Composit in Infra truCtur Building New Markets
e
ELSEVIER
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
UK
Elsevier Science Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1AS, UK
USA
Elsevier Science Inc, 665 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010, USA
JAPAN
Elsevier Science Japan, Tsunashima Building Annex, 3-20-12 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan
Copyright 9 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd Author: Elizabeth Marsh Project Editor: Jane Gilby All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the publishers. Whilst every care is taken to ensure that the data published in this report is accurate, the publishers cannot accept responsibility for any omissions or inaccuracies appearing or for the consequences arising therefrom. First edition November 2000 ISBN 1 85617 368 2
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Contents
Global industry overview Main market areas by region 1.2.1 North America 1.2.2 Western Europe 1.2.3 Japan 1.2.4 Southeast Asia 1.2.5 Eastern Europe 1.2.6 South America 1.2.7 Middle East Challenges and opportunities Recent developments 1.4.1 Regulations and legislation 1.4.2 Developments in materials 1.4.3 Industry moves
19 19 21 21
1.5
Mergers and acquisitions 1999-2000
22
2.1
Roads and bridges 2.1.1 North America 2.1.2 Europe 2.1.3 Southeast Asia including Japan Chemical process plant (including cooling towers) Pipelines and tanks Power supplies Marine (harbours and docks) Offshore Public utilities Mass transit
33 36 38 40 40 42 45 48
1.1 1.2
1.3 1.4
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
2 4 4 7 9 11 14 15 16 16
49 50 51
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets iii
Contents
3.4
Introduction Resins 3.2.1 Unsaturated polyester (UP) resins 3.2.2 Vinyl ester resins 3.2.3 Phenolic resins 3.2.4 Epoxy resins Reinforcements 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 Glass fibres 3.3.3 Aramid fibres 3.3.4 Carbon fibres Other materials
55 58 58 61 62 63 64 64 64 69 71 74
4.1
Introduction
75
4.2
Hand lay-up and spray-up Pultrusion Filament winding Injection moulding Resin transfer moulding (RTM)
76
3.1 3.2
3.3
4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
5.1 5.2
5.3 5.4
5.5
5.6
Preforms, fabrics and textiles Other processes Market share and growth per technology
International standards North American standards 5.2.1 Standards from ANSI 5.2.2 Standards from the American Petroleum Institute 5.2.3 ASTM standards 5.2.4 Military standards European standards 5.3.1 UK standards 5.3.2 German standards Asia-Pacific standards 5.4.1 Japan 5.4.2 Taiwan 5.4.3 New Zealand Fire-resistance standards 5.5.1 International fire standards 5.5.2 American fire standards 5.5.3 Underwriters Laboratories 5.5.4 European fire standards Health and safety
77 81 82 83 85 87 89
92 99 101 101 101 106 107 108 115 121 121 127 127 127 129 131 132 132 134
Contents
Manufacturing processes Roads and bridges Power supply systems Marine including docks and harbours Offshore applications Chemical process plant including cooling towers Public utilities Mass transport Other applications
137 138 145 150 152 154 160 164 167
169 171 173 175 177 179 181
7. 13 7. 14 7. 15 7. 16
Accordis Group Applied Advanced Technology Co (ApATech Co Ltd) Ashland Chemical Co Inc Bekaert Composites Brunswick Technologies Inc Creative Pultrusions Inc Denali Inc Devonport Management Ltd (DML) Dow Chemical Co DSM Composite Resins Hamon Thermal Europe SA Hardcore Composites Inc Hexcel Corp Maunsell International Ltd Owens Corning LLC PPG Industries Inc
7. 17 7. 18 7. 19 7. 20 7. 21
Psychrometric Systems Inc Strongwell Inc Toray Industries Vestas Wind Systems AS Zoltek Companies Inc
195 196 200 202 205 207 209 212 216 218
8.1
Companies
223
8.2
Associations and organizations
298
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7. 10 7. 11 7. 12
183 186 190 192
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
v
List of tables
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17 Table 18
Table 19 Table 20 Table 21 Table 22 Table 23 Table 24 Table 25 Table 26
vi
Predicted growth for composites in infrastructure, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Predicted growth for composites in infrastructure, 1999-2005 (US$ millions) Glass fibre use in building and construction in Europe (%) Thermoset use in composites by geographical sector, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Global use of composite constituents, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) US composite shipments by market sector, 1995-2005 (000s tonnes) Composites as finished products in Europe, 1999 (000s tonnes) Thermoset use by market segment in Europe for 1999 (%) Composite use by market sector in Japan, 1999-2005 (tonnes) GFRP infrastructure applications in Japan (000s tonnes) Thermoset composite markets in Southeast Asia Thermoset-based composite use in Eastern Europe, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Polymer consumption in Eastern Europe, 1999 (000s tonnes) Thermoset demand for South America, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Composite demand for infrastructure in South America, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Thermoset demand for the Middle East, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Relative price index for composites and other materials (per kg) Value of composite developments in roads and bridges (US$ millions) Corrosion-resistant market for composites in the USA, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Thermoset pipe market by end-user industry (%) Global use of composites in tanks and pipelines, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Projected global growth for wind turbine blades by volume and value, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes and US$ millions) Spending on US ports, 1996-2000 Global use of thermoset composites in rail transport, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) European growth in composite use for rolling stock, 1999-2005 (tonnes) Unsaturated polyester (UP) resin consumption, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes)
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
xi xii XV
9 11 11 14 15 15 15 16 17 33 41 43 44 45 49 52 52 59
List of tables
Table 27 Table 28 Table 29 Table 30 Table 31 Table 32 Table 33 Table 34 Table 35 Table 36 Table 37 Table 38 Table 39 Table 40 Table 41 Table 42 Table 43 Table 44 Table Table Table Table Table
45 46 47 48 49
Table 50
Table 51 Table 52 Table 53 Table 54 Table 55 Table 56 Table 57 Table 58 Table 59 Table 60
Phenolic use in composites in Europe, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Mechanical properties of typical reinforcing fibres Glass reinforcement market by application (%) World market for glass reinforcement in thermosets, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) The glass fibre market in China, 1999-2005 (O00s tonnes) Growth in glass fibre production in India, 1999-2005 (O00s tonnes) Market for carbon fibres, 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) Material deposition rates for composite manufacturing methods European thermoset use in pultrusion (000s tonnes) Global growth for RTM as a percentage of manufacturing, 1999-2005 World production and growth for materials and fabrics (000s tonnes) Fabrication techniques and growth worldwide (%) Estimated fabrication volumes and growth rates for the USA, Europe and Japan in 2000 (000s tonnes) Manufacturing processes for GFRP composites in Germany and Europe in 1999 (% and 000s tonnes) Financial returns for Accordis (~g millions) Financial results for Ashland Inc (US$ millions except share data and return on capital) Financial results for Bekaert Group, 1998 and 1999 (~ 000s) Financial results for Brunswick Technologies Inc, 1995-1999 (US$ millions except per share data) Financial results for Denali, 1995-1999 (000s) Financial results for DML Ltd, 1995-1998 (s Financial figures for Dow and Union Carbide (US$ billions) Financial results for Dow Chemical, 1995-1999 Comparison by business sector on Dow's sales first quarters, 1999-2000 Sales and earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) for Dow's Performance Plastics business, 1995-1999 (US$ billions) Sales for DSM Performance Materials Division, 1998 and 1999 (~ millions) Net sales for DSM clusters, 1998 and 1999 (~g millions) DSM financial results for 1998 and 1999 (~g millions) Financial results for Hamon Thermal, 1995-1999 (~g millions) Sales by division for Hamon Thermal, 1999 (~ millions) Financial results for Hexcel, 1995-1999 (US$ millions) Financial results for Maunsell, 1997-1998 and 1998-1999
(us$000s)
Financial results for AeCom, 1998-1999 (US$ millions) Financial results for Owens Coming (US$000 millions except income/loss and share price) Financial results for PPG Industries Inc, 1995-1999 (US $millions except share earnings)
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
63 64 65 65 67 67 71 76 80 84 87 89 90 90 171 175 176 179 183 185 187 188 189
189 191 192 192 194 195 199 201 201 203 206
vii
List of tables
Table 61 Table 62 Table 63 Table 64 Table 65 Table 66 Table 67 Table 68
Revenue growth for Global Water Technologies Inc by quarter, 1997-2000 (US$ millions) Financial results for Global Water Technologies Inc by quarters during 1999 and 2000 (US$ millions) Toray sales to outside customers for fiscal year ended 31 March 2000 Consolidated results for Toray for fiscal year ended 31 March 2000 (~ millions and US$) Toray financial results (unconsolidated) fiscal year ended 31 March 1999, 2000 and 2001 (estimated) (~ millions) Sales of wind turbines by Vestas and subsidiaries, 1997-1999 (in MW) Financial results for Vestas, 1995-1999 (DKr millions) Zoltec financial information (fiscal year ended 30th September) (US$000s)
208 209 215 215 216 218 218 222
Executive summary
The use of composites in infrastructure covers four main areas: 9 Q
9 Q
long-standing applications such as pipes and tanks; well-established, but growing, applications such as wind turbine blades and cooling towers; retrofitting and repair of existing civil infrastructure (development stage); and use in new civil infrastructure (research and development stage).
There is some overlap between the areas, such as the innovative work done by the oil industry using carbon fibre reinforcement for specialized pipes and the traditional area of pipes. The overall global composites industry in 2000 is valued at US$8.5 billion in finished product terms, with a production volume of nearly 5 million tonnes. About 15% of that sum could be assigned to infrastructure - in both volume and value - but the new areas such as roads and bridges, which have excited the composites industry, represent only a small fraction of the market. The US composite industry covering the last two, innovative, areas of infrastructure given above was valued at US$20-30 million in 1999 and, although growth is over 1020% per annum, this is coming from a low base. In addition, much of that market is in rehabilitation and repair rather than in new structures. However, when considering both the long-standing and new developments, infrastructure will grow by 2005 to cover some 20% of the composites market. The bulk of that will be split between traditional markets, as pipes, tanks and corrosion-resistant applications, and the existing, but growing, markets of cooling towers and wind turbine blades. The latter now hold nearly equal amounts to the traditional markets and will show the fastest growth. In determining growth for the composites i n d u s t r y - in all applications- it must be emphasized that traditional materials will not allow their market share to be eroded without fighting back. This may be a matter of technical developments or changes in fashion, but it is a fact that cannot be ignored. Legislation and government policies can develop or destroy new markets. As an example, fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) tank sales in the USA showed very large growth during 1998 as EPA legislation on cathodic testing of petroleum tanks led to the widespread replacement of steel tanks. With the end of the replacement period, in December 1998, the market collapsed and the long life of the new composite tanks means that the market will be depressed for some years. The wind turbine industry has received considerable assistance from favourable pricing regimes for renewable energy systems that has encouraged growth. The disadvantage of this is that if such subsidies are removed, as happened in 1986, the d e m a n d may collapse. US federal regulations are now requiring the paper and pulp industry to replace its use of chlorine with chlorine dioxide and hydrogen peroxide by the end of 2000, which is giving increased sales of corrosion-resistant products. The cycle may follow that for tanks once the replacement is completed.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
ix
Executive summary
The material costs of fibre and resin in composite structures are always greater than their equivalent in steel and concrete. It is, therefore, important to minimize the quantities of fibre and resin that are used. Straightforward material replacement by conventional steel 'look-alike' sections will rarely optimize material content or achieve cost-effectiveness as this implies new design thinking. Changes in thinking are required for the whole industry and its customers. Ibeams, H-beams, channels and angles are considered the proper shapes for structural elements because those are the shapes traditionally produced in steel rolling mills. However, there are other alternatives in composites and it costs no more to produce a complex shape than an I-beam. This approach to design can reduce the final cost by eliminating parts or work, but it requires new thinking from both the composites industry and from their customers. A Catch-22 problem in designing with composites is that a very complex array of properties can be achieved using composite materials. On the one hand, this gives the designer immense freedom to choose different configurations but that very degree of freedom makes it difficult to provide clear design guidance and makes it harder to transfer experience learned on one project to other projects. There is a need for more design guides that provide the kind of information that engineers are accustomed to obtain for traditional materials. The USA has made a useful start in establishing monitoring programmes for new work, but it will obviously take time to derive case studies that can be fed into the design guides. In addition, it is important for design engineers and commissioning authorities to consider total costs rather than the simple up-front capital expenditure. Design, fabrication, erection and maintenance must be viewed as a whole rather than divided between capital expenditure and operational expenditure. If the commissioning body is not responsible for operating expenditure it is unlikely that they will consider low-cost maintenance to be important w h e n compared with the initial high cost of materials. Company size is also a limitation on the composite manufacturing industry. As an example, in the UK the average size of a company is around 33 staff, rising to about double that figure in the USA. Even the larger pultruders in Europe have only 70-80 staff. This limits the availability of companies to release staff for work in marketing, standards, and research and development (R&D). With the small n u m b e r of employees goes under-capitalization. Money is needed for development and new equipment. There is a heavy dependence on the large material manufacturing companies to provide effort. Companies such as DSM, Dow, Toray and PPG spend sums to the value of 4% of sales on R&D. A notable feature of the industry is the variation in company size between the material manufacturers and the component manufacturers. Most materials companies are large multi-nationals often with turnover measured in billions of dollars. There are some early ventures in which materials companies undertake marketing exercises for the smaller, component manufacturing companies. An example would be the link between Exchem and Fibreforce and Pultrex in the UK. There are also early indications of vertical integration as materials manufacturers such as Zoltek buy c o m p o n e n t manufacturers such as SPS Systems. Hexcel, USA has been unusual in operating such an approach, although it is c o m m o n in Japan. Fabrication investment techniques the highest
x
methods are also an indication of small company size, as the capital is not available for closed mould or continuous production such as resin transfer moulding (RTM) and pultrusion. The USA has pultrusion production, partly related to lower energy costs and partly
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
Executive summary
to a longer history. The origins of the composites industry were in aerospace and boat building with limited production numbers in which hand lay-up and sprayup were suitable. However, the process is labour intensive, gives variable quality control, does not allow cost reductions for quantity and has environmental problems with styrene production. Nonetheless, open mould systems will continue to hold the largest share of manufacturing. Even in developed manufacturing areas, such as North America, Japan and Western Europe (all currently around 30-35%), open mould systems will only see a reduction to around an average of 30% by 2005. One example illustrates the problem faced by the composite industry in substituting for conventional materials. The UK uses approximately 750 000 tonnes per a n n u m of steel reinforcing bars and a similar amount of steel section. Replacing even 1-2% of the steel market would require the entire current pultrusion capacity of the UK. The construction industry would want guaranteed supply before committing to widespread use and the composites industry would need high investment to add capacity before they could supply greater quantities. The levels of demand that reinforcement bars (rebars) could generate shows why the composites industry is interested in infrastructure; even a 5% penetration in the UK would require nearly 5000 tonnes per annum of high technology fibre. A key factor in composite acceptance for the new areas of infrastructure is the lack of standards. Although the industry and the standards organizations are making considerable efforts to establish standards, a realistic assessment by one authority indicated that it would be 5 years before there was a full range of formal standards in place. Given the acceptance time that will follow any standardization, this would indicate a 5-10-year period for new structures. Standards are obviously of concern in upgrading work but are not as critical- structures are already built and the concern is that they may fall down without upgrade rather than suffer failure because of the use of innovative materials. The question of public liability in new structures is a severe constraint on the use of new materials or techniques. The global civil engineering and construction market is estimated at US$800 billion and this must be of interest to the composites industry. The cost of infrastructure rehabilitation work in Europe and the USA is well in excess of US$100 billion, with figures as high as US$300 billion being advanced (Tables 1 and 2). Whatever the actual figure, this is a market with considerable potential for composites and offers more immediate returns than composite use in new structures.
Table 1 Predicted growth for composites in infrastructure, 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999 Roads, bridges
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
10
11
13
14
16
18
20
Corrosion resistant
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
Pipes and tanks
250
255
260
265
273
281
290
Cooling towers
200
206
213
220
227
234
241
Mass transit a
55
6
78
90
103
115
128
Wind turbine blades
40
48
57.5
70
84
101
121
aAbove- and below-ground rail systems.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets xi
Executive summary Table 2 Predicted growth for composites in infrastructure, 1999-2005 (US$ millions) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Roads and bridges
70
86
107
124
141
168
190
Corrosion resistant
600
618
636
656
675
695
715
Pipes and tanks
600
610
620
630
645
662
678
Cooling towers
600
618
636
656
675
695
715
56
57
58
1452
1597
1757
Mass transit
50
Wind turbine blades 700
51.5 840
53 1008
54.5 1210
Within the period of this report the main growth areas for infrastructure will be cooling towers and wind turbine blades. Wind turbine blades are dependent on favourable pricing regimes in countries such as the USA, Denmark, Germany and Spain, but these will probably continue given the drive for 'green energy' in the face of concerns about global climate change. There is potential in underdeveloped countries as distributed power sources, but these require investment decisions by national energy companies to move from large-scale power systems. The demand for energy is set to continue and this gives both FRP cooling towers and wind turbine blades, which cover both energy production and efficient production, considerable potential for growth. Corrosion-resistant applications will continue to show modest growth, partly dependent on investment in the petrochemical industry in all geographic areas and the introduction of further environmental legislation. The mass transport industry has seen renewed investment in recent years, but this is easing and growth will slow in the next couple of years. Pipes and tanks will remain largely static until 2002-2003 w h e n there could be more investment by public utilities and the petrochemical industry. The new area of roads and bridges, which has excited the industry, should be approached with caution. There is potential in the market but this will be in repair and rehabilitation rather than in new work for the period of this report. Even in the repair business where growth will be at least 10% per annum, this is coming from a very low base and still relies on p u m p priming by national authorities. When considering growth rates for the sector, it should be remembered that customer willingness to pay is limited. A Californian survey found that 98% of residents thought that infrastructure was important but would not pay 1% more in taxes for upgrades; only a major event such as an earthquake changed those opinions.
xii
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
Methodology
A major concern has been to establish which areas are covered by the term 'infrastructure', balancing the need to avoid covering too general an area whilst still covering those sectors which the industry w o u l d recognize as valid. A further concern was h o w to determine the composite market and its potential growth within infrastructure given the lack of formal statistics. Finally, it was necessary to decide which materials would be considered as 'composites' for these applications. The decision was made to include those structural elements that provide support to m o d e m technological life. This included the provision of such services as water treatment, p o w e r supplies and transport. The chemical/petrochemical industry was included as it has revolutionized life in the last century and is the basis for the manufacture of composites. The aerospace and automotive markets were not included as they have been the subject of several other reports. The electronics and c o n s u m e r goods markets were not included, as they do not feature as structural areas. There is a lack of formal statistics in this area; indeed, in the whole area of composites authoritative figures are often not collected or available. Even national statistical collection is deficient as the European Reinforced Plastics Group (GPRMC) has attempted to persuade EUROSTAT to establish a suitable heading for composites in its statistical series, but without success. It is important to note that figures in this report are estimates as there is no heading for 'infrastructure' in industry or national statistical collections. Problems in statistical definition can be seen in figures for composite use within the construction industry, which might be considered to include infrastructure. The construction industry is the largest single end-use industry for plastics, but most of these applications are not reinforced composites and even w h e n these are used it is in such areas as building panels, b a t h r o o m fittings and w i n d o w profiles with cladding, doors, sills and shutters taking a large part of the remainder. The Japanese are notable for the excellence of their statistical collection over many years through the Japan Reinforced Plastics Society (JRPS). However, the figures that JRPS collect u n d e r 'Building and construction' are largely related to domestic and office building. The building and construction heading presents problems t h r o u g h o u t the world. Some well-established markets such as pipes, tanks and silos can provide reasonable market figures. Many statistical series for composites provide a heading for 'corrosion-resistant' applications and a high percentage of this is considered to be part of infrastructure as defined for this report. Even in these areas there is no clear indication of the division between thermoplastics and thermosets, and estimates have been made for this report. Such organizations as the Market Development Alliance of the FRP Composites Industry are n o w beginning to attempt the collection of statistics for this area but are finding considerable difficulties in achieving reliable figures.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
xiii
Methodology The raw material manufacturers are the best source of statistics but are not always certain of the end-use of their materials. Owens Coming estimates that construction consumes about 43% of composites, but this is mostly in the general building area and not infrastructure composites, consumption for transport is 20% but this is mostly in the automotive industry with only a very small amount for mass transit systems such as trains. As the topic of infrastructure is new even the materials manufacturers have no clear statistical information in many areas. The situation in the North America, which had well-established figures under the Composites Institute, has deteriorated. The Market Development Alliance of the FRP Composites Industry (MDA) will collect statistics in the future but these will not necessarily be in the same format as the previous series. MDA feels that merely to quote tonnages is not p r o d u c t i v e - a valid point. The Composites Fabricators Association will be collecting statistics but has so far only issued figures under the old Composites Institute general headings. The Society of Advanced Composite Manufacturers (SACMA) ceased to exist from 1 June 2000 and, consequently, their statistical series covering 80% of the US market for carbon fibre production is no longer available. The situation in Europe is saved by the work of AVK, Germany in producing valid statistics over the years. Some of the professional associations in other geographic areas do attempt statistical collection but this is varied in its results. The major source of statistical information has, therefore, been the industry itself, covering the companies manufacturing basic materials through to the c o m p o n e n t manufacturers and to end-user industries. The raw materials companies, being larger and having more resources, are a helpful source of information. DSM and Reichhold (for unsaturated polyesters), Owens Coming and Vetrotex (for glass fibre), and Zoltek and Toray (for carbon fibre) have all proved most helpful. The main method of information gathering has been by interviews with these companies and organizations. Normally statistics would have also been acquired from formal sources and cross-checked against industry estimates. As this has not been possible the statistical information should be treated with some caution, although every effort has been made to balance figures from a range of sources to achieve a reasonable degree of validity. One problem that the industry faces is the lack of openness in supplying market information. Obviously some figures must be considered confidential and it is understandable why companies should consider that information obtained at considerable cost should not be supplied free. However, information supplied to associations can be gathered together and then made available to the industry in an anonymous form. This was previously done, with some success, in such areas as North America, which as the largest market and a driving force, provided indications for other areas. It would be helpful if companies could supply information on this basis to EPTA and MDA. Although such information is by its nature always out-of-date, its retrospective assessment gives indications of trends that would prove useful to member companies. The following method has been used in assessing the percentage of infrastructure to be derived from the overall composite market. According to the Association of European Glass Fibre Producers (APFE) the market breakdown for glass fibre use in the building and construction markets in Europe is as shown in Table 3.
xiv
Compositesin Infrastructure- Building New Markets
Methodology Table 3 Glass fibre use in building and construction in Europe (%) Electricity
23
Roofing
20
Industrial infrastructure
19
Bathroom fittings
11
Flooring
8
Facades
6
Decoration
4
Others
9
Discussion with the industry indicates that 5-10% of industrial infrastructure is contained within our definition of infrastructure applications - covering corrosion resistance, pipes and tanks. As building and construction generally comprises some 30% of the composite market we have a figure that gives about 3% of the total. Most production assigned to corrosion resistance can be covered in infrastructure as it includes chemical production, water, sewerage and oil/ petroleum distribution. The figure of less than 1% has been taken for composites in the new infrastructure markets of roads, bridges and structural rehabilitation. Overall, the whole infrastructure market (as defined) takes about 15% of the thermoset composite market, even w h e n firmly established markets are included. Building and construction, automotive, electronics and consumer goods all have much larger market shares. The decision on materials was made to cover thermoset matrices based on unsaturated polyester (by far the largest market), vinyl ester, phenolics and epoxy resins. The reinforcements were taken to be glass (the largest market), carbon and aramid fibres. It would not have been possible to cover all materials and the largest market is glass reinforced unsaturated thermoset polyester both now and for the foreseeable future. The information in the report was gathered by telephone and personal interviews with many companies. The time and courtesy that they have afforded is much appreciated and such areas as the corporate profiles and case studies would have been impossible without their assistance. The trade associations have also given me considerable assistance and I would particularly like to thank Jaap Ketel and his staff at European Pultrusion Technology Association (EPTA), John Busel at Market Development Alliance of the Composite Fabricators Association (MDA) and Ursula Zarbock at Arbeitsgemeinschaft Verstarkte Kunstoffe Technische Vereinigung EV (AVK-TV), Germany. These three, in particular, have wrestled with the provision of information and statistics to the composites industry for many years and they were generous in their assistance. Some technical information has obviously been included in Chapters 3 and 4, and this has been obtained from a range of technical publications and from company literature. The aim has been to provide sufficient technical detail to give understanding whilst also keeping a level that is acceptable in a market study. This report does not aim to replace the wide range of books and journals that provide the industry with its technical and manufacturing data.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets xv
Methodology The standards information in Chapter 5 has been obtained partly from the publications of the standards organizations and partly from discussions with those working on standards committees. The Library of the British Standards Institution was helpful and efficient. This area is still subject to change both in the development of actual standards and in the movement within Europe for the harmonization of standards. The case studies in Chapter 6 have been obtained from the participating organizations and their assistance is gratefully acknowledged. The frankness with which they have covered many details can only assist an industry that is still in a learning phase in many areas. The aim in this section has been to cover as wide a range of markets as possible and to discuss the reasoning behind the projects, problems that occurred with their solution and some indication of the success/ failure of the projects. Where possible, costs or project budgets have been included as it was felt that this was of particular interest to the industry. The companies that have been considered for corporate profiles in Chapter 7 have been chosen as illustrating important aspects of the market both technically and geographically. The profiles were developed from interviews with the companies, supplemented with independent assessment; the aim has not been to present a publicity exercise on behalf of the companies or to make inappropriate criticism. This report is not a financial analysis although, naturally, there has been discussion of company results. Chapter 8 is a directory of companies mentioned in this report with others that illustrate particular areas of the industry. This section does not aim to replace such publications as the Reinforced Plastics Buyers' Guide. The section ends with entries for national and supranational bodies. Many people reading this report will have considerable knowledge of the industry and its manufacturing techniques. The Glossary in Chapter 9 is an introduction for those without this depth of knowledge.
xvi
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
Introduction - market developments
The purpose of a composite is to optimize the properties of materials by the process of combination. It is a c o m m o n principle that two, or more, components may be combined to form a composite material to make the best use of their more favourable properties whilst, hopefully, mitigating some of their less desirable features. Composites, therefore, are a combination of several varieties of materials and exhibit the features of each material, as well as providing special characteristics that no single material can achieve. For the purposes of this report 'infrastructure' is defined as those large-scale civil engineering works that provide services or support for a wide range of people. The definition includes roads, bridges, shore construction, tunnels, docks, harbours, piers, offshore construction, power systems, sewage and water systems, and mass transportation such as railways. It does not include buildings in the conventional sense (composites used for building panels and bathrooms are not included), electronics, marine, consumer goods and appliances, the automotive industry or aerospace. Conventional reinforced concrete is widely used in the infrastructure industries largely because of its easy availability, the low cost of steel and concrete, the design base and experience in use. The deterioration of many structures built 4050 years ago is due to the susceptibility of the steel reinforcement to corrosion, and this is now both a major engineering and a major economic problem. There have been technological developments in structural engineering that require increased design loads and the growth d e m a n d for infrastructure resulting from improved standards of living. The estimated costs of repairing road and bridge decks in the US vary considerably but, if the estimate of 132000 bridges as deficient is correct, the figure will certainly run into billions of dollars. The last decade has seen considerable progress in fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) as reinforcement for concrete, including the replacement of conventional steel reinforcement bars (rebars) with FRP rebars or dowel bars. These have usually been a unidirectional glass fibre-polymer resin composition. However, this application is still in the development stages and, whilst promising, are some years from large-scale use. FRP is also used in those sectors that have aggressive environments - pulp, paper, chemicals, oil and operations taking place offshore, oil and gas wells, harbours and docks. Steel, concrete and timber are the traditional materials in these sectors, often used in a coated or treated form. Even in generally non-aggressive environments such as water supplies, FRP still has a share of the market. In addition to the technical developments, there have been changes in legislation
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
1
Introduction - market developments
that have had an impact of market sectors requirements for corrosion resistance and pricing of energy production. The power-generation industries show considerable growth potential in two main areas for composites - wind turbine blades and cooling towers. As the d e m a n d for energy continues to grow environmentally friendly power-generation systems will be critical if the effects of global climate change are not to be increased. Consequently, both 'green' power-generation systems and efficiencies in operation of conventional power systems will be required. The market for fibre-based composites is dominated by glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP), which represent approximately 90% of the total market, with the remainder of the reinforcement being carbon, aramid and a small amount of other materials. This applies in the developed markets such as North America, Europe and Japan, and to an even greater extent in less advanced markets. In the period to 2005 this figure will remain largely constant with a small increase in carbon fibre reinforcement if the price of carbon fibre is significantly reduced. On production, environmental concerns mean that there is a trend towards closed mould systems, such as resin transfer moulding (RTM) where styrene emission is greatly reduced. The move to closed mould systems is slow and open mould systems will remain the single largest production method for the period of this report. The current figure of some 35% in Europe will decrease to around 30% by 2005. In the developing countries, which have a higher percentage of open mould, there is a current estimate of 72% for China decreasing by 7% to 2001-2002 and by 10% to 2005. The average price for fibre reinforced composites is falling, mainly as a result of decreases in the price for glass fibre and, to a much lesser degree, carbon fibre and aramid fibre. Another factor that is putting downward pressure on prices is competition from the Far East and Southeast Asia.
Despite fears that North America cannot continue its growth of the last few years, there are no indications of an economic downturn and slow but steady growth in thermoset use is predicted. There is a considerable difference in the estimated global growth rates for thermoplastics and thermosets to 2005 with thermosets making gross domestic product (GDP) figures of 2-3% and many thermoplastics growing at over 7% (Table 4). Thermoset resin d e m a n d in 1999-2000 is some 1 million tonnes, which is a little more than the d e m a n d for glass fibre. In both cases only a percentage of the market is for glass reinforced thermoset composites. Growth in Europe has been somewhat disappointing with falls in the important German market and problems with the high value of the p o u n d sterling affecting the UK market. However, exports have shown good growth and this should continue as the Asian market continues to recover. The Japanese economy has been slow to show signs of recovery and even 1% growth in the early years of this report may be optimistic. There should be some improvement from 2003 onwards, but the steel industry will maintain its grip on the automotive market that has provided much of the growth for composites in North America and Europe. Several Japanese steel companies who had invested
2
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
heavily in glass mat thermoplastics (GMT) technology as an alternative to steel pressings have left the market. The Asian crisis resulted in surplus capacity, but this surplus will disappear as the economy recovers and C h i n a - the largest of all markets - shows continued growth. India, the second largest Asian market, has a varied economic history but enormous potential with a large middle class and good educational standards, Many large companies which supply the composites industry have established production units in India to service the Asian market, but there are difficulties in both establishment and operation. Reinforced thermoplastics will expand taking market share from thermosets owing to their ease of processing and recycling ability (Table 5). Owens Coming claims the largest single share (25%) of the global market for glass fibre as reinforcement for composites, with some 650 000 tonnes per annum of the total 3.4 million tonnes. Of this, about 8% is for glass fibre furnace rebuilding. One geographical split gives 44% of the market to North America, 27% to Europe,
Table 4 Thermoset use in composites by geographical sector 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes)
North America
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
750
765
780
795
810
825
840
Western Europe
650
660
670
680
690
700
715
Japan
305
308
311
316
321
325
330
Southeast Asia
320
335
350
370
392
415
440
South America
150
153
156
159
163
167
171
Middle East
131
134
137
140
144
148
153
Eastern Europea
174
179
184
189
195
201
207
Others
<50
<50
<50
<50
51
52
53
2003
2004
2005
alncludes Russia.
Table 5 Global use of composite constituents 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999 UP resins Vinyl ester Phenolic Epoxy Glass f i b r e a Carbon fibre b Aramid fibre
1700
2000 1780
2001 1810
2002 1840
1875
1915
1950
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
140
140
140
138
138
136
136
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
1955
1995
2035
2075
2115
2160
2200
15
15
15
< 10
< 10
< 10
15.5 < 10
15.5 < 10
16
16
< 10
< 10
aGlass fibre products used in reinforcing thermosets. bThis assumes that there is no dramatic reduction in price. If a major price reduction occurred the percentage increase would be about 5% per annum.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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1
Introduction - market developments
24% to Southeast Asia, 4% to Latin America and a similar sum to Eastern Europe, with 2% to the Middle East and other areas. Another geographical split gives 46% to North America, 3% to South America and other areas, and the same amounts to Western Europe and Southeast Asia. The glass fibre content in most composites is around 55%, with the remaining 45% for resins; the extra price for resins is reflected in the split between the US$8 billion value into US$4 billion each for the glass and resin markets.
1.2.1 North America Production of plastics in North America is 43 million tonnes, with sales and captive use at around 45 million tonnes. However, consumption is dominated by the major thermoplastics such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Only 9.5-10% of production is for thermosets, giving a figure of 4-4.5 million tonnes, with some 1.2 million tonnes being used in reinforced form. Unsaturated polyester (UP) is the major material but much of this is not used in a reinforced form for composites. The Composites Institute of the Society of Plastics Industries, in its last report before being disbanded, reported that composite shipments in the USA in 1999 would be 1.7 million tonnes including both thermoset and thermoplastics (Table 6). As thermosets are preferred for composite production it has been estimated that production of thermoset composites is 1.1-1.2 million tonnes. Some 65% of all thermoset composites use glass fibre reinforcements in a polyester or vinyl ester resin, with the final components being manufactured using the o p e n mould method. The remaining 35% are produced using a variety of high-volume manufacturing methods or use such advanced materials as carbon or aramid fibres, vinyl ester, phenolic or epoxy resins. Reinforced thermoset d e m a n d (resins, reinforcement, fillers, etc.) in the USA is forecast to increase by 2-3% per annum to nearly 1.4 million tonnes, valued at US$5.8 billion, by 2005. Growth sectors include corrosion-resistant applications (including pipelines), cooling towers and wind turbines, which are all based on an increase based on tighter environmental constraints and the need for greater efficiencies in power generation. Highway, bridge and earthquake protection applications will show higher growth but coming from a low base. One large sector is transport, but most of this is material used in the automotive industry with only small amounts of thermosets being used in rail transport. The use of phenolics in mass transit systems is not as widespread as in Europe where this market has been driven by tighter safety legislation. Materials favoured in North America include Modar and fire-retardant UP which are considered to meet safety requirements and are cheaper. The construction industry is another large sector but most of this material is used in standard building products and bathroom fittings; very small amounts are used in rehabilitation of existing roads, bridges and buildings either for repair or for earthquake strengthening. This sector has potential but is not yet a major user of composites. In addition, whilst the rehabilitation market has potential, the market
4
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
Table 6 US composite shipments by market sector 1 9 9 5 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) a Market sector
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Aerospace/defence
10.5
11.0
11.2
11.4
11.7
12.0
12.5
Appliance/business equipment
93.0
95.5
97.5
99.6
101.9
104.0
106.5
Construction
345.5
352.0
359.3
366.4
373.7
381.0
389.0
Consumer goods
110.5
115.0
119.4
124.0
129.0
134.0
139.0
Corrosion
190.0
201.0
211.0
219.4
228.0
237.0
245.0
Electrical/electronic 170.5
177.0
184.3
191.6
198.5
206.0
213.0
Marine
182.0
192.0
199.0
205.0
213.0
218.0
224.5
Transport
548.5
576.5
605.0
635.3
667.0
700.0
735.0
Other Total
55.5
57.0
58.5
60.0
61.5
1706.0
1777.0
1845.2
1912.7
1984.3
63.0 2055
64.5 2129
aThis covers thermosets, thermoplastics, reinforcements and fillers. Thermoset-based composites cover some 1.1-1.2 million tonnes.
for new projects is still driven by initial costs rather than long-term maintenance cost. Some 140 000 tonnes of thermoset composite is used in such corrosion-resistant applications as chemical plants, pulp and paper plant, and cooling towers. About 50 000 tonnes of that figure is used for cooling towers. Within this sector the tank business has stagnated, although there is some growth i n g r a t i n g s - about 3%. There is similar growth in sewerage pipes, although many of these are reinforced thermoplastics such as PVC. The USA has one of the world's major wind turbine companies - part of Enron - and this market is still strong as a result of a favourable pricing regime. In the USA the building and construction sector takes some 32% of GFRP use, but most of this is used in conventional building products rather than infi'astructure applications. There is considerable 'pump priming' by the US state and national governments on the use of innovative materials for infrastructure including plastics, although these are not exclusively composites. The US government has made considerable efforts through the Federal Highway Administration, the departments of transportation of individual states, the US Navy and the US Army to fund research programmes that will encourage the use of new techniques in repair and construction of roads, bridges and buildings. Published reports by the US Department of Transportation have indicated that approximately US$35 billion per a n n u m is spent in the USA to maintain the highway and bridge infrastructure. Conservative estimates indicate that approximately US$53 billion is necessary to maintain the highway and bridge infrastructure in its current condition. An estimated 107 683 (18%) of the nation's 576460 bridges are classified as structurally deficient. The primary concerns are seismic safety of roads, bridges and buildings, and corrosive decay of roads and bridges.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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1
Introduction - market developments
While seismic risk is typically associated with California, it is of concern throughout a considerable area of the USA. In 1990 the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials adopted seismic design guides specifications for the entire USA, recognizing the vulnerability of the nation's bridge infrastructure to potential seismic activity along the West Coast, the Midwest (New Madrid fault) and the northeastern USA. The seismic risk to bridge structures differs from region to region owing to different probable earthquake magnitudes and recurrence periods, as well as geological conditions. The unpredictable nature of seismic events and the vulnerability of the majority of existing bridges necessitates the development and implementation of innovative, fast, effective and economical retrofitting technologies to ensure the safe and continued use of the nation's bridge infrastructure. Corrosion in roads and bridges is more typically a problem in the northeastern USA and Canada, where harsh winters require the use of salt for de-icing. The area concerned is much larger and the number of structures is much greater than for other regions. The Federal Highway Administration implemented the Innovative Bridge Research and Construction 0BRC) programme under funding from the US Congress for the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) unveiled in July 1998. US state departments of transportation propose demonstrations of new materials and systems through the IBRC programme for funding through partnerships between FHWA, the departments of transportation, industry and academia. Composite structures and materials have been a major area of focus. Total funding of US$102 million has been allocated for the six years 1997-2002, although this could be as high as US$200 billion with matching funding from the states. Road and railway maintenance and enhancement are priorities with safety measures and environmental improvements. Projects must demonstrate improved technologies such as disaster-resistant design, lowered construction downtime, cost savings, powered maintenance, improved capacity, greater durability or increased service life, with an aim for the latter of 75-100 years. Materials can include GFRP, carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP), high-strength steel or high-performance concrete. The TEA-21 programme already has a backlog of work and spending has been raised from 11% of the total fund in the first year to 19% in the last. There is criticism from Europe that the US approach is to put money into action rather than analysis, but the process establishes a body of experience on which manufacturers and customers can build. Non-US companies find it difficult to break into the US market partly because it is necessary to register engineers not in just one state but in all states in which they hope to work. In addition, many states prefer to give business that has state funding to state-based industries. Maunsell, the British consulting engineers, has joined with the US engineering group AeCOM to make a global company with some 11000 employees, which rivals Bechtel and Parsons Brinckerhoff. In January 2000 W S Atldns, another major UK company, bought the Benham Consultancy, Oklahoma for US$88 million. Both companies hope that these ventures will give them improved access to the US market.
6 Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
1.2.2 Western Europe The large thermoplastic use in Germany results from the automotive industry (see Table 7). Even the USA cannot be considered as a single m a r k e t - earthquake zones, oil production areas and harsh winters all give differing approaches in what is a single legal entity. Consequently, Europe with different climates, legal systems and industrial bases will show considerable variations in production and consumption. Denmark, with a strong environmental record, has an excellent reputation for its work with wind turbine blades helped by the number of wind turbine companies. Norway has a major offshore oil industrial base in the difficult environment of the North Sea. Italy has a solid market in pultrusion products used in power and telecommunication poles; its position in the repair of ancient buildings, although notable, is not relevant to this report. France has some small-scale use of GFRP and aramid fibre reinforced plastic (AFRP) in infrastructure including pipelines, but most French composite development is found in the aerospace and sports areas. Germany has major thermoplastic use in the automotive industry, considerable composite use in the chemical industry but minimal applications in the roads/bridges infrastructure applications. Switzerland has undertaken several interesting projects including Glulam buildings (composites using w o o d and carbon fibre) and carbon fibre reinforced bridge structures. The UK has a modest programme of repair and rehabilitation of smaller bridges and some wrapping of major road bridges using aramids in epoxy resin for improved impact resistance. The Department of Transport had 80 applications for composite use in repair during 1998 and 6 km of carbon and glass reinforced pultruded plate was used. Some examples, such as the Aberfeldy footbridge, have been in place for a decade giving a reasonable test history. The London Underground has a considerable repair and development programme, and the fires at Kings Cross Underground station and following the Paddington rail crash has lead to tighter safety requirements which have, in turn, lead to increased use of phenolics. Germany represents the largest market for fibre reinforced composites in Europe followed, in order, by Italy, France and the UK, and there will be little change in this situation in the next few years. Overall, the volume of the European market for reinforced composites was nearly 910 000 tonnes, valued at US$4.3 billion, in 1999 and an annual growth rate of 2.4% will be seen reaching US$4.93 billion in 2005. The combination of both established and new aspects of infrastructure will have grown from 15% of the market in 1999, with a value of US$860 million, to occupy about 20% of the market in 2005, with a value of some US$986 million. The figure of 15% for infrastructure is derived from market statistics that indicate the divisions for the European use of thermosets to be as shown in Table 8. About 5% of the category 'Others' could be considered to include cooling towers, pipes, tanks and similar end uses, with a further 5% from the 'Building industry' for other infrastructure applications. A total of 1.68 million tonnes of purified terephthalic acid, a basic material for the composites industry, was produced in Europe in 1998 of which 75% was used in polyester fibre, indicating the minority position of composites in the chemical industry. The German market for GFRP was 218000 tonnes in 1999 with most of the growth coming from the automotive market which is not covered in this report.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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1
Introduction - market developments
Table 7 Composites as finished products in Europe 1999 (O00s tonnes) Country
Total
Thermoset
Germany
387
193
194
Italy
238
168
70
France
185
148
37
Benelux
173
113
60
United Kingdom
143
98
45
Spain/Portugal
100
70
30
Thermoplastic
Scandinavia
72
52
20
Others
95
65
30
1393
907
486
Total
Table 8 Thermoset use by market segment in Europe for 1999 (%) Market segment
% share
Household/sanitary
41
Building industry
21
Electronics
21
Cars/machinery
10
Others
7
The market for pipes and tanks showed virtually no growth as the construction of large chemical and power plants stagnated. France has a large market by value for composites - about 23% of the European total - but much of this is largely attributable to demand from the Airbus consortium, Aerospatiale, and from the automotive and sports goods industries. The UK market for phenolic resins was 73 000 tonnes, and some 10 000 tonnes is used in advanced composites mostly for large panels used in exterior building surfaces and the interiors of trains and aircraft. Less than 1000 tonnes will be for the infrastructure market, mostly resulting from the greater investment in the rail industry and the higher fire safety requirements. Over the next five years there will be a small increase, probably rising to 1250 tonnes by 2005. In the UK, apart from coatings, epoxy resins have their greatest use in printed circuit boards, although there is some use in infrastructure in the rail industry and wind turbines; this latter application has not shown the hoped-for developments which would go with the UK's excellent wind regime. However, there is a healthy export business for wind turbine components and a growing interest in offshore wind farms. A large wind farm is to be built on the Northumbrian coast. Of the 32 000 tonnes of epoxies consumed in the UK market, about 1000 tonnes is used in infrastructure and growth will not exceed 2% per annum.
8
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
In the Nordic countries it is estimated that the building and construction market will use some 1800 tonnes of pultruded profile in 2000 (53% of the total) but, as with other areas, only about 10-15% of that will apply to infrastructure. Corrosion-resistant applications should take a further 250 tonnes, which is 9% of the total. In the central areas of northern Europe (Belgium, Germany, UK and The Netherlands) some 2000 tonnes of pultruded profiles (30% of the total) will be produced for the building and construction industry, but only about 12% will be used in infrastructure. Corrosion-resistant applications will take about 1100 tonnes, which is 16% of the total pultrusion product. In the areas of France, Italy and Spain about 4000 tonnes (36%) of pultruded profiles will be used in building and construction, with around 15% of that allocated to infrastructure. The Italian pultruded profile market and the large market for wind turbines in Spain raises the percentage. Corrosion-resistant applications will take about 1200 tonnes, which is some 10% of the total. The large multi-national oil companies have established pipelines and offshore work for the North Sea oil and gas fields. These have required the use of phenolics and fibre reinforced epoxies including carbon fibre reinforced epoxy pipelines.
1.2.3 Japan Japan has traditionally been the driving force in the Asian economy, with such countries as Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand and Indonesia providing manufacturing and export potential. The severe economic downturn in the area has hit both Japan and the supply areas but for different reasons. Japan has been affected by the crisis in banking based on a traditional consensus approach to doing business. The signs from Japan are contradictory and could have serious implications for the infrastructure industry. Japan has a one of the largest gross public debts, at nearly 150% of national output. This approach to deficit spending has been associated with a swollen construction industry whose 570000 member firms employ some 10% of the Japanese workforce. A normal figure amongst developed countries is 6-7%. If Japan cuts public spending this could result in a fall in the number of infrastructure projects that would support the composites industry (Table 9). Table 9 Composite use by market sector in Japan 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (000 tonnes) 1999 Construction Bath units
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
50.0
50.0
50.0
51.0
52.0
52.0
53.0
108.0
108.0
108.0
109.0
109.0
110.0
110.0
Sewerage systems
74.0
74.0
75.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
78.0
Marine
20.0
20.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
Transport
23.4
23.5
23.5
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
Tanks/vessels
37.6
38.0
38.0
39.0
40.0
40.0
41.0
Industrial equipment
51.0
51.0
52.0
53.0
53.0
54.0
55.0
Consumer products
41.0
41.0
42.0
42.0
43.0
43.0
44.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.5
9.5
10.0
10.0
414.0
414.5
417.5
423.5
429.5
434.0
440.0
Others Total
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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1
Introduction - market developments
Japan is the largest market for FRP shipments in Asia with an annual market of 414 000 tonnes. Recent years have seen negative growth owing to the continuing uncertainty in the Japanese market and the move by industry to low-cost manufacturing countries; there was a collapse of all sectors in 1998. Although it had been h o p e d that 1999 would see some improvement due to g o v e r n m e n t measures to induce c o n s u m e r purchases, this has not h a p p e n e d and the overall market has remained essentially stagnant. The new government is still committed to extensive public spending and this has led, in the past, to some projects that have been criticized as wasteful but which supported areas of Japanese industry. There is hope of improvement in the coming years but high e m p l o y m e n t overheads, the costs of bank restructuring and c o n s u m e r uncertainty remain, and it is unlikely that figures for 2005 will have even returned to the level of 1997. The strong position of the steel industry in Japan has lead to a preference for steel over composites in such markets as automotive, which have shown considerable growth and provided a driving force for composites in Europe and the USA. In other geographic areas the automotive industry is a major c o n s u m e r of composites p r o d u c e d by sheet and bulk moulding c o m p o u n d (SMC and BMC, respectively), but the Japanese automotive industry is still heavily oriented towards metals. In addition, Japan has installed very few composite cooling towers or wind turbines that would have produced greater growth. Infrastructure use in such areas as highways and bridges has been largely for carbon and aramid fibre reinforcement as these are local industries. It is estimated that Japan has about 100 demonstration projects in infrastructure repair and rehabilitation. Almost all reinforced thermosets in Japan are based on unsaturated polyester and the largest single market is for bath units - a position that is unique to Japan. Some innovative infrastructure applications have come from the Japanese carbon fibre industry including road, bridge and tunnel rehabilitation, and corrosionresistant repairs in chemical plants, but these are only a tiny fraction of the market. Such applications also use such materials as epoxies, phenolics and vinyl esters, but the amounts are very small. GFRP applications for infrastructure, which saw a decline in 1999, included tanks and vessels, and sewerage treatment. Although construction saw a small increase - from 11.5 to 12% - most of this market is for conventional building projects (Table 10). Concerns have been raised about the state of concrete used in the tunnel systems for the Shinkansen trains in Japan. Since June 1999 there have been at least 20 cases of concrete falling from tunnel walls onto the tracks. In one instance chunks caused the derailment of a freight train and in another incident falling pieces hit a car beneath an overpass. While inspecting tunnels in December 1999 the private railway company that operates the Shinkansen trains in western Japan found about 40 000 weak sections. Japan has a very large overall construction budget - 15% of GDP compared with 8% for the U S A - but it is estimated that less than 10% is spent on maintenance. The two contributory reasons are historical and political. Japan has traditionally constructed w o o d e n buildings that fell down in earthquakes or were burnt d o w n to be replaced not maintained. In political terms, Japan has a very large and powerful construction industry that finds new building more profitable than maintenance and repair.
10
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
Table 10 GFRP infrastructure applications in Japan (O00s tonnes) 1999 Construction a Sewerage Transportb Tanks/vessels
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.3
30.0
30.0
30.0
31.0
31.0
31.0
32.0
8.0
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.2
37.5
37.0
37.5
37.5
38.0
38.0
38.5
Other
4.0
4.0
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.3
Total
83.5
83.0
83.9
83.9
84.6
85.7
87.3
aRepair/rehabilitation and earthquake strengthening. bMass transit.
1.2.4 Southeast Asia Asia has some 24% of the world composites market, with about 30% of that used in building and construction (Table 11). However, most of this o u t p u t is related to standard building materials with a strong emphasis on the b a t h r o o m fittings that are also a major item in Japan. One area of infrastructure use is the chemical plants which have b e e n installed in the area with composite materials used for their corrosion resistance. However, the overenthusiastic building p r o g r a m m e u n d e r t a k e n earlier in the 1990s means that there will be little significant growth in this sector until the excess of c o n s u m p t i o n is absorbed. O u t p u t capacity of synthetic resins was 9 million tonnes in 1998, having grown from 5 million tonnes in 1993. About 50% of the o u t p u t is used in plastic pipes, most of which are not reinforced. There is some potential in the more developed areas of the r e g i o n - South Korea, Singapore and Malaysia - for work to increase the axial load capacity of bridges. Those same areas also have an interest in public utility d e v e l o p m e n t such as the tank cover in Singapore, covered in the case studies in Chapter 6. High p o p u l a t i o n growth means that if land can be released by such developments there is an economic basis for composite use.
Table 11 Thermoset composite markets in Southeast Asia 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (000 tonnes)
China
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
350.0
370.0
395.0
420.0
445.0
475.0
505.0
India
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
50.0
53.0
Indonesia
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
31.0
Malaysia
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.5
26.0
27.5
South Korea
60.0
63.0
66.0
69.0
72.5
76.0
80.0
Taiwan Total
80.0
85.0
89.5
94.0
99.5
104.5
110.0
575.0
607.0
643.5
680.0
718.5
761.5
806.5
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
11
1
Introduction - market developments
China China has an annum capacity of some 350000 tonnes of thermosets, mostly unsaturated polyesters (UP), of which about 170 000 tonnes are produced locally by 200 companies and the remainder imported; 80% of the UP resins are reinforced with glass fibre. Less than 50 companies are of a significant size, with only about 10 companies capable of production of over 10 000 tonnes per annum; this also applies to the 100 glass fibre manufacturers. In both cases, only a small number of companies are significant producers of high-quality material. Many of the 3000 moulders are small, low-technology operations, and this low-level technology approach is a problem for Chinese production and manufacturing. About 30% of FRP is used in chemical pipe and tank industry. There is considerable growth potential for SMC water tanks constructed from hot-press moulded c o m p o u n d panels that are found in other geographical areas. A 100 000 tonnes per a n n u m polyester plant began construction in December 1999 at Yizheng Chemical Fibre Corp, but much of the output will be for polyester fibres. About 30% of FRP consumption is construction related, with most of that in standard building products. The automotive industry takes about 8-10% of FRP production, and tanks and pipelines have some 22%. The major infrastructure markets for composites are cooling towers, pipes and tanks, and pultruded components, although much of the latter is for recreational and consumer products such as fishing rods, tent poles and window frames. The increasing power demands of consumers and industrialization have lead to the building of over 2000 cooling towers per annum, and there are over 250 000 FRP cooling towers in use in China with the largest one currently in use cooling over 5000 tonnes of water per hour. This market alone requires some 220 000 tonnes of FRP per year. The market for FRP pipes and tanks used in the chemical, food, water supply and oil industries requires over 58 000 tonnes of composite per year. The newer applications of environmental protection, bridge decks and roads are a growing market and currently take over 22000 tonnes per a n n u m of FRP. Although growing affluence is leading to increasing car production, there is still a heavy dependence on rail transport with 10 000 railway vehicles produced each year. Growth estimates indicate that 4 million cars and 20 000 railway vehicles will be produced each year by 2010 and this will require around 55 000 tonnes per annum of FRP. China's annual consumption of phenolic resins is some 22 000 tonnes, of which about 5% is used in railway vehicle construction and other infrastructure applications. The amount of vinyl ester used in China is very s m a l l - around 2000 tonnes per a n n u m - of which a small percentage is used in corrosion-resistant applications in the chemical industry. There is an over-supply of both phenolic resin and vinyl ester, and growth in these markets is very small. The annual consumption of epoxy resin in China is some 65 000 tonnes, although most of this is used in printed circuit boards with a very small amount used in infrastructure applications. Local production and imports cover about 50% each. A 500 tonnes per a n n u m epoxy resin plant began construction at Yueyang Petrochemical General Plants. Some of the first applications of fibre reinforced plastics for bridge structures were in China, of which the first major bridge was the Miyan Bridge completed in 1982 near Beijing and which carries full highway traffic. There are now eight FRP
12
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction
-
market developments
bridges in China generally constructed by hand lay-up of glass fibres in a polyester resin using a honeycomb form of deck structure. China must overcome considerable cost and quality problems in both the production of materials and of components, and the establishment of companies and joint ventures by major manufacturers will be of assistance, although few of those companies have seen profits from their ventures. The Middle East will supply Asia-Pacific with 5.6 million tonnes of commodity thermoplastics by 2003, rising from virtually nil in 1998
Taiwan Taiwan has some 18% of the Asian composites m a r k e t - second to J a p a n - and the industry originally grew on the availability of cheap labour. As labour costs have risen there is some concern that manufacturing will move to cheaper areas such as other Southeast Asian countries, Eastern Europe and Latin America. Taiwan has announced that it is cutting back on large-scale transport projects that could lead to a decline in spending rather than the previous double-digit increases. The allocation for roads and railways is only 28% of the requested figure and although spending on such projects as the municipal transit system in Kaohsiung will continue this will be at a much slower pace. Of the basic raw materials, there are 14 main Taiwanese companies producing about 130000 tonnes per annum of UP, with about 50% of production being exported. The largest m a n u f a c t u r e r - Eternal Chemical - has a capacity of 60 000 tonnes per annum. Taiwan has capacity of some 150 000 tonnes per annum of epoxy resin, with much of this being used in sports equipment. Vinyl ester is used in corrosion-resistant applications in the tank, pipe and scrubber markets. Four companies in Taiwan produce glass fibre mostly in conjunction with the large m u l t i - n a t i o n a l s - such as Owens Corning and PPG I n d u s t r i e s - either as licensees or as joint ventures. Glass fibre capacity is around 145 000 tonnes per a n n u m and there is high-capacity utilization. Most carbon fibre produced by companies such as Formosa Plastics is used in the sports goods markets, although rising labour costs have meant that much manufacturing has moved to China. Aramid fibres are not a factor in the Taiwan market. Hand lay-up still has just under 40% of the manufacturing market, with a growth in automated processes such as spray-up, pultrusion, filament winding and RTM resulting from the increase in labour costs. Taiwan had shipments of some 80 000 tonnes of composites in 1999, but less than 10% of this is used in such infrastructure applications as pipes, tanks and scrubbers. Even rehabilitation of buildings and other structures following the Ji-Ji earthquake will not make a significant contribution to composite use.
South Korea The production of finished composites in Korea is 60000 tonnes per annum, although much of this is used in the automotive industry with very little directed to infrastructure. However, there are small amounts used in corrosion-resistant applications for chemical plants and for pipelines and tanks - less than 5%.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
13
1
Introduction - market developments
India India has seen the establishment of a n u m b e r of composite operations by the major Western producers such as Owens Corning, Ashland, Cray Valley and Scott Bader. Indian production of composites is some 46 000 tonnes per annum, but much of this is directed towards electrical/electronics, appliances and standard construction applications. About 5% (around 2300 tonnes) is directed to the infrastructure market mostly in pipelines, tanks and corrosion-resistant applications in chemical plants. The use of FRP for roads, bridges and similar applications has not yet been established. The infrastructure market has e n o r m o u s potential as India seeks to modernize its inadequate facilities, but the higher cost of FRP w h e n compared to reinforced concrete limits the potential. One infrastructure area that has considerable potential is the railway, as India has the largest rail network in the world and Indian Railways is now developing composite products for their weight-saving capability and as a means of saving on the use of timber. Increased car sales are also increasing the d e m a n d for petrol storage tanks. Consumption of glass fibre is some 20 000 tonnes per annum, but only about 5% of this will be directed to the infrastructure market. India is unlikely to sustain high growth rates for composites as the economy has shown considerable swings in the last decade.
1.2.5 Eastern Europe In Eastern Europe, Poland takes some 50% of the plastics market with Hungary taking about 18.6% and the Czech Republic about 17.5% (Tables 12 and 13). Most of this production is non-reinforced polyester used for commodity plastics. The automotive industry is also a heavy user as Western manufacturers take advantage of lower labour costs, but much of this production is for thermoplastics. Although virtually all aspects of the infrastructure are in serious need of upgrading, only limited amounts of GFRP will find application in this area with virtually no advanced materials, such as carbon fibre reinforcements. At some point towards 2005 environmental considerations will lead to investment in the chemical industries. Countries such as Russia and Poland have seen a decrease in life expectancy in recent years due to poor working conditions and pollution.
Table 12 Thermoset-based composite use in Eastern Europe 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Russiaa
106.0
108.0
110.0
112.0
114.0
116.0
118.0
Poland
40.0
41.0
42.5
44.0
45.5
47.0
48.5
i
Hungary
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
Czech Republic
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
Othersb
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.5
20.5
21.0
21.0
206.0
210.0
214.5
219.5
224.0
229.0
233.5
Total
alt should be noted that figures from Russia are not dependable as there is under-reporting due to tax considerations. blncluding Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania.
14
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
Table 13 Polymer consumption in Eastern Europe 1999 (000s tonnes) Poland
1160
50%
Hungary
430
18.5%
Czech Republic
410
17.6%
Slovakia
190
8.1%
Romania
135
5.8%
2325
100%
Total
1.2.6 South America The South American market for composites is dominated by Brazil with Argentina and Chile also providing sizeable markets (Table 14). The size of individual national markets is so small that the area has been treated as one geographical entity, although the oil industry in Venezuela does make some infrastructure demands for pipes and tanks. However, prediction of growth rates is difficult as the South American markets are subject to considerable fluctuations caused by their own economic cycles and the effects of downturns in other areas. Considering the geographical separation, the economic crisis in Southeast Asia had a considerable impact on South America. On the positive side, South America has a rapidly growing population and a need for major developments in its infrastructure, although it is doubtful that composites will make a large contribution. There is some potential for pipes and tanks, but most water supplies will use polyester. The highway systems will not show any use of composites in the period of this report as the technical base and government pump-priming are not in place. However, towards the end of the report period greater sophistication in materials selection will raise the percentage use of composites for infrastructure. The predictions in Table 15 are based on use of thermosets. This area was responsible for the production of 280000 tonnes of purified terephthalic acid, of which 75% was used in the production of polyester fibre.
Table 14 Thermoset demand for South America 1999-2005 (000s tonnes)
Brazil
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
152
156
161
166
171
176
181
Argentina
70
72
74
76
79
82
85
Others
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
255
262
270
278
287
296
305
Total
Table 15 Composite demand for infrastructure in South America 1999-2005 (000s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
23.0
24.5
25
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
15
1
Introduction - market developments
1.2.7 Middle East The Middle East has been taken to include the Gulf States, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon Having the raw materials for both resin and reinforcement manufacture, the Middle East is now starting to manufacture for export. It is expected that more than 5 million tonnes of commodity thermoplastics will-be supplied to Southeast Asia by 2003. Overall, the market for reinforced plastics in the Middle East countries is 105 000 tonnes (Table 16) with pipes for the petrochemical industry taking about 14 000 tonnes. This heavy dependence on the oil industry, where budgets have been severely cut (by 60% in Saudi Arabia) owing to cutbacks in oil production, means that there will be no growth before 2001-2002 after which growth should be 2-3% per annum. The market for other infrastructure applications such as airport buildings will not be able to compensate for the fall in pipe demand. In corrosionresistant applications, the Gulf States have a higher requirement due to their adverse climatic conditions - high temperatures, humidity and salinity.
Table 16 Thermoset demand for the Middle East 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
105
105
107
109
11
113
115
The glass fibre industry in Iran required some 9000 tonnes in 1999 with the chemical industry consuming 38%, mostly in oil and petrochemical applications. The current local capacity for unsaturated polyester resin is 12 000-15 000 tonnes per annum, which should rise to 30 000 tonnes per a n n u m by 2001-2002. Hopes for growth have been seriously affected by the restraint on oil production. In a position on the border between Europe and the Middle East, Turkey has a considerable GFRP industry with several glass fibre manufacturers such as CamElyaf. Glass fibre production is of the order of 8000 tonnes per annum, but there is little or no growth. The exception is the GFRP pipe sector, which will see growth of 2% per a n n u m in the coming years. Whilst the total d e m a n d for UP resins is estimated at 30 000 tonnes per annum, this includes both textiles and casting applications. However, most resins for GFRP pipe applications are imported. The industry is not sophisticated, with open moulding as the most popular processing technique.
1.3 C h a l l e n g e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s The industry must emphasize the importance of life-cycle costing and the two components: capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX). CAPEX covers the initial investment for an end-user and includes such items as raw material costs. The aim must be to use a material with an optimal price to performance ratio that meets the requirements of the application and no more. Paying for a higher performance resin that exceeds requirements forces up the
16
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
CAPEX unnecessarily. OPEX includes costs for maintenance, repair, inspection and shutdown over the whole lifecycle of the equipment. The intrinsic chemical resistance of FRP, its long operational life and low maintenance requirements have positive benefits on OPEX costs and must be emphasized. However, w h e n customers are only responsible for CAPEX costs there is no incentive for them to consider OPEX costs as the initial price is higher as a result of using a high-cost material. Customer willingness to pay is limited. A survey in Orange Country, California found that 98% of residents thought infrastructure was important but would not pay 1% more in taxes for upgrades. In the survey it was found that only a major negative event such as an earthquake would result in a change of opinion. Automation of labour-intensive activities can reduce recurring labour costs; this is clearly illustrated in the material deposition rates seen for pultrusion, filament winding and automatic tape lay-up. Therefore, the persistence of manual labour as the dominant m e t h o d for composite fabrication is a strong indicator that automation with composites is difficult. A major challenge in developing costeffective composite manufacturing techniques is to maintain the vast material and shape options in a simplified and automated way. The major challenge that faces the industry is to develop flexible methods of automation that can significantly expand the shape and micro-structure of components available to the designer at reasonable cost. An indication of the relative costs of materials, shown in Table 17, gives some indication of the competition faced by composites. Steel prices obviously vary and there are reports of mild steel from China being sold in the USA for US$0.04-0.05 per kg.
Table 17 Relative price index for composites and other materials (per kg) E-glass chopped mat strand (CSM)/UP
1.6
E-glass-woven UP
2.1
E-glass-CSM/vinyl ester
3.0
Pultrusion (vinyl ester)
2.6
Pultrusion (UP)
1.6
Carbon (O~ Carbon (O~
23.0 ester
Carbon (0.9045 ~) vinyl ester
20.0 40.0
DMC
1.7
SMC
2.O
Mild steel grade 43
0.45
Stainless steel
2.0
Aluminium alloy 6063
1.1
Softwood
0.29
Plywood
0.32
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
17
1
Introduction - market developments
Table 17 gives some support to the perception that composite structures are expensive owing to the relatively high cost of the raw materials. However, this perception is misguided as it ignores the fact that: 9
smaller amounts of material may be required;
9
production costs may be lower; and
9
downtime for installation of the structure can be less.
It must be accepted that increased use of composites in infrastructure wiU not grow at a rate hoped for by the industry until civil engineers are confident of their strength and longevity. Applications using traditional materials have failed due to hitherto u n k n o w n factors and adding a relatively untried material to the equation only compounds the problem. The publicity w h e n large structures fail does not encourage innovative use of 'new' materials. The major challenge on the potentially huge market of roads and bridges is that without projects from which to learn there is no body of experience. Without a body of experience, engineers and clients will be wary of using the new technology. In the case study on Hythe Bridge, Oxford all parties indicated that there had been a considerable learning curve in such areas as cleanliness, heat and humidity. The Great Miami Composite Deck Project, run as an evaluation project by the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT), indicates the extent of the problems that faced all parties in applying composites to roads and bridge construction. The project will cost ODOT US$7 million, of which testing alone will cost US$1.3 million, with the Federal Highway Administration contributing US$400000-500000. The significance of this project can be seen in that typical bridge projects for ODOT cost US$50000-400000. The value of the exercise is considerable to all parties. In addition, the industry does not help itself in competition between materials, particularly glass and carbon fibre reinforcements. All matrix and reinforcement materials have their appropriate p l a c e - horses for c o u r s e s - as do manufacturing techniques. Design engineers will use a material that meets specifications and will only move to a higher grade or specification if this is essential to the work. Highergrade materials frequently mean higher cost and there is little point in using a more expensive material if this is not justified. One aspect that will need addressing is cost. This applies to all materials and manufacturing elements, but an example from the advanced end of the market provides an illustration. Reducing the cost of carbon fibre would increase the range/number of applications but Zoltek, who originally set a target cost of US$5/lb (US$11/kg) in 2000, have now allowed that date to slip to 2002. The approach to reducing cost is to develop a new polymer with lower processing costs and higher yields that would serve as a precursor to carbon fibre. It must be stated that other carbon fibre developments have taken a lot of time and money to achieve similar requirements. Important points to be noted are: 9
traditional materials will not allow business to be taken from them;
9
cooperation between all parties in a project is vital;
9
authoritative standards are required; and
9
the drive taken by the national highways authorities in the USA should be followed in Europe.
18
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
It must be recognized that steel manufacturers will not aUow the infrastructure market to fall through their hands. The cheapest approach for road/bridge construction is still ferrous reinforced concrete. Steel companies are already introducing rebar, which is carbon steel coated with stainless steel, to achieve many of the advantages of stainless steel at a lower cost than FRP composite bar and dowel. Retrofitting projects such as composite column and beam wraps, and bridge rehabilitation have the advantages of speed, easier installation, use of lighter and less cosily equipment, and lower long-term maintenance. Despite these advantages, acceptance of the technology is slow. Figures for work in California, which has shown considerable interest in strengthening structures against earthquake damage, indicate that the value of the market was below US$20 million, with 50% as bridge and road construction and 50% for buildings. The reinforcement materials were divided 75:25 between glass and carbon fibres. The problem of composite acceptance for the new areas of infrastructure is exacerbated by a lack of standards, particularly for national projects. Although the industry and the standards organizations are making considerable efforts to establish standards, a realistic assessment by one authority indicated that it would be five years before there was a full range of formal standards in place. Given the acceptance time that will follow any standardization, this would indicate a 5-10year period for new structures. Standards are obviously of concern in upgrading work but are not as critical- structures are already built and the concern is that they may fall down without upgrade rather than suffer failure because of the use of innovative materials. The question of public liability in new structures is a severe constraint on the use of new materials or techniques.
1.4.1 Regulations and legislation In both Europe and North America there are increasing requirements for tighter legislation on volatile organic c o m p o u n d (VOC) emission, including styrene. VOCs react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight, resulting in the formation of ozone at ground level. Although the material has not been shown to have any carcinogenic properties there is a widespread requirement for lower emissions as styrene can cause breathing problems. On 6 November 1996, the EU Council formally adopted a solvent emissions proposal. A study prepared in 1994 predicted that the cost of the implemented legislative measures - as then defined - would be over US$70 billion for Europe alone. The changes introduced into the Directive have reduced the cost to some US$14 billion but some measures still have high marginal costs. The Directive will harmonize regulations across Europe and it could result in some manufacturers facing cuts in their allowable solvent emissions of 60% or more. The Directive requires solvent reduction by 20 October 2007 for existing installations and for new installations by 2004, but Member States must have established the legal compliance framework by 31 December 1999. There is a clear indication of investment in new equipment or process changes to meet the new limits. Guidelines on occupational exposure to styrene vary from country to country with the UK allowing a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 100 parts per million
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
19
1
Introduction - market developments
(ppm) applied over a 15-min period and a time-weighted average (TWS) of 50 ppm over an 8-h period. In the USA, OSHA has set limits of 50 p p m and Germany's limit is just 20 ppm. Exposure to styrene is not considered to have carcinogenic effects but can cause nausea. EU legislation will cause considerable expenditure for the paints and adhesives industries, whilst the polyester industry is a smaller user. Alternatives to styrene as a m o n o m e r have been evaluated but none offer the same blend of quality, performance, convenience and cost effectiveness, and styrene will remain the predominant m o n o m e r in UP resins for the period of this report. In 1999 the US Environmental Protection Agency proposed new maximum available control technique (MACT) standards. This would require existing manufacturers generating 100 tonnes or more of hazardous air pollution to control at least 95% of those emissions. Styrene is already covered u n d e r the VOC legislation and will also be included as a hazardous air pollutant. The surface coatings industry is most heavily affected, but chemical manufacture and processing (which includes composites) is also concerned. The US industry is concerned that many smaller plants will be closed as the capital investment necessary for them to meet environmental requirements will not be justified. All of the major European resin producers, including DSM, Scott Bader, Cray Valley, Reichhold and Neste, already manufacture low-styrene emission resins for the composite industry. Most Scandinavian companies feel that they have a considerable manufacturing advantage in that they have had to meet the tight Scandinavian regulations for some years and have developed processes and materials that are now being adopted by other countries. The safety requirements should also speed the introduction of closed mould fabrication techniques particularly those such as RTM, which can operate a totally closed-loop system at modest capital investment. The styrene regulations are a matter for international concern but local regulations can have major effects on specific markets. This has been very noticeable in the USA. The requirement for maintenance staff to use non-metal ladders near electricity supplies has driven a considerable market for pultruded composite ladders that has spilled over into the domestic market. Seventy per cent of ladders in the USA are now thought to be composite. EPA regulations on the annual cathodic testing of steel tanks holding petroleum have lead to a widespread changeover to composite tanks as the cost of such testing was realized. Europe has no such regulations and steel tanks are still more common. At I tonne of composite per tank this was a significant market. New regulations in the USA requiring the paper and pulp industry to replace their use of chlorine with chlorine dioxide and hydrogen peroxide by the end of 2000 should give increased sales of corrosion-resistant products. Although not a consideration for this report, German requirements on the recycling of materials in cars and packaging are having an impact on the rest of Europe. Tax credits that give a favourable pricing regime for 'green energy' have lead to the growth of the wind energy industry in both Europe and the USA. The problem with all these changes in regulations is that they can have both positive and negative effects.
20
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
1.4.2 Developments in materials As has been stated, the main materials in composites for infrastructure are based on glass fibre products and Ups, and that will remain the case until 2005. Vinyl esters and phenolics are expected to show very little growth and epoxy is largely used with carbon fibre, which is also a minority interest material. Dow Chemical has introduced the Derakane T M epoxy vinyl ester resins that have considerable potential in corrosive or extreme environments. Fires involving considerable loss of life have introduced tighte~ fire regulations in Europe leading to greater use of phenolics in mass transit systems. All thermoset and thermoplastic materials can be given some degree of fire retardancy either by chemical manipulation or the addition of inert mineral fillers and specific chemical compounds, although sometimes at the expense of producing heavier smoke emissions and increased toxicity. However, this ability to tailor resins over a wide range of chemical, mechanical and physical properties for fire hardness, toxicity levels, speed of combustion and ignition temperature offers design engineers a wider range of resins where fire safety is a prime requirement. Thermoplastics are continuing to take market share from thermosets, although the move is much slower than predicted. The greater ease in processing and the requirements for recycling will continue to encourage a move towards thermoplastics. Within composite manufacturing there is a move towards the use of various forms of fabric reinforcements as one-, two- or three-dimensional materials, braids or non-wovens. The use of these products aUows more accurate and efficient placement of the reinforcement. The purchase of Brunswick by Certainteed is an indication of the greater interest in these products. There is also greater interest in the use of core or sandwich materials for lightness and strength. The continuing discussion on carbon fibre prices has lead Conoco to announce the introduction of a pitch-based fibre and Toray Industries to consider whether changes in manufacturing processes would be justified and lead to lower costs. In the other advanced r e i n f o r c e m e n t - a r a m i d s - both Twaron T M and KevlarT M are being promoted for their impact resistance, a feature that was previously used in body armour. Toray Industries has introduced a new version of its carbon fibres with a special sizing agent for use in vinyl ester and UP resin composites. The level of interfacial strength is stated to be equivalent to that of carbon fibre with epoxy resin systems, and the fibre is soft and easily stitched. The material is currently only produced in Japan in small quantities and is aimed at the marine and similar markets. Although not a new material, GKN have announced the development of a composite disk joint that is a critical c o m p o n e n t in the more efficient generation of wind energy. The joint will allow the construction of wind turbines that are more than 90 m tall and with rotor blades with a length of 70 m.
1.4.3 Industry moves A continuing feature of the industry is the disparity in size between the large chemical companies that supply the composites industry and the small-scale fabricators. Acquisitions and mergers have formed huge, global chemical companies culminating with the merger of Dow Chemical and Union Carbide.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
21
1
Introduction - market developments
Such companies can make the heavy capital investment needed for new developments and markets, and can afford the high levels of research to produce new products. Downstream from the materials manufacturers the fabricators are small with very modest levels of investment. The world's largest p u l t r u d e r Strongwell, U S A - will have sales of US$85 million from pultruded products in 2000. There are a couple of other US companies with sales of around US$30-40 million and Bekaert, Belgium had sales in 1999 of ~88 million in the entire advanced materials business unit partly as a result of two acquisitions which increased sales by 30%. Most of these companies produce for a mass market that includes ladders, w i n d o w and door lineals, fencing and similar products. However, most fabricators are small and undercapitalized, which restricts their development and their ability to participate in standards, R&D programmes and marketing exercises. In an interesting move, Zoltek, USA has joined Hexcel in vertically integrating its production of materials and components. Zoltek has purchased SPS Systems, which is a well-regarded and profitable UK manufacturer of components such as wind turbine blades, and has taken a percentage of Hardcore Composites, which works in the infrastructure market. Other acquisitions have added composite machinery manufacturers to the corporate structure. Zoltek is keen to develop greater use of carbon fibre and these would be two areas that have potential for growth. In a slightly different move Exchem, UK, who manufacture chemical products including adhesives used in the construction industry, is undertaking marketing for the pultruders, Fibreforce, UK. The two companies had worked together on the Hythe Bridge strengthening project in Oxford. Within the glass fibre manufacturing industry, margins, the four majors - Owens Coming, PPG, hold such a large share of the market that a companies is unlikely. The values involved would the Dow Chemical-Union Carbide or BP-Amoco attention of the regulatory authorities.
which has seen falling profit Vertrotex and Johns Manville merger between any of these put such a move on the level of mergers and would attract the
The 'new industry' status of composites for infrastructure can be measured by the state of flux in company mergers and acquisitions in recent years. An illustration is the dizzying move of Hardcore which began life as part of DuPont, became part of True North (which was later closed), was acquired by Harris Specialty Chemicals, which was itself acquired by SKW Trostberg AG and its SKW-MBT Construction Chemicals Group with Hardcore placed as a unit under Master Builders Inc. Hardcore was then divested in May 2000 to a combination of management buyout and an investment group headed by Zoltek.
22
January 1999
Harris Specialty Chemicals, a construction chemicals manufacturer acquires the Construction Products Division of Hardcore Composites from True North Composites. Hardcore had originally been part of DuPont.
January 1999
True North Partners, the investment company behind moulder TPI Composites, acquires SCRIMP Systems LLC. The patent portfolio for the Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Molding Process (SCRIMP), which contains 11 patents, will be assigned to a new company TPI Technology.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
January 1999
Introduction - market developments
DSM splits the DSM Resins business into two business groups Coating Resins; and Industrial Resins and Compounds, with Radcure Products as a separate business unit.
-
February 1999
GKN-Westland Helicopters acquires Dow-United Technologies, which had become a partnership between Dow and United Technologies in 1990. The company specializes in RTM for the aerospace industry. The purchase price was s million.
March 1999
Harris Specialty Chemicals, which had recently acquired Hardcore Composites, was acquired by SKW Trostberg AG and its SKW-MBT Construction Chemicals Group, which are part of Viag AG, Munich. Hardcore was then placed as a unit under Master Builders Inc.
March 1999
Denali purchased the outstanding stock of Belco Manufacturing Companies, a Belton, Texas-based manufacturer of glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) tanks, vessels and piping system whose products are primarily sold to the water/ waste-water and oil and gas industries. Belco's calendar year 1998 revenues were approximately US$8 million.
March 1999
Aerovac Systems Ltd, a manufacturer of vacuum bagging materials, is bought by UMECO plc for s million. UMECO, which has a turnover of s million, also owns B&K Resins and GRP Material Supplies.
April 1999
Cray Valley acquires the structural resin activities of the Dae Sang Group, South Korea, which manufactures unsaturated polyesters, vinyl esters, gel coats and SMC.
April 1999
Following the merger between Amoco Chemical, USA and BP, the conglomerate acquires Arco Chemical, USA.
May 1999
Composite Materials Inc, GLS Composites Distribution Corp and RP Associates merge to form a new company caUed Composites One.
May 1999
The US company Denali Inc announced that it would acquire Welna NV, Netherlands to create the world's largest engineered fibre reinforced plastic products company. Welna manufactures and installs FRP pipe systems, vessels and equipment for high-corrosion applications. Denali pay ~g37 per Welna share and assume ~ 11.5 million of the company's debt. The new company will have some US4250 million in annual revenues and manufacturing locations in the USA, The Netherlands, Germany, France, Poland, Venezuela, Thailand and the UK.
May 1999
Ferro Corp, USA acquired Advanced Polymer Compounding Co which supplies high-performance thermoplastic elastomers. The acquisition will be integrated into Ferro's Filled and Reinforced Plastics business as the Performance Polymer Compounds unit.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
23
1
24
Introduction - market developments
May 1999
Yvon Vezine Enterprises Inc, Quebec has acquired the Composites Materials Centre of St Jerome, Quebec. CMC is the first technological transfer centre to be privatized in Quebec.
May 1999
Maunsell, the UK engineering consultancy group, licensed its Advanced Composites Construction System (ACCS) to Strongwell, the US pultruder.
June 1999
StrongweU Corp, Bristol, Virginia and Ebert Composites, San Diego, California formed a partnership company Strongwell Ebert LLC to market composite electricity transmission poles. The company's first order for poles to carry 69- and l l5-kV power lines for Southern Californian Edison was delivered in autumn 1999.
June 1999
Denali completes the acquisition of 100% of the outstanding stock of Plasti-Fab Inc, Tualatin, Oregon. Plasti-Fab makes glass fibre reinforced flumes and metering stations to the water and waste-water industries. The company's revenue for 1998 was US$4.5 million.
June 1999
BASF acquire the Morton Industrial Coatings unit of Rohn & Haas Co for US$175 million.
June 1999
Structural Preservation Systems Inc, Baltimore, Maryland formed an alliance with Master Builders Inc, Cleveland, Ohio and Hardcore Composites.
July 1999
Acordis sells 55% of HIMA, which supplies technical services to industrial companies, to Rheinhold & Mahla AG, Munich.
July 1999
Orica, the Australian chemical company, sells its unsaturated polyester resins business to Nuplex Industries, New Zealand for Aus$13.7 million.
July 1999
Hoechst sold its 45% share in the Swiss-based speciality chemicals business, Clariant, for ~2.8 billion.
July 1999
Cape Composites Inc, San Diego, California acquires 100% of Sierra Materials LLC.
July 1999
Hammond, Kennedy, Whitney & Co, New York acquired 49.9% of the outstanding capital stock of Reinhold Industries Inc, Sante Fe Springs, California from Keene Creditors Trust for US$8.98 million. Reinhold manufactures advanced composite components.
August 1999
Reichhold acquires the Brazilian unsaturated resin business which is a subsidiary of Vianova, Germany.
August 1999
Dow Chemical and Union Carbide announce that they are to merge to form a business with a market capitalization ofUS$35 billion.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
August 1999
True North Composites, part of the original Hardcore DuPont Composites, is closed and the assets sold. The company had used the SCRIMP process to mould 50 freight rail cars for Trinity Industries but the companies have been in dispute.
August 1999
CVC Capital Partners acquired the fibres business of Akzo Nobel for US$875 million. The deal covered the fibre business of Accordis (previously Courtaulds and a major producer of PAN precursor), including Fortaf'fl Fibres in the USA and Accordis European Fibres. Akzo Nobel purchase 20% of the new business.
August 1999
Negotiations fail for the sale of Advanced Technical Products Inc to a third party.
September 1999
Borden Chemical Inc, Columbus Ohio acquires Blagden Chemicals Ltd, UK for s million. Blagden produces formaldehyde and resins, including phenolic resins, at four manufacturing sites in the UK and The Netherlands.
September 1999
Advanced Technical Products Inc (ATP), RosweU, Georgia, USA announced that it had entered into a merger agreement with the Veritas Capital Fund LP to sell the company for US$135 million including debt. ATP has five divisions including Lincoln Composites, Marion Composites, Alcore Inc, Intellitec and Lux Industries. ATP had sales in 1998 of US$165 million. The deal was deferred due to problems with the accounts of the Alcore Division.
September 1999
Teijin Ltd, Tokyo and Nisshinbo Industries announced that Teijin would buy Toho Rayon in which Nisshinbo was the primary shareholder. The price was some US$118 million and Nisshinbo will retain a 10% share. Toho was established in 1934, beginning mass production of acrylic fibres in 1963 and polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibres in 1975.
September 1999
Myers Technologies was closed by its parent C.C. Myers Inc, Rancho Cordova, California. The Snap Tite column jacketing technology license reverted to its owner NCF Industries, Long Beach, California. Myers had just completed a major column wrap project at Yolo Causeway near Sacramento.
September 1999
Dow Chemical, Midland, Missouri acquired Union Carbide for some US$11.6 billion giving a global chemical company with annual sales of over US$24.1 billion, making Dow the second largest chemical company in North America after DuPont.
September 1999
Interplastic Corp acquired M&. Hanna Resin Distribution, a thermoset materials business, and combined it with Interplastic Distibution Group to create a new company.
September 1999
Shakespeare Composites & Electronics acquires Lewtex Inc which makes composite cross arms for utility poles.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
2S
1
:26
Introduction - market developments
October 1999
Two divisions of the Balmoral Group, Aberdeen, U K Balmoral Composites and Balmoral M o u l d i n g s - merge to form a new operating division to be called Balmoral Tanks.
October 1999
Ube Nitto Kasei Co, Nippon Sheet Glass Co and Idemitsu Kosan Co announce a joint venture to produce stampable thermoplastic sheet composed of acrylic resin and carbon fibre. The new venture will be known as Nippon GMT, with equal ownership between the three companies. The company has a capacity of 10000 tonnes per annum and has sales targets of u billion in the fiscal year commencing April 2000.
October 1999
Norton Co, part of Saint Gobain, purchased the Furon Co, Laguna Niguel, California for US$472 million. Furon manufactures high-performance plastics.
October 1999
Aldila Inc sells half its carbon fibre operation to SGL Carbon Fibers and Composites Inc for US$7 minion. The new partnership will be known as Carbon Fiber Technology LLC. Name plate installed capacity for the single production line is reported as 2.5 million lbs of 45K continuous, standard modulus, large-tow carbon fibre with potential to double this amount.
October 1999
Ashland acquires 50% of the Brazilian unsaturated polyester resin company ARA Quimica SA, Sao Paulo. The deal makes Ashland the fifth largest UP resins manufacturer in South America.
October 1999
Fortum Corp sells Neste Chemicals, including the UP resin division Neste Polyester, to a private equity company Industri Kapital for FIM3 billion.
November 1999
RecycleNet Corp, Guelph, Canada acquires the Internet-based company Fiberglass.com Inc based in Salt Lake City, Utah. Fiberglass.com operates Fiberglass World, which is an Internet portal to the composites industry.
November 1999
Solutia Inc buys Morgan Grenfell's ownership of Vianova Resins, Germany for US$640 million. The company was previously part of Hoechst and is a leading European producer of resins.
November 1999
McWhorter Technologies Inc, which manufactures unsaturated polyester resin, sold its 50% stake in the Hong Kong joint venture Syntech Far East, which owns a manufacturing plant in China.
November 1999
Zoltek acquires Cape Composites, which uses a proprietary technology for high-volume production of prepregs. Cape had reduced the price of unidirectional industrial grade carbon fibre prepreg products to US$11.99/Ib in 1998 and US$7.99/Ib in 1999. The company has also begun a class action suit against competitor carbon fibre producers, particularly those in Japan.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
.1. Introduction - market developments
November 1999
Zoltek acquires Engineering Technology (Entec) and Composite Machines Co (CMC) and joins them to become Entec Composite Machines Inc.
November 1999
Zoltek acquire SP Systems, Isle of Wight, UK, a manufacturer of carbon and aramid fibre reinforced boats and who also manufactures wind turbine blades. Zoltek paid US$30 million in cash, which was financed through a new bank credit facility.
November 1999
Exxon Corp and Mobil Corp merge their polymer and films business to give a b u s i n e s s - Exxon Mobil Chemical C o which will have annual sales of over US$15 billion based on 1998 figures. The regulatory authorities require that they divest some gasoline, pipeline and lubrication assets.
November 1999
Menzolit-Fibron GmbH, part of Dynamit Nobel AG, Germany acquires DSM Compounds, which has sales of ~g50 million per annum, from DSM NV.
November 1999
Accordis sells its textile polyester yarns business to Textilwerke GmbH, Deggendorf, Germany.
November 1999
Morton Industrials divested Carroll George Inc, a composites structures business, following a loss in the fourth quarter of 1999.
December 1999
McWhorter Technologies buys the coatings resins business in Europe and North America of Dyno ASA, Oslo which has annual sales of US$10 million.
December 1999
Owens Coming and IKO Industries announce the formation of a joint venture for a new glass fibre mat facility to manufacture wet-formed glass fibre mat used mainly in the production of roofing shingles.
December 1999
Ciba Specialty Chemicals and Morgan Grenfell Private Equity (MGPE) announced that MGPE will buy Ciba's Performance Polymers division which supplies high-performance epoxy resins, amongst other products. The purchase price was some US$2.75 billion.
December 1999
Akzo Nobel NV signs a contract to sell its Acordis fibres business to CVC Capital Partners for US$840 million (~825 million). CVC take a 64% stake in the new company with Acordis management holding 15% and the remaining 21% held by Akzo Nobel.
January 2000
Fortum Corp, the new owner of Neste sells Neste Chemicals to Industri Kapital, Stockholm for US$535 million.
January 2000
DSM Industrial Resins & Compounds sells its compounds business to Menolit-Fibron, Bretten, Germany which is part of the Dynamit Nobel Group.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
27
1
28
Introduction - market developments
January 2000
Ameron International's joint venture company in Saudi Arabia, Bondstrand Ltd, establishes a new joint venture in Kuwait to be known as Bondstrand Kuwait Ltd.
January 2000
Premix Inc, USA and Dainippon Ink & Chemicals Inc, Japan formed a joint approach to service global customers with thermoset composite moulding compounds. The agreement is specifically targeted at the electronics industry in Southeast Asia.
January 2000
Advanced Technical Products Inc (ATP) and The Veritas Capital Fund L.P. announce that due to negative developments in ATP's Alcore Division they will terminate the agreement of September 1999. A new agreement, in which stockholders of ATP-will receive cash of US$12.5 per share without interest, is drawn up.
February 2000
Saint Gobain announces that it will combine the operations of its wholly owned subsidiary Norton Performance Plastics with the Furon Co to create a new business unit Saint Gobain Performance Plastics, which will have its headquarters in Wayne New Jersey. The new company has anticipated annual sales of US$830 million.
February 2000
Cambridge Industries Inc is to be sold either in whole or in part and has retained Morgan Stanley Dean Witter & Co to manage the sale. The company has liquidity problems and needs significant funding to pay for new equipment and facilities for increased business.
February 2000
Ferro Corp and Albemarle Corp reach an agreement in principle for Ferro to sell its flame-retardent business to Albemarle.
February 2000
Courtaulds Engineering Ltd is sold to a management buy-out.
February 2000
AlliedSignal Inc and Honeywell Inc are merged and Allied Signal changes its name to Honeywell Performance Fibres.
March 2000
Composite Solutions, San Diego announce that they are to acquire the privately held Trans-Science Corp. Composite Solutions undertakes retrofitting and repair of bridge and columns structures, and Trans-Science has undertaken ballistic research for the US Army.
March 2000
Alcoa Inc acquires all outstanding shares for Cordant Technologies Inc in a transaction valued at some US$2.9 billion, including the assumption of US$685 million in debt. Cordant is composed of three business groups: Howmet Castlings, Huck Fasteners and Thiokol Propulsion, which includes Thiokol TCR Composites. The Alcoa-Cordant combination will have revenues of US$18.8 billion.
March 2000
Fabric Development Inc (FDI) acquires the Fort Washington division of Lydall Manning, making FDI the largest weaver of high-performance fabrics. FDI weaves E-glass, carbon fibre,
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
1
Introduction
-
market developments
aramid (Kevlar), S-2 glass, Spectra, UHMWPE, quartz, Teflon, Nomex and other fibres. March 2000
Acordis transfers its remaining 45% holding in HIMA to Rheinhold & Mahla AG.
April 2000
Mitsubishi Chemical Corp combines the operations of its Functional Products Division with the operations of its wholly owned subsidiary Mitsubishi Kagaku Sanshi Corp. Products from the Functional Division include resin compound sheets, carbon fibres, carbon fibre sheets and alumina fibres. Construction products include reinforcing rods for concrete, Replark prepregs for concrete repair and seismic wrapping with Dialead pitch-based carbon fibres. The two units in the USA- Grafil Inc and Newport Adhesives & Composites- are part of Mitsubishi Rayon and are not affected.
April 2000
Cray Valley acquires the alkyd and unsaturated polyester business of Borden Chemical, UK. The company had a turnover of s million and the manufacturing will be distributed amongst existing Cray Valley plants.
April 2000
DSM-BASF Structural Resins, with the rest of the DSM Industrial Resins Group, is renamed DSM Composite Resins with the pipes and tanks business moved to a separate group.
April 2000
Composites One, which was been formed in 1999, acquires Lake Erie Fiber Glass Inc.
April 2000
CertainTeed Corp signs a letter of intent to purchase Celotex Roofing, Tampa, Florida in which it also acquires a glass fibre mat production plant in Russellville, Alabama.
May 2000
Eastman Chemical Co announces that it will buy McWhorter Technologies Inc, the specialist resin manufacturer, for US$200 million cash and the assumption of US$155 million debt. Sales revenue for McWhorter in the fiscal year to October 1999 was US$444 million.
May 2000
Concert Industries Ltd announces that it has acquired all outstanding shares of Airformed Composites Inc, Charleston, South Carolina, which produces multi-bond air-laid fabrics.
May 2000
Cambridge Industries enters into an agreement to sell virtually all shares in the company for US$363.1 million in cash to Meridian Automotive Systems Inc, Dearborn, Michigan. Cambridge filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in order to operate without disruption during the period of the sale.
May 2000
CGW Southeast Partners IV, Atlanta, Georgia buys all outstanding shares in Johnston Industries Inc, whose subsidiary Johnston Industries Composite Reinforcements Inc makes Vectorply and other multi-axial reinforcing fabrics used in such applications as the bridge deck panels manufactured by Martin Marietta Composites
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
29
1
30
Introduction - market developments
May 2000
Performance Materials Corp, Camarillo, California acquires the assets of BayComp, a division of Bay Mills Ltd Corp, which is a subsidiary of Saint Gobain, France. BayComp manufactures thermoplastic composite tapes, pellets and sheet materials.
May 2000
An investor group headed by Zoltek Companies Inc acquires a significant stake in Hardcore Composites Operations LLC, which had been part of Master Builders Inc which, in turn, is part of the international SKW-MBT Construction Chemicals Group. The remainder of the equity is owned by a new company under the chairmanship of the former CEO of Harcore Composites Division of Master Builders.
May 2000
Dow Chemical acquires General Latex Inc.
May 2000
BP-Amoco announces that it will divest its high-performance engineering polymer and carbon fibre businesses to focus on its mainstream hydrocarbon business. Engineering polymers include the Udel, Radel, Amodel, Xydar, Torlon and Kadel ranges, whilst carbon fibres are marketed as Thornel.
May 2000
Denali Inc, Houston, Texas which manufactures fluid handling products, including composite tanks and piping, received funding of US$28 million from the William Blair Mezzanine Capital Fund III following losses in the third quarter earnings to March 2000. The sum was reduced to US$23 million in June 2000.
June 2000
Dow Chemical assumes full ownership of Buna Sow Leuna Olefinverbund GmbH. The company was formed in 1995 from Buna GmbH, Sachsusche Olefinwerke GmbH and Leuna Polyolefin GmbH and in the same year Dow took 80% of the shares with an investment of US$2.5 billion. The company will now be known as Dow Central Germany.
June 2000
Vetrotex CertainTeed acquires the shares in Brunswick Technologies Inc for US$8.50 per share after the initial offer in May 2000 is refused.
June 2000
Advanced Technical Products Inc announces that it will sell its troubled Alcore and Alcore Brigantine divisions, although no buyer is yet named. For financial reporting purposes the units will be treated as discontinued operations.
June 2000
Composite Solutions Inc, San Diego announces that it will buy Anchor Reinforcements, Huntingdon Beach, California, which manufactures non-woven unidirectional fabrics in carbon, aramid and/or glass for the civil construction industry.
July 2000
Composite Solutions Inc acquires Karagozian and Case Structural Engineers, which was founded in 1945 and has particular interests in earthquake and explosion engineering.
August 2000
Reichhold is to acquire the resin and gel coat business of Fibercenter Ltda, which is the fourth largest producer of polyesters in Brazil.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
1
Introduction - market developments
August 2000
Composite Solutions Inc announces the formation of HBC Composite Solutions LLC, a joint venture with Howard Building Corp, California a building and construction contractor. The new company will develop business in seismic retrofitting of buildings.
August 2000
Norton Co, a subsidiary of St Gobain acquires the outstanding shares of Chemfab Corp through a wholly owned subsidiary, PPLC Acquisition Corp. Chemfab manufactures flexible polymeric composite materials.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
31
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Industrial applications
The major infrastructure markets are discussed in the following sections and they divide into the following four main areas: 9 9 9 9
use in n e w civil infrastructure (research and d e v e o p m e n t stage); retrofitting and repair of existing civil infrastructure (development stage); well-established but growing applications such as wind turbines and cooling towers; and long-standing applications such as pipes, tanks and corrosion resistance with low growth.
W h e n considering this sector only estimates can be made of the value of the market as no statistics are collected in any country. Tonnages are not considered to be the important e l e m e n t (and are also not collected) as a small a m o u n t of material can have a major influence on cost. Table 18 gives the estimated value of total road/bridge work a r o u n d the world split into the three main r e g i o n s - North America, Europe and Japan. Roads and bridges are a n e w area for composites having been established little more than a decade - the m u c h - q u o t e d Aberfeldy Bridge dates from the beginning of this period and there are still no major highway applications. Most bridges to date have b e e n relatively short - 8-10 m spans - although there are two footbridges with m u c h longer spans. Aberfeldy, UK, which is about 120 m in
Table 18 Value of composite developments in roads and bridges (US$ millions)
North America
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
30
2004
2005
35
45
50
60
70
80
Europe
10
15
20
25
35
45
55
Japan
25
30
35
40
45
55
60
Others
10
11
12
14
16
18
20
Total
75
91
112
129
156
188
215
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets 33
2
Industrial applications
length, and the Big Sandy River Bridge, Kentucky, which was completed in April 1999, has a length of 130 m. This lack of a long history is a problem for civil engineers in accepting composites as a viable construction material. It should be noted that, for example, some European bridges have a documented life of over 2000 years and even those in more m o d e r n materials, such as the cast iron bridge at Ironbridge, UK, were built in the 18th century. However, the composites industry is placing great hopes on growth of the repair of existing infrastructure and the construction of new initiatives as given in the first two items in the list at the beginning of this chapter. It should be stated that the potential market for new work for the period of this report is very small. The lack of standards and the concerns by commissioning bodies on third-party liability will severely limit the potential in the next five years. There is much better potential for repair/rehabilitation of structures. The sector also suffers from the separation between capital expenditure and maintenance costs. Most of the US road and bridge decks that need rehabilitation and strengthening have been in place for 50 years. This timescale is outside the corporate memory or depreciation times of all commissioning bodies. Where there is a regular, for example annual, maintenance cost following new work there is an incentive for bodies to consider the longer term. This is also the case where major disruption to traffic flows in repair work can be avoided, and this was one of the factors in the Hythe Bridge work described in the Chapter 6 case studies. In politically o p e n societies, such as California, it is also important that work that could save lives in the event of earthquakes is seen to have been undertaken. A survey in Orange Country, California, found that 98% of residents thought infrastructure was important but would not pay 1% more in taxes for upgrades. In the survey it was found that only a major negative event, such as an earthquake, Would result in a change of opinion. Where new work is implemented it requires a leap of faith to use relatively untried materials that have the further disadvantage of apparent higher cost rather than follow the traditional route that will last for the period of civic memory. This simpler traditional route is even more attractive if the alternative requires a more complex path in both engineering and financial terms. A large mileage of road throughout the world is made from reinforced concrete. The limited tensile strength of concrete has resulted in the use of steel reinforcement bars (rebars) to provide the tensile strength. Steel rebars are a cost-efficient reinforcement but are susceptible to oxidation when exposed to chlorides. This occurs in marine areas and in areas where road salts are used for de-icing. When properly protected the steel rebars can last for decades, but insufficient concrete cover, p o o r design or workmanship or large amounts of the salts can lead to premature failure. When corrosion of the rebar occurs, the result is a larger volume for the b a r - this can be as much as from two to five times the original volume. The concrete cannot sustain such growth and cracks and spalls cause the road to break up. In recent years epoxy-coated steel bars have been used to overcome the problem but new studies have indicated that epoxy does not perform consistently. The Florida Department of Transportation has now revoked their use and a report by the Canadian Strategic Highway Research Programme (1992) concluded that epoxy-coated reinforcing steel should not be used as the primary protective system. Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) has the potential to provide a cost-effective answer to this problem. In addition to being totally resistant to chloride ion attack, FRP has 1.5-2 times the tensile strength of steel at only 25% of the weight.
3,4
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
2
Industrial applications
Dowel bars which provide transverse joint restraint between the cast concrete slabs are typically made from uncoated steel or steel coated with galvanized zinc or epoxy materials. The bars have a similar problem of corrosion and products such as FiberDowel TM have been introduced to provide a lightweight, corrosionresistant component. One disadvantage is the initial cost, as composites are more expensive than steel. A second problem is that the alkalinity inherent in concrete has been d o c u m e n t e d in laboratory tests to deteriorate the glass fibres in the composite bar if the resin matrix does not properly protect them. It is claimed that the new generation of FRP rebar has solved this problem. Although market growth should be approached with some caution, the potential for repair and rehabilitation is considerable. To replace the 132 000 road decks in the USA which are considered to be deficient would require over 18 000 tonnes of composite if the accepted figure of 91 kg/m 2 is used. In a relatively early demonstration project by the University of Delaware or the Delaware Department of Transportation, Tonen Corporation's Forca TM unidirectional carbon fibre sheet, 20-in wide and 0.025-in thick, was used to strengthen the Foulk Road bridge. Three years later there was no sign of cracks in the bridge road surface. However, some early company entrants in the market have shown caution. Glasforms, one of the early innovators in pultruded road decks, has largely withdrawn from this market. They see little chance of growth u n d e r 5-10 years with acceptance by the civil engineering industry requiring a further 5 years of demonstration. It indicates that, in additional to confidence, cost is a factor. A pultruded deck weighing 19 lb/ft 2 has a cost of US$50/ft 2 and at a reasonable profit margin would sell for US$75/ft2; this compares with reinforced concrete decks at some US$25/ft 2. Glasforms has capacity to manufacture 250000 ft 2 of deck and only a small fraction of that is in demand. However, it should be mentioned that Glasforms has been replaced by Creative Pultrusions as the supplier to Martin Marietta Composites (MMC). MMC is involved in several highway projects but sees most growth in the northeast USA which has corrosion from winter-salted roads. Glasforms is located in California. MMC has recently been successful with bids for FRP bridges in New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland to add to its growing list of completed bridges. Within the bridge and building sector in the USA, a further possibility is column and building retrofitting as earthquake strengthening. About 40 states in the USA are vulnerable to seismic disturbances, with other Pacific Rim countries such as Japan, Taiwan and New Zealand facing similar problems. The main competitor system for composite column retrofitting is the use of steel-welded jackets, a technology introduced from New Zealand via the University of California, San Diego. To date, over 3000 bridges have been retrofitted with glass, KevlarTM, carbon fibre and epoxy or isopolyester composite jackets. California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS) has spent US$55 million over a period of 10 years to enhance column ductility as an aid to displacement during earthquakes; this is considered a more effective solution than enhancing strength. Full-height column jackets also add shear capacity.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
35
2
Industrial applications
2.1.1 North America The importance of the highway network in the USA can be judged from estimates by the Federal Highway Administration that 91% of miles travelled in the USA are in privately owned vehicles; trucks move nearly three-quarters of the value, half of the weight and nearly a quarter of the tonne:km of all shipments in the USA. Over the next 10 years it is estimated that the vehicle distance travelled will increase by 24%, and that rises to 53% over 20 years. The number of commercial trucks on US highways grew by 76% between 1982 and 1992 while vehicle distance travelled doubled. These factors and the growth of such systems as just-in-time delivery introduce commercial pressures to road and bridge repairs as the closure of roads and bridges over a prolonged period has serious economic effects. If the use of composites can be shown to shorten the repair time and if this is factored into costing the initially higher cost of composites is balanced by the reduced operational cost. Estimates on the percentage of the 587 815 bridges in the USA which can be classified as deficient, that is deteriorated, under strength and/or geometrically obsolete for the demands of current and future traffic volumes and loads, varies between 10 and 30%. Whichever number is used, the problem is severe as bridges and roads that were built 50 years ago in the expansion after World War II are now showing deterioration. Published reports by the US Department of Transportation have indicated that approximately US$35 billion per annum is spent in the USA to maintain the highway and bridge infrastructure. Conservative estimates indicate that approximately US$53 billion is necessary to maintain the highway and bridge infrastructure in its current condition. The primary concerns are seismic safety of roads, bridges and buildings, and corrosive decay of roads and bridges. In June 1998 Congress passed the Transportation Efficiency Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This legislation authorizes funds for two major initiatives intended to improve the condition, durability and capacity of bridges. TEA-21 continues the Highway Bridge Rehabilitation and Replacement Programme (HBRRP), which provides US$20.4 billion to rehabilitate or replace deficient bridges. In addition, a new initiative has been l a u n c h e d - the Innovative Bridge Research and Construction Programme 0BRC). IBRC is a 10-year programme with an outlined expenditure of US$2.1 billion for research on the 10 materials industries considered as having future potential for the nation. In the first three years of the IBRC programme, 116 projects using innovative materials were funded and 62 of these involved the use of FRP composites in bridge decks, concrete reinforcement, pre-stressing tendons, column wrapping and b o n d e d sheets. A further 56 composites projects are planned for 2000. Under the IBRC programme, US state departments of transportation propose demonstrations of new materials and systems for funding through partnerships between FHWA, the departments of transportation, industry and academia. Composite structures and materials have been a major area of focus. Total funding of US$102 million has been allocated for the six years 1997-2002, although this could be much higher with matching funding from the states. Under the TEA-21 programme, road and railway maintenance and enhancement are priorities with safety measures and environmental improvements. Projects must demonstrate improved technologies such as disaster-resistant design, lowered construction downtime, cost savings, reduced maintenance requirement, improved capacity, greater durability or increased service life, with an aim for the
36
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
2
Industrial applications
latter of 75-100 years. Materials can include glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP), carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP), high-strength steel or high-performance concrete. Aramids have been considered as reinforcement mesh in both road and building structures. The TEA-21 programme already has a backlog of work and spending has been raised from 11% of the total fund in the first year to 19% in the last. There is criticism from Europe that the US approach is to put money into action rather than analysis but the process establishes a body of experience on which manufacturers and customers can build. Bridge goals under the TEA-21 programme include: 9 Q Q Q Q
application of innovative materials; reduced maintenance and life-cycle costs; less traffic delay; development of engineering design criteria; and development of non-destructive methods for monitoring and inspection.
In addition to the general question of deterioration and under-design for m o d e m requirements, certain areas, such as California, have specific problems relating to earthquakes. Following the collapse of numerous bridge structures during the 1971 San Fernando earthquake (magnitude 6.4 on the Richter scale) there has been an increased awareness of the vulnerability of highway bridge support columns to damage from earthquakes. This vulnerability was again demonstrated by the 1989 San Francisco earthquake with the collapse of the Cypress Viaduct of the Nimitz Freeway and highway 1-880 in Oakland. More recently, following the 1994 Los Angeles earthquake, numerous highways collapsed or were badly damaged, including portions of the Santa Monica Freeway. Particularly vulnerable are bridge structures designed and/or built prior to 1971, before the San F e m a n d o earthquake p r o m p t e d drastic revisions in the seismic design code (which is still in use today). While seismic risk is typically associated with California, it is of concern throughout most of the USA. In 1990 the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials adopted seismic design guide specifications for the entire USA, recognizing the vulnerability of the nation's bridge infrastructure to potential seismic activity along the West Coast, the Midwest (New Madrid fault) and the northeastern USA. The seismic risk to bridge structures differs from region to region due to different probable earthquake magnitudes and recurrence periods, as well as geological conditions, but the unpredictable nature of seismic events and the vulnerability of the majority of existing bridges necessitates the development and implementation of innovative, fast, effective and economical retrofitting technologies to ensure the safe and continued use of the nation's bridge infrastructure. With so much of the nation's commercial production and domestic transport road-based, disruption to traffic is a matter for serious economic concern. Infrastructure engineering is concerned with balancing cost and weight to achieve desired performance. To note that a material is light, strong or cheap is simplistic - the material must have certain properties at an acceptable cost. The most commonly used primary design criteria are: 9 9 9 Q
bending strength; bending stiffness; tensile strength; and tensile stiffness.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
31'
2
Industrial applications
However, other factors that must be considered are: 9 9 9
disruption; appearance; and life-cycle costs.
The US Federal Highway Bridge Rehabilitation, Replacement and Repair programmes have funding averaging US$3.6 billion per annum, and composites could play a prominent role. By mid-1999 roughly US$250 million worth of research and development ~&D) on new construction materials had been undertaken by the High Performance Construction Materials and Systems (CONMAT) Council within the Civil Engineering Research Foundation (CERF), in the USA. However, despite considerable efforts, an authoritative source indicates that the 1999 value of installed composite bridge and road work in the USA is only of the order of US$20-25 million with 75% using glass fibre reinforcement and 25% using carbon fibre. Growth is of the order of 25% per annum but coming from a very low base. The Federal Highway Administration of the US Department of Transportation has issued funding guides for the years to 2003 to demonstrate innovative material technology (including non-composite materials) and some 60% of projects have involved composites. The funding is: 9 9 9 9 9 9
19981999 2000 2001 2002 2003-
US$10 US$15 US$17 US$20 US$20 US$20
million (funded); million (funded); million (in process); million; million; million.
Canada, which has similar weather conditions to the northeastern USA, has taken an active approach to the composite market for roads and bridges. There is a strong academic influence on developments in Canada with ISIS and the University of Manitoba providing good examples of the efforts being made in this area.
2.1.2 Europe United Kingdom
There has been considerable interest in the use of composites in road and bridge structures in the UK resulting from deterioration from bad weather and changing vehicle patterns and loads. The Aberfeldy Bridge in Scotland, the A19 Teeside bridge at Bonds Mill and Hythe Bridge in Oxford are all interesting applications of the use of composites in bridge structures. However, there have been no new structures on the major highways. All new work, to date, has been for footbridges, and most rehabilitation work has resulted from developments by local authorities. The Highways Agency (responsible for the construction and maintenance of major trunk roads and motorways in the UK) has not commissioned any new work using composites. However, the Highways Agency has undertaken various projects using aramids for strengthening bridge columns on major highways against impact damage by heavy trucks. The longer spans of 30-40 m for trunk road and motorway bridges
38
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
2
Industrial applications
mean that composites have not been used in bridges; most applications so far have been for local roads with spans up to 10 m. One problem is the lack of standards for the major roads and TRL Ltd, the transport and road research laboratory, are currently preparing a standard on bridge decks. The following have been suggested as relative costs for bridge repair/rehabilitation per m 2 (including traffic management and maintenance costs): 9 replace reinforced concrete b r i d g e - s 9 strengthen existing bridge using tensile steel s t r i p - s 9 strengthen existing bridge using carbon fibre s t r i p - s
There were 80 applications in the UK in 1998 for strengthening bridge structures using composites, and 6 km of carbon fibre and glass fibre plates were used in the same year to strengthen 50 bridges. This is an indication that the most effective commercial future for composites in this area is on repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting, and not on the new, intensely competitive applications. Building a body of experience in the repair area could then provide a basis for new work. Switzerland The 'Storkenbrucke' bridge over the railway line at Winterthur, Switzerland, is a cable-stayed bridge in which two of the 24 steel cable stays have been replaced by carbon fibre in an epoxy matrix as an experiment. Stesalit AG, Zullwil, manufactured the carbon fibre wire, and the CFRP stays were a joint venture between BBR and the Swiss Federal Materials Testing Laboratory, Dubendorf. The Testing Laboratory will monitor the cable stays over several years.
As with the UK, much of the development has resulted from the interest of companies such as Sika, Switzerland, and organizations such as the Swiss Federal Materials Testing Laboratory rather than the federal authorities. France There has been very limited use of composites in road and bridge work, with an application on the bridge of an autoroute near Paris. There have been tunnelstrengthening exercises (by Rocksoil, Italy) at Frejus and in the Tartaiguille tunnel on the Marseille-Lyon TGV line.
Denmark The innovative footbridge over the railway line at Kolding was largely the result of developments by LM Glasfibre, which had undertaken and paid for much of the research. However, there have been few other developments. Much of Denmark's very effective efforts in composites have been commercial operations directed at the wind energy market.
Norway In Spring 1998 Norway acquired its first composite bridge, which was combined with a bearing construction of steel. The bridge, deck, gangway and guardrail are made from glass fibre reinforced polyester and the bridge deck is a sandwich construction with a core of expanded PVC foam and laminated with glass fibre reinforced polyester.
Italy
There has been little road and bridge work in Italy using composites, except for the use of composite poles in street furniture and lighting systems. However, both
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
39
2
Industrial applications
FRP and CFRP have been used for tunnel reinforcement and rehabilitation. The work using glass fibre has been very successful technically and has been established largely through the influence of Professor Pietro Lunardi of Rocksoil S.p.A. The sophisticated technology has been used in those geological areas where tunnelling has failed, including the Santo Stefano tunnel on the GenoaVentimiglia line, the Tasso tunnel on the Rome-Florence line and the Vasto tunnel on the Ancona-Bari line.
2.1.3 Southeast Asia including Japan In much of Southeast Asia (outside Japan) there are few, if any, composite applications for roads and bridges, although this is an area that is in desperate need of both new structures and the repair of existing ones. The one major exception has been the building of several composite footbridges in China where the speed of erection was an advantage. The problem for Southeast Asia is the high initial cost in using composites rather than the cheaper conventional methods. Maintenance is not yet considered within the costing structure, partly due to low labour costs. In addition, although much of the area has a maritime climate, there are no weather conditions that require de-icing salts. The exception in Southeast Asia has been Japan, which has the combination of earthquakes, a maritime climate leading to salt corrosion and a sophisticated industry with several of the world's largest carbon fibre manufacturers. Nippon Steel (formerly Tonen) produces Forca T M carbon fibre sheet, whilst Mitsubishi produces Replark T M sheet and Toray has a wide range of carbon fibre products. One application has been in the strengthening of the tunnels used by the Shinkansen 'Bullet' train, where the concrete had showed serious deterioration. Sumitomo has reinforced concrete bridges with pre-stressed aramid FRP-vinyl ester rods. Following the Kobe earthquake considerable reinforcement was undertaken on the piers of road bridges. Some industry statements indicate that Japan may have the largest number of examples of road and bridge w o r k - about 100 projects. However, construction work in Japan is often politically motivated and projects are rarely awarded to foreign companies.
The corrosion-resistant properties of composites are excellent and they have wide application in such areas as chemical processing, wastewater, power generation, and pulp and paper production. This last market gives some indication of the demand outside the markets in developed countries as it has been estimated that China and Southeast Asia require an extra 22 million tonnes of paper and pulp production a year. The would result in a large n u m b e r of bleaching towers, washer drums and hoods, effluent piping, sack, scrubbers and storage tanks, with a high proportion of components made from corrosion-resistant composites which could be unsaturated polyesters (UP) or vinyl esters. Also in Southeast Asia there is a growing demand for wastewater treatment plants that require covers and linings; an example is given in Chapter 6 in a case study of an application in Singapore.
40
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
Fibre reinforced thermosets are used particularly in corrosive and acidic environments. They are also used in applications requiring lightweight design, flame resistance and thermal insulation. Corrosion-resistant equipment comprises some 12% of the reinforced composite market, and growth has been stagnant since the end of 1998. However, the US market should show growth to the end of 2000 as US federal regulations are now requiring the paper and pulp industry to replace its use of chlorine with chlorine dioxide and hydrogen peroxide by the end of 2000, which is giving increased sales of corrosion-resistant products. The cycle may follow that for tanks once the replacement process is completed. The corrosion-resistant market for composites is the third largest composite market in the USA, with 180000 tonnes in 1999, and should grow at some 2.5% per annum (Table 19). Within corrosion resistance, about 66% of applications are for moderate requirements and 33% of applications are for high-resistance requirements often found in the pulp and paper industry. When considering all corrosion resistance including pipelines, tanks etc., in the global market the premium corrosion-resistance market is small at about 90 000 tonnes compared with the overall market for UP in this sector which is some 680 000 tonnes. Power generation is also a potential growth market for corrosion-resistant p r o d u c t s as industry deregulation has led to a greater demand for efficiency in power production as companies are required to produce energy in a more costeffective way. Refitting of the stations will require both polyester and vinyl ester systems. Typical applications include stacks, ducts and chimneys, demister blades, scrubber slurry and circulating pipes, handrails, staging and gratings, as well as tanks. Gratings, often made by pultrusion, are a considerable market in the USA. Depending on the degree of corrosion resistance and/or fire resistance required, the resin materials used in ascending order of corrosion resistance are isophthalic polyester, orthophthalic polyester and vinyl ester with phenolic resins used for fire/smoke safety. One area of corrosion resistance that has proved a steady market for FRP is gratings and handrails in chemical industries with increasing use in marine environments subject to saltwater corrosion. Strongwell is a major supplier of FRP gratings for both the chemical industry and offshore applications using the pultruded process, and Composite Structures International, Dallas (formerly Fibergrate Corp) considers the moulding process with 35% glass fibre loading to offer good corrosion resistance. The most commonly used resin is isophthalic polyester, although phenolic resins may be used for fire/smoke resistance. Cooling towers are a major market for fibre reinforced plastics with most of the FRP towers manufactured from GFRP. A major cooling tower such as the Commonwealth Edison Joliet plant in the USA will use over 100 000 linear m of pultruded glass fibre profile. The world's largest company for the FRP business is Global Water Technologies' Psychrometric Systems, USA, followed by Hamon
Table 19 Corrosion-resistant market for composites in the USA 1999-2005 (O00s tonnes) ,
1999 ,,
180
..
,,
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
185
190
194
198
202
206
,,
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
Thermal, Belgium, which is also making inroads into the USA market. It is notable that of the lengthy list of cooling towers supplied by Hamon only a few are manufactured from FRP and most of these are in the USA. However, there is increasing interest in Europe, and DSM have replaced some of their cooling towers with FRP products manufactured by Hamon. Bedford Composites, Pennsylvania, has supplied the basis of a cooling tower at Barrick Goldstrike Mines, Nevada, made from pultruded profiles. The water p u m p e d from the mine at 65000 gallons per min is reduced from 60 to 4~ before discharge into the Humbolt River. There are wide variations in the estimates of the world market for FRP cooling towers. US estimates give a figure of some US$250 million, of which between US$100 million and US$125 million is in North America and the rest is divided between Europe and the rest of the industrialized world. However, European estimates are for a global market of US$60 million, which is 10% of the world market for all types of cooling tower. Within that figure of US$60 million some 7% is the European market and 12% is the US market. The greater use of FRP cooling towers in the USA is mostly a reflection of the lower costs of FRP pultruded products due to lower energy costs. In the light of figures for 2000 for composite cooling towers in China, the US figure is probably more accurate but a much higher proportion should be ascribed to Southeast Asia. The total market for UP in China is some 270 000 tonnes per annum, of which about 220000 tonnes is used in FRP cooling towers. Production figures from China should be treated with some caution as there are reported to be a large number of small production plants but only about 20 large companies. However, this would give a market in Asia second only to Japan, where UP use is some 410 000 tonnes and the Chinese market is growing at a faster r a t e - about 8% per annum. In the rest of Southeast Asia the market for UP is some 70 000 tonnes per annum. Large amounts of capacity were being installed before the Asian economic crisis but some of that has n o w been postponed. When the surplus production is absorbed there will be a further increase in the number of chemical manufacturing plants (including polyester) and this will be seen in the increased demand for corrosion-resistant products.
2.3 Pipelines and tanks Composite materials have been used by pipeline industries for several decades both for potable water, sewage treatment, power generation, and oil and chemical transport, and they have a long history of reliability. Extreme soil conditions (pH 1-2 with sulphate softs or pH 9-12 in alkaline conditions) can cause degradation, but polymers show good estimated life in 'normal' conditions. Although pipelines and tanks have a long history of plastics use at present, FRP pipes account for only 2% of the total world pipe market with most pipes constructed in cheaper concrete, steel or non-reinforced polymers. Much of the plastics market is non-reinforced materials for such areas as domestic supplies, and these do not come within the remit of this report. As an example 95% of newly laid pipes in Switzerland are plastic but the majority of these are made from PVC. Steel or stainless steel is still the first choice for industrial reservoirs, tanks and pipelines, and many in the oil and gas industry consider steel the only
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Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
acceptable and safe transport medium for their flammable and contaminantsusceptible product. However, Engineered Pipe (part of Owens Coming) supplies some 500 km of large-diameter composite pipe in Europe each year, and some of that is used for petroleum deliveries. Hobas, Austria, delivers slightly less, including some 150 km in the USA, usually of a smaller diameter and, again, covering a range of products. Companies such as Future Pipe (formerly Wavin) and Ameron specialize in the supply of heavy-duty pipe, frequently manufactured from epoxy resin and used within the petrochemical industry. The downturn in business in the oil industry has led to a decrease in orders for this area. The Gulf States have a FRP pipe capacity of 70 000 tonnes per annum covering both water and oil products. The world pipe market is estimated at US$600 million and this is rising at about 2% per annum. Within the industry major suppliers such as Engineered Pipe have worldwide sales of US$65 million and the US sales for Hobas are US$45 million (Engineered Pipe does not sell in the USA). The companies have about 35-40% of the combined US and European markets. The US pipe industry required 1300 million m of pipe in 1999, but much of that is for non-reinforced plastic, concrete, copper and steel. Growth for plastic pipe is predicted at 2.9% per annum, but for composite materials this will reduce to around 2% per annum. The US thermoset pipe market is estimated to require 4500 km of pipe in 2005 and this will be divided up as shown in Table 20. The US tank market showed a major fall in 1999 following considerable growth during 1998. The figures for 1998 in the USA were so high because new Environmental Protection Agency legislation required that underground steel petroleum tanks should be cathodic tested each year. The cost of such testing has led to major replacement of steel tanks by composite materials. As each tank requires about 1 tonne of composite this created a large, but short-lived, market which collapsed after the deadline date of 31 December 1998. Once the tanks are in place they will not need replacement for some years and this market in the USA will not show a major recovery in the period of this report. Europe does not have the same test requirement and, consequently, cheaper steel tanks for petroleum storage are more commonly used which indicates the effects of legislation on the composites industry. In tonnage the European market for reinforced polyester in silos, tanks and pipes is some 70 000-80000 tonnes, with about double that figure for the USA. At a loading of around 35% glass fibre this would indicate an overall figure for the USA of 200000 tonnes of composite. China uses some 5 0 0 0 0 - 6 0 0 0 0 tonnes of composites in silos, tanks and pipes (Table 21).
Table 20 Thermoset pipe market by end-user industry Market
%
Structural
10.0
Gas production
5.0
Oil production
12.0
Process industries
54.0
Drains and sewers
19.0
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
43
2
Industrial applications Table 21 Global use of composites in tanks and pipelines 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
250
255
260
265
273
281
290
The tank industry has seen considerable numbers of company movements in recent years. Denali Inc, Houston, originally spun-off from Owens Coming, has required a major investment from a capital investment fund following losses in the third quarter earnings to March 2000. Denali's listing also moved from the Nasdaq National Market to the Nasdaq Small Cap Market from 1 May 2000. A.O. Smith has its subsidiary Smith Fiberglass up for sale and it is reported that other pipeline and tank companies such as Ameron have difficulties. It is suggested that non-reinforced products at the lower end of the market, which are used in less demanding applications, are seeing growth but that the reinforced products needed by the oil and chemical companies have declining sales, possibly related to the cyclical decline in oil production as the USA and the Middle East oilproducing states disagree on rates of production. Oil and chemicals are a major application particularly for GFRP and vinyl ester, with the latter used for its corrosion resistance. The oil and chemical industries also make some use of epoxy resin as a matrix. Shell has some 2000 km of onshore composite piping installed which greatly outweighs the volume of offshore material. Onshore, the main application for Shell is pipelines, with some tanks and vessels. The main business driver is reduced life-cycle costs through minimum maintenance. Offshore applications are more diverse including firewater mains systems, water injection systems, access structures and flexible risers. Composites are used for their corrosion resistance and their light weight, which gives greater ease of handling and reduced overall structural weight. Again, the business driver is reduced life-cycle cost. Composite piping systems for fire mains and other applications begin to replace copper-nickel and other alloy materials such as super Duplex T M stainless steel. The system competes well on straight runs but there is little or no saving in complex situations. However, the overall viability is much improved when factors such as weight, life and improved fire performance are taken into account. Consequently, Conoco, British Gas, Amoco, Shell and Philips have installations that are under consideration or under construction. There are early signs of some interest in carbon fibre reinforced materials in the oil industry, which is surprising as carbon fibre is electrically conducting and would normally be avoided. However, CFRP is used in accumulator bottles in the Gulf of Mexico deep-water oil wells and a research project is looking at its use in pipelines to the drill head as a communication capacity can be incorporated for the transmission of data. Shell has also indicated an interest in carbon fibre reinforced pipes as the electrical conductivity would allow static electricity (a possible cause of explosions) to be dissipated on oil figs. The major hydrocarbon use for GFRP pipes is the transmission of wet oil (oilwater mixtures) cross-country, and these are found in all oil-producing areas Middle East, Europe and North America. Composites are attractive for their corrosion resistance and their life-cycle cost compared to carbon steel. Some
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Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
applications call for an internally and/or externally coated carbon steel pipe and polyethylene-lined carbon steel will operate up to 60~ Epoxy matrices will operate over 60~ but there are pressure limitations; a few high-temperature applications use polyamide. In potable water, which is a major use for pipelines, Reichholds's DION VERT M 9102-00 coating system has been certified by NSF International under the stringent NSF-61 for potable water applications, making this the only vinyl ester approved to this standard rather than through the use of special coatings. Most GFRP pipes are filament w o u n d with centrifugal casting used for very small pipes. Engineered Pipe manufactures mostly 900 mm pipe, with Hobas producing a slightly narrower diameter at 400-500 mm. The Canadian company Comptank Corp, Ontario, proved to the authorities responsible for the European Agreement on International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road that FRP tanks could out-perform the traditional rubber-lined tankers. Working with Clayton Commercial, UK, a tanker was produced made from Derakane 411 epoxy vinyl ester using hand lay-up and filament winding. The tanker holds 27 000 1, and is used for the transport of chemicals and hazardous materials.
Composites are used in power generation for their corrosion-resistant qualities and that area is covered in Section 2.2. However, an important and rapidly growing market for composites is their use in the manufacture of wind turbine blades (Table 22). The global wind energy market is estimated at US$3 billion with about half that market being held by the Danish wind turbine industry, which has a healthy home market and also exports about 75% of production. The rotor blade accounts for some 20% of the cost of the turbine and thus this market is worth - on a global basis - some US$600 million, growing at 20% per annum until 2002-2003 and possibly at a lower rate in later years as the number of suitable wind sites reduces. The German Federal Association for Wind Energy reports that 1674 new wind turbines were installed in Germany in 1999 with a total output of 1569 MW, almost double the output for 1998. Germany leads the world, followed by Spain with 650 MW and Denmark and the USA joint third with 300 MW each. Germany now has an installed base of nearly 8000 turbines with a total power output around 4450 MW; this gives a growth of over 50% since 1998. Spain has a rapidly growing wind-energy market and the 650 MW installed in 1999 means that the northern province of Navarre obtains 30% of its electricity from wind. Denmark
Table 22 Projected global growth for wind turbine blades by volume and value, 1999-2005 (O00s tonnes and US$ millions) 1999 Volume (tonnes) Value (US$)
2000
40
48
700
840
2001 57.5 1008
2002
2003
2004
2005
70
84
101
121
1210
1452
1597
1757
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
has a high ratio of power to population at some 0.3 kW per capita and the building of a large offshore scheme is due to begin during 2000. Studies indicate that the world can supply 53 000 TWh of electricity per year, which is four times larger than the consumption of electricity by the entire world in 1998. However, there are now problems in finding new sites and many new turbines are a replacement for smaller output machines. The German increase is partly based on an increase in turbine output from758 to 937 kW in 1999 as larger turbines replace smaller output devices. On the positive side, the recent decision of the German government to phase out nuclear power may place greater emphasis on 'green' energy generation including wind power. Placement of wind turbines on the landscape has caused problems; the UK with one of the best wind regimes in Europe has only a very small number of installations due to protests by nearby residents of potential sites. The wind industry is increasingly considering the establishment of offshore wind farms as the way forward, and a scheme off the coast of Denmark will begin construction in 2000 with a further one to follow off the Northumberland, UK, coast. Other offshore plants are planned for Germany, T h e Netherlands, Sweden, Ireland and France. Costs for wind-power production are now approaching those for coal-fired power stations w h e n favourable pricing regimes are included. At good wind sites, wind energy is fully competitive with new traditional fossil fuel and nuclear generation. Denmark reports that the cost of wind energy fell by two-thirds between 1981 and 1995 based on increases in production and favourable pricing regimes. Studies indicate that the current cost of wind energy is US$0.047/kWh declining to US$0.3/kWh by 2013 and US$0.25/kWh by 2020, which competes with m o d e m large-scale hydro plants. In developing countries with power shortages it is possible to install wind turbines quicker and to provide a decentralized source of energy. Simple wind turbines can be found at the gers of nomadic herders in Mongolia as movable power supplies. The wind energy associations in Europe and the USA give a figure in excess of 3000 MW of new wind-generating capacity installed in 1999. This represents an increase of 30% over the 1998 figure. A global figure of 23 500 MW predicted for 2005 would equate to a consumption of 121000 tonnes per annum of composites. The USA has continued its revival as a wind-energy market with a surge of development across the country. California has a number of wind farms and the largest wind farm in the world - 193 MW at Storm Lake, Iowa - has been officially opened. The favourable pricing regime with tax credits is legislated to continue to the end of 2002. China and India had some development with about 78 MW installed in China in 1999. Statistics are varied and growth rates are uncertain when one large project gives an annum growth rate of 40-50%. India has a reputation for preferring large-scale energy projects from a central organization. However, there are predictions that wind-generated electricity in India will increase to 1150 MW by 2000. Installed wind-energy capacity has increased by 40% in six years and the installed capacity in Europe now meets the energy needs of 5 million people. The industry aim is 40000 MW of installed capacity by 2010 to meet the energy needs of 50 million people. Denmark currently meets its aim of 10% of electricity production through wind generation and n o w aims for 50% by 2030.
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Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
The installed capacity in Europe over recent years is: 9 9 9 9 9
19951996199719981999-
2529 3496 4695 6430 8900
MW; MW; MW; MW; MW.
Environmental concerns have provided a considerable impetus to wind-energy developments. Much of the world manufacturing is centred in Denmark with NEG Micron AS holding 16% of global wind turbine production (after a poor year in 1999) and Vestas Wind Systems AS holding 23.4%. Enron Wind Corp (part of the major US energy company Enron) holds 16.3% and Enercon, Germany, has 12.8%. Denmark exports 75% of its wind turbine production and is reported to hold over 50% of the US$3 billion global wind turbine market. One company, LM Glasfiber, has produced more than 36000 wind turbine blades since 1978 and claims 45% of the global market for turbine blades. Blades have grown from a length of 8 m producing 50 kW to 34 m producing 2 MW. A new blade with a length of 38.8 m will shortly be producing 2.5 MW at a site near Dusseldorf. At a typical tip speed of 100 miles/h and with the masts at over 100 m (ground-tovertical tip distance), frequently located in coastal regions subject to high levels of pollution, the performance demands are severe. Rapid temperature changes, even ice build-up, as well as erosion from rain, hail and snow, can exacerbate conditions. Consequently, blade specification continues to undergo radical change from the initial open mould chopped strand mat-woven r o v i n g orthophthalic polyester c o n s t r u c t i o n - which is still used. Later developments use resin injection with more sophisticated glass reinforcements and vinyl ester moving to pre-impregnated epoxy reinforcement with their different fabrication and cure requirements. Stiffer blade designs mean that carbon fibre is now being considered. Vestas originally manufactured blades by hand lay-up but changed to using prepregs and vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding (RTM) in the 1990s. One driver for the change, in addition to performance, in production process has been the need to reduce styrene emissions. Another Danish manufacturer, LM Glasfiber, uses a vacuum-infusion RTM process. The rotor blade accounts for some 20% of the cost of the turbine. Longer rotor blade length - 50-60 m - will provide a potential market for carbon fibre as the blades need higher stiffness than can be achieved with glass fibre. When looking at the optimum balance between cost-stiffness-weight a heavy-tow carbon fibre is attractive and infusion techniques now make it possible to use heavier fabrics to save production time. The cost of carbon fibre still limits the application but in 2000 SP Systems, now part of Zoltek, demonstrated blades using carbon fibre in structural spars. In 2000 about 13 000 MW of power will be produced from wind turbines and this should rise to 35 000 MW by 2005, which would require nearly 80 000 tonnes of composites. Further growth is limited by site availability and the potential for offshore wind farms. Increasing blade lengths could change the type of materials used. The market for wind turbines can show very large annual variations resulting from a single large contract. As an example India had 2.8% of installations in 1996 but none in subsequent years. The wind turbine market is also heavily influenced by government pricing of power, giving percentage installations in the USA in 1996 and 1997 of 2.4%, which leapt to 13.5% in 1998.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
FRP composite piles offer solutions both to maintenance and to environmental problems. As an example, the US Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 has lead to a rejuvenation of the marine environment in New York Harbor. However, with this has come a return of marine borers such as the Teredo worm. Many of the harbour piers are supported on untreated timber and, in some cases, 90% of untreated wood piling has been consumed in one year. Concrete and steel piles are considered too stiff for fendering operations for boats, making polymer composites an ideal choice. In addition, creosote- and chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated timber is considered environmentally damaging and may pose a threat to marine life and to waterside workers. It is estimated that the repair and replacement of concrete, steel and wood piling systems costs the USA US$2 billion per annum. Piling from Hardcore Composites has been used by the US Army Corps of Engineers facility in New Orleans and on the Bay Authority Pier End Project on the Delaware River. Creative Pultrusions, the major US composite manufacturer, has produced a pultruded glass fibre-vinyl ester piling product in such demonstration projects as Berth 7 in Port Newark, New Jersey, and the Tiffany Pier Project, New York. The US Navy has now undertaken three projects on the use of composites to upgrade pier and wharf structures. The latest project is the Naval wharf Bravo 25, Pearl Harbor, which uses pultruded carbon fibre as 1 cm rods applied to the reinforced concrete slabs. The carbon fibre was Toray's T700, pultruded by DFI Composites and covered with MBrace CRFP sheet material from Master Builders. The use of composite materials in piling operations has four main disadvantages: 9 Q 9 9
it is more costly than using creosote-treated wood; it is less efficient to drive than conventional piling materials; the long-term performance is not fully established; and FRP has a low modulus and, consequently, deformations may occur in excess of that permitted by the building regulations.
In line with expenditure on roads and bridges, the USA is also spending a considerable sum on the repair and updating of its port and harbour facilities. The figures for the last five years are given in Table 23. A sum of some US$800 million should be included for other national port facilities. The main participants are Seaward International (responsible for the piling) and, from the composites industry, Hardcore Composites, Tonen (now part of Nippon Steel), which produces carbon fire sheets working with Structural Preservation Systems, and Mitsubishi Chemical which produces the Replark T M carbon fibre sheet-strengthening systems. An unusual composite application, which falls between several categories, was the work that DCN Lorient, France, undertook for Voies Navigable de France, which is restoring the French canal system. France has a very extensive network of canals that were originally built to link the river systems and transport goods. However, as in other countries, the canals are now largely used for tourism. The w o o d e n and steel lock gates have rotted or deformed over the years and DCN Lorient has been replacing them with composite gates that will require little or no maintenance drawing on its experience in waterfront structures. The gates are manufactured from glass reinforced isopolyester and manufactured by hand lay-
48
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
up in open moulds to create a solid un-cored laminate reinforced with woven glass fibre fabric. There is localized special reinforcement to meet extra stress. The composite parts are installed in a stainless steel frame and the total weight reduction is 50% of conventional units, making them easier to ship and handle.
Table 23 Spending on US ports 1996-2000 Port
1996-2000 (US$ billions)
Los Angeles
1.3
Long Beach
1.23
Seattle
0.485
Georgia Ports Authority
0.447
Houston
0.311
New York
0.231
Miami
0.203
Port Everglades
0.197
Tacoma
0.196
New Orleans
0.194
Total
4.794
An early use of composites in an offshore application was the strengthening of grid line 3 on the Mobil Beryl B offshore platform in 1995. The project increased the blast capacity of two walls by threefold. Although the cost of the carbon fibre composites was high, this was offset by the saving in labour costs as the work was achieved in 500 man days compared with 2500 for the next best alternative. Cost savings of over 50% were made using the composite method and, in addition, the work was completed without having to shut down production. A major application for GFRP pipes is in the firewater mains on oil rigs, including the sprinkler heads. Glass reinforced epoxy pipework has been shown to have a lower through-life cost than such competing materials as Duplex stainless steel, cunifer and titanium. Carbon steel is corroded by seawater and this would also clog the heads of the sprinkler systems. Of the materials in general use - epoxy, vinyl ester, Modar TM, polyester and acrylic - e p o x y has the highest mechanical properties, toxicity and cost, whilst phenolics have the lowest mechanical properties, toxicity and cost but the best fire/smoke properties, and the other materials occupy an intermediate position. ABB Offshore Technology uses FRP for sub-sea well protection covers, which protect oil well heads from falling debris. Traditionally, such covers have been made of steel and concrete but both these materials can suffer from corrosion and fatigue due to the arduous conditions found at the seabed. The FRP covers are made in open moulds from isopolyester resins supplied by Reichhold and DSM, and fabric matting from Brunswick Technologies (now renamed Saint GobainBTI). The material costs for the composite covers are higher than for steel but manufacturing costs offset this with a 20-30% saving. As the structures are 40% lighter than steel, transport and installation costs are lower and the light weight
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
means that the covers can be positioned using remotely operated vehicles - an important consideration for installations that are as deep as 330 m below the sea surface. Norway's offshore oil industry has been responsible for some innovative approaches to the use of non-traditional materials on oil rigs, including the Anaconda piping system developed for Statoil, Norway, by Halliburton Energy Services (previously Wellstream-Halliburton Subsea Systems) and Fiberspar Spoolable Products. The system uses carbon fibre reinforced epoxy umbilical piping manufactured as a continuous coil with a liner of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) and has e m b e d d e d conductors that relay two-way data between a control centre and the sub-surface assembly.
2.7 Public utilities There is a small market with potential growth opportunities in utility poles. There are currently an estimated 130 million wood poles in use in the USA, of which about 1.5 million are electricity distribution poles. However, of the total number, only 1.5% of all utility poles are made from steel, concrete or composite m a t e r i a l just less 2 million poles. Most of this number is made from steel or concrete with only a few thousand made from composites. Wooden utility poles for electricity, telecommunications and lighting all require maintenance and replacement on a regular basis. Within the UK, telecommunication poles awaiting replacement may be designated as dangerous for service engineers to climb and any work to be done requires the use of lifting hoists, which can delay repairs. In addition, the poles at the sides of roads are a source of death or injury in the event of motor accidents. Several companies have now produced poles which snap-off in such accidents. Wood, steel and concrete poles are all subjected to considerable wear due to adverse weather, fungi, woodpeckers, wind and ice loads, and vehicle accidents. Wood poles have a service life of some 20 years and require continual inspection and maintenance. A Douglas Fir pole weighs 1200 lbs, whereas a composite pole will weigh only about 40 lbs. Concrete poles have lower maintenance but the weight can increase transport and placement costs by as much as 60%. Steel poles cost less in transport and placement but must be painted or galvanized to prevent corrosion. FRP is one-fifth the weight of steel but six times as strong giving a long service life. Most composite poles are made from E-glass unsaturated polyester with a surface veil to protect the material from ultraviolet radiation. Safety is also a favourable consideration in the introduction of composite products. A survey in North America found that the wood preservatives creosote, pentachlorophenol and copper chromium arsenate (CCA) are used to treat w o o d e n utility poles in the USA. The organization Beyond Pesticides considers that a preliminary review obtained from the Environmental Protection Agency indicates that the use of this and similar chemicals has serious effects on children exposed to the chemicals, including risk of cancer. The Italian and North American markets have seen strong interest in the use of composite utility poles, with pultrusion as the favoured manufacturing approach in Italy and filament winding in North America. Experimental investigations have looked at GFRP transmission utility poles, and studied the statistics of thickness, glass percentage, tensile modulus and tensile strength which seem to indicate that
50
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
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Industrial applications
it is better to rely upon the effective stiffness in the design of GFRP poles. A further advantage is that the poles can be manufactured with a mechanism that allows the pole to collapse and be reinstated in the event of collision with vehicles. Companies such as Top Glass, Italy, Shakespeare, USA, and ISIS/Faroex, Canada, have entered this market. There are currently several thousand composite utility poles in service worldwide but, despite their advantages, the poles are more expensive than w o o d e n poles and this is still a small market. The US Department of Commerce has funded a project with two electric utilities, Southern California Edison Co and San Diego Gas & Electric Co, in which Ebert Composites Corp has produced a lightweight 2.6 m high-voltage electricity transmission tower. The tower is constructed from glass-vinyl ester and the snaptogether pultruded profile structure, which needs neither adhesives nor mechanical fixtures, has a total weight only one-third that of steel. The installation is on the Pacific coast and is subject to heavy salt contamination.
There is considerable investment taking place and planned for rail transport (including metro systems) in the next few years. The lack of investment in previous decades must now be redressed and this goes with a move towards lightweight, high-strength and comfortable carriages. Polymer Engineering Ltd, UK, has recently completed a contract to supply exterior panels worth s million for the Strasbourg Eurotram - the European light rail vehicle project developed by Adtranz; the panels were made using RTM. Adtranz, a subsidiary of DaimlerChrysler, was formed by Daimler-Benz and ASEA Brown Boveri and has 35 years experience in people-mover systems. The company has some 30 programmes on a global basis, having built six US airport transit programmes with 51 cars during 1997-1998. Adtranz uses composites in exterior end caps that close out aluminium vehicle shells and interior parts such as w i n d o w masks, equipment shells and access panels. The new bridge between Denmark and Sweden has meant that new carriages must be commissioned. Consequently, there will be growth well above the gross domestic product (GDP) growth figures but tailing off towards the end of this report period as the backlog of investment is cleared. The growth of composites in rolling stock varies between the sections of the train. Because of the improved design capability that composites gave to train designers for the shape of the front cab, composite materials were adopted at an early stage. It is n o w considered to be at optimum substitution for other materials and consequently any growth in the use of composites in this area will only come from a growth in rolling stock production. Global increases in rolling stock production are considered to be of the order of 2.5% per annum (Table 24). In other areas of trains there is greater opportunity for substitution, particularly with the second-generation, fire-resistant phenolics following recent train accidents. In the UK and The Netherlands train and metro fittings are required to meet fire and smoke standards equivalent to the M1 and F1 ratings; that is, selfextinguishable without production of toxic smoke. Thus, composite materials will see a greater growth rate of around 6% per annum. However, in addition to the phenolics, there is a growing market for reinforced acrylics such as Modar TM as
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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2
Industrial applications Table 24 Global use of thermoset composites in rail transport 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
155
166
178
190
203
215
228
they have greater adhesive strength than polyester, which requires less resin, and thus reduces the cost of the final composite. In addition, it is possible to use greater amounts of fire retardant with acrylics without compromising the strength of the final product, but acrylics have the disadvantage of accepting lower levels of reinforcement. Phenolics need special finishing requirements such as paints or gel-coats. Developments in fire-retardant polyesters are still not displacing the phenolics. Most fabrication techniques have potential in this area, including filament winding such as the Schindler Waggon technique for moulding a one-piece railway carriage body shell in nine working days at a lower cost than other fabrication techniques. As the use of double-decker trains increases, lightweight solutions that use sandwich construction of an epoxy prepreg aramid reinforcement over a PVC foam core allow rapid assembly and meet fire regulations. The European market for reinforced plastics in the rail sector is expected to grow by nearly 50% in the next five years to around 10 000 tonnes per annum. The biggest growth is expected to be in glass fibre reinforced polyester, especially for above-ground trains. Table 25 gives estimates for composite use and growth in round figures. A small amount of other thermosets are used but include a significant amount of melamine for interior panels, giving another 300 tonnes to the total figure growing at around 7.5% per annum. The main thermoplastics are polycarbonate and polyamide with similar amounts of each. Some geographical variations are found, for example the UK favours phenolic materials in some applications that would use polyester on mainland Europe. One factor which could improve the growth rate is the increased use of doubledecker trains, which would call for greater use of composites and is predicted for the latter part of the time period with growth in such materials as epoxies with carbon fibre reinforcement used for the flooring.
Table 25 European growth in composite use for rolling stock 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (tonnes) 1999
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Polyester
5850
6150
6450
6750
7020
7300
7520
Phenolics
580
630
680
730
800
840
885
Epoxies
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Vinyl esters
50
50
55
55
60
65
70
Acrylics
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Thermoplastics Total
52
2000
700
750
800
860
900
945
995
7355
7770
8190
8615
9015
9400
9735
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Industrial applications
Mektech Composites Inc has developed a polyester gel-coat which is compatible with its Cellobond T M phenolic resins, and its low flame spread and smoke toxicity properties make it attractive for mass transit applications. A major application in mass transport which was not rolling stock was the 400 km of cable trays used in the Channel Tunnel which required some 2000 tonnes of pultruded profiles. However, such major public works are rare. A further non-rolling stock application was the construction of a composite walkway in the Paris Metro so that maintenance personnel and other staff could work or pass near high-voltage rails in a humid atmosphere without danger.
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Raw materials consumption
3.1 Introduction Composites are largely a function of two materials - the resin matrix and the reinforcing fibre - with a small a m o u n t of fillers, fire retardants, mould release c o m p o u n d s and other additives. Some additives are included to reduce the cost, for example fillers, and some to improve the performance, for example fire retardants, and some to improve the manufacture, for example mould release compounds. Composites may seem to have a higher initial cost than traditional materials and a comparison would be that if steel = I and aluminium = 3 then most commercial composites would be between 2 and 3.5 d e p e n d i n g on the formulation and fabrication technique. However, w h e n considering specific strength, if steel = 1 and aluminium = 1.5 then most composites would be between 1.5 and 5.0 depending on formulation and fabrication technique. If life-cycle costs are considered the balance tips even further in favour of composites. The functions and requirements of the matrix in a composite are to: Q Q Q Q Q
keep the fibres in place in the structure; help to distribute or transfer load; protect the filaments in the structure; control the electrical and chemical properties of the composite; and carry interlaminar shear.
In terms of structural needs the matrix should provide some or all of the following: Q 9 Q Q 9 Q Q 9 9 9 9
minimize moisture absorption; wet and b o n d to fibre; flow to penetrate the fibre bundles and eliminate voids during compacting/curing; transfer loads to fibres; provide strength at high temperatures; provide good chemical resistance; have low shrinkage; have a low coefficient of thermal expansion; have reasonable strength, m o d u l u s and elongation; be easily processed into the final composite shape; and have dimensional stability.
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Raw materials consumption
Table 5 in Chapter I gives estimated market figures for the global volumes of resin and fibre in composite materials that are considered in this report. The major resins considered in this report are t h e r m o s e t s - unsaturated polyesters, epoxies, vinyl esters and phenolics. A new generation of thermoplastics such as the Fulcrum T M product from Dow Chemical will find a market in infrastructure but this will still be small in the period of this report. Thermoplastic materials still represent a lesser portion of the total composites market and are also less used in infrastructure applications. The trend towards thermoplastics, as o p p o s e d to thermosets, has not moved as fast as anticipated mostly due to the higher cost of the thermoplastic resin, the cost of the equipment and difficulties with processing. In addition, the easier recycling ability of thermoplastics, which it was felt would encourage their greater use, has not proved as great an advantage as predicted. Thermosets have also fought back with new developments that give improved properties and at lower cost. In comparing thermosets and thermoplastics various factors must be considered, including cost per unit of volume, processing, tooling, assembly, recycling, packaging, handling and functionality. In volume terms the major material used for infrastructure applications is unsaturated thermoset polyesters, largely divided between isophthalic polyester and orthophthalic polyester, and this situation will continue for the period of this report. These resins have the advantages of low cost and provide acceptable properties for most general applications. Polyester resins can be tailored chemically or by the addition of selective fillers to provide materials for specified uses including chemical and corrosion resistance, fire-retardant applications, translucency or low shrinkage. Glass fibre products usually reinforce such composites. The extensive use of polyesters is another example of the fact that industries will use a material that meets the requirements of an application at the lowest possible cost - value engineering. Materials that exceed the specified requirements and at greater cost will not be used - over engineering. Composites are inherently corrosion resistant and can show substantial cost benefits when used in aggressive environments. Glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) are used extensively in chemical plant structures where they can withstand acids, alkalis or sea water. The general guide to corrosion resistance for the commonly used polymers is: Q 9 Q 9 Q 9
orthophthalic polyester (has lower corrosion resistance); isophthalic polyester; terephthalic polyester; vinyl ester; bisphenol (phenolics); and epoxy (high corrosion resistance).
This listing is simplistic as the requirements can vary between acids, alkalis, petroleum at differing temperatures. The order, when considering fire resistance, is: 9 9
polyester (burns readily); vinyl ester;
9 9
epoxy; phenolic (excellent fire resistance).
Q ModarTi;
$6
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Raw materials consumption
Modar is the trade name for a modified acrylic resin produced by Ashland Chemical Co. However, despite polyester's position at the bottom of the fire-resistance list, the use of fire retardants can raise it to acceptable levels for many applications and its other advantages may outweigh the choice of another material, such as the second-generation phenolics. Fire retardants such as ATH (aluminium trihydroxide or in its commercial form as alumina trihydrate) have achieved considerable improvements in the use of polyester materials in less critical fire and smoke situations. It should be noted that although fire retardancy may be cited as a factor in specification it is often smoke emission that is the danger to life. The percentage of unsaturated polyester resin consumption in Europe is: Q Q Q Q
orthophthalic p o l y e s t e r - 62%; isophthalic resin - 17%; terephthalic polyester - 4%; vinyl e s t e r - 5%.
Italy is the largest resin consumer in Europe with some 23% of the market, followed (in order) by Germany, France and the UK. Although Italy has a flourishing composite use in engineering, much of its use is in domestic items. A wide variety of amorphous and crystalline materials can be used as fibres, with glass fibre as the most commonly used material. Carbon fibre can be used separately or in conjunction with glass fibre as a hybrid to increase the stiffness of a structural m e m b e r or the area within a structure. Aramid fibres can be used instead of glass fibres to give increased stiffness to the composite and can be used in preference to carbon fibres if there is an electrical implication - carbon is electrically conducting making it dangerous in some situations. Hybrid solutions combining dissimilar materials and manufacturing processes can sometimes be the most effective solution for an application. As an example, layers of carbon fibre can be used on the u p p e r and lower surfaces of a glass fibre reinforced structural beam section to improve stiffness and strength. A polyester resin might be used for the matrix of a structural section due to its good mechanical and processing properties; exposed surfaces of the c o m p o n e n t could be over-wrapped with a fibre reinforced phenolic layer for additional fire protection. Where the manufacturing process allows, the over-wrap thickness and stacking sequence can be tailored to suit the needs of the specific application. Although more conventional materials such as metals can be tailored, for example coated, this use of hybrid solutions demonstrates a particular attribute of composites that is beneficial in design but requires greater knowledge on the part of design engineers. The mechanical properties of composites d e p e n d on: 9 9 Q
the relative proportions of fibre to matrix within t h e matrix material; the components used to form the composite; and the method of manufacture of the composite.
Composites formed under pressure will generally have a higher fibre volume fraction than those manufactured by hand. The ratio of fibre to matrix is highly dependent on the method of manufacture and also the fibre orientation within the composite. The mechanical properties of the composite are mainly d e p e n d e n t
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
S'I
3
Raw materials consumption on the value of the fibres' modulus of elasticity and ultimate strength. The properties of the composite in use are mainly dependent on the physical properties of the polymer matrix. Glass fibre laminates have a superior impact resistance and can out-perform steel and aluminium when a blunt missile is used. A range of glass forms is available for reinforcement - rovings, mats, fabrics and fibres - giving the option to tailor the properties of the final product. Unidirectional carbon fibre has only limited ability to absorb impact energy, although adding E-glass or aramid fibres can improve this. Use of multi-axial fabrics in the construction of the composite will improve impact resistance. Aramids have the best ballistic impact performance for minimum weight and, hence, are widely used in the body armour market, and that feature means that they are now under investigation as wrappings for piers on bridges and buildings for impact resistance. General growth for reinforced thermosets in infrastructure will average about 2% per annum, although there are considerable variations between market sectors and geographical areas. Disregarding the increasing use of sheet and bulk moulding compounds (SMC and BMC, respectively) by the automotive industry, much of the previous growth in the area has come from specific and individual applications and markets. As an example considerable growth for underground tanks for petroleum storage in the USA was a result of EPA legislation and this market collapsed at the end of 1998. Major growth markets in wind turbine blades in Denmark, Germany, Spain and the USA result from pricing and tax regimes. Investment in rail transport has been encouraged by heavy traffic density in Europe, and some high-profile accidents causing loss of life have encouraged the use of fire-resistant materials. Power deregulation in the USA has encouraged power supply companies to look at inefficient methods of operation including improvements to cooling towers. The rehabilitation/repair for roads and bridges has resulted from the combination of existing structures reaching the end of their design life in large numbers following a burst of building after the World War II and increasing traffic density. Although growth rates in this last sector are high they come from a low base. Use of composites in new building will show a lower growth rate although there is potential, towards the end of the period, for FRP reinforcement bars (rebars) and dowel bars. Where there are warnings of further earthquake activity in developed areas there will be a demand for strengthening work to buildings, roads and bridges. The overall market for reinforced thermosets in 2005 will be about 2.6 billion tonnes, but only about 20% of this will be for all infrastructure applications both long-standing and innovative.
3.2.1 Unsaturated polyester (UP) resins Unsaturated polyesters can be divided into two main groups: isophthalic acidbased unsaturated polyesters (isopolyesters) and phthalic anhydride-based unsaturated polyesters (orthopolyesters), with terephthalic polyester having a small market for high corrosion resistance. Isopolyesters have better chemical resistance than the basic orthopolyesters and demands for improvements in
58
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Raw materials consumption
finished performance standards are leading to a move towards isopolyesters. Isopolyester has been used in a n u m b e r of bridge structures including the Aberfeldy Bridge in Scotland (113 m long), Olympic Bridge, Olympic National Park, Washington (49.5 m long) and Tech21, Ohio (10 m long). The Snap-Tite T M composite jackets used for strengthening concrete beams are made in isopolyester. Isopolyesters are used in 75% of pultruded products in North America. The basic chemistry offers considerable flexibility covering many h u n d r e d standard or specialized grades. The growing use of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) as an alternative to phthalic anhydride and moves to reduce the styrene content have contributed to growth which was thought to have reached its maximum. The use of fire retardants in the resin has also made them a competitor for phenolics in special applications. The use of aluminia trihydrate (ATH) as a fire-retardant filler and other changes has enabled a low-smoke product to be developed. The remaining disadvantage in the use of ATH is that, although the aluminium portion of the molecule acts as a heat sink with the hydrate portion releasing water to reduce flammability, their smoke and toxicity levels are still inferior to the phenolics. The growing demand for composites in mass transit applications has lead DSM to work with BYK Chemie and the filler manufacturer Martinswerk to introduce a range of polyester-based SMC with fire properties that are claimed to equate with phenolics. Major manufacturers include AOC and Ashland, both producing some 200 000 tonnes per annum, with AOC having upgraded its CollierviUe plant to over 100000 tonnes per annum. DSM produces 170000 tonnes per annum, whilst Neste produces 60000 tonnes per a n n u m and is to double the polyester resin facility at Porvoo, Finland, to 40 000 tonnes per annum in the summer of 2000 giving a total capacity throughout the world of 80 000 tonnes per annum. Reichhold, part of DIC, Japan, acquired Jotun Polymer, Norway, which had also been an innovator in the use of low styrene products. The unsaturated polyesters can be used in a wide range of both reinforced and non-reinforced products such as polymer concrete and simulated marble; the wider range of applications helps to smooth out the cyclical swings in demand. Most polyester resin is used in fibre production and only about 7% of total thermoset resin consumption in Europe in 1999 was for UP (Table 26).
Table 26 Unsaturated polyester (UP) resin consumption 1999-2005 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
North America
680
705
730
760
790
820
850
Western Europe
540
551
565
580
595
615
630
Eastern Europe
155
160
165
170
175
180
187
Southeast Asiaa
500
530
565
600
635
680
720
South America
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
65
68
72
75
78
82
85
2065
2144
2232
2325
2418
2527
2627
Others Total
aSoutheast Asia has high levels of polyester resin consumption but much of this is for polyester fibre and where used for composites this is for standard building and construction components.
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Raw materials consumption
Sales of UP increased by 4% in the USA during 1999. The total North America market for reinforced thermosets is about 1.2 million tonnes but not all of this is reinforced. The construction industry was the largest consumer with 275 000 tonnes, but most of this is not for infrastructure but in building panels, bathroom c o m p o n e n t s and similar items. In infrastructure growth is running at about 3% as increases in roads, bridges, wind turbine blades and cooling towers are balanced by the decline in the market for tanks and pipelines. Corrosionresistant applications (thermoplastics and thermosets) took some 170 000 tonnes of composites in 1999 and tighter legislation means that this will continue to be a growth sector. US federal regulations now require the paper and pulp industry to replace their use of chlorine with chlorine dioxide and hydrogen peroxide by the end of 2000. This will result in an increase of shipments in this area. A reasonable estimate of thermoset composite in this market would be about 114 000 tonnes. Subject to major fluctuations in the US e c o n o m y (which are not anticipated) it is predicted that growth in North America will continue to increase at a steady rate for the period of this report. Indications in the short term are that this assessment is realistic and subject only to problems with inflation and labour shortages in the USA. Composites are part of the chemical industry that has a close link to the US economy. Volumes will continue to rise but value will show a somewhat lower increase due to the pressure on prices. This situation does seem to be easing as all the major suppliers have a n n o u n c e d price increases during 2000 that may improve profitability. The pricing pressures on manufacturers have meant that Reichhold a n n o u n c e d a price increase of US$0.03/Ib for UP in May 2000 with a further increase of US$0.03/lb from August 2000. The increased prices result from raw materials costs with crude oil costs having risen to over US$30 per barrel. The UP resin market in Europe is between 500 000 and 540 000 tonnes (probably nearer the u p p e r figure with new installed capacity) and just over 50% of this a m o u n t is used in a reinforced form. Growth in both Western and Eastern Europe is about 2-3% per a n n u m in volume. Predictions that there would be major increases in the European market for UP, after the major falls in 1991-1993, have not been realized and, in addition to modest increases in volume, prices have been squeezed to give lower profit margins with 1998 and 1999 as difficult years for manufacturers. One large market sector in Europe is silos, tanks and pipes, where DSM gives a usage figure of some 8 0 0 0 0 tonnes of UP used in reinforced form, although Reichhold would probably give a figure closer to 85 000 tonnes. Although wind turbine blades are providing attractive growth, mostly for the Danish manufacturers, Europe has not seen the same growth rates in North America and China for cooling towers possibly because the pultruded c o m p o n e n t s are more expensive to manufacture. Because energy costs in Europe are higher than North America (and will remain so) composites and their components, which require energy for their manufacture, will always be more expensive and this will give lower growth levels. In Europe about 60% of the 540 000 tonnes per a n n u m c o n s u m p t i o n of UP resin is of orthopolyester resins; 17% is of corrosion-resistant isopolyester giving a figure of some 83 300 tonnes per annum. Growth rate is just u n d e r 4% per annum. When looking at the c o n s u m p t i o n of UP it must be noted that a high proportion is used for SMC, BMC and d o u g h moulding c o m p o u n d (DMC), which find their
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largest markets in the automotive industry. Some 60 000 tonnes per annum was used in SMC applications in Europe and more than 26 000 tonnes per annum for BMC/DMC with both markets showing considerable growth rates. Of the UK market for UP resins 23.5% is for the building and construction industry with some 10% for pipes and tanks. Southeast Asia is a large part of the world market for UP with China taking the largest share, although the manufacturing companies admit that there is no accurate estimate of sales. However, most production is not reinforced but is directed towards the market for consumer goods and standard building products. Only small quantities of the portion that is reinforced are directed towards the infrastructure market, which is not seen as a priority. There is one e x c e p t i o n China has a considerable market for cooling towers, and tanks and pipelines also have good markets in India and China. Capacity for UPs in Brazil, the largest market in South America, is 8 0 0 0 0 85 000 tonnes per a n n u m but over-capacity is some 35% partly due to currency devaluation. Resin prices and margins are low as there are too many producers. The main market is building and construction but very little is directed to infrastructure. Although there is a considerable potential market for pipelines and for water and sewerage supply, much of this is reinforced PVC, widely used in this application in the rest of the world. Consistent growth of just less than 4% has been shown for South America, but it should be noted that this geographical area has a long history of economic volatility which has proved unpredictable.
39. 2 . 2 Vinyl e s t e r r e s i n s Vinyl esters were originally used in composite manufacture for their corrosion resistance. However, further developments are also growing due to their critical strength, which is two-three times that of standard UP resins. They have greater resistance to premature cracking within the matrix prior to the failure of the reinforcement. This greater strength has meant their use in bridge reinforcement, in marine pilings and, particularly, in wind turbine blades, where they are reinforced with glass fibre. Hybrid resins such as the DSM product Daron XP 45TM and the Derakane 411TM from Dow are being introduced. Daron XP 45 is a hybrid of vinyl ester and urethane to give a low viscous system with excellent adhesion for both glass and carbon fibre reinforcement. Reichhold markets a range of epoxy vinyl ester resins that were originally introduced when the company was Jotun Polymer. The resin, known as Norpol CorVE TM, is used in the chemical, oil and gas industries. The US manufacturers are very secretive about vinyl ester production, with major chemical companies considering the information to be commercially sensitive. However, it would be reasonable to estimate a similar percentage for North A m e r i c a - 5% of unsaturated p o l y e s t e r - as is found in Europe. This would give a market figure of some 35 000 tonnes for the USA and a growth rate of around 2%, with greater growth expected from the new materials. In Europe, vinyl esters hold about 5% of the market for unsaturated polyesters giving a figure of some 25 000 tonnes per annum with a growth rate of under 2% per annum. However, only about 13 500 tonnes of this is used in the composite
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets 61
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Raw materials consumption industry, partly in the production of tanks and pipes which take about 8700 tonnes. Vinyl esters are mostly used in applications demanding corrosion resistance, such as chemical plants, and the UPs are taking some of this market with improved properties given by additives. The Latin American market for vinyl esters is 3500 tonnes per annum, although very little is used in reinforced form for composites; the growth rate is 2.5-3% per annum. Chile and Brazil take just over half of the output, with Mexico taking 18% and Argentina taking about half that amount. Brazil is considered to have growth potential based on corrosion-resistant applications in the chemical industry.
3.2,3 Phenolic resins Of themselves, UP resins and other thermosets such as epoxies will burn producing large quantities of smoke, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, with other toxic emissions. Almost every thermoset and thermoplastic resin can be given some degree of fire retardancy, although frequently at the expense of heavier smoke generation. However, the introduction of a range of new phenolic thermosetting resins in the early 1980s proved a benefit in those areas which had a high demand for fire and smoke safety, such as mass transport and offshore applications. Phenolics have one of the longest resin histories but they had not been suited to the composite fabrication techniques then in use. However, their fire hardness, high ignition temperatures coupled with the production of only clear, light smoke encouraged further development, particularly in the aircraft industry. Allied with the fire retardancy has been work on catalyst systems or phenolics to overcome problems associated with their curing or polymerization from the liquid to the solid state both at room and elevated temperatures. Phenolics cure by a condensation reaction which evolves water, which can prevent a full cure being attained and can cause difficulties in decorating the components. Unlike other thermosets, phenolics cannot use a pigmented gel-coat and have to be painted. The desire to produce fire-retardant products meant that for some time competition was found between phenolics, fire-retardant polyesters and methacrylate-urethanes, but the latter material is now litde used. However, polyesters treated with aluminium trihydroxide as a fire-retardant filler have provided strong competition and meant that the expected growth has not materialized, although phenolics are still preferred in some applications. Phenolics have been widely specified in UK mass transport systems such as the London Underground, which specify materials reaching high M1 and F1 fire and smoke safety standards. It is possible that particularly dreadful accidents (in the UK, the Kings Cross underground fire, despite having taken place over a decade ago, is still remembered) led to stronger demands for safety from all sides customers, design engineers, those responsible for financing, e t c . - to produce the same feeling as Californians have about earthquakes. Similar use of phenolics in the USA has not occurred and flame/smoke retardants are considered satisfactory. It is a depressing thought but one the composites industry might consider, that demands for higher safety and better design tend to follow rather than precede disasters. Although 39% of thermoset consumption in Europe in 1999 was for phenolics, most of this was not used in composites. The composite use of phenolic resins in Europe in 1999 was 55 000 tonnes (Table 27), a decline from the 61000 tonnes of
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Raw materials consumption
1998, with almost all of that as glass fibre reinforced. Growth will remain stagnant for the next few years. Most phenolics are used in non-reinforced form and, as an example, reinforced phenolics were only 12% of the UK phenolic market of 73 000 tonnes in 1999, giving a figure of just u n d e r 9000 tonnes, much of this resulting from improved investment in the above- and below-ground rail systems with further applications in the offshore oil industry, which suffered a serious accident at the Piper Alpha rig during the 1980s. A combination of circumstances including declining investment in rail transport once the present levels have been completed and fewer offshore rigs will mean a declining requirement for phenolics. Table 27 Phenolic use in composites in Europe, 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
55
55
55
54
54
53
53
3.2.4 Epoxy resins Most epoxy resins are used for adhesives and non-composite applications, and only about 2% of epoxy production in Europe in 1999 - some 4000 tonnes - is destined for composites with much of this being used by the infrastructure industry. Epoxy resins in infrastructure are used in heavy-duty applications such as special pipelines for the oil industry, wind turbine blades and bridge support systems, but their cost will restrict wider application. Composite applications needing these advanced requirements will show only small increases in the next few years, possibly rising to 3500 tonnes per annum by the end of the period of this report. As has been noted, design engineers require materials that meet, not exceed, specifications. An exception to this would be wider use of epoxies in wind turbine blades, particularly if longer blades and a decrease in carbon fibre prices lead to an increase in the amounts of carbon fibre used. The market in the USA is of a similar size to Europe - about 4000 tonnes. The smaller use in the wind turbine blades industry is balanced by the greater size of the oil industry and the number of deep offshore oil platforms that are being established in areas such as the Gulf of Mexico. Until recently, carbon fibre was always used with epoxy resin as no other combination gave the same high performance. However, DSM and others have conducted tests comparing vinyl ester and hybrid resins with epoxy using the Tenax TM carbon fibres. The Daron TM hybrid resins could compete on performance a n d had superior processing properties, but vinyl esters could not match the performance of the epoxies. Dow Chemical Co is studying three locations in China as possible sites for the production of epoxy resin. The proposed plant will become available in 20032004 and will have capacity of 40000 tonnes per a n n u m of liquid epoxy and 20 000 tonnes per annum of special resin. Dow is also increasing capacity for special resin manufacturing from 15 000 to 20 000 tonnes per annum, and in basic resins there is a planned increase of 25% with particular emphasis on brominated epoxy resin. It should be emphasized that much of this increased capacity is intended for the electronics industry.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
6,.3
3
Raw materials consumption
Epoxy adhesive in on-site building and construction applications should reach 14.5 million tonnes in 2001 with growing use of epoxy to repair cracked concrete. The SE90 heavyweight epoxy prepreg from SP Systems (now part of Zoltek) is used for the manufacture of large structures. Very thick reinforcements can be impregnated yielding prepregs of almost 2000 g/m 2, which can be cured at temperatures as low as 85~ This means that thick lay-ups- used in wind turbine spars - can be rapidly put in position, and Vestas uses the product in single cure applications of up to 100 mm laminate thickness. Using unidirectional glass fibre compressive strengths of 1000 MPa can be achieved; a polyester or vinyl ester unidirectional hand lay-up typically achieves 600 MPa. Although originally developed for wind turbine blades, the SE90 is now also used for mould tools and boat hulls. Almost 2.5 million m 2 of the prepreg are produced annually.
3.3.1 Introduction Glass, aramid and carbon fibre reinforced composites have considerable benefits in use. As an example, fatigue performance of carbon fibre composites particularly unidirectional composites loaded in the fibre d i r e c t i o n - is generally far superior to both metals and other composites. Glass fibre composites can show an impact resistance better than aluminium and mild steel. Aramids have the best ballistic impact performance combined with low weight. E-glass is highly resistant to corrosion by most chemicals (except mild acids and mild alkalis), whilst Technora aramid has very high strength retention in both acids and alkalis (Table 28).
3.3.2 Glass fibres The global market for glass fibre is valued at US$4-6 billion, although much of this is used in glass fibre insulation and other domestic/commercial applications. The ratios in the market can be seen in figures that indicate that the total US market for glass fibre is 2.73 million tonnes, whilst the total US reinforced plastics market is 1.63 million tonnes. About 1.1 million tonnes of glass fibre is used in reinforced plastics with loadings of 60-70% in some thermoset applications.
Table 28 Mechanical properties of typical reinforcing fibres Material
64
Density Fibre diameter Elastic modulus Tensile (g/cm3) (l~m) (GPa) strength (GPa)
Carbon fibre (high modulus)
1.8
400
2-2.8
Mesophase carbon
2.02
10
7-10
300
2-2.4
E-glass
2.5
10
90
4.6
S-glass
2.6
10
90
4.6
Kevlar-29 (aramid)
1.44
12
65
3.6
Kevlar-49 (aramid)
1.45
12
130
3.6
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
3
Raw materials consumption
Table 29 Glass reinforcement market by application (%) Application
Europe
World
Textiles
17
17
Thermoplastic resins
30
21
Thermoset reinforcement
53
62
The global finished composites market is valued at US$8 billion with nearly 5 million tonnes divided between 1.7 million tonnes in Europe (rising to 1.8 million tonnes in 2005), 1.63 million tonnes in the USA (rising to 1.9 million tonnes in 2005) and 1.28 million tonnes in Southeast Asia. The latter is heavily biased towards Japan, Taiwan and South Korea with growth to 1.4 million tonnes in 2005. Glass fibre is the major reinforcement used in thermosets with about 90-95% of the market reinforcing UP resins, which have 90% of the market. The combination of glass fibres-UP resin and open mould systems holds 65% of the composite market. The glass reinforcement market is divided up as shown in Table 29. Table 30 gives some indication of the market for glass fibres as thermoset reinforcement to the year 2005. Although there is a move towards thermoplastics rather than thermosets, this has not happened as fast as predicted and thermosets hold, and will continue to hold, the larger percentage of the composites market. There is some discrepancy between figures for glass fibre production between the major manufacturers Owens Coming and Vetrotex. Vetrotex considers that glass fibre demand in the USA, the world's largest market, is expected to reach 2.95 million tonnes in 2005 with an annual growth rate of 2.2% per annum. One million tonnes of glass fibre is given for reinforcements. Production for 2005 is predicted to be worth US$5.5 billion. Owens Coming estimates the world market for glass fibre in 1999 at 2.3 m i l l i o n tonnes with an industry capacity of
Table 30 World market for glass reinforcement in thermosets 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
North America
330
337
344
351
359
367
375
Western Europea
315
327
340
350
360
370
380
Eastern Europeb
100
104
108
112
117
122
126
Southeast Asiac
300
315
331
348
365
383
402
South America
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
Middle East
40
41.5
43
45
48
50
52
Others Total
30 1155
30.5 1197
31
1.5
32
32.5
33
1241
1283.5
1329
1374.5
1420
aBoth EU and non-EU countries. blncludes Russia. CMostly Africa and Australasia.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
65
3
Raw materials consumption
2.8 million tonnes rising to 3 million tonnes in 2000. The Composites business unit of Owens Coming records that in 1999 it shipped 25% of the world's glass fibre with a sales value of US$284 million and profits of US$55 million. Although all infrastructure applications are included in the Owens Coming shipments, most material is for conventional construction and the automotive industries, with the latter seeing the greatest potential for growth. Vetrotex sees the division of markets for glass reinforcement as 27% in Europe, 24% in Asia, 3% in South America and Australasia, and 46% in North America. Although Vetrotex gives growth rates of 14.5% per annum for South America this is from a low base and the area is subject to considerable variations due to economic cycles. Europe has growth of 7% per a n n u m and North America 4% per annum. Asia is now seeing a recovery, although the double digit increases of the early 1990s have not returned, and when considering Southeast Asia as a whole the high growth rates in such areas as China have to be balanced by the low growth rates in Japan. Owens Coming divides the global market for glass fibre as 29% for Europe, 23% for Asia and 31% for North America. Although there is a high rate of growth for glass fibre production, much of this growth is not feeding through to FRP where growth is around 2% in Europe and slightly higher in North America. In addition, even though there has been an increase in capacity and production this has not resulted in better profits for the manufacturing companies. Allowing for inflation, the price of glass fibre per kg is virtually half the figure of the mid-1980s. The end-user may find this price level attractive but it does limit the funds available for capital investment. In the developed world it would be reasonable to expect 15% of the figures given in Table 30 to be used for infrastructure and this figure would be slightly l o w e r at about 8% - for Southeast Asia (requirements for China and India would balance lower demand in other countries). Within Eastern Europe and South America the figure will reduce to nearer 5%. The Middle East could see a higher p r o p o r t i o n 15% - as the market for pipes and tanks recovers and industrial applications that require corrosion-resistant materials are brought on-stream. The Middle East also has a considerable history of using composite materials for large-scale building projects in adverse climatic conditions of heat and high humidity. Four suppliers hold nearly 95% of the US glass fibre market - Owens Coming, Vetrotex CertainTeed, PPG and Johns Manville, which manufactures specialist insulating products. A similar situation is found in Europe. Japan accounts for 30 000 tonnes of the world's glass fibre production, which is a low figure but is reflected in the small amounts of GFRP used in the automotive industry. In general, the low growth (if any) in the Japanese economy will be mirrored by glass fibre production. The steel industry in Japan is very strong and is supported in preference to GFRP products. Within infrastructure, applications such as road, bridge, tunnel and chemical plant repair and strengthening will be undertaken with carbon and aramid fibres, which would support the strong position of the local carbon and aramid fibre manufacturers rather than glass. Japan has minimal numbers of wind turbine and cooling towers that could have produced larger market figures. China has a market for about 200 000 tonnes per annum of glass fibre but, as in other areas, Chinese domestic production of glass fibre is dominated by small producers often with an under-utilized capacity of only 5000 tonnes per annum
66
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
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Raw materials consumption
Table 31 The glass fibre market in China 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
216
233
252
272
294
318
344
per plant. A further difference between Chinese production and developed countries is the extensive use of the lower-quality 'middle alkali' glass made from reheating glass marbles rather than the method used by the major manufacturers of direct melting E-glass. Imported glass is used in products requiring better quality control. The projected growth rate for glass fibre production in China is given in Table 31. India is notable for the difference between capacity, production and consumption of glass fibres. Production in 1999 was 18 000 tonnes but consumption was a little over 10000 tonnes per annum with much of the surplus being exported to Southeast Asia. Capacity is over 60 000-70 000 tonnes per annum, with the major producers Owens Coming with 30 000 tonnes per annum capacity, Binani Glass Fibre, CEAT/FGP and UP-Twiga all with capacities of 10000-12 000 tonnes per annum. The projected glass fibre production growth for India is shown in Table 32. Owens Corning's manufacturing capacity in Asia is now nearly 90 000 tonnes per annum, including glass fibre roving and chopped strand mat in India and chopped strand and chopped strand-mat in South Korea. South America (including Mexico) consumes some 90 000 tonnes of glass fibre, with Brazil (30 000 tonnes) followed by Argentina (9000 tonnes). Consumption will show an increase of 2-3% per annum, mostly in the building, construction, pipeline and tank, and transport industries. The dominant position of glass fibre in unsaturated resin in all sectors including infrastructure will remain for the next decade. Even a major fall in the price of alternative materials such as aramid and carbon fibres will not displace the position of glass fibres. Fibre use is also a reflection of the structural need - if glass fibre meets the technical requirements of an application design engineers will not specify a more expensive, higher-strength material such as carbon fibre. The volumes of fibre reinforcements used are partly a reflection of their prices: 9 Q Q
glass f i b r e - US$2.2-13/kg; carbon fibre - US$19/kg (for 48 K tow fibre)-US$44/kg (for 12 K tow fibre); aramid f i b r e - US$12-50/Ib.
Table 32 Growth in glass fibre production in India 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
17.9
22.0
23.5
25.0
27.0
30.0
35.0
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets 67
3
Raw materials consumption
Higher tow carbon fibres can be obtained at lower cost particularly with discounts for quantity. The most commonly used reinforcing fibre in infrastructure applications is Eglass. AR-glass is used in alkali and corrosion-resistant applications, R-glass is used for high mechanical performance and D-glass is used for high dielectric performance. Glass strand is produced in furnaces operating at around 1500~ (E-glass) using finely ground materials. The glass leaving the furnace is fed through bushings (blocks pierced with hundreds of holes) of platinum alloy. E-glass is highly resistant to most chemicals but is attacked by both mild acids and mild alkalis. The extensive use of glass fibre reinforcement in chemical plant is reliant on the corrosion resistance of the polymer matrix and its ability to ensure that the glass fibres do not become exposed to the environment. Other glass fibres such as ECR-glass show an improvement over E-glass in corrosive environments. Bare E-glass in distilled water retains about 65% of its short-term ultimate tensile strength after 100 days. This compares with R-glass, which has a strength retention of 75% after 100 days. Rovings, tows and fabrics are the most commonly supplied forms of fibre for infrastructure applications. Rovings and tows can produce a wide variety of reinforcing materials including mats, woven fabrics, braids, knitted fabrics, preforms and hybrid fabrics. Mats, fabrics and braids keep fibres aligned prior to resin impregnation. The fabrication advantages of fabrics and braids mean that they are moving out of the aerospace industry for which they were largely developed and into the markets held by the traditional chopped strand mats and continuous filament mats. Mats are non-woven fabrics that provide equal strength in all directions and come in two distinct forms: chopped and continuous strand. Chopped mats contain randomly distributed fibres cut to lengths typically ranging from 3.75 to 6.25 cm and held together with a chemical binder. Inherently weaker than continuous strand mats, chopped strand mats provide low-cost reinforcement. Continuous strand mat (CSM) is formed by swirling strands of fibre onto a moving belt and finished with a chemical binder that h o l d s the fibre in place. Owing to its high strength, CSM is primarily used in moulding and pultrusion processes which produce structural elements for construction. Extremely lightweight veils are often used as surfacing veils. They have an open fibre arrangement designed to accept a high ratio of resin to fibre, which produces a thick and smooth resin-rich finish. The veils can provide enhanced weather and ultraviolet (UV) protection in such applications as utility poles. Woven fabrics are made on looms in a wide variety of weights, weaves and widths. Glass and other reinforcements such as carbon can be made into hybrid arrangements combining advantages from both materials. In glass and carbon hybrids, carbon fibre can provide high strength and stiffness in the longitudinal direction, whilst E-glass provides transverse strength. One glass fibre manufacturing technique for strand and surfacing mats and veils is the Modigliani process in which molten glass is drawn from a furnace through a bushing plate and spun onto a revolving drum. Size and binder are applied to the fibres as the furnace traverses the drum. The rate at which the furnace traverses the drum controls the filament diameter and the gear racking on the drum controls the pattern in which the fibres are laid down on the drum. Once the target weight of the mat being produced has been achieved, the condensed mat is cut from the drum ready for expansion and curing in an oven. A condensed mat
68
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
3
Raw materials consumption
will expand by up to 100 times its original length. In m o d e r n manufacturing technology, computerized process technology ensures the consistent drawing of glass fibres of a known filament diameter in a pre-determined pattern to close weight tolerances.
3.3.3 Aramid fibres Aramid fibres considered in this report are para-linked aromatic polyamides that form rigid molecular chains, although there is a meta-aramid product that is used in products such as Nomex TM. The fibres become highly oriented along the direction of the axis during the spinning process used in fibre production. Fibre properties can be altered through variations in the spinning process and by the use of post-spinning heat treatments. Aramid fibres are highly crystalline and possess a low-density advantage compared to glass or carbon fibre having the highest specific tensile strength of any commercially available high-strength, highstiffness fibres. Unidirectional aramid composites have a high tensile strength of 1200-1400 MPa and a very low density (1.35 g/cm 3) making them particularly suited to use as tension members but not generally suited to bending applications. There are three main brands of para-aramid fibres - Kevlar TM from DuPont, Twaron TM from Accordis (previously Akzo Nobel) and Technora TM from Teijin. DuPont and Akzo Nobel had an expensive patent battle over the material and both companies have seen only disappointing use of a material that was very expensive to develop. The US National Research Council Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites (CFCC) committee noted that returns on investment by DuPont in development of Kevlar TM would have been better if the money had been left in the bank! Other aramid fibres are the meta-aramids produced by DuPont under the Nomex TM trade name and Teijinconex TM, which is manufactured by Teijin. AlliedSignal manufactures an aramid-type material known as Goldflex TM in which a para-aramid purchased from outside manufacturers is processed using its polyethylene Shield TM process. Aramid fibres have exceptional flexibility and tensile strength, which makes them useful for structures that must withstand high stress and vibration. They have been used for impact barriers on motorway piers and dividers where carbon fibre would be too brittle. The two major manufactures are DuPont with production capacity of some 21000 tonnes per annum and Accordis with about half that amount. There is overcapacity worldwide and the market is divided at some 6000 tonnes per annum in Europe, 8000 tonnes per annum in North America and 30004000 tonnes per annum in Japan. Prices vary between US$12/kg for friction applications and US$ 50/kg for high-technology applications, with an average price of US$33-35/kg, to give a world market of up to US$875 million. Growth rate is only 2-3%, with potential in geotextiles and braking systems as a replacement for asbestos in cars, trucks and trains. The original application envisaged for aramid fibres was as a replacement material for tyres but aramid fibres proved too expensive and technical advances in polyethylene overtook requirements. This is yet another indication that materials will fight back to maintain market share - a point which composite manufacturers
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets 69
3
Raw materials consumption
should r e m e m b e r w h e n predicting the demise of steel and other metals. Aramid tyres are now available at s per tyre. The three Japanese manufacturers - DuPont-Toray, Nippon Aramid and Teijin are marketing aramid fibres as earthquake-proof reinforcing materials. Although demand in this growing area is dominated by carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP), there are specialist structural applications where the electrical resistance of aramid can provide an extra safety margin, for instance in railway applications and other areas close to high-power lines. Aramids are available in a variety of forms including cut tow, flock and braids. Growth is likely to be in the form of hybrids of aramid with glass or carbon fibres. Such hybridization is important in overcoming the two major drawbacks of a r a m i d - high cost and difficult handling. There is growth potential with the material, although glass fibres are now able to offer many of the characteristics of aramids. A major use of aramid fibre is in personal body armour, but the material also has good resistance to crack propagation with good impact and fatigue damage properties. This is combined with high vibration damping characteristics and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range. Para-aramid materials offer good resistance to crack propagation, impact and fatigue damage together with high vibration damping characteristics and good dimensional stability over a wide temperature range. The fibres have good chemical resistance, although they are attacked and degraded by strong acids such as sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric and phosphoric. The breaking strain for aramid fibres is substantially greater than for carbon fibres and is, in some cases, equal to glass fibre. Aramid fibres fall into two main categories in respect of chemical resistance. Paraaramid fibres, such as Kevlar 49 TM, are chemically quite stable and have a high resistance to neutral chemicals but are susceptible to attack by strong acids and by bases. However, Technora TM has very high strength retention in both acids and alkalis. Tests carried out in 40% aqueous H2SO4 at 95~ for 100 h showed 90% strength retention compared to 20% for the Kevlar materials; however, E-glass fibres would have ceased to exist under these conditions. Problems have been experienced with micro-cracking of aramid materials. Commercial aramid fibres can show moisture uptake as high as 5% u n d e r room temperature conditions, probably due to adsorbed moisture in micro-voids close to the surface of the fibres, but there appears to be little effect on the tensile mechanical properties. A further disadvantage is sensitivity to direct exposure to UV radiation; Kevlar 49 TM fabric with a thickness of 1.1 m m loses 50% of its tensile strength after a five-week exposure to sunlight. This is not a major problem in fibre-resin composite materials as the matrix resin acts as a UV screen for the underlying fibres. These problems have restricted the anticipated growth in the aircraft industry. The problems for aramid fibres have been two-fold: Q 9
70
high manufacturing and development costs including the development of complete new polymer systems and very expensive plants; and anticipated applications that either did not appear or were slow to appear.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
3
Raw materials consumption
3.3.4 Carbon fibres There is considerable disagreement on the size and growth of the market for carbon fibres (Table 33) with some companies giving capacity figures rather than production. As many plants are only operating at 50% capacity (or less) this gives a considerable variation in output. In addition, the differences in tow sizes can impact on production figures. Figures from Toray, the largest manufacturer of small tow carbon fibre, indicate world production at around 15 000 tonnes per annum, with Toray's production at about 7000 tonnes per annum. Toray is conservative in its estimates (compared, for example, to Zoltek) but these figures are probably reasonably accurate. In addition to plant in Japan, the company also has a carbon fibre plant in Decatur, Alabama, which opened in April 1999. Mitsubishi's subsidiary Grafil has a manufacturing plant at Sacramento, California, and Toho imports fibre into the USA. The three companies probably meet about 70% of the world demand for standard tow polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibre, which is estimated at 10 000 tonnes per annum. Standard tow carbon fibres are mostly used in the aircraft and sporting goods industries, although there is some use in infrastructure. In predicting growth, company positions are also variable. Zoltek has placed all its efforts in carbon fibre and if the predicted growth (or greater) does not emerge the company will be in considerable difficulties. Conoco has not yet begun production and might find manufacturing difficulties as Zoltek has found with its Hungarian acrylic plant. A considerable portion of Toray's production is from SOFICAR and if aircraft orders for Airbus dry up there will be surplus capacity. The anticipated market for sports goods has not materialized and companies need to find an alternative market. Toray has announced that if it decides there is increased demand for large tow fibres (a view held by Zoltek) it will reorganize production at the plant in Ehime, Japan, to concentrate on 70 K tow fibres. The US plant will concentrate on 48 K320 K tows, with much of this supplied to US electronics manufacturers for reinforcement. Toray considers that the current demand for large tow fibres is about 2000 tonnes per annum but anticipates strong growth. The Suppliers of Advanced Composite Materials Association (SACMA; which is currently in limbo but may be re-instated) had given shipment figures for 1997 of around 13 500 tonnes coveting 85% of shipments, which would indicate an overall total of around 16 000 tonnes. The market collapsed in 1998 to 10 500 tonnes giving an overall total, with growth, for 1999 of about 15 000 tonnes, although this may be a little high. The value of these shipments was given as US$580.2 million producing an average price of US$55.4/kg. In February 2000 Toho Rayon increased the prices for PAN-based carbon fibres. Prices have fallen in the last year mostly as a result of capacity increases. Toho Rayon has responded by cutting capacity by 20% but has found a sharp increase in its costs as a result of higher prices for raw materials.
Table 33 Market for carbon fibres 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 5 (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
15
15.5
16
16.5
18
20
22
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
71
3
Raw materials consumption
The aerospace industry, which had originally been the driver in carbon fibre development, has seen a fall in consumption during 1999 with a further fall predicted for 2000. Sports and leisure use has not produced the hoped-for growth and this is now predicted to come from industrial applications, including rollers used in the print and paper industry and parts for airbags. Carbon fibre is used in infrastructure applications but only represents a very small amount. Based on the weight figures used within the industry there are indications that approximately 6.5 m of pultruded composite would require 1 kg of carbon fibre. This would give a weight of 900 kg for the 6 km of pultruded carbon fibre plates used in the UK bridge repair in 1998. Some carbon fibre has been used in rehabilitation of bridges and building, with small amounts used in specialized pipes (usually for the oil industry). If wind turbine blades continue to grow in length there may be moves towards carbon fibre for its extra stiffness, and it may also be used in some other wind turbine applications. This is presumably one reason why Zoltek bought SP Systems. However, the amounts are small even though this is a growth sector. Carbon fibre is more brittle than glass or aramid fibres and, despite a reputation for being non-corrosive, it can show galvanic corrosion when used next to metal. For this reason epoxy is normally used as the matrix for carbon fibre because it makes a good barrier. Carbon fibre reinforced pultruded profiles are somewhat lighter than the equivalent size of glass reinforced material. The most c o m m o n width for a profile is 80 mm wide by 1.2 mm thick which, at a density of 1.6 g/cm 3, gives a weight of 154 g/m. For glass fibre reinforcement a unidirectional glass would have a density of 1.9 g/cm 3 and mat or tape reinforcement would be 1.7 g/cm 3. CFRP has, in general, a better fatigue performance than both metals and other composites, particularly w h e n considering unidirectional composites loaded in the fibre direction. In such cases CFRP is relatively insensitive to tension fatigue damage even at very high stress levels. Even non-unidirectional lay-ups have better performance than such commonly used metals as aluminium 2024 T3 and 4130 grade steels. Certain unidirectional carbon fibres will give a tensile modulus of about 250 GPa, which compares with steel at about 210 GPa. However, the principle attribute of carbon fibre composites is the very high specific stiffness. A unidirectional composite using a standard product, such as Toray's T300 carbon fibre, has a specific modulus of about 80 Msi, which compares to steel at about 27 Msi. When very high modulus fibre is used a specific modulus of 160 Msi can be achieved. The consequence is that, if tensile stiffness is the design criterion, the carbon fibre composite can be several times lighter. There are other mechanical trade-offs when considering carbon fibre but the main consideration is cost. There is discussion in the industry on the most suitable material/method to be used in infrastructure rehabilitation with some difference of opinion between the use of high modulus fibres or pre-stressed components. The modulus of carbon fibre describes the degree of stiffness and can be given as: 9 Q 9 Q
72
low (or standard) - 33-35 Msi; intermediate - 40-50 Msi; H i g h - 50-70 Msi; Ultrahigh - 70-140 Msi.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
3
Raw materials consumption
There have been many notable attempts to reduce the cost of carbon fibre which is seen to limit its industrial/infrastructure applications. The most recent target, set by Zoltek, was aiming for US$ 5/lb (US$11/kg) in 2000. This figure has not been achieved and the prediction has now slipped to 2002. The difficulty in achieving this aim without significant improvements in technology or efficiencies can be seen in the following figures. A reasonable assumption for the cost of a PAN precursor is US$1.35/Ib (US$3/kg) and with a conversion rate of 2.2 for precursor to fibre this gives a starting price of US$3/Ib (US$6.6/kg), in capital cost alone, for PAN-based carbon fibres. In March 2000 the three major Japanese carbon fibre manufacturers were investigated as a result of US complaints of price-rigging. Mitsubishi Rayon, Toho Rayon and Toray Industries with their US affiliates Toray Composites (America), Toho Carbon Fibers Inc and Grafil (part of Mitsubishi) have been under investigation since January 1999. In July 1995 Tonen of Japan announced that they had developed a unidirectional carbon fibre for improving the seismic resistance of concrete bridge structures. The material was known as Tonen Tow Sheet and comprised carbon fibre yams glued to a backing scrim of glass fibre fabric. The material has two weights - 200 and 300 g/m 2 at a thickness of 0.11--0.165 mm per ply layer. Application was by a layer of wet resin painted on the concrete surface to which the tow sheet is applied. Mitsubishi has developed a similar material known as Replark TM, but using 3% resin. In February 2000 Conoco Inc, Houston, Texas, announced that it was building a new plant in Ponca City, Oklahoma, for the production of up to 3.6 million kg of random carbon fibre mat. The pilot plant is based on a pitch by-product and produces monofilament spun mat or wool product about 60 cm wide and with a loft about 7.5 cm, although the aim for the production plant is much greater width and with variable density, thickness and properties. The Conoco material is aimed at industrial applications rather than the conventional aerospace and sporting goods markets covered by most PAN tows. It is interesting that Zoltek originally aimed for the aerospace market but withdrew to other applications. Tensile strengths for PAN-based material can be higher than required in such infrastructure applications as concrete column wrapping or fibre reinforced concrete. In such areas modulus may be more important than tensile strength. Mats also offer good dispersion in a range of matrices including concrete, plastic and asphalt. In concrete, the addition of carbon fibre mat would allow tailoring of flexural strength or ductility in such requirements as seismic or wind loading requirements. Conoco considers that the earliest use will be as chopped mat that can be mixed in a matrix; once put into pellet form it can be mixed in plastic matrices and will compete with chopped and milled continuous carbon fibres used for electrostatic discharge (ESD) and electromagnetic interference (EMI) control in such areas as electronics and computer cases. The mat product has been carded in textile forms. It is anticipated that the tensile strength of the pitch-based fibre will be in the range 250-350 ksi with modulus tailored between 35 and 120 Msi. Controlled coefficient of thermal expansion and coefficient of friction could provide applications in the braking systems of trucks and rail rolling stock. AU of these markets compete with large tow carbon fibres from Zoltek where the production processes are largely in place.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets ?3
3
Raw materials consumption
Union Carbide developed similar mat or veil monofilament products many years ago but the business was bought by BP (now BP-Amoco) and not pursued, although BP-Amoco does produce small quantities of continuous pitch-based carbon fibre. Other manufacturers were Ashland Carbon Fibers which ceased manufacturing the product and DuPont with Petoca and Kureha in Japan. The Conoco fibre appears to have a higher performance mesophase pitch rather than earlier products that were based on the isotropic pitch. An interesting aspect of the costing of the final product can be seen in the following production figures. The plant will cost US$125 million and is predicted to begin commercial production of 3.64 million kg in the second half of 2001. The simple cost of the fibre, based on plant capacity, would be US$34.36/kg and even amortizing this over seven years still gives a manufacturing cost of US$4.9/kg, which is higher than the lowest PAN-based cost of around US$3/kg. Current output of pitch-based carbon fibres is around 3300 tonnes in Japan and 500 000 kg in the USA.
Other materials which are regularly added to composites but which are not quantified in this report are gel-coats, pigments, fillers and flame retardants. 9
9
Q
9
Q
74
Gel-coats are used as finishing coats to give a better surface finish and because glass fibre laminates do not withstand weathering, fading in UV radiation. Gelcoats cannot be used with phenolics, which must be painted. Pigments can be used as part of the basic resin or gel-coat system to give a desired colour or to block UV radiation. Some metallic salt-based pigments may lower the adhesion between fibre and matrix. Fillers are particulates which may include talc and chalk products which lower the cost of the product but must be used with caution as they may lower the long-term structural properties and durability. Flame retardants can be added in particulate or coating form and may be halogenated or non-halogenated. Their use can cause problems for mechanical properties, especially durability. It is necessary to balance the flammability characteristics, ignition, heat development, smoke production and toxicity with structural integrity. Some fire retardants may improve one fire performance characteristic at the expense of others. Organizations such as the Underwriters Laboratory set widely used tests but there is no ISO standard. The major material used is aluminium trihydroxide, which is known in its synthetic commercial form as alumina trihydrate and acts as both fire and smoke suppressor by releasing water vapour on heating. Adhesives, either as thermosetting resins or in speciality form, offer a more speedy assembly than mechanical fixtures or welding. Liquid thermoset resins used in the creation of a composite laminate can be considered as adhesive bonding. Speciality adhesives are a newer introduction and can contain selective cleaning and priming materials in low-, medium- or high-modulus products.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
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Hand lay-up is the dominant method of composite fabrication and will remain so for the period of this report. It is estimated that some 65% of all glass fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester (UP) resin (the dominant material for this report) is fabricated by open mould processes - hand lay-up, non-reinforced castings, continuous impregnation and gel-coat resins. Despite environmental pressures to reduce styrene emissions, the 'clean' resin processes such as resin transfer moulding (RTM) still only account for a very small percentage of consumption. Automation of labour-intensive activities can reduce recurring labour costs; this is clearly illustrated in the material deposition rates seen for pultrusion, filament winding and automatic tape lay-up. Therefore, the persistence of manual labour as the dominant method for composite fabrication is a strong indicator that automation with composites is difficult and there are positive advantages to open mould systems. A major challenge in developing cost-effective composite manufacturing techniques is to maintain the vast material and shape options in a simplified and automated way. Automation can translate into lower manufacturing costs provided that: 9 Q Q
the automated steps dominate the cycle time for the part; the parts are produced in sufficient numbers to offset the capital costs of the equipment; and the automated technique does not require higher-priced materials.
These conditions are generally met for reasonable volumes using pultrusion and filament winding. However, the additional complexity required to produce composite parts places limits on the improvements that c a n b e expected from automated techniques. In spite of the potential for considerable improvement over manual lay-up, it is unlikely that automated composite processes will be simpler and, hence, less expensive than the equivalent 'bulk' metal process, for example those for steel. Guidelines on occupational exposure to styrene vary from country to country with the UK allowing a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 100 parts per million (ppm) applied over a 15 min period and a time-weighted average (TWA) of 50 p p m over an 8 h period. In the USA, OSHA has set limits of 50 ppm and
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Manufacturing technologies Table 34 Material deposition rates for composite manufacturing methods Fabrication method
Rate (k~h)
Hand lay-up
0.5
Pre-plied broadgoods
1.5
Tape-laying machine
4.5
Filament winding
45
Germany's limit is just 20 ppm. Exposure to styrene is not considered to have carcinogenic effects but can cause nausea. EU legislation will cause considerable expenditure for the paints and adhesives industries, whilst the polyester industry is a smaller user. There will be greater use of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD)-based resins and the resin suppliers continue to introduce low-styrene emission products. Alternatives to styrene as a m o n o m e r have been evaluated but none offer the same blend of quality, performance, convenience and cost effectiveness, and styrene will remain the predominant m o n o m e r in UP resins for the period of this report. Of the automated processes, injection moulding is a cost-effective way of producing complex, filled polymeric parts but lacks precise control over fibre orientation. Pultrusion is capable of making advanced composite parts and is potentially the lowest cost process; growth in North America is predicted at 8% per annum to 2002. However, pultrusion is limited on part shape, requiring a constant section and has problems with fibres oriented at 90 ~ to the outside. Filament winding works best for shapes with some axial or rotational symmetry but is generally restricted to geodetic fibre paths. The differing fabrication methods have advantages and disadvantages, some of which are related to cost. Table 34 gives a broad outline of the relative speed of the main material deposition rates.
These open mould fabrication techniques are still the most commonly used production methods throughout the world. Even in Europe and the USA such methods predominate and in less technologically developed areas the percentage is higher. The combination of hand lay-up and spray-up is the single largest manufacturing process in Europe with around 35% of production; the USA has about 30% of open mould processing. The global average for open mould techniques in the production of thermosets is around 45%. This must be a matter for concern for the composite industry given the problems of styrene emission, quality control and reproducibility, and the high levels of automation in competitor industries. With composite fabrication, even automated systems may still have some element of contact moulding often as a finishing process. Automated processes such as RTM, filament winding and pultrusion can remove the variations found in hand lay-up whilst providing higher-quality products and reproducibility of components. The entire process of hand lay-up requires about
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50 different processes, making the process slow, cumbersome and difficult to automate. The actual lay-up has seven different processes followed by about 33 actions required for bagging, vacuum and curing. In terms of production time, the actual lay-up time (seven processes) often takes about half the total time for the entire process and typical production rates are of the order of 0.5 kg~. Because the process is slow, tedious and dependent on operator skill, the results can be variable requiring a thorough inspection of all structural parts. On the positive side, the process is suitable for large one-piece items, for prototype work and small batches. However, a disadvantage is that for larger-scale production there are problems with repeatability and quality control. If composites are to move into the large-scale production found with conventional materials it will be necessary to adopt the levels of automation found with those materials. The cost benefit to using hand lay-up is that there are few capital costs with the simpler system, although quality control and speed are improved with automation. This reflects the position of the composite market in two areas: 9 Q
having a preponderance of small companies with limited capital investment; the origins of the composites industry as a supplier to the marine and aerospace industries.
Boats and aircraft are usually made as one-off items having large parts - an ideal arrangement for hand lay-up - and nearly 50% of all aircraft components are still made using this method. Volatile organic c o m p o u n d (VOC) legislation will be tightened throughout Europe and the variable rates currently operating are likely to be rationalized. Scandinavian manufacturers point out that the tighter legislation in Scandinavia gives them a manufacturing advantage. Most resin manufacturers such as Reichhold, Scott Bader and DSM are already producing low-styrene resins. However, styrene is still the predominant m o n o m e r and, with open mould techniques, this will continue for the period of this report. Spray-up is heavily used for the production of composite baths, and the introduction of new technology has increased the element of automation with the additional benefit of reduced styrene levels. Equipment from such companies as Magnum Industries, Florida, USA, and Wolfangel GmbH, Germany, have all introduced developments which give more efficient use of material by reducing waste and lower styrene emission. Companies, which have used legislation as an opportunity to examine fabrication techniques, have often found that economies and greater efficiency have resulted.
The pultrusion process was patented in the USA in 1951 as a method for making fishing rods (still a major use of pultrusion in China) and used glass fibre rovings in a polyester matrix. In 1972 continuous strand mat was introduced, but polyester is still the workhorse of the industry. It was not until the mid-1980s that interest in the process as an industrial process was developed. About 28% of the US pultrusion market goes into corrosion-resistant applications.
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Manufacturing technologies
The potential for developing the infrastructure market may be limited in some countries by the current pultrusion capacity. As an example, the UK currently uses 750000 tonnes of steel reinforcing bars per a n n u m and a similar a m o u n t of structural steel sections. Replacing even 1-2% of the steel market would require the entire current UK pultrusion capacity. Matrix materials are usually thermosets and it was not until the mid-1980s that there was much interest in thermoplastics as matrices. Optimistic annual growth rates for pultrusion are set at 12% per annum for the next five years, but a more realistic figure would be 4% per a n n u m but with lower growth in value terms. North America is predicting 8% per a n n u m growth as the supply of timber becomes more difficult. Most raw material manufacturers sell only small amounts of material to pultruders, varying between 0.2 and 5% with an average of 2.6%. Differences for the higher pultrusion market in the USA over Europe include: 9 9
9
lower energy costs; long-standing history of fabrication method; and bulk markets, such as ladders.
Although there are predictions that the pultrusion market in Europe will show faster growth, there are factors such as the lower energy costs in the USA that will still be in effect in 2005. Consequently, European production will grow as the effectiveness of the product becomes apparent but the growth will not be as high as predicted. The estimated markets for pultruded profiles in Europe in 2000 are: 9
9 9
corrosion-resistant a p p l i c a t i o n s - 2900 tonnes; construction - 8000 tonnes; and t r a n s p o r t - 2200 tonnes.
Around 15% of composite production is used in all infrastructure applications and there are predictions that this could rise to 20% by 2005. This would require considerable increases in the growth of such products as pultruded utility poles, cooling towers and corrosion-resistant applications such as gratings. The small percentage of pultrusion used in infrastructure can be seen in figures which indicate that 50% of the total weight produced is used in the following applications, ladder rafts, sucker rod, tool handles, gratings, cable trays, highway protection posts, solid insulator rod, third-rail coverboard, window lineals, electrical rod and bar, cooling tower profiles and conduit strut. Most of these are not infrastructure related, and the largest single item in this list is window lineals. Within Europe only some 2-3% of UP resin production goes into pultrusion products compared to over 35% for hand lay-up and spray-up. Overall pultrusion takes just under 5% of thermoset compounds in Europe. Pultrusion is still a small-scale operation and the average European pultruder has seven or eight pultrusion machines with two or three separate production lines. The average machine capacity is 100 tonnes per a n n u m with production running at about 56% of capacity. The total ex-works value for European pultruded products is around ~130 million. Europe has around 800 pultrusion profile manufacturers, of which just over half produce building profiles. The largest 50 companies in the building profiles sector account for over 80% of the market. Ten of the leading producers -
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including Veka, Kommerling and Deceuninck - produce 30% of the building profiles. However, most of this market is standard building products such as window frames, cladding, doors, shutters, guttering and similar products. The amount which can be allocated to the infrastructure sector is indicated by the material used - polyvinyl chloride (PVC), usually in the form of uPVC - accounts for 95% of the market and this is rarely, if ever, used for infrastructure. The remaining 5% includes polypropylene, polyester, polystyrene, engineering plastics and thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs). The polymer demand for 1999 was just less than 2 million tonnes and, in line with the percentage seen in other areas, only a maximum of 1% can be allocated to the infrastructure sector. The major pultruders who cater for the infrastructure industry are Bekaert (Belgium), Bedford Plastics (USA), Creative Pultrusions (USA), Exel (Finland), Fiberline (Denmark), Top Glass (Italy) and Fibreforce/Pultrex (UK). Strongwell, the world's largest pultruder with US$85 million worth of components, produces for infrastructure but has also produced carbon fibre reinforced automotive drive shafts for use in GM trucks. The process originally used 12 K carbon fibre but in 1996 the company changed to using the 48 K and 50 K large-tow materials that are now finding use in infrastructure applications. China has 100 pultrusion lines in operation but pultrusion represents only 1.5% of the composite manufacturing market. Although total capacity is about 30 000 tonnes per annum, production is only about 10% of that amount. One of the major consumer areas for pultruded products in China is fishing rods. Isopolyesters account for 75% of pultrusion demand in North America, with a further 15% using vinyl ester. Dow Plastics has introduced a thermoplastic material for pultrusion based on polyurethane and Dow's Fulcrum technology. In the standard pultrusion process resin-coated fibres are pulled through a heated die to produce parts such as round bar, angles, channels and rectangular hollow sections. As the die is often I m or more in commercial processes, and the resin is cured within the die, high pulling forces may be required in production. These forces can be 5-150 kN depending on the section size and, consequently, the pultrusion machine tends to be large. An example of the pultrusion process is material stored in a creel stand capable of supporting many different material packages, sometimes known as roving cheeses, being guided into a pre-heater to obtain a temperature near the melt temperature of the matrix. The material must contain a very carefully specified mass of wetted-out reinforcement. It then enters the heated die with a cavity of the desired cross-section to shape the composite profile followed by a cooled die to consolidate the components. After further cooling by the surrounding air the composite is pulled forward by a pulling mechanism. Pultrusion is a capital-intensive process that can be used for continuous volume manufacture of closely dimensioned shapes and profiles. The cost of the pultrusion dies - some s 000 each - means that new dies cannot be bought for every application. Pultrusion is considered by many to be the most costeffective process for manufacturing the structural members required for large continuous, commercial structural parts using polymer matrix composites. The products range in size from 3 mm rod to 'H'-section girders of considerable size. Manufacturing technology for pultrusion processing has advanced considerably over the last two decades, but there are still serious restrictions to the process that are limiting market penetration.
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One such limitation has been the very slow processing speeds for pultrusions of more than 5 cm, although new developments have seen speeds increase to 7 m/min in some circumstances. A further limitation is that profiles can only have a constant cross-section and variations in shape cannot be manufactured. A further problem with the process is the requirement for a very rigid construction to enable the frame to support heavy c o m p o n e n t s and to ensure that the force from the pulling mechanism does not result in significant frame deformation. A typical pultruded sheet has the following layers: 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
surfacing chopped fibre; chopped fibre; chopped surfacing
veil; strand mat; strand mat; strand mat; veil.
The surfacing veil is used to give an acceptable finish and also to protect the surface of the product from ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Extended resin pot life is n o w available to pultruders with new catalyst systems that can bring about cures. Pot life has been extended in temperatures below 150 ~C, with standard imidazole catalysts having a pot life of about 8 h and the new materials giving a pot life of up to 48 h. This allows bigger batches to be m i x e d increasing from 25 l to batches of 110 1 and even 180 1. A disadvantage of the pultrusion process is that it can only p r o d u c e continuous straight profiles. The ability to produce curved sections or sections with c o m e r s w o u l d give pultruded products a larger commercial market (Table 35). Researchers at the Warwick Manufacturing Group, part of the University of Warwick, have developed a three-dimensional pultrusion process in which curing is d o n e using UV light rather than heat and takes place as the profile leaves the die. As the die only has to impart a profile to the fibre-resin bundle, the pulling force is far lower than that required for the standard pultrusion process. Examples given indicate that a square hollow section measuring 12 • 12 m m with a 2 m m wall thickness only requires a load of 10 kN. The process uses a computercontrolled robot arm rather than a large pulling rig and this indicates that it could be possible to produce curves and c o m e r s in the structure. The problem for an under-capitalized industry is that the robot control would improve the efficiency of the operation but increase the capital cost.
Table 35 European thermoset use in pultrusion (O00s tonnes)
80
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
43
45
47
49.5
52
54.5
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Filament winding is a fabrication process that for some geometric shapes can bridge the gap between slow, labour-intensive fabrication techniques, such as those used in the aerospace industry, and the rapid automated fabrication processes, such as those required by the automotive industry. The process uses a continuous fibre reinforcement to form a shape by winding over some predetermined path. The complexity and accuracy of the winding path are easily controlled with computer-controlled winding machines. Thin, hollow shapes with a high fibre to resin ratio are possible, which makes the process suitable for lightweight, high-performance components. The uniform fibre alignment afforded by the process provides high reliability and repeatability in filament-wound components. For filament winding, glass fibre is purchased in a yarn-like form called roving. This roving is routed through a bath of liquid, catalysed, pigmented polyester resin before it reaches the mandrel. After the glass fibre and resin are in place, a surface of resin-impregnated non-woven polyester fabric is applied. Heat is then applied to initiate cross-linking (hardening) of the resin. After hardening, the tube is removed from the mandrel. In this case, hydraulic cylinders with appropriate attachments push the tube off the mandrel. Thermoset resins used as the binders for the reinforcements can be applied to the dry roving at the time of winding (wet winding) or prior to winding (prepreg). The process can be combined with resin transfer moulding (RTM) so that structures can be made to near net shape. The combination of multi-spindle winders for preforms and RTM can produce finished parts at a relatively low cost per piece. Limitations with respect to filament tension, filament wet-out and the speed at which the wet filament can be pulled through have been largely overcome. Thick sections can be w o u n d and non-geodesic and concave sections can be formed with some difficulty. However, methods for forming complex geometries are still not established. There are still problems with heating control and consolidation of materials that yield less than predicted values for tensile strength and interlaminar shear strength. A further limitation is the inability to integrate box sections with large flat panels in a one-piece structure having complex geometry; this will limit the penetration of filament winding in such growth areas as automotive body structures. The advantages of the process include accurate, repeatable fibre placement, the ability to use continuous fibres over the length of the component, relatively low tooling costs and high fibre volumes. Traditionally, the process has been used for pipes and tanks but glass fibre reinforced composite utility poles are now manufactured using the filament winding process. There are other methods that can be utilized to form a hollow cylindrical structure. However, the Shakespeare Company, South Carolina, USA, which is using the process, considers that filament winding combines an economy of material and flexibility of material placement which make it the clear choice for this type of structure. Increases in the use of such products in Europe could lead to an increase in this fabrication method. However, one problem would be that it could take market share from other methods, such as pultruded products.
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Manufacturing technologies In Europe, some 8% of unsaturated polyester (UP) resin is used in filament winding. Growth rate in filament winding is set at 6% per a n n u m and this is partly dependent on the market for such items as pipes. As the pipe market in Europe has been depressed over the last couple of years, the predicted growth rate could be considered too high. It is interesting that Europe no longer supports a trade association devoted to filament winding, although that for pultrusion (European Pultrusion Technology A s s o c i a t i o n - EPTA) still exists. The dependence of the fabrication method on the market for pipes, which is very competitive, may explain the lack of a trade body. It is difficult to arrive at production figures and other statistics for pultruded products with the large n u m b e r of companies involved and this would prove even more difficult where commercial information was difficult to disguise. The USA has a high percentage of filament winding, but this is largely due to the use of the process for the production of rocket parts used both in space craft and in defence. As the USA is the major producer of rocket parts and figures for its production are not released the actual percentage of products produced by this method is subject to some discussion. If that market is disregarded the production percentage shrinks to about 6-7%. The slow market in pipes and tanks will depress growth rates until 2001-2002, although this could subsequently improve; major increases in the use of filament-wound utility poles would significantly increase the growth. Other geographical areas with an interest in filament winding include Southeast Asia and the Middle East, and in both of these the major market is for pipes. The Middle East has seen depressed markets following cutbacks in investment in the oil industry but in both areas there is continued investment in water supply with growing populations and improving living standards.
Injection moulding is the most widely used process for converting raw material into components, producing identical products at a high repetition rate. Injection moulding sees its largest market in the production of non-reinforced consumer goods made in large numbers. The process has very limited use in either the existing or developing infrastructure market. The main advantages of the process are: 9 9 9 9
the mouldings do not require further finishing; the process is repeatable; metal inserts, threads and holes can be moulded in; and high output rates are obtained.
The disadvantages of injection moulding are: 9 9 Q
high capital cost for equipment; high tooling costs; and it is difficult to mould parts with large variations in wall thickness and retain dimensional precision unless foaming is used.
Injection moulding in the composite industry has several drawbacks but its biggest limitation is the restriction on c o m p o n e n t wall thickness to about 3 mm. In addition, the material's high heat content can mean unacceptably long cooling
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times. A further drawback termed 'moulded-in stresses' occurs w h e n the liquid polymer melt is forced into the mould at high pressure and speeds. On cooling, the plastic shrinks and is made up by adding more melt u n d e r high pressure. The stress introduced into the plastic as it melts can lead to warping and distortion. A further disadvantage is the requirement to use short fibres for injection moulding. This process gives very limited fibre orientation control and means that this process has limited applicability in more advanced composite manufacturing. A further practical difficulty that arises during injection moulding of reinforced plastics is the increased wear of the moulding machine and mould due to the abrasive nature of the fibres. The problem can be avoided by the use of hardened tool steels in the manufacture of screws, barrels and mould cavities, although this will almost certainly add to the cost of the equipment. The melt viscosity of a reinforced plastic is generally higher than the nonreinforced material, which results in higher injection p r e s s u r e s - sometimes up to 80% higher. The cycle times are generally lower because the greater stiffness of the material allows it to be ejected from the mould at a higher temperature. This increased stiffness can h a m p e r ejection from the mould and it is important to have an adequate taper on the side walls of the cavity and a n u m b e r of ejector pins to aid release. Where possible, a reciprocating screw machine is preferred to a plunger machine because of the better mixing, homogenization, metering and temperature control of the melt. It has been found that particular attention should be paid to the screw speed and back pressure as these may break up the fibres and, thus, affect the mechanical properties of the mouldings. Decisions which affect the choice of injection moulding as a production process include whether a multi-cavity mould will be more economic than a less complex mould with cold runners and a single cavity. The multi-cavity mould will frequently produce more scrap and downtime but may have a greater production rate. An important consideration in mould cost is the surface finish and surface treatment. Good surface treatments may be necessary for products, particularly those that are intended to have a long life and/or a high output.
4.6 Resin transfer moulding (RTM) Fabrication processes that permit precise fibre control with rapid processibility are sought by many manufacturing industries. The requirements for optimum performance and high reliability are met w h e n a preform of fibres is placed in a mould cavity to which resin is introduced without fibre movement. RTM is a 'closed mould' technique which has achieved wider introduction with concerns about emission limits and offers potential for economic automation. The process has developed from being a specialist niche technique into a mainstream production process. The automotive industry has provided many examples of the effective use of the technique but it has also been used in aerospace, marine, architectural mouldings, truck and bus components, and other applications. However, although a 'clean process' in respect of environmental emissions, RTM still only has a tiny market share when compared to traditional techniques such as contact moulding. In Europe 3-5% of UP resin consumption is destined for RTM (Table 36).
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Manufacturing technologies Table 36 Global growth for RTM as a percentage of manufacturing, 1999-2005 a 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
North America
5
5
5.5
6
6
6.5
6.5
Western Europe
5
5.5
5.5
6
6
6.5
6.5
Eastern Europe
8
8
8
8.5
8.5
8.5
9
Southeast Asia
1
1
1
1.5
1.5
2
2
Japan
4
4
4
4.5
4.5
4.5
5
South America
5
5
5
5
5.5
5.5
6
Others
1
1
1
1
1
1.5
1.5
alncluding variations on standard RTM.
RTM consists of a resin, a fibre, moulds and systems which control the flow of the resin into the mould cavity. Resins can include polyester, vinyl ester, phenolic and epoxy, and reinforcements can be from the full range of materials including glass, aramid and carbon in addition to natural materials such as hemp, sisal and jute. The process requires pre-loading a mould cavity with dry continuous reinforcement, closing the cavity and injecting a pre-catalysed resin. Once the resin has wetted the reinforcement and has cured sufficiently the cavity is opened and the part removed. The use of automation is proving beneficial, as stacking computercut dry plies by machine achieves a level of repeatability during volume production which hand lay-up cannot provide. By controlling fibre orientations and locations according to stringent engineering design requirements, superior fibre architectures and laminate quality can be achieved. Consistent fibre volumes of 50-60% enable RTM to compete structurally with prepregs, giving strength to the finished product and allowing the use of larger quantities of the cheaper reinforcement rather than the more expensive resin. A further advantage is that, unlike contact moulding, both sides of the moulding have a truly finished appearance and replicate the tool surface. The initial investment is lower for this method as clamping devices rather than air or an hydraulically controlled press hold the tool halves together during the injection of the resin. The process may also be upgraded at reasonable cost to a semiautomatic carousel-type operation using a number of identical tool-sets at distinct charging, injection and unloading stations. Variations on RTM include vacuum-assisted resin transfer method (VARTM) and vacuum-assisted resin infusion method (VARIM) which are used in the manufacture of wind turbine blades by companies such as Vestas, Denmark. Such companies find the automated nature of the process produces better quality products, and the closed mould process reduces styrene emission to workers which is an important requirement considering the low styrene emission levels required by Scandinavian legislation. Previously, large components were produced by open moulding but these processes give a combination of better quality control and better environmental conditions. One of the limitations of RTM is that some of the fibres must be placed orthogonally to make the preform stable; an advantage of prepregs is their use of unidirectional fibres to achieve high strengths in given directions. DowoUT has developed a new unidirectional carbon fibre--epoxy fabric optimized for RTM which it claims is the equal mechanically of prepregs.
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A further RTM technology which has considerable potential is the Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Moulding Process known as SCRIMPTM. The process was developed by Bill Seeman in the late 1980s and is a patented form of VARTM. The process was developed specifically for the construction of large composite structures, including the minehunters built by Vosper Thorneycroft, UK. TPI Technology, having been bought by True North Partners which also owns TPI Composites, now holds the patent rights. There are some 30 licensing partners worldwide with rights to the technology. The process is considered environmentally beneficial, as it has very reduced solvent emissions. SCRIMP has virtually no size limitations and, unlike standard RTM, SCRIMP requires only one tool-side conjunction with a flexible bag. In some respects SCRIMP is a combination of RTM and vacuum bagging. This means that the process can produce both large and small components, as well as complex, multidimensional trussed parts. The process produces void-free laminates with a higher fibre content, which means that products are lighter, stronger and more precise than those made by traditional methods. SCRIMP achieves equilibrium resin content with 50-70% fibre weight depending on fibre architecture. Controlled bagging of preforms and repeatable resin infusions produce precision parts with consistent dimensional accuracy on both thick and thin laminates. The void-free surfaces mean that filler is not required for finishing applications. The process has been used for the production of parts for boats, rail cars, bridges and wind turbine blades. One major project in the USA to manufacture rail cars was discontinued but the process has been used for marine fenders and pilings. India now has some 25 RTM processors.
4.7 Preforms, fabrics and textiles Preforming of the reinforcement is a particular feature of RTM and resin infusion techniques and automated cold-warm press systems. Companies such as Owens Coming, PPG and 3M have offered preform production processes but interest has declined with the development, in the last decade, of a range of specialized glass, carbon, aramid and hybrid reinforcements. The fabrics are offered as non-crimp, conformable, needled and stitched in varying combinations, which allows the processor to make production, cost and structural benefits. As long as careful resin, catalyst and cure conditions to avoid exotherm build-up are followed, it is possible to build rapid 'one-shot' laminates even in changing sections of up to several millimetres in thickness. The growth of interest in the use of fabrics can be seen in the purchase of Brunswick, a major manufacturer of fabrics with production of over 13 000 tonnes per annum, by Vetrotex. Brunswick is one of the world's largest manufacturers of non-crimp multi-axial fabrics produced in widths of over 2.5 m and in weights up to 6 kg/m 2 at high speed in a one-step process. The company estimates that it is involved in 70% of the bridge deck projects in the USA and have also supplied the material for deep-sea well-head covers for oil wells. Most of the fabrics - unidirectional, multi-axial conformable, needled and stitched - have been developed by specialist weavers which have an involvement in the textile industry and have used their expertise to produce a high-quality product. Although most of these materials and fabrics will remain with the highperformance market and wiU not achieve the tonnages of traditional materials,
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Manufacturing technologies increases in use of 20% per annum in the years to 2005 are a reasonable estimate as techniques are refined. Textiles begin with linear assemblies of fibres in continuous and/or discrete form with the structures organized in one (l-D)-, two (2-D)- or three-dimensional (3-D) form by means of twisting, intertwining, interlacing or interlooping. The p r o p e r selection of the geometry, architecture and method of results in a highly tailored composite. The main textile forming processes are weaving, non-wovens, knitting and braiding. 9
W e a v i n g - conventional flat 2-D fabrics for lamination; - shaped 3-D shell forms; 3-D fabrics giving thick integrated structures. B r a i d i n g - simple flat and circular braids; - shaped 3-D shell forms, usually tubular; integrated 3-D structures. K n i t t i n g - weft knitting; - warp knitting to hold oriented reinforcing yams in multiple orientation. N o n - w o v e n - assemblies of fibres. -
9
-
9 9
The usual methods of further processing are wet lamination, RTM or the manufacture of woven fabric prepregs. One advantage of textile fabrics is their combination of coherence with flexibility. The simple flat forms, either woven or warp-knitted, are easily handled during layup and can be draped into shapes. The solid 3-D forms can be compressed and, to some extent, deformed in order to give a precise final shape to the composite. Woven fabrics are made on looms in a wide variety of weights, weaves and widths. Bidirectional woven fabrics provide good strength in 00/90 ~ directions and allow fast composite fabrication. However, woven fabrics provide lower tensile strength than separate laminates because fibres are crimped as they pass over and u n d e r each other during weaving. Under tensile loading these fibres try to straighten out causing stress within the matrix system. Hybrid fabrics are constructed with different fibre types, each contributing a specific advantage. For example, carbon fibre can provide high strength and stiffness in the longitudinal direction while E-glass provides transverse strength. The discussion of fabric types applies to glass, carbon and aramid, although glass and carbon are the two materials most usually available in these forms. Multi-axial multi-plied fabrics are the most efficient reinforcements for production of composites. Compared with woven roving, a multi-axial fabric offers better performance in terms of mechanical properties such as Young's modulus, strength and fatigue. The possibility of varying angles, numbers of ply and thickness means that it is possible to compete with large structures made of metal. Several plies can be added to optimize the strength and the stiffness of the end product and the drapeability of the fabric can be adjusted by using different loop systems when knitting the different plies together. The technology adds to the role of composites as tailored materials. Demand for multi-axial multi-plied fabrics is expected to increase strongly with applications in wind turbine blades, sporting goods, automotive and aerospace markets. There is growing interest in carbon fibre products and Devoid AMT,
86
Compositesin Infrastructure- Building New Markets
4
Manufacturing technologies
Table 37 World production and growth for materials and fabrics (O00s tonnes) 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
100
110
120
130
140
150
165
Norway, has developed a new technique which makes it possible to produce a multi-axial fabric of 300 g/m 2 based on a 12 K fibre to produce a lightweight fabric. Braided materials are generally more expensive than woven materials due to the more complex manufacturing process. However, braided fabrics typically offer greater strength per fabric weight. The strength comes from three or more yams intertwined with one another without twisting any two yarns around each other. Braids are continuously woven on the bias and have at least one axial yarn that is not crimped in the weaving process. The arrangement of yarns allows for a highly efficient load distribution throughout the braid. The current output for braid is only a small fraction of the fabric volume. Flat or tubular configurations are available as braids with flat braids used in such applications as strengthening specific areas in pultruded parts. Tubular braid can be pultruded over a mandrel to produce hollow cross-sections for structural tubes. The basic premise of knitted fabrics is to place the fibres exactly where needed. Knitted fabrics are not formed in a conventional knitting p r o c e s s - layers of aligned yarns are stitched together. This process allows great flexibility in y a m alignment because the yams can be laid on top of each other in any arrangement, including all in one direction. In addition, the proportion of y a m in any direction and the n u m b e r of layers can be selected without regard to the weaving constraints. Because the yarns do not cross each other crimping is avoided and more of the yarn's inherent strength is used. The absence of fibre crimping also enhances drapeability of the fabric. It is possible to commingle yams so that glass fibre can be mixed with polyproylene fibres and/or polyethylene terephthalate fibres. The commingled yarns are used in the same way as conventional glass fibre roving to form a multi~ axial fabric. The fabric is placed in a mould and heat and pressure are applied to make the final product. A disadvantage has been the long heating time required but recent work has reduced this to less than 1 min. The material shows promise as a competitor for glass mat thermoplastics. The markets for materials and fabrics are almost equally divided between North America and Europe (Table 37); Japan has not adopted the process and it is not found in the less developed areas. A very small amount should be added for braids but this is still, currently, a minor market.
Hot press fabrication using sheet moulding (SMC), bulk moulding (BMC) and dough moulding c o m p o u n d s (DMC) is widely used in the automotive industry, although challenged by glass mat thermoplastics (GMT) and long fibre
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets 87
4
Manufacturing technologies
thermoplastics (LFT). However, SMC has limited use in infrastructure applications, although it has well-established use in the modular tank market where BTR Permali, UK, has introduced a range of sectional water storage tanks for areas with high fire safety regulations. The tanks are produced from a highly modified ATH (aluminium trihydroxide or in its commercial form as alumina trihydrate)-filled polyester-based SMC. Gulf Polymers LLC, a joint venture between Devi Polymers of India and AI Nasser, UAE, has built a plant costing US$2.5 million in Abu Dhabi to manufacture SMC modular water tanks for the Gulf area. An alternative fabrication process to SMC is to use low-pressure moulding compounds (LPMC) for modular water tanks. This application comprises a major market for moulding compounds for the large n u m b e r of potable and other liquid storage tanks made by on-site fabrication and containing up to many thousand gallons. Many of these tanks are found in the Third World and those areas where construction of groundbased reservoirs is impractical. SMC is also used in the manufacture of rolling stock components for rail and mass transit markets. In this latter sector there is particular use of phenolic-based SMC (PMC). In these applications it is challenged by RTM and LPMC. SMC and BMC are high capital investment processes, particularly compared to RTM. The introduction of even modest levels of robot tooling can provide a lower cost competitor to high compression systems. There is a further advantage with developments in that the reinforcement can be placed selectively in the tool prior to closure, giving greater tailoring ability. Estimates of the market for SMC in Europe in 2000 are 300000 tonnes per annum, which is slightly above the US figure of 288 000 tonnes per annum and considerably larger than the Japanese figure of 180 000 tonnes per annum. The European figure is split 68% SMC to 32% BMC, whereas there is a somewhat larger interest in BMC in the USA. Vacuum bagging is conventionally undertaken using a nylon vacuum bag and was originally developed for the manufacture of composite parts for the aircraft and racing car industries used with hand lay-up. The process has been developed for rehabilitation of infrastructure by companies such as DML Ltd which has used the process on the chimneys of chemical plants in Japan. A problem with conventional bagging techniques is the time required to remove all bag wrinkles and the difficulty of maintaining accurate positioning of all prepreg layers during bagging. An alternative method is to use a silicone reuseable vacuum bag which is made by laminating silicone and reinforcement on to the tool used for the production of the composite part and which has been coated with soap or pattern wax to represent the thickness of the part. Advantages in the use of a silicone bag centre on the considerably shorter bagging time and the ability to provide additional pressure on the prepreg, where required, by building up the thickness of the reinforced bag to form intensifiers. Difficulties are found in sealing as conventional tacky tapes do not work and the alternative tapes are temperature limited and more expensive. Although not strictly a manufacturing process, another manufacturing technique includes such downstream processing as adhesive bonding using epoxy resins, acrylics, polyurethanes and phenolics. Disadvantages of mechanical fastenings for composites can include the crushing of the composite u n d e r heavy loading, local transmission of heat in a fire, the requirement to pre-driU holes for the fasteners, corrosion if the fasteners are metallic and the reliability of the system if a large n u m b e r of components are included.
88
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
4 Manufacturing technologies The advantages of adhesive bonding are the low stress levels associated with large areas of contact and the compatibility of the adhesive with the adherents as most structural adhesives are thermoset-based. The process has only modest credibility with many engineers and many disadvantages are those of the actual composite. In considering specific technologies it is also important to consider the use of automation in composites. Within the infrastructure environment there has been considerable effort placed in applying automation to p r o j e c t s - the use of the Robowrapper T M from XXsys is a case in point. Other automation efforts are concentrated on the manufacture of the composite. Automated Dynamics Corp (ADC) has developed a fibre placement work cell, which has had more than 20 installations to date. The installations involve integration of ADC's thermoset or thermoplastic composite fibre tow placement heads, controllers and software with gantry robots from McClean Anderson and Entec Composite Machines (previously CMC and Entec and now part of Zoltek). Recent installations have included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Fuji Heavy Industries. The company claims that automated fibre placement improved quality control and output.
The growth of the fabrication techniques worldwide is shown in Table 38. Some years ago a notable US composites authority made the following predictions for annual production and growth rates for fabrication methods for the USA, Europe and Japan, and these are given in Table 39. The pultrusion volumes for the USA and Europe are certainly too low, although the growth rates are probably accurate. The figures for pultrusion in Japan are too high in both volume and growth rates. The European and Japanese growth rate figures for filament winding are certainly too high.
Table 38 Fabrication techniques and growth worldwide (%) Western Europe Japan
USA
China
South Korea
68 a
58 a
Eastern South Europe America
,, ,,
Hand lay-up
15
22
18
Spray-up
15
13.6
18
SMC
21
21
BMC
17
10
Filament winding RTM Pultrusion Other
6-10 c
60 a
10
43 b .
55
11 b .
.
28 b .
20 b
15 b
.
6.5
7
13
2
3
10
5
4
2
2
8
5
12
4.5
3
1.5
7
2
5
4-8
16.4
7
4.5
3
2
5
6
.,,
alncludes both hand-lay up and spray-up. blncludes both SMC and BMC. CThefigure for filament winding varies depending on the inclusion or exclusion of the technique in space and defence applications where it is a major process in the production of rocket components. The USA is the only country with this as a major application.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets 8 9
4
Manufacturing technologies
Table 39 Estimated fabrication volumes and growth rates for the USA, Europe and Japan in 2000 (000s tonnes) USA Europe Japan Total Growth Growth Growth Growth Volume (%) Volume (%) Volume (%) Volume (%) Pultrusion
48.0
5.3
26.8
7.3
24.5
9.7
99.0
6.7
Filament winding
15.0
6.1
7.7
7.7
10.0
9.6
32.7
7.3
Compression moulding
11.8
7.8
19.0
8.9
10.5
6.8
41.8
7.9
RTM/S-RIMa (resin-injection method)
6.4
13.6
7.7
11.9
3.6
11.5
17.7
12.0
Hand lay-up autoclave
6.8
2.5
13.6
2.8
14.1
2.9
35.0
2.8
88.0
5.8
74.8
7.0
62.7
7.2
226.2
6.6
Total
aStructural reaction injection moulding.
The division of manufacturing processes for glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) in Europe and Germany is given in Table 40. Southeast Asia has a different manufacturing profile with lower rates of RTM (about 1%) and pultrusion, centrifugal casting and filament winding which together produce about 8% of components. Hand lay-up and spray-up have a somewhat higher production rate reflecting the labour-intensive nature of the industry in the area. In fabrication methods the more advanced, closed mould systems have a smaller share of the market, although with higher growth rates. The open mould systems hold, and will continue to hold, the larger share of the market and the moves towards the closed systems will be slow but steady in the infrastructure markets.
Table 40 Manufacturing processes for GFRP composites in Germany and Europe in 1999 (% and O00s tonnes) % Europe Hand lay-up
22.0
200
Germany(tonnes) 25
Spray-up
13.6
123
16
SMC
21.0
188
57
BMC/PMC
10.0
93.5
28
Filament winding
6.5
59
15
RTM
5.0
45
48
Pultrusion
4.5
40
5
17.4
158
52
Other Total
100 i
90
Europe (tonnes)
i
i,
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
906.5
246
Standards and testing
Composite materials and products from different suppliers and manufacturers may differ because of the different manufacturing processes used by different companies. Indeed, products from the same company may vary between production runs. If the products are to be specified for future designs in infrastructure they must adhere to a standard developed by recognized standards organizations and adopted by design professionals and the construction industry as a whole. The lack of standards retards adoption of a new material in civil engineering as much of the design of structures is carried out with 'handbook' design; if composites are not included in the industry handbooks there will be little encouragement for designers to use the materials. At the m o m e n t there is a range of company handbooks, industry practice and some standards that do not apply to composite use but are used as an approximation. A further problem is the rivalry between some standards organizations, with claims for greater currency of standards being made by proponents of ISO/EN-ISO and ASTM Committee D-30. The information required is extensive, including ultimate tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, ratio of fibre to matrix, density, type of fibre and matrix, creep, coefficients for thermal effects, fire resistance, conductivity, Poisson's ratio, manufacturing process, curing temperature, rate of flow during pultrusion and much more. The data from current demonstration projects must also be collected and established as a database for the industry. Informed sources in the standards industry consider that it will be 3-5 years (probably the latter) before standards acceptable to a conservative construction industry are in place. There is a movement within Europe for standards to converge and international collaboration is also now found between Europe, the USA and Japan. European bodies such as CEN are working towards standards that could be used for composite materials in the same way that standards for metals can be used for alloy selection. With confidence, an engineer can specify a particular material knowing that it will have a standard composition and manufacturing method.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
91
5
92
Standards and testing
ISO 62:1999
Plastics- determination of water absorption.
ISO 7 5 - 3 : 1 9 9 3
Plastics - determination of temperature of deflection u n d e r load. Part 3: High strength thermosetting laminates and long-fibre reinforced plastics.
ISO 175:1999
Plastics - methods of test for the determination of the effects of immersion in liquid chemicals.
ISO 178:1975
Plastics - determination of flexural properties of rigid plastics.
ISO 179:1982
Plastics - determination of Charpy impact strength of rigid materials.
ISO 181:1981
Plastics - determination of flammability characteristics of rigid plastics in the form of small specimens in contact with an incandescent rod.
ISO 291:1977
P l a s t i c s - standard atmosphere for conditioning and testing.
ISO 295:1991
Plastics - compression moulding of test specimens of thermosetting materials.
ISO 472:1999
Plastics - vocabulary. (Work is in progress on an update to be published as ISO 13922.)
ISO 527--4:1997
Plastics- determination of tensile properties. Part 4: Test conditions for isotropic and orthotropic composites.
ISO 527-5:1-997
Plastics- determination of tensile properties. Part 5. Test conditions for unidirectional fibre-reinforced plastic composites.
ISO 871:1996
Plastics- determination of ignition temperature using a hot-air furnace.
ISO 899:1999
Creep testing of composites.
ISO 1172:1996
Textile glass reinforced p l a s t i c s - prepregs, moulding c o m p o u n d s and laminates - determination of the textile glass and mineral filler content - calcination methods.
ISO 1210:1982
Plastics - determination of flammability characteristics of plastics in the form of small specimens in contact with a small flame.
ISO 1268:2000
Ten parts. Plastic. Preparation of glass fibre reinforced, resin bonded, low pressure laminated plates or panels for testing purposes. An update of the 1974 edition.
ISO 1 0 4 3 - 2 : 1 9 8 8
Plastics materials.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
symbols.
Part
2:
fillers
and
reinforcing
5
Standards and testing
ISO 1 6 4 2 : 1 9 8 7
P l a s t i c s - specification for industrial l a m i n a t e d sheets b a s e d o n t h e r m o s e t t i n g resins.
ISO 1 8 8 6 : 1 9 9 0
R e i n f o r c e m e n t fibres received batches.
ISO 1 8 8 8 : 1 9 9 6
Textile glass - staple fibres o r filaments - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f average diameter.
ISO 1 8 8 9 : 1 9 9 7
R e i n f o r c e m e n t yarns - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f linear density.
ISO 1 8 9 0 : 1 9 9 7
R e i n f o r c e m e n t yarns - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f twist.
ISO 2 0 7 8 : 1 9 9 3
Textile glass - yarns - designation.
ISO 2 1 1 3 : 1 9 9 6
R e i n f o r c e m e n t fibres - w o v e n specification.
ISO 2 1 1 4 : 1 9 7 4
Plastics - u n s a t u r a t e d polyester resins - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f acid value.
ISO 2 5 3 5 : 1 9 7 4
Plastics- unsaturated polyester r e s i n s - measurement of gel time at 25~
ISO 2 5 5 4 : 1 9 7 4
Plastics - u n s a t u r a t e d p o l y e s t e r resins - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f hydroxyl value.
ISO 2 5 5 8 : 1 9 7 4
Textile glass c h o p p e d strand mats for r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f plastics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of time o f d i s s o l u t i o n o f the b i n d e r in styrene.
ISO 2 5 5 9 : 1 9 9 1
Textile g l a s s - mats ( m a d e f r o m c h o p p e d or c o n t i n u o u s strands) - basis for a specification.
ISO 2 7 9 7 : 1 9 8 6
Textile glass - rovings - basis for a specification.
ISO 2 8 5 9 : 1 9 8 9
Sampling p r o c e d u r e s for i n s p e c t i o n by attributes.
ISO 3 2 0 5 : 1 9 7 6
Preferred test t e m p e r a t u r e s .
ISO 3 2 6 8 : 1 9 7 8
P l a s t i c s - glass r e i n f o r c e d m a t e r i a l s - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f tensile p r o p e r t i e s .
ISO 3 3 4 1 : 1 9 8 4
Textile glass - yarns - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b r e a k i n g force and breaking elongation.
ISO 3 3 4 2 : 1 9 9 5
Textile glass - mats - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f tensile b r e a k i n g force.
ISO 3 3 4 3 : 1 9 8 4
Textile glass - yarns - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of twist balance index.
ISO 3 3 4 4 : 1 9 9 7
Reinforcement products - determination of moisture content.
ISO 3 3 7 4 : 2 0 0 0
Mass p e r unit area for glass r e i n f o r c e m e n t s .
s a m p l i n g plans applicable to
fabrics -
basis for a
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
93
5
94
Standards and testing
ISO 3 3 7 5 : 1 9 7 5
Textile glass - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of stiffness of rovings.
ISO 3 5 2 1 : 1 9 7 6
Plastics - polyester and e p o x y casting resins - d e t e r m i n a tion of total v o l u m e shrinkage.
ISO 3 5 9 7 : 1 9 9 3
Textile glass reinforced p l a s t i c s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o n rods m a d e of roving r e i n f o r c e d resin. Four parts.
ISO 3 5 9 8 : 1 9 8 6
Textile glass - yarns - basis for a specification.
ISO 3 6 1 6 : 1 9 7 7
Textile glass - mats - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of average thickness, thickness u n d e r load a n d recovery after c o m p r e s s i o n .
ISO 4 5 7 3 : 1 9 7 8
P l a s t i c s - e p o x i d e resins and glycidyl e s t e r s - d e t e r m i n a tion of inorganic chlorine.
ISO 4 5 8 3 : 1 9 7 8
Plasticse p o x i d e resins a n d related m a t e r i a l s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of easily saponifiable chlorine.
ISO 4 5 8 5 : 1 9 9 8
Textile glass reinforced p l a s t i c s - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a p p a r e n t inter-laminar shear p r o p e r t i e s by s h o r t - b e a m test.
ISO 4 5 8 9 : 1 9 9 6
Plastics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of b u r n i n g b e h a v i o u r by oxygen index. Three parts.
ISO 4 6 0 2 : 1 9 9 7
Reinforcements - w o v e n fabrics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n n u m b e r of yarns p e r unit length of w a r p a n d weft.
ISO 4 6 0 3 : 1 9 9 3
Textile glass - w o v e n fabrics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of thickness.
ISO 4 6 0 4 : 1 9 7 8
Textile glass - w o v e n fabrics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f conventional flexural s t i f f n e s s - fixed angle flexmeter m e t h o d .
ISO 4 6 0 5 : 1 9 9 5
Textile glass - w o v e n fabrics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of mass p e r unit area.
ISO 4 6 0 6 : 1 9 9 5
Textile glass - w o v e n fabric - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of tensile breaking force and elongation at b r e a k by the strip method.
ISO 4 6 1 5 - 1 9 7 9
P l a s t i c s - u n s a t u r a t e d polyesters a n d e p o x i d e r e s i n s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of total chlorine content.
ISO 4 8 9 9 : 1 9 9 3
Textile glass reinforced t h e r m o s e t t i n g plastics - p r o p e r ties a n d test m e t h o d s .
ISO 4 9 0 0 : 1 9 9 0
Textile glass - mats and fabrics - d e t e r m i n a t i o n contact mouldability.
ISO 4 9 0 1 : 1 9 8 5
Reinforced plastics based on u n s a t u r a t e d polyester resins - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of residual styrene m o n o m e r content.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
of
of
5
Standards and testing
ISO 5025:1997
Reinforcement products - woven fabrics - determination of width and length.
ISO 5 6 5 9 - 1 : 1 9 9 4
Plastics- smoke generation. Part 1: Guidance on optical density testing.
ISO 5 6 5 9 - 2 : 1 9 9 4
P l a s t i c s - smoke generation. Part 2: Determination of optical density by a single chamber test. There is a Technical corrigendum 1:1997.
ISO/TR 5 6 5 9 - 3 : 1 9 9 9
P l a s t i c s - smoke generation. Part 3: Determination of optical density by a dynamic-flow method.
ISO 5 6 6 0 - 1 : 1 9 9 3
Fire t e s t s - reaction to fire. Cone calorimeter.
ISO 6355:1989
Textile glass - vocabulary.
ISO 7511:1999
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and fittings- Test methods to prove the leak tightness of the wall under short-term internal pressure.
ISO 7684:1997
Plastics piping systems - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) p i p e s - Determination of the creep factor u n d e r dry conditions.
ISO 7685:1998
Plastics piping systems - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes - Determination of initial specific ring stiffness.
ISO 7808:1992
Plastics Thermosetting moulding Determination of transfer flow.
ISO 7822:1990
Textile glass reinforced p l a s t i c s - determination of void c o n t e n t - loss on ignition, mechanical disintegration and statistical counting methods.
ISO 8 5 1 6 : 1 9 8 7
Textile glass - textured yams - basis for a specification.
ISO 8521:1991
Plastics piping systems - Glass reinforced thermosetting plastics. Determination of the apparent initial circumferential tensile strength.
ISO 8572:1991
Pipe and fittings made of glass reinforced thermosetting plastics.
ISO 8604:1988
Plastics - prepregs - definitions of terms and symbols for designations.
ISO 8605:1989
Textile glass reinforced p l a s t i c s - sheet c o m p o u n d (SMC) - basis for a specification.
ISO 8 6 0 6 : 1 9 9 0
Plastics - prepregs - bulk moulding c o m p o u n d (BMC) and dough moulding c o m p o u n d (DMC) - basis for a specification.
materials
moulding
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
95
5
Standards and testing ISO 8639:2000
Glass fibre reinforced thermosetting pipes and f i t t i n g s test method for leak tightness of flexible joints.
ISO 9163:1996
Textile glass - rovings - manufacture of test specimens and determination of tensile strength of impregnated rovings.
ISO 9291:1996
Textile glass reinforced plastics- r o v i n g s - preparation of unidirectional plates by winding.
ISO 9353:1991
Glass reinforced plastics - preparation of plates with unidirectional reinforcements by bag moulding.
ISO 9773:1998
Plastics - determination of burning behaviour of thin flexible vertical specimens in contact with a small flame ignition source.
ISO 9782:1993 -
Plastics- reinforced moulding compounds and prepregs determination of apparent volatile-matter content.
ISO 10093:1998
Plastics - fire t e s t s - standard ignition sources.
ISO 10119:1992
Carbon fibre - determination of density.
ISO 10122:1995
Reinforcement materials - tubular braided sleeves - basis for a specification.
ISO 10352:1997
Fibre reinforced p l a s t i c s - moulding c o m p o u n d s and prepregs - determination of mass per unit area.
ISO 10371:1993
Reinforcement materials - braided tapes - basis for a specification.
ISO 10465-1:1993
Underground installation of flexible glass reinforced thermosetting resin pipes.
ISO 10465-2:1999
Underground installation of flexible glass reinforced thermosetting resin pipes.
ISO/TR 1 0 4 6 5 - 3 : 1 9 9 9 Underground installation of flexible glass- reinforced thermosetting resin (GRP) p i p e s - Part 3: Installation parameters and application limits.
96
ISO 10466:1997
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes - Test method to prove the resistance to initial ring deflection.
ISO 10548:1994
Carbon fibre - determination of size content.
ISO 10618:1999
Carbon fibre - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of tensile properties of resin impregnated yam.
ISO 10840:1993
Plastics - burning b e h a v i o u r - guidance for development and use of fire tests. There is a Technical corrigendum 1:1995.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
5
Standards and testing
ISO 1 0 9 2 8 : 1 9 9 7
Plastics piping systems - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and f i t t i n g s - Methods for regression analysis and their use.
ISO 1 0 9 5 2 : 1 9 9 9
Plastics piping systems - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and f i t t i n g s - Determination of the resistance to chemical attack from the inside of a section in a deflected condition.
ISO 1 1 2 4 8 : 1 9 9 3
Plastics- Thermosetting moulding materials - Evaluation of short-term performance at elevated temperatures.
ISO 1 1 5 6 6 : 1 9 6 6
Carbon fibre - determination of tensile properties of single-filament specimens.
ISO 1 1 5 6 7 : 1 9 9 5
Carbon fibre - determination of filament diameter and cross-sectional area.
ISO 1 1 6 6 7 : 1 9 9 7
Fibre reinforced p l a s t i c s - m o u l d i n g c o m p o u n d s and p r e p r e g s - determination of resin, reinforced-fibre and mineral-filler c o n t e n t - dissolution methods.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 1 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 1. Guidance.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 2 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 2. Static methods.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 3 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 3. Dynamic decomposition m e t h o d using a travelling furnace.
ISO 11907--4:1998
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 4. Dynamic decomposition m e t h o d using a conical radiant heater.
ISO/TR 1 1 9 2 5 - 1 : 1 9 9 9 Reaction to fire tests - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct i m p i n g e m e n t of flame - Part 1: Guidance on ignitability. ISO 1 1 9 2 5 - 2 : 1 9 9 7
Reaction to fire t e s t s - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct i m p i n g e m e n t of f l a m e - Part 2: Single flame source test.
ISO 1 1 9 2 5 - 3 : 1 9 9 7
Reaction to fire t e s t s - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct i m p i n g e m e n t of f l a m e - Part 3: Multisource test.
ISO 1 2 1 1 4 : 1 9 9 7
Fibre reinforced c o m p o u n d s and characteristics.
ISO 1 2 1 1 5 : 1 9 9 7
Fibre reinforced p l a s t i c s - thermosetting m o u l d i n g c o m p o u n d s and p r e p r e g s - determination of flowability, maturation and shelf life. There is a technical corrigend u m published in 1998.
plasticsprepregs-
thermosetting moulding determination of cure
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Fire resistance tests - Guidance on the application and extension of results.
ISO 13002:1998
Carbon fibre - d e s i g n a t i o n system for filament yams.
ISO 13003:****
Fatigue testing of composites. [This standard does not yet have a formal date as it only went for the approval process (CD ballot) in June 2000.]
ISO/TR 13883:1995
Plastics- guide to the writing of test methods.
ISO 14125:1998
Fibre reinforced plastic c o m p o s i t e s - determination of flexural properties.
ISO 14126:1999
Fibre reinforced plastic c o m p o s i t e s - determination of compressive properties in the in-plane direction.
ISO 14129:1997
Fibre reinforced plastic c o m p o s i t e s - determination of the in-plane shear/stress strain response including the inplane shear modulus and strength by the plus or minus 45 ~ degree tension test.
ISO 14130:1997
Fibre reinforced plastic c o m p o s i t e s - determination of apparent interlaminar shear strength by short-beam method.
ISO 15024:****
Mode I fracture toughness. [This standard does not yet have a formal date as it only went for the approval process (DIS ballot) in June 2000.]
ISO 15034:1999
Composites - prepregs - determination of resin flow.
ISO 15040:1999
Composites - prepregs - determination of gel time.
ISO 15310:2000
Fire reinforced plastic c o m p o s i t e s - determination of the in-plane shear modulus by the plate twist method.
ISO/CD 1268-6
Fibre reinforced plastics - preparation of test p l a t e s pultrusion.
ISO/DIS 5271 a n d 4
Plastics- determination of tensile properties.
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974, consolidated edition, International Maritime Organization, 1992. This standard applies to offshore rigs. IEC Materials Standard 6089 Synthetic resin b o n d e d laminates.
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Although not formally a standard, the following publication from Creative Pultrusions Inc has been under development since 1993 and is widely quoted and used within the industry:
New and improved Pultex T M pultrusion design manual. 1999. Available both in print and in CD-ROM forms and on the Creative Pultrusions website at www.creativepultrusions.com with access by password issued on application to their Webmaster. A thorough state-of-the-art review of fibre reinforced concrete structures has been made and the document has just approved by the American Concrete Institute Committee 440. The Chairman of the Committee is Dr Sami RizkaUa, University of Manitoba, who is President of the Canadian ISI programme on composite use for infrastructure. Recommendations included that the permissible tensile stress for fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) reinforcement bar (rebar) should not exceed 2530% of the ultimate strength. Some modifications are currently being made and the document will be published in 2001. The Committee also recently submitted another document on the use of fibre reinforced polymers for the rehabilitation of concrete structures and this should be reviewed in October 2000. The final draft of the Canadian Standards Association document $ 8 0 6 ~ 0 entitled 'Design and construction of building components with fibre reinforced polymers' is currently being finalized. The Committee responsible will meet in late summer 2000 to send it for review. The Canadian Highway Design Code 16 was produced for Summer 2000 but requires translating into French before publication. In 1995 the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE) undertook a standards development programme for the Pultrusion Industry Council of the Society of Plastics Industry Inc. The intent was to develop accepted standards for structural design, fabrication and erection of FRP composite products. Phase 1 is the development of a pre-standard for the structural design of engineering pultruded FRP structural sections for use in construction. The pre-standard will undergo the ASCE approval process in accordance with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) rules. Most companies work to the Uniform Building Code as published by the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) which includes seismic regulations. The most recent version of the Code was issued in 1997 and detailed information can be found on the website: http://www.icbo.org. The International Code Council has released the first comprehensive building code for the construction industry that combines and updates the codes of the ICBO, the Building Officials and Code Administrators International and the Southern Building Code Congress International. The ICBO produces the Uniform Building Code and further information can be obtained from their website: http:// www.icboes.org. The new International Building Code does not cover composite materials but ICBO's Acceptance Criterion AC-125 on composites for the repair and strengthening of structures is available and is promoted as the vehicle for a future composites building code.
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An earlier publication is: NISTIR 5382:1994
Standards of seismic safety for existing federally owned or leased buildings and commentary.
This document was developed for use by the Federal g o v e m m e n t by the Interagency Committee on Seismic Standards in Construction (ICSSC) and funded by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). It provides minimum standards for the evaluation and mitigation of seismic hazards. (NEHRP is the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Programme.) FEMA 1 7 8
NEHRP handbook for the seismic evaluation of existing buildings is the primary standard for defining the lifesafety goal described in NISTIR 5382.
FEMA 2 2 2 A
NEHRP recommended provisions for seismic regulations for new buildings. May 1995. Two volumes.
California has stringent seismic building regulations that were further tightened after the Northridge earthquake in January 1994, which measured 6.8 on the Richter scale and killed 58 people. The earthquake lead t o the collapse of six major highway structures and damaged over 100 highway overpasses. California Title 24 deals with California building standards and information on Title 24 can be found on the website: http://www.bsc.ca.gov/title24.htm. The California Seismic Safety Commission is the California state agency that advises the Governor and State Legislature on earthquake policy issues. The California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development (OSHPD) has developed seismic standards for healthcare facilities as implemented by California Senate Bill 1953 (SB1953) and further information on this Bill can be found at the Website: http://www.oshpd.cahwnet.gov. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Subcommittee on Bridges has established a permanent technical committee (T-21) on FRP composites. AASHTO establishes standards, guidelines and specifications for design and construction of almost all of the roads and bridges in the USA. A formal standard is not yet in place. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is working towards a national seismic code - FEMA 273 - that covers buildings and road but this is not yet issued as a formal standard. The MDA Unreinforced Masonry Team is working towards design guidelines and specifications for FRP materials to address the needs of this code in cooperation with the US Army Corps of Engineers. The main AASHTO documents include:
Q Standard specification for highway bridges, 16th edition, 1996 9 Standard specification for transportation materials and methods of sampling and testing, 18th edition, 1997. Two volumes. 9 Guide specifications for seismic isolation design, 1999 edition. The main AASHTO standard on load rating, which applies to all bridges, is AASHTO HS25--44. A specialized area for seismic regulations is the protection of major power units. Following the 1971 earthquake in Los Angeles it was realized that more consideration was needed for this vital area of infrastructure. The Institute of
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Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) formed Committee P693, which has produced draft recommended practices for seismic design of substations that provides all aspects of substation safety. Seismic design requirements for nonequipment such as buildings have been developed as a sister document by the American Society of Civil Engineers: Substation guide.
5.2.1 Standards from ANSI ANSI A14.5:2000
Safety requirements for portable ladders. Revision of ANSI A14.5:1992.
ANSI API Spec 11C:1988
Reinforced plastic sucker rods.
ANSI API Spec 12P:1986
Fiberglass reinforced plastic tanks.
ANSI/AWAA D 120:1984
Thermosetting fiberglass reinforced plastic tanks.
AN SI/AWAA FIO 1:1996
Reinforced thermoset plastic corrosion resistant equipment.
ANSI C136.20:1990
Roadway lighting equipment: fiber reinforced lighting poles.
ANSl/UL 1316:1993
Glass fiber reinforced plastic underground storage tanks for petroleum products.
5.2.2 Standards from the American Petroleum Institute API RP 15A4:1976
API recommended practice for care and use of reinforced thermosetting resin casing and tubing.
API RP 15L4:1976
API recommended practice for care and use of reinforced thermosetting resin line pipe.
API Spec 15AR:1981
API specification for reinforced thermosetting resin casing and tubing.
API Spec 5LR:1976
API specification for reinforced thermosetting resin line pipe.
API Spec 11C:1988
API specification for reinforced plastic sucker rods.
API Spec 15HR: 1988
API specification for high pressure fiberglass line pipe.
API Spec 15LR: 1986
API specification for low pressure fiberglass line pipe.
5.2.3 ASTM standards ASTM Committee D-30 on Composite Materials gives test methods for composites that have been developed by more than 250 composite experts from 13 countries. The D-30 Committee cooperates with ISO on test methods.
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ASTM C 582:1995
Contact moulded reinforced thermosetting plastics.
ASTM D 570:1998
Test methods for water absorption of plastics.
ASTM D 581:1989
Practice for determining chemical resistance of thermosetting resins used in glass fiber reinforced structures intended for liquid service.
ASTM D 635:1998
Test method for rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning of sel-supported plastics in a horizontal position.
ASTM D 638:1999
Test method or tensile properties of plastics.
ASTM D 790:1999
Test methods for flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced plastics and electrical insulating materials. Replaces ASTM D 650:1948.
ASTM D 883:1998
Terminology relating to plastics.
ASTM D 1201:1992
Standard specification for thermosetting polyester molding compounds.
ASTM D 1356:1990
Calorimetry by oxygen consumption and smoke emission evaluation.
ASTM D 1694:1987
Standard specification for threads in fiberglass (glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin) pipe.
ASTM D 1763:1994
Specification for epoxy resins.
ASTM D 1929:1996
Test method for ignition properties of plastics.
ASTM D 2143:1995
Test method for cyclic pressure strength of reinforced thermosetting plastic.
ASTM D 2150:1981
Standard specification for woven glass fabric for polyester-glass laminates.
ASTM D 2153:1967
Standard recommended practice for calculating stress in plastic pipe under internal pressure.
ASTM D 2291:1998
Practice for fabrication of ring test specimens for glass-resin composites.
ASTM D 2310:1980
Standard classification for machine-made reinforced thermosetting resin pipe.
ASTM D 2343:1995
Test method for tensile properties of glass fiber strands, yarns and rovings used in reinforced plastics.
ASTM D 2517:1981
Standard specification for reinforced resin gas pressure pipe and fittings.
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ASTM D 2562:1994
Practice for classifying visual defects in parts molded from reinforced thermosetting plastics.
ASTM D 2563:1994
Practice for classifying visual defects reinforced plastic laminate parts.
ASTM D 2584:1994
Test method for ignition loss of cured reinforced resins.
ASTM D 2734:1994
Test methods for rod content of reinforced plastics.
ASTM-D 2863:1974
Defines the limiting oxygen index (LOI) as a measurement of the flammability of the material. The test indicates the minimum concentration of oxygen that is needed to keep a specimen burning.
ASTM D 2863:1977
Similar to 1974 edition - standard oxygen index test.
ASTM D 2924:1993
Test method for external pressure resistance of glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe.
ASTM D 2925:1995
Test method for beam deflection of glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe under full bore flow.
ASTM D 2992:1996
Practice for obtaining hydrostatic or pressure design basis for glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe and fittings.
ASTM D 2996:1995
Specification for filament-wound glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe.
ASTM D 2997:1995
Specification for centrifugal cast glass reinforced thermosetting resin pipe.
ASTM D 3013:1994
Specification of epoxy molding compounds.
ASTM D 3262:1996
Specification for glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin sewer pipe.
ASTM D 3299:1995
Specification for filament wound glass fiber reinforced thermoset resin corrosion resistant tanks.
ASTM D 3517:1996
Specification for reinforced mortar pressure pipe.
ASTM D 3567:1997
Practice for determining dimensions of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe and fittings.
ASTM D 3647:1984
Standard practice for classifying reinforced plastic pultruded shapes according to composition.
ASTM D 3681:1996
Test method for chemical resistance of glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin in a deflected condition.
in glass
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ASTM D 3753:1991
Specification for glass fiber reinforced polyester manholes.
ASTM D 3754:1996
Specification for fiberglass (glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin) sewer and industrial pressure pipe.
ASTM D 3839:1994
Practice for underground installation of glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe.
ASTM D 3840:1994
Specification for glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe fittings for non-pressure applications
ASTM D 3841:1997
Specification for glass fibre reinforced polyester plastic panels.
ASTM D 3846:1994
Test method or in-plane shear strength of reinforced plastics.
ASTM D 3914:1996
Test method for in-plane shear strength of pultruded glass reinforced plastic rod.
ASTM D 3916:1996
Test method for tensile properties of pultruded glass-reinforced plastic rod.
ASTM D 3917:1984
Standard specification for dimensional tolerance of thermosetting glass reinforced plastic pultruded shapes.
ASTM D 3918:1996
Definitions of terms relating to reinforced plastic pultruded products.
ASTM D 4021:1992
Standard specification for glass fiber reinforced polyester underground petroleum storage tanks.
ASTM D 4097:1995
Specification for contact-molded glass fiber reinforced thermoset resin corrosion-resistant tanks.
ASTM D 4161:1991
Standard specification for fiberglass (glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin) pipe joints using flexible elastomeric seals.
ASTM D 4357:1996
Specification for plastic laminates made from woven roving and woven yarn glass fabrics. Replaces ASTM D 2150.
ASTM D 4385:1995
Standard practice for classifying visual defects in thermosetting reinforced plastic pultruded products.
ASTM D 4476:1997
Test method for flexural properties of fiber reinforced pultruded rods.
ASTM D 4617:1996
Specification for phenolic compounds.
ASTM D 4805:1994
Terminology of plastic standards.
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ASTM D 4923:1992
Specification for reinforced thermosetting plastic poles.
ASTM D 5028:1996
Test method for curing properties of pultrusion resins by thermal analysis.
ASTM D 5083:1996
Test methods for tensile properties of reinforced thermosetting plastics using straight sided specimens.
ASTM D 5117:1996
Test method for dye penetration of solid fiberglass reinforced pultruded stock.
ASTM D 5207:1998
Practice for calibration of 20- and 25-mm test flames for small scale burning tests on plastic materials.
ASTM D 5224:1993
Test method for determining the aerobic biodegradation of plastic materials in an activated sludge wastewater treatment system.
ASTM D 5364:1993
Guide for design, fabrication and erection of fibreglass reinforced plastic chimney liners with coal-fired units.
ASTM D 5365:1993
Test method for long-term ring-bending strain of glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin.
ASTM D 5592:1994
Guide for material properties needed in engineering design using plastics.
ASTM D 5685:1995
Specification of glass reinforced thermosetting resin pressure pipe fittings.
ASTM D 5686:1995
Specification of glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe and pipe fittings. Adhesive bonded joint type epoxy resin for condensate return lines.
ASTM D 5813:1995
Specification for cured-in-place thermosetting resin sewer pipe.
ASTM D 5948:1996
Specification for molding compounds, thermosetting.
ASTM D6041:1997
Specification for contact molded glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin corrosion-resistant pipe and fittings.
ASTM D 6109:1997
Test methods for flexural properties on unreinforced and reinforced plastic lumber.
ASTM D 6507:2000
Practice for fibre reinforcement orientation codes for composite materials.
AS TM E 84
Multi-part standard relating to flame spread and smoke development. The standard provides comparison of surface burning behaviour of building
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Standards and testing materials. One section covers the Steiner Tunnel Test using a fire test chamber 25 ft long. ASTM E 1118(1995)
Acoustic emission examination of reinforced thermoset resin pipe.
ASTM F 1092--87(1994)E1
Fiberglass (GRP) pultruded open-weather storm and guard square handrails.
ASME N 155-2
Cases of ASME boiler and pressure vessel code: fiberglass reinforced thermosetting resin pipe.
ASME/ANSI RTP-1--89
Reinforced thermoset plastic corrosion resistant equipment.
AWWA/ANSI C950:1988
AWWA standard for fiberglass pressure pipe.
5.2.4 Military standards AMSTA TR-R(MS-21)
Trilateral design and test code for military bridging and gap crossing equipment. US Army Tank Automotive and Armaments Command, Warren, Michigan, 1966.
CSP/S-24:1992
Circular of requirements for new construction strategic sealift ships. Naval Sea Systems Command.
MIL 17:1999 Composites handbook. Technomics Publishing Co Inc, 851 New Holland Avenue, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Three volumes (each priced at US$89.95) and CD-ROM version (US$295). Paper and CD-ROM versions combined (US$495).
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MIL DTL 62474D:1998
Aramid reinforced plastic laminate.
MIL HDBK 700A:1975
Plastics.
MIL HDBK 754:1991
Matrix composites with continuous fibre reinforcement.
MIL H D B K - 8 0 3 : 1 9 9 0
Preventative maintenance reinforced plastics.
MIL G--47024(1):1985
Glass roving, phenolic impregnated.
MIL P-79C: 1992
Thermosetting laminated plastic rods and tubes.
MIL P-5431A:1997
Graphited phenolic plastic sheets, rods, tubes and shapes.
MIL 1-24768:1992
Laminated thermosetting plastics; 32 parts.
MIL M-15617A(1):1975
Fibrous glass mat for reinforcing plastics.
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MIL P-17549D:1981
Plastic laminates, fibrous glass reinforced marine structural.
MIL P-18177C(2):1992
Plastic sheet, laminated thermosetting, glass fibre base, epoxy resin.
MIL P-21347D(1):1986
Plastic molding material, polystyrene glass fibre reinforced.
MIL 25395B:1996
Glass fiber base low pressure, laminated polyester resin.
MIL P-25421B:1991
Glass fiber base, low pressure laminated epoxy resin plastic material.
MIL P-25515C:1996
Glass fiber base laminated phenolic resin.
MIL 28548B:1989
Glass fiber reinforced plastic pipe and pipe fittings adhesive bonded joint type for condensate return lines.
MIL P-29242:1994
Fiber reinforced pastic panels for rapid runway repair.
MIL 43038B: 1996
High temperature resistant low-pressure laminating polyester plastic molding material.
MIL P-43043C: 1996
Glass fiber reinforced polyester molding material.
MIL P--46169A: 1997
Glass fiber reinforced polyester sheet molding compound.
MIL P--47135N(1):1982
Plastic laminate, glass fibre base epoxy resin, structural shapes.
MIL P-82540(1):1999
Plastic material, polyester resin glass fibre base, filament wound tube.
MIL P-82650:1992
Glass phenolic molding material.
MIL T-52777A:1991
Glass fiber reinforced plastic underground storage tanks.
heat resistant
The major document which is not a formal standard is - Structural design of polymer composites- EUROCOMP Design Code and Handbook published by E & N Spon in 1996. This results from a five year effort supported by European agencies and the civil engineering community to establish standards for FRP components. There is a move within the UK towards European standards rather than national standards for fire systems. It is anticipated that these will be performance-based and this will require that every product be tested. Estimates to establish these standards are between three and five years.
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Standards and testing Major committees which undertake European standards work are Comit~ Europ~en de Normalisation (CEN) which has the following working groups: 9 9 9 9
WG3 Thermoset Compounds; WG4 Thermoplastic Profiles; WG5 Test Methods; WG6 Pultruded Profiles as part of CEN Technical Committee 249/SC2 Composites.
CEN have undertaken work to resolve a problem in the description of composites to a recognized specification. This has been difficult for composite materials due to a lack of specification equivalent to metal alloy specifications. CEN has been developing specification standards based on ISO test methods. As an example, CEN has drafted specification standards for both thermosets (e.g. sheet moulding compounds) and thermoplastics (glass mat thermoplastics). These specifications use ISO test methods for both processing and property data. The final property data are obtained using specimens cut from standard test plates prepared according to the revised version of ISO 1268:2000 which covers all composite processing routes. CEN provides a fast-track approval process for standards, in that ISO standards that are satisfactory are adopted as European standards using a straight Yes/No ballot known as the Unique Approval Process (UAP); in the general area of plastics test methods under ISO TC61 approximately 150 ISO standards are being adopted using this method. CEN committees that cover areas within this report include CEN Technical Committee 210 on GRP pressure vessels, CEN TC 155 on reinforced plastics process piping and CEN TC 23 on filament w o u n d gas cylinders. EN standards, which have equivalents in the British Standards range, have not been repeated but can be found under UK standards. EN 13706:2000
Parts 1-3. Pultruded profiles.
EN ISO 14 pt 125:1998
Fibre reinforced p l a s t i c s - determination of the flexural properties.
EN ISO 14 p t 129:1997
Fibre reinforced plastics- determination of the inshear stress/shear strain including the in-plane shear modulus and strength.
EN ISO 14 pt 130:1997
Fibre reinforced plastic c o m p o s i t e s - determination of apparent interlaminar shear strength by short beam method.
5.3.1 UK standards In the UK, the formal body for issuing standards is the British Standards Institution (BSI) which develops standards within the UK and liaises with other national and international standard bodies. BSI has published four new standards (from a final set of six) developed by National Physical Laboratory (NPL) relating to composites. The four cover tensile, compression, flexural and shear testing of composites. The remaining two
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standards are expected to be published within six months. According to NPL, these standards will 'dramatically' reduce the number of test methods required for development, selection and qualification of composites. This should help reduce the costs associated with the development of composites and also give end-users and designers better and more reliable data. NPL's work in developing and standardizing test methods for composites is supported by the UK Department of Trade and Industry as part of the Materials Measurement programme of research. The current programme on Composites Performance and Design covers structural element testing, durability assessment and interface characterization, and aims to propose further test methods in these areas. For the UK, these BS EN ISO standards replace the widely used but informal recommendations from the Composites Research Advisory Group (CRAG). In the British Standards listed below the date given after the colon is the date of publication; a further date in brackets indicates that the Standard was checked and still valid on that date. BS 476
Fire tests on building materials and structures.
BS 4 7 6 - 3 : 1 9 7 5
External fire exposure roof test.
BS 4 7 6 - 4 : 1 9 7 0 (1984)
Non-combustibility test for materials. Equivalent to ISO 1182.
BS 4 7 6 - 6 : 1 9 8 9
Method for test for fire propagation for products.
BS 476--7:1997
Method of test to determine the classification of the surface spread of flame of products.
BS 4 7 6 - 1 0 : 1 9 8 3 (1989)
Guide to the principles and application of fire testing.
BS 476:11:1982 (1988)
Method for assessing the heat emission from building materials.
BS 476:12:1991
Method of test for ignitability of products by direct flame impingement.
BS 476:13:1987
Method of measuring the ignitability of products subjected to thermal irradiance. Equivalent to ISO 5657.
BS 4 7 6 - 1 5 : 1 9 9 3
Method for measuring the rate of heat release of fire products. Equivalent to ISO 5660-1:1993.
BS 4 7 6 - 2 0 : 1 9 8 7
Method of determination of the fire resistance of elements of construction (general principles). Equivalent to ISO 834.
BS 476--21:1987
Methods for determination of the fire resistance of load bearing elements of construction.
BS 476--22:1987
Methods of determination of the fire resistance of non-load bearing elements of construction. Replaces BS476 pt 8:1972.
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BS 4 7 6 - 2 3 : 1 9 8 7
Methods for determination of the contribution of components to the fire resistance of a structure. Replaces BS476 pt8:1972.
BS 476--24:1987
Method of determination of the fire resistance of ventilation ducts. Equivalent to ISO 6944.
BS 4 7 6 - 3 1 . 1 : 1 9 8 3
Methods for measuring smoke penetration through doorsets and shutter assemblies. Method of temperature measurement under ambient temperature conditions.
BS 4 7 6 - 3 2 : 1 9 8 9
Guide to full scale test rigs within buildings.
BS 4 7 6 - 3 3 : 1 9 9 3
Full scale room test for surface products. Equivalent to ISO 9705:1933.
BS EN ISO 5 2 7 : 1 9 9 6 - 7
Plastics. Determination of tensile properties. Equivalent to EN ISO 527 and ISO 527. Five parts.
BS EN ISO 584:1998
Plastics - unsaturated polyester resins - determination of reactivity at 80~
BS EN ISO 846:1997
Plastics: evaluation of the action of microorganisms. Equivalent to EN ISO 846:1997 and ISO 846:1997.
BS ISO 871:1996
Plastics. Determination of ignition temperature using a hot-air furnace. Equivalent to ISO 871:1996.
BS EN ISO 899:1997
Plastics. Determination of creep behaviour. Equivalent to EN ISO 899:1996 and ISO 899:1993.
BS EN 1363:1999
Fire resistance tests. Equivalent to EN 1363 and ISO 834.
BS EN 1365:1999
Fire tests for load bearing elements. Equivalent to EN 1365.
BS 1755: Pt 1-1982
Glossary of terms used in the plastics industry. Replaced by BS ISO 472:1988.
BS 1755:Pt 2 - 1 9 8 4
Glossary of terms used in the plastics industry. Replaced by BS ISO 472:1988.
BS EN 1842:1997
Plastics. Thermoset moulding compounds (SMC and BMC). Determination of compression moulding shrinkage. Equivalent to EN 1842:1997 and ISO 2577:1975.
BS EN 1862:1998
Plastics piping systems. Glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Determination of the relative flexural creep factor following exposure to a chemical environment. Equivalent to EN 1862:1997.
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BS EN ISO 1889:1997
Reinforcement yarns density.
determination of linear
BS EN ISO 1890:1997
Reinforcement yarns - determination of twist.
BS EN 2 5 5 7 : 1 9 9 7
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Determination of mass per unit area. Equivalent to EN 2557.
BS EN 2 5 5 8 : 1 9 9 7
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Determination of volatile content. Equivalent to EN 2558:1997.
BS EN 2559:1997
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Determination of the resin and fibre content and the mass of fibre per unit area.
BS EN 2 5 6 0 : 1 9 9 8
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Determination of resin flow. Equivalent to EN 2560:1998.
BS EN 2561:1995
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Unidirectional laminates. Tensile test parallel to the fibre direction.
BS EN 2562:1997
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Unidirectional laminates. Flexural test parallel to the fibre direction.
BS EN 2 5 6 3 : 1 9 9 7
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Unidirectional laminates. Determination of the apparent interlaminar shear strength.
BS EN 2 5 6 4 : 1 9 9 8
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Determination of the fibre, resin and void contents.
BS 2782
Methods of testing plastics. Some of the test methods have ISO or BS EN equivalents or replace earlier British Standards. The latest issue of the British Standards catalogue should be consulted.
BS 2782--O:1995
Introduction.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 1 : 1 9 9 2
Thermal properties. The test methods given were published between 1992 and 1999.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 2 : 1 9 9 2
Electrical properties.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 3
Mechanical properties. There are 39 test method parts.
BS 2782--4
Chemical properties. Equivalent to BS EN ISO 9397:1997.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 5
Optical and colour properties, weathering.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 6
Dimensional properties.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 7
Rheological properties.
BS 2 7 8 2 - 8
Other properties.
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BS 2782-9
Sampling and test specimen preparation.
BS 2782-10
Glass reinforced plastics.
BS 2782-11
Thermoplastic pipes, fittings and valves.
BS 2782-12
Reinforced plastics pipes, fittings and valves.
BS 3396-1:1991 (1996)
Specification of loom-state fabrics. Equivalent of ISO 4605 and ISO 4606.
BS 3496--2:1987 (1995)
Specification of de-sized fabrics.
BS 3396--3:1987 (1995)
Specification for finished fabrics for use with polyester resin systems.
BS 3502 Pt 1:1991 (1996)
Schedule of common names and abbreviations for plastics and rubbers.
BS 3502 Pt 2:1993
Schedule of symbols for compounding ingredients.
BS 3691:1990 (1995)
Specification for E-glass fibre rovings for the reinforcement of polyester and epoxy resin systems.
BS 3749:1991 (1996)
Specification for E-glass fibre woven roving fabrics for the reinforcement of polyester resin systems.
BS 3953:1990 (1996)
Specification for synthetic resin bonded woven glass fabric laminated sheet. Equivalent to ISO 1642:1987. Partially replaced by BS EN 608932:1995, BS EN 60893-3-3:1995, BS EN 60893-36:1995 and BS EN 60893-3-7:1995.
BS 4549-1:1997
Guide to the preparation of a scheme to control the quality of glass reinforced polyester mouldings.
BS ISO 4589:1996-1999
Plastics. Determination of burning behaviour by oxygen index. Equivalent to EN ISO 4583:1998 and ISO 4583:1998.
BS 4994:1987
Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in reinforced plastics manufactured by wet lay-up process.
BS 4618:1970 (1994)
Recommendation for the presentation of plastic design data. Introduction.
BS 4618-1:1994
Mechanical properties.
BS 4618-2:1994
Electrical properties.
BS 4618-3:1994
Thermal properties.
BS 4618-4:1994
Environmental and chemical effects.
BS 4618-5:1994
Other properties.
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BS 5480:1990
Specification for glass fibre reinforced plastics pipe joints and fittings for use for water supply or sewage; classification.
BS 5750
ISO 9000 and its parts should be used for preference.
BS 6128-4:1981 (1996)
Industrial laminated rods and tubes based on thermosetting resins: specification for rectangular moulded rods.
BS 6128-6:1981 (1996)
Industrial laminated rods and tubes based on thermosetting resins: specification for hexagonal moulded rods.
BS 6128-13:1983 (1996)
Industrial laminated rods and tubes based on thermosetting resins - specification for rectangular moulded tubes.
BS 6319:1983-1993
Testing of resin and polymer/cement compositions for use in construction. Eleven parts.
BS 6374--3:1984
Lining of equipment with polymeric materials for the process industries; specification for lining with stoved thermosetting resins.
BS 6374-4:1984
Lining of equipment with polymeric materials for the process industries; specification for lining with cold curing thermoset resins.
BS 6464:1984
Specification for reinforced plastics pipes, fitting and joints for process plants.
BS 6853-1996
Fire test for transferring surface spread of flame.
BS 7010:1988 (1996)
Code of practice for a system of tolerances for the dimensions of plastics mouldings.
BS 7159:1989
Code of practice for design and construction of GRP piping systems for individual plants and sites. Complements recommendations in BS 6464 and BS 4994.
BS 8010-2-5
Glass reinforced thermosetting plastic pipelines, code of practice. Design considerations and construction and installation recommendations for pipelines.
BS 8010--3:1993
Pipelines subsea, design, construction and installation.
BS EN ISO 9396:1996
Plastics. Phenolic resins. Determination of the gel time at a given temperature using automatic apparatus. Equivalent to EN ISO 9396:1995 and ISO 9396:1989.
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Standards and testing BS EN ISO 9397:1997
Plastics. Phenolic resins. Determination of freeformaldehyde content. Equivalent to EN ISO 9397:1997 and ISO 9397:1995 and numbered as BS 2782--4:1997.
BS EN ISO 10093:1999
Plastics. Fire tests. Standard ignition systems. Equivalent to EN ISO 10093:1998 and ISO 10093:1998.
BS EN ISO 11248:2000
Thermosetting moulding materials. Evaluation of short term performance at elevated temperatures. Equivalent to EN ISO 11248:1999 and ISO 11248:1993; also numbered as BS 2782.
BS ISO 11925: 1997-9
Reaction to fire tests. Ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame. Three parts. Equivalent to ISO 11925:1997-1999.
BS EN ISO 12114:1997
Fibre reinforced plasticsl Thermosetting moulding compounds and prepregs. Determination of cure characteristics. Equivalent to EN ISO 12114:1997 and ISO 12114:1997.
BS EN ISO 12115:1997
Fibre reinforced plastics. Thermosetting moulding compounds and prepregs. Determination of flowability maturation and shelf life. Equivalent to EN ISO 12115:1997 and ISO 12115:1997.
BS EN 12575:1998
Thermoset moulding compound. Determination of the degree of fibre wet-out in SMC.
BS EN 12576:1998
Fibre reinforced composites. Preparation of compression moulded test plates of SMC, BMC and DMC.
BS ISO 12992:1995
Plastics. Vertical flame spread determination to film and sheet. Equivalent to ISO 12992:1995.
BS ISO 14696:1999
Reaction to fire tests. Determination of fire parameters of materials, products and assemblies using an intermediate scale heat release calorimeter (ICAL). Equivalent to ISO/TR 14696:1999.
BS DD:1983 Draft for Development. Method for the assessment of pot life of nonflowing resin compositions for use in civil engineering. BS PD 6520:1988
Guide to fire test methods for building materials and elements of construction.
Specification and recommended practice for the use of GRP piping offshore. UK Offshore Operators Association, March 1994.
Interim jet fire test for determining the effectiveness of passive fire protection materials, Offshore Technology Report OTO 93 028. Health and Safety Executive, 1993.
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5.3.2 German standards DE AD N 1:1987
Pressure vessels of glass fibre reinforced thermosetting plastics.
DIN EN 59:1977
Glass reinforced plastics; measurement of hardness by means of a Barcol impression.
DIN EN ISO 7 5 - 3 : 1 9 9 6
Plastics - determination of temperature of deflection under load. Part 3: high strength thermosetting laminates and long-fibre-reinforced plastics. Equivalent to ISO 75-3:1996.
DIN EN ISO 527:1997
Plastics- determination of tensile properties. Parts 4 and 5. Equivalent of ISO 527-4:1997 and ISO 527-5:1997.
DIN EN 637:1994
Plastics piping systems - glass reinforced plastics components.
DIN EN 705:1994
Plastics piping systems - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics pipes and fittings. Corrigenda 1:1995.
DIN EN 761:1994
Plastics piping systems - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics pipes.
DIN EN 976:1997
Underground tanks of glass reinforced p l a s t i c s horizontal cylindrical tanks for the non-pressure storage of liquid petroleum based fuels. Four parts.
DIN EN 977:1997
Underground tanks of glass reinforced plastics (GRP) - methods for one side exposure to fluids.
DIN EN 978:1997
Underground tanks of glass reinforced p l a s t i c s determination of creep factor.
DIN EN 1119:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - joints for glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and fittings.
DIN EN 1120:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and fittings- determination of the resistance to chemical attack from the inside of a section in a deflected condition.
DIN EN ISO 1172:1998
Textile glass reinforced plastics - prepregs, moulding compounds and l a m i n a t e s - determination of the textile glass and mineral filler content. Equivalent to ISO 1172:1996.
DIN EN 1225:1996
Plastics piping systems - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP p i p e s - determination of the creep factor under wet conditions and calculation of the long term specific ring stiffness.
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DIN EN 1226:1998
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes - test method to prove the resistance to initial ring deflection.
DIN EN 1227:1998
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics p i p e s - determination of the longterm ultimate relative ring deflection under wet conditions.
DIN EN 1228:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics pipes - determination of initial specific ring stiffness.
DIN EN 1229:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting resins pipes and f i t t i n g - test methods to prove the leak-tightness of the wall under short term internal pressure.
DIN EN 1393:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics pipes - determination of initial longitudinal tensile properties.
DIN EN 1394:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics pipes - determination of the apparent initial circumferential tensile strength.
DIN EN 1447:1996
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics p i p e s - determination of long term resistance to internal pressure.
DIN EN 1448:1997
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics p i p e s - test methods to prove the design of rigid locked socket and spigot joints with elastomeric seals.
DIN EN 1449:1997
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics p i p e s - test methods to prove the design of a cemented socket and spigot joints.
DIN EN 1450:1999
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics p i p e s - test methods to prove the design of bolted flange joints.
DIN EN 1636:1994-9
Plastics piping systems for non-pressure drainage and sewerage - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics based on polyester resin. Six parts.
DIN EN 1638:1997
Plastics piping systems for non-pressure drainage and s e w e r a g e - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics based on polyester r e s i n - test method for the effects of cyclic internal pressure.
DIN EN 1796:1995
Plastics piping systems for water supply with or without p r e s s u r e - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics based on polyester resin. Six parts.
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DIN EN 1862:1997
Plastics piping systems for non-pressure drainage and s e w e r a g e - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics based on polyester r e s i n - determination of the relative flexural creep factor following exposure to a chemical environment.
DIN EN ISO1889:1997
Reinforcement yarns - determination of linear density. Equivalent to ISO 1889:1997.
DIN 7708:1968-1975
Types of plastic moulding materials.
DIN 7708 Pt 1-12.80
Plastic products, semi-finished products, plastic moulding materials, plastic p r o d u c t s - concepts.
DIN 7728--2:1980
Symbols for reinforced plastics.
DIN EN ISO 7822:2000
Textile glass reinforced plastics- determination of void c o n t e n t - loss on ignition, mechanical disintegration and statistical counting methods. Equivalent to ISO 7822:1999.
DIN EN ISO 9163:1998
Textile glass - r o v i n g s - manufacture of test specimens and determination of tensile strength of impregnated roving. Equivalent to ISO 9163:1996.
DIN EN ISO 10350--1:2000 Plastics- acquisition and presentation of comparable single-point data. Part 1: moulding materials. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 10350-1998. DIN EN ISO 10350--1:1999 Plastics- acquisition and presentation of comparable single-point data. Part 2: Long fibre reinforced plastics. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 10350-2:1999. DIN EN ISO 10468:1999
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass fibre reinforced thermosetting plastics p i p e s - determination of the long-term, specific ring creep stiffness under wet conditions and calculation of the wet creep factor. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 10468:1999.
DIN EN 11151:1993-8
Plastics piping systems for underground drainage and sewerage under pressure - glass fibre reinforced thermosetting plastics based on polyester resins. Seven parts.
DIN EN ISO 11667:1999
Fibre reinforced p l a s t i c s - moulding compounds and p r e p r e g s - determination of resin, reinforced fibre and mineral filler content. Equivalent to ISO 11667:1999.
DIN EN ISO 12114:1997
Fibre reinforced plastics - thermosetting moulding compounds and p r e p r e g s - determination of cure characteristics. Equivalent to ISO 12114:1997.
DIN EN ISO 12115:1997
Fibre reinforced plastics - thermosetting moulding compounds and p r e p r e g s determination of
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Standards and testing flowability, maturation and shelf life. Equivalent to ISO 12115:1997.
118
DIN EN 12562:1999
Textiles- para-aramid multi-filament f i b r e s - test methods.
DIN EN12917:1997
Underground tanks of glass reinforced plastics (GRP) - horizontal cylindrical tanks for the nonpressure storage of liquid petroleum based fuels.
DIN EN 13121:1998-9
GRP tanks and vessels for use above ground. Parts 1, 2 and 4.
DIN EN 13421:1999
Plastics - thermoset moulding compounds - composites and reinforcement fibres - preparation of specimens for determining the anistropy of the properties of compression moulding composites.
DIN EN 13706:2000
Reinforced plastics composites- specifications for pultruded profiles. Three parts.
DIN EN ISO 14125:1998
Fibre reinforced plastic composites- determination of flexural properties. Equivalent to ISO 14125:1998.
DIN EN ISO 14126:1995
Fibre reinforced plastic composites- determination of compressive properties in the in-plane direction. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 14126:1994.
DIN EN ISO 14129:1998
Fibre reinforced plastic composites- determination of the in-plane shear stress/shear strain response. Equivalent to ISO 14129:1997.
DIN EN ISO 14130:1998
Fibre reinforced plastic composites- determination of apparent interlaminar shear strength by shortbeam method. Equivalent to ISO 14130:1997.
DIN EN ISO 14828:1999
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes - determination of the long-term, specific ring relaxation stiffness under wet conditions and calculation of the wet relaxation factor. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 14828:1999.
DIN 16749-07.86
Plant and machinery for plastics industry, compression moulds and injection moulds; dimensional tolerances for moulding parts.
DIN 16770-09.67
Plastics, moulding techniques for moulding materials, production processes and production equipment, definitions.
DIN 16867:1982
Glass fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester resin (UP-GF) pipes, fittings, and joints for use in chemical pipelines: technical delivery conditions.
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Standards and testing
DIN 16868:1994
Glass fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester resin (UP-GF) pipes. Two parts.
DIN 16869:1984/6
Centrifugal cast filled glass fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester resin (UP-GF) pipes. Two parts.
DIN 16870-1:1987
Wound glass fibre reinforced epoxy resin p i p e s dimensions.
DIN 16871:1982
Centrifugally cast glass fibre reinforced epoxy resin (EP--GF) pipes - dimensions.
DIN16913:1981
Plastics- moulding materials - reinforced thermosetting moulding materials. Three parts.
DIN 16944:1988
Glass fibre reinforced reaction resin moulding materials - test methods.
DIN 16964:1988
Wound glass fibre reinforced polyester resins (UPGF) p i p e s - general quality requirements and testing.
DIN 16965:1982
Wound glass fibre reinforced polyester resin (UPGF) pipes. Four parts.
DIN 16966. 1982/88
Glass fibre reinforced polyester resin (UP--GF) pipe fittings and joints. Seven parts.
DIN 16967-2:1982
Glass fibre reinforced epoxy resins (EP-GF) pipe fittings and joints; elbows, tees, dimensions.
DIN 18820:1991
Laminates of textile glass reinforced unsaturated polyester and phenacrylic resins for load bearing structural members. Four parts.
DIN 19565-1:1989
Centrifugally cast and filled polyester resin glass fibre reinforced (UP-GF) pipes and fittings for buffed drains and sewers.
DIN 19565-5:1990
Prefabricated glass fibre reinforced plastic manholes for use in sewerage systems.
DIN 28043:1991
Equipment and vessels of glass fibre reinforced polyester resins. Four parts.
DIN 40606-01.69
Insulating materials, laminating products, laminated sheets and strips of fabric-base laminate or glass mat-base laminate.
DIN 40624-07.67
Laminated products, solid rods of paper-base laminate or fabric-base laminate.
DIN 40625--07.67
Insulating materials, laminated products, solid bars of paper-base laminate or fabric-base laminate.
DIN 61853:1987
Auxiliary materials and additives for plastics.
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DIN 53390:1988
Testing of glass fibre reinforced plastics: bending test on unidirectional glass fibre reinforced laminated plastics in the form of round bars.
DIN 53393:1976
Testing of textile glass reinforced plastics - behaviour to the effect of chemicals.
DIN 53398:1975
Testing of textile glass reinforced plastics; bending, pulsating test.
DIN 53399-2:1982
Testing of reinforced plastics; shear test on plane specimens.
DIN 53766-1:1991
Testing of glass fibre reinforced plastics apparatus and containers; determination of adhesive strength.
DIN 53768:1990
Determination by extrapolation of the long-term behaviour of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
DIN 53769-1:1988
Testing of glass fibre reinforced plastic pipes; determination of the longitudinal shear strength of type B fittings.
DIN 53769-2:1986
Testing of glass fibre reinforced plastics pipes; long term hydrostatic pressure test.
DIN 53769-3:1996
Testing of glass fibre reinforced plastics pipelines. Part 3: Short term flattening test and flattening endurance test on pipes.
DIN 53769--6:1989
Testing of glass fibre reinforced plastics pipes; testing of pipes and fittings under pulsating internal pressure.
DIN 54813:1994
Testing of plastics; testing of joints of textile glass reinforced polyester resins, determination of the breaking load by the bend shearing test.
DIN 61853:1987
Textile glass; textile glass mats for plastics reinforcements. Two parts.
DIN 61854:1987
Textile glass; woven glass fabrics for plastics reinforcement; woven glass filament fabric and woven roving. Two parts.
DIN 61855:1987
Textile glass; glass roving for plastics reinforcement. Two parts.
TRbF 405/410:1976
Transportation and instaUation regulations for underground tanks of glass fibre reinforced plastics for storage.
TRT 001:1975
Guidelines for tanks of glass fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester resin or glass fibre reinforced epoxy resin moulding materials.
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Standards and testing
VDI 2 0 1 4 : 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 7
Design and construction of fibre reinforced plastics. Three parts.
VG 81264:1992
Fibre reinforced reaction resin molding materials. Three parts.
VG 81265:1995
Parts of textile glass reinforced reaction resin moulded materials.
One important factor for improving health and safety standards in Southeast Asia is the presence of multi-national companies who require c o m m o n standards across their worldwide businesses. Consequently, there is wide use of the major standards from ISO, DIN, BSI and the various North American bodies. This leads to c o m m o n technology and controls, c o m m o n product formulations, and support such as data sheets and labels. The problems often occur with small local firms who do not have access to these standards and as their costs are lower they remain a large part of the manufacturing base.
5.4.1 Japan Japan's position in the Pacific earthquake zone lead to a n u m b e r of standards relating to building design and these were followed in such areas as Taiwan. However, the Kobe, Japan earthquake in 1995 and the Ji-Ji, (Chi Chi) Taiwan earthquake in September 1999 indicated that further efforts were needed. In the early 1990s Japan (with the USA) had thoroughly revised the seismic design code for bridge design but no revised standards appear to have been issued in recent years. There was concern in Japan after the Kobe earthquake that many buildings had not met the existing standards. The most recent work can be more easily accessed in English in the following document, which is readily available from the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, USA: NIST SP 931:1998
Development of performance-based building codes in Japan. Framework of seismic and structural provisions. August 1998. The report is available as PB98 150238.
The Building Centre of Japan also issues advice and recommendations on seismic standards. The following are Japanese industrial standards. FRPS C 0 0 1 - 1 9 8 5
FW reinforced thermosetting resin pipes u n d e r pressure.
FRPS C 0 0 2 - 1 9 8 2
Technical standards for GFRP made tanks.
FRPS P 0 0 2 - 1 9 9 1
Fittings and joint method for filament w o u n d reinforced thermosetting resin pipes under pressure.
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Standards and testing
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FRPS T 001:1981
Design standards and structural calculations for GFRP-made large water tanks.
FRPS WT 002:1986
Products standards for the prevention of increase of algae in FRP water tanks.
JlS A 5350-1984
Glass fibre reinforced plastic mortar pipes.
JIS K 6828:1996
Testing methods for synthetic resin emulsions. Equivalent to ISO 1147:1988; ISO 1148:1980; ISO 1625:1977; ISO 2115:1976; ISO 2555:1989; ISO 3499:1976; ISO 4576:1978.
JIS K 6854:1994
Testing methods for peel strength of adhesives.
JIS K 6857:1973
Testing methods for resistance of adhesive bonds to water or moisture.
JIS K 6899:1992
Plastics. Symbols. Part 1. Basic polymers and their special characteristics. Equivalent to ISO 10431:1987.
JIS K 6898-2:1996
Plastics. Symbols. Part 2. Fillers and reinforcing materials. Equivalent to ISO 1043-2:1988.
JIS K 6900:1994
Plastics. Vocabulary. Equivalent to ISO 472:1988.
JIS K 6901:1995
Testing methods for liquid unsaturated polyester resin.
JIS K 6910:1995
Testing methods for powdered shell molding phenolic resin.
JIS K 6911:1995
Testing methods for themosetting plastics.
JIS K 6912:1995
Laminated thermosetting sheets.
JIS K 6913:1995
Laminated thermosetting rods.
JIS K 6914:1995
Laminated thermosetting tubes.
JIS K 6915:1993
Phenolic molding compounds.
JIS K 6919:1992
Liquid unsaturated polyester resin for fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 6950:1994
Plastics- testing methods for aerobic biodegradability by activated sludge.
JIS K 7010:1995
Vocabulary for fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7011-1989
Glass fibre reinforced plastics for structural use.
JIS K 7012-1992
Glass fibre reinforced thermosetting resin chemicalresistant tanks.
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Standards and testing
JIS K 7013:1997
Fibre reinforced plastic pipes. Equivalent to ISO/ DIS 7370:1996.
JIS K 7014:1997
Fittings and joints for fibre reinforced plastic pipes. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 7370:1996 and ISO/DIS 8483:1995.
JIS K 7015:1998
Pultruded fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7020:1998
Glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and fittings. Equivalent to ISO 10928:1997.
JIS K 7030:1997
Pipes and fittings made of glass fibre reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP). Equivalent to ISO 8572:1991.
JIS K 7031:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipe and fitting. Equivalent to ISO/FDIS 7511:1996.
JIS K 7032:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipe and fitting. Equivalent to ISO/FDIS 7685:1998.
JIS K 7033:1998
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - pipes made of glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP). Equivalent to ISO/DIS 8513:1996.
JIS K 7034:1998
Plastics piping s y s t e m s - pipes made of glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP). Equivalent to ISO/FDIS 10952:1997.
JIS K 7035:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 10468.2:1997.
JIS K 7036:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 8483:1997.
JIS K 7037:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 8521:1997.
JIS K 7038:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 10466:1997.
JIS K 7039:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO/DIS 10471.2:1997.
JIS K 7040:1998
Plastics piping systems - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO 7510:1997.
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JIS K 7041:1998
Plastics piping systems- glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO 7684:1997.
JIS K 7042:1998
Plastics piping systems - glass reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes. Equivalent to ISO ISO FDIS 8533:1997.
JIS K 7051:1987
General rules for testing glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7052:1987
Measuring method for fibre content of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7053:1987
Measuring method for void content of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7054:1995
Testing method for tensile properties of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7055:1995
Testing method for flexural properties of glass fibre reinforced plastics
JIS K 7056:1995
Testing method for compressive properties of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7057:1995
Testing method for apparent interlaminar shear strength of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7058:1998
Testing method for transverse shear strength of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7059:1995
Testing method for in-plane shear properties of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7060:1995
Testing method for Barcol hardness of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7061:1992
Testing method for Charpy impact strength of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7062:1992
Testing method for Isod impact strength of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7070:1992
Testing method for chemical resistance of fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7071:1988
Testing methods for prepreg carbon fibre and epoxy resins.
JIS K 7072:1991
Preparation of carbon fibre reinforced plastic panels for test purposes.
JIS K 7073:1988
Testing method for tensile properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
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Standards and testing
JIS K 7074:1988
Testing methods for flexural properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7075:1991
Testing methods for carbon fibre content and void content of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7076:1991
Testing methods for compressive properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7077:1991
Testing method for Charpy impact strength of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7078:1991
Testing method for apparent interlaminar shear strength of carbon fibre reinforced plastics by threepoint loading method.
JIS K 7079:1991
Testing methods for in-plane shear properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastics by ___45~ tension method and two pairs of rails method.
JIS K 7080:1991
Testing method for bearing strength of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7081:1993
Testing method for exposure of natural weathering of carbon fibre reinforced plastic.
JIS K 7082:1993
Testing method for complete reversed plane bending fatigue of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7083:1993
Testing method for constant-load amplitude tension-tension fatigue of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7084:1993
Testing method for impact properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastics by instrumented 3-point bending impact test.
JIS K 7085:1993
Testing method for multiaxial impact behaviour of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7086:1993
Testing methods for interlaminar fracture toughness of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7087:1996
Testing methods for tensile creep of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7088:1996
Testing methods for flexural creep of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7089:1996
Testing method for compression after impact properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
JIS K 7090:1996
Testing method for ultrasonic pulse echo technique of carbon fibre reinforced plastic panels.
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JIS K 7091:1996
Testing method for radiography of carbon fibre reinforced plastic panels.
JIS K 7114:1995
Testing method for evaluation of the resistance of plastics to chemical substances.
JIS K 7140:1995
Plastics- acquisition and presentation of comparable single point. Equivalent to ISO 10350:1993.
JIS K 7141:1996
Plastics- acquisition and presentation of comparable multipoint data. Part 1. Mechanical properties. Equivalent to ISO 11403-1:1994.
JIS K 7191-3:1996
Plastics - determination of temperature of deflection under load. Part 3. High-strength thermosetting laminates and long-fibre-reinforced plastics. Equivalent to ISO 75-3:1993.
JIS K 7201:1995
Testing method for flammability of polymeric materials using the oxygen index method.
JIS K 7217:1983
Analytical method for determining gases evolved from burning plastics.
JIS K 7232:1986
Testing methods for specific gravity of epoxide resins and hardeners.
JIS K 7233:1986
Testing methods for viscosity of epoxide resins and hardeners.
JIS K 7234:1986
Testing methods for softening point of epoxide resins.
JIS K 7235:1986
Testing methods for non-volatile matter in solventdiluted epoxide resins.
JIS K 7236:1995
Testing methods for epoxy equivalent of epoxide resins.
JIS K 7238:1991
Designation of epoxide resins.
JIS K 7242-2:1998
Plastic- smoke generation. Part 2: Determination of optical density by a sin#e-chamber test. Equivalent to ISO 5659-2:1994.
JIS R 3411-1999
Textile glass chopped strand mat.
JIS R 3412-1999
Textile glass rovings.
JIS R 3413-1999
Textile glass yarns.
JIS R 3414-1999
Textile glass fabrics.
JIS R 3415-1995
Textile glass tapes.
JIS R-3416--1992
Finished textile glass fabrics.
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Standards and testing
JIS R 3417-1995
Woven roving glass fabrics.
JIS R 3419-1995
Glass chopped strands.
JIS R 3420-1999
Testing methods for textile glass products. Equivalent to ISO 139:1973; ISO 1887:1995; ISO 1888:1996; ISO 2558:1974; ISO/FDIS 3341:1997; ISO 3342:1995; ISO 3343:1984; ISO3374:1990; ISO 3375:1975; ISO/DIS 4602:1995; ISO 4603:1993; ISO 4604:1978; ISO 4605:1978: ISO 4606:1995; ISO 4900:1990; ISO/DIS 5025:1996.
JIS R 3422-1985
Finished glass tapes.
JIS R 7601-1986
Testing methods for carbon fibre.
JIS R 7602:1995
Testing methods for carbon fibre woven fabrics.
JRS 17433-2A-115AR5--65
General glass fibre reinforced plastics for rolling stock.
MOL-Notice-1982
Specification for structure of the first class pressure vessels with FRP.
5.4.2 Taiwan The Ministry of Transportation and Communication, Taiwan first issued seismic design guidelines for highway bridge design in 1987 and these were based on the 1980 seismic design code of Japan. These were revised in 1995 following work done by Japan and the USA in the early 1990s. However, following the Ji-Ji earthquake the seismic capacity of bridges constructed before 1995 was considered questionable. Taiwan had largely followed Japanese practice but in May 2000 the Vice Premier announced that the government would upgrade the previous plan to create an earthquake reconstruction committee calling for an organization rather than a task force and under the chairmanship of a Minister without Portfolio. Concern has been expressed in Taiwanese newspapers about the misdirection of emergency rebuilding funds.
5.4.3 New Zealand The country's position in an earthquake region has produced a standard: NZS 4203:1992
Code of practice for general structural design and design loadings for buildings.
A number of major fires in recent years within the infrastructure area - Kings Cross Underground station, the Channel Tunnel and the Mont Blanc t u n n e l have resulted in tighter fire standards for materials including composites.
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Standards and testing The factors that assess fire performance include: 9
surface spread of flame;
9
fire penetration;
9
ease of ignition;
9
fuel contribution; and
9
oxygen index (the minimum oxygen content that supports combustion).
Each factor is more or less significant depending on circumstances, and there is no simple test for comparing composites for fire resistance. Fire performance of composites ranges from highly flammable to non-burning with flammability governed by the following factors: 9
matrix type;
9
quantity and type of fire-retardant additives used in manufacture;
9
quantity and type of fillers; and
9
reinforcement type, including its volume fraction and construction.
Of these, the dominant factor is the polymer matrix and the most commonly used materials have the following fire resistance in decreasing order when considered without additives: 9
phenolic - excellent fire resistance with low smoke production and toxic combustion products;
9 9
epoxy; Modar (modified acrylic resin);
9
vinyl ester; and
9
polyester (burns readily).
However, even though polyesters have relatively poor intrinsic fire resistance, they can be made with low flammability by the incorporation of fire-retardant additives and a reasonably high glass fibre content. One of the most important tests for fire monitoring has been the Underwriters Laboratory (UL) 94 method. UL 94 has been the universal test adopted by manufacturers as it is cheap and easy to perform. However, concerns have been raised in the current EC materials standard IEC 60893 which describes synthetic bonded laminates. A footnote states that 'the small-scale laboratory test used in this standard for assigning a flammability category is primarily for monitoring the consistency in the production of laminates. The results so obtained should not in any circumstances be considered as an overall indication of the potential fire hazards presented by these laminates under actual conditions of use'. Other tests used together are n o w finding more widespread use including oxygen index, heat release tests, smoke emission, surface spread of flame, small-scale ignition tests and toxicity index of powders. A problem with fire standards is a lack of comparability. Major fire safety standards include BS 6853 (UK), NFF 16-101 and NFP 92-501 (France), UNE 23-721 (Spain and based on the French NFF 16-101), DIN 5510 (Germany), UIC 564 (Scandinavia), ASTM E-84 and ASTM E-162 (USA). The French standard NFF 16-101 was widely recognized as being the stiffest of fire standards and was then modified as NFP 92-501, but the Spanish standard UNE 23-721 had been and continued to be based on the higher French standard.
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5.5.1 International fire standards ISO 181:1981
Plastics determination of flammability characteristics of rigid plastics in the form of small specimens in contact with an incandescent rod.
ISO 8 3 4 - 1 : 1 9 9 9
Fire-resistance t e s t s - elements of building construction. Part 1. General requirements.
ISO/TR 8 3 4 - 3 : 1 9 9 4
Fire resistance t e s t s - elements of building construction. Part 3. Commentary on test method and test data application.
ISO 871:1996
Plastics - determination of ignition temperature using a hot-air furnace.
ISO 1210:1982
Plastics - determination of flammability characteristics of plastics in the form of small specimens in contact with a small flame.
ISO 1716:1973
Building materials potential.
ISO 1887:1995
Textile g l a s s - determination of combustible matter content.
ISO/TR 3814:1989
Tests for measuring 'reaction-to-fire' of building materials - their development and application.
ISO/TR 3956:1975
Principles of structural fire-engineering design with special regard to the connection between real fire exposure and the heating conditions of the standard fire-resistance test.
ISO 4589:1996
Plastics - determination of burning behaviour by oxygen index. Three parts.
ISO/TR 5658:1997
Reaction to fire t e s t s - spread of flame. Part 1. Guidance on flame spread.
ISO 5658--2:1996
Reaction to fire tests - spread of flame. Part 2: Lateral spread on building products in vertical configuration.
ISO 5 6 5 9 - 1 : 1 9 9 6
P l a s t i c s - smoke generation. Part 1: Guidance on optical density testing.
ISO 5 6 5 9 - 2 : 1 9 9 4
Plastics- smoke generation. Part 2: Determination of optical density by a single chamber test. There is a Technical corrigendum 1:1997.
ISO/TR 5 6 5 9 - 3 : 1 9 9 9
Plastics- smoke generation. Part 3: Determination of optical density by a dynamic-flow method.
ISO 5 6 6 0 - 1 : 1 9 9 3
Fire t e s t s - reaction to fire. Cone calorimeter.
determination of calorific
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ISO 7 8 2 2 : 1 9 9 0
Textile glass reinforced p l a s t i c s - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of void c o n t e n t - loss on ignition, mechanical disintegration and statistical counting methods.
ISO 8 4 2 1 - 1 : 1 9 8 7
Fire p r o t e c t i o n - V o c a b u l a r y - Part 1: General terms and p h e n o m e n a of fire.
ISO 8 4 2 1 - 2 : 1 9 8 7
Fire p r o t e c t i o n - V o c a b u l a r y - Part 2: Structural fire protection.
ISO 8 4 2 1 - 3 : 1 9 8 9
Fire p r o t e c t i o n - V o c a b u l a r y - Part 3: Fire detection and alarm.
ISO 8421--4:1990
Fire p r o t e c t i o n - V o c a b u l a r y - Part 4: Fire extinction equipment.
ISO 8 4 2 1 - 5 : 1 9 8 8
Fire p r o t e c t i o n control.
ISO 8 4 2 1 - 6 : 1 9 8 7
Fire p r o t e c t i o n - V o c a b u l a r y - Part 6: Evacuation and means of escape.
ISO 8 4 2 1 - 7 : 1 9 8 7
Fire p r o t e c t i o n - V o c a b u l a r y - Part 7: Explosion detection and suppression means.
ISO 9 7 7 3 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - determination of burning behaviour of thin flexible vertical specimens in contact with a small flame ignition source.
ISO 9 7 8 2 : 1 9 9 3
P l a s t i c s - reinforced m o u l d i n g c o m p o u n d s and prepregs - determination of a p p a r e n t volatilematter content.
ISO10093:1998
P l a s t i c s - fire t e s t s - standard ignition sources.
ISO 1 0 8 4 0 : 1 9 9 3
P l a s t i c s - burning b e h a v i o u r - guidance for develo p m e n t and use of fire tests. There is a Technical corrigendum 1:1995.
ISO 1 1 2 4 8 : 1 9 9 3
P l a s t i c s - Thermosetting m o u l d i n g materials Evaluation of short-term performance at elevated temperatures.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 1 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 1. Guidance.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 2 : 1 9 9 5
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 2. Static methods.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 3 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 3. Dynamic decomposition m e t h o d using a travelling furnace.
ISO 1 1 9 0 7 - 4 : 1 9 9 8
Plastics - smoke generation - determination of the corrosivity of fire effluents. Part 4. Dynamic
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Part 5: Smoke
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decomposition method using a conical radiant heater. I S O / T 11925-1:1999
Reaction to fire t e s t s - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame Part 1: Guidance on ignitability.
-
ISO 11925-2:1997
Reaction to fire t e s t s - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame Part 2: Single flame source test.
-
ISO 11925-3:1997
Reaction to fire t e s t s - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame 3: Multi-source test.
- P a r t
ISO/TR 12470:1998
Fire resistance t e s t s - Guidance on the application and extension of results.
ISO/TR 13387-1:1999
Fire safety engineering- Part 1: Application of fire performance concepts to design objectives.
ISO/TR 13387-2:1999
Fire safety e n g i n e e r i n g scenarios and design fires.
ISO/TR 13387-3:1999
Fire safety e n g i n e e r i n g - Part 3: Assessment and verification of mathematical fire models.
ISO/TR 13387-4:1999
Fire safety e n g i n e e r i n g - Part 4: Initiation and development of fire and generation of fire effluents.
ISO/TR 13387-5:1999
Fire safety engineering- Part 5: Movement of fire effluents.
ISO/TR 13387--6:1999
Fire safety engineering- Part 6: Structural response and fire spread beyond the enclosure of origin.
ISO/TR 13387-7:1999
Fire safety e n g i n e e r i n g - Part 7: Detection, activation and suppression.
ISO/TR 13387-8:1999
Fire safety e n g i n e e r i n g - Part 8: Life s a f e t y Occupant behaviour, location and condition.
ISO/IEC 13943:2000
Fire safety- Vocabulary.
Part 2: Design fire
5.5.2 American fire standards ASTM D 2566:1986
Defines shrinkage of fibre reinforced plastics.
ASTM D 2863:1974
Defines the limiting oxygen index (LOI) as a measurement of the flammability of the material. The test indicates the minimum concentration of oxygen that is needed to keep a specimen burning.
ASTM D 2863:1977
Similar to 1974 e d i t i o n - standard oxygen index test.
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ASTM D 5207:1998
Practice for calibration of 20 mm and 25 mm test flames for small scale burning tests on plastic materials.
ASTM E 84:1998
Multi-part standard relating to flame spread and smoke development. The standard provides comparison of surface burning behaviour of building materials. One section covers the Steiner Tunnel Test using a fire test chamber 25 ft long.
ASTM E 162
Protocol tests for the surface burning flammability of materials are used by many organizations to determine fire hazards. The system known as Flamespread Classification is used by many model building codes and also by the US National Fire Protection Association. Within the Flamespread system, the higher the Flamespread n u m b e r the greater the fire hazard.
ASTM E 662
Protocol tests for the specific optical density of smoke generated by solid materials. (NBS Smoke chamber, flaming conditions.)
5.5.3 Underwriters Laboratories Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is one of the main fire and safety standards organizations in North America and has now established regional offices throughout the world. Contact information on these is given in Chapter 8 u n d e r 'Organizations and Associations'. UL 94 is widely quoted as a suitable small-scale monitoring test that only indicates, however, h o w a particular material compares with similar materials in terms of ignition. IEC 60893 indicates in a footnote that UL 94 is intended for monitoring consistency of production of laminates and should not be considered an indicator of potential fire hazard in actual conditions of use.
5.5.4 European fire standards
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BS 476
Fire tests on building materials and structures.
BS 4 7 6 - 3 : 1 9 7 5
External fire exposure roof test.
BS 4 7 6 - 4 : 1 9 7 0 (1984)
Non-combustibility test for materials. Equivalent to ISO 1182.
BS 4 7 6 - 6 : 1 9 8 9
Method for test for fire propagation for products.
BS 4 7 6 - 7 : 1 9 9 7
Method of test to determine the classification of the surface spread of flame of products.
BS 4 7 6 - 1 0 : 1 9 8 3 (1989)
Guide to the principles and application of fire testing.
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BS 476:11:1982 (1988)
Method for assessing the heat emission from building materials.
BS 476-12(1991)
Method of test for ignitability of products by direct flame impingement.
BS 476-13:1987
Method of measuring the ignitability of products subjected to thermal irradiance. Equivalent to ISO 5657.
BS 476-15:1993
Method for measuring the rate of heat release of fire products. Equivalent to ISO 5660-1:1993.
BS 476--20:1987
Method of determination of the fire resistance of elements of construction (general principles). Equivalent to ISO 834.
BS 476--21:1987
Methods for determination of the fire resistance of load bearing elements of construction.
BS 476-22:1987
Methods of determination of the fire resistance of non-load bearing elements of construction. Replaces BS476 pt 8:1972.
BS 476-23:1987
Methods for determination of the contribution of components to the fire resistance of a structure. Replaces BS476 pt 8:1972.
BS 476--24:1987
Method of determination of the fire resistance of ventilation ducts. Equivalent to ISO 6944.
BS 476-31.1:1983
Methods for measuring smoke penetration through doorsets and shutter assemblies. Method of temperature measurement under ambient temperature conditions.
BS ISO 871:1996
Plastics. Determination of ignition temperature using a hot-air furnace. Equivalent to ISO 871:1996.
BS EN 1363:1999
Fire resistance tests. Equivalent to EN 1363 and ISO 834.
BS EN 1365:1999
Fire tests for load bearing elements. Equivalent to EN 1365.
BS EN 2558:1997
Carbon fibre pre-impregnates. Determination of volatile content. Equivalent to EN 2558:1997.
BS ISO 4589: 199 6-1999
Plastics. Determination of burning behaviour by oxygen index. Equivalent to EN ISO 4583:1998 and ISO 4583:1998.
BS ISO 12992:1995
Plastics. Vertical flame spread determination to film and sheet. Equivalent to ISO 12992:1995.
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BS ISO 14696:1999
Reaction to fire tests. Determination of fire parameters of materials, products and assemblies using an intermediate scale heat release calorimeter (ICAL). Equivalent to ISO/TR 14696:1999.
BS PD 6520:1988
Guide to fire test methods for building materials and elements of construction.
In the UK, the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) has undertaken a review of fire tests used for composites that has highlighted the need for standards that cover composite-specific issues, such as edge to surface ratio and scaling effects. Researchers have found that the majority of current fire tests carried out on composites are those designed for non-reinforced plastics. DERA considers that a cheap, effective test for residual properties after combustion is needed, as current tests are prohibitively expensive for many industries. Researchers have begun a work programme that considers the need for existing procedures to be extended or new procedures to be developed to meet these criteria. JIS K 7 2 4 2 - 2 : 1 9 9 8
Plastic - smoke generation. Part 2: Determination of optical density by a single-chamber test. Equivalent to ISO 5659-2:1994.
An important element that is relevant to health and safety rather than standards is styrene and solvent emissions. Styrene has the advantage of being one of the least expensive of the constituents of unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester resins, where it is used as a reactive diluent which thins the resin for subsequent processing and forms an integral part of the final cured structure. However, not all solvent is absorbed and the remainder escapes as gas. The introduction in the UK of the Environmental Protection Act means that exhausting styrene vapour from the workplace is not sufficient. The styrene emission levels for the UK have been set at 100 parts per million (ppm), whilst those in Germany and Scandinavia are 10 ppm averaged over 8 h, and there are moves to harmonize legislation throughout Europe. The USA has an intermediate standard of 50 ppm but manufacturers were warned by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1999 that the future regulations governing styrene emission would be more stringent than anticipated. The EPA intends to tightly regulate emission of hazardous air pollutants through 'maximum achievable control technology standards' planned for implementation in 2004. In effect, the regulation would require any facility that emits more than 100 tonnes of styrene annually to retrofit with expensive ventilation equipment. In addition, any new facility- of any size - would have to install the same type of equipment. As an example of the levels of capital investment in new plant that may be required, Molded Fiber Glass, Ashtabula, Ohio have four out of 10 plants which have styrene emissions greater than 100 tonnes per annum. The proposal was published in April 2000 and a final rule will be issued in 2001. Man-made non-methane volatile organic c o m p o u n d (VOC) generation in Europe in 1985 was estimated at 10 million tonnes per annum, according to a draft EU Directive published in 1992. Following the formal publication of the Solvent Directive in the Official Journal of the European Union (EU), European
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manufacturers face stricter legislation and higher costs. The Directive covers a wide range of solvents and severely restricts their emission. The full compliance date for existing installations is 2007 and for new installations by 2004, but Member States had to establish the legal compliance framework by 31 December 1999. The annual cost for the proposed Directive has been estimated by the EU (in 1997) at US$3.78 billion per annum, with a total cost of US$37.7 billion. These figures are disputed by some industry sources who estimate a much higher figure. There are thought to be 400 000 businesses within the EU covered by the initiative. One problem in Southeast Asia is that such matters as waste disposal, which are taken for granted in more developed countries, are often not provided by either government or private enterprise.
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Case studies
Case study: Advanced Composite Construction System (ACCS) and 'SPACES', UK There is a division in the use of composites between one-off projects in which the 'tailorability' of the materials can be used to best advantage and the provision of off-the-shelf products that would reduce manufacturing costs. One system that has been developed with the aim of bridging this gap is the Advanced Composite Construction System (ACCS) developed by Maunsell in the period 1983-1995, and which has lead to their SPACES system for bridge superstructures and the Modespine systems for cable supports in tunnels. Although the system has notable advantages the civil engineering industry has been slow to take advantage of the benefits in the decade since its introduction. The system was originally developed to provide a lightweight bridge enclosure to the A19 trunk road over the River Tees in Northeast England. The area has adverse weather conditions, road salting in the winter and heavy industry in the area, with the resulting pollution. The A19 Tees Viaduct is constructed from deep steel-plate girders and a concrete roadway slab; severe corrosion had resulted after only 12 years service. It was necessary to refurnish the structure and provide a more durable form of corrosion protection for the future. A life-cycle cost analysis indicated that a permanent enclosure would be more cost effective than temporary scaffolding or access gantries, and Maunsell considered that an enclosure system in fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) would meet a design life of 120 years, have adequate strength and stiffness, and be light enough not to add significant loading to the bridge. A total of 16 000 m 2 of decking was installed in 1989 with a weight of 250 tonnes, and tests have shown that the corrosion rate inside the enclosure is less than 5% of that in the external environment. From this work Maunsell has developed an approach that has been used in bridges, tank covers, prefabricated buildings, pontoons and jetties. ACCS consists of a n u m b e r of interlocking fibre reinforced composite structural components which were designed to be pultruded. The complex cellular components have their production and material content optimized to provide a durable and versatile product, whilst the structural shapes enable large structures to be formed quickly from a small n u m b e r of components. The forms and low
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Case studies weight of the c o m p o n e n t s allows easy transport and erection of the modular structural units. ACCS is properly described as a system because its c o m p o n e n t s can be structurally connected so that structures behave as if they were formed from a single entity at the time of manufacture. Adjacent c o m p o n e n t s are b o n d e d with an epoxy-based resin. Designs have n o w been p r e p a r e d for a full set of standard footbridges in the ACCS format that are designed to meet a wide range of requirements, including spans up to 22 m and widths up to 2.64 m. Standard designs have been prepared for 21 cross-sections with the different span and width requirements that result from three different deck widths and seven beam depths or forms. An example of the process was the Shank Castle footbridge that crosses the Raeburn River at a remote location 10 miles north of Carlisle. The bridge is a standard design with a span width of 12 m and a deck width of 0.76 m. The beam for the deck was manufactured off-site and delivered by road and then on trolleys through the woodland. Another 17.5-m span bridge was lifted into place over a rocky gorge in mid-Wales by helicopter. Notable examples are the Aberfeldy Bridge in Scotland, where ACCS was used in the deck and towers with epoxy adhesive bonding and glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) handrails. The bridge was built in 1991 and is one of the oldest examples of an FRP composite bridge. The main span is 63 m and the overall lenth is 103 m, with a deck width of 2.23 m. The cables are two planes of 20 Paraffl (Kevlar TM)cables, of which the longest is 31 m and the shortest 13 m. The Bonds Mill Lift Bridge lies over a canal in the Cotswolds in England. The bridge uses an ACCS multi-cell box beam with epoxy adhesive b o n d i n g and 90 kg/m 3 epoxy foam infill developed by Ciba Polymer, which was used to fill the ACCS cells. The deck is surfaced with Acme panels that are a proprietary system of epoxy-coated panel with grit e m b e d d e d in the surface that can be screwed to the ACCS deck. The bridge cost s 000 and was designed and constructed in eight months, of which site construction took three months, as Designer Composites Technology Ltd could provide a design and construction service using ACCS. The deck was delivered to the site in two halves and b o n d e d together on site The SPACES system was created by Maunsell for bridge construction. The m e t h o d brings together manufacturers of steel tubes, cast steel nodes, glass fibre reinforcement, resins and a fabricator of fully welded steel tubular structures composite systems. The tubular space frame uses the greater structural efficiency of this form of three-dimensional truss w h e n compared to plate and box girders. The SPACES system allows prefabrication, and its inherent lateral and torsional stiffness allows complete spans to be lifted into place and supported on single columns.
The use of composite reinforcement bars (rebars) in road and bridge construction and repair is considered one of the main growth areas in infrastructure use of composites. Rebars consist of bundles of high-strength f i b r e s - carbon, aramid or glasss - impregnated with resin and cut to length. Composite rebar is lighter than its steel equivalent but claims to have double the tensile strength and to be immune to the corrosion that afflicts steel reinforcement in concrete, particularly in northern climates where roads are salted in the winter. However, some concerns have been expressed about moisture attack of glass fibres, although producers state that p r o p e r use of resins removes this problem.
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There is considerable competition between carbon fibre and glass fibre for reinforcement. As an example, Ashland Chemical Co supplied the composites for a bridge in Ohio, which was designed by Lockheed Martin with financial assistance from the US Department of Defense. The two-lane bridge replaced a concrete structure built in 1922 and was installed in about 3 h. The initial requirement was for carbon fibre but this was later changed to glass fibre reinforcement in polyester resin to remain within budget. Although carbon and glass fibres may be considered rivals they are also complementary. New bridges, for example, can use glass fibre, which might not be stiff enough for bridge repairs and where carbon fibre is more effective. The deck of a bridge is structurally less demanding than other areas, such as support piers, but may be subject to considerably more wear. In addition, carbon fibre does not display the impact resistance of glass or aramid fibres and the combination of materials may be used for best results. However, the UK Department of Transport is now considering the use of long fibre carbon fibre for impact resistance on UK bridge piers. Japan is within the Pacific Ring-of-Fire earthquake zone and also has a maritime climate. This combination, plus domestic markets, means that repair and rehabilitation work has been undertaken for over a decade. Following the Kobe earthquake considerable work was undertaken as previous building standards were found to have been inadequate. In the USA, California has led the way in strengthening pier supports and the repair and rehabilitation of roads, bridges and buildings. This work was accelerated after the Northridge earthquake in 1994. However, other states also have earthquake concerns and many northern states have considerable repair problems as many bridges reach the end of their design life or are required to carry higher than intended loads.
Case study: Great Miami Composite Bridge Deck, Ohio, USA In the USA, which has several years experience in the use of composites, the Great Miami Composite Deck Project sponsored by the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) provides some interesting lessons. Collaborators in the project include the University of Cincinnati, Ohio University, University of Kentucky, University of Maine, US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Weather Research Laboratory and ODOT. The Ohio bridges are located in Montgomery County in the western part of Ohio. Total length of the twin structures is 209 m, with spans of 40, 42, 44.6, 42 and 40 m. The cross-section of the superstructure consists of built-up steel stringers and a reinforced concrete deck. Deck deficiencies result from environmental conditions, de-icing salts and fatigue. Two advantages to using FRP decks are their high strength to weight and high stiffness to weight ratios. This results in reduced transport costs as several panels can be loaded on one truck; lighter equipment for installation; simpler construction procedures and shorter construction times. The main object of the project was to evaluate the short- and long-term response of FRP concrete bridge deck systems by laboratory and field testing, and evaluation. This would involve evaluation and developing design procedures, examining static, fatigue and failure behaviour of FRP deck modules and deck joints, studying effects under vehicular loading, studying environmental effects
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and investigating load transfer between FRP deck panels and FRP deck steel connections. The further objective was to evaluate four major suppliers and to assess and set design criteria. The s u p p l i e r s - Creative Pultrusions, Hardcore Composites, Infrastructure Composites International and Composite Deck Solutions - were each given an order for the equivalent of 20 panels to cover a quarter of the bridge area and each took a different approach. ODOT allowed a period of 6 weeks for the supply of panels but most suppliers took 8-10 weeks. One supplier could only deliver seven panels out of 20, and even then were 1 month late. There were problems with panel squareness and alignment so that some panels had to be pushed into shape with a backhoe. Lack of consistency in the thickness of the panels caused problems; the specification was 8 inches but one supplier's panels varied between 8.25 and 8.5 inches. Problems in alignment caused voids that had to be grouted to prevent water pooling and freeze-thaw problems. A heat transfer problem caused SCRIMPed panels to bow upwards and downwards by about 2.5 cm per day. The bridge was left over the winter to assess the effects of cold and was re-opened to traffic in mid-March. Some cracking was found in the polymer concrete overlay that was used, and this seemed to be occurring at the field joints approximately every 4.9 m. At present it is not certain if the problem is in the overlay or the FRP decks, although it appears that the overlay is expanding and is then heaving up at the joints so that passing traffic breaks off a piece of overlay. The solution may be to remove a 2.5-cm wide section of the overlay at the joints and replace it with something more flexible that can take expansion and contraction. Some of the preliminary truck-load tests indicate that the FRP decks are not giving the same composite action as those with steel girders, although the design had been carried out with this possibility in mind. The project will cost ODOT US$7 million, of which testing alone will cost US$1.3 million, with the Federal Highway Administration contributing US$400000-500 000. The significance of this project can be seen in that typical bridge projects for ODOT cost US$50 000-400 000.
Case study: US Army mobile bridge The USA has a considerable number of examples of road/bridge construction/ reinforcement using composites, and has invested large sums of money u n d e r the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) programme, and funding from the Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the military authorities in building prototype bridges. The military bridge provides a very different example, compared to a civilian bridge, of the requirements and design for building and reinforcement, and this is an interesting example of the differences in approach between the USA and Europe. The US Army has funded a prototype bridge, designed by the University of California San Diego (UCSD) Department of Structural Engineering, which is designed as a mobile assault bridge. UCSD has a long involvement with bridge and highway reinforcement in California u n d e r CALTRANS (California Department of Transportation) projects. The aim was a mobile bridge, carried on the back of a modified M IA1 tank used as a transporter, which would meet military requirements and allow troops to cross defensive trenches and ravines. An important aspect of the bridge is the strength to weight ratio for military
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applications. The bridge will be used for a series of fatigue tests on wear and tear w h e n used by a combination of 70-tonne tanks and 100-tonne transporter vehicles. An aim of the project is to demonstrate new ways of using composite materials in structural applications. The UCSD bridge is made from a variety of high-performance composite materials and a 15.3-m bridge weighs less than the 5500 kg of an aluminium bridge but can carry vehicles in excess of 105 tonnes compared with 70 tonnes for the aluminium structure. FRP bridges of similar design to the UCSD bridge, but which can be carried in a C-130 cargo plane to remote locations, are planned as a future project. The mobile bridge is made primarily of carbon fibre in an epoxy matrix with a balsa core and uses aluminium for the end-of-ramp toe plates. The light weight means that the Heavy Equipment Transporter can carry two composite bridges at once compared with only one metal bridge. The bridge has two 1.5-m wide treadways that are connected by a series of 0.6-m wide separator bars. Each treadway is composed of four parts: the superstructure, deck, u p p e r wear surface and two end ramps, and different materials were used in each part for best performance. The treadway sections are carbon fibre in epoxy, which gives stiffness and strength in a thin section, but the in--out ramp exits are made of aluminium to withstand impact damage from rocks and tank treads. The u p p e r wear surface has a polyurethane coating to it protect from the weather. Seeman Composites, Gulfport used 12 K tow carbon fibres for the fabrication of a dry woven fabric as the basis for the FRP composite portion, using their SCRIMP (Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Molding Process) resin transfer moulding process. The 12 K material is woven into five-harness satins and tri-axial stitched (0/+45/--45) fabrics. These materials are used in the decks (compression stiffness, local bending) and sidewalls (shear stiffness, buckling). The carbon fabrics, supplied by Johnston Industries Composite Textile Reinforcement Inc, Phenix City, were laid in a mould with the balsa cores supplied by Baltek Corp, Northvale and the mould was placed in a bag for SCRIMP fabrication. Vacuum ports draw the air from the bag, which allows the entry of the Shell epoxy resin injected under low pressure at several locations. The epoxy saturates the fabric wetting the fibres to give a good b o n d and is then cured at 170~ to form a strong lightweight component. Seeman are considering raising the temperature of the manufacturing process, which would allow the use of higher-performance resins. Akzo 50 K tow fibres were also used for local reinforcement. The bridges will undergo 5000 vehicle crossing tests in April-June 2000 at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland using 70-tonne tanks and 100-tonne military vehicles. There is also the possibility of further testing at TACOM, Warren, Michigan using actuators to simulate extreme conditions. Estimates of the n u m b e r of bridges required vary between 100 and 1000.
Case study: Yolo County Causeway, California, USA California's position in the Pacific Ring-of-Fire earthquake zone has lead to considerable work on strengthening of structures including support columns on
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Case studies bridges and overhead sections of roads. Much of this has been initiated by CALTRANS, the California state department responsible for transportation infrastructure. Myers Technologies, formerly CMI Inc (the company has now been closed) a subsidiary of bridge builder C.C.Myers Inc, California obtained a large contract from CALTRANS to install composite jackets on 3480 concrete colums supporting the Yolo County Causeway to the west of Sacramento. Myers has an exclusive US license from NCF Industries, Long Beach, California for its technology on SnapTite T M composite jackets for bridge-column strengthening. The jackets were prefabricated in sections conforming to the column curvature and adhesive-bonded in place in layers to build up the required jacket wall thickness; four layers were required. Seams are staggered from layer to layer. The jacketing was applied to the lap-splice region of each bridge column section, which is 75-cm long. The NCF technology used a special knitted unidirectional Eglass fabric produced by Johnston Industries Composite Reinforcements Inc, Phenix City, Alabama. The isophthalic polyester resin was supplied by McWhorter Technologies and contained an ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor to provide greater weathering. Some concerns had been raised about the suitability of the adhesive used for bonding the laminates and the possibility of degradation due to moisture.
Case study: Hythe Bridge, Oxford, UK Hythe Bridge Street is a two-lane road into the Oxford city centre with several major commercial premises and access to/from the city fire station. A cast-iron bridge built in 1874 takes the road across Castle Mill stream, a backwater of the River Thames. The bridge is a simple support structure on two spans, each 7.8-m long. The deck consists of eight internal inverted T-section cast-iron beams and two external channel sections. Cast-iron edge beams support a decorative parapet, with beams spaced a t 1.2 m centres with brick jack arches between the parapets. The width between parapets is 10.2 m. In addition to a considerable volume of traffic, the road bridge carries a full range of electricity, water, gas and telecommunication services. All bridges in Europe are required to carry 40-tonne vehicles from 1999, with a requirement for 44 tonnes to follow. Tests had determined that the bridge could take 40 tonnes live in shear but only 7.5 tonnes in bending stress. The limiting factor was tensile stress on the lower flanges of the cast-iron beams in the spans. The project would be paid for by Oxfordshire County Council (OCC) as the responsible authority for a local road and was costed at s 000-250 000. OCC had participated in the three year ROBUST programme (1995-1998), which was part of the LINK programme from the UK Department of Trade and Industry. This programme had investigated plate bonding of reinforced concrete beams and provided considerable base knowledge on the use of carbon fibre in such situations. The DTI programme had been concerned with concrete and Hythe Bridge took the work forward in working with cast iron and in stressing the plates. OCC asked Mouchel to undertake an investigation of the possibilities based on the above factors. The more conventional approach to the work would have been the use of steel plates but this would have had the disadvantage of drilling large numbers of holes in the cast iron to bolt on the steel plates, and it also would have required steel plates 135 mm thick. As a consequence the steel approach was not
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considered feasible. It would also have been possible to use unstressed carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) plates but these would have been required in a multiple layer 70 mm thick; this possibility was also discarded. The third alternative would have been to close the road and completely rebuild the bridge. The costs and timescales would have been similar but the closure of the road would have c o m p o u n d e d the considerable traffic problems that Oxford already faces by the nature of its historic structure, disrupted the fire service access and interrupted the services carried on the bridge. In addition, it would also have caused the destruction of an attractive Victorian bridge. The knock-on costs of road closure are difficult to assess but are thought to be of the order of s 000 or more. The decision was made to use pre-stressed carbon fibre p l a t e s - the first time this had been done. The use of carbon fibre plates meant that, although there would be delays in traffic flow, the road could remain partially open and public services would not be disrupted. As the road is not a national highway OCC is both the commissioning authority and the specifier. National highways have rigid standards resulting either from the construction industry o r British Standards. As no standards exist in the UK for carbon fibre use it was necessary to work to other loading standards. Carbon fibre is very strong and, in general, specifications were based on only 25% of the strength of carbon fibre, leaving very acceptable margin for error. For standard modulus reinforcement to be effective the strengthening plates must be pre-stressed prior to application. Mouchel have developed the only working system for this method and Hythe Bridge has been the only application. A further factor for consideration was that although both carbon fibre and steel would have a similar life (projected at 120 years) steel has to be cleaned and repainted every 15 years whereas carbon fibre requires no further maintenance other than regular inspection. Other considerations related to the weight of steel plates over the weight of carbon fibre plates. If a steel plate is dislodged its weight makes it certain that it will fall with possible serious consequences; a carbon fibre plate will probably just hang by some remaining adhesive and its light weight would not cause further damage. More importantly, the extra weight of steel plates would mean that heavy lifting gear would be required for placement working in constricted and awkward locations. This would have required the observance of Health and Safety regulations, which was an added complexity and, potentially, an added cost. Carbon fibre being light can, of course, be placed by hand. Mouchel Consulting Ltd were the designers of the project and the principle contractor was Balvac Whitley Moran Ltd, which is a subsidiary of Balfour Beatty the civil engineers and the division responsible for specialized projects. The pultruded unidirectional carbon fibre plates were manufactured by Fibreforce Composites, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex, UK. The plates were 4 • 76 • 4.2 mm (gross) with peel strips that were on the surface and when removed give a net depth of 3.9 mm each, stressed to 18 tonnes. The pultruded plates were made from Toray T700 fibre 24 K in an epoxy resin which had a high carbon fibre content of >65%. In May 1998 a test on the process was undertaken on 4-m cast-iron beams that were removed from the nearby Botley Bridge and this indicated that each carbon fibre plate would actually take a 25 tonne stress. The system uses a Mouchel patented stressing system with anchorages to locate and anchor the CFRP plates at the end of each beam using a stressing jack to enable each CFRP plate to be stressed in turn.
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The work began at the beginning of November 1998 and was completed MarchApril 1999, with a break over the Christmas period. A major part of the project time was in preparation w o r k - about two m o n t h s - and this also constituted some 30-40% of the cost. By its nature construction work is dirty but this is not a particular problem w h e n bolting steel plates to a structure. However, in b o n d i n g carbon fibre plates to the structure a clean surface is required with no grease, rust, dust, humidity or temperature variations. It was necessary to build a small 'clean r o o m ' with polythene sheeting to provide a controlled area. Initially, the u n d e r side of the bridge was grit blasted to remove contamination and some grinding was necessary as the beams were not flat. The grinding proved expensive and OCC made the decision that a less-than-perfect surface was acceptable. On inspection, the cast iron was found to have cracks and it was necessary to 'stitch' these together. Perforated channels were fixed to each side of the beam flanges with titanium putty to allow for differences in flange thickness at the anchorage and allow the anchorage plates to be pre-fabricated. The anchorages on each beam had to be very accurate and were initially laid out by hand before using a beam jig for placement. The carbon fibre plates took about 10 days to attach to each side of the bridge structure, although experience gained on the first side meant that the second side was quicker. One of the advantages of using a specialist c o m p a n y was the availability of building workers who were willing to learn but this probably adds somewhat to the costs. The body of knowledge that is built up in such situations is a critical part of the introduction of new materials and techniques. 3M epoxy resin adhesive 9323, which had been used in the ROBUST programme, was used to b o n d the end tabs to the CFRP and the steel c o m p o n e n t s together. Exchem RESIFIX 31 was used as the primary adhesive to b o n d the carbon fibre plates to the beams; the adhesive also prevented moisture entry as a secondary function. The adhesive was applied using a 1 m m washer to get the correct thickness. During installation the anchorages were lifted in on trolley jacks and the spacer and top clamping plates moved into place. Friction grip bolts were inserted and tightened after testing w h e n the beam jig can be removed. The CFRP plates were pre-stressed with 300-mm end tabs b o n d e d to their ends. Plates and locking key at the fixed end were tightened gradually from 2.5 tonnes per plate to the full 18 tonnes per plate. Some CFRP plates were fitted with strain gauges for future monitoring. Some 500 m of carbon fibre strip were used in the project. Fibreforce note that in certain circumstances, such as applications needing a highm o d u l u s material, an alternative would be a pitch-based fibre such as those manufactured by Mitsubishi (distributed by Sumitomo in the UK). However, Fibreforce use Toray T700 for their standard pultruded plate. Similarly, although this project used epoxy resin as the matrix they n o w use vinyl ester as it is more corrosion resistant. Considerable efforts were required to establish that the product met the specification for the project, which was the first the c o m p a n y had undertaken in this area. OCC considers that the project was successful and a valuable part of learning to apply new materials. Other projects had included carbon fibre cladding on two bridges in Banbury, Oxfordshire, which have been in place for over 10 years and glass fibre cladding on steel for the Winterbrook Bridge in Wallingford, Oxfordshire. The county is n o w participating in the BRITE Euram ASSET project. Further projects may involve pultruded carbon fibre sections. Participants in the ROBUST p r o g r a m m e were Mouchel (lead partner), Oxfordshire County Council, Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham,
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Oxford Brookes University, Surreny University, Sika Ltd, Vetrotex Ltd, Techbuild Composites Ltd (now Fibreforce Ltd), Balvac Whitley Moran Ltd and Concrete Repairs Ltd. James Quinn Associates Ltd provided specialist composites advice. Mouchel and Balvac have undertaken a similar strengthening exercise for Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council on the Slattocks Canal Bridge on the A664 road between Middleton and Rochdale so that it can meet the 40-tonne vehicle limit. The strengthening method used was devised by Mouchel and required the bonding of 8-mm thick lengths of 100-mm wide CFRP to the bottom flanges of the 12 innermost rolled-steel joists (RSJs) beneath the carriageway. As 8 m m is not a standard thickness for CFRP, plates of 4 mm manufactured by Exchem were factory-bonded together using 3M adhesive to form 8-mm laminates. Exchem Resifix 31 adhesive was used for structural bonding on site. During the entire period the work was being carried out, traffic was allowed to travel across the bridge without restrictions. According to Rochdale Council's principal bridge engineer, Peter Clapham, the use of composites saved the council about s 000: "It would cost as much to set up special traffic lights to control vehicle flow for traditional bridge repairs, as it has for the total strengthening work using CFRP plates" he said.
6.3 Power supply systems Case study: Power poles, Nevada, USA The use of pultrusion products for power line poles usually involves glass fibre reinforced composites as carbon fibre is electrically conducting. A range of glass fibre reinforced composite poles had been developed and introduced by Shakespeare Composites and Electronics Division. The new poles are the result of a three year research programme undertaken by Shakespeare engineers, together with a major retooling of the manufacturing process. The new poles are claimed to be stronger, lighter and more durable than their predecessors. According to of Shakespeare, the new poles, trade named Tuff-Poles, are the result of developments in glass fibre and resin systems. New resin mixes and new glass fibre configurations have been developed. The manufacturing process includes new automated process controls, finite computer modelling and tighter manufacturing tolerances, with refinements in the winding process to give a more attractive pole. The new Tuff-Pole formula contains UV inhibitors and coatings that provide increased protection in arduous weather conditions. They are available in a variety of styles, including round tapered, straight square, decorative, sports lighting and utility poles to 75 ft. The range of colours has been increased, with pigments formulated into the resins for colour retention and reduced maintenance.
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The company has designed new manufacturing equipment for a west coast USA manufacturing plant, which opened in January 1999 in Carson City, Nevada.
Case study: Poles, SACAC, Schleuderbetonwerk AG, Lenzburg, Switzerland Swiss researchers have begun evaluating carbon fibres as a reinforcement for concrete with a particular interest in long-term maintenance, which is expensive in Switzerland. The trials are taking place at SACAC Schleuderbetonwerk AG, Lenzburg which is working in conjunction with EMPA of Dtibendorf. The two organizations say that carbon fibres have outstanding resistance to corrosion, as well as offering weight savings when compared with conventional reinforcements such as steel bars. SACAC Schleuderbetonwerk considered alternatives such as filament-wound grids of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP), loosely braided sleeves of carbon fibre and CFRP tapes based on a thermoplastic matrix in a spiral configuration. However, the company chose to use pultruded rods, which are 2-3 m m in diameter; the surfaces of these rods are treated to increase the bond between them and the concrete. One concrete construction that has been made using such reinforcements is a slender pipe. This is made by pre-tensioning thin rods of the CFRP against a spinning mould and compacting the concrete using centrifugal casting. Another example is a pole that is 16.5 m high and is reinforced with 32 strands of pretensioned CFRP. Each of the strands is 4 mm in diameter and they are distributed evenly around the circumference of the pole, which is formed from strong B 110 spun-concrete. Unfortunately, the poor thermal compatibility of the CFRP rods with the concrete matrix is a problem and this will have to be accounted for in the design of a durable pole; one of the many tests being conducted involves subjecting specimens to 50 extreme cycles of freezing, thawing and heating. In another test, four types of pole designed to support low-voltage power lines were compared. Each pole tested was 16.5 m high, with 1.5 m below ground level. The weights of the four types were: 9 9 9 9
conventional reinforced c o n c r e t e - 1711 kg (100%); steel pole (from Mannesmann) - 750-1150 kg (45-65%); concrete pole reinforced with pre-stressed CFRP - 966 kg (55%); tapered w o o d e n p o l e - 520 kg (30%).
Case study: GFRP pipes for seawater cooling systems in power stations, Israel Many electrical power plants are located along coastlines and use seawater for cooling. Large-diameter GFRP pipes have been manufactured for nearly three decades for this application. Such pipes have the advantage of being corrosion resistant when used with seawater, are light weight, have a high strength per unit weight and low long-term maintenance The more conventional steel pipes have the advantage of high material stiffness and do not require the strict soil compaction required for GFRP pipes which have low stiffness. Steel pipes are also
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cheaper than GFRP pipes with a much simpler material characterization and good material reproducibility due to the existence of well-established standards. However, a further advantage for composite pipes is the smooth internal surface of the pipe over time; the internal pipe surface of steel pipes roughens and degrades in use. The Israel Electrical Coop, Haifa decided that the balance of advantages was in favour of the installation of two GFRP pipelines at the first Hadera Power Plant in 1979-1980, and this was the first large-scale project for such piping in Israel. The pipes were 1800 m m in diameter and built to meet standards ASTM D 3517 and ASTM D 3754 (both 1994), which resulted in the establishment of a materials database. The project was considered a success and in 1990 a decision was made to install a larger, 2400 m m GFRP pipeline. The original pipe was manufactured by filament winding, and the wall composition consisted of h o o p and helical w o u n d continuous filaments together with a small a m o u n t of unidirectional fabric (axial) to cater for mechanical loading and spray-up of c h o p p e d strand mat for interlaminar strength. The new pipeline had a different composition and manufacture with only h o o p winding and r a n d o m c h o p p e d roving, without the helical winding and unidirectional fabric. In both sets of pipes the resin was polyester. Despite the changes in manufacture the pipes have successfully operated for nearly a decade.
Case study: Offshore wind farm, Denmark In 1991 the Danish Minister of Energy asked the Elsam Utility Group to implement Denmark's second offshore wind farm (the first was at Vindeby) using it as a development and demonstration project. One of the main purposes of the farm was to investigate the environmental aspects of such operations, primarily their effects on bird life and their visual effect o n the seascape. The area finally chosen had a large population of eiders and other sea birds but was not protected u n d e r Ramsar or EU conventions. As the wind farm is in the utility area of the Midtl~aft Power Co the project was turned over to them in April 1994 after the pilot project was completed. Midtkraft also o w n the Hollandsbjerg wind farm that has 32 wind turbines, giving a total capacity of 4.5 MW, and the Glatved wind turbine with a capacity of 0.4 MW. The UK has seen considerable controversy on the visual effects of wind turbines on the landscape and this has been one reason for the low take-up in a geographical area with an excellent wind regime. Even in Denmark, which has a good record on environmental considerations, two years of searching for a suitable site led to refusals by 30 locations for a variety of reasons some of which were political. Finally, in 1993 TunO Knob, about 6 km from the east coast of Jutland, was chosen. The site was in shallow water about 500 m north of the Tuno Knob reef in depths that varied between 3.1 and 4.7 m. The area had been used by the Danish Navy as a shooting range and it was necessary to clear the area of u n e x p l o d e d ammunition before work could start. The wind farm consists of 10 pitch-regulated Vestas V39 500-kW wind turbines specially designed for offshore installation. They had built-in cranes, which meant that all internal c o m p o n e n t s could be renewed without the need for floating cranes. The sea location made improved corrosion protection necessary and the access d o o r had to be placed at a higher level to prevent icing up. The transformer
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was 0.7/10 kV with 10 kV switch gear and was built in. To reduce the visual impact of the turbines they were painted a special navy-grey colour. The wind turbines are arranged in two rows facing n o r t h - s o u t h , with the eastern r o w displaced some 70 m southwards. The distance between the turbines is 200 m and the spacing is 400 m b e t w e e n rows. The foundations are reinforced concrete box caissons - the same type as used for the Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm. They were designed to achieve optimal shape, allowing for wave and ice forces, current and wind conditions and any influences resulting from the turbines themselves. Each caisson weighs about 1000 tonnes and are held in position only by friction force. The bottom plates are 14 m in diameter and 60 cm thick, whilst the cylindrical part has an outer diameter of 10 m. The height varies with the depth of water but the height of the conical part is 4.3 m and the surface of the top plate has a diameter of 5 m. The u p p e r surface of the foundation is 2.5 m above mean surface level. The caissons were constructed at Aarhus H a r b o u r and sailed to their final positions on barges with final positioning by a floating crane. They were placed on cushions of broken stones and filled with sand. As a final protection, a belt of stones was placed a r o u n d each foundation. The turbines are pitch regulated and the rotor diameter is 39 m, giving an area of 1195 m2; the r o t o r speed is 33 rpm. The height of the hub is 43 m above sea level and the tower weighs 28.5 tonnes, with a diameter of 2 m at the top and 3.6 m at the bottom. The wind farm is connected to the transmission network in Jutland at the 60/10 kV substation at Saksild through a 6-km submarine cable and a 2.6-km land cable. The submarine cables are buried in the sea floor to prevent damage from anchors. Remote monitoring takes place from Midtkraft's control centre at Aarhus via radio communication. The project came in at about 10% u n d e r budget and a bird study by the Danish Environmental Research Institute, Department of Wildlife Ecology, costing DKr5.5 million, was positive in finding that there had been no adverse effects. A visualization project was carried out by the architectural firm Moeller & Groenborg at a cost of DKrO.5. Prior to the installation there had been vigorous discussion about the visual impact as there were a n u m b e r of w e e k e n d h o m e s situated on the shore line. Once the farm was established informal discussions with the local inhabitants found the wind farm to be far less visually intrusive than expected and there have been no complaints. Midtkraft, Goteborg gives estimated costs for the project as: 9 9 9 Q Q Q 9 9
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planning and other c o s t s - DKr5.5 million; wind turbines - DKr31.5 million; f o u n d a t i o n s - DKr18.3 million; control system - DKrl.3 million; electrical g r i d - DKr19.4 million; contribution to bird s t u d y - DKr3.0 million; visualization p r o j e c t - DKr0.5 million; T o t a l - DKr79.0 million.
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The annual estimated production is 9 9 9 9 9
gross p r o d u c t i o n (Mwh/year) - 15.199 MWh per annum; uncertainty f a c t o r - 0.90; net loss factor - 0.95; availability factor - 0.95; net p r o d u c t i o n for sale - 12.345 MWh per annum.
As a result of the favourable outcome of the project a further 750 MW of offshore wind turbines will be installed. Two to be contracted in the next year for installation in 2002 - one in the North Sea and one in the Baltic Sea - will each p r o d u c e 150 MW.
Case study: Wind-powered turbine blade manufacturing process, USA Researchers at Sandia National Laboratories have investigated ways of making wind-powered turbines more efficient by identifying the design requirements and manufacturing techniques needed to make improved composite turbine blades. Composite blade design and construction will be conducted u n d e r the Blade Manufacturing Initiative (BMI), which will spend the next several years determining h o w to build a better blade. To test the designs, three small wind t u r b i n e s - each 16 m in diameter on 22-m tall towers - were installed at the Department of Agriculture's research station in Bushland, Texas. The turbines were originally used to generate electricity for a commercial wind farm in Palm Springs, California, and are smaller than the newer utility-grade wind turbines but more suitable for conducting experiments. The turbines were used to measure loads caused by unusual events in the inflow (turbulence). Typically data have been taken in short segments that covered only a few hours of operation and this experiment was intended to provide long-term data. Wind turbine blades are usually fabricated by hand using multiple layers of glass fibre cloth. The traditional m e t h o d is for the sheets to be cut to shape, laid d o w n in a m o u l d by hand, sprayed or rolled with resins and finally cured. This method has been used to fabricate many types of composite structures, but it tends to create small imperfections that cause premature failures of wind turbine blades. The Sandia research team is studying alternative composite manufacturing methods that use automated processes and advanced moulding techniques to build better blades that are also cheaper to make. Vestas, Denmark use the somewhat more expensive automated m e t h o d to avoid discrepancies in hand layup manufacture. The team will look at the problems in building very large blades, beginning with a sub-scale design featuring an 8 m blade that incorporates advanced composites and architectures. Using the new design, a contractor will build new blades that will be tested at Bushland. Results of this testing will be used to design and build large turbine blades. Depending on US Department of Energy funding, such blade testing will occur in the next 1-3 years. Sandia has been field-testing turbines at the Bushland site since the late 1970s in p r o g r a m m e s which focused on egg beater-shaped vertical axis turbines, culminated with development and testing of a 34-m diameter turbine, expanding vertical axis technology to large machines. However, the vertical axis projects
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were concluded after the technology lost favour with the US wind-power generation industry. Sandia has now shifted its research to horizontal-axis turbines - turbines with propeller-type blades.
Case study: Long Branch, New Jersey, USA A storm-water drainage system - part of a beach replenishment project for the US Army Corps of Engineers at Long Branch, New J e r s e y - has been designed and built by Hardcore Composites in partnership with Brunswick Technologies. The system uses a hybrid reinforcement that combines carbon fibres with lower-cost Eglass fibres. The high-strength, lightweight offshore system is comprised of 75 composite cradles and 168 composite pilings (64 glass and 104 carbon-glass hybrids). The system supports over 152 m of storm-water pipes with diameters ranging from 1.7 to 2.4 m and weighing nearly 22 tonnes. An advantage of composites over an alternative w o o d e n system was that it removed the need for treating timber with toxic preservatives that leach into the water. The use of steel rebar reinforced concrete would have resulted in higher maintenance costs as seawater corroded the steel. The Army Corps of Engineers chose Hardcore's design in 1997; the cradles are fabricated using the SCRIMPTM system. Brunswick's heavyweight reinforcements reduced the n u m b e r of layers needed to achieve the required performance so that the process was less labour intensive and used less resin. Dow Chemical supplied the resin and Johns Manville International Inc supplied the polyfoam core. The Eglass fibre single-end roving for the BTI fabric came from Vetrotex America and the large-tow carbon fibres from Zoltek and Fortafil Fibers. This was the first example from Brunswick of heavyweight hybrid sets using carbon-E-glass hybrids. The project was completed in the latter half of 1999 and is designed to withstand 200-year storm forces and the aggressive ocean environment. For rapid installation, piles were driven using a special jig for placement of the cradles. The cradles and pries were filled with concrete to hold them together structurally.
Case study: Troutville Scales, Virginia, USA A project being installed by the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT), with support from the US Navy, results from the Navy's requirement to provide moveable causeways that are strong enough to support the movement of heavy military equipment from ship to shore in countries which lack port facilities. Although this example is a road deck the intention is a marine application. The project is a collaboration between VDOT, Atlantic Research Corp (ARC), GainesviUe, Virginia and the US Office of Naval Research, and features a section of road 6.15 • 6.15 m at the Botetourt weighbridge northbound on Interstate highway 1-81. The EZ SPANT M glass fibre reinforced polymer deck was to replace a section of conventional concrete on the entrance ramp to the northbound scales.
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The test will run for 1 year from November 1999 as an average of 13 000 tractortrailers moving at some 40 miles/h pass through the scales each day. The bridge will be exposed to all types of weather including winter conditions. The bridge decking will be monitored through fibre optic sensors e m b e d d e d in the material by F&S Inc, Blacksburg, Virgina. Tests of the bridge have rated the material to withstand 0.5 kg/2.5 cm 2. The decks weigh less than 100 kg/m 2 and are a quarter the weight of an equivalent steel deck. The deck was designed to AASHTO HS2544 (Interstate trucking) and Military Class 70 (Trilateral design and test code for military bridging). The deck was designed by ARC and the Georgia Institute of Technology, who established the triangular truss configuration as the optimum solutions for minimum deflections. The pultruded components were made by Creative Pultrusions, Alum Bank, Pennsylvania, who successfully developed a process for pulling, without distortion, preforms with some 80% of the fibres oriented offaxis. The deck was constructed from top and bottom plates b o n d e d to the triangulated multi-cell trusses. The reinforcement scheme oriented the plate fibres parallel to the truss long axis, that is parallel to the traffic direction, and the majority of the truss fibres perpendicular to the truss axis. The lamination structure was: 9 9 Q
top p l a t e - 14 layers stacked (90/90/90+45/-45/0/0)s; triangular c o m p o n e n t - 10 layers stacked (0/0/-45/+45/90)s; bottom p l a t e - 10 layers stacked (90/90/+45--45/0)s.
The top and bottom plates were constructed by wet lay-up at Structural Composites Inc, Melbourne, Florida. The plates were fabricated with 42% fibre volume using multiply knitted fabric supplied by Johnston Industries with Inter Plastic CORVE-8110 vinyl ester. PPG Hybon 2002 E-glass was knitted into four-ply textiles with fibre orientation and distribution approximating the lamination. Thickness build-up meant that the fabric was stacked in a series of 0/-45/90/45 layers instead of a symmetrical pattern. The advantage of this process is that the rolls of fabric can be run through an impregnator and laid up in multiple passes using standard marine practice. The triangle truss elements and plates were b o n d e d using Plexus MA555 adhesive and activator. It is emphasized that there was a steep learning curve for the participants in all aspects of the deck. The design was originally conceived by Georgia Institute of Technology in 1990 but they could not find a way to build it. In 1994 the Institute and ARC joined together on a Federal Highway Administration programme and began looking for an appropriate project. In the intervening five years the Institute tested materials and components which lead to the selected approach. The deck concept was tested at the Institute in 1997 and the prototype was tested to 20 800 psi for 3 million cycles to meet AASHTO HS-20 requirements. It was decided to use pultrusion to give greater dimensional stability, but the size of the pultrusions made this a high-risk project. It was noted that the first attempts by Creative Pultrusions were not attractive but developments continued. FMW Rubber Products was eventually able to cover and press 200 ft 2 of panel within the 20 minute working life of the adhesive. Shirley Contracting did the actual construction work. The two panels that will fill the removed section are made using a special braiding process to form 3-D glass fibre fabric. The fabric is then filled with resin and cured into triangular beams. The triangles are then b o n d e d into trusses, which are sandwiched between glass fibre plates.
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Case studies After nearly a full winter in service the bridge deck was reported to be performing well. Since November 1999 over 3 million trucks have passed over the deck with no signs of change in structural performance. Although this project was based at a highway weighbridge the intermediate aim of the project is to develop a mobile causeway. As specified by DARPA the Landing Ship Quay/Causeway (LSQ/C) consists of a large ocean-going ship, prefabricated materials and cranes capable of installing a causeway for ship to shore cargo movement. The vessel will be grounded in deep water to form a pier head for ship mooring and the on-board causeway sections are deployed inshore past the surf zone. The FRP deck is made from discrete modules 3 m long in the traffic direction and spanning the causeway width will provide a road surface for two lanes of military traffic including tanks. The long-term aim of the project is to develop FRP road decking. In other work the US Navy is also conducting a programme to demonstrate advanced technologies for strengthening existing Navy pier decks and piling using fibre reinforced plastic systems. The projects upgrade existing piers to meet demands that the original design did not include, such as higher loading. One project is valued at between US$500000 and US$600000 for upgrading the Marginal Wharf at the Trident Refit Facility at the submarine base in Bangor, Washington. There is a requirement for constructing a mobile crane access path over the approach and the main deck of the ramp, whilst also repairing two vertical piles on a loading platform. The specification states that the crane access path will be made using carbon composite reinforcement to the existing steel rebar reinforced concrete structure. The US government is to specify the upgrade design that will also include concrete repairs.
6.5 Offshore applications For the oil and gas industries composite applications can be divided into three areas: onshore, offshore and downhole. Onshore applications are mostly pipelines with some tanks and similar vessels, and are dealt with in the section on pipes and tanks. Offshore applications are diverse and include firewater mains systems, water injection systems, access structures and components of flexible risers. Downhole applications include tubings and lined tubings. In all cases an imperative in the applications is reduced life-cycle costs partly resulting from the corrosion resistance of composites. With offshore systems there are also advantages in ease of handling and reduced structural weight. In terms of volume and weight, onshore applications greatly outweigh both offshore and downhole applications for the oil industry. As an example, Shell has more than 2000 km of onshore composite piping installed. Composites can be considered cost effective for offshore applications for the following reasons: 9 Q Q 9 Q
ease of use due to light weight and low volumes; low impact on platform applications; low impact on existing structure; limited requirement for offshore preparation; and low levels of maintenance.
The offshore oil and gas production industry has a continuing interest in fibre reinforced composite materials. Their properties of low density, corrosion
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resistance and toughness are attractive in the hostile marine environment. Composites have, to date, found their greatest use in secondary structures such as gratings, ladders, walkways and handrails, and in such equipment as accommodation modules, equipment housings, tanks, pipes, firewalls and blast walls. In one example in the North Sea, a notably hostile environment, the Amoco Davy platform contains some 16000 kg of composite materials. The materials have provided acceptable performance and have the additional benefit of being easier on the knees than steel decking w h e n undertaking maintenance work. A further advantage is that carbon steel pipework suffers from internal and external corrosion in aggressive environments. Repairing sections of damaged pipework can be expensive both in the primary sense and in the requirement that production be shut down to affect the repair. In addition, with carbon steel, welding may not be permissable if the pipework is in a hazardous area. Composite repairs do not require hot work and can be instaUed without affecting production. The acceptable behaviour of secondary systems provides an incentive to extend the cost-effective use of composites into primary structures. The benefits of weight reduction and lower maintenance are significant with the move to u n m a n n e d systems and deeper waters. Recent developments in composite technology have lead to two new generic pipe products that are suitable for both onshore and offshore applications. Both have the potential for continuous production. One is a thermoplastic-lined GRE pipe, which is sometimes known as reelable GRE, and the other is fibre reinforced thermoplastic pipe.
Case study: Risers, Gulf of Mexico, USA There is considerable interest in the use of composite risers for oil wells, which are increasingly needed for deeper wells. The n u m b e r of deep-water oil discoveries has increased 25% per a n n u m since 1995, reaching 188 at the beginning of 1999; six of the discoveries are at depths below 6000 ft. Halliburton Energy Services (previously Wellstream-Halliburton Subsea Systems) and Fiberspar Spoolable Products have developed the Anaconda piping system for Statoil of Norway. The system uses carbon fibre reinforced epoxy umbilical piping, manufactured as a continuous coil with a liner of polyvinyl difluoride (PVDF) and has e m b e d d e d conductors that relay two-way data between a control centre and the sub-surface assembly. The system is claimed to be safer to operate and provides the ability to tap otherwise inaccessible reserves. The coil holds about 700 m of composite pipe that can endure a greater number of stress cycles than steel-coiled tube of equivalent diameter. The first commercial deployment will be in the Gulf of Mexico. An earlier development had been an armoured riser for 1500 m water depth in the Petrobras Roncador field with a 70~ temperature environment. In that case the pipe comes in two types of sections: one for top use with high tension and some collapse resistance, and the other for lower depths with high collapse resistance for the deep-water levels. The flexible pipe had an internal carcass alternating layers of thermoplastic polypropylene sheath and carbon steel to handle internal fluids with an epoxy and glass fibre tensile armour strip that replaced steel armour. The use of composites gave weight savings of 30-50% and cost savings of 25%. For that application Halliburton has assessed an all-
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Case studies composite system for the lower sections but decided that it was too light for this type of riser system. In other work in this area, Lincoln Composites, part of Advanced Technical Products (ATP), have also undertaken work on composite risers in a five year project with BP-Amoco, Shell, Conoco and Brown & Root costing US$7.2 million. An ATP research programme funded 50% of the project with the remaining sum coming from the other participants. The Lincoln design riser has a weight of 27 lb/ft vs 40 lb/ft for steel. The metal fittings on the composite riser weigh 6.4 lbs and the composites weigh 20.6 lbs. By lowering riser weight, the tension on tensioners is reduced, or even eliminated. As the tensioners for a steel riser cost some US$500 000 per well, considerable cost savings are possible. A research project by Dus Tube AB, Sweden, which is owned by Maiacs Ltd, has investigated a composite tube for deep-water, high-pressure, high-temperature riser systems that should operate down to 4000 m. The experimental project used E-glass fibre from Alstrom and vinyl ester resin from the former Jotun Polymer u n i t of Reichhold.
Case study: DSM Composite Resins, Zwolle, The Netherlands Bekaert, Belgium is noted for its steel rope products but also has a large composites division which has undertaken an interesting project in collaboration with Hamon Thermal, Brussels, DSM-BASF (now DSM Composite Resins), Zwolle, Netherlands and BP-Amoco to replace a cooling tower at BP-Amoco's site in Geel, Belgium. All members of the group insisted that the project showed the clear importance of cooperation between the commission company, materials suppliers, manufacturers and constructer. In this case BP-Amoco supplied purified isophthalic acid to DSM-BASF, the resin manufacturer, which supplied Bekaert with Synolite isophthalic acid-based resin. Bekaert made and supplied the Utilo TM structural profiles used in the construction of the cooling tower by Hamon Thermal. The profiles were prefabricated by Vink, Belgium. Bekaert uses glass fibre from all the major suppliers - PPG, Vetrotex and Owens Coming. An alternative was to repair the current tower, but this would have proved more costly than building a new one and would have required a much longer downtime which was unacceptable to the production units. Cooling towers are traditionally made from wood, which is costly, subject to rot and requires considerable maintenance. The cost of the two-cell cooling tower in FRP would be some 10% higher than in wood but the operational costs would be considerably lower over time. The FRP tower would be 20-30% cheaper than a concrete tower. Cost advantages include lower shipping and instaUation costs because of the lower weight of FRP over both concrete and wood. FRP also has better corrosion resistance to the tower's chemically treated water. The lower weight had an added advantage in that, weighing substantially less than a concrete tower, it took only two days to erect. Pre-drilled holes for c o n n e c t i o n - 30% less than on alternative material s t r u c t u r e s - also aided construction. Additional advantages included the absence of micro-organisms over time which can make a
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w o o d e n tower slippery (FRP towers have a non-skid deck as a safety feature for maintenance crews) and noise reduction, which was further aided by lowering fan speeds. The FRP piping o n the DSM-BASF site had already been proved to have better internal noise d a m p e n i n g qualities over steel. With w o o d e n towers it is also necessary to provide a drying out system to prevent w o o d breakage during a lengthy s h u t d o w n and this is not needed with FRP. The cooling tower operates on the base currently used by the w o o d e n tower with a nearly identical base of 12 m wide and 12 m long per cell. Because of the new design, the height of the new tower is approximately 2 m lower. The FRP cooling tower provides the same water load as w o o d and concrete: 12-15 m3/h water flow/m 2. At Geel the water flow is 3300 m3/h. The new tower is designed to operate with an inlet water temperature of 47~ cooled to 27~ with a wet bulb temperature of 22~ The new isopolyester composite construction replaced a 30 year old w o o d e n cooling tower that supplied water to three processes including a unit that produces purified isophthalic acid (PIA), which is an essential ingredient of fibre reinforced plastic. Ninety-nine per cent of the structure of the new tower is FRP with the cladding fabricated using continuous lamination. Bekaert normally uses orthophthalic resin in general applications but chose isopolyester for this application as corrosion resistance was important. An interesting point made is that lower prices for raw materials and energy in the USA result in only insignificant price differences between orthophthalic and isophthalic resins, and pultruded profiles are cheaper in North America than in Europe. H a m o n note that price difference between w o o d and FRP is not a major factor in the USA but stricter fire regulations are in place for FRP. Safety standard requirements are set by the US Cooling Tower Institute in the USA and a new standard is being enacted in Europe based on recommendations by G r o u p e m e n t Europ~en des Plastiques Renforc~s (GPRMC); Bekaert tested the profiles for the Geel tower in line with this p r o p o s e d European standard and they also met the requirements of the US Cooling Tower Institute. H a m o n note that FRP constitutes some 10% of its cooling tower business in Belgium, whereas in the USA FRP comprised some 75% of cooling tower sales. All members of the consortium agreed that conservatism in the end-user industries is one of the major barriers to greater use of FRP for corrosionresistant applications.
Case study: Cooling tower, Illinois Power, USA The Havana 6 p o w e r station is a relatively large unit with a nominal rating of 450 MW, but has always been operated at a low capacity f a c t o r - 30-35%. Overnight a n d w e e k e n d shutdowns were so c o m m o n that the unit is internationally recognized as having more starts than any other and over a 21-year period managed 2500 starts. The boiler is a Babcock & Wilcox unit with five pulverizers and burns low-sulphur coal. Steam is exhausted to the condenser and is cooled by a 10-cell mechanical draught cooling tower. The cooling tower is a Marley 6000 series with a cross-flow design. The fill is a polypropylene ladder type on 10-inch centres. The drift eliminators are a herring-bone design made from treated Douglas fir. Each of the 10 eight-bladed fans is rated for an airflow of 726 m3/s. The guaranteed performance is to cool 11450 Us o f w a t e r from 51.3 to 32.6~ at a wet bulb temperature of 26~
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Regulatory challenges in the USA on the efficiency and cost of power production meant that Illinois Power (IP) wished to improve its competitive position by having the unit operate at a higher capacity, which would reduce the operating cost.
Reducing operation and maintenance costs can make significant savings. IP considered that a better way of reducing production costs is through reductions in fuel use - generally the single highest component of the production cost for a fossil-fuel fired unit. However, reductions in the use of fuel frequently require capital expenditure to produce a change in the design and/or operation of the unit. As deregulation becomes established in the US market the traditional value of the kW/h becomes more complex as its worth in the deregulated market may be less than in a regulated market. In addition, the capital cost of modifications to shareholders varies between a regulated and a deregulated environment. IP undertook a market-based economic evaluation geared towards increasing revenues rather than the traditional approach that emphasizes fuel savings. A heat-reduction study of the station had previously been conducted to identify possible improvements including a review of the boiler operation, combustion air/flue gas equipment and major auxiliary power users. This study identified various opportunities to improve cycle efficiency, lower fuel use and increase the generator output. For Havana 6 it was considered that one of the best opportunities for reducing the production cost w a s to improve the cooling tower performance by replacing the inefficient cooling tower fill. This route was identified as beneficial in both the traditional and the market-based evaluations. However, there was more than just an economic requirement as, in addition to fill performance problems, structural problems had been identified but resolving these would not improve the performance of the cooling tower. The 10-cell Havana cooling tower was built in 1978 and two major problems were identified. The fan deck was beginning to show signs of severe structural deterioration and the plastic ladder-type fill was degrading and dislodging from the w o o d e n holder slots. Potentially the dislodge fill would eventually become entrained in the circulating water and either clog the pulp basin screen or be p u m p e d into the condenser water boxes. An inspection indicated that the fan deck, the hot water basin and the support beams under these decks needed immediate replacement. The ladder fill was brittle and collapsing under winter ice build-up but could survive, although with a small risk that a large section of fill could collapse without warning. Even if the fill did not collapse the unit would operate at lower efficiencies and IP would lose the benefit of higher tower efficiencies at a critical time in the introduction of an unregulated market. Rebuilding the cooling tower was identified as one possible, but not economically viable, solution. IP decided the refurbishment would include replacing the fill and drift eliminators and repairing the partition walls (allowing the maximum amount of air to be drawn through the fill) to achieve performance improvements. Structural improvements included replacing the hot water and fan decks, rebolting the stainless steel bolts (iron rot was being experienced from the existing galvanized steel bolts) and selectively replacing damaged wood members. Psychrometric Systems, Golden, Colorado undertook the work and by placing an additional fan over the same tower area were able to increase the airflow through the fill which increased the tower's performance. The 10-cell arrangement was upgraded by shortening the width of eight of the 10 cells to create a new cell
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within the existing footprint. Partition and firewalls could be relocated as required to conform to the n e w arrangement. A new mechanical set (fan cylinder, fan, fan m o t o r and gear reducer) were added to complete the n e w cell. The major renovations to the cooling tower included the fan deck, hot water deck, distribution nozzles, louvres, isolation/flow control valves and distribution boxes, drift eliminators and non-asbestos end casing and fans. Much of the w o r k was u n d e r t a k e n using p u l t r u d e d FRP profiles. The performance of the cooling tower improved from 35.3~ cold-water t e m p e r a t u r e to 32.7~ following the refurbishment and gave a generator o u t p u t increase of 2 MW. S u m m e r operation will be significantly improved with higher load capacities. The structural integrity of the tower will ensure operation for up to another 35 years. PSI r e c o m m e n d s recoating all FRP surfaces exposed to UV light every five years with a UV-stabilized resin. Fire hazards are a major issue in w o o d e n cooling towers resulting in high insurance premiums. The FRP resins used in FRP towers are specially formulated to retard the spread of fire and have a flame-spread rating of 25 or less based on ASTM E-84. The economic evaluation had indicated that replacing the cooling tower fill alone was not a strong economic justification. However, w h e n the benefits of fill r e p l a c e m e n t at higher capacity factors were c o m b i n e d with future structural rework costs the combination gave a clear economic case for proceeding.
Case study: Cooling tower, Barrick Goldstrike Mines, Nevada The Goldstrike mines n e e d e d to cool the water from their mining operations in Nevada, and H a m o n Cooling Towers, Belgium and USA designed the cooling tower system. The tower stands over 14 m tall and spans over 332 m in length and 16.6 m wide, and includes two banks of 10 cells each and is claimed as the largest water cooling tower to use glass fibre structural members. In general, the size of the tower is d e t e r m i n e d by the thermal duty application. The greater the range of t e m p e r a t u r e the w a t e r must be cooled - the larger the tower. Barrick Goldstrike is designed to process 65 000 gallons o f w a t e r per min. Most cooling towers process water for reuse but the Barrick tower is designed to cool water for release into the H u m b o l t River. In the gold mine's operation the water table in the immediate area must be drawn d o w n to allow for d e v e l o p m e n t of the u n d e r g r o u n d mine and there is naturally occurring water that regularly runs into the u n d e r g r o u n d mines and must be p u m p e d out so that mining can proceed. Because it comes out at a water t e m p e r a t u r e of 54-60~ the water must be cooled before it can be released into the rive. A further challenge is that the t e m p e r a t u r e of the H u m b o l t River varies according to season from 26~ in s u m m e r d o w n to freezing in winter, and the cooling system had to allow for this variation. Environmental regulations state that the t e m p e r a t u r e of the water released must closely approximate the t e m p e r a t u r e of the river. Bedford Reinforced Plastics supplied the FRP structural m e m b e r s and used a CNC router to automate their fabrication system. Because the structural glass fibre used in the cooling t o w e r requires thousands of holes for connections the CNC machine ensures consistency and accuracy, as well as reducing lead-time in
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fabrication and installation. The lightweight properties of the FRP product allowed a simpler, smoother installation. Bedford began supplying materials in March 1997 and completed deliveries by the end of July. The product shipped 29 flat-bed trucks loaded with 278 tonnes of tubes, angles, channels and deck board measuring 120 000 m. The components were made from Owens Coming CSM and unidirectional roving fibre, Ashland Chemical fire-retardant isophthalic polyester resin and Nexus polyester surfacing veil for protection from UV radiation. During the installation a severe storm caused considerable damage and required Bedford to ship in replacements of 6500 m of structural FRP weighing 15 tonnes a further two truck loads - which was delivered 10 days after the storm. Virtually the entire tower is made from plastic with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, PVC nozzles, polypropylene heat-exchange surface, FRP fan stacks, FRP fan blades and FRP siding. The only parts of the tower that are not made from plastics are the hardware, motor and gear reducers. The fan stacks - 10 m high and 10 m in diameter - were designed to shroud the fans at the top of the tower and direct the airflow into the atmosphere. The fan stacks offer simple field installation and resist vibration and flexing. The drift eliminators were made from thermoplastics and designed to eliminate the drift seen escaping from the top of the cooling tower. The fill is the medium through which the water trickles to reduce the size of the water droplets and is constructed from polypropylene.
Case study: Mitsubishi Chemical Corp, Sakaide Plant, Japan In Japan the strengthening and repair of concrete structures with carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) has been widely undertaken. This is partly as a result of the strength of the carbon fibre industry - Japan has several of the world's major c o m p a n i e s - and partly Japan's geographical location in the Pacific earthquake zone. However, Japan has also undertaken, in a joint project between Sumitomo and DML Ltd, UK, an interesting reinforcement of a steel tower structure in a chemical plants. DML have undertaken several repair and reinforcement projects with the oil and gas industry and Sumitomo supplies carbon fibre sheet. Many chemical plants have structures with very complex geometries that have no breaks in operation to allow for repair or upgrade. There are also limitations to the amount of hot work that may be carried out during repair. In some cases there are carbon steel structures and pipelines that have corrosion following exposure to aggressive environments or micro-cracking following extended operation. In such cases composites can provide a quick and effective means of repairing such structures. The first such application of composite repair and reinforcement in a chemical plant was made in October 1999 at the Sakaide Plant of Mitsubishi Chemical Corp, which contains the world's largest coke, pitch coke, needle coke plant, and also produces Dialead TM carbon fibres having a capacity of 500 tonnes per annum. Coke over gas (COG) from the coke plant is supplied to other plant as a fuel. However, before delivery, sulphur in COG must be removed for environmental reasons. There are two steel towers that contain an alkaline solution (predominantly NaOH) for removing the sulphur; the operation temperature in the tower is 40~ The tower was 27 m high with a diameter of 1.9 m, and a
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thickness at the top of 6 mm and at the bottom of 9 mm. One steel tower was built in 1970 and, on inspection in 1988, was found to have sustained some corrosion damage from the formation of an alkaline solution. Indeed, some parts of the tower were reduced by 3 mm due to corrosion, with the top 4 m having the worst corrosion; the bottom 6 m needed reinforcing as a precaution against seismic damage. A possible alternative to repair/reinforcement was to demolish the tower and rebuild but this would put the plant out of operation. As with other projects, this was a collaboration. DML provided the resin infusion technique, process details, training programme and reinforcement inspection; Sumitomo Corp Europe provided the project management; Mitsubishi Chemical Corp provided the reinforcement design and environmental testing, and Mitsubishi Chemical Engineering Corp u n d e r t o o k the reinforcement. Replark high-modulus pitch-based carbon fibre from Sumitomo was used. The total tower mass with liquid was 88 300 kg and the failure mode was calculated as the buckling of the bottom part of the tower. A CFRP laminate lay-up for reinforcement was selected to give the same buckling value between the original steel wall of 9 mm and the steel wall after CFRP reinforcement (6 mm). The original steel wall at 9 mm was considered to have a buckling value of 100% that had reduced to 52% where corrosion had reduced the wall thickness to 6 mm. The DML process Resin Infusion under Flexible Tooling (RIFT) was used for the repair process. CFRP thickness was 2.88 mm and four plies of a unidirectional fabric were attached to the top 4 m of the tower and 6.3 mm for the bottom 6 m. The RIFT operations were carried out in four stages for the top and bottom parts taking a quarter of the circumference at each stage and giving a total of eight RIFT operations. A primer was given to the original carbon steel that was then covered by the carbon fibre sheet, which was attached to the tower using thermoplastic film and ironed in place. The resin inlet line was put in place and covered by a vacuum bag which was sealed at the edges; the resin was infused under the vacuum bag. One 0.5 m 2 area, near a large flange, needed additional RIFT. Following visual inspection and the coin tapping for testing, all of the reinforced area was painted using an epoxy and polyurethane resin.
Case study: Chimney at a gypsum plant, Japan Phenolic materials have been used in composite manufacture, particularly in applications where fire safety is important such as rolling stock and aircraft. Showa Highpolymer, who manufacture phenolic resins, and Toray combined in 1992 to install an E-glass fibre reinforced phenolic chimney at a gypsum factory. The existing chimney was manufactured from steel but the acidic moisture in the exhaust gas, w h e n combined with rain water on the exterior surface of the chimney, was so corrosive that the chimney had to be replaced every two years. The exhaust gas in the chimney reaches a maximum temperature of 155~ with a maximum flow velocity of 440 m/min. The gas is composed of 40% by volume of water with calcium sulphate as fumes, and between 6000 and 8000 parts per million (ppm) of sulphur dioxide. The aim was to provide a lighter weight chimney with a service life of at least five years. The new pipe was constructed from Showa Highpolymer Shownol BRL-240 phenolic resin with their hardener FRH-30 mixed at a ratio of 100 to 5 by weight,
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Case studies with kaolin clay added as filler at 20 parts. Roving E-glass fibre of 4630 tex was used as reinforcement. The resin content was between 29 and 32 wt%. The chimney was made from six lengths of filament-wound pipe, which were 2210 m m long and a single length of 1160 mm, with an overall weight of 298 kg which was 77% lighter than the steel chimney. The outer diameter of the pipe was 760 m m and the inner diameter was 753 mm. The mechanical strength of the chimney in compression was designed to Japanese Industrial Standard JIS K 6911. The pipes were manufactured at the Arisawa Moulding Works by a filamentwinding process. The winding angle of the glass fibre filament to the mandrel was 75 ~ (helical). After winding to the mandrel the materials were post-cured at 120~ for 1 h and then cooled to r o o m temperature. The finished pipes were then dem o u l d e d and trimmed and b o n d e d with Ciba Geigy epoxy adhesive AW136H/ HY994. For the adhesive to be fully cured the pipes were post-cured at 20~ for 6 days for the pipe-pipe joint and at 20~ for one day for the pipe-stainless steel base of the chimney. The chimney was still in successful operation nearly eight years after installation and the plants reported reduced running costs of, at least, 14%.
Case study: Tank for sewage works, San Bernadino County, California, USA Fiberglass Structures and Tank Co have made an enclosure for the San Bernardino County sewerage works using isopolyester resin from Ashland Chemical Co. The enclosure measured 14.4 m long, 3.6 m wide and 6.6 m high, and shields an urban and industrial waste facility that was causing complaints from local residents because of the smell. An isopolyester gel-coat was laid d o w n followed by a layer of c h o p p e d glass and isopolyester resin. A ply of woven roving was added then a further spray-up layer. Pre-cut polyurethane foam core was set in and a mirror image laminate was fabricated over the core. A final coat of isopolyester gel was sprayed on both sides of the structure to provide a finished surface. Each ply of the enclosure was cured before the next was laid d o w n and lay-up, cure and removal of parts from the m o u l d could be carried out in 3 h. The isopolyester is chemically resistant and also has the further advantage of g o o d impact resistance and durability as waste objects such as sticks are screened from the sewage.
Case study: Waste-water purification plant, Denmark A glass fibre reinforced polyester roof is being used to counteract o d o u r s at a waste-water purification plant in Denmark. Manufactured using hand lay-up by EM-Fiberglas MS, the roof is thought to be the largest self-supporting glass fibre structure in Northern Europe. It is divided into 31 sandwich elements and functions as a shell construction with a span of 26.5 m. To give the roof a distinctive appearance, 31 different colours of gel-coat were used.
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The roof was m a d e in a large o p e n p r o d u c t i o n hall, and because of its size it was essential that the styrene emissions from the moulds were low. Reichhold's Norpol Style LSE gel-coat was chosen because it has low-styrene emission.
Case study: Manhole covers, Taylorville, Illinois, USA Nine manhole covers were showing signs of p r e m a t u r e deterioration due to exposure to hydrogen sulphide gas from a waste-water plant outside the city. Over 90 000 l/day of water flow from a prison facility to a t r e a t m e n t plant but spend a relatively long time in a wet well at the facility, which permits the formation of hydrogen sulphide. When the flow discharges into the first m a n h o l e the gas is released and causes erosion in the first and subsequent manholes through the system. The cost of r e p l a c e m e n t w o u l d be US$250 000 and, consequently, the city chose to rehabilitate the covers. Paradise Environmental Systems using their PolyTriplex TM liner system, which is a fabric-impregnated epoxy resin-based product, u n d e r t o o k the work. The Poly-Triplex system comprises three layers. In the outer layer is a structural glass fibre impregnated with an epoxy resin. The middle layer is a non-porous m e m b r a n e b o n d e d to the outer layer. The inside layer is also made from glass reinforced epoxy resin, and forms a s m o o t h and durable surface. During installation the liner was assembled, coated and attached to a collar that matched the diameter of the manhole before being lowered into the manhole. The system was then pressurized with air to b e t w e e n 0.25 and 0.28 bar forcing the liner against the inner surface of the manhole. Once in place, steam was injected to begin the resin curing process and the t e m p e r a t u r e was held at 77-88~ for 2 h, although full cure takes about 24 h. The collar was later removed and the liner edges t r i m m e d with holes cut for the inlet and outlet pipes whilst the liner remained completely sealed. Two m a n h o l e covers a day were c o m p l e t e d and the opportunity was also taken to check valves in the p u m p station. The project cost only US$50000, giving the city a saving of US$200000.
Case study: Tank cover, Singapore A major application for composites was the construction of a large-diameter tank cover and 12 000 m of foul air duct for the sewage treatment plant in Singapore. The city of Singapore has some 4 million inhabitants and is a major financial and industrial centre in an area of only 600 km 2. The city has five sewage treatment plants that m u s t be separated at a radius of 1000 m from houses and offices for health and amenity reasons. As land in Singapore is at a p r e m i u m , and therefore very expensive, this m e a n t that land valued at some US$6 billion was unusable. The sewage plants could be relocated in m o r e r e m o t e areas but at the cost of considerable sums to extend the existing system and build n e w plants. A more cost-effective solution was to cover the existing plants with gas tight covers that would allow gas collection and treatment. This w o u l d cost some US$600 million but would allow d e v e l o p m e n t of land w o r t h 10 times that sum making the economics of the project very attractive. The gases in the sewage environment were corrosive, containing hydrogen sulphide, m e t h a n e and other toxic gases, which could also be explosive w h e n c o m b i n e d with oxygen. Trials were c o n d u c t e d using FRP, aluminium, mild-coated steel and stainless steel, of which the most effective solution was found to be FRP
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large-diameter covers, duct and o d o u r control scrubbers. In total the project required 55000 m 2 of tank covers, 12000 m of ducts and 4000 fittings, manufactured, supplied and fitted in 20 months. The total cost of the project, including the odour-control building, which is not included in this case study but was also mostly built from FRP, was US$600 million. The project was h a n d l e d by Dr Enrico Piccioli, then of Transfield Pty Ltd, NSW and n o w the CEO of Eptec Pty Ltd, Gladesville, NSW, Australia. It was decided it was not practical to manufacture such large items of e q u i p m e n t in Australia for o n w a r d s h i p m e n t and the manufacturing would have to take place close to the sewage plant. Some doubts were expressed about the ability to p r o d u c e a quality p r o d u c t (to ISO 9002) with local staff on Bataam island, Indonesia. The e q u i p m e n t consisted off tank covers, duct w o r k and accessories, exhaust fans, wet chemical scrubbers, activated carbon absorption units, chemical storage tanks, and c o m p o n e n t s such as grates, d a m p e r s and some ancillary equipment. All the c o m p o n e n t s w o u l d be manufactured in FRP. The resin used for all laminates was a vinyl ester that was requested by the client, although an isophthalic resin with a good heat distortion t e m p e r a t u r e has b e e n used in the sewage industry in previous applications and w o u l d have b e e n acceptable. The glass fibre for the covers was some 30% of the total laminate w e i g h t - standard for normally contact m o u l d e d manufacture. The ducting was manufactured in vinyl ester by filament winding with an internal corrosion barrier. Inside the buildings a b r o m i n a t e d vinyl ester with an average glass content of 50% was used to ensure the greatest possible fire retardation in the event of a fire. The covers to the rectangular aeration tanks and channels had spans varying b e t w e e n 2 m and 20 m wide and lengths of 50 m; some channels were 100 m long. Some circular sedimentation and saturation tanks required covers 35 m in diameter. All covers had to be sealed, self-supporting and able to withstand severe corrosion conditions. Operational loads varied b e t w e e n 0.5 and 4 kN/m 2 with a w i n d load of 100 km/h. The project involved not only sealing the tanks but also collecting the foul air that was ducted to a central odour-control treatment building. This required 12 000 linear metres of ducting and some 4000 fittings including elbows, tees, reducers and flanges. The ducting system also required FRP flow dampers, expansion joints, and supports and brackets that were made in stainless steel. The designs for the ducting allowed for a negative pressure in the water c o l u m n of 100 m m and a positive internal pressure of 200 m m . An interesting aspect of the project was that the volume of the contract came to over 400000 m 3 which m e a n t that construction in Australia and transport to Singapore was not practicable. Construction had to be near the site but due to the limited space available on Singapore it had to be u n d e r t a k e n on the island of Bataam, Indonesia, which is 50 km away. This allowed a factory area of over 2500 m 2 and a m i n i m u m external storage area of 10000 m 2. The c o m p o n e n t s were then shipped by barge to Singapore with each barge load consisting of some 1500 m 3 of FRP by volume or a m a x i m u m of 84 000 kg by weight. On arrival in Singapore each barge required 100-120 truck loads for onward transportation. The logistics of manufacture, storage and handling proved to be a major cost factor. As the manufacture was in Indonesia it was necessary to train a workforce of some 300 Indonesians to ISO 9002 standards. This included both some technical understanding of the p r o d u c t and safety aspects. A team of six expatriates was
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responsible for the training and they, and local supervisors, had to work very hard to ensure the finished quality product. The project had an unblemished safety record with no time lost for 1.5 million hours of production over the 20 months of the project. Manufacture and transport were not the only problems in the project as the large components had to installed on site. As access to the site for such items as cranes was limited much of the work had to be done by hand using purpose-built equipment. For the rectangular tanks this involved using tracks and trolleys running u n d e m e a t h to move the covers from the crane position to a maximum of 50 m d o w n the tank at the furthest point. The covers were then removed from the trolleys and lowered onto the concrete or stainless steel support where a neoprene gasket had already been placed. The covers had to be butted against and bolted to each other using a joint strap system. The support flanges at the ends of the covers were then drilled and fixed into the concrete with chemical anchors. The ducts were ofvarious sizes from 100 mm to 2300 m m diameter and much of it needed to be moved several hundreds of metres at a time along the support system. Joining between the ducts was mostly carried out in air 3 m above the ground in an area with frequent tropical downpours. Quality control for the 3050 workers on this part of the project was supervised over an 18-month period with four-six Australian staff. The project manager considers that by clear instruction, procedures and project management it was possible to train staff to meet the fundamental requirements of quality and quality assurance. The majority of onshore composite applications are either GRP or thermoplasticlined carbon steel pipelines and flowlines. The plastic in GRP is epoxy, vinyl ester or polyester. The thermoplastic in lined carbon steel pipes is mostly polyethylene. The range in pressure and diameters is considerable. Typically, pipe diameters range from 100 up to 900 mm with pressures varying from ambient to 100 bar. Systems with pressures above 50 bar typically have diameters in the 100-200 mm range. The maximum allowable operating temperature for GRP pipelines is 100~ and for polyester-lined carbon steel there is a lower figure of 60~ The process fluids that are transported through these systems are mixtures of water, hydrocarbons with dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Within the GRP applications epoxy resins that are capable of withstanding temperatures of 150-160~ show potential. Liners that extend the temperature limit to beyond 120~ would involve such thermoplastics as polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The range in pressures for piping systems is from 5 to 30 bar, with temperatures from ambient to 60~ and diameters are typically 75-500 mm. Applications include water, glycol and waste products with tank diameters from 0.5 to 3 m. Composites have also been used in the repair of large-diameter concrete pipes where it would be undesirable to dig up the structure. The Arizona Public Service used this process for a 58 km long pre-stressed concrete pipeline that delivers 90 million gallons per day of cooling water to the Palo Verde nuclear power plant. The pipeline goes u n d e r roads and railway lines. Cracks in the concrete pipes exposed the steel pre-stressing wires allowing them to corrode and lose their compressive strength. Six metres of pipe needed to be repaired and there was only a five day window available in which to shut down the cooling water supply. Epoxy was injected into the cracks and several layers of carbon fibre--epoxy were laid up on the inside surface of the pipe to build up the desired wall thickness. The section was cured and, as insurance, a corrosion-resistant coating was
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applied. The repaired pipe withstood pressures of 125 psi, which was twice the operating pressure. Work was undertaken from inside the pipe with entry for staff through manhole covers and was completed in four days. The cost estimates are approximately US$1000 per 30 cm for a typical 1.65-m diameter pipe; largerdiameter pipes cost proportionately more. GFRP pipes from Johnston Pipes Ltd, Telford, UK have been used by Anglian Water to line five vertical drop shahs in a major sewer relief tunnel project on the river Orwell, UK. The pipes were considered very suitable for a harsh sewage environment and their light weight made installation easier. Space between the steel casing and the GRP shaft liner was sealed with a cement grout with nonshrink additives. The major challenge facing the contractor was moving the pipes from the horizontal to the vertical, which was done with purpose-buih lifting and support clamps. Because of the light weight of the material over 250 m of pipes could be moved.
6.8 Mass transport Case study: Shinkansen high-speed train, Japan The front end of the Japanese E4 Shinkansen high-speed train, operated by Eastern Japanese Railway requires a good strength to weight ratio and high creep resistance, and is being built with a polymethacrylimide (PMI) foam core. This is the first time in which the Japanese authorities have allowed the use of composite materials. The c o m p o n e n t is made from carbon fibre in epoxy resin and measures some 5 m in length. The sandwich foam core has a very low density of 52 kg/m 3 and is made by the cost-effective single-step co-curing process. At this low density the foam core can still have the creep compression resistance required to withstand the high temperature and pressure loads associated with autoclaving. The PMI core, which can be thermo-formed, gives significant cost savings compared to hand-shaped aluminium. It is predicted that composites will also be used for the 700 Shinkansen series and for the Japanese Maglev railcar.
Case study: London Underground Ltd (LUL) District and Circle lines, UK John Mowlem & Co pie was the main contractor on this project with DML Ltd as the sub-contractor. The work began in February 1999 and was completed in June 1999. London Underground was the first u n d e r g r o u n d railway in the world, beginning operations in January 1863. Deterioration of the structures since they were built, increasing numbers of passengers, changes in regulations including health and safety requirements, and changes in the use of the overground land have all contributed to a need for rehabilitation. Following the fire and loss of life in the King's Cross u n d e r g r o u n d station, fire safety regulations have also been upgraded. DML had previously designed, manufactured and installed a temporary strengthening system at locations PC21 and PC22 over the District and Circle lines at Sloane Square station in 1995. This case study covers a later project to install a carbon fibre strengthening scheme for 92 cast-iron beams forming
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Covered Ways 12 and 58 underneath Kelso Place on the District and Circle lines. The major focus of DML's work in the civil engineering field has been in rehabilitation for LUL. Other work has been with offshore oil and gas rigs. One of the elements in the choice of composite repair was the restricted time available for maintenance w o r k - 4 h per night. Taking a major station out of commission in the u n d e r g r o u n d system has been done for safety reasons but can only be justified in extreme circumstances. In contrast to the use by Mouchel of standard modulus plates, DML used ultrahigh-modulus carbon-epoxy plates for strengthening. The plates incorporate tapers over, at least, the last 0.5 m of the plates and reduce peel forces (which act to cause the plate to debond) by a factor of 6 when compared to pultruded plates. The taper meets the guidelines given in the European Space Agency handbook on composite design and adhesive bonding, reference equation 17.05.01. A fire protection layer is also used to enable LUL's fire requirements to be met. The fire testing programme was tested to compliance with BS 476 Pt 6 and Pt 7 and BS 6853 App B.5.2. The carbon fibre plates were made from ultra-high-modulus carbon fibre Dialead TM K13710 with a fibre stiffness of 640 GPa, manufactured by Mitsubishi Chemical and distributed by Sumitomo. Each cast-iron beam was strengthened with two carbon fibre plates that allows a gap along the centre of the flange for the installation of a structural monitoring system. A unidirectional laminate was used but local reinforcement of 10% E-glass fibres at +45 ~ is included at the ends to prevent splitting of thin sections and to prevent shear failure. The plates were made by the pre-preg route and not pultruded as those used in CW12/58 were 7 m m and 10 mm thick, which is too thick for the pultrusion process. In addition, the ends were tapered to reduce peeling stresses and this cannot be achieved with pultrusion. A further reason against pultrusion was that pultruded profiles have very high volume fractions and the process was considered to be unsuitable for use with these fibres. The cast-iron needed cleaning/remedial work before the CFRP was added and this was achieved by grit blasting. The adhesive was applied in a controlled manner to the carbon fibre plates and the cast-iron beams. The plates were then held in place against the beams using mechanical supports at 0.5 m centres. These supports were tightened until the required b o n d line thickness was achieved by measuring the bond line. Excess adhesive was filleted along the edges. The carbon fibre plates are supplied with a protective layer that is removed just before installation to ensure that a clean surface is provided for optimum bonding. As might be expected in a new technology there is some controversy between alternative methods. DML have also undertaken a project for the Docklands Light Railway to install 12 plates to strengthen the Bow Road Bridge. They note that, initially, it had been intended to use the pre-stressed carbon fibre plate route for this project but this approach was d r o p p e d because of difficulties in implementing the system in a controlled manner. The time required would also have exceeded the allowable window (the work was installed in engineering hours). An additional benefit to the time saved was claimed to be lower cost for the project.
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Exchem had supplied the RESIFIX 31 adhesive that b o n d e d the carbon fibre plates on Hythe Bridge, Oxford and also supplied the same adhesive for bonding the DML plates on the the Redmile Canal bridge, which Balvac strengthened for Leicestershire Country Council.
Case study: Regio Shuttle and Stockholm Metro car 2000, Sweden LM Glasfiber A/S is a family owned firm that was founded in 1940. The company is the largest producer of fibre reinforced plastics in Scandinavia, with over 1500 employees, and is certified to ISO 9001 by Det Norske Veritas. A major interest is wind turbine blades but the company is also a systems supplier of lightweight composite parts to European rolling stock manufacturers including Adtranz, Alstom, Bombardier and Siemens-Duewag. The very competitive turbine blade market has undoubtedly encouraged them to expand even further with their rolling stock parts. The company considers their collaboration with Adtranz to be beneficial with further deliveries for the I C 3 0 r e s u n d s train, which will be used on the new bridge route connecting Denmark and Sweden. The Regio Shuttle made by Adtranz is intended for regional transportation. The low-floor architecture provides high passenger comfort by allowing easy boarding. The train has a maximum speed of 120 km/h and can transport up to 344 passengers at one time. The Shuttle is designed specifically to reduce operating costs. The one, two or three car bidirectional multiple unit is intended for economical services on minor routes with fluctuating passenger volumes. Consequently, in designing the front system of the Shuttle it was important to produce a low weight system but still retain high impact resistance and excellent fire-proofing. Recent train accidents in the UK (Paddington) and Norway in which lives were lost due to subsequent fires in carriages have concentrated efforts by rolling stock manufacturers and regulatory authorities on fire-proofing of passenger trains. The Regio Shuttle front system is designed as a sandwich construction in E-glass fibre reinforced fire-retardant acrylic with a thermoformed foam core. The manufacturing process used was LM Glasfiber's VARIM technology (vacuumassisted resin infusion moulding). The low weight and high impact resistance are achieved by a high uniform laminate quality with a high fibre content. The fibre content varies from solution to solution due to differences in laminate thickness, the need for structural inlays such as foam and balsa, and design. The technical limit for the VARIM process is significantly higher than 65%, but for practical purposes most solutions have a fibre content of between 50 and 60%. Research undertaken at the RisO National Laboratory, Denmark has shown that increasing the fibre content to above 50-60% may increase the impact strength but decreases the fatigue strength. The balance in fibre content must be considered a trade-off between these requirements. The company notes that it is possible to achieve a higher fibre content without compromising fatigue strength by using fire-retardant prepregs, but this is an expensive solution. The Regio shuttle also uses exterior composite sandwich panels and it is reported that weight reductions of 35% have been achieved. The weight savings that can be achieved in local, shuttle-type trains that have a considerable numbers of stops and starts is important. When a train is running, the weight is not important but braking and acceleration requires energy and, consequently, weight savings are
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important. In long distance trains, which may have only a very limited n u m b e r of stops, the weight is a less important aspect. This construction contributes to r e d u c e d operating costs and a long service life, with the non-corrosive nature of the front material giving r e d u c e d maintenance costs. Adtranz had specified the use of acrylic and fire-proofing is achieved to DIN 5510, $3, ST2 and SR2 standards using non-halogen fire retardants. In an alternative p r o d u c t LM Glasfiber has designed a front for the Stockholm Metro car 2000 (C20), which is also built by Adtranz. The C20 is a three-car set with two semi-trailer cars on each side of a central car unit. It has a m a x i m u m speed of 90 km/h and carries a m a x i m u m of 414 passengers. The aim was to p r o d u c e a Metro car with a high standard of comfort and which was quieter both internally and externally. Particular attention has b e e n given to life-cycle costs with the aim of m i n i m u m w o r k s h o p d o w n t i m e and maintenance costs. The C20 front designed by LM Glasfiber is manufactured in E-glass fibre reinforced polyester with structural inlays of balsa w o o d supplied by Balthek. C u s t o m e r specification is the reason for the use of different materials, but both fronts are manufactured using the VARIM process. As with the Regio Shuttle, the C20 front provides high strength and rigidity with fire resistance, low weight and low maintenance costs.
Case study: Cafeteria at the Toray works, Ehime, Japan Toray Industries has installed a carbon fibre truss system in the construction of a cafeteria at its Ehime works. The total weight of the roof truss w o r k is 9.5 tonnes c o m p a r e d to a weight of 28 tonnes for traditional steel work. The trusses are m a d e of phenolic resin shafts reinforced with carbon fibre at 55-63% by volume and were developed in a collaboration b e t w e e n Toray, Shimizu Constriction and Japanese Aluminium. The CFRP shafts are in two d i a m e t e r s - 94 m m and 109 m m with a length of a r o u n d 2 m and an individual weight of 7 kg. The Toray T700 carbon fibre was used with a tensile strength of 500 kgf/mm 2 and a tensile m o d u l u s of 23 500 kgf/mm 2. The elongation at breaking point in tension was 2.1%. The phenolic thermosetting resin was used with an organic acid hardener. -
The trusses were manufactured by filament winding and were pre-fabricated into one system on site. Traditional steel or a l u m i n i u m trusses have to be installed one at a time because of their weight, which is time consuming. The composite roof was lifted as one piece by two cranes and installed in the design position, which was a time- and labour-saving operation. The phenolic materials were a fire safety consideration in a public building. Similar examples of roof trusses using Toray materials have b e e n installed at Mishima, Japan, the Industrial Exhibition Hall, Fukushima, Japan and as a seismic retrofit of a school gymnasium.
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Case study: Roof at Dubai airport, Dubai Dubai airport has b e e n provided with a GFRP replacement roofing, which is currently the largest reinforced plastic project in the Middle East. The project to replace the 7000 m 2 roof was u n d e r t a k e n by a local firm Trade Circle Technical Industries working for the main contractors Kvaerner and Arabtec Construction with International Bechtel as consultant. The roof has 44 inverted 'umbrellas', each 10 m • 10 m, which sit on top of columns 500 • 500 mm. The selfsupporting units are anchored to the columns by filling the first 1.5 m of the neck with concrete. The joints are covered with a capping which allows the system to flex, and rainwater is channelled into drainage pipes r u n n i n g d o w n the centre of each column. The original 'umbrellas' were made in eight sections, had b e e n in place for over 30 years and were steel reinforced. The replacements are made in four larger sections and as m u c h of the steel was replaced with GFRP the weight is r e d u c e d by some 40%. The units are manufactured from a self-coloured gel-coat on a structural laminate m a d e from 6 m m GFRP, a 50 m m fire-retardant polyurethane foam core and 4 m m GFRP. The GFRP beams vary in size b e t w e e n 100 m m • 50 m m and 150 m m • 100 mm. The c h o p p e d strand mat and woven rovings were supplied by Fibretech, Saudi Arabia, and the fire-resistant resins and gel-coat by Reichhold. Each unit takes about 700 m a n hours to complete and the units were transported at night to avoid traffic problems; two units were installed a day having b e e n pre-assembled in TCTI's yard. A further project of this type was the renovation of the Myriad Convention Center, Oklahoma City, USA. This involved the use of 35 000 m 2 of carbon fibre overwrap to reinforce large areas of concrete, which no longer met current design codes on shear and flexural strength. The work was supervised by Structural Preservation Inc and Master Builders.
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Corporate profiles
A c c o r d i s Industrial N e d e r l a n d BV
Westervoortsedijk 73, 6827 AV PO Box 9600 6800 TC Arnhem The Netherlands Tel: +31 26 366 4444 Fax: +31 26 366 4692 Internet: www.accordis.com Chief Executive Officer: Folkert Blaisse A c c o r d i s UK Ltd
PO Box 5, Spondon Derby DE21 7BP UK Tel: +44 1332 661422 Fax: +44 1332 681786 Contact: Maurice Unwin A c c o r d i s AG
Kasinostrasse 19 42103 Wuppertal Elberfeld Germany Tel: +49 202 320 Fax: +49 202 322 200 C o l b o n d N o n w o v e n s BV
Westervoorbedjik 73 PO Box 9600 NL-6800 TC Arnhem The Netherlands Tel: +31 26 366 5245 Fax: +31 26 366 5588 Contact: E. Rosalina
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7 Corporateprofiles Fortam Fibers Inc
8870 Cedar Springs Lane Knoxville TN 37923 USA Tel: + 1 423 694 7053 Fax: +1 423 694 7547 Internet: www.fortafil.com Managing Director: Roger Prescott Contact: Ken Gilliam Accordis was formed in 1998 from the fibre businesses of Akzo Nobel, Netherlands and the former Courtaulds, UK, which Akzo Nobel had acquired in 1998. Akzo Nobel acquired Courtaulds for its coatings business and always intended to divest the fibres business. In December 1999 Accordis was sold by Akzo Nobel to CVC Capital Partners, a UK-based venture capital company and the subsidiary's management team, for ~g825 million. CVC has US$54 billion funds u n d e r management and does not engage in hostile takeovers. Akzo Nobel retained a 21% share in the business, which is enough to guarantee a seat on the Supervisory Board of the new company, with the Accordis management holding 15%. They also agreed to provide CVC with an interestbearing loan of ~138 million and to bear the restructuring cost of ~135 million. Both Courtaulds and Akzo Nobel had experienced problems with fibres failing to contribute to the company, even though Courtaulds had been much more of a fibres-based company than Akzo Nobel whose core business was chemicals. The return on sales for Courtaulds had fallen to 6.6% in 1998 (the overall return on company activities was 7.2%) and the situation was even worse for Akzo Nobel, where the figures were 3.3% for fibres and 8.6% for the overall company. It was h o p e d that the fibres business of the two c o m p a n i e s - they would form the world's largest independent fibre p r o d u c e r - would be large enough to enable them to be self-sufficient. Accordis is run as a distributed company with the separate business and manufacturing areas having considerable autonomy. The company intends to concentrate on the following growth areas: 9 9
Q 9 9 9 Q
Industrial yarns and fibres; Non-wovens and geotextiles; Twaron aramid yarns; Fortafil carbon fibres; Airbag yarns; Tencel lyocell fibres; and Membranes.
The main high-volume fibres produced by Accordis - viscose staple and filament yarn, acrylic staple and acetate filament yarn - have little, if any, growth potential. Their advantage is that as mature technologies in mature markets they do not require high levels of investment for Accordis to remain internationally competitive. The West European textile firms who are customers of Accordis face pressures from low-cost imports (which can amount to dumping), new technology and new products. In the advanced materials the main competitor for Twaron is DuPont's Kevlar TM which sells about double the tonnage worldwide; the capacity for Twaron is 10 500 tonnes per annum. The main competition for carbon fibres are Toray,
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7 Corporateprofiles Toho (now Teijin) and Mitsubishi Rayon, all in Japan but also with overseas operations overseas, Zoltek (USA) and SGL (Germany); the capacity for carbon fibres at the Fortafil plant in the USA is 3500 tonnes per a n n u m in a world capacity of over 25 000 tonnes per annum, although with much lower consumption. The new products - Twaron, Fortafil, geotextiles, Tencel and others - could have a formidable impact on the business but it will take time for the sales of these products to grow to the point where they are able to make a major contribution to the financial results. Twaron has a considerable history and has not yet reached a commanding position in markets that have a high d e m a n d for the product. Fortafil carbon fibres are also problematic as there is considerable over-capacity in the carbon fibre industry and Fortafil has not taken Zoltek's route of buying into downstream operations to improve sales. Colbond Geosynthetics, which produces Ekagrip geotextiles, is well positioned to develop market share in a market with growth potential. Other markets for specialized products include dialysis membranes, speciality fibres for health products and the lyoceU cellulosic fibre, Tencel. Accordis hopes to expand in China and signed a letter of intent in 1999 with Wuxi Taiji Co Ltd to produce high-tenacity industrial polyester conveyor belt fabrics and tyre cord fabrics in China. If the joint venture proceeds, final agreement could be reached in 2001. Accordis made a loss of ~g62 million in its final year of operation (1999) as a subsidiary of Akzo Nobel (Table 41). The losses contrasted with a profit of ~g64 million in the previous year and were principally blamed on a cyclical d o w n t u r n for textile fibres, notably Enka T M viscose filament. The losses came despite a growth in sales of 15% to ~2.2 billion. However, the company reports that it has moved into profit for the first quarter of 2000.
Table 41 Financial returns for Accordis (6 millions) 1999
1998
2242
1947
Operating income/(Loss)a
(62)
64
Gross cash flow
98
198
Research and development (R&D) expenditure
49
53
Net sales
aBefore non-recurring items.
Post Box 388 140180 Zhukovsky City Moscow Region Russia Tel: + 7 095556 4247 or +7 095 556 4797 Fax: + 7 095 556 4337 or +7 095 911 0019 President and contact: Professor Andrei E. Ushakov
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7 Corporateprofiles ApATeCh was established in 1991 by researchers and designers then employed by Zhukovsky TsAGI, the Antonov Design Bureau and the Likhachyov automobile plant. Much of the staff experience was derived from the aerospace industry, including the manufacture of MiG-29, SU-26 and TU-204 planes, and KA32A and KA-50 helicopters. The aim of the company was to transfer the composite materials knowledge gained from the Russian defence industry to industrial products that had acceptable standards and could be exported, thus benefiting the Russian economy. The Scientific Research Centre was the first part to be established in 1991 with 29 staff, most of which were scientists and engineers. The pilot production plant was established in 1994 in Moscow with nine workers, mostly from the car plant and Design Bureau. The mass production plant was established in 1995 at Dubna with 77 staff of which 20 were engineers and the rest production workers. The engineers came from the aircraft industry and the Dubna machine-building factory. In 1996 A. Ushakov and Partners Investment and Finance Corp was established in Moscow with a licence for leasing activities granted by the Russian Ministry of Economy in March 1997. Company products are aimed at the aircraft and automotive industries, but also for reusable power sources, railways and urban facilities. The company has manufactured turbine blades for the Riva Calzoni Co, Italy for 200-kW wind turbines, with a blade length of 16.5 m and a weight of 820 kg. Considerable numbers of components have been made for the Russian Railways Ministry; the railway system has to operate under very adverse climatic conditions. Products include insulating 'fishplates' made of steel and composites for high-strength adhesive bolted joints. The plates are used in a temperature r a n g e - 6 0 ~ to greater than 80 ~ and have a service life of more than 15 years. Over 66 000 sets have been supplied but only within Russia and neighbouring states, such as Latvia and Estonia. The company has also produced some 500 sets of an interior panel for train carriages that meet smoke emission standards AP-25.853(c) and flammability standard AP-25.853(a). The panels reduce the weight of the railcars by 5.5 tonnes but, again, have only been supplied in Russia and the Baltic States. Car and truck body parts have only been produced for Zil vehicles and the Russian UAZ crosscountry vehicle. The company is capable of producing between 10 000 and 50 000 car components per annum. Pilot production capability is up to 12 000 kg of composite structures a year. Glass fabric for both the pilot production plant and the main production plant is produced at the Steklovolokno production plant in Byelorussia, and glass roving comes from Alstrom for the pilot plant and from Steklovolokno for the production plant. Carbon fibre fillers are used in the pilot plant with polyester resins for both plants from Neste, Finland. Epoxy resins for both plants are provided either by Russian firms or are imported from foreign suppliers, such as Dow. The company claims production capability of 10000 fish plates per month, 2000 automotive components per month and 2000 articles for each of the other manufactured i t e m s - insulators, fixing arms for contact wires and insulators for railway contact system towers. As is usual with Russian companies, financial results are not available, although the research background of the company indicates a considerable spend on R&D. The position of the Investment and Finance Co, which prepares business plans and feasibility studies for investment projects in Russia and offers consultancy in
:1.72 Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
7 Corporateprofiles production, transportation and construction engineering, is not detailed. Almost all of the clients given are part of the manufacturing network of the main company.
50 E Rivercenter B o u l e v a r d Covington KY 41012 USA Tel: + 1 606 815 3333 Internet: www.ashland.com Chairman: Paul Chellgren
A s h l a n d Specialty C h e m i c a l s Co Composite Polymers Division Box 2219 Columbus OH 43216 USA Tel: + 1 614 790 4191 Fax: + 1 614 790 6157 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.ashspec.com/cp.html President: James A. Duquin Managing Director: Larry A. Baker Marketing Manager: Michael Froman Contact: Ike C. Shank E-mail:
[email protected] A s h l a n d C h e m i c a l de Mexico SA de C.V. Atlacomulco no 1 Had. San Andres Atoto Col San Estaban 53350, Naucalpen Mexico Tel: +9011 525 359 3000 Fax: +9011 525 359 1257 ARA Q u i m i c a S/A AI. Rio Negro 108ia4 Salas M03 M05 Alphaville Barueri Sao Paulo CEP 06475-000 Brazil Tel: +55 11 7295 6777 Fax: +55 11 7295 1317 Ashland Inc was formed in 1924 as a petroleum refiner but is now a large multiindustry company with operations in speciality chemicals, construction, automotive products and oil refining. The company has sales in more than 140
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Corporateprofiles countries and employs over 20000 people. With sales of US$6.8 billion, it is the market leader in many of its major businesses. The company is divided into five industry segments: APAC; Ashland Distribution; Ashland Specialty Chemical; Valvoline; and Refining and Marketing. APAC undertakes road and bridge construction work and produces asphalt and readymix concrete. Valvoline markets motor oil and automotive chemicals including anti-freeze, rust preventatives and coolants. Marathon Ashland Petroleum is a joint venture with Marathon Oil Co and operates refineries; Ashland holds a 38% stake in the business. In March 1999 the parent company, Ashland Inc, split the former Ashland Chemical Co into two divisions: Ashland Distribution Co and Ashland Specialty Chemicals Co; the two new divisions will continue to be based in Dublin, Ohio, the site of the former Ashland Chemical headquarters. Ashland says it is forming the new divisions to provide better market focus, particularly in distribution. The two companies accounted for around 62% of Ashland's turnover in 1 9 9 8 - the year before the division. The companies operate in the fragmented US$1.6 trillion global chemical business. Both divisions comprise some 13% of Ashland's US$4.4 billion capital employed. Between them the two companies now own and operate 36 manufacturing plants and participate in 13 manufacturing joint ventures in 11 states in the USA and 19 other countries. Ashland Distribution Co will include the following business groups: Industrial Chemicals and Solvents; General Polymers; FRP Supply; Fine Ingredients; Ashland Plastics Europe; and Distribution Services. The Distribution Co owns or leases some 100 distribution facilities in North America and 25 distribution facilities in 17 other countries around the world. In distribution, it currently holds a leading position in the North American fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) thermoplastics and chemicals markets. It is believed that as much of twothirds of Ashland Distribution Co's sales come from the distribution of the glass fibre and thermoplastics products of other companies. The FRP Supply Division of Ashland Distribution is a distributor of supplies for the reinforced plastics and cast polymer industries, representing over 70 manufacturers serving customers in the USA, Canada and Mexico. Ashland Specialty Chemicals Co will consist of Foundry Products; Composite Polymers; Specialty Polymers and Additives; Electronic Chemicals; Drew Industrial; Drew Marine; and Petrochemicals. In addition, Ashland Chemical's R&D efforts will become part of Ashland Specialty Chemical Co. The Composite Polymers Division of Ashland Specialty Chemicals manufactures unsaturated polyester (UP) and vinyl ester resins for the reinforced plastics industry. Key markets are the transport, construction and marine industries. The output of UP is around 200 000 tonnes per annum. The company announced in August 2000 that it would be closing the Ashtabula plant, which manufactures polyester resin, with immediate effect. The small plant would require substantial investment and there are other Ashland plants in the vicinity. The company considers that further capacity can be obtained through plant optimization and efficiency improvements, and this will more than cover present and future customer needs. The company has always been one of the largest suppliers in the USA of polyester resins, and their position will be improved with the acquisition of Gwil Industries Inc's Plastics Division by Ashland Chemical Canada Ltd. The Plastics Division of Gwil specializes in the manufacture of UP resins and gel-coats, and in sales and distribution in Western Canada and the US Pacific Northwest. Under the terms of the agreement, Ashland Chemical gains ownership of Gwil's existing manufacturo
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7 Corporateprofiles ing facility in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada which gives it the only UP resin plant in Northwestern Canada and a gateway to Alaska and Asia. The Kelowna facility will provide the Composite Polymers Division with approximately 31.75 million kg (70 million lbs) of additional UP resin production. Financial aspects of the agreement were not disclosed. Ashland has also acquired General Fiberglass, a distributor of fibre reinforced plastics and cast polymers. Ashland has Europe as a region of growth and purchased an UP resin business franchise from Buna Sow Leuna Olefinvervbund GmbH (BSL), Germany. The deal was conducted through one of Ashland's German subsidiaries; BSL is now part of Dow and is known as Dow Central Germany. The purchase includes patents, formulations, customer lists and the registered trade name Sconoran. Other Ashland Chemical Co manufacturing sites in Europe will produce the polyester resin product range. Following this purchase and that of the former Sier SA plant, Spain (now Ashland Chemical Espana) Ashland now claims some 5% of the European UP market. Within Latin America, Ashland formed ARA Quimica as a joint venture between Ashland and ARA Quimica SA, Sao Paulo, Brazil, which manufactures Arazyn general purpose UP resin throughout Brazil. As with other deals, the terms of the stock purchase agreement were not revealed. In mid-2000 Ashland indicated that it did not expect to make any large corporate acquisitions in 2000. The 1998 results had seen considerable sales for tanks, but this market collapsed when the US Environmental Protection Agency requirements for replacement of underground storage tanks for petroleum finished on 31 December 1998.
Table 42 Financial results for Ashland Inc (US$ millions) * 1999
1998
1997
Sales and operating expenses
6801
6534
12838
Operating income
622
447
461
Net income
290
203
279
Net income/share (US$)
3.89
2.63
3.64
Return on capital employed (%)
9.6
7.8
10.5
Number of employees
21000
20 900
22 000
1Except per share data and return on capital.
Industriepark 'De Bruwaan 2' B-9700 Oudenaarde Belgium Tel: +32 55 333 011 Fax: +32 55 333 040 Internet: www.bekaert.com
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7 Corporateprofiles Managing Director: Jan Maes Sales and Marketing Manager: Eric Moussiaux Leon Bekaert founded the Bekaert Group of companies in 1880 and it is still a family owned company. The company has 70 factories in 23 countries, over 16000 staff and a turnover in 1999 of C2.5 billion. The main product is highquality steel and wire cord. The Composites Group is part of the Bekaert Advanced Materials business unit, which also includes Bekaert Fibre Technologies and Bekaert Advanced Coatings. The business unit covers such market areas as electromagnetic (EM) screening and electrostatic dissipation, electronic circuit boards, filtration, seawater desalination and energy savings. Bekaert Composites manufactures glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) composites for such end use areas as the transport sector and corrosive environments. Products include pultruded, low-maintenance profiles for primary and secondary structures. Bekaert Composites is integrated with Bremen SA, Spain and has an agreement with Advanced Refractory Technologies (ART), USA. The company has undertaken many projects involving composites, including a collaboration between DSM-BASF Structural Resins (now DSM Composite Resins), BP-Amoco, Hamon Thermal, Brussels and Bekaert which replaced a 30 year old wooden cooling tower with an isopolyester composite construction. In another project Bekaert supplied pultruded profiles and gratings to Contruplast for a number of projects in harbours and oil and water treatment facilities throughout Europe, including Antwerp. During 1999 the main company acquired 50% of Innovative Specialty Films LLC, USA which makes sputtered films, 51% of Combustion Component Holding NV, Netherlands which makes gas burners and 100% of the Flanders Coating Group, Belgium. The Warrington plant of Tinsley Wire, UK and a Mexican operation were both sold. No company acquisitions or divestments related to the composites business were noted. Sales for 1999 decreased 0.1% from ~ 1.766 million to ~g1.764 million, with sales of steel cord showing a fall. The large increase in the sales from Bekaert Advanced Materials was pardy due to the acquisition of Venderstraeten and Furigas, which added 30% to sales (Table 43).
Table 43 Financial results for Bekaert Group 1998 and 1999 (6000s)
Gross profit
176
1999
1998
280 982
328 674
Cost of sales
96171
97 642
R&D costs
31792
29 476
Profit before tax
83 674
48 735
Consolidated profit
84 718
35 698
Sales for advanced materials
88138
62 338
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
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Corporateprofiles
43 Bibber Parkway Brunswick ME04011 USA Tel: + 1 207 729 7792 Fax: +1 207 729 7877 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.brunswicktech.com Chief Executive Officer and Chairman: Martin S. Grimes Contact: Mark Caron
Brunswick Europe Crown Way Andover SP10 5LU UK Tel: +44 1264 333 400 Fax: +44 1264 359 610 Contact: Malcolm Lee The current chairman formed Brunswick Technologies in 1984. The company manufactures engineered reinforcement materials, known as stitch-bonded or weft-inserted non-crimped fabrics, for use in composite laminates. The global market is seen to be worth US$1.2 billion. Examples of products manufactured with Brunswick Technologies Inc (BTI) reinforcements include: ballistic armour, boats, snowboards, truck panels, wind blades, automotive parts, marine pilings, bridges, and offshore oil and gas production equipment. The company manufactures over 13 000 tonnes per annum of the materials, making it one of the largest such in the world. Products include bi-, tri- and quadri-axials, with fibre orientations from 30 ~ t o - 3 0 ~. Quadri-axial heavyweight composites for use in infrastructure applications, known as White Steel TM and based on glass fibre reinforcement, were developed u n d e r the Federal Technology Programme. In 1999 the company introduced Black Steel TM, which includes all-carbon and hybrid carbon-glass products. Black Steel is available in all BTI fibre architectures in weights ranging from 203.43 to 1695.26 g/m 2 and up to 254 cm wide. One of the earliest applications for the new product was for a hybrid carbon and glass fibre fabric for construction of a stormwater outfall in New Jersey. BTI estimate that they are involved in 70% of the composite bridge deck projects in the USA. Other products are BiTex, which was introduced in 1990, and Cofil. The reinforcement materials have been used in gas and oil infrastructure, marine pilings, recreation components, rail and truck transport, bridges and turbine blades for wind energy generators. The non-crimp multi-axial fabrics are produced in widths over 2.5 m and in weights up to 6 kg/m 2 at high speed in a one-step process. Brunswick is positioning itself as a major supplier of carbon fibre-based products in the USA, and considers that carbon-based products c o m m a n d significantly higher prices than traditional glass fibre-based reinforcements, and could lead to higher profitability levels for BTI in the future. BTI, Europe has one machine dedicated to running carbon fibre, including a heavyweight carbon tow from Zoltek.
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
:1.77
7
Corporateprofiles The wind blade market is an important sector for BTI's reinforcements, but reduced sales in this sector are giving the company cause for concern. This is partly due to the extremely competitive nature of the wind blade business, but other factors are also important. For instance, BTI has a division in the UK that supplies reinforcements to the wind blade market in Europe, but the strength of the p o u n d sterling against the Euro has had a negative effect on demand from customers in mainland Europe, although costs have been contained by more efficient running. The company employs some 176 employees, and considers that it has about 17 small competitors in Europe and two main competitors in the USA: Johnston Composite Industries, which is a subsidiary of Johnston Industries Inc, and Knytex, a subsidiary of Owens Corning. In 1996 Brunswick acquired Advanced Textiles Inc, Texas, a subsidiary of Burlington Industries Inc. In 1998 the company acquired Tech Textiles International (TTI) from T&N (now part of Federal Mogul) for US$5.9 million. TTI is based at Andover, UK and manufactures composite reinforcement materials with sales of US$6 million per annum. The acquisition was managed by Brunswick Technologies Europe Ltd, a wholly owned subsidiary that was formed in 1998 to be responsible for expansion in Europe. The three companies have a similar history, having been formed around 1984 and having difficulty in the initial stages in getting the technology accepted. TTI has a current capacity of 3000 tonnes per annum but is expanding production, with staff numbers rising to 40. A high percentage of sales are made through just five distributors, but supplies direct to composite fabricators increased by 23% in 1997. E-glass was mostly supplied by Vetrotex CertainTeed (55%), PPG (30%) and Owens Coming (7%). Vetrotex, a subsidiary of Saint-Gobain, is a major shareholder in the company with 14% of the shares, although when the agreement with Vetrotex expired in August 1996 Brunswick developed stronger relationships with other suppliers. In May 2000 Vetrotex made an offer for Brunswick that was strongly resisted, but on 13 June the two companies announced that CertainTeed's offer for Brunswick at US$8.50 per share had been accepted. It is thought that the Vetrotex offer is related to a restructuring by Saint-Gobain to place more emphasis on the technical fabrics activity. The Technical Fabrics division comprises Bayex (Canada, USA, China), Vertex (Czech Republic), LMC (Italy) and Tevesa-Icasa (Spain). In 1995 Brunswick had entered into an agreement with Hardcore, Dow Chemical Co and Johns Hopkins University under the Federal Advanced Technology Programme to develop composites for large infrastructure applications. In a further collaboration with Hardcore, Brunswick has supplied engineered composite fabric manufactured under the Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Moulding Process - SCRIMP - for the manufacture of railway cars. True North Composites moulded the composite railcar, but Trinity Industries halted the project. Although disappointing, it is reported that this will not have a material effect on BTI's operations. The company announced a US$2 million expansion in early 1998, including the installation of a high-volume production stitching machine that it considers is unique in the reinforcement market. The machine should give the company an increase in annual capacity of about 4.5 million lbs. The machine has a 00/90 ~ design and manufacturing capability with single-step processing of materials up to 150 inches wide. The materials are primarily used in marine, industrial and transportation applications. A further three machines were installed during 1998-
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7 Corporateprofiles 1999, giving an increased capacity of 10-15 million lbs. Other projected development includes further work with carbon fibre-based processing systems. Brunswick has supplied heavy fabrics to ABB Offshore Technology for use as subsea well protection covers, which protect wellheads from falling debris. The isopolyester resins are supplied by Reichhold Chemicals and DSM Composite Resins, and the composite parts are made by the Norwegian moulder Brodrene AA. Although the material costs for the covers are higher than conventional steel, there is a saving of 20-30% on manufacturing with composite and further savings on installation and maintenance costs. Net earnings during 1999 showed a 14% growth in net income with an improved operating margin, although sales growth was disappointing in the fourth quarter of 1999. The wind turbine blade sales for BTI Europe were disappointing, although there was cautious optimism for results in this area in 2000 (Table 44). Operations in 1999 include a full period of Brunswick Technologies Europe Ltd and 4 months of operations in 1998 w h e n the business was acquired.
Table 44 Financial results for Brunswick Technologies Inc 1995-1999 (US$ millions except per share data) 1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
Net sales
44 584
41422
30 510
19 816
15 476
Cost of goods sold
34 558
32 224
22 807
15 318
11979
Gross profit
10 016
9198
7702
4498
3497
Other operating systems
7536
7234
5924
3521
2492
Operating income
2480
1954
1781
877
Other income (net)
275
422
Income before taxes
2756
2385
Net income
1770
1548
0.202
0.846
0.51
(0.61)
1983
0.928
0.785
1275
0.593
0.097
214 Industrial Lane PO Box 6 Alum Bank PA 15521 USA Tel: + 1 814 839 4186 Fax: + 1 814 839 4276 Internet: www.creativepultrusions.com Managing Director: R. D. Sweet Jr Contact: S. Weyant Creative Pultrusions (CP) was formed in December 1972 by Robert D. Sweet Jr to develop a prototype c o m p o n e n t for General Motors. In the first year of operations he employed seven staff and earned US$250 000. The company is private and does not disclose financial results, although annual sales for the corporation are given as US$35 million.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
11'9
7 Corporate profiles The company grew as a result of product diversification, serving the defence, aerospace, transport, construction and electrical, and consumer industries. After reaching US$1 million in annual sales in 1976, the company located to a larger facility in Alum Bank, Pennsylvania. Creative Pultrusions Inc expanded again in 1988 when it opened its second facility in Roswell, New Mexico and again in 1992 when it enlarged its Alum Bank facility to over 130 000 ft 2. The European Sales Office was established in 1994 to be expanded as a formal division in 1997. Also in 1997, CP acquired Pultrusion Dynamics, Oakwood Village, Ohio as its Pultrusion Technology Centre. The company specializes in the manufacture of custom-pultruded composites. Standard product lines include Pultex TM structural and superstructural profiles of beams, angles, channels, tubes and other components. Pultruded and moulded grating is provided as Supergrate TM and Flowgrip TM flooring, and the company owns the Superdeck TM technology for composite bridge decks. One application of the Superdeck TM technology is currently in use in West Virginia. The company has introduced a new Pulshaping TM pultrusion manufacturing technique. Putrusion Dynamics, the Technology Centre Division of CP, developed the process, which offers variable cross-section features. The concept was developed under an Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) grant from the National Science Foundation. The company produces the industry pultrusion manual including Design manual for standard and custom reinforced structuralprofiles. The company guide to its grating and access structure products includes precise load tables and corrosion specifications. The new and improved version covers global design and has both metric and imperial measurements. Projects by CP have included: 9
9
Q
Q 9 9
The Northwind/Unicom Cooling Tower project, part of a new central energy plant located in Chicago. The towers provide cold water to an ice storage system by evaporative heat and mass transfer cooling. Eleven structural components were produced to match the rest of the structure. Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) fender piling at the Tiffany Street Pier, South Bronx, New York. FRP is ideal for fender piling as it does not require environmentally dangerous coatings, does not require maintenance and is non-corrosive in saltwater, with a weight of 12.1462 lbs per linear foot. The waste-water plant in Milwaukee diverts excess water to deep tunnels from which it is p u m p e d to a treatment plant. The project uses 60 carbon filters as vent deodorizing filter frames, which are constructed from Pultex TM. Ladders, rails and handrails have also been included in the project. Pultex TM products are used in corrosive environments in the chemical industry. Pultruded power poles for Powertrusion 2000 International Inc. Lightweight cross arms (47 lbs which is half the weight of wood) for electrical utility poles in glass fibre reinforced polyester.
Early examples of work with bridge decks include: O
:1.80
The Laurel Lick Bridge, which is 3.7 x 4.9 m, was installed in May 1997. The deck was placed on pultruded flange beams 304.8 x 304.8 x 12.7 mm x 6.1-m wide flange.
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
7
@
Corporateprofiles
The Wickwire Run Bridge was o p e n e d to traffic in September 1997. The modular bridge deck was placed on four longitudinal galvanized steel beams, spaced 1.83 m apart. The bridge size is 9.14 m long • 6.60 m wide.
Superdeck T M has been selected for three bridge repairs in West Virginia. Funding for the bridges is through the Innovative Bridge Repair and Construction Programme and is in excess of US$1 miUion. In 1999 the company increased capacity at the Alum Bank facility, increasing the n u m b e r of production lines to 20 with increases in the individual capacity of each line. In March 2000 Martin Marietta Composites (MMC) and Creative Pultrusions announced a partnership between the two companies in the roads construction and bridge deck markets. The new collaboration will see Creative Pultrusion's Supadeck matching the Duraspan T M product from MMC. Martin Marietta has decks installed in Idaho, California and Ohio, and is u n d e r contract for an installation in New York this year. CP has decks in West Virginia, Ohio and Pennsylvania, and is u n d e r contract for two further installations in West Virginia. The companies will support each other in current contracts and will collaborate in projects that bid for Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) funding. Previously MMC worked with Glasforms Inc and the change is partly on Creative Pultrusions location in the Eastern USA (Glasforms is in San Jose, California), which Martin Marietta sees as the growth market for roads construction and bridge decks. As a result Glasforms has indicated that they have greatly reduced their interest in infrastructure composites.
Suite 2250 1360 Post Oak Boulevard Houston TX 77056 USA Tel: +1 713 627 0933 Fax: +1 713 627 0937 Internet: www.denaliincorporated.com Chief Executive Officer: Richard W. Yolk Contact: Mel Carter Denali is derived from the Native American name for Mount McKinley. The company was formed in December 1994 to acquire the underground storage tanks and related business of Owens Coming. Denali provides products and services for handling critical f l u i d s - those that are commercially valuable or environmentally hazardous - to process industries including petroleum, chemical, pulp and paper, and electric power production. The company estimates that the global market for such systems is around US$200 billion. In 1998 the tank business in the USA showed considerable growth with new regulations from the Environmental Protection Agency requiring changes to the underground storage of petroleum products. These requirements had to be met by 31 December 1998 and following that date the market collapsed. The company manufactures glass fibre composite tanks, vessels and piping, as well as steel above-ground tanks. The company, with nearly 2000 staff, has
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181
7
Corporateprofiles manufacturing plant in the USA, The Netherlands, Germany, UK, Poland, France and Chile, and joint ventures in Venezuela and Thailand. Products in the USA are marketed through its subsidiaries: Containment Solutions Inc (Houston), Ershigs Inc (BeUingham, Washington), Fibercast (Tulsa, Oklahoma) and SEFCO Inc (Tulsa, Oklahoma). In 1997 Denali acquired Ershigs Inc, which makes glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) products for handling corrosive liquids. During 1998 the company also acquired SEFCO, LaValley Construction and Fibercast, which manufactures GFRP piping for corrosion-resistant applications. In 1999 Denali purchased the outstanding stock of Belco Manufacturing Companies, a Belton, Texas based manufacturer of GFRP tanks, vessels and piping systems whose products are primarily sold to the water/waste-water and oil and gas industries. Belco's calendar year 1998 revenues were approximately US$8 million. In the same year Denali also completed the acquisition of 100% of the outstanding stock of PlastiFab Inc, Tualatin, Oregon. Plasti-Fab makes glass fibre reinforced flumes and metering stations to the water and waste-water industries. The company's revenue for 1998 was US$4.5 million. In 1999 Denali purchased the Dutch company Welna NV, which designs, manufactures and installs corrosion-resistant FRP pipe systems and vessels for various industries, including chemicals, pulp and paper, microelectronics and power stations. It also has a trading company that specializes in providing engineered systems for power generation, water treatment, and paper and chemical processing industries. The total transaction is valued at approximately US$55 million. Denali and Welna will together have approximately US$250 million in annual revenues, with manufacturing locations in the United States, The Netherlands, Germany, France, the UK, Poland, Venezuela, and Thailand. The Welna companies will continue to operate autonomously. Initially, financial results for 1999 were optimistic with net income for the third quarter, ended 27 March 1999, at US$195 000 on revenues of US$36.3 million. Compared with the same quarter the prior year, revenues increased 68%; earnings, before extraordinary charges, increased 250% to US$476000 from US$135 000. For the nine months ended 27 March 1999, compared with the nine months ended 28 March 1998, revenues increased over 60% to US$110.2 million from US$68.5 million. For the same periods, net income increased 190% to US$3.1 million from US$1.06 million, excluding the impact of non-recurring compensation and extraordinary charges in both years. At that point, the then President Edward de Boer said: "Sales of our glass fibre reinforced plastic u n d e r g r o u n d tanks is strong, resulting primarily from demand in new construction. The order inquiry rate for corrosion-resistant products associated with the pulp and paper and power markets has also shown growth in this quarter". Revenues for the second quarter of fiscal year 2000 showed a 29% increase to US$49,550000, up from US$38.3 million; however, there was a net loss for the second quarter of US$960 000 compared with a net gain in the preceding quarter of US$916 000. In February 2000 Denali announced that it had signed an a m e n d m e n t with its US bank on its domestic revolving credit facility. Covenants relating to earnings were recently breached due to lower than expected results from US operations during the second quarter of the fiscal year 2000. Later the Chief Executive Officer and
:1.82
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
7 Corporateprofiles President resigned and was replaced by Richard Volk, who had been chairman of the company. In May 2000 the company signed a letter of intent with William Blair Mezzanine Capital Fund III in which the Fund invested US$28 million in Denali. Third quarter earnings for the period ending 31 March 2000 resulted in a loss of US$0.29 or US$0.31 a share. This was blamed on a weak US market for storage tanks caused by mergers within the industry. In June 2000 this arrangement was revised with the investment reduced to US$23 million. Denali's listing of c o m m o n stock was moved from the Nasdaq national market to the Nasdaq small cap market with effect from 1 May 2000.
Table 45 Financial results for Denali Inc 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 (US$OOOs) Year
Sales
Net income/loss
1995
17 799
(43)
1996
53354
(834)
1997
71101
317
1998
99897
329
1999
148 760
4120
Devonport Royal Dockyard Plymouth PL1 4SG UK Tel: +44 1752 605665 Fax: +44 1752 552852 Chief Executive Officer: Dr D Gilbert Contact: Frazer Barnes Tel: +44 1752 553042 Not many composite companies can boast a history dating back to 1691 when, as the Royal Dockyard, it was commissioned by William of Orange to support naval activity in the Western Approaches. Although there have been major changes in structure and work since those days the principal activities of DML are still the refitting and maintenance of naval vessels, including warships and submarines, and their associated equipment. The company was formed in 1987 by Brown & Root, the Weir Group and BICC to manage the Royal Dockyard and the consortium bought the dockyard from the UK government in 1997. The ultimate parent is the HaUiburton Co, which is incorporated in Delaware, USA whose subsidiary Dorhold Ltd, incorporated in England, is the immediate parent. The Ministry of Defence is still their main customer but there is a growing commercial directorate that was established w h e n the first steps towards privatization were taken in 1987, and the composites business forms part of that element. DML has been a fully private company since 1997.
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7 Corporateprofiles Overall, DML employs about 3500 people and has a turnover of some s million. In the defence sector DML's primary function is to support the Royal Navy by maintaining, refitting and modernizing surface ships and their weaponry, and providing management support to the submarine fleet. The company is accredited to ISO 9001 and has NAMAS (National Measurement Accreditation Service) accreditation for calibration and testing. There are three commercial businesses in Devonport: the DML Rail Support business refurbishes railway diesel engines, generators, coaches and a range of other railway equipment, and, as Devonport Yachts, the company builds and refits power and sailing yachts. The Composites business is part of the growing commercialization and comprises design and production units that support product groups providing products and services to the offshore and civil engineering industries. The company has pioneered techniques in which metal structures can be strengthened by in situ bonding of carbon fibre reinforcements and this process has been applied in the offshore oil and gas industry, in railway tunnels and on board warships. Composite production capacity is some 300 tonnes per annum and there is a staff of 60. The current business focuses of the Composites Division are: 9 9 9
R & D - aimed at enabling use of innovative technology in offshore and civil engineering and consultancy to other members of the Group. Offshore e n g i n e e r i n g - rehabilitation of existing structures and equipment, and deepwater structures. Civil e n g i n e e r i n g - rehabilitation of bridges, tunnels and buildings, and antiterrorist systems.
The business utilizes a wide range of production techniques, including prepreg, resin infusion and pultrusion. DML has been awarded patents for infrastructure repair technology in Europe (EP 0827563) and the USA (US 5879778) using its resin infusion process. Since 1995 the technique has been used for the repair or strengthening of 12 offshore oil and gas production platforms, four London Underground structures, three road bridges and four Royal Navy destroyers. A wide variety of carbon fibre materials are used, mainly high- and ultra-highmodulus fibres, which form the basis of the strengthening schemes for cast-iron and steel structures. Glass fibres are also used for some very large structures or as an additional element within structures otherwise using carbon fibres. The DML system for reinforcing bridges is based on the use on unstressed systems using ultra-high-modulus carbon fibre as opposed to the Mouchel system, which uses pre-stressed plates. DML claim ease of use/installation and lower costs with their system. In the anti-terrorist projects, glass fibre is used rather than aramids as it was found that aramids did not perform as well as glass once impregnated with resin. DML has worked with Sumitomo in Europe and Japan using their highmodulus fibres. The major markets which DML serves are: offshore, in which they claim 50% of the UK pipe repair business; and civil engineering, in which they claim 30% of the UK business. The main focus of the offshore work is pipe repairs, blast wall strengthening and deep-water structures. The main business in civil engineering is bridge, tunnel and building rehabilitation, and anti-terrorist systems. DML is now seeking to develop the export market for products that have been proven in the UK, and their major focus is towards the US, Europe and the Far East.
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Clients for the pipe strengthening and repair service include Amerada Hess, AMEC, BP, Kerr McGee, Mobil, Shell and Texaco. In addition to the strengthening of the London Underground structures (given in the Chapter 6), DML has also undertaken blast strengthening of the Mobil Beryl B and BP Cleeton oil and gas platforms. The composites business has grown from s 000 in 1994, to approximately s million in 1999. The completion of major R&D programmes is acting as a catalyst to much greater use of composites in offshore and civil engineering, and it is expected that the market for these products for the rehabilitation of existing structures and equipment will continue to expand rapidly. The increased use in such schemes is expected to increase acceptance of composites for new structures, which will lead to further growth of the market for composites in offshore and civil engineering. Approximately s million has been invested in R&D between 1995 and 2000.
Table 46 Financial results for DML Ltd 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 8 (s 1995
1996
1997 a
1998
Turnover
224 248
200 660
218 783
262 963
Cost of sales
216 228
193 662
206 916
246 358
Operating profit
8024
7001
11822
16 605
Profit after tax
4904
5055
8112
11572
aOwing to a change in accounting period this covers only the 9 months March-December 1997.
DML considers that the greater use of composites in infrastructure and civil engineering is being hampered by: 9 9 9 9 9
lack of design data; lack of design standards; validation of design methods; end use concerns about durability and fire performance; and end user concerns about cost.
Consequently, particular efforts are being made on the development of materials data and design codes, and demonstration of durability. A design manual was developed between 1994 and 1996, and is being updated to include additional data and information. The manual aims to present best practice in terms of composite design and the design of structures strengthened using composites. It includes data for more than 50 types of composite material manufactured using representative processes and quality control techniques, including adhesive bonds between composites and steel, stainless steel and cast iron. Data are included for such effects as fatigue, creep, environmental/chemical degradation, impact and fire performance.
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2030 Dow Center Midland MI 48674-2030 USA Tel: + 1 517 636 1000 Internet: www.dow.com Internet: www.derakane.com President and Chief Executive Officer: William S. Stavropoulos Contact: Mark Sullivan D o w E u r o p e SA Bachtobelstrasse 3 Horgen 8810 Switzerland Tel: +41 7227 913 913 Fax: +31 20 691 6418 Managing Director: Reiner Schumacher The scale of the Dow operations can be seen in figures that show that it has 14 global business employing 39200 people and 123 manufacturing sites in 32 countries supplying 2400 products. Within the composites industry Dow is known for its manufacture of a wide range of chemicals including solvents, acrylics, thermoplastic resins, emulsion polymers, engineering plastics, over 80 epoxy products, oxides and glycol, performance polymers, and polyethylene, polystyrene. Notable products include the epoxies Derakane TM and Novolac TM. In 2000 Dow expanded its production facilities for liquid epoxy resins at the Freeport, Texas facility by 40 000 tonnes, with an expansion of 115000 tonnes for epichlorohydrin. Three new epoxy powder-coating resins have been introduced in the last four years. A major new material is the Fulcrum TM thermoplastic, which will make it possible to produce pultruded shapes in thermoplastic. Poor impregnation and lack of adhesion to the matrix have previously limited thermoplastics in continuous fibre composites. However, Dow has produced a unique resin technology in combination with special fabrication techniques. The company has a joint venture with United T e c h n o l o g i e s - Dow United T e c h n o l o g i e s - for the production of composites based on the resin transfer moulding (RTM) process AdvRTM, which is widely used in the aerospace industry. The process uses automation to ensure the careful placing of fibres giving the tight tolerances required by the industry. The joint venture with Coming - Dow C o r n i n g - faced huge claims for damages as a result of problems with silicone breast implants. In 1993 the company embarked on a restructuring of its operations and in succeeding years it divested 40% of its assets, including US$10 billion of nonstrategic business such as DowBrands, Destec and Marion MerreU Dow. New business now accounts for 60% of earnings and the aim is for 70% of business to come from performance products. Expenditure of US$10 billion has included US$5 billion in new capacity additions and US$5 billion in acquisitions, including Sentrachem, BSL and Mycogen. The trough in the chemical industry during 1999 hit Dow, as most other chemical companies, with severe cuts in pricing and sales. However, the restructuring exercise had reduced structural costs by US$2.4
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billion and the company considers that it has increased productivity by 10% per annum. The latest major change in the company's approach illustrates the development of even larger companies in the chemical industry. In August 1999 Dow and Union Carbide announced a proposed merger with the intention of completion by the first quarter of 2000. Owing to the need for regulatory agreement from authorities in North America and Europe this has now slipped to the third quarter of 2000. Under the agreement Union Carbide shareholders will receive 0.537 shares in Dow for each Union Carbide share. Based on Dow's closing price on 3 August 1999 (the announcement date) the transaction is valued at US$11.6 billion, including the assumption of US$2.3 billion of net debt. The Chief Executive Officer of Union Carbide will join the Board of Dow as Vice-President and one other Union Carbide Board member will join the combined Board. Union Carbide holds a leading position in solvents and intermediates to the paint and coating industry, and is one of the largest manufacturers of polyethylene and polypropylene. In other products unsaturated polyester (UP) is the largest producer of ethylene oxide. The merger will create the world's second largest chemical company with a market capitalization of some US$35 billion and assets of over US$30 billion. The combined company will have operations in 168 countries and employ around 49000 people. The companies hope to achieve annual cost savings of US$500 million and a reduction in workforce of 4%. The company ownership will be 75% for Dow shareholders and 25% for Union Carbide.
Table 47 Financial figures for Dow and Union Carbide (US$ billions) Dow Sales EBITDAa Net income
Union Carbide
Combined
18.4
5.7
24.1
3.6
1.0
4.6
1.4
0.3
1.7
Market capitalization at 3 August 1999
28.0
6.7
34.7
Total assets
23.1
7.3
30.4
5.5
2.3
7.8
Debt
aEarnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization.
In ethylene production Dow has plants in Canada, USA, The Netherlands, Thailand, Germany and Argentina, whilst Union Carbide has plants in Canada and the USA, and also in France, Italy, Kuwait, Brazil and Malaysia. There will be 83% capacity in plant with production of 600 000 tonnes a year rising to over I million tonnes by the end of 2002; 45% of the plant will be less than 10 years old. Ethylene oxide is running at 98% o f capacity on a world scale to produce over 250 000 tonnes, which will rise to some 300000 tonnes by the end of 2002. As with ethylene, 45% of capacity is less than 10 years old, which would indicate a requirement for investment in plant in both areas. After the merger adhesives, sealants and coatings will be a US$4 billion business for Dow. Dow has major product lines in ethylene, polyethylene, speciality chemicals, adhesives, sealants and coatings, ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol, chloralkali, and
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
18"/'
7 Corporateprofiles other thermosets and thermoplastics. Union Carbide has strengths in ethylene, polyethylene, speciality chemicals and additives, adhesives, sealants and coatings, ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol, and wire and cable compounds. Geographical sales divisions for the two companies show that Dow sells 45% of its products in North America compared with 60% for Union Carbide. Europe takes a higher percentage of Dow's sales at 35% compared with Union Carbide's 15%, and the rest of the world covers 20% for Dow and 25% for Union Carbide. The combined company would have sales of 50% in North America, 30% in Europe and 20% in the rest of the world. Other acquisitions in 1999 include Angus Chemical, which manufactures speciality chemicals for personal care, water treatment, pharmaceutical and biochemical products. The General Purpose Rubber business with manufacturing plants in France and The Netherlands was acquired from Shell Chemical Ltd. Dow AgroSciences reached a toll manufacturing agreement with Monsanto and a joint venture in Italy with Finagro SpA. The remaining shares in Safripol, a polyolefins joint venture in South Africa, were also acquired and a joint venture in China with Dow's partner Shenzhen OCT Petroleum Trading Co was established with the permission of the Chinese government. In another purchase in May 2000, Dow bought General Latex Inc. In June 2000 Dow assumed full ownership of Buna Sow Leuna Olefinverbund GmbH. The company had been formed in 1995 from Buna GmbH, Sachsusche Olefinwerke GmbH and Leuna Polyolefin GmbH, and in the same year Dow took 80% of the shares with an investment of US$2.5 billion. The company will n o w be known as Dow Central Germany. In the first quarter of 2000 sales were US$5.38 billion compared to US$4.42 billion in the same period in 1999. The different business sectors show interesting differences between growth/decrease by volume and growth/decrease by price (Table 49).
Table 48 Financial results for Dow Chemical 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 (US$ billion) 1999
1998
1996
1995
Net sales
18 929
18 441
20 018
20 053
20 200
Cost of sales
14 302
13 799
14 679
14 108
13 337
R&D spending EBITa
845
807
785
761
808
2476
2366
3237
3492
3669
Net income
1326
1304
1802
1900
2071
Total assets
25 499
23 830
24 040
24 673
23 582
2552
1198
1629
4276
5451
Working capital
aEarnings before interest and taxes.
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Table 49 Comparison by business sector on Dow's sales first quarters 1999-2000 Volume %
Price %
Performance Plastics
14
(5)
Performance Chemicals
21
(6)
Agricultural Plastics
(5)
(3)
18
32
Chemical
1
31
Hydrocarbon and Energy
5
64
10
12
3
10
Average Geographical - USA - Europe
12
11
- Rest of the world
17
20
10
12
Average
The largest growth in sales was outside North America with a 26% increase in Asia, 10% in Latin America and 12% in Europe. These sales increases came with a 30% increase in resin prices. The sales figures for the Performance Plastics business indicates some of the problems faced by the chemical industry in recent years (Table 50).
Table 50 Sales and earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) for Dow's Performance Plastics business 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 (US$ billions) Year
Sales
EBIT
1999
5247
1052
1998
5076
1089
1997
5207
1040
1996
5270
1224
1995
5229
1065
Although there are hopes for improvement in 2000, some concerns still remain. Within the products covered within this report Engineering Plastics sales increased 29% in volume but decreased 6% in price. Epoxy products increased 6% in volume and decreased 8% in price. Dow certainly hopes that the merger with Union Carbide will continue the costcutting trend to give improved profitability.
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PO Box 615 NL-8000 AP ZwoUe The Netherlands Tel: + 31 38 456 9660 Fax: +31 38 456 9502 Internet: www.dsm.com Chairman: Peter Elverding Contact: Jan Muller E-mail:
[email protected] DSM Composites Resins Inc 11501 Steele Creek Road Charlotte NC 28273 USA Tel: + 1 704 587 8240 Fax: + 1 704 587 8117 DSM was established in 1902 as a mining operation by the Dutch government, followed by a coke and coke-oven gas plant in 1920 and a fertilizer plant in 1930. The end of World War II saw a major expansion in the chemical business and from 1965 coal mining was phased out as a business, with the last colliery closing in 1973. In 1989 the company was privatized and listed on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange; a restructuring and decentralizing process began in 1992. In the early 1980s the company had considerable business in fertilizers but has moved in recent years to polymers, fibres and intermediates for pharmaceuticals. Sales by end-use markets for 1999 with the main markets for 1995 (given in brackets) were: 9 Q 9 9 Q Q 9 9 Q 9
Pharmaceuticals- 15%; Building/Construction- 9% (10%); Agriculture - 6% (9%); T e x t i l e s - 6%; Automotive/Transport- 14% (14%); P a c k a g i n g - 13% (14%); F o o d - 12%; Electrics/Electronics - 10%; Metals/Machines - 4%; O t h e r - 11%.
Consumer Products took 8% of sales in 1995. In general, DSM sales can be divided as Polymers and Industrial Chemicals, 43%; Performance Materials, 29%; Life Sciences, 26%; and other markets including DSM Energy, 2%. As part of the change in business direction DSM bought Chemie Linz, Austria and Deretil, Spain in 1996. Vestolen, Germany, a polyolefin producer, was acquired in 1997 with investment in two new production plants. Curver was sold in the same year. 1998 saw a major purchase of Gist-Brocades and there were also purchases of several small companies. 1999 was, therefore, seen as a year of consolidation and included the settlement of a patent dispute with AlliedSignal Inc, USA over the high-molecular-weight polyethylene fibres marketed as Dyneema by DSM and
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7 Corporateprofiles Spectra by AlliedSignal. However, there were some changes involving a 50-50 joint venture with Repsol, Spain for acrylonitrile outside Europe. In February 1999 DSM sold the ABS business to BASF and took over the co-polyester business of General Electric, Lomod, The Netherlands. Unsaturated polyester (UP) resins are seen as core business for DSM Composite Resins and so the company sold its resin compounding business known as DSM Compounds to Menzolit-Fibron, Bretton, Germany (part of Dynamit Nobel) in November 1999. DSM Engineering Plastic Products also divested some non-core businesses in Belgium, Germany and the USA. Theses were balanced by acquisitions in India and China. DSM-BASF was formed on 1 January 1997 when DSM purchased 60% of BASF Structural Resins. In April 2000 the company changed its name to DSM Composite Resins, splitting off the tanks and pipes segments into a separate group. In the next few years the emphasis will be on DSM Composite Resins as the marketing name. The company is the largest supplier of UP resins in Europe (a position also claimed by Ashland), although DSM probably has around 28% and is the fourth largest in the world. As DSM-BASF, the company closed a number of smaller or older plants, notably Ludwigshafen, Germany but brought on stream a new reactor at Schoonebeek, The Netherlands raising capacity by 50000 tonnes per annum. The company has a toll production agreement with AOC to produce resin for each other. Takeda, Japan also works with DSM and AOC on the exchange of product know-how and undertakes joint R&D. The company will continue with the informal arrangements with AOC and Takeda, although they feel that the experience of Takeda whose resins business is largely oriented towards SMC for sanitary ware has only a specific Japanese application. The hot tubs used in Japan have high specification standards as they are frequently fed by hot springs and this technology is not generally applicable outside Japan. The Performance Materials Division comprises DSM Elastomers, DSM Engineering Plastics, DSM Coating Resins, DSM Composite Resins and DSM Engineering Plastics Products. DSM Engineering Plastics was formed when DSM traded its coatings business with Akzo NV in exchange for its engineering resins business. The company produces fibre reinforced thermoplastics, primarily in nylon and propylene but also including acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, and such high-temperature resins as polyphenylene sulphide, poletherimide and polyetheretherketone. Reinforcement fibres include glass, aramid and carbon fibres. DSM Composite Resins produces mostly unsaturated polyester resins used with glass fibre reinforced composites. Products include Synolite, Palatal, Atlac, Palapreg, Daron, Neogel and Neoxy. The Synolite products are low-styrene emission polyester resins designed for open mould processes. Table 51 Sales for DSM Performance Materials Divison 1998 and 1999 (6 million)
DSM Elastomers
1999
1998
491
478
DSM Engineering Resins
487
438
DSM Coating Resins
381
349
DSM Composite Resins
306
322
DSM Engineering Plastics products Total
235
337
1900
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7 Corporateprofiles Table 52 Net sales for DSM clusters 1998 and 1999 (~ millions) 1999
1998
Life Science Products
1666
1681
Performance Materials
1835
1868
Polymers and Industrial Chemicals
2704
2679
128
133
6333
6361
Other activities Total
The financial results for the company as a whole are given in Table 53. DSM aims for growth of 6% per annum and, although not making this in the sales for 1999, it was achieved in volume. However, the results for the second quarter of 2000 were much improved with net returns of ~g169 million, which is twice the return for the same period in 1999. Sales on Performance Materials increased by 18% in the period and a u t o n o m o u s growth was 15%, which was spread amongst all units.
Table 53 DSM financial results 1998 and 1999 (6 millions) 1999 Net sales
6333
6361
Total operating income
6496
6504
Total operating costs
(5942)
(5918)
Operating result
554
586
Net result
371
415
7.11
Hamon
Thermal
Europe SA
Rue Capouillet 50--58 1060 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32 2 535 12 11 Fax: +32 2 535 13 31 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.hamon.com Chief Executive Officer: Francis Lambilliotte Contact: Huong Tran H a m o n Corp Inc
Hamon Corp Plaza 58-72 East Main Street Somerville NJ 08876 USA
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7 Corporateprofiles Tel: + 1 908 685 4000 Fax: + 1 908 333 2152 E-marl: info:
[email protected] Hamon Corp was formed by Achille Hamon in Pails in 1904 to manufacture wet cooling towers for the mining and steel industries. In 1927 his brother, Maurice Hamon, founded Sobelco to develop and supply condensing systems for power plants, and the two companies merged in 1968. The company made progress but expanded more rapidly in 1964 with the first large order for the US market of four natural draught cooling towers. In the decade 1970-1980 Hamon expaded into Germany, the UK, Australia and South Africa, also building most of the natural draught cooling towers for the French nuclear power programme. 1980-1985 saw expansion into the US market, and the 1980s saw major acquisitions and expansion in product and geographical markets. In 1985 Hamon acquired Spiro-Gills, France, which makes finned tubes and air coolers to move into process heat exchangers. In the same year Hamon acquired Ateliers Francoise D'Hondt, Belgium, which manufactures air-cooled heat exchangers, and Biraghi a French manufacturer of finned tubes for boilers. In 1987 Hamon acquired Air Industrie Thermique, France a supplier of heat recovery systems. A move into Asia saw the establishment of Hamon Korea as a joint venture with a local partner. The 1990s saw further company acquisitions starting with Film Cooling Towers, UK a leading manufacturer in the UK of cooling towers. 1992 was an active year with the sale of Sobelco to GEC Alsthom, as the company was no longer consider to be core business. However, SCAM, Hamon's challenger for cooling systems in France, was bought as was Brown Fintube, France which manufactures hairpin heat exchangers. In addition, a joint venture was established by Hamon B G i m m with a local partner. The five years from 1993 to 1998 saw considerable company movements: 9
1993 - H a m o n - L u m m u s was established with ABB Lummus for the development of dry cooling sy\stems; - the construction of the largest seawater cooling tower (74 cells), fully precast at Crystal River, USA; construction of the largest natural draught cooling tower in the world (1500 MW) at Civaux, France, which is 180 m tall. 1995 - H a m o n established offices in China, Malaysia, Japan and Indonesia. 1 9 9 6 - a joint venture with CIFA Prognetti, Milan; of the industrial chimneys business of Recci and Poretti Companies, which were renamed Hamon Poretti Chimneys; - construction of the world's largest w e t - d r y cooling tower (40 cells), fully cast at Manchester, UK. 1 9 9 7 - acquisition of FBM Hudson Italiana, which manufactured process heat exchangers; initial public offering of Hamon shares on the Brussels Stock Exchange in June; acquisition of 30% of GEI, Bhopal, the Indian leader in air-cooled heat exchangers; acquisition of the ABB Lummus shares in H a m o n - L u m m u s so that the company is now 100% owned by Hamon. 1998acquisition of Thermopack Engineers Pvt Ltd, India, which manufactures wet cooling systems; - acquisition of three worldwide activities of Air & Water Technologies, USA: Custodis (chimneys); Research Cottrell (air pollution control); and Thermal -
Q 9
- a c q u i s i t i o n
9
-
-
-
Q
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7 Corporateprofiles Transfer Corp (heat recovery); - acquisition of Babcock Enterprise license for the manufacture and sale of
process gas boilers; establishing H a m o n do Brasil; - construction of the second largest air-cooled steam condenser built in Europe for a UK combined heat and power plant. 2 0 0 0 - in January Hamon acquired a 25% stake in a Belgian start-up company Undatim Ultrasonics SA, providing water treatment systems using semi-open circuits. Systems have already been installed in Dow Coming, SmithKline Beecham Verreries d'Arc and Proctor & Gamble, and show pay-back in I year; in February H a m o n acquired Apparatebau Rothemuhle Brandt + Kritler GmbH, a leading German company which specializes in heat recovery and air pollution control, has a strong presence in Eastern Europe and strong links with German engineering industry. Turnover in 1999 was ~52 million; in May Hamona acquired 60% of the Brazilian company Fluid Dynamics Tratamento de Ar e Gases Ltda, which specialized in the field of air pollution control. The company had sales in 1999 of ~g6 million and some 50 employees. -
-
-
Hamon is moving strongly into the US market for control of nitrous oxides, and has received orders worth ~ 8 million in 2000 for de-NOx systems for combined heat and power plants. The US market is now forming a considerable portion of the business, having grown from 10% in 1998 to an estimated 25% in 2000. Hamon has invested in a new production line at its factory at Thermal Transport Corp, USA. Other orders include one for ~70 million for three air-cooled steam condensers for power plants in the USA. The attraction of the US market can be seen in the good performance in the USA for pollution control equipment, which has shown a lower growth in Europe. The US energy market is showing signs of recovery; whilst in Europe and Asia it is still stagnant with France making a weak contribution to the heat recovery activities. It is interesting to note that of the extensive list of cooling towers supplied by Hamon the largest number are in concrete with a smaller number in wood. Only a minority of cooling towers are manufactured in fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) and most of those are in the USA. There is severe market pressure on wet cooling systems. The Chief Executive Officer expects sales to grow by 25% in 2000, but the net results will be lower indicating p o o r margins. The Air Pollution Control Division has generated growth on a global basis, with the power sectors in the USA and Australia making contributions. The first 4 months of 2000 have seen new orders worth ~176 million, which is an increase of 39% over the same period in the previous year, although this reduces to 28% at unchanged investment in affiliates (Table 54).
Table 54 Financial results for Hamon Thermal 1995-1999 (~ millions)
Operating revenue EBITDAa
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
408.5
355.6
309.9
224.6
221.5
24
18
10.9
11.6
EBITb
19.5 8.9
15.6
11
6
6
Net operating profit
5.1
10.1
6.4
4.4
2.7
Net operating profit after tax
5.2
8.2
5.5
3.9
2.8
aEarnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization. bEarnings before interest and taxes.
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The costs of a group restructuring gave a negative result of •3.7 million. The results w h e n divided by Division were as shown in Table 55.
Table 55 Sales by division for Hamon Thermal 1999 (4~ millions) Value (~ million)
%
Cooling systems
162.5
39.2
Process heat exchangers
104.9
25.3
Heat recovery and air pollution control
117.7
28.5
Chimneys
28.7
Other
O.7
Sub-total Inter-divisional sales Total
7 N/A
414.5
-
6.1
-
420.6
100
N/A, not available.
618 Lambsons Lane New Castle DE 19720 USA Tel: +1 302 442 5900 Fax: +1 302 442 5901 Internet: www.hardcorecomposites.com Chief Executive Officer: Scott Hemphill Contact: Mark Ewen E-mail:
[email protected] Hardcore Composites is particularly concerned with the development of glass and carbon fibre reinforced composite products such as bridge decking and support, tubular piling and dock constructions. Hardcore was originally part of DuPont but was bought by Harris Specialty Chemicals in early 1999 and then subsequently acquired by SKW-MBTAG, Munich, a construction chemicals group, who placed it as a division of Master Builders Inc. In May 2000 the company was sold to a combination of a management buy-out headed by its Chief Executive Officer and an outside group headed by Zoltek Inc. Seventy per cent of the equity is owned by the management in the new company u n d e r the leadership of Chief Executive Officer Scott Hemphill, who was formerly general manager of the Hardcore Composites Division of Master Builders. Zoltek has the option to exchange the remaining Hardcore shares for Zoltek shares in the next two years. In December 1999 the National Composite Center (NCC), Kettering, Ohio selected Hardcore for a US$7 million contract for the production of composite bridge deck panels. The contract is phase one of the NCC three-phase 'Project 100' contract that will be valued at US$20 million, with US$13 million coming
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7 Corporateprofiles from Ohio State and the remainder from local counties. Ohio's bridge deck programme aims to install composite bridge decks on 100 short-span bridges throughout the state within six years. FRP technology is being developed as a supplement to conventional steel reinforcing bar (rebar), establishing a core body of work and reducing the costs of composite decks. The cost for a conventional deck system was US$30 per ft 2 and composite will cost US$75 per ft 2, with the county divisions in the State paying the base figure and the State coveting the difference between existing and new technology. Hardcore will use E-glass knit fabrics from Brunswick Technologies Inc and Derakane TM epoxy vinyl ester from Dow Chemical using the Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Molding Process (SCRIMP) from Seeman, which has been used in other infrastructure applications. There were three bids for the contract and the other two companies specified pultruded FRP deck designs. Most of the bridges are two-lanes of about 24 ft width, and vary between 40 and 50 ft long, although one bridge which may be considered later in the project is 500 ft long and has multiple spans. The programme aims to install some 750 000 ft 2 of FRP decks. Hardcore has manufactured and delivered 10 highway traffic-bearing bridges/ bridge decks in the last four years making it the largest supplier in this market, and also delivered and installed the first composite bridge deck in April 2000 under the Ohio State 'Project 100' programme. Hardcore was also responsible for the Cape May-Lewes Ferry piling project in Delaware in which 18 glass/vinyl ester piles made by Hardcore replaced existing timber piles. The composite piles were produced by SCRIMP technology and are 12.75 inches in diameter and 65 ft long, weighing 700 lbs each. In total, the project used 5.9 tonnes of composite. The total wall thickness is 0.40 inches, including 0.30 of stitch-bonded fabric from Brunswick. The fabric included continuous strand E-glass from PPG and used Derakane 411-PC100 epoxy vinyl ester from Dow to give a pile with 60% fibre volume. In the three-layer fabric the majority of the fibres are aligned in the axial direction (0 ~ with the remainder in the +__45 ~ direction for shear/hoop confinement. After being driven into place with a vibratory hammer each pile was filled with 1350 kg of concrete to give four times the bending stiffness and three times the strength of timber piles. The timber piles had to be replaced at 18-month intervals and had to be treated with chemicals, but after one year no wear or deterioration were noted and there was no damage from marine borers.
281 Tresser Boulevard Stamford CT 06901-3238 USA Tel: + 1 203 969 0666 Fax: +1 203 358 3973 5794 W. Las Positas Boulevard Pleasanton CA 94588 USA Tel: + 1 510 847 9500
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Internet: www.hexcel.com Chairman and Chief Executive Officer: John J. Lee Contact: Stephen C. Forsythe Hexcel Civil Engineering & Construction Systems 5794 W Las Positas Boulevard Pleasanton CA 94588 USA Tel: + 1 925 847 9500 Fax: + 1 925 416 7751 E-marl:
[email protected] Contact: Fred Isley Hexcel manufactures carbon fibres, fabrics, composites and other products for use in aerospace (both civil and military), defence, recreation and general industrial applications. The product range includes polymer matrix prepregs, honeycomb cores, adhesives, structural fabrics and laminates. The composites are made from epoxy, polyimide, cyanate ester and other resins reinforced with carbon fibre, aramid, glass, quartz or ceramic fibres. The corporation is unusual, in US terms, in being vertically integrated. It shares this position with many Japanese companies and with Hercules, which it acquired in 1996. Hexcel consumes about 25% of its own fibre, fabric and composite material internally, with the balance being sold to external customers and markets. It also buys in products such as carbon textiles from Toray for further processing and manufacture. Hexcel manufactures lightweight, high-performance carbon fibres, structural fabrics, composite materials and engineered products for aerospace, defence, recreation and general industrial applications. Product lines include polymer matrix prepregs, honeycomb core, adhesives, fabrics and laminates made from epoxy, bismaleimide (BMI), polyimide, cyanate ester and other resins reinforced with carbon fibre, aramid, glass, quartz and ceramic fibres. The company has a diverse background and has grown from the following strands: 9 Q 9 9 Q 9 9 9
California Reinforced Plastics Co; Pierre Genin & Cie, Lyon, France; Aero Research Ltd, Duxford, UK; Heath Tecna Plastics; Danutec, formed by Chemie Linz AG, Austria; Ciba Composites; Hercules Inc; ICI Fiberite.
Pierre Genin, Heath Tecna and Danutec brought specialist skills in weaving and laminates to the operation. In February 1996, Hexcel acquired Ciba Composites in a deal with Ciba-Geigy, which left Ciba Specialty Chemicals Corp owning 48.9% of Hexcel. This was followed by the acquisition of Hercules composite and carbon fibre operations in June 1996. Hexcel acquired the Fiberite satellite prepreg business, which had been sold by ICI, for US$37 million in September 1997 with the remainder of the operation bought by Cytec. Hexcel has a 45% interest in a joint venture with Dainippon Ink and Chemicals, Japan for the manufacture of Nomex T M honeycomb and other products for the Japanese
Composites in Infrastructure - Building New Markets
19"i
7 Corporateprofiles market. In September 1998 Hexel acquired certain assets of Clark-Schwebel, a manufacturer of glass fibre fabric used in printed circuit boards that operated in the Southeastern USA. Through this it also acquired a 43.3% share in AsahiSchwebel, which has a joint venture with AiliedSignal in the USA and a 50% share in Clark-Schwebel Tech-Fab Co in the USA. Another acquisition in Germany meant that the company then owned glass fibre fabric producers serving both the European and Asian markets. However, Hexcel closed the US Clark-Schwebel plant in September 1999 owing to competition from overseas. A joint venture with Fyfe Associates (who undertake infrastructure rehabilitation) has been sold to Fyfe and a joint venture with the Knytex Co has been sold to Owens Coming; the company has also sold its resins business. In 1993 Hexcel had to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, partly as a result of a heavy dependence on US defence spending which was severely cut at the end of the Cold War. Hexcel has always had a strong dependence on aerospace and 64% of 1997 sales came from this market, although the company hopes to reduce this below 50% by 2001. The downturn in orders from Boeing has had a serious effect on sales in 1999. Boeing delivered 620 aircraft in 1999, but has publicly announced that it expects to deliver only about 480 aircraft in 2000. Sales percentages between markets are: Industrial, US$211 million (18%); Electronics, US$166 million (14%); Space and Defence, US$132 million (11%); and Commercial Aerospace, US$642 million (57%). In the outlook for 2000 Electronics is seen as a highly competitive market with strong pricing restrictions; Aerospace will see a decline for Boeing deliveries but hoped-for increases from Airbus and Space and Defence are considered to have little growth. In October 1997 Hexcel established Hexcel Ventures to develop new markets such as infrastructure, automotive and industrial applications. The desire to move outside the aerospace industry lead to an alliance in April 1998 between Hexcel Civil Engineering & Construction Systems and Sika AG to develop and market composite systems for the construction industry, with Hexcel manufacturing the structural materials used in the Sika CarboDur trade name. Much of this product would be for large-tow carbon fibre, not the small-tow material that is made inhouse for the aerospace industry. Increases in capacity in the carbon fibre industry made it difficult for Hexcel to sell its excess carbon fibre capacity; capacity had been increased from 1500 to 2250 tonnes per a n n u m at a cost of US$16 million. The Hexcel Salt LakeCity Plant, formerly part of Hercules Composite Products Group, is now producing various grades of polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibres for structural composite applications. Problems in the aerospace supplies have been compensated in small part by improved sales to the wind energy market, which nearly doubled in 1999, and there was also an increase in sales to the automotive industry. There was also improved unit demand for glass fabrics used in electronics, and aramid and speciality fabrics for use in ballistic applications, especially in the second half of 1999. The company has placed hopes on the sports goods market, but this has shown generally disappointing growth for all companies. Hexcel reported a net loss of US$2.7 million for the fourth quarter of 1999 compared with a net income of US$1.9 million for the same period in 1998 (Table 56). Overall, sales for 1999 fell by 7% over 1998 and this increased to a fall of 11% for the last quarter of 1999 when compared to the fourth quarter of 1998.
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Table 56 Financial results for Hexcel 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 (US$ millions)
Net sales
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1151.5
1090.0
936.9
695.2
350.2
Cost of sales
909.0
817.7
714.2
553.9
283.1
Gross margin
242.5
271.2
222.6
141.3
21.1
24.9
23.8
20.3
Operating income
59.8
117.0
76.4
2.8
17.7
Net income/loss
(23.3)
50.4
73.6
(19.1)
3.2
US$1.35
US$2.00
US$(0.58)
US$0.21
Gross margin %
Income per share (basic) US$(0.64)
67.0 N/A
Hexcel generated free cash flow (measured as the change in debt net of cash) of US$33.6 million in the fourth quarter of 1999 and US$86.8 million for the year, largely as a result of improved working capital management and the company's lean enterprise initiatives. Hexcel says that this has enabled it to repay a corresponding amount of debt, consistent with the debt reduction target reported at the beginning of 1999. Financial results for fiscal year 2000 have shown an improvement, although the reported net income for the second quarter of US$50.4 million included US$44 million resulting from the sale of the Bellingham aircraft interiors business. The net adjusted income for this quarter was US$6.5 million, which is a 25% increase on the same period in 1999 and a 91% increase over the US$3.4 million obtained in first quarter of 2000. The company places considerable emphasis on sales of electronics fabrics and composites for wind energy and automotive applications. In March 1999, Hexcel announced plans to close its reinforcement fabrics plant in Cleveland, Georgia. As a result, the company recorded business acquisition and consolidation expenses of US$2.8 million, primarily reflecting the costs of closing this facility, of which US$1.8 million will be non-cash charges. A further charge related to this plant closure of slightly above US$1 million followed over the next two quarters. Hexcel has retained Credit Suisse First Boston to explore strategic alternatives for its Engineered Products division, including a possible sale. The Division, formally known as Heath Tecna, employs some 1400 people and is organized into two business units: Hexcel Structures (Kent division) is focused on the production of composites - structural and interior types - for new commercial and military aircraft; Hexcel Interiors (Bellingham division) designs and manufactures commercial aircraft interior components and systems for original equipment manufacture (OEM), refurbishment and reconfiguration applications. Hexcel acquired the Engineered Products business as part of its 1996 acquisition of Ciba Geigy's worldwide composites business. As part of the deal, Ciba Specialty Chemicals bought 48.9% of Hexcel. Ciba Specialty Chemicals itself has just sold its Performance Polymers division to Morgan Grenfell Private Equity for SFrl.845 billion (US$1.182 billion).
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7 Corporate profiles
160 Croydon Road Beckenham BR3 4DE UK Tel: +44 20 8663 6565 Fax: +44 20 8663 6527 Chief Executive Officer: Peter Head Contact: John Cadei AeCom T e c h n o l o g y Corp 3250 Wilshire Boulevard 5 th Floor Los Angeles CA 90010 USA Chairman and Chief Executive Officer: R. G. Newman The Maunsell group of civil and structural engineering consultancy firms was founded in 1955 by Guy Maunsell and now employs around 3500 staff. The company has a high level of staff financial involvement and operates u n d e r a devolved system with decision making at the local business level. About 70% of revenue is generated from the transport sector where the company is ranked as third amongst international design firms. In bridges, Maunsell is ranked as number one, n u m b e r three in highways, mass transit/light rail and marine and port facilities and n u m b e r four in airports. Increasingly, the company's main operations are centred in Southeast Asia with a strong emphasis on operations in China conducted from the Hong Kong office. A new environmental services business has been established through the acquisition of a local firm and merging the resources. Australia also features quite strongly in company operations and in 1999 a Queensland business, McIntyre & Associates, was acquired and is now known as Maunsell McIntyre. With 700 staff, it is one of the largest companies in Australia. Other acquisitions and reorganizations during 1999 included the merger of R H Cuthbertson, Edinburgh to become Maunsell Cuthbertson and reorganizations in the Emirates, and Europe. A local structural engineering company was acquired in Abu Dhabi as part of the Emirates changes. A multi-disciplinary rail group was established in the UK to provide a focus for the growing European rail market. The company has found great difficulty in developing the attractive North American market where each state requires civil engineers to be state registered and there is a strong emphasis on commissioning from local companies. North America is also h o m e to the largest of civil engineering competitor companies such as Brown & Root. In March 2000 the company combined with AeCOM, the giant US engineering consortium, to form a company with a combined total worldwide of some 11000 employees. The deal will give Maunsell access to the difficult but lucrative US market and Maunsell will be the brand name for work outside the USA. Maunsell is currently the fifth-largest UK engineering consultancy with 90% of staff working outside the UK many in Hong Kong and China. AeCOM is a privately owned business with funding raised through employee share ownership. The group operates as a decentralized business with companies retaining their own names and identities; expertise is called on as needed.
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7 Corporateprofiles Maunsell has developed two systems approaches in the application of composites in civil engineering. The first process was developed between 1983 and 1995 as the Advanced Composite Construction System (ACCS), with its first application on the A19 bridge in the North of England. This has subsequently led to their SPACES system for bridge superstructures and the Modespine systems for cable supports in tunnels. Collaborators in the SPACES system are British Steel Tubes & Pipes, River Don Castings, Watson Steel, Vetrotex and Scott Bader. Designer Composites Technology hold an exclusive licence for the supply of SPACES. Although the system has notable advantages the civil engineering industry has been slow to take advantage of the benefits in the decade since its introduction. The company has also organized an evaluation project held at Bible Christian bridge, Cornwall for the UK Department of Transport on carbon fibre wrapping for civil engineering structures. Materials were supplied by Hexcel, Xxsys Technologies and DuPont to demonstrate their products for bridge strengthening, with each project taking under 4 days. Maunsell undertook the strengthening of a seven-level car park in Manchester with Replark T M carbon fibre prepreg sheet manufactured by Mitsubishi and supplied by Sumitomo. Maunsell and Devonport Royal Dockyard have worked on a project sponsored by Amoco (now part of BP), Elf Exploration, Mobil North Sea, Rockwater and the UK Ministry of Defence to strengthen various underwater structures, including the joints of offshore platforms and sub-sea pipelines. The project used carbon fibre preforms that were attached to a deficient structure. After water is forced out of the area, resin is introduced to create a structural bond with the substrate. Financial results in 1999 were affected by a combination of restructuring in Europe, difficulties in the Middle East and exchange losses from the Asian crisis.
Table 57 Financial results for Maunsell 1997-1998 and 1998-1999 (US$OOOs)
Total turnover Operating profit a Net profit after tax
1998-1999
1997-1998
230 102
224 400
10 839
15 829
7137
12 599
aBefore exceptional items.
The AeCom results for 1998 and 1999 are given in Table 58.
Table 58 Financial results for AeCom 1998-1999 (US$ millions) 1999
1998
Revenues
995.1
859.5
Costs and expensesa
969.5
837.2
Income before tax
15
Net income
10.5
13.5 5.7
aCosts and expenses before interest, employee share-ownership plan (ESOP) and Stock Match contributions.
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7 Corporateprofiles
One Owens Coming Parkway Toledo OH 43659 USA Tel: + 1 419 248 8000 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet. www.owenscoming.com Chairman: Glenn H. Hiner President Composites Systems: H. J. Otto Contact: Derek Fetzer Owens Coming vies with Vertrotex CertainTeed as the world's largest supplier of glass fibre, with Vetrotex the largest supplier in Europe but Owens Coming holding the largest share worldwide. Unlike PPG, the third company in the market, glass fibre is the major product for both these companies. Owens Coming, then known as Owens-Illinois Glass Co and the Coming Glass Co, claims the discovery of glass fibre when, in 1932, during an attempt to weld together architectural glass blocks to form a tight seal a researcher used a jet of compressed air and produced glass fibres. Later, steam was adopted as cheaper method and giving the ability to produce finer fibres. This work led to the replacement of natural fibres by glass wool on textile machinery and resulted in the fibreglass industry. A second plant was opened in 1941 and during World War II much of the output was allocated to the US Navy for ship insulation. In 1942 the US Air Force used glass fibre in low-pressure plastic laminates for use in aircraft; this was a Fiberglas T M cloth impregnated in resin. Owens Coming became a publicly traded company in 1952 with one-third of the shares held by Owens-Illinois, one-third held by Coming Glass and one-third in public ownership. In another milestone in that period, a glass fibre body was produced for the Chevrolet Corvette in 1953 heralding a long association of composite materials with the automotive industry. The newest venture in this market will be the use of Owens Coming materials in the beds of Ford trucks. The company established overseas operations with Asahi Fibre Glass Co in Japan, formed in 1956 with Owens Coming as a 40% owner; this share was sold in 1996 for US$37 million (US$27 million after tax). In 1958 Australian Fibre Glass Pty Ltd was established with a 40% ownership and the Canadian operations were expanded in 1960, which also saw the establishment of operations in New Zealand and South Africa. The 1960s saw the development of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) underground tanks and pipes, with the 1 0 0 0 0 0 th Fiberglas T M underground tank being manufactured in 1985. This business was sold to Denali in 1994. Sales grew from US$211 million in 1959 to more than US$500 million in1971 to US$615 million by the end of 1972 and US$1 billion in 1976; by the end of the 1970s sales were over US$2 billion, reaching US$5 billion in 1998 with very small sales growth in 1999. Much of the growth has been by acquisition with 17 acquisitions costing US$1.2 billion in the period 1994-1997. Owens Coming left the commercial roofing business in 1993 when it swapped its commercial roofing plant in Oklahoma City for Schuller's residential roofing plant in Savannah. The company has concentrated on the residential market since that time. Finally, in 1996 Owens Coming Fiberglas TM Corp became Owens Coming.
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7 Corporateprofiles The business is concentrated on two a r e a s - Building Materials and Composite Materials. Following an offer from Wickes Corp Inc in 1996 Owens Coming stockholders approved a restructuring plan to focus on core business. There was a complex period in which Owens Coming entered into a joint operation with Alpha to form Alpha-Owens Coming LLC, but their share in this was sold in 1998 for US$84 million (US$54 million after tax). A major problem for Owens Coming has been liability for claims for asbestos and there was a pre-tax charge of US$1.415 billion in 1998 (US$906 million after tax) for asbestos litigation (Table 59). A recent joint venture has been with Glass Holdings Corp, the US subsidiary of Groupe Porcher Industries, France, to own and operate Owens Corning's former glass fibre yarns and speciality materials business. The new enterprise, named Advanced Glassfiber Yarns LLC, serves the industrial, construction and electronics markets with glass fibre yarns and speciality materials. The business, which will operate independently of both Owens Coming and Groupe Porcher, has annual sales of about US$300 million and employs 1500 people globally. Glass Holdings owns 51% of the new enterprise and Owens Coming owns the remaining 49%. The company has its headquarters in Aiken, South Carolina and there are three manufacturing facilities: Aiken, South Carolina, manufacturing glass fibre yarns for industrial, construction and electrical markets; Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, manufacturing fine glass fibre yams and speciality materials for electrical, industrial and construction markets; and South Hill, Virginia, manufacturing fine glass fibre yams for electrical markets. Owens Coming will continue to represent Advanced Glassfiber Yarns in Asia Pacific and Europe until the joint venture establishes its own organization in these regions. Owens Coming will continue to manufacture products on behalf of the joint venture at its plants in Battice, Belgium, and Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Table 59 Financial results for Owens Coming (US$O00 millions) 1 1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
Net sales
5048
5009
4378
3832
3612
Cost of sales
3824
3944
3482
2840
2670
59
57
69
84
78
117
68
38
Science and technology expenses Restructuring costs Provision for asbestos claims a
N/A 0
1415
-
N/A
875
-
Income/loss from operations
578
(824)
182
(491)
420
Net income/loss
270
(705)
47
(284)
281
(US$13.16)
US$0.88
Net income/loss per share
US$4.98
Total debt
1991
1626
1738
(US$5.54) 934
US$4.41 898
1Except income/loss and share price. N/A, not available. aAIthough there was no provision for asbestos litigation in 1999, payments under the Asbestos NSP were US$860 million. A total of 235 000 claims have been settled to 31 December 1999, with most other claims to be completed in 2002. Different types of claims will begin in 2003.
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7 Corporate profiles Other joint ventures include: 9
9
9
9
9
September 1 9 9 8 - a joint marketing agreement with Composites Materials LLC to develop applications and markets for composites using conductive fibres. October 1 9 9 8 - an alliance with Pyramid Operating Systems to develop technology for composite moulding in marine, construction and automotive markets. October 1998 - a joint venture with DSM Automotive Polymers - StaMax- to market long fibre reinforced polypropylene materials for automotive applications. December 1 9 9 8 - a joint venture with the Geon Co, Cleveland, O h i o Decillion - to provide reinforced thermoplastic products for the building trade which have three times greater stability than conventional materials. Owens Coming has a 60% share in the business which will focus initially on glass fibre and polyvinyl chloride ~VC). December 1999 - Owens and IKO Industries announced the formation of a joint venture called Fiberteq LLC, in which both companies will have a 50% share, for a new glass fibre mat facility that will employ the latest wet-chopped glass fibre technology to manufacture glass fibre mat used in the production of roofing shingles. The plant, in Danville, Illinois, will begin operating in June 2001 and will manufacture asphalt roofing shingles using wet-chopped glass fibre and technology developed by Owens Coming. When fully operational, the plant will have an estimated capacity of 90 million csf (100 ft 2) and is claimed as the only one in the world capable of producing mat 5 m wide and in a 234-cm roll.
Following the closure of Australian operations by an Owens Coming licensee, the company has established its own operations to serve Australia and New Zealand. Other expansion includes a plant in India to manufacture Advantex glass fibre reinforcements and the acquisition of 70% (increasing from 30%) of its glass fibre reinforcements joint venture in South Korea, which will now be called Owens Coming Korea. Further expansion came with a continuous filament mat (CFM) line at the company's plant in Guelph, Ontario, Canada. The new line will add approximately 8000 tonnes of CFM capacity for an investment of US$25 million and became operational in the first quarter of 2000. The investment follows recent increases of CFM capacity at Owens Coming's facilities in Battice, Belgium, and Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, USA. Figures for the first quarter of 2000 show net sales of US$1.2 billion with US$972 million as the cost of sales giving a net income for the period of US$48 million. Net sales for the second quarter of 2000 were US$1.295 billion, which was slightly below the US$1.310 billion in the same period in 1999. This reflected weaker demand in roofing, siding and insulation but the Composites Systems business grew by 5%. There was a very small increase in sales for 1999 but the savings on costs and increases in productivity, which the company indicates came with the introduction of the System Thinking and Advantage 2000 programmes, gave improved results. These approaches are considered to have produced savings of US$148 million in 1998 and US$84 million in 1999. The very high levels of provision for asbestos litigation and the restructuring costs had also had a serious impact on the figures for 1998 when compared with 1999.
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Corporateprofiles
Price increases, particularly for residential insulation, resulted in a sales increase for Building Materials of US$140 million in 1999, and with volume increases this gave an increase in sales of 5%. The income from operations was US$437 million in 1999 compared to US$266 million in 1998. Owens Coming joined a consortium of e-commerce business in 1999 and recorded 40 million hits on the website. Sales for Composite Systems were down by 12% in 1999 largely due to the disposal of 51% of the yarns business in the third quarter of 1998. Without this there was a sales increase of 6% due to volume increases, with strong sales for reinforcements for Europe. Within the Composite Systems business the income from operations was US$159 million in 1999 compared with US$208 million in 1998 as a quarter of the business was from the yarns operations. Overall, sales outside the USA were 19% of the business in 1999 compared with 20% in 1998 and 24% in 1997. The company notes the very competitive nature of the European market, which they expect to continue during 2000. The Asian composites business finally showed improvement with the South Korean operations at Kimchon having a particularly strong performance. The company announced that it intended to concentrate composites efforts on the development of products for the automotive and building markets. The company is continuing the move to establish itself as much more than a glass fibre producer and by 2001 it aims to have 25% of its sales from non-glass fibre products. The company expects to be considering other acquisitions in 2001 w h e n the changes of recent years have been incorporated.
7.16 PPG Industries Inc One PPG Place Pittsburgh PA 15272 USA Tel: + 1 412 434 2445 Fax: + 1 412 434 2545 Internet: www.ppg.com Chairman and Chief Executive Officer: Raymond W. LeBoeuf PPG I n d u s t r i e s (UK) Ltd Fiber Glass D i v i s i o n PO Box 132 Wigan WN2 4XZ UK Tel: +44 1942 257161 Fax: +44 1942 522385
The Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co (PPG) was founded in 1883. It is a major producer of glass and the world's second largest glass fibre producer. The company has other interests having diversified into paints and resins as early as 1902 with the acquisition of a Milwaukee paint company. From this, the company is now one of the world's largest producers of automotive and industrial coatings and aircraft transparencies. Products for this element of the company's business include zincrich paints, acrylic emulsions, alkyds, chlorinated rubber, polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsion, polyurethane and polyvinyl coatings. This diversity differentiates PPG
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7 Corporateprofiles from the other large glass fibre companies - Owens Coming and Saint Gobain Vetrotex; the three companies together have some 65-70% of global capacity, but the latter two are more heavily oriented to glass products. As a chemicals producer the company manufactures chlorine, caustic soda, chlorinated solvents, vinylidine chloride, amorphous silicas and surfactants. PPG entered the continuous strand glass fibre business in 1952 and this has continued to grow at about 4-5% per annum, although as PPG has a strong interest in reinforcement of engineering plastics this could be slightly higher. The company has moved out from its original base in the USA with the acquisition of the T&N glass-manufacturing plant in Wigan, UK, followed, in 1991, by the remaining two-thirds of Silenka BV, The Netherlands-based glass fibre manufacturer. In 1992 they bought a further plant in The Netherlands for the manufacture of silica and there is also a joint venture in Taiwan. The coatings business has also become more global with a 20% interest in an Italian resins and coatings company bought in 1993. This was followed in 1994 by the automotive coatings business of Akzo Nobel. In early 1999 PPG merged its glass fibre research, technical services and engineering functions into a new organization. This was largely the result of downward pricing pressures following the growth in demand during 1995 and 1996, which resulted in cheap imports from Asia. Much of the companies current direction was established in a document 'Blueprint for the Decade' issued in the mid-1980s by the then Chief Executive Officer, Vincent Sarni, who saw that 85% of the company's sales were to the maturing construction and automotive industries. The Blueprint introduced the idea of a move into the electronics industry. During 1986 the company spent some US$150 million on acquisitions including the global medical electronics units of Litton Industries and Honeywell. This was followed by the acquisition of the medical technology business of Allegheny International, the coatings distributor Casco Nobel, and paint lines from Lucite and Clorox in 1989. However, there was then a move away from the Blueprint and the company disposed of a number of high-technology businesses. The medical electronics unit went in 1993 followed by the biomedical systems unit in 1994. The aim was to focus on core business of coatings, glass and chemicals, and this was supported by the acquisition of Matthews Paints in 1995 and the coating business of LiUey Industries. The company also disposed of a unit that could be considered core b u s i n e s s - Glaverbel, B e l g i u m - but it was considered that, although profitable, it fell short of the growth and performance requirements of PPG's long-term strategy. In June 1998 PPG raised the concern that glass fibre prices were too low and too unstable. It was estimated that 100 000 tonnes of glass was imported into Western Europe in 1997 from producers with no manufacturing facilities in the region. PPG holds a 21% share of the European market. The paint and coatings markets are seen to provide better profit margins and potential for growth, and PPG has made considerable acquisitions in this area during 1999. ICI's global automotive refinishing and industrial coatings business was bought on virtually the same day as the PRC-DeSoto international coatings and sealants business for aircraft and architectural applications. PPG also bought the retail business in the Southern USA of Wattyl Paints, which was added to Porter Paints bought in 1998. Since 1997 the company has spent some US$2
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Compositesin Infrastructure- Building New Markets
7 Corporateprofiles billion on 2000. The (given in produced
acquisitions that they hope will generate US$1.5 billion in sales during change in emphasis can be seen in segment net sales for 1999 and 1997 brackets): in 1999 Coatings produced 53% of sales (41.6%), Glass 29% (36.2%) and Chemicals produced 18% (22.3%).
Sales for the last quarter of 1999 were a record for any quarter at US$2.05 billion, although the results for the year were, in general, considered a disappointment by the Chief Executive Officer with a drop in net income of 29% (Table 60). The company noted that glass segment sales and operating earning improved slightly on volume gains for certain fibre glass products. Overall, manufacturing efficiencies offset weaker prices across the product lines.
Table 60 Financial results for PPG Industries Inc 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 (US$ millions) 1 1999 Net sales
7757
1998 7510
Cost of sales
-
-
R&D net
301
287
Gross profit (%)
-
-
Net income
568
801
Earnings per share - diluted
3.68
1997
1995
7379
7218
7058
4397
4340
4212
250
239
236
40.4 4.13
1996
714 3.94
39.9 744 3.93
40.8 768 3.78
1Except earnings per share.
1767 Denver West Boulevard Golden CO 80401 USA Tel: + 1 303 215 1100 Fax: + 1 303 215 5298 Internet: www.psicoolingtowers.com President and Chief Executive Officer: George A. Kast Contact: Andrew Belinky E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.gwtr.com Psychrometric Systems Inc (PSI) is a wholly owned subsidiary of Global Water Technologies Inc (GWT), and designs and builds industrial process cooling water systems. The parent company is a process water management company and with its subsidiaries has some 100 employees. A further subsidiary, Applied Water Technologies Inc, is a service provider of proprietary water treatment systems whilst a third subsidiary, Global Water Systems Inc, has recently been formed to sell process cooling water to industry. GWT was formed in 1997 in a reverse acquisition of PSI by Fi-Tek VI and the name was changed to Global Water Technologies in November 1997. GWT became a publicly traded company in 1999 and 82% of the shares are owned inside the company with a small n u m b e r (mostly bought in 2000) being held by outside investors. GWT has a market capitalization of US$44.8 million. The company is
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7 Corporateprofiles growing following the deregulation of the US power industry, which has placed a stronger emphasis on the economic and efficient generation of power. In several cases these improvements have resulted from work on the cooling towers by PSI. PSI believes that it is the largest supplier of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) cooling towers in the world with a range of counterflow and cross-flow cooling towers made from pultruded profiles supplied by various pultruders including Bedford Plastics. Towers can also be supplied in Douglas fir and redwood timbers. Most of the sales are within the USA with an occasional project outside North America. As an example, in the first quarter of 1999, 99% of work was in the USA although in the first quarter of 1998 this reduced to 71% indicating the swings when a project is outside the USA. The strong emphasis on FRP for cooling towers derives, in part, from the Chief Executive Officer's career prior to his establishment of GWT. In 1998 PSI achieved record revenues of over US$68 million, which was a growth of 111% over the previous year. Included in the US$68 million were contracts with a Midwestem, USA utility company totalling US$20 million to help reduce thermal pollution through the installation of PSI cooling tower technology. The project will pre-cool water used in two power plants before its discharge into local waterways. Hurricane George caused severe damage to cooling towers in Puerto Rico and PSI supplied two five-cell FRP cooling towers at the Aguirre Steam Power Plant to cool seawater before discharging to the ocean. A project in 1999 with Consorcio Azucarero Escorpion SA de C.V. (CAZE), Mexico was worth US$4.2 million for the supply of cooling water to three sugar refineries in Mexico. In June 2000 PSI was awarded a US$1.7 million contract to supply a water cooling tower for a 550-MW power plant being built in Arkansas by Kinder Morgan Inc and Southern Energy Inc. The project will supply 130 000 gallons of water/min and is scheduled for completion in the third quarter of 2001. The announcement followed I week after an announcement of a contract worth US$3 million for PSI to supply a water cooling tower for a 800-MW power plant in New Jersey being built by Raytheon Engineers. Growth of GWT has been rapid so that the growth in bookings in 1998 was 120%. Sales growth over three years has been 60.23% and this rises to 95% over one year. In 1998 revenues jumped 86% compared to 1997, although this was partly due to a change in accounting method so that the real growth would have been 72%. However, in 1999 revenues increased even faster to reach nearly US$68 million and gave the opportunity for listing on the NASDAQ Small Cap market during 1999. In such a young company it is interesting to see the growth in revenue, as shown in Table 61.
Table 61 Revenue growth for Global Water Technologies Inc by quarter, 1997-2000 (US$ millions) i
208
Quarter
2000
1999
1998
1997
March
14 246
14 0 2 9
4323
3224
June
-
25 3 1 1
6774
4889
September
-
14 526
8853
3478
December
-
14 087
14 492
7106
Total
-
67 953
34 442
18 697
Composites in Infrastructure- Building New Markets
7 Corporateprofiles The breakdown in financial results for 1999 and the first quarter of 2000 show that profits are not yet resulting from the high growth in earnings (Table 62).
Table 62 Financial results for Global Water Technologies Inc by quarters during 1999 and 2000 (US$ millions) 31 March 2000
31 30 30 December September June 1999 1999 1999
31 March 1999
Revenue
14.2
14.1
14.5
25.3
14.0
Cost of revenue
12.2
12.1
13.3
23.4
12.0
2.0
2.0
1.2
1.9
2.0
Total operational expenses
14.4
13.3
14.7
24.8
13.1
Operational income
(0.1)
0.8
(0.1)
0.5
0.9
Net income
(0.2)
0.5
(0.2)
0.4
0.6
Gross profit
i
Although revenue rose by 2% for the first quarter of 2000 w h e n compared to the same period in 1999, the company returned a net loss of US$170000 compared with income of US$546 000 in 1999. The company will benefit from the deregulation of the US power market but will find considerable opposition when this market declines and there is a requirement to move overseas. In this market it must compete with the major water companies such as Suez, Vivendi and Thames Water. However, it is interesting to note that in March 2000 GWT signed an agreement for PSI with Nalco Industrial Outsourcing, which is owned by the Nalco Chemical Co. Nalco often works with Suez but will supply PSI with water treatment equipment and services. In August 2000 the company announced that they had been awarded a contract valued at US$2.7 million to supply two FRP cooling towers that will cool 50 000 gallons of water/min for the Mutnovsky Geothermal Power Plant in southern Siberia. The European Development and Reconstruction Bank are funding the project.
400 Commonwealth Avenue Bristol VA 24203 USA Tel: + 1 540 645 8000 Fax: +1 540 645 8132 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: http ://www. strongweU.com Contact: John (Spike) Tickle Chief Executive Officer: John Tickle Contact: Glenn Barefoot
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7
Corporateprofiles Chatfield Division 1610 Highway 52 South Chatfield MN 55923-9799 USA Tel: + 1 507 867 3479 Fax: + 1 507 867 4031 Lenoir City Divison 3621 Industrial Park Drive Lenoir City TN 3771 USA Tel: + 1 423 986 9726 Fax: + 1 423 986 0585 Strongwell is probably the world's largest pultruder of fibre reinforced structural composites and pre-caster of polymer concrete, with nearly 900 employees. Strongwell began in 1924 at the Bristol site as a furniture factory but moved to making aircraft, radio and TV cabinets, and carbon parts for weaponry during World War II. The production of FRP composites began at the Bristol site in the 1940s. In 1956 the first production using 'the continuous automatic process', known now as pultrusion, was undertaken. This was followed by a glass fibre ladder in 1959 and this is still one the company main products. In the early 1960s the company was owned by the Pitcairn family, Philadelphia and they sold it to the Koppers Co, Pittsbugh in 1965. Over the next 6 years Koppers introduced a wide variety of reinforced plastics to the Bristol plant before deciding to sell their five glass fibre plants. In 1971 the company was bought by Robert S. Morrison, founder of the Molded Fiber Glass Companies, Ashtabula, Ohio, and became the Morrison Molded Fiber Glass Co (MMFG) in 1971 with an emphasis on the manufacture of ladder rail, structural shapes and plate. The present Chief Executive Officer, John Tickle, was appointed in 1972 when pultrusion sales were less than US$1 million. Shell Oil bought MMFG in 1985 and in 1986 bought AFC, Chatfield, which was then the world's largest pultruded grating manufacturer. In 1987 Shell merged the company with the polymer concrete interests of the Quazite Co, now the Lenoir City Division; PTI, Twinsburg was also acquired. In 1993 the company was repurchased from Shell by John Tickle, his family and a private investor, and became an independent company. Sales of over US$100 million were achieved in 1995. The company name was changed to Strongwell in 1997, the PTI divison was closed and a newly constructed Highlands Division opened in Virginia. All StrongweU pultrusion divisions achieved ISO 9001 in 1997. The company has maintained its strong emphasis on pultrusion products including ladders, large structural pultruded fabrications, components for heavy industrial corrosion environments and infrastructure, and marine and offshore oil industry sectors. The development of new polymer concrete applications is seen as important. The Bristol, Chatfield and Highland plants have over 60 pultrusion machines and manufacture pultruded structural shapes, plate, gratings, building panels, handrails, custom-designed profiles and fabricated structures. The plants at Lenoir City and San Jose product pre-cast polymer concrete utility enclosures, building panels, tunnel panels and concrete bridge rehabilitation panels.
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Corporateprofiles
Trade names owned by Strongwell include Duradek FRP grating, Duragrid FRP grating, EXTREN structural shapes and plate, Safrail FRP handrail, Quazite underground products, and Staform highway and tunnel structures. Infrastructure products include large pultruded profiles that nest together to form structural covers for waste-water treatment cells. Electrically non-conductive glass fibre ladder rafts are used for safety reasons by a number of industries. The Duragrid glass-phenolic grating withstood temperatures over 900~ for 1 h during testing to USCG 46 CFR CH.1. The material was first used in July 1996 in the Shell Offshore Inc MARS tension leg deep-water oil production platform, which operates in 2940 ft of water. Duragrid was then used on the Ram Powell platform completed in April 1997. Both platforms produce and process offshore crude oil and natural gas. The US Coast Guard has now issued the material an Approval for Fire Integrity. The phenolic resin was supplied by Georgia Pacific and combined with E-glass, and the composite only weighs 1.6 kg/ft 2. In other projects, an all-glass fibre cooling tower required a custom pultrusion machine (one of the largest in the world) to pultrude the two largest composites, hollow profiles nearly 4 ft wide and up to 10 inches deep. In mid-1998 Strongwell and Ebert Composites Corp formed a joint venture c o m p a n y - Strongwell Ebert LLC - to market power transmission poles and towers. The new power poles are made from vinyl ester reinforced with glass fibre rovings, continuous strand mat and covered with a synthetic surfacing veil. The poles were introduced in April 1999 and the first shipment to Southern California Edison was made in June 1999 for 69- and l l5-kV power lines along the Pacific Ocean coast and in mountain and desert regions. The poles have also been supplied to Allegheny Power Co. The product received the Dow Derakane Fabricator Excellence Award and also an award at Composites '99 for a pultruded product. StrongweU has a venture with Maunsell, UK, the large civil engineers, for the manufacture of the building panel that has been trademarked as Composolite TM and several new products are in various stages of development. Strongwell has recently set up a European distribution centre based in Glasgow, UK. The company has received a number of awards for its infrastructure projects including the short-span vehicular bridge, Tom's Creek, its bridge deck design and the reflective barriers made from polymer concrete used in New York City. The Tom's Creek bridge, Blacksburg, Virginia built in 1997 is 24 ft wide and spans 17.5 ft. Twelve beams of Derakane 411TM epoxy vinyl ester with glass and carbon fibre reinforcement, each 8 inches deep, will replace 12 steel beams. The steel stringers are 10 inches deep and weigh 21 lbs/ft, whereas the composite replacement weighs only 11.2 lbs/ft. The over-design means that there are no cost or weight savings but the bridge will be used as a test bed. Two bridge projects incorporating the new EXTREN DWB T M carbon-glass hybrid composite double-web 36-inch beam are planned. The first is a pedestrian/light vehicle canal bridge consisting of two simple 15-m spans in Lake Jackson, Texas and the bridge will be completed with StrongweU's pultruded glass fibre deck grating, deck plate and railing. The EXTREN beams weigh 70 lbs per linear ft. A second project will use the Superdeck TM product that has been selected for three bridge repairs in West Virginia. This fuU-use vehicular bridge, in southwestern Virginia, is to be built using funds from the Federal Highway Administrations Innovative Bridge Research and Construction 0BRC) programme in a joint programme with Virginia Tech University, the Virginia Transportation Research
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7 Corporateprofiles Center and the Virginia Department of Transportation, and was one of 56 applicants chosen for innovative bridge demonstrations. The final location of the bridge has not yet been selected, but Strongwell anticipates building a 30- to 38-ft span combined with a glulam timber deck. Construction is expected to begin in early 2001. An interesting life test of Strongwell dowel bars was undertaken w h e n 2.5 and 3 cm diameter rods, which had been pultruded from 78% E-glass fibre loaded vinyl ester, were examined. The test dowels had been installed by Ohio Department of Transportation and Ohio University on Interstate highway 77 and State route 7 in 1983 and 1985. As pultruded shapes at that time were not specifically designed as dowel bars, standard off-the-shelf rods were used and the cut ends of the bars were not treated. In July 1998 the bars were removed for analysis and were found to have met, or exceeded, requirements. The epoxy coating on steel bars had delaminated and the steel showed evidence of corrosion damage and flaking. The composite bars were unaffected by service which included cycling of 13.4 million and 3.7 million times, respectively. The sales breakdown for pultruded products for 1999 was: 9 Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Consumer/recreation p r o d u c t s - 24.5%; Electrical/electric u t i l i t y - 22.1%; C o n s t r u c t i o n - 21.5%; Chemical processing - 11.0%; Water/waste water - 7.0%; Off/gas - 6.1%; P u l p / p a p e r - 2.3%; T r a n s p o r t - 2.2%; F o o d / b e v e r a g e - 1.6%; O t h e r - 1.7%.
The 'other' markets include energy, mining, agriculture, appliances, air pollution and aeronautical/defence. Ladder rafts were was some 46% of pultrusion sales in 1999 with the volumes split between consumer products (46%) and the balance in electric utility (44%) and the remaining 10% in construction. As a private company Strongwell does not release financial results but total corporate sales in 1999 were approximately US$125 million per annum, of which US$85 million is pultrusion related.
7.19 Toray Industries 2-2-1 Nihonbashi-Muromachi chou-ku Tokyo 103-8666 Japan Tel: +81 3 3245 750 Fax: +81 3 3245 817 Internet: www.toray.co.jp
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Toray Holdings Inc 19002 50th Avenue East Tacoma WA 98446 USA Tel: +1 253 846 1777 Fax: + 1 253 846 3897 Internet: www.toray.com
Toray Carbon Fibers America Inc 2030 Highway 20 PO Box 248 Decatur AL 35602 USA Tel: +1 256 260 2626 Fax: + 1 256 260 2627 President: Kyoichi Kaku Societ~ des Fibres de C a r b o n e (SOFICAR) Les Ellipses 3 Avenue du Chemin de Presles 94410 Saint Maurice C6dex France Tel: +33 1 45 11 12 80 Fax: +33 1 48 85 62 92 E-mail: soficar.jean.luyckx@wanadoo, fr President: M. Brisson Marketing Manager: K. Fujii Toray Europe Ltd 7 Old Park Lane London WIY 4AD UK Tel: +44 207 663 7779 Fax: +44 207 663 7777 Managing Director: K. Saito Contact: Dr M. Mahon E-marl: mick.mahon@ toray-tel.co.uk Toray Industries was founded in 1926 and the following year began producing rayon fibre before becoming the First company in Japan (in 1941) to develop the original method of spinning Nylon 6. The company is Japan's largest manufacturer of synthetic fibre, having begun production of the Tetoron TM polyester fibre in 1958. A joint venture with DuPont - DuPont-Toray Co Ltd manufactures the KevlarT M para-aramid material. Although Toray is one of the world's major manufacturer of carbon fibre with its Torayca T M fibre and prepreg, carbon fibre is only about 3% of Toray's business. The Torayca material is a polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibre based on the carbonization of Toray's acrylic fibre Toraylon, and manufacturing began in Japan in 1971 at the Ehime plant. The material is also manufactured by the SOFICAR company, which is a joint venture between Toray and Elf Atochem. Zoltek now claims the position of world's largest manufacturer of carbon fibre, which previously belonged to Toray; this is probably true for fibres greater than 24 K, although Toray's capacity of 7000 tonnes per annum of small-tow fibre (below 24
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7 Corporateprofiles K) is probably the largest in the world. Toray holds some 40-45% of the world market for small-tow carbon fibre. The Toray T700 range is considered as a carbon fibre industry standard. Torayca TM prepreg was approved by Boeing in 1990 as a primary structural material for the Boeing 777. In addition to the aerospace industry, which takes about 30% of production, carbon fibre is supplied to the sports goods industry and increasingly to manufacturing industry for a range of applications such as rollers. Toray fibre has also been supplied for compressed gas tanks and wind turbine blades. The industrial market is seen as having considerable potential, particularly when viewed against the cyclical nature of the aircraft industry and the poor results from sports goods, where too many exotic materials are competing with each other. The Toray LSS project is developing composites in building structures and cargo truck bodies. In 1999 production of Torayca was reorganized so that large-tow production, which had been concentrated at Ehime, was moved to new plant built in the USA. The US plant will have capacity of 1800 tonnes per annum and will concentrate on 48-320 K tow material, much of which will be supplied to American manufacturers as reinforcement. The interest expressed in infrastructure by the composites industry has lead Toray to investigate plant modifications that would enable a lower-cost material and results should be available at the end of the year. Toray has not been immune from the confusion in the carbon fibre industry, where over-capacity and low profits have affected all companies. This has not be helped by the raid on the premises of several Japanese carbon fibre companies, including Toray, as a result of price-fixing allegations made by Cape Composites, USA. Customers, who see it as a realistic price in the short term, have noted the well-publicized claim by Zoltek for carbon fibre at US$ 5/lb weight, and whilst fibre manufacturers wish to raise prices to improve profits none wish to be the first to break ranks. Many Japanese companies have moved their manufacturing operations overseas and it is interesting to note the process by which Toray arrived at its decision to relocate production. In 1993 the company established the management concept of 'Import Deterrent Exchange Rate' in which comparisons were made on the international competitiveness for each of its products within Japan. Combining the production costs plus freight and customs duty, and comparison with the total cost of domestically manufactured goods, arrives at the total cost of overseas products. Based on this analysis for each materials and product Toray evaluated the business strategies where manufacturing could be strengthened in Japan and those for which manufacturing should be relocated overseas. Toray established Toray Europe, London in 1980, followed by the S O F I ~ company in France in1982. In 1992 Toray Composites (America) Inc was established and production began at the Decatur plant in 1997. There are also overseas plants in Malaysia and South Korea. Toray now imports products into Japan from its overseas production plants. Toray has collaborated with Shimizu Construction and Nihon Aluminium to install the world's first building roof that incorporated a solid all-composite truss. The structure over the staff canteen at Ehime covers more than 350 m 2 and is only one-third the weight of a conventional metal roof. Six people assembled the roof structure in 4 days, and lifting the roof onto the building took only 30 min. The technology is seen as having potential for large open areas. Toray supplied carbon fibre to a range of manufacturers and projects including:
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use in the CarbDur strip from Sika; fabrics to Hexcel; carbon fibre for the pultruded profiles used in the strengthening of Hythe Bridge, Oxford, UK.
There is a history of some 15 years in Japan in the use of carbon fibre for road, bridge and column repair, and rehabilitation. Carbon fibre is a preferred material as there is a large home industry. It is reported that Toray has supplied 10-20 tonnes of carbon fibre for tunnel rehabilitation and since 1984 has supplied about 600000 m 2 of carbon fibre fabrics for use in strengthening chimneys, bridge, tunnels and buildings holding, about 20% of the market. Torayca cloth has been used in Kanagawa Prefecture for the support of piers on a viaduct crossing the Odawara-Atsugi Freeway. The intense competition and the need for new markets in carbon fibre have lead to suggestions that Toray is looking at plant modifications to produce large-tow fibre by the end of 2000. The fiscal year ending 31 March 2000 was a disappointing one for Toray with a net loss reported. Some of this was the result of new accounting procedures to cover a shortfall in the pension fund and there was also a requirement for considerable write-downs on real estate. However, even with these exceptional circumstances, the weak market for polyester fibre, weakening d e m a n d for carbon fibre, and a slower-than-expected recovery in fibre and textile prices affected results. The weak Japanese market is still causing concern.
Table 63 Toray sales to outside customers for fiscal year ended 31 March 2000 (u millions) Interdivisional
Total
Operatingincome
Japan
770 548
55 257
825 807
21317
Asia
115 915
14 317
130 238
5474
Europe/USA
104 020
6561
110 585
4559
Table 64 Consolidated results for Toray for fiscal year ended 31 March 2000 (u millions and US$)
Net sales
u millions
US$
990 500
9344
Operating income
32 300
305
Ordinary income
24 900
235
Net income/loss
(620)
(6)
Sales to outside customers showed the large balance of sales within Japan and the importance of an improvement in the Japanese market (Table 65).
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7 Corporateprofiles Table 65 Toray financial results (unconsolidated) for fiscal year ended 31 March 1999, 2000 and 2001 (estimated) (u millions) 1999
2000
20011
Net sales
533 320
513 291
535 000
- Fibres and textiles
246 790
234838
-
- Plastics and chemicals
168 403
167 909
-
- New products (including carbon fibres
118 126
110 542
-
Net income/loss
11020
(44 548)
15 000
Operating income
15 486
10 691
19 000
1Estimated.
Smed Sorensens Vej 5 DK-6950 Ringkobing Denmark Tel: +45 96 75 25 75 Fax: +45 96 75 24 36 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.vestas.com Contact: Johannes Poulsen G a m e s a Eolica SA Poligono Comarca 1 (Agostino) 31013 Pamplona Spain Tel: +48 30 90 10 Fax: +48 30 90 09 E-mail: telemando.gamesaeolica, nexo.es
Peter Hansen, a blacksmith in Lem, Denmark, formed Vestas in 1946 to manufacture farm machinery. The company was successful and diversified into hydraulic cranes, industrial cooling systems and household machines. Denmark has a long history of civic/environmental concerns and there were early examples of smaU-scale wind turbines. The first Vestas turbine was designed, made and installed locally by Hansen in 1979. During the 1980s both Denmark and California passed legislation to establish favourable pricing schemes which created a market for wind energy systems. However, in 1986 the California legislation was not renewed and both the market and the Vestas Co collapsed. In the collapse the viable remains of a new company was identified and established as Vestas Wind Systems AS. Expansion overseas was rapid with operations in India in 1987, Germany in 1989, USA and Sweden in 1992, Spain in 1994, The Netherlands in 1995 and Italy in 1998. Although a considerable portion of the growth was organic, some acquisitions added to the size with the purchase of a competitor, Danish Wind Technology A/S, in 1989 and a supplier, Volund Stalteknik, in 1995. Expansion in Spain, India and Italy resulted from purchases that gave the company 40%
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7 Corporateprofiles ownership of Gamesa Eolica SA, Spain, 49% of Vestas RRB India Ltd and 50% of Italian Wind Technology. In 1999 Vestas took over the entire share capital of Cotas Computer Technology AS, Denmark, which had been the company's main software supplier for many years; Cotas will be run as a separate entity. By the end of 1999 the n u m b e r of staff had grown to 2261, more than doubling since 1995 and by mid-2000 had jumped to 3517. The energy of installed capacity around the world during 1999 was 4033 MW, of which the share for Vestas and its subsidiaries was 1147 MW, i.e. 28.4%. The total world capacity for wind energy at 31 December 1999 was 14 469 MW, of which Vestas' share was 3383 MW, i.e. 23.4%. A very p o o r year for NEG Micon AS, where anticipated pre-tax profits of DKrl00 million actually produced a loss of DKr629 million, meant that Vestas was able to pick up extra business. Vestas' share of the market in 1998 was 21%. Sales are concentrated on a few countries, with Germany as the main market, and there is confidence in growth for the company as in March 2000 the German Parliament approved new legislation for power purchase prices for sustainable energy that provides optimism for good growth. Spain is also an excellent market and the Spanish Government provides an 'umbrella' arrangement in which developers installing sustainable energy are given beneficial terms. In the USA, the Production Tax Credit Scheme in California has been extended to 31 December 2001, which should ensure that 2001 is a good year. There is currently only a small backlog of orders as some orders have been awaiting the passing of legislation before being finalized. Many other areas show considerable annual variations being project-dependent. Hopes had been focused on China, but this is now considered only on a long-term basis. Despite an excellent wind regime the British Isles has not been a good market for wind energy systems as the crowded nature of the landmass, which has high energy demands, means that such developments are not welcomed by the local population. Offshore wind farms are seen as an answer but need further development. It is possible that the recent report of the Royal Commission on fossil fuel use and carbon dioxide production may have some effect on the number of installations. In mid-January 2000 Gamesa obtained the largest single order in the wind energy industry for 1800 wind turbines with a combined capacity of 1400 MW to be delivered in 2000-2002 and with a value of over DKr5 billion. At the same time the subsidiary Scandinavian Wind Technology AS received an order for 56 wind turbines to a value of DKr240 million. At the beginning of March 2000, Italian Wind Technology received an order for 400 wind turbines with a capacity of 280 MW for delivery in 2000-2001. With associated equipment the order cold be worth DKrl.8 billion. With new technology coming on stream, including a new model in Autumn 2000 for areas with moderate wind speeds to be foUowed by a new generation for highspeed wind areas with capacity of 2.5-3 MW and new versions of existing models to be made available outside North America, the company has considerable optimism on future growth. The turnover in MW over recent years is given in Table 66.
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Corporateprofiles Table 66 Sales of wind turbines by Vestas and subsidiaries 1 9 9 7 - 1 9 9 9 (in MW) Year
1999
1998
1997
Scandinavia (excluding Sweden)
105
90
99
28
17
9
251
98
74
29
8
8
25
3
24
127
41
2
Sweden Germany The Netherlands and Belgium Great Britain and Ireland North America China
0
10
49
12
26
1
Spain
494
171
93
New Zealand Italy
41
84
23
Greece
13
0
1
Morocco
14
0
0
8
8
0
1147
556
383
Others Total
Co-financial growth over recent years is indicated in Table 67. The company was floated on the Copenhagen Stock Exchange in April 1998 with an offer price of DKr270 and by the end of 1999 this had increased to DKr1314.
Table 67 Financial results for Vestas 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 (DKr millions) 1999 Net turnover Gross profit ProfiVIoss for year Staff numbers
1997
1996
1995
4710
2830
1953
1880
1523
674
370
236
202
158
432
188
(18)
36
30
2261
1477
1206
1108
1080
3101 McKelvey Road St Louis MO 63044 USA Tel: + 1 314 291 5110 Fax: + 1 314 291 6511 Internet: www.zoltek.com President: Zsolt Rumy Contact: Paul Walsh E-mail:
[email protected]
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7 Corporateprofiles SP S y s t e m s (USA) 9151B Recho Road San Diego CA-92121 USA Tel: + 1 858 450 0113 Fax: + 1 858 450 0141 E-mail:
[email protected] President: Dave Abrams
SP Systems Ltd St Cross Business Park Newport Isle of Wight PO30 5WU UK Tel: +44 1983 828000 Fax: +44 1983 828100 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.spsystems.com Contact: David Cripps Zoltek started in 1975 as a sales, installation and repair company for process equipment, but entered the carbon fibre market in 1988 with the purchase of Stackpole Fibers (the subsidiary of a privately owned carbon products manufacturer) for US$750 000. The aim of the purchase was to enter the carbon fibre aerospace business, but the company was unable to break into this market. New production facilities were o p e n e d in 1992 and the company began production of carbon fibre products using a proprietary continuous carbonization process in 1994. During that year contracts were negotiated with BF Goodrich Aerospace for fibres used in carbon--carbon brakes and with TRW Vehicle Safety Systems in connection with its airbag propellant that provided a substantial sales base in support of further expansion. The company now concentrates on carbon fibre and left the e q u i p m e n t and business services business, selling the remaining operation - flexible graphite products - in June 1996 for US$0.2 million having previously sold its valves, pumps, repair and fluid-sealing product lines for US$2.5 million in August 1995. Early work was based on pilot studies for manufacturing inexpensive textile-type acrylic precursor with a tow content of 320 K. The work was intended to expand the then core business of carbon brakes. The initial manufacturing lines were bought from Courtaulds as that company left the carbon fibre business; Zoltek bought one line, Grafil bought another and the third line was scrapped. The company considers that an important aspect of its increased production will be standardization of production processes at all plants to ensure consistency of products. With the new plants customers will need to requalify some materials/ products and this will take time and cooperation between customer and supplier. The company notes that it anticipates that its success will be the result of having to develop commercial products rather than rely on government contracts where it did not hold a favoured position in the aerospace supply world. The anticipated increase in d e m a n d for carbon fibre will sometimes lag behind production, as new markets take time to develop. Zoltek's stated aim is to break the vicious cycle in which carbon fibre has d e p e n d e d on small-volume-high-cost products in such markets as aerospace, which leave it exposed during downturns in the end-user
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7 Corporateprofiles industries. However, the projected growth rates for carbon fibre use show considerable discrepancy with the more conservative predictions by such companies as Toho and Tenax, and are probably over-optimistic with a strong reliance on developments in infrastructure (civil engineers are conservative) and such products are pressure tanks. Zoltek claims to be the world's largest producer of carbon fibre (on rated capacity) having overtaken Toray, Japan and several other companies. In 1997 Zoltek started five new carbonization lines to give a capacity, by 2000, of 20 000 tonnes per annum. To achieve this development, capital investment was US$27 million in 1997, which was five times the expenditure for 1996 and almost 30 times the figure for 1995. The company is now carrying some US$2 million p e r annum to maintain capacity, which is probably running around 50%. The company has a production price for carbon fibre of US$8.25/kg and can sell large volume at US$13.2/kg, giving a gross margin of 35-40%. Current Zoltek prices for carbon fibre vary between US$17.5 and US$25/kg (for large quantities), but the company had a target price of US$12/kg by the year 2000; this has now slipped to 2002. The company aims to achieve this price reduction in various ways including increased production based on lower-cost production lines with modular capacity, sales to a wide range of industries outside the traditional aerospace market and by reducing the cost of the precursor. Currently, the cost of the precursor (supplied by Accordis amongst others) is 50% of the manufacturing cost of the carbon fibre. Reducing the cost of the precursor would enable the target cost of US$12/kg to be met. In December 1995 Zoltek bought Magyar Viscoa, Hungary, a maker of textile-like precursor, since renamed Zoltek Rt. The company produces Mavilon dry-spun acrylic fibres for sweaters and carpets, and a growing proportion of the slightly modified acrylic fibre is intended for conversion to the precursor for carbon fibres giving lower cost precursor. Zoltek began start-up operations of two new continuous carbonization lines at Zoltek Rt and expected production quantities of acrylic fibre as carbon fibre precursor during 1998; this has not happened. Zoltek claims that the purchase of Zoltek Rt gave the company access to the technology underlying the production of the acrylic fibre raw material and, together with in-house supply, would allow them to make raw materials at some 25% the cost of speciality acrylic. The production lines are rated at 1 million lbs capacity compared to the industry standard of 3 million lbs, and identical lines can be installed at US$5 million each, with a start-up time of five months compared with the usual 12-18 months. In 1998 Zoltek announced a joint venture with Dow Chemical and Wood Science & Technology Inc, to be known as Composite Intermediates Corp, which will manufacture sheets of composite laminate for the reinforcement of engineered lumber products. Zoltek will supply the Panex range of carbon fibres, which combined with glass or aramid fibres will form laminates based on Dow's Derakane TM epoxy vinyl ester polymer matrix resins. The Panex TM continuous carbon fibre in 48 K, 160 K and 320 K tow is produced from the newly installed continuous carbonization lines in Hungary. This was Zoltek's first move into the components business that began their growth as a vertically integrated operation. In November 1999 Zoltek purchased SP Systems Ltd, UK for some US$50 million in cash and shares. SP Systems was established in 1978 to manufacture and market epoxy-based composite systems and was previously known as Structural Polymer Systems. The company manufactures for the marine market but has diversified
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into wind turbine blade construction. The blades are made with an epoxy matrix reinforced with glass fibres and this is now the company's largest customer accounting for more than 75% of its business in 1999, having risen from 50% in 1998. The company has recently w o n a five-year contract worth US$160 million to supply composite materials to the Spanish wind turbine manufacturer Gamesa Eolica, and is building a prepreg plant in southern Spain to support the Spanish business. The wind turbine business is very competitive and SP Systems link with Zoltek, giving it easier access to carbon fibre and to the US market, is causing some concern in the industry. The company manufactures Prime TM 20 epoxy resin for use in liquid infusion processes such as resin transfer moulding, Seeman Composites Resin Infusion Moulding Process (SCRIMP) and vacuum-assisted RTRM. Prime TM 20 does not contain solvents or styrene and so complies with existing volatile organic c o m p o u n d (VOC) emission requirements. The product is used to produce wind turbine blades and the masts of ocean-going yachts. The company also manufactures the SE90 heavyweight epoxy prepreg, which is used in the manufacture of the Vestas wind turbine blades. Zoltek had been attracted by SP System's work on ultra-long turbine blades using carbon fibre. The current maximum length for blades is some 30 m and carbon fibre could potentially extend this to 50 m. In Spring 2000 European customers saw the first tests using carbon fibres, particularly in structural spars. As part of the purchase SP Systems acquired 2.5 minion shares in Zoltek, which is 15% of the total outstanding. The Chief Executive Officer of SP Systems now heads up Zoltek Intermediates. The purchase of SP Systems will help Zoltek's sales, where a net loss of US$2.642 was reported in the year ending 30 September 1999 that would have been reduced to US$849000 if SP Systems sales had been included. SP Systems has reported revenues of US$34.6 million in 1998 and US$3.2 million in income from operations. At much the same time, Zoltek also bought Cape Composites, San Diego and renamed the company SP Systems (USA), with the president of Cape Composites becoming President of SP Systems (USA). SP Systems is a larger company than Cape Composites and also had a broader product range. Cape Composites manufactured a range of carbon fibre prepregs used for golf club shafts and other sporting goods, and had sales of some US$6.5 million for the 12 months ending 30 September. Other acquisitions included Engineering Technology Inc (EnTec) and Composites Machines Co (CMC), both based in Salt Lake City, Utah. EnTec and CMC both manufacture filament winding and pultrusion equipment, and reported aggregated revenues of around US$7.5 million for the 12 months ending 30 September 1999. In May 2000 an investor group headed by Zoltek acquired 30% of the equity of Hardcore Composites Operations LLC, which had been part of Master Builders Inc, itself part of the international SKW-MBT Construction Chemicals Group. The management owns the remaining equity in Hardcore in a new company under the leadership of Chief Executive Officer Scott Hemphill, who was formerly general manager of Hardcore Composites Division of Master Builders. Zoltek has the option to acquire the remaining shares for Zoltek shares in the next two years. Hardcore has manufactured and delivered 10 highway traffic-bearing bridges/ bridge decks in the last 4 years, making it the largest supplier in this market, and also delivered and installed the first composite bridge deck in April 2000 under the Ohio State Project 100 programme.
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7 Corporateprofiles Zoltek now believes that to achieve its aims it must attain a critical mass and has, consequently, made a range of acquisitions for which it has acquired new debts of US$40 million. However, Zoltek believes that the new companies will soon pay for themselves and give it greater technical and geographical strength. The company has now been restructured into three groups: Zohek Carbon Fibres, which will concentrate on the production and sale of carbon fibres; Zoltek Intermediates, the downstream businesses in intermediate composite materials, composite processing, design and engineering; and Specialty Products, based on the non-core business of acrylic and nylon fibres acquired with Magyar Viscoa in 1996. These non-core businesses have produced most of Zoltek's revenues, but it now plans to move these into joint ventures with other companies and wants core businesses to account for more than two-thirds of total sales. Some 75% of Zoltek's revenues now come from sales in Europe largely based on the Hungarian company and SP Systems. Zohek is incurring considerable costs in maintaining excess carbon fibre capacity (it is estimated to have four lines). The aim is to encourage the development of high-volume applications but the cost in the second quarter of fiscal year 2000 was US$1.1 million and US$2.1 million for the first half of fiscal year 2000. The net sales for the first quarter of fiscal year 2000 were US$22.9 million with a loss ofUS$1.19 million, and this rose in the first half of fiscal year 2000 to US$58.1 million with the net income showing a loss of US$1.47 million (Table 68).
Table 68 Zoltec financial information (fiscal year ended 30 September)
222
Year
Sales
1999
68525
(2642)
1998
83 390
9595
Net income/loss
1997
90 628
12 828
1996
68 957
6210
1995
12 698
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3TEX Inc 109 MacKenan Drive Cary NC 27311 USA Tel: + 1 919 481 2500 Fax: + 1 919 481 6595 Chief Executive Officer: B. Lienhart E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.3tex.com 3TEX designs and manufactures three-dimensional (3-D) preforms and composite parts for high-performance applications including infrastructure, blast mitigation systems and transport. A&P Technology Two Braid Way Covington KY 41017 USA Tel: + 1 606 356 2020 Fax: + 1 606 356 7049 4595 East Tech Drive Cincinnati OH 45245-1055 USA Tel: + 1 513 668 3200 Fax: + 1 606 356 7049 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.braider.com Managing Director: Andrew Head Contact: Kory McCabe A&P was established in 1986 as the research and development (R&D) division of Atkins and Pearce. The company is one of the world's leading manufacturers of braided fabrics for composite reinforcement and advanced technology applica-
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tions. In May 2000 the company announced that it was doubling the braiding capacity for composite reinforcements in conjunction with the move to a new production plant. A&P have undertaken work on reinforcing masonry walls using wet lay-up with carbon uni-braid and an epoxy resin from Fyfe for the US Army Corps of Engineers. The other main area of infrastructure work is sewer pipe repair.
Accordis See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles.
Addax Inc PO Box 81467 Lincoln NE 68501 USA Tel: +1 402 435 4253 Fax: +1 402 435 0566 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.addax.com General Manager: Jim Heard Contact: Tom Podd Addax was formed in 1985 to produce advanced composite products for industrial applications. The company specializes in mechanical power transmissions manufactured by filament winding, moulding and pultrusion. Products include drive shafts for cooling towers with spans up to 685 cm that do not require intermediate bearings and are filament w o u n d in a helix using continuous carbon and/or glass fibre with epoxy resin. The company was acquired by Rexnord Corp in March 1998 and is now part of Invensys.
Advanced Composite Products & Technology Inc 15602 Chemical Lane Huntingdon Beach CA 92649 USA Tel: + 1 714 895 5544 Fax: + 1 714 895 7766 E-mail: acptj @earthlink.net Chairman and Chief Executive Officer: Dr James C. Leslie Advanced Composite Products & Technology Inc (ACTP) was formed in 1996 and is part of the network of small, specialized composite companies in California. The company has received a grant of US$2.16 million towards a project to design and fabricate an advanced drill pipe made from a carbon fibre reinforced epoxy resin. A high-speed data communication capability will be woven into the pipe to transfer drilling information from the bottom of the well bore to surface operations.
Advanced Composites Group Ltd Adams Close Heanor Derby DE75 7SW UK
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Tel: +44 1733 763441 or 534599 Fax: +44 1773 530245 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: Alan Moore Contact: Dr Adrian Potts The Advanced Composites Group was founded in 1975 and had its origins in m o t o r racing, although it has now expanded into other markets including defence and aerospace. The company employs over 200 staff in the UK and USA, and has Jon DeVault- previously with Aldila and Hercules - as its US president. All matrix materials are based on t h e r m o s e t s - epoxy and unidirectional woven carbon comprise some 90% of its business. Following its strong emphasis on the advanced automotive and aerospace industries, the company has expanded into general engineering and is now investigating infrastructure markets. A d v a n c e d Glassfiber Yarns LLC 163 Boulevard des Etats Unis 69008 Lyon France Tel: +33 4 72 78 17 77 Fax: +33 4 72 78 17 80 E-mail: jean-francois.ducharne :agy.com E-maih
[email protected] Chief Executive Officer: Robert Porcher Contact: Jean-Francois Ducharne 2558 Wagener Road Aiken SC 29801 USA Tel: + 1 803 643 1501 Fax: + 1 803 643 1180 Internet: www.agy.com Contact: Will Chafin Advanced Glassfiber Yams LLC (AGY) manufactures a range of yarn products, including one with S-2 glass fibres and Zen Tron TM glass fibres that are used in autmotive exhaust systems. AGY's Beta TM glass fibre yarns coated with Teflon TM were used for the 100 000 ft 2 fabric roof of the Millennium Dome, London. The company also has a plant in Aiken, South Carolina, USA. A d v a n c e d Technical Products 200 Mansell Court Suite 505 Roswell Atlanta GA 30076 USA Tel: +1 770 993 0291 Fax: + 1 770 993 1986 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.atpx.com Contact: G. L. Dominy
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Directory Advanced Technical Products (ATP) was formed in October 1997 from a merger of Lunn Industries and TPG Holdings. ATP includes Marion Composites, Lincoln Composites, Alcore and Intellitec. The company is a producer of advanced composites produced by autoclave lamination, filament winding, resin transfer moulding (RTM) and metal bonding. Lincoln Composites has been involved in the development of a composite riser for deep-water oil recovery. Revenues for the year ended 31 December 1998 were US$165.07 million, compared to US$119.43 million in 1997, an increase of 38.2%. Net income for the year was US$5.69 million (1997, US$4.21 million), a 35.2% increase. However, there was a fall in revenues in the fourth quarter due to a drop in sales for the composite fuel tank for natural gas vehicles. In August 1999 negotiations for the purchase of the company by Veritas Capital fell through and a later agreement, in October, with the Veritas Capital Fund was terminated because of financial problems with the Alcore Division. In June 2000 ATP announced that it would sell its Alcore and Alcore Brigantine subsidiaries, and that for financial reporting purposes the units would be treated as discontinued operations. Aerovac Systems Ltd Bradford Road Sandbeds Keighley BD20 5LN UK Tel: +44 1535 607457 Fax: +44 1535 609754 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.aerovac.com General Manager: Mr Cooke Contact: Mr Tunney Aerovac is a European supplier of vacuum bagging materials to the composites industry. The company was bought for s million in March 1999 by the UMECO group. Ahlstrom Glassfibre Oy PO Box 18 Karhula FIN-48601 Finland Tel: +358 224 2444 Fax: +358 5 226 1387 Insinoorinkatu 2 Mikkeli FIN-501000 Finland Tel: + 358 15 35501 Fax: +358 15 3550 290 E-mail: glassfibre @ahlstrom.com Internet: www.ahlstrom.com/apg Managing Director: Christer Pihl Contact: Kari Salonaho or Juha Bohm
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Ahlstrom is a manufacturer of glass fibre reinforcements in the form of tissues, woven glass fibre and speciality reinforcements produced from the Mikkeli plant and glass fibre reinforcements produced from the Karhula plant. Aiello SNC viale Enrico Fermi 8/10 10051 Avigliana (TO) Italy Tel: +39 011 936 7288 Fax: +39 011 936 7219 E-mail:
[email protected] Aiello manufactures glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) components for rolling stock, and the Gemgrate T M glass fibre gratings for pedestrian and rolling stock applications. The gratings are dielectric and non-flammable. Airtech International Inc 5700 Skylab Road Huntingdon Beach CA 92647 USA Tel: + 1 714 899 8100 Fax: + 1 714 899 8179 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.airtechintl.com Contact: Jeff Dahlgren Airtech was established in 1973 and has branches in the USA, Luxembourg and the UK. The company manufactures vacuum bagging materials and composite tooling equipment. Akzo Nobel NV PO Box 9300 Velperweg 76 NL-6800 SB Arnhem The Netherlands Tel: +31 26 366 4433 Fax: +31 26 366 3250 Internet: www.akzonobel.com Akzo Nobel Chemicals BV Stationsplein 4 PO Box 247 3800 AE Amersfoort The Netherlands Tel: +31 33 46767 67 Fax: +31 33 46761 26 Managing Director: H. J. Saeger Contact: Mr van der Boor Akzo Nobel Thermoset Chemicals NV PO Box 247 3800 AE Amersfoort The Netherlands Tel: + 31 33 467 6031 Fax: +31 33 467 6151 E-mail: thermoset.chemicals@ akzonobel.com
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Directory Akzo Nobel C h e m i c a l s Inc 300 S Riverside Avenue Chicago IL 60606 USA Tel: + 1 312 906 7500 Fax: +1 312 906 7681 Akzo Nobel was formed when Akzo acquired Nobel shares in 1994. The oldest companies in the group had been formed in Denmark in 1777; the Nobel element was formed by Alfred Nobel and results from a merger of KemaNord and Bofors in 1984. The company manufactures a range of chemicals used in the manufacture of composites including curing agents for thermoset resins. The company operates in a decentralized organization with divisional units having considerable autonomy. Albany International T e c h n i w e a v e Inc PO Box 6314 Rochester NH 03668 USA Tel: +1 518 445 2200 Fax: + 1 518.445.2209 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.albint.com Chief Executive Officer: F. L. McKone Albany International Techniweave manufactures speciality woven fabrics and tapes, braids, 3-D woven preforms, ceramic matrix and polymer matrix composites, for aerospace, industrial and recreational markets. The company has moved its composites operations to a new and enlarged facility in Rochester. In August 1999 Albany acquired the Geschmay Group with operations in Germany, France and Italy. Alcore Inc Lakeside Business Park 1502 Quarry Drive Edgewood MD 21040 USA Tel: + 1 410 676 7100 Fax: + 1 410 676 7200 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.alcore.com
Alcore Brigantine SA Route de l'Aviation 7 all6e Elchecopa 64600 Anglet France Tel: +33 5 5 9 4 1 2 5 25 Fax: +33 5 59 41 25 00 E-mail:
[email protected]
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Alcore is one of the Alcore group of companies that are part of Advanced Technical Products, Atlanta. The companies manufacture aluminium and aramid honeycomb lightweight cellular "structures that are supplied mainly to the aerospace industry but also to railway and naval facilities. Alderley Materials Ltd Station Road Berkeley GL13 9RL UK Tel: +44 1453 512 904 Fax: +44 1453 810 108 E-mail: j ames.francomb @ alderleymaterials.com Internet: www.alderleymaterials.co.uk Alderley Materials supply phenolic-based materials for offshore, mass transit, marine and construction markets. The products include cold cure phenolic and a range of syntatic phenolic foams with enhanced fire properties. Aldila Inc 12140 Community Road Poway CA 92064 USA Tel: +1 858 513 1801 Fax: +1 858 513 1870 E-mail: i n v r e l a t i o n s @aldila.com Internet: www.aldila.com Chief Executive Officer: P. R. Mathewson Contact: Mary Lou Cobuan Although Aldila is primarily a manufacturer of golf shafts, the company also has a carbon fibre manufacturing operation and manufactures composite prepreg. In October 1999 Aldila sold 50% of its carbon fibre business for US$7 million to SGL Carbon Fibers and Composites Inc, which is a producer of large-tow carbon fibres. The operation will be run as Carbon Fibre Technology LLC, Evanston, Wyoming. For the year ended 31 December 1999 the company reported a net loss of US$2.1 million on sales of US$45.1 million, which compares with net sales of US$62.5 million in 1998. Sales increased in fiscal year 2000 and the second quarter saw a 35% increase to give "a net income of US$1.7 million compared with a loss of US$72 000 in the same period for 1999. Net income for the first six months of 2000 was US$2.2 million compared with a loss of US$0.4 million for the same period in 1999. Alliant Tech Systems Inc 5901 Lincoln Drive Edina MN 55436 USA Tel: +1 612 939 2000 Fax: +1 612 939 5920 E-mail: alliant-corporate @ atk.com Internet: www.atk.com Chief Executive Officer: P. D. Miller
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Alliant was formed in 1990 as a spin-off from Honeywell, and is mainly a supplier to the defence and aerospace industries but also includes a composites division. The company had sales in 1999 of US$1.1 biUion. The ABL Division of Alliant manufactures longitudinal carbon epoxy girders, including those in the joint project with Martin Marietta, California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), Federal Highway Administration and Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) on the demonstration Kings Stormwater Channel bridge south of Palm Springs. The girders were connected along their tops with a 7.125-inch deep pultruded sandwich composite deck fabricated by Martin Marietta Materials. Alto-Perils Pultrudi D o s Centro Impresas Net R Salazares 482 Porto 4100 Portugal Tel: +351 2953 7352 Fax: +351 2957 8713 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Mario de Castro
Alto-Perils is a manufacturer of pultruded profiles with most, but not all, in the form of door and w i n d o w lineals. A l u s u i s s e C o m p o s i t e s Inc Buckerhauserstrasse 11 CH-8048 Zurich Switzerland Tel: +41 1 497 44 22 Fax: +41 1 497 45 87 Chief Executive Officer: Dr Walter Grueble
PO Box 507 208 W 5th Street Benton KY 42025-0507 USA Tel: + 1 502 527 4200 Fax: +1 502 527 1552 Internet: http://www.alusuisse-comp.com President: James A. Burr Contact: L. Roger Miller A l u s u i s s e Airex AG CH-5643 Sins Switzerland Tel: + 41 41 789 6600 Fax: +41 41 789 6660 Internet: www.alusuisse-airex.com
Alusuisse Composites is part of Alusuisse-Lonza, the Swiss aluminium company, and was founded in 1977; the Lonza chemicals operation has been separated from the main company. The company now employs some 170 staff and has annual sales of some US$60 million. The main interests are architectural materials for construction and materials for design/display applications. Products include Foam-X, Sintrex, Sintra, Dibond and Alucobond.
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Alusuisse Airex produces structural core materials including rigid foams and thermoplastic honeycomb. American Grating Inc 19138 E. Walnut Drive Suite 201 Rowland Heights CA 91748 USA Tel: + 1 626 913 5812 Fax: +1 626 913 3192 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.amgrating.com Managing Director: Jim Ho Contact: Angela Ho American Grating manufactures moulded, pultruded and phenolic gratings for industrial applications. American Materials & Technology Corp 5915 Rodeo Road Los Angeles CA 90016 USA Tel: + 1 310 841 5200 Fax: +1 310 204 0685 Internet: www.amtc4.com American Materials & Technology Corp (AMT Corp) is a holding company that has acquired various composite companies including Culver City Composites Corp, GrafaUoy Inc and Carbon Design Partnership Ltd, UK. The company has entered a joint venture with Schappe Techniques, France for the production of Modlite Select carbon yams and fibres. The two companies hope that a low price will encourage the use of carbon yarns and fibres.
Ameron International Fiberglass Pipe Group 5300 Hollister Suite 111 Houston TX 77040 USA Tel: + 1 713 690 7777 Fax: +1 713 690 2042 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.ameron.com President: Gordon Robertson Contact: Mark Nowak
Ameron Fiberglass Pipe Group, Europe PO Box 6 4190 CA Geldermalsen The Netherlands Tel: +31 345 587 587 Fax: +31 345 587 561 Contact: Peter Tolhoek
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Directory Ameron (Pte) Ltd 7A Tuas Avenue 3 639407 Singapore Tel: +65 861 6118 Fax: +65 862 1302 E-mail: andy_ng@ amercom.com.sg Ameron Fiberglass Pipe Group is part of Ameron International Corp, Pasadena, California, and manufactures composite piping systems for more specialized applications in industrial, marine, offshore, oilfield and fuel handling applications. Ameron has established Bondstrand Ltd through its joint venture company in Saudi Arabia. It has also established a joint venture company in Kuwait, Bondstrand Kuwait Ltd, to manufacture fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) pipe in Kuwait for oilfields and industrial applications. The joint venture began operations in January 2000. An-Cor Industrial Plastics Inc 100 Melody Lane N. Tonawanda NY 14120 USA Tel: + 1 716 695 3141 Fax: + 1 716 695 0465 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.an-cor.com Contact: Scott Gilmour An-Cor (derived from anti-corrosion) was formed in 1960, and manufactures pipes, tanks, ducts and structural components such as handrails, gratings and ladders for use in highly corrosive environments.
Anderson Products Pty Ltd 4 Taronga Place Monavale Sydney NSW 2103 Australia Tel: +61 2 997 96566 Fax: +61 2 997 96525 Managing Director: John Anderson Contact: Mr Kirby Anderson supplies FRP pultrusions, gratings and other flooring products for industrial applications. Arab Co for Materials Development (ACDM) 9 Menis Street Korba Heliopolis Cairo Egypt Tel: +202 416 0800 Fax: +202 416 0859/0857 ACDM was founded in 1992-1993 and is a major Egyptian manufacturer of largediameter GFRP pipes in the 300-1400-mm diameter range used in sewerage systems.
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AOC LLC 950 Highway 57 East CollierviUe TN 38017 USA Tel: + 1 901 854 2800 Fax: + 1 901 854 7277 E-marl: smartin@ aoc-resins.com Director of Marketing Communications: Steve Martin AOC Hawk Ltd Factory Lane Brantham Essex CO 11 1NT UK Tel: +44 1206 390 400 Fax: +44 1206 390 409 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: Steve One Contact: Mr Cheshire AOC was formed originally as a joint venture between the Alpha Corp and Owens Coming, but Alpha purchased the Owens Coming (OC) portion and AOC was formed as an independent unit. The company is a manufacturer of polyester and vinyl ester resins, gel-coats and hybrids using low-emission technology. AOC Hawk distributes these products to the composites industry.
Applied Advanced Technology Co (ApATech Co Ltd) See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. Architen Ltd Rickford Burrington Bristol Avon BS40 7AH UK Tel: +44 1761 462464 Fax: +44 1761 462605 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.architen.com Architen has constructed a Glulam wood laminate arch reinforced with Panex TM carbon fibres from Zoltek. The arch weighs 20 tonnes and was built at the entrance to an entertainment centre at Cribbs Causeway near Bristol The material was supplied by Composite Intermediates Corp, Corvallis, Oregon, and the arch is 18.3 m high and has a span of 30.5 m supporting a tensioned 1300-m 2 canopy made from a membrane coated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Arrowhead Fiberglass Industries Inc Highway 341 Fort Valley GA 31030 USA Tel: +1 912 825 8334 Fax: +1 912 825 1235 E-mail:
[email protected]
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Internet: www.arrowheadinc.com Managing Director: Tom Kishel Contact: Stephen Kishel Arrowhead Plastic E n g i n e e r i n g Inc 2909 Hoyt Avenue Muncie IN 47302 USA Tel: + 1 317 286 0533 Fax: +1 317 286 1681 Arrowhead Plastics South 115 Spears Creek Church Lane Elgin SC 29045 USA Tel: + 1 803 788 3022 Fax: + 1 803 788 6436
Arrowhead was founded in 1972, and is a custom moulder and producer of composite and plastic parts for original equipment manufactures (OEM). The company also manufactures storage tanks and containment systems. Asahi Fibre Glass Co Ltd 3-6-3 Kanda Kaji Cho Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 103 Japan Tel: +81 3 5296 2035 Fax: +81 3 5296 2043 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.asahi.co.jp Managing Director: Manzo Yasuda Contact: Kouji Takeda
Asahi is part of the major Japanese chemical group, Asahi, and manufactures a range of glass fibre products. The company has made disappointing returns largely as a result of the problems with the domestic economy. Ashland C h e m i c a l Co Inc See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. Atlantic Research Corp 5390 Cherokee Avenue Alexandria VA 22313 USA Tel: +1 703 642 4000 Fax: +1 703 642 4021 5945 Wellington Road GainesviUe VA 20155-1699 USA Tel: + 1 703 754 5000 Fax: +1 703 754 5316
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E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.atlanticresearchcorp.com Chief Executive Officer: J. R. Sides Contact: Richard Brown Atlantic Research Corp (ARC) is a subsidiary of Sequa Corp, previously Sun Chemical Corp. ARC has undertaken a project for the Virginia Department of Transportation to develop a glass fibre composite road deck using EZ SPANTM components for the Troutville Scales on Interstate 81, Virginia. ARC worked with Creative Pultrusions and FMW Rubber Products, and the deck panels use ARC braiding process to form three-dimensional glass fibre fabric. After nearly a full winter in service the bridge deck was reported to be performing well. ATP Srl via Casa Pagano 31 Angri (SA) 84012 Italy Tel: +39 81 947 777 Fax: +39 81 947740 E-mail:
[email protected] President: Luigi Giamundo Contact: Gennaro Esposito ATP stands for Advanced Technical Pultrusions and was established in North America in 1998. The company produces plastic materials for windows and doors, of which 27 000 tonnes was GFRP pultruded lineal. ATP produces pultruded glass fibre consolidation and rod for tunnelling and mining operations. The company is also a major supplier of cable protection channels, light poles and ladder rails. Profiles are produced using glass, aramid or carbon reinforcements combined with polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy resins. A total of 60 000 tonnes of reinforced plastics were produced in 1998. Automated Dynamics Corp 407 Front Street Schenectedy NY 12305 USA Tel: + 1 518 377 6471 Fax: + 1 518 377 5628 E-marl: jmartin@ automateddynamics.com Internet: www.automateddynamics.com President: James Mondo Contact: Bruce Krupa Automated Dynamics manufactures automated thermoset and thermoplastic fibre placement equipment. The work cells comprise composite fibre tow placement heads, controllers and software in conjunction with gantry robots supplied by McClean Anderson and Entec Composite Machines (now part of Zoltek and previously known as CMC). Azdel BV Van Konijnenburgweg 137 NL-4600 AS Bergen op Zoom
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Directory The Netherlands Tel: +31 164 292 736 Fax: +31 164 292 840 Managing Director: Mr Murray Marketing Manager: Mr Berghuis Azdel Inc 925 Washington Switch Road Shelby NC 28150 USA Tel: +1 704 434 2271 Fax: + 1 704 434 7465 Managing Director: Terry K. Peterson Azdel is a joint venture between GE Plastics and PPG Industries to produce reinforced plastics. Matrix materials include polypropylene and thermoplastic materials (some manufactured by GE Plastics) reinforced with PPG glass fibres. Azdel acquired Taffen Thermoplastics from Exxon Chemicals in 1997; products include structural thermoplastic materials. Baltek Corp PO Box 195 10 Fairway Court Northvale NJ O7647 USA Tel: + 1 201 767 1400 Fax: + 1 201 387 6631 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.baltek.com Managing Director: Jacques Kohn Product Manager: Henri Kohn Baltek SA 61 rue la Fontaine F-75016 Paris France Tel: +33 1 46 47 58 50 Fax: +33 1 46 47 66 58 Baltek Ltd 64 High Street Croydon Surrey CR0 9XN UK Tel: +44 020 8688 5740 Fax: +44 020 8667 1217
Baltek manufactures kiln-dried balsa products including Baltek core; the new material, known as Superlite TM,is an all-composite core with a strictly controlled density that is 50% lighter than previous Baltek cores. Other products include PVC foams, bonding adhesive, laminate bulkers and laminated panels.
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Bayer AG D-51368 Leverkusen Germany Tel: +49 214 30 1 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.bayer.com Chief Executive Officer: Manfred Schneider Bayer Corp, Polymers and Chemicals 100 Bayer Road Pittsburgh PA 15205-9741 USA Tel: + 1 412 777 4197 Fax: + 1 412 777 4889 Internet: www.bayer.com/polymers-usa Managing Director: Mr Noble Contact: Mr Harrick Bayer is one of the world's largest producers of specialist chemicals, polymers and resins.
Bayex Inc 39 Seapark Drive Saint Catherines Ontario Canada L2M 6S5 Tel: + 1 905 688 3160 Fax: + 1 905 688 3745 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.bayex.com Contact: Doug Bailey Bayex is a division of Bay Mills Ltd and has been owned by Saint-Gobain since 1987. The company has provided woven and non-woven reinforcement fabrics for the composite industry for more than 50 years. The company is to cooperate with a sister company, Vertex, based in the Czech Republic and acquired by SaintGobain in 1998, on the marketing, technical development and manufacture of glass fibre reinforcement fabrics for the composites industry. Products include the Glasliner T M product made from textile glass fibre and polyester for the cure-in-place pipe market.
Bedford Reinforced Plastics Inc R.D. 2 Box 225H 264 Reynoldsdale Road Bedford PA 15522 USA Tel: + 1 814 623 8125 Fax: + 1 814 623 6032 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.bedfordplastics, com Contact: Mike Beupre
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8 Directory Bedford offers a range of FRP pultruded products in addition to pultrusion equipment. Amongst other companies, Bedford supplies Psychrometric Systems with FRP polyester pultruded profiles for their cooling towers. A single power plant can require 100 000 m of pultruded profile. The largest project has been the Barrick Goldstrike Mines constructed by Hamon Cooling Towers in 1997, in which Bedford supplied nearly 300 tonnes of pultruded material including square tubes, angles, channels and deck board. Bedford produced the pultruded profiles for the Bovee Meadows bridge in Olympic National Park, Washington State. The 75-ft bridge carries hikers, horses and mule trains, and had to be exceptionally stiff in order that there should be no vibration to frighten the animals.
Bekaert Composites See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. BFG International PO Box 26197 Manama Bahrain Tel: + 973 727615 Fax: +973 965 1165 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.bfginternational.com Contact: Samer Aljishi BFG is a large producer of composite products for applications in the Gulf States and other areas including airport roofs, sewerage tanks and pipelines. The company is privately held and does not produce financial reports. The 700 staff are distributed mainly in plants in Bahrain and the Philippines.
Biobe AS PO Box 193 Makeveien 2 N- 1601 Fredrikstad Norway Tel: +47 69 351 020 Fax: +47 69 351 060 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.biobe.no Managing Director: Jon Hermansen Contact: B. Jensen Biobe manufactures a range of thermoset and thermoplastic-based composites for the marine and offshore industries
Bombardier Inc (Transportation Division) 800 Rene-Levesque Boulevard Quebec Canada H3B 1Y8 Tel: + 1 514 861 9481 Fax: + 1 514 861 7053 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.bombardier.com President: J.oY. Leblanc Contact: Linda Coates
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Bombardier Transportation is one of the largest producers of rail vehicles in the world, although it is also well known for its aircraft manufacture - it owns Canadair, de HaviUand, Learjet and Shorts. In rail vehicles the company owns Waggonfabrik Talbot GmbH & Co KG, Germany, which is manufacturing the new modular Talent trains. The Talent train sidewalls are made from pultruded composite profiles glued on to a steel frame. Other companies within the group include ANF, France, Prorail, UK, BWS, Austria, BN Germany and Deutsche Waggonbau, Germany.
BP-Amoco Polymers 4500 McGinnis Ferry Road Alpharetta GA 30005-3914 USA Tel: + 1 770 772 8200 Fax: + 1 770 772 8258 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.bpamocochemicals.com Chief Executive Officer: Bryan Sanderson BP-Amoco offers a range of polyacrylonitrile (PAN)- and pitch-based carbon fibres, including the Thornel TM PAN-based fibres and the ThermalGraph T M pitchbased carbon fibres.
Bretagne Composites SA ZI de la Croix Rouge BP-37 F-44260 MalviUe C6dex France Tel: +33 2 40 57 05 02 Fax: +33 2 40 57 04 29 Managing Director: M. Feron Contact: M. Aubry The company manufactures composites for the rail industry using a combination of glass-epoxy skins and a flame-resistant structural foam core.
BYK-Chemie GmbH Abelstrasse 45 D-46483 Wesel Germany Tel: +49 281 670 0 Fax: +49 281 657 35 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.byk-chemie.com Sales Manager: Karl Heinz Merz Contact: Ron Woolley Schutterijlaan 23 NL-6004 DM Weert The Netherlands Tel: +31 495 548403 Fax: +31 495 522142 Contact: Gerard Reestman
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Directory BYK-Chemie manufactures a range of additives for PVC plastisols, thermoset resins, sheet moulding-bulk moulding compound (SMC-BMC) materials and polyurethanes.
Cam Elyaf Sanayii AS Cayirova 41401 Gebze-kocaeli Turkey Tel: +90 262 653 47 41 Fax: +90 262 653 26 57 E-mail: tl~tlug@ sisecam.com.tr Internet: www.siscam.com.tr Contact: Tolga Kutlug Cam Elyaf has been producing glass fibre reinforcements for the reinforced plastics industry since 1978. Cape Composites 9151B Rehco Road San Diego CA 92121 USA Tel: + 1 619 450 0113 Fax: +1 619 450 0141 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.cape-composites.com President: Dave Abrams Contact: Danny Marshall Cape Composites filed a civil class action lawsuit for anti-competitive practise against a number of American and Japanese carbon fibre and prepreg manufacturers in 1999. In August 1998 Cape had reduced the price of carbon fibre prepregs, including a 15% reduction for standard-modulus carbon fibre or graphite unidirectional tapes. Cape Composites was bought by Zoltek in the latter half of 1999.
Carbon Composites Co PO Box 78 Paia HI 96779 USA Tel: + 1 808 579 8000 Fax: + 1 808 579 8059 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.carb.com Carbon Composites supplies a range of advanced materials that are sold either by the roll or by the yard. Materials include carbon, KevlarTM,aramid, carbon-S-glass and carbon-Kevlar TM.
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Carbon Fiber Technology LLC 1375 Union Road Evanston WY 82930 USA Tel: + 1 307 789 2499 Fax: + 1 307 789 2579 E-mail:
[email protected] SGL Carbon Fibers and Composites Inc bought 50% of the carbon fibre operation ofAldila Inc, mostly known for its manufactures of golf clubs but also with a largetow carbon fibre production unit. Carbon Fiber Technology Inc is the result of the purchase. The Evanston plant previously only ran a PAN precursor from Courtaulds for its carbon fibre, but most production is now from A534 PAN precursor from Toho Rayon, Tokyo. All the carbon fibre is produced as 45 K tow. CETEC C ons ul t a n cy Coopers House The Horsefair Romsey SO51 8JZ UK Tel: +44 1794 526500 Fax: +44 1794 526501 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: E. A. Marchant Contact: David Kendall CETEC specializes in the design of lightweight and marine structures, with a major emphasis on composites. The company has designed a composite factory for an Italian composite company Protec Materiali Compositi. Chongqing Polycomp International Corp Dadukou District Chongqing 400082 China Tel: +86 23 689 6144 or +86 23 688 37872 Fax: +86 23 688 33143 Chongqing Polycomp is a leading supplier of glass fibre in China, using manufacturing technology from Nitto Boseki. The company began manufacturing E-glass fibre in 1986 and now offers SMC and spray-up roving, filament winding and pultrusion roving, and a range of strands and yams. Ciba Specialty Chemicals PO Box 9 CH-4002 Basel Switzerland Tel: +41 61 636 5081 Fax: +41 61 636 5111 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.cibasc.com Chairman: R. A. Meyer Contact: Peter Kurz Ciba was originally formed in 1758 at J. R. Geigy AG and merged with Ciba in 1971 to form Ciba-Geigy. A merger with Sandoz in 1996 led to the Specialty Chemicals Division being spun-off.
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In early 2000, Morgan Grenfell Private Equity bought the Performance Polymers division of Ciba Specialty Chemicals for SFrl.845 billion (US$1.182 billion). Ciba plans to use the proceeds from the sale to repay debt and for corporate development purposes. The Performance Polymers division is one of the world's top three epoxy resins manufacturers and has a strong position in speciality applications, such as advanced tooling and adhesives. The business employs more than 3100 personnel worldwide and will be based in Basel. After restructuring of the business, Performance Polymers raised its operating income to SFr62 million (US$39.74 million) in the first half of 1999 from SFr26 million (US$16.66 million) in the comparable period in 1998. At the same time, in line with a strategic focus on profitable areas of the business, sales of lower-valueadded products declined while those of specialities increased. In the first 6 months of 1999, the division's sales totalled SFr846 million (US$542.3 million). Clariant GmbH Am U nisyspark 1 D-65840, Sulzbach Germany Tel: +49 6196 757 8109 Fax: +49 6196 757 8977 E-mail: heinzpeter.zopes@ clariant.com Internet: www.clariant.com Chairman: R. W. Schweizer Contact: Heinz-Peter Zopes
Clariant manufactures a range of chemicals for the composites industry including additives, pigments, waxes, surfactants, and cellulose ethers and polymerizates. In 1999 sales showed a slight increase of 1% when viewed as Swiss currency or a decrease of 1% when viewed in other currencies. Sales in 1998 were SFr9053 million compared with SFr9158 in 1999. C o l b o n d N o n w o v e n s BV See Accordis in Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. C o m p o s i t e Power Corp 5333 S Arville Street Suite 206 Las Vegas NV 89118-2226 USA Tel: + 1 702 368 6699 Fax: + 1 702 368 6696 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.compositepower.com President: Roger McCombs Contact: Bob McCaffery
The company was formed by the current president in 1990 and is an energy company whose projects include the Nevada Green Energy Project, which aims to feed 50-150 MW of wind and solar energy into the power grid. The company works with the US Department of the Environment Pacific Northwest National Laboratory on commercial outlets for new materials. Products include pultruded power poles, which are aimed as a replacement for conventional wood or concrete poles.
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Composite Rebar Technology Inc 2873 22 no Street SE Suite B Salem OR 97302 USA Tel: + 1 503 391 4412 Fax: +1 503 391 4467 E-maih
[email protected] Contact: Derek Hogarth The Composite Rebar Technology Inc (CRT) FRP reinforced bar (rebar) has a carbon fibre exterior/deformation surface with a load-carrying interior crosssection made from pultruded glass or carbon-glass hybrid which is vinyl esterbased. The hollow rebar allows for instrumentation, conduit and post-tensioning applications.
Composite Retrofit International 400 Boulevard De Maisonneuve Ouest Montreal Quebec Canada H3A 1L4 Tel: +1 514 282 1407 Fax: +1 514 282 6324 E-mail: bdevino @ tyfosfibrwrap, com Contact: Ben De Vino Composite Retrofit is an agent for the Tyfo Fibrwrap TM system developed by Fyfe & Co LLC, San Diego.
Composite Solutions Inc 3655 Nobel Drive Suite 440 San Diego CA 92122 USA Tel: + 1 858 459 4843 Fax: + 1 858 459 4863 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.compositesolutionsinc.com President: Mark Olson Contact: Duane Gee Composite Solutions Inc (CSI) uses carbon and glass fibre composites for retrofitting bridges and buildings to meet earthquake and higher-standard requirements. The company licenses the Carbon Shell System construction method from the University of California, San Diego and will use the technology in the construction of the Kings Stormwater Channel Bridge near the Salton Sea, California. CSI will also use carbon fibre sheets to strengthen the elevated walkway at the Waikiki Sand Villa Hotel, Honolulu, which is part of a US$300 000 hotel renovation project. There has been concern regarding elevated walkways in hotels since the collapse of the overhead walkway at the Hyatt Regency Hotel in which several people were killed. In March 2000 CSI acquired the privately held Trans-Science Corp (TSC), also of San Diego, which has developed design software for the seismic retrofit of civil
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Directory structures using composite overlays. In addition to earthquake considerations, TSC is extending the software to cover explosions. The US government has allocated US$1.1 billion to embassy security funding and recent experiments at White Sands Missile Range have been undertaken as part of a counter-terrorist programme. CSI also announced in June 2000 that it would acquire Anchor Reinforcements, Huntingdon Beach, California, which manufactures non-woven unidirectional fabrics.
Composite Solutions 6667 South Cottonwood Street Murray UT 84107 USA Tel: + 1 801 269 0998 Fax: + 1 801 269 0780 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.composite-solutions.com Contact: Bryan Lundy The current President and owner formed Composite Solutions in 1991. The company manufactures carbon-glass fibre composite components for the marine, offshore, aerospace and medical industries. Manufacturing techniques include filament winding, prepreg and hybrid fabrication.
Composites Aquitaine 19 route de Lacanau 33160 Salaunes France Tel: +33 5 56 68 55 00 Fax: +33 5 56 58 51 93 E-mail:
[email protected] Composites Aquitaine manufacture high-performance composite materials. The company has undertaken work with Institut franqais du petrole and Pride Forasol on steel tube reinforcement under tension using a helically w o u n d carbon fibre tape impreganted with polyamide. The advantage is a drilling tube much lighter than steel, with over 500 tonnes saved on a drilling line, and the ability to drill in water over 3000 m deep.
Composites One 723 W Algonquin Road Arlington Heights IL 60005 USA Tel: + 1 888 256 4234 Fax: + 1 888 256 4289 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.compositesone.com Chief Executive Officer: Steve Dehmlow Composites One was formed in 1999 from the merger of Composite Materials Inc, GLS Composites Distribution Corp and RP Associates. Annual sales for the new company are estimated at US$420 million. Composites One will be a joint venture of GLAS Corp, the parent company of GLS Distribution Corp and Cook
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Composites and Polymers, owner of CMI and RP. The company is a distributor for vinyl ester, polyester and reinforcement materials, and also for products from Hexcel, Owens Corning and Vetrotex. In April 2000 Composites One acquired Lake Erie Fiber Glass Supply Inc. COMPTEK S t r u c t u r a l C o m p o s i t e s 6 th Floor 45 E . 2 0 th Street New York NY 10003 USA Tel: +1 212 353 0100 Fax: +1 212 353 0110 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.compteksc.com Contact: Jim Lockwood Comptek is a start-up company that manufactures FRP structural reinforcing products and the Atlas strengthening products. C o n o c o Inc Conoco Center 600 North Dairy Houston TX 77O79 USA Tel: +1 281 293 1000 Fax: +1 281 293 1440 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.conoco.com Chief Executive Officer: A. W. Dunham In February 2000 Conoco announced that they would build a new plant in Ponca City, Oklahoma for production of up to 3.6 million kg per a n n u m of a randomly oriented carbon fibre mat. The input for the fibre is said to be a pitch by-product derived from a refinery in Ponca. Products are intended for industrial applications rather than aerospace or sporting goods, and will be based around discontinuous fibre mat rather than continuous fibre tow. The plant will cost US$125 million and construction will begin in the second quarter of 2000 next to the company's refinery at Ponca City with production beginning in the second half of 2001 Cray Valley Immeuble le Diamant 16 rue de la Republique Paris la Defense 101-929970 France Tel: +33 1 4135 6888 Fax: +33 1 4135 6118 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.crayvalley.com Managing Director: P. Chartres Contact: M. Francois Laporte Road Stallingborough DN41 8DR UK
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Directory Tel: +44 1469 572464 Fax: +44 1469 551069 Contact: Bernard Ducker Cray Valley is part of Total Fina and the three elements within the c o m p a n y Sartomer, Cray Valley, and Cook Composites and Polymers- make the company the second largest resins producer in the world, including unsaturated polyester (UP) and phenolics. In April 1999 the company purchased the alkyd and UP resin business of Borden Chemical, UK and followed this in April 2000 with the purchase of the Dae Sang Group, South Korea.
Creative Pultrusions See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. Cytec Fiberite Inc 2055 East Technology Circle Tempe AZ 85284 USA Tel: +1 602 730 2010 Fax: + 1 602 730 2090 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.fiberite.com Cytec Fiberite was formed in 1997 when Cytec acquired much of Fiberite Inc (previously part of ICI Fiberire). The acquisition was merged with Cytec Engineered Materials to form Cytec Fiberite Inc. The company manufactures adhesives, preforms and prepreg materials for use in structural and non-structural components. The Division is responsible for speciality materials including thermoset moulding compounds - mostly polyimides and e p o x y - with carbon fibre as the main fibre reinforcement. Cytec Molding Compounds supplies bulk moulding compounds (BMC) based on phenolic and polyester materials for the automotive, electrical and consumer products industries. D a i n i p p o n I n k & Chemicals Inc 7-20 Nihonbashi 3-chome Chuo-ku Tokyo 103-8233 Japan Tel: +81 3 3273 4511 Fax: +81 3 3278 8558 Internet: www.dic.co.jp Chief Executive Officer: Y. Kawashima Dainippon Ink & Chemicals Inc (DIC) develops and manufactures unsaturated polyesters, moulding compounds and custom moulded components in Asia, Europe and the Americas. In the USA, DIC owns Reichhold Chemical, which bought the former Jotun Polymers, Norway. Of annual sales of US$8 billion, the Reichhold operations contribute some US$1.3 billion.
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Delta S t r u c t u r e s T e c h n o l o g y 216 S. Liscomb Amarillo TX 79105 USA Tel: + 1 806 376 5438 Fax: + 1 806 373 7426 Delta Structures is an agent for the Tyfo Fibrwrap TM system developed in the late 1980s by Ed Fyfe of Fyfe & Co LLC. D e v o l d AMT A/S Langevag 6030 Norway Tel: +47 70 19 85 00 Fax: +47 70 19 85 01 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.devold.amt.no Managing Director: E.-L. Berg Contact: Kare Dybuik Devoid AMT is a division of Devoid MS, which was formed in 1853 to make machines for knitting wool sweater. Devoid AMT was formed in 1989 as a manufacturer of multi-axial carbon fabrics with a particular interest in the aerospace industry. The first order was for 400 tonnes of multi-axial glass fibre fabrics for anti-mine vessels for the Royal Norwegian Navy. The technical textile activity was separated from Devoid in 1992 and established as a new company, Devoid AMT (Advanced Multi-axial Technology). Work with carbon fibre reinforcement began in 1995 and material has been supplied for six corvettes, with the first being launched in mid-2000. Devoid Paramax TM fabrics have been widely used in the wind turbine blade industry and Devoid AMT has doubled production every year since 1997. Production of glass fibre fabrics is expected to reach 2500 tonnes in 2000, which is some 50% of company turnover with most of the remaining 50% coming from carbon fibre products.
Divinycell International AB Box 201 Laholm S-312 22 Sweden Tel: +46 430 163 O0 Fax: +46 430 163 95 E-mail:
[email protected] Divinycell International Inc 315 Seahawk Drive Desoto TX 75115 USA Tel: + 1 972 228 7600 Fax: + 1 972 228 2667 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.diabgroup.com
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Directory Divinycell is part of the Swedish group Atle AB and manufactures structural core materials for use in sandwich composite construction. Products include rigid and semi-rigid PVC foam core material and end-grain balsa w o o d core material. D o w Chemical Co See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. DSM C o m p o s i t e s See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. E I D u P o n t de N e m o u r s Inc Head Office 1007 Market Street Wilmington DE 19898 USA Aramid Fibres Division 5401 Jefferson Davis Highway Richmond VA 23234 USA Tel: + 1 804 383 4400 Fax: +1 804 383 4120 Internet: http ://www. dupont.com Chief Executive Officer: C. O. Holliday D u P o n t Engineering Fibres PO Box 50 Le Grand-Saconnex CH- 12178 Geneva Switzerland Tel: +41 22 717 5233 Fax: +41 22 717 6021 E-mail:
[email protected] D u P o n t - T o r a y Kevlar Ltd Sixth Floor 10 Chuo Building 1-5-6 Nihonbashi Hon-cho Chuo-ku Tokyo 103-0023 Japan Tel: +81 3 3245 5080 Fax: +81 3 3242 3183
DuPont is the largest chemical manufacturer in North America, and the world's largest manufacturer of para-aramid fibre (KevlarTM) and of meta-aramid (NomexTM). It is estimated that DuPont's investment in Kevlar since the early 1970s has been US$1000 million divided between capital expenditure and end use and market development DuPont is promoting Kevlar as a reinforcement for concrete in competition with carbon fibres. DuPont maintains that the aramid has a density of about 80% of that of carbon with non-catastrophic failure. When incorporated in concrete, aramid fibre can resist and recover from repeated impacts, making it suitable for
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structures liable to collision damage or seismic disturbances. The UK Highways Agency has investigated Kevlar for column wrapping on major highways in the UK and the material has also been used in Japan and South Korea. Kevlar is an electrical insulator so it can be used close to power lines or communications facilities. Dupont has a joint venture for aramid production with T o r a y - DuPont-Torayand full-scale production should begin in 2001 raising the current production of about 2500 tonnes per annum, much ofwhich is exported to Europe and the USA. DuPont-Toray plans to increase Japanese demand by exploiting new applications such as reinforcements for concrete and tyre cords. EDO Fiber Science 506 North Billy Mitchell Road PO Box 535227 Salt Lake City UT 84116-5227 USA Tel: +1 801 537 1800 Fax: + 1 801 363 9554 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.edofiber.com Chairman: Neil Armstrong Contact: M. G. Therson EDO Corp has acquired Specialty Plastics Inc, a Baton Rouge, Louisiana based company that makes and installs lightweight reinforced pipes for deep-water oil platforms for US$5.4 million, plus the assumption of approximately US$700000 of bank debt. The business will operate as EDO Specialty Plastics and will be part of EDO's Fiber Science business unit, which had previously focused on the manufacture of filament-wound composite water and waste tanks for Boeing aircraft. Specialty Plastics Inc had annual revenues of approximately US$8 million for the most recent 12 months.
Engineered Composites Ltd Unit D 1 Brymau 1 East River Lane Saltney Chester CH4 8RG UK Tel: +44 1244 676000 Fax: +44 1244 677267 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Dr Andrew Downey Engineered Composites distributes Utilo structural pultruded profiles, including the Utilo Deco high surface finish products manufactured by Bekaert. Other products include carbon fibre pultruded profiles from Epsilon Composites and the Fibra GFRP products from Fibres du Hainault. Dr Downey is a member of the Comit6 Europ6en de Normalisation (CEN) Working Group WG4 on thermoplastic composites which is part of CEN Technical Committee 249/SC2 - Composites.
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Engineered Pipe Systems Owens Corning Science and Technology Center 2790 Columbus Road Route 16 Granville OH 43023-1200 USA Tel: + 1 740 321 5530 Fax: +1 740 321 7433 E-mail: bob.morrison@flowtite, com 178 Chausee de La Hulpe Brussels B- 1170 Belgium Tel: +32 2 674 8225 Fax: +32 2 674 8223 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.flowtite,com President: Michael Thaman Contact: Robert Morrison Chausee de La Hulpe 178 B- 1170 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32 2 674 8225 Fax: +32 2 674 8223 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.flowtite.com President: Michael Thaman Contact: Robert Morrison Owens Coming divested their pipe operation to a new company, Engineered Pipe Systems, in 1998. The company produces mostly large-diameter pipe in glass reinforced polyester for the non-US market and has sales of some US$65 million per annum. Engineered Pipe Systems was originally established in 1971 as part of Owens Coming and was spun-off as a wholly owned subsidiary in 1998. The company now manufactures only in Europe supplying, with Hobas, some 35-40% of the European and US markets. Engineered Pipe's European market is mostly for larged i a m e t e r - 900 mm - glass fibre reinforced polyester pipe, and the company supplies about 500 km per a n n u m to give a turnover of US$65 million per annum. There is an installed base of around 10 000 km around the world. Eptec Pty Ltd 245 Victoria Road Gladesville NSW 2111 Australia Tel: +61 298 79 6969 Fax: +61 298 79 5822 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.eptec.com.au Chief Executive Officer: Dr Enrico Piccioli
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The current Chief Executive Officer, who had previously been with Transfield Pty Ltd, New South Wales, started Eptec in 1997; Transfield were responsible for the construction of covers for tanks at the Singapore sewage works. Eptec then undertook a manufacturing project in India for export to Australia.
Ershigs Inc 724 Marine Drive PO Box 1707 Bellingham WA 98225 USA Tel: +1 360 733 2620 Fax: +1 360 733 2628 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.ershigs.com Managing Director: Mary Pulst Contact: J. C. McKenna Ershigs is part of the Denali group, and manufactures and installs corrosionresistant FRP products including process and effluent piping, storage and process vessels, stacks and chimney liners, ducts systems and valves, process systems, washer and ventilation hoods. Essef Corp See Wellmate Water Systems.
Exchem Mining and Construction Ventura Works Venture Crescent Motorway Link Trading Estate Alfreton DE55 7RE UK Tel: +44 1773 604131 Fax: +44 1773 607638 E-mail: exchem_emc@ compuserve, com Chief Executive Officer: Malcolm D. Ball Contact: S. J. Richards Exchem Mining is a division of Exchem plc, and has supplied the European construction and mining industries since 1967. Products include a range of resinand cement-based products for civil engineering applications, and the company manufactures chemical anchors. The company began plate bonding in 1993 initially with steel plates but has been working with carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) since 1996; other wraps include glass, aramid and carbon, as well as CFRP and associated adhesives. The company has an exclusive arrangement with Fibreforce Ltd to sell their CFRP plates. Exchem manufactures a range of adhesives including the RESIFIX 31, which has been used in a number of infrastructure applications in the UK including Hythe Bridge, Oxford and Redmile Canal bridge rehabilitation for Leicestershire County Council. The Slattocks Bridge repair used Exchem's SelfLx Carbofibe T y p e ' S ' carbon fibre plates, which were bonded with RESIFIX 31.
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Directory Exel Oy Muovilaaksontie 2 82110 Heinavaara Finland Tel: +358 13 737 11 Fax: +358 13 737 1500 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.exel.fi Contact: Vesa Korpimies
Composite Profiles Ltd 23 Hall Road Hebburn NE31 2UG UK Tel: +44 191 483 2671 Fax: +44 191 489 0422 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: J. Edmunds Exel manufactures pull-wound tubes and profiles made from glass fibre and carbon fibre.
External Reinforcements Inc PO Box 64757 Tucson AZ 85728-4757 USA Tel: + 1 520 887 2700 Fax: +1 520 299 6086 Internet: www.ext-reinf.com Contacts: Professor M. Ehsani and Professor H. Saadatmanesh Professors M. Ehsani and H. Saadatmanesh from the University of Arizona, who had published papers in the previous decade on the use of composites to strengthen concrete, established External Reinforcements Inc (ERI) in 1999. Products include Strength Wrap, Quake Wrap and Blast Wrap. The first two can be reinforced with glass or carbon fibre, whilst Blast Wrap uses KevlarTM aramid fibre from DuPont. In addition to strengthening walls in California, ERI products have also been used on condominium slabs, large concrete pipe, highway bridge piers in Oklahoma and a utility tunnel in Arizona.
Fabric D e v e l o p m e n t Inc 1100 Virginia Drive Suite 400 Fort Washington PA 19032-3295 USA Tel: + 1 215 542 2433 Fax: + 1 215 542 1696 E-mail: info @ fabricdevelopment, com Internet: www.fabricdevelopment.com Chief Executive Officer: P. Shaw
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Fabric Development Inc (FDI) weaves E-glass, carbon fibre and aramid custom fabrics on a regular basis, and can also weave S-2 glass TM, Spectra TM, UHMWPE, Nomex TM and similar advanced fibres if required. FDI also owns Textile Products Inc, Anaheim, California and acquired Lydall Manning in March 2000, making the company one of the largest independent weavers of high-performance fabrics in the world. Faroex Ltd
Industry Park Gimli Manitoba Canada ROC 1B0 Tel: + 1 204 642 6400 Fax: + 1 204 642 6406 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.faroex.com Contact: Ken Church Faroex was founded in 1981 and is privately owned by the company president. Much of the company products of 10 million pultruded parts per year are for the agricultural industry. However, the company has worked with the ISIS team at the University of Manitoba on the development of composite utility poles (see ISIS Canada later in this chapter). Fers Resins SA Arquimedes 1 08930 Sant Adria de Besos Barcelona Spain Tel: +34 93 462 20 22 Fax: +34 93 462 07 66 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.fers.es
Fers Resins was established in 1949 as a manufacturer of phenolic resins based on phenol and modified phenols. The resins are used as binders for friction materials and for the impregnation of a wide variety of materials, including glass fibre, rockwool insulation and paper filters. Resins have been developed for the mass transport industry to meet new fire and safety requirements. Fiberdur-Vanck G m b H
Werke Aldenhoven Industriepark Emil Mayrisch 52457 Aldenhoven Germany Tel: +49 2464 9720 Fax: +49 2464 972 115 E-mail: vk.
[email protected] Werk Staffelstein D-54634 Bitburg-Staffelstein Germany Tel: +49 6563 510 Fax: +496563 51 280 E-mail: vk.st @fiberdurovanck.de Contact: G. Kreutz
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Directory Fiberdur France SA 2, route d'Issenheim F-68500 Guebwiller France Tel: +33 3897 656 O0 Fax: +33 3897 49 107 Fiberdur Italia S.r.1. (Vetroresina) via Faedis 14 1-33040 Povoletto-Udine Italy Tel: +39 432 679 181 Fax: +39 432 679 638 Fiberdur-Vanck was formed from the amalgamation of Fiberdur (previously Deutsche Fibercast), Theodor Vanck and Vetroresina, and is wholly owned by the RAG EBV AG group. The company manufactures a wide range of infrastructure products including pipes, tanks, washers, smoke stacks and large-diameter pipes. The corrosionresistant renovation systems are made from unsaturated polyesters-glass and filament-wound glass-vinyl ester or glass-epoxy composites. Other products combine vinyl ester, polyester and epoxy with glass fibre. Products are used in the chemical, oil, mining, water treatment and shipping industries. Fiberex Glass Corp 5108--47 Street Leduc Alberta Canada T9E 6Y9 Tel: + 1 403 980 1300 Fax: +1 403 980 1330 E-mail: fiberex@ telusplanet.com Internet: www.fiberexglass.com Chief Executive Officer: F. A. Atiq Contact: Larry Grant Fiberex is the latest manufacturer of glass fibre to be established in North America and has been manufacturing at the Canadian plant since 1998; the company started in 1997. Products include E-CR glass fibres, which are claimed to have better corrosion resistance than normal E-glass. The fibres are aimed at the markets for pultrusion, filament winding, weaving and rovings.
Fibergrate BV f.j. Harmanweg 5 Postbus 7 4530AA Terneuzen The Netherlands Tel: 115 620 422 Fax: + 115 620 779 E-mail: fibergrate @fibergrate.nl Internet: www.fibergrate.nl Contact: J. E. M. Pollemans
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Fibergrate BV is associated with Fibergrate, Dallas, Texas and other members of the Eyke-Hogendoom Group, Terneuzen in the manufacture of composite gratings. Fiberline Composites A/S Norre Bjert Vej 88 DK-6000 Kolding Denmark Tel: +45 75 565 333 Fax: +45 75 565 281 E-mail: fiberline @fiberline.com Internet: www.fiberline.com Contact: Henrik Thorning Fiberline is a Danish-owned manufacturer of FRP pultruded profiles and gratings; more than 80% of its products are exported. The company has installed a 40-m glass fibre reinforced composite bridge over a railway line in Kolding, Denmark. The project was a collaboration with Jotun Polymer (now part of Reichhold), Owens Coming and the engineering company, Ramboll. A further footbridge using FRP pultruded profiles for the bridge deck has been built at Pontresina, Switzerland
Fiberspar Tube Corp (Fiberspar Spoolable) Northwoods Industrial Park West 12237 FM 529 Houston TX 77041 USA Tel: + 1 713 849 2609 Fax: + 1 713 849 9202 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.fiberspar.com President: Peter Quigley Contact: Hampton Fowler Fiberspar, which manufactures tubes for the recreation industry, was formed by its current president in 1986 as a spin-off from work at M.I.T. Fiberspar The Spoolable division has developed the Anaconda carbon fibre-epoxy piping system with Halliburton Energy Systems for recovery of oil and gas from mature or less accessible fields. Another part of Fiberspar- Fiberspar Performance Products has been sold to Exel Oyj, Finland.
Fibertech PO Box 11844 AI-Jubail Sinaiyah 31961 Saudi Arabia Tel: +966 3 358 9008 Fax: +996 3 358 9471 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.fiber-tec.com Contact: Karel Verdegaal Fibertech's full name is Gulf Glass Fiber Technological Ind. Co and the company is one of the largest manufacturers of glass fibre in the Gulf region. Products include direct rovings in polyester and epoxy, spray/chop rovings, chopped strand mat, woven rovings, glass yarn, glass yarn woven fabrics and TeflonTi-coated fabrics.
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Directory Fibreforce C o m p o s i t e s Ltd Fairoak Lane Whitehouse Runcorn Cheshire WA7 3DU UK Tel: + 44 1928 701515 Fax: +44 1928 71357 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.fibreforce.u-net.com Contact: David Clough
Fibreforce manufacture pultruded profiles including the Force 800, which satisfies BS 6290 Pt 1 for use with potable water. The material can be used in water-treatment plants, sewage works and any industry using water for processing. Typical applications would include weir plates, access ladders, walkway gratings, support structures and filter screen beds. The company was also responsible for the production of the pultruded carbon fibre plates used in the renovation of Hythe Bridge, Oxford, which is discussed in Chapter 6. Fibrmat Ltd Mavor Avenue Nerston West East Kilbride Glasgow G74 4QY UK Tel: +44 1355 238351 Fax: +44 1355 230386 Contact: Ian Bruce
Fibrmat was established in 1983 and is part of the Hollinee Corp, Philadelphia, USA, which also has plants in France, Spain, Finland, Germany and Austria. Fibrmat manufactures glass fibre products by the Modigliani process for the GFRP business including chopped strand mat, surfacing mats and veils. Fibrolux G m b H Hessenstrasse 18 65719 Hofhelm Germany Tel: +49 6122 91000 Fax: +49 6122 15001 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.fibrolux.com Contact: Michael Eloesser Fibrolux Bureau France 187 rue Grande 77300 Fontainebleu France Tel: +33 1 60 39 58 88 Fax: +33 1 60 39 58 87 E-mail:
[email protected]
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Fibrolux manufactures a range of standard and custom pultruded profiles and gratings used in infrastructure construction. Most products are in isophthalic polyester, but the company also manufactures in orthophthalic polyester, vinyl esters and phenolic materials. Fibrwrap Construction Inc 146 West 132nd Street Suite B Los Angeles CA 90061 USA Tel: +1 310 719 1943 Fax: + 1 310 719 1415 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.fibrwrapconstruction, com Contact: Ed Donnelly Fibrwrap Construction undertook the strengthening of the Arroyo Seco Bridge in California, which spans 1300 ft of the Arroyo Seco Canyon and was built in 1951. The work was undertaken for the California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS), who required that the connection between the concrete arch and the spandrel columns that support the deck be reinforced. The TyfoTM system from Fyfe Co was used to produce 144 jackets with 132 000 ft 2 of material using a 12-man crew; the work was completed in just over half the 120 days required by CALTRANS. The project used TyfoTM SEH-51 fabric of 90% E-glass laid around the circumference, with 10% KevlarTM in the axial direction. The installation has a final layer of epoxy to protect the composite. The project had originally been given to Xxsys. Flemings Industrial Fabrics Belford Mills Lawson Street Kilmarnock KA 1 3HZ UK Tel: +44 1563 525203 Fax: +44 1563 522022 E-mail: flemings @ scott-fyfe.com Contact: Catriona Collins Flemings is part of the Scott-Fyfe Group and manufactures fabric reinforcements for the composites industry. End-use manufacturing methods include contact moulding and RTM for products used in the wind turbine, leisure, transport and aerospace industries. Fortaftl Fibers See Accordis in Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. Future Pipe Industries BV Postbus 255 7770AG Hardenberg The Netherlands Tel: +31 523 28 82 02 Fax: +31 523 28 81 41
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[email protected] Internet: www.futurepipe.com Contact: E. Huis Future Pipe was originally known as Wavin Repox BV and manufactures special pipes for the oil and chemical industry. Early work included the development of a glass fibre reinforced epoxy pipe in 1967 for fluid handling in special circumstances such as oil, corrosive fluids or high-temperature applications. Resin materials include epoxies and vinyl ester, with filament winding as the manufacturing process. In 1997 the company formed a joint venture with Alphascan to supply pipes to the Swiss market, which was seen to have too many small suppliers. Fyfe Co LLC 6310 Nancy Ridge Drive Suite 103 San Diego CA 92121 USA Tel: + 1 858 642 0694 Fax: + 1 858 642 0647 Fyfe Associates 79 Chestnut Hill Brattleboro VT 05301 USA Tel: +1 802 257 0556 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.f3ffeco.com Contact: Ed Fyfe In the late 1980s Ed Fyfe, a research chemist with University of California San Diego, worked on wrapping cables for cable stay bridges for California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS). CALTRANS decided not to proceed with the work but expressed an interest in the use of the technique for strengthening bridge structures. The structural repair and strengthening system has been used on 150 projects throughout the world, and is also licensed through agents in North America, Singapore and Korea. The Tyfo Fibrwrap TM system uses composites for structural applications. Prior to the 1994 earthquake centred at Northridge, California Fyfe had installed two retrofits on bridge structures and both of these performed to standard during the earthquake. However, more importantly, a retrofit on the basement columns of the Nikko Hotel, 24 km from the epicentre and damaged in a previous earthquake, probably saved the building. The bi-direcrional, high-strength hybrid fibres are suspended in an epoxy matrix having one-third the weight of steel and twice the strength. The two main products are SEH51, which is an E-glass and aramid fibre in epoxy resin material with a tensile strength of 80 ksi, and SCH41, which is a carbon fibre and aramid in epoxy matrix material with a tensile value of 150 ksi. The use of the main materials is split at about 25% carbon fibre to 75% glass fibre.
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Work is divided about 50-50 between buildings and roads/bridges, and falls into two main categories. Retrofitting covers seismic requirements, increased loading and increasing the life of an existing repair. New construction is mostly pedestrian footbridges and road deck construction. Work in South Korea, Singapore and Malaysia is mostly based on upgrading structures for increased axial loads. Cogrowth is about 25% per annum. Fyfe has worked for the Arizona Public Service Co on the repair of a cooling water pipeline to the Palo Verde nuclear plant. Other projects include seismic retrofit on the Bixby and Rocky Bridges near Big Sur, California. Georgia-Pacific Resins Inc 55 Park Place 19 th Floor Atlanta GA 30303 USA Tel: +1 404 652 8617 Fax: + 1 404 230 7478 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.gp.com Managing Director: J. P. Silverwood Contact: Caryn E. King Georgia-Pacific Resins is a division of Georgia Pacific Corp and manufactures hightemperature performance phenolic resins for FRP applications. The company has entered into an agreement with US Plastic Lumber Corp to distribute the Smartdeck TM composite deck system products through its US distribution network. Smartdeck is made from plastic materials reinforced with 90% recycled wood fibre. M. C. Gill 4056 Easy Street El Monte CA 91731 USA Tel: + 1 626 443 4022 Fax: +1 626 350 5880 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.mcgillcorp.com Chairman: M. C.Gill M. C. Gill was founded by the current Chairman in 1945 and is still a family owned firm with an annual turnover of some US$60 million. The company manufactures sandwich panels in composites and has recently joined a collaboration that has established Sigma Composites to manufacture composite materials. G l a s f o r m s Inc
271 Barnard Avenue San Jose CA 95125 USA Tel: + 1 408 297 9300 Fax: + 1408 297 0601 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.glasforms.com Contact: Peter Pfaff
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Directory Glasforms manufactures fibre reinforced composite pultrusion and filamentwound products. Shapes include rod, bar, tube, oval and profile shapes. Materials in regular use include polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies and phenolics. The company has a considerable history in infrastructure projects but has recently lost the arrangement with Martin Marietta Composites (MMC) for the manufacture of pultruded bridge decks, and MMC now works with Creative Pultrusions, which is based on the East coast of the USA.
Glasseiden GmbH Wellerswalder weg 17 D-04758 Oschatz Germany Tel: +49 3435 65 70 Fax: +49 3435 62 24 47 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.glasseide-oschatz.de Managing Director: Wilfried Queisser Contact: Bernd Preissler Glasseiden manufactures a range of glass products for use in composite reinforcement. Materials include chopped strand mat, woven roving, chopped strands, woven scrims and complex reinforcements bonded together by a stitching process.
Glassmaster Co PO Box 788 Lexington SC 29071 USA Tel: +1 803 359 2594 Fax: + 1 803 359 0897 Internet: www.glassmaster.co.com Contact: Raymond M. Trewhella Glassmaster is a processor and fabricator of thermoplastic and thermoset plastics. The company also operates a glass fibre composites plant, which produces the Glassmaster Composites Modular Building System. Glassmaster Co's sales for the first quarter of fiscal year 2000 ended 28 November 1999 showed a disappointing decrease of 18.4% over the same period in fiscal year 1999, resulting in a loss of US$239 943. This followed a decrease of 17.7% in the quarter ended May 1999. The Composites Division sales have declined due to a decision to discontinue low-margin products, whilst sales of recently introduced products have not met expectations. Global Water Technologies and Psychrometric Systems 1767 Denver West Boulevard Golden CO-80401 USA Tel: +1 303 215 1100 Fax: + 1 303 215 5299 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.gwtr.com
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Chief Executive Officer: George A. Kast Contact: Andrew Belinky Global Water Technologies is the parent company of Psychrometric Systems, which manufactures pultruded composite cooling towers and is covered in Chapter 7 - Company profiles.
W. Brandt Goldsworthy & Associates Inc 23930-40 Madison Street Torrance CA 90505 USA Tel: +1 310 375 4565 Fax: +1 310 375 1146 Chief Executive Officer: Brandt Goldsworthy Contact: Clem Hiel Brandt Goldsworthy undertook much of the original work on pultrusion and his company now offers consultancy on a wide range of composite engineering and design. Gram See Mitsubishi later in this chapter.
Groupe Porcher Industries F-38300 Badinieres France Tel: +33 474 43 10 75 Fax: +33 474 27 92 69 Internet: www.bgf.com/porcher Chief Executive Officer: Robert Porcher Contact: R. J. DeGange Groupe Porcher manufactures glass fibre yarns and woven fabrics and has some 2500 employees in 100 countries. The company has entered into a joint venture with O w e n s - C o m i n g - Advanced Glassfiber Yarns L L C - to manufacture glass fibre. H a l l i b u r t o n E n e r g y Services 3600 Lincoln Plaza 500 N Akard Street Dallas TX 75201-3391 USA Tel: + 1 214 978 2600 Fax: + 1 214 978 2708 Internet: www.haUiburton.com Chief Executive Officer: D. L. Lesar Contact: D Stegemeier or Dirk Vande Beek E-mail: dave.
[email protected] Halliburton (previously known as Wellstream-Halliburton Subsea Systems) is part of the multi-national Halliburton company that was founded in 1919 and is a major supplier to the petroleum and energy industries. A Halliburton subsidiary is Brown & Root, which is a parent company to Devonport Management Ltd.
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Directory Halliburton and Fiberspar Spoolable Products, Houston have developed the Anaconda digitally controlled carbon fibre-epoxy umbilical tubing assembly that can be used to develop isolated oil and gas pockets. Statoil, of Norway, initially used the system in mature North Sea oil fields. The company had previously worked on an armoured flexible riser system for the Petrobras Roncador field using an epoxy and glass fibre tensile armour strip, which allowed both cost and weight savings. At that time an all-composite system was thought to be too light for this type of rise system.
H B Fiberglass Inc 23 North Razan Mirdamad Avenue Tehran 19119 Iran Tel: +98 21 222 1767 Fax: +98 21 225 2921 E-mail:
[email protected] President: Dr Hamid Hashem Contact: Amir Hashemi H B Fiberglass manufactures FRP pipes, storage tanks, pressure vessels, towers and fittings for use in severe corrosion applications within the petrochemical industry.
Hexcel Corp See Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. Hobas Engineering GmbH Pischeldorferstrasse 128 Klagenfurt 9020 Austria Tel: +43 463 482 429 Fax: +43 463 482 121 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.hobas.com Managing Director: Klaus Battistata Contact: Peter Scharmann Hobas Engineering, with Owens Coming Engineered Pipe Systems, is one of the world's largest manufacturers of pipe systems and the technology for producing GFRP pipes. The company has a market for larger-diameter pipes in the U S A about 400-500 mm - worth US$45 million.
Hughes Brothers Inc 210 N. 13 th Street Seward NE 68434 USA Tel: + 1 402 646 6211 Fax: +1 402 643 2149 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.hughesbros.com Contact: Doug Gremel
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Hughes Brothers is a family-owned company that was established in 1992. The company manufactures GFRP rebar and dowel bars, and products for overhead power and construction lines and timber bridges.
International Grating & Flanges Inc PO Box 2477 Harrison AR 72602-2477 USA Tel: + 1 870 741 6500 Fax: + 1 870 741 6512 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.igf.net Chief Executive Officer: Alfred Newberry International Grating & Flanges Inc (IGF) manufactures composite moulded gratings used for stairs, walkways, ramps, platforms and bridges. The glass fibre is used with vinyl ester for corrosion-resistant applications and isophthalic polyesters for solvent-resistant applications; there is also a standard product for marine and waste-water applications.
International Grating Inc 7625 Parkhurst Houston TX 77028 USA Tel: +1 713 633 8614 Fax: + 1 713 633 3210 Internet: www.igicomposites.com E-marl:
[email protected] Chief Executive Officer: Dave Dooley Contact: Robert Myers International Grating Inc was formed in 1971 and manufactures FRP gratings and pilings, particularly for the offshore oil and gas industry. Products include compression and open moulded and pultruded products in the Kordex, Kormold and Korplate ranges. Interplastic Corp, Corezyn Division 1225 Willow Lake Boulevard St Paul MN 55110 USA Tel: + 1 651 481 6874 Fax: + 1 651 481 9836 E-mail: tmccabe @interplastic.com Internet: www.interplastic.com Contact: Terry McCabe The Corezyn Division of Interplatis manufactures unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester resins, gel-coats and colourants. The company manufactures resins for corrosion-resistant and fire-retardant composites, SMC, BMC and injection moulding applications, as well as open mould applications.
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Directory ISIS Canada 227 Engineering Building University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada R3T 5V6 Tel: + 1 204 474 8506 Internet: www.isiscanada.com President: Professor Sami Rizkalla Contact: J. Redston ISIS Canada is a network of Canadian universities that was established in 1995 and has funding until 2002. The aim of the consortium of 11 universities and 84 associated companies is to develop FRP in concrete structures and to develop fibre optic sensing systems. Associated companies include Sika Canada, Reichhold Chemicals Inc and Zoltek.
Italcompositi SpA via Vinicio Cortese 143/F 1-00128 Rome Italy Tel: +39 06 5900 6277 Fax: +39 06 5900 6307 Italcompositi is a joint venture between Italian composite specialists Enichem and Agusta.
James Quinn Associates Ltd 415 Woolton Road Liverpool L25 4SY UK Tel: +44 151 428 9362 Fax: +44 151 428 2783 E-mail:
[email protected] James Quinn Associates offers a consultancy service in the use and application of composite materials. J o h n s Manville Corp PO Box 5108 Denver CO 80217-5108 USA Tel: +1 303 978 2858 Fax: + 1 303 978 2041 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.jm.com Chief Executive Officer: Jerry Henry Contact: M. Mitchell Johns Manville was established in 1858 and is one of the four main producers of glass fibres in the world. The company manufactures specialist products including glass mats, fibres and fabrics from its Engineered Products Division, which has some 28% of company business. Johns Manville has supplied glass fibre mats and rovings to Strongwell for use with phenolic resins in offshore applications. In 1999 Johns Manville acquired the Spunbond/Monofilament division of Hoechst.
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Johnston Industries Composites Reinforcements Inc PO Box 10 Phenix City AL 36868 Tel: + 1 334 291 7704Fax: + 1 334 291 7743 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.johnstoind.com Contact: Trevor Humphrey Chief Executive Officer: D. Clark Ogle Johnston Industries Composites Reinforcements Inc (JICR) is one division (of four) of Johnston Industries Inc that manufactures speciality fabrics. JICR began when Johnston Industries entered a joint venture with Tech Textiles Ltd, UK in 1992 and subsequently bought out the operation in 1995. The division manufactures VectorplyT M advanced, non-crimp composite reinforcements in Eglass, carbon, aramid and hybrid materials.
Johnson Pipes Ltd Doseley Telford TF4 3BX UK Tel: +44 1952 630300 Fax: +44 1952 503833 Contact: David Smoker Johnston Pipes have developed GFRP jacking pipes for use in sewerage, drainage, construction, electricity and telecommunications cable industries. The pipes enable jacking loads to be increased by 30% through a reduced joint depth. The pipes have stainless steel joints that allow the pipeline to be pressure rated and the company claim an additional benefit in a reduction of 10% in costs as the profile is resistant to acidic effluents.
Kansas Structural Composites Inc 2649 E Wichita Russell KA 67665 USA Tel: +1 785 483 2589 Fax: +1 785 483 5321 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.ksci.com Contact: Dr Jerry Plunkett Kansas Structural Composites Inc (KSCI) was founded in 1995 by Dr Jerry Plunkett to develop fibre reinforced honeycomb panels for bridge repair. The company installed the composite bridge over the No-Name Creek, Kansas in November 1996.
Klargester Ltd College Road Aston Clinton Aylesbury HP22 5EW UK Tel: +44 1296 630 190 Fax: +44 1296 630 384
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E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.klargester.co.uk Managing Director: Mike Smith Contact: Selwyn Pritchard Klargester is a major UK manufacturer of pollution control equipment including silage and sewerage tanks, and petrol-oil separators.
Lancaster Fibre Technology Group Ltd 33 Europa Way Lune Industrial Estate Lancaster LA1 5QP UK; Tel: +44 1524 62711 Fax: +44 1524 64381 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Rod Taylor Lancaster Fibre Technology Group (LFT) manufactures an E-glass product known as Fiberlets made from a glass by-product supplied by PPG Industries Inc. The commercialization of the product follows the recent signing of a licensing agreement between PPG Industries, LFT and Asset Associates Ltd. The E-glass fibre is said to allow significantly higher fibre loadings than is normally achievable in short glass compounds. Fiberlets transform a hitherto unused by-product from glass fibre manufacture into a low aspect ratio short-fibre product that is easily processed in thermosetting or thermoplastic composites. Lincoln Composites 4300 Industrial Avenue Lincoln NE 68504-1197 USA Tel: +1 402 465 6575 Fax: +1 402 464 2247 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.lincolncomposites.com Contact: Douglas Johnson Lincoln Composites is part of Advanced Technical Products and manufactures filament-wound structures for the offshore, transportation and aerospace markets. The company has been involved in the development of a composite riser for deep-water oil recovery.
LM Glasflber MS Ole Romersvej 25 Taulov Fredericia 7000 Denmark Tel: +45 755 14408 Fax: +45 755 14070 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.lm.dk Managing Director: Anders D. Christensen Contact: Steen Broust Nielsen
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LM Glasfiber was founded in 1940 and is a family owned company with a turnover in 1998 of US$125 million. The company is the largest producer of fibre reinforced plastics in Scandinavia with over 1500 employees and is certified to ISO 9001 by Det Norske Veritas. The company has production plants in Europe and India, and another is under development in China. LM Glasfiber originally made wood products before moving into glass fibre reinforced composites in the 1950s. Early equipment was for fish farming and for boats, but the company began manufacturing composite rotor blades for wind turbines in 1978. An own-design blade 7.5 m long was produced in 1980 and the company now claims some 45% of the world market. LM Glasfiber supplies the major wind turbine manufacturers including NEG Micron MS, Bonus Energy and Nordex with composite blades for rotors with diameters of between 17 and 80 m, with the standard line between 13.4 and 39 m. The company has produced more than 36 000 wind turbine blades since 1978. Blades have grown from a length of 8 m producing 50 kW to 34 m producing 2 MW. A new blade with a length of 38.8m will be producing 2.5 MW at a site near Dusseldorf. LM Glasfiber also manufactures composite parts for European rolling stock manufacturers including Adtranz, Bombardier and Siemens-Duewag. In 1998 LM Glasfiber bought the Dutch turbine blade manufacturer Rotorline BY. LNP E n g i n e e r i n g Plastics South Bailey Road Downington PA 19335 USA Tel: +1 610 363 4500 Fax: + 1 610 363 4749 Internet: www.lnp.com LNP E n g i n e e r i n g Plastics UK Unit 25 Monkspath Business Park Shirley Solihull B90 4NX UK Tel: +44 121 744 9922 Fax: +44 121 744 2270 LNP Engineering Plastics was originally part of ICI plc but is now a company within Kawasaki Steel, Japan. The company is a compounder, buying-in resins and fibres from the original manufacturers and working with component makers or supplying to the moulder. Marshall Industries 2250 Central Point Parkway Lima OH 45804 USA Tel: + 1 419 221 1444 Fax: + 1 419 222 5442 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.c-bar.com President: Sam Steere Contact: Linda Jo Lewis
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Directory Marshall Industries was formed by B. M. Nelson to manufacture carbon and glass fibre reinforced composites for reinforcing and strengthening concrete. Following his death in 1996 the company was acquired, in 1997, by Reichhold and is now a wholly owned subsidiary. Martin Marietta C o m p o s i t e s PO Box 30013 Raleigh NC 27622 USA Tel: + 1 919 783 4674 Fax: +1 919 783 4552 Internet: www.martinmarietta, com E-mail:
[email protected] Chief Executive Officer: S. P. Zelnak Contact: Dan Richard
Martin Marietta Composites is a large aerospace company and the composites division has developed products for infrastructure. The company bought the rights to its technology from Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space, Palo Alto. Projects include a bridge deck in use in Ohio, and projects under development in California include the King Stormwater Canyon bridge and the Schuyler-Heim lift bridge, Long Beach. The U-shaped beams used in a bridge in Butler County have a 50-55% fibre loading and at 24 • 33 ft weigh under 20 000 lbs. The two-lane bridge will replace a single-lane bridge and the County therefore expects traffic to double from 1000 to 2000 vehicles per day. The company previously bought its pultruded bridge deck FRP core structure from Glasforms Inc, San Jose but from 2000 will buy from Creative Pultrusions, Alum Bank, Pennsylvania, which is closer to the markets in eastern USA, which Martin Marietta Composites sees as having greater growth potential. Master Builders Inc 23700 Chagrin Boulevard Cleveland OH 44122 USA Tel: + 1 216 831 5500 Fax: + 1 216 831 3470 Internet: www.masterbuilders.com Chief Executive Officer: M. Shyolowski Contact: K. Mawby E-mail:
[email protected]
Master Builders is a construction chemicals company that supplies the MBrace T M composite materials system that uses carbon or glass fibre in epoxy matrices. The company is part of SKW Trostberg AG and its SKW-MBT Construction Chemicals Group, which are part of Viag AG, Munich the third largest utility operator in Germany. Hardcore Composites, which had been acquired in 1999 by Harris Specialty Chemicals, which was then acquired by SKW Trostberg AG, h a d been placed as a unit under Master Builders Inc. In 2000 Hardcore was sold to a combination of a consortium headed by Zoltek and an internal management group.
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McClean Anderson Inc 300 Ross Avenue Schofield WI 54476 USA Tel: +1 715 355 3006 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.mcclean-anderson.com Contact: Joseph Jansen McClean Anderson was founded in 1961 by W. G. McClean and A. C. Anderson who undertook much of the original work on the filament-winkling machines that the company develops and sells. The company became a subsidiary of Price Bros, Dayton, Ohio in 1972 and was bought by Industrial Service and Machine Inc (ISAMI) in 1992.
McWhorter Technologies 400 East Cottage Place Carpentsville IL 60110 USA Tel: + 1 847 428 2657 Fax: + 1 847 428 9440 Chief Executive Officer: Jeffrey Nodland McWhorter Technologies is a manufacturer of resins for a range of markets. The company supplied the isophthalic polyester resin that was used in the installation by Myers Technologies of composite jackets on 3480 concrete columns supporting the Yolo County causeway near Sacramento.
Menzolit-Fibron GmbH Alte Hunxerstrasse 139 D-46562 Voerde Germany Tel: +49 281 1 30 Fax: +49 281 1 32 47 Internet: www.menzolit-fibron.de E-mail:
[email protected] Menzolit-Fibron is part of Dynamit-Nobel which is, itself, part of MetaUgesellschaft AG and was formed from a merger of Menzolit and Fibron in 1995. The company is the largest European producer of SMC and BMC, with some 58 000 tonnes from a European total of 280 000 tonnes. In addition to the SMC output, Menzolit-Fibron produces pultruded profiles and communications antennae used in mobile telephones.
Mitras Composites Systems GmbH Bahnhofstrasse 32 D-O 1471 Radeburg Germany Tel: +49 35208 83 30 Fax: +49 35208 83 500 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.mitras.com
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Mitras Composites UK Ltd New Street Biddulph Moor Stoke-on-Trent ST8 7NL UK Tel: +44 1782 522433 Fax: +44 1782 552652 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.mitras-composites.co.uk Managing Director: Robert Moore Mitras Composites has been experiencing financial difficulties over recent years, but has secured contracts worth s million for railway carriages and lighting systems over recent months. This has established a firmer financial situation and the company is now back in profit having made a loss in 1999 of s 000. Heavy investment in new rolling stock within the UK is providing growth opportunities in conjunction with its partner VBK Transport Interiors, Derby. The Managing Director, who was brought in during mid-1999, has also implemented new management techniques that have resulted in price reductions to customers of around 40%. The company is directly involved in building fire-resistant railway carriages and has developed composites that meet strict specifications in fire situations. These specifications are the most stringent in Europe and will provide rail users with safer rolling stock. Following major railway accidents in England, in October 1999, and Norway, in January 2000, the construction of fire-resistant carriages has become more important as both these accidents involved loss of life owing to the carriages catching fire Mitsubishi Chemical Corp Co L t d - C o m p o s i t e Materials D e p a r t m e n t 5-2 Marunouchi 2-chome Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100 Japan Tel: +81 3 3283 6838 Fax: +81 3 3283 6769 Mitsubishi Rayon Co Ltd 2-3-19 Kyobashi Chuo-ku Tokyo 104 Japan Tel: +81 3 3245 8662 Fax: +81 3 3245 8783 Internet: www.mitsubishi.co.jp Mitsubishi Chemical America Inc 99W Tasman Drive Suite 200 San Jose CA 95134-1712 USA Tel. + 1 408 233 6226 Fax: + 1 408 954 8494
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Mitsubishi C h e m i c a l Europe G m b H Prinzen allee 13 D-40549 Dusseldorf Germany Tel: +49 211 5239232 Fax: +49 211 5239281 Gram Inc 5900 88th Street Sacramento CA 95828 USA Tel: +1 916 386 1733 Fax: + 1 916 386 7668 Internet: www.grafil.com 1842 Reynolds Avenue Irvine CA 92614-5714 USA Tel: + 1 949 440 8244 Fax: + 1 949 440 8250 E-maili
[email protected] Sutherland House Matlock Road Coventry CV1 4JQ UK Tel: +44 24 7658 1844 Fax: +44 24 7658 1684 E-mail:
[email protected] The original company, Mitsubishi Rayon was established in 1933, and Mitsubishi Chemical Corp was established in October 1994 as the result of a merger between Mitsubishi Kasei Corp (Japan's premier diversified chemical company) and Mitsubishi Petrochemical Corp. The company is one of the largest manufacturers of fibres (including carbon fibres) in Japan. Mitsubishi has two wholly owned subsidiaries in the U S A - Grafil Inc, which it supplies with carbon fibre, and Newport Inc, which manufactures carbon fibre components. In 1998 Mitsubishi increased carbon fibre manufacturing capacity from 1200 to 2700 tonnes per annum, to which should be added a further 700 tonnes per a n n u m capacity at Grafil. The company manufactures carbon fibre based repairing and reinforcing sheets known as Replark TM in which dry carbon fibre is laid on a scrim with a 3% resin content. Tonen (who have sold their carbon fibre business to Nippon Steel) has patent rights to a similar product but without the resin. The sheet is applied with Epotherm epoxy resin. Replark has been used in a n u m b e r of rehabilitation projects including the repair of the Shinkansen viaduct following an earthquake, and the strengthening of the road deck on the Jansin Expressway. Grafil Inc is owned by Mitsubishi Rayon Co Ltd, Japan (MRC)and manufactures continuous PAN-based carbon fibres for structural composite applications in 12 K, 24 K and 48 K sizes. The fibres are manufactured in California. The company, and its European office, distributes the Pyrofil carbon fibres manufactured by the
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Directory parent company. In April 2000 Grafil announced that it was close to being sold out on carbon fibre including the 450 tonnes per annum of 48 K fibre which is claimed to have a tensile strength of 430 kg/mm 2 and tensile elasticity of 43 tonnes. This compares with the 380 kg/mm 2 quoted by Akzo and other manufacturers. Mitsubishi claims the higher performance makes it possible for users to reduce the amount of tow needed, so lowering their costs. The feedstock tow comes from the company's plant in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan, and is sintered by Grafil to produce the carbon fibre. MRC and SNPE Group, a French government owned chemical manufacturer, have agreed to form a joint venture which involves MRC purchasing 20% of shares in Structil, a composites manufacturer originally owned by SNPE. Structil's core operation is the manufacture and sales of structural composite products, including prepregs manufactured from carbon fibre. Aerospace, industrial and sporting goods are the main markets. Structil already uses carbon fibres supplied by MRC. Mitsubishi Gas C h e m i c a l A m e r i c a Inc 17 th Floor 520 Madison Avenue New York NY 10022 USA Tel: + 1 212 752 4620 Fax: + 1 212 758 4012 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.mgc.com or www.mesophasepitch.com Contact: Jimmy Otsuka Mitsubishi Gas Chemical is offering synthesized mesophase pitch AR as a precursor material. The AR stands for 'aromatic resin', which avoids some of the problems with conventional mesophase pitch. The company aims to compete with coal-tar-based pitch rather than PAN-based carbon fibres. The company has a 1500-tonne manufacturing plant in Japan and a warehouse in the USA. The product sells for some US$20/kg. MSL E n g i n e e r i n g Ltd 5-7 High Street Sunninghill Ascot SL5 9NQ UK Tel: +44 1344 874424 Fax: +44 1344 874338 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Dr Dier MSL has undertaken work with Devonport Royal Dockyard Ltd to develop composite repair systems for marine and underwater structures. Energy companies including Amoco, British Gas, Elf and Mobil, in addition to the UK Ministry of Defence, have sponsored the work.
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Miihlmeier GmbH Gottlitzweg 2 D-95671 Baernau Germany Tel: +49 9635 9292 0 Fax: +49 9635 9202 69 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.muehlmeier.de Chief Executive Officer: Rene Muelmeier; Mrs P Schmidtkonz Miihlmeier is a family owned firm with operations in Germany, Italy and Switzerland for the manufacture of reinforced materials.
Myers Technologies 1401 S Santa Fe Avenue Crompton CA 90221 USA Tel: +1 310 223 2690 Fax: +1 310 223 2694 Myers Technologies was formerly known as CMI Inc (CC Myers Inc) and was a subsidiary of the bridge building company C. C.Myers Inc, Rancho Cordova, California. The parent company closed Myers Technologies in September 1999. Myers had an exclusive license from NCF Industries, Long Beach, California for its Snap-Tite TM composite jackets used in column support, and this licence has reverted to NCF but they have also closed.
Nanjing FRD Inorganic Material General Co 30 Andeli West Yuhua Road Nanjing 210012 China Tel: +86 240 0901, 241 4453 Fax: +86 25 241 1475 E-marl: nfgi@public 1.ptt.js.cn The company was established in 1992 to work with the Nanjing Fiberglass Research and Design Institute, which is a unit of the State Administration of Building Material Industry and the only R&D institute in China for the glass fibre and mineral wool industries. The company manufactures continuous strand mat with capacity of up to 3000 tonnes per annum, filament-wound products for pipes and storage tanks, glass fibre grids for road repair and pultruded shapes. The company has capacity for 2000-10000 tonnes per annum of E-glass fibre.
National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) PO Box 90502 NL-1006 BM Amsterdam The Netherlands Tel: +31 20 511 3113 Fax: +31 20 511 3210 Internet: www.nivr.nl
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Directory NLR is the central institute in The Netherlands for aerospace research, but its work on composites has been extended to wind turbine blades. The 66 turbine blades in the high-speed wind tunnel of NLR were originally metal and have been replaced with a carbon fibre-epoxy spar, polyimide core and aramid-glass/epoxy shells. The technology is being looked at for other wind turbine blades.
National Wind Power Ltd Riverside House Meadowbank Furlong Road Buckinghamshire SL8 5AJ UK Tel: +44 1628 532300 Fax: +44 1628 531993 E-mail: mail@ natwindpower, com Internet: www.natwindpower.com National Wind Power was formed in 1991 as a subsidiary of National Power plc to develop wind power.
Navlight 14260 Garden Road Suite 4A Poway CA 92064 USA Tel: + 1 858 486 1744 Fax: + 1 858 486 0837 E-mail:
[email protected] Navlight was formed in April 1999 to provide solutions to infrastructure problems using advanced composites. The company has a staff of 25 and the current products are based on glass reinforced urethane and carbon fibre reinforced urethane products. The company also designs fabrication machinery for the materials. Navlight material has been used by the New York Department of Transportation for the repair of bridge supports on Route 17 at Painted Post, New York. The bridge was built in 1952 and, although structurally sound, was exhibiting serious spalling on the reinforced concrete columns primarily caused by freeze-thaw cycling and the use of salt in winter conditions.
Neste Polyester PO Box 320 SF-06101 Finland Tel: +358 204 501 Fax: +358 204 503306 Managing Director: Vesa Vikman Contact: Mikko Suomaleinen Neste manufactures Maxguard T M gel-coats, which are claimed to reduce styrene emissions by 50% during spraying.
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Nioglas s.l. Industria 17 08755 Castellbisbal Barcelona Spain Tel: +34 93 772 0761 Fax: +34 93 772 4268 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.danigraf.com/nioco Managing Director: Marcos Comamala Contact: R. Palau Nioglas is a pultruder of E-glass reinforced polyesters, and produces rods and tubes.
Nippon Steel Composite Ltd Shin Nittetsu Building 2-6-30htemachi Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8071 Japan Tel: +81 3 3242 4111 Fax: +81 3 3275 5600 Internet: www.nsc.co.jp President: Minoru Yoneno Tonen Sekiyu Kagaku KK 4-1-1 Tsukiji Chuo-ku Tokyo 104 Japan Tel: +81 3 3542 7361 Fax: +81 3 3286 5198 Nippon Steel has integrated its existing carbon fibre composite business and the Towsheet carbon fibre sheet business that it recently bought from Tonen Corp, under the consolidated name of Nippon Steel Composite. Carbon fibre accounts for 90% of the business of the new company, but it is reported that there are plans to develop new products. Tonen held patent rights on carbon-based repairing and reinforcing sheets in which dry carbon is laid on scrim. In the mid-1990s the company was reported to be selling 3 million ft 2 of product each year. In 1996 the company established a joint venture with Structural Preservation Systems USA, which is one of the largest repair contractors in the USA. Nippon stated that the new division would aim to develop the markets for its carbon fibre composites, such as NOMST (NOvel Materials Shield-cuttable Tunnel-wall system) and Towsheet carbon fibre sheets. Nippon Steel bought Tonen's carbon fibre sheet business for about u million (US$3.85 million). The new division is capitalized at u million and will employ 20 people w h o previously worked for Tonen. The carbon fibre sheets are used mainly to wrap around columns supporting roads and bridges to reinforce them against earthquakes. Tonen developed the product jointly with Nippon Steel.
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Northshore Composites Ltd Brockhampton Road Havant PO9 1SU UK Tel: +44 1705 471428 Fax: +44 1705 452228 General Manager: Derek Palmer Northshore Composites is a moulder who worked with Northumbrian Water to produce a GFRP beam casing made from isophthalic polyester, PVC and glass fibre. The four casings covered sewerage tanks 65 m long and 25 m wide using just under 60 tonnes of composite.
Otsuka Chem_ical Co Ltd 3-2-27 Ohte-dori Chuo-ku Osaka 540 Japan Tel: +81 6 6946 6231 Fax: +81 6 6946 0860 Internet: www.cgc.co.jp/otsuka Otsuka Chemical has developed a low-temperature curing agent based on epoxy resin that is said to be capable of forming film even on wet surfaces. Sales commenced at the beginning of 2000 with an initial production capacity of several hundred tonnes a year, growing to 3000 tonnes, with the aim of securing a 30% share of the epoxy curing agent market. The highly moisture-compatible cyclic amine c o m p o u n d has been tested to cure at 5~ Epoxy resins are used widely in heavy-duty coatings and composites, as well as in adhesives for bonding composites and other materials, but the curing agents' performance at low temperatures has been inadequate and not being able to use them in winter conditions is a drawback. O w e n s C o m i n g E n g i n e e r e d Pipe Systems See Engineered Pipe Systems in this chapter. Pacific C o m p o s i t e s Pty Ltd (Australia) 2 Brunsdon Street Bayswater VIC 3153 Australia Tel: +61 3 972 97711 Fax: +61 3 972 05229 E-mail: pacomp@ netlink.com, au Managing Director: G. Capper Contact: T. S. Dawson Pacific Composites is a manufacturer of composite profiles and mouldings using pultrusion, RTM, prepreg and compression moulding. The company is part of the conglomerate that also owns Fibreforce, the UK putrusion manufacturer.
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Permali RP Ltd Bristol Road Gloucester GL1 5TT UK Tel: +44 1452 528671 Fax: +44 1452 304215 Internet: www.permali.co.uk Managing Director: Richard Lole Contact: Bruce Ellis E-mail:
[email protected]
Permali RP and Permali Gloucester were originally part of BTR plc but were subsequently bought by Unipoly SA. In 1998 Unipoly sold both companies to separate management buy-out teams. PSI Cooling Towers See Global Water Technologies and Psychometric Systems in this chapter and also Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles. Plastech T h e r m o s e t Tectonics Unit 1 Delaware Road Gunnislake Cornwall PL18 9AR UK Tel: +44 1822 832621 Fax: +44 1822 833999 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.plastech.co.uk Managing Director: Alan Harper Contact: Stephen Williams Plastech RTM Systems BV De Grote Beer 49 PO Box 2101 S-Hertogenbosch NL-5202-CC The Netherlands Tel: + 31 73 691 0909 Fax: + 31 73 612 9463 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: Rene de Looff
Plastech is an expert in RTM production techniques that are used in automotive, aerospace, marine, architectural, truck and bus components. Placo Srl (Plastics Composites srl) via Bruno Buozzi 10 20047 Brugherio (MI) Italy Tel: +39 039 289 181 Fax: +39 039 289 1828 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Gianni M. Magni
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Directory Placo was formed in 1990, although the company had started pultrusion in 1974 when an original Goldsworthy pultrusion line was installed. For many years the company had an exclusive licence agreement with Goldsworthy and with Morrison Molded Fiber Glass Co (which later became Strongwell). Placo supplies the Italian electrical, telecommunications and rail authorities with pultruded composite profiles. Further products include tubes for tunnel construction and road safety barriers, which replace steel with composites. Plyonex LLC 191 Park Street South Paris ME 04281 USA Tel: + 1 207 743 5880 Fax: +1 603 250 0811 Internet: www.plyonex.com Chief Executive Officer: Michael Dorf E-mail:
[email protected] Plyonex LLC has developed a range of thermoplastic moulding compounds in aqueous emulsions that can be used in a variety of conventional moulding systems to produce structural composites called Plyonex Composite Solutions, the compounds are designed as volatile organic compound (VOC)-free replacements for thermoset polyester, epoxy and urethane moulding compounds. Premix Inc Rt 20 and Harmon Road PO Box 281 North Kingsville OH 44068-0281 USA Tel: + 1 440 224 2181 Fax: + 1 440 224 2766 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.premix.com Contact: S.Searl Premix is a manufacturer of thermoset composites including a newly developed railway tie. In January 2000 the company entered an alliance with DaiNippon Inks and Chemicals Inc, Japan, which owns Reichhold. Profibre P r o d u c t s CC 12 Downie Crescent Queensmead PO Box 28334 Malvern 4055 Durban South Africa Tel: +27 31 463 2544 Fax: +27 31 463 2533 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.profibre.co.za Chief Executive Officer: Ian Fraser
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Profibre manufactures a range of glass fibre reinforced composite products including chemically resistant tanks and ducting, harbour buoys and specialist vehicle components. The company uses vacuum-assisted resin transfer, hand layup, RTM, and hot and cold pressing.
Protec Materiali Compositi via San Pietro martire 3 96011 Augusta Italy Tel: +39 0931 901 025 Fax: +39 0931 901 027 E-mail: protec @protec-mat.com Protec Materiali Compositi manufactures composite systems. The company has used its own factory building as a demonstration of its abilities to provide FRP structural solutions. The structure measuring 42 m • 29 m • 10-m high is light weight enabling many parts to be assembled into modular units off-site for easy assembly. The project was designed by CETEC Consultancy Ltd, Romford, UK, who have also undertaken work for the UK Highways Agency
Psychometric Systems Inc See Global Water Technologies in this chapter and PSI in Chapter 7 - Corporate profiles.
Pultrex Ltd Brunel Road Clacton-on-Sea CO 15 4LU UK Tel: +44 1255 429811 Fax: +44 1255 436451 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: Colin Leek Pultrex was founded in 1974 and, with its sister company Fibreforce Ltd, is a division of an Australian multi-product company Pacific Composites. Putrex manufactures machinery for pultrusion, filament-winding machinery and tensioning systems. The composites division produces pultrusion products including the carbon fibre--epoxy plates that were used in the Hythe Bridge project in Oxford, UK. REA Industrie Composites 29 rue Toussaint 13003 Marseille France Tel: +33 4 91 08 19 08 Fax: +33 4 91 62 76 46 E-mail: rea,
[email protected] Contact: Olivier Bataille RF~ manufactures epoxy systems that can be used in such applications as gelcoats, mastics and paints, and with a range of fabrics such as Porcher E-glass fabrics and Selcom multi-axial fabrics.
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Directory Reichhold Inc PO Box 13582 Research Triangle Park NC 27709-3582 USA Tel: + 1 919 990 7500 Fax: + 1 919 990 7749 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.reichhold.com Contact: Mike Case R e i c h h o l d AS PO Box 2061 Ranvik Brygge 5/7 3202 Sandefjord Norway Tel: +47 3345 7000 Fax: +47 3346 4614 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Henning Roervik
Reichhold is owned by DaiNippon Inks and Resins. The company is privately owned and does not produce financial statements, although sales in the last two years have been about US$1.3 billion per annum. The company manufactures a range of chemical products including unsaturated polyester (UP). In 1997 Reichhold bought Jotun Polymers, Norway, which produces UPs and gel-coats. Reichhold also owns Marshall Industries, Lima, Ohio which manufactures bridge and road decks. Resolite FRP C o m p o s i t e s PO Box 338 Zelienople PA 16063 USA Tel: +1 724 452 6800 Fax: +1 724 452 0677 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.resolite.com Contact: Joe Hepp
Resolite was founded in 1951 and is now part of United Dominion Inc. The company manufactures composite materials, including FRP panels and structural pultrusions in various resins and reinforced with glass fibre. An early product was a fire-resistant material used in composite panels. RJD Industries Inc 26945 Cabot Road Suite 105 Laguna Hills CA 92653 USA Tel: +1 714 582 0191 Fax: +1 800 344 4753 E-mail: info @rjdindustries.com Internet: www.rjdindustries.com Contact: R. J. Decker
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RJD Industries produce isopolyester-glass fibre composite dowel bars known as FiberDowel TM, for which they have a patent pending. The bars are produced by the pultrusion process and are used in concrete roads to restrain movement between concrete slabs and to reduce road noise. R. J. W a t s o n Inc 9160 Clarence Center Road Clarence Center NY 14032 USA Tel: + 1 716 741 2158 Fax: + 1 716 741 2580 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.rjwatson.com Contact: R. J. Watson
R. J. Watson is a bridge and structural engineering company of which one section (out of four) is concerned with repair and strengthening using E glass and aramid fibres in epoxy. Rocksoil S.p.A Piazza San Marco 1 1-20121 Milano Italy Tel: +39 02 65 54 323 Fax: +39 02 65 97 021 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.rocksoil.com Chief Executive Officer: Professor P. Lunardi Contact: Renzo Bindi The current Chief Executive Officer, who has a long academic history in geoengineering, founded Rocksoil in 1979. The company has pioneered a range of techniques that have resulted in failed tunnelling projects being completed. One technique involves the use of glass fibre as tunnel reinforcement. RTP Co 580 East Front Street PO Box 5439 Winona MN 55987 USA Tel: + 1 507 454 6900 Fax: + 1 507 454 8130 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.rtpcompany.com Chief Executive Officer: Hugh L. Miller Marketing Manager: Joseph Arras Z1 Beaune-Vignolles BP 270 21207 Beaune C~dex France Tel: +33 3 8025 3000 Fax: +33 3 8025 3004
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Directory RTP was founded in 1948 as Fiberite, and manufactured thermoset plastics for the aerospace and automotive industries. In the 1960s the company developed an interest in composites and established the Plastics Trading Co. Beatrice Foods bought Fiberite in 1980 and the thermoplastics part of Fiberite was merged with the Plastics Trading Co, resulting in RTP Co. The company is an independent speciality c o m p o u n d e r employing some 700 staff and has expanded into Europe purchasing an operation from Codiplast SNC in 1995. RTP is one of a small number of companies that manufactures composite pipes for Shell. Scott B a d e r Co Ltd WoUaston WeUingborough NN29 7RL UK Tel: +44 1933 663100 Fax: +44 1933 664592 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.scottbader.com Managing Director: Alan Bell Sales manager: Malcolm Forsyth
Scott Bader SA 65 Rue Sully F-80044 Amiens C~dex 1 France Tel: +33 322 662 766 Fax: +33 322 662 780 Managing Director: Stuart Fearon Sales Manager: R. Thevenon Scott Bader is a major supplier of chemicals including catalysts, accelerators, inhibitors and promoters, foam core materials, mats and rovings. The company is noted for its Crystic TM brand UP resins. The resins are used in composites moulding, and material is supplied for structural applications in the marine, land transport, construction and chemical containment markets throughout the world. A more recent product is Crystic Envirotec TM high-performance gel-coats. The company was formed by Ernest Bader to market chemicals by in the 1920s. In 1950 Bader made over his ownership of the company to its employees and to this day there are no outside shareholders making it almost unique amongst large industrial companies. Seal SpA Via Quasimodo 33 20025 Legnano Italy Tel: +39 0331 467 555 Tel: +39 0331 467 777 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: A. Montagna Contact: Paolo Grati Seal was founded in 1970 and is a materials manufacturer of reinforcements, resins, prepregs and compounds, including aramid materials for ballistic applications and fabrics for composites. The company employs some 100 staff
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and has revenues of US$20 million per annum. The company is part of the Saati Group, which manufactures textiles and chemicals. Selcom Srl via della Torre 17 I-31010 Fregoha (TV) Italy Tel: + 3 9 0 4 3 8 5 8 5 1 6 6 Fax: + 3 9 0 4 3 8 5 8 5 1 7 2 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: G. Dalla Betta Selcom is a specialist manufacturer of multi-axial fabrics. The company produces custom-specified technical fabrics manufactured from E- and R-glass, carbon, aramid, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) materials such as Dyneema TM, Certran TM and liquid crystal polymers (LCP) such as Vectran TM. SGL T e c h n i k GmbH Werner-von-Siemensstrasse 18 D-86405 Meitingen Germany Tel: +49 8271 83 22 08 Fax: +49 8271 83 14 27 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.sglcarbon.com Chief Executive Officer: R. J. Koehler SGL Technic Ltd Muir of Ord Ross IV6 7UA UK Tel: +44 1463 87 0000 Fax: +44 1463 87 1402 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Jason Mitchell
SGL Technic, Carbon Fibers 1600 W 135 th Street Gardena CA 90249 USA Tel: + 1 310 970 5452 Fax: + 1 310 516 5776 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.sglcarbon.com Contact: Dan Layden SGL manufactures the Sigrafil range of PAN-based carbon fibre products. The output has been mostly directed to the aircraft industry, with chopped fibre used in electromagnetic protection applications. The company has begun to take an interest in carbon fibre applications for transport and infi:astructure. In October 1999 Aldila sold 50% of its carbon fibre business for US$7 million to SGL Carbon Fibers and Composites Inc, which is a producer of large-tow carbon fibres. The operation will be run as Carbon Fibre Technology LLC, Evanston, Wyoming.
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SGL Carbon Fibers was originally known as Hitco and was owned by BP before they left the materials industry. The company manufactures PAN-based carbon and pre-oxidized fibre products supplying chopped and milled fibres. Shakespeare C o - Composites a n d Electronics Division 19845 Highway 76 PO Box 733 Newberry SC 29108 USA Tel: + 1 803 276 5504 Fax: + 1 803 276 8940 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.shakespeare-ce.com President: Wayne Merck Contact: Sam Spraberry Shakespeare is part of the US$500 million K2 Corp. The company was founded in 1897 and pioneered the first composite lighting poles in 1967, developing the process from a company interest in the manufacture of fishing rods. The company holds three patents on 'breakaway' poles, which are meant to withstand impact and are specified for some roadside locations. Poles are manufactured employing the filament-winding process using a polyester resin with a minimum of 65% glass fibre and a maximum of 35% resin by weight. Glass fibre filaments, which are impregnated with pigmented resin, are spirally wound onto a rotating, heated mandrel giving a one-piece, composite pole with a uniform surface. Sigma C o m p o s i t e s LLC 9509 E Valley Boulevard El Monte CA 91731 USA Tel: +1 626 443 3093 Fax: + 1 626 443 3093 E-mail:
[email protected] Sigma is a joint venture between leading composite manufacturing and infrastructure industry companies offering a range of options for repair and rehabilitation. A leading member of the consortium is M.C. Gill, founded in 1945, which manufactures high-performance composites. Sigmatex (UK) Ltd Fairoak Lane Whitehouse Industrial Estate Runcorn WA7 3DU UK Tel: +44 1928 790110 Fax: +44 1928 790074 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Scott Tolson
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Sigma High T e c h n o l o g y Fabrics Inc 4952 Industrial Way Benicia CA 94510 USA Tel: + 1 707 751 0573 Fax: + 1 707 751 0573 Sigmatex is a manufacturer of high-technology fabrics woven from carbon fibres in widths between 12 and 1750 mm. The current Technical Director, Bert White, established the company in 1987 and this was followed with the US operation. Sika AG Tuffenwies 16-22 Postfach CH-8048 Zurich Switzerland Tel: +41 1 436 4040 Fax: +41 1 436 4584 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.sika.com.ch Chairman: Dr Hans Peter Ming Sika Corp 201 Polito Avenue Lyndhurst NJ 07071 USA Tel: +1 800 933 7452 Fax: + 1 201 933 6225 Internet: www.sikausa.com Sika was founded in 1912 and manufactures a range of construction chemicals and adhesives. One product is the CarboDur carbon fibre strip, which has been used for strengthening and rehabilitation of three bridges in Switzerland, one bridge in Germany, the Auckland (NZ) Town Hall, and bridges in Calgary and Quebec, Canada amongst other projects. The company has recently launched another product in the CarboDur r a n g e - Sika Wrap 2 3 0 - a unidirectional carbon fibre fabric for wet or dry lay-up, which is designed for structural reinforcement where shear forces are important. Sireg SpA via del Bruno 12 20043 Arcore Milan Italy Tel: +39 039 62 70 21 Fax: +39 039 61 59 96 Internet: www.sireg.it E-mail:
[email protected] Sireg was founded in 1936 by Emilio Blanc and, amongst other products, manufactures the Durglas T M glass fibre structural elements that is used in tunnel support applications by such companies as Rocksoil. The company also manufactures an aramid fibre reinforced m a t e r i a l - Arapree TM- used in tape and rods.
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Directory Smith Fiberglass Co 2700 W 65th Street Little Rock AR 72209 USA Tel: +1 501 568 4010 Fax: +1 501 568 4465 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.aosmith.com Contact: Susan B. Jones Smith Fiberglass is part of the Storage and Fluid Handling Technologies operating unit ofA. O. Smith Corp, and manufactures glass fibre and epoxypipe and fittings. The company serves the chemical processing, petroleum production and service station markets, with plants in Arkansas and Harbin, China. The division employs some 400 staff. The other company in the unit is Engineered Storage Products Co, which manufactures storage tanks for industrial applicationsl The parent company has made the decision to sell the unit and exit from the glass fibre pipe and storage tank business. In June 2000 it was considered that Owens Coming was a possible purchaser but no decision had been announced. The unit also consists of the Engineered Storage Products Co and the overall unit reported a decline of 18% in sales for 1999 to give US$118 million compared with US$142.8 million. The parent company reported that the unit was affected by weakness in the glass fibre pipe, dry storage and agricultural market. Societ~ des Fibres de C a r b o n e (SOFICAR) Les Ellipses 3 Avenue du Chemin de Presles 94410 Saint Maurice C~dex France Tel: +33 1 45 11 12 80 Fax: +33 1 48 85 62 92 E-mail: soficar.j
[email protected] President: M. Brisson Contact: Jean Luyckx Soficar is a joint venture between the Toray Co Ltd, Japan (70%) and Elf Atochem (30%) that was started in 1985. The company produces over 800 tonnes per annum of Torayca TM carbon fibre and is qualified by most aerospace companies. A new carbon fibre line was opened at the Abidos plant in December 1992 at a cost of US$50 million. The company has made a significant contribution to Toray company results during the mid-1990s, partly resulting from aerospace and sports goods sales but also from general engineering applications. Structural Asia Pvt Ltd Goa India Tel: +91 22 497 5378 Fax: +91 22 497 5349 Structural Asia is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Essef Corp, USA, which is part of Pentair; the company has some 65% of the world market for composite pressure vessels. The vessels operate at a standard operating pressure of 10 bar
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and a burst pressure of 40 bar. The products are aimed at water and waste-water treatment, chemical storage and liquid filtration systems.
Structural Composite Systems Inc 2306-1011 Beach Avenue Vancouver British Columbia Canada V6E 1TE Tel: + 1 604 669 2466 Fax: +1 604 669 2471 Contact: Tom Ingeberg Structural Composite Systems is an agent for the Tyfo Fibrwrap T M system from Fyfe & Co LLC, San Diego, California
Structural Composites Inc 7705 Technology Drive W Melbourne FL 32902 USA Tel: + 1 407 951 9464 Fax: + 1 407 728 9071 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: S. M. Lewitt Contact: P. A. Cyr The company constructed the top and bottom plates using wet lay-up for the TroutviUe scales project being installed on highway 1-81 for the Virginia Department of Transportation by Atlantic Research Corp.
Structural Preservation Systems Inc 2116 Monumental Road Baltimore MD 21227 USA Tel: +1 410 247 1016 Fax: + 1 410 247 1136 Contact: Jay Thomas 7455-T New Ridge Road Hanover MD 21076 USA Tel: + 1 410 850 7000 Fax: + 1 410 850 4111 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.structural.net Structural Preservation Systems Inc (SPS) was founded in 1975 and claims to be the largest concrete repair company in the USA, with annual revenues of US$85 million. SPS does surface repair and water-proofing, as well as strengthening and stabilizing deteriorating concrete structures or adding shear and flexural capability. Of the 15-20% of its business in structural stabilization the company estimates that 10% of the projects now employ composites. The company has undertaken work using the Forca TM carbon fibre reinforcement from Tonen Corp
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Directory (now Nippon Steel Composites). The company is a contractor for the MBrace Composite Strengthening system from Master Builders Inc. In 1998 SPS took over VSL International Inc, with operations in Dallas, Denver and Washington, which is a leader in post-tensioning technology S u m i t o m o Corp Sumisho Nishikicho Building 3-11-1 Kandanishikicho Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 101-8641 Japan Tel: +81 3 3296 2926 Fax: +81 3 3296 3679 E-mail: koji-a.fukuda@ smitomocorp.co.jp Internet: www.sumitomocorp.co.jp Contact: K. Fukuda The Carbon Department of Sumitomo Corp, the major Japanese chemicals company, produces the Replark T M carbon fibre prepreg sheet used for wrapping concrete columns for repairs and reinforcement. Mitsubishi Chemical Corp produces the carbon fibre.
Supulca Ltda Av Norte 2 Guarenas 1220 Venezuela Tel: + 58 2 361 3554 Fax: +58 2 362 7444 E-mail: supulca@telcel, net.ve Internet: www.venvenet, com/supulca/ Managing Director: Fernando Fernandex Contact: Rafael Mujica Supulca manufactures FRP products such as ladders, gratings and profiles. Syncoglas NV Drukkerijstraat 9 Industriepark B-9240 Zele Belgium Tel: +32 52 45 76 11 Fax: +32 52 44 95 02 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.syncoglas.com Managing Director: Eric Godderis Contact: Dirk Notenbaert Syncoglas is part of the Group Berginvest and manufactures a range of glass, carbon and aramid reinforcements for composite materials. Major markets for the products include sports goods, automotive, truck and railway components, pipe and tanks for the chemical and allied industries, poles and wind turbine blades. The company began weaving glass fibre in 1959 developing non-crimp unidirectional and multi-axial reinforcements over the following decade. Between 1975 and 1985 Syncoglas introduced stitched, knitted and needled varieties.
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Developments in the last decade have included a patent application in 1995 for a highly preformable reinforcement based on 3-D glass fibre knitting, and this has been marketed as the Multimat T M product for RTM, vacuum and compression moulding. The full range of products now includes woven roving, stitched, uni-, bi- and multidirectional reinforcements, and combinations of woven and knitted reinforcements with mat and tufted reinforcements. Trade names include Aeroglas, Bidimat, Multimat, Roviglas, Syncoflex, Syncoscrim, Syncomat, Technoglas and Udimat. The company had a turnover in 1999 of about BFr500 million. T e c h n i c a l Fibre P r o d u c t s Ltd Burneside Mills Kendal Cumbria LA9 6PZ UK Tel: +44 1539 818220 Fax: +44 1539 733850 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.cropper.com Chief Executive Officer: George Quayle Contact: Chris Smith Technical Fibre Products has been a wholly owned subsidiary of James Cropper plc, a manufacturer of specialist paper, since 1986. The group has an annum turnover of some US$95 million. Technical Fibre manufactures a range of wet laid, non-woven tissues and mats using a range of carbon, aramid, polyester, glass, nickel-coated graphite, silicon carbide, quartz, ceramic and rockwool fibres. The products are sized between 5 and 2000 g/m 2, and 50 #m and 12 mm in thickness, with the trade names Optimat and Tecnofire and are sold in the fire, cryogenic and thermal insulation markets. Other mats and tissues are used as separator materials for power generation and storage applications. Techniweave See Albany International Techniweave Inc in this chapter.
Techno Group Schiaretti (TGS) Lavorazione Plastici Rinforzati via Monte Sporno N 10/A 43010 Parma Loc Fontanini Italy Tel: +39 521 966 731 Fax: +39 521 250 508 E-mail:
[email protected] President: Emilio Signorelli Contact: A. Minari TGS began life as Schiaretti Giorgio SpA in 1979 but was bought by Montedison in 1988, which then divested themselves of the composites business. The present company was formed in 1995. About 15% of business - about 500 tonnes per a n n u m - is in pultruded products, which are supplied as channels for cable production and composite poles for telephone lines and street lights.
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Directory T e c h n o b e l l L o n d o n Ltd Talbot House 204-226 Imperial Drive Harrow HA2 7HH UK Tel: +386 5 639 8274 Fax: +386 5 630 2242 E-mail:
[email protected] The London-based trading company of TIN, Slovenia that manufactures plants for glass fibre reinforced pipes and tanks with V.E.M., Italy and CimtechLab, Italy. Teijin Ltd 1-6-7 Minami-Honmachi Chuo-ku Osaka 541-8587 Japan Tel: +81 6 6268 2132 Fax: +81 6 6268 3205 Internet: www.teijin.co.jp Chief Executive Officer: S.Yasui Teijin was established in 1918 to produce rayon yarn, although the mainstay of the business is now polyester produced under the name Tetoron. Teijin is, with DuPont, the only company to produce both meta-and para-aramid fibres with the l a t t e r - known as T e c h n o r a - holding a minority share of the same markets as Kevlar (DuPont) and Twaron (Accordis). The Japanese market for para-aramid fibres is growing steadily. Currently, about 3000-4000 tonnes per annum of the fibres are used by Japanese industries for an increasingly diverse range of applications. Three Japanese manufacturers are marketing aramid fibres as earthquake-proof reinforcing materials. Although demand in this growing area is dominated by CFRP, there are specialist structural applications where the electrical resistance of aramid can provide an extra safety margin - for instance, in railway applications and other areas close to high-power lines. In early 2000 Teijin announced that it would purchase a majority interest in Toho Rayon, a manufacturer of carbon fibre that owns 50% of Tenax, Germany. This follows an agreement reached between Teijin and Nisshinbo Industries, the major shareholder of Toho Rayon, with a 45.19% stake. Teijin will target ownership of 50.1% of Toho Rayon shares on the open market, but will, in effect, buy 35% of shares from Nisshinbo. The purchase will cost Teijin u billion (about US$121 million) for a price o f u (US$1.56) per share. Nisshinbo will retain a 10% share in Toho. Teijin has been keen to acquire Toho's PAN-based carbon fibres unit as a means of strengthening its position in the carbon fibre industry. Toho Rayon says it favours the agreement because it will benefit from support that Teijin will be able to offer in areas such as marketing and technical development. However, in February 2000 Toho increased its prices for PAN-based carbon fibres largely due to capacity increases that had depressed demand; prices have fallen by 30% in the last year. T e n a x Fibers G m b H & Co KG Kasinostrasse 19-21 D-42103 Wuppertal Germany Tel: +49 202 32 23 31
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Fax: +49 202 32 23 65 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.tenax-fibers.com Contact: Dr Ing. Jurgen Bronner Tenax Fibers was formed when Toho Rayon acquired 51% of the carbon fibre business of Akzo Nobel BV; Toho now owns 80% of the company with Accordis owning the remaining 20%. Toho is a large manufacturer of carbon fibre, and had previous links with Akzo as a supplier of precursor and as a technology licenser of the fibre-making business. Plants at Wuppertal and Oberbruch in Germany and Mishima in Japan give a production capacity of 5100 tonnes per annum. Investment of US$30 million in a new production line, which was brought on stream in April 1998, increased the Oberbruch plant production from 845 to 1800 tonnes per annum (nameplate capacity). The Mishima plant was upgraded during 1998 to 3300 tonnes per annum. In 2000 Tenax introduced a new 24 K fibre product with a price that is claimed to be below their other standard products. Potential applications are seen in offshore gas and oil, marine, wind energy, automotive and carbon-carbon composites. Precursor is supplied from Tenax to Toho and the company manufactures finertow materials, with most of the original capacity for 1 K, 3 K and 6 K tow, whilst the expansion is in 12 K and 24 K tows. Virtually none of the carbon fibre is currently directed at the infrastructure market in Europe. Ticona
90 Morris Avenue Summit NJ 07901 USA Tel: + 1 908 598 4000 Fax: + 1 908 598 4319 2300 Archdale Drive Charlotte NC 28210 USA Tel: + 1 704 554 2000 Fax: +1 704 554 3101 T i c o n a UK
Michigan Drive Tongwell Milton Keynes MK15 8HQ UK Tel: +44 1908 513400 Fax: +44 1908 513410 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.ticona.com Chief Executive Officer: Edward Munoz Ticona was formerly Hoechst Technical Polymers Division, and had been a joint venture between Hoechst and Celanese AG. The company is still within the Celanese Group but operates as an individual unit. The company manufactures technical polymers including polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), LCPs, nylon, acetal
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Directory and polyarylate, and high-performance fibres used in protective products, composites and industrial fabrics. TIN d.o.o. Ferrarska 8 6000 Koper Slovenia Tel: +386 66 38 274 Fax: +386 66 402 242 E-mail:
[email protected] TIN is part of a trading company represented in London by Technobell London Ltd and including V.E.M. Spa, Italy and CimtecLab, Italy, which supplies glass fibre reinforced pipes and tanks. T o h o Rayon Co Inc Nishikawa Building 3-3-9 Nihonbashi chuo-ku Tokyo 103-0027 Japan Tel: +81 3 3278 7615 Fax: +81 3 3278 7737 Internet: www.tohorayon.co.jp Toho Rayon was founded in 1934 and is a major supplier to the carbon fibre market. The company has carbon fibre plant with a capacity of 2900 tonnes per annum, oxidized PAN fibre of 500 tonnes per annum and activated carbon fibre of 60 tonnes per annum. The company is developing a carbon fibre reinforcement system for w o o d based on a carbon fibre sheet and phenolic resin matrix. Toho owns 80% of Tenax, Germany with the remaining 20% owned by Akzo Nobel (now Accordis); precursor for Tenax is supplied by Toho. In 2000 Teijin acquired a majority share in Toho, buying shares principally from Nisshinbo Industries whose stake in Toho declined from 45.19% to 10%. The purchase cost Teijin u billion (about US$121 million). At the time Teijin said that it saw PAN-based carbon fibres as a growing market. In February 2000 Toho increased its prices as capacity increases had caused a major drop in prices. Toho cut capacity by 20% but was hampered by an increase in raw material prices. T o k y o Rope M a n u f a c t u r i n g Co Ltd Furukawa Building 2-3-14 Nihonbashi-Muromachi chuo-ku Tokyo 103-8303 Japan Tel: +81 3 3211 2851 Fax: +81 3 3242 7584 Internet: www.tokyorope.co.jp The Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co Ltd was established in 1887 and had sales in 1998 ofUS$773 million, of which 60% came from the sale of steel rope and wire. The company has developed a structure reinforcing cable made from carbon fibres and themoset resins produced as a stranded shape cable. The material has
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been adopted as the stay cable and reinforcing material for the pre-stressed concrete of the Herning Footbridge in the Jutland area of Denmark.
Tonen Ltd See Nippon Steel Composite Ltd in this chapter. Top Glass Spa via Bergamo 15 20096 Pioltello (MI) Italy Tel: +39 02 929 1861 Fax: +39 029 29 18620 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.topglass.it Managing Director: A. Branca Contact: G. Fermani Top Glass was founded in 1963 and produces more than 400 different pultrusion sections with a daily output of over 20 tonnes. GFRP poles are produced for road lighting, traffic lights and directional signs. Carbon--epoxy pultruded profiles are produced for infrastructure repair or retrofit of bridges and buildings. The company also supplies pultruded profiles for cooling towers and as handrails, walkways and gratings for offshore applications. Fittings were produced for the overhead power lines for Milan, Turin and Genoa Metro systems, which removed the need for traditional insulators and maintenance schedules.
TP Composites Inc 8 Crozerville Road Aston PA 19014 USA Tel: + 1 610 358 9001 Fax: + 1 610 358 9007 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.tpcomposites.com Contact: R. V. Hoy TP Composites manufactures a wide range of products in engineering polymers by extrusion and injection moulding. The company has a growing list of products that meet the Underwriters Laboratory specifications.
TPI Composites Inc 373 Market Street Warren RI 02885 USA Tel: +1 401 247 5676 Fax: + 1 410 247 4087 Internet: www.tpicomp.com E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: Everest Pearson Technical Director: Phil Mosher
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Directory TPI Composites is a moulder and owns the patent rights to the Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Molding Process (SCRIMpTM), which was developed in the late 1980s by Bill Seeman. The company manufactures recreational, industrial and transport components including over 20 000 wind turbine blades varying in length from 9 m to 24 m. Trade Circle Technical I n d u s t r i e s AI Quoz Industrial Area PO Box 5639 Dubai United Arab Emirates Tel: +971 4 381 941 Fax: +971 4 381 140 E-mail:
[email protected] Managing Director: Sheik Mana Bin Kalifa General Manager: Chris Tometzki Trade Circle Technical Industries (TCTI) manufactures water tanks, manhole seal plates, radomes, kiosks and components for trucks. However, the company has also been involved in the replacement of the airport roof at Dubai Airport with a GFRP structure manufactured by TCTI. Transfield RP/C 25 Powers Road Seven Hills NSW 2147 Australia Tel: +61 298 387 566 Fax: +61 296 765 642 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.transfield.com.au Managing Director: Tony Caristo Sales Manager: Paul Radin Transfield was responsible for the construction of the sewerage farm covers in Singapore detailed in the case studies in Chapter 6. The company has a second branch that designs FRP products for defence applications. Uniglass I n d u s t r i e s Pvt Ltd Devi Farm Industrial Estate Nagarbhavi Road Vijayanagar Bangalore 506 079 India Tel: +91 330 4024 or +91 330 4412 Fax: +91 80 330 2829 Uniglas offers GFRP pultruded products including rods, flats, tubes and profiles. V.E.M. SpA via Celio Nanino 129/34 33010 Reana del Rojale (UD) Italy Tel: +39 0 432 854 357 Fax: +39 0 432 88 1294 E-mail:
[email protected]
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V.E.M. is an engineering company with experience in the construction of plants for the manufacture of glass fibre reinforced products such as pipes, tanks and poles. The company works in conjunction with Technobell London Ltd, TIN, Slovenia and CimtecLab, Italy. Vertex as
Sokoloskfi 106 CZ-52021 Litomysl Czech Republic Tel: +420 464 651170 Fax: +420 464 612769 Internet: www.saint-gobain.fr Contact: Jaroslav Kovar Vertex was acquired by Saint-Gobain in 1998 and manufactures glass fibres for composite reinforcement. Vetrotex International
767 Quai des Allobroges BP 929 F-73009 Chambery C~dex France Tel: +33 2 7975 5300 Fax: +33 2 7975 5399 767 quai des AUbroges BP 929 F-73009 Chambery C~dex France Tel: +33 4 79 75 53 00: Fax: +33 4 79 75 53 99 President: Roberto Caliari V e t r o t e x America
PO Box 860 Valley Forge PA 19462 USA Tel: + 1 610 341 7000 Fax: + 1 610 341 7470 Internet: www.vertrotexcertainteed.com General Manager: Jean-Paul DaUe Contact: Catherine Gillis Vetrotex Japan
Saint-Gobain Building 7 kohjimachi chiyoda-ku Tokyo 102-0082 Japan Tel: +81 3 52 75 08 93 Fax: +81 3 52 75 08 69 Contact: Mr Akhide Yoshino V e t r o t e x I n d u s t r i e s India Pvt Ltd
Thimmapur 509 325
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Hyderabad-Bagalore Highway Andhra Pradesh India Tel: +91 8548 57 714 Fax: +91 8548 57 713 Contact: S. Sundaram Vetrotex is a division of Saint-Gobain producing glass reinforcements in 13 countries, and had sales in 1999 of ~1000 million. The company is the largest producer of glass reinforcements in Europe and the second l a r g e s t - to Owens Coming - in the world. Forty per cent of total turnover is in the Americas (which has about 28% of the staff) with 50% in Europe (which has nearly 60% of the staff) and 10% in Asia (which has just over 8% of the staff). In 2000 Saint-Gobain a n n o u n c e d that it would restructure the company into two core businesses - glass fibres and technical fabrics. The new business, Technical Fabrics, contains Bayex, with plants in Canada, USA and China, Vertex (Czech Republic), LC (Italy) and Tevesa-Icasa (Spain). Glass fibre reinforcement, which is 75% of the business, is reported to be growing at 11.5% per annum, whilst Technical Fabrics covering the remaining 25% has a growth rate of 15%. The new structure will allow greater emphasis on Technical Fabrics. In May 2000 Vetrotex Certainteed made an offer for Brunswick that was initially rejected but an agreement for the purchase of Brunswick shares at US$8.50 per share was made in June 2000. It is assumed that the offer to Brunswick, a major manufacturer of textiles, was linked to the company restructuring. In December 1999 Vetrotex acquired RF Services Pty Ltd, Australia, which is the largest independent distributor for FRP materials for marine, sports, sewage and tanks. Wavin R e p o x BV See Future Pipe Industries BV in this chapter. Welltnate Water S y s t e m s 220 Park Drive Chardon OH 44024 USA Tel: + 1 440 286 4116 Fax: + 1 440 285 3831 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.wellmate.com Chief Executive Officer: W. H: Buxton
Wellmate is part of the Essef Group, which has some 65% of the world market for composite pressure vessels used in chemical storage, water treatment and liquid filtration systems. Pentair Inc, St Paul, Minnesota acquired Essef, in August 1999, which is a large diversified manufacturing company with a third of the business coming from water storage and handling. World Science and T e c h n o l o g y I n s t i t u t e 6300 Reservoir Avenue Corvallis OR 97333 USA
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Tel: + 1 541 929 9874 Fax: +1 541 929 3694 E-mail: wsti-wce @wsti-wce.com Contact: Dan Tingley World Science and Technology Institute (WSTI) is a combination of Wood Science & Technology Institute Ltd, Wood Composites Engineering Inc and FiRP Sales Inc. The company was established in 1996 by the current Director and undertakes projects that combine wood and composite material. Xxsys T e c h n o l o g i e s Inc 4619 Viewridge Avenue San Diego CA 92123 USA Tel: + 1 619 974 8200 Fax: + 1 619 974 8208 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.xxsys.com Chief Executive Officer: Gloria Ma Xxsys had deployed robotic technology for wrapping bridge and pier structures for earthquake strengthening. The Robo-wrapper TM work had proved unacceptable to CALTRANS in retrofitting the Arroyo Seco Bridge, Pasadena and work and payment were suspended. Xxsys is now claiming US$2.2 million from CALTRANS for non-payment and the company has now largely ceased trading. ZCL C o m p o s i t e s Inc 6907 36 Street Edmonton Alberta Canada T6B 2Z6 Tel: + 1 403 466 6648 Fax: + 1 403 466 2676 Internet: www.zcl.com Contact: Ven Cole ZCL Composites was established in 1987 and manufactures composite tanks with a strong emphasis on supply to the petroleum industry. In 1999 ZCL received a 4year contract from Imperial Oil Ltd to supply GFRP tanks and related products for use in Canada. ZCL also entered into an agreement with Canadian Tire Corp and Wilson's Fuel Co for the supply of GFRP tanks. The company reported a net loss of US$1.12 million for the year ended 31 March 2000, although revenue increased 7% to US$25.7 million. In complex financial moves in June 2000 shares were sold to Quattro Capital, which owns 14.5% of ZCL. Zehrco Plastics 5500 Washington Avenue Ashtabula OH 44004 USA Tel: + 1 216 998 5774 Fax: +1 216 992 2430 E-mail:
[email protected]
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Directory Managing Director: William Meadors Contact: Clinton Jackson Zehrco Plastics if a moulder of composite materials.
Zoellig Holzleimbau AG St Gallerstrasse 34 CH-9320 Arbon Switzerland Tel: +41 71 447 2040 Fax: +41 71 446 8650 E-mail:
[email protected] Zoellig is a member of the Haering Group, Switzerland and has worked with Wood Science and Technology Institute, Oregan to develop reinforced glulam beams for a manufacturing building in Switzerland. The fibre reinforced composite beams, 75-inches deep • 7-inches wide and 110-ft long, and are made from pultruded Kevlar TM and epoxy vinyl ester from Dow Chemical with spruce wood.
Australasia Composites Institute of Australia PO Box 672 Ringwood VIC 3134 Australia Tel: +61 3 9723 5688 Fax: +61 3 9723 5786 Executive Director: Noel Drayton The industry association in Australia has over 650 members. The Association publishes a newsletter and the Industry Guide 1999-2002. In March 2000 the Institute announced that, with four of its leading members, it would sponsor a Chair in Fibre Composites at the University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba.
Composites Association of New Z e a l a n d 1-7 Musick Point Road PO Box 54 160 Bucldands Beach New Zealand Tel: +64 9 535 6494 Fax: +64 9 535 6494 Executive Director: Geoff Henderson The New Zealand composites association has a strong emphasis on the marine industry.
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Europe The Netherlands E u r o p e a n P u l t r u s i o n Technology Association (EPTA) PO Box 18 3830 AA Leusden The Netherlands Tel: +31 33 43 43 500 Fax: +31 33 434 3501 E-marl:
[email protected] Internet: www.pultruders.com Contact: Jaap H. Ketel The trade association for the European Pultrusion industry was formed in 1989. In addition to trade and market-related issues the Association also organizes the World Pultrusion Conference.
Belgium E u r o p e a n Reinforced Plastics Group (GPRMC) Diamant Building Boulevard A Reyerslaan 80 B-1030 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32 2 706 79 60 Fax: +32 2 706 79 66 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact: Gustaaf Bos GPRMC coordinates the presentation of the composites industry in Europe, including approaches to the EU. The Group has been attempting to persuade EUROSTAT to include composites in the official collection of statistics but without success. E u r o p e a n Wind Energy Association Rue de Trone 26 B-1040 Brussels Belgium Tel: + 32 2 546 1940 Fax: +32 2 546 1944 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.ewea.org President: Klaus Rave Contact: Vicky Pollard The European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) was formed in 1982 to act as a forum for the exchange of information on wind energy.
France Association francaise de Normalisation (AFNOR) Tours Europ 92049 Paris La Defense C~dex France Tel: +33 1 42 91 55 55 Fax: +33 1 42 91 56 56 Internet: www.afnor.fr
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Directory The Association was formed in 1926 and is responsible for the organization of French standards. An annual catalogue in French is produced listing all current standards
Groupement de la Plasturgie Industrielle et des Composites (GPIC) 65 Rue de Prony F-75854 Paris C~dex 17 France Tel: +33 1 44 01 16 40 or +33 1 44 01 16 38 Fax: +33 1 42 67 77 19 E-mail:
[email protected] Contact Jean-Luc Brillanceau or Jean Pierre de Lary GPIC is the trade association within the Federation de la Plasturgie, which represents the French composites industry.
Germany
Arbeitsgemeinschaft Verstarkte Kunstoffe (AVK-TV) Am Hauptbahnhof 10 Frankfurt 1 D-60329 Germany Tel: +49 69 250 920 Fax: +49 69 250 919 E-mail: avktv-sekretariat @ t-online.de Internet: www.kunstoffeweb.de/avk.tv Managing Director: Dr Uwe Bultjer Public Relations Manager: Ursula Zarbock
Technische
Vereinigung
EV
AVK-TV was formed in 1998 from the merger of the Reinforced Plastics Association (ARK) and the Technical Union. The Association represents raw materials suppliers and manufacturers of reinforced plastics and moulding compounds.
Deutsches Institut fiir Normung (DIN) Burggrafenstrasse 6 10787 Berlin Germany Tel: +49 1 90 88 2600 Fax: +49 1 30 262 8125 E-mail:
[email protected] DIN produces an exhaustive printed list of standards in German and with English equivalents in many cases. The catalogue is also produced on a CD-ROM.
Italy
ASSOCOMAPLAST- Italian Plastics and Rubber Processing Machinery and Moulds Manufacturers' Association Centro Commerciale Milanfiori Palazzon F/2 20090 Assago (MI) Italy Tel: +39 02 822 8371 Fax: +39 02 575 12490 E-mail:
[email protected]
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Internet: www.assocomopplast.com Contact: Claudio Cerlata The Association represents Italian plastics machinery manufacturers, produces annual statistics for production, exports and imports.
and
United Kingdom Building Research Establishment Garston Watford WD2 7JR UK Tel: +44 1923 664860 Fax: +44 1923 664096 Contact: Dr Susan Halliwell E-mail:
[email protected] The Building Research Establishment Ltd was formerly the Building Research Establishment with funding from the UK Government and the UK building industry; it is now owned by the Foundation for the Built Environment. The organization has undertaken work over many years on composites in building and infrastructure, and is active in the preparation of standards.
Composites Processing Association Sarum Lodge St Anne's Court Talygarn Pontyclun CF72 9HH UK Tel: +44 1433 228867 Fax: +44 1443 239083 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.composites-proc.assoc.co.uk Contact: K. L. Forsdyke The Association was formed in 1989 as a trade association for the reinforced plastics industry in the UK and has about 100 members.
Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) Ively Road Farnborough Hampshire GU14 0LX UK Tel: +44 1252 392373 Fax: +44 1252 393399 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.dra.hmg.gb Contact: Graham Meeks DERA is part of the UK Ministry of Defence and has undertaken work on fire standards for composite materials.
The Institute of Materials 1 Carlton House Terrace London SWIY 5DB UK Tel: +44 20 7451 7395
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Directory Fax: +44 20 7839 2289 Contact: Andrew McLaughlin E-mail:
[email protected] This is the main institution for materials studies and development in the UK. National Physical Laboratory, Technology (NPL) Queens Road Teddington TW11 0LW UK Tel: +44 020 8943 6564 Fax: +44 020 8977 6172 Contact: Dr Graham Sims E-mail: graham,
[email protected]
Centre of Materials
Measurement
and
The NPL acts as a focal point in the UK for testing and for the establishment of standards for composite use.
Southeast Asia India
All India Reinforced Plastic Moulder's Association 207 Arun Chambers Tardeo Road Mumbai 400 034 India Tel: +91 22 495 1186 Fax: +91 22 495 1186 E-mail:
[email protected] President: V. L. Doshi In addition to the normal responsibilities of a trade association the Association is responsible for representation to the Indian government on custom duties and excise. Indonesia
Asosiasi Industri Fibreglass Indonesia Jalan S Parman Blok D/9 (Kompleks BNI) Slipi Jakarta 11480 Indonesia Tel: +62 21 548 1292 or 580 8761 Fax: +62 21 548 1292 E-mail:
[email protected] This is the glass fibre trade association for Indonesia.
Japan
J a p a n e s e Reinforced Plastics Society 22-chuoh Building 2-11-8 Ginza chuoh-ku Tokyo 104
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Japan Tel: +81 3 3543 1531 Fax: +81 3 3543 1536 Chairman: Manzoh Yasuda The Japanese Reinforced Plastics Society (JRPS) was founded in 1955 and is notable for the quality and extent of its statistical collection. The organization works with government departments and research agencies on the establishment of standards and provides excellent training courses in composites. An annual conference is organized with a major trade show every 5 years.
Building Centre of Japan 30 Mori Building 3-2-2 Toranomon Minato-ku Tokyo 105-8438 Japan Tel: +81 3 3434 7161 Fax: +81 3 3431 3302 E-marl:
[email protected] The Centre produces advice and recommendations on seismic standards for buildings.
Latin America Mexico Asociacion nacional de las industrias de compuestos moldeables y plasticos reforzados (ACP) Mar de N orte 5 Col. San Alvaro Azcapotzalco MX-02090 Mexico Tel: +52 5 386 2303 Fax: +52 5 386 2155 E-mail:
[email protected] ACP provides services for the Mexican composites market including running training courses and establishing technology and contacts between foreign and Mexican companies.
North America Canada Canadian Plastics Industry Association 5925 Airport Road Suite 500 Mississauga Ontario Canada L4V 1W1 Tel: + 1 905 678 7748 Fax: + 1 905 678 0774
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E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.cpia.ca Chief Executive Officer: P. G. Dubois The Canadian Plastics Industry Association (CPIA) is the Canadian trade association for the plastics industry including both regional and market sectors, such as the Vinyl Council of Canada. United States of America From 1 June 1999 the Composites Institute of the Society of Plastics Industry (CI) merged with the Composite Fabricators Association (CFA). The Corrosion Resistant Products Council and the Fiberglass Gratings Manufacturing Council of the Composites Institute are now under the CFA umbrella. CI's Pultrusion Industry Council has merged with CFA's Pultrusion Growth Alliance.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Inc (AASHTO) 444 North Capitol Street N.W. Suite 249 Washington DC 20001 USA Tel: + 1 202 624 5800 Internet: www.aashto.org AASHTO is the responsible organization which brings together all the state highway officials, and provides some coherence to road and bridge legislation throughout the USA.
American National Standards Institution (ANSI) 11 West 42 nd Street New York NY 10036 USA Tel: + 1 212 642 4900 Fax: + 1 212 398 0023 Internet: www.ansi.org ANSI was established in 1920 and is responsible (with ASTM) for the majority of composite standards.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston VA 20191 USA Tel: + 1 800 548 2723 Fax: +1 703 291 6333 Internet: www.asce.org ASCE is the professional association for civil engineers in North America publishing journals, running conferences and acting as a forum for discussion on civil engineering developments. American Society for Composites 48-121 Engineering IV
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UCLA 420 Westwood Plaza Los Angeles CA 9OO95-1597 USA Tel: + 1 310 206 1840 Fax: +1 310 206 4830 Internet: www.asc.ime.ucla.edu The Society aims t o provide a communications forum for the engineering and scientific community in composite materials. A m e r i c a n Society for Testing a n d Materials (ASTM) 100 Barr Harbor Drive West Conshohocken PA 19428 USA Tel: + 1 610 832 9500 Fax: +1 610 832 9623 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.astm.org ASTM European Office 27-29 Knowl Pierce Wilbury Way Hitchin Hertfordshire SG4 0SX UK Tel: +44 1462 437933 Fax: +44 1462 433678 ASTM is one of the leading US standards organizations and is responsible for a wide range of standards that affect the application of composites in infi'astructure
American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) 122 C Street NW Suite 380 Washington DC 20001 USA Tel: +1 202 383 2504 Fax: +1 202 383 2505 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.awea.org The AWEA was formed in 1974 as a forum for discussion on the development of wind energy systems. California Seismic Safety C o m m i s s i o n (CSSC) 1755 Creekside Oaks Drive Suite 100 Sacramento CA 95833 USA Tel: +1 916 263 5506 Fax: + 1 916 263 0594
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Directory The CSSC advises the Governor and legislature of California on earthquake policy issues, including sponsoring legislation. The Commission has 17 members and a staff of eight. Civil E n g i n e e r i n g Research Foundation (CERF) 1015 15th Sty NW Suite 600 Washington DC 20005 USA Tel: + 1 202 842 0555 Fax: +1 202 789 5345 President: H. M.Bernstein CERF is a non-profit organization founded in 1989 by the American Society of Civil Engineers to coordinate the efforts of various groups to resolve c o m m o n problems. CERF operates innovation centres in infrastructure and construction market areas including highways (HITEC), public works (CEITEC), environment (EvTEC) and buildings (NESBIC). The centres evaluate new developments and technologies. The High-performance Construction Materials and Systems (CONMAT) Council within CERF was established in 1995 and provides a forum for the entire construction community.
Composite Fabricators Association 1655 North Fort Myer Drive Suite 510 Arlington VA 22209 USA Tel: +1 703 525 0511 Fax: +1 703 525 0743 E-mail: mhenriksen@ cfa-hq, org Internet: www.cfa.org Chief Executive Officer: Fred Dierks Contact: Missy Henricksen The Association was formed in 1979 and is an industry-based grouping of composite companies with some 800 members. In 2000 the Market Development AUiance of the FRP Composites Industry, with 42 members, affiliated with the Association.
Composites I n s t i t u t e o f the Society of Plastics I n d u s t r i e s 600 Mamaroneck Avenue Harrison NY 10528 USA Tel: + 1 914 381 3572 Fax: + 1 914 381 1253 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: composites.org Contact: Catherine Randazzo The Composites Institute was formed in 1945 as a trade association for the composites industry and was the largest division of the Society of Plastics. It is now the Market Development Alliance of the FRP Composites Industry.
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Cooling Tower Institute 530 Wells Fargo Drive Suite 218 Houston TX 77090 USA Tel: + 1 281 583 4087 Fax: + 1 281 537 1721 E-mail: jwcuchen@southernco, com Internet: www.cti.org President: J. w. Cuchen The Cooling Tower Institute represents many of the manufacturers of cooling tower parts for the energy and chemical industries, with membership in North America and in the rest of the world. Environmental Protection Agency 401 M Street SW Washington DC 20460-0003 USA Tel: + 1 202 260 2090 The Environmental Protection Agency is a US government organization that, among other subjects, is responsible for solvent emissions that affect the composite industry.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 500 C Street W Washington DC 20472 USA Tel: + 1 202 646 3923 Director: J. L. Witt E-mail:
[email protected] FEMA was established in 1979 as a government agency to coordinate and develop responses to disasters including earthquakes. FEMA is involved in developing standards for earthquake building codes.
International Code Council 5203 Leesburg Pike Suite 708 Falls Church VA 22041 USA Tel: + 1 703 931 4533 Fax: + 1 703 379 1546 E-mail:
[email protected] Executive: R. P. Kuchnick Internet: www.intlcode.org The Building Officials and Code Administrators, the International Conference of Building Officials and the Southern Building Code Congress International formed the International Code Council in 1994. ICC has released the first comprehensive
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Directory building code for the construction industry, although composites are not yet covered M a r k e t D e v e l o p m e n t Alliance of t h e FRP C o m p o s i t e s I n d u s t r y (MDA) 600 Mamaroneck Avenue 4th Floor Harrison NY 10528 USA Tel: + 1 914 381 3572 Fax: +1 914 381 1253 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.mdacomposites.org Director: John Busel The MDA was formerly a unit of the Composites Institute of the Society of Plastics but is now affiliated with the Composites Fabricators Association. MDA is a group of 28 companies and organizations that aim to promote the use of composite materials of all markets including infrastructure. The organization has nine project teams which have application in infrastructure covering: Composite Bridge Team; CERF Durability Project; FRP Dowel Bar Team; FRP Engineered Wood; NIST Load and Resistance Factor Design; US Navy Pier Upgrade; Unreinforced Masonry Team; Piling Manufacturers' Council; and Rebar Manufacturers' Council. S A C M A - Suppliers o f Advanced C o m p o s i t e Materials A s s o c i a t i o n
1600 Wilson Boulevard Suite 1008 Arlington VA 22209 USA Tel: +1 703 841 1556 Fax: + 1 703 841 1559 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.sacma.org From June 2000, the Society of Advanced Composite Manufacturers, which was operated by Inter-Associates Inc, will cease to exist. The n u m b e r of mergers within the advanced composites industry meant that the organization, founded in 1984, was no longer viable. However, it is possible that the organization will continue as an advanced materials organization of CFA. Inter-Associates also operates the United States Advanced Ceramics AssociationUSACA. SACMA had published annual carbon fibre shipments based on returns from members but this did not include such companies as Zoltek. Society o f Plastics I n d u s t r i e s (SPI) 600 Mamaroneck Avenue 4th Floor Harrison NY 10528-1632 USA Tel: + 1 914 381 3572 Fax: +1 914 381 1253
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The Composites Institute, which was part of the SPI, is n o w part of the MDA and affiliated with the Composites Fabricators Association. U n d e r w r i t e r s L a b o r a t o r i e s Inc (UL) 333 Pfingsten Road Northbrook IL 60062-2096 USA Tel: + 1 847 272 8800 Fax: + 1 847 272 8129 E-mail:
[email protected] Internet: www.us.ul.com UL was formed in 1894 as a not-for-profit organization and is one of the premier safety standards organizations. UL was originally based only in the USA and Canada but has now expanded worldwide. Some regional offices are given below. Underwriters Laboratories Inc Guangzhou Rep Office Room M06 The Garden Tower The Garden Hotel 368 E Huanshi Road Guangzhou 510064 China Tel: +86 20 8387 7427 Fax: +86 8384 7745 E-mail:
[email protected] UL International (UK) Ltd Wonersh House The Guildway Old Portsmouth Road Guildford GU3 1LR UK Tel: +44 1483 302 130 Fax: +44 1483 302 230 E-mail: bejnarowiczd.ul.com Internet: www.ul-uk.com
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Glossary of technical terms
ABS Aramid
ATH Bias fabric Binder
Bidirectional laminate Bleedout
BMI
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene. A high-strength, high-stiffness fibre derived from polyamide. Kevlar T M from DuPont and Twaron T M from Accordis are major examples or para-aramids, whilst DuPont and Teijin are the main manufacturers of meta-aramids. Aluminia trihydrate is used as a flame-retardant filler in composites. A fabric in which warp and fill fibres are at an angle to the length. A b o n d i n g resin used to hold strands together in a mat or preform during manufacture of the m o u l d e d part. A laminate with fibres oriented in more than one direction o n the same plane. Excess liquid resin appearing at the surface, primarily occurs during filament winding. Bismaleimide.
Bonded joint
A joint where the surfaces are held together by means of structural adhesive or matrix polymer.
Braid
Three or more yams intertwined in such a way that no two yarns are twisted a r o u n d each other. Braid refers to a family of fabrics continuously woven on the bias and is a hybrid of filament winding and weaving. Braided fabrics offer greater strength per fabric weight.
Breakout
Separation or breakage of fibres w h e n the edges of a composite part are drilled or cut.
Bundle Carbon fibre
CFRP Chopped strand m a t
General term for the collection of mostly parallel filaments or fibres. A fibre made by carbonizing precursor fibres such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon or pitch in an inert atmosphere. Carbon fibres differ from graphite in their heat treatment and carbon content. Carbon fibre reinforced plastic. Non-woven mat in which the glass fibre strands are c h o p p e d into short lengths of approximately 50 m m and evenly distributed and randomly orientated. The mat is held together by a binder.
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Glossary of technical terms
Composite
Made by combining two materials such as fibres and resins to create a n e w product. The matrix materials may be a p o l y m e r such as polyester or epoxy and in advanced composites can be a metal such as aluminium or a ceramic such as silicon nitride. The reinforcement may be fibres of glass, aramid or carbon, or even metals and ceramics
Compression moulding
A technique for m o u l d i n g t h e r m o s e t plastics in which a part is shaped by placing the fibre and resin in an o p e n m o u l d cavity, closing the m o u l d and applying heat and pressure until the material has cured.
Continuous filament mat
A non-woven material similar to c h o p p e d strand mat except that the fibres are swirled at r a n d o m and are continuous.
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Continuous strand
A strand in which individual filament lengths approach the strand length.
Continuous roving
Parallel filaments coated with sizing, gathered together into single or multiple strands and w o u n d into a cylindrical package. It may be used to provide continuous reinforcement to woven roving, filament winding, pultrusion, prepregs or high-strength m o u l d i n g c o m p o u n d s or it may be used chopped.
Cure
To change the properties of the thermosetting resin irreversibly by chemical reaction such as condensation, ring-closure or addition. The cure may be accomplished by addition of curing (cross-linking) agents with or w i t h o u t a catalyst and with or w i t h o u t heat.
Delamination
The separation of layers of material in a laminate which may be local or cover a wide area. It may occur for a variety of causes at any time in the cure or in the life of the laminate.
Denier
N u m b e r of grams per 9000 m.
E-glass
Stands for Electrical-glass. Borosilicate glass fibres are the most frequent material used as a reinforcement in conventional p o l y m e r matrix composites.
Epoxy resins
May be of widely different structures but characterized by the reaction of the epoxy group to form a cross-linked hard resin.
Fabric
Fabrics have terms that describe various qualities of the weave. These terms describe the pattern (plain, satin, twill or basket weave) weight per m 2, density of the weave or 'count' and type of fibre or material used in the weave in each direction, i.e. unidirectional.
Fibre content
The a m o u n t of fibre in a composite as a ratio of the matrix. In general, strength increases as the fibre content ratio rises.
Fibre count
The n u m b e r of fibres per unit width of ply present in a specified section of composite.
Filament
The smallest unit of fibrous material. The basic units formed during spinning and which are gathered into strands of fibre. Filaments are normally of considerable length and very small diameter.
Filament winding
Fibre filaments are i m p r e g n a t e d in a resin matrix and then w o u n d in a pred e t e r m i n e d pattern over a form of the desired finished c o m p o n e n t .
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Glossaryof technical terms
F/Her
A relatively inert substance added to a material to alter its physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical or other properties. A filler is also used to lower its cost.
Finish
Material applied to fibre products to improve fibre-resin bonding, to improve lubricity and high-temperature abrasion or to stabilize a weave.
Gel
The initial jelly-like solid phase that develops during formation of a resin from a liquid. Also a semi-solid system consisting of a network of solid aggregates in which liquid is held.
Gel-coat
A quick-setting resin used in a moulding process to provide an improved surface for the composite. The first resin applied to the mould after the mould release agent.
Glass fibre
An inorganic product of a fusion process which has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing.
Hand lay-up
A process in which resin and reinforcement are applied either to a mould or to a working surface with successive plies built up and worked by hand.
Honeycomb
A lightweight cellular structure made from metallic sheet or non-metallic materials and formed into hexagonal nested cells, as seen in a beehive. Used as a core material in sandwich constructions. Nomex T M made from aramid fibre dipped in phenolic, polyester or polyamide resin is a c o m m o n example.
Hot press moulding
Heated matched dies are loaded with thermosetting c o m p o u n d and pressed together until cured.
Hybrid fabrics
Materials constructed with different fibre types. For example, carbon fibre can provide high strength and stiffness in the longitudinal direction, with E-glass providing lower transverse strength.
Isotropic K
Lamina Laminate Lay-up
Having the same properties irrespective of direction. Carbon fibres are rated in size with a 'K' designation; the 'K' of a fibre represents the number of filaments grouped together. The smallest (and most expensive) is 1 K with 1000 filaments. 3 K is a more commonly used fibre containing 3000 filaments, and infrastructure commonly uses 50 K or 50 000 filament fibres. A single ply or layer in a laminate of layers. A product made by bonding together two or more layers or laminae of materials. Successive layers of resin-impregnated materials used in an assembly process.
Mandrel
Elongated mould around which resin-impregnated fibre, tape or filaments are w o u n d to form structural shapes or tubes.
Mat
A fibrous material consisting of randomly oriented c h o p p e d or swirled continuous filaments loosely held together with a binder. Fibres in chopped mats are typically 3.75-6.25 cm in length and are lower cost and lower strength than continuous strand mats. The non-woven fabrics provide equal strength in all directions.
Matrix
An h o m o g e n e o u s material in which the fibre system of a composite is embedded; a resin system with or without additives.
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Glossary of technical terms
Milled fibres
Modar
Continuous glass strands hammer-milled into small modules of filamentized glass. Used as an anti-crazing reinforcing filler for adhesives and as chopped and milled fibres for electromagnetic protection in computing and telecommunication equipment. Modified acrylic resin produced by Ashland Chemical Co.
Modulus
The physical measurement of stiffness in a material which equals the ratio of applied load to the resulting deformation of a material. High modulus indicates a stiff material.
Mould release agent
A lubricant applied to mould surfaces to facilitate release of the moulded article.
PAN
Polyacrylonitrile.
Peel ply
Layer of material applied to a prepreg lay-up surface that is removed from the cured laminate prior to bonding operations leaving a clean resin-rich surface ready for bonding.
Phenolic resin
Thermosetting resin produced by condensation of an aromatic alcohol with an aldehyde, particularly phenol with formaldehyde. Valued for its low flammability and smoke emission.
Ply
Synonymous with lamina.
Polyester resin
Thermosetting resins produced by dissolving unsaturated alkyd resins in a vinyltype monomer, such as styrene. They are capable of being cross-linked by vinyl polymerization using initiators and promoters.
Pot life
Time during which a reacting thermosetting composition remains suitable for its intended processing after mixing with a reaction initiating agent.
Precursor
The rayon, PAN or pitch fibres from which carbon fibres are made.
Preform
A pre-shaped fibrous reinforcement formed by distribution of chopped fibres by air, water flotation or vacuum over the surface of a preformated screen to the approximate contour and thickness of the final part. The term is also used for a pre-shaped fibrous reinforcement of mat or cloth formed to a desired shape on a mandrel prior to be put in a mould press.
Prepreg
Pre-impregnation. A composite material made by combining reinforcement fibres or fabrics with a polymer matrix to be cured under high temperature and pressure. The term prepreg is normally used for polymer matrix composites, whilst preform is normally used for metal and ceramic matrix composites,
Pressure bag moulding
A process similar to vacuum bag moulding with the pressure being applied to a rubber bag to aid consolidation of a laminate.
Pultrusion
Process for the manufacture of composite profiles by pulling layers of fibrous materials, impregnated with a resin, through a heated die, thus forming the ultimate shape of the profile. Used for the manufacture of rods, tubes and structural shapes of constant cross-section.
R-glass
Compared with standard E-glass this is a higher-performance glass formulation giving a fibre with a superior modulus.
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Reinforcement
Glossaryof technical terms
A fibre, whisker or particulate used within a matrix material to add strength. Fibres can be continuous or discontinuous, and particulates can be powders or
grits. Resin Resin content Roving
The polymeric material used to bind together the reinforcing fibres in FRP. The amount of matrix present in a composite either by % weight or by % volume. A loose, untwisted assembly of fibres in a single strand.
RTM
Resin transfer moulding. A closed mould process in which dry reinforcement in the form of mat or cloth is placed in a matched mould. Resin is injected to fill the cavity and flows through the fibres to fill the mould space.
S-glass
A high-performance glass formulation containing magnesia-alumina-silicate giving a fibre with a high tensile stength.
SCRIMPT M Seismic retrofit
Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Moulding Process. The reinforcement of an existing structure to withstand earthquake damage.
Size
Treatment applied to yarn or fibres at the time of formation to protect the surface, aid handing and fabrication, or control fibre characteristics.
SMC
Sheet moulding compound.
Spray-up
Spun yarn Strand
Strand count
Production method where a mixture of chopped fibres and resin can be deposited in a mould simultaneously. Fibres of regular or irregular lengths bound together by a twist. An untwisted primary filament bundle which can be continuous filament or staple fibre. The n u m b e r of strands in a plied yarn or roving.
Structural adhesive
Material used to form high-strength bonds in structural assemblies which perform load-bearing functions.
Surface tissue
Glass or polyester tissues and veils which can be incorporated at the gel-coatlaminate interface providing enhanced chemical and environmental resistance and protection for the reinforcement.
Surface veil Tex
Another term for surface tissue. The weight in grams of 1000 m of roving, tow, yarn or strand.
Thermoplastic
A plastic which can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling through a given temperature range. In the softened state can be shaped by flow into articles by moulding or extrusion.
Thermoset
A resin consisting of a molecular chain which cross-links during the cure reaction which is initiated by heat, or catalysts and 'set' into a final rigid form. Examples are unsaturated polyesters, which have most applications in infrastructure composites, epoxy and phenolic resin.
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Glossary of technical terms
Tow
Unidirectional Vacuum bag moulding
A bundle of filaments generally without a twist. Tow designates carbon fibre thickness. All reinforcements are aligned in the same direction. A process in which lay-up is cured u n d e r pressure generated by drawing a vacuum in the space between the lay-up and a flexible sheet placed over it sealed at the edges.
VAR/M Vacuum-assisted resin infusion moulding. VARTM Vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding.
Veil
A thin layer of mat similar to a surface mat often c o m p o s e d of organic fibres as well as glass fibres.
Vinyl ester resin
Thermosetting resins that consist of a polymer backbone with a acrylate or methacrylate termination.
Warp Weft
The thread running across the width of a woven fabric at 90 ~ to the warp. Also k n o w n as fill.
Wet lay-up
A m e t h o d of making a reinforced product by applying a liquid resin system while the reinforcement is put in place, typically layer by layer.
Wet winding
A m e t h o d of filament winding in which the fibre reinforcement is impregnated with a resin system as a liquid just prior to wrapping on a mandrel.
Woven fabric
Composite reinforcement woven from yarns or fibres in a range of weave patterns including plain, satin, leno and weights.
Woven roving
Glass fibre material made by the weaving of roving.
Yarn
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The thread running lengthwise in a woven fabric.
A twisted bundle of strands.
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