc.ach d i\ crscly according to the d h·c rsity of pt.""'ple. What are men1ioncd here o f lhumanJ na.turc and Hc:l\'c nly principle arc ''hat people say of them. ' ' ithout an) tl1ing abst•usc or mysterious bc)·ond understanding. Wh;tt did Zigong mean by "one c:1nnot hear·· "! People onJy know human di\'c rsity in strengths and intelligence witltout knowing their common love of original virtue and adherence to a e·o mmon potential for ad\'ancing in goodoess. yet because their li.ki.ng is not stro ng enough to n:nch goodness. our good-potential is oOcn doubted. Ncm Zigong '~> \'inuc w:\1> n01 yet sagely. he l" Y:mg Rubm ~~M}'fl. "Rcnlun yu tt:mh· l h.t Jms-:u y u Zhuzi di qmd:k) li
Uujio Sixitmg : ai xinndni Jk mgyn: R1lx'fl p1:1n ~ft~ ~.!!.W (:~J}H\:.*~! : H..f.:fiji (Taipei: Aca.dt.'lnin Sinicn. 1999). pp. 87-13-l. c!ip. p. 123. ·\'~ D. C L~•u tr.. 1'he rlmJiea.~. p. 41. ~) Ro, go ;..;ogl, p~ 66·6 7

261

nlso took the Teacher's ''ord to mean "71~iif .nifiiUU." without dcpcndi.ns on s:agcs there is goodnc:ss nlJcttdy: anyone whose hc-art·mind is conc.c ntratcd on goodness " ill sec il CO\'Cring the enti re hca,·cn :md canh. Thus, we l:now that cvcl)·onc c.nn :td,·nncc to goodness.. Besides, hca,cn

inevitably helps good l'coplc. This is how our Teacher became a sage. Sadly, in Iauer days people studied the

high. far. nnd mysterious. and s:Ud such is the way to seck hca\'Cnl~ principles. "ltich arc unintelligible except to tJtc enlightened. Zigong had studied quite minutely yet still said something like this. How could it be'! Wh.1t the s.1gc

mentioned as lhumnnl nnd Heavenly principle arc just whnt Inter scncr:uions c;all Qi ~. not prinrciple J!B and should not be taken as road ttl follow in S(.'l:king the Lruth.

Clc:n l)'. wi1:1C ItO Jinsai w1dcrstood ns .. Dao- in the Anolt~:ls wns anlhropo-gcnctic. constructed b~ common people to be moral regulations for people to tread. We c.an sec illuslrntions of the difference bCt\\'een ItO's mund::me ~pproo.ch from Zhu Xi's metaphysical one in the following intcrprcta1ions of ..Doo- in Confucius· sa,>ing in 418... He has not lived in vain who dies in the e'cnins. ha\'in~ been told about the Way in the mornins. ~Jllltlil!. ,?IKnJ~:·"-, Below arc their respccth ·c accounts of "!Jao" in this s3ying: Mas(cr Zhu Xi s..1id. "Dao is the prescriptive principle of t_hings tO lx: us lhcy urc, Once "C could hear nbout il. we would be living smoothly. dying contentedly. with no trace

of rcs.rct Tims. he suesscd the nearness of tllc·timc.- ·11

ItO Jins:li s:tid. -oao is that by which people become hwnan. Being human without h eating about it i:; to li\-e emptily. if not being with chickens and dogs then toning with grnss nnd trees. lsn · t it sad'? lf once we heard about it. we \\Ould lutve Lhat by which "c :uc human and complete our life. and so :1 gcndcm:m's dc:uh is called "Completion t't.·· mcan.ing thnt he would not perish.~2

nw

For Zhu Xi, is the prescripti-ve principle of thinss lo be ns they a te, thus c(mstituti11g both metaphysical princil)le lnd ethical norm. In con1ms1, ror ItO, /Jnl) is 1hat by which people become humnn, with the mctnphysks dropped.

~) 0 . C. Lou lr.• The Auah•cts, p.3 L ", Zh I . Z• "r. I ... U .t 1, 1·..,llll)''ll j.ll»l

x·

1 '

Ro,go ;..;ogl . pp )0· 51.

262

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg Similar!~·.

regarding Confucius' saying in 9/31. ltO asserted. ··Dar>

is th at in "hich all under he:~vcn arc identicai.''Jl in order to refute the Hnn Confucian theory of ·'Going against nonnality and conJOnning with li10. is

called c~pcdicnee &fi. f:'; jllk)~Gi.·· Against this. ItO Jinsai SJid.4-' l11c Tc.-.chcr once said. "Js R1.m far'? 1 desire /ten. nnd R~n arrives here."' And. he also said. ''If a person claims to practice Dar> yet is for away from people. he docs not practice L)(lo." Both indicate tJ1a1 Dao is \Cry close by. for outside DriQ there is no person. outside person there is no J)no. The sage diversely teaches according to their dhcrsity. and docs not set up " set tc:aching and dri\c people into it. Here there is nothing far ftom people, eithe-r. Those [Jno-ignornmuscs think the h igh is ;~d.mi r.tblc tiS if going up to hca\cn. sec /)a(} -.s so far away, and make it hnrd for people to anain Drw. What a pity!

In a similar ,·cin. h6 Jinsai also oonuncntcd on Confucius· saying :u 1/4, "F.nry day I examin e mys-elf on three counts, {:: FI ?:'[i~i.:J:.J."'.a.s sa.yinF dull " the Doo of hca, <::n and earth exists in humans. Human Dao is notl1ing else tlt:tn ftlialiry, frmcmil)'. loyalty, and fide lity, so such human virtues suffice to fulfill human Dao ... .-s Such common human pmcliccs of commt)lt hu111an virtues one the. Duo. flO Jins.1i further ~intcd out tl\illlhis human /Jn(l exists ri~ll in the mundane secular life. ItO Jinsai <::ommcntcd on Confucius' saying in 913. ··J follow the majority ~."f·~ A~ :· sa) ing. £ 7 Fonner Confucians said. '·On thing.s thnt do not hann rigJucousness. we C3n follow secular con\'ention.- Titcy nrc 1ni!>t:lkcn. for if things would RC\'Cr hann righteousness. the secular is tlte l)uo. and o utside the secular there is no /)no. Thus. it is said. "The gentlemanly Dno begins at the spousal relation."' Likewise. Yao :md Shun both ceding crowns and k ings Tang t&J and Wu Jit expelling and :Jltncking followed the people ·s hearts. Where people ·s hc;lrtS lend. there the secular accomplishes. Thus. it is enou~ to see if" hat you do conrorn1s to righrcousncss or not \\ hy do we h.twc to put aside lhe secular to pur!>uc Dno'! l11is sort of J)C'actice is real!) the likes or hcn::sy, not sagely /)0().

Titis sot1 of Dao ,d tJtin the secular must be common. easy. mtd close 10 people• .IS and such concrete ,·irtucs as ·' in word you arc conscientious and trustworthy and in deed single-minded nnd rc,·crcnt. -;j· .·L~tH. i'f!~ ~c thcmsclns ;uc the /Jao . not the tmnsccndcnt principles fiR

in the cstrcmily of the ltig.h and the deep. .19 1"10 ·s common secular /) ao OCars no distinctions between ancient or present. nnd remains unchanging through time and place.j lf To lt6, this was Confucius· DtiQ: '·the cons uml Warp ·;rr ~- of hem e-n t1nd earth. the common j ustice ilillhrougb the old and the new: 4nyonc with intelligence com t now it and practice it, hO\\C\'Cr uncouth, as c.ommon spouses they com aJI know it
Dtro."' 1 In summary. 116 Jinsai intcrprewd Confi1cius" D tt Q in tcnns of the secularity of the Dna;.. thereby uni.IYing :all the Cl:1ssi; s. including the Anrl/l!cls. the A•fcnciu:('~ and 1hc D(K/rmc ofllu: 1\ilcan: 3 Such was ItO's nC\\ unique hcnncncu1ic syslcm. '" ltl' Jius<~i suiJ, "'ll)osc who arc cJe\·cr an.J inh:lligcnt wuu!J s.t)af OJ) hig_h 001d f~l r Ill ::;tm·c :tftc-r lhflicultit:s, nol kn<''' mg th~tl Dao (lriginall) ::;tay.s in the Jnld$1 o r daily Q)ffinl(ln :lCth'ttics, ()rdinnry nnd c~ by us. .. Sec i?Otll,"() Kos i. p. IJS. 4 • It& said. "Loynlt~t and lidclity .~~ t;; arc the root or<.' ur studies, \\ hose

i:s scJ'iou&llc.!iS 'P.'' f{{. tlud all this (;Ompl~tC'S 1hc whole m:ntcr. bnct' Confuciun.:t thou~h t Lh~ tv lx: d all~ 4.X)Il.Slanl dulics. UQ1 LbC(I(il~ of th.: highest gtound ~ntl

the fm1hc::.'l 1lltimatc, ilnd ~' C:51 t~~blishcd scpa rt~tc t.I<.,<:Uim:s. 'l1tC)' d id not rc:thzc that Dao 1~ the rc.:~ l Principle :.nd studtc.'\ :trc the re.nl dulles;. I {ow could there be 3!l}'tbins h.igh ~ od far outside o f Joy:llty, fidelity ond !iCriou..,nc$$'1 So lite ''ords of those \\ho know Dau arc rulid f!tu.l cJosc \C) lilC. amllhc mon.; they are tlllhd"-::tl to and practiced. the mon.: th..:)' ilJ)J~ w he incxhau:;tiblc l hosc \\hO talk of D,·,o Wtth
/)al) 1$" Rt)ltgc) A·qpJ, p. 232. ~> JtVsaid. "As Ln. /JaC). so muong people. nuwbcrc ru tlC.l Uf:! them is there any d istinctit•n of un..:icnL ft•om prc..~11 t Ttx.lay•s people ate j u.st the ancient J'k."Ot)lc of the lcgcnd~lry Tlm::c Oyn:tsl!es. A~ long ~Ls JX."41Jllc pr:tcl!ce Slr:tightly according to D(ll)• their muun: hnt' no dtffcrcn<.-c to besin with ThQ.!:iC igoor.snt (If thts haY~ to l'cgntd t(ldoy·s pcopk as swt J;<M.XJ. sc• in nwm.lg.in~ the world they have to cntirdy Lr:m sfortn J)(),lplc of today into LJu; pl-oplc of Tlli\."C Oynastic.s.. Thi.s is entircl~t out o f li n~!. with uulh."' Ibid · I' · 2 .~8 !t i , J·35-3G. !'J ItO imcrprcl~;..l lh..: Fit~t Cht~ph!l o( thc IA~Cirinc: oj1he .\lea11 by Nl)'ing. "Doo. ll<.m-ing ~'\.'J).'Whcre under h c~wcn. IS where t1ll p<.·oplc commonly

t:r

26.J

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

3:2b. hO's NC\\ Interpretations of Confucius (2): Undcr.uanding Jen by liS Classical Menning; Another key notion 116 Ji11sai used in offc:1ing his epoch-making inlc-rprctation was Rcn-bcnc\'okncc (:. -- a term 1hnt appears in the Analects I05 times in SR chap1ers, coeh occurrence bearing a ~cif'ic linguisaie contf!xt betwe.cn Confuc.ius o.nd his disciples. On lhc whole. tlte concept of flt~ll as it i.!ppcars in the. Ana/eels includes all admirable human ,·inues.jol especially those rcfc.rring to concrete moral bch:wior. ItO's interpretations of /lt!IJ !lrc based on pnrc Kogalr.:u (cl(l.Ssical learning jif~). thnl is. studies to cxcaHUc the ancient meanings. in contrast to Zhu Xi's more iotcllcctual i.merprctati\'C st~·lc. Consider the lbllowi.ng cases in point: . Ana/eel\· 1/2 reads, "'The gentlem:m dC"\'Otcs his ciTons to the root. for once the root is CSI.:tblishcd, the Way will sprout from there. Being good as a son and obedient o.s a young man is. perhaps. the root of ~ m M 's

choraclcr. Jl ·f f».-1<. * ii.li1ii1l!l;. 'l':111l1!.Uf·, JUH..:2..4<~1! ... " Zhu Xi commented on this pnss3gc. "'Ren is the principle of Jove and the character or hc•rt-mind )it~ Fl!, •v 2. 1 e ... "' lnnucncc.l by Cheng Yi t~ ~Jj (1032· 1085). Zhu Xi"s interpretation contuins many inconsistencies. Qi:.m Mn ~f.f'; (1895- 1990) wrote," [Zhu Xi) quoted from Cheng Yi's saying . .. Virtue flas. ilS root. which, when cstablishcd. Hils and cnk1rgcs its Oat>. fro m fili.ality nnd fratcmil) practiced at home extended to IO\'C th.inss.- TiliS quot:nion purposely omits a word ''birth :~:. :· replacing it 'vith -nus and cnlt~.tgcs ft. A " from Mc:ncius. for if R,·u is substance ·r~m!. it could not have begun to exist by being gh·cn bmh b) pmcticing flliali ty and fraternity, ... Zhu Xi s.aid "Ren is Principle of love:· :tnd " principle" could not h:t\'C begun to cx1st by being ~n:n hiTih by prttctidns f'ili.ul ity and rrntc.·rnity. eilh(,.':f.

BC$ides. ··f>no" differs in connOtation rrom "principle: · We can say. ...llle Doo of Rm is born frorn this'· but not

··n1c Principle of /lcm is born from this." Both Confucius (>fiSiJUtlc Thus. whut coclft·mns lO hmn!ln oatul'...~ is /)tw : whatever is (lthcrwa.'i(: docs not. /J<w (."X i sis wit11in d aih· hwnan uctivitics tutd n:och~ nil under hcu\'cn

tlm.M.ltth<.lUl myrituJ ~encruti\tnti: mul ~hould noc be lei\ for a :;inglc moml.!-1)1,"

(Ciut .r(:; fi(I/.'Jti •P}.:U11Jfli. PI\ 9, I I)

!-~

Cf. Qu WnnH

ail.~lji.. "Rcn zhi guyi

di li$hi k:toca f::Z i~1iU'f.Jf.'t~

;;l)'~~" in h1S Shu J'ang J.unotc" Ji JUCi/.l.t~~(T:ubet : K:~.immg shuju.

1961)}, pp. 2)4-2G
265

and Mcncius often used '"D<11i' bUl seldom ,..principle." Both Cheng Vi and Zhu Xi began using .. principle" 10 Confucius and had to try hard to patch up the irrcp.•uoblc scam. We cnn sec Zhu Xi's cfforl at sewing up 1he distMce between Confuc.ius nnd Menei&IS, on 1hc one

C~l>lain

h:md. ond the two Che-ng brolhcrs, on the other.

Qi:tn ·s view is \'alid and convincing. Confucius :md Mcncius both ad\'ocatcd Rcu in terms of conctclc bcha\'ior. !lnd nc,·c r took J(,·n as

sub:u.ance of nnturc. Zhu Xi's intention of cxplo.ining C\CI) tl1ing according to his theory of M as principle sh:trcd by cnr)'thing is quite explicit in his

cxpJan:llion of Confucius' Rcn. Zhu Xi s:ays nod1ing :1bout Ren ns principle of concrete bcha' iors. In contrast. 110 Jinsai's explanation of the Analf!cts 112 dc:uly demonstr3tes his de ,·otion to classicism:u I judge. saying: Ut!n is the dtoroughfare of all things under heaven. what people crumot but follow in order to bcba,·c. 11s root consists the innate goodness or hurnan n:uure whh thes.e Four Buds. which if we know how to expand them we " ·ill rc:~ ch Rcn. Therefore. Mcncius said. -People all ha\ c whac they cannot bear. whh such unbearable bean to rc~'ch what they can be-ar, th:u is Ren." Ag:-tin he s.,id. ''l11c bc::trt of comp::tssion is the bud of Rtm,·· " lnti.mntc tonccms for the intinmtc pJrcnts arc Re,. There is nothing else. C;o..;().'}nd it throughout under heaven:· Such sayings fit

or

Youzi's 1i' ~f sentiment of laking filial it~· and fraternity as Uen's root.

~-1 cncius

was merely com·eying the ancients'

views. The fonner sr;hotar took Ren nnd 1i' to be t.hc principle in human nnturc. \\ hich contained only Ren. It /,r.dcccncy and lhrh·lntclligence. these four. Whe-re dili filiality :md frutcmily come from'! The answer could be Rcn·substanec as the root and fi lialil)' •md fmtcmi•r os~ func tion. :tS the bmnch, :.uul then such an answer seems to contrndict You~d. So. he had to sa~· th.at pro.cticing Rcn is the root of fitiality and rrmcrnity. aud speaking of nature. Urn is the root of fal ialily and fraternity. But, then, this Slying puts Youzi's original contention upside down. namely. "Jt il.AI!!.J'.':fJI\" and " ~' {f. ifllill'-l'.," in short. filiality nnd fr.ttcrnity arc the root of Rcn. But. then. why did Mcncius tnke Ren and Yi (rightCO\ISness) 10 be wlun we i n nate!~ ho\'c'! It is bccaus.e human n:nure is good; both Ren o.nd ll arc our nature. whicb is thus described in terms of Rcn and rl. Mcndus did not directly describe Ren and

26ti

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

n

as human nature. One slight de' i:uion here could lead to :l thousand miles of error. \Vc musl keep clear·sighted. "Former scholar- again refers to Zbu Xi. Iurs contention. u.Rc.n is the thoroughfare of all thinss under hea\'Cn, "hat people cannot bu1 fo llow in order to behave:· j ibes well with Confucius ' origitml intcnllon of indicating Ren through conctc:.tc moral bchavion;. ItO Jin:sai thus used classic:~ ! philology to target Zhu Xi. Confucius' saying in 7/30 pro,·idcs another case in point "Is bcnc\'olcncc rcall,\ for ow:ty'! No sooner do I desire it than it is here. (: lti ~r- .~? JQ fJ: t . Nl t: !f.~ .'' so Zhu Xi commcn1cd on this. saying, -Ren is the vi"ue of the heart. not something Olllsidc.'' 00 ItOJinsai h.eatcdly triticir..<:d tl1is comment.~· I judge. snyins: lkn is the grc-nt ,·irtuc of the world, yet llt:n·s affairs ate so very dose br. practicing ia resides in myselr. Hence, "is benevolence really fa r away'! No sooner do I de-Sire i1 than ic is here." But. the fomtcr scholar cook Ren to be J)rinciplc within nature, and took cuuing desire 10 return 10 the beginning 10 be the worl.: of Ucn , Jftb is is t.be care. cvcl)·ooc h.as /len as my body has four limbs ~nd hundred bones. and chen: t,:;aunot be anyone "ho is no1-Rt'n or has ahe n~c~ssity of "re:\Chins·· Ren, For c:umple. take mlllly hcrut-minds a.s " ood and R1.•n as ftre. The usc of the wood lies in making fire. nnd the vinue of the he-an lies in Rcn, if the wood is acc.umulatcd yet not burned. the usc of rbc wood would not be manife-sted. lf one lets go of it and docs not sed:: il, then the vinuc of 1he heart is not manifesaed. Thus. the sages always said "desire bcncvolcnc;c f)\ 1::." '·seck bcnc,·olcncc ;~ C :• bua nOt ··cut des-ire to n::tum 10 ahc beginning as the "ork of Rt'n." Cheng Vi hnd the lhcory of inside-outside and &ucst-lord ahat natu r<~lly fias our Teache-r"s mc<~ n ins of .. reach ji." and which diJlCrs greatly from Ulking Rcn ns nature or principle. Students would do wdl lo take note of :1llthis.

ItO Jinsai intcrprcls Confutius· "'is bcnc\'oJcncc really far away" 10 close by, pr:t~tiei ng it resides in myself. What he slre5.ses is thnt it is ··1 myself' who is conducting concrete :1ecs; thus, Zlm Xi dc,·iatcd by making it internal. as in ../len is the \'irtuc of 1hc he:art:· meAn,

"' It:;

m!)UCI'$ are

extrem~ly

~t ~i ?ii.ili:. ~Z-tE .f~-

~ (lo)

1 "'

0 . C. Lou lr., The Auah•cts, p.65. Zhu Xi. L'"IJ-'11 iltht~. p 100. Ro,go ;,;ogl . pp I 09· 110

267

l n summary. ItO Jinsai starred from the pcrspccti\C of practical scholarship ~f.(~. .and proposed ::1 new cl:~ssicist interpretation ot' ..mcaning

,fg!:l!t,,- f>'l In ItO's "'=' Confucius.-scholarshit>. Conrueius' nao bcc~1me the Dao of d3ily intcr-hu~nan Jh-ing, .and Ren then was understood ns fulfilled in proctic3l acts of flli:.ility. fraternity. loyalty. fidelity. and the lit.:c.

11rc Purposi" o.f/uS .f AlwlcC'f.\'·Scholnrslup What is lt('is Jlurposc and imcntion (in the sense of Searle's "pcrlocutioa:mry· intention"' ) behind his rcconstructioo of Confucius and his Anul.:.cl.\'! fl O's p urpose· \\i\S opologctic und -.rgumcntativc, His targets were two, (4: I) Buddhism and D:w ism Ihat disc:trd ond lc~wc t11c mundane intcr-humnn world behind, nnd (4:2) Song Nco-Confucianism wilh the philosophy cosmic Principle Jl~ ;3borc this mundane world.

or

Criliqw.: of Buddhi:mr and J'(loism: ItO nitiqucs Buddhism rutd 03oasm .31 m:my points in his volume. Hmzgo Kog; {,fVMf st;;N, oltacking

Buddhisn1. I cite onh· one such instance here. Con(ucius· Analects in 18{6 reads:ti 3

il

Chang Ju Nm and Jic Ni ~iS~ ''ere ploughing tog1:l1ter yoked ns team. Conf ucius wt:nt ~st them and sent Zilu to osk them where the ford

was. Chang Ju s.1id, "\ Vllo is lh:tltaking ch:ugc or the carriage'!"

or

Z ilu sa id, " It is Kong Qiu Lu: · -lbcn, h e must be lhc Kong Qiu of Lu:· '"He is. ~ -Then, he docs no t bavc to ask w here the

rord is."

Zilu asked Jic Nj. Jic Ni s.1id. ·'Who arc you?" 6! Thi-; i.s 111\'s tcduaic~al tcn•t He ~aid, " I d ivide our lc.al'fli n~;: into l\\ 0 ~ ltl lc3nt the blood w in llil.fi\~. :~,nd to lct~m thc. mca.nios ~~!.1~. -mood vein" •s 1bc

gist of lillt:el) tmdilion. such ll!:i the lhCOIJ of Rem 311d n in 'Mcncius; "mc.aning" is. the m('nning behind it Mt·anmg derh·es from the \'Cin. which we nut~! firs~ le:.tm \Vath(nll the \'t:.'in we Ul'c sbtpli wiJhout rudders, mghts \\ ttltOUt cand lcil,

ignonmt of "here to ~tC>p. The vein is prior m Jc:mung, but yet mc;ming tS httrdcr I<' grasp, Why'? 1\ Ycin is a ro.1J , once we arc on it, \\C will arriYc, h~\\C\'d' far. hUl withl.)tll insight \\ c;.· arc til ., loss 3S to where to find Ul t.::

meaning io the Y~Sl tetrnin I once

S..l id

that rcad:ng th.;; A na/tel ,\' di!Tcl's from

reading the .\lcnciu.r. We fu'!>t read M~o.·n ctu.;; ' \'\.•in. and ,,·c eun nalur:aJiy fmd hts Olcan.ing.. WI! Ji.r.st £J'!l:lp the tnc!ln.iog iJt the A nal~cts, ond ouly ~len find iL5 ''e m: · lt<:ikai. 1901-1903). V"l. $ B.t> 50 Al D c L~lll lf. 1'/l(! AnaiN:rs. r 185

26S

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

-ram lhon~ ou." "'Then, you must be the disciple of KonQ Qiu of lu't ' Zilu answered. -1 nm." "Titroughout thc Empire men nrc all the same. \Vho is there for you to diOilJ3C place-s witlf? MorcoYcr, fo r your own sake. would it no:t be. beUCI' if. instc;~d of followi.n s
narroti\"C conlntsts worldliness of ConfuciMism with

d u rin~ the Sprint; lind Autumn. period (722-464 B.C .). 116 l ins.1i spccilicllly exp3nde.d his sentiments on this

othen,orldl) rcclush c Daoists JXlSsagc:~~-&

I judge. sayin g : Jic Ni wanted to change the world: sages do not. The fofTDer force the world witb 1hdr ways. The lath::r govern the \\ orld with the world. TI1c world i.s made of p<."'plc. wilhout whom it c:mnot exist. Thus. sages enjoy the world, worry nbout il. buy nc\·cr nvoid it to clc01nsc thcmschcs apan from il. like those. such as Clumg Ju and Jic Ni did. Their \Vays were not Lhc univcrsaJ historical Wtl~ s of the \\Orld. Buddh.o 14ua;ht quiet sc lf~dcmisc. L:102i took the \H'IY of empty nothingness. thereby thc.y thought to eh:1ngc the world. Ancr two thousand odd years. howcYcr. Buddha is still i uc:~pable of eO'cc1ing the demise of rulcr-subjcxt. father--son. and spousal relations of the world. Nor could L3ozi rcvi\'e ancient non~~c1ion . This f.-.cl shows us th.:lt our Teacher's instmction is great decent. correct. nnd persists 1hrough the ag.cs and c.nnnot be funbcr :Ktded to. He 31so s:1id, .. These people arc those who enabled the legendary Three Gcnerutjmts to go on.- He S3id :tgain. '·Go"cm people with people. they imJHO\'Cand stop."' Sages thus refuse, liL.:c Lhis, 10 cut Lhcmsci\'CS ofT froru things or fwnc at the ''orld. Perhaps Ibis is wh::u he meant "hen Wei Zheng ~~~~~ of lhc 11mg dynasty s:1id. ··sagely fh·c EmJ>erors and Three Rulers c.h:mscd no people but tJ1cy trnnsform cd thcmsch·cs. ··

269

tu.rs based this powerfu l argument on his interpretation of Confucius tc:tching :ts .. No l)tw outside people. no people Otllside Doo:' 63 /)ttiJ exists right in the midst of people's daily ac1iYitics: ns JtOsaid. "Why st ek /)no outside the sccul;~rT(16 In 116"s \\Orld or thougtn there exists not n single divine J'CCiusc flying high up alone abo\'C this wotld. hO thu$ tried to dispel the Budd hls t-D:~o i st mist and rctum people to the origin:al Da() of Confucius. h6's upplic:; Confucian otlhodo~y a ~ ai)Qiogctic.s a gain~t other teachings he rccardt.:'d as heterodox. Critique o.f Sm1;: Sdwltm~: '11te main UU'gcl of ll{)s critique was Song Nco-Confucianism. especial!)• Zhu Xi's metaphysics articulated on Principle or J; J.!iL Zhu Xi was a gre:u Confucian scholar \\ho wrote dclliled commentaries o n mosl of the CI:Jn ics. His lhinl;ing greatly influ enced the \\Orld of tho u:;ht in A~i:a . espcci:tlly from the fourteenth century. He initiated Asia's Nco-Confuci3nism that promotes the Four HooJ.:\' ahead of Lhc Fiw Classics.6 1 His Collected Commcnf<mcs on the Four Books t!3l ·~iJJ.!t~ l:, not only anthologized all the commcnwies ftom the Han. Tang and Northern Song pcricds to uni ~r the-entire Frmr Hm1/.:~·. but also cost out some of them a1ld molded a unique meta ph) sica I system .:entered on Principlc.65 Among the /•'our Books; he particularly stressed the importance of the Gre(Jt IAUirning }.:~~. saying. '•Leamirtg must begin at the Gr(•ot Lennri"K· followed by the Analects, then the: Docirinc of the lvlum:•t>'J "'I \\M( people to read first the Grem L.eomin~ to define the fram~\\Ork. then

.!,

Sec SUI)I':I nolc 44. (~ S('C :iUJl i'11 11(11C 47.

M

6•

Uno Sci1chi =i~ ~~~i1; - s:ttd lha llhe Piw C /as.fics were products of the mcJil!\'tll St.~id y . n ...-cltU~I! o;_)f the suc.-cim:t bn.:\ ity tlf the Four Dnllko; that appc:tlcd to the: conll.:mpor:•n<.~. the l:•ttcr c:tsily n:pl:.ccd the runner S<.-c his ··G,>kyo k:artl Shit'llo c-Kci~nf...1.1shi Obocgn.ki :J.i.~i,. t. I!Yr-1"" .. .mt··}~!J.!i:t ~r in r~)':o:,· ft t. U. ft. No. J. Kyoto. 1952. PJl. 1· 14. Zhu x.·s Colli•(,•((•(/ t'()mmtutt~ruz:)• (i fl Ill(' Four Hll()b rose IU popul:ni ly s:xmllarlr in t)O.$C relnti<m \\ ilh external so...~i al. economic. :md polihcnJ fa..:tor:s. Ct James T. C. Liu. "'I low Did a Nco ·Confucion School B~m.,; the Sta1c OtthfwJOX) '!" Plu/,.mpl~l' Emt mul U'c>.fl, 21•4 {Octt-.lX:I' 1913), IIJl. 4fol3-50$, C-"Jl· pp SOl-S04.

(..t On how ('fC3tivc Olld yet how tntdiltOlllll Z.hu Xi w~-:: jn hlS c()/fl:etf'd Cwruwntutit•,t em lhl· 1·~)11,. Rcmk.t, !IIX 6t!'iul:i Nobuy,,:;hi k l.ll!t'; J:t. "SIJbiNI slm clm t shoguul warchlru Shusl1i m> luidl) Ll!llf~ii.t 4~:f,JJJ!51~ -f~!!!J5t."' Nilt<m C /mgoku[!.flklll:tJilto IJ;f.: a.jr~ ~jg.flt 5 (1953). 1---'1'· 80 ·9~. On how Zhu XJ tmtHi:d lhc Fourl-looks into one, sec Wmg·ISit Chan, ..Zh\1 X(s Completion or N(·o~Confllclanism,.. in k tud(•s ,\'ong 111 .\lcmmiam i:timnc- &1/ct:.s. EditCcs plll' From;oisc Aubin, SCnc- II, HI (Paris: Mouton & Co. und Ecole-Prnctiquc de lloutc Edu0-90. ~<) 1.1 Qmgdc cd •. Zhu:i y111lrl (Pc!:ing: Zhooghna shuJu. 1986). I, p 249

270

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

read the Analects to csmblish the basic root Aflcr litis. people shm.•ld rend the ·"-·l ennus to obscn·c its dc:\'Ciopmenl. lhcn read the Dm·trine ofth~ Metm 1 to seck the subdctics of the ancicniS." (1 Again, "The Ana/et·t.,, A1t·nchu·. and /)()(:trine (?f 1he Nlccm all depend on Gtclll Lc(lming for their grnnd hatmony... 71 Zhu Xi specific-a ll~· wrote the "AppcrHied Rcm3rt.:"s on the Investigation of Things·· lo nrguc for our hc~rt-mind ' s cJpnbilitics of tlisccrning Princil)le ;md slrcssed the importance of exhaustively seeking Principle by following thinss and ilwcsticatinc things to attain kno,:,·lcdsc. n Zho Xi plac:cd panicular stress !len's crcath·ity, interpreting Ren 35 ''the character of hcarHnind and tllC principle of IO\'C•Cr.t ~z 3!.- sucssi.ng that this Principle is the hc:ut-mind of the uoiYCrse. the Principle that sives binh to all things. Zhu thus pu1 aside Cheng Vi's ncc:ount o f Jcn tiS producth•c :md producing on the basis of Principle, tllld claimed tluu lm c is born onlr out of Principle tl1ut is the hean·mind of the uni\·crsc to gh·c birth to the uniYcrsc. It was in this way tl\31 l hu conferred 73 3 metaphysic:Jl b:Jsis to Confucian ethics.

e.

Clm 1':11 fll ·lc:i. p. 2·19. Clm T:u ro-Jc:l. r 2$6 n Yang Rubin mal:cs the no\cl cl:nm thatl.hu X•'s idea c)f"in\'estig.-tion l)f thmss'' W:IS nOt juSt :l C<'l~'11itt vc ntli\llt)' but :1l.!oO tn\'Oivcd ConcentratiOn of nund-hc:ut. This Sf!<.-cific cooccnlrution and other S(:par.:.ted conc~"tllrot i<ms an: PJTI.~ of the 1-:t...;k of :;trivin~ (\W .scriousncs:; c:llh.'ti !:!4-Tiou.•:;nc:;s J'~Cil\.1r.at in t; o.lctivtt)' :n1ll qur..:.1udc. wl1cr-c seri<10snc~ (,."\'ukcs •• sudd~;~1 eutnpn:h..::nsi\'C iO

11

reahzauon. Zhu '~ <=XiX'I'il.'ll~c or principle warra.n1s the unir.cali ~'o or tra:n.,.ccndcnee nnd CXjX"rit.·ncc. \Vhnt the schoktrs cxpcncn<:c ns pnnciplc unobstmch.:dly pcnctr;,ting things is R(.l ( only an ontoloP.-ic:tl :~.flinnal ion in Stgnific.utcc and in n;ahns but also l';icilitatcs one·~ free rcspon~"-:1 and managt.'lncnt M con<:n'1c affa irs. YMg :;;ay~ lh:n l.lm'): sudden rcahZIUi\)1\ rcfe~ lu a rc-grnsptnft of our pnmol self, wh.:rc the mmd-h.::tl1 is :1 bnght, empty quie1t1Jc in wbicb :til princip)cs rcsidl! a.nd <mc.' s nnturc j:; ciCQr nnd umfi~.-d . ·n ,c scllo1ar. the tUll\'c~. and tltc Orc:H UILitn::ttc ad \' iUlCC together to the Truth l'~:l hn . Jn this wodd, aJJ ihin g~ lhut a te u:\ually incnmp1cte, pmtiul, ('f(l(:cssivc ~nd pt)t\.·ntial. jfC tC:i-1:-«"tiwly complct..:-d 'l'h• ~ is wh~re "tllthillg:> -· msi\1!! ~1\d out frnc ond conrsc •• :m: :ttl uchic\·t·d. togcth<..-r \\;th the total !>ubstoncc o r my mind hc;ln is !!fci'llly c:ITc.:.livc and lucid." Sec Y:u1g, Rubin, "Gcwu yu b\lt.lfiUl

guantong: l.huzi Q.C\\11 buju:lfl di iJU:&nshi wc nti f~H~PQitlit~!!l'J!Ii : *~=f- · tM;J lJHY. '(I(];& liHiiJ ~ ." p~1pcr f(,l' CouJ(., ·cncc on 2 bu Xi anJ Ea~t Asiiut Ch·ili-.wuon. T:1ibd. No, ember 16· 18. 2000. Yang's crc:.Uh'c view dill'l.'I'S from the u:;ual chnr:u.:t~ri7...11il)ll <~ f Zhu Xi a~ ::uhscnbing to a m1nd.principk dua l i~n I thmJ.:: dm1lism describes the pn)ccss of the mmd-h!.!:trr Ll)' tng to disc'rn the Principle~ while Y:mg's \' i.:\\' d..:.:~cribcs the n::.tl.n of ~uddc1' re:slizali()R l!Jk'f tllsc...Timli;Ot. Bolh vk"s arc pc1h:.ps mutuJ1Jy t.:(lcnpk:mcnt;.ny. n Sec Wing·ISII Ch:1n ~J1!~<~. "Lun Zhll7.J zh1 l~enshu~ i6t*T L, r:rt!t" in Zhu :tut· lmiJI *J}':M\1~ (l':.ubci: Xucshcng :~bUJU. 19it2. pp. 37-6$.. :.nll his "Cim llsi ·s Complchon of Nro·C~.'nfuciani~ .... pp. 73·SO

271

A. In contrast 110 Jins:~i claimed that /)oo is just the Dau of daily human intercourse. \'iolcntl~· dis:tQrccing with Zhu Xi '' ho had t:1kc!l Confucius'

/)nQ

to be a -Normative Principle of things and events.'* •"

adding that ·'this ultimate Daq is difficulc to hear about76 h6 Jins::~i said,

Against all this.

TI1c Song Cc.1nfuci
olwa~· s undertook to discon:r '' h~t the fanner sages had not sought, not rc:tlizing that tltc sngcs· \\'Ords pcr,·.ndc up ~d do"~n. and are all embracing.

oil sufficicot. lea\ ing no undiscovered maucrs "I13IC\'et. Why do they ha,·c to wait for later people to discO\"'Cr :utything new for them'! Mcncius' theories of··goodncss of nature" and •·culti,·ation of Qi '·based on Ren and y,· were just 10 explain our Tc-:u;her·s word$. The former Confucian

li. c .. Zhu Xi I thought them to be disco,·crics of what former sa~;cs did not seck. nnd so he nlso wanted to append his own theories, followinc Mencius; ... 311 of which arc rcntn:UllS of Budd.hn nnd Lao1i uot to be found in our C"..onfucius or t\•lcncius. Ct'ln he be S3id to ··transmit and not erc:ltc>- to be "'(ahhful 10 and fond of the ancients.. "? Clearly we need no fu.rthtr C:\:planation obout who is right and who has gone wrong. ItO Ji.nsai accused Zhu Xi of being completely out of toucb with Confucius and Meocius. us "ell as being unduly innucnc<:d by Buddha rmd loozi. Conscqucnth·. ItO Jinsai accused Zhu Xi of straving lnto the mysterious dCJ>Ihs and leaching a Dtw out of touch \\ ith d<~ily ·lifc. 11

I judge. saying: Seeking the W:Jy in the heights. seeking mancrs in the fnr. this is a ge-neral fnult of scholars. Tn eontrns1. C'ln.5$ics of /'()(:fry and H1story teach with things clo~ to human situ:nions rclcvnn' for daily usc. making mauc•s not far from us humans into 1be Wny with words not far from the human \\Orld. And so, as we pcnist in adhering to Decency i.'d . w~ bcc.omc p:u-agons of human demeanor to keep up the worldly ways. This is why our Tenc-her constru1tly dise-ourscs on these three Cl.lssics. As for Buddhisn1 and Oaoism. they lca\'C the "oriU and break off with the secular world to engage in only the high and fa r. They. therefore. do not rcttll)· atlain the principles J.l! :~ Zhu Xi,l.mr;·u ,1i:hu. p. 71. Couull(>:Jlt:uy on 4/8. '

1

16

Lunyuj izhu, <:onltn<:ntruy

NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l, 94. ;· Ro,go ;..;ogl. p, I OJ,

on

5127.

272

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

of the Cla~·J ics of Poe/IJ! and /Jh'tOI)'. Bcsillcs.. although later Conruci:ms recited the Clns.n c (~f fJot>try and rc:Kl thc C lrlS51C ofHisJmy. they sought mtderstanding: in too deep. too difficuh areas '' ithoul knowing lhatthcy should seck il in easy ordinary situations close by. As a result their words and deeds ore oficn monifestly encumbered with twisl$ and dimc.ultics. lacking in \ ilSI. right, and unl1uniod composure. Isn't il true that tl1c rcptllcd difficully of reading is not in rcadin~ but in roadins M:ll and risht? 116 Jins.,i claimed Dtm was '"close to human situations rclcYant for daily usc'' bec~usc -the secular is Dao. outside the secular there is no so-cnllcd Doo.- 5 116 Jinsai n.lso targeted Zhu Xi in his comments on AntJJecl.t 1 3 11 ~ . "The G<'n·c mor of $be S.:)id to Confucius. .. In our vilbg,e we have one ' str;sisht bow·. When his father stole a sheep. his son ~u,·c- c' idcnce nJP&insl him. ~0Z'1FfL:r H. ·e:a\{J'.t~:Jrh~··, ~~:>tii~ie.. uiJ-ft.llZ.- 19 110 Jinsai critici1.cd Zlm Xi's comment ...11HH father and son conceal ror each otl1cr is the ultimate of heavenly principle and human sentiment.'" t(l 1.16 Jinsai said.• 1

I judge. sa~' ing: An old commcnl.tlry on this p.1ssase Slys. -Father ::md son conceal for each other is the ult.inw.te of hcaYenly priJlCiplc and human scntimcn1s.- This is wronc. fo r it splits the hum:m and the principle two. What human sentiments share in common C\'Crywhcrc tJuoug.hout history is thai which origitlatcs all Fi\'c Const:mls and Hundreds l)roccsscs Ii'ii\' Btf of things. how could there be any hta\'Cnly Principle outside human ~ntimcnts1 Let human sentiments go against one nno thcr~ 1hen, C\'Cn if one could h~h·c pulled offlhc "orld's most difftcull tasks, it is rcall) done with animal heart. \\hOse bnnc rc.-tchcs tllc len! of lhier·s DM. Why',• When things are done with discrimination of yes :lS yes. no 3S no without distinguishing close relations from disumt tllc noble from the lowly. such man:lgcmcnt is called " public/officiallfbir i~..,. acts.

Now. if a father conceals for a son. or a son fo r a father, 1f it is not c3lled ··strnight ... it should nat be called - publicJoffici:tUfair... Still our Te;schct acccpLW such father-son c.once:.Hng for L-ach other because this is tltc ultimate human sentiment. "here decency e~nsts and 11

Uo11go Kogi, p. 130.

~ 0 . C. Lou tr.• The Auah•cts, p. 127. 8>> 81

Zhu Xi. L'"'J''II j•t!JJ,. p 1-16. Ro,go ;..;ogl, p 197,

''here righteousness rc.sidcs. So. the sages lnU.. about principle ~~~ wittlout saying it talk about righ1oousncss .~ and nol public/offir:ial/foir, To leave human scntimt'nts and

wnnmh aside in seckin& Drw is heresy. not the unircrsal IJao of the world.

For ItO Jinsai. to split human n;uure from heavenly principle, for the Iauer to go,·c m tlle former. and to lcm'C the secular to seck Dao. ns the

Song Confucians did.

\\3S

to lc:1\'c Confucius' original meaning of Dao

behind.

B. ILO Jinsai also critfcizcs Zhu Xi on the basis of another central (()nfucian notion, Hm or bene,·olcncc 1: . Aecordin~ 10 \Ving·tSit CMn it4! .:f:itli (1')0 1·94). Zhu Xi rencetcd deeply on this 11<-Hion for Len odd )CatS. from about 36 or 37 years of age (1 165· ll (l()). Zhu completed his essny

·'On Rcn'' at ;:about age 42 (ll1l). tl~l is. about 20 ) Curs bcforc' 2

- · "hich therefore CM be taken as the source o f his ideas in - Coll..cred Commmlnncs :md Qttt!SlJ()ns mul An.\1Vcr$ tm Four &X>k.\· (ll77. published in l1 90)and/.c:c:lmt:-s ll/ lHrmnt Yfl .Ii.tllt'iM.~ ( 11 94). The most imponant kc~· to Zhu Xi's philosophy of R.m is his saying. -/(en is the eharncter of mi.nd·bcart ruld the principle of Jove." whk:h appeared mon: than ten times in his commentaries on the AlW/(rls 11 nnd the A1cncius. It is one ofZhu Xi's imponant crcath·c idcas. ' 110 Jinsai critiques this intcrprctotion of Rt:n ruthlessly. ItO Jinsai thought that Zhu hnd C:\:lmcted Ren from concrete human activities. and sublim:ncd it into 14 .abstract Prindplc. hQ said.

Tile Fonner Confucian said, "/leu·benevolencc and

yi-rightcousncss arc principles in human nature. Our nature- onl) has H~n. Yi, /J·dcc:cnc)· and Zhi·lntclligcncc.

these fom. Whence then (iliality and fraternity'?" If so. Ren as subst;:mcc is the root. fili:.lity and fr.ncm.ity .as fu.octioo

arc the branches. this would coruradicl

You;~,i's

:t.r 7

sa~' ing,

··fi lialit)' and fro.temit)' arc Jf!u 's root." So. Zhu Xi said , ''Pratlicing Rt:.n tJ-kcs ftl ialil)' und fti.l lcrnity us ils Wing::•ISit Chttn, Zlm ,l:UI! fmyi. Jlp, 4 l ·-41 &:~ Ymn<:~:t.ak Mi~.i Jl rdtf=R ilt ( 1796-1856) .s/.onf.! Au shlJtyitm fPl.ii~~· iM. "l'ooplc's \'Oicc.·s. the hcatt'~ \'ittuc, lo,·es ptmciplc ·L.•.Z. 1.~. ~Z l!it. A Ouddhb1 numl.. Zhiguang ~8'it wrote llu; \'Olumc in 997. Chu Hsi compktcd the l..un Mc•rtgj1:1m i n 1177, and ••doptcd lhis Bnddhtst J'hm5i:."' $!

llow.:;\'('r, C.:hu.n Wmg·tsit's t.::xtual (.'fittctsm t·.::nals tlt\1( ptopl<·. lawr <Jddcd 1hc phro!)lC to Umx Art shrmjitm. sl" >wing. thus thO! Zhu Xi httd.n't OOuptcd it (sec $Upr:l not..: 82) Chan· :1 uS;)Crti<m StlUndstJIIIusibk. 81 Ro,go ;.;ogl. p. J

27.J

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

root discoursing on nature takes Rt~.n as the root of filiality :and fancmity." ... But then. whr did Mcncius t:~.kc Jen and 1'i as our innate possession'! It ''' 3S bc<:ausc hum:ln nature is good tht~tl1e took Jen tmd Yi ns our ooturc. This is to idelllif~· human nmure in terms of Rm nnd Yl, not to take Reu and Yi directly as human nature, 116 Jinsai pointed out how Zhu Xi had strayed way from tllc dialogic situation in the Analuts (and thus -c.onlttldicted You:r.t ) 3nd quoted Mcncius 10 point out Zhu Xi's mist3kc.s. This rcOccts flO's s.tmtcgies ofau::~ck .

Next. hO Jinsai poin1cd out that Zhu Xi's mistakes rutd im:lcvnncics crunc fromiUJ\'ing been jnOucnccd by Zen Buddhism: ~~ AHer Mcneius died. his Vao became obscure in the wot'ld, and later Confucians merely wandered in the realm of annot:tting words. When the Song clan arose, mn.or great Confucian scbolius appeared to promote orthodoxy and reject heresies. to \\3Sh awa~· the disgraceful scholarship of the Han and Tang dynasties. Despite such great octurrcnocs. chcrc flourisJlcd also the philosophy of Zen and not a few schol:us interpreted the sages' saying wilh Zen ideas. The situation indccd was not :mspieious. People came to trcasun: oneness of mind, to rcg:ud dcor mirror and quiet waters as the uhinuue task of sclf-c:uhhotion. E\cn Lhough ItO Jinsni respected the Song Confucian scho!arly efforts, he differed greatly from them for -seeking Tiro too highly... )(-, ItO Jinsai saw chcr had polluted \':Jiuablc Confucian notions, such as /len. with Buddhism Md Dooism: thus. the sages needed ItO to appe:lr to dispel the dark clouds for the sun to apJlCar to re-establish the classical mcnnings of

Confucianism. ln conclusion. ItO's hcnncncutics of tho Anal~tcts w;JS not just a theory but aJso a l)racaicc. a iming to protect and IH"Omoce the orig.innl c:las.sk31Confueionism by :.tbcking the wayward interprct:uions of Zhu Xi, who kld been misled by Buddhism und Oaoism. CONCLUSION

We ha\·c in\'cstigatcd one major type of Classics hermeneutics in F.ost Asi:a. of Confucius's Analecu·. in p:uticul;u. that is a hermeneutics as .1pologctics. Such a hcnncncutic.s uses o.nnotntion or commcntnry: on the Classics - going back to their original classical meanings -- as a n1eans to SJ NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l. 17. M Ro,go ;..;ogl. p. 79.

275

clear up polluted understandings of Confucianism. Going back to

lh~:

original meanings of the original le.xts rcsoiYcS many mistakes and problems incurred by Song Nco·Confuci:m intcrprtt;ltions. ItO Jinsai pointed out llO\\ for Zhu Xi :md hjs colleagues hnd dcpmtcd fro m the ori!linal dialogical world and context of Confu cius and his disciples. 116 J insai used an ;m_notatiYc scalpel th;lt cut back to the original mc<mings of the Classic-s, and rcn~a lcd the- insights of mutual hannonics

among the Clnssks, in order to remove .rurgkally later accretions of foreign meanings ~ccn.cd to Confuci:m kc~· notions such as J)(1o o.nd Ucn. This linguistic and contextual correction of Zhu Xi"s intcrprcth·e S)o'Stcm c.nablcd lt6 Jim;ai to n:storc Confucius' ..one" that pcnctrntcs j.:l:.lt from Chu Hsi's miStt)kC11. notion of"eomJJrehcnsion j!" by rciUming to the original/)au or "Joy4hy and reciprocir,,·· to go,·c m oll dnily 'irtuous .:activities in the Fi\'C Processes and Hundred Ordin:trics. By c~antining the muddled contro,·e rsics or the IX'" and 19' ' ccnl\11')' Qing Confucians on that simple declllmtion of Confucius. -a single thread binding it ~U.'' 11 we ;uc all the more impressed \\ith llo's insightful interpretation of ho '' the '"one" that "pt.·netr.ucs all" successfully disst><:tcd and OYCrthrew Zhu Xi's intcrprcti\·c rtpproach to the Annlccts. In this way. ItO Jins.1i completed the reYivnJ of Confucius· original Dao. ItO 1insai"s hcnnencutic apologetics can be compared instructi\'cly to that of the Qing Confucian. Dai Zhcn i& fl (Dongyuan ~U I~ . 1724- 1777). who attacked Zhu Xi using a classicist annotati\'e hermeneutics of the 1Hmdus in a monograph titled 1irxtuol Critical Comment(UJ' on rlu~ Alem:iu,\· ;&i: 7-:"F:t'il;(t;,n. Unfot1unatcly. Dai Zhcn \\ RS less cOCctivc than ItO Jin s:~i. He was un:tblc lo dcli\'cr a fotnl blow to Zhu

s• Jtuon Yuan [itj[: (176:l. Jl:W9) :sa.iJ. "'Confuctus· Wuy appears in ull llis dtnly acthritics.. nm j lbl in lco.lming (If Ius teaching and Sl~· iugs.. ·n1us. \\ ha l he toh.l /.t,l g7.J to pcuctt31e his Way ;@ into ont·-, "penetrut.;: !'£'' means acnons ami

CH'Ili:L ..

So,

ir \\'~ take '"pcnclrOic

'{!l". U$ " (-.-c'nclicc

or thing~."' then the

sage·s W:~y reduces t(l ConfUcHulism: tf we t:tkc at :lll .. ,x:n..::tmtc tbtough i§ it.- then ll is dose to Chan Duddhisnt We ask \\hUt sott of Way 11is. thcu we get what the J>ocwtnr- nf tlt~· Mum c:tlls l oy:~l l y :tnd rcc1prn<:ity. \'irtuc-: nt' the (lfJinary, words. of the (lrdiuary. the Way mutuaUy ul\'l)lvang W(1rJs ~lod :.cts:· l·h,wc,·cr. Fan Onng::J.m 1T!f:OH (1712-J SSI ) di ~a~1~d. snying. ·•'nl~.: phm~ · pco<:t1~ 11n g inh" ~)lh!' et)lllhilll!''- km)wins and aclmp. and ~<1111\0I be t ilt\!~l 10 c1lhcr one.... l.oyalty and rcciprot:1ty 1s the s.:t.lt lo soh 'pcnctrntmg mtu onc', thcsnll pcnctwtcs w1d then we know il OnJy upon finishin:: dlc sahin~;. C

pl!! ·/.i:jtj - !;J.illl. L~~ A ·· He JU::>I stuck him:>t:lf hJ luyail)' and r~:ciprodty. lrailing lhcsc ''mds to m1ss the n::d 1nc:anmg. .. Both statements :tppcsr in Fan Dongshu, IIM1\'' '" .rlumdu1 li-!t-iT'~ Q; m his lf(llr.\·u~ shi(:hniJ(Jf i-~l'f! fj'fij'j(f.i! (Dci;iug SanJhul shuJu. 198'8), zhuan B (1). pp. 198 :tnd JOI

276

Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Xi. because he ne'er really entered Zhu 's ·"circle of hcnncncutics." Dai Zhcn 's mcthodologic;al limitation rendered him less than successful in his

npologctic :1tt.1ck on Zlm Xi. n 116 Jins.<Ji \\Ould htl\C met ''ith problems like O;ai Zhcn·s on the Mencius, for they bod\ opplied 1hc tools of l<::xtual hermeneutics -- which

were more suitable for word studies than for undcrst;mding the theoretical mci.Uphysic;.al s ide that is more promiut:nt in Mcncius th:tn in Confucius. Be that as it may. the debates bct\\CCll 116 Jins.1i and Zhu Xi. with the t.1cit ..cnem~ " of Buddhism and Daoism in the back~;round, ~dd depth to our

wtdcrstanding ot'Confuci::mism. including Confuc-ius. Menciu.~. Zhu Xi. and h6 Jinsai himself.

~ s~.:c my ,\ (e iiCillll llt:rtllt;!tl(.llfic:t: A J/ls tOf)' vf /lll(rJnr:lmium ; , Chlrttl (New Bnmswu;k and Loodon· Tr:msac1ion Pubhslu.TS. 2001). pp 211·'232.

Chapter Xlll Confuci us on li and Montaignc on Cous/llme: A Reflection on C ustomary Pntcticcs and Personal Autonomy Cecilia HCe Confucius has oficn been charnctcri:tcd as maintaining that there is one tn1c p:tth (' the Way") which all humans should try to follow and :111ain. Thus. there would be. for him. broadly speoking. a single kind of sood life for all humans. which C\"CI)onc should seck to live. Michd de Montaignc. on the other hand. is sometimes seen as- the mot:ll rclmivist par e.w·e/lente, who holds that wh:at counts as the ·good' must be rcl:.ti\'C to specific cultures and societies. :and there arc no i_ndcpcndcnt SU'Indacds by which one m:'ly compare the ·good lire· of one cohurc with that of anotl1cr.

Despite this (alleged) rundruncntol difl"c~ncc bci\\CCH them, both h:wc in common tht~t the-ir views :IJ)Jl
Agllin. consider this '' cll·known claim b~, Montni:;,nc:

For in truth custom is a \'iolcnt and treacherous schoolmisucss. She establishes in us. littJc by litt1e. stcahhily. tl1c foothold of her authority: but ha\ ing by this mild nnd humble beginning settled and pl:mted it with the help of time. she roon unco\"crs to us a furious and tyrunnic.al face against" hich we no lont'-• ha' c the libcn~· of even raising our eyes. (Essais I :23. Frnmc: 77) 1 Customs and h..1bits mt'ly, :1ccording to Mont::signc.. \'t'lry gt·catly across space nnd time, but the customs and mores of n panicular rociery nt :t particular time aJtd pla.cc exert such o. hold upon its members th:lt they cba.n tltcir lives unquestioningly according to these standards a11d practices. He C·oncludcs th:u 'it is :a common vice .•. of :1lmos1 :111men. to fix their :aim and limit by the ways to which they were born'. (E$S(liS 1:49. Frame: 215) One migl1t then clnim of Montaignc that l•c thinks that custom exerts such n I CiU•tklflS fl\>nl the E.f :wb tein :. bxlk \llhl (.:$Say numbers. r~..\LIO\\~.:d by (XIge number~ from the Frome edition ()f 19.57.

the.:~· no longer ha\C an ·inner :md decisive pcmcr to choose among real altcm:.tivcs' . TI1is prspcr examines Confucius's Yicws on II (trnnslatcd here, not \\holly fel icitously. as rites). and pla«s it against MonLnig.nc·s Yiews on rot~smmc (transl:ucd here, again not \\holly fclic itousl) , :'IS ·custom·). !( suggests th;~.t , contr.try to initial oppcornnccs. there arc m ~tny -.flinities l>ctwocn them in rcspc.ct of their \'icws of the human good. and of how one should li\'e. ft also argues tltat each has room for a reasonably strong \'Crsion of personal autonomy in his account. l begin by looking at Confucius's vie\\S on tlte role of ritc.s in the ethical Hfc. before looking at r..tontaignc's \·icws on custom.1

strong hold on humans that

CONFUCIUS O N RITES

Confucius pl:tccd strong cmpho.sis on the imporl!l.ncc of rites for the indi,·idual who \\ishcs to li\'C the good life. He mnintains lluu benevolence (/4.'n) is coosaitutOO by returning ·to 1he obscr,·ancc or the rites rhrough o,·crcoming the self'. {Analects 12: 1. Lou: 112) The Confuciln ideal of achie,·i,lg bcnC\'Oicncc thus has as an integral Jl3rl the obscrY~mcc of rites, such that anyone who \\ishes to be a benevolent person must o\·crcomc bcrsclfao d rctmn to the obscn·nnce of the rites. But what precisely is a ritc'r In the Annlecr.f , the rites discu.sscd include those ahnt rclalc to how we should net tO\\nrds our p>~rcn ts \\hen the~ arc ali\'C. \\hen the~· die and \\ hen thC}' are dc.od; nnd the wider Confuci:ln tradition clcarl~ specifics the ritual relations Lht~-t should hold bct\\ccn husband and \dfe., fa Lhcr and !SOn. commoner and minister and so on. But note that the rites mentioned b~· Confucius nJso include extremely dcto.ilcd spcdfic.ntions. such as the linen cap to be worn for a particular ceremony and whc1hcr to bow before or af\cr a&:-cnding lhc hall (Ann/eel~· 9:3. L..1u: %),

The rites thus eneomp:.ss whal might be called eus1omnry pmcaices. Importantly, Confucius hold$ thnt these rites have nn ethical dimension •• they outline how one should beha,·c to one·s elders. onc·s children aJld others in one's commllnity. Indeed, these Confucian rites or customary practices dclinc:nc an entire way of li\'ins ... they provide one witlt a guide of how one IS to /we . In following t11csc rites or rules of propriety. one acts

z I focus cxclusi\"IC:ly on Confm:.tus·s own \"iew.:~ ill lhts pa~. Thot ts, I be looking al Lhc \·ie"':S of immcdmlc Slk."Ccssor:; likl! Mcr.gi'"j und Xunzi. far less the wi(k,· C(tflf~a ciml tr:uJiliou ~LS it l1as d-;, dorw:d lm.:r th~ \\"ill

llQt

ccmuncs

279 nppropri:ucl~· towards others in the frunilial. social and state.: order. 3Jtd li\cs as one should, But in order to live ;15 one should. it is not enough to fol/ow or ptnj (Jml these rites · - rather. these rites should be lived out. Confu cius holds tb:.t, when one sacrifices to t11c gods, one must S:'I Crificc as if the god~ arc present. (Anal~c·J$ 3: 12. L:tU: G9) It is not enough to pcrfonn the sacrifice. one must Mkc ptm in it Fingarcuc provides an interesting illustration of what this might in\'oh·c using the (Westcm) pt.lcticc of sho.king hands. Consider nhat llaJ)petlS "hen I meet you i11 the street. and W.l\'C and put out a hand to shake yours. When this happens. I do not need to direct my mind conscious ly to my focli.ng of respect or good-will for you (which might indeed make rmhe.:r sclf·couscious with )OU). Rt1thcr. pro\ idcd I genuinely particip:ue in the h:md.$h3ke. that net itself is an expression of m) re-spect ttnd good-will. Another extunplc ( this time not dr3wn from Fingaretle) mi&ht be that of the councou.s IX:rson '' ho invites her ~ucsts to pnnul.:c first of the food at a feast. Sh~ docs not have to think of being councous- the spontaneous net itself is an expression of councsy and respect. for Confucius. \\ hen one performs all customary rites and obscn·anccs in the right spirit one is attaining the Way ;md li\'ing as one ought to li \ 'C. We cnn contrnst the case delineated abo,·c with a case where the person pcrfonns the h:mdshake or im·ittltion to cat blindly or mechanically •• these pcrfonn:.nccs then :.re surf:.u:c motions that do not re:.lly impinge on tbc rt•a/ person (who may i.n realit)' be indi.OCrent or bored when maki.ng the gcsturt.'S). In such a case. thtll person is not doing ns s he ought. Or ngain. consider someone ''ho is bursting \\ilh g()()(f·\\'ill tmd dtlCS not conttol herself'. indis.erimino.tcly showering physical affection to the cmb::trmssrucnt of her :tcctuuimuncc or guests. For Confuchts m least. such u pcrsou "ould not be doing as she ought he would think she needs to temper her brash behaviour with propriety. He srotes:

When there is a preponderance of n:nh'c substance OYer acquired refinement the rcs uh will be rudeness. When there is preponderance of :.cquired refinement o,·cr m1ti,·c sub.unnce, the result \\'ill he pcd:lntry. Only a wcll·balunccd admixture or these two wiiJ result in gcntll.!manlincss. (Atmlecl.\' 6: 1R. Lau: 83)

h is on l~· when the person lh'CS a life where his nalh·c substance has been genuinely been sh:tpcd and informed by the rites that he truly becomes 3 gentleman. Confucius holds that 1hc good life consists in ·swef\·ing not from the right path' (Anol~G'IS 2:2. L.au: 63). and again. that the gentleman dc\'otcs himself lo :lll3ining the W:.y. {Analct:ts : IS:32: L1u; I36) It is clear that nttoining the Way must in\'OI\'c lh ·.ing one ·s life by und through the rites. for it is only by doing this that one bec-omes a senllcrnan.

1 ha\'C looked at Confucius's \·'icws on the ruuurc of the rite :Jnd lh~: role that rites (ought to) play in shaping lhe person's life. NO\\' we ham lo 1\'lontaignc's views on the role thnt custom pl;ays in sh11pi.ng n person's life: to sec how Montaigne·s DCOOULH m;~y raise possible worries conceming lhe good life :'I Sodvocnted by Confucius. MONTAIGNE O N CUSTOM

In his ~soy ·on Custom·, rvtontaisnc explores the di,·crsc ~d \'3ricgatcd customs and prnctiees that obtain in different societies. Among the pr.tcticcs that he includes arc th.::n or grcc1ing one another by P" tting their finger to the ground and then rnising il to hcm·cn: of being prohibited (unless one is his wire or child) from speaking to the l.:ing \\ hhout an intermediary: of sending one·s blood to others as a s isn of 3ff'cction: of burning incense to honour fellow human beings. not just sods: :md or kill ing one's fznhcr at n ccrtuin ogc as £111 act of piety. (l£,.,,.,,isl:23. Frou.te: 82)

Titc customs tJuu 1\tontlligno mentions h:wc some oJTt.nitics to the rites lh:u Conrucius discusses. To begin witlt they ~rc ritu3l practices or obscn·anccs in much the same way tb31 the Confucian rites arc. Moreover. Montaignc docs not think that s uch customs arc merely pr:~c tiscd mechanically or blindly. whhoul impinging upon the real person. ' It is custom th~t gin:-s fomt to human life'. Montaig_nc's well -k-nown a!'scrtion here i.ndic:ltcs thnl he th.i.n.ks that. i.n most Ca$tS. such customs ~orne to fonn an inlcgral tmrl of the person. so thnl she Iires out a life thnl is shaped by these customs. Indeed, his ''ie''' is th:u these customs and practices are sa intcrn:ili?.cd. nnd become so ~nuch of the person that she ' no longer lh:tsl the libcny or raising lhcr] eyes' in ddiancc or accepted c-ustom. and c.1n only fix l'lcr ·aim and limit by the ways to which (she is( born·. As with Confucius. then. l\·tontaignc·s customs delineate for tltc indhidual an entire wa~· of' lh·ing ~- they shape lhc way th.."lt one ,i/wu/t/ li\'C. Such customs may dcHnc~tc appropriate expressions of aiTcction and honour. as 1hc Confuci:.m rites dclinco.tc npproprintc expressions of rcspc:c.t and courtesy. Ag;~ in . jus1 as obeying one's parents unconditionally is an act of ptc•y to the Confucian child, Montoisne spc.oks of a society in which ldlling one ·s f:Hher t1t a ecrtuin ugc is un acl of picly.3 In cl:"lim ing th..1t cust\)lll may become so intcmalizcd to the indh·idual tll:lt s:hc is: no lonser rrcc to ·rnisc her c~·cs· in defiance of it, 3

it might be argued that Montoigne's ·cou!jlumc' i:; .-;imjhtr to. and more approp1i:.lld)' C\1111J>O:tfl.:d Wilh. lhc Ul)lil.m or Ml (founJ in lhc \\ riUn g~. c. ~ .. ul' Xunzi} th:.m \\'Jih (; However, as the :tbo\ '\.' p:1mgraph shows.. MIM II11rN~. as ooncei\'Cd br Montn i~1K', diX's phl)' a r\'•k: a.nulogou~ 10 /1 in humrm livci'. Cou.stll/'111! is not mcrdy (cluhorat..:.) ritual blindly and thou¥hlkssly followed, it is iuh:m~Jjz(.XI ;,~s tl1c rig/ilthinl_t lv do. :.md ~l has it:; ethical dimcn:iion In lhis resp.':Ct, it 1s cJ<'~ lo Confnci~ n II

2111

Montaignc

C\ idcntly

tl•inks that the customary prnctjccs of a society can

dcpri\"C ils members of fuUonomy. in the sense that they dcprh·c these members of the ability to envision and carve out ;"Jitcnunh·c Ji\·cs to 1hosc mapped by pre\ ailing custom. This sounds uncrumily similar to Fingarcuc·s claim in respect of Confucian ethics thnt ' lm )3n is not an ultim:nely ::mtonomous being who has ... a power 10 scle\.:t runong real alternatives ::mel tftc.rcbr ~h npc a life for himsclr . For Confucius. the rices dclinc:n e tl1c right way to live -~ when a person's 'tUtivc substance· has been genuinely s:hapcd lllld informed by the rites. she u·uly becomes the gc.ntlel\Oman. But Monlaignc's views, as 1 ha\ C just delineated lhcm . can be brought to bc3r on Confuch1s's ethics and 10 raise n couple of objections conc,cming this ethic. Filst. Montaignc notes that rites. c ustoms and practicts differ wildly from cuhure to cuhu.rc, from society to socie1y. Yet the members of ttny p:uticular society ~ so s haped and informed by their l)wn p.:trtic-ul:lf rites and observances thatlllc)' lhiuk their w:.y of li\'i.n& is the rishl wa)' 10 lh·c , and no other. So is ConfUcius simply one of tl1cse arrog~llll persons who think that tJu;ir ":)}' of living is the rit;hl way. :md th3t n life sl1apcd br their· prc.scribcd rile$ (IO\Hitds parcnLS. ministt'fs etc.) is the good life··
Montn.ignc claims of custom31)' practices thm they can become so ingmincd in n person that she is no longer able to ' raise her eyes' in defiance of custom. and cmisagc living in :1 \\8)' other 1hnn that prescribed by cuslom. Bul docs he think it ine\·itablc that the customs of a particulor .society c~crcisc lhis eiTcca upon .its membe-rs..!

282

As I ha,·c argued in another paper." Momaig.nc docs not think tbat it is ine,·itablc that we lose o ur aulooomr in this sense. Note thal. while Montaignc cl:1ims custom is like a schoolmistress who cxcns a tyr.mnkal grip thnt is very difficult to cscap<:. he docs nol think it is imiJ()ssib/c to escape this srip: the

princip;~l

effect Qf the power o f custom is to . .. ..:.nsnarc

us in suc.h a way that it is hardly {a pt:imr) within our

JlO'' cr to get ourseh 'c s b3ck out of its grip and return into oorsci\'CS to reflect and reason :!bout its ordiu3nccs. (f:.'suus I :23. Frame: 83)

eu~tom

Montaignc ''rites {),;n we can lmrtlly escape the inOucntc or in order 10 ·return inlll oursch·cs" co rationally rcncct on customaty

practices. suggesting that while this procedure is difficult to 4)chie,·c, it is not nupos.,·ihlc. Momnisne Lhcrcforc maintains thnL it is possible 10 usc reason to rcnect on our custonltu)' practices and their :1cccptabili1y. TI1nt Montaisnc would malnuin this tnisht nt first seem ludicrous to tJ1osc nccJu3intcd \\ ith his widct wOtfc ln his Apofog,v ji.Jr llo.rmond

Scbomi. and in countless other places. rvtontaignc i.s uncrty dismissive of rcnson, uryuing that it is of no usc. and indeed causes considerable hrunt.. to tile human being. How lhcn <:an Montaignc hold that rc:~son can be used to free the human fro m the 'violent prcjudic.c' of custom'! The onswcr lies in rccogn.i7ing th at ~·lon tnig.nc US(:S the tcnn 'reason· (rai.~On) inn ,·aricty of senses in his \\Orks.~ In paniculur, Frame points out that Mont.:1ignc mnkcs n distittelion between rtll:um ralstmntmu.> ('reasoning· rcascn) and raison roisonnabh· (rc.as.onable rcllson). (Frame 1??5:203) 11tc rormcr is charach!rit.cd b~· Frame ns 'sheer ratiocination (or ils own sake, \'arious. changeable, and irri!sponsiblc' (ibid.). II is townrds this kind of reason lhat f\'[on tnigne expresses skeptjcism nnd ridicule. In contrast there arc man~ pbccs in ''hich Monuaignc endorses the usc o r rc:tSonablc reason . Frame ch::mu:tcri1..cs the latter as ' the reason thai should prevail :md somclimes docs. in the conduct of human allnirs: :s m;~ttcr of reasonableness. o r hccdin.g LhC-J)I'Oper order of things. ... It seems to operate solely in the r¢alm of human conduct Iand i is modest when: i1s c-ounrcrp:ut 6 is presumptuous. Lruthful where the oilier is deceptive·. (ibid.) II is the Iauer kind of reason that one Gan bring to bear o n custom to free onesdr of its power. Th:u such rc:-.so.1ablc rc::tSon can be used 10

cvnluatc custom is confirmed in this passage: "~ W«.:Z005

~ f'r:nnc p<)in1s oul th:u the !..ArXIfJttr.: rf.r ltllmlgr•e t/($ £t$al$ hscs fi\'C ~11ch

\ls<Jgcs. (Fr:unc 1995:203) 6

Montnilln~.:•s vacws on Jt=-lt.iOn hun~ of course been widely di$(.."US!SCd. S<..'\!, Fra.m ~ 1995. L-:k Choritc 199$. toch(.'l' 199j, JJ).

lOr 1.':'\tllllJ)k. Ou\til 198:l.

Schnccwmd. 199~. pp. 44.47

18.1

\Vhocvcr watns 10 gel rid of tJ1is violent prejudice of custom will find man) things accepted with undoubting resolution, which ha\'C no support but in the hoary beard and lhc wrinkles of the usage thnt goes with them: but t\ hen this mask is tom off, tmd he refer~ tl1ings to tnuh Md reason. he will feel his j udgment ns it were all upset. :md nevertheless restored to a much 5urcr st.:ttus. (lf.\·.m is I :23. Frame: R4-5)

f\tontaignc :Jilows that custom leads to lhe unquestioning acceptance of m:lfly pracliccs. but holds ncvcnhclcss that one con refer these pro1cticcs to (rcasoMblo) reason ror ev:~.lu:nion. While such referral may result in initial disloc:uion for onc·s judgment. onc·s judgment will c,·entu:~ll)' be rcs1ored to a much s urer suuus (as it is fOtutdcd on reflective reason mlher t.lun unquestioning pr:lcticc). Mont:ugnc thus thinks that humans possess the po"c-r of stcppina bud: from their customaJ)' pracliccs to rc n ~ct upon these ll1'3Ctices, and subsequently endorsing, modifying O J' discarding them. indeed. Monltlignc thinks that this procedure is cJsrm#a/ (or :l11)'011C WhO WiSheS tO :'!VOid being impriSOUCd b) t)IC •violent prejudice" or 1he ·furious· and ' l)·r:mn ic~d schoolmistress· that is custom. For Montaigne. the human being can reasonably choose to live in woys other than those prescribed by lhcsc customs. The issue of what is required CC,r an agent tO be autnnomous has been much discuiScd :and contested. A di$Cus.sion of the merits :mel dran backs of the ' 'arious kiuds of criteria for human autonomy is obviously bcrond the scope of t h i..~ ().1 per. Thls paper will in~cad focus on tlnc prominent \'Crsion of personal autonomy. whicb is centered on the requirement lluu an autonOJnous IJCrs.on is one \\hO is nble ·not only to scrutinize critic:tlly tltcir first order ntoti\·ations, but also to change them if they so desire·. (Dworkin 1988: 16) his usuo.lly accepted that such first order scrutiny need not be confined to onc·s motivations or desires. but include one' s \':tlucs. relations to others. and (prcsuma bl~·) one' s practices.. Clcarl}•. 1\•lontaiguc ''ould hold that the person is copablc of th.is kind of autonomy. insofar a~ she is cn1>ablc of scrutiny of. ~md (reasonable) reflection about, her custom~· practices. (Indeed, he thinks !:he should embark on such scrutiny. in order to a\·o id being imprisoned by cuslom·s ·,·iolcnt· prejudices) Confucius too IU::t) be soid to hold a similar position to Moutaignc ·s. Of course. Co1tfucius docs not spocific:tlly maintain th:lt one can usc rcmsun (far less mi~on roisunnable) to assc.ss one' s cuslomary pmctiecs. (He could not do so. as he liL:cly lacked the c qu intl cn~ of the Western conception of 'reason·. with all its surrouuding b:tggagc). J But it 1

The lock of :m ob\'iou.i distinction between rc:uon ond emotion is by the cornmun lrans!:tlion <.l. f .' fm as b~;urt/mi nd . So.: a!Stl. e.g.

indi..;.:.~h:d H:n~n

1992. pp 81·3 and Wong 1991.

is C\'idcnt t11at he endorsed somctJ1ing vc~ liJ..c 1hc rcasonabk rcflecti,·cnc:ss th:n Montaigne endorsed. rn Ano/ea.. 9:3. he states: A ccrtmonial <.:np of linen is ''hat is prescribed by the rites. Today black silk is used instead. This is more frugal nnd I fo llow the m;~jority . To prostrntc o ncsclr before asc-cnd i n ~t the steps is wh;~t is prc:sctibcd by 1hc t iL es. Today one docs so allcr having ascended them. 11lis is c:ts·ual 4nd. though going agn.inst the majority, J follow the pr-actice of doing so bcfol'e ascending. (Lau: 96) Confucius here docs not unquestioningly internalize the riles, but steps back to rctlect on Lhc pmcticcs thcmscl\'cs. Thus. in find ing 1.hc usc of black silk more economical, he finds it reasonable to accept (" ith the m3jt..""lrity) Lh:tt one should depart from what the rites prescribe. In contrast. compare J)I'OStratin~ oneself bf![Qrt: :~sccndint; the slc-ps. Lo prostrnti.n& oneself only trjler one h :~s 3sccnded. Thl! laltl!r is :~pparently espressin of a certain uppi ty~ness or 3ttogancc. Since such :l tnodificntion results in a Jack of respect. Confucius continues wilh the rife. Nolc here 1h:u Confucius neither blindly follows the majorit)' nor insists th~t the m:.jority should follow the prescribed rites. Rntbcr. what he docs is to sumd back and rcOcct I"C:lsonably on the rite itself. If it is needlessly cxpcnsi\·c to lbllow strictly th:u rite. he recommends modifying o r dcparti.ng from thai rile. If ;~ modiJk:uion 3lttrs tJ1e spirit or undcrlyi.ng intent of the rite. so that rcspcc1 is no longer expressed. he recommends continued observance. of th~ rite. Confucius's rcflccthc scrutiny of c.ustom:try rites is bul one :tspcct of his "'idcr ' 'icw tl1at one should subject tJlc \\ ay one lives 10 humane and reasonable rcncc.tion, and modil)' this if need be. As mcmioncd, Confucius chruDCtcrizcs tltc good Hfc .1s ·swcr\'ing not from the right path·. But finding out what the right path is. and li\'ing out th:tt path, is no easy cndcaYour. The M:~slcr s l:ucs th:tt he sets his hc:n1 on l~mi ng at llfic:cn, but it is only at thirty thJt he is able to l:lkc his st..md. nt forty th;~t he is free from doubt. and at SC\'CRI)' that he can follow his hcan 's desire \\ithout O\'Crslcpping 1hc line. (Analecu.· 2;4, L:tu: 63) The inlcn·ening ycm between tif\ccn and SC\'Cnty nrc cYidcntly spent refl ecting on his desires. \':!lues and prac.ticcs. disc:~rding some tUld endorsing others bcfo1'C he att.3ins serenity in old .1ge. Thal rcOccth ·c scrutiny is an csscntiill part of the good life is further conlinncd by Confucius's fo llowing claim: In n hamlet of ten households. tllcrc ore bound to be those "ho a~'\: m)' equal in doing their best for o1hcrs and in being trustworth~· in what they say. but they ore unlikely to be us eager to lcum us I um. (Analcclx 5:28. Lnu; KO)

2/iJ

Confucius's point here seems to be precisely that intcrnali.1.ing ccrU'Iin values and pracck.-cs may not be enough: h is nol enough to always do one's best for others and to be tmstworthy with one's words. Rather. one

must :Jiso be 'c.agcr to Jcnm'. Such Jcnming Ob\'iously goes beyond mcrdy learning to do o ne·s best or be tru.SI\\Otlhy. (In this kind of learning Confucius h;~s. OlS he points out.. man~· cquJls.) Instead. Confuciu s's cae!crucs~ to lc.utn would likcl>' in\'Oh -e his cnl::~sing in a search as 10 WhJ' (and whether) one should do one's best or be trust"onhy, and how this

relates to tlttaining the Way. Here too. it is C\ idcnt that Confucius " 'auld hold retlccti\'C scrutiny to be ucccs.sary to Ji,·ing the ll'Ul) good life. In short. then. Confucius holds that thing the eth ical life indeed in,·o h·es being ·uained' throuch the rites. or ·ingrained' with the rites ~- but it also im oh·cs. inlttr alio. reflecting upon. and if necessary modi~ ing. the ways we :l.rt being tr~i n ed in. like Mont.:ligne. Confi•eius thinks that the hwnon need not just live :t life sh:t.pcd by customs or rites or ft)IJOw n fixed path - aud indeed .~multi not do so. She can dcpnl1 from the prescribed rites if rcncction le:tds her to think she should.

As 1 IU\'C mentioned. Montaignc mainuins lh:tt the process of (reasonable) rcOc~tion m:'ly l'cs-ull in initial dislocation for one ·s judgment. hut that one 's judgment will c,·c ntually be r<"storcd to OJ surer status. A simil.1r insight was likely p resent also to Confuc-ius: surely it is one 's sccond·o rdcr reflection about o ne· s obscrYrulcc of the rites -- as \\Cit as o ne's own desires. goals eu:. -- th:u enables o ne to restore onc's j udgmcnls about o ne's oct ions and beliefs to a 'surer st;uus· and hence (.:ts he puts it) lo •take u stand" at thirty. to be 'free from doubf r.t fony. and finally. 10 folio'' o ne· s: dcsitl! without o verstepping the line lll Sl!vcuty. J"'(l(.'t' the second obj ection. the Confucian ethical life docs not invoh-e merely intCIMJiJ'jng the ritc.s and u nquestioningly dc,•cfoping oneself in n nxcd direction. Scrutiny and possible modific:nion of rites and customs is as much an iutcgr:tl feature of the Coufuci:lJl good life. as it is of r\'lontaignc·s. Thus. the Confucian cthic:1l person must possess this kind o f auto nomy. HoweYer. there may be omother sense in whi'h th e Confuei;m ethical person lacks autcmo.ny. Fing~rcue argues th:11 Confudan ethics docs not conceiYt: of hum:ms as persons with the power to ·select among real altcmnti\'cs and sho.pc (thcirl own Jli\'cs('. Now. one weak reading of this claim \\Ould ill\olve th at it maintains th:tlthc hum:Jn laeks the autonomy 10 reflect on the r ites (and more broadly. on one's desires etc.). and to make the rcquisjtc ch:tngcs. If one rends Fingarcuc's claim in this, then. as J',·c argued. it would not be reflective ofConrucius's pos.ition. 3

a 'l'hc :ergumcnl I give is but one 10 a wide amy of n:bnllals ag<~inst F1ngareuc·s <:!aim th:it th(·. Confu<:itm fuun:u1 Ju<:ks autont'm)' (&x:. e.g., Schw.mz 1985:79-81. Wnng 2002. Chong 2003) Interesting d iscussions of J UH'IIOIIIY in rd~1ti~ln to CvJlfud:tnism tlrc tu l'lc; ft.IIJIKI in S1nm and Wong 200-t),

286

But Fingarcue's claim could aJso be read more strongly as maintammg that Confudus docs not tnf,;~ eogni;oancc of the fact tha' htun:ms h
I.IVF~S

Montrtignc in his ' 'arious essays often highlights the \'
9

Sec. e.g... Tod<m)v 1983

2~ 7

cruchy. which are our ordinar) vices. (CJsais 1:31. frnmc: 1.55·6. emphasis mine) Montnignc is C\'idcntly speaking here

or rcasonnblc

fC\1 500.

He

maimains that this kind of reason c::m nenr ptO\'ide OJt acceptable j uslifu;::uion of trcac.hcry. disloy::.hy. ty ranny and cruclcy; no matter how ' disordered' or unruly onc-·s a~licati on of reason is. it can nc \ Cf convincingly j ustify these ,·ices. 1 Thus, practices embodying tl1cse vices arc (\'Cry often) unacceptable. On the otltcr hand, Monto.ig.ne. in ·o r

Coaches', expresses

a~,prob:uion

of practices thnt crntxxiy dc\OuiJlcss..

liberality and lo yalty. (Es.r<Jil· 3:6. f'rnmc: 69.&) Again. gh·cn that cruelly.

trcnchcry etc. arc vices. one prcswncs he would consider their opposites ·• compassion. sincerity. loy.n.hy. freedom and kindness - to be Yirtucs. One might sunnis-.e tlun reason would j ustify as 3CCeproblc those practic:es ahtn embody these tmits. Montai&nc-is thus 1101 11 mom I relativist. He docs C\1alunlc customs ::md prnctkcs accordinc to certain unh·crsal s1and:uds. n,is being 1hc c3sc,

not c,·c~· l:ind of life would cowu as a good life for Mont.aiguc. A person who is cruel and tre3chcrous. or '' ho has i1ltcrnali.r.cd a uadition or se-t of customs embodying cnaclty :md 1rcachcry, does not liYe a good or morally ac(:cptablc life. (And indeed something like this position must be right. fo r one \\Ould hardly want to say that a Nazi camp commandant who tonurc-s prisoners ~ n rl sends thous.1nds to the gas chambers li,·cs a good life.) On the other h.nnd. one who is reflectively sincere and loyul. u.nd '' ho has thoughtfully intcrnali7&d customs embodying libcmlity. loyolty etc. would li\'e a good life ror Montnigne. Mom:tisnc holds 1ha1 1hL.:; libcr3.litr etc. nl:\\', be c:tprcsscd ,·crv diffcrcutl)' in diflC:rcnt cultures. :.nd to • • II that extent the li\•es Ji,·cd may 3PS>Car \'Cry d iiTacnt on the surface. rvlorconr. I thinl< Monlllignc would allow tl1a1 different cultures may cmpbasil..c, one kind of ''nluc at the expense of nnother ··e.g. freedom at the c.xJX."'11Sc of piety or \itt \'Crsa. But there should be m least some undcrl} ing commona lity - or at least some family rcscmbl:u1cc •• in the terms upon which these good li\·cs :lfC lh"«<.

10 'fhi.s i.s in fttcl a bit of glo::R~ 1\s I JXlint out in W~,.'l.:- 2005. Monwign\! seem<: prepared to :.ct:epl th:11 cmcl. tH.;lchcrou::' etc pnacticcs may not he inh'lt\.':ac.llll)' .1us11fwble. but mny be jusUiil•bl¢ tts msmull4..'1l1S to t1 further good. l lowc,·cr, Montltig.nc ohotbutk.s that such i.!utrum(11Ull justiflca1iou sllould be .:."Uhjcctcd to c.m:ful scrutiny. ln n.to:>t ca:sc,"i.. he maintuins. li.Jc ju!5tificnti.:Jn.-;

p!V\'idtXI will tum c.l_ UI lu be ~puri ous, Thus. it i$ uniy m :1 ' "''~)' smal l muntx, · ur

c:tses th;.t such instntmctual just.if~~.:~ t i on !urn:;: out to be ~ cccpt ablc. Bcc<1.U5lC or considerations of length. aod b\.-cou:>e I think they n\a.kc liUie dlff<::C(.u OO to the point under discus:;;icm. 1 isnon: this \'Cl)' ~n:. ll clos:; of c a:~cs in this p:tpcr. 11 In st.-cin!t lhis I<J he~). M<.,ul:tignc may wc-11 hil\~,: imticip:th:d R:trehcls 1986

\Vc can now prococd to Confucius. For Confucius. there arc prcsumabl) no momlly unacceptable riles (such as rih.'S embodying cruelly ~nd trcnchcl)·). since Lhc Confi1cinn rites precisely provide :1 guide to lh·ing an cth.ical life that im·oh cs trush\Orlhincss. respect for others etc. But Confucius's rcncctivc C\'aluation of the l'itcs nt Analects 9:3 dcscn.·cs a re-visit. Rct:nlllh::lt Confucius ~cccpLS the replacement of the linen cap with the black silk cap because it costs less but pctfonns the same role: in the ceremony. bm rejects the practice of prostr:uing only aOer one has ascended tbc hall because it docs not express the ~pproprimc rc' crcncc and respect. For Confudus. as for Mont.aignc-. wluu matters is Lh:u the ·'1)/rU of clle 1ites be preserved, not the actual rite hsclf {whtch is open to modific-ation). ·rhis leaves it possible. in principle. that for Confucius, other kinds of rites. od\cr forms of expn:ssing Ute same rC\ ercnce. sincerity would be acc-cplnblc. Thus. for example. l.:is·sing (or CYCn shaking) the hand of 3 SO\'Ch!it;n. prO\'iding it expresses Lhe s.:une reverence would be .:1.s acccpltlble QS prostraling oneself before the- SO\'trcig.n. Thus. he misJu well acccpl 1hut other li\'CS lh 'ed in other cullurcs :.nd shaped by other customs l'n3Y look quite diffcrenL but would still be good li\'(:J if the undcrlyins rercrencc. sinccrily. etc. arc thctc. 11 One might argue that Mont:ligne is a lot more willing thnn Confucius to allow that different vah1cs might take precedence in different societies - but C\'Cn this claim mny be open to argument. As argued. Confucius makes clear th:u the good life invol\"¢5 SCC<)nd order rcncction on onc·s practices. values and beliefs. his possible thac further rcncction migl1t make C\'idcnl thal. sa~ . that unconditional obcdiCilCC to parents or subserv ience to the so,•crcign should not be o sine qrw 11()11 of the g()()(( life, but should be more nexibly applied in different times and at different

Jllac.cs. Morco,·er, even if one admits this claim. Confucius and Montaignc would still be much closer t11an initioJ appcar:tnccs suggest Instead of being polar opposi1cs "ith rcspec1 to the admissibility of different kinds of good lh-cs. Confucius is more llc:dblc than first appears. and Mon1aignc r::1thcr less. nboutthc kinds of lives that would c-ount as good li\·cs. Their ,·icws on good lh'CS tliUS con\1Cr&e mOl'<: than first npl)Cars. In sum, Monw.ignc ond Confucius have ccraain ~ffin itics , "hich mny be surprising given their separation in time and intcllcclual tradition. Both nxognit.c the imJ)()nancc of customary pr;:,cticcs in shilping and giving form 10 a person ·s life·; both accept that rcncction and t'C3sonable C\'aluation of these practices is possible. and indeed a ncccssa.ry feature of thing well: neither is a moral rcl:ttivist. and both hold that certain qu:tlitics arc \'"Diuablc and others despicable. Montaignc is pcrhnps ratllcr more cognh~ant of the : It's po!lsiblc. of cotuse. that <.:onJhC1US may lx: less ac(·omnl<XImin~ uboot the kinds of customs that c.vunl 11.'> accq>tublc exprc:;.:<Jions of a p.micuJur .scnt im~,.,n , (F\11" cx~1ntpl..: . il j ~ hard tv sec Cunfucius a.s :.~cc~.,,ling th~llthc killing of one's f~thcr at a t::cmun age is an <~cl of piety ) 1

\'ari<:ty of diffcrcm kinds of li\'CS that may be li\'c.d. bul both \\Ould agree that what is important is the underlying sc-ntimcnls - which both n:cogni1..c to be shnpcd m1d tempered by customary practices •• th.1t mo\"CS these

lj,·cs. u REFERENCES

Bcr\·en. Dikka (cd .) ( l ~J5 ) , .Montmgm:: A C<,llecfi on f!{ 1::~st7Jt..~ (Nc" Yotk: Garl>nd l' ublishing) [4 vols.[. D.C. Lau (tram.) ( 1979) The An(lh•ct~· (l,c-nguin: Hnrmondsworth). Chong. K im ~ hong (2002) ·Autonomy and the AnaleelS', in cds•. Kim-chong Chong. Sor·hoon Tan and C L Ten. 111e Afornl Circl,· omlthc Self Chinese wul We stem ApprtXICIJes (Chic:Jgo: Open Cou n Press). Dworkin. Get31d (1988) l'hr 111ellr)l llml J.'r(JCtice of Aurtm(Un)/ (Cambridge:: C:.mbridgc: Uni,·e rsity Pre-ss). Dunll. Robert ( 19R3). ' L-.:ssotts of 1hc Nc''' World: Dc s i &~l nnd l\·lc-:Jning in Montaigne-· s ../);,•:; Ctmrubole...··• and .. l)cs Cochrs'· ·• Yole Pnmch Swdics 64. pp. 95 -112. Ft<1mc, Donald M. (lrans.) (1?57) 11u: Cmnplete Work.\' of M muaig n(!: t:.ssays. Trm·el .lmmrnl, /,el/ers (London: Hamish Hamilton

1958) ---- (1 9'-) 5). ·Montaignc's Dialogue wilh his Faculties' in Bcrvcn J9')5:4. pp. lf.J-74,

Fi.ngarcuc. Herbert (1972) C.:m1.fi1cws •• 11tc S<:cular tu· Sacn:d (NC\\ York Hurpcr and Row), Hnnscn, Chad (1 992) A Otu>f.H fii:Uol)1 of Chlmw: 1'hoflg hr (NC\\'

York: Oxford Uni\·crsi[y Press). La Charite. R:1ymond C. (1 995). ·n1c Relmionship of Judgment and Experience in the r;.....,.n;s of Mont:Jigne·, in Bcn·cn. l ~~J5 :4 . pp. 28-9. Locher. Caroline (1995). ·Primary and Scc.ondory Themes in i\•lootaignc·s .. Des Cannibalcs.. ·. in Bcn·cn. 1')')5:2. 155-62. Rachels. Jrunes (l!>t((,j 11u• Hlements o_{Morul Pllilo.soplu' ( l.r: cd.) (Phibdelpbia: Temple Unin:rsily Press). SchnCX!\\ ind. J.B. ( 1998) 11u: fnw~nlfon •~{A utonmny: A Hi.~tory (>j lt.1r>dern J\ft)ral Phi/t):Wplly (C:lmbridgc: Cambridge Uni,·ersicy Press). Shun, Kwong·loi und David B. Wong. Ccmf ud an I!.:Lhics: A Ct>mfKtrlllive Sf m(•• of Se({. A ramwmy and Community (Cambridge: Cambridge Unh·ersity Press 2004). 13 An earlier \CI'sion of this p:~pcr wo:- read ut the cunJCI\.'ooc on Confilt:lfml~m: u~wo.~'(leCt (md F'I'VS(re(;t . hdd :11 the Uni\'Cr.sity uf Toronlo ill September 2i:X)5 I wo\lld hkc to lhank the pm1ic1pnn1s for thctr li\'cly n1ld helpful conlm(:nts oo the pnpct. I would al'Kl like to thr.mk G.l.. T.;.,l fol' l1is

lL'leful oommcnl") on the initio! droll. and l lui-Chich Lo~· for a helpfu l JXlSh:onfcrcncc Jiscussi\tn on Confucian rih.:s (It} t"~nd ~us!(t lll (MI)

Todorov. f'"l\Cta.n (1983). 'L"Elnt- c:r L 'Aliii'C: Montaigm:'. Yale French Sludie.~· G4. pp. ll 3-4S.

Wang. Ytmping (2002) · Au1onomy and lhc Confucian Moral Person·. Jcmmnf (~(C/rim:sc fhi/(,.wplry (Oxford: Bladwcll). 25 J-268. Wee, Cccili::t (200.5) 'Monmignc·s Cannib31s nnd ~..tultic.uhuralism· in Sor-h0011 Tun, cd .. Clur!lt.•ng;ng Clli:cuship: C}mup Mc>mb~.-•rJhtp and Cultural ltlentlty in a (;ft,bul Age (A idcrshot: Ashgatc), PI>· 137-50. Wong. Oii\'id B. (I~JI) ·ts tlu~re a Ois1inc1ion llet\\Cen Reason :tnd Emotion in Mcncius', Phi/US(Iphy l!ttsl (md iH.•st 4 1: I, 31-4...

Chapter XIV

Globaliza tion and Confucia nis m: the Virtues of S/111 and Generosity to Many Others Vmcent .')hen

I NTRO DUCTION

Todnr when we're fac ing the challenge of gloho.lization. nn anempt

should be made to critically identify and crcati\dy interpret the resources in Chinese philosophy not only good for Chinese JX:Oplc bur 01Lso fo r otltcr people in the "orld. Globa.lh~at ion.. basically understood as a process of dctcrritorial i~-.1tion or border·crossing. to the c.\:tcnt of imolving all humMkind on l.hc globe 3$:. whole, that happens now in

cn~ry do m ~i n

of

human oactivilics: health. tcchnologr. environment economics. politics. education. culture. religion ... ~1c . T11e detcnitoriali7.:Uion here should be

u.ndcrsrood in a broader scns('. :lS :'l proc.css of crossing border-crossing, or ::;oing bc}ond oncsdf to muh iplc o lht:IS, that I \\(.ltlld coin in a neologism

.. stmngiJication-, or 1rtrillu ;rH(r; in Chine-se. Oc\·clopcd on linguistic, pragmatic and ontological levels. suangific.~nion is taJ..cn here as the basic stnucgy of mctling with differences and soh ing the problem o f conOict in ,·icw of :m optim:al 14lrmony. :tpplicahlc to :ttl kinds of d iffere nces. C hinese philosophy. as wisdom guidins, Chinese people to f:1tc di(fcrcnccs. soi\"C conflicts nnd S-l iSIOin the dnim fol' optimal hnnnony, m ight still be raluablc

for today·s hum:.ut c;o..;pcricncc in time of glob::tli:;.otion. Strangjitcation presupposes approprintion of language and an original generosity or hospit:tlity to multiple others. This paper will focus on :1 critical discussion of the ContUcl.1n \'irtue of shu and generosity to the other in Confuci:tnism

to c.~ploJc thdr n:lcvancc for today "s \\ Orld in process of globaJi,.ation. GLOBALI1A\ T ION, STRANG I FIC ATLON AND G ENEROS ITY TO

MANY OTHERS lnstitution:Uiy speaking. the process of g loOOii:tAtion st:trts with modcmity but it has something going beyo nd modernity, Modcrn it~· ha..~ produced os basic institulions, on I!'COnomic level, the ever-extending market: :utd o n political le,·cl. tho N:ttion ~ Suncs. Beyond tltaL post-modcrnil) is no'' in process of producing on its ncgati\ C side Lhc dc·constructionol cnltquc of modcmity "s princ iples: subjccti,·hy, representations :md rat iono1lit~· : and on its posilh ·e side tile global

infomullion society, In the process of globaliz:ujoo we sec on the one h1.1nd the extension of marL:ct economy into glob.
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Lhc global cultur¢ in contrast wilh and in dio1cctic :~gnirtst sclf·a\\okcning local cultures. Taking all these considerations into ttccount I would define globali;t..nlion as '"An historical process of dctcrritorinlizntion or cross-bordering, by \\hich human de-sire, human uni\'Crsaliz:lbility and ontological interconnectedness ore to be rcal i~cd on the pl:~nct as n whole. <:~nd

to be concrctiio:cd now as s.Jobal free market. tri!ns-national political

order and cuhurnl glocalism."

Sinc-e globnl i~..ation is a process that concerns human kind as n \\hOle. it should h3\'C SORIC foundation in the nature- of human being. l)hilosophically speaking. it should be based in human desire 10 go always lx:yond and its tutturc longing for unin:r53.lity or better. its uniYcrs:ali:.dng capacity. Globaliz.atjon as a technological. e<::onomic and cultural proctss should be seen as the material implement.ation of this universaliz ing dynruni..~m of alw3~·s going bc·yond in hum::m n:llure. For us hum:'U1 detcrmint.'t'izon. The only re<'ll historical proce-ss is the uncca.,ingly going beyond and towards higher lc,·cts of unh·ersali7.ation. Anlhropologic:.lly speaking. this could be tr3ced b3ck to the historical moment in which a human being picked up the first c.hopping stone and came to UM: utensil or instrument, In this w:.y. human being went tx:yond the dc-tcnnini.sn:t of physical nature and established thereby a free rcbllionship with the matcrinl wo1ld. Since then human being slcppcd into the Sl:'lgc of homini:t-...'ltion. Homo }fiber. thoush able to so beyond the dctcnniuAt.ion of nt.ntcri:tl \\Otld by using them as instmmcnts. still depended on them. and thetcforc nOl totally humnn. When human beings were :1blc to communicate with otl1cts thtough langu:1gc, a s~•stem of signs tb:tl conc.cntmtcd hum..'lll experience. rc\'calcd intelligibility of things in communicating \\ ith others. they stane.:d to exist on a new lc\'cl of uniYers.-.lizability. Morco,·er. when hum:1n beings came to cng:1gc thcmsci\'CS in disinterested octi\'ities. such as playing. sacrificing ;;1nd artistic trcativitics .. . there emerged higher IC\'CI of freedom. C\Cn to the point of fusion \\ ith things ruld people. Just im:'lginc human beings got easily tired after a whole day· S lubor. but Llu;:y would continue da~· ond night dancing. playing and engaging in the ritual activity of S3crific.c withoul a11y boredom or fatigue. This shows that human be-ings scen1ed to be more hum::..n in Lllc:sc free playful ::1:11d ercatjvc ~c tj vitic:s . 1l1crcforc. homo loqmuus and homo Jucle.ns arc more human. more univers.-.!i7.ablc and tl1,;:reforc more humanized than merely hominized. Born together with bwun.nizotiou. there is the Wlh·erso.li7..ablc d~ nruu ism in human nature thai came to the scene of human historital process. Probably this is why philosophers East and West in the a:'\i:tl age. that happened bclwC(:n the 81b and the 211;~ Centuries O.Cl!. in the time of philosophical bre;tkthrough, \\Ould understand reason as the most essential function of

193

hwuan mind. In ancicm Greek philosophy. l•ummt being ''as defin ed as ..fu (»rlogon exQir". later transl:ncd into Lmin as "'tmimr,f ratu.moh•"'. the proper

function of which w:Js 1/u:oria. which produc.cd knowledge ior knowlcdge·s own sake. in looking for the thcoretie.ally unh ·ers.n.lizable:. In nntient China. the concern was more "ith the irnpania l or the uni\'crsal in human pnuds.. the practically un ivcl"$ali ~blc. But it is clc:i.lf thilt hJving the idea ami tcndcncr of univcrsalizablil it~' is not yet tll¢ process oi globali;.raJion. This needs the \\hole tcchnologic::tl, institutional and historical dc\·clopmcnl throush modem times 10 implement the: uui\'ersalil'..able: in fonu of gloablaization. C\'Cfl if th:H whic-h has been implemented is mere ly part of the wth·er53lizable. Globalization conc.crns the globe or the earth :all :as a whole. chough still in f.1ct bu1n tin)' star in l11c immense uni\·crsc. The day " hen \\'C'rc ready not only for:. g lobAl ethics. but also n uni\·ersalizable ethics in tem1 of the uni\'crsc, we hum.1n would be qu:aliJicd then 10 go beyond the glolx1l em to enter into the unh·crsal ern. Now we should consider this: glob:~l irntion brings with il the conttnst with loc3li:r.ation. homogeneity in contr::r:st with dh·ersificntion. TI1is is a moment of huma.n l1istory lhal people in the word fed so close 10 c:~ ch other on the one hand. and so \'Uincrnblc and susceptible connie Is of nny kind on the other. Now it is the critical historical moment of opening IO\Htrd od1cr instead of keeping wid1in sclf-cndosure. In responding 10 today's urgent situation full c,lf conflic ts created by sclf.-cnclosurc of diOC.rent parts such ;~.s different discipliJlcs. cultures. political nnd religious groups. CIC.. \\C humans should lx: more cOOC·CJilCd with one another rmd the po..~ibil il}' of mutu.:tl enrichment. In order to O\'Crcomc :\ntasonism by appealing to efT'-'Cti\·c dialogue. I h.wc proposed in recent ~·e~ ··s•ransification- and "l:tnguagc "J>pro))ri:uion- as viable -stra t e~ies. TI•c tcnn "stransiJication."' a noologism lhat might appear stmngc in English, yet is much more undcrsl!tndablc iu Chinese •• tm;uti 71· flt: . means ctymologtc:-llly the :tel of going outside of oneself to multiple others. or going oulside of one' s fnmili::ulty to strangeness. to many strangers. This act presupposes the appropriDtion of l angu:~ ge by \\hich we fc..nrn to e.xprc.ss our idens or values in langunge either of othcts ot understandable. 10 othl!r!L In their tum. "sun.ngifi cotion"' and "l:1t1guogc appropriation.. presuppose an original generosity tow:~rd many o111ers. without limiting oneself to the claim of rcciproci1y. quite often presupposed in soci:tl rel:uionship and cthie::a.l golden rulc:s. 11ll'cc types of strangilic:ttion could be brought up here: The first is linguistic scrangiJkmion. by which we translate one discoursc/\·aluc or culturt.ll e.xprc-ssionlrcligious belief into discoursd,·;.luc/culturol e:o.::pressionlrclil,tious belief cl:~ im ed brother scientific, cultural or religious communities, then it has o l!lrgcr or universaliz.ablc \ :llidity. Othcm·ise. its vulidity is limited only to its own \\Orld und rcllcctiQn must be made on the limit one ·sown discourse/value or expre-ssion/belief.

or

or

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TI1c scc.ond is pragmatic strangification. If one discoursci,alue or cxprcssionlbclicf can be drawn out from iLS original social nnd prngmatic comcx1 and be put into other soda I nnd prngm;uic contexts nnd is still Yalid. this menus it is more un ivc~ali7~1blc and h;~s ];ugcr \'nlidity thnn mcrdy limited to its O\\ n context of origin. The third is ontological st.r:mgification. A discourse/ ,·aluc or cxprc.ssionlbclicf. when univctStli?.ablc by a detour of cxpcricnciug Reality Itself. for example, a dire-ct experience wilh Reality itse-lf. such as other people, Narurc. or C\'Cn with the. Ultimate Reality, would be ' 'c ry helpful for mutual understanding arnong different scientific. micro-worlds (disciplines or research programs). cultural worlds. :md rclisious worlds. TI1c original generosity implied in this first net of going omsidc of oneself should be seen as Lhc condition sine iJIIG non of all situation of reciprocal relationship. PhiiO$Ophically spe-.al;ing. Jxforc we c3n cscablish a sort of reciprocity, cmph:lSizcd for cx.runpte in Mnrccl Mau..~s' J:'S.\YII .\'ur h• tkm11s dtc. pri.nciplc of human society. there must be a £CI.1CI'OIIS nc.t of go in& outside of oneself to the other>so that there can be cst3blishcd accordingly a relation of reciprocity. If in the classical world. g·oJdcn rules MC so much emphasized and reciJ)rocity W3S seen as the basic princ.iple of sociabilit~·. now in the post-modem world and the world of globali1...11ion. we need a principle more titan that of reciprocity. The new princip1cs for society nnd ethics that we arc looking for should base themselves on original generosity and strangilkation as the act of going outside of oneself to many others. CONf UCIAN SIIV AND GENEROSITY TO MAN\' OTITl:RS An~

kind of sodal insti[utton, no matter what it is. should aJways be li\'cd e...:istcntially nnd ethically wilh mcon i n~fu l ncss by human bcin&s. The same witlt tltc prO<:css of globalii'tnion which. dcn~lopcd by communication technology and ilnplcmcnted on economic. political 3lld cuhur.,l lc' cis. brings humankind into more and more systematic networks. This situation of living in llCtwolt:s c;'\istentially exempli lies the ontology of dyn.1mic rcl3tionship that we find since long affirmed by Confucianism, The Confucian concept of r~n denotes somehow the intcmal rel;uionsbiJ>S between hum::m beins nnd nil things existing in the uni,·crse (HC:'I\'C1\ nnd earth). fn reason of n:n. human lx:inss c.:un be aflCctcd by and respond to one another. and by the act of slw. they can cnlargl! their existence to largl!r realms ofc:o:istcncc fron1 oneself to the other, io famil~·. to social communily. to the state, to a.llluldcr hc.a\'CtL now interpreted by the tcrrn globalization. The network of this dynamic relationship cannot be said to c.xist in form of substance. neither can it be said not to c;r.:isl. as nothingness. (t 's always tl1crc dynnnticaUy developing. not only on the ontological level but nlso on the cthicallc,cl. 8;LSically. Confucianism will be able to contribute to Ihis process of glob;~l.i:(.ul ior:t by its w;~y of life as a process of ethical extcosion. c-spccial.ly by Confucinn vinuc-,s and \;'l.luecS: such as humanness. rishtcousncss. " isdom.

195 sincerity. faithfulness...ctc. In the nct\\orl s dc\eloped by globaJi:r.ation. human beings. if they want to k1.-cp to the dignity of their life as human. should alwnys deal witJt each other with sincerity and cspccinlly with the \·irtuc of shu. Going outside of oneself tmd generosity to manr others urc supposed to be the most needed \·irtucs in the process of globali7....'ltion. In Confucianism. shu could bl! s<.x:n as such a \);)sic virtue. Although ctuitc onen tmnsl:ned as ..ahmism·· (Chan: 44), or - putting oneself in o1her"s place" (Ames: 92), or C\Cn as ""usins oneself as a me~su.re to g·o.uge others.. (Lau: 74). it's best understood and interpreted now in tcnn of suangifie:ttion. in the sense that " he who practice s/w knows how to str.mgify" (.shu zhe slrnn l ui) and ··extend from oneself to other people" (fui,ifji twr). In the Annle,·ls. not much was said about slut. though i1 was told by Confucius himself10 be the cxprcs..c:ion to ace upon 1ill1hc end of ooc 's life.

When Zisonx asked. ·•ts there one expression 1h41t (;.tlll be acted upon till the end of one ·s daysT The mas1er replied, -ntctc i.e: shu .~.l: dl) not tl'rtpose on others what you yourself do not want" (Anuh•,·ts 15:24: Roger Ames: 189) Here shu \\as understood iu the spiri1 of ncgnti\'c golden rule. "do nor impose on others what you yourself do nm \\3nt", The same ncgali\'C golden rule was repented b~· Confucius when answering, Zhonggong's quesaion :~ bout n·n. (Analec-ts 12:2. Roger Ames 133) From this rcpclition we can sec a very close rcl:uionship between n n and .1·/tu, {liven the fact that they Ju,·c the same definition. On Lhc other hand. o rx:lSiti,·c golden rule was g.h'en as answer to tl1c ques1ion about the e<)nccpt of humanity (l"t"o). also to Zigong. thus we rc:~d... A man of hum3nity. wishing to eslablish his own charncter. t1lso establishes others. wishing 10 be prominent himself, also helps <>thcrs.'' (Analects. 6: 28. Chan. p.31) As we can sec. bolh ncg.1tivc and positi\·c golden rules arc. in Confucian tenns. based on a rccipr
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E;~cmpl:uy persons nrc distressed by their own (:t(;k of ability. not by the failure of others to ncl.:nowlcdge him." (tl11alws 15. 19. Amos: 188) E;~emplary persons (jun:ti) make dcm:mds on themselves, \\ hilc pcur persons mal:c dcmomds on c,lthcrs:· (Anulc:c:ls 15.21 , Amos: 189)

So it seems Lhat s.clf·culth·ation :1nd sclf·1-,crfe<:tion is more-on the part of indi,·idtml, while ham10nious rcl:uion with otllers should be done in

the socinl context. The Confudan way of life. as extending one's existence in the <:on text of larger Md larger c-ircles basing on the perfection of one ·s self. E,·cn if self-osith·c. based uhimatcly o n the principle of rcdprocity, In this sense. we can s:ty that. in the ConJucian world. in which human bch:aviors ho,·e to be regulated by It, <:,·en the act of going outside oncsdfco the other bunched by slru. and the OTigin:d gc-nCtoSit)' il implied. h3Ve tO be rcsui:Ued b) l'~ciproc.ity. 111c principle of reciprocity becomes a guiding principle of social and polit ical philosophy in the (in·t tf T-t·ami11g. TI1crc it is called the principle ot'mensuring square (.ltqJIIZ}udao ~UHZ iU). There seems to be 3 posith ·c \'Crsion of the t>rindplc follo"cd by a ncgath·c version of iL They me put in the context where it is cxpL1incd the extension from governing l11e st;Ue to making ~.nee within all under heaven. The positive version

reads. What is meant by sayittg thnt the peace of the world depends on the order of the slate is: When the ruler ti"C:'tts the elders with respect, then the people will be aroused towards fi lial piety. When the ruler trcnts the aged with resp(.."i:t then the people will be aro used towards brotherly respect. When the ruler lrcals <:OmiXIssion.:ucly the young ;md the helpless. ihcn the common people will ool follo w the opposicc cou.rsc. TI1crcforc 1he ruler hns o princiJ,lc wil.h which, as with n measuring squnrc. he may rcgulale his conduct. (ChM : 92)

197

TI1e major point here is d1c go\ cmance b) ''t'n(htuuanity): when lh~: nllcr governs his people b) rcspccl and humanity. people will «.-spond with pence ru1d luumony. in fo nu of fili:tl piety. brotherly respect nnd submissh·encss. The positi\C rc..:iprocity is here expressed in terms of the filia l piety. bl'otherly respect :~nd compassionate for the young and the hclplcss .. . ctc., initiated by the ruler. On the other hond. there is olso the llCg.:tti\·c \'ctsion of the measure of squan:: What a mnn dislike in his superiors. let him not show it in dealing with his inferiors. What he. dislikes in those in fron t of him, let him not show it in preceding those who arc behind: what he dislikes in those behind him. let him not show il in follow ing those in front of him: what he disliL:cs in those on the right. let him not ~p p l y it to those on the left~ And what he d islikt-s in those on the len, let him uot appl) it to those on the ri&ht. This is tl1c principle of the me-:lsuring squ:lre. (Ch:ln: 92) As it is clear. the reciprocity here is enlarged Malo gie<~ lly from one side to the opposite side: from superior to inf~ rior. from inferior to superior; from right to let\. from lcfl to right: from front to behind, from behind 10 front. and thereby fom1ing 3 cubic rclationshi1>. not merely a square. of reciprocity. though alwa~·s taken in a neg;uivc sense, \Vi thin this cubic structure of reciprocal rcl;ttionship, more: nttcntion hove been pnid to the horizontal. that is. from right to l en. from lcf\ to ri~ht from front to behind. from behind to front than the vertical relation h~twc-cn superior :'tnd inferior, mentioned only once. Ne,·crthcless. Lhc concept of -extended reciprocity.. plows o m ~jor role. in this lo1rgest extens ion of hum::tn reliltion - from the state 10 all under heaven. Sill! AND STRANGIFIC A TION: KNOW O NE'S SE LF BY THE II ETOUR Ot" KNOWING T HINGS

11te :l.pplicruion of slw is not lim ited to mom)' others as human. therefore to human indi,,iduol and society only. but also to many others 3S thin gs. This is wha.t Zhu Xi understood when he sa.ic.l. in giving commentary on tJ1e concepts of t /UmK and shu. that zlumf{ deals " ith onc ·s self. whereas ~·h11 d ellls with thinss. For Zhu Xi. sln1 de~ ls with things and ~\·ents ~n d leads to our knowledge of thcnt. In gh"ing commentary on Jllll as the expression to act upon till the end of one's life. Zhu Xi said. ''E.'\Otcnd oneself to things. the application \\ill ne\·e r end: that's why it can be r~c tcd

upon till !11< end of one's lift." (Zhu Xi: 2000) This reminds us of Zhu Xi's idea of im estig;uing thi ngs one after nnothcr. c~ c h thing having in itself its own principle. This is n.lso what Wou:ts Fu:d mennt, \\ hen he fol.lowcd Zhu Xi i.n commcming these two concepts in the context where Co•tfuciu$ said there

29.'?

I inc:ent Slwn

was one !coding Om:ad pcnellating through his own itcnd to lhinss Jnd irm:stisatc them in order to acl1icn: J..1\owledge of them. Wane Fu1J said, l l1c principles arc in mind. if one do one's best :ts to mind. one cxh:msts all prin ci ples~ nil feeli ngs folio\\ human n.1turc, if one knows human ruuurc. one ' knows feeling ... lf one exhausts one's prindplc. one '' ould auain 1111 feelings under hNl\Cn: If one e~ tcnd one ·s feel ing. then one can pcnetr:ne tlll principles under he.twco .. .Therefore to cxhJust one ·s p rir.~ c i pl c und extend one ·s fcclin&. this is how scholars lea.m how 10 im cstig:ue things 10 :rchie\·e knowledge. (W
c~a mplc .

Zhu Xi's intercs« in

rmturnl knowledge is very fJruous to the extent that he may be seen ns the greatest synthcsitcr of Chinese natural J....nowledgc in the 12t'l and lJih Ccnlurics. This 10hould be understood in lhc ph il osophic:~l Ct)ntcxt of his notion of •·invcstigution of tbi.ogs to extend kno" ledge:"". For Zhu Xi, H or principle could be found in CH:rything. nnd \\US \\ OJ1b y of in\'CStigalion. Ac~ordi n g, to mr interpretation. the- object of Zhu Xi's in,·e~t ig:u ion of things \\OS the principle existing out there in things, ' 'hich presupposed tlh~J cfore ce-rtain ··otJtcrncss·· of things and their principles. ''hcrcas the auainmem of knowledge would ind udc kno" ledge or self and knowledge of others. or better ~id. rctum to oneself \'in the detour of many others. so thnt one might linally get sudden penetration into the nature of things and atL1in tr.mspmcnt sdf·tmowlcdge. That is to say. investigation of things is n process of detouring that. by first going outside of one ·s self to m;;my others und by knowing n1.unr otJaers. one could come back to one·sown self, Zhu Xi ·~ interest in n3Cur31 L:nowlcdgc should be understood in the philosophic:tl contc:d of his notion of .. im·cstiga!.ion or things to extend knowledge-. As I sec iL ll1cre is an im1>licit recognition of the principles inside the othetncss of things nnd people. As to the extension of knowledge, it should include both knO\\Icdgc about many others. either as physical things or ns persons, and knowledge of one ·s self. Human beings should go through the detour of L.,owing m~ny olhcrs in order to return to one's own self. c,·en 10 the point ofb~Xoming tmnsparent nnd enlightened. The fncltltnt humrm being is curious about things and lhJI there is need of investigation of things prc~upposcs the existence of many ochers and it is therefore not rcasonublc to reduce k~:~owlcdgc to co~:~tcnts totally unfolded rrom one·s \\On mind. At the fi rst gh'mce. the reilson why hum~n

199 being should approach things in order to investigate tJH::ir principles consists in the facl that principl,:s thi."'llSclves arc invisible but thinss arc on the comrnry equipped with material fomt and therefore cnsily ,·isiblc. Therefore ''C should inquire about im isiblc principles nnd h:we access to them thmugh the mediation of,•isible things. Zhu Xi said, in\'cstigation o f things is ror the. purpose of inquiring lheir principles. The l'hctthat there is such a thing. implies ncccswilr lh3t there is such a principle. Yet. principles arc im isiblc ::md hard to recogni.re. and things ha\'C ph~·sicnl form and arc easily visible. therefore we should inquire :~bout principles through thins.s. In this way. when priucipJcs are understood through our eyes :md in our mind without any tiny diSt3nce. then we cnn cope with things withoul ::sny error. (Zhu Xi 2000. Vol 2 : 40CJ. My transl"tion) TliC

Nc,·enbclcss. during the process of knowing. there should be an utuwoidablc relation bet\\ cen things known :md I.: nO\\ ing subject, the l'llower and the l.llown. which should not be reduced to mere psychic octhitics of the knowing subject. Zhu Xi W:tS consd ous of this and said. What we call knowing i!i in my mind. whereas \\hal we call principles arc i.n 1hi.ngs nnd events. From myself here

to know things O\'Cr there. there must be the n:lation of subje<:t :md object, and in teading the Sc.ripturcs. "e should not interpret tbo.t b~· this. lf we imerprcl the 'im·c stig.tnion of things' merely as ·contact with things'. then there is still something we do not understand about the ultimate UlHh. E''C[)'One has contact with things. but some would contact them '' ithout im cstignting tl1em. or in\'CStigatc them carelessly without in\'CStigating it 10 the ultimate degree. therefore even if they .,_rc in c.ontncl with things. still they do not understand their l>tinciplcs. Th e~· do not know the rc.:~son why, Lhe ought-to-be. of things. If you sny that once we Juvc contnc-t with things and all principles arc thereby exhausted. this is too e~sy to be

possible. (Zitu Xi 2000. Vol.5: 1969. M)' u-.nslntion) Since the relation between subject and o~j cet is not to be reduced. there should be first an act of going outside of oneself fro m the subj ~t' s p.1rt in order to ha,·c contact with things as object: yet. if there is only COOIOCI with thingS \\illlOUt iiWCStigaLing lhCir prinCipleS. the objccti\'C Of :m.1ining knowledge could not be achieved. Sintc principles need 10 be inquired in order to enter into our rc.Jin:t of k.nowlcdg.c. th en in rq;nrds to things unkno''" and not·)et·knowing subject. 1hey must be son of "'the

I inc:ent Slwn

300

other" or imbued \\ ith some otherness before getting tbcmschcs kno,,n. In this sense. principle c-ould he seen as Jdnd of the other. Jn short we can call

'"things" t~s tltc -rent others'' or the -horiz.ontJI others··. to which we should first go o utside of o ursch·cs in order to keep in tontnct "ith them. As 10 "principles··. thC) can be seen as kind of ''ideal o thers·· or ''\'Cr1ical o thcl's-,

:ll which we should mnkc cll'ort to arriYc thro ugh going beyo nd all kind$ of paniculouity. maacriulity and cuncrc tcrl~S in order to aehic\·c unh crsality, ideality and :tbstracUlcss. T hese should harC' dirrcrcnt l:tycrs or degrees that's \\'by we should go fro m the sh.allon• to the deep. from lhc superficial

to the core. fmm tJJe low to the. high. For Z.hu Xi. we hum:tn should always go beyond oursch·es and move towards the other, to im·estigatc things and to inquire :tbout their principles . In tl1is: \\tty. \\C will be able to return to ourselves with self-u nderstanding :tnd thereby enlighten our own true sclrhood, The vision that one cDn return LO one ·s self through 1he detour of many others nnd nchic\'t self-understanding tltrou&b inquirins al>out m3ny Lhing·s principles. that one cou ld ercntually attain sudden enlightenment by investigating one thing afier another. presupposes thnt between principles of th inss ~d pl'ineiplcs mind there must be co-naturality. interrelatedness c seen as OOsic presuppositions o f the compatibility, complementarity :md tommunicability among things and bct\\CC11 things and self. PhiiOsophic:~lly spca~ing. these :~rc basic presuppositions or Zhu Xi.s phiJo.sophy. h is probably bcc:mse of tbcsc bOlSic pn:suppositions that Zhu Xi's tend ency to reduce d ille-renee for the interest of unity is much strooger than his tl!ndenc:) 10 rl!spcct diffl!renc.c in itsl!lf or l!vcn to let others

or

be themselves. CON FUCIAN GENEROSITY T O MANY OTHERS

Now. how about Confucian \'i rtue of ge:ncrosit) '! In cencr{ll. generosity could be- u.ndcrstood i.o two senses: e ither :~s l.ibc ~lj ty o r as magnanimity. When \\C look for Confucian \·irluc of generosity in the sense oflibcrality o r gcnci'Osity as to the giring <W sharing o f o ne ·s material goods, we might first think of Zilu. When 3ssisting Confucius with Y:tn Hui, ::.skcd b)· Confucius. as 10 what they would like most to d o, Zilu s.3id. ·· 1 \Hiuld like to share my horses and carriages, my clothing and furs. with my friend, nnd if tl1cy damage them. to bear them no ill will." (At~(l/ccts 5.26. Ames 102) This shows Zilu b:tS a ,iuuc or Jibernlity. Ercn if it concerns the sharing.. not the um::ooditional gwmg, nc \·cnhcless cxpres!' his non-possessiveness :~nd g.cncrous sharing with many o thers in the sense of friends. Zilu didn·t s.ay -share with any otl1cr in general" bUI ·'share with friends,r \\'hO \\Crc equal one '' ith another and reciproc:.l in being good to each other. So it seems thot Zilu cherished more fricnd.shjp than material L,'OO
mr

.Jill

strong sense. Ac<:ording 10 Aristodc. friendship is also n 1-..ind of vinuc. Zilu therefore sho wed h is generosity in

th~ C·Ontc:xt

of friendship in n strong

sense. But Zilu's generosity in terms of liberality ns to his

0 \\U

mntcrial

&tOOds, C\'Cfl his ambition 10 govern "ell a slate of thousand chariots. \\WC not highly cYaluatcd under Confucius eyes! in comparison with tho se of

others. This was the-case when Zilu. Zc:n:;.xi, Ra11~·ou and Gongxi hua wen: asked by Confucius about how would the~· do if someone did recognize their true sch'cs, ::unong all the ans,,crs. Confucius '''ould st~.y only ..I'm with Zcng:~i.'' ·· That's to say Confucius \\aS more in prnise of Zcng~i's free life style in union with Hc:wcn and earth: ··At th e end of s pring . with

the spring clothes h:n·ing already been finished, I would like. so.ys Zcngxi. in the comp:m~ or li\'c or six young men ot sb: or SC\'en children. to cleanse ourseh·es in the Yi Ri\'Ct , 10 rC\'CI in the cool brec:l'.eS tu the Alt.:lr for Rain, ttnd then return home singing.'' (AnalcGts I I :26, Amc:s 150) From this we cnn sec Confucius put emphasis on the c;"istcntiul fl!cling as a whole :md tl1c spiritual horh:on chat COnlCS closer to the rhythm of DlliUre. This shows the c.ostnic brc:uh Confucius tnind in the sense m:'lgnanimity. In gcncr:'ll Confucius would emphasize generosity thal is genuine. and blame the f31sc liberality. That's probably the meaning of Confucius' blrune of Wei Shcngao by saying -who said that Wei Shcngao is upright? \Vhcn someone bcgged \incgar from him . he in turn bc~gcd it from his neighbors and then prcscntt.-d it 10 the person who tm_._ asked him for it." (Analuls 5.2-l. Arocs 101) J nd c~d. Confucius mind wns so great thnt. his vinuc: of generosity is not limi100 10 libc-ralitv. bu1 much c.loscr to \\ htn Aristotle $.'lid a...:; "magnanimity." On the onC hand. Confucius did not c.are much :about the gain or lose in material goods. his spirim,11 horizon "as mueh tony th:m uny desire tOr fortw1c and position, as shO\\ll \\ hen he sa id~ "'To cat coarse food, drink plain w:ncr. and pillow oneself on a bent !lllll •• there is plco1surc to be found in these things. But wealth and position gaine-d through inappropriate mea.ns ~· lhcsc :uc to me like flo:lting clouds." (A nalects 1; I6. Ames 114) His own nmbi1ion W\lS much higher. which. according to his own words. is "to bring peace and contentment to the aged. 10 sh:uc relationshiJ' or trust :md conlidcncc with my friends, and 10 IO\'C ond pro te~t the young.'' (Aut•ltcJj· 5 :2<•. Ames 102) This mc:ms whut Confucius would most like to do iS the CXistenlial comf'"ort or all people al a ll ages, which might COnte from the dcm:.md ofunh·c rs:llizing the vinuc of humanness. We should point out here that Confucius understand also generosity in the sense or reciprocity. H.: said. when MS\\ Cring to Zi:zlumg's question abomwn. "One who can pmctice five thincs wherever he may be is a man of humnnity ... Enrnestncss. libcmlity. trutltfulncss. diligence. and gcnerositr.- As WI! can see among these li\'c \ irtucs. /.:rrnn (libcrnlily) rmd hui (gcncro$ity) ore reb ted to the 'irtuc of being generous, although nil fi\'c arc rclotcd to r:cciprocal ,·i.uucs. as Confucius himself explain. "IJ one is e11rncst. OCle will not be treated \\ith disrcSI)."CI: If one is liberal. one will

or

or

302

I inc:ent Slwn

''ill

win the heart of all. If one is trustful. one be trusted. lf one is diligent one will be successful.. And if one is generous. one will be :tblc to enjoy the sc:n.·icc of others."" (Armlc<:ts 17:6. Chom 46·2:17) Note thJt Confucius said {111 these in the contcxl of conscqucncc. that ~ ou ·n not tx: lrcntcd with disrespect, will win the hc.:~ rt of all. ''ill be trusted, will be successful. will be able to enjoy the scn ·icc of others etc. This shows us Confucius t:·Onsidcrcd mornl nliitlcl's fro m the conscqucntialist. not only fro m the

incentiort.11iSI point of view. But, libcr:dity <1nd generosity in Confuci:tn

sense, !IS to the' consequences they invite. still stand on rcciprocit~·· We can understand Confuci:m \ 'illues in I\\ O!i senses. ··relational virtues" defined as hamtonii'ation of relationship: and '"aplitudinal ,·inuc"

defined :t.s cxcdlcncc in one 's nntural abilit~'· Reciprocity is the basis on which was buill Coufu<:iM relational 'inucs and social rclationsbiJ' in general. h is de:tr thal nil rda tion:.'l l vinues refer to others and response from others. rehnit.:m which i..t; 10 be mea.liute by reciprocity. This is much clc.nrc-r when we come 10 Other relational Yirtucs. such ns those in the ri\'C cssenli:tl relationships. consisting ahr:ws in the b:trmonit'.3tion of human relationship, ''hcthcr it concerns rcl:uion between husb:utd and wife. or parents Md children, or brothers and sisters, or friends and lo\'crs, or individual and socict)'. l11csc arc not to be seen merely as biological or social rchuionsl:tip. on the contr.:uy. they :uc to be rcali;:cd ns ethically meaningful relationship. Tile meaning of good relationship. such as pi ct~ . fidelity. scurrility. royahy....ctc .. could be interpreted diO'crcntly acc-ording to the custom of the times. but its essence as the harmoni ~o t ion of rcbllionship SL1) s :1h' ays as ,·.,lid now and forcH:r. The process of h:'lnnoniJ<.ation of rclou ionship is :\ process af enlargement fmm rcc.iprocit~ to wt.iversoJiJ<.abilit) . Rcctprociw is essential for human rcl:uionship ;,c-eording to Confucianism. Just as the wny Confucius responded to Zaiwuo. one of his disciples. who proposed lWO ~gumcnts . one based upon the ncccssit~· of maintaining social order. the other based upon the circle or natural process. against the maintenance of a funcrnl rites. But Confucius answered him by the argument of human rcciprocit)•. that in the earliest time of our childhood. we were taken care of by our parents. and 1his \\aS the reason '' h)' \\ C observe those rites in response 10 the IO\'C of our parents for us. The fonn of these ritunl practices touJd be thnngt.-d :.tccording tO Lhc dcmund Of limC$, but the C'$$CRCC of rcciproc it~· in human relationship remains. But the good hum::.n relationship come ~ to its fulfillment when enlarged fl'Otn reciprocity to unh'crsali1.ability. Tl1at's why Confucius. when asl:cd by Zilu concerning ho\\ 3 exemplary person bch:ne.s. answered first by the cultivation of oneself for one's dignity. then cuhiwation of oneself for the happiness of other's. finnlly cultivation oneself for tl1c boppi.ncss of nil the people. From reciprocity to uni \'ersn l ilabi li t~ . this ntC01ns that we should tr:msc;cnd the; limit of special relationship to univcrs3li1.ablc reliltionship. c\·cn to the point of sccins people within fo ur seas as brothers. Which means humankind could treat other fellowmen, "ith no rcg.1rd of his

.JIIJ

famib . profession. company. race and nntion. but just with Jcn. n unin:rs.1lizing love. only bcc~msc he is ~i member of the humankind. And with the act of S'lm. one can go out side of one's self through kUlgu.ngc nppropria1ion and slrnng.ify from one's self 10 the o ther. simplr because he is human. T1liS is the wa)' by which Confuciani~m enlarges the hannoniz;ation of human ~ 13tionsh ip. the fully unfolding of which is the process of fo rmatiQn of 'irtuous life. not merely o lire of obscr' in:; nbsolutizcd oblig3tions.

CONCLUSION

from philosophical point of ,·icw. the process of globalization should be seen n.s rut histo ricnl process of r~l i t.ing the c\·cr-uni\'c rsalizing human n:uun: going bc~ond bonrders o f an~ kind. The d~ namis m behind thi..~ is bum:m intelligence 4nd desire. their un\'Cr$aliZlhility nncJ

pcrfcctibilh). developed since lmmnn_ki_nd's humity "ill be a r~ource of inspir-ation. e\'Cn if they luwc some limit as to Lhei.r cmph.lSis on l'cGiprocity c:tnd need fun her support from an original generosity. If human being is not ready for runhcr strangilication and greater generosity ro many others. he

will not be

rc.:~dy.

not

C\"'Cil wonh~·.

of a real glob:1li-zntion. not to sny

entering in a higher fonn of uni\'crsaliz:nion in tcrn1s of the uni\'ersc or all under hc~n·en. as Confucians would say. REFERENCES Ames. R. und Rosemont H. tr.msbtors. 1998. '/lu.t Analct:tJ. of Ctn1}i1cius. A 1'/rilosvpiJ/t•a/l'rtmsiMion. New York: Ballanlinc Books. Chan. \V.T. J963. A ,'}'tmrcc Book in Chmcse Philosophy. Prince-ton:

f>J'inecton Uni\CI'Sil}' Press. Lau. O.C.. tmns lator. 1910.Mem:tiiS. New York: Penguin Bool;s. Shcn. Vincent 2002. Conlrnsl. Suangificatwn nnd l)mloguc (in Chinese). Taipei: Wmtnn. Wang Fm•J . Clwtmslum Chu(mslm (Complete WoJl;S of Wrmg Fu7-i). Chang Sb.1: Vue l.u Publishing House. Vol. 6. Zhu Xi, 1?85. Si Shu Ji llw (Col.lcc:tcd Com.meotaric:s of the Four Booh). Chang Sha· Yudu Publishing House.

.iO.J

I inc:ent Sh;•n

Zhu XL Zltuzi Wet!P (Collected Writings of Master Zhu). proofrc:ul by Chen Jumning. Taipei; Defu Foundation. 2000. Chapter 13. Vol. 2. Zhu Xi. 2000. Zhuzi Wcty't (C'olle<:lcd Writings of Masccr Zhu): proofread by Chen Junming. T;~ i pci; Dcfu Foundation. Chapter ~ ·t Vol.S.

List of Contributors Chan,

Ala n

K.L..

Associate

Pron~t

(Undcrgrndu:.lc

Education) and Professor of Chinese Philosophy. Dcpanmc.nr of Philosophy. National Singapore Uni\"'Crsily. Singapore. Chan, Win~·cbcu k. Associate Professor. Dep:utmcnt of Philosophy. Brock Uni·,·crsily. St. Catherine. Cnnada Chong. Kln1-1:hong. Oi, ,ision of Humanities, The Hong Kong

Uni,·crsity of Sdcncc nnd Tcx:hnology. Hong Kong. Cua, Anlonio S.. Professor Emeritus. Scl1001 of Philosophy. Cntholic Uni\'ersit)' of America, Washington DC, USA.

l:luanJ:,

Chun·chich,

Distinguished

Professor

of

History.

Ocpanmcot of History, N:uional Taiw11n Uni\'crsity. T3iJ)Ci, Taiwan. Huanl!, Yon~ Professor. Department of Philosophy. Kut7.lown Unh crsil~· . Kut:llo'' "· USA. liu. J oh;uma. Professor. Department of East Asian Studies. Unh·crsit)' of Toronto. Toronto, Cnn3d.1. Lo, Vucl Kcunl!. Associntc Professor. Ocpnrtmcnt of Chinese Studies. National Singapore Uni\crsity. Singapore. Nu~·en, Anb Than, AssociAte Professor. Dcp:utrnent of Philosophy. NulionuJ UniYcrsity of Singapore. Singuporc.

Slu.•n, Vinct~nt . Lee Chuir in Chinese Thought and Cuhure. OcptU1mcot of East Asian $(udics ru1d Ocpnruncnt of Philosophy. Univcrsit~· of Toronto. Toronto. Canada. T~
INDEX A

Ackrill. J.L , .l1

h<m..:Jiccncc, .1!!..2;\S-239.

udl'oilnc.-::.;s, Ui al!slhl"l.IC plc3s:tn-e, 1L1:Lld

lx'IK·•;ul<.,u:c. L 12. 8!4 2L

'.1'-'4'

:;~c:~ thctics . L65....61.. US.

oll1'l."Ciion. 2..12. HI. 61. i0-71. 108, lll..l 29. 219,

*' ()) ()() m

Allills..m. Robcrl, 2..li :l\1nu:;m, 225. 'N ;

Ames. R(lgcr.

~ 225

295-296.

100-101 J01

An H} wang, 232. 2d.S. .!lllalau. lit·h·. l..8..27-30. :l2-37. ~0-45 48-57. i2..Ul. 67-6S. 72. 7-l. l.S!t IR7-18K

12.L 195-197. 199.222. 224- 227. 222-2'\0. 2:\2- 2\l 2.11. 247-2-IX. 25il. 253-267. 26!L 272-275. 27S-279. 2lU.. 286..,?X8-2R9 22 5-2%

1fXJ-301 :J.ntago nism, ?t)3 ttppc!!rancc. !!:,llllill:L 1!iL .l.fiil.. .114. 179. l.lil Aquin!lS. 192 220.225 A1i~totlt:. U.. 2l:2=l... !Y... JQ2.. .ua.. 19 H 1)1 , "0(. H.l 22$-226. 'tO I iitman. l!l2 amlH.·nlid l~·. lS. 6.:!.. 130. 22i tl ll lOJl(\IU~',

i\', !_ 217. ?80. 'NO

,\;-.;il)lo~y. ..1.22

2..l&.. 26-1. 166.. 213,. 22& Dodhi. lf.:X. 208. 226-22i Dodhls!nh·:••.l5lll. P)4 201 -'0~ 211 -2 19. 224 227 /Juuk ofChange-S. JO. :I.L2J2 ill HMk of.\ll1$ic. c; J.(j'J. 2L Ol)ok t~{Uitt:.Y , 62...65-(1()._~ l.i.l22 229 211l..lll Brtthn\:mi!'l-111. 115.1.12 UuJJha. 41.45 lli. l 76. IRf>·IR ? .I.&L 190 205·206 20S-109. 21.l 217. 21•). 226 -227,249.2(~~. 27 1

AuJJhuhood. 17<;. l?l). IS3. 212. 1ll!. Buddh1sm. 1 3 '3 7-39. ·11 -12 :li. J7 I - I 7J !76.1 77 179-!RZ J.&L 187. 2t!~·205 207-208. 2 10-21-L 21~. 227 230·2~ 1 235. 2-JS. 256.267. 271 . 214. 27S. 276

c tuus::~lity.

2!ll.. 22ll

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