Civil Liberties and Human Rights
This fourth edition has been extensively re-written in order to consider the impact o...
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Civil Liberties and Human Rights
This fourth edition has been extensively re-written in order to consider the impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 over the first seven years of its existence. It considers recent key domestic decisions in the post-Human Rights Act era, including Campbell, A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Dept, Ghaidan v Mendoza and R (Gillan) v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis. Particular attention is paid to recent Labour legislation, especially in the fields of criminal justice and terrorism, including the Terrorism Acts 2005 and 2006 and the Serious and Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. A new chapter on developments in counter-terrorism law has been included for this edition. Important recent developments in the sphere of media freedom are also covered, including the impact of the Communications Act 2003, and in the field of anti-discrimination law, including the Equality Act 2006. This book is a detailed, thought-provoking and comprehensive text that is valuable, not only for students, but also for all those interested in the development of human rights and civil liberties in the early years of the twenty-first century. This is an era in which human rights are coming increasingly under pressure – one in which terrorism concerns are dominating the political and legal agenda, but also one that has seen the inception of the Human Rights Act. Helen Fenwick is Professor of Law at the University of Durham and Director of the Human Rights Centre.
Civil Liberties and Human Rights
Fourth edition
Helen Fenwick
Fourth edition published 2007 by Routledge-Cavendish 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge-Cavendish 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. Routledge-Cavendish is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1994, 1998, 2002, 2007 Helen Fenwick Previous editions published by Cavendish Publishing Limited First edition 1994 Second edition 1998 Third edition 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0-203-86788-2 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN10: 1–85941–937–2 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–1–85941–937–3 (pbk)
For Paul, Clare, Daniel and Patrick
Contents
Preface Table of Table of Table of Table of Table of Table of
cases UK statutes UK statutory instruments national legislation from other jurisdictions treaties and conventions EC legislation
xiii xv lvii lxxvii lxxxi lxxxiii xci
PART 1
Theories of rights; legal protection for rights and liberties in the UK
1
1
5
The nature of rights and liberties 1 Where do rights derive from? 6 2 What is meant by a right? 10
2
The European Convention on Human Rights 1 2 3 4 5 6
3
Introduction 17 The supervisory procedure for the Convention 20 The substantive rights and freedoms 39 Additional guarantees to the primary rights 106 Restriction of the rights and freedoms 110 Conclusions 112
Methods of protecting civil liberties in the UK; the Bill of Rights debate foreshadowing the Human Rights Act 1 2 3 4
17
Introduction 115 Methods of protecting civil liberties in the UK 116 The ‘Bill of Rights’ debate 140 Conclusions 156
115
viii
Contents
4
The Human Rights Act
157
1 Introduction 157 2 The choice of rights 165 3 The interpretative obligation under s 3; the remedial process and pre-legislative scrutiny 169 4 The position of public authorities under the Human Rights Act 215 5 Private bodies and indirect horizontal effect 249 6 The stance of the judiciary in adjudicating on the Human Rights Act 256 7 Scrutiny of the workings of the HRA 291 8 Conclusions 295
PART II
Expression 5
Restraining freedom of expression under the law of contempt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
7
451
Introduction 451 Law and pornography: theoretical considerations 453 Legal responses to explicit expression 461 Blasphemy, seditious libel, religious and racial hatred 484 Regulating broadcasting 509 The internet, films and videos 550 Conclusions 587
Official secrecy; access to state information 1 2 3 4 5
316
Introduction 316 Publications prejudicing proceedings: the strict liability rule 319 Intentionally prejudicing proceedings: common law contempt 363 Prior restraints restricting reports of court proceedings 383 Protecting justice as a continuing process 394 Disclosure of jury deliberations 398 Protection of sources 408
Offensive speech 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
299
Introduction 590 Official secrets 592 Breach of confidence 616 Defence Advisory notices 624 Freedom of information: general principles and the position prior to the 2000 Act 625 6 The Freedom of Information Act 2000 630
590
Contents
8
Freedom of protest and assembly
ix
659
1 Introduction 659 2 Rights to assemble and to protest 678 3 Legal regulation of meetings and marches: the statutory framework 701 4 Criminalisation of trespass and obstruction of the highway 733 5 Breach of the peace, binding over and bail conditions 750 6 Criminalising public disorder and anti-social behaviour 780 7 Riot, violent disorder and affray 799 8 Conclusions 800
PART III
The protection of privacy 9
Protection for personal information
803 809
1 Introduction 809 2 Protection for personal information under the Human Rights Act 813 3 Broadcasting regulation and press self-regulation 830 4 Specific reporting restrictions 851 5 Trespass, defamation, harassment; proposals for a new privacy tort 866 6 Liability for disclosing personal information under the new privacy doctrine 876 7 The Data Protection Act 1998 920 8 Balancing speech and privacy claims under the HRA 937 9 Remedies 981 10 Conclusions 990 10
Powers of the security and intelligence services; state surveillance; search and seizure of property 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Introduction 993 Police powers of entry and search 995 Powers of the security and intelligence services 1010 The interception of communications 1032 State surveillance 1053 The single tribunal 1080 The Anti-Terrrorism, Crime and Security Act: acquisition of information 1090 8 Conclusions 1097
993
x
Contents
PART IV
Personal liberty 11
Freedom from arbitrary search, arrest and detention; suspects’ rights in criminal investigations 1 2 3 4
12
13
14
1186
Introduction 1186 Police interviews 1192 The right of access to legal advice 1208 The right to silence 1234
Redress for police malpractice 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1101
Introduction 1101 Stop and search powers 1111 Powers of arrest 1139 Detention in police custody 1163
Police questioning: safeguards for suspects 1 2 3 4
1099
1255
Introduction 1255 The Human Rights Act and trial remedies 1259 Exclusion of evidence 1262 Tortious remedies 1303 Complaints against the police and disciplinary action 1310 Prosecution of the police 1321 Conclusions 1323
Anti-terrorism law and human rights
1328
1 Introduction 1328 2 Terrorism and human rights 1335 3 The Terrorism Acts 2000 and 2006 – extending the ambit of the counter-terrorism scheme 1363 4 The Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, Part IV – the detention without trial scheme 1421 5 The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 – control orders 1438 6 Conclusions 1462 PART V
Equality and theories of anti-discrimination laws 15
Anti-discrimination legislation 1 Introduction 1476 2 Sources of anti-discrimination law 1479
1469 1476
Contents
xi
3 Domestic anti-discrimination measures 1486 4 Direct discrimination on grounds of sex, marital status, gender reassignment, race, disability, sexual orientation 1526 5 Indirect discrimination on grounds of sex, race or sexual orientation; disability-related discrimination 1538 6 Victimisation and harassment: sex, race, disability, sexual orientation 1556 7 Lawful discrimination 1567 8 Positive action: sex, race, disability, sexual orientation 1572 9 Remedial action: efficacy of the individual method 1586 10 The Commission for Racial Equality; the Equal Opportunities Commission; the Disability Rights Commission; the new Commission for Equality and Human Rights 1593 11 Conclusions 1600 Index
1604
Preface
This fourth edition was completed six years after the third. The delay was partly due to the great changes that have occurred in the legal landscape in this field over that period of time, which made completing the fourth edition a daunting task. In writing this fourth edition the contradictions surrounding the Human Rights Act (HRA) have been thrown into sharp relief. On the one hand, it is beginning to bed down, and there has been, since the Belmarsh case in 2004 in the House of Lords, a sea-change in the judicial attitude towards it. The judges have, for the last three years, quite often shown that they treat the duty under s 6 HRA with a seriousness that was not apparent in the first few years of the HRA’s life. In a series of cases, often related to counter-terrorism law, the judges have departed from the government’s view as to justifiable infringements of liberty. On the other hand, since 9/11, the HRA has come under threat. For almost the whole of its existence it has been under attack, from the government, parts of the media and the Conservative party, largely on the ground that it stands in the way of an effective counter-terrorist policy. The tensions between the HRA and the four main counter-terrorist statutes introduced over the life of the Blair Government are explored in a lengthy new chapter, Chapter 14. The second and third editions of this book were written during the early stage of the Blair Government, when a new era seemed to be dawning in Britain in human rights terms. This edition was completed at the end of the Blair years, at a time at which the future of the HRA looks highly uncertain in Britain. The future of human rights in Britain clearly does not depend only on the HRA; Britain would, of course, remain bound to the Convention rights at the international level; moreover, this book charts a number of other positive developments under the Labour Government, such as the Equality Act 2006 and the Freedom of Information Act 2000. But in some contexts, such as public protest, police powers, counter-terrorist powers, the HRA has proved crucial in protecting rights. The case for the HRA has not been made to the British public, allowing the Conservative Party to pass off the plan to repeal the HRA as an aid to counter-terrorist strategy, and a return to ‘British values’, in the sense that the less responsible sections of the media can and will present it in that way, playing on the ignorance of the British people as to the relationship between the HRA and the European Convention on Human Rights. The inception of the Commission for Equality and Human Rights in 2007 might have some counteractive effect in explaining the HRA to the British public and selling it to them as the protector of vulnerable persons, such as old people in care homes.
xiv
Preface
Contradictions are also evident in the judicial attitude to the HRA. This book traces the signs of the judicial acceptance of a constitutional human rights jurisdiction, held back at present to an extent by the House of Lords’ decisions in Ullah and in Price. As Chapter 4, in particular, seeks to suggest, Ullah can be circumvented and in any event is in tension, not only with R v A, A and Others (No 2) (the 2005 ‘foreign torture evidence’ judgment) and with Campbell, but with the whole enterprise of the HRA and the general approach in Britain to constitutional instruments. The tension between the approach that sees the HRA merely as a vehicle for giving easier access to the Convention domestically and the one that sees it as a constitutional human rights instrument is reaching a head, and forms one of the main themes of this book. It is perhaps somewhat ironic that, just at the moment when the HRA seems ready to step forward as a Bill of Rights, plans to repeal it to replace it with a ‘British Bill of Rights’ have been put forward by the Conservative Party and are also being considered by Gordon Brown. The decision was taken in writing this new edition to reach for depth rather than breadth, and to that end certain chapters were dropped, in particular the chapter on freedom of movement. If this discipline is to retain some coherence and to move forward in a way that continues to appeal to students, it needs to be selective and to recognise how far it overlaps with others, such as employment law or immigration law. I must acknowledge the contribution of all the people who helped in formulating the ideas expressed in this book. In relation to this edition my thanks are due to Aaron Baker, Senior Lecturer at Durham University, for reading and commenting on Chapter 15 and to Professor Gavin Phillipson of Durham University who commented on Chapter 4. Professor Colin Warbrick offered helpful criticism of early drafts of Chapters 2 and 3 of the first edition. Daniel Fenwick gave invaluable help at the proof stage of the book. I have drawn on certain of my articles and books as indicated at various points. The main body of the text was completed by January 2007, but it was possible to add some later material in May and June 2007. The book is dedicated with love and affection to Paul, Clare, Daniel and Patrick. Durham July 2007
Table of cases
A and Byrne and Twenty-Twenty Television v United Kingdom (1998) 25 EHRR CD 159 .............................................. 946–48, 960, 968, 980 A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Dept [2004] UKHL 56; [2004] QB 335; [2005] 2 AC 68; [2005] 2 WLR 87; [2005] 3 All ER 169, HL; [2002] EWCA Civ 1202, CA ............................................................................................. 202, 205, 260, 266, 282, 283, 287, 288, 290, 297, 1066, 1099, 1328, 1332, 1336, 1337, 1338, 1341, 1345–47, 1362, 1363, 1430–38, 1442, 1443, 1454, 1465, 1467 A (Disclosure of Medical Records to the GMC), Re, [1998] 2 FLR 641.............................................................................................................................433 A Health Authority v X [2001] 2 FLR 673 ..................................................................................433 A v B plc [2003] QB 195 ..................................................................................... 254, 438, 883, 911 A v Secretary of State for the Home Department (No 2) [2004] EWCA Civ 1123; [2005] 1 WLR 414, CA; [2005] UKHL 71, HL.............................................................................................1345, 1454–60 A v UK (1999) 27 EHRR 611 ...............................................................................................46, 47, 75 ADT v UK (2001) 31 EHRR 33 .......................................................................................................... 82 Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v UK (1985) 7 EHRR 471 ........................................................................................................... 89, 109, 135, 1432 Abrahamsson and Anderson v Fogelqvist Case C-407/98 [2000] IRLR 732............................................................................................................................ 1584 Absolam (1989) 88 Cr App R 332, CA ...........................................................1193, 1196, 1197, 1281, 1282, 1284 ACAS v Taylor EAT/788/97 ............................................................................................................... 1574 Ackroyd v Mersey Care NHS Trust [2003] EMLR 820 .........................426–30, 434, 435, 437, 438 Aerts v Belgium [1998] EHRR 777.................................................................................................... 63 Abu Qatada and Secretary of State for the Home Dept File No SC15/2002 ....................................................................................................................... 1428 Ahmed v UK (1998) 5 BHRC 111; [1999] IRLR 188 ..................................................... 93, 98 Airedale NHS Trust v Bland [1993] AC 789; [1993] 1 All ER 821, CA and HL ......................................................................................................... 42, 77
xvi
Table of cases
Airey v Ireland (1979) 2 EHRR 305 .......................................................................................... 63, 72 Aitken and Others (1971) (unreported) ................................................................................ 593, 595 Akdivar v Turkey (1997) 23 EHRR 143 ........................................................................................... 30 Aksoy v Turkey (1996) 23 EHRR 553 ........................................................... 46, 47, 1176, 1435 Al Fayed v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [2004] EWCA Civ 1579 ............................................................................................................ 1156 Albert v Lavin [1982] AC 546; [1981] 3 All ER 878, HL ........................................................................................................................ 755, 760, 761, 1111, 1140, 1142 Alexander v Home Office [1988] 1 WLR 968 ......................................................................... 1509 Ali v Office for National Statistics (2005) (unreported) ..................................................... 1527 Ambard v Attorney General for Trinidad and Tobago [1936] AC 322; [1936] 1 AII ER 704 ...................................................................................396 Ambrose (1973) 57 Cr App R..............................................................................................................782 American Cyanamid Co v Ethicon Ltd [1975] AC 396; [1975] 1 All ER 504, HL .................................................................... 378, 618, 984, 986–88 AMICUS v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry [2004] EWHC 860 .......................................................................................................... 1571, 1572 Amin [1983] 2 AC 818, HL ................................................................................................. 1505, 1508 Amin [2000] 1 WLR 1071; [2000] Crim LR 174 .................................................................. 1324 Amministrazione delle Finanze dello Stato v Simmenthal Case 106/77; [1978] ECR 629...................................................................................................138 Amuur v France (1996) 22 EHRR 533 ............................................................................................. 55 Anderson [1972] 1 QB 304; [1971] 3 WLR 939; [1971] 3 All ER 1152, CA .................................................................................................... 470, 471, 472 Anderson v UK Case No 33689/96; (1998) 25 EHRR CD 172; [1998] EHRR 218 ......................................................................... 99, 697, 699, 749 Andronicou and Constantinou v Cyprus (1996) 22 EHRR CD 18; (1998) 25 EHRR 491 ................................................................................ 41, 63, 1163 Anisminic Ltd v Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 147, HL .................................................................................................................... 1030, 1085 Anton Piller KG v Manufacturing Processes Ltd [1976] Ch 55; [1976] 1 All ER 779, CA............................................................................... 791, 1006 Anufrijeva and Another v Southwark London Borough Council [2004] QB 1124; [2004] 2 WLR 603 ....................................................... 241, 244 Appleby v UK 6 May 2003 ........................................................................................................ 682, 699 Archer v Williams [2003] EMLR 38 ................................................................................................982 Archibald v Fife Council [2004] IRLR 651 .............................................................................. 1553 Arrowsmith v Jenkins [1963] 2 QB 561; [1963] 2 All ER 210.............................................................................................................................. 679, 734, 737 Arrowsmith v UK No 7050/75, 19 DR 5 (1978) ......................................................................... 98 Asch v Austria (1990) Case 30/1990/221/283;(1991) 15 EHRR 597 .............................................................................................................................................. 66 Ashworth Hospital Authority v MGN Ltd [2002] 1 WLR 2033; [2002] 4 All ER 193, HL; [2001] 1 WLR 515; 1 All ER 991, CA ......................................................................... 420–38, 448–50
Table of cases
xvii
Associated Provincial Picture House v Wednesbury Corporation [1948] 1 KB 223; [1948] 2 All ER 680, CA .....................127–29, 131, 133, 273, 276, 277, 285, 288, 300, 447, 564, 649, 692, 693, 768, 783, 839, 1087, 1156, 1157, 1305, 1432, 1520 Association X v UK (1978) Appl No 7154/75; 75, 14 DR 31..................................... 41, 42 Aston Cantlow and Wilmcote with Billesley Parochial Church Council v Wallbank [2004] 1 AC 546 ......................... 195, 219, 225–31, 240 Attorney General v Antigua Times Ltd [1976] AC 16 ............................................................151 Attorney General v Associated Newspapers and Others [1994] 1 All ER 556; (1994) 142 NLJ 1647 .....................................................................399 Attorney General v BBC [1981] AC 303; [1980] 3 WLR 109, HL ................................349 Attorney General v BBC (1992) The Independent, 3 January ............................................350 Attorney General v BBC 1 December 1995 (unreported).....................................................346 Attorney General v BBC, Same v Hat Trick Productions Ltd (1996) The Times, 26 July ............................................................................ 341, 345, 354 A-G v BBC [2001] EWHC Admin 1202 .......................................................................................350 Attorney General v Birmingham Post and Mall Ltd [1998] 4 All ER 49 ............................................................................................................................... 340, 347 Attorney General v Blake [2001] 1 AC 268 ...............................................................................611 Attorney General v English (Dr Arthur’s case) [1983] 1 AC 116; [1982] 2 All ER 903, HL .................................... 125, 351–55, 357–58, 360 Attorney General v Express [2005] EMLR 13............................................................................351 Attorney General v Guardian Newspapers Ltd (No 1) (Spycatcher litigation) [1987] 3 All ER 316; [1987] 1 WLR 1248, CA and HL ..................................................................................... 618, 619, 951 Attorney General v Guardian Newspapers (No 2) (Spycatcher litigation) [1990] 1 AC 109; [1990] 3 WLR 776; [1988] 3 All ER 545, HL ......................................................595, 597, 617–22, 810, 877, 887, 897, 900, 920 Attorney General v Guardian Newspapers (No 3) [1992] 1 WLR 874; [1992] 3 All ER 38, CA .................................. 350, 359, 388, 415 Attorney General v Guardian Newspapers [1999] EMLR 904 ...................................................................................................... 345, 347–48, 353–56 Attorney General v Guardian Newspapers [2001] EWCA Crim 1351 .................................................................................................................................. 388, 389 Attorney General v Hislop and Pressdram [1991] 1 QB 514; [1991] 1 All ER 911; [1991] 2 WLR 219, CA ............................. 338, 341, 342, 345, 350, 359, 368, 381 Attorney General v Independent TV News and Others [1995] 2 All ER 370 ................................................................................................. 342, 343, 353 Attorney General v Jonathan Cape [1976] QB 752..................................................................616 Attorney General v Jones and BBC (1995) (unreported) ......................................................341 Attorney General v Leveller Magazine Ltd [1979] AC 440; [1979] 2 WLR 247, HL...................................................................................................... 384, 390
xviii
Table of cases
Attorney General v MGN [1997] 1 All ER 456............................. 340, 342, 344, 353, 356 Attorney General v MGN (1997) EMLR 284 .............................................................................340 Attorney General v MGN [2002] EWHC 907 ............................................................................351 Attorney General v New Statesman [1981] QB I ........................................................... 405, 406 Attorney General v News Group Newspapers [1987] 1 QB 1; [1986] 2 All ER 833; [1986] 3 WLR 365, CA ........................... 332, 340, 342 Attorney General v News Group Newspapers plc [1989] QB 110; [1988] 3 WLR 163; [1988] 2 All ER 906......................... 363–66, 368, 395 Attorney General v News Group Newspapers (1999) (unreported)..........................................................................................................................................343 Attorney General v Newspaper Publishing plc (1990) The Times, 28 .....................................................................................................................................369 Attorney General v Newspaper Publishing plc (Spycatcher) [1988] Ch 333; [1987] 3 All ER 276; [1988] 3 WLR 942, CA ....................................................................................................................................... 124, 364 Attorney General v Newspaper Publishing plc (No 2) (Spycatcher) [1990] 1 AC 109; [1990] 3 WLR 776; [1988] 3 All ER 545, HL .................................................................................................. 381, 382 Attorney General v Newspaper Publishing plc and Others [1997] 3 All ER 159; (1997) The Times, 2 May, CA ...................................................369 Attorney General v Punch, 6 October 2000 (unreported), QB ...........................................371 Attorney General v Punch [2003] 1 AC 1046; [2003] 2 WLR 49; [2003] 1 All ER 289 .............................................................................. 365, 370–82 Attorney General v Scotcher [2005] 1 WLR 1867 .................................. 402, 403, 406, 408 Attorney General v Sport Newspapers Ltd [1991] 1 WLR 1194 ................................................................................................................................. 365, 366 Attorney General v Times Newspapers Ltd [1974] AC 273; [1973] 3 All ER 54; [1973] 3 WLR 298, HL ............ 335, 336, 339, 358, 395 Attorney General v Times Newspapers Ltd [1992] 1 AC 191; [1991] 2 All ER 398; [1991] 2 WLR 994, HL.............................. 329, 333, 363, 369, 370 Attorney General v Times Newspapers Ltd (Tomlinson case) (2001) EMLR 19.................................................................................................................... 623, 895 Attorney General v Times Newspapers Ltd and Others (1983) The Times, 12 February, DC ................................................................ 340, 346, 353, 358 Attorney General v TVS Television, Attorney General v HW Southey & Sons (1989) The Times, 7 July.................................................... 359, 360 Attorney General v Unger (1998) EMLR 280 ........................................... 342, 348, 353, 354 Attorney General ex rel McWhirter v IBA [1973] QB 629, CA ..................................................................................................................................................477 Attorney General for New South Wales v Trethowan [1932] AC 526 ...................................................................................................................................................155 Attorney General of Hong Kong v Lee Kwong-Kut [1993] AC 951 ...................................................................................................................................................273 Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 1999) [2001] 2 WLR 56, HL ........................................................................................................1077, 1290, 1291, 1324, 1325
Table of cases
xix
Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 2000) [2001] Crim LR 645 .................................................................................................................................... 1299 Attorney General’s Reference (No 4 of 2002) [2003] EWCA Crim 762; [2003] 3 WLR 1153; [2004] 1 All ER 1 .................................................................................................................1390, 1391, 1394, 1409, 1464 Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 2004) [2004] 1 WLR 211 ...............................................................................................................................................178 Attorney General’s Reference (No 4 of 2004) [2004] UKHL 43; [2005] 1 AC 264; [2005] 1 All ER 237........... 1337, 1354, 1355, 1356 Austin and Saxby v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis [2005] HRLR 20; [2005] EWHC 480 .................................. 125, 703, 722, 723, 763–71, 801, 1157, 1308 Austria v Italy (1961) Appl No 788/60 4 YB 112.................................................................. 1278 Autronic AG v Switzerland (1990) 12 EHRR 485...................................................................... 36 Averill v UK (2001) 31 EHRR 36; (2000) The Times, 20 June ................................................................................................... 65, 1209, 1211–15, 1221, 1234, 1240, 1277 Aydin v Turkey (1997) 25 EHRR 251 ............................................................................................... 47 Aziz v Trinity St Taxis [1988] WLR 79; [1988] 2 All ER 860, CA .............................................................................................................................. 1563–65 B (A Minor), Re, [1981] 1 WLR 1421, CA ................................................................................... 42 B v Chief Constable of Avon and Somerset Constabulary [2001] 1 WLR 340 ................................................................................................................ 790, 792 B v France (1992) 16 EHRR 1; (1992) 13 HIRLJ 358 ................................... 70, 85, 86, 95 B v UK (1983) 34 D & R 68; (1983) 6 EHRR 354 .................................................................. 81 BB v United Kingdom (2004) 39 EHRR 635 .............................................................................243 BBC Scotland v UK (1998) 25 EHRR CD 179 ...................................... 234, 324, 325, 326, 329, 331, 354, 355 Badek and Others v Landesanwalt bein Staatgerichtshof des Landes Hessen (Case C-158/97) [2000] All ER (EC) 289 ............................................................................................................................................. 1584 Badham [1987) Crim LR 202............................................................................................................ 1005 Baggs v UK (1987) 52 DR 29 ............................................................................................................... 90 Bailey v Williamson (1873) LR 8 QB 118 ...................................................................................678 Baldry v Director of Public Prosecutions of Mauritius [1983] 2 AC 297; [1982] 3 All ER 973 ...............................................................................396 Balfour v Foreign and Commonwealth Office [1994] 2 All ER 588 .......................................................................................................................... 1088, 1343 Barber and Others v NCR (Manufacturing) Ltd [1993] IRLR 95 .............................................................................................................................................. 1501 Barbéra, Messegué and Jabardo, Judgment of 6 December 1988, A 14 6(2) (1989)................................................................................. 64, 65, 1188, 1263 Barclay v UK (1999) Appl No 35712/97 ................................................................. 816, 826, 945 Barreto v Portugal [1996] 26 EHRR 214......................................................................................... 71
xx
Table of cases
Barrett v Enfield LBC [1999] 3 All ER 193 .................................................................................. 62 Barry v Midland Bank [1999] 1 WLR 1465 ............................................................................. 1543 Barrymore v NGN Ltd [1997] FSR 600 ................................. 881, 887, 902, 903, 910, 916 Barton v Investec [2003] ICR 1205 ............................................................................................... 1560 Bates v UK (Appl No 26280/95)..................................................................................................... 1351 Baynton v Saurus [1999] IRLR 604 .............................................................................................. 1549 Beales [1991] Crim LR 118 ............................................................................................................... 1272 Beatty v Gillbanks (1882) 9 QBD 308 691, 723, 772, 773, 778, 779 Beckles v UK (2002) 36 EHRR 162 .................................................................. 1246, 1249, 1327 Belgian Linguistic Case (No 2), Judgment of 23 July 1968, A 6; (1968) 1 EHRR 252............................................................................... 62, 70, 105 Belilos v Switzerland (1988) EHRR 466 .......................................................................................112 Bellinger v Bellinger [2001] EWCA Civ 1140; [2003] 2 AC 467 ..................................................................................................... 86, 179, 182, 185, 186 Benham v UK (1996) 22 EHRR 293 .........................................................789, 792, 1342, 1410 Bensaid v UK [2001] 33 EHRR 10 ............................................................................ 863, 961, 967 Bentham v UK, B 80 (1983) .................................................................................................................. 61 Benthem v Netherlands (1985) 8 EHRR 1 ...................................................................................... 63 Bentley v Brudzinski [1982] Crim LR 825; (1982) The Times, 3 and 11 March............................................................................................................... 1110 Benveniste v University of Southampton [1989] IRLR 122 ............................................. 1499 Berktay v Turkey (Application No 22493/93 March 1, 2001) ................................. 766, 769 Bernstein v Skyviews & General Ltd [1978] QB 479; [1977] 2 All ER 902 .......................................................................................................................994 Beycan [1990] Crim LR 185 ............................................................................................................. 1231 Bibby v Chief Constable of Essex (2000) The Times, 24 April ..................................................................................................................................................779 Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v Weber von Hartz [1986] IRLR 317; [1986] CMLR 701..........................................................................1498, 1501–03, 1540, 1541, 1547, 1549 Birch v Director of Public Prosecutions [2000] Crim LR 301............................................................................................................................................ 735–37 Birmingham City Council ex p EOC [1989] AC 1155; [1989] 1 All ER 769, HL ............................................................................................ 1527, 1537 Birse v HM Advocate (2000) (unreported) ................................................................................ 1009 Black v Director of Public Prosecutions (1995) (unreported) .......................................... 1116 Blackledge and Others (Ordtech) [1996] 1 Cr App R 326, CA.........................................370 Bladet-Tromsø v Norway (1999) 6 BHRC 599 ..........................................................................623 Blair v Associated Newspapers (Case no HQ0001236)............................................... 889, 894 Blake [1989] 1 WLR 432, CA .......................................................................................................... 1281 Blake [1991] All ER 481 ..................................................................................................................... 1272 Bonnard v Perryman [1891] 2 Ch 269, CA ..................................................................................368 Borowski v AG of Canada (1987) 39 DLR (4th) 731 ............................................................... 80 Botta v Italy (1998) 26 EHRR 241 ........................................................................................ 71, 1483 Bouamar v Belgium, Judgment of 29 February, A 129 (1988); [1988] 11 EHRR I............................................................................................................. 54
Table of cases
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R v Bowden (1999) The Times, 25 February.............................................................. 1245, 1249 Bowers v Hardwick [1986] 478 US 186 .......................................................................................... 82 Bowman v UK (1998) 25 EHRR 1 ..................................................................................................... 93 Boyle v Rice, Judgment of 27 April 1988, A 131 ....................................................................... 90 Bozano v France (1986) 9 EHRR 297....................................................................................... 55, 57 Brannigan and McBride v UK Series A 258-B (1993); (1993) 17 EHRR 539 and 594; (1993) The Times, 28 May..............................................................................................................37, 57, 111, 1168–70 Brennan v UK (2002) 34 EHRR 18 ........................................................... 1209–14, 1225, 1240 Brickley and Kitson v Police (1988) Legal Action, July .......................................................706 Bridges v California (1941) 314 US 252 .......................................................................................398 British Gas v Sharma [19911] ICR 19; [1991] IRLR 101 ................................................ 1588 British Steel Corporation v Granada Television [1981] AC 1096; [1981] 1 All ER 417, HL............................................................... 410, 419, 424, 916 Broadcasting Complaints Commission ex p Granada TV Ltd (1993) The Times, 31 May; affd [1995] EMLR 163; (1994) The Times, 16 December, CA .........................................................................839 Broadcasting Standards Commission ex p BBC [2000] 3 WLR 1327 ........................................................................................................... 818, 839, 848, 849 Brogan, Coyle, McFadden and Tracey v UK, Judgment of 29 November 1988, A 145; (1989) 11 EHRR 117 ...................... 37, 57, 111, 135, 1148, 1167–70 Brokdorf Case (1985) 69 BVerfGE 315............................................................................... 572, 665 Brown [1993] 2 WLR 556; [1993] 2 All ER 75, HL ................................................................ 83 Brown v Stott [2001] 2 WLR 817; [2001] 2 All ER 97, PC.................................................................................................................176, 184, 190, 261, 268, 271, 693, 1252, 1253, 1261, 1279, 1325 Brown v TNT Express Worldwide (UK) Ltd [2001] ICR 182............................................................................................................................................... 1563 Bruggemann and Scheuten v Federal Republic of Germany (1975) 10 DR 100 .............................................................................................................................. 89 Brutus v Cozens [1973] AC 854; [1972] 2 All ER 1297; [1972] 3 WLR 521; (1973) 57 Cr App R 538, HL ........................................................782 Bryan v UK (1995) 21 EHRR 342...................................................................................................... 63 Bryce [1992] 4 All ER 567; (1992) 95 Cr App R 230; (1992) 142 NLJ 1161, CA ........................................................................................................ 1297 Buchholz, Judgment of 6 May 1981, A 42 ..................................................................................... 63 Buckley v UK (1997) 23 EHRR 101 ................................................................................................. 89 Bugdaycay v Secretary of State for Home Affairs [1987] AC 514, HL .........................................................................................................................................129 Burden v Rigler [1911] 1 KB 337 .....................................................................................................680 Burden v UK (2006) App no 93378/05 ..........................................................................................203 Burton v UK (1996) 22 EHRR 135 CD ........................................................................................... 90 Burton and Another v De Vere Hotels [1996] IRLR 596; (1996) The Times, 3 October.......................................................... 1517, 1558, 1561, 1562
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C v UK (1989) 61 DR 285 ......................................................................................................... 324, 326 CRE ex p Westminster City Council [1984] IRLR 230, QBD ...................................................................................................................................................... 1535 Cable and Others v UK, Appl No 24436/94; (1999) The Times, 11 March........................................................................................................................ 63 Caesar-Gordon ex p University of Liverpool [1990] 3 All ER 821 ...........................................................................................................................................679 Calder (John) Publishing v Powell [1965] 1 QB 159; [1965] 1 All ER 159 .......................................................................................................................470 Calder and Boyars [1969] 1 QB 151; [1968] 3 WLR 974; [1968] 3 All ER 644; [1968] 52 Cr App R 706, CA .............................. 470, 471, 472 Cambridge Health Authority ex p B [1995] WLR 898; (1995) TLR 159, CA.......................................................................................................................131 Camelot Group Ltd v Centaur Communications [1998] EMLR 1; [1999] QB 124 ............................................................................... 272, 415–19, 450 Camenzind v Switzerland, RJD 1997-III 2880 .............................................................................. 72 Cameron v Network Rail [2006] EWHC 1133 QB ..................................................................218 Campbell v Frisbee [2002] EMLR 31 .............................................................................................957 Cambell v MGN [2004] 2 WLR 1232; [2004] 2 AC 457 ...........253–55, 297, 430, 431, 438, 449, 701, 826, 863–65, 851, 867, 875, 878, 882, 884, 888, 889, 893, 895, 911–15, 919, 920, 932–35, 938, 957–59, 963, 965, 968, 969, 970, 972, 976, 977, 979, 982, 991, 1180, 1181 Campbell v UK (1992) 15 EHRR 137 .............................................................................................. 91 Campbell and Cosans v UK, Judgment of 25 February 1982, A 48; (1982) 4 EHRR 293 ............................................................................ 47, 74, 105 Campbell and Fell v UK, Judgment of 28 June 1984, A 80; (1985) 7 EHRR 165 ............................................................................................... 61, 1400 Campbell and Hartley v United Kingdom (1990) 13 EHRR 157 ................................................................................................ 1152, 1143, 1160, 1164 Canale [1990] 91 Cr App R 1; [1990] All ER 187, CA ..................................................... 1276 Capon v DPP Case CO/3496/97 Judgment 4 March 1998, LEXIS transcript; [1998] Crim LR 870–75 ....................... 673, 740, 742, 743, 747, 748 Castells v Spain A 236; Judgment of 23 April 1992; (1992) 14 EHRR 445........................................................................................................................ 94 Castorina v Chief Constable of Surrey (1988) 138 NLJ 180, CA ....................................................................................................................................... 1151–56 Caunt (1947) 64 LQR 203 .....................................................................................................................487 Central Criminal Court ex p Crook [1995] 1 WLR 139; (1984) The Times, 8 November...................................................................................... 391, 971 Central Criminal Court ex p Francis and Francis [1989] AC 346; [1988] 3 All ER 375; [1988] 3 WLR 989, HL ............................ 1003, 1009
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Central Independent Television plc and Others, Re, [1991] 1 All ER 347; [1991] 1 WLR 242...........................................................................................387 Chahal v UK (1997) 23 EHRR 413 ............................................................ 49, 53, 55, 58, 1343, 1344, 1359, 1360, 1423, 1424, 1437, 1450, 1457 Chalkley and Jeffries [1998] 2 All ER 155; [1998] 3 WLR 146; [1998] 2 Cr App R 79, CA .......................................126, 1157, 1266, 1286, 1290, 1291, 1324 Chamberlain and Emezie v Emokpae; Webster v Brunel University 8 February 2004, (unreported) .......................................................... 1528, 1586 Chandler v Director of Public Prosecutions [1964] AC 763; [1962] 3 AII ER 142, HL.............................................................................................................594 Chapman v Director of Public Prosecutions (1988) Cr App R 190; [1988] Crim LR 843 ...................................................................................... 1154, 1155 Chappel v UK (1990) 12 EHRR 1; No 1258/86 (1987); (1988) 10 EHRR 510....................................................................................... 90, 687, 688, 725 Chappell & Co Ltd v Columbia Gramophone Co [1914] 2 Ch 745 ................................................................................................................................................874 Chassagnou v France (1999) 7 BHRC 151, Judgment of 29 April 1999; (2000) 29 EHRR 615 .............................................................. 230, 435, 737 Cheall v UK (1985) 8 EHRR 74 .......................................................................................................... 97 Chief Constable for Devon and Cornwall ex p CEGB [1982] QB 458 ...................................................................................................................................753 Chief Constable of Avon ex p Robinson [1989] All ER 15; [1989] 1 WLR 793 ............................................................................................................... 1223 Chief Constable of Kent Constabulary ex p Kent Police Federation Joint Branch Board and Another (1999) The Times, 1 December ............................................................................................................. 1164 Chief Constable of Lancashire ex p Parker and McGrath [1993] 2 WLR 428; [1993] 1 All ER 56;(1992)142 NLJ 635 999, 1001, 1002 Chief Constable of North Wales Police ex p Thorpe [1999] QB 396 ........................................................................................................................................ 917, 970 Chief Constable of Sussex ex p International Ferry Traders Ltd [1999] 2 AC 418; [1999] 1 All ER 129 ................................................ 273, 692, 748 Chief Constable of West Midlands Police ex p Wiley, Chief Constable of Nottinghamshire Police ex p Sunderland [1995] 1 AC 274; [1994] 3 All ER 420; (1995) 1 Cr App R 342, HL .................................................................................................... 1320 Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police ex p Khan (2001) The Times, 16 October, HL; [2000] IRLR 324; [2000] ICR 1169, CA.................................................................................................................... 1563, 1565 Chief Metropolitan Magistrates’ Court ex p Choudhury [1991] 1 QB 429; [1991] 1 All ER 306 ................................... 137, 486, 487, 492, 493 Chorherr v Austria A 266-B (1993) ..................................................................... 69, 97, 321, 681, 686, 697, 759
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Christian Lawyers Assoc of South Africa v The Minister of Health 1998 (11) BCLR 1434 ............................................................................................... 80 Christians Against Racism and Fascism v UK (1984) 24 YB ECHR 178; No 8440/78; 21 DR 138 ................................................. 97, 709, 729 Christie v UK (1993) No 21482 / 93, 78-A DR E Com HR 119 ...................................................................................................... 1026, 1027, 1029, 1043, 1044, 1046, 1061, 1074, 1089 Christou [1992] QB 979; [1992] 4 All ER 559, CA............................................... 1296, 1297 Clarke v General Accident Fire and Life Assurance Corp plc [1998] 1 WLR 1647 ...................................................................................................174 Clarke v Eley IMI Kynoch Ltd [1983] ICR 703 ..................................................................... 1540 Clegg [1995] 2 WLR 80............................................................................................................................ 45 Clerkenwell Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex p The Telegraph and Others [1993] 2 All ER 183; (1992) The Times, 22 October ...................................................................................................386 Clymo v Wandsworth LBC [1989] ICR 250 ............................................................................. 1544 Coco v AN Clark (Engineers) Ltd [1969] RPC 41 ....................... 877, 882, 899, 901, 920 Coffin v Smith (1980) Cr App R 221 ........................................................................................... 1110 Cohen v California (1971) 403 US 15 ................................................................................. 307, 491 Colloza v Italy, Judgment of 12 February 1985, A 89; (1985) 7 EHRR 516 .......................................................................................................................... 64 Commission v France (Case 318/86); [1989] 3 CMLR 663; [1988] ECR 3559 .............................................................................................. 1579–81, 1583–85 Condron v UK [2001] 31 EHRR 1, Appl No 35718/97; [2000] Crim LR 679; Judgment of 2 May ............................................. 189, 1246, 1247, 1249, 1325 Condron and Another [1997] 1 Cr App R 185; (1997) 161 JP 1; (1996) The Times, 4 November, CA ............................................... 1244, 1245 Conegate Ltd v Customs and Excise Commissioners [1987] QB 254; [1986] 2 All ER 688 ...................................................................................479 Confait Case Report of the Inquiry by the Hon Sir Henry Fisher, HC 90 (1977-78) ................................................................................. 1103, 1230, 1267 Connors v UK [2006] 40 EHRR 189 ...............................................................................................197 Constantine v Imperial Hotels [1944] KB 693......................................................................... 1507 Corelli v Wall (1906) 22 TLR 532 ....................................................................................................873 Cosgrove v Caesar and Howie [2001] IRLR 653 ................................................................... 1548 Cossey v UK, Judgment of 27 September 1990, A 184; (1990) 13 EHRR 622.................................................................................... 38, 39, 85, 95, 103 Costello-Roberts v UK, Judgment of 25 March 1993, A 247-C; (1993) 19 EHRR 112; (1993) The Times, 26 March .................................................................................................................................47, 75, 76 Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for Civil Service (GCHQ) [1985] AC 374; [1985] 3 WLR 1174; [1984] 3 All ER 935, HL .................................................................................................................. 100, 127 Council of Civil Service Unions v UK (1987) No 11603/85, 50 DR 228; (1988) 10 EHRR 269 ................................................................................. 37, 101
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Cox [1993] Crim LR 382 .................................................................................................................... 1196 Coyne v UK, Judgment of 24 October 1997; RJD 1997-V 1842 .......................................................................................................................................... 63 CRE ex p Prestige Group plc [1984] 1 WLR 335; [1984] ICR 473 ....................................................................................................................... 1594–98 CRE v Dutton [1989] WLR 17; [1989] 1 All ER 306, CA .............................................. 1508 Cream Holdings Ltd and others v Banerjee [2004] 3 WLR 918 ............................................................................................................ 355, 378, 379, 622, 957, 988–91 Creation Records Ltd v News Group Newspapers Ltd [1997] EMLR 444 ............................................................................................................................900 Crémieux v France (1993) 16 EHRR 357 ....................................................................................... 91 Crown Court at Snaresbrook ex p Director of Public Prosecutions [1988] QB 532; [1988] 1 All ER 315 .................................................... 1003 Culnane v Morris [2006] 2 All ER 149 ..........................................................................................183 Cumming v Chief Constable of Northumbria Police [2003] EWCA Civ 1844 .............................................................................................. 1152, 1153 Cyprus v Turkey (1976) 4 EHRR 482 ............................................................................................... 89 D v UK (1998) 24 EHRR 423 .................................................................................................... 46, 194 Daily Express Case (1981) The Times, 19 December .............................................................359 Dallison v Caffrey [1965] 1 QB 348; [1964] 3 WLR 385, CA ............................................................................................................................................... 1151 Darbo v Director of Public Prosecutions [1992] Crim LR 56; (1992) The Times, 4 July .............................................................................................475 Dattani v Chief Constable of West Mercia Police (2005), (unreported)....................................................................................................................................... 1536 Davis, Rowe and Johnson [1993] 1 WLR 613 ......................................................................... 1076 Dawkins v Department of Environment [1993] ICR 517 ................................................... 1508 de Freitas v Permanent Secretary of Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Lands and Housing [1999] 1 AC 69.............................. 286, 287, 289, 406, 407, 414, 416, 430, 434, 439, 449 De Geouffre de la Pradelle v France (1993) HRLJ 276 ........................................................106 De Haes and Gijsels v Belgium (1997) 25 EHRR 1 ................................................................. 64 De Jong, Baljet and Van de Brink, Judgment of 22 May 1984, A 77; (1984) 8 EHRR 20.................................................................................................. 59 De Souza v Automobile Association [1986] ICR 514............................................ 1557, 1569 De Vargattirgah v France (1981) Appl 9559/81 ............................................................................ 30 De Wilde, Ooms and Versyp v Belgium (1971) EHRR 373.................................................. 91 Dekker v VJV Centrum [1991] IRLR 27; [1990] ECR I-3941 ......................... 1530, 1532 Dehal v Crown Prosecution Service [2005] EWHC 2154 ............................ 506, 507, 736, 745, 783, 785, 797 Delaney (1989) 88 Cr App R 338; (1988) The Times, 20 August, CA ...................................................................................................... 1274, 1275, 1286 Derbyshire v St Helen’s Metropolitan BC [2006] ICR 90 ................................................. 1566
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Derbyshire County Council v Times Newspapers [1992] 3 All ER 65, CA; [1993] AC 534; [1993] 1 All ER 1011; [1992] 3 WLR 28, HL........................................125, 126, 128, 130, 137, 152, 203, 303 Director of Public Prosecutions ex p Kebilene and Others [1999] 4 All ER 801; [1999] 3 WLR 372, HL.............................. 178, 204, 265, 271, 272, 273, 280, 690, 691, 693, 695, 817, 829, 830, 957, 1260, 1337, 1347–53, 1369, 1405, 1413, 1464 Director of Public Prosecutions ex p Treadaway (1997) The Times, 18 November ............................................................................... 1180, 1305, 1316 Director of Public Prosecutions v A and BC Chewing Gum Ltd [1968] 1 QB 159..........................................................................................................472 Director of Public Prosecutions v Bayer [2003] EWHC 2567 (Admin); 167 JP 666; [2003] All ER (D) 28 (Nov), High Court ............................................................................................................................744 Director of Public Prosecutions v Billington [1988] All ER 435; (1988) Cr App R 68.................................................................................................. 1280 Director of Public Prosecutions v Blake [1989] 1 WLR 432, CA .................................................................................................................... 1108, 1172, 1281 Director of Public Prosecutions v Capon: see Capon v DPP Director of Public Prosecutions v Channel Four Television Co Ltd and Another [1993] 2 All ER 517; (1992) The Times, 14 September ....................................................................................... 443, 445, 446 Director of Public Prosecutions v Clarke [1992] Crim LR 60 ..................................................................................................................... 784, 788, 789, 796 Director of Public Prosecutions v Fidler [1992] 1 WLR 91 ..................................... 782, 783 Director of Public Prosecutions v Hawkins [1988] 1 WLR 1166; [1988] 3 All ER 673......................................................................................... 1159, 1160 Director of Public Prosecutions v Jones and Lloyd [1997] 2 All ER 119, DC; [1999] 2 WLR 625; [1999] 2 All ER 257; [1999] AC 240, HL ............................................................126, 692, 700, 711–21, 725, 730, 745 Director of Public Prosecutions v Jones [2002] EWHC 110 .............. 723, 726, 727, 735 Director of Public Prosecutions v Jordan [1977] AC 699, HL ...........................................473 DPP v Meaden [2003] EWHC 3005 (Admin); [2004] 1 WLR 945 ...............................................................................................................................................724 Director of Public Prosecutions v Morgan [1976] AC 182........................................ 869, 870 Director of Public Prosecutions v Moseley, Woodling and Selvanayagam, Judgment of 9 June 1999; The Times 23 June 1999; [1999] J Civ Lib 390 ................................................................ 126, 793, 795 Director of Public Prosecutions v Orum [1988] 3 All ER 449 ..........................................782 Director of Public Prosecutions v Rouse; Same v Davis (1992) Cr App R ............................................................................................................................ 1108 Director of Public Prosecutions v Whyte [1972] AC 849; [1972] 3 All ER 12, HL ..................................................................................................... 470, 471
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Director of the Serious Fraud Office ex p Smith [1993] AC 1; [1992] 3 WLR 66............................................................................................................ 1250 Djeroud v France (1991) A 191-B ....................................................................................................... 89 Doe v Bolton (1973) 410 US 179; (1973) 35 L E 2d 201 ..................................................... 76 Donelly v Jackman (1970) Cr App R 229; [1970] 1 WLR 562 ..................................... 1110 Dornan v Belfast County Council [1990] IRLR 179 .............................................. 1528, 1536 Douglas (Michael, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Northern and Shell plc) v Hello! Ltd [2001] 2 WLR 992; [2001] 2 All ER 289; [2001] QB 967, CA ............................................252, 254, 366, 378, 431, 701, 838, 867, 875, 882, 883, 890, 902–12, 970, 983, 985, 986, 987, 1180, 1181 Douglas v Hello! Ltd (No 3) [2005] EWCA 595.......................... 826, 894, 911, 982, 983 Driskel v Peninsula Business Services Ltd [2000] IRLR 151 ........................................................................................................................................... 1561 Dudgeon v UK, Judgment of 22 October 1981, A 45; (1982) 4 EHRR 149 ........................................................................................70, 72, 76, 81, 82, 98, 746, 803, 976, 1571 Duncan v Jones [1936] 1 KB 218........................................................................................... 663, 772 Dunn (1990) 91 Cr App R 237; [1990] Crim LR 572, CA .............................................. 1285 Durant v Financial Services Authority [2003] EWCA Civ 1746; [2004] FSR 28 ......................................................................................................................927 Ex p United States Tobacco [1992] 1 QB 353 ............................................................................131 East African Asians cases (1973) 3 EHRR 76 ...................................................25, 48, 98, 108 Eckle A 51; (1982) 5 EHRR 1............................................................................................................... 60 Editor of New Statesman (1928) 44 TLR 301....................................................... 394, 396, 397 Edward Fennelly [1989] Crim LR 142 .............................................................. 1138, 1288, 1289 Edwards v Director of Public Prosecutions (1993) 97 Cr App R 301; (1993) The Times, 29 March ......................................................... 1144–46 Edwards v UK (1992) 15 EHRR 417; (1993) The Times, 21 January............................................................................................................................................... 64 Effick (1992) 95 Cr App R 427; (1992) 142 MU 492, CA; [1994] 3 WLR 583; (1994) 99 Cr App R 312, HL ..................................................... 1050 Ekbatani v Sweden (1988) 13 EHRR 504 ....................................................................................... 64 Elias v Secretary of State for Defence (2005), (unreported) ............................................ 1578 Ellen Street Estates Ltd v Minister of Health [1934] 1 KB 590, CA ..................................................................................................................................................155 Elliniki Rasdio Phonia Tiles Rassi AE v Dimotiki Etaria (1991) ECR 1-2925 .............................................................................................................. 139, 140 Elsholz v Germany [2000] 2 FLR 486 ............................................................................................944 Empower Scotland Ltd v Khan (2005), (unreported)............................................................ 1561 Enderby v Frenchay [1994] 1 All ER 495; [1993] ECR 1-5535, ECJ; [1992] IRLR 15, CA and ECJ ......................... 1499, 1501, 1503, 1541 Engel v The Netherlands (No 1) (1976) 1 EHRR 647 ................................................ 790, 792 Ensslin, Bader and Raspe v Germany (1978) 14 DR 64 ......................................................... 48 Entinck v Carrington (1765) 19 St Tr 1029..................................................................................124
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Erikson v Italy, Appl 37900 / 97; 26 October 1999 ................................................................... 42 Esbester v UK (1993) 18 EHRR CD 72 .......................................................... 1026, 1027, 1029 Ezelin v France (1991) A 202-A; (1991) 14 EHRR 362 .................................. 39, 662, 680, 683, 688, 696, 723–26, 730, 736, 737, 746–48 Fairnie (Decd) and Others v Reed and Another (1994) 20 May, Transcript from LEXIS, CA .......................................................................... 896, 899 Falkirk Council v Whyte [1997] IRLR 560 ............................................................................... 1541 Farah v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1997] 1 All ER 289, CA .......................................................................................................................... 1509 Fanell v Secretary of State for Defence [1980] 1 All ER 166, HL ..................................................................................................................................................791 Fayed v UK (1994) 18 EHRR 393 .............................................................................................. 61, 62 Federal Communications Commission v Pacifica Foundation (1978) 438 US 726 ..........................................................................................................................510 Fell [1963] Crim LR 207 ........................................................................................................................593 Fenelley [1989] Crim LR 142 ............................................................................................. 1288, 1289 Fernandez v Government of Singapore [1971] 2 All ER 691 .............................................936 Fey v Austria (1993) 16 EHRR 387 ................................................................................................... 63 Findlay v UK (1997) 24 EHRR 221 ................................................................................................... 63 Fitzpatrick v Sterling Housing Association [1998] 2 WLR 225, CA; [1999] 3 WLR 1113, HL...................................................................................... 1525 Forbes [2001] 2 WLR 1; [2001] Crim LR 649 ............................................. 1288, 1303, 1324 Foulkes v Chief Constable Merseyside Police [1998] 3 All ER 705 ...........................................................................................................................................755 Fox, Campbell and Hartley v UK, Judgment of 30 August 1990, A 178; (1990) 13 EHRR 157............................................. 54, 56, 765, 769, 1153, 1160, 1161 Francis (1992) LEXIS CO/1434/91 ................................................................................................ 1115 Francome v Mirror Group Newspapers Ltd [1984] 1 WLR 892; [1984] 2 All ER 408 ................................................................ 311, 811, 898–900, 904, 909, 910, 915, 918, 984 Francovich v Italy [1992] 21 IRLR 84; [1991] ECR 1-5357; [1995] ICR 722 ................................................................................................................937 Fraser v Evans [1969] 1 QB 349 ........................................................................................................917 Fressoz and Roire v France (2001) EHRR 2................................................................................427 Friedl v Austria, No 15225 / 89; A 305B; (1995) 21 EHRR 83 ................................................................................................................................................. 97 R v Friend [1997] 1 WLR 1433; [1997] 2 All ER 1012 .................................................... 1239 Fulling [1987] QB 426; [1987] 2 WLR 923; [1987] 2 All ER 65, CA ................................................................................................................................ 1271 Funke v France (1993) 16 EHRR 297 ...............................................................................65, 72, 91 G v Director of Public Prosecutions [1989] Crim LR 150 ................................................ 1146 G v Federal Republic of Germany No 13079/87(1980) 21 DR 138 ................................................................................................................................. 683, 747
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G, H and I v UK 15 EHRR CD 41 ................................................................................. 1025, 1028 Gall (1990) 9O Cr App R 64,CA .................................................................................................... 1289 Garyfallou AEBE v Greece (1999) 28 EHRR 344 ..................................................................... 61 Gaskin v UK (1990) 12 EHRR 36 ....................................................................... 73, 94, 135, 626, 803, 924–25 Gay News v UK (1982) 5 EHRR 123 .......................................................... 310, 467, 485, 487, 488, 496, 942, 966 Geillustreerde de Pers NV v the Netherlands [1977] D & R 8..........................................109 Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2002] 4 All ER 1162; [2003] 2 WLR 478; [2004] 3 WLR 113; [2004] 2 AC 557 (HL)................................................................................................................174, 180, 184–87, 190, 200, 214, 281, 286, 297, 729, 1525, 1526 Gibson [1990] 2 QB 619; [1991] 1 All ER 439; [1990] 3 WLR 595, CA ............................................................................................. 474, 477, 482, 483, 568, 587 Gill v Hearst Publishing Co 253 P 2d 441 (Cal 1953)...........................................................821 Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbeach Area Health Authority [1986] AC 112; [1985] 3 WLR 830, HL ...................... 259, 557, 960, 961 Gillingham Borough Council v Medway Dock Co [1992] 3 All ER 931 .......................................................................................................................................798 Gladstone Williams (1983) Cr App R 276 ................................................................................. 1111 Glasenapp v Federal Republic of Germany (1986) 9 EHRR 25 ......................................................................................................................................... 93, 97 Glasgow CC v Zafar [1998] ICR 120 ............................................................................. 1527, 1538 Glimmerveen and Hagenbeek v Netherlands (1979) 18 DR 187 ...................................................................................................................................................500 Goldberg [1988] Crim LR 678 ............................................................................................................127 Golder v UK Judgment of 21 February 1975, A 18 .......................................37, 62, 66, 135 Goldsmith and Another v Bhoyrul and Others [1997] 4 All ER 268;(1997) The Times, 20 June ................................................................................126 Goodwin v UK (1994) No 17488/90 Com Rep; (1996) 22 EHRR 123, (1994) The Guardian, 26 May .............................. 126, 272, 286, 287, 289, 379, 399, 407, 408, 413–19, 421, 424, 425, 427–32, 435–37, 439, 440, 445, 446 Goodwin v UK [2002] ECHR 583 .............................................................................................85, 86, Goswell v Commissioner of Metropolitan Police (1996) The Guardian, 27 April............................................................................................................... 1305 Gough v Chief Constable of the Derbyshire Constabulary [2002] QB 459 ...................................................................................................................................791 Govell v UK (1997) 4 EHRLR 438 ............................................................................................... 1069 Graham-Kerr [198811 WLR 1098; 88 Cr App R 302, CA ....................................... 478, 557 Graham Waddon (1999) Southwark Crown Court, 30 June; appeal dismissed 6 April 2000 ......................................................................................583
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Granger v UK, Judgment of 28 March 1990, A 174 ................................................................. 62 Grant v South West Trains Ltd (Case 249/96) [1998] IRLR 206................................... 1516 Gray [1900] 2 QB 36; (1900) 69 LJ QB 502 ..............................................................................396 Greek Case (1969) Report of 5 November; (1969) 12 YB 1 ....... 46, 75, 76, 111, 1175 Greene v Home Secretary [1942] AC 284 .................................................................................. 1305 Gregory v UK (1997) 25 EHRR 577 ...............................................................................................406 Griggs v Duke Power Company 401 US 424 (1971)............................................................ 1489 Griswold v Connecticut (1965) 381 US 479 ................................................................................624 Guerra v Baptiste (1995) The Times, 8 November ...................................................................151 Guerra v Italy (1998) 26 EHRR 357 ..................................................................................42, 71, 90 Guildford Four Case, Final Report, 1993-94 HC 449 ............................................ 1103, 1171 Guildhall Magistrates’ Court ex p Primlacks Holdings Co (Panama) Ltd [1989] 2 WLR 841 ...................................................................... 441, 1003 Gul v Switzerland (1996) 22 EHRR 93 ............................................................................................ 70 Gulec v Turkey (1999) 28 EHRR 121 ............................................................................................... 43 Gustaffson v Sweden (1996) 22 EHRR 409 ................................................................................... 98 Guzzardi v Italy (1980) 3 EHRR 333 .............................................. 55, 765, 769, 1120, 1131, 1132, 1451, 1452 H v Norway (1992) 17004/90 (1992) 73 DR 155 ............................................................... 43, 80 H v UK (Appl No l5023/89).............................................................................................................. 1350 H, re, [1998] AC 72 ...................................................................................................................................192 HL v UK (Application No 45508/99) ..............................................................................................763 H, W, P and K v Austria (1989) 62 DR 216 ................................................................................665 HRH Prince of Wales v Associated Newspapers Ltd [2006] EWCA Civ 1776, [2006] All ER (D) 335........................................ 827, 878, 881, 882, 883, 893, 894, 970, 977–79, 981, 991 HRH Princess of Wales v MGN Newspapers Ltd and Others (1993) 8 November (unreported) ...............................................883–85, 891, 892, 898–901, 909, 910, 920, 1069 H v UK 33 D & R 247 (1983) .............................................................................................................. 30 Haase (1977) Report of 12 July; DR 11(1978)............................................................................. 63 Habermann-Beltermann [1994] ECR 1-1657 ............................................................................ 1531 Hadjianastassiou v Greece (1992) 16 EHRR 219 ........................................................................ 64 Hagan (1987) The Times, 20 May 968 Hague v Committee for Industrial Organisation 307 US 496 (1938) ............................................................................................................................................661 Halford v UK [1997) IRLR 471; (1997) 24 EHRR 523; (1997) The Times, 3 July ....................................................................775, 1034, 1038, 1042, 1043, 1055, 1074, 1083, 108 Hamer v UK (1979) Report of 13 December; 24 DR 5 ........................................................103 Hampson v Department of Education and Science [1991] 1 AC 171; [1990] 2 All ER 513, HL .................................................................... 1540, 1547 Hancock and Shankland [1986] AC 455; [1986] 1 All ER 641; [1986] 3 WLR 1014, HL ..........................................................................................363
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Handels-og Kontorfunktionaeremes Forbund i Danmark v Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening (the Danfoss case) (Case 109/88) [1989] ECR 3199; [1989] IRLR 532 .................................... 1501, 1502 Handyside v UK, Judgment of 7 December 1976, A 24; (1976) 1 EHRR 737 ............................................................................... 14, 36, 37, 69, 81, 94, 278, 310, 451, 464, 465, 467, 485, 532, 542, 543, 568, 588, 677, 729, 780, 942, 966 Hansen v Turkey (2004) 1 FLR 142, App no 36141/97.........................................................945 Harman and Hewitt v UK Appl 1211 75/86; (1992) 14 EHRR 657 .................................................................................................... 74, 1010, 1025, 1026, 1027, 1029, 1069, 1089 Harman and Hewitt v UK (no 2) Appl No 20317/92 (1993) (unreported) ............... 1026 Harman v UK (1982) Appl 10038 / 82; (1984) Decision of 11 May; [1984] 38 DR 53 ....................................................................................................... 67 Harris v Harris [2001] 2 FLR 895.....................................................................................................962 Harris v Minister of the Interior (1952) (2) SA 428................................................................155 Harrison v Duke of Rutland [1893] 1 QB 142 ................................................................ 714, 717 Harrow London Borough Council v Qazi [2004] 1 AC 983 ...............................................197 Harvey [1988] Crim LR 241.............................................................................................................. 1273 Hashman and Harrup v UK (1996) 22 EHRR CD 184; (1999) 30 EHRR 241; (2000) 8 BHRC 104 ................................... 480, 668, 680, 683, 684, 686, 689, 691, 746, 751, 752, 759, 775, 777 Hautanemi v Sweden (1996) 22 EHRR CD 156........................................................................220 Hayes v Malleable WMC [1985] ICR 703 ................................................................................. 1530 Hayward v Cammell Laird [1988] 2 All ER 257, HL .............................. 1496, 1497, 1503 Heinz v Kendrick [2000] IRLR 141 .............................................................................................. 1549 Hellewell v Chief Constable of Derbyshire [1995] 1 WLR 804; [1995] 4 All ER 473 .................................................. 811, 811, 878, 888, 884, 898–901, 904, 915, 916, 984, 1078 Hendrickson and Tichner [1977] Crim LR 356 ..........................................................................707 Herbage v The Times Newspapers and Others (1981) The Times, 1 May.............................................................................................................................873 Herczegfalvy v Austria A 244; (1992) 14 HRLJ 84; (1993) 15 EHRR 437........................................................................................................................ 91 Hereford and Worcester County Council v Clayton [1996] ICR 514 ............................................................................................................................... 1557 Hicklin (1868) 3 QB 360 ............................................................................................................. 469, 471 Hickman v Maisey [1900] 1 QB 752 ................................................... 711, 714, 716, 717, 994 Hills v Ellis [1983] QB 680; [1983] 1 All ER 667 ................................................. 1110, 1111 Hilton v UK No 5613/72, 4 DR 177 (1976) .................................................................................. 98 Hirst and Agu v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire (1987) 85 Cr App R 143............................................................................................ 679, 734–36 Hoare v UK [1997] EHRLR 678............................................................................................. 466, 569 Hoffman v Austria (1993) 17 EHRR 293 ........................................................................................ 70
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Hokkanen v Finland (1994) 19 EHRLR 139 ............................................................... 70, 71 945 Holden (Amanda) v The Star (2001) (unreported) see (2001) The Guardian, 2 July; (2001) The Observer, 15 July ....................................................................................................................................................838 Holgate-Mohammed v Duke [1984] 1 AC 437; [1984] 1 All ER 1054, HL.............................................................................................................. 1156, 1305 Hollandia, The [1983] 1 AC 565 ........................................................................................................152 Holmes v Bournemouth Crown Court (1993) (unreported) ...................................... 772, 777 Holy Monasteries v Greece (1995) 20 EHRR 1 .........................................................................220 Hood v UK (2000) 29 EHRR 365, Judgment of 25 February 1997 ....................................................................................................................................... 63 Horseferry Road Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex p Siadatan [1991] 1 QB 260; [1991] 1 All ER 324; [1990] 3 WLR 1006 .................................................................................................. 786, 787 Horsham Justices ex p Farquharson [1982] 2 WLR 430; [198212 All ER 269, CA ................................................................................................... 385, 386 Howard v UK (1987) 52 DR 198 ......................................................................................................... 90 Howell [1982] 1 QB 416; [1981] 3 All ER 383, CA; [1981] 1 WLR 1468, HL ...................................................................................... 752, 753, 769, 780, 1141 Hubbard v Pitt [1976] QB 142; [1975] 3 All ER 1.......................................... 677, 691, 719, 798, 799 Huber v Austria (1973) Report of 8 February DR 2 (1935) ........................................................................................................................................................ 91 Huber v Austria (1974) Appl 6821/74; 6 DR 65(1977) ........................................................... 59 Huddersfield (University of) v Wolff [2004] ICR 828 ......................................................... 1528 Hughes [1988] Crim LR 519, CA.......................................................... 1222, 1223, 1271, 1279 Hughes v Holley (1988) 86 Cr App R 130 ...................................................................................751 Hulbert (1999) (unreported)...................................................................................................................397 Humphries v Connor (1864) 17 ICLR 1 ............................................................................. 755, 760 Hunter v Canary Wharf [1997] AC 655..........................................................................................994 Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd and Another v Curtin and (1997) The Times, 11 December; (1998) 3(1) J Civ Lib 37 ..................................... 793, 794 Hurtado v Switzerland A 280-A (1994) Com Rep......................................................... 75, 1175 Hussain and Singh v UK (1996) 21 EHRR 1................................................................................ 58 Hussein v Chong Fook Kam [1970] AC 942 ............................................................................ 1153 Hutchinson (1954) (unreported) ..........................................................................................................469 Huvig v France (1990) 12 EHRR 547 .......................................................................................... 1026 Ibrahim [1914] AC 599 ......................................................................................................................... 1273 Igen v Wong [2005] ICR 931 ................................................................... 1528, 1536, 1586, 1587 Ignaccolo-Zenide v Romania (2000) Reports of judgments and decisions 2000-I .......................................................................................................................945 Imbrioscia v Switzerland (1993) 17 EHRR 441; A 275 (1993) ................................................................................................................................................... 1210 Incal v Turkey (1999) 29 EHRR 449 ................................................................. 1355, 1395, 1413
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Inquiry under the Companies Security (Insider Dealing) Act 1985, Re, [1988] 1 All ER 203 .......................................................................................411 Interbrew SA v Financial Times Ltd [2002] EMLR 24...........................419–22, 426, 429, 430, 434–39, 449 International Transport Roth GmbH v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] 3 WLR 344 ...................................................... 184, 281 Ireland v UK (1978) 2 EHRR 25 ........................................................................... 46, 47, 98, 1432 Isequilla [1975] All ER 77 .................................................................................................................. 1267 Isgro v Italy (1991) Case 1/1990/192/252; [1993] Crim LR 261...................................................................................................................................................... 66 Ismet Ala v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] EWHC 521 ...........................................................................................................................276 JS v UK App1 No 191173/91, 3 January 1993 ............................................................................ 71 James and Others v UK (1986), A 98; (1986) 8 EHRR 123 ..............................................104 James v Eastleigh Borough Council [1990] AC 751; [1990] 2 All ER 607, HL ..............................................................................1527, 1534, 1537, 1538, 1548 Jenkins v Kinsgate [1981] IRLR 388 ............................................................................................ 1498 Jepson and Dyas-Elliott v The Labour Party [1996] IRLR 116 ........................................................................................................................................... 1574 Jersild v Denmark (1992) 14 HRLJ 74; (1994) 19 EHRR 1......................................................................................................... 90, 93 310, 312, 500, 501, 515, 532, 533, 942, 947, 966 JM v UK (2001) 2 EHRLR 215 .........................................................................................................187 Jockey Club ex p RAM Racecourses Ltd [1993] 2 All ER 225....................................................................................................................................................233 Johansen v Norway (1996) 23 EHRR 33 .......................................................................................945 John v Express Newspapers (2000) The Times 26 April ...................... 417, 418, 429, 450 Johnson v HM Prison Service and Others (1996) The Times 31 December .................................................................................................................................... 1589 Johnson v UK (1997) 27 EHRR 296 ............................................................................................ 1309 Johnson v Whitehouse [1984] RTR 38 ......................................................................................... 1511 Johnston v Chief Constable of the RUC (Case 222/84) [1986] ECR 1651 ...........................................................................................108, 1579, 1581–85 Johnstone v Ireland, Judgment of 18 December 1986, A 112; (1987) 9 EHRR 203........................................................................................................103 Jones and Lloyd v DPP see Director of Public Prosecutions v Jones and Lloyd Jones v Chief Adjudication Officer (1990) EOR 1991 ........................................................ 1542 Jones v Post Office [2001] IRLR 384; [2001] ICR 805 ..................................................... 1549 Jordan v Burgoyne [1963] 2 QB 744; [1963] 2 All ER 225 .................................... 772, 783 Jordan, Kelly, Arthurs, Donnelly and Others v UK (2001) The Times 18 May .................................................................................................................. 40, 207 Joseph [1993] Crim LR 206, CA .................................................................................................... 1280
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Judith Miller, Petitioner v US and M Cooper and Time inc, Petitioners v US, Supreme Court (2005) No 04–1508 ........................................409 Julie Bower v Cheapside (SSL) Ltd (formerly Schroder Securities Ltd) ET (2002), (unreported) ............................................................................ 1590 K, F and P v UK (1984) 40 DR 298 ................................................................................................. 30 Kalanke v Freie Hansestadt Bremen (Case 450/93) [1995] IRLR 660......................................................................................... 1579, 1580, 1583–85 Kamasinski (1988) Report of 5 May; (1991) 13 EHRR 36 ................................................... 65 Katz v US (1967) 389 US 347 ......................................................................................................... 1071 Kay v Lambeth London Borough Council [2006] UKHL 10 ................................ 195, 197, 248, 267, 883 Kay v UK (1998) 40 BMLR 2O........................................................................................................... 55 Kaye v Robertson and Another [1991] FSR 62; (1991) The Times, 21 March, CA ............................................................................832, 868, 873–77, 910, 955 Keenan [1990] 2 QB 54; [1989] 3 WLR 1193; [1989] 3 All ER 598, CA .............................................................................................................................. 1280 Kelly v BBC [2000] 3 FCR 509; [2001] 1 All ER 323; [2001] 2 WLR 253; [2001] Fam 59..................................................... 858, 860, 864, 952, 960, 968, 973 Kelly v Chief Constable of Hampshire (1993) The Independent, 25 March .................................................................................................................................... 772, 779 Kelly v UK (1990) Appl 17579/90; (1993) 16 EHRR CD 20; [1993] 74 D & R ........................................................................................................43, 44, 45 Kent v Metropolitan Police Commissioner (1981) The Times, 15 May................................................................................................................... 288, 693, 708, 721 Khan [1993] Crim LR 54, CA .......................................................................................................... 1279 Khan (Sultan) [1995] QB 27, CA; [1997] AC 558; [1996] 3 All ER 289; [1996] 3 WLR 162; (1996) 146 NLJ 1024, HL .................................................................................................................. 126, 1056, 1077, 1289, 1324 Khan v UK (1999) 27 EHRR CD 58; (2000) 8 BFRC 310 .................1055, 1056, 1074, 1089, 1267, 1291–94, 1320 Khanna v MOD [1981] ICR 653 ..................................................................................................... 1528 Khorasandjian v Bush [1993] 3 All ER 669; [1993] QB 727; [1993] 3 WLR 476, CA ................................................................................................................994 King v Hodges [1974] Crim LR 424 ................................................................................. 760, 1142 Kiszko (Stefan) (1992) The Times, 18 February ..................................................................... 1103 Klass v Federal Republic of Germany, Judgment of 6 September 1978, A 28; (1978) 2 EHRR 214 ........................ 27, 73, 101, 107, 108, 1009, 1025, 1028, 1029, 1032, 1036, 1041, 1042, 1044, 1046, 1068, 1074, 1081, 1097 Knudsen v Norway, No 11045/84, 42 DR 247 (1985)............................................................236
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Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions [1973] AC 435; [1972] 3 WLR 143; (1972) 56 Cr App R 633, HL ............................... 310, 434, 470, 476, 477, 480, 482, 483, 587, 942, 966 Kokkinakis v Greece A 260-A, p18 (1993) .................................................................................... 98 Kommunistische Partei Deutschland v Federal Republic of Germany (1957) Appl 250/57; YB 1 (1955-57) ................................................ 30, 167 Kopp v Switzerland (1999) 27 EHRR 91; [1998] HRCD 6 ....................................................................................................................... 480, 814, 1008, 1009, 1042–44 Korematsu v United States 584 F Supp 1406 (1984) ..............................................................289 Kosiek v FRG (1987) 9 EHRR 328 ............................................................................................ 93, 97 Kownacki v Commissioner of Metropolitan Police (1996) The Guardian, 30 April............................................................................................................... 1306 Krause (1902) 18 TLR 238 ....................................................................................................................707 Kröcher and Möller v Switzerland No 8463/78, (1983) 34 DR 25; (1984) 6 EHRR 345 .................................................................................................................. 37, 48 Kruslin v France (1990) 12 EHRR 528 ......................................................................... 1023, 1043 Kuddus v Chief Constable of Leicester Constabulary [2002] 2 AC 122 ............................................................................................................................ 1590 Kuhnen v FRG (1988) 56 DR 205 ....................................................................................................500 Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Co (Nos 4 and 5) [2002] UKHL 19, [2002] 2 AC 883 .................................................................... 1456 LCB v UK (1998) 27 EHRR 212 ................................................................................................ 40, 42 Laker Airways v Department of Trade [1977] QB 643; [1976] 3 WLR 537, CA ................................................................................................................100 Lam v Koo and Chiu [1992] Civil Transcript No 116, CA..................................................900 Lambert v France (1999) 1 EHRLR 123..................................................................................... 1044 Lambeth BC v CRE [1990] IRLR 231, CA ................................................................ 1570, 1574 Lamy v Belgium (1989) 11 EHRR 529 ........................................................................................... 59, 84 Latif [1996] 1 WLR 104; [1996] 1 All ER 353, HL ............................................................ 1266 Lauko v Slovakia [1999] EHRR 105 .................................................................................................. 61 Lawless v Ireland (1959) Report of 19 December, B 1 (1960-61) p 64; Judgment of 1 July 1961, A 3 (1960-61); (1961) 1 EHRR 15................................................................ 32, 36, 53, 54, 765, 1133, 1425, 1435 Leander v Sweden, Judgment of 26 March 1987, A 116; (1987) 9 EHRR 443 ............................................................................................. 37, 72, 73, 106, 1027, 1029 Leeds City Council v Price [2006] UKHL 10............................................ 195, 197, 201, 248 Lehideux and Isornia v France (1998) 5 BHRC 540...............................................................500 Lemon (Gay News) [1979] QB 10; [1978] 3 WLR 404, CA; [1979] AC 617; [1979] 2 WLR 281; [1979] 1 All ER 898, HL ....................................................................................................... 485, 487, 496 Lennon v News Group Newspapers [1978] FSR 573..............................................................931
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Letellier v France (1991) A 207; (1991) 14 EHRR 83............................................................. 57 Leverton v Clwyd County Council [1989] 2 WLR 47; [1989] 1 All ER 78, CA and HL ............................................................................ 1495, 1497 Lewis v Cox (1985) Cr App R I ...................................................................................................... 1110 Lewis ex p (1888) 21 QBD 191..........................................................................................................678 Li Shu-Ling [1989] Crim LR 58 ..................................................................................................... 1204 Li Yau-wai v Genesis Films Limited [1987] HKLR 711 .......................................................900 Liberal Party v UK (1980) 21 DR 211 ...........................................................................................106 Lingens v Austria (No 2) (1986) 8 EHRR 103....................................................... 90, 310, 966 Lion Laboratories v Evans and Express Newspapers [1985] QB 526; [1984] 2 All ER 417, CA ................................................................... 616, 917, 984 Lithgow v UK (1984) Report of 7 March, A 102; (1986) 8 EHRR 335 .......................................................................................................................................... 64 Litster v Forth Dry Dock Engineering [1989] 1 All ER 1194 ............................................174 Liverpool Juvenile Court ex p R [1987] All ER 688 ........................................................... 1270 Loizidou v Turkey (1996) 23 EHRR 513 ......................................................................................... 90 London Regional Transport v Mayor of London [2003] EMLR 4 .................................................................................................................................................963 London Underground v Edwards (No 2) [1998] IRLR 364 ................................ 1543, 1544 Lonhro plc and Observer plc, Re, [1990] AC 154; [1989] 2 All ER 1100, HL ..........................................................................................................................349 Lopez Ostra v Spain (1994) 20 EHRR 277 ............................................................................ 71, 90 Lord Advocate v Scotsman Publications Ltd [1990] 1 AC 812; [1989] 2 All ER 852 ............................................................................. 599, 612, 620 Lord Chancellor ex p Lightfoot [2000] 2 WLR 318 ..................................................... 130, 133 Lord Chancellor ex p Witham [1998] QB 575; [1997] 2 All ER 779 ..................................................................................................................... 130, 131, 152 Lord Saville of Newdigate ex p A [1999] 4 All ER 860; [2000] 1 WLR 1885 .................................................................................................. 130, 132, 953 Ludi v Switzerland (1993) 15 EHER 173 .................................................................................. 1298 Lustig-Prean and Beckett v UK (1999) 29 EHRR 548; (1999) 7 BHRC 65................................................................................ 72, 76, 81, 1207, 1208, 1514, 1516, 1518, 1520, 1521 M v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] EWCA Civ 324 ............................................................................................................... 1430 M v UK (1982) Appl 9907/82; [1983] 35 DR 130 .................................................................... 48 M and N (Minors), Re, [1990] 1 AC 686; [1988] 3 WLR 485, HL.......................................................................................................................... 136, 970 MCN Pension Trustees Ltd v Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association [1995] EMLR 99 ................................................. 353, 387 MS v Sweden, RJD 1997-IV 1437; (1999) 28 EHRR 313 ....................................... 72, 1023 McCann v Manchester Crown Court [2002] 4 All ER 593....................................... 791, 794 McCann, Farrell and Savage v UK, A 324; (1995) 21 EHRR 97 ............................................................................................................. 37, 40, 44, 45, 207 Macdonald v Advocate General for Scotland; Pearce v Governing Body of Mayfield School [2003] UKHL 34 ........ 1517–19, 1558, 1564
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McElduff v UK (Appl No 21322/92): see Tinnelly v UK McFeeley v UK (1980) 20 DR 44 ........................................................................... 852 McGlinchey v UK (2003) 37 EHRR 41 ...................................................................................... 1175 McGonnell v UK (2000) 8 BHRC 56................................................................................................ 63 McCowan v Chief Constable of Kingston on Hull [1968] Crim LR 34 ....................................................................................................................................... 1000 McGinley and Egan v UK (1998) 27 EHRR 1 ............................................................................. 70 McIlkenny and Others (Birmingham Six Case); see R v McIlkenny and Others McKennitt v Ash [2006] EWCA Civ 1714 ......................................254, 255, 827, 878, 883, 890, 893, 913–15, 919, 933, 991 McKenzie [1993] 1 WLR 453; (1992) 142 NLJ 1162, CA .............................................. 1301 McLeod v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis [1994] 4 All ER 553 .......................................................................................................................755 McLeod v UK (1998) 27 EHRR 493 ......................................................................... 761, 776, 777 McLorie v Oxford [1982] 1 QB 1290 .............................................................................................993 McVeigh, O’Neill and Evans v UK (1981) Report of 18 March; [1981] 25 D & R 15; (1981) 5 EHRR 71 ........................................ 53, 1133 Markt Intern Verlag v FRG A 165 (1989) ..................................................................................... 92 Maguire (1990) 90 Cr App R 115; [1989] Crim LR 815, CA .......................... 1194, 1195 Maguire (Maguire Seven Case), see R v Maguire Mainstream Loudoun v Board of Trustees 2 F Supp 2d 783 (EDVa 1998); 4 F Supp 2d 552 (1998) ............................................................ 581, 582 Malone v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis (No 2) [1979] Ch 344............................................................................................................. 115, 898, 982, 1033, 1054 Malone v UK (1982) Report of 17 December, A 82; (1984) 7 EHRR 14 ..............................................................................73, 114, 775, 898, 1033, 1042, 1043, 1055, 1072, 1074, 1097 Mandla v Dowell Lee [1983] 2 AC 548; [1983] 2 WLR 620; [1983] 1 All ER 1062, HL............................................................................................. 1508 Mansfield Justices ex p Sharkey [1985] QB 613 .......................................................................774 Mantovanelli v France (1997) 24 EHRR 370 ................................................................................ 64 Mapp v Ohio 367 US 643 (1961) ................................................................................................... 1265 Marckx v Belgium (1979) 2 EHRR 330 .................................................................... 70, 87, 1525 Marschall v Land Nordrhein-Westfalen Case C-409/95, Judgment of 11 November 1997; [1998] IRLR 39........................... 1584, 1585, 1576 Marsh [1991] Crim LR 455........................................................................................................ 1194–96 Marshall (1992) The Times, 28 December ................................................................................. 1274 Marshall (No 2) [1993] 4 All ER 586 ............................................................................... 139, 1589 Martin Secker and Warburg [1954] 2 All ER 683; [1954] 1 WLR 1138 ........................................................................................................................................469 Mary Quayson [1989] Crim LR 218 ............................................................................................. 1282 Mason [1987] Crim LR 119; [1988] 1 WLR 139; [1987] 3 All ER 481, CA ............................................................................... 1272, 1277, 1296
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Mathias (1989) The Times 24 August; (1989) 139 NLJ 1417, CA .............................................................................................................................. 1274, 1275 Mathieu-Mohin v Belgium (1987) 10 EHRR 1 ..........................................................................106 Mats Jacobson v Sweden (1990) 13 EHRR 79 ....................................................... 60, 104, 113 Matthews (1990) Cr App R 43; [1990] Crim LR 190, CA ....................................... 1193–97 Maudsley v Palumbo and Others (1995) The Times, 19 December ............................................................................................................................ 899, 901 Medway Council v BBC [2002] 1 FLR 104 ..................................................................... 860, 864 Meer v Tower Hamlets [1988] IRLR 399 ................................................................................... 1546 Metropolitan Police Commissioner ex p Blackburn [1968] 2 All ER 319, CA .................................................................................................................. 397, 477 Miailhe v France (1993) 16 EHRR 332.................................................................................... 69, 91 Michalak v Wandsworth LBC [2002] EWCA Civ 271........................................................ 1525 Middleweek v Chief Constable of Merseyside [1992] AC 179; [1990] 3 WLR 481 .................................................................................................... 1304 Miller v California (1973) 413 US 15 .............................................................................................469 Mills (Heather) v News Group Newspapers Ltd [2001] EMLR 41; (2001) WL 720322; 879, ............................................. 889, 893, 907–9, 911, 915, 919, 938, 951, 953–56, 970, 985, 987, 988 Minister of Home Affairs v Fisher [1980] AC 319...................................................................192 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food ex p Hamble [1995] 2 All ER 714 .......................................................................................................................129 Ministry of Defence ex p Smith and Others [1996] 2 WLR 305; [1996] 1 All ER 257; [1996] ICR 740, CA ....................... 128, 129, 286, 1305, 1520 Minto v Police [1987] 1 NZLR 374 .................................................................................................756 Miranda v Arizona 384 US 436 (1966) ....................................................................................... 1265 Mohammed (Allie) v State [1999] 2 WLR 552 (Trinidad and Tobago)....................................................................................................................................... 1284 Monnell and Morris v UK (1987) 10 EHRR 205 ....................................................................... 64 Morris v Duke-Cohen (1975) 120 SJ 826 .................................................................................. 1487 Montgomery v Lord Advocate [2003] 1 AC 641; [2001] 2 WLR 779 ....................................................................................................................................... 1454 Moonsar v Fiveways Express Transport Ltd EAT (2004) 27 September.................................................................................................................................... 1560 Moor [20001 J CIv Lib 155 .................................................................................................................... 77 Moran v Burbine 475 US 412 (1986) ........................................................................................... 1265 Morgans v Director of Public Prosecution [1999] 1 WLR 968, CA; [2000] 2 WLR 386, HL ........................................................................................ 1050 Morgentaler v R [1988] 1 SCR 60 ...................................................................................................... 80 Morpeth Ward Justices ex p Ward (1992) 95 Cr App R 215 ................................... 772, 773 Morse v Wiltshire CC [1998] ICR 1023; [1998] IRLR 352 ............................................. 1551 Moss v McLachlan [1985] IRLR 76......................................................................... 125, 756, 757, 760–62, 771 Moustaquim v Belgium (1991) 13 EHRR 802.............................................................................. 89
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Mullady v DPP [1997] COD 422; WL 1103678 .................................................................... 1159 Mullen [1999] 2 Cr App R 143; [1999] 3 WLR 777 ............................................. 1260, 1266 Müller v Switzerland (1991) 13 EHRR 212 ...................................... 95, 465, 481, 483, 484, 488, 588, 684, 783 Murray v DPP [1994] 1 WLR 1; 99 Cr App R 396, HL ................................................... 1239 Murray v UK (1994) 19 EHRR 193 ........................................................... 54, 56, 72, 74, 1152, 1160, 1161, 1208, 1221, 1232, 1234, 1235, 1249, 1327 Murray (John) v UK (1996) 22 EHRR 29; [1996] Crim LR 370; (1996) The Times, 9 February ................................. 65, 1209, 1210–15, 1239, 1240, 1252 N v Portugal Appl No 20683/92, 20 February 1995 ....................................................... 71, 945 N v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] 2 WLR 1124 ............................................................................................................................. 194, 267 Nadir Choudhary v UK (1999) 1 EHRLR 522 .......................................................... 1044, 1050 Nagarajan v London Regional Transport [1999] 4 All ER 65; [1999] 3 WLR 425 ................................................................................................. 1564, 1565 Nagy v Weston [1966] 2 QB 561; [1965] 1 WLR 280 ............................................... 734, 735 Napier v Scottish Ministers [2005] UKHRR 268 ................................................................... 1176 Nebraska Press Association v Stuart 427 US 539 (1976) .....................................................320 Nedrick [1986] 3 All ER 1; [1986] 1 WLR 1025, CA ...........................................................363 Neumeister v Austria, Judgment of 27 June 1968; (1979–80); (1968) 1 EHRR 91 .............................................................................................................57, 58, 64 New York Times Co v US (Pentagon Papers Case) 403 US 713 (1971) ......................................................................................................................... 445, 604 News Group Newspapers Ltd v SOGAT [1986] ICR 716; [1986] IRLR 337.................................................................................................................... 705, 798 News Verlags v Austria (2001) 31 EHRR 8; (2000) 9 BHRC 625 ......................................................................................................... 322, 326, 327, 333, 354, 355, 382 Nicol v Director of Public Prosecutions (1995) 160 JP 155; (1996) 1 J Civ Lib 75 ........................................................................... 773, 774, 777–79 Nielsen v Denmark (1988) 1 EHRR 175; (1959) Appl 343/57, 2 YB 412; (1961) 1 DR 388 ............................................................................... 29, 30 Niemietz v Germany, A 251-B; (1992) 16 EHRR 97................................... 72, 73, 74, 818, 1009, 1070 Nold v Commission [1974] ECR 481 ..............................................................................................138 Noone [1988] ICR 813; [1988] 83 IRLR 195 .......................................................................... 1589 Norris v Ireland (1991) 13 EHRR 186 .............................................................................................. 72 Norwich Pharmacal Co v Customs and Excise Commissioners [1974] AC 133 ....................................................410, 420, 426, 427, 436, 437, 439, 448, 449 Norwood v DPP (2003) WL 21491815 ................................................................................ 506, 784 Norwood v DPP [2004] EWHC 69 ...................................................................................................797 Norwood v UK (2005) 40 EHRR SE 11............................................................................. 506, 784
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Nottingham CC v Mohammed Amin [2000] 1 WLR 1071; [2000] Crim LR 174, CA .......................................................................................................... 1299 Nottinghamshire CC v Meikle [2004] IRLR 703 ................................................................... 1552 O v UK (1987) 10 EHRR 82 ................................................................................................................. 61 O’Connor v Euromoney Publications Inc (1999) Guardian, 6 June ................................................................................................................................................... 1522 O’Hara v Chief Constable of the RUC [1997] WLR 1; [1997] 1 All ER 129, HL ................................................................. 1150, 1152, 1154, 1155 O’Kelly v Harvey (1883) 14 LR Ir 105 ..........................................................................................755 O’Leary [1988] 87 Cr App R 387; [1988] Crim LR 827, CA ........................................ 1300 O’Neill (1996) The Times, 7 June................................................................................................... 1531 Oberschlick v Austria (1997) 25 EHRR 357.................................................................................. 90 Observer v UK; Observer and Guardian v UK A 216; (1992) 14 EHRR 153.............................................................................. 94, 96, 597, 620, 794, 946, 985, 1355, 1357 Ocalan v Turkey (1999) 30 November .............................................................................................113 Ojutiku v Manpower Services Commission [1982] IRLR 418 .......................... 1540, 1546 Oliver, Hartrey and Baldwin [2003] Cr App R 28 ......................................................... 478, 557 Olsson v Sweden, A 130; (1988) 11 EHRR 259 ................................................................. 69, 72 Olsson v Sweden (No 2), A250 (1992) ............................................................................................. 34 Open Door Counselling and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland (1992) 15 EHRR 244.................................................................................... 43, 80, 93, 95, 407 Oransaye [1993] Crim LR 772, CA ............................................................................................... 1194 Osman v Director of Public Prosecutions (1999) The Times, 29 September.................................................................................................................................... 1126 Osman v UK (2000) 29 EHRR 245; [1999] 1 FLR 193; (1999) BHRC 293 ........................................................................................ 41, 61, 62, 246, 952 Otto-Preminger Institut v Austria (1994) 19 EHRR 34 .......... 38, 95, 467, 486, 488–96, 568, 570, 944, 946, 948 Owino [1995] Crim LR 743 .................................................................................................................... 45 Oxfordshire County Council [1997] 1 FLR 235 ........................................................................960 Oxfordshire Council v L and F [1997] 1 FLR 235 ..................................................................968 Ozgur Gundem v Turkey (2001) 31 EHRR 49 ..................................................... 422, 446, 447 P, Re, [2007] EWCA Civ 2.............................................................................................. 242, 268, 269 P v S and Cornwall County Council, Judgment of 30 April 1996; [1996] ECR 1-2143; [1996] 1 IRLR 347; [1996] All ER (EC) 397; [1996] ICR 795 ....................................139, 1504, 1516 Pakelli v Germany, Judgment of 25 April 1983, A 64; (1983) 6 EHRR 1 ............................................................................................................................... 66 Paris, Abdullah and Miller (Cardiff Three Case) (1993) 97 Cr App R 99; [1994] Crim LR 361, CA......................................... 1207, 1230, 1272 Parris [1989] Crim LR 214; [1989] 9 Cr App R 68, CA ................................................... 1300 Pataki (1960) Appl 596/59; YB III ...................................................................................................... 31 Paton v UK (1981) 3 EHRR 408 ......................................................................................................... 43
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Paton v Procurator Fiscal (Alloa) (1999) Judgment of 24 November .................................................................................................................................... 1215 Pearson (1998) The Times, 20 February ...................................................................................... 1261 Peck v United Kingdom (2003) 36 EHRR 41 .......................................... 818, 819, 822, 884, 885, 894, 946, 968 Pel Ltd v Modgifi [1980] IRLR 142 .............................................................................................. 1535 Pendragon v UK No 31416/96 (1998) ................................................. 687, 688, 725, 726, 736 Pepper v Hart [1993] 1 AC 593; [1993] 1 All ER 42; [1992] 3 WLR 1032, HL ................................................................................................... 241, 279 Percy v Director of Public Prosecutions [1995] 3 All ER 124.............................................................................................................................. 772, 775, 779 Perera v Civil Service Commission [1983] IRLR 166; [1983] ICR 428, CA....................................................................................................... 1541, 1546 Peterkin v Chief Constable of Cheshire (1999) The Times, 16 November ............................................................................................................................ 756, 761 Petrovic v Austria (2001) 33 EHRR 14 ...................................................................................... 1525 Pharmaceuticals Ltd v Director of the SFO [2002] EWHC 3023......................................................................................................................................... 1007, 1010 Pickstone v Freemans [1989] AC 66; [1988] 2 All ER 803; [1988] 3 WLR 265, HL................................................................................................... 174, 1494 Piddington v Bates [1961] 1 WLR 162................................................................................ 752, 753 Ping Lin [1976] AC 574 ....................................................................................................................... 1267 Plange v Chief Constable of South Humberside Police (1992) The Times 23 March .................................................................................................... 1154 Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v Casey (1992) 505 US 833 ............................................................................................................................ 80 Plattform ‘Ärzte für das Leben’ v Austria (1982) Appl 1012/82; [1985] D & R 44; (1988) 13 EHRR 204 ............................ 37, 97, 107, 778 Plon (Société) v France (No 58148/00, 18 May 2004) ...........................................................432 Poitrimol v France, A 277-A (1993); (1993) 18 EHRR 130 ................................................. 65 Ponting [1985] Crim LR 318 .......................................................................................... 117, 593, 594 Poplar Housing and Regeneration Community Associations Ltd and the Secretary of State for the Environment v Donoghue [2001] 3 WLR 183; [2001] EWCA Civ 595, CA............................................................................................ 175, 184, 220–224, 226, 230, 231, 607, 608 Powell v UK (1990) 12 EHRR 355............................................................................................. 72, 90 Pratt v Attorney General for Jamaica [1993] 3 WLR 995; [1993] 4 All ER 769 ............................................................................................................ 151, 152 Preston (1992) 95 Cr App R 355, CA; [1994] 2 AC 130; [1993] 3 WLR 891; [1993] 4 All ER 638; (1994) 98 Cr App R 405, HL ......................................................................................................... 1049–51 Pretty v UK (2002) 35 EHRR 1 ........................................................................................................... 77 Price v Civil Service Commission [1977] 1 WLR 1417; [1978] 1 All ER 1228 .................................................................................................................. 1539 Price v Leeds City Council [2005] 1 WLR 1825 ..................................... 197, 198, 199, 279 Pullar v UK (1996) 22 EHRR 391 ...................................................................................................... 63
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Quinn [1990] Crim LR 581; (1990) The Times, 31 March, CA .................................... 1289 R [1992] Fam Law 108; [1991] 4 All ER 481; [1991] 3 WLR 767; [1992] Crim LR 207, HL ....................................................................... 67, 148 R v A [2002] 1 AC 45 (HL); [2001] 2 WLR 1546; [2001] 2 Cr App R 21.......................................................................................174, 178, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 202, 209, 214, 408, 729 R v Alladice (1988) 87 Cr App R 380; [1988] Crim LR 608, CA ...................................................................................................................1223, 1272, 1275, 1282, 1286 R v Anderson [1993] Crim LR 447 ............................................................................................... 1278 R v Argent [1997] 2 Crim App R 27; (1996) The Times, 19 December, CA ............................................................................................................ 1238, 1244 R v Bailey and Smith [1993] 3 All ER 513; (1993) The Times, 22 March, CA ........................................................................................................ 1296 R v Beck ex p Daily Telegraph [1993] 2 All ER 177 .............................................................388 R v Beckles [2004] EWCA Crim 2766 .............................................. 1246, 1247, 1249, 1327 R v Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex p Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) [1999] 3 WLR 827............................................................................................. 46 R v Bournewood Community and Mental Health NHS Trust ex p L [1999] 1 AC 458...................................................................................................764 R v Bowden [2000] 2 All ER 418 .......................................................................................... 478, 586 R v Bresa [2005] EWCA Crim 1414 .............................................................................. 1247, 1248 R v Bristol Crown Court ex p Bristol Press and Picture Agency Ltd (1987) 85 Crim App R 190 ................................................................... 447, 448 R v Broadcasting Complaints Commission ex p Granada Television Ltd [1995] EMLR 163............................................................................................849 R v Central Criminal Court ex p Bright [2001] 2 All ER 244 ..........................................447 R v Central Criminal Court ex p Telegraph plc [1993] 1 WLR 980 .................................................................................................................................... 385, 387 R v Central Independent Television [1994] Fam 192 ........................................ 856, 970, 971 R v Chief Constable of Sussex ex p International Ferry Traders Ltd [1999] 1 All ER 129; [1999] 2 AC 418 ........................................ 273, 748 R v Coney (1882) 8 QBD 534.............................................................................................................766 R v Cowan [1996] 1 Cr App R 1 .................................................................................................... 1238 R v Darrach (2000) 191 DLR (4th) 539.........................................................................................189 R v Director of Public Prosecutions [2006] All ER (D) 250 ................................... 782, 784 R v Director of Public Prosecutions, ex p Kebilene, see DPP ex p Kebilene and Others R v El-Faisal [2004] EWCA Crim 456 ........................................................................................ 1417 R v Friend [1997] 1 WLR 1433....................................................................................................... 1239 R v Governor of Durham Prison ex p Singh [1984] 1 WLR 704 ................................. 1424 R v H [2004] UKHL 3; [2004] 2 AC 134 .................................................................................. 1344 R v Hammond [2004] EWHC 69............................................................................................ 783, 797 R v Hampshire Farmers Markets, ex p Beer [2003] EWCA Civ 1056 ............................................................................................................ 226, 228–29
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R v Holding [2006] 1 WLR 1040 ......................................................................................................183 R v HM Treasury, ex p Cambridge University [2000] 1 WLR 2514 (ECJ) ..............................................................................................................................223 R v Hundal (Avtar Singh); R v Dhaliwal (Kesar Singh) 2004 WL 62035 (CA (Crim Div)), [2004] 2 Cr App R 19, [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 64, (2004) Times February 13, [2004] EWCA Crim 389............................................................................... 1392 R v IBA ex p Whitehouse (1985) The Times 4 April .............................................................848 R v James (1996) Crim LR 650....................................................................................................... 1197 R v Johnstone (Robert Alexander) [2003] UKHL 28 ..............................................................178 R v Jones; R v Milling; R v Olditch; R v Pritchard; R v Richards; Ayliffe v Director of Public Prosecutions; Swain v Director of Public Prosecutions [2006] UKHL 16 ........................... 744, 745 R v Jones and Mirrless 65 Cr App R 250, CA...........................................................................766 R v Kansal [2002] 2 AC 69...................................................................................................................240 R v Keogh [2007] All ER (D) 105 (Mar); [2007] EWCA Crim 528.................................................................................................... 1337, 1354, 1355, 1356 R v Khan [1997] AC 558.................................................................................................. 270, 273, 828 R v Killen [1974] NI 220 .................................................................................................................... 1350 R v Lambert [2001] 3 All ER 577.................................................................... 177, 178, 185, 239 R v Lambert [2002] 2 AC 545.......................................................................................................... 1390 R v Maguire [1992] 2 All ER ............................................................................................. 1103, 1171 R v McIlkenny and Others [1992] 2 All ER 417; (1991) The Times, 28 March................................................................................. 324, 332, 339, 1103, 1104, 1171, 1315 R v Manchester Crown Court, ex p H and D [2000] 2 All ER 166 ...........................................................................................................................................394 R v Mirza, R v Connor [2004] 1 All ER 929; [2002] 2 WLR 201 .............................................................................................................................. 400–4, 406 R v Mushtaq [2005] 1 WLR 1513 .................................................................................... 1269, 1270 R v Offen [2001] 1 WLR 253..................................................................................... 185, 186, 1362 R v Panel of Take-overs and Mergers ex p Datafin [1987] QB 815 ...................................................................................................................................................231 R v Perrin [2002] EWCA Crim 747, CA................................................................. 472, 584, 586 R v Shaheed [2002] 2 NZLR 377 (CA) ...................................................................................... 1266 R v Shayler [2002] 2 WLR 754 ...................................................... 375, 376, 599, 607–11, 615 R v Smith [2005] 1 WLR 704 .................................................................................................. 401, 405 R v Spear [2003] 1 AC 734...................................................................................................................267 R v Staines; R v Morrisey [1997] 2 Cr App R 426, CA ................................................... 1251 R v Taylor (1993) 98 Cr App R 361, CA ........................................................................... 345, 382 R v Ward (1992) 96 Cr App R 1 ....................................................................................... 1103, 1171 R (A) v Partnerships in Care Ltd [2002] EWHC 529.......................................... 224–25, 231 R (Bernard) v Enfield LBC (2003) HRLR 111 ..........................................................................247 R (Brehony) v Chief Constable of Greater Manchester [2005] EWHC 640 ..................................................................................................... 706, 722, 726 R (Burkett) v Hammersmith and Fulham LBC [2002] UKHL 23 ..............................................................................................................................................241
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R (D) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] 1 WLR 1315 ........................................................................................................................202 R (European Roma Rights Centre) v Immigration Officer at Prague Airport (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees intervening) [2005] 2 AC 1 ........................................................... 1135, 1136 R (Greenfield) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] 1 WLR 673 ............................................................. 195, 242, 244, 247 R (H) v Mental Health Tribunal, North and East London Region and Another (2001) The Times, 2 April .............................. 192, 201, 202, 204 R (Haw) v Secretary of State for the Home Dept [2006] EWCA Civ 352 ..................................................................................................................................732 R (Limbuella) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKHL 66; [2004] QB 1440 .......................................................... 1360 R (Mambakasa) v Secretary of State for the Home Office [2004] QB 1124; [2004] 2 WLR 603 ....................................................................................241 R (MB) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2006] EWCA Civ 1140 ...............................................................................................................179 R (N) v Secretary of State for the Home Office [2004] QB 1124; [2004] 2 WLR 603 ....................................................................................................241 R (on the application of Alan Lord) and the Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] EWHC 2073 .............................................636 R (on the application of Alconbury Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions [2001] 2 All ER 929; (2001) NLJ 135, HL .................................................................................................... 107, 183, 184, 192, 201, 202, 237, 276 R (on the application of Anderson) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] 1 AC 837 .......................... 177, 181, 185, 186, 360 R (on the application of B) v Mental Health Review Tribunal [2002] EWHC 1553 .......................................................................................... 243, 850 R (on the application of Ford) v Press Complaints Commission [2002] EMLR 5 .....................................................................................................233 R (on the application of Gillan) v Commissioner of Metropolitan Police [2006] UKHL 12 .........................................269, 274, 277–78, 726, 1119–21, 1131–37, 1139, 1140, 1158, 1325, 1356, 1465 R (on the application of Heather and others) v Leonard Cheshire Foundation [2002] EWCA Civ 336; [2002] 2 All ER 936 ........................................................................................................ 223–224, 226–32, 234, 247, 248 R (on the application of Johnson) v Havering London Borough Council [2007]All ER 271...................................................... 222, 226–227, 231 R (on the application of KB and Others) v Mental Health Review Tribunal and Another [2003] 2 All ER 209; [2002] EWHC 639 ................................................................................................................ 243, 247
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R (on the application of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party and others) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] EWHC Admin 644 .................................................. 1358, 1402, 1415 R (on the application of Laporte) v Chief Constable of Gloucester [2004] EWCA Civ 1639 .................................................... 287, 288, 290, 297, 662, 690, 692, 693, 721, 730, 733, 751, 755, 757–63, 766, 767, 770, 771, 775, 777, 801, 1140 R (on the application of Laporte) (FC) v Chief Constable of Gloucestershire [2006] UKHL 55 .......................................... 1140, 1142, 1143, 1251 R (on the application of Marper) v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [2004] 1 WLR 2196................................................. 187, 194, 267, 1339 R (on the application of Pretty) v DPP and Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] UKHL 61 ................................................ 77, 374 R (on the application of the Prolife Alliance) v BBC [2002] 2 All ER 756; [2004] 1 AC 185 .....................................179, 234, 274–76, 280, 510, 530–45, 851 R (on the application of Rottnam) v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [2002] 2 All ER 865 ............................................................. 1000 R (on the application of Ullah) v Special Adjudicator [2004] UKHL 26............................................................................................ 188, 194, 196, 199, 267, 279, 1338, 1339 R (Quark Fishing Ltd) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs [2005] 3 WLR 837 ..............................................................195 R (S) v Chief Constable of the South Yorkshire Police [2004] UKHL 39, [2004] 1 WLR 2196............................................................................. 1437 R (SB) v Denbigh High School [2006] 2 WLR 719 ......................................... 195, 275, 286 R (Uttley) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] 1 WLR 1590 ........................................................................................................................202 Rai, Alimond and ‘Negotiate Now’ v UK (1995) 81-A DR 46; (1995) 19 EHRR CD 93..................................................................................... 68, 685 Rainey v Greater Glasgow Health Board [1987] AC 224; [1986] WLR 1017; [1987] 1 All ER 65, HL ......................... 1498, 1499, 1503, 1547 Ramsay and Foote (1883) 15 Cox CC 231 ........................................................................ 484, 485 Rasool [1997] 4 All ER 439; (1997) The Times, 17 February; CA.................................................................................................................................... 1050 Redmond-Bate v DPP [1999] All ER (D) 864; (1999) Crim LR 998; (1999) The Times, 28 July ........................................ 661, 662, 691, 701, 723, 778, 779, 801 Rees v UK, Judgment of 17 October 1986, A 106; (1986) 9 EHRR 56............................................................................................................... 38, 85, 103, 139 Reid [1987] Crim LR 702 ........................................................................................................... 125, 705 Remli v France (1996) 22 EHRR 253 ............................................................................................... 63 Remmers and Hamer v The Netherlands (1999) 27 EHRR CD 168 ................................................................................................................................ 1046 Rennie [1982] 1 WLR 64; [1982] 1 All ER 385, CA .......................................................... 1268
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Re S and W, see: S (Children) (Care Order: Implementation of Care Plan) Re Reynolds (Albert) v Times Newspapers Ltd and Others [1998] 3 WLR 862; [1999] 4 All ER 609; [1999] 3 WLR 1010, HL .................................................................................126, 311, 376, 377, 715, 718, 917, 951, 954, 1358 Ribemont v France (1995) 20 EHRR 557 ............................................................... 327, 357, 382 Ribbitsch v Austria (1992) 21 EHRR 573 .......................................................................... 48, 1175 Rice v Connolly [1966] 2 QB 414; [1966] All ER 649; [1966] 3 WLR 17 .......................................................................................................................... 1109 Ricketts v Cox (1981) Cr App R 298 ........................................................................................... 1110 Riem v Sweden (1992) 16 EHRR 155 ...................................................................................... 70, 88 Ringeisen v Austria, Judgment 16 July 1971, A 13; (1971) 1 EHRR 455 ..................................................................................................61, 1086, 1319, 1341 Roberts v Parole Board [2005] UKHL 45 .................................................................................. 1344 Rodriguez v British Columbia (1993) 85 CCC (3d) 15 ........................................................... 78 Rowe and Davis v UK, Appl No 28901/95; [1999] Crim LR 410; (2000) 30 EHRR 1 .............................................................................. 64, 1259, 1320 Ruiz-Mateos v Spain (1993) 16 EHRR 505 ................................................................................... 64 Runa Begum v Tower Hamlets London [2002] 2 All ER 668 ............................................280 Rutherford v Sec of State for Trade and Industry (No 2) [2006] UKHL 19............................................................................................................................ 1542 S, (Children) (Care Plan: Implementation of Care Plan), Re, [2002] 2 AC 291; [2002] UKHL 10 ............................... 184, 185, 186, 430, 1341 S, (A Child), Re, [2004] UKHL 47; [2005] 1 AC 593............................826, 855, 861–85, 957, 959, 961, 963, 968–70, 972–75, 979–81 S v Miller 2001 SC 977 ..........................................................................................................................792 SW v UK; and C v UK (1995) 2I EHRR 404 .............................................................................. 67 Saidi v France (1994) 17 EHRR 251 .............................................................................. 1187, 1259 Salabiaku v France (1988) A 141-A; (1988) 13 EHRR 379........................... 64, 191, 794, 1350, 1351 Salgueiro da Silva Mouta v Portugal (1999) Judgment of 21 December .............................................................................................................................. 1521 Salman v Turkey, Judgment of 27 June 2000 ................................................................................ 47 Saloman v Commissioners of Custom and Excise [1967] 2 QB 116 ...............................................................................................................................136 Samuel [1988] QB 615; [1988] 2 All ER 135, [1988] 2 WLR 920, CA ....................................................................................... 1217, 1220, 1223, 1225, 1234, 1281, 1283, 1284, 1288, 1289 Samuel v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis (1999) (unreported) ....................................................................................................................... 1138 Sang [1980] AC 402; [1979] 3 WLR 263; [1979] 2 All ER 1222, HL........................................................ 1268, 1277, 1289, 1290, 1295, 1297 Sat-Bhambra (1988) JP Rep 365; (1988) Cr App R 55, CA ............................................ 1300
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Saunders v Punch Ltd [1998] 1 WLR 986 ................................................... 417, 418, 429, 450 Saunders v Richmond-upon-Thames London Borough Council [1978] IRLR 362 ......................................................................................................... 1528 Saunders v Scottish National Camps (1981) EAT 7/80 ....................................................... 1522 Saunders v UK (1994) No 19187/91; (1997) 23 EHRR 313 ......... 65, 271, 1239, 1240, 1250–54, 1270, 1279 Savundranayagan and Walker [1968] 3 All ER 439; [1968] 1 WLR 1761, CA .................................................................................................................. 335, 365 Schabas (1994) 43 ICLQ 913 ................................................................................................................. 48 Schenk v Switzerland (1988) 13 EHRR 242.....................................................270, 1291, 1299 Scherer v Switzerland, A 287 (1993) Com Rep 281 ............................... 466, 467, 568, 569 Schering Chemicals v Falkman [1981] 2 WLR 848...................................................... 915, 918 Schmidt and Dahlströhm v Sweden, Judgment of 6 February 1976, A 21; (1976) 1 EHRR 632 ........................................................................102 Schwabe v Austria (1992) 14 HRLJ 26 ............................................................................................ 94 Schuler-Zraggen v Switzerland (1993) 16 EHRR 405 ......................................................... 1483 Scialacqua v Italy (1998) 26 EHRR CD 164 ................................................................................. 42 Scott [1991] Crim LR 56, CA........................................................................................................... 1194 Secretary of State for Defence v Guardian Newspapers [1985] AC 339; [1984] 3 All ER 601, HL ......................................... 411, 419, 420, 445 Secretary of State for the Home Department v Rehman [1999) INLR 517 (SIAC); [2000] 3 All ER 778; (2000) The Times, 31 May, CA; [2001] 3 WLR 877, HL ...................................................................................................... 1088, 1343, 1425, 1426 Secretary of State for Defence ex p Perkins [1997] IRLR 297 ........................................................................................................................................... 1516 Secretary of State for Employment ex p Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) [1994] 2 WLR 409; [1994] 2 WLR 409, HL.................................................................. 132, 152, 294, 1598 Secretary of State for Employment ex p Seymour-Smith and Perez (No 2) [2000] 1 WLR 435; [2000] IRLR 263, HL ................................................................................................................................. 1542, 1543 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ex p The World Development Movement [1995] 1WLR 386; [1995] 1 All ER 611 .......................................................................................................................................236 Secretary of State for Home Affairs ex p Chahal [1995] 1 WLR 526; [1995] 1 All ER 658; (1993) The Times, 12 March, CA............................................... 1088, 1089 Secretary of State for Home Affairs ex p Ruddock [1987] 1 WLR 1482; [1987] 2 All ER 518 ..................................................................................... 1023 Secretary of State for Home Affairs ex p Stitt (1987) The Times, 3 February ...................................................................................................................127 Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p Adams [1995] All ER (EC) 177 ................................................................................................................139 Secretary of State for the Home Dept ex p Brind [1991] 1 AC 696; [1991] 1 All ER 720; [1991] 2 WLR 588, HL ........................................................................................... 127, 128, 129, 152, 237, 304
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Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p Daly, [2001] 3 All ER 433; [2001] UKHL 26, HL......................... 131, 285, 286, 374, 609 Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p Hosenball [1977] 1 WLR 766; [1977] 3 All ER 452, CA ..................................................................................................................................................127 Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p McQuillan [1995] 3 All ER 400; (1994) The Independent, 23 September ................................128 Secretary of State for the Home Department and Others ex p Norney and Others (1995) The Times, 6 October ................................................132 Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p Northumbria Police Authority [1989] QB 26; [1988] 2 WLR 590; [1988] 1 All ER 556, CA ................................................................127 Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115; [1999] QB 349; [1999] 3 All ER 400, CA; [1999] 3 WLR 328, HL ........................................................ 130, 152, 237, 300, 310, 311, 314, 377, 715, 855, 939–42, 950, 951, 954, 966, 979, 1458 Secretary of State for the Home Department v E [2007] EWHC 33 (Admin) ............................................................................................ 1342, 1346, 1452 Secretary of State for the Home Department v JJ and Others [2006] EWHC 1623 (Admin) .......................................................................... 1451–54 Secretary of State for the Home Dept v Rideh and J [2007] EWHC 804 (Admin) ...................................................................................................... 1346, 1453 Secretary of State for Social Security ex p Joint Council for the Welfare of Immigrants [1996] 4 All ER 385; (1996) 146 NLJ 985 ............................................................................................................. 130, 132 Secretary of State for Transport ex p Factortame [1990] 2 AC 85; [1989] 2 WLR 997; [1989] 2 CMLR 353, HL .................. 139, 154, 1599 Secretary of State v MB [2006] EWHC 1000; [2006] HRLR 29; [2006] 8 CL 108 ........................................................................1340, 1342, 1447, 1453, 1461 Selmouni v France (2000) 29 EHRR............................................................................ 46, 47, 1175 Shannon [2001] 1 WLR 51, CA ............................................................. 1296, 1299, 1303, 1325 Shafir ur Rehman see Secretary of State for the Home Department v Rehman Sharpe v Director of Public Prosecutions (1993) JP 595 ................................................... 1289 Shaw v Director of Public Prosecutions [1962] AC 220; [1961] 2 WLR 897, HL...................................................................................................... 481, 482 Shayler (2001) 14 May Hearing ....................................................................................................... 1030 Sheffield and Horsham v UK (1998) 27 EHRR 163; [1998] 2 FLR 928............................................................................................................................... 85 Sheldrake v DPP [2004] UKHL 43; [2005] 1 AC 264; [2005] 1 All ER 237 .................................................................................178, 185, 1391, 1414 Shelley Films Limited v Rex Features Ltd [1994] EMLR 134 .................................................................................................................... 884, 898, 900, 901, 920
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Shields v E Coomes [1978] WLR 1408; [1979] 1 All ER 456, CA ...................................................................................................................................... 1497 Sibson v UK A 258; (1993) 17 EHRR 193; (1993) The Times, 17 May ............................................................................................................................ 99 Siddiqui v Swain [1979] RTR 454.................................................................................................. 1155 Sidhu v Aerospace Composite Technology Ltd [1999] IRLR 683 ........................................................................................................................................... 1558 Sidiropoulos v Greece (1998) (unreported) .......................................................... 98, 1359, 1401 Sidis v F-R Publishing Corporation 113 F 2d 806 (2d Cir) (1940) ......................................................................................................................................................885 Silcott (1991) The Times, 9 December ......................................................................................... 1236 Silver v UK, Judgment of 25 March 1983, A 61; (1983) 5 EHRR 347 .................................................................................................................................. 66, 90 Simon-Herald v Austria (1969) App 430/69 CD 38; 14 YB 352 ..................................................................................................................................................... 41 British Railway Engineers [1986] ICR 22 .................................................................................. 1547 Skirving [1985] QB 819 ............................................................................................................. 470, 472 Skoogstrom v Sweden (1981) 1 Dig Supp para 5.2.2.1; (1982) 5 EHRR 278 .......................................................................................................................... 56 Slade (1996) LEXIS CO/1678/96 .................................................................................................... 1115 Smith v Gardner Merchant [1996] ICR 790; [1996] IRLR 342; [1998] 3 All ER 582; [1999] ICR 134 ...................................................... 1516, 1517 Smith and Grady v UK (2000) 29 EHRR 493 ............................................... 72, 81, 107, 285, 286, 1207, 1516, 1518, 1520, 1571 Smurthwaite [1994] 1 All ER 898; (1994) 98 Cr App R 437, CA............................................................................................................... 1295, 1296, 1299 Socialist Party and Others v Turkey, App No 20/1997/ 804/1007; (1999) 27 EHRR 51 .......................................................... 38, 97, 98, 681, 1358 Soering v UK, Judgment of 7 July 1989, A 161; (1989) 11 EHRR 439 ..................................................................................................... 37, 43, 48–50, 98, 113, 1359 Spencer (Earl) v UK (1998) 25 EHRR CD 105; [1998] EHRLR 348 ................................................................................................. 30, 71, 816, 817, 828, 831, 901, 945 Sporrong and Lonroth v Sweden (1982) 5 EHRR 35 .............................................................104 Stedman v UK (1997) 23 EHRR CD 168 .................................................................................. 1483 Steel v The Post Office [1977] IRLR 288 .................................................................................. 1539 Steel, Lush, Needham, Polden and Cole v UK Appl No 24838 / 94; (1999) 28 EHRR 603 ........................................... 68, 242, 683, 685–89, 694, 695, 722, 725, 730, 736, 741, 746, 747, 775, 777–80, 797, 800 Stephens v Avery [1988] Ch 449; [1988] 2 WLR 1280; [1988] 2 All ER 477 ...................................................................................... 881, 896, 899, 902 Stewart v Cleveland Guest Ltd [1996] ICR 535 ..................................................................... 1557
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Stewart v UK (1982) Appl 10044/82; 39 DR 162 (1984); (1985) 7 EHRR 453 .......................................................................................................................... 43 Stott v Brown 2000 SLT 379 ............................................................................................................. 1252 Straker [1965] Crim LR 239 ...................................................................................................... 477, 479 Sunday Times v UK, Judgment of 26 April 1979, A 30; (1979) 2 EHRR 245 ....................................................................... 36, 68, 94, 135, 150, 310, 322, 324, 329, 333, 335–60, 362, 395, 966 Sunday Times v UK (No 2) (1991) 14 EHRR 229 ..................................................................759 Sutherland v UK, Appl No 25186/94; (1996) 22 EHRR CD 182; (1997) EHRLR 117 ............................................................................................... 81, 82 Swanston v Director of Public Prosecutions (1997) The Times, 23 January ...................................................................................................................782 T v Malta (1999) 29 EHRR 185 ........................................................................................................... 57 Tammer v Estonia (2003) 37 EHRR 43; (2001) 10 BHRC 543 ................................................................................................................ 945, 946, 963, 972, 976 Taylor [1994] TLR 484 ............................................................................................................................333 Taylor v Anderton [1995] 2 All ER 420, CA ........................................................................... 1320 Taylor v Director of Public Prosecutions [1973] AC 964......................................................799 Teixeira de Castro v Portugal (1998) 28 EHRR 101 .................. 1214, 1259, 1267, 1291, 1293, 1294, 1298, 1299 Tekin v Turkey (2001) 31 EHRR 4 ................................................................................................ 1175 Theakston v MGN [2002] EMLR 22 .................................................................................. 909, 911 Thomas [1990] Crim LR 269, DC .................................................................................................. 1289 Thomas (Esther) v News Group Newspapers (2001) WL 753464, Judgment of 18 July ...........................................................................................871 Thomas v NUM [1985] 2 WLR 1081; [1985] 2 All ER 1 ...................................................124 Thomas v Sawkins [1935] 2 KB 249 ................................................................................. 676, 1000 Thompson v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1997] 3 WLR 403; [1997] 2 All ER 762, CA ............................................... 1306, 1310 Thompson and Venables v Associated Newspapers and Others: see Venables, Jon, Thompson, Robert v News Group Newspapers Ltd, Associated Newspapers Ltd, MGM Ltd Thompson Newspapers Ltd ex p Attorney General [1968] 1 All ER 268; [1968] 1 WLR 1 ............................................................... 253, 334, 367, 391 Thorgeir Thorgeirson v Iceland (1992) 14 EHRR 843 ............................... 93, 94, 310, 966 Thynne, Wilson and Gunnel v UK, Judgment of 25 October 1990, A 190; (1990) 13 EHRR 666............................................................................... 58, 113 Tilly v Director of Public Prosecutions (2001) The Times 27 November ................................................................................................................. 741, 743, 744 Tinnelly and McElduff v UK (1998) 27 EHRR 249............................. 61, 62, 1031, 1088, 1320, 1343, 1344 Tisdall (1984) The Times, 26 March ....................................................................................... 96, 593 Tolstoy Miloslavsky v UK (1995) 20 EHRR 442; The Times, 19 July ...................................................................................................................................... 96 Tomasi v France (1992) 15 EHRR 1 ............................................................... 46, 48, 1175, 1176
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Tottenham Three case (1991) The Times, 9 December ........................................................ 1103 Tower Boot Co v Jones [1997] ICR 254; [1997] IRLR 168 .............................. 1561, 1564 Treadaway v Chief Constable of West Midlands (1994) The Times, 25 October ............................................................................................................... 1305 Trussler [1988] Crim LR 446 ............................................................................................................ 1274 Turley v Allders [1980] ICR 66 ....................................................................................................... 1529 Tyrer v UK, Judgment of 25 April 1978, A 26; (1978) 2 EHRR 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 32, 47 UDR Four Case [1988] 11 NIJB 1 ................................................................................................. 1171 United Communist Party of Turkey v Turkey 1998 WL 1043934 (ECHR); 4 BHRC 1; (1998) 26 EHRR 121; [1998] HRCD 247 ......................................................................................................................... 1357 VGT v Switzerland (2000) 34 EHRR 159............................................................... 209, 539, 542 Vagrancy Cases, Judgment of 18 June 1971, A 14 (1972) 1 EHRR 373 .......................................................................................................................................... 55 Valenzuela v Spain (1998) 28 EHRR 483 .................................................................................. 1044 Van Colle v Chief Constable of Hertfordshire [2006] EWHC 360 QB ..................................................................................................................................247 Van der Mussele v Belgium Judgment of 23 November 1983, A 70; (1983) 6 EHRR 163 ............................................................................................... 51 Van Mechelen v Netherlands (1998) 25 EHRR 647 ............................................................. 1259 Van Oosterwijck v Belgium, Judgment of 6 November 1980, A 40; (1980) 3 EHRR 557 ............................................................................................... 33 Vel v Owen (1987) JP 510 .................................................................................................................. 1278 Venables, Jon, Thompson, Robert v News Group Newspapers Ltd, Associated Newspapers Ltd, MGM Ltd [2001] 1 All ER 908; [2001] 2 WLR 1038 ................................................ 890, 905–7, 908, 909, 911, 912, 915, 938, 951, 956, 970, 985, 987, 988 Vernillo v France (1991) 13 EHRR 880 ........................................................................................... 63 Vernon [1988] Crim LR 445 .............................................................................................................. 1222 Victoria Park Racing Co v Taylor (1937) 58 CLR 479 ..........................................................994 Video Appeals Committee of the BBFC ex p BBFC [2000] EMLR 850 ......................................................................................... 548, 554, 564, 565, 569, 570 Vijayanathan v France (1992) 15 EHRR 62 ................................................................................... 27 Vilvarajah and Four Others v UK (1991) Judgment of 30 October 1991;(1991) 14 EHRR 248; A 215 (1991) ............................... 30, 49, 107 Vince and Another v Chief Constable of Dorset (1992) The Times, 7 September ............................................................................................................ 1171 Vogt v Germany (1995) 21 EHRR 205 ................................................................................ 98, 1359 Von Hannover v Germany (2006) 43 EHRR 7 .................................195, 431, 818–24, 828, 830, 836–38, 845, 848, 880, 883–85, 893–95, 914, 915, 933, 948–50, 956, 968, 969, 979, 991, 1070
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Table of cases
W, Re, [2002] 2 AC 291 .................................................................................................... 184, 186, 968 W (A Minor) (Wardship: Freedom of Publication), Re, [1992] 1 All ER 794 CA .................................................................. 856, 859, 960, 961, 968 W (A Minor) (Wardship: Restriction on Publication), Re, (1995) 2 FLR 466......................................................................................................... 856, 968 W (Children), Re, [2005] EWHC 1564 ......................................................................... 972–5, 980 W v Egdell [1990] Ch 359; [1989] 2 WLR 689, CA; [1990] 1 WLR 1502, HL ..............................................................................................................916 W v UK (1983) Appl 9348/81; 32 DR 190 (1983) .................................................................... 41 W and B (Children) (Care Plan), Re, [2002] 2 WLR 720 ......................................... 176, 177 W, B v UK (1987) Judgment of 8 July; A 121; (1987) 10 EHRR 29 .......................................................................................................................................... 88 Waddington v Miah [1974] 1 WLR 683; [1974] 2 All ER 377, CA and HL................................................................................................................................123 Wahab [2003] 1 Cr App R 15 ........................................................................................................... 1274 Wainwright v Home Office [2004] 2 AC 406........................................... 239, 240, 810, 825, 866, 991, 1107, 1136, 1176, 1177–81, 1326 Wales v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1995] IRLR 531............................................................................................................................ 1564 Walsh [1989] Crim LR 822; (1989) 19 Cr App R 161, CA ............................................................................................................................... 1280, 1283, 1287 Ward v Chief Constable of Somerset and Avon Constabulary (1986) The Times, 26 June, CA ............................................................... 1151 Watkins (Respondent) v Home Office (Appellants) and Others [2006] UKHL 17 ...............................................................................................................239 Watson v UK [1997] EHRR 181 .......................................................................................................... 58 Webb v Chief Constable of Merseyside Police [2000] 1 All ER 209 .................................................................................................................................... 1410 Webb v Emo Air Cargo (UK) Ltd (No 2) [1994] 3 WLR 941; [1994] All ER 115; [1994] QB 718.................................................................. 1531–33 Webb v Emo Air Cargo (UK) Ltd [1992] CMLR 793, CA; [1993] 1 WLR 49; [1992] 4 All ER 929, HL ........................................ 1530, 1533 Webber [2004] UKHL 1 ....................................................................................................................... 1239 Webster v Southwark London Borough Council [1983] QB 698; [1983] 2 WLR 217.......................................................................................................678 Weekes [1993] Crim LR 222; (1992) The Times, 15 May, CA ............................................................................................................................................ 1195, 1196 Weeks v UK, Judgment of 5 October 1988, A 114; (1987) 10 EHRR 293 .................................................................................................................... 53, 58, 234 Welch v UK (1995) 20 EHRR 247 ..................................................................................................... 67 Weldon v Home Office [1991] WLR 340; [1990] 3 All ER 672, CA ................................................................................................................................. 1304, 1307 Wemhoff v Germany, Judgment of 27 June 1968; (1968) 1 EHRR 58............................................................................................................................................. 58 West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive v Jaquant Singh [1988] WLR 730, CA .................................................................................. 1536
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Westminster City Council v Morris [2006] 1 WLR 505........................................................203 Wheeler v Leicester City Council [1985] AC 1054; [1985] 2 All ER 1106, HL...........................................................................................................125 Whelan v Director of Public Prosecutions [1975] QB 864 ............................................... 1394 White v Metropolitan Police Commissioner (1982) The Times, 24 April...................................................................................................................... 1305 Whitehead v Brighton Marine Palace and Pier Company Ltd (2005) Case 3102595/04 18 April................................................................................ 1560 Whitfield v Cleanaway UK (2005) 4 February (unreported) ............................................ 1560 Wickramsinghe v UK [1998] EHRLR 338 ..................................................................................... 61 Widmer v Switzerland, No 20527/92(1993) (unreported) ....................................................... 42 Wiggins v Field [1968] Crim LR 50 ................................................................................................477 Williams [198713 All ER 411; [1987] Crim LR 167 ................................................................ 45 Williams [1989] Crim LR 66............................................................................................................. 1196 Williams and O’Hare v Director of Public Prosecutions [1993] Crim LR 775 ...................................................................................................... 1296, 1299 Wilson v Chief Constable of Lancashire Constabulary (2000) 23 November (unreported) ........................................................................................ 1159 Wilson v The First County Trust Ltd [2001] 3 All ER 229; [2001] EWCA Civ 633 .......................................................................................... 175, 176, 186, 200, 286 Winder v Director of Public Prosecutions (1996) The Times, 14 August ............................................................................................................. 739, 740, 743, 747 Windisch v Austria (1990) 13 EHRR 281 ....................................................................................... 66 Winer v UK (1986) 48 DR 154 ........................................................................... 71, 815, 816, 828 Wingrove v UK, Judgment of 25 November 1996, (1994) 18 EHRR CD 54; (1996) 24 EHRR 1.............................................................. 38, 490, 491, 494, 496, 570 Winn v Director of Public Prosecutions (1992) 142 NLJ .....................................................786 Winterwerp v Netherlands, Judgment of 24 October 1979, A 33; (1979) 2 EHRR 387 .................................................................................................... 52, 55 Wise v Dunning [1902] 1 KB 167............................................................................... 772, 773, 780 Wloch v Poland (2002) 34 EHRR 9 .................................................................................................327 Woodward v Hutchins [1977] 1 WLR 760; [1977] 2 All ER 751, CA ................................................................................................... 918–20, 931, 984 Woolgar v Chief Constable of Sussex [1999] 3 All ER 604 ...............................................433 Woollin [1999] 1 AC 82, HL ................................................................................................................363 Worm v Austria (1997) 25 EHRR 557; (1998) 25 EHRR 454 ..................................................................................................................321–26, 328, 329, 331, 353–57, 362, 382 Wynne v UK (1994) 19 EHRR 333 .................................................................................................... 58 X X X X
v Austria v Austria v Austria v Austria
(1963) Appl 1852/63; (1965) YB VIII .................................................................... 91 (1970) Appl 4428/70; (1972) YB XV.............................................................. 66, 67 (1976) No 7045/75, 7 DR 87.....................................................................................236 (1973) Appl 5362/72, Coll 42; 42 DR 145 .......................................................... 64
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Table of cases
X v Austria (1979) 18 DR 154 .............................................................................................................. 74 X (A Child), Re, [2001] 1 FCR 541................................................................ 860, 864, 970, 971 X (Minors) v Bedfordshire CC [1995] 2 AC 633, CA; [1995] 3 WLR 152; [1995] 3 All ER 353, HL................................................................... 62 X v Belgium (1961) 4 YB 324 .............................................................................................................. 97 X v Denmark (1979) Appl 8828/79; 30 DR 93 (1982) .................................................... 48, 56 X v Federal Republic of Germany (1956) 1 YB 202................................................................. 90 X v Federal Republic of Germany (1969) Appl 4045/69; (1970) YB XIII...................................................................................................................................109 X v Federal Republic of Germany (1970) Appl 4653/70; (1974) 46 CD 22; 17 YB 148 ...................................................................................................... 51 X v Federal Republic of Germany (1979) Appl 8410/78; (1979) 18 DR 216 .............................................................................................................................. 51 X v Federal Republic of Germany (1980) DR 17 ....................................................................... 65 X v Ireland (1973) 16 YB 388............................................................................................................... 52 X v Morgan Grampian Publishers and Others [1991] AC 1, CA; [1990] 2 WLR 1000; [1990] 2 All ER 1, HL ................................................................................................... 412–15, 418, 419, 420, 425 X v Netherlands (1974) 2 DR 118 ...................................................................................................... 70 X v Netherlands (Appl 2894/66); (1966) 9 YB 564................................................................... 57 X v Norway (1961) Appl 867/60; 4 YB 270 .................................................................................. 27 X v Spain Appl 10227/82; DR 37(1984).......................................................................................... 43 X v Sweden (Appl 7911/77) (1977) 12 DR 192 ........................................................................105 X v UK (1973) Appl 5877/72; 16 YBCHE 328 ........................................................... 814, 1070 X v UK (1975) Appl 6564/74; 2 DR 105 (1975) ......................................................................104 X v UK (1978) Appl 8324/78 (unpublished) ................................................................................. 48 (1978) Appl No 7154/75; 14 DR 31(1978) ................................................. 39, 41, 42, 70 X v UK (1980) Appl 8416/78; 19 DR 244 (1980) .....................................................43, 80, 89 X v UK (1981) Appl 7990/77; 24 DR 57 ............................................................................. 30, 203 X v UK (1981) Appl 8306/78, 25 DR 147; (1981) 3 EHRR 63 ........................................................................................................................... 28, 30, 1521 X v UK (1982) 5 EHRR 273 ................................................................................................................. 60 X v UK (1998) 25 EHRR CD 88 ........................................................................................................ 61 X v UK and Ireland (1982) Appl 9829/82 (unpublished) ....................................................... 41 X v Y [1988] 2 All ER 648 ...................................................................................................................916 X (A Minor) (Wardship: Injunction) (The Mary Bell Case) [1984] 1 WLR 1422 ............................................................................................................. 855, 961 X and the Church of Scientology v Sweden (1977) Appl 7805/77; (1979) YB XXII; 16 DR 68...................................................................................... 92 X and Y v Austria (1974) Appl 7909/77; 15 DR 160 (1978) ............................................... 65 X and Y v Netherlands (1985) 8 EHRR 235 .............................................................. 70, 74, 804 X, Y and Z v UK (1997) 24 EHRR 143 .......................................................................................... 87 Young, James and Webster v UK, Judgment of 13 August 1981, A 44; (1981) 4 EHRR 38............................................................................... 34, 99, 150 YL v Birmingham City Council and Others [2007] All ER 271, CA; [2007] UKHL 27, HL ........................................................ 222, 226, 227
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Z (A Minor) (Identification: Restrictions on Publication), Re, [1995] 4 All ER 961, CA ..........................................................855, 856–59, 862, 865, 946, 957, 959, 960, 961, 968, 969, 980 Z v Finland (1997) 25 EHRR 371 .................................................................... 425, 430, 432, 438 Z and E v Austria (1986) 49 DR 67 ................................................................................................... 88 Z and Others v UK Appl 28945/95; (2001) The Times 31 May...................................................................................................................................................... 62 Zamir v UK (1983) Report of 11 October, 40 DR 42 (1983) ........................................................................................................................................................ 55 Zana v Turkey (1998) 4 BHRC 242; (1997) 27 EHRR 667 .............................................................................................................................................................. 64 Zand v Austria (1978) 15 DR 70.......................................................................................................... 63 Zaveckas (1970) 54 Cr App R 202, CA ........................................................................ 1268, 1273 Ziliberberg v Moldova App no 61821/00, 4 May 2004, (unreported)............................................................................................................................... 680, 759 Zimmermann and Steiner v Switzerland (1983) 6 EHRR 17................................................ 90
Table of UK statutes
Abortion Act 1967 ............................ 284, 285 Access to Health Record Act 1990 ..... 926 Access to Personal Files Act 1987 ..... 923, 924, 926 Administration of Justice Act 1960 s 12(1) ................................................ 390, 853 Administration of Justice Act 1973 Sched 5 ......................................................... 570 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979........ 687 Anti Social Behaviour Act 2003 ......................................... 660, 672, 701, 706, 788, 854 s 57 ................................................................. 739 Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 ..................... 203, 211, 1090–94, 1329, 1332, 1334, 1335, 1374, 1407, 1408, 1421–26, 1458, 1466, 1468 Pt 3.................................... 1090, 1091, 1093 Pt 4........................................... 171, 228, 289, 1332, 1363, 1421–39, 1443, 1463, 1465, 1466 Pt11 ................................. 1090, 1091, 1093 s 17 ............................................................ 1092 s 17(2) ...................................................... 1092 s 17(2)(a) ..................................... 1091, 1093 s 17(2)(b) ..................................... 1091, 1093 s 17(2)(c) ..........1091, 1092, 1093, 1094 s 17(2)(d) ..........1091, 1092, 1093, 1094
s 17(3),(4)................................................. 1092 s 17(5) ........................................... 1092, 1093 s 17(6) ........................................................ 1092 s 18 .............................................................. 1093 ss 21–23 ....................................... 1429, 1432 s 21 288, 289, 1427, 1433, 1455, 1436 s 21(1) ........................................... 1426, 1427 s 21(1)(a), (b) ......................................... 1430 s 21(2) ........................................................ 1426 s 21(3) ........................................................ 1426 s 21(5) ........................................................ 1426 s 21(8) ........................................................ 1429 s 23 ....................................... 288, 289, 1427, 1433, 1438, 1455, 1436 s 23(1) ........................................................ 1427 s 23(2) ........................................................ 1427 s 25 ................................................. 1429, 1455 s 27(9) ........................................................ 1430 s 30 .............................................................. 1431 s 39 ................................................................. 781 s 94 .............................................................. 1122 ss 102, 103............................................... 1093 s 116............................................................ 1019 s 117............................................................ 1412 Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876....................................... 1019, 1398 Armed Forces Act 1996 ss 21–28 .................................................... 1568 Army Act 1955 .............................................. 100 s 66 .............................................................. 1519 Atomic Energy Act 1946 s 11 ................................................................. 615
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Table of UK statutes
Bail Act 1976 ................................................. 774
Civil Procedure Act 1997 ...................168
Banking Act 1987 ..................................... 1249
Civil Service Reform Act 1978 ............ 591
Broadcasting Act 1981 s 29(3) ........................................................... 302
Companies Act 1985................................ 1251 s 431(5) ..................................................... 1239 s 432(2) ..................................................... 1250 s 437.................................... 271, 1239, 1249
Broadcasting Act 1990................... 234, 274, 512, 518, 519, 537 s (2) ................................................................ 550 s 6(1)(a) .................................. 179, 516, 535 s 43 ................................................................. 546 s 142............................................................... 839 s 162......................................... 509, 520, 524 s 164(2), (4) ............................................... 498 Broadcasting Act 1996........ 512, 516, 519, 537, 546, 842, 848 s 89 ................................................................. 546 s 106.................................................... 528, 840 s 107............................................................... 841 s 119............................................................... 841 Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1971 s 1(2) .................................................. 170 Children Act 1989 s 1(1) ................................................... 856, 972 s 97 ................................................................. 853 Children and Young Persons Act 1933 s 39(1) .......................... 392, 394, 854, 906 s 49 ................................................................. 854 s 53(1) ........................................................... 906 Cinemas Act 1985 ............................. 551, 561 Cinematograph Act 1909 .............. 262, 551, 561 Cinematograph (Amendment) Act 1982... 587 Civil Aviation Act 1942 s 40 ................................................................. 994 Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.... 469, 583, 585 s 57(1) ........................................................ 1215 Civil Partnerships Act 2004 ................. 1472
Communications Act 2003 .......... 206, 208, 214, 296, 315, 511–16, 518, 519, 812, 840 Pt3 ................................................................... 516 s 2(1), (2)..................................................... 520 s 198(1) ........................................................ 520 s 198(2) ........................................................ 521 s 198(5), (6) ............................................... 521 ss 232–40.......................................... 520, 546 s 237............................................................... 520 s 296............................................................... 511 s 309............................................................... 511 s 319.............................. 209, 514, 520, 521 s 319(c) ........................ 511, 523, 524, 533 s 319(1), (2) ............................................... 522 s 319(2)(a)................................................... 522 s 319(2)(f) ........................................ 522, 523 s 319(2)(g) ............................ 209, 210, 518 s 319(4) ............................................. 522, 523 s 319(4)(f) ................................................... 523 s 320............................................................... 511 s 321......................................... 209, 210, 533 s 321(2), (3) .................................... 209, 518 s 392............................................................... 520 Sched1 ........................................................... 841 Computer Misuse Act 1990 ......... 923, 924 Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875 s 7 ......................................................... 669, 705 Constitutional Reform Act 2005........... 257 Consumer Credit Act 1974 s 127(3) ............................................. 175, 200 Contempt of Court Act 1981................ 32, 94, 150 183, 330, 334–363, 394, 398 s 1 ......................................................... 337, 361
Table of UK statutes
s s s s s s
2 .................................................................... 361 2(2) ...................339, 340–357, 361, 362 2(3) .............................................................. 338 3 .................................................................... 361 4(a)-(e) ...................................................... 338 5 .................................. 124, 331, 337–361, 362, 674 s 6(c) .............................................................. 363 s 8 .................................................................... 402 s 10 ................................................................. 420 ss 12, 13 ..................................................... 338 Sched 1 ......................................................... 338 Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 s 71 .............................................................. 1080 Crime and Disorder Act 1998 s 1 ........................ 673, 674, 780, 854, 872 s 1(10) ........................................................... 674 s 25 ................................................... 673, 1122 s 28 ................................................................. 781 s 31 ................................................................. 781 Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 ................... 854 s 28 ....................................................................58 s 29 ................................................................. 181 s 45 ................................................................. 392 Criminal Appeals Act 1968 ..................... 338 s 2(1) ........................................................... 1260 Criminal Appeals Act 1995 .................. 1260 Criminal Attempts Act 1981 ................... 739 s 1(4) .............................................................. 739 Criminal Justice Act 1987 .................... 1250 s 2 ................................................................. 1249 s 2(4) .............................................................. 999 Criminal Justice Act 1988 ss 23, 25, 26............................................ 1294 s 93D(6) .................................................... 1349 s 99 .............................................................. 1217 s 139............................................................ 1114 s 160......................................... 476, 478, 481 Criminal Justice Act 1991 s 33(2) ........................................................... 202 s 34 ....................................................................58 s 37(4) ........................................................... 202 s 39..................................................202
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Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001........................673, 1090, 1099, 1129, 1255, 1256, 1310, 1323 Pt 2.................................................................. 442 s 41 ................................................................. 872 s 42 ...................................................... 780, 787 s 50 ........................... 441, 442, 1003, 1255 s 50(1),(2)................................................. 1003 s 51 .............................................................. 1255 s 51(1)–(2) ............................................... 1129 ss 52-61 ........................................................ 442 s 54 ................................................................. 442 s 55 ................................................................. 442 s 60 ................................................................. 442 s 61 ................................................................. 442 s 62 ................................................................. 442 s 62(4) ........................................................... 442 s 73 ................................... 1160, 1166, 1172 s 76 .............................................................. 1204 Sched1 ........................................................ 1003 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 ....... 118, 119, 123, 159, 669, 670, 701, 710, 738, 1101, 1104, 1111, 1113, 130, 1137, 1186, 1189–91, 1209, 1236, 1239, 1244, 1249, 1250, 1255, 1284, 1323, 1325, 1364, 1366 s 34, 36, 37................................1205, 1209, 1213, 1235, 1238, 1239, 1241–43, 1247, 1327 s 34–37 ........................... 1189, 1212, 1235 s 34 .................... 1238, 1239, 1240, 1242, 1244, 1247, 1248 s 34(1) ........................................................ 1237 s 34(1)(A) ................................................. 1241 s 34(2)(a) .................................................. 1200 s 34(2)(d) .................................................. 1212 s 34(2A) ................. 1212–15, 1241, 1242 s 36–37 .......................... 1189, 1205, 1212, 1213, 1235, 1242 s 38(3) ........................................... 1238, 1241 s 60 ......... 758, 1104, 1122, 1124, 1126, 1133, 1134
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Table of UK statutes
s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
60(4), (5) ............................................... 1138 60AA............................................ 758, 1125 61 ...................................................... 748, 749 68 .......................................... 672, 697, 748, 780, 1057, 1327 68(1) ........................................................... 744 68(2) ................................................ 744, 745 68(3) ........................................................... 744 69 ..................... 673, 688, 697, 748, 749 71 .............................................................. 1327 80(5(b) .................................................... 1184 81(1) ........................................................ 1118 82 ................................................. 1369, 1409 84 ...................................................... 478, 556 90 ................................................................. 562 142.................................................... 393, 851 143..................................................................82 143–148 .................................................... 556 146............................................... 1513, 1520 154.................................................... 780, 785 163............................................... 1068, 1073 168............................................................... 583
Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998 .............. 1250, 1365–69 s 5 ................................................................. 1367 s 20(1) ........................................................ 1367 Criminal Law Act 1967............. 1140, 1143 s 3 .................................735, 744, 745, 1162 Criminal Law Act 1977 s 1A ............................................................. 1367 s 5(3) .............................................................. 482 s 53 ................................................................. 472 s 62 ................................................. 1188, 1208 Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 ..................... 1075 s 3(4) ........................................................... 1048 ss 37, 38 58(4) ........................................ 852 Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 s 49 ................................................................. 479 Data Protection Act 1984 .......... 139, 150, 627, 921, 922–923 s 5 .................................................................... 922
ss 10, 11, 21, 22, 24 .............................. 923 Sched 1 ......................................................... 922 Data Protection Act 1998 ........................ 624, 640, 804, 810, 812, 813, 824, 831, 847, 848, 867, 881, 888, 889, 890, 901, 911, 920–937, 1021, 1064, 1093 s 1(1) ................................................... 927, 929 s 2 .................................................................... 928 s 3 .................................................................... 937 s 6(6) .............................................................. 936 s 7 .................................................................... 930 s 10 ........................................... 930, 932, 933 s 13 ................................................................. 935 s 17 ................................................................. 929 s 17(1) ........................................................... 929 s 17(3) ........................................................... 929 s 21(1) ........................................................... 935 s 23(1) ........................................................... 929 s 32 ................................................................. 935 s 32(1)-(4) ........................................ 932, 933 s 32(3) ........................................................... 834 s 40(1) ........................................................... 935 s 42 ................................................................. 935 s 43 ................................................................. 935 s 47 ................................................................. 935 s 48 ................................................................. 936 s 49 ................................................................. 936 s 49(6) ........................................................... 936 Sched 1 .............................................. 928, 929 Sched 2 ................................... 929, 930, 931 Sched 3 ................................... 929, 931, 934 Sched 8 ...........................................934 Sched 9 .............................................93 Disability Discrimination Act 1995................ 1481, 1485, 1511–13, 1526, 1536, 1537, 1547–58, 1563–65, 1574, 1575, 1577, 1588, 1593, 1595, 1599 Pts 2–4 ....................................................... 1597 s 1(1) ........................................................... 1512 s 2(1) ........................................................... 1512 s 3A(1) .......................................... 1547, 1548
Table of UK statutes
s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
3A(2) ....................................................... 1551 3A(3) ....................................................... 1548 3A(5) ....................................................... 1536 3A(6) ....................................................... 1552 4 ................................................................. 1563 4A(1) ....................................................... 1551 4A(3) ....................................................... 1552 5 ................................................................. 1550 5(3) ........................................................... 1549 5(5) ........................................................... 1550 5A ............................................................. 1597 6 .................................................... 1550, 1551 6(3) ........................................................... 1551 17A(1)(c) ................................. 1537, 1548 17A(3) .................................................... 1588 18B(1)..................................................... 1552 18B(2)..................................................... 1553 19 ................................... 1512, 1553, 1554 20(4) ........................................................ 1549 21 .............................................................. 1554 21B ........................................................... 1554 21F ........................................................... 1553 22 .............................................................. 1512 25(9) ........................................................ 1548 28A .......................................................... 1513 28A(3) .................................................... 1513 28B(6), (7) ........................................... 1549 28C ........................................................... 1554 28C(2), (3) ........................................... 1555 28R ........................................................... 1513 28R(6)(c) ............................................... 1513 28T ........................................................... 1554 28T(2) ..................................................... 1555 53A ............................................. 1555, 1595 55 .............................................................. 1563 58 .............................................................. 1561 71 .............................................................. 1511
Disability Discrimination Act 2005.................................................... 1536 s 12 .............................................................. 1553 Drug Trafficking Offences Act 1986...............................................67, 558 Education Act 1996 ........................................75 Education (No 2) Act 1986 ........................74 s 43 ...................................................... 679, 733
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Employment Act 2002 ............................ 1492 Employment Appeals Tribunals Act 1996 s 10 .............................................................. 1031 Employment Rights Act 1996 ................................................ 1484, 1521 s 71 .............................................................. 1506 s 71(1) ........................................................ 1506 s 72(1) ........................................................ 1506 s 73 .............................................................. 1506 s 73(1) ........................................................ 1506 s 99 ................................................. 1491, 1529 s 193............................................................ 1031 Employment Rights Act 1999 Sched 8 ...................................................... 1031 Equality Act 2006 ..................................... 1482 Pt 2............................................................... 1482 Pt 3............293, 1482, 1515, 1596, 1602 s 81 .............................................................. 1522 European Communities Act 1972 ..... 152 s 2(4) ........................ 153, 154, 1479, 1486 Financial Services Act 1968 s 177............................................................ 1249 s 178............................................................ 1249 Football Spectators Act 1989 s 14A, 14B.................................................. 791 Freedom of Information Act 2000.................. 217, 590, 591, 627, 628, 630–658, 921, 1021, 1385 s 1(1)(b)............................................. 634, 639 s 1(3) .............................................................. 650 s 2 ......................................................... 637, 653 ss 3-6 ............................................................. 633 s 3 .................................................................... 632 s 3(1)(b)........................................................ 633 s 4 ................................................................. 1040 s 4(1)-(3) ........................................... 632, 633 s 5 .......................................................................63 s 7(1),(3) ...................................................... 633 s 8 .................................................................... 650 s 9 .................................................................... 650 s 10(1) ........................................................... 650 s 12 ................................................................. 640
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Table of UK statutes
s 14 ................................................................. 640 s 16 ................................................................. 650 s 19 ................................................................. 654 s 19(1)(a) ..................................................... 654 s 20 ................................................................. 654 s 21 ................................................................. 635 s 21(2)(a) ..................................................... 639 s 22 ................................................................. 647 s 23(1) ................................................ 639, 650 s 26 ................................................................. 648 s 27 ................................................................. 648 s 28 ...................................................... 648, 649 s 29 ................................................................. 648 s 30(1) .......................... 641, 643, 644, 649 s 31 ................................ 641, 642, 642, 649 s 31(2) ................................................ 647, 648 s 32 ................................................................. 649 s 33 ...................................................... 648, 649 s 34 ................................................................. 639 s 35 ................................ 635, 641, 646, 649 s 35(1) ........................................................... 644 s 35(2) ........................................................... 645 s 36 ...................................................... 644, 649 s 37..................................................647 s 37(1)(a) ..................................................... 649 s 37(1)(b) ..................................................... 649 s 38 ................................................................. 648 s 40(1) ........................................................... 640 s 41 ................................................................. 640 s 42 ...................................................... 647, 649 s 43 ...................................................... 648, 649 s 43(1) ........................................................... 647 s 50 ................................................................. 652 s 50(1) ........................................................... 652 s 52(1) ........................................................... 652 s 52(2) ........................................................... 652 s 53(1) ........................................................... 653 s 56 ................................................................. 652 s 57(2),(3).................................................... 653 s 58(1) ........................................................... 653 s 59 ................................................................. 653 s 63(1) ........................................................... 649 s 64(1) ........................................................... 649 Sched 1 .............................................. 233, 632 Sched 2 ......................................................... 652 Sched 3 ......................................................... 652
Friendly Societies Act 1992 ................. 1249 Further and Higher Education Act 1992.................................................... 1524 Gender Recognition Act 2004 .................................................. 836, 1569 Government of Wales Act 1988 s 107(1) ........................................................ 213 Sched2 ........................................................... 213 Highways Act 1980 ...................... 734, 735, 736, 798 s 137.............................. 679, 734, 735, 798 s 137(1) ........................................................ 716 s 258............................................................... 667 Human Rights Act 1998 .......................... 1–4, 15, 20, 40, 77, 114, 116, 119, 122, 129, 131–34, 136, 142, 145, 148, 156, 157–298, 299, 306, 308, 312, 314, 315, 318, 319, 337, 350, 351, 352, 366, 376, 377, 380, 395, 399, 400, 415, 419, 422–24, 437, 448, 450, 452, 462, 464, 475, 480, 487, 492, 493, 501, 505, 510, 517, 531, 533, 538, 543, 545, 549, 558, 566, 567, 568, 569, 582, 588, 596, 600, 606, 615, 617, 619, 632, 661, 662, 671, 675, 678, 692, 693, 695, 696, 702, 708, 709, 712, 720, 721, 726, 728, 730, 734, 735, 743, 749, 752, 771, 774, 778, 781, 790, 795, 799, 800, 801, 804, 807, 810, 812, 813, 817, 824, 827, 828, 831, 832, 834, 846, 847, 850, 858, 860, 863, 865–67, 875, 876, 881, 893, 896, 903, 904, 909, 916, 918, 928, 935–37, 959, 980, 984, 985, 99193, 995, 1001, 1012, 1021, 1024, 1025,
Table of UK statutes
s s s
s s
1028, 1030, 1032, 1034, 1042, 1046, 1052, 1054, 1059, 1068, 1084, 1086, 1087, 1093, 1097, 1098–1100, 1102, 1104, 1105, 1126, 1129, 1130, 1134, 1141, 1150, 1152, 1155–57, 1164, 1168, 1169, 1177, 1180, 1181, 1190, 1207, 1208, 1210, 1234, 1249, 1252, 1256, 1261, 1263, 1265, 1267, 1287–90, 1292, 1293, 1302, 1303, 1307, 1309, 1310, 1316, 1325–27, 1335, 1337, 1341, 1349, 1361, 1369, 1401, 1414, 1424, 1431, 1438, 1448, 1460–65, 1474, 1479, 1484–86, 1510, 1515, 1516, 1518–20, 1526, 1566, 1569 1(2) ................................................... 169, 170 1(4) .............................................................. 165 2 .................................. 165, 169, 191, 192, 193, 207, 214, 257, 264, 279, 330, 255, 356, 360, 376, 492, 501, 682, 746, 761, 762, 824, 829, 848, 959, 990, 1046, 1179, 1267, 1307, 1338, 1521 2(1) ...........................193, 829, 954, 1435 3 ............................ 2, 130, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 180, 191–199, 201, 202, 208, 211, 213, 214, 216, 237, 249, 251, 255, 257, 261, 280, 281, 284, 285, 95, 296, 297, 312, 330, 337, 365, 360, 363, 400, 402, 403, 404, 408, 420, 445, 446, 501, 505, 543, 567, 596, 603, 604, 607, 608, 614, 617, 680, 702, 721, 722, 727, 730, 733, 736, 737, 741, 747, 750, 799, 804, 847, 848, 871, 872, 895, 935, 936, 037, 938,
s
s s s s s
s s s s s s s s
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986, 987, 1024, 1051, 1078, 1085, 1088, 1128, 1129, 1163, 1213, 1261, 1305, 1307, 1336, 1337, 1340, 1349, 1350, 1352, 1345, 1370, 1390, 1394, 1396, 1398, 1408, 1409, 1419, 1443, 1448, 1461, 1484, 1486, 1505, 1518–20, 1525, 1526, 1571, 1572 3(1) ................. 171, 176, 177, 178, 206, 215, 224, 355, 360, 389, 415, 420, 440, 444, 445, 531, 537, 538, 541, 544, 545, 568, 728, 747, 748, 858, 860, 862, 864, 959, 1094, 1256, 1571, 1432, 1433 3(2) ................164, 171, 199, 437, 1433 3(2)(a) ........................................................ 172 3(2)(b)........................................................ 171 3(2)(c) ............................... 171, 296, 1254 4 ........................... 16, 171, 175, 185 186, 187, 199–204, 214, 280, 281, 284, 296, 400, 531, 535, 537, 538, 959, 1051, 1052, 1094, 1431, 1432 4(1) .............................................................. 199 4(2) ..................................... 199, 200, 1447 4(4) .............................................................. 199 4(5) ................................................... 200, 202 4(6) .............................................................. 201 5(1) .............................................................. 200 5(2) ................................................... 200, 204 6 ....................... 164, 165, 170, 193, 198, 212, 218, 221, 222, 224, 226, 227, 231, 236, 237, 238, 239, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 264, 274, 275, 278, 281, 283, 296, 297, 330, 332, 333, 366, 378, 388, 420, 437, 438, 445, 446, 448, 480, 492, 501, 515, 516, 531, 543, 567, 584, 607, 617, 619, 622, 632, 633, 661, 680, 700, 701, 706,
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Table of UK statutes
720, 722, 729, 730, 736, 749, 750, 752, 760, 762, 764, 797, 799, 808, 824, 825, 836, 837, 848, 849, 850, 864, 866, 867, 871, 872, 875, 878, 905, 937, 938, 958, 981, 989, 991, 1007, 1030, 1047, 1048, 1075, 1076, 1078, 1080, 1084, 1085, 1086, 1087, 1093, 1139, 1157, 1179, 1181, 1251, 1252, 1259–61, 1263, 1265, 1270, 1277, 1294, 1302, 1305–10, 1318, 1336, 1337, 1341, 1355, 1370, 1386, 1396, 1397, 1454, 1455, 1484, 1485, 1519, 1521, 1569 ss 6–9 ........................................................... 229 s 6(1) .............................. 15, 215, 216, 231, 237, 254, 281, 530, 567, 825, 858, 959, 963, s 6(1)(a) ........................................................ 700 s 6(2) ............................ 164, 216, 296, 314, 581, 1094, 1259, 1307 s 6(2)(a) ........................................................ 216 s 6(2)(b)............... 216, 1088, 1261, 1352 s 6(3)(a) ............................................. 217, 954 s 6(3)(b)...................... 217, 227, 228, 229, 233, 248, 530 s 6(5) ...............................................216 s 6(6) ...............................................215 s 7 .................................. 165, 237, 295, 867, 905, 982, 991, 1081, 1089, 1445, 1179, 1180, 1258, 1260, 1308, 1397, 1405 s 7(1) ............................ 237, 237–239, 493, 1163, 1398 s 7(1)(a) ...................... 234, 235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 531, 544, 567, 581, 700, 701, 749, 808, 825, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 876, 981, 1008, 1051, 1055, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1086, 1089, 1094, 1131, 1180, 1257, 1262, 1304,
s
s s s s s s
s s s s s s s s s
s s s
s
s s s s
1307–09, 1319, 1347, 1398, 1484, 1521, 1521, 1524, 1567, 1569, 7(1)(b)........... 235, 237, 238, 493, 720, 1008, 1047, 1055, 1076, 1134, 1137, 1232, 1258, 1307, 1309 7(2) .............................................................. 238 7(3) ................................................... 236, 493 7(5) ................................................... 236, 240 7(7) ............................. 235, 237, 295, 701 7(9) .............................................................. 238 8 .................................. 165, 400, 401, 847, 849, 981, 991, 1007, 1089, 1131, 1137, 1179, 1180, 1257, 1258, 1260, 1306, 1309 8(1) ........................................ 241, 400, 401 8(2) .............................................................. 241 8(3) ................................................... 241, 244 8(4) ................................................ 242, 1309 9(3) .................................................................59 10 ............................... 201, 202, 204–206, 214, 296, 1438 10(2) ........................................................... 204 11 ................................................... 116, 1309 12 ............................... 213, 237, 252, 253, 300, 475, 622, 623, 624, 674, 795, 834, 847, 865, 871, 872, 875, 890, 902, 910, 930, 938, 950, 952, 956, 958, 981, 985, 986, 987, 1096 12(1) ............... 795, 895, 952, 985, 987 12(2) ..................................... 212, 617, 795 12(3) ......................... 212, 378, 379, 617, 622, 938, 952, 955, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990 12(4) ......................... 212, 213, 252, 253, 254, 378, 567, 617, 619, 624, 795, 860, 886, 892, 895, 905, 909, 938, 952, 957, 958, 959, 985, 987 12(4)(a)(i) ......................... 887, 895, 928, 12(4)(b) ......... 833, 834, 848, 905, 938 12(5) ........................................................... 212 13 ...................................................... 207, 220
Table of UK statutes
s s s s s
14 .............................................................. 1425 14(1)(a) .................................................. 1168 15 .............................................................. 1359 16 .............................................................. 1425 19 ................................. 16, 171, 207, 214, 296, 505, 518, 545, 1250 s 19(1)(a) .............................. 206, 207, 210, 1337, 1369 s 19(1)(b) ............................... 206, 210, 214 s 19(a) s 20 ................................................................. 204 s 21 ................................................................. 213 s 21(1) ................................................ 199, 216 s 22(4)(b) ..................................................... 239 Sched 1 ....................... 165, 166, 169, 229, 558, 1119, 1187, 1400, 1448, 1486 Sched 2 ......................................................... 205 Sched 3 .......................................................... ??? Immigration Act 1971 ss 3–3B 1427 Sched 3 ...................................................... 1424
Indecent Displays (Control) Act 1981 ..................................... 478, 483, 587 s 1(1), (2)..................................................... 478 s 1(4) .............................................................. 479 Insolvency Act 1986 s 236............................................................ 1249 s 433............................................................ 1249 Intelligence Services Act 1994 ............. 124, 159, 999, 1010, 1029, 1040, 1054, 1075, 1078, 1080, 1090, 1097, 1098 s 1(1), (2).................................................. 1013 s 3(2) ........................................................... 1013 s 5 .........................1016, 1059, 1061, 1066 s 5(2) ........................................................... 1016 s 6 ................................................................. 1016 s 9 .................................................................... 607 s 10 .............................................................. 1014
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Interception of Communications Act 1985.................................. 73, 114, 123, 615, 1010, 1017, 1022, 1032–1034, 1040, 1041, 1044, 1046, 1049, 1052, 1054, 1055, 1057, 1061, 1065, 1079, 1085, 1089 s 1 ...................................... 1038, 1048, 1050 s 1(1) .............................................. 1048, 1049 s 1(2) ........................................................... 1038 ss 2–5.......................................................... 1042 s 2(1) ........................................................... 1034 s 2(2) .............................................. 1034, 1049 s 2(3), (5).................................................. 1035 s 4(5), (6).................................................. 1036 s 6(3) ........................................................... 1049 s 7 ................................................................. 1040 s 7(3), (4).................................................. 1040 s 7(5) ........................................................... 1084 s 7(8) ........................................................... 1051 s 8 ................................................................. 1036 s 8(1)(a) ..................................................... 1039 s 8(3) ........................................................... 1039 s 9 ...................................................1040, 1048, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1082, 1253 s 9(1) ........................................................... 1399 s 9(1)(a) ..................................................... 1050 s 11(7) ........................................................ 1048 s 19 .............................................................. 1048 Justices of the Peace Act 1361 ... 686, 750 Justices of the Peace Act 1968 .............. 750 Knives Act 1997 s 7 ................................................................. 1122 Local Government (Access to Information) Act 1985 ....................... 627 Local Government Act 1972 Pt VA .... 627 Local Government Act 1986 s 2A ............................................................. 1524 Local Government Act 1988 s 17 .............................................................. 1576 s 28 .............................................................. 1524
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Table of UK statutes
Local Government Act 2000 s 104............................................................ 1524 Local Government Act 2003 s 122............................................................ 1524 Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1982................ 469, 587 Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980 s 69(2) ........................................................... 853 Medical Reports Act 1988 ....................... 925 Mental Health Act 1983............................ 245 s 73 ........................................... 201, 202, 205 s 74 ................................................................. 202 Pt VII ............................................................. 391 Metropolitan Police Act 1839 s 54(13) ..................................................... 1521 Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 ...................... 178 s 23 ...................................................... 996, 999 s 28 .............................................................. 1349 s 33 .............................................................. 1114 National Assistance Act 1948 ................ 224 s 21 ................................................................. 223 s 26 ................................................................. 226 National Heritage Act 1983 .................... 687 Northern Ireland Act 1998 ...... 1083, 1084 s 90 .............................................................. 1031 Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1978 s 7(1) ........................................................... 1350 s 11 .............................................................. 1152 Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1987........................... 1240 Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1991 s 28 .............................................................. 1382 Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1996.............1117, 1331, 1364 Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1998........... 1364, 1366
Obscene Publications Act 1959....................... 94, 464, 465, 469, 479, 481, 482, 483, 485, 509, 524, 526, 550, 552, 553, 560, 563, 583, 585, 586 s 1 ......................................................... 509, 550 s 2 .................................................................... 466 s 2(1) .............................................................. 469 s 2(5) ........................................................... 1349 s 4 .............................................. 124, 454, 674 Obscene Publications Act 1964 s 1(1),(2) ...................................................... 469 s 1(3) ........................................................... 1349 Offences Against the Person Act 1861.................................................... 1415 s 4 .................................................... 1417, 1419 s 18 .............................................................. 1415 s 23 .............................................................. 1415 s 24 .............................................................. 1415 s 28 .............................................................. 1415 s 29 .............................................................. 1415 Official Secrets Act 1889 ......................... 522 s 1 .................................................................... 596 Official Secrets Act 1911 ... 592, 602, 614 s 1 ................................... 592, 602, 603, 615 s 2 ....................................592–595, 613, 614 Official Secrets Act 1989 ...............595–616 s 1–4.................................................... 596, 603 s 1 ................................................................. 1203 s 1(1) ....................................... 596, 597, 600, 603, 605, 606, 607, 608, 610–616 s 1(3) ....................................... 598, 599, 600, 603, 604, 605, 613, 614 s 1(4) .............................................................. 599 s 1(4)(a) ........................................................ 599 s 1(5) ........................................................... 1349 s 1(9) .............................................................. 608 s 2 .............................................. 600, 601, 613 s 2(1) ................................................... 603, 604 s 2(2) ................................................... 600, 613 s 2(2)(b), (c) ............................................... 601
Table of UK statutes
s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
2(3) .............................................. 1349, 1343 2(4) ................................................ 600, 1353 3 .............................................. 603, 604, 613 3(1) .............................................................. 601 3(1)(a) ........................................................ 601 3(1)(b)................................. 601, 603, 604, 605, 613, 614 3(2) .............................................................. 601 3(2)(b)........................................................ 601 3(3) ................................................... 601, 602 3(5) .............................................................. 601 3(4) ........................................................... 1349 3(6) .............................................................. 601 4 ............................................. 602, 603, 607, 608, 613 4(1) ............................ 603, 606, 607, 608, 611, 612 4(2) ........................................ 600, 602, 606 4(2)(a) ........................................................ 606 4(2)(b)........................................................ 606 4(3) ............................. 603, 605, 614, 615 4(4) ................................................ 606, 1349 4(5) ........................................................... 1349 4(6) .............................................................. 602 5 .............................................. 596, 604, 613 5(1) ................................................... 596, 507 5(1)(a)(i), (iii) ........................................ 602 5(1)(b)(ii) ................................................. 602 5(6) .............................................................. 603 6 .................................................................... 607 6(1) .............................................................. 603 6(2) .............................................................. 604 6(3) .............................................................. 604 6(4) .............................................................. 604 6(5) .............................................................. 604 7 ......................................................... 604, 605 7(3) .............................................................. 607 12 ...................................................... 607, 608
Parks Regulation (Amendment) Act 1926 ...................................................... 68, 686, Parliament Act 1911.......................................82 s 2 .................................................................... 120 Police Act 1964 s 47 ................................................................. 100 s 48 .............................................................. 1309
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s 51 .............................................................. 1108 s 51(3) ........................................... 1109, 1117 Police Act 1976 .......................................... 1311 Police Act 1977 .......................................... 1324 Police Act 1996 .......................................... 1311 Pt III ............................................................ 1056 Pt IV............................................................ 1311 s 67(2) ........................................................ 1311 s 70 .............................................................. 1311 s 72 .............................................................. 1311 s 75(3) ........................................................ 1311 s 83 .............................................................. 1311 s 86 .............................................................. 1108 s 89 .............................................................. 1149 s 89(1) ................1109, 1117, 1137, 1139 s 89(2) ............................. 1111, 1137, 1139 Police Act 1997 ................................. 118, 119, 120, 998, 1054 ss 17, 18 ....................................................... 998 s 91(1) ................................ 998, 1057, 1058 s 93(2) ................................ 998, 1056, 1057 s 93(4) ............................................. 998, 1056 s 93(5) ........................................................ 1057 s 94 .............................................................. 1057 s 94(2) ........................................................... 998 s 95(1) ........................................................ 1057 s 97 .............................................................. 1058 s 97(2) ........................................................ 1057 s 97(2)(b) .................................................. 1058 s 97(3) ........................................................ 1058 s 98 .............................................................. 1058 s 99 .............................................................. 1058 s 102............................................................ 1040 Sched 5 ...................................................... 1000 Sched 9 .........................................1013 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984....................... 76, 119, 120, 194, 440–442, 762, 898, 996–997, 999, 1001, 1003, 1004, 1005, 1007, 1067, 1097, 1103–21, 1137–41, 1143, 1151, 1152, 1154, 1158, 1161, 1163, 1165–68, 1171,
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Table of UK statutes
1172, 1179, 1187, 1188–1210, 1215, 1216, 1220, 1226, 1232, 1234, 1236, 1254, 1255, 1256–58, 1262, 1263, 1265, 1267, 1268, 1279–1300, 1303, 1304, 1310, 1317, 1318, 1320, 1323–5 Pts I–IV ..................................................... 1107 Pt II................................................................. 441 Pt IV................................. 1165, 1171, 1303 Pt V................................... 1166, 1171, 1188 s 1 ..................................... 1113, 1117, 1119, 112, 1128, 1130, 1132 s 1(1) .............................................. 1113, 1114 s 1(1)(a), (b) ............................................ 1114 s 1(2) .............................................. 1113, 1123 s 1(4) ........................................................... 1114 s 2 ...................................... 1114, 1130, 1138 s 2(1) ........................................................... 1129 s 2(3) ......................................................... 1130 s 3 .........................1114, 1129, 1130, 1138 s 4 .................................................... 1113, 1114 s 8 .................................................................... 998 s 8(1) ................................................ 441, 1002 s 8(1)(c) ........................................................ 998 s 8(1)(d)........................................................ 441 s 8(2) ........................................................... 1001 s 9 ........................................... 441, 447, 1002 s 9(2) .............................................................. 441 s 10 .............................................................. 1003 s 10(2) ........................................................ 1003 s 11 ................................................... 441, 1002 s 14 ................................................... 441, 1002 s 15 ................................................................. 998 s 15(5A) ....................................................... 998 s 15(3),(6).................................................... 998 s 16 ...................................................... 998, 999 s 16(5)(b), (c) ................................. 998, 999 s 16(8) ........................................................... 999 s 17 ........................... 996, 997, 1000, 1114 s 17(1)(c) ..................................................... 676 s 17(5),(6)................................................. 1000 s 18 ......................... 996, 997, 1114, 1138 s 18(4) ........................................................ 1005 s 19 ................................................... 999, 1001 s 22(1) ........................................... 1001, 1002
s 22(2)(a) .................................................. 1002 s 24 (now repealed and ...............1256 replaced by new s 24) s 24 ............... 679, 1122, 1131, 1143–45, 1150, 1155, 1167, 1303 s 24(1)(a) .................................................. 1131 s 24(1)(b) .................................................. 1144 s 24(1)(c) ..................................... 1131, 1144 s 24(1)(d) ..................................... 1131, 1144 s 24(1)(e) .................................................. 1131 s 24(2) ........................................................ 1144 s 24(3)(a) .................................................. 1144 s 24(4)(a) .................................................. 1155 s 24(5) .................................................1144–46 s 24(5)(a) .................................................. 1155 s 24(5)(e), (f) .......................................... 1145 s 24(6) ........................................................ 1153 s 25(7)(a) .................................................. 1155 s 24 ................................................... 1217, 125 s 24A .......................................................... 1145 s 25 ................................................. 1145, 1146 s 28 ......................1149, 1158, 1160, 1161 s 29 .............................................................. 1162 s 30 ................................................. 1197, 1200 s 30(1) ........................................... 1200, 1201 s 32 ................................................................. 997 s 32(1) ........................................................ 1181 s 32(2) ........................................................ 1181 s 32(2)(b) ..................................................... 997 s 36 .............................................................. 1171 s 36(1) ........................................................ 1171 s 37 ................................... 1165, 1166, 1172 s 37(2) ........................................................ 1187 s 37(3) ........................................................ 1165 s 38 ................................................. 1166, 1172 s 40 .............................................................. 1166 s 40(1)(b) ..................................... 1166, 1172 s 40A .......................................................... 1166 s 41 .............................................................. 1165 s 42(1) ........................................................ 1165 s 43(1) ........................................................ 1166 s 44 .............................................................. 1166 s 45A ............................................. 1166, 1172 s 45A(4) .................................................... 1166 s 51(d) ........................................................ 1167 s 54 .............................................................. 1181 s 55 ................................................. 1179, 1181
Table of UK statutes
s 56 ................................................. 1189, 1192 s 58 .................................. 1189, 1218, 1255, 1282, 1286, 1309 s 58(8) .................................................1216–18 s 58(6)(b) .................................................. 1217 s 58(8A)–(8B) ........................................ 1217 s 60 ................................................. 1203, 1203 s 60A .......................................................... 1204 s 62 ................................................. 1183, 1184 s 63 ................................................. 1183, 1184 s 64 .............................................................. 1290 s 65 .............................................................. 1184 s 66 .............................................................. 1103 s 67(8) ........................................... 1187, 1311 s 67(10) .......................... 1107, 1304, 1308 s 67(11) ........................................ 1108, 1138 s 76 .......................... 1199, 1206, 1275–78, 1287, 1289, 1290, 1300 s 76(2) ............................. 1271, 1275, 1276 s 76(2)(a) .............. 1204, 1206, 1269–75, 1346, 1462 s 76(2)(b) ............................. 1272–75, 1300 s 76(4) ........................................... 1253, 1293 s 76(8) ........................................... 1206, 1271 s 77 ................................................. 1300, 1301 s 78 ....................... 120, 1049, 1051, 1077, 1089, 1107, 1138, 1199, 1214, 1251, 1272, 1275–1300 s 82(3) ........................................... 1287, 1300 s 84(4), (5) ............................................... 1311 s 87(4) (repealed and replaced ...1311 by new s 87(4)) s 94(2) ........................................................... 998 s 105(4) (repealed and replaced .1311 by new s 105(4)) s 116............................................................ 1165 s 117...... 1128, 1158, 1162, 1163, 1179 Sched 1 .. 441, 44, 446, 447, 448, 1002 Sched 7 ...................................................... 1002 Police and Magistrates’ Court Act 1994 s 37(f) ......................................................... 1189 Police Reform Act 2002 ..........1172, 1311, 1313, 1123–1321 Pt 2............................................................... 1314 Sched 3 ...................................................... 1314 s 12 .............................................................. 1321
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Police (Scotland) Act 1967 s 1 ................................................................. 1037 Post Office Act 1953 .................................. 477 s 58 .............................................................. 1033 s 58(1) ........................................................ 1033 Postal Services Act 2000 s 85 ................................................................. 479 Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005..................................... 3, 179, 205, 1099, 1100, 1329, 1332, 1335, 1354, 1362, 1374, 1422, 1438–52, 146, ss 1–9.......................................................... 1438 s 1(1) ........................................................... 1440 s 1(3) ........................................................... 1441 s 1(9) ................................ 1441, 1442, 1449 s 2 ................................................................. 1442 s 2(1)(a), (b)............................................ 1445 s 2(4) ........................................................... 1442 s 3 ...................................... 1447, 1448, 1449 s 3(1) ........................................................... 1445 s 3(1)(a) ........................................................ 145 s 3(2), (3).................................................. 1445 s 3(5), (6).................................................. 1445 s 3(10) ............................ 1445, 1447, 1449, 1450, 1452 s 3(11) ........................................................ 1445 s 3(12) ........................................... 1452, 1453 s 3(13) ........................................................ 1447 s 4 .................................................... 1442, 1444 s 4(3) ........................................................... 1444 s 4(7) ........................................................... 1444 s 4(8) ........................................................... 1443 s 7 ................................................................. 1442 s 8 ................................................................. 1440 s 8(2) ........................................................... 1439 s 8(4) ........................................................... 1440 s 11(2) ................................ 179, 1445, 1448 s 13(2) ........................................................ 1439 s 25 .............................................................. 1455 Sched .......................................................... 1451 Prevention of Terrorism (Additional Powers) Act 1996..................................... 119
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Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989........................................ 443, 1118, 1122, 1219, 1334 s 12 ....................................................................57 s 13A(4) .................................................... 1118 s 13B(3)..................................................... 1118 s 14 ................................... 1121, 1146, 1167 s 14(1) ........................................................ 1121 s 14(1)(b) ..................................... 1147, 1148 s 14(4) ........................................... 1167, 1169 s 14(5) ........................................................ 1167 s 15(3),(4)................................................. 1121 s 16 .............................................................. 1121 s 16A ............................................................. 272 s 16B .............................................................. 444 s 20 ................................................. 1148, 1149 s 51(1) ........................................................ 1000 Sched 5 ......................................... 1121, 1170 Sched 6A ..................................................... 997 Sched 7 .............................................. 442, 999 Protection from Harassment Act 1997................................ 234, 673, 691, 780, 813, 824, 863, 866, 869, 870–872 s 1 ......................................................... 674, 870 s 1(1)(c) ...........................................................87 s 2 .................................................................... 870 s 3 .................................................................... 871 s 7(3),(4) ...................................................... 871 Protection of Children Act 1978................................ 556, 557, 567, 568, 569, 586 s 1 .............................................. 447, 585, 586 s 7(6) .............................................................. 556 Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 .. 409, 591 Public Order Act 1936 ...... 497, 669, 701 s 1 .................................................................... 676 s 2 .................................................................... 399 s 2(1)(a) ........................................................ 400 s 2(1)(b)............................................. 399, 400 s 2(6) .............................................................. 677 s 3 ................................... 669, 704, 707, 708 s 3(1) .............................................................. 661
s 3(3) .............................................................. 709 s 55 ................................ 710, 772, 783, 787 Public Order Act 1986 ........ 125, 502, 503, 669, 672, 673, 674, 701, 707, 708, 709, 1417 Pt I .................................................................. 676 Pt II................................................................. 676 Pt III .............................. 497, 502, 505, 573 s 1 ......................................................... 676, 677 s 2 ......................................................... 676, 677 s 3 ......................................................... 676, 677 s 3A ................................................................ 502 s 4 .................................................................... 676 s 4A ..................................................... 507, 676 s 4A(3)(c) .................................................... 674 s 5 .............................. 507, 676, 1141, 1521 s 5(3)(c) ........................................................ 674 ss 11-14A .................................................... 676 s 11 .......................................... 674, 702, 704, 709, 764, 1149 s 11(1),(2).................................................... 702 s 11(4)–(6) .................................................. 702 s 11(7) ........................................................... 765 s 11(7)–(9) .................................................. 703 s 12 .......................................... 673, 674, 702, 704–706, 707, 708, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 728, 729, 764, 1149 ss 12-14A .............................. 720, 722, 725 ss l2-14 ......................................................... 721 s 12(1) ........................................................... 723 s 12(1)(a) ..................................................... 704 s 12(1)(b) ..................................................... 705 s 12(4) ........................................................... 707 s 12(5) ........................................................... 707 s 12(6) ........................................................... 707 s 13 ............................... 675, 692, 700, 702, 709, 710, 720, 725, 729, 730 s 13(1) ................................................ 708, 729 s 13(5) ........................................................... 708 s 13(7) ........................................................... 708 s 13(8) ........................................................... 708 s 13(10) ........................................................ 708
Table of UK statutes
s 14 ......................673, 674 679, 706–707, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 728, 729, 764, 1149 s 14(1) ........................................................... 706 s 14(4) ........................................................... 707 s 14(5) ........................................................... 707 s 14(6) ........................................................... 707 s 14(7) ........................................................... 707 s 14A ...................................... 673, 697, 700, 709, 710–722, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729 s 14A(1) ............................................ 710, 712 s 14A(4) ....................................................... 710 s 14A(5) ........... 710, 711, 712, 727, 728 s 14B .............................................................. 727 s 14B(5)........................................................ 727 s 14B(7)........................................................ 727 s 14C ........................................ 673, 697, 710 s 16 ................................................................. 676 s 18 ................................................................. 503 s 18(4) ........................................................ 1349 s 19 ................................................................. 503 s 19(2) ........................................................ 1349 s 20 ...................................................... 503, 573 s 20(2) ........................................................ 1349 s 21 ...................................................... 503, 573 s 21(3) ........................................................ 1349 s 22 ................................................................. 503 s 22(3)–(5) ............................................... 1349 s 23 ................................................................. 573 s 29A-29G.........................................502–505 s 29B .............................................................. 505 s 29J .................................................... 504, 505 s 54A ............................................................. 507 Public Records Act 1958 .............. 303, 627, 628, 632 Race Relations Act 1965 ....................... 1562 s 6 .................................................................... 497 Race Relations Act 1968 ....................... 1562 Race Relations Act 1976 .............. 224, 496, 502, 1126, 1134, 1136, 1137, 1208, 1312, 1316, 1481, 1484, 1507–11, 1521, 1527, 1547, 1548,
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1556, 1562, 1563, 1565, 1657, 1569, 1574, 1577, 1588, 1593, 1600 s 1(1)(a) .............1535, 1558, 1562, 1565 s 1(1)(b)...................................1545–7, 1549 s 1(1A) .......................................... 1544, 1545 s 2 ................................................................. 1563 s 3A ............................................................. 1559 s 4 .................................................... 1556, 1557 s 4A ................................................ 1570, 1586 s 17 .............................................................. 1557 s 19B ........................................................... 1509 s 20 .............................................................. 1508 s 32 .............................................................. 1561 ss 35-38 ..................................................... 1575 s 37 .............................................................. 1575 s 41(1) ........................................................ 1569 s 42 .............................................................. 1569 ss 48-50 ..................................................... 1594 s 53 .............................................................. 1509 s 54(a)–54ZA.......................................... 1536 s 56(1)(b) .................................................. 1558 s 57(1), (3) ............................................... 1586 s 69(2)(b) .................................................. 1569 s 7lD............................................................ 1578 s 71(2)–(4) ............................................... 1597 s 75 .............................................................. 1505 Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000......................................1125, 1126, 1208, 1509, 1577, 1594 s 7 ................................................................. 1569 Race Relations Remedies Act 1994.................................................... 1589 Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2005............................................ 502, 573 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 ............... 120, 124, 199, 207, 604, 810, 993, 995, 1010, 1012, 1034–1053, 1054, 1058, 1059, 1324, 1397, 1399 Pt I ..................... 1034, 1042, 1044, 1046, 1050, 1052, 1055, 1061, 1072, 1075
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Table of UK statutes
Pt II.................... 1038, 1054, 1055, 1056, 1057, 1058–1065, 1066, 1067, 1068, 1069, 1071, 1072, 1074, 1075, 1076, 1078, 1079, 1082 Pt IV............................................................ 1078 s 1 .........................1038, 1039, 1047, 1076 s 1(1),(2) ................................................... 1044 s 1(3) ........................................................... 1039 s 1(5)(c) ..................................................... 1048 s 1(6) ........................................................... 1038 s 2 .................................................................... 598 ss 2–5............................................. 1039, 1084 s 2(1) ........................................................... 1034 s 2(3) ........................................................... 1035 s 3 .........................1037, 1038, 1044, 1050 s 3(2) .............................................. 1037, 1038 s 4 .................................................... 1037, 1038 s 4(1) ........................................................... 1048 s 4(2) ........................................................... 1038 s 5(2)-(5) ................................................... 1035 s 5(3) .............................................. 1034, 1044 s 5(3)(a), (c) ............................................ 1036 s 5(5) ........................................................... 1034 s 6(2) ........................................................... 1037 s 7(1), (2).................................................. 1035 s 7(1)(a) ..................................................... 1051 s 8(1) ........................................................... 1037 s 8(7) ........................................................... 1035 s 9(6) ........................................................... 1036 s 11(4), (5) ............................................... 1037 s 11(7) ........................................... 1037, 1052 s 11(8) ........................................................ 1052 s 15 .............................................................. 1038 s 15(4)(d) .................................................. 1048 s 16(1) ........................................................ 1048 s 17 .................................. 1047, 1050, 1052, 1075, 1081, 1085 s 17(1) ........................................... 1048, 1051 s 17(1)(b) .................................................. 1048 s 17(2) ........................................... 1047, 1048 s 17(4) ........................................................ 1048 s 18 ................................... 1048, 1050, 1051 s 18(1) ........................................................ 1048 s 18(1)(f) ................................................... 1398 s 18(4) ........................................... 1048, 1050 s 18(6)–(8) ............................................... 1048
s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
18(9) ........................................... 1048, 1052 18(9)(b) .................................................. 1051 18(10) ..................................................... 1051 19 .............................................................. 1052 19(4) ........................................................ 1081 19(4a) ...................................................... 1081 21(4) ........................................................ 1039 26 .............................................................. 1038 26(2) ........................................................ 1062 26(3) ........................................................ 1060 26(4)(b) .................................................. 1062 26(5) ........................................................ 1062 27(2) ........................................................ 1078 28 .............................................................. 1063 28(2) ........................................................ 1063 28(3) ........................................................ 1073 30 .............................................................. 1063 30(2) ........................................................ 1063 32(2) ........................................................ 1061 32(3) ........................................... 1060, 1073 32(3a) ...................................................... 1063 32(3)(c) .................................................. 1063 32(6) ........................................................ 1061 33 .............................................................. 1061 34 .............................................................. 1061 34(4) ........................................................ 1061 35 .............................................................. 1061 36 .............................................................. 1061 37 ................................................. 1061, 1064 41 .............................................................. 1061 42 .............................................................. 1061 43 ................................................. 1061, 1063 43(3)(a) ..................................... 1061, 1063 43(3)(b) .................................................. 1063 43(3)(c) .................................................. 1063 44(3) ........................................................ 1061 44(5)(a) .................................................. 1063 47 ................................................. 1062, 1064 47(1), (2) ............................................... 1062 48(1) ........................................................ 1060 48(4) ........................................................ 1062 48(7) ........................................................ 1060 48(7)(b) .................................................. 1060 49 .............................................................. 1039 57 .............................................................. 1038 57(2) ........................................................ 1039 57(2)(a) .................................................. 1039
Table of UK statutes
s s s s s s s
57(8) ........................................................ 1036 58 .............................................................. 1039 58(1) ........................................................ 1039 58(6), (7) ............................................... 1040 58(7) ........................................................ 1040 62 ................................................. 1063, 1065 65 .....................................607, 1040, 1051, 1068, 1076, 1079 s 65(2) .................. 238, 1051, 1079, 1080 s 65(2a) ..............1078, 1083, 1084, 1085 s 65(2)(b) .................................................. 1085 s 65(2c) ......................................... 1082, 1085 s 65(2d) ........................................ 1082, 1085 s 65(3) ............................. 1079, 1081, 1082 s 65(4) ........................................................ 1082 s 65(5) ........................................... 1079, 1081 s 65(6) ........................................... 1079, 1082 s 65(7),(8)................................................. 1082 s 66(3) ........................................................ 1082 s 67(3)(b) .................................................. 1082 s 67(5) ........................................................ 1081 s 67(7) ........................................................ 1084 s 67(8) ........................................... 1051, 1085 s 67(9) ........................................................ 1085 s 68(4) ........................................................ 1083 s 68(6), (7) ............................................... 1083 s 69 ................................................. 1085, 1088 s 69(2)(h) .................................................. 1084 s 70(2)(c) .................................................. 1079 s 71 ................................................. 1066, 1068 s 71(3)(a) ..................................... 1062, 1077 s 72(2) ........................................................ 1067 s 78(1) ........................................................ 1037 s 81(2) ........................................................ 1060 s 81(3) ............................. 1034, 1044, 1060 s 81(7) ........................................................ 1035 Sched 1 ...................................................... 1063 Sched 4 ......................................... 1065, 1081 Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974....................................................... 889 Rent Act 1977 ............................................. 1525 Sched1 .................................. 180, 282, 1525 Representation of the People Act 1983 s 76 ................................................................. 183 ss 95, 96 ............................................ 678, 733 s 97 ................................................................. 680
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Road Traffic Act 1988............................ 1122, 1163, 1252 s 163............................................... 1122, 1163 s 172.................................... 271, 1249, 1252 School Standards and Framework Act 1998..........................................................47 s 131..................................................................75 Scotland Act 1998 ........................................ 459 s 29(2)(b) ..................................................... 213 s 29(2)(d) ..................................................... 213 s 57 ................................................................. 213 Sched 5 ......................................................... 213 Security Services Act 1989 ...... 614, 1022, 1028, 1080 s 1 ................................................................. 1013 s 1(1) ........................................................... 1013 s 1(3) ........................................................... 1013 s 1(4) ........................................................... 1013 s 5 .................................................................... 607 Security Services Act 1996 s 1 ................................................................. 1013 s 134(1) ..................................................... 1013 Seditious Meetings Act 1817 s 3 .................................................................... 679 Serious and Organised Crime Act 2005 ...................... 3, 672, 702, 996, 1099, 1104, 1411 s 110............................................... 1144, 1256 s 111............................................................ 1145 s 113(4) ........................................................ 998 ss 132–138 ............................ 673, 701, 730 Sched7 ........................................................ 1217 Sex Discrimination Act 1975...........................982, 1481, 1484, 1488–93, 1497, 1498, 1504–06, 1508, 1510, 1511, 1514, 1515–19, 1521, 1529, 1535, 1545, 1548, 1556, 1558, 1563, 1565–67, 1569, 1574, 1575, 1588, 1589, 1593, 1600
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Table of UK statutes
s 1 ................................................................. 1517 s 1(1) ........................................................... 1529 s 1(1)(a) ..................................................... 1565 s 1(1)(b).................. 1538–40, 1545, 1549 s 1(1)(1)(a) ............................................... 1565 s 1(1A) ....................................................... 1545 s 1(2) .............................................. 1538, 1541 s 1(2)(b)...................................1540, 1541–3 s 2A .................................. 1504, 1505, 1534 s 2A(1) ....................................................... 1534 s 3(1)(a) ..................................................... 1534 s 3A .................................. 1505, 1506, 1529 s 3A(1) ....................................................... 1505 s 3A(2) ....................................................... 1506 s 4 ................................................................. 1563 s 4(1) ................................ 1561, 1562, 1564 s 4A ............................................................. 1559 s 5(3) ................................ 1518, 1529, 1534 s 6 ................................................................. 1505 s 6(6)(b)..................................................... 1556 s 7 ................................................................. 1568 s 7(1)(a) ..................................................... 1518 s 7(2) ........................................................... 1568 s 7(2)(a), (b), (g)................................... 1568 s 7A ................................................ 1568, 1569 s 7B ............................................................. 1569 s 22 .............................................................. 1505 s 29 .............................................................. 1505 ss 41, 42 .................................................... 1586 s 42A .......................................................... 1574 s 48 .............................................................. 1575 s 53(1) ........................................................ 1599 s 56A(10).................................................. 1587 s 63A ............................................. 1528, 1586 s 65(1)(b) .................................................. 1588 s 65(1B)..................................................... 1589 s 66(1) ........................................................ 1588 s 66A ............................................. 1528, 1586 s 74(2) ........................................................ 1587 s 74(2) ........................................................ 1587 Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 ............................ 1487 Sexual Offences Act 1956 ....................... 479 s 13 ................................................................. 480 s 30(2) ........................................................ 1349
Sexual Offences Act 1967 s 1 ............................................................82, 556 s 1(5) ........................................................... 1519 s 2 ................................................................. 1519 s 4(1)(a) ........................................................ 851 Sexual Offences Act 2003 ...................... 477, 555, 556 s 45(2) ........................................................... 556 s 51 ................................................................. 556
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 1976 s 4(1)(a) ........................................................ 393 Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 1992 s 1(1) ................................................... 393, 851 Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 s 1 ................................................... 81, 82, 556 Special Education Needs and Disability Discrimination Act 2001.................................................... 1593 Special Immigration Appeals Act 1997 s 1 ................................................................. 1083 Suicide Act 1961 s 2 .......................................................................78 Supreme Court Act 1981 s 31 ................................................................. 329 s 69 .............................................................. 1085 Terrorism Act 2000.................... 3, 120, 124, 199, 207, 208, 442–444, 446, 671, 672, 673, 698, 997, 1007, 1013, 1099, 1104, 1106, 1111, 1118, 1121, 1128, 1130–50, 1158, 1162, 1163, 1165, 1167–71, 1183, 1184, 1191, 1193, 1198, 1201, 1204, 1207, 1210, 1216, 1218–20, 1225, 1251, 1250–55, 1278, 1293–95, 1304, 1310, 1311, 1316, 1318, 1324, 1325, 1329–32, 1334, 1335–38, 1345–49,
Table of UK statutes
s
s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
1352–55, 1363, 1364, 1368–75, 1377–84, 1386–90, 1392, 1394, 1397, 1398–1402, 1404–15, 1420, 1422, 1426–29, 1439, 1442, 1463–65, 1467, 1468 1 .......................... 671, 1117, 1148, 1149, 1204, 1334, 1347, 1357, 1370, 1377, 1378, 1381, 1382–87, 1389, 1392, 1395, 1405–8, 1411, 1414, 1420, 1439, 1442, 1465 1(1) ........................ 671, 698, 1011, 1426 1(2) ........................................................... 1420 1(3)(b)..................................................... 1420 1(5) ........................................................... 1396 2(1)(a) ..................................................... 1385 3 ..................................... 1383, 1385, 1386, 1388, 1392, 1395, 1404 3(1) ........................................................... 1383 3(3) ........................................................... 1383 3(3)(b)..................................................... 1397 3(4) ................................... 674, 1383, 1384 3(5) ................................................ 674, 1384 4 ................................................................. 1397 4(3) ........................................................... 1397 5 ................................................................. 1397 5(3) ........................................................... 1397 5A-5C ..................................................... 1384 6 ................................................................. 1399 7 ................................................................. 1399 9 .................................................... 1397, 1398 10 .............................................................. 1397 11 .....................................178, 1146, 1347, 1389, 1394 11(1), (2) ............... 178, 1353, 1389–92 11(3) ........................................................... 178 12 .................................. 1146, 1347, 1395, 12(1) ........................................................ 1427 12(2) ........................................................ 1393 12(2)(c) .................................................. 1393 12(3)(a) .................................................. 1393 12(4) ........................................... 1393, 1394 13 ................................... 1347, 1393, 1394 13A ............................................. 1118, 1123 13A(8) .................................................... 1118 14 .............................................................. 1396
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ss l5–18 .......................................1146, 1396, 1412, 1414 s 15 .............................................................. 1396 s 16 .............................................................. 1396 s 16A .......................................................... 1353 s 17 .............................................................. 1396 s 18 ................................................. 1347, 1396 s 19 .....................................444, 1347, 1396, 1412–14 s 20 .............................................................. 1378 s 21A ............................................. 1413, 1414 s 21A(5) .................................................... 1413 s 21B ........................................................... 1413 s 28 .............................................................. 1410 ss 33-36 ........................................................ 997 s 38B .............................................. 1412, 1413 s 40(l)(a) ........................ 1146, 1147, 1149 s 40(1)(b) ............................. 1146–48, 1149 s 41 .......................... 1111, 1146, 1147–50, 1161, 1168–70, 1204, 1255, 1334, 1410 s 41(4)-(7) ................................................ 1169 s 41(4) ........................................................ 1170 s 41(5) ........................................................ 1170 s 41(6) ........................................................ 1170 ss 43–47 .................................................... 1117 s 43 .................................. 1115, 1124, 1117, 1121, 1133 ss 44-47 ..................................................... 1119 ss 44-46 ..................................................... 1118 s 44 .......................... 1104, 1113, 1117–21, 1123–26, 1133–35, 1407 s 44(3) ........................................................ 1117 s 45(1)(a), (b) ......................................... 1118 s 46(1)-(7) ................................................ 1119 s 47 .............................................................. 1119 s 54 ................................... 1411, 1146, 1411 ss 56-63 ..................................................... 1146 s 56 ......................1347, 1407, 1408, 1415 s 57 ................................... 1347, 1353, 1409 s 58 .............................................................. 1347 s 58(1) ................................ 444, 1347, 1415 s 59 ................................................. 1415, 1416 s 59(1) ........................................... 1415, 1428 s 59(2) ........................................... 1415, 1416 s 59(3) ........................................................ 1415 s 60 ................................................. 1415, 1416
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Table of UK statutes
s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
61 ................................................. 1413, 1416 82 .............................................................. 1146 83 .............................................................. 1146 89 .............................................................. 1254 89(2) ........................................... 1251, 1254 96 .............................................................. 1137 98 .............................................................. 1137 99 .............................................................. 1130 101............................................................ 1130 114................................. 1158, 1162, 1163 114(2) ..................................................... 1128 116(2) ..................................................... 1117 117............................................................ 1370 118......................................1352–54, 1393, 1394, 1414, 1415 s 118(1) ..................................................... 1352 s 118(2) ........................................ 1352, 1352 Sched 2 ......................................... 1383, 1386 Sched 3 ......................................... 1397, 1398 Sched 5 ....................... 442, 443, 996, 997, 1000, 1002, 1253 Sched 7 ........................................1122, 1130, 1169, 1171, 1204 Sched 8 .......................... 1169, 1170, 1183, 1184, 1201, 1210, 1218, 1219, 1225, 1255 Sched 12 ...................................... 1304, 1305 Sched 14 ........................ 1130, 1137, 1138 Terrorism Act 2006................. 3, 672, 1104, 1168, 1329, 1331, 1335, 1338, 1355, 1364, 1392, 1393, 1407, 1410,
1099, 1327, 1332, 1354, 1384, 1406, 1416, 1465, s 1 ...................................... 1149, 1347, 1460 s 5 .................................................... 1149, 1460 s 6 ................................................................. 1411
ss 8–12 ....................................................... 1411 s 34 .............................................................. 1377 Theatres Act 1968 ............................. 470, 503 s 3 ......................................................... 472, 554 Theft Act 1968 ss l2, ............................................................ 1114 Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974 .................................99 Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993 ss 23–25 .................................................... 1529 Scheds 2, 3 .............................................. 1529 Treason Act 1814 ......................................... 592 Video Recordings Act 1984 ........ 233, 469, 551, 553, 562–566 s 2(2) ................................................... 562, 563 s 4 ......................................................... 562, 566 s 4(1) .............................................................. 490 s 4(1)(a) ........................................................ 552 s 4(3) .............................................................. 563 s 4A ..................................................... 562, 566 s 9–11 ............................................................ 563 Work and Families Act 2006 ................................................ 1489, 1492 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 s 25 ................................................................. 852 s 34 ................................................................. 188 s 41 ...................................................... 260, 408 s 41(3)(c) .......................................... 175, 189 s 44 ...................................................... 392, 854 s 48 ...................................................... 393, 851 s 58 ................................................1212, 1213, 1241, 1277 Sched 2 .............................................. 392, 854
Table of UK statutory instruments
Access to Health Records (Control of Access) Regulations 1993 (S1 1993/746) ................................925
Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Commencement No 1) Order 2005 (SI 2005.2676) arts 3, 4 ....................................... 1577
Access to Personal Files (Social Services) (Amendment) Regulations 1991 (S1 1991/1587) ..............................925
Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Commencement No 2) Order 2005 (SI 2005/2774) 1513 Art 3 ............................................1577 art 4 ....................................1554, 1577
Access to Personal Files (Social Services) Regulations 1989 (SI 1989/206) .................................925
Civil Procedure Rules ...............239, 428 Pt 24 ...............................................428 Pt 39 ...............................................739 Community Charge (Administration and Enforcement) Regulations .............789 Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/ 1987/NI/20) .................................1235,
Disability Discrimination (Guidance and Code of Practice) (SI 1996/ 1996) ........................................... 1511 Disability Discrimination (Private Clubs, etc) Regulations 2005 (SI 2005/3258) .............................1513 Disability Discrimination (Questions and Replies) Order (SI 1996/2793) .................1511 Disability Discrimination (Services and Premises) Regulations (SI 1996/1836)......... 1511
Data Protection (Subject Access Modifications) Health Order 1987 (SI1987/1903) .......................921
Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003 (SI 2003/1660) ...................1522, 1597 reg 2(1) ........................................1522 regs 29, 32 ................................... 1588
Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Commencement No 9) Order 2001 (SI 2001/2030) Art 3a .................................1513, 1550
Equality Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1082) ............293 Art 4 ............................................1577
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Table of UK statutory instruments
Human Rights Act (Amendment) Order 2001 (SI 2001 / 1216) ........111 Human Rights Act 1998 (Commencement) Order 1998 (SI 1998/2882) ..........208 Human Rights Act 1998 (Designated Derogation) Order 2001 (SI 2001/3644) .........1425
Investigatory Powers Tribunal Rules 2000 (S1 2000/2665)......... 1083 r2 ..................................................1083 r9(2)...............................................1083 r9(3)...............................................1083 r9(4)...............................................1083 r9(6)...............................................1083
Local Government for England (Community Charge and Council Tax, Administration and Enforcement) Regulations 1995 (SI 1995/247) reg 4l ..............................................789
Magistrates’ Courts (Sex Offender and Anti-Social Behaviour Orders) Rules 1998 .............................................. 681
Official Secrets Act 1989 (Prescription)(Amendment) Order 1993 (S11993/847) .............. 607
Part-Time Workers (Prevention of Less Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2000 (SI 2000/1551) .............................1490 PACE Code of Practice A 1997 (SI1997/1159) ..............................1116 Police (Conduct) Regulations 1999 .............................................1314 Police (Conduct) Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/845) .....................1314
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (Prescription of Offices, Ranks and Positions) Order 2000 (SI 2000/2417) .............................1063 Rules of the Supreme Court Ord .....................................1085
Satellite Television Service Regulations 1997 (SI 1997/1682) ............................... 546 Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (Designated Area) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1537) ...............................732 Sex Discrimination (Gender Reassignment) Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/1102) ...................1505
Official Secrets Act 1989 (Prescription) Order 1990 (SI 1990/200) .................................607
Sex Discrimination (Indirect Discrimination and Burden of Proof) Regulations 2001 (SI 2001/2660) ................. 1482, 1538, 1542
Parental Leave and Maternity etc Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/3312) .............................1491
Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay (Remedies) Regulations 1993 (SI 1993/2798) .............................1589
Table of UK statutory instruments
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Sexual Orientation Regulations 2003 (SI 2003/1661) ....... 1477, 1482, 1514, 1515, 1517, 1522–24 Reg 2(1) .......................................1522 Reg 6 .....................................1522–24 Reg 30(2) .....................................1589
Terrorism Act 2000 (Proscribed Organisations) (Amendment) Order 2001 (SI 2001/1261) ...................1386, 1387
Special Immigration Appeals Commission (Procedure) Rules 1998 (SI 1998/1881) .........1430
Terrorism Act 2000 (Proscribed Organisations) (Amendment) Order 2001 (SI 2005/2892) .............................1387
Special Immigration Appeals Commission (Procedure) (Amendment) Rules 2000 (SI 2000/1849) ............................. 1430
Television Broadcasting Regulations 1998 (SI 1998/3196) ...............................546
Terrorism Act 2000 (Proscribed Organisations) (Amendment) Order 2002 (SI 2001/2724) .............................1387
Trafalgar Square Regulations 1952 (S1952/776) ..............68,676,686
Working Time Regulations 1998 (SI 1998/1833) ...................1489
Table of national legislation from other jurisdictions
Austria
France
Austrian Criminal CodeArts 284, 285............................................. 679
Civil Code Art 1382 ....................................................... 803
Australia
Germany
Security Service Intelligence Organisation Amendment Act 1986....................................................... 118
Basic Law .............................................. 153, 161 Art 1 ............................................................... 305 Art 8 ............................................................... 665 Art 10 ............................................................ 803
Canada
Civil Code s823(1) .......................................................... 803
Access to Information Act 1982........... 630 Bill of Rights 1960 ...................................... 170 Charter of Rights and Freedoms 1982................... 147, 190, 260, 261, 285, 320, 1438
Criminal Code s184(3) .......................................................... 471 s24(1) ............................................................. 683
New Zealand
Criminal Code ......................... 189, 260, 285, 818, 1071
Bill of Rights 1990 ............... 120, 170, 182, 192, 625 s6 173 s14 ................................................................... 462
Freedom of Information Act 1967....................................................... 630
South Africa
Protection of Privacy Act 1974....................................................... 803
Bill of Rights .................................................. 168 Art 34(1) ................................................... 1235
Security Intelligence Service Act 1984 s2 ............................................. 1016
USA
Denmark Code of Criminal Procedure ................ 1036 Art 1261 .................................................... 1057 Art 126m .................................................. 1063
Bill of Rights ...................................... 148, 149, 155, 162, 167 Art V .............................................................. 155 First Amendment.................... 300, 307, 309, 311, 320, 456, 462, 491, 493,
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Table of national legislation from other jurisdictions
494, 511, 581, 582, 626, 660, 665, 682, 718, 874, 890, 956, 969 Fourth Amendment ........... 995, 1071, 1135
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act ....................... 1016, 1018 Privacy Act 1974................................ 803, 920
Table of Treaties and Conventions
EC Treaty 1957................ 1479, 1480, 1485 Art 13 ......................................................... 1480 Art 34 ......................................................... 1480 Art 119....................................................... 1480 Art 141............................ 1479, 1480, 1585 Art 157.......................................................... 514 European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1987 ......................... 45, 1360, 1458–60 Art 15 ............................................ 1456, 1457 European Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Automatic Protection of Data 1980 .............................. 139, 151, 921 European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1951.................. 1, 2, 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30, 32–41, 43, 47–50, 52, 53, 55, 59–61, 68–71, 74, 75, 79, 81, 84–86, 88, 91, 97–103, 106–114, 116, 121, 122, 124–29, 132–57, 159–299, 311, 312, 314, 315, 318, 319, 322, 323, 328–30, 334, 336, 337, 352, 355, 360, 363, 372, 374, 376–78, 380, 381, 382, 383,
388, 389, 393, 400, 402, 403, 413, 419, 420, 423, 424, 426, 430, 431, 435, 438, 442, 454, 467, 486, 491–93, 500, 515, 517, 518, 531, 532, 536, 538, 5540, 541, 545, 548, 552, 567, 568, 588, 596, 601, 607, 608, 611, 619, 622, 623, 661, 678, 680, 682, 684, 688, 690–92, 694–97, 699, 701, 712, 714, 715, 718, 719, 721, 722, 726–30, 737, 744, 745–48, 750, 760, 761, 764, 7867, 770, 771, 777, 780, 784, 790, 795, 796, 801, 8893, 804, 808, 814, 815, 817, 824–31, 839, 846–50, 858, 860, 863–85, 875, 905, 906, 908, 915, 920, 936–39, 942–44, 946, 950–58, 962, 963, 970, 973, 977, 980, 981, 995, 986, 989–93, 995, 1006, 1009, 1010, 1015, 1024–27, 1029–31, 1035, 1038, 1042, 1044, 1046–48, 1052, 1054–56, 1059, 1060, 1068, 1070, 1074, 1078–82, 1085, 1086, 1090, 1096–99, 1100, 1105, 1107, 1126, 1129, 131, 1134, 1139, 1148, 1153, 1157, 1161, 1163, 1177, 1179, 1181, 1190, 1207, 1215, 1235, 1250, 1252, 1253, 1256–63, 1265, 1267, 1287,
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Table of Treaties and Conventions
1290, 1291, 1293,-95, 1302, 1303, 1306–10, 1316, 1319, 1322, 135, 1326, 1329, 1331, 1332, 1335–42, 1347, 1349–52, 1355–61, 1369, 1370, 1382, 1383, 1386, 1387, 1391, 1398–410, 1418, 1422, 1429, 1431, 1432, 1435, 1436, 1439, 1442, 1443, 1448, 1449, 1454–56, 1459, 1460, 1462, 1463, 145–68, 1472, 1478, 1479, 1482–47, 1511, 1514–19, 1572 Art l .................... 134, 135, 165, 197, 905 Arts 2–18 ..................................................... 167 Arts 2-14 ................................................ 19, 29 Arts 2-12 ...................................................... 165 Arts 2-7 ................................................18, 273 Arts 2–4...........................................................27 Art 2 ....................... 27, 37, 39–45, 46, 48, 49, 77, 79, 80, 103, 110, 159, 207, 247, 253, 284, 285, 294, 295, 907, 912, 943, 952, 953, 970, 987, 989, 1163, 1175, 1302, 1307, 1322, 1424 Art 2(1)................................ 79, 1581, 1582 Art 2(2)........................... 1579, 1580, 1583 Art 2(3)......................................... 1579, 1580 Art 2(4)................................. 1579, 1581–84 Art 3 ............................... 37, 43, 45–50, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 103, 108, 110, 162, 166, 168, 187, 194, 195, 253, 267, 284, 288, 295, 300, 408, 434, 907, 912, 943, 952, 953, 970, 987, 989, 1174–80, 1206, 1207, 1256, 1269, 1293–95, 1301, 1302, 1306–09, 1322, 1339, 1341, 1345–47, 1358–63, 1422–24, 1427, 1429, 1453, 1454, 1456, 1457, 1462, 1520, 1567 Art 4 ......................... 50–51, 295, 300, 943
Art 4(1)................................... 51, 110, 1424 Art 4(2)............................................................51 Art 5 .....................19, 50, 51–59, 68, 111, 201, 205, 208, 211, 214, 238, 246, 269, 290, 295, 680, 748, 752, 763, 764, 768, 769, 770, 771, 1009, 1107, 1121, 1128, 1131, 1132, 1134, 1135–37, 1139, 1146, 1149, 1153, 1155, 1157, 1164, 1166, 1187, 1256, 1295, 1306–08, 1332, 1337, 1362, 1363, 1407, 1422, 1425, 1431–33, 1435, 1437–39, 1441–43, 1449, 1451, 1453, 1460, 1466, 1484 Art 5(1)............................ 52, 55, 202, 205, 269, 763, 765, 1120, 1121, 1131, 1133, 136, 1147, 1163, 1164, 1308, 1424, 1425, 1432, 1451, 1452 Art 5(1)(a) ..................................... 1131, 132 Art 5(1)(b)......................... 759, 771, 1120, 1121, 1132, 1133 Art 5(1)(c) ...................... 54, 57, 759, 765, 766, 768, 769, 771, 1132, 1148–50, 1152, 1153, 1155, 1157, 1308 Art 5(1)(d)......................................................54 Art 5(1)(e) ................................................... 764 Art 5(1)(f) .......................... 55, 1423, 1424 Art 5(2)........................... 1160, 1161, 1163 Art 5(2)............................................................56 Art 5(3)...... 57, 58, 59, 63, 1161, 1163, 1167–70 Art 5(4).................................................. 55, 58, 59, 202, 205, 243, 244, 1163, 1341, 1342, 1454–57, 1460 Art 5(5).............................................. 59, 1309 Art 6 .....................19, 50, 58, 59–66, 104, 166, 168, 170, 175–77, 179, 186–89, 192, 193, 196, 200, 204, 242, 244,
Table of Treaties and Conventions
Art
Art
Art
Art Art
245, 246, 260, 261, 271, 274, 284, 316, 317, 319, 321, 322, 324, 327, 328–34, 355–57, 362, 382–84, 388, 393, 394, 400, 401, 408, 417, 475, 789–93, 795, 926, 943, 1030, 1031, 1050–52, 1077, 1085–88, 1090, 1100, 1131, 1139, 1187, 1188, 1193, 1200, 1202, 1210, 1212–15, 1219, 1221, 1225, 1232, 1235, 1239, 1240, 1243, 1244, 1246, 1248, 1249, 1251, 1252, 1256–62, 1267, 1278, 1279, 1291–95, 1298, 1302, 1303, 1307, 1309, 1318, 1319, 1321, 1337, 1339, 1340, 1344–46, 1348, 1354, 1363, 1381, 1399, 1400, 1407, 1410, 1430, 1448–51, 1455, 1457, 1461, 1462, 1484, 1486, 1521, 1567 6(1)....................... 58, 59–62, 65, 176, 190, 245, 270, 272, 295, 323, 324, 326, 328, 392, 402, 406, 789, 790, 792, 970, 971, 972, 1050, 1051, 1076, 1086, 1087, 1135, 1210, 1211, 1226, 1235, 1239–41, 1249, 1252–54, 1259–61, 1270, 1271, 1277, 1291–94, 1309, 1319–21, 1338–43, 1345, 1347, 1400, 1410, 1447, 1461, 1462, 1464 6(2)............................ 64, 65, 110, 178, 272, 273, 295, 323, 326, 327, 790, 792, 794, 1235, 1239–41, 1252, 1254, 1259, 1260, 1281, 1341, 1342, 1347–54, 1390–92, 1409, 1410, 1413, 1414, 1454 6(3)............................ 63, 64, 295, 790, 792, 1087, 1259, 1278, 1319 6(3)(a), (b).............................................65 6(3)(c) .............................. 62, 65, 1210, 1211, 1213, 1240,
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1262, 1277, 1281, 1309 Art 6(3)(d).................. 66, 791, 794, 1320 Art7............................... 19, 50, 66–68, 110, 202, 295, 300, 486, 493, 558, 943, 1359, 1424 Art 7(1)............................................................66 Art 7(2).................................................67, 493 Arts 8-11 ................... 18, 36, 62, 68, 110, 212, 272, 286, 300, 943, 944, 956 Arts 8-12 ..................................... 18, 44, 295 Art8............................... 49, 69–91, 94, 103, 107, 108, 175, 177, 179, 180, 187, 188–90, 195–97, 221, 223, 224, 227–29, 234, 241, 242, 247, 249, 250, 252–55, 260, 261, 268, 270, 277, 282, 284, 285, 294, 317, 383, 393, 394, 408, 425, 430, 431–35, 437–40, 446, 447, 449, 493, 513, 598, 697, 698, 776, 788, 795, 802, 804, 806, 808, 812–14, 816–39, 845–51, 858, 860, 861, 863–67, 871, 872, 875, 876, 878, 879, 883, 884, 892, 895, 898, 902, 907–11, 914–18, 924, 925, 930, 932, 935, 936–39, 944–54, 957–92, 995, 1007–1010, 1021, 1025–31, 1033, 1036, 1042–45, 1047, 1052, 1054, 1055, 1056, 1058, 1059, 1060, 1064, 1067–78, 1079, 1086, 1090, 1093, 1094, 1096–98, 1108, 1131, 1160, 1176, 1177, 1179–81, 1207, 1208, 1289, 1290, 1292, 1294, 1295, 1301, 1302, 1306–08, 1324, 1326, 1342, 1363, 1399, 1401, 1431, 1454, 1483, 1484, 1514, 1518–21, 1524–26, 1569, 1571, 1572
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Table of Treaties and Conventions
Art 8(1)......................... 77, 194, 248, 269, 813, 834, 864, 905, 945, 955, 962, 963, 1025, 1026, 1027, 1042, 1043, 1069, 1071, 1073, 1178, 1339, 1341 Art 8(2)......................... 69, 72, 75, 78, 82, 194, 248, 277, 433, 437, 905, 925, 947, 948, 958, 963, 1008, 1009, 1025, 1028, 1029, 1033, 1035, 1044, 1073, 1075, 1076, 1088, 1092, 1093, 1094, 1136, 1160, 1178, 1181, 1207, 1339, 1351, 1571 Arts 9-11 .........................................................72 Art 9 ....................................... 77, 91, 94, 95, 211, 212, 220, 275, 299, 312, 328, 486, 487, 488, 490, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 505, 531, 865, 944 Art 9(1).................................................78, 486 Art 9(2)........................... 69, 91, 275, 1351 Art 10 ....................14, 33, 36, 37, 70, 75, 91, 92–96, 111, 125, 126, 130, 137, 152, 179, 195, 203, 209–12, 234, 250, 252, 254, 255, 269, 274, 278, 284, 287, 288, 299, 300, 303, 310, 312, 314, 317–19, 321, 322, 324–34, 335–40, 347, 351–53, 357, 358, 360, 362, 363, 366, 368, 370, 372, 374, 377–84, 386–89, 391, 393–95, 398, 400, 402–15, 419, 420, 422–24, 427–31, 433–35, 437–40, 443, 444–48, 451, 453, 463, 464, 466, 467, 475, 476, 480, 483, 485–90, 494, 496, 497, 500, 501, 505–07, 513, 515, 531, 533, 535, 537–39, 541, 542, 544, 545, 548, 549, 564, 567–71, 581, 584, 590, 596–600, 603,
607–09, 612, 614, 617, 619–21, 623–26, 641, 661–63, 671, 677, 678, 680–750, 755, 757, 760, 761, 769, 770, 771, 775–79, 783–85, 787–89, 792, 794–801, 813, 816, 824, 830, 834, 837, 845, 851, 858–62, 864–66, 870, 872, 878, 883, 884, 890, 895, 905, 906, 909, 914, 916–18, 924, 925, 930, 932, 935–39, 942–51, 954, 957–92, 1338, 1342, 1355, 1357, 1382, 1386, 1389, 1391, 1395, 1396, 1401, 1402, 1404, 1405, 1407, 1413, 1414, 1419, 1420, 1441, 1454, 1484, 1521 Art 10(1) ...................... 94, 269, 336, 347, 463, 464, 466, 467, 469, 500, 532, 541, 542, 907, 947, 952, 955, 958, 962, 987 Art 10(2) .............. 69, 72, 252, 253, 277, 309, 310, 328, 329, 336, 353, 360, 366, 377, 378, 382, 387, 400, 408, 413, 414, 415, 418, 420, 421, 425, 433, 435, 437, 443, 452, 463–66, 475–484, 485, 486, 489–500, 531, 532, 535, 541–43, 548, 549, 569, 584, 588, 609, 611, 686, 760, 775, 776, 783, 858, 859, 905, 907, 909, 944, 947, 952, 954, 955, 958, 963, 977, 987, 1339, 1351, 1363 Art 11 .....................94, 96–102, 111, 287, 288, 312, 661–63, 677, 678, 680–750, 753, 755, 757, 760, 761, 769, 770, 771, 775, 777, 779, 785, 788, 789, 792, 794–801, 1027, 1355–57, 1382, 1386, 1389, 1396, 1401, 1402, 1404, 1405, 1407, 1408, 1441, 1454, 1484
Table of Treaties and Conventions
Art 11(2) .............. 69, 99, 101, 102, 277, 686, 728, 760, 775, 776, 1339, 1352, 1357 Art 12 ........................... 18, 86, 87, 102–04 Arts 13-21 ......................................................25 Art 13 ............ 30, 86, 101, 102, 106–09, 165, 197, 203, 819, 839, 936, 1007, 1029, 1031, 1087, 1088, 1089, 1090, 1094, 1134, 1179, 1180, 1319, 1320, 1343, 1400, 1451, 1486, 1520 Art 14 ............................ 48, 68, 77, 78, 82, 86, 87, 94, 108–10, 111, 165, 166, 167, 180, 190, 203, 205, 260, 268, 282, 284, 294, 295, 487, 492, 567, 784, 958, 1028, 1099, 1134–37, 1139, 1175, 1207, 1301, 1302, 1306, 1308, 1332, 1337, 1401, 1420, 1432–34, 1436–38, 1479, 1482–86, 1514, 1519, 1521, 1524–26, 1567, 1571, 1572 Art 14(1) ................................................... 1526 Art 15 .....................29, 110–11, 135, 190, 211, 1167, 1168, 1359, 1362, 1363, 1424, 1425, 1431–33, 1443, 1445 Art 15(1) ................ 1095, 1431, 1434–37 Art 15(2) ................................................ 12, 40 Art 15(3) ................................................... 1424 Arts 16-18 ................................................... 165 Art l6 ...................................................111–112 Art 17 .................... 30, 91, 110, 112, 167, 500, 506, 784, 1336, 1357, 1382, 1401 Arts l9-56 .......................................................23 Arts l9-51 .......................................................23 Arts 19-24 ......................................................24 Art 19 ...............................................................21 Art 20 ...............................................................24 Alt 21................................................................24 Art 22 ...............................................................23 Art 24 (old) ...................................................26
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25 ................................................. 26, 1068 25 (old) ...................................................26 26 ................................................. 191, 254 26 (old) ........................ 23, 26, 27, 30, 32, 219, 234, 235, 236 Art 27 ...............................................................25 Art 27(b) (old) .............................................29 Art 27(2) ........................................... 191, 254 Art 27(2) (old) .................................... 28, 31 Art 27(3) (old) .............................................30 Art 28 ...............................................................28 Art 29(old) .....................................................32 Art 29(1) .........................................................28 Art 31 ................................................. 191, 254 Art 32 ...............................................................25 Art 32 (old) ...................................................25 Art 32(2)(b) ...................................................29 Art 33 ...............................................................26 Art 34 .................................... 23, 26, 27, 32, 219, 234, 235, 236 Art 34 (old) ...................................................23 Art 35 ...................................................... 28, 30 Art 35(1) .........................................................28 Art 35(1)(b) ...................................................29 Art 35(3) ................................................ 28, 31 Art 36(1) .........................................................30 Art 36 (old) ...................................................23 Art 37(1) .........................................................32 Arts 38-43 (old) ..........................................24 Art 38 (old) ...................................................24 Art 38(1)(a) ...................................................32 Art38(1)(b).....................................................31 Art 40 ....................................................25, 392 Art 4l ............................... 34, 242, 245, 246 Art 43 ...................................................... 25, 34 Art 43 (old) ...................................................24 Art 44 ...............................................................34 Art 44 (old) ...................................................23 Art 45 (old) ...................................................25 Art 46 ......................................... 34, 191, 254 Art 48 (old) .......................................... 23, 32 Art 50 ...............................................................59 Art 50 ............................................................ 246 Art 52 (old) ........................................34, 242 Art 55 ...............................................................33 Art Art Art Art
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Art Art Art Art
Table of Treaties and Conventions
57 ................................... 110, 112, 1359 58 ......................................................... 1359 59 ...............................................................34 64 ...............................................................29
rr49(2), (3)(b) ...............................................28 r51 ......................................................................33 r53(2) ................................................................28 r53(3) ................................................................31
Protocol 1 ..........................................19, 27, 29, 104, 112, 167 Arts 1-3 ........................................................ 165 Art 1 ............................. 104, 107, 175, 176, 200, 295, 719, 1355, 1363, 1402 Art 2 ......................................... 75, 105, 1524 Art 3 ......................................... 105, 106, 295
European Social Charter 1961 ............................................. 19, 138, 169 EU Charter of Fundamental Rights .................................................. 138, 169
Protocol 2 ............................................................21
EU Draft Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters 1998 Art 16 ......................................................... 1035
Protocol 3 ............................................................21
Hague-Visby Rules ...................................... 152
Protocol 4 ......................... 19, 104, 106, 165, Art 2 ................................................... 52, 1120,
ILO Freedom of Association Convention 1947 .........................................37
Protocol 5 ............................................................21
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ................ 1235, 1359, 1425
Protocol 6 ................................. 19, 27, 29, 43, 104, 1427 Art l .......................................... 106, 165, 295 Art 2 ......................................... 106, 165, 295 Protocol 7 ........................... 19, 104, 106, 165 Protocol 8 ............................................................21 Protocol 9 ................................................... 21, 23 Protocol 10 ..........................................................21 Protocol 11 ................ 20–7, 32, 33, 35, 106 Protocol 12 .............................. 104, 106, 1486 Protocol 13 .................................... 19, 104, 165 Protocol 12 ....................................................... 104 Protocol 14 .................................20, 21, 27, 35 European Court of Human Rights Rules of Court r4 24 r22(1) ................................................................25 r23 ......................................................................25 r25(1) ................................................................25 r42(2) ................................................................32
International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights 1966........ 19, 100, 1511 International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights............... 1511 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ......................... 1511 Treaty of Amsterdam 1997 (see also EC Treaty)................ 138, 1486, 1585 Art 6a ......................................................... 1515 Treaty on European Union 1992 (Maastricht Treaty) 1992 ..................... 138 Art F1 ............................................................ 138 Art F2 ............................................................ 138 Treaty of Nice 2000 .................................... 138 Treaty of Rome (see EC Treaty) United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights .............................................29
Table of Treaties and Conventions
United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984 ..................................................... 45, 1359 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979 Art 4(1)...................................................... 1582
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United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child ................................. 392 United Nations Convention on the Status of Refugees 1951 ..........49 Art 32, 33 ................................................. 1423 Universal Declaration of Human Rights .. 17, 167 Art 10 ...............................................................94 Art 18 ............................................................ 495
Table of EC legislation
Directive 75/117/EEC Equal Pay ........ 151, 1480, 1494, 1502, 1516, 1531, 1018, 1026, 1054, 1055 Art 119....................................................... 1019 Directive 76/207/ EEC Equal Treatment ...........139, 1480, 1482, 1486 1504, 1505, 1515, 1516, 1518, 1543, 1568, 1569, 1572, 1579, 1581, 1582, 1589 Art 1(1)...................................................... 1585 Art 2(2)........................... 1568, 1569, 1585 Art 2(4)...................................................... 1585 Art 2(6)...................................................... 1568 Art 2(7)...................................................... 1568 Directive 86/378/EEC Social Security Schemes.................................. 1480 Directive 89/552/EEC Transfrontier Television .................. 513, 526, 546–48 Art 2a ............................................................ 547 Art 2a(2) Arts 2(1), (2), 3(2).................................. 546 Art 22(1) ........................................... 526, 547 Directive 92/85/EC Pregnancy and Maternity ...........................1480, 1529, 1532 Directive 93/104/EC Working Time ......................................... 1489
Directive 95/46/EC Data Protection ............................. 926, 936, 937, 1073 Art 6 ............................................................... 926 Directive 96/34/EC Part-Time Workers ...................................................... 1490 Directive 96/97/EC Social Security Schemes (Amendment)...................... 1480 Directive 97/80/EC Burden of Proof ........................................1480, 1482, 1538, 1542, 1545, 1546, 1587 Directive 98/52/EC Burden of Proof (Amendment)....................... 1480 Directive 2000/43/EC Race Discrimination ..........................1480, 1486, 1510, 1511, 1544–47, 1559, 1570, 1583, 1589, 1599 Directive 2000/78/EC Framework Directive on Equal Opportunities.................................. 1480–82, 1486, 1505, 1514, 1522, 1526, 1536, 549, 1551, 1555, 1571, 1582, 1599
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Table of EC legislation
Directive 2002/73/EC Equal Treatment (Amendment) ............................. 1480, 1538 Directive 2002/85/EC; Directive 2006/24/EC Communications....................... 1095, 1097
Directive 2004/113/EC General Sex Equality ............. 1480, 1538 Directive 2006/54/EC ‘Equality’ .................................................. 1480 Directive 96/34 Parental Leave .......... 1491
Part I
Theories of rights; legal protection for rights and liberties in the UK
In many Western democracies, the rights of citizens are enshrined in a constitutional document usually known as a Bill or Charter of Rights. As Chapters 1 and 3 will explain, the rights protected under such a constitutional document are often given a special status; in a number of countries they are entrenched. Until the inception of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA), the UK had no similar charter of rights. In 2000, the HRA afforded further effect to the European Convention on Human Rights. But even under the HRA, the rights are not entrenched. Traditionally, in order to discover which freedoms are protected and the extent of that protection, it has been necessary to examine the common law, statutes and the influence of treaties to which the UK is a party, especially the European Convention on Human Rights. Civil liberties have traditionally been defined as residual, not entrenched as in other countries. Traditional judicial reasoning in civil liberties cases quite often consisted merely of a mechanical application of the law deriving from statute and common law precedents; the negative liberty was simply what was left over after the scope of the restrictions had been determined. Often there was an application of common law precedents or a mechanistic approach to statutory interpretation, which was devoid of principle in the sense of recognising that any important issues were at stake requiring a departure from that normal judicial technique. This approach was very marked in freedom of assembly cases. In the first edition of this book it was necessary to confront a mass of common law and statutory restrictions on liberties to consider the width of these restrictions in order to determine the size of the residual area left within which liberty could be exercised.1 This did not mean that civil liberties were without protection and in the late 1990s, the immediate pre-HRA era, certain common law ‘rights’ found recognition, as Chapter 3 explains. Thus, it was often said that civil liberties in the UK were in a more precarious position than they were in other democracies, although this did not necessarily mean that they were inevitably less well protected: some Bills of Rights offered only a theoretical protection to freedoms which was not reflected in practice. Certain particular characteristics of the UK constitution have determined and, under the HRA, are continuing to determine – albeit with some modification – the means of protecting fundamental freedoms in the UK. The doctrine of the supremacy of Parliament means that constitutional law can be changed in the ordinary way – by Act
1
See: Gearty, C and Ewing, K Freedom under Thatcher (1990), OUP; Feldman, D Civil Liberties 1st edn, 1993, Clarendon; Gearty, C and Ewing, K The Struggle for Civil Liberties, 2000, Clarendon.
2
Theories of rights; legal protection for rights and liberties in the UK
of Parliament. As every student of constitutional law knows, Parliament has the power to abridge freedoms that in other countries are seen as fundamental rights. It follows from this that, aside from EU law, all parts of the law are equal – there is no hierarchy of laws and therefore constitutional law cannot constrain other laws. In general there is no judicial review of Acts of Parliament. If, for example, a statute is passed containing a provision which in some way limits freedom of speech, a judge must apply it, whereas in a country with an entrenched Bill of Rights the provision might be struck down as unconstitutional. As Chapter 4 explains, s 3 HRA has placed pressure on this traditional position, but technically it still subsists. However, where fundamental rights are protected by EU law, which also reflects the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights, they take precedence over statutory provisions due to the supremacy of EU law. Thus if a domestic provision comes into conflict with an EU provision, the judge will decide to ‘disapply’ it, unless the conflict can be resolved. Thus, parliamentary sovereignty has suffered some limitation. Where EU law does have an impact on fundamental freedoms, it provides a protection which may broadly be said to remove certain freedoms, or aspects of them, from the reach of Parliament, at least while the UK is a member of the EU. These constitutional arrangements have not been fundamentally changed by the HRA but, as Chapter 4 indicates, they have been placed under pressure. The HRA affected a difficult compromise between protecting parliamentary sovereignty and achieving effective rights protection. Under the HRA, a judge is not able to declare a statutory provision invalid because it conflicts with a Convention right protected by the Act. The Human Rights Act can be modified or repealed in the same way as any other statute. That is the constitutional background to the HRA. It is still of great significance since it is crucial in the development of civil liberties in this country and because the HRA has been greatly influenced by the domestic constitutional traditions. This Part will seek to show that although the HRA is of immense constitutional significance, it has not brought about a fundamental constitutional transformation. It has afforded the European Convention on Human Rights further effect in domestic law; there are signs that the judiciary are prepared to give a domestic effect to the rights that affords them a broader scope than they are afforded at Strasbourg. Further, although judges cannot strike down legislation under the HRA, they can change it through interpretation, which includes implying ‘missing’ words into it, or declare the incompatibility. Where they take the latter course, the government, as Chapter 4 shows, normally tends to respond. Thus the HRA is on the way to becoming a Bill of Rights, despite its limitations, which were imposed on it in accordance with British constitutional traditions. This notion of transition from an instrument giving an international instrument domestic effect to something resembling a Bill of Rights forms a main theme in this Part, and indeed in this book as a whole. Chapter 1 will offer an indication of the theoretical basis of rights and liberties and of the distinction between them, seeking to demonstrate that a shift from liberties to rights has occurred. Chapter 2 will undertake analysis of the Treaty which has been afforded further effect in domestic law and which is tending to act, in effect, as a UK Bill of Rights – the European Convention on Human Rights. Chapter 3 will consider the nature and adequacy of the traditional domestic arrangements which protected
Theories of rights; legal protection for rights and liberties in the UK
3
fundamental freedoms only as liberties and will consider the extent to which the Convention influenced the domestic protection of civil liberties in the pre-HRA era. Chapter 4 will consider the nature of the instrument that has, in a sense, received the Convention into domestic law – the HRA. It will examine the domestic HRA jurisprudence over the first six years of its life. The HRA was introduced by the Labour Government in 1997 on the basis that the Convention rights were, finally, to be ‘brought home’.2 There were expectations at that time that the HRA would revive the civil liberties tradition – there was a sense of a break with the erosions of liberty of the past.3 But in 2000 two major pieces of Labour legislation were passed that in a number of respects were in tension with the Convention rights – the Terrorism Act 2000 and the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000. Then before the HRA had had a chance to gain acceptance among politicians and the British people generally, the world was hit by the devastating 9/11 attacks. As a key aspect of the UK response to the heightened terrorist threat in 2001, only one year after the Act came into force, the Labour Government derogated from one of the most fundamental freedoms – the right to liberty. The derogation and the legislation it covered are discussed in Chapter 14. The legislation passed after the HRA, which is considered in this book, including the Terrorism Act 2000, the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, the Serious and Organised Crime Act 2005 and the Terrorism Act 2006, is in some respects more authoritarian than legislation passed in the pre-HRA years. Thus, a key aim of this book is to consider the impact which the HRA could have in enhancing the protection for liberty in the face of a range of statutes enhancing state power very significantly. At the same time it will examine the danger that the Convention rights can be minimised and undermined in Parliament and in the courts. There is the possibility that, in Parliament, the rights might become merely empty guarantees which cast a legitimising cloak over rights-abridging legislation and executive action.4 This book will argue that since the Convention has been received into domestic law, it should be afforded a genuine efficacy, going beyond its interpretation at Strasbourg, since the alternative would be likely to lead to a decrease in state accountability and an obscuring of political discourse as to the nature of state power and countervailing civil rights. In other words, the fact that we now have a document that looks something like a Bill of Rights, in the tradition of other democracies, should not blind us to the traditional concerns of the executive which are especially pressing at the present time. Almost ten years after the introduction of the HRA the Labour Government frequently appears to be uneasy with its own creation. This is largely attributable to the reverses the government has experienced in relation to the anti-terrorism measures it has sought to introduce, some of which have been challenged successfully through the courts, relying on the HRA, as Chapter 14 explains. The perception that the HRA stands in
2
3 4
See Bringing Rights Home: Labour’s plans to incorporate the ECHR into UK Law: A Consultation Paper, December 1996 (1997) and the White Paper, Rights Brought Home, Cm 3782, October 1997; see also Straw, J and Boateng, P (1997) 1 EHRR 71. See Cooke, Lord, ‘The British embracement of human rights’ (1999) EHRLR 243; Feldman, D, ‘The Human Rights Act and constitutional principles’ (1999) 19(2) LS 165. This danger was pointed out by Gearty, CA, in ‘Terrorism and human rights: a case study in impending legal realities’ (1999) 19(3) LS 367, p 379.
4
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the way of adopting necessary security measures has been disingenuously promoted in the media. In disseminating this and other distorted views of the HRA, the media have not had to attack an instrument that is ‘owned’ by the British people in the way that Canadians appear to own their Charter or US citizens their Constitution. The idea that the HRA prevents the UK deporting terrorist suspects who risk torture abroad is the driving force behind the current plan of the Conservative Party to introduce a ‘British Bill of Rights’ – a plan that fails to confront the problem that Britain is bound by the Convention at the international level.5 So the HRA is under immense pressure at the present time, a time when, ironically, in a number of respects it has shown its ability to change the face of rights-protection in the UK. This is an age in which counterterrorist and organised crime concerns dominate the political agenda, and when the need for an instrument that can curb executive tendencies to introduce in response hasty, over-broad rights-abridging measures is especially pressing. These concerns are also currently encouraging the Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, to explore the idea of introducing a ‘British Bill of Rights’ and repealing the HRA.6
5 6
See Chap 14 pp 1358–61 for discussion of this point. Gordon Brown indicated this in his inaugural speech as Prime Minister on 24 June 2007. See further below p 156.
Chapter 1
The nature of rights and liberties
This book is intended to provide an analysis of the legal protection given to civil liberties in the UK.1 The term ‘civil liberties’ will be used to denote the broad class of rights often referred to as civil and political rights as they are recognised in the UK.2 In order to provide a coherent analysis, a theoretical position will be outlined from which to mount an internally consistent critique of the state of civil liberties and human rights in the UK today. This chapter will therefore aim to outline such a position in order to provide an account of a method of deriving rights from more general political theory and criticisms of this derivation; consideration of the nature of these rights and of methods of resolving conflicts between individual rights and the claims of society; and analysis of what we may be requiring of others when we assert a right or liberty.3 Broadly, the position adopted will tend to reflect the particular brand of political liberalism expounded by John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin, in so far as their theories converge. Perhaps it should be noted at this point that the liberal conception of rights which will be discussed differs significantly from the tradition
1
2
3
Texts referred to throughout this book: Bailey, SH, Harris, DJ and Jones, BL, Civil Liberties: Cases and Materials, 5th edn, 2002, OUP; Feldman, D, Civil Liberties and Human Rights in England and Wales, 2002, OUP; Whitty, N, Murphy, T and Livingstone, S, Civil Liberties Law, 2001, LexisNexis UK; Fenwick, H and Phillipson, G; Media Freedom under the Human Rights Act, 2006, OUP; Fenwick, H, Civil Rights: New Labour, Freedom and the Human Rights Act, 2000, Longman; Clayton, R and Tomlinson, H, The Law of Human Rights, 2nd edn 2006, OUP, Chapter 16; Robertson, G, Freedom, the Individual and the Law, 7th edn, 1993, Penguin (for background); Ewing, KD and Gearty, CA, Freedom Under Thatcher, 1990; Thornton, P, Decade of Decline: Civil Liberties in the Thatcher Years, 1989, Civil Liberties Trust (for background); Klug, F, Starmer, K and Weir, S, The Three Pillars of Liberty: Political Rights and Freedoms in the UK, 1996, Routledge; Gordon, R and Wilmot-Smith, R (eds), Human Rights in the UK, 1997, OUP; Lord Lester of Herne Hill and Pannick, D, Human Rights Law and Practice, 2000, Butterworths. The term ‘civil and political rights’ is used in contradistinction to the term ‘economic and social rights’ to denote first generation rights – those which have long been recognised in the Western democracies from the time of the French and American Declarations of the ‘Rights of Man’ in the eighteenth century. The literature is immense, but the following are of particular importance. Simmonds, NE, Central Issues in Jurisprudence, 1986, Sweet and Maxwell, provides a brief but extremely lucid introduction to relevant jurisprudential issues. Substantive texts: Rawls, J, A Theory of Justice, 1972, Clarendon; Dworkin, R, Taking Rights Seriously, 1977, Duckworth, and A Matter of Principle, 1985, Clarendon; Hart, HLA, The Concept of Law, 1961, Clarendon, and Essays in Jurisprudence and Philosophy, 1983, Clarendon; Waldron, J (ed), Theories of Rights, 1984, OUP.
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which views rights as naturally inherent in the human person.4 By contrast, as will be seen, liberals start by devising a general political theory from which they then seek to derive a series of rights.
1 Where do rights derive from? The liberal conception of rights can be seen to owe its antecedents to the school of socalled social contractarians which found perhaps its earliest advocate in the writings of John Locke.5 Locke imagined an actual social contract between individuals and the state at the setting up of civil society in which citizens, in order to secure the protection of their property, handed over certain powers (most importantly, a monopoly of coercive force) to the government in return for the guarantee of certain rights to ‘lives, liberties and estates’. Locke thus introduced the idea, which is still central to liberalism today, that the overriding purpose of the state is the securing and protection of its citizens’ basic liberties. The idea of the social contract is thus clearly an immensely potent one and it is John Rawls’s revival and radical revision of the idea in his A Theory of Justice (1972) which has almost single-handedly transformed the face of political theory; as HLA Hart has commented, rights-based theories have replaced utilitarianism6 as the primary focus of attention.7 Robert Nozick, a right-wing critic of Rawls whose work Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974) mounts a sustained attack upon Rawls’s theory, has written: ‘Political philosophers now must either work within Rawls’s theory or explain why not’.8 Rawls imagines not an actual, but a hypothetical, social contract taking place in what he terms ‘the original position’. The essential feature of this position is that the contractors (Rawls’s men) are devising amongst themselves the outlines of ‘the foundation charter of their society’ whilst behind ‘the veil of ignorance’. The men are ignorant not only of what will be their positions in the future social hierarchy, but also of their skills, weaknesses, preferences and conceptions of the good life – whether, for example, they will be strict Muslims or humanist academics. Since none of the contractors knows what mode of life he will wish to pursue, he is bound (if he is rational) to choose a tolerant society and one which guarantees him the rights necessary to pursue any individual goals he may in future choose. In other words, the men will wish to put in place the means whereby they will, in future, be able to pursue their goals rather than adopting structures which might in future prevent them from doing so. Thus, almost any conception of the good life will require, for example, freedom from arbitrary arrest, the right to a fair trial and freedom from inhuman treatment. In addition, the man who will become the Muslim might in future wish to restrict freedom of speech on religious matters but, at present, self-interest dictates that he consider the possibility that his conception of the good life might necessarily include the exercise
4 5 6 7 8
For a modern exposition of the Natural Law School, see Finnis, J, Natural Law and Natural Rights, 1980, Clarendon. Locke, J, The Second Treatise of Government, 1698. See discussion below, pp 8–9. See Hart’s comments on this phenomenon generally in ‘Between utility and rights’ in Cohen, M (ed), Ronald Dworkin and Contemporary Jurisprudence, 1984, Duckworth. Nozick, R, Anarchy, State and Utopia, 1974, Blackwell, p 183.
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of freedom of speech. Thus Rawls’s men adopt, inter alia, ‘the first principle’, stating that ‘each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive, total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all’.9 These basic liberties are identical with any familiar list of civil and political rights. Although similar to Rawls in political outlook, Ronald Dworkin offers a theoretical construct which derives rights in a different manner, and indeed has criticised Rawls’s theory, arguing that a hypothetical, unlike an actual, contract provides no grounds for binding actual people to its terms.10 Dworkin attempts to derive rights from the premise, to which he hopes all will agree, that the state owes a duty to treat all of its citizens with equal concern and respect – a premise which he argues persuasively is the deep assumption underlying Rawls’s use of the contract device. Dworkin is not concerned with defending rights from despotic and repressive governments and indeed he sees no need to protect – by designating them as rights – those individual interests which the majority would like to see protected, since these will in any case be ensured by the democratic process which he assumes as a background to his theory. Dworkin’s particular concern is to justify the protection of unpopular or minority rights – or those whose exercise may on occasion threaten the overall well-being of the community – because such rights would potentially be put at risk if their validity were to be determined through a democratic vote. Clearly, the institution of democracy and most familiar sets of political policies, such as seeking the economic betterment of the majority, seem to be satisfactorily explained by an underpinning utilitarianism.11 Dworkin hypothesises that the great appeal of utilitarianism is owed at least in part to its appearance of egalitarianism through its promise to ‘treat the wishes of each member of the community on a par with the wishes of any other’,12 taking into account only the intensity of the preference and the number of people who hold it. This appeal is evinced in the utilitarian maxim: ‘everybody to count for one, nobody for more than one.’ Dworkin finds, however, that raw utilitarianism betrays this promise, since it fails to distinguish between what he denotes external and personal preferences. For example, if the question of whether homosexual acts should be permitted in private between adults were to be decided by a majority vote (preference maximisation), homosexuals would express their personal preference for freedom to perform those acts. Certain heterosexuals, however, would vote against allowing this freedom, because their external preference is that homosexuals should not be free to commit such acts. Thus, resolution of the question could be affected by the fact that certain citizens think that the homosexual way of life is not deserving of equal respect; a decision would therefore have been made at least partly on the basis that the way of life of 9
For this reference and a brief summary of the theory, see Rawls, J, A Theory of Justice, 1972, pp 11–15. 10 Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, 1977, Chapter 6. 11 Utilitarianism is a major political philosophy. The original conception of utilitarianism espoused by Jeremy Bentham saw the aim of government as being to promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people (see Burns (ed), Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham, 1970). A more recent and fashionable version states that an ideal society is one in which there is the maximum amount of preference satisfaction (see, generally, Smart, C and Williams, B, Utilitarianism: For and Against, 1973, CUP). References in the text will be to this latter version, known as ‘preference utilitarianism’. 12 Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, 1977, p 275.
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certain citizens was in some way contemptible. If the government enforced this decision through the use of coercive force (the criminal law), it would clearly have failed in its central duty to treat its citizens with equal concern and respect. In other words, utilitarianism – and therefore democracy – has an in-built means of undermining its own promise of equality. Since for Dworkin protecting this promise of equality is the central postulate of political morality, he finds that homosexuals should be granted a right to moral autonomy which cannot be overridden even by a majority decisionmaking process. Opposition to the liberal conception of human rights Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism has historically been generally hostile to the idea of rights, most famously to the notion of natural and inalienable human rights as set out, for example, in the American Declaration of Independence, which was characterised by Jeremy Bentham as merely so much ‘bawling upon paper’.13 The opposition of utilitarians to the notion of natural rights sprang mainly from their legal positivism – their belief that a legal right only exists if there is a specific ‘black letter’ provision guaranteeing it. But in general, since utilitarianism sets out one supreme goal of happiness or, in its more modern version, preference maximisation, it would clearly follow that rights under utilitarianism can have only a contingent justification. In other words, they are to be respected if they help bring about the goal of maximum satisfaction of preferences, but not otherwise. It may seem odd to postulate an opposition between utilitarianism and human rights, bearing in mind that JS Mill combined utilitarianism with a passionate belief in the desirability of free expression and civil rights generally. It should be noted, however, that Mill’s arguments for free speech depend essentially on a belief that allowing free speech will, in the long term, have good effects – such as increasing the likelihood that the truth will be discovered – rather than on a belief that free expression is a good in itself or something to which human beings are entitled without reference to its likely effects. A utilitarian, confronted with a situation in which infringing a right would undeniably benefit society as a whole, would have no reason to support the inviolability of the right; for example, he or she would find it hard to explain why criminal suspects should not be tortured if it were proved that reliable evidence would be derived thereby, leading to increased convictions, deterrence of crime and substantial consequential benefit to society. A further variant of the theory which has sometimes been termed ‘rule utilitarianism’, however, states that the goals of utilitarianism can best be reached by constructing rules which it is thought will, in general, further the goal of happiness or ‘preference maximisation’ and then applying these rules to situations as absolutes rather than considering in each individual situation what can best further the goal (for discussion, see Smart and Williams).14 Such rules could, of course, consist, at least in part, of a set of human rights. In relation to the example of torture given in the text, a rule utilitarian 13 Bentham, J, ‘Anarchical fallacies’, in Bowring, J (ed), Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham, 1843, p 494. 14 Smart, C and Williams, B, Utilitarianism: For and Against, 1973.
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could plausibly maintain that a general rule of humane treatment of citizens is likely to lead to the greatest happiness. In deciding whether to torture an individual suspect, this would mean that instead of considering whether in this case overall utility would be increased thereby, the state should apply the rule of humane treatment, even if in the particular case it would lead to a decrease in utility. It can be seen that for rule utilitarians, the good (the goal of preference maximisation or greatest happiness) is prior to the right, in opposition to Rawls’s clearly expressed conviction that the right (a system of just entitlements of citizens) is prior to any conceptions of the good – the substantive moral convictions by which individuals will live their lives. Marxism
The former socialist bloc of states – the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe – was the driving force behind the international recognition of economic, social and cultural rights. This was at least partly due to the fact that there is a measure of hostility within Marxist thought to civil and political rights.15 Such hostility exists mainly because Marxism advocates establishing a state which, far from being neutral amongst its citizens’ varying conceptions of the good and guaranteeing them the liberties necessary to pursue their private goals, instead imposes a particular conception of the good upon society. Since it regards the protection of this conception (the achievements of the revolution) as the supreme value and duty of the state, the exercise of liberties which threaten this achievement can be justifiably curtailed; hence the consistently poor record of the former Soviet bloc states and Communist China on such civil rights as freedom of speech. A theoretically related, but more moderate, critique of the Western liberal conception of human rights can be found in the writings of the so-called communitarians.16 Critical Legal Studies
The Critical Legal Studies movement (CLS) attacks the whole liberal conception of law as neutral, objective and rational. It seeks to expose the value judgments, internal inconsistencies and ideological conflicts which it sees as concealed under law’s benevolent exterior of impartial justice.17 Since the whole structure of legally guaranteed human rights is a creature of the liberal conception of law, the CLS attack fastens by extension onto the liberal notion of rights. Mark Tushnet, for example, has made four main criticisms of the liberal theory of rights in what he calls ‘a Schumpeterian act of creative destruction’. He asserts that rights are: first, unstable – that is, meaningful only in a particular social setting; secondly, they produce ‘no determinate consequences if claimed’; thirdly, ‘rights talk . . . falsely converts into empty abstractions . . . real experiences that we ought to value for their own sake’; and fourthly, if conceded a dominant position in contemporary discourse, rights threaten to ‘impede advances by progressive social forces’.18 It would be inappropriate to attempt a detailed refutation
15 16 17 18
See, e.g., Marx, K, On the Jewish Question, 1843. See, e.g., Sandel, M, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, CUP. Unger, R, The Critical Legal Studies Movement, 1986, Harvard University Press. Tushnet, M, ‘An essay on rights’ (1984) 62(18) Texas L Rev 1363.
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of the CLS position here.19 Perhaps the most important weakness in its critique of rights is that, as many writers have pointed out,20 it offers no guidance whatsoever as to how the interests of vulnerable minorities are to be protected without the institution of legal rights.
2 What is meant by a right? The preceding section has set out, in a very basic manner, some of the more influential liberal theories concerning the means of deriving a system of rights from a more general moral theory. In this section, two aims will be pursued. First, an attempt will be made to shed some light on what one can be taken to mean, in general terms, when one asserts a right; secondly, a brief explanation will be given of Hohfeld’s exposition of a right as an umbrella term, covering a number of more precisely delineated claims. Distinguishing moral and legal rights
The endeavour to distinguish legal from moral rights involves a central issue in jurisprudence, namely, the relationship between law and morality, on which there is a vast literature and a number of clearly defined schools of thought. Only the barest indications of the various positions on this tendentious issue are possible here. Legal positivism
Clearly, from a common sense point of view, if X makes a claim that she has a right to Y and there is no clear, black letter law giving her such a right, she must be taken to be asserting that she has a strong moral claim to Y and (probably) that this claim ought to be given legal force through the enactment of a specific legal right. The above point of view is – very crudely – that put forward by the school of jurisprudence known as legal positivism, whose central insistence is that there is no necessary connection between law and morality.21 Natural law
To a member of the natural law school in its traditional form,22 by contrast, the question of whether X’s claim to Y was moral or legal would be decided not empirically, by consulting the statute book, but rather by examining the normative claim made by her. If her claim was supported by an abstract notion of justice, then a measure purporting to deny the claim would not be accepted as a valid law since it would be unjust. The approach sounds extreme, but was employed during the Nuremberg trials as the
19 For a general critique of the CLS attitude to rights, see, e.g., Price, DA, ‘Taking rights cynically’ [1989] CLJ 271. 20 Ibid See also, e.g., Rhodes, DL, ‘Feminist critical theories’ (1990) 42(3) Stanford L Rev 634–38. 21 For a full discussion of this issue, see Hart, HLA, ‘Positivism and the separation of law and morals’, in Essays in Jurisprudence and Philosophy, 1983. 22 For the classical exposition of this theory, see Aquinas, T, ‘Summa theologica’, in d’Entreves, P (ed), Selected Political Writings, 1970, Blackwell.
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underlying justification for what might otherwise have been seen as the retrospective criminalisation of those who committed their crimes under the Nazi laws thought valid at the time. Dworkin’s theory
The views of Ronald Dworkin23 provide a middle ground between these two theories – a ‘third theory of law’.24 His theory is highly complex, but in essence is more inclusive than the positivist theory; recognising black letter legal rights,25 it insists that the law may contain further rights which have never yet been recognised by a statute or in any judicial decision. Thus, X could correctly claim she had a right to Y, on Dworkin’s account, if (a) the right would be consistent with the bulk of existing law and (b) it would figure in the best possible interpretation of the area of law concerned. By this, Dworkin means that the relevant past judicial decisions would be most satisfactorily justified by showing them all to have been concerned with protecting the right at issue, even if previous individual judgments did not explicitly recognise its existence. Such a claim might well, of course, be controversial, but it is precisely this that is at the root of Dworkin’s disagreement with the positivists: finding out what the law is, he argues, will require not merely an empirical test of the law’s pedigree (does it emanate from the right body?), but rather a complex inquiry which will, as he puts it, carry the lawyer ‘very deep into moral and political theory’.26 If one is convinced by Dworkin’s ingenious argument, the existence of a legal right can be adduced through interpretation (at least in common law jurisdictions). Alternatively, a right could, in any event, be given clear explicit protection so that its legal status was not a matter for controversy. The strength of a right: conflicts with other claims
If a legal right is conceded to exist, it must next be asked what is and should be the nature and strength of the protection thereby given. The right may come into conflict with the claims of society, such as that a certain standard of morality should be upheld. Clearly, in resolving such a conflict, a judge will inevitably draw upon his or her background political theory. If, for example, a judge in the European Court of Human Rights, who is a utilitarian by conviction, has to consider a convincing demonstration by a defendant government that the particular application of the right to free speech 23 For an exposition of Dworkin’s account of the relationship between law and morality, see his theory of judicial adjudication in Chapters 2–4 of Taking Rights Seriously, in which his theory is cast mainly in the form of a critique of legal positivism. For a fuller development of the theory, see Law’s Empire, 1986, Fontana. 24 The term was coined by Mackie, J, ‘The third theory of law’, in Cohen, M (ed), Ronald Dworkin and Contemporary Jurisprudence, 1984. 25 Note that in Law’s Empire Dworkin seems to discard any reliance on recognising ‘black letter’ law by some means reminiscent of Hart’s rule of recognition and comes to a position in which law is entirely a matter of interpretation. For criticism of this position see, e.g., Simmonds, NE, ‘Imperial visions and mundane practices’ [1987] CLJ 465 and Cotterell, R, The Politics of Jurisprudence, 1989, pp 172–81. 26 Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, p 67.
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claimed by the applicant will, on balance, make society worse off as a whole, he or she will be inclined to find for the government and allow the infringement of the right. Such infringement will, of course, be more readily allowable if the right is framed or has developed in such a way as to be open-ended in scope with in-built exceptions. Both Dworkin and Rawls have argued persuasively against making rights vulnerable to utilitarian considerations in this way. The idea that ‘[e]ach person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override’27 lies at the centre of Rawls’s political thought. The idea of such inviolable rights may seem extreme, but is in fact accepted by all civilised countries in the case, for example, of torture. It is not thought to be a sound argument for a government to assert that it is justified in torturing certain of its citizens on the grounds that it can increase the general welfare thereby. The acceptance of this principle is attested to by the non-derogability of the right to freedom from torture in all international human rights treaties, including the European Convention on Human Rights (Art 15(2)). Dworkin has addressed the specific question as to the means of understanding a legal right in an adjudicative context in some detail. Earlier, the distinction between moral and legal rights was discussed. Here it should be noted that Dworkin also distinguishes between rights that have ‘trump’ status and those that do not. He gives as an example of the latter a legal right to drive either way on a two-way road: such a right is a ‘weak’ legal right, because it is not an important human interest which is likely to be denied to certain groups through the influence of external preferences. It follows that such a right could justifiably be overridden by the government (through making the road one-way) if it thought it in the general interest to do so. By contrast, his conception of the strength of ‘trump’ rights leads to his insistence that an assertion of (for example) a right to free speech held by citizens ‘must imply that it would be wrong for the government to stop them from speaking, even when the government believes that what they say will cause more harm than good’.28 It can be seen, then, that Dworkin gives us a very clear prescription for the approach that a judge should take in weighing strong or ‘trump’ rights against the general welfare of society. He roundly condemns the idea that a judge, in adjudicating upon a right or a government in framing it, should carefully weigh up the right of the citizen against the possible adverse social consequences, accepting that it is sometimes preferable to err on the side of society, sometimes on the side of the individual, but on the whole getting the balance about right. ‘It must be wrong’, he argues, to consider that ‘inflating rights is as serious as invading them’. For to invade a right is to affront human dignity or treat certain citizens as less worthy of respect than others, while to inflate a right is simply to pay ‘a little more in social efficiency’29 than the government already has to pay in allowing the right at all. Thus, for Dworkin, if one asserts a ‘trump’ right, ordinary counter-arguments about a decrease in the welfare of society as a whole are simply irrelevant.
27 Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 1972, p 3. 28 Dworkin, R, Taking Rights Seriously, p 191. 29 Ibid, p 199.
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In what circumstances, then, may a strong individual right be overridden? Dworkin has argued30 that there are three general justifications for infringement and these appear to be generally accepted by liberal thought. Competing rights
First, there is the situation in which there is a clear competing individual claim, so that the exercise of the original right will directly infringe the competing right. The paradigmatic example of such a collision of individual rights arises where one individual uses his right of free speech to prejudice the fair trial of another. Another is where one incites violence against the other, thus infringing his right to security of the person. In such cases, since both rights are, as it were, from the same class of ‘strong’ rights, they will compete on equal terms, but it may nevertheless be possible to resolve the conflict by undertaking a balancing act between them based on proportionality.31 In the case of prejudice to a trial, this could be done by physically removing the trial from the area affected by the speech in question. If such avoidance of conflict was impossible, a determination might be made as to the damage inflicted on each right if the other was allowed to prevail. In the case of incitement to violence, the damage inflicted if free speech was allowed to prevail might be almost irretrievable, since the group affected might be placed at great risk for a period of time. In contrast, the damage to free speech created by avoidance of the risk might be of a lesser nature, although undesirable: the speech could be uttered in another form or another forum, so that its meaning was not lost, but it was rendered less inflammatory. Alternatively, utterance of the speech could be delayed until the situation had become less volatile. The words advocating immediate violence might be perceived as outside the area of protected speech and so might be severed from the accompanying words which could be permitted. The right is not really at stake
The second situation in which rights may be overridden is one where the values protected by the right are not at stake in this particular situation. In other words, it may be argued that most rights have a ‘core’, the invasion of which will constitute an actual overriding of the right, but they also have a ‘penumbra’ – an area in which the value the right protects is present only in a weaker form.32 An invasion of the penumbra may be said to constitute only an infringement of the right and may therefore be more readily justified. The argument that commercial speech should not be afforded the same protection as other kinds of speech would appear to rest precisely on the argument 30 Ibid, p 200. 31 See Chapter 9, pp 962–79. 32 This view is not attributed to Dworkin, although he does accept that there will be situations in which the core value of the right will not be at stake. Dworkin has comprehensively rejected Hart’s theory of statutory construction and application of the rules from past cases based around the notion of a core of certainty and a penumbra of uncertainty (for Hart’s position, see The Concept of Law; for Dworkin’s critique, op. cit., fn 3, Chapters 2–4). Dworkin argues that the areas of a rule which form the core and those which fall in the penumbra, can only be elucidated through a judge’s interpretation, which will carry him or her far from the specific words of the statute.
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that it is in the penumbra of free speech;33 by contrast, political speech is clearly in the ‘core’ of free speech.34 A real risk to society
The third situation justifying infringement is one in which the exercise of a right may pose a real danger to society. In such instances, liberals are unwilling to take danger to mean danger to some abstract attribute to society, such as its moral health,35 but rather insist that the danger must ultimately amount to a threat to some concrete aspect of its citizens’ well-being. Thus, typically, liberals are hostile to characterising the likelihood of shocking or offending citizens as a concrete harm justifying the suppression of the right of free speech. Dworkin’s own, perhaps rather unrealistically stringent, test is that the ‘risk to society’ justification for overriding rights is only made out if the state demonstrates ‘a clear and substantial risk’ that exercise of the right ‘will do great damage to the person or property of others’.36 It seems unlikely that governments would be prepared to accept such a test; the criterion laid down, for example, by the European Court of Human Rights for curtailing the right of free expression as set out in Art 10 does not even approach Dworkin’s prescription in either stringency or clarity; instead, it has adopted the somewhat weak and uncertain phrase, ‘a pressing social need’.37 Dworkin’s rights analysis should not, therefore, be taken as a description of the way rights and liberties are actually treated in the UK and under human rights treaties, but rather as an ideal against which the reality of such ‘rights’ protection can be measured. Distinguishing rights and liberties
Having given an account of what may, in general terms, be meant by an assertion of a right in the liberal tradition, we may now turn to an analysis of the more specific claims that the assertion of a right may entail and employ this analysis to make a few general remarks about the nature of ‘rights’ protection in the UK. Hohfeld’s analysis
One of the more influential attempts to analyse closely the nature of a right was made by the American jurist Wesley Hohfeld.38 Hohfeld attempted to demonstrate the way that claims of rights in everyday language can in fact be broken down into four more
33 Judgment of US Supreme Court, Bolger v Youngs Drug Products Ltd (1983) 103 Ct 2875, 2880–81. 34 The House of Lords appeared to recognise the central importance of free political speech in their pre-HRA decision that neither local nor central government could pursue an action in defamation: Derbyshire CC v Times Newspapers [1993] 1 All ER 1011. 35 Eg, see the attacks by Hart, ‘Social solidarity and the enforcement of morality’, in Essays in Jurisprudence and Philosophy, and Dworkin, ‘Liberty and morality’, in Taking Rights Seriously, on Lord Devlin’s view that society may justifiably use the criminal law to enforce a shared morality. 36 Dworkin, R, Taking Rights Seriously, p 204. 37 See Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737. For further discussion of this test, see Chapter 5, p 336–37. 38 Hohfeld, W, Fundamental Legal Concepts as Applied in Judicial Reasoning, 1920, particularly pp 35–41.
The nature of rights and liberties
15
specific claims. First, if it is claimed that X has a right proper or ‘claim right’ to A, then this means that persons, generally or particularly, are under some specific corresponding duty to ensure that X has access to A. Secondly, X may be said to have an immunity as against a particular person or body; this means that they are disabled from interfering with the exercise by X of the interest (A) protected by the immunity. Thirdly, if X has only a liberty (what Hohfeld calls a privilege) to do A, this far weaker claim merely means that X does no wrong in exercising his liberty – the rights of others are not thereby infringed. However, no one has a duty to allow him to exercise A or to assist him to exercise it. Fourthly, X may have a power to do B, such as to sell his property. This last category is not particularly relevant to the subject of civil liberties. Hohfeld applied to the reality of ‘rights’ protection
Hohfeld’s explanation is a useful analytical tool; it can be seen by utilising it that Dworkin is advocating that rights be set out as a series of immunities – areas of entitlement which even democratically elected governments are disabled from interfering with. The US Constitution and its Amendments represent such a list of immunities. In applying Hohfeld’s theory to ‘rights’ protection in the UK, it can be seen that it endows the commentator with the ability to distinguish between the different forms of protection offered towards different freedoms. The commentator must now apply these analytical tools to the Human Rights Act 1998 in order to find that a very significant break with the traditional findings as to rights protection in the UK has occurred. If Dworkin’s analysis is used, all rights in the UK are technically ‘weak’ since, even under the Human Rights Act 1998, all are at least theoretically subject to infringement by Parliament. Under Hohfeld’s view, the picture is more mixed. It becomes clear that, traditionally, most freedoms in the UK were merely liberties; one did no wrong to exercise them, but there was no positive duty on any organ of the state to allow or facilitate them. For example, the Public Order Act 1986 nowhere placed upon chief constables a duty to ensure freedom of assembly and speech. Nevertheless, some of our entitlements clearly had and have the quality of Hohfeldian claim rights in that they are protected by a positive correlative duty. For example, arrested persons have the right of access to a solicitor while in police custody as guaranteed by S 58 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. Equal treatment in certain contexts is provided for under domestic and EU instruments. However, even when a citizen holds a right, there were – under domestic law – no legal guarantees that the legislation providing the positive protection would not be repealed. Similarly, a citizen enjoying a liberty could not be certain that legislation would not be introduced into a previously unregulated area, thus destroying or limiting that liberty. When the Human Rights Act 1998 came fully into force, however, in October 2000, many of our Hohfeldian liberties became rights in Hohfeldian terms since, as Chapter 4 explains, public authorities were laid under a positive duty to respect them and are acting unlawfully if they do not (s 6(1)), unless the only possible reading of contrary primary legislation is that the right must be infringed. Even in that instance, once the incompatibility is declared, the government will normally respond by introducing remedial legislation. It is now much less likely that legislation will be introduced which would have the effect of limiting the rights protected under the 1998 Act, since such legislation might eventually be declared incompatible with the guarantees of those rights
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(s 4). Further, when such legislation was introduced, the relevant Minister would have to declare that a statement of compatibility could not be made (s 19, HRA), which would be politically embarrassing. (It has only occurred once so far.)39 Similarly, existing legislative protection for a right recognised under the HRA would be unlikely to be repealed, since the repealing legislation could not be accompanied by such a statement and, moreover, a citizen might bring an action at Strasbourg challenging the failure to make domestic provision to deliver the right. Thus, in Hohfeldian terms, the 1998 Act itself does not provide a set of immunities since it can be overridden by primary legislation, while in Dworkinian terms the rights remain ‘weak’. As indicated, the guarantees of the rights are not absolute; the deterrents against infringing them at the parliamentary level are ultimately political ones. But the Act clearly represents a dramatic shift in rights protection in the UK, away from residual freedoms towards positive rights.
39 The Communications Act 2003 was not accompanied by a statement of compatibility; see Chapter 6, p 518.
Chapter 2
The European Convention on Human Rights
1 Introduction 1 The European Convention on Human Rights was conceived after the Second World War as a means of preventing the kind of violation of human rights seen in Germany during and before the war. However, it has not generally been invoked in relation to large-scale violations of rights, but instead has addressed particular deficiencies in the legal systems of the Member states, who on the whole create regimes of human rights in conformity with it. Drafted in 1949 by the Council of Europe, it was based on the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights,2 and partly for that reason and partly because it was only intended to provide basic protection for human rights, it appears today as quite a cautious document, less far reaching than the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.3 Nevertheless, it has had far more effect on UK law than any other human rights treaty due to its machinery for enforcement, which includes the European Court of Human Rights, with the power to deliver a ruling adverse to the governments of Member states. Moreover, the Court insists upon the dynamic nature of the Convention and adopts a teleological or purpose-based approach to its interpretation which has allowed the substantive rights to develop until they may cover situations unthought of in 1949. Had it been a more radical document, the Convention might have been self-defeating because it might have failed to secure the necessary acceptance from Member states, both in terms of ratifying various parts of it, such as the right of individual petition, and in terms of responding to adverse judgments. 1 Texts referred to below: Clayton, R and Tomlinson, H, The Law of Human Rights, 2nd edn, 2006; Ovey, C and White, R, Jacobs and White European Convention on Human Rights, 4th edn, 2006, OUP; Bailey, SH, Harris, DJ and Jones, BL, Civil Liberties: Cases and Materials, 5th edn, 2002; Feldman, D, Civil Liberties and Human Rights in England and Wales, 2002; Van Dijk, P and Van Hoof, F, Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights, 3rd edn, 1998, Kluwer; Mowbray, A, Cases and Materials on the European Convention on Human Rights, 2001, LexisNexis UK; Janis, M, Kay, R and Bradley, A, European Human Rights Law, 2nd edn, 2000, OUP; Harris, D, O’Boyle, K and Warbrick, C, Law of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1995, Butterworths; Dickson, B (ed), and Connelly, A, Human Rights and the European Convention, 1996, Sweet and Maxwell; Farran, S, The UK Before the European Court of Human Rights, 1996, Blackstone. Background: Beddard, R, Human Rights and Europe, 3rd edn, 1980, CUP; Fawcett, JES, The Application of the European Convention on Human Rights, 2nd edn, 1987, Clarendon; Jacobs, F, The European Convention on Human Rights, 1975, OUP; Nedjati, ZM, Human Rights under the European Convention, 1978, Elsevier; Merrills, JG and Robertson, AH, Human Rights in Europe, 3rd edn, 1993, Manchester University Press. 2 The Declaration was adopted on 10 December 1948 by the General Assembly of the UN. 3 1966.
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Although the European Court of Human Rights may rule against the governments of Member states, its approach – which is reflected throughout the machinery for the supervision of the Convention – is not ultimately coercive. A persuasive or consensusbased approach is evident at every stage through which an application may pass. A friendly settlement may well be reached before the case comes before the Court; even if it does not, and the case reaches the stage of a final ruling adverse to the government in question, the government is in effect free to determine the extent of the changes needed in order to respond, although the possibility of future adverse rulings at Strasbourg may exercise an influence on its decision. This approach is also reflected in the doctrine of the ‘margin of appreciation’ which has been developed by the Strasbourg authorities. This doctrine, to which we will return below,4 involves allowing the domestic authorities a degree of discretion in deciding what is needed to protect various public interests in their own countries, even though such interests have an impact on protection for Convention rights. The use of this doctrine allows evasion of conflict over very sensitive issues between Strasbourg and the Member state. Clearly, its use may lead at times to an acceptance of a lower standard of human rights than some liberal critics would advocate,5 but some commentators have suggested that it can be an appropriate influence on the dealings between Strasbourg and democracies with generally sound human rights records.6 When examining the substantive rights, they may be said to fall into two groups: Articles 2–7, covering the most fundamental human rights and containing, broadly, no express exceptions,7 or narrow express exceptions; and Arts 8–12, which may be said to cover a more sophisticated or developed conception of human rights and which are subject to a broad range of express exceptions. Thus, under Arts 2–7, argument will tend to concentrate on the question of whether a particular situation falls within the compass of the right in question, whereas under Arts 8–11 it will largely concentrate on determining whether the interference with the guarantee can be justified (Art 12 contains only one exception, but of a very broad nature). There is an enormous amount of overlap between the Articles and it may be found that weaknesses or gaps in one can be remedied by another, although the Convention will be interpreted as a harmonious whole.8 It will also be found that invocation of a substantive right in order to attack a decision in the national courts on its merits may sometimes fail, but that a challenge to the procedure may succeed under one of the Articles explicitly concerned with
4 See pp 36–39. 5 See: McDonald, RJ, ‘The margin of appreciation in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights’, International Law and the Time of its Codification, 1987, pp 187–208; Van Dijk and Van Hoof, op. cit., fn 1, p 82 et seq; O’Donell, ‘The margin of appreciation doctrine: standards in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights’ (1982) 4 Human Rights Q 474; Morrisson, C, ‘Margin of appreciation in human rights law’ (1973) 6 Human Rights J 263; Jones, T, ‘The devaluation of human rights under the European Convention’ [1995] PL 430; Mahoney, P, ‘Marvellous richness or invidious cultural relativism?’ (1998) 19 Human Rights LJ 1. 6 See Gearty, C, ‘Democracy and human rights in the European Court of Human Rights: a critical appraisal’ (2000) 51(3) NILQ 381, esp p 387. 7 Article 6 provides that trial judgments should be pronounced publicly except where, inter alia, the interest of morals, public order or national security demand otherwise but the primary right – to a fair hearing – is not subject to these exceptions. 8 Van Dijk and Van Hoof, op. cit., fn 1, Chapter II.
The European Convention on Human Rights
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fairness in the adjudicative process – Arts 5, 6 and 7.9 The rights and freedoms are largely concerned with civil and political rather than social and economic matters; the latter are governed by the 1961 European Social Charter and the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.10 The Convention has grown by way of additional protocols so that it now creates a more advanced human rights regime based on Arts 2–14 with the First Protocol11 in conjunction with the Fourth,12 Sixth13 and Seventh14 Protocols. The very significant Protocol 12 was opened for ratification in November 2000.15 The UK has not yet ratified the rights contained in the Fourth and Seventh Protocols, and at present does not intend to ratify the Twelfth Protocol, suggesting that although there is a measure of harmony between the basic Convention regime and the UK legal system, this is not the case as far as aspects of the more advanced regime is concerned. The UK has ratified Protocol 13 which abolishes the death penalty in all circumstances. The Joint Committee on Human Rights in 2005 recommended that the government should ratify the Fourth and Twelfth Protocols.16 In considering the operation of the Convention in practice, it should be remembered that it was not intended to mimic the working of a domestic legal system. Thus, individuals could not, until recently, take a case directly to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg17 and, in fact, it is a feature of the Court that it hears very few cases in comparison with the number of applications made.18 However, its jurisprudence has had an enormous impact, not merely through the outcome of specific cases, but in a general symbolic, educative and preventive sense. Its function in raising
9 This point is developed below; see p 60. See Gearty, C, ‘The European Court of Human Rights and the protection of civil liberties: an overview’ [1993] CLJ 89 for argument that the Convention as a whole is largely concerned with procedural rights. 10 (1965) Cmnd 2643; see Harris, D, The European Social Charter, 1984, University of Virginia Press. The charter does not have a system of petitions. On an international level, the UK is also party to the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Cmnd 6702. It is not enforceable as regards the UK by individual petition. 11 Cmnd 9221. All the parties to the Convention except Switzerland are parties to this Protocol, which came into force in 1954. 12 Cmnd 2309. It came into force in 1968; the UK is not yet a party. It contains rights relating to the field of immigration law, which have raised governmental concerns regarding the nature of the obligations created and the government has indicated that it does not intend to ratify it at present: see the White Paper, Rights Brought Home: the Human Rights Bill, Cm 3782, 1997, paras 4.10–4.11. It has, however, considered the possibility of future ratification with reservations: the Home Office Review of Human Rights Instruments (amended), 26 August 1999. See below, p 165. 13 (1983) 5 EHRR 167. It came into force in 1985. The UK is now a party to it and it is included in the Human Rights Act, Sched 1. See below, Chapter 4, p 165. 14 (1984) 7 EHRR 1. It came into force in 1988. The UK is not a party but proposes to ratify imminently: see the White Paper, Rights Brought Home: the Human Rights Bill, Cm 3782, 1997, paras 4.14–4.15, and the Home Office Review of Human Rights Instruments (amended) 26 August 1999. Note that the other Protocols are concerned with the procedural machinery of the Convention. 15 See Chapter 4, p 165, and Chapter 15, p 1486 and see below, p 106. 16 Seventeenth Report of Session 2004–5 HL Paper 99, HC 264, paras 34 and 37. 17 Once the Eleventh Protocol came into force, individuals acquired the right to take a case directly to the Court; see below, pp 24 et seq. 18 Eg, in 1991, the Commission registered 1648 applications; it referred 93 cases to the Court, which gave judgment in 72. European Court of Human Rights, Survey of Activities 1959–91.
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awareness of human rights was of particular significance in the UK since, until the enactment of the HRA, no equivalent domestic instrument had the role of doing so. Since the HRA has afforded the Convention further effect in UK law, its interpretation, the values it encapsulates and the development of the control machinery have become of even greater significance. An understanding of the workings of the Convention is now crucial since the jurisprudence is now being very frequently relied on in the domestic courts. The enormous increase in the number of applications from the UK since the early days of the Convention suggests that before the HRA was enacted, it was seen as a guardian of human rights by UK citizens, although to an extent it held out a promise that it could not fulfil. The immensely slow and difficult route to Strasbourg discouraged applicants from using it. It is still a slow and cumbersome route owing to the number of applications, despite improvements in the mechanisms for considering them.19 Further reforms were introduced under Protocol 11 intended to address the increasing backlog of cases. That aim does not appear to have been realised; Protocol 14 is also intended to speed up the process and deal with the backlog when it comes into force. The fact that an application may take, at present, five years to be heard is perhaps one of the main deficiencies of the Convention enforcement machinery.20 This chapter therefore devotes some time to explaining that process and the highly significant part which was, until recently, played in it by the European Commission on Human Rights,21 before going on to consider the substantive rights. This chapter provides an overview of the substantive rights; the more recent cases are referred to at relevant points in the succeeding chapters.
2 The supervisory procedure for the Convention Introduction
The Convention’s procedural machinery has been altered several times by Protocols. Reform of the procedure recently occurred, stemming from a recommendation of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe that the Commission should be abolished and its function merged with that of the Court, so that there would only be one body – the single Court. It was proposed22 that the new Court would come into operation in 1995 and that there would be a transitional period from 1995 to 2000 during which the old Commission and Court would hear cases already referred to them while new cases would be referred to the new Court. This established a fundamental change in the machinery of the Convention. The new arrangements governing the
19 Eg, procedures were introduced under the Eighth Protocol, including a summary procedure for rejecting straightforward cases. 20 The average time is a little over four years: see e.g. ‘Reform of the control systems’ 15 EHRR 321, p 360, para 7. See further below, pp 23–28. 21 See further Bratza, N and O’Boyle, M, ‘Opinion: the legacy of the Commission to the new Court under the 11th Protocol’ (1997) EHRLR 211. 22 Recommendation 1194 adopted on 6 October 1992 by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.
The European Convention on Human Rights
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control mechanism23 are contained Protocol 1124 which has had a radical effect on the Convention procedure. Its most significant reform was to set up the single, restructured, Court,25 which now sits full-time in place of the Court and Commission (under Art 19). Now that the Court and Commission have merged, it may be argued that the authority of the Convention has increased because its jurisprudence will no longer be influenced by the decisions of an administrative body; the control system has become, in this respect, more akin to that of a domestic legal system. Protocol 11 also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 were superseded by Protocol 11. Below, the original arrangements for the Convention are considered and compared with the current arrangements under Protocol 11. The further changes that will occur under Protocol 14 are also discussed. Although the Commission has been abolished, it had a considerable influence on the Strasbourg jurisprudence. Moreover, the admissibility role it carried out has now, in essentials, been taken over by the Court. Therefore, for both reasons, it is still of importance to understand the role and functioning of the Commission. Originally, under Art 19, the Convention set up the European Commission on Human Rights (here-after referred to as ‘the Commission’) and the European Court of Human Rights (hereafter referred to as ‘the Court’). Thus, the machinery for the enforcement of the Convention is impressive compared to that used in respect of other human rights treaties, particularly the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which, as far as the UK is concerned, has been enforceable only through a system of assessment of national reports.26 The role of the Commission evolved over time. It was conceived as an advisory body which provided assistance for the Committee of Ministers (see below), composed of the Foreign Affairs Ministers of each state, who had the key role in supervising the Convention. The idea of an independent body interfering in the use of governmental powers in relation to their own citizens gained gradual acceptance, and the Commission became less of an administrative and more of a judicial body, giving Opinions on the law, albeit without the ability to take binding decisions except in relation to inadmissibility (see below). Broadly, creation of the Commission represented a compromise: it was thought too controversial merely to allow citizens to take their governments before the Court. There was a feeling that an administrative body might be more sympathetic to Member states’ cases and the Member state might feel less on trial than in the
23 See ‘Reform of the control systems’ (1993) 15 EHRR 321. For comment, see Mowbray, A [1993] PL 419. 24 Protocol 11 came into force on 1 November 1998 under Art 5 of the Protocol, which provides that it comes into force one year after it has been ratified by all the Member states. See (1994) 15 HRLJ 86. The merger procedure was completed in November 1998 when the Commission was abolished. For discussion see, e.g., Schermers, H, ‘The Eleventh Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights’ (1994) 19 EL Rev 367, at p 378 and (1995) EL Rev 3; Lord Lester of Herne Hill QC, ‘The European Convention in the new architecture of Europe’ [1996] PL 5. 25 See ‘Reform of the control systems’ (1993) 15 EHRR 321. 26 The Optional Protocol to the Covenant governs the right of individual petition; but it has not been ratified by the UK. For comment on the general efficacy of the reporting system, see (1980) HRLJ 136–70.
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Court.27 Therefore, the Commission was created as an administrative barrier between the individual and the Court and was used as a means of filtering out a very high proportion of cases, thus considering far more cases than the Court. This might seem a strange device: European Community lawyers would be horrified at the idea of creating a European Commission to keep cases out of the European Court of Justice; they would feel that for justice to be done, the individual’s case must be considered by the Court itself rather than by an administrative body reaching its decisions in secret.28 Nevertheless, in human rights matters, the Commission was until recently viewed as an acceptable and useful device. That view recently underwent a change which led to the proposal for abolition of the Commission and the takeover of the Commission’s role by the Court, which was carried out in Protocol 11; we will return to this matter below. The previous role of the European Commission on Human Rights
The main role of the Commission was to filter out cases as inadmissible, thereby reducing the workload of the Court. However, it also had another role: it tried to reach a friendly settlement between the parties and could give its Opinion on the merits of the case if it was not intended that a final judgment should be given. It could also refer the case to the Court or the Committee of Ministers29 for the final judgment. As explained below, parts of this role have been taken over by the Court. That judicial role of the Committee was abolished under the Protocol 11 reforms. The Commission consisted of one member for every Member state.30 The members were elected by the Committee of Ministers31 and their period of service was managed with a view to ensuring that the membership would change constantly.32 The members of the Commission (who were unsalaried) were not government representatives; Art 23 provided that they served ‘in their individual capacity’.33 In the UK, members tended to come from within the Civil Service, thus raising some doubt as to their neutrality. Apart from the criterion contained in Art 23, members of the Commission were, in practice, expected to display high moral integrity, have a recognised competence in
27 28 29 30 31
See Janis, Kay and Bradley, op. cit., fn 1, p 27. The Commission’s sessions were held in camera (old Art 33). For the composition and functioning of this body see below, pp 25–26. Under (old) Art 20, no two members of the Commission could be nationals of the same state. Under (old) Art 21, the members of the Commission were elected by the Committee of Ministers by an absolute majority of votes, from a list of names drawn up by the Bureau of the Consultative Assembly and this procedure was followed as far as it was applicable when a state became a party to the Convention and when vacancies had to be filled. 32 Under (old) Art 22, the members of the Commission were elected for a period of six years and could be re-elected. However, of the members elected at the first election, the terms of seven members chosen by lot expired at the end of three years. In order to ensure that, as far as possible, one half of the membership of the Commission was renewed every three years, the Committee of Ministers could decide that the term of office of a member to be elected should be for a period other than six years but not more than nine and not less than three years. 33 The members usually held other posts in their own countries as university professors, legal advisers or judges. They were aided by the lawyers on the staff of the Commission.
The European Convention on Human Rights
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human rights matters and have substantial legal experience.34 The Commission decided by a majority of votes (old Art 34) and the President had the casting vote.35 As it was a part-time body which usually only sat for about 14 weeks a year, it tended to build up a backlog of cases, thus contributing to the long delay in dealing with applications. The role of the Commission came under review for a number of reasons. It was barely able to deal with the number of applications it received and, as states which used to be part of the Soviet Union or Yugoslavia became signatories to the Convention, this problem was exacerbated. Such countries do not have as developed a system for protection for human rights as the old Member states, and so tend to use the Convention as a means of developing such protection. Thus, although a two-tier system involving two part-time bodies may have been an acceptable control mechanism when the Convention was drawn up, it became much less appropriate. Moreover, although the notion of the involvement of an administrative body in dealing with cases may have been acceptable in 1950, it arguably detracted from the authority of the Convention.36 The European Court of Human Rights 37
The Court has increased enormously in standing and efficacy over the last 30 years, partly due to its activism and creativity in interpreting the Convention and its willingness to find that Member states have violated the rights of individuals. It has been pointed out that an explosion in the number of cases it considered occurred in the 1980s as lawyers in the different European countries realised that it held out the possibility of a remedy for their clients and also of bringing about important legal change.38 It may be considered the European constitutional court as far as human rights matters are concerned. As originally set up, however, the Court did not bear a great resemblance to a domestic supreme or higher court in a number of respects. In particular, individuals could not take a case directly to it and its role was restricted because of the likelihood to the European Commission on Human Rights finding a case inadmissible. When Protocol 9 came into force,39 the individual, or a group of individuals, was added to the bodies who could refer a case to the Court, under amendments to (old) Arts 44 and 48. The UK was not one of the consenting parties. Protocol 9 was repealed by Protocol 11, which now governs the ability of individuals to refer cases to the Court (Art 34).
34 Protocol 8 required that members ‘must either possess the qualifications required for appointment to judicial office or be persons of recognised competence in national or international law’. 35 The Commission drew up its own rules of procedure (old) Art 36. 36 For discussion, see (1987) HRLJ 8. 37 For discussion of the role of the Court in interpreting the Convention, see Gearty, ‘The European Court of Human Rights and the protection of civil liberties’ [1993] CLJ 89. The Court’s constitution and jurisdiction were governed by the Convention Arts 19–56, but under Protocol 11 these Articles were replaced by a revised Section II of the Convention (Arts 19–51). 38 See Harris, O’Boyle and Warbrick, op. cit., fn 1, p 648. 39 On 1 October 1994, for the 13 states which consented to it. Under Protocol 9, Art 48, as amended, an individual could refer a case to the Court only after it had been screened by a panel of three members of the Court. If it did not raise a ‘serious question affecting the interpretation or application of the Convention’ and did not for any other reason warrant consideration by the Court, the panel could decide that it should not be considered by the Court.
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Under the previous arrangements, if an application was found inadmissible by the Commission, the case would not reach the Court, as explained below. If it was found admissible, but a friendly settlement was reached, the Court might not have been required to decide on the application of the Convention. Thus, the question of admissibility and the mechanism allowing for a friendly settlement were crucial within the system for enforcing the Convention. The possibility of avoiding the Court’s involvement meant, it is argued, that a lower standard of human rights than that allowed by the Convention tended to be maintained, especially in the older decisions of the Commission. From November 1998, under Protocol 11, the admissibility and the examination of the merits with a view to reaching a friendly settlement were undertaken by the Court. This reform was generally seen as representing a more satisfactory arrangement, since a judicial as opposed to an administrative body is now making the key decisions. Nevertheless, since the admissibility criteria remain unchanged under Protocol 11, as indicated below, current criticism of them is still applicable. The terms of membership of the Court, governed now by Arts 19–24 of the Convention (previously by Arts 38–43), are intended to ensure that the judges will act independently of their own governments. Under Art 20 (previously Art 38), each Member state will send to the Court40 one judge, who must be ‘of high moral character and must either possess the qualifications required for appointment to high judicial office or be jurisconsults of recognised competence’ (Art 21). Rule 4 of the Rules of Court41 provides that judges may not engage in ‘any political or administrative activity or any professional activity which is incompatible with their independence or impartiality or with the demands of a full-time office’. However, this does not mean that a judge may not have served within the government and, in fact, UK judges have at times come from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office’s Legal Advisers department which is responsible for defending the government in Strasbourg. The judges tend to serve for substantial periods of time, but under the Protocol 11 reforms, the initial period of office has been shortened, since they are initially elected for six rather than nine years. The Court will not have the same composition for all that time, because the terms of certain members expire earlier than those of others.42 The form of the Court was governed by (old) Art 43 which provided that it would consist of a Chamber composed of seven judges.43 Like the Commission, it used to sit
40 A list of persons is nominated by the Members of the Council of Europe and they are then elected by the Consultative Assembly. Under Art 22 (previously 39), each member shall nominate three candidates, of whom two at least shall be its nationals. Countries which are not yet parties to the Convention may have judges on the Court as have Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Bulgaria with representatives from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania expected. 41 The European Court of Human Rights Rules of Court (4 November 1998). 42 Under (old) Art 40, the members of the Court were elected for a period of nine years. The period is now six under Art 23(1). They may be re-elected. However, of the members elected at the first election, the terms of four members shall expire at the end of three years and the terms of four more members shall expire at the end of six years chosen by lot. The Consultative Assembly may decide, before proceeding to any subsequent election, that the term or terms of office of one or more members to be elected shall be for a period other than six years, but not more than nine and not less than three years. 43 The names of the judges are chosen by lot by the President before the opening of the case. The judge who is a national of any state Party concerned will sit as an ex officio member of the Chamber.
The European Convention on Human Rights
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temporarily.44 Its hearings will continue to be public,45 although the Court deliberates in private.46 Its decisions will continue to be taken on a majority vote.47 The Court has jurisdiction under Art 32 (previously Art 45) of the Convention to consider all cases which raise issues as to the interpretation and application of the Convention. Under the Protocol 11 reforms, the Court sits in Committees of three judges, Chambers of seven judges and in a Grand Chamber of 17 judges (Art 27). Chambers designate Judge Rapporteurs to examine applications. The Plenary Court does not perform a judicial function; it elects its President and Vice-President for three-year terms and sets up Chambers, constituted for three years.48 Under Art 43, a party to a case may request that it be referred to the Grand Chamber within a period of three months from the date of the judgment of the Chamber. A panel of five judges from the Grand Chamber will accept the request if it raises a serious issue regarding the interpretation of the Convention or an issue of general importance. This procedure represents a further significant improvement brought about by the Eleventh Protocol since it seemed anomalous that a human rights Convention should make no provision for appeals. In general, adoption of the Eleventh Protocol has brought about quite radical changes in the role of the Court, changes that have not been welcomed wholeheartedly by some critics.49 The Committee of Ministers
The Committee was not set up by the Convention; its composition and functions are regulated in the statute of the Council of Europe (Arts 13–21). The Committee consists of one representative from the government of each Member state of the Council of Europe, usually the Minister for Foreign Affairs.50 The Committee is, therefore, a political body which, as indicated below, was nevertheless performing a judicial role prior to the Protocol 11 reforms. Like the creation of the Commission, this was the result of a compromise; it was thought when the Convention was drafted that a Court of Human Rights with full compulsory jurisdiction would be too controversial and would therefore be unacceptable to all Member states. Pre-Protocol 11 the Committee of Ministers used to have a judicial decision-making function. The Committee received a Report from the Commission giving its Opinion on the merits of an application. If there was no move by the Commission within three months to bring the case before the Court, the Committee would take the final decision (old Art 32). Oddly, the Convention was silent as to when a case should go to the Court and when to the Committee of Ministers; the matter appeared to be in the discretion of the Commission. In practice, non-contentious cases were usually referred to the Committee. They included those cases which did not raise significant Convention issues
44 45 46 47 48 49
It used to sit for about 80–90 days a year (see (1993) 15 EHRR 322, at p 327). Under (current) Art 40. Rule 22(1). Rule 23 of the Rules of the Court. Rule 25(1). See, e.g., Schermers, H, ‘The Eleventh Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights’ (1994) 19 EL Rev 367, p 378. 50 If an alternative is nominated, he or she should also be a member of the government (Art 14).
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Theories of rights; legal protection for rights and liberties in the UK
and/or those which raised issues which concerned established Convention case law. A sub-Committee would be appointed to examine the case which decided by a two-th
