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CANOPIES: THE FRAMING OF SACRED SPACE IN THE BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION. Volume 1 Jelena Bogdanović A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY Adviser: Prof. Slobodan Ćurčić June 2008
UMI Number: 3305752
Copyright 2008 by Bogdanovic, Jelena All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 3305752 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
© Copyright by Jelena Bogdanović, 2008. All rights reserved.
Abstract Canopies: The Framing of Sacred Space in the Byzantine Ecclesiastical Tradition re‐examines the role of the canopy as a basic symbolic and spatial unit in the Byzantine church. The central focus and dominant vertical axis that the canopy provides within liturgical rites is expanded by the directional ambivalence, which offers an innovative understanding of the materialization of the idea of the Byzantine church and its multi‐focal spatial iconography. The micro‐architecture of canopies reveals modular and additive qualities of the church, from its structural four‐columned core with a dome, through actual four‐ and two‐columned furnishings above altar tables, baptismal and holy water fonts, ambos, tombs, and specially venerated (proskynetaria) icons, to liturgical vestments and vessels in the shape of a canopy, and finally to two‐dimensional canopies represented on church floors and walls. Although formulaic in execution, perhaps even because of their generic imagery and decoration, canopies were adaptable to different specific contexts. This study suggests that the canopy‐frame was a subtle boundary between the sacred and the worldly, and yet, at the same time, it was totally integrated as a symbolic unit with the presence of God beyond space and time. Part One, The Canopy and the Byzantine Church, deals with the catalogued archaeological evidence for more than 150 canopies, complemented by 400 visual representations of and 100 texts about canopies. The material reveals how by intermingling rhetorical images and visual embodiments of the idea of a canopy, the Byzantines used inconsistent descriptive terminology: ciborium/kiborion, pirgos, oikiskos, orophion, apsida, tetrakionos, tetrapylon, tetravelon, katapetasma, parapetasma, pepla, koubukleion. The problem has deepened owing to the antiquarian origins of Byzantine studies in the sixteenth century, which witnessed a marginalization of terms other than ciborium, resulting in lacunae in current scholarship on canopies. Material evidence further supports the observation that there were many more canopies in Byzantine churches than previously thought. Indeed, the size, material and artistic quality of canopies changed especially after the Iconoclasm and the loss of Imperial control of their production. The formulation of concepts related to the framing of sacred space by canopies, however, is tied to the Iconoclasm and to polemics about the Incarnation in Jerusalem and Constantinople. By the fifteenth century canopies received additional, often anachronistic and conflating explanations, diverging from material evidence. By raising questions about places of individual or collective encounter with the sacred, Part Two, The Canopy and the Human Body, reveals the human body and divine grace to be integrated vehicles of “Byzantine humanism,” that went beyond humanist notions of the sixteenth century. Religious, funerary, imperial and civic canopies are juxtaposed with altar and ambo canopies, canopied saints’ tombs and shrines within the church, and are compared to the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem, the seminal building for the testimony of the New Covenant. Examined within Byzantine Christianity and its historical continuity with the Judeo‐Christian and Hellenistic past, special case studies include canopies from Hagia Sophia, St. Polyeuktos and St. Euphemia in Constantinople, Panagia Ekatontapyliani on Paros, the church of the Assumption of the Virgin in Kalabaka, St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki and Blessed Loukas in Boeotia. The role of the human and liturgical body for understanding Byzantine canopies is further exemplified by the study of the tent‐like Major Sakkos of Photios, which explains the Byzantine Christological concept of the moving canopy as a “living icon.” The Marian concept “Ark‐Virgin‐Church” is addressed in the Epilogue, which outlines the phenomenon of canopies as essential architectural and ontological constructs in the Byzantine church. iii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My first debt of gratitude belongs to my family. My grandparents Danilo, Jelena, Stana and Aleksandar, my parents Selena and Vojislav, and my sister Snežana, each in their own and unique way were always there for me. They helped me in making some important life decisions including those concerning my education. My family supported me, made me happy, and encouraged me to work with love and to love what I work on. Even when my grandparents Aleksandar, Danilo, and Jelena left me one by one through the course of my graduate studies, the warmth of their support and love have remained. Three persons and two scholars in the field, very dear to me, are crucial for my initial involvement in Byzantine studies and for nourishing my love towards the subject. It is my husband, Dušan Danilović who encouraged me first to combine my training in traditional architectural design with the joy I experience when encountering Byzantine architecture and art. In 1997, while still an undergraduate student of architecture at Belgrade University, Prof. Svetlana Popović, an architectural historian, read some of my first attempts to write about Serbian medieval architecture, and helped me to pursue further my interest in medieval architecture. Dr. S. Popović was the first scholar who effectively introduced me to the discipline, and ever since, though regrettably never officially my professor, she cared about my proper education. Just as important to my development as a student of art and architecture was my later graduate advisor at Vanderbilt University, Ljubica D. Popovich, Professor emerita. Dr. Popovich had a most difficult task when she embraced me as a student, because I had limited formal education in the history of art before I came to Vanderbilt. The training she gave me was simultaneously rigorous and gentle. She was always there for me to help me understand my own source of inspiration and love for art and architecture. Supervision and Academic Guidance This dissertation has been completed under the direction and training of my advisor at Princeton University, Prof. Slobodan Ćurčić. I am grateful to Prof. Ćurčić for having me as his student and for everything he taught me about Byzantine architecture and art during my five years of study at Princeton. Prof. Ćurčić generously allowed me to consult and use material on canopies from his forthcoming book Architecture in the Balkans from Diocletian to Süleyman the Magnificent (ca. 300‐ca. 1550). Special thanks go to my dissertation committee members, Prof. Nino Zchomelidse, Prof. John Pinto and Prof. Robert Ousterhout, for their time and involvement in my dissertation work. While I was a student in the Department of Art and Archaeology, professors Thomas Leisten, Anne‐Marie Bouché, Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, Patricia Brown and Hugo Mayer expressed a particular interest in my dissertation work. As my studies evolved a number of individuals supported my work with well‐balanced advice, comments and criticism. Above all a special debt of gratitude goes to Dr. Miloš R. Perović, Professor of History of Contemporary Architecture and Urban Design at Belgrade University, Mr. Dimitri Gondicas, Executive Director of Hellenic Studies at Princeton University, Dr. Alexei Lidov, Director of the Research Centre for Eastern Christian Culture in Moscow, Prof. Carol Krinsky at New York University, Prof. Michael Aurbach at Vanderbilt University, and Prof. Tan Yuen at Temple University.
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Research, Fieldwork and Editorial Support My research on surviving archaeological, visual and textual evidence for canopies has been done in the U.S.A and has been complemented by trips to Bulgaria, Great Britain, Greece, Russia, Serbia, and Turkey. For my research, in addition to visiting numerous archaeological sites and churches, I also consulted the services and collections of various institutions: at Princeton – Marquand, Speers, and Firestone Libraries and their interlibrary loan services, Index of Christian Art, and Princeton Theological Seminary library; in other parts of the U.S.A. – Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, The Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Museum, New York; in Bulgaria – museums in Burgas and Nessebar; in Great Britain – National Museum in London and Bodleian Library and Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University; in Greece – National Archaeological Museum, Christian and Byzantine Museum, Museums at Akropolis, Museum of Athens University and Benaki Museum, Athens; Byzantine Museum, Thessaloniki, Museum of Byzantine Culture, Kastoria, Archaeological Museum on Paros, and Museum of the Great Meteori monastery; in Russia – Kremlin Museums, Museum of the New Jerusalem, Tretyakov Gallery and Museum in Vladimir; in Serbia – Library of the Serbian Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Museum and the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments; in Turkey – Archeological Museum in Istanbul. Mr. Gondicas was extremely helpful for my work in Greece. Dr. Lidov offered me excellent advice for my research in Moscow and the Suzdal‐Vladimir regions and introduced me to Dr. Tatiana Samoilova from the Kremlin Museums. I will always cherish visits with Dr. Lidov to the New Jerusalem monastery on the occasion of the 400th anniversary of the birth of Patriarch Nikon, the exhibition on Old Russian crosses at Andronikov Monastery and the Museum of Andrei Rublyov, and the opening of the New Pushkin Museum in Moscow during my short‐term visit to Russia. My research in Istanbul benefited from discussions with Prof. Robert Ousterhout and Prof. Zeynep Ahunbay from the Mimarlik Fakültesi in Istanbul and was symbolically crowned with our climbing on the roof of the Zeyrek camii. I am also thankful to Prof. Robert Ousterhout for sharing with me his unpublished images of the Zeyrek minbar, made of spolia from a Byzantine canopy. Ivan Drpić from Harvard University, Ljubomir Milanović from Rutgers University, Čedomila Marinković from the University of Kragujevac, Serbia, Dubravka Preradović‐ Petrović from the University of Udine, Italy, Prof. Maria Evangelatou from the University of California, Santa Cruz, Dr. Petre Guran from the Institute for South East European Studies (Romanian Academy of Sciences) and Prof. Maria Mavroudi from Princeton were especially supportive for showering me with material stemming from their own work. A number of friends and scholars in Princeton’s Art and Archaeology Department and in the vibrant program in Hellenic Studies and Index of Christian Art provided me with references and material for my research: Nebojša Stanković, Dr. Jelena Trkulja, Adeline Jeudy from the University of Paris, France, Dr. Alexei Lidov, Marina Mihaljević, Dr. Lois Drewer at the Index of Christian Art, Dr. Ludovico Geymonat, Dr. David Michelson, Loukas Karentzos, Alexis Belis, Dr. Ljiljana Ševo from the Academy of Arts, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dr. Yuliana Boycheva from the Bulgarian Academy of Arts and Sciences, Dr. Elisabeth Yota, Dr. Teresa Shawcross, Dr. Irma Karaushvili, Dr. Warren Woodfin, and Dr. Greame Clarke. While working on my dissertation I derived much benefit from the Byzantine Studies Discussion Forum and the insights of Mr. Stephen Morris, Prof. George Baloglou at SUNY Oswego, Mr. George S. Tsapanos, Mr. Lampros F. Kallenos, Dr. Jan van Ginkel at Leiden University and Prof. Anna Karpathakis at KBCC, CUNY. I am also grateful to Ms. Lidija
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Fekeža from the Zemaljski Muzej, the regional museum in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, for most recent material on medieval canopies in their museum and to Dr. Suna Cagaptay‐ Arikan who supplied me with references on canopies from the Ottoman world. Special thanks go to Ms. Gabriela Drinovan, from the interlibrary loan services at Firestone library, who occasionally went a step beyond the call of duty to ensure that I received all the books I needed for my research. Dr. Alice Mary‐Talbot granted me access to the Dumbarton Oaks Research Facilities in Washington, D.C., where Ms. Deborah Brown, a Byzantine Bibliographer and Research Services Librarian, and Dr. Natalia Teteryatnikova, a curator of the Photo Collection, offered invaluable help in my short‐term, but efficient research at their facilities. The academic year 2006‐07 was especially challenging, yet beneficial for my work. At the moment when I needed support for my work the most, Prof. Susan Boynton from Columbia University and Mr. Dimitri Gondicas each granted me an opportunity to present excerpts from my dissertation work to the scholarly audiences at the Biblical Museum in New York and at the Hellenic Studies program at Princeton. At the closing of the same year I also had a chance to present parts of my research at the Southeastern College Art Conference at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, at the panel honoring my former advisor, Prof. Popovich. For proofreading and editing my English I am grateful to three ladies: Snežana Bogdanović, Alice Formiga Krinsky and Lisa Onontiyoh West. However, the greatest burden of the editorial work has been undertaken by Mr. Jeremy C. Thompson, who not only entirely edited the final version of my work, but also occasionally offered extremely informed and well‐balanced criticism. It goes without saying, however, that all mistakes remain my responsibility solely. Financial Support During five years of study I was financially supported through a four‐year Princeton University Fellowship, Graduate School summer stipends; a one‐year Lee Stipend, a one‐ semester teaching internship and Spears travel and research funds from the Department of Art and Archaeology; short term stipends from the Group for the Study of Late Antiquity, Center for Regional and International Studies, Dean’s Fund for Scholarly Travel, Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies, and the Greek Ministry of Culture. I am especially thankful for funding from the program in Hellenic Studies and the Center for the Study of Religion, which exceeded pure business transaction: a teaching internship from the Center for the Study of Religion for summer 2007, a four‐year Stanley J. Seeger Fellowship and three additional summer grants from the program in Hellenic Studies. Consultations with Mr. Gondicas from the Hellenic Studies program, before and after each research trip, were always thorough and encouraging. Dr. David Michelson’s guidance for the teaching internship at Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington D.C., was equally invaluable. I am particularly thankful for financial support from my parents, sister and grandparents. Other Support Ms. Diane Schulte, graduate secretary at the Department of Art and Archaeology, was in constant contact with me and facilitated the practicalities and administrative procedures related to my studies at Princeton. For gaining teaching experience and preparing for my first steps as an instructor in an art history classroom, I am thankful to Ms. Sandy Moskowitz, Dr. Pamela E. Barnett, and Dr. Kate Stanton from the Teacher Training program at McGraw Center. Special thanks go to Prof. Rachel Z. DeLue and undergraduate students with whom I
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worked as an assistant instructor for the course Introduction to Art History: Renaissance to Contemporary during spring 2007. Once I started to teach at East Carolina University, NC, while still revising my dissertation, professors Ron Graziani, Michael Duffy and Punam Madhok as well as my students, most of whom were quite studious workers, showered me with an unexpected energy for finishing my work under such heavy teaching duties. Support from Peers and Friends Fellow graduate students from Princeton University were especially supportive for sharing with me their knowledge and passion about art and architecture and the humanities: Dr. Nikos Bakirtzis, Dr. Yumna Masarwa, Francesca Leoni, Denwood Holmes, Noriko Kotani, Matthew Milliner, Kevin Kalish, Daniel Schwartz, Dr. Michele Foa, Katherine Marsengill, Dr. Nick Camerlenghi, Todor Petev, Kimberly Wishart, Jennifer King, Dr. Gordon Huges, Diane Tuite, Kevin Hutch, Nicole Elder, Michelle Lim and William McManus. Last but not least, for their unrestrained support and warm encouragement throughout all my work, my special thanks go to several lifelong friends and a few new American friends, together with their families: Dr. Vesna Stanulović and Dr. Maarten Hoogenkamp, Ivan Krstić, Olivera and Nikola Mikašinović, Jasmina Stojanović, Sandra and Dragan Andrašević, Ivica Mladjenović, Dragana Ćorović, Erin and Kevin Kalish, Beth and Steve Stonehouse, Ashley and Blake Pointer, Dr. Dejan and Snješka Milatović, Dr. Anoush Terjanian and Dr. Keiko Sekino. I am grateful to Mr. and Mrs. Slobodan Nedić, Mr. and Mrs. Prof. Vladimir Višnjić, Mr. and Mrs. Dr. Ivan Trifunović, and Mr. and Mrs. Dr. Zoran Miljanić for their hospitality during my studies at Princeton. On April 24th, my father’s birthday
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CANOPIES: THE FRAMING OF SACRED SPACE IN THE BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION Abstract ………………………………………………………………….……….…… Dedication ………………………………………………………………………….… Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………….. Table of contents ……………………………………………………….………….…. Note on translations, references, and illustrations……………..……………......... List of abbreviations …………………………………………………………..……... List of maps………………………………………………………………..…………... List of tables………………………………………………………………..………….. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….…... Part I THE CANOPY AND THE BYZANTINE CHURCH…………………………….. Chapter 1………………………………………………………..…………………...… 1.1 Naming and Describing Canopies in Our Era and in the Byzantine Tradition……………………………………………………………………..…… The term ciborium: κιβώριον [kibōrion, kivōrion] ………..……………….... Other terms for canopies………………………………………………………... πύργος [pirgos] ………..………………………………………….………….. οἰκίσκος [oikiskos] ………..…………………………..…………………...….. ορόφιον [orophion] ………..………………………………………………….. ἁψῖδα [apsida] ………..……………………………………………………….. τετρακίονος [tetrakionos] and τετράπυλον [tetrapylon] ………..………... τετράβηλον [tetravēlon], καταπέτασμα [katapetasma], παραπέτασμα [parapetasma], and πέπλα [pepla] ………..……………………………... κουβούκλειον [koubukleion, kouvouklion] ………..…………………………. 1.2 Ciborium as an altar canopy and as a Eucharistic chalice………..….……... 1.3 Concluding remarks: Canopies. Diversity in Unity ………..…………….… Chapter 2………..………………………………………………………………..……. 2.1 Canopies in the Byzantine Ecclesiastical Tradition: Evidence………..…… Byzantine canopies in situ: Paros and Kalabaka ………..…………………... Other canopies above altar tables, baptismal and holy water fonts, and ambos ………………………………………………………………………… Canopies above church furnishings, relics, and icons ………..……………. Silver, wooden, and textile canopies ………..………………………………...
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1
13 14 15 17 28 28 30 31 32 34 35 38 41 48 54 55 57 61 72 76
Canopies in the Byzantine periphery and in the Byzantine Commonwealth: The case of the Western Balkans and Medieval Russia …..…………………………………………………………………….. 2.2 The number and place of various canopies in one church: The case of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople …..………………………………………….. 2.3 The Iconoclastic Controversy and canopies in the Byzantine church ……. 2.4 Concluding remarks: Canopies. Renewals of Continuity …………………. Part II THE CANOPY AND THE HUMAN BODY……………………………………… Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………. 3.1 Canopies, Saints’ Tombs and Relics…………………………………………... 3.2 The tetrapylon and victory symbolism of the Byzantine canopy…………. 3.3 The Human Body and Divine Wisdom: Hagios Polyeuktos and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople………………………………………………………. 3.4 The Tomb of Christ and Byzantine Altar Canopy…………………………... The Holy Sepulchre and the Places of Divine Presence in the Temple and in the Byzantine Church………………………………………………. The Tomb of Christ and the Domed Byzantine Church…………………… 3.5 Concluding remarks: The Canopy as the Microcosmic Place of Presence.. Chapter 4………………………………………………………………………………. 4.1 Canopies Enclosing Space for the Holy: The Shrines of St. Euphemia, St. Demetrios and Blessed Loukas…………...................................................... 4.2 The Moving Canopy: The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios ……….. The Moving Canopy and Its Space…………………………………………..... The New Body: The Garment of Glory and the Liturgical Body………….. The Sakkos, the Tent, and the Church………………………………………... 4.3 Concluding remarks: The Sensible Rites and Images of Intelligible Realities…………………………………………………………………………… EPILOGUE: THE CANOPY WITHIN A CANOPY……………………………... Appendices.…………………………………………………………………………… Maps …………………………………………………………………………………... Tables ………………………………………………………………………………….. Catalogue – Archaeological Evidence for Canopies………………………………. Illustrations – Other Works………………………………………………………….. Works cited ……………………………………………………………………………
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80 88 92 103
114 115 119 129 135 145 165 177 184 191 192 216 236 245 252 262 266
278 279 285 356 577 1002
A Note on Translations, References, and Illustrations For Byzantine and other primary sources, I have supplied translations into English or other languages when available. As regards precise terminology, when English terms are not available, I have given the original term along with an English transliteration. Greek and Slavic terminology is related to the widely known and used English terminology, whenever I thought it did not compromise the essential meanings. Whenever it was difficult to make a definite and adequate choice for a term, several options have been offered. For references to the Bible I have consulted a range of texts and translations: The Holy Bible, Containing the Old and New Testaments, King James Version (Nashville, 1984); The Living World Bible Collection CD (Waconia, MN, 2002‐04), which has Hebrew, Greek and Russian versions of the Holy Scriptures; the Septuagint, as printed by the TLG Online; and, The New Oxford Annotated Bible; New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha (Oxford, 31991). Because of the plethora of scholarly works related to various aspects of canopies analyzed in this work, the references usually reflect either the most relevant or the most recent publications, together with older bibliography. The architectural drawings presented in the dissertation serve predominantly as a framework for the discussion of canopies, not as documentation of specific examples. At the same time, my drawings are based on ones published by other scholars. I have also benefited a lot from the image database of the Index of Christian art while preparing photo‐documentation for the Catalogue. Any mistakes, both technical and factual, remain my responsibility.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AA AB AH AJA Alexiad‐a
Alexiad‐b ALw Ant.Tard ArchM ArsM ArtB ArteL ArteM BA BABesch BASOR BCH BM BMFD BMGS BSAC BSAC Byz ByzAus ByzELatW
ByzMetabyz BZ CA CAA CANU ChHist CM CMG CorsiRav CSHB CSMC DACL
Archäologischer Anzieiger, supplement to Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Analecta Bollandiana Artibus et Historiae American Journal of Archaeology Annae Comnenae Alexias D. R. Reinsch and A. Kambylis ed. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae vol. 40 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2001) The Alexiad of Anna Comnena. Transl. E.R.A. Sewter (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969) Archiv für Liturgiewissenschaft Antiquité Tardive Archéologie Médiévale Ars Medievale Art Bulletin Arte lombarda Arte medievale Biblical Archeologist Bulletin Antieke Beschaving Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Burlington Magazine Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents, J. P. Thomas and A. C. Hero eds. 5 vols. DOS, 35. (Washington, D.C., 2000) Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies Byzantine Studies Conference Abstracts of Papers Bulletin de la Société d’archéologie copte Byzantion Byzantina Australiensia Byzantine East, Latin West. Art‐historical Studies in Honour of Kurt Weitzmann. D. Mouriki, S. Ćurčić et. al., eds. Princeton: Department of Art and Archeology, Princeton UP, 1995. Byzantina kai Metabyzantina Byzantinische Zeitschrift Cahiers archéologiques: fin de lʹantiquité et Moyen âge College Art Association of America Crnogorska Akademija nauka i umetnosti Church History Cyrillomethodianum Corpus medicorum Graecorum Corsi di cultura sull’arte ravennate e bizantina Corpus scriptorium historiae byzantinae Cahiers de Saint‐Michel de Cuxa Dictionnaire dʹarchéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, eds. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, 15 vols. (Paris, l920‐l953)
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DALA
J. S. Curl, A dictionary of architecture and landscape architecture (Oxford, 22006) DArt The Dictionary of Art, ed. J. Turner, 34 vols.(New York, 1996) ΔΧΑΕ Δελτίον Χριστιανικῆς Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας (Athens, 1924 ‐) DOP Dumbarton Oak Papers DORLC Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection DOS Dumbarton Oaks Studies DrevIsk Drevnerusskoe iskusstvo EAM Enciclopedia dell’arte medievale, ed. A. M. Romanini, 12 vols. (Rome, 1991‐ c2002.) ECBA R. Krautheimer (with S. Ćurčić), Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture (New Haven/London, 1986) EcclSilver Ecclesiastical Silver Plate in Sixth‐Century Byzantium: Papers of the Symposium Held May 16‐18, 1986, at the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, and DO, Washington, D.C. S. A. Boyd and M. Mundell Mango, eds. (Washington, DC: DORLC, c. 1992) EChR Eastern Churches Review EEBS Ἐπετηρὶς Ἑταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν EHR English Historical Review EO Échos d’Orient EtLP Etude sur le Liber Pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1877) Faith and Power Byzantium: Faith and Power (1261‐1557) H. C. Evans, ed. (New York and New Haven [Conn.], c2004) FGrH Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker FHG Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum Glory of Byz The Glory of Byzantium, Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era A.D. 843‐1261, H. C. Evans and W. D. Wixom, eds. (New York, 1997) GOTR Greek Orthodox Theological Review GPMK Godišnjak pomorskog muzeja u Kotoru GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies GSND Glasnik skopskog naučnog društva. Odeljenje društvenih nauka GZMS Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja u Sarajevu HAM Hortus artium medievalium Heaven on Earth Heaven on Earth: Art and the Church in Byzantium. Safran, L., ed. (University Park: Pennsylvania State UP, 1998.) HUkSt Harvard Ukrainian Studies Iconoclasm Iconoclasm. Papers given at the Ninth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, March 1975. eds. A. Bryer and J. Herrin, (Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 1975.) Index Index of Christian Art (Database: http://ica.princeton.edu/) JAAC The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism JBAA Journal of the British Archaeological Association JewArt Jewish Art JÖB Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik JRS Journal of Roman Studies JSAH Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians JWCI Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes
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Lampe Liddell LMA LS Mansi MarbJb MonPiot MünchJb NEA OC OCA ODA ODB ODE *ORO OrSyr PAPS PBSR PG PL PPD PPTS PrIz RA RAC RACr RArt RBK RIPU RSBS RussTravelers RZZSK SANU SC SD SH
G. W. H. Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1961–68) H. G. Liddell, An Intermediate Greek‐English Lexicon (Oxford, 21997a) Lexikon des Mittelalters Λακωνικαὶ Σπουδαί G. D. Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, 53 vols. (Paris and Leipzig. 1901‐27) Marburger Jahrbuch für Kunstwissenschaft Monuments et mémoires publiés par l’Académie des inscriptions et belles‐‐ lettres: Fondation Eugène Piot Müncher Jahrbuch der Bildenden Kunst Near Eastern Archaeology Orientalia Christiana Orientalia Christiana Analecta Oxford Dictionary of Art. ed. I. Chilvers (Oxford, 32004) Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, ed. A. Kazhdan et al., 3 vols. (New York– Oxford, 1991) Oxford Dictionary of English (revised edition). eds. C. Soanes and A. Stevenson (Oxford, 2005) Oxford Reference Online. Oxford UP. Princeton University; http://www.oxfordreference.com/ L’Orient syrien Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Papers of the British School at Rome Patrologiae cursus completus, Series graeca, ed. J.‐P. Migne, 161 vols. (Paris, 1857–66) Patrologiae cursus completus, Series latina, ed. J.‐P. Migne, 221 vols. (Paris, 1844–80) Prilozi povijesti umjetnosti u Dalmaciji Palestine Pilgrims Text Society Problemi na izkustvoto Revue Archéologique Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, ed. Th. Klauser, 21– vols. (Stuttgart, 1950–) Rivista di archeologia cristiana Revue de lʹArt Reallexikon zur Byzantinischen Kunst, ed. K. Wessel, 6– vols. (Stuttgart, 1963– ) Radovi instituta za povijest umjetnosti Rivista di studi bizantini e slavi Russian travelers to Constantinople in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. G. P. Majeska, Washington, D.C.: DORLC, 1984. Republički zavod za zaštitu spomenika kulture Srpska Akademija nauka i umetnosti Sources chrétiennes Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312‐1453; Sources and Documents. ed. C. Mango (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1972) Subsidia hagiographica
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SHP SJT SKZ SR Synaxarium CP TAPA *TLG TM TwilightByz
VC Vyz WA ZAltW ZKunstg ZLU ZRVI
Starohrvatska prosvjeta Scottish Journal of Theology Srpska književna zadruga Slavic Review Synaxarium ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae. Propylaeum ad Acta sanctorum, ed. H. Delehaye (Brussels, 1902‐). Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association (=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society) Thesaurus Lingua Greacae online Travaux et mémoires The Twilight of Byzantium. Aspects and Religious History in the Late Byzantine Empire. D. Mouriki and S. Ćurčić, eds. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1991. Vita Constantini; Eusebius of Caesarea. Life of Constantine. Introd., transl., and comm. A. Cameron and S. G. Hall, Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. Βυζαντινὰ (Thessalonikē, 1969‐) World Archeology Zaitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenshaft Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte Zbornik za likovne umetnosti Matice srpske Zbornik radova Vizantološkog instituta
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LIST OF MAPS MAP 1: CANOPIES IN BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION c. 300 – 1500…. ………………………………………………………………………………………… page 280 MAP 2: CANOPIES IN EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD c. 4th – 6th c. …………… page 281 MAP 3: CANOPIES IN EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD c. 7th – mid‐9th c. ...…... page 282 MAP 4: CANOPIES IN MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD c. mid‐9th – 12th c. …. page 283 MAP 5: CANOPIES IN LATE BYZANTINE PERIOD c. 13th – 15th c. …………. page 284
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LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: TEXTS WITH REFERENCES TO CIBORIA OR CANOPIES……….. page 286 TABLE 2: TEXTS WITH REFERENCES TO κιβώριον…………………………… page 324 TABLE 3: TERMS FOR CANOPIES……………………………………………….. page 329 TABLE 4: COPYING TEXTS WITH REFERENCES TO CIBORIA OR CANOPIES…….. ………………………………………………………………………………………… page 336 TABLE 5: EXAMPLES OF BYZANTINE TEXTS THAT RELATE OLD TESTAMENT ARKS TO CHRIST, VIRGIN AND CHURCH………………………. page 339 TABLE 6: CANOPIES WITH INSCRIPTIONS…………………………………… page 340 TABLE 7: LIST OF CANOPIES IN BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION……. ………………………………………………………………………………………… page 344 TABLE 8: ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF CHRIST’S TOMB IN JERUSALEM…….. ………………………………………………………………………………………… page 159
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INTRODUCTION Canopies, four‐columned structures with or without roofs, are visually easily recognizable, and that accounts for their widespread use in various cultures and historical periods. However, their significance is far from being fully understood. Canopies as integral features of Christian churches have received frequent but often only superficial attention in lexicons, dictionaries, and general studies of Christian art and architecture, which, however, tend to emphasize only their architectural functions – as altar canopies (often called ciboria), baptismal canopies, tomb shelters – or their visual representations in art.1 These accounts usually address Early Christian, medieval, and later examples in the West.2 An unpublished doctoral dissertation “The
For entries within dictionaries see: DACL, vol. 3 (l920‐l953) 2; RAC, vol. 1 (1950) 68; RAC, vol. 1 (1957) 68‐86; 462; RBK, vol. I (1966) 1055‐65; J. Fleming, H. Honour, N. Pevsner, Dictionary of Architecture (Woodstock, N.Y., 1977) 24, 62. Leksikon ikonografije, liturgike i simbolike zapadnog kršćanstva [henceforth Leksikon ikonografije] Andjelko Badurina ed. (Zagreb, 1979) 180‐181; LMA, vol. 2, (1983) 2062‐2063; ODB, vol. I (1991) 462, s.v. ciborium; The Coptic Encyclopedia, A. S. Aziz ed. vol. I (New York, 1991) 202‐203; The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia, M. Glazier and M. K. Hellwig eds. (Collegeville, Minn., c. 1994) s.v. ciborium; DArt, vol. 7 (1996) s.v. ciborium (ii); EAM, vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio. For studies within Christian art and architecture, see, for example: J. Braun, Der Christliche Altar in seiner geschitlichen Entwicklung, Vol. 2 (Münch, 1924); F. Wieland, Altar und Altargrab der christlichen Kirchen im 4. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1912); A. Grabar, Martyrium, vol. II (London, 1972); P. Underwood, “The fountain of Life in Manuscripts of the Gospels,” DOP 5 (1950) 43‐ 138; R. Deshman, “Antiquity and Empire in the Throne of Charles the Bald,” in ByzELatW (1995) 131‐137; Th. Klauser, “Das Ciborium in der alteren christlichen Buchmalerai,” Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschafen in Göttingen, Philologisch‐istorische Klasse 7 (1961); G. A. Soteriou and M. G. Soteriou, Hē Vasilikē tou Hagiou Dēmētriou Thessalonikēs (Athens, 1952); N. Duval and A. Lezine, “Necropole Chrétienne et Baptistère Southeran à Chartage,” CA 10 (1959) 71‐147; A. Badawy, Coptic Art and Archeology (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1978); R. F. Hoddinott, Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia and Southern Serbia (London, 1963); A. Orlandos, He Paregoretissa (Athens, 1963); G. Kapitän, “Elementi architectonici per una basilica dal relitto navale del VI secolo di Marzamemi (Siracusa),” Università Degli Studi di Bologna Institutio di Antichità Ravennati e Bizantine XXVII (1980) 71‐136; M. Harrison, A Temple for Byzantium (Austin, 1989); S. Hill, The Early Byzantine Churches of Cilicia and Isauria (Hampshire, 1996). 2 An excellent overview of canopies in the medieval West is offered in: EAM, vols. 3 and 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. baldacchino, s.v. ciborio. Among the vast literature on canopies in the West are the following titles: M. Weber, Baldachine und Statuenschreine (Rome, 1990); D. H. Weiss, “Architectural Symbolism and the Decoration of the Ste.‐Chapelle” ArtB 77/2 (1995) 308‐320; 1
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‘Ciborium’ in Christian Architecture at Rome, 300‐600 AD” by Molly Teasdale Smith (Diss., Institute of Fine Arts, NYU, 1968) remains the only comprehensive work addressing the subject of Early Christian canopies in the West.3 Canopies of the Christian East (c. 300‐1500) have not been given a similar treatment until, so far as I can tell, this dissertation. The main reasons for the limited scholarship about canopies in the Byzantine tradition have been usually attributed to the lack of material evidence. The majority of Byzantine canopies are difficult to place geographically and to date chronologically,
M. Spagnolo, Bernini: il baldacchino di San Pietro (Modena, 2006); W. Ch. Kirwin, Powers matchless: the Pontificate of Urban VIII, the Baldachin, and Gian Lorenzo Bernini (New York, c1997); J. F. Valverde, J. Ramón and Fernández‐Oxea, Baldaquinos gallegos: catalogación arqueológica y artística de Galicia del Museo de Pontevedra (La Coruña, 1987); A. J. García Zambrano, El baldaquino de la Catedral de Puebla (Mérida, Venezuela, 1984); J. B. Scott, Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin (Chicago, 2003); W. Schöller, “Beobachtungen an Baldachinen. Ein Beitrag zur gotischen Skulptur in Frankreich” ZKunstg 61/2 (1998) 190‐205; H. Thelen, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Hochaltar‐Architektur von St. Peter in Rom (Berlin, [c1967]); I. Lavin, Bernini and the crossing of Saint Peter’s (New York, 1968) chapter 2; V. Pace, “Committenza benedettina a Roma: il caso di San Paolo fuori le mura nel XIII secolo” ZKunstg 54/2 (1991) 181‐ 189; V. Pace, “Il ciborio di Arnolfo a Santa Cecilia: una nota sul suo stato originario e sulla sua committenza” in Studi di storia dellʹarte sul Medioevo e il Rinascimento nel centenario della nascita di Mario Salmi (Florence, 1992) 389‐400; E. L. Pani “Il ciborio della basilica di S. Ippolito allʹIsola Sacra” in Roma Età carolingia (Rome, 1976) 337‐344; M. Pignatti Morano, “Documenti per la storia dei restauri della basilica di S. Cecilia in Trastevere dal Rinascimento agli interventi di Federico Hermanin” in Roma anno 1300: atti della IV settimana di studi di storia dellʹarte medievale dellʹUniversità di Roma (Rome, 1980) 331‐342; P. Ponsich, “Le problème du ciborium dʹOliba, 1040“ CSMC 24 (1993) 21‐27; A. S. Acconci, “Giovanni in Argentella presso Palombara Sabina: le testimonianze altomedievali: il ciborio e lʹaffresco dellʹAdorazione della croce” ArteM 7/1 (1993) 15‐41; M. Buis, “Recherches sur les matériaux employés dans les mobiliers dʹéglise sculptés à lʹépoque carolingienne dans le Sud‐Est de la France” ArchM 6 (1976) 233‐245; S. Gatti, “Breve nota storica sul ciborio dellʹaltare maggiore della Basilica di San Giuseppe a Seregno” ArteL 83 (1987) 70‐71; F. Guidobaldi, “I cyboria dʹaltare a Roma fino al IX secolo” Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome 59 (1999) 55‐69; G. Kreytenberg, “Die Bildhauer von Altarziborium und Grabmal des Kardinals Philippe dʹAlencon in Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rom: Giovanni dʹAmbrogio, Lorenzo di Giovanni und Piero di Giovanni Tedesco“ ArteM 1 (2002) 91‐126. 3 M. T. Smith studied the Early Christian canopies in Rome in connection with the pagan and Jewish traditions, making possible insights into further developments within the Western Christian sphere. The two additional articles by M. T. Smith remain essential for the study of Early Christian canopies: M. T. Smith, “The Lateran Fastigum: A Gift of Constantine the Great,” RACr 46 (1970) 149‐175; and M. T. Smith, “The Development of the Altar Canopy in Rome,” RACr 50 (1974) 379‐414.
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because most of them survive in fragments, while pure stylistic analysis is often ineffective for tracing their development with precision. However, I have collected archaeological evidence for more than 100 canopy‐like structures, constituting a body of data complemented, on the one hand, by images of more than 400 representations of canopies represented in the visual arts and, on the other hand, by testimonies of more than 100 texts that mention objects known, or surmised, to be canopies. Without aiming to offer a comprehensive overview of all Byzantine canopies, I intend to organize the essential data and to suggest how a deepening insight into the total cultural context of ecclesiastical settings significantly changes our current scholarly perception of Byzantine canopies. Such a vast material, never previously examined as a whole, led me to realize that surviving textual, visual, and above all archaeological evidence confirms the prolonged and continual use of canopies throughout the Byzantine realm both in main centers and in the periphery. The majority of surviving Byzantine canopies are made of fine‐quality stone, though we know that some of them were made of silver or cast in bronze, decorated with gems, semi‐precious stones and glass and sometimes gilded. Textual evidence confirms that wooden canopies may have been more common despite only a few late extant examples. Even in cases when canopies were made of wood, it is likely that many of them would have been sheathed in silver, gold or other precious materials. The sixth (?)‐century marble altar canopy from the church of Panagia Ekatontapyliani, on the island of Paros, Greece, and the Middle‐Byzantine altar canopy and the canopy above the Early Christian ambo from the church of the Assumption of the Virgin in Kalabaka, Greece, though restored, are extraordinary examples of Byzantine canopies surviving in situ. It is generally accepted that monumental Byzantine liturgical furniture, including canopies of the type known from the Early Byzantine period, were absent in
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Middle and Late Byzantine churches, due to their reduced scale.4 Thus, when discussing canopies from the Eastern Mediterranean, scholarly attention is usually placed on Early Christian examples, while later examples have remained generally overlooked. However, my research shows not only that the older canopies were at times re‐used in these later churches, but also that new canopies were produced, as in the eleventh‐century main church of Hosios Loukas Monastery, Greece, or in coeval Russian churches, though Russian examples were often made of wood instead of marble as customary in Byzantine churches. By the Late Byzantine period, indeed, many churches remained without the monumental canopies known from Early Christian churches, but various canopies continued to be used. Canopies made of high‐quality stone were presumably used the least, and yet, the twelfth‐ or the thirteenth‐century canopy over the bishop’s throne in the monastery of the Virgin in Gelati, Georgia, the thirteenth‐ or the fourteenth‐century canopy‐shrine from the church of the Taxiarch in Kalyvia‐Kouvara, Attica, Greece, and the fifteenth‐century canopy shrine from the cathedral of Sveti Choveli, Mcheta, Georgia, are Late Byzantine examples that have remained in situ. As material objects, all canopies share common characteristics, but, by analyzing them in their contexts, we can occasionally perceive subtle and crucial variations of their role and significance in a Byzantine church. As church furniture, canopies above altar tables, baptisteries, holy water fonts and ambos are closely related to the liturgy. Paradoxically, in current scholarship the liturgical use of canopies in church architecture is often a theme treated in art historical studies of early periods, while in studies of later periods less often, despite the relatively better knowledge of liturgical development in the Christian East after the ninth‐century.5
RBK, vol. I (1966) 1055‐65; R. G. Ousterhout, “The Holy Space. Architecture and Liturgy” in Heaven on Earth: Art and the Church in Byzantium, L. Safran, ed. (c. 1998) 81‐120. 5 The most concise treatment of the problem in general is: S. de Blaauw, “Architecture and Liturgy in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages; Traditions and Trends in Modern Scholarship” ALw 33/1 (1991) 1‐34. 4
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A strictly chronological approach has also led to insufficient communication between students of the early periods and those of the later periods that often results in only fragmentary information about Byzantine canopies. The lack of regular and insightful communication between Byzantinists and other medievalists has also led to some blind spots in the scholarship. For example, despite their great significance, the canopy of the Tomb of Christ and the canopy above the Cross of Golgotha under the Byzantines have remained relatively understudied.6 In this dissertation, the Tomb of Christ is considered as a seminal object for understanding Byzantine canopies. My dissertation also touches on notions of appreciation of cultural heterogeneity and shared religious values of the Byzantines with Judeo‐Christian and Hellenistic traditions. The gap in our scholarship on canopies is dependent on a construct, which emerges from the cultural model of the Byzantines and those influenced by their traditions. Instead of following the models and methodology of scholars who have studied western canopies, I also propose a slightly altered approach, one that revises the strictly functional paradigm.7 The proposed paradigm connects old and new scholarship on Byzantine and non‐Byzantine canopies. At the same time, the following dissertation reveals once again that the function of medieval objects, including canopies, cannot fully explain their form, decoration or meaning. General reconsiderations about the Tomb of Christ in the Byzantine period are provided by R. Ousterhout, “Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre,” JSAH XLVIII, March (1989) 66‐78, L. J. Hoppe, The Synagogues and Churches of Ancient Palestine (Collegeville, Minnesota, 1994) 108‐109; M. Biddle, The Tomb of Christ (Gloucestershire [England], 1999) 77f. On the Cross of Golgotha: Ch. Milner, “’Lignum vitae’ or ’Crux gemmata’? The Cross of Golgotha in the early Byzantine period” BMGS 20 (1996) 77‐99. 7 Though it has been a while since architectural historians acknowledged the misinterpretation of the famous dictum “form follows function,” both in architectural design and architectural history, it is fascinating that its implication that form can inform supposedly ‘scientific’ methodologies, as determined in the very beginnings of positivistic scholarship, still remains. It remains more or less a solid foundation of the majority of studies dealing with various aspects of the form and function of architecture, including that of the Byzantines. For general overviews of methodological approaches in Byzantine architecture and the still prevailing preference for the functionalistic paradigm see, for example: C. Mango, “Approaches to Byzantine Architecture” Muqarnas 8 (1991) 40‐44, and H. Belting The End of the History of Art? (Chicago, 1987) passim, esp. 32‐33, where he proposes studying art with the functionalistic approach within a given culture. 6
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Canopies of similar form did not necessarily have parallel functions in Constantinople, Thessaloniki, or elsewhere in the Byzantine domain, and furthermore, canopies of similar function may not have the same form and decoration in every Byzantine church, like various examples of altar canopies exemplify. The same is true of the spatial arrangement of canopies of the same form, function and decoration. Altar canopies, for example, resulted from, among other factors, the complex circumstances of diverse liturgical needs, devotional practices and movement‐ directing channels, and may have originated from various concepts stemming from funerary (funerary altars and tomb canopies), civic (tetrapyla) and sacred architecture (shrines and altars). Byzantine canopies are, therefore, occasionally examined within their broader context which includes theological concerns, piety and liturgical practices, as well as contemporary social attitudes and economic conditions. Specific architectural settings and concepts of space are examined as significant and even crucial factors in understanding various canopies related to the liturgical and non‐ liturgical practices of the Byzantines. Such an integrated approach defines my working vocabulary and methodology. Two main foci of research define the bipartite organization of this thesis and its structure. The first part, The Canopy and the Byzantine Church, deals in two chapters with archaeological, visual, and literary evidence for canopies in the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition. The aim of assembling information on canopies is twofold: (1) to question how much evidence we actually have and how aspects of this evidence relate to each other for a given period and/or geographic region; and (2) to question whether the form of a canopy held significance and meaning, and to what extent canopies were imitative or non‐imitative structures. Inquiring whether the main centers of intellectual thought and artistic production may have influenced the notion of canopies, I investigate canopies within three crucial periods widely acknowledged for their impact on the development of Byzantine art and architecture: 1. Early
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Christian (4‐6th c.) and Early Byzantine (7‐mid‐9th c.);8 2. Middle Byzantine (mid‐9‐12th c.); and, 3. Late Byzantine (13‐15th c.). Chapter One compares the modern academic conventions of naming and describing canopies to Byzantine traditions, and links some of scholarship’s evident lacunae and misunderstandings to the inception of Byzantine studies and the antiquarian approach. Turning more specifically to the archaeological evidence, Chapter Two attempts to establish the prevalence of canopies in Byzantine churches – their quantity being far more than previously thought – and then suggests that Byzantine canopies, though formulaic in execution, indeed, perhaps because of their generic imagery, were readily adapted for diverse contexts. Although Byzantine‐rite churches are the focus of this study, Byzantine church canopies are occasionally considered more broadly together with examples from Syria, North Africa, and Armenia.9 Due to the scope of this dissertation, better studied examples from the Latin West, Sicily and South Italy, although occasionally under Byzantine control and influence, are examined only for comparative purposes. Our knowledge of early canopies and their meaning in the Christian East is related to four major centers of spiritual influence, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople, while occasionally we can observe how the knowledge of ancient canopies was reflected in Rome, the fifth major center of Christianity. After gathering together numerous pieces of evidence for canopies from the Eastern Mediterranean, my research did not find a noticeable change in the form and role of the canopy as a marker of sacredness during the period of Iconoclasm (711‐ 842). On the contrary, an analysis of the evidence suggests that crucial concepts The earliest archaeological evidence for fully developed canopies in churches are dated to the fifth and sixth centuries. 9 On the eve of Iconoclasm (711‐842) Byzantine churches were restricted to the churches in the Patriarchate of Constantinople, its daughter churches and Palestinian monastic churches. While still waiting for comprehensive studies on liturgical practices from the Christian East, for the time being, see R. F. Taft’s The Byzantine Rite. A Short History (Collegeville, 1992); History of the Melkite Patriarchates (Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem) from the sixth‐century monophysite Schism until the present (1910) transl. J. Collorafi, ed. N. Samra (Fairfax, VA, 1998‐2001), K.‐P. Todt, “Religion und griechisch‐orthodoxes Patriarchat von Antiocheia in Mittelbyzantinisher Zeit,” BZ 94 (2000) 239‐69, remain valuable references. 8
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related to the framing of sacred space by canopy‐like objects were only officially formulated and were probably standardized in some way in Jerusalem during the Iconoclastic controversy and at the time of arguments on the Incarnation. However, judging by the post‐Iconoclastic evidence, the size, material and artistic quality of canopies apparently probably changed over time because of the ultimate loss of Imperial control of their production. The second part of my study, The Canopy and the Human Body, provides a thematic approach to the re‐examination of the roles of the canopy and the human body as basic spatial and symbolic units in a Byzantine church. By juxtaposing unpublished and little‐known research with well‐known materials in the first part of the dissertation, we see that that the traditional narrative, whereby canopies follow a linear development within Byzantine architecture, is an art historical construct.10 These findings lead to the conclusion that canopies, like architecture in general, cannot be studied as a monolith and, furthermore, that a narrowly chronologically approach is not sufficient to coordinate all the manifestations of the Byzantine canopy. The Byzantines did not have the same perception as we have today of what a historical concept is.11 Although canopies, as with any artistic accomplishment, are
On the location of Byzantine art historical studies within general art historical trends see, for example, R. S. Nelson, “The Map of Art History” ArtB 79/1 (1997) 28‐40, where he occasionally criticizes problems in studies of Byzantine art imposed by nineteenth‐century historicism and the preeminence of time over space in our understanding of artistic accomplishments. It has already been acknowledged that archaeological and artistic evidence from the Byzantine period is heavily supplemented with information coming from disciplines other than the history of art and architecture in order to support art historical narrative, thus often calling for monographic studies focused on one single object or a group of similar objects from a given period or region, and leaving aside those objects that cannot fit proposed paradigms: H. L. Kessler, “On the State of Medieval Art History” ArtB 70/2 (1988) 166‐187; Mango (1991) 40‐44. However, such a state of scholarship certainly does not exclude the need for big questions in our studies. 11 Historians of art and architecture are often faced with the inconsistency of Byzantine accounts regarding their own accomplishments. The Byzantines often described their achievements as stemming directly from and truthfully mimicking those of the ancient traditions they claimed to belong to. And yet, a modern observer can easily distinguish between ancient Greek and Byzantine sculpture and architecture. For an excellent overview of current scholarship related to the Byzantine perception of historical validity and the reasons 10
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obviously historically constructed objects, whose origins the Byzantines claimed lay in ancient tradition, the historical fidelity of anachronistic examples or apocryphal accounts of canopies was not a prime concern of Byzantine thinkers. It is my sense that their historiographical assumptions were not bound to chronology as much as to the total coordination of events providentially occurring. Specifically, the evidence for historicity relied on the perpetual remembrance of events crucial for an historical understanding of Christianity. Human existence is simultaneously the vehicle and ultimate goal of the “Christian humanism” of the Byzantines, within which everything in sacred history – event, object, sacred place, theophany, cult – has simply been assumed into the person of the incarnate Christ.12 The historical and ritualistic treatment of Christ’s life emphasized the reality of Incarnation, the essence of Christian belief in the Byzantine tradition. To the Byzantines the emotional and spiritual encounter with the canopy that frames the sacred, as we shall see, went beyond the humanist notions of the sixteenth century. Curiously, at this time two crucial historical events intersected: 1. the building of Bernini’s famous baldacchino in St. Peter’s in Rome as a material
why the Byzantines lacked a sense of anachronism see: R. Grigg, “Byzantine Credulity as an Impediment to Antiquarianism” Gesta 26/1 (1987) 3‐9. Grigg offers three possible explanations: the influence of ancient descriptions of art (ekphraseis); the lack of necessary historical distance on behalf of the Byzantines and their limited acquaintance with realism as the main concept of ancient Graeco‐Roman art; and the Byzantine belief that their accomplishments were created in the time of Christ. 12 The human figures of Christ, the Virgin and saints, constituted a fundamental doctrinal core for Byzantine “humanism” in contrast to the Semitic, anti‐figural art of Jews and Muslims. Superseding the Old Testament tradition, in Byzantine Christianity Christ is God’s eternal Word (Jn. 1:1‐14); His creation (2 Cor. 5:17, Gal. 6:15, Rom. 8:19ff, Rev. 21‐22) and the new Adam (1 Cor. 15:45, Rom. 5:14); the new Passover and its Lamb (1 Cor. 5:7, Jn 1:29‐36, 1 Pet. 1:19, Rev. 5ff); the New Covenant (Mt. 26:28, Mk. 14:24, Lk. 22:20, Heb. 8‐13), the new circumcision (Col. 2:11‐12), the heavenly manna (Jn. 6:30‐58, Rev. 2:17); God’s Temple (Jn. 2:19‐ 27), the new sacrifice and its priest (Eph. 5:2, Heb. 2:17‐3:2); the fulfillment of the Sabbath rest (Col. 2:16‐17, Mt. 11:28ff) and the Messianic Age that was to come (Lk. 4:16‐21, Acts. 2:14‐36). In that context, as Taft aptly put it “the Old Testament Temple and altar with their rituals and sacrifices are not simply replaced by a new set of rituals and shrines, but by a self‐giving person, the Son of God.” R. F., SJ. Taft, Beyond East and West. Problems in Liturgical Understanding OCA (Rome, 1997) 19.
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embodiment of Counter‐Reformation initiative; and 2. the beginning of Byzantine studies. The Byzantines had their own way of contemplating and capturing the significance of human encounters with the sacred and canopies framed these events and places of sacred revelations. Therefore, in the second part of the dissertation, The Canopy and the Human Body, a linear, chronological account of the evidence for canopies is expanded into a mosaic‐like picture formed from distinct themes, stories, and descriptions that show the various qualities of canopies and pose new questions about ways in which we may understand their meaning as historically created places of sacred revelation. Such an approach also captures the temporary qualities of canopies as vehicles of spirituality activated by individual or collective encounter with the sacred. The kind of sacred space, in which canopies frame a locus of divine encounter, is found to be analogous to certain modern notions of ontological, living space, in particular the distinction between hierotopical and hierophanical13 and the so‐called third space phenomena.14
The recently proposed concept hierotopy, defined by the Russian scholar A. Lidov as the historical research of the creation of sacred space, gathers the traditional humanistic disciplines such as art history, archaeology, anthropology, and religious studies, but still lacks its terminology and wide academic approbation. Hierotopy, Studies in the Making of Sacred Spaces, ed. A. Lidov (Moscow, 2004), esp. 13‐33. However, hierotopy, complementing hierophany, the term used by the Romanian scholar M. Eliade in the 1960s to define spots of divine revelation within sacred spaces, when combined with elements of ritualistic studies, promises a unified interdisciplinary approach towards topics such as Byzantine canopies. M. Eliade, Le sacré et le profane (Paris, 1964), esp. 25. 14 Some post‐modern approaches, stemming essentially from Marxist and positivistic schools, recently suggested the concept of a third space, which considers transcendental qualities of space, that which gathers together space as it is and space as it is imagined into a fully enlivened space, simultaneously real and imagined, actual and virtual locus of structured individual and collective experience and agency. This concept is paradoxically analogous to the Byzantine perception of “supra‐spatial” space, i.e. transcendent concept of space, defined by God who defies space. Though focusing on post‐modern examples, E. Soja, Postmodern Geographies. Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (New York, 1989) chapters 1, 2, 5, and 6 and E. Soja, Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real‐and‐imagined Places, (Oxford, 1996) passim, esp. 29‐60 and following H. Lefebvre’s book The Production of Space (1991), this “new” concept of space embraces some basic notions of power, perception, symbolism, and social imagination of historically and geographically created spaces. This concept also lacks its 13
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The two chapters in the second part of the dissertation thematically examine and contextualize the architectural delight of sacred space framed by a canopy, closely intertwined with cognitive concepts such as (re‐)creativity, reasoning, perception, belief, and memory. The Byzantine tradition of Christianity has its own historical development and regional variations that account for the lack of fixed cultural symbols and meanings. Chapter three juxtaposes pre‐Christian religious, imperial and civic canopies with altar canopies, canopied saintly tombs and shrines and compares them to the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem, the seminal building for the testimony of the New Covenant. All throughout, I emphasize the inseparability of the material and spiritual aspects of canopies. Although the medieval sources, archaeological, visual and textual, may independently yield different conclusions, the potency of the canopy as a device for framing sacred space is seen only to expand in a corresponding way. In this chapter, we have to reconcile, for instance, why Byzantine theologians often describe the altar canopy as a symbol of Christ’s tomb and yet why testimonies about the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem compare it to another piece of liturgical furniture, the ambo. Chapter four further investigates the space reserved for saints, the symbolism and location of martyr, relic, and cult shrines, including the shrines for especially venerated icons, called the proskynetaria icons. It focuses on the saintly shrines of St. Euphemia in Constantinople, St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki and Blessed Loukas in Boeotia. Even when a body was not within a canopy, which seems to be the case more often than we previously thought, the canopy continued to represent the presence of holiness. Furthermore, a canopy‐like healing shrine in the main church of the monastery of Hosios Loukas, though potentially visually similar to the altar canopy in the same church, apparently developed independently. Saintly shrines exemplify that not the transparency but rather translucency related to the imagery of the divine light was a crucial attribute of canopies as eternal houses. proper terminology and wide academic approbation, but it goes beyond the pure positivistic and Marxist approach, and exactly because it significantly expands its horizons, it is the concept that seemingly embraces even the religious approach to space characteristic for the Byzantines, which is so difficult to define in modern discourse.
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Lastly, chapter four turns to the role of the human body and to tent‐like sacerdotal vestments, which are symbolically moving canopies within the Byzantine church. The centerpiece of this discussion is the fascinating major sakkos of Photios, the fifteenth‐ century metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia. In sum, as abodes of the divine, canopies framed sacred spaces of God’s presence in his various manifestations. The human body and divine grace were canopies’ activating vehicles. Visual and homologous elements attendant to saintly relics and to phenomena of Byzantine channels of communication with the Lord were often understood as accompanying apparitions. Nevertheless, the activated space of these channels of communication with an invisible and supra‐spatial God, framed by a canopy‐like structure, acted as a powerful vehicle for strengthening Byzantine beliefs. Focusing on the Marian concept of “Ark‐Virgin‐Church,” the epilogue, The Canopy within a Canopy, outlines the architectural phenomenon today recognizable in post‐modernist terminology as a “house within a house” and reconsiders the role of temple‐like canopies in denoting the spatial iconography of a Byzantine church. Recognized as essential architectural and ontological constructs within a Byzantine church, canopies demonstrate how architectural frames are transformed within the Byzantine tradition into subtle boundaries between the worldly and the sacred. At the same time, the final impression they give is one of the total symbolic integration of the created canopy with God’s presence beyond space.
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Part I THE CANOPY AND THE BYZANTINE CHURCH
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Chapter 1 And above the all‐pure table of gold rises into the ample air an indescribable tower, reared on fourfold arches of silver. It is borne aloft on silver columns on whose tops each of the four arches has planted its silver feet. And above the arches springs up a figure like a cone, yet it is not exactly a cone: for at the bottom its rim does not turn round in a circle, but has an eight‐ sided base, and from a broad plan it gradually creeps up to a sharp point, stretching out as it does so eight sides of silver. At the juncture of each to the other stand long backbones which seem to join their course with the triangular faces of the eight‐sided form and rise to a single crest where the artist has placed the form of a cup. The lip of the cup bends over and assumes the shape of leaves, and in the midst of it has been placed a shining silver orb, and a cross surmounts it all. May it be propitious! Above the arches many a curve of acanthus twists round the lower part of the cone, while at the top, rising over the edge, it terminates in upright points resembling the fragrant fruit of the fair‐leaved pear‐tree, glittering with light (?). Now where the sides of the base are fitted to each other are fixed silver bowls, and in each bowl is set a candelabrum like a candle that burns not, expressing beauty rather than giving light; for these are fashioned all round of silver, brightly polished. Thus the candle flashes a silver ray, not the light of fire. And on columns of gold is raised the all‐gold slab of the holy table, standing on gold foundations, and bright with the glitter of precious stones. Sixth‐century description of the altar canopy in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople composed by Paulos Silentarious, poet and high official at Emperor Justinian’s court15
SD (1972) 88.
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1.1 Naming and Describing Canopies in Our Era and in the Byzantine Tradition In current scholarship the terms ciborium, baldachin, and canopy are most frequently used as synonyms in light of their recognizable form and function as protective devices and markers of sacredness.16 Of these three terms, the word ciborium is favored among scholars studying Christian canopies,17 presumably because the terms ciborium and baldachin initially may have denoted different objects, while the terms baldachin and canopy are post‐Byzantine conventions.18 Indeed, of these three words the Greek‐speaking Byzantines knew only the word τò κιβώριον [to kibōrion, to kivōrion], and its variants – ὁ κιβώριος [o kibōrios, o kivōrios] and τò κιβούριον [to kibourion, to kivourion] – all closely related to the Latin counterpart ciborium. Scholars examining Byzantine examples most often use the term ciborium.19 However, the
For canopies as symbols of sacred space: S. Ćurčić, “Late Byzantine Loca Sancta? Some Questions Regarding the Form and Function of Epitaphioi” in TwilghtByz (1991) 251‐261; Underwood (1950) 43‐138. 17 See, for example: DArt vol. 7 (1996) s.v. ciborium (ii), esp. 301; EAM vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio; ODB vol. I (1991) 462, s.v. ciborium; New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. III (2003) s.v. ciborium; L. Mirković, Pravoslavna liturgika ili nauka o bogosluženju pravoslavne istočne crkve. Prvi, opći deo, (Beograd, 1995 [1919]) 103; I. M. Barnea, To palaiohristianikon thysiastērion (Athens, 1940) ch. 7; Leksikon ikonografije (1979) 180‐181; ODA (2004) s.v. ciborium; ODE (2005) s.v. ciborium. 18 The term baldachin, which was not used by the Byzantines, and the term ciborium are closely related. The term baldachin is a late medieval derivative from the Italian (baldocco) or Spanish (baldaquin) word for the elaborately brocaded material imported from Baghdad that was hung as a canopy over an altar or doorway. It subsequently became a synonym for the freestanding canopy over an altar, tomb, or throne. Some scholars use the term ciborium for a fixed structure, often placed on a raised base, and the term baldachin, baldachinno for a portable, temporary structure. However, though the most famous and seminal example, that of the Baldachinno at St. Peter’s, Rome built by Gianlorenzo Bernini and others, is a fixed, monumental structure. Thus, some dictionaries maintain that ciborium and baldachin are not easily distinguishable. See: ODA (2004) s.v. ciborium. On the meaning of baldachin see for, example: Leksikon ikonografije (1979) 180‐181; J. P. Lang, Dictionary of the Liturgy (New York, 1989) 50‐51; G. Podhradsky, New Dictionary of the Liturgy (London, Dublin and Melbourne, 1967) 58‐59. 19 When interpreting some archaeological remains from the Middle Byzantine church in Amorium, Turkey, C. S. Lightfoot and E. A. Ivison used the term “ciborium‐like canopy,” as if reflecting the problematic terminology. C. S. Lightfoot; E. A. Ivison “The Amorium Project: The 1995 Excavation Season” DOP 51 (1997) 291‐300, esp. 296. Recently, some scholars introduced the difference between ciborium and baldachin. For, example, Ch. Bakirtzis in his 16
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unquestionable adherence to the term ciborium as an older and presumably original term that contemporaries used for various canopies can be deceptive. An attempt to answer a seemingly simple question, How did the Greeks living in the Byzantine Empire refer to canopy‐like structures?, reveals that there is not a single and absolute answer, and that a critical reassessment of the applicability of the currently used terms is still needed. The word κιβώριον denoted various entities, not only canopies, while at the same time some other, overlooked words may have referred to canopies in the Byzantine tradition, as our opening example of the description of the altar canopy from Hagia Sophia clearly demonstrates. Though used the least in Byzantine scholarship, the modern term canopy is adopted as the most applicable for our study.20
text “Pilgrimage of Thessalonike: The Tomb of St. Demetrios” DOP 56 (2002) 175‐192, has used the terms ciborium and baldachin as supposedly two distinct objects, without providing explicit definitions of any. A.‐M. Talbot in her text “The Restoration of Constantinople under Michael VIII” DOP 47 (1993) 243‐261, esp. 247, uses the terms baldachin and altar canopy as synonyms. However, non‐English speaking scholars and significantly, above all, Greek‐speaking scholars give equal treatment to terms other than ciborium or kivōrion when referring to canopies. For example, G. A. Prokopios uses terms kiborion, ouraniskos, tholos, koubouklion and katapetasma as synonyms in Ho kosmologikos symvolismos stēn architektonikē tou Vyzantinou naou (Athens, 1981) 125‐128; and G. V. Antourakēs uses the terms kiborio and koubuklion in Arhaia martyria kai hristianikoi naoi (Athens, 1994) ch. 3. 20 Ø. Hjort in his text “The Sculpture of Kariye Camii” DOP 33 (1979) 199‐289, quite appropriately employed the term canopy when naming the framing of the proskynetaria icons from the Chora Monastery in Constantinople, now Istanbul. Though M. T. Smith, in her doctoral thesis (1968) 8; 336‐345, and subsequent articles (1970) 149‐175 and (1974) 379‐414, interchangeably used a canopy and a ciborium to describe essentially the same objects, eventually she also recognized that canopy is a more fitting term. She concluded that by the sixth century there was no identifying term for a Christian canopy, but that from the mid‐sixth century onwards the term ciborium both in Latin and Greek had been widely accepted as a reference to various structures, not only altar canopies. Though I essentially agree that the term canopy is more appropriate than ciborium, Smith’s conclusion on the sixth‐century “standardization” of the term ciborium in the Christian world needs to be reassessed. Of various definitions for the canopy in modern dictionaries, I find most appropriate the one offered by J. S. Curl, according to whom the canopy is “1. Roof‐like ornamented hood surmounting an altar, doorway, font, niche, pulpit … stall, statue, tabernacle, throne, tomb, window, aperture, etc., supported on brackets, colonnettes, etc., or suspended. 2. Canopy of honour, ceele, ceilure, celure, cellure, or seele, is a richly coloured, often gilded, and panelled ceiling above an altar, chancel, chantry‐chapel, mortuary‐chapel, etc. 3. Town canopy is a structure resembling an arcaded gabled opening … , like a model building, set on top of a
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To support the assessment that canopy is a more appropriate term than ciborium, we will first examine surviving written evidence on ciboria to learn more about what the term meant to the Byzantines and then expand our research to those texts that mention objects which we know or anticipate were canopies, but were not named ciboria. In the analysis of surviving literary evidence on canopies from Byzantine sources particular attention will be placed on the role of the vocalization of the terms and their conflation. The role of the vocalized messages behind objects seems to be very important, because the Byzantines often pronounced aloud written words, and especially inscriptions on objects, which in turn vocalized their message to the beholder.21 In addition, various conflating processes in reference to canopies and canopy‐like objects in the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition may point to some obscurities, complexities and contradictions on the subject in current scholarship. The term ciborium: κιβώριον [kibōrion, kivōrion] Modern dictionaries often define the Greek word τò κιβώριον as the etymological root of ciborium and with the meaning of canopy.22 A closer review of Byzantine sources actually reveals only sporadic use of the word τò κιβώριον and its linguistic variants. Remarkably, the word τò κιβώριον does not appear in the Holy Scriptures, neither in the Septuagint nor in the Greek New Testament.23 The word does not appear in most widely used and translated medieval Greek lexicons, like the
niche or protecting a statue: the motif was adapted in funerary architecture …, on tomb‐chests over the heads of effigies, and was later shown in incised slabs and funerary brasses. A canopy over an altar is usually called baldacchino or ciborium.” DALA (2006) s.v. canopy. 21 A.‐M. Talbot, “Epigrams in Context: Metrical Inscriptions on Art and Architecture of the Palaiologan Era” DOP 53 (1999) 75‐90; A. Papalexandrou, “Text in Context: Eloquent Monuments and the Byzantine Beholder” Word and Image 17/3 (2001) 259‐283. 22 For example, EAM vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio; ODB vol. I (1991) 462, s.v. ciborium; Leksikon ikonografije (1979) 180‐181; ODE (2005) s.v. ciborium. 23 See: The Living World Bible Collection CD (Waconia, MN, 2002‐04) which has Hebrew, Greek and Russian versions of the Holy Scriptures. For the Septuagint versions: TLG and A Greek‐ English Lexicon of the Septuagint, J. Lust, E. Eynikel, and K. Hauspie eds. (Stuttgart, 1996).
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tenth‐century Suda lexicon.24 Unfortunately, professional books on architecture, like Byzantine architectural treatises and textbooks comparable to Vitruvius’ have not survived, though it is interesting to remark that no unequivocal reference to a ciborium or any explicitly canopy‐like structure was made by Vitruvius either.25 My research shows that the Byzantine Greeks used the word ciborium less often than we previously thought, and occasionally in contexts outside of Christian ecclesiastical architecture. Textual accounts which employ Greek versions for the word ciborium are various, ranging from poems and texts on magic, through teaching resources such as grammars and lexicons, to hagiographies and highly complex theological writings, to name but a few (Tables 1 and 2). Almost by default, the writers of these texts were not primarily concerned with material objects, and the word κιβώριον denoted various entities, some indefinable. The earliest known uses of κιβώριον come from pre‐Christian antiquarian, poetical and medical treatises, and usually refer to κολοκασία [colocasia] kind of Egyptian beans (Table 2).26 Though the word κιβώριον also stood for a variety of man‐made objects, such as chalice, dome, reliquary shrine, and canopy, in which case it could refer to the canopy over the altar, ambo and to the covering over the royal throne, the word very often shows several layers of meaning. For example, by the early tenth century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos (r. 913‐959) used the word κιβώριον to describe a structure erected over the throne of the emperor in the Consistorium of the royal
The Suda lexicon annotates terms Κίβος, κιβώτιον, and Κιβωτός. I have consulted the English edition translated by M. H. Morgan: Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture (New York, 1960). Vitruvius’ silence on canopies does not suggest the absence of canopies in ancient Roman tradition. Vitruvius speaks of domes and vaulted ceilings, some of which may have belonged to canopy‐like structures. For an overview on canopies in Greaco‐ Roman tradition, see: K. Lehmann, “The Dome of Heaven.” ArtB 27/1 (1945) 1‐27. On Byzantine sources for architecture see: G. Downey, “Pappus of Alexandria on Architectural Studies” Isis 38/3‐4. (Feb., 1948) 197‐200; G. Downey, ʺByzantine Architects. Their Training and Methods,ʺ Byz XVIII (1948) 99‐118; H. A. Meek, “The Architect and His Profession in Byzantium” R.I.B.A. Journal (April, 1952) 216‐220; A. Cutler, “Structure and Aesthetic at Hagia Sophia in Constantinople” JAAC 25/1 (1966b) 27‐35. 26 Of the fifty‐three texts I analyzed the twenty‐two most likely used the word kiborion for Egyptian beans. 24 25
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palace in Constantinople.27 However, a reference to the Ark of the Covenant accompanied the explanation, thus alerting us to the possibility that the throne canopy might have expressed the idea that the Emperor himself is a ruler of God’s kingdom on earth, rather than that the throne canopy itself reflected the original meaning and ancient use of the word in exclusively imperial context.28 Then again, the prolonged use of the word κιβώριον for Egyptian beans, aedicule‐shape graves,29 or some other entities now lost and indiscernible from textual accounts, confirms two important facts (Table 2). First, the term with its variant meanings had remained in use until the fall of the Byzantine Empire; and second, its meaning might have been different depending on the type of discourse or specific time‐period in which it was used. Speaking of etymology, it should also be noted that those writers who employed the word κιβώριον often provided an extended explanation of what a ciborium is. Potentially, the word was strange to the Byzantines as well, further suggesting that the word actually may not be of Greek origin.30 The etymology of the Greek words for ciborium is obscure, both in relation to a specific object and its form, as well as to the idea that the object conveyed. The older transliteration of the Greek Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Ceremoniis Aulae Byzantinae, L.I. col. 16, PG 112. (Table 1, T.71) 28 Scholars have searched for the possible explanation of the canopy structure and its function in the Christian church in imperial iconography. The repeated tent‐like structures and canopies in the second and fourth Styles of Pompeian wall painting reveal these objects as important features of the palace ceremonies and palace architecture of the Hellenistic East. Connected with the epiphany and adventus they were later adopted in all parts of the Roman Empire. More in: B. E. Smith, Architectural Symbolism of Imperial Rome and the Middle Ages (Princeton, 1956) 121‐125; RAC, vol. I (Stuttgart, 1950); Lehmann (1945) 1‐27. The important juxtaposition of imperial and sacred ideas and a reassessment of previous scholarship on imperial canopies in the Christian tradition was first offered by M. T. Smith (1968) 346. 29 For example, Georgios Kodinos (d. c. 1453), a reputed author of De Officiis, described an aedicula‐shape grave monument in Constantinople: Braun, 2. vol. (1924) 192. 30 I essentially concur with scholars like R. Eisler, J.J. Reiskii, and M. T. Smith who concluded that the word is potentially not of Greek origin, but instead that it was based on Near Eastern and Hebrew terminology transcribed into Greek and then into Latin. See: R. Eisler, Orphisch‐ Dionysische Mysteriengedanken in der Christlichen Antike (Hildsheim, 21966) 193‐97; J.J. Reiskii Commentarium on De Ceremoniis Aulae Byzantinae by Constantinus Porphirogenitus in PG 112, col. 317, n. 29; Braun (1924) vol. 2, 193; M.T. Smith (1968) 5. 27
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word for ciborium – τò κιβώριον, ο κιβώριος, is the noun τò κιβούριον.31 When pronounced aloud the Greek nouns ὁ κιβ [kib, kiv] and τò κιβωτός [kibōtos, kivōtos] on the one hand, and the nouns τó ὠρίον, τó ὄριον [orion] or ὁ οὐράνος [ouranos] and adjective οὐράνιος [ouranios], on the other hand, share the sound of the κιβούριον [kibourion, kivourion], which Patristic Fathers often used in their commentaries to explain the word.32 Those early church leaders were trained in various educational centers of the Classical and Late Antique world, and their explanation of ciboria may result from a conflation of various pre‐Christian sources, Hellenistic pagan and Jewish, above all. According to my research, before the sixth century various centers of thought defined the theological discourse on questions on the church, from which, by extension, we can occasionally grasp an idea about an actual church building and its furnishing. Those theologians, who wrote before the sixth century, offered various and vague references to a ciborium. * Patristic Fathers trained in the Alexandrian tradition of theological thought interpreted words related to ciborium in an essentially metaphysical sense, presumably interpreting the Holy Scriptures through their classical education. The term τò κιβούριον was related to the Greek noun ο οὐράνος and the eschatological descent from heaven to earth, the realm between heaven and earth, a vault or firmament of heaven. The opening lines of the first book of the Holy Scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, the First Book of Moses also called Genesis, provide a reference to the firmament as a divider between the Heaven and Earth (Gen. 1:6ff).33 The firmament in
Liddell (21997a) 578; Lampe (1964‐68) 753, 1399. 32 Four of the fifty‐three Greek sources on ciboria I consulted provide an extended explanation: St. Basil the Great, Sophronios, Germanos, Etymologicum Gudianum in 4th, 6th, 8th and 11th centuries respectively (Tables 1, 2 and 4, T.22, T. 32, T. 54, T. 79). 33 Gen. 1:6ff ‐ And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters... 31
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the Hebrew Bible was denoted by the term for a dome.34 Similarly, as a vault or firmament of heaven, the sky, οὐράνος was conceived as a concave hemisphere among the Greeks. Οὐράνος was usually understood as a dome made of solid metal, which rested on the verge of earth, borne by the pillars of Atlas.35 The diminutive of οὐράνος, οὐρανίσκος, with the cosmological meaning of “little heaven or sky” simultaneously signified a vaulted ceiling, especially the top of a curtained tent or a canopy.36 The Ancient Greeks occasionally used in their festivals carpets richly embroidered with stars and representing the “heavenly carpet,” or “heavenly canopy” which they called “little heaven,” οὐρανίσκος.37 It is worth noting that the shape of the cloth for this kind of temporary canopy was rectangular conforming to the four‐ poled sub‐structure. According to Christian interpretation these curtained canopies could have been compared with the curtain‐like heavens, “who covered thyself with light as with a garment: who stretched out the heavens like a curtain,” as described in Psalm 104: 2.38 Church fathers understood that οὐράνος is an abode of the divine, though not containing God.39 Furthermore, Clement of Alexandria (150‐c. 215) connected the noun ο οὐράνος and adjective οὐράνιος, which means eternal, heavenly, divine, or spiritual, i.e. everything that is opposite from the earthly, material realm, with manna as heavenly bread and as the body of Christ.40 Thus Clement of Alexandria provided
On the translation of the Hebrew term for a dome as the firmament in the Latin Vulgate: J. Pelikan, What Has Athens to Do with Jerusalem? Timaeus and Genesis in Counterpoint (Ann Arbor, 22000) 8. 35 Liddell (21997a) 578; Lampe (1964‐68) 753, 1399. 36 Liddell (21997a) 578. 37 In Hellenistic Greece, the use of temporary canopy structures for festivals is confirmed in Euripides’ Ion (1121f.). See more on the subject in: Lehmann (1945) 1‐27, esp p. 11, with further references. 38 Terms other than dome were occasionally used to denote the heavenly firmament. For example, in the 4th c Gregory Nazianzos in his De vita Mosis (T.17), uses the term καταπετάσματα (curtains) (Tables 1 and 3). 39 Lampe (1964‐68) 978‐979. 40 Clement of Alexandria Stromata 2. II (139.12; M.8.985A), Excerpts from Theodotus 13 (III.II; M.9.664B), according to Lampe (1964‐68) 977. 34
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an early reference to the Eucharist, which was performed at the altar table, presumably under the canopy symbolizing the heavens. The theologians who were trained in the Antiochene School of exegesis used the term κιβώριον in association with different objects, often chest‐ and box‐like. In the late 4th c, St. John Chrysostom (398‐407), a priest from Antioch and later a Patriarch in Constantinople, described some small objects (μικρά κιβώριa) dedicated to the goddess Diana at Ephesus and by analogy associated them with Noah’s ark, which symbolized the ultimate salvation rather than death (Table 1, T.21).41 We do not know whether St. John Chrysostom reinterpreted the reference from the Scriptures about the manufacture of silver shrines for Diana, a local trade in Ephesus (cf. Acts 19:24),42 or whether he was referring to the actual objects. The small kiboria St. John Chrysostom wrote about have not survived and we will probably never be sure what they may have been. Prevailing opinion today is that these ciboria were votive objects in the shape of small silver aediculae, though references to silver cups and miniature shrines
Chrys. hom. 42.I in Ac. (9.318B). The familiar story of Danae as a mortal female, who gave birth to a son, Perseus, after Zeus came down to her in a shower of gold, was easily appropriated for Christian use and conflated with the story about Diana. When the Gods discovered Danae and her son, they were dragged to the altar of Zeus, enclosed in a chest, and cast into the sea. The chest, representing a floating coffin, was ultimately saved at the island of Seriphos in the fishing net. Besides a striking resemblance to Christ’s Nativity according to the flesh, Early Christians substituted the figures of Danae and Perseus by the figure of Noah, and associated the chest with an ark, which ensured not death but survival through water. The protective function of the presumably chest‐like, floating object known as κιβώριον also can be related to the term kiborion used by ancient Egyptians for the seed‐pod of the Egyptian water lily. DArt vol. 7 (1996) s.v. ciborium (i) esp. 299. 42 For a certain man named Demetrius, a silversmith, which made silver shrines [ναούς] for Diana, brought no small gain unto the craftsmen. Acts 19:24. The word ναός (naos) was used for the temple at Jerusalem, but only for the sacred edifice or sanctuary itself, consisting of the Holy place and the Holy of Holies. In classical Greek the word is used for the sanctuary or cell of the temple, where the image of gold was placed which is distinguished from the whole enclosure. However, in Greek the word was also used for any shrine, and even for the Virgin. See, for example: Acts of the Third Ecumenical Council, Mansi IV, 580E, 1253A/C, 1256B; Epiphanios of Cyprus, In laudes S. Mariae deiparae, (dubia), PG 43, 488CD, 492B/D, 496D; Andrew of Crete, In nativitatem B. Mariae IV, PG 97, 868C, Canon in B. Annae conceptionem, PG 97, 1316AB. All references according to: M. Evangelatou, The Illustration of the Ninth‐Century Byzantine Marginal Psalters: layers of meaning and their sources (Diss. Courtauld Institute of Art, U of London, 2002) 189, n. 706. 41
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have also been proposed.43 Indeed, some intellectuals and early antiquarians such as Athenaeus of Naucratis (2nd‐3rd c), confirm that κιβώριa, presumably cup‐like objects, did exist in pagan temples (Table 1, T.15).44 However, I am more inclined to think that St. John Chrysostom, being primarily concerned with theological discourse referred to shrines from the Scriptures.45 What seems more important for our investigation is that Chrysostom’s opinion on kiboria entered Catenae (Table 1, T.30), presumably immediately after the fifth century, and was widely disseminated throughout the Christian world (Table 4.3).46 St. Basil the Great (329‐379) was, with St. John Chrysostom, one of the most important contributors to the development of Byzantine theology and liturgy. Trained at Caesarea, Constantinople, and Athens, St. Basil used the term κιβώριον in reference to Christ and to the Ark of the Covenant.47 In his Historia Mystagogica St. Basil the Great wrote (Table 1, T.22): The ciborium is here a place where Christ was crucified; for the place where He was buried was nearby and raised on a base ... It is related like to the ark of the covenant of the Lord, in which it is written, is the Holy of Holies ... Next to it God commanded two cherubim ... for κιβ is the ark, and οὖριν ... light of the Lord. (transl. J.B.) See for example, DArt vol. 7 (1996) s.v. ciborium (ii); EAM vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio. In the second century Athenaeus of Naucratis from Egypt in his The deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the learned of Athenæus mentions a cup called κιβώριον from the temple of Athena on the Greek island Sikion. Despite its shape similar to drinking cup, exquisitely made and in a costly manner, this κιβώριον was some kind of a religious or devotional object, since the person who drank from it defiled the cup, according to Athanaeus. This observation can be further supported by Pausanias’ account of the lost temple of Athena, in front of which the Sikion king Epopeos was buried. The deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the learned of Athenæus vol. 1 Yonge, C.D. ed. (London, 1854) 121‐210. 45 He uses the same sentence from the Septuagint. 46 The reference to “mikra kiboria” as small aediculae were relatively early spread in the West via Constantinople. In 498, we have a reference from the library of Byzantine Emperor Athanasios I translated for Theodoric in Rome: LIII. Sanctus Symmachus. Anno Christi 498, Anastasii Imp. 8 Theodor. Regis 5 (Table 1, T.31). 47 Bas. h.myst.4 (p.258.18). According to: Lampe (1964‐68) 753. 43 44
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The metaphoric and symbolic linguistic interpretation of the Scriptures denoted a ciborium in a sense of the words κιβ, κιβωτός meaning tabernacle or ark (cf. Exod. 25:10),48 and ώριον, meaning the effulgence, or Light of God. Such an interpretation resembles St. John Chrysostom’s, further suggesting that the two words referring to ark and light could have had an origin in the Aramaic text of the Bible, and may have been combined so as to produce a new, Christian meaning.49 Moreover, St. Basil the Great related ciborium to the Hebrew term keber, geber, Syrian ke bôrâ, and Greek ἡ κιβωτός, which all signify a tomb, grave, or chest (cf. 2 Kings 12:10).50 Sophronius (c. 560‐638), the patriarch of Jerusalem also provided a highly symbolic explanation for a ciborium. Like St. John Chrysostom speaking of the kiboria for Diana, Sophronius connected ciborium to Noah’s ark (Table 1, T.32): The ciborium imitates the ark of Noah; on the one hand is κιβ, the ark, on the other hand is όριον (light) [that] commands to itself (transl. JB). The Ark from Sophronius’ writings can be visualized in various ways, though he suggests the ark with four columns (T.32),51 presumably a chest on four legs, as pagans, Jews, and Early Christians before the sixth century often depicted Danae’s coffin and Noah’s Ark.52 In Graeco‐Roman art Danae’s chest was usually represented as a cubic, lidded box, sometimes with four
And they shall make an ark of shittim wood: two cubits and a half shall be the length thereof, and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof, and a cubit and a half the height thereof. Exod. 25:10 49 M.T. Smith (1968) 315, has already shown that according to notes of certain Andreas Gallamdi, which Migne published, the Chaldean words כינ cub, signifying ark, and ץךא ura, for light, were related to Biblical Aramaic. 50 According to: M.T. Smith (1968) 344, with further references. Also in 2 Kings. 12:10: And it was so, when they saw that there was much money in the chest, that the kingʹs scribe and the high priest came up, and they put up in bags, and told the money that was found in the house of the LORD. It is interesting to remark that museums occasionally have on display exquisitely carved wooden objects or their fragments which come from monastic communities and which are also labeled kibotia, like in the Walters Art Museum. Field notes J. Bogdanović. Though post‐Byzantine, these chests with figural carving depicting New Testament themes in a traditional Byzantine manner, presumably point to their Byzantine sources. 51 The ciborium is one type of ark/chest. Its columns imitate four lives prophetically foreseen. Sophr.H. liturg.2 PG 87, 3984. Transl. J.B. I am thankful to L. Karentzos for proofreading the translation for me. 52 S. C. Murray, Rebirth and Afterlife. A Study of the Transmutation of Some Pagan Imagery in Early Christian Funerary Art. BAR International series 100 (Oxford, 1981) 98‐111. 48
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feet. It can be seen on the Attic kalyx‐krater by the Triptolemus Painter (c. 480 B.C.E.), now kept in St. Petersburg’s Hermitage or on a wall painting from Pompeii (79 C.E.) (Figs. 538‐539). The emphases on the feet, and, in some examples, the absence of water do not follow the literal narrative of Genesis and have not yet been explained. According to the Old Testament, the Ark of Noah is usually understood as a kind of houseboat. However, on the bronze Apamea‐Kobotos coins struck under the emperors Septimus Severus (193‐211), Macrinus (217‐219) and Philip the Arabian (244‐ 249) there are representations of the Ark not as a boat but as an open box (Fig.540).53 The Ark is inscribed in Greek as NΩE and is shown with a raven perched on it and a dove carrying an olive branch above it. It is considered the earliest Jewish visual representation of Noah and the Ark. The fourth century wall paintings from the catacomb of Sts. Peter and Marcellinus, Rome, also depict Noah in the box‐like Ark (Figs. 541‐544). In the sixth century Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes the Ark of Noah, inscribed as κιβωτός is represented as a shrine with a gabled roof (Fig. 545). He related it to the Ark of the Covenant of Exodus, even though its precise shape cannot be determined from the text and probably was constructed on the visual model of existing ritual objects.54 Interpreting the narrative of the Old Testament as a typological prefigurment of the New Testament, St. John of Damascus (676‐749) wrote about Noah’s ark as a wooden chest that prefigured Christ as the chest of Life (cf. Gen. 6:14‐22; 2Moses 25:10‐20; 37:1‐9) (Table 5.1). Following this line of thought whereby the ciborium is related to the ark, Byzantine chroniclers, like Constantinus Manasses (c. 1130 ‐ c. 1187), occasionally continued to use the Ark of Noah (cf. Gen. 6:14‐22) and the Ark of the Covenant (cf. 2. Moses 25:10‐20; 37:1‐9) as their prime examples to provide a way for Byzantine Christians to understand their allegorical significance for Christological
A. Grabar, “Images Bibliques d’Apamee et fresques de la synagogue de Dura” CA 5 (1951) 9‐ 14; Murray (1981); E. Revel‐Neher, “On the Hypothetical Models of the Byzantine Iconography of the Ark of the Covenant” in ByzELatW (1995) 405‐414. 54 D. Mouriki, The Octateuch Miniatures of the Byzantine Manuscripts of Cosmas Indicopleustes (Diss. Princeton U, 1970) 98. 53
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themes.55 A canopy‐like architectural structure above chest‐like objects remained an essential microcosmic symbol. It is very difficult to verify whether any of the theologians and scholars who wrote on ciboria also considered other kibotia, presumably box‐like containers for the saintly relics as a means for salvation. Such kibotia potentially evoked canopy‐like objects and shrine installations in churches. It is worth noting that the term ark [kib, kibot] was also used in the Old Testament narrative for the receptacle of the remains of Joseph, thus suggesting its meaning for the container, possibly chest‐like, of bodily remains: So Joseph died, being an hundred and ten years old: and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin (ark) in Egypt (Gn. 50:26). My research demonstrates that hagiographers occasionally called saintly shrines kiboria since the fifth century (Table 4.5). The words kibotion and its Slavic counterparts – kibot and kivot, which were both used for saintly shrines, whether they are in the form of a canopy or simply burial chests – were widely used throughout the Byzantine period (Table 3).56 The same terms denoted canopies above specially venerated icons. The Russians also called the frame of the icons themselves, which were depicted in the recessed inner space of a wooden panel, kovcheg, meaning chest and pointing to the meaning of the Greek term kibotion. Connections between kiborion and kibotion were confirmed by the ninth‐ century writings of Photios I, patriarch of Constantinople (Table 1, T.62). Yet, this conflation must had happened much earlier, at least by the sixth‐century, and possibly not in Constantinople, but either in Antioch, or in Jerusalem during the tenure of Melkite Patriarch Sophronius (Table 4.6). * Although ciborium usually denotes altar canopy in modern scholarship, it is only in the sixth century that we have a definite explanation that the word κιβούριον is a canopy‐like structure above the altar table. John Malalas (c. 491‐578), a Monophysite chronicler, described the altar ciborium in Hagia Sophia as an Constantinus Manasses, Poeta et Hist., Compendium chronicum PG 127, col 235. (Table 5, T.2). N. N. Voronin, Zodchestvo severo‐vostochnoĭ Rusi XII‐XV vekov vol. 1 (Moscow, 1961) 256.
55 56
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architectural symbol of the sky and microcosm.57 In Constantinople, approximately in the ninth century, during the time of Germanos, patriarch of Constantinople (d.733), in need for the unified liturgy, various theological thoughts were combined to explain altar canopies.58 The exchange of ideas on ciboria among theologians not only from Constantinople, but also Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem and Rome is still far from being fully understood, though their contacts are undeniable (Table 4).59 The definition given kiborion by St. Basil was essentially followed by Germanos, who explained it as a church furnishing standing for the place of Christ crucifixion, burial and resurrection. In his Ecclesiastical History and Mystical Contemplation Germanos wrote (Table 1, T.58): The ciborium represents here the place where Christ was crucified; for the place where He was buried was nearby and raised on a base. It is placed in the church in order to represent concisely the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of Christ. It similarly corresponds to the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord in which, it is written, is His Holy of Holies and His holy place. Next to it God commanded that two wrought Cherubim be placed on either side (cf. Exod. 25:18) ‐ for KIB is the ark, and OURIN is the effulgence, or the light, of God. (transl. J. Meyendorff)60 Germanos’ definition shows that the ciborium was conceived both as a shrine for the divine grave, which alone offers the promise of resurrected life, and in its Old Testament context, as a container of divine law. Symbolic aspects of each object John Malalas, Chronographia, PG 18, 708B, wrote about the collapse of the altar canopy the Hagia Sophia – Constantinople, using word κιβούριον: και συνέτριψε τὸ κιβούριον σὶν τῇ ἁγία τραπέζῃ… Table 1, T.33. According to M.T. Smith (1968) 344, approximately at the same time, Gregory the Great (540‐604) used the word cyburium to describe a Christian canopy. In the West, Gregory of Tours (538/9‐594) wrote about canopy over St. Peter’s tomb in Rome as the ciborium sepulcri. 58 St. Germanus of Constantinople on the Divine Liturgy [henceforth Germanos] P. Meyendorff, ed. (Crestwood, N.Y., 1984) 23‐52. 59 On the topic most recently: R. F. Taft, S. J., “The Decline of Communion in Byzantium and the Distancing of the Congregation from the Liturgical Action: Cause, Effect, or Neither?” in Thresholds of the Sacred, ed. Sh. E. J. Gerstel (Washington, D.C., 2006) 27‐52. 60 Germanos (1984) 58‐59. 57
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suggest a reason for which the ciborium is also a light‐emitting object. The great significance of Germanos’s explanation cannot be overstated because the excerpt became part of quasi‐official explanation of the Byzantine liturgy and illustrates how most Byzantines understood liturgical objects at least until the fourteenth century.61 Germanos’ text was reproduced in at least fifty manuscripts dated between the ninth and fifteenth centuries, showing that it was widely distributed and highly popular throughout the Byzantine world.62 Moreover, fragments of his text entered not only other theological texts but also teaching material like grammars, exemplified by the eleventh‐century Etymologicum Gudianum (Table 4.4). Other terms for canopies πύργος [pirgos] According to the Byzantine written sources the word ciborium was not the only term that was applied to canopies and canopy‐like objects (Table 3).63 Sometimes, the terms we know from other contexts were, almost surprisingly, used for canopies.64 In
Only in the fourteenth century a theologian Nicholas Cabasilas challenged some of Germanos’ explanations because of the absence of the emphasis on the reception of communion. On the subject see more in: Germanos (1984) 9‐54; R. Taft, S.J., “The Liturgy of the Great Church: An Initial Synthesis of Structure and Interpretation on the Eve of Iconoclasm,” DOP 34‐35 (1980‐81) 45‐75. 62 On the subject see more in: Germanos (1984) 9‐54. 63 Similar trends have been noticed in the West. For, example, Pope Symmachus (498‐514) described canopies as tiburium and tegurium, meaning a small house or hut. Other Latin synonyms were tugurinum, tiburinum, tiguriam, cyburium, cipurium, ciborium, fastigium, tegurmentum, tibutium, tegimen, umbraculum, arcus, and arca (cib). For example, Charlemagne’s Edict from 789 provides evidence that the term altare tegurium signifying altar ciborium was in use at least till the end of eighth century. Braun (1924) 185‐186, 190. References to umbraculum as an altar ciborium come from Ordo Romanus, according to: J. Bingham. Origines ecclesiasticae: or the antiquities of the Christian Church, 10 vols. (London, 1710‐22) vol. 3, book 8, chp. 6, sect. 18, 197‐198. For further references see: “Basilicam sanctorum Silvestri et Martini construxit, ubi et super altare tiburium argenteum fecit” in EtLP vol. 1 (1877) 261; M.T. Smith (1968) 336‐345; EAM vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio. 64 I have selected approximately hundred various texts which use terms that might have denoted canopies and canopy‐like objects: My list is by no means comprehensive. I have omitted the innumerable texts that mention other terms for domes and arches like hemisphaira, ouranos, ouraniskos, tholos, kamaria and others and decided to focus on a couple of examples 61
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our opening example from the sixth century, Paulos Silentarios in his encomium described the canopy that stood over the main altar in Hagia Sophia at Constantinople as a πύργος, which means tower in Greek (Cat. no. 69; Table 1, T.40):65 And above the all‐pure table of gold rises into the ample air indescribable tower (πύργος), reared on fourfold arches of silver. It is borne aloft on silver columns on whose tops each of the four arches has planted its silver feet. (transl. C. Mango)66 In the mind of contemporaries the Greek word for tower (πύργος, pirgos) could have evoked literal and metaphorical meanings for the canopy. At least since the fourth century and probably earlier, the connections between columns and towers had
which effectively exemplify the wealth of material which has been essentially unexplored in the context of canopies. On the architectural terminology among the Byzantines for the dome, gallery, apse, and vault: G. Downey, “On Some Post‐Classical Greek Architectural Terms” TAPA 77 (1946) 22‐34. For the use of the word kamaria which signifies arch and vaulting see: Th. Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics (Oxford, 21965) 11, 306‐310, with his reference to Kamaria, a treatise on vaulting written ca. 250 C.E. by the mathematician Heron of Alexandria. This treatise now lost, remained the foundation of Byzantine mechanics. At least since the eleventh century inventories of the Byzantine monastic foundations occasionally record kamaria, today unidentified objects, but potentially “arched candlesticks” as described in twelfth‐century typikon of Empress Irene Doukaina Komnene for the Convent of the Mother of God Kecharitomene in Constantinople. Kecharitomene in BMFD vol. 2 (2000) 716. On the canopy‐like candlesticks see also (Figs. 598‐99). 65 Similarly, Paulinus, bishop of Nola, Italy (c. 354‐431) used the term turris, also meaning tower in Latin, to describe a fountain canopy in the church atrium in the city. Paulinus also called the fountain canopy in the atrium at St. Peter’s in Rome tholus, which means vault. M.T. Smith (1968) 344 with further references. According to the Liber Pontificalis Pope Symmachus gave tiburiums (canopies) of pure silver to the basilica of St. Andrew and to Sts. Silvester and Martin. EtLP vol. 1 (1877) 261‐262. The ciborium probably stood over the altar dedicated to St. Andrew, which was placed in the central of seven altar niches. His fecit basilicam sancti Andreae apstoli apud beatum Petrum, ubi fecit tiburium ex argento purissimo et confessionem, pens. lib. CXX; arcos argenteos III, pens. lib. LX. M.T. Smith (1968) 164‐166. The reference to St. Andrew reads: “planted its silver feet.” SD (1972) 88. These words, however, may not have described only canopies, but obviously a variety of structures, which acquired meaning of a small house. For example, a certain Arculf, a native of Gaul, in ca. 670 took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and described the Aedicula of the Holy Sepulchre as tugurium and tuguriolum. The Pilgrimage of Arculfus, PPTS vol. 3 (London, 1897) 6. 66 PG 310 Paul the Silentary. Descriptio S. Sophiae 86, cols. 2147‐48. 720; SD (1972) 88.
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been established among Christians.67 Therefore, by analogy a tall canopy on four columns from Hagia Sophia could resemble a tower. Moreover, the mountain (ορος, oros and ουράνιος, ouranios)68 could denote by extension the κιβούριον, kiborion. The mountain as a sacred space and symbol of the ladder to heaven where the sun god and other solar deities supposedly lived has its roots in Ancient Greek tradition.69 These ancient terms for the mountains oros and ouranios, in turn, by vocalization evoked the sound of the term kiborion (kib‐ourion)70 and its meaning of the heavenly‐ like dwelling of the Lord, high above. οἰκίσκος [oikiskos] The term οἰκίσκος [oikiskos], essentially meaning “small house,” was used to describe both the canopy‐shrine of St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki and the canopy over specially venerated icons in the monastery of St. John Prodromos in Serres, near Thessaloniki (Table 3, T.57, T.106).71 These examples confirm that the primary meaning of these “small houses” may not be the functional one for these contexts, and if we did not have the material evidence for such canopy‐like installations, the textual evidence for these structures elsewhere might have been overlooked. Once again, I would suggest, conflating processes in the minds of contemporaries might have
For literal and figural references to the towers and columns of the church see, for example: Athanasius Theol., Expositiones in Psalmos. Vol. 27 page 221 line 30: Καὶ τίνες ἂν εἶεν οἱ πύργοι τῆς Ἐκκλησίας, and John Chrysostom who compares the Apostles Peter and Paul with the columns and towers of the church: Joannes Chrysostomus Scr. Eccl., De prophetiarum obscuritate. Vol. 56 page 182 line13: Παῦλος γὰρ καὶ Πέτρος πύργοι καὶ στῦλοι τῆς Ἐκκλησίας. 68 Liddell and Scotts (21997) 578. 69 Numerous ancient Greek sun altars of worship were on the highest acropolis. M. Siggh, The Sun. Symbol of Power and Life (New York, 1993) 21. 70 In the Greek culture the words were usually pronounced aloud, and were connected by metaphoric extension. Thus, the tower and canopy – the ouranios and kibourion – may have been closely associated in the minds of the Greeks. 71 On the canopy from St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki: D. I. Pallas, “Le ciborium hexagonal de Saint‐Démétrios de Thessalonique. Essai dʹinterprétation” Zograf 10 (1979) 44‐58. On the canopy from Serres: A. Orlandos, “Ἡ μητρόπολις τῶν Σερρῶν κατὰ τὴν ἔκφρασιν τοῦ Πεδιασίμου” EEBS 19 (1949) 259‐271, esp. 263. 67
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resulted in such word choice that “small house” was understood not only physically but also symbolically. We do know that neither of the two mentioned shrines in Thessaloniki and Serres housed saint’s body, but represented a kind of symbolic house for their images – icons, valued by the faithful only second in rank after saintly relics.72 ορόφιον [orophion] Other, descriptive expressions related to the columns, arches or roof of the canopy were used interchangeably to denote complete canopies, either of a specific kind or more often for only remotely related objects. For example, in the tenth‐ century Niketas Magister called a still preserved altar canopy at Paros an ορόφιον [orophion], which literally means a roof, i.e. a dome, referring only to one of its constitutive parts – its cover (Cat. no. 53; T. 68).73 Sometime between the twelfth and first half of the fourteenth centuries in the ekphrasis of a baptistery from the Progymnasmata an anonymous Byzantine poet used the same word ορόφιον [orophion] to describe an architectural structure, which most likely was a baptismal canopy (T. 90).74 Some other words pointing to the roof, like καμελαύχιον [kamelauchion] and
Though the two sites in Thessaloniki and Serres are geographically close to each other, at this moment I am not determined whether “oikiskos” denoted canopy‐shrines only in a given region or not, and more work is needed on the subject. It is interesting to note that already in the fifth century the shrine of St. Thecla was related to the concept of the oikia, “house.” See Table 3, T.27. 73 Nicetas Magister, Vita S. Theoctistae Lesbiae, ch. 3f., ASS Nov. IV, 256; SD (1972) 104. It is worth noting that in the similar manner, in the 4th century, Pope Silvester speaks only of columns of the canopy‐shrine that stood over the grave of St. Peter at St. Peter’s basilica at Vatican, in Rome. R. Krautheimer, St Peterʹs and Medieval Rome (Rome, 1985) 11‐23; J.M.C. Toynbee and J. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of Peter (London, 1956) 231, n. 20, E. Kirschbaum, The Tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul (New York, 1959) 143‐64. 74 The ekphrasis of a baptistery was recorded in Marc. Gr. 444, generally dated before the 1360s, and most probably to the twelfth century. Greek words orophion [roof] and thalamos [a room] were used to describe the framing of the space around the basin. According to the description a low wall was placed around the baptismal font to form a space which the anonymous author calls a room [thalamos]. There is no reference as to how this low wall was connected to its domical roof [orophion], but presumably the columns were set to support such a dome, thus forming the canopy‐like structure. On the text, its date and the meaning of the orophion in the 72
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θόλος [tholos], in addition to their original reference to “tall headdress” and “dome, vault,” may have referred to the canopy‐like structures.75 ἁψῖδα [apsida] In the fourteenth century monk Theoktistos from the monastery of St. John the Studion used the word ἁψῖδα [apsida] to describe the tomb canopy of St. Athanasios I (1289–93, 1303–1309), who was buried some time after 1323 presumably in his monastery in the church of Christ Savior, now lost.76 The same word ἀψίδα [apsida] was used in fourteenth‐century Grotta Ferrata version of the medieval poem Digenes Akrites for the tomb of the main character after whom the poem is entitled.77 Sometime between 1389 and 1391, an anonymous Russian traveler used the Greek word апсида [apsida] to describe the open, lid‐covered canopy over the stone phiale in Hagia Sophia.78 Though essentially a technical term for the arch or dome used by Early Byzantine authors,79 it seems as if the word was inexplicably revived in the Late Byzantine period with somewhat different meaning. According to these later texts apsida most likely stood for an open, free‐standing domed canopy. The structure may have been comparable to the canopied tomb of Alexios IV of Trebizond (1417‐29), destroyed after 1918 or to some of the canopied tombs depicted in a number of
context of a canopy structure: B. Flusin, “L’ekphrasis d’un baptistère byzantin” TM 15 (2005) 163‐181, esp. n. 32. 75 EAM vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio. Occasionally, in monastic documents there are references to sacred dome, which may also refer to a canopy judging by reference to small metal crosses with a censer in the sacred dome [Σταυρία χυτὰ μετὰ θυμιατοῦ ἐν τῷ θείῳ τρούλλῳ] from the testament of Maximos for the monastery at Skoteine: Skoteine in BMFD vol. 3 (2000) 1186. 76 A.‐M. M. Talbot, Faith Healing in Late Byzantium. The Posthumous Miracles of the Patriarch Athanasios I of Constantinople by Theoktistos the Stoudite [henceforth Theoktistos] (Brookline, MA, 1983) 57. 77 Digenes Akrites, ed. and transl. by John Mavrogordato (Oxford, 1956) 246‐247, col. 240‐245. 78 G. P. Majeska, Russian travelers to Constantinople in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries [henceforth RussTravelers] (Washington, D.C., 1984) 128‐154, 138‐139. 79 On the use of the term apsida see: Downey (1946) 22‐34.
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Byzantine manuscripts (Fig. 184).80 The tomb of St. Athanasios as depicted in the fourteenth‐century Homilies of Gregory Nazianzenzus (gr. 543, fol. 260v) resembles that of St. Basil illustrated in the same manuscript (fol. 130v) and in the eleventh‐century Homilies of Gregory Nazianzenzus (Rossikon 6, Taphou 14, f. 113r) (Figs. 484, 483, 284, 285).81 Both tombs were represented as canopied structures. It is known that St. Gregory Nazianzos made an oration at the outdoor tomb of St. Basil, depicted as an open canopy in his illustrated liturgical homilies.82 In the eleventh‐century manuscript this canopied tomb is flanked by the canopy over the Holy Scriptures, presumably inside the church, and by another open canopy, the one over the baptismal font or the phiale, which may have been inside or outside the church. The image is comparable with the depiction of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus in Ms. Holy Sepulchre Jerusalem 4 f. 312v (1066‐81), Moscow State Historical Museum 146 f. 81r, Athos Panteleimon 6, f. 100r; 14th c Paris BN Gr. 543 f. 130v; Oxford Bodleian Canon gr. 103, f. 90v. References according to A. Bryer, “The Historian’s Digenes Akrites” in Digenes Akrites: new approaches to Byzantine heroic poetry R. Beaton and D. Ricks eds. (Brookfield, VT, c1993) 93‐102, with further references. See also: C. Mango ʺSépultures et épitaphes aristocratiques à Byzance,ʺ in G. Cavallo and C. Mango, eds., Epigrafia medievale greca e latina. Ideologia e funzione (Spoleto 1995) 99‐117, esp. 110. 81 G. Galavaris, The Illustrations of the Liturgical Homilies of Gregory Nazienzus (Princeton, 1969) 46ff, 240, figs. 114, 466. 82 Bryer (c1993) 93‐102. However, over time it became almost formulaic to depict tombs of important personae as canopies, even if in reality they were not such. Mausoleum of Halikarnassos in the eleventh‐century manuscript [Taphou 14, fol. 311v 9] is one example (Fig. 287). A fifteenth‐century manuscript [Manuscript no. 771 (381), today in the National Library “Kiril i Metodii” in Sofia, Bulgaria folio 191, whole‐page illustration] presumably following the Old Church Slavonic text of the novel of Alexander the Great also depicts the mourning for the deceased Alexander set within the open four‐columned canopy‐like structure (Fig. 485). The bed on which the body of Alexander is laid is set below a canopy curiously depicted in red, which I would suggest alludes to purple, an imperial color of the Byzantines. On the image of the tomb of Alexander the Great: J. Maksimović, Srpske srednjovekovne minijature (Beograd, c1983) 47‐50, fig. 70. Similarly, sixteenth‐century Armenian manuscript [Vienna, Monastery of the Mikitaristis collection, no. 319] depicts the tomb of Alexander the Great as an open canopy. The role of the widely spread novel of Alexander the Great and the imagery from the illustrated texts in the Middle Ages merits a separate study. It has been recently suggested that it may have even influenced some formulaic depictions of the canopy‐like tombs of dervishes, like the mausoleum of Seyyid Ahmed el‐Rifa’î, which in reality was not a canopy tomb at all. M. Baha Tanman, “Depictions of the Mausoleum of Seyyid Ahmed El‐ Rifa’î in Late Derwish Convent Ottoman Art” EJOS IV (2001) 1‐37. I am grateful to Dr. S. Cagaptay‐Arikan for drawing my attention to the article by Prof. M. Baha Tanman on Ottoman examples of canopy tombs. 80
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Though we do not know how the open canopy over the water font from the manuscript was named, we do know that apsida may have been both an open tomb canopy mounted over the sarcophagus and an open, free‐standing canopy over the holy water font. Though the anonymous Russian traveler was not a native speaker and might have made a mistake when he called the phiale in Hagia Sophia apsida, he most likely asked native speakers what the structure he encountered was and accordingly recorded in his travel diary the word apsida for the open canopy over holy water font. τετρακίονος [tetrakionos] and τετράπυλον [tetrapylon] By formal analogy, since the earliest times canopies were also associated with various four‐columned architectural structures. There are numerous references in primary sources to structures on four columns, variously called a τετρακίονος [tetrakionos] and a τετράπυλον [tetrapylon] both terms literally meaning four columns.83 (Table 2) Known as public monuments from the period of Roman Tetrarchy, tetrapyla and tetrakionia are composed of four single pillars identical in size and shape, standing apart from each other and forming a coherent square plan, sometimes connected with an entablature, thus forming a canopy‐like structure.84 Often described as synonymous structures by Byzantine authors, tetrapyla and Though essentially denoting same architectural structures, tetrakionia is presumably older term then tetrapyla, as exemplified by writing by John Malalas who mentions both terms in his Chronographia, but cites Pausanias for his reference to tetrakiona (cf. Pausanias Hist., Fragmenta Fragment 4 line 63). In the sixth century John Malalas whom also quotes Evagrius Scholasticus write of stone tetrapylon adorned in bronze, which was built in Antioch by a certain Mammianus, a tradesman, who became a prominent man and a member of the senate during the reign of Zeno (474‐491). The tetrapylon was destroyed, presumably by the earthquake of 457 or 458, as Evagrius informs us. Joannes Malalas, Chronographia, 232:19; Evagrius Scholasticus Scr. Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica, chapter 28. On the tetrapylon see also: G. Downey, “The Architectural Significance of the Use of the Words Stoa and Basilike in Classical Literature” AJA 41/2 (1937) 194‐211 and R. E. G. Downey, “References to Inscriptions in the Chronicle of Malalas” TAPA 66 (1935) 55‐72. 84 W. Thiel, “Tetrakionia. Überlegungen zu einem Denkmaltypus tetrarchischer Zeit im Osten des Römischen Reiches” AnTard 10 (2002) 299‐326; M. Milojević, “Forming and Transforming Proto‐Byzantine Urban Public Space” ByzAus 10 (1996) 247‐262. 83
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tetrakionia could have been topped by a dome‐like superstructure.85 Therefore, these essentially pagan four‐columned structures could have had formal continuity in Christian architecture and some of these objects could have been full canopies with roofs. τετράβηλον [tetravēlon], καταπέτασμα [katapetasma], παραπέτασμα [parapetasma], and πέπλα [pepla] Interestingly, it seems as if a four‐columned canopy was quite frequently described as το τετράβηλον [tetravēlon], το καταπέτασμα [katapetasma], το παραπέτασμα [parapetasma], and perhaps even πέπλα [pepla], the ancient Greek term for religious curtains (Table 3).86 Though tetravēlon literary means “four curtains” the object it denoted may have been made partially of solid material, presumably with four columns enclosed by curtains. However, Pseudo‐Kodinos (10th‐15th c) explains that tetravēlon resembles tetrapylon with some kind of domical roof (koubukleion).87 The description thus suggests that the entire canopy, including both its columns and roof, were made of solid material and that the curtains might have been hangings presumably set on metal rods spread between two columns, as depicted in some
On the Hellenistic and Roman tetrapyla with domes see also: I. Kader, Propylon und Bogentor: Untersuchungen zum Tetrapylon von Latakia und anderen frühkaiserzeitlichen Bogenmonumenten im Nahen Osten (Mainz, 1996), where she analyses in particular tetrapylon of Latakia, until now usually called a ʺtriumphal archʺ and dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century C.E. Kader demonstrates that tetrapylon at Latakia was a propylon‐like entrance to a probable sacred temenos, an area that could have been dedicated already to a Hellellistic ruler cult and was later the site of a Roman imperial cult. On the double tetrapyla in Rufianus, which were presumably in the cemeteries or contained tombs see: Joannes Malalas, Chronographia 397:16ff. (T.36) 86 Eighteen sources about canopies I analyzed mention curtains. About the meaning of specific words the Greeks used for religious curtains see also: Lampe (1961) 714, s.v. katapetasma; 1060, s.v. peplos. In Kecharitomene in BMFD vol. 2 (2000) 716, we also learn about the “curtains (pepla) of the four pillars … bearing a representation of a cross [and the] portraits … of saints.” The curtains may refer to templon screen, but also to a canopy, especially having in mind eleventh‐century Theologica by Michael Psellos’ who might have influenced the writer of the Kecharitomene typikon and who in the same manuscript writes about the curtains of the sanctuary and four‐cornered structure, τετράγωνον ξύλινον (T.74). 87 See: Pseudo‐Kodinos in Patria Constantinopoleos Book 2 sec. 55. (T.72) 85
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Byzantine manuscripts, icons and even represented in some post‐Byzantine canopies (Figs. 208, 230, 235, 237, 238, 241, 270, 292, 395, 396, 397, 408, 412, 417, 432, 433, 434, 448, 465, 469, 519, 520, 521, 531, 559, 562, 618). The existence of curtains for liturgical furnishing and canopies in the Byzantine tradition has been hotly debated, and sources are often obscure.88 In accordance to the reference at Ex. 26:32 to the veil of the desert tabernacle that hung by means of golden hooks from four pillars of acacia which were overlaid with gold and set on four silver bases, the four columns on which these curtains would have been hung could have been placed in a straight line, thereby forming a structure like a sanctuary screen with three doors, like in most Byzantine churches (Fig. 517‐a).89 Alternatively, the columns could form four corners of a square‐based enclosure, the veil being hung around all four sides with the two ends overlapping at the front to give the access to the inner space (Fig. 517‐b). The latter possibility of structuring the canopy is attested through numerous visual representations, generally associated either with Old Testament themes and representations of the Jewish Temple or the Holy of Holies or, exceptionally and in Middle Byzantine and later examples, with Christian narrative related to liturgical rites usually representing the Communion of the Apostles (Figs. 292, 395, 396, 397, 412, 432, 433, 434, 448, 465, 469, 518, 519, 520, 521, 531).90 Taft (2006) 27‐52; Ch. Walter, “New Look at the Byzantine Sanctuary Barrier” REB 51 (1993) 203‐228; Th. F. Mathews, The Early Churches of Constantinople (University Park and London, 1971) 162‐171. According to Khouri‐Sarkis’ studies on the liturgy of St. James, in addition to those on the chancel, the Syrians used curtains on the altar canopy and opened or closed them according to the demands of the liturgy. G. Khouri‐Sarkis, “Notes sur l’anaphore syriaque de Saint Jacques,” OrSyr 5 (1960) 363‐384; G. Khouri‐Sarkis, “Le voile rideau intérieur,” OrSyr 7 (1962) 277‐296. 89 The sanctuary screen is variously called templon, diastila, kagelos, kagkellon, kiglis, kiglides etc. Taft (2006) 27‐52. The term templon was presumably first used in the seventh century for the church of H. Artemios, supposedly north church of the Kalenderhane in Constantinople, today Istanbul. C. Mango, ʺOn the History of the Templon and the Martyrion of St. Artemios at Constantinople,ʺ Zograf 10 (1979) 40‐43; Walter (1993) 203‐228. 90 The Communion of the Apostles in the Byzantine monumental painting is recorded in the side chapels in the early‐tenth‐century church of the Nativity near Sagri on the island of Naxos. In the eleventh century the Communion of the Apostles decorated the side walls of the sanctuary in 88
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Though prevailing scholarly opinion is that the curtains were used for an altar canopy in the early Christian period mostly in Syria,91 wide spread use of the term across time in the wider Mediterranean challenges this opinion and suggests that canopies with curtains existed in Byzantine churches as well (Table 3). In any case, it seems that no term for the canopy originated in Constantinople while many concepts did merge in the Byzantine capital. That the use of various terms for curtains was also extended to canopies can be exemplified by numerous descriptions. For example, Theophanes Confessor in the eighth century called the altar canopy in Hagia Sophia tetravela; in the twelfth century Anna Komnena described an imperial canopy‐tent as katapetasma; while the Slavic version of the same word катапезма was used in the thirteenth century by Anthony of Novgorod for the altar canopy of Hagia Sophia, the very same word (katapetasma) used around 1200 by Nikolas Mesarites for the altar canopy in the church of the Holy Apostles and for a marble canopy from the palace church in the Inventory of the so‐called Palace of Botaniates, part of the legal document of the Constantinopolitan family Botaniates.92
the church of Panagia Chalkeon in Thessaloniki (1028) and in the Cappadocian church of Karadaş Kilise in Soğanli Valley (c. 1060). By the mid‐eleventh century it was transferred to the middle register and in the center of the altar apse, as it was the case with the fresco in the church of the St. Sophia in Ochrid and mosaic of the St. Sophia in Kiev. From the twelfth century on, sometimes on the lower level of the apsidal wall two liturgies might be painted one above the other. The upper liturgy is the Communion of the Apostles and the lower of the Holy Bishops. Among many examples of such painted liturgies in the frescoes, one can mention that of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi (1164) and St. George at Staro Nagoričino in Macedonia (1317). Sh. Gerstel, “Apostolic Embraces in Communion Scenes of Byzantine Macedonia,” CA 44 (1996) 141‐148; Ch. Walter, Art and Ritual of the Byzantine Church (London, 1982) 192; A. J. Wharton, Art of Empire. Painting and Architecture of the Byzantine Periphery (University Park and London, 1988) 44; V. J. Djurić, Vizantijske freske u Jugoslaviji (Beograd, 1974) 158. For the curtained canopies depicted within Heavenly Liturgy in the dome of the church of Sts. Joachim and Anna (“King’s church”) 1313‐14 in Studenica, Serbia: G. Babić, Kraljeva crkva u Studenici (Belgrade, 1987). 91 Recently Taft (2006) 27‐52, with references. 92 Angold “Inventory” 254‐66, according to Deed of concession to the Genoese of certain areas of Constantinople (October 13, 1202). Two versions of the text survive, in Greek and in Latin: Acta et diplomata Graeca mediiaevi ed. F. Miklosich and J. Muller, vol. III (Vienna, 1865) 3:55‐57 and x‐xv. [For the same reference see also SD (1972) 240.] Alexiad‐a (2001) XII 3.6; G. Downey,
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κουβούκλειον [koubukleion, kouvouklion] In scholarship the word κουβούκλειον, [koubukleion, kouvouklion] has been already associated with the canopy, though it became generally disassociated from modern art historical studies.93 Besides its basic meaning of the cubicule, room, and in essence a box, koubukleion may have denoted spaces of various sizes and shapes. The main purpose of the spaces known as kouvouklia was to hide or reveal certain objects or persons during particular moments, and thus, those spaces could have acquired the form of canopy‐like structures, rooms with curtains or moveable panels in place of lateral walls.94 Though medieval textual references to koubuklia are often contradictory, it is worth mentioning that Pseudo‐Kodinus (10th‐15th c) mentions kouboukleion on four columns.95 In 1375, the Russian pilgrim Archimandrite Arsenius visited the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem and called it the kuviklion, a corrupted version of the Greek counterpart.96 Furthermore, the Aedicula of the Tomb of Christ has remained known as the Holy Kouvouklion up to the present. Similarly, the construction of the canopy‐like stand for the Epitaphios (the icon of Christ’s dead body) representing the empty tomb of Christ was also named kouvoukleion.97
“Nikolaos Mesarites: Description of the Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople” TAPA 47/6 (1957) 855‐924, esp. 890‐891. 93 For example, G. A. Prokopios uses the term koubouklion in Ho kosmologikos symvolismos stēn architektonikē tou Vyzantinou naou (Athens, 1981) 125‐128. 94 In De Ceremoniis the word usually stands for chambers and entire buildings, but also for the metaphorical language related to imperial affairs. See for example: Constantinus VII Porphyrogenitus, De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (lib. 1.84–2.56) 405, 416, 441, 442. 95 Pseudo–Codinus Hist., Patria Constantinopoleos. Book 2 sec. 55. Table 1, T.72. 96 PG 165, col. 517. It should be noted however that both the Holy Sepulchre and the Tomb Aedicula are interchangeably called the Holy Kouvouklion, which essentially refers to them in their meaning as shrines. See also: Bishop Auxentios of Photiki, The Paschal Fire in Jerusalem: A study of the Rite of the Holy Fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Berkeley, CA, 1999) 4‐5, with further references. 97 Megalh Ellhnikh Egkyklopaideia [Great Greek Encyclopedia], vol. XV, (Athens, 21960) 27, s.v. koubikoularios, koubikoulon, koubouklion. I am grateful to Mr. L. F. Kallenos for calling my attention to the reference in Great Greek Encyclopedia. For the term see also: D. N. Stavropoulos, Oxford Greek‐English Learner’s Dictionary (Oxford, 101998) s.v. κουβούκλι.
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In post‐Byzantine churches in Greece, κουβούκλι [kouboukli] signifies the Easter canopy with a dome, usually made of wood and richly decorated, which is used for the burial cortege during Easter Eve. Numerous such canopies in Greek museums are marked as koubouklia.98 Byzantine examples of such canopies do not survive, and it has been suggested that they actually did not exist during the Byzantine period.99 However, in 1247 a certain monk Maximos informs us that in the katholikon in his, now lost, monastery Mother of God at Skoteine near Philadelphia, Asia Minor, lamnai, presumably metal rods with candle and lamp holders, were set in front of the “sepulcher.”100 Though we do not know what kind of object the sepulcher from Skoteine might have been and whether it signified the Tomb of Christ in the church or a tomb of a specially venerated monk, a canopy‐like installation in the church could have been a viable solution for the tomb. A surviving example for the saint’s tomb is Saint Athanasios’ tomb (10th c) at Great Lavra on Mt. Athos (Cat. no. 133). The tomb is set in the church bay and enclosed by metal rods with lamps and votive offerings. Similarly, the post‐Byzantine canopy in front of the prothesis chapel and abutting the north wall of the fourteenth‐century church of the Annunciation at Gračanica Monastery, Kosovo, Serbia, might have replaced an earlier church furnishing which symbolized the Tomb of Christ (Fig. 525).101 The origin of a canopy‐like kouvoukli has remained understudied, though older imperial traditions may have acquired Christian meaning by the Byzantine association between Christ and kingship. For example, when Septimius Severus (r. 193‐211) held
Instructive examples are on display at Benaki museum in Athens or in the museum in Hosios Loukas (Fig. 524). Field notes: J. Bogdanović. 99 R. Taft is of the opinion that the epitaphia in the form of kouvouklia are post‐Byzantine inventions, despite the material evidence for cloths symbolizing portable altars and Christ’s Tomb, which are dated to the first half of the twelfth century. R. Taft, The Great Entrance: a history of the transfer of gifts and other preanaphoral rites of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (Rome, 1975) 216‐219. 100 For the “sepulcher” in Testament of Maximos, BMFD, 1176‐1195, esp. 1186. Reference to lamnai as metal beams with candleholders used over the templon and icon frames. See L. Bouras, “Byzantine Lighting Devices,” JÖB 32/3 (1982): 479‐491, esp. 480. 101 Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261, Fig. 3. 98
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the funeral rite for Pertinax in the second century, “a wooden platform was constructed in the Roman forum upon which was set a shrine, without walls, but surrounded by columns, cunningly wrought of both ivory and gold.”102 The description of this burial cortege echoes the post‐Byzantine koubouklia. Thus, Roman imperial architecture and funeral practices might have inspired forms and even some rituals in the Byzantine church which have remained unnoticed.103 The Byzantines might have actually continued to use burial corteges, in their nature essentially pagan, but now as a liturgical reenactment of Christ’s burial. Therefore, the idea that the Byzantines used canopy‐like koubouklia should not be easily dismissed, despite the lack of material evidence. * This overview of Byzantine terms for canopies is not intended to be exhaustive but only to illustrate certain terms which occur in the surviving textual evidence and whose meanings are confirmed by available archaeological and visual material. Then again, some canopy‐like structures have survived but we simply do not know what the Byzantines called them. A curious canopy, projecting above the narthex roof in the thirteenth‐century church of Panagia Parigoritissa in Arta, Greece (Cat. no. 163), is just one such example.104
M.T. Smith (1974) 379‐414, with primary sources. The Byzantines used the word koubuklion for both the royal chambers and the apartment of the royal palaces where the royal chambers and servants’ quarters were found. The important feature of such chambers seems to be that they were domed, and that they were quite frequently used in Constantinople, though none survive. 104 A. Orlandos, H Παρηγορήτσσα της Άρτης (Athens, 1963) 137‐140. 102 103
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1.2 Ciborium as an altar canopy and as a Eucharistic chalice Because metaphorical and symbolic language associated with canopies is charged with various meanings applicable to various forms and objects, unverified attribution of potential meanings to a specific object is occasionally overlooked. This is especially true in the case of two different objects –a canopy and a chalice, often called by the same name ciborium.105 We will examine the relationship between an altar canopy and a Eucharistic chalice from the perspective of the Byzantine tradition and will show that the Byzantines did not relate these two objects linguistically, as modern dictionaries maintain, but that the Byzantines perhaps related the two objects only by association of the place they occupied in a Byzantine church. It has been already shown that after the sixteenth century the meaning of a ciborium as a canopy was almost lost, since ciborium has been most often used as an anachronistic term for the pyxis, a vessel in which the Eucharistic host is kept.106 Thirteenth‐century sources in the West indicate that a pyxis could have been suspended from the top of the ciborium, an architectural structure above the altar table, and that by metaphorical, symbolic, and even formal‐visual extension the chalice‐like pyx, occasionally topped by a towering architectural superstructure, and ciborium
See, for example: DArt, vol. 7 (1996) s.v. ciborium (i), s.v. ciborium (ii). DArt, vol. 7 (1996) s.v. ciborium (i). See also the definition for a ciborium given in a dictionary of architecture by J. S. Curl, where the architectural structure is closely linked with the utensil. “Fixed canopy over a Christian altar, usually supported on four columns. It resembles an inverted cup, or the vessel in which the Eucharist is Reserved, with its domed cover, so the canopy itself has a similar domed top.” (underlined J.B.) DALA (22006) s.v. ciborium. The term pyx derives from the Latin transliteration pyxis of the Greek word πύξις, originally denoting a boxwood receptacle and by extension, a box. It has been already demonstrated that the use of the term ciborium for a cup‐like vessel can be confirmed by textual evidence only from the sixteenth century [Braun, Altargerät, 284‐285] , and that the fourteenth‐century sources mentioned by King [Eucharistic Reservation in the Western Church (New York, 1965), 112‐113] are ambiguous. See more in: Th. DaCosta Kaufmann, “Pyxes and Ciboria” in Eucharistic Vessels of the Middle Ages (1975) 65‐71, with references. The potential relationship among differently‐sized and similarly‐shaped objects, which have been used in the same or similar contexts, is constantly re‐examined throughout this work. 105 106
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became synonyms.107 Thus, the ciborium as a container for cibus was closely associated with the hanging pyx and the place of its suspension, the architectural canopy – the ciborium.108 It may well be that in that period some Roman Catholic theologians started to express the opinion that the word ciborium derived from the Latin term for the holy gifts, cibus – food which is the revivifying body of Christ.109 By the nineteenth century, the explanations on the original meaning of the ciborium associated its protective function with the use of inverted leaves of Egyptian beans as chalices and covers.110 However, to the best of my knowledge, there is no evidence that in the Christian East Eucharistic doves and pyxes were ever referred to as ciboria.111 Such a link is presumably post‐Byzantine and derives from erroneous attributions of altar ciboria to pyxes by early modern scholars like Ioannis Stephani Duranti (1534‐1589), Leo Allatios (1586/7‐1669) and Charles Du Cange (1610‐1688), to name but a few of the most influential. Relying on textual evidence these intellectuals re‐interpreted altar canopies from Constantinopolitan churches of Hagia Sophia and of St. John at Studion as chalice‐like ciboria. Duranti and Du Cange re‐interpreted the sixth‐century account In the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and especially after the Counter‐ Reformation, the chalice‐like ciboria became monumental objects, occasionally topped by a towering architectural superstructure, which were placed on the altars and carried in processions. King Arnulf’s ciborium (Fig. 590) can represent an intermediate step in the development of the ciborium as Eucharistic vessel in the West. DaCosta Kaufmann (1975) 65‐ 71, with references. 108 DaCosta Kaufmann (1975) 65‐71, provides the references to such pyxes in the West – at Petershausen [Bishoff, Schatzvertzeichnisse, I.148], Culmstock [Lehmann‐Brockhaus, Schriftquellen England, I.326, no. 1207], Hurst [Lehmann‐Brockhaus, Schriftquellen England, I.577, no. 2170] and at Colyton, Devonshire [Lehmann‐Brockhaus, Schriftquellen England, I.295, no. 1091], where we know that: ...Pixis as cibarium eburnea et honeste pendens sed sine sera... 109 Mid‐16th century is also proposed for the development of the notion that ciborium is a container for cibus placed below the canopy. See: ODE (2005) s.v. ciborium. 110 Henricus Stephanos, Thesaurus Lingua Graecae 4 (Paris, 1841) col. 1542‐43. 111 John Chrysostom PG 48, col. 753. (4th c) write about the use of Eucharistic doves (peristera) in his homilies. In the twelfth‐centuty Eucharistic dove from Hagia Sophia was called a peristerion as well: C. Mango and J. Parker, “A Twelfth‐Century Description of St. Sophia,” DOP 14 (1960): 233–245. On the Eucharistic dove from Pharos church: C. Mango, “The Date and Significance of the Tenth Homily of Photius” DOP 9‐10 (1956) 123+125‐140 and C. Mango, The Homilies of Photius Patriarch of Constantinople (Cambridge, MA, 1958) 177‐183. 107
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by Silentarios and the eleventh‐century account on the altar canopy of Hagia Sophia, respectively, as references to the pyx.112 Similarly, in the mid‐seventeenth century Leo Allatius claimed that Theodore of Studios (759‐826) in his ode on St. John the Forerunner spoke of the ciborium of St. John [κιβούριον τοῦ Προδρόμου] while referring to its ancient name for the pyx, a box for holding the host.113 Allatius’ opinion has been already challenged and superseded by the idea that Theodore of Studios wrote on the altar canopy in his monastery.114 Though I am more inclined to think that Theodore of Studios was thinking of the altar canopy, his epigram vaguely relates the object to the altar table, and unfortunately neither the chalice nor the altar canopy from the Studion have survived to confirm positively prevailing opinion today.115 In any case, no Byzantine source, to the best of my knowledge, provides a philological reference to a ciborium as a receptacle for the host, the argument which is so often used by Western scholars when associating altar ciborium and chalice called ciborium.116 Moreover, the Byzantines usually used the term τροφή [trophē] as the equivalent for cibus, and the term trophē does not make any linguistic, visual or other
J. Bingham, in De ritibvs ecclesiae catholicae. 3 vols. (Romae, 1591) book I. 16, pointed to the erroneous attribution of the ciborium to the pyxis in the work of Ioannis Stephani Duranti (1534‐ 1589). Bingham further pointed to a work by DuFresne who, essentially following the sixth‐ century poetic work by Paulos Silentarious, stated that ciborium originally denoted only an ornamented canopy over the altar. See: J. Bingham. Origines ecclesiasticae: or the antiquities of the Christian Church, 10 vols. (London, 1710‐22) vol. 3, book 8, chp. 6, sect. 18, 197‐198. Du Cange cites an eleventh‐century description of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Descriptio S. Sophiae, PG 86, 2, col. 2223) as evidence for a vessel for the Eucharistic host, suspended from the center of a canopy over the altar. However, the vessel was not called pyxis. 113 Leone Allacci, The Newer Temples of the Greeks [Templis Graecorum recentioribus] trans. A. Cutler (University Park, 1969) [henceforth Allatios] 18, with reference to Iambi de variis argumentis 42 (PG 99, col. 1793D). 114 Theodoros Studites. Jamben auf verschiedene Gegenstände P. Speck ed. (Berlin, 1968) 192‐193. 115 Russian archaeologists never revealed whether they had found elements of the ciborium. The Russian Archeological Institute did research, and confirmed that there was a crypt below the altar, a synthronon and elements of chancel screen – missing the location of the ambo, solea and ciborium. T.F. Mathews (1971) 19‐27. 116 Allatios 18, with reference to Thdr. Stud. iamb. 42 tit. 42, claims that ciborium refers to “myxomēlon,” the corrupted version of the word “pyxomēlon” for pyxis, but I find his explanation highly problematic. 112
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reference to a ciborium [kiborion].117 Nevertheless, it seems that the connection between the altar canopy and the box for holding the Eucharistic host did exist, but it had its own development in the Christian East. The Byzantines had two names for the Ark‐tabernacle and the Holy Gifts box, i.e. the receptacle of host – σκηνή [skēnē, literally meaning tent in Greek and symbolizing the tabernacle]118 and αρτοφόριον [artophorium, a casket or box for holding Eucharistic bread].119 Numerous written and visual references to skēnē as the tabernacle and temporary dwelling place of God suggest not only vessels but also the entire sanctuary and its furnishings. That skēnē could have been in the form of a canopy is indicated by the seventh‐century graffito from Kellia, Egypt (Fig. 556).120 Moreover, Byzantine writers often used the word skēnē to describe the human body as the temporary home of the soul, as they did for the kiborion.121
See for example, Sym. Thess. De Sacro templo. PG 155 ch. 133, col 339. Sym. Thess. De Sacro templo. PG 155 ch. 133, col. 341B‐C. 119 On the term artophorion, literary “bread‐bearer” as the tabernacle, i.e. the dwelling place, see: M. Makrantonaki‐Farasa, Glossary of Theological Terms. English‐Greek/Greek‐English (Thessaloniki, 2000) 18, 181. In the Patristic dictionary only the root of the word is recorded, ἄρτος [artos], which has numerous meanings including a loaf of bread, Eucharistic bread, manna. Lampe (1961–68) 231‐232. However, Patriarch Manouel of Constantinople (1215‐1222) noted that the pre‐sanctified gifts for the Easter liturgy would have been kept in artophoria. PG 119:809A, 809D‐812A. Allatios appropriately identifies arthophorion with a pyxis. Some Latin uses of the word turris seem to refer to the relatively large vessel in the shape of a canopy, used as containers for the Eucharistic hosts. PL 71, col. 1185, PL 88, cols. 144‐45. Gregory of Tours in De Gloria Martyrium mentions a deacon who, as entered the church and walked towards the altar, dropped a bronze turris, a vessel in which “the mystery of the Body of Christ” was. PL, 71, col. 781‐2. 120 On the skēnē as ʺtentʺ and its use to designate the stage‐building of the ancient Greek theatre, and subsequently its meaning as tabernacle, temple, canopy, and, in general, dwelling‐place of God, see: J. M. Devyver, The Skene: A Universal Symbol of the Divine Presence: Perspectives on the Form and Function of a Symbol (Diss. Michigan State U, 1982) passim. According to Devyver, the word skene rendered several different Hebrew words that referred to the Tabernacle of Moses when the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, and its subsequent use in the Greek New Testament, was a result of the translatorsʹ choice. 121 For skēnē: Theoktistos (1983) 125, with further references. On the “mutability of the tent (skēnē) of the earthly body” in Middle Byzantine poetry see also: J. Anderson and M. Jeffreys, “The Decoration of the Sevastokratorissa’s Tent” Byz 64 (1994) 8‐18. For kiborion: A. Golitzin “Temple and Church: Some Reflections on Continuities in Early Syriac Tradition” talk given at the conference Symbols of Church and Kingdom, Princeton University (May 4th 2005). 117 118
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Artophoria were essentially box‐like objects, often in the shape of a small church (Fig. 593). These receptacles of the host were often made of wood, or silver and gold, but they could have been made of other materials as well, ivory or stone.122 We do not have definite proof that some artophoria could have taken occasionally a canopy‐like form, like the medieval containers for the consecrated Host surviving in the West.123 However, one example of a canopy‐like artophorium might have been the fifth‐century so‐called “ciborium shrine” currently in the treasury of San Marco in Venice (Cat. no. 20).124 This small‐scale, monolithic object was not designed to be a free‐standing structure, but rather to be attached to another feature, perhaps a wall or something else.125 Leo Allatios informs us that artophoria kept the consecrated bread for the liturgy, the body of Christ, and thus most precious to the sick is “carefully enclosed in a piece of silk cloth or a small bag and reverently kept in the wall with lamps hung before it” or on a separate altar table to the north in the bema or in the
Allatios confirms that by the seventeenth century arthophoria were made of wood, and “where possible, of silver and gold worked after the manner of pyx.” Allatios 18. 123 DaCosta Kaufmann (1975) 65‐71. 124 Famous ninth‐century King Arnulf’s ciborium often interpreted as a portable altar resembles in size and general shape the ciborium‐shrine from San Marco in Venice. An eleventh‐century manuscript from Regensburg, the Uta Codex even contains the depiction of King Arnulf’s ciborium on the altar table and below a canopy (Fig. 591). The altar canopy itself has in the interior inscriptions with strong Echaristic symbolism. One inscription reads: ʺJesus Christ the true bread from heaven [Iesus Christus verus panis veniens de celis].” A second inscription along the underside of the canopy continues this theme: ʺHe nourishes the Church with his body through faith on earth Who nourishes the angels in the heavens through his form [Hic pascit aec[c]lesiam corpore suo p[er] fidem in terris Qui p[er] specie[m] suam a[n]gelos pascit i[n] celis].ʺ A Byzantine influence has been widely observed throughout this Ottonian manuscript and suggests the possibility that similar canopy‐like objects, artophoria and tabernacles were used in Byzantine churches as depicted in the Uta Codex. On the Uta Codex: C. R. Dodwell, Painting in Europe 800‐1200 (London, 1971) 70; C. Nordenfalk, Early medieval book illumination (Geneva, Switzerland and New York, 1988) 213; and most recently A. S. Cohen, The Uta Codex: art, philosophy, and reform in eleventh‐century Germany (University Park, c2000). I am grateful to J. Thompson for bringing my attention to the Uta Codex. 125 On the opinion that the ciborium shrine potentially contained the saintly relics and that it was not a free‐standing object: S. Ćurčić, “Proskynetaria Icons, Saints’ Tombs, and the Development of the Iconostasis.” The Iconostasis. Origins‐Evolution‐Symbolism, A. Lidov, ed. (2000) 134‐142. 122
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prothesis.126 The canopy from S. Marco in Venice (Cat. no. 20) has on its two sides a votive inscription in Greek: Ὑπερ εὐχῆς κ(αὶ) σωτηρίας τῆς ἐνδοξοτάτης Ἀναστασίας (For the blessing and salvation of the most glorious Anastasia – English transl. J.B.).127 The reference to Anastasia has been connected with the Anastasis, i.e. the Resurrection. Yet, more likely, Anastasia was the name of a lady from Emperor Justinian’s court.128 Be that as it may, the inscription does not explicitly reveal the function of the object. However, both the prayer inscribed only on two sides of the canopy and the “tongue‐and‐grove” end profile of the one side of the canopy suggest that the object was perhaps attached to the corner of a niche or other feature in the north wall of a church, where artophoria are located, as Allatios informs us and as is the current tradition in Orthodox churches. Whether the object from San Marco was an artophorion or some kind of reliquary, this kind of portable, canopy‐like object could have been among the numerous sacred vessels offered to churches throughout Byzantine Empire since the earliest times, as the seventh‐century mosaic from San Apollinare Nuovo in Classe depicting Emperor Justin II with a canopy in his hands may also indicate (Fig. 234).129 We do know, moreover, that the Byzantines and the Russians knew about huge portable objects in the shape of a church, today known interchangeably as Jerusalems and Zions, and some of them preserved in museum collections (Figs. 594‐ 597).130 Like the monumental chalice‐like objects in the West, usually known as ciboria,
Allatios 18‐19, citation on 19. I am thankful L. Karentzos for proofreading the inscription for me. 128 S. Bettini suggests that the title Anstasia is the reference for the Resurrection in Venezia e Bisanzio (Milano, 1974) 46‐47, while I concur with A. Guillou who suggests that Anastasia might have been a patrician lady from Justinian’s court. A. Guillou, “Inscriptions Byzantines importes en Italie,” in Epigraphia Medievale Greca e Latina (Spoleto, 1991) 119‐152, esp. 141. 129 F. W. Deichmann, Ravenna (1976) 273‐279. However, Emperor Justin II might have been offering an altar canopy as well. On the later depictions of donors with canopies as their offerings see also reference to the fourteenth‐century altar canopy donated by Pope Urban V to the lateran basilica: J. Osborne, “Lost Roman Images of Pope Urban V (1362‐1370)” ZKunstg 54/1 (1991) 20‐32, fig. 1. 130 N. Oikonomides, “St. George of Mangana, Maria Skleraina, and the ‘Malyj Sion’ of Novgorod” DOP 34/35 (1980‐81) 239‐247I; A. Sterligova, “Jerusalems as Liturgical Vessels in 126 127
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these containers were supposedly carried in a procession, judging by the fittings and handles still preserved on some of them (Fig. 597‐a). The size of these artophoria vessels and the great possibility that they were carried during the procession suggest that they were made to hold sufficient host for the communion of huge congregations, and especially during the annual Easter celebration.131 Thus, although modern glossaries of theological terms in Orthodox Christianity, which stem from the Byzantine tradition, still maintain that ciborium [κιβώριον] denotes exclusively a free‐ standing canopy on columns above an altar,132 it can be suggested that ciborium‐like vessels in the Byzantine church derived by metaphorical and symbolic extension from canopy‐like architectural installations that sheltered the Eucharistic mysteries in the church.133
the Old Rus,” in Jerusalem in Russian Culture, A. Batalov and A. Lidov, eds. (1994) 46‐62; I. A. Sterligova, “Пaмятники серебряного и золотого дела в Новгороде XI‐XII вв.” in Dekorativno‐prikaldnoe iskusstvo Velikogo Novgoroda, I. A. Sterligova, ed. (1996) 46‐62; A. V. Ryndina, “Новгородское серебряное дело XIII‐XV вв.” in Dekorativno‐prikaldnoe iskusstvo Velikogo Novgoroda, I. A. Sterligova, ed. (1996) 69‐106. References to Zion and Jerusalem existed in Byzantine times: Μακάριοι οὖν ἐκεῖνοι οἱ τοῦ Χριστοῦ ἀθληταί, οἱ τοῦ φωτὸς μέτοχοι καὶ τῆς ζωῆς τῆς αἰωνίου, οἱ στύλοι τῆς πίστεως καὶ ἀγάπης σύνδεσμοι, οἱ ζῶντες θεμέλιοι καὶ πάντα συνέχοντες, οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς σεμνῆς τοῦ Χριστοῦ Ἐκκλησίας, οἱ πύργοι (τῶν βάρεων τῆς ἐπουρανίου Σιών). Ephraem Syrian Encomium in gloriosos martyres, qui in toto mundo martyrium sunt passi. K.G. Phrantzoles, Ὁσίου Ἐφραίμ τοῦ Σύρου ἔργα, vol. 7. (Thessaloniki, 1998) 163‐ 175. 131 The Byzantine and Russian Jerusalems and Zions are comparable to Easter ciboria from the West, like the Malmesbury ciborium in the Morgan Library [New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Year 1200: I, The Exhibition, February 12‐May 10, 1970, no. 171]. For the reference to Malmesbury ciborium see: DaCosta Kaufmann (1975) 65‐71. The term artophorion from the perspective of its use in the Byzantine period is obscure itself as ciborium is, both in terms of its interchangeable meanings and objects it signified. By the twelfth century a small chest in the shape of a church for keeping the pre‐sanctified gifts and for the Eucharistic particles for the sick and prisoners became an important liturgical vessel kept on the altar table. Placed on the altar table, artophorion is often made in the shape of small churches, but other vessel‐like, dove‐ patterned forms were also used. Assuming that numerous faithful would have taken communion for the Easter, the greatest feast of the Orthodox, relatively large size of some Late‐ Byzantine artophoria, especially of those preserved in Russia, is understandable. For the medieval use of artophoria for pre‐sanctified and Eucgaristic host: L. Mirković (1995) 103‐104. 132 Makrantonaki‐Farasa (2000) 32, 221. 133 DaCosta Kaufmann (1975) 65‐71 suggested such a development for the ciboria‐like vessel objects in the West, and I would suggest that such a development can be observed in the East.
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1.3 Concluding remarks: Canopies. Diversity in Unity From our short overview of how the Byzantines named and described canopies and canopy‐like structures we can learn some important facts. Because Byzantine Greek was not a standardized language, contemporary theologians, poets, official historians, and others used various, descriptive and versatile terms which they copiously combined and interpolated when writing about canopies.134 This phenomenon can be followed on several levels. We have observed how the Greek formal linguistic counterpart for a ciborium – κιβώριον [kibōrion, kivōrion] – potentially reveals objects of different forms and meanings. There was no “standardization” of the term kibōrion for canopies in the Byzantine tradition by the sixth‐century or by the period of Iconoclasm as have been suggested.135 Some other terms, mostly descriptive words, which are essentially marginalized in current scholarship, were also used to define canopies, usually in terms of their component parts, such as kibotion, orophion, apsida, oikiskos, pirgos, tetravelon, tetrapilon, tetrakionia, katapetasmata, parapetasma, ouraniskos, tholos, kouboukleion, kamelauhion,136 to name but a few.137 When describing canopies, the Byzantines used interchangeably the same images of the whole and parts of a canopy, like its columns, roof, or curtains, thus leaving us without the possibility of suggesting a strict, systematic, and hieratical overview of what a canopy meant to them and what its most decisive parts were. It seems that certain words for canopies may have been more frequently used at some points of time than others, as if some of them were “forgotten” and then “revived,” sometimes not even with the exact same meaning, as was the case with apsida. My observation is that such a phenomenon most likely belongs to general
Downey came to the similar conclusion in his text “On Some Post‐Classical Greek Architectural Terms” TAPA 77 (1946) 22‐34. 135 M.T. Smith (1968) 325‐349. 136 For the use of the word kamelauhion see: Constantine Porphyrogenitos 73.8, according to RBK vol. I (1966) 1055. 137 Except in the works by Greek scholars like G. A. Prokopios (Athens, 1981) 125‐128. 134
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phenomenon of Byzantine “revivals” and “renaissances” which do not always overlap with each other and may be a result of the intellectual and theological trends in a given period or of the survival of certain Christian and pre‐Christian texts in certain medieval libraries or within certain circles, monastic or aristocratic, for example.138 If my hypothesis is sustainable, further research by scholars in other disciplines – linguists, historians of religion, and anthropologists, above all – may clarify the use and geographical spread of these and other terms that communicated the idea and meaning of canopies, and consequently various multi‐layered concepts. In turn, careful reconsideration of the terms and textual evidence for canopies may significantly re‐[de]fine our knowledge about canopies in the Eastern Christianity.139 Though this dissertation does not offer the ultimate answers for the problems of naming and describing canopies, some of my conclusions are worth noting. * The inconsistent terminology used for canopies now as well as in the past seems to result from the thinking process itself intermingling rhetorical images and visual embodiment of ideas. The process of copying texts and their influence on our understanding of material objects should not be underestimated (Table 4). Though this dissertation points to some of the linguistic and visual ambiguities related to canopies familiar to the Byzantines, careful re‐reading of the sources in the future may reveal additional terms which may have been used to denote canopies. Simultaneously, by paying closer attention to the textual descriptions of canopies we may expand our knowledge about canopies of the Byzantines. In light of the analyzed terminological issues, the modern term canopy as a reference to its recognizable basic
On the Byzantine revival in the eleventh and twelfth centuries see: A.P. Kazhdan and A. Wharton Epstein, Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth centuries (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985) esp. 133‐145, 158‐166, 197‐233. 139 I concur with M. T. Smith, who argued that the terminology for canopies was probably transmitted to the Western world from the East. See: M.T. Smith (1968) 325‐349. 138
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form as a four‐columned structure with or without a roof seems the most appropriate and applicable for research of canopy‐like objects in the Byzantine tradition.140 A possible reason for the lacuna in scholarship on Byzantine canopies in general and especially later examples can be sought in the beginning of Byzantine studies. Early scholarly interest in Byzantine church architecture and art was facilitated roughly after the 1450s by travelers and antiquarians from the West and by Greeks who lived in the West. Antiquarian visits in the early modern period were focused predominantly on the Greek classical past and the post‐Byzantine present, and did not provide viable and verifiable evidence on Byzantine canopies as liturgical furnishings.141 Silence is the weakest argument for making any conclusion about whether Greek churches by that time did or did not have canopies. We can surmise only possible reasons for which these early antiquarians did not discuss church canopies. It could have been that simply most post‐Byzantine churches did not have canopies, or that antiquarian writers did not consider it important to write about churches that did have them. Starting from the nature of their research, the antiquarians and travelers would not find church canopies exotic enough, because
Canopies without roofing are known in pre‐Christian Greece, and were occasionally depicted in Christian manuscripts, such as the canopy framing the over‐sized figure of the Evangelist Mark as depicted in the illuminated manuscript Garret 6, fol. 54b dated to the second half of the ninth century (Fig. 284). For the canopies on four columns without roof in Ancient Greece, see: D.W. Rupp, “The ‘Baldacchino’ in Greek Architecture” AJA 78/2 (1974) 176. However, the term “canopy” is used in a modern sense, denoting various objects with a roof, which may not have been indispensable in the Byzantine tradition as previously thought, and as our investigation of the “two‐dimensional” canopies confirms. 141 Antiquarian interest in Byzantine architecture was spread from Italy throughout Europe. Although there were many voyages to the Eastern Mediterranean from the fifteenth century on, only some post‐1670s missions to the Levant provided references of Byzantine architecture in situ. French travel accounts by J. Spon (1678), G.‐J. Grelot (1681) or J. P. de Tournefort (1717), to name but a few pre‐ Enlightenment accounts, did include Byzantine church architecture, but continued to be concerned primarily with the continuation of liturgical practices in churches, or with their transformation into mosques. J. Spon, Voyage dʹItalie, de Dalmatie, de Grece, et du Levant, fait aux années 1675 & 1676 (Amsterdam, 1679) [1678]; G.‐J. Grelot, A late voyage to Constantinople (Paris, 1681.] (Engllish edition J. Philips. London, 1683); J. Pitton de Tournefort, Relation dʹun voyage du Levant (Lyon, 1717). See also: Byzance retrouvée: érudits et voyageurs français (XVIe‐XVIIIe siècles) M.‐F. Auzépy and J.‐P. Grélois, eds. (Paris, 2001) 39‐43. 140
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many churches in the West did have canopies at the time. Some additional reasons could well have been related to the fact that most churches by the time the Westerners visited them had already been converted into mosques or were in ruins. Charles Du Cange, who is considered the actual founder of Byzantine historical studies, although he never examined architecture in situ himself, provided numerous references to Byzantine art and architecture.142 Though Du Cange does not list the term ciborium [κιβώριον] in his seminal work Glossiarum, the first systematic pre‐encyclopedic dictionary of medieval Greek, he writes elsewhere about the altar canopy of Hagia Sophia: “Ciborium appellant Scriptores Ecclesiastici quod Ordo Romanus tegimen et umbraculum altaris.”143 Du Cange’s reference to the altar canopy of Hagia Sophia comes from surviving Greek texts, and his interpretation is based on the analogy with altar canopies in Western Europe. Similarly, by translating numerous manuscripts from Greek into Latin, educated Greeks who fled the Byzantine Empire after the fall of Constantinople (1453) generally studied the Byzantine Church philologically and theologically, rather than archaeologically.144 It is surely significant that at about the time when Byzantine studies were originating various Greek words for canopies – not only kiborion – were almost uniformly rendered in Latin by ciborium.145 Once again, those who translated
More about Du Cange as a historian and antiquarian with an interest in Byzantine Greek in: G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State (New Brunswick, 1969) 4 and Auzépy and Grélois (2001) 72‐79, with further references. 143 C. Du Cange, “Descriptio ecclesiae S. Sophiae Constantinopolitanae” in CSHB 44 (1937) 118‐ 130. For the Glossarium see: Ch. Du Fresne Du Cange, Glossarium (Lyons, 1688). 144 Many Greek intellectuals and converts to Roman Catholicism, who fled to the West after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, influenced the development of Byzantine studies and raised awareness of Byzantine monuments through their primary interest in Greek manuscripts and collections. These intellectuals, like Manuel Chrysoloras (ca. 1350‐1415) and Jean Lascaris (?‐ ca. 1535), to name but a few most prominent, were often teachers and librarians. ODB vol.1 (1991) s.v. Manuel Chrysoloras; Auzépy and J Grélois (2001) 17. 145 For example in the Latin version of the Hagiography of St. Theokiste from the island of Paros, where we have a reference to the altar canopy, still preserved, the original text is amended, and the word orophion changed with the more “appropriate” term kiborion: Ὡς δὲ καὶ τῆς σεβαστῆς καὶ θείας τραπέζης τὸ ὑπερκείμενον ὀρόφιον [ὃ κιβώριον καλεῖν 142
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Greek texts into Latin most often did not have immediate knowledge of Byzantine churches in situ.146 Not without significance is the fact that in the 1520s the first printed version of the Septuagint and of various religious texts translated from Greek into Latin were disseminated throughout Europe, undoubtedly marking the path of development of all aspects of Byzantine studies, including those related to canopies.147 Though Byzantine studies have advanced since the Enlightenment, essential academic knowledge of textual evidence for canopies, which communicates the narrative of art historical studies, seems to have remained bound to these early studies. Such a state of affairs inevitably led not only to our partial knowledge of the terminology used by the Byzantines to visualize canopies, but also to some lacunae and misunderstandings in scholarship about the significance of canopies in the Byzantine tradition. Genuine advancement in our knowledge of Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture cannot depend on criteria of interpretation that were σύνηθες add. M.] εἴσω τῆς πύλης ἑωράκαμεν … Vita S. Theoctistae, Nov. IV, Dies 9, S. Theoctiste virgo in insula Paro, according to the Patrologia Latina online. A cursory comparison of the Greek and Latin versions of the text sometimes reveals this phenomenon of free translation. Allatios, for example, added numerous annotations to the translation of Migne’s Patrologia Graeca, which are usually overlooked as burdening already difficult texts to read. However, his annotations often make reference to the original words and occasionally to the sources he thought may have been used for full understanding of the text. In my opinion, this fact reveals not only how difficult it was for the scholars in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to translate Greek into Latin, but also how difficult it was to overcome the difference between theological assumptions inherent to Orthodoxy, on the one hand, and those of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, on the other. 146 For example, Leo Allatius translated numerous Greek manuscripts into Latin, and is among the earliest scholars to provide explanations about Byzantine churches and their furnishings. Paradoxically, his immediate knowledge of actual buildings was bound to his childhood experience on his native Chios and to his Jesuit missionary service on Chios and Crete. Occasionally he would draw conclusions by comparing Greek churches with those that served in the Latin rite, based on his experience in Rome. Nevertheless, Allatius’ two letters on Greek churches, De templis Graecorum recentioribus written to Jean Morin (1591‐1659), a French scholar and antiquarian, remain invaluable not only for our understanding of the early methodology of Byzantine studies, but also for the early modern accounts of Byzantine churches. Allatios; A. Cutler, “A Baroque Account of Byzantine Architecture Leone Allacci’s De temples Graecorum recentioribus” JSAH XXV (1966a) 79‐89; Ostrogorsky (1969) 2‐4, with further references. On the relation between works by Du Cange and Allatius: Auzépy and Grélois (2001) 17ff. 147 Two thousand copies of the Septuagint were first printed in the Complutensian Polyglot Psalter: Bible. O.T. Psalms. Polyglot (1516).
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established four centuries ago. The scope of the problem is immense, and this dissertation certainly cannot offer a comprehensive treatment, but only addresses some aspects of the terminological and methodological issues. In the following section we will try to shed some additional light on canopies in the Byzantine tradition by paying particular attention to the archaeological evidence for canopies and how it relates to the textual and visual descriptions of canopies by the Byzantines themselves.
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Chapter 2 But when we saw the orophion (roof denoting canopy, henceforth canopy ‐ J.B.) over the venerable and holy altar inside the gate (of the sanctuary), we were astonished at the delightful (sight). For the carving did not seem to be made of marble nor wrought by (human) hands with (tools of) iron and skill. (It looked), instead, as if (it had been made) out of milk mixed with juice of the fig tree (in order to thicken) and had been cast in the shape of canopy. Made of such stone I saw once (a statue of) Selene (the goddess of moon) driving a chariot drawn by bulls. The (canopy) lay broken in pieces and we ran up to it and stood before it, uttering all manner of curses and revilement at the man who smashed it, for it was surely a treasure and an heirloom and offering worthy of the house of God. Niketas Magister , chronicler of Emperor Leo VI (r. 886‐912)148
Nicetas Magister, Vita S. Theoctistae Lesbiae, chap. 3f, Ass Nov. IV, 226‐227. According to: SD (1972) 104 (=Life of St. Theokiste of Lesbos [henceforth Life St. Theokiste] in Holy Women of Byzantium A.‐M. Talbot ed. (Washington, D.C., 1996) 107.12.
148
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2.1 Canopies in the Byzantine Ecclesiastical Tradition: Evidence The tenth‐century account by Niketas Magister of the altar canopy in the sixth‐ century church of Panagia Ekatontapyliani (literary Our Lady of the Hundred Gates) on the island of Paros graphically express the sensual delight that canopies evoked among the Byzantines. To the Byzantine beholder material splendor of a canopy in its architectural setting in the sanctuary invoked the immaterial glory and heavenly beauty of the sacred. Focusing on its roof and describing it as the house worthy of God, almost surprisingly, Niketas Magister compared the beauty and skillful work of the canopy with those of a statue of Selene, the pagan goddess of the moon. The widely established notion that the Byzantines feared demons inhabiting pagan statues cannot be grasped at all from the account, which rather insists on the canopy’s continuity with classical antiquity.149 As a “house of God,” the impressive canopy was inseparably intertwined with the notion of sacredness, which is also unusual in light of accepted norms of Byzantine piety. Hermit Symeon who narrated to Niketas Magister the episode about the Arabs’ unsuccessful removal of the canopy from the church to their mosque in Chandax on Crete suggested that the canopy was too big to go through the sanctuary doors. According to the narrative an Arab named Nasiris (Nasr) even measured the canopy and the width of the doors and made a plan of how to remove the canopy from the church, but the canopy “grew in size” and the “divine object did not deign to be defiled and become the instrument of foul sacrifices.”150
On the well‐balanced and critical approach to the widely accepted notion that the Byzantines believed that demons inhabited statues, and the other aspects of Byzantine “superstition,” and “credulity” see L. James, “ “Pray Not to Fall into Temptation and Be on Your Guard:” Pagan Statues in Christian Constantinople” Gesta 35/1 (1996) 12‐20, where she successfully analyzes Byzantine attitudes to classical art as seen through their accounts on statues and demonstrates that pagan sculptures had to be distinguished from the holy images. H. Saradi‐Mendelovici also offers a revised overview of the Byzantine attitude to their pagan past in “Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries ” DOP 44 (1990) 47‐61. 150 Life St. Theokiste (1996) 107.12. 149
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The episode from Paros also illustrates the sad destiny that canopies had and the power that contemporaries ascribed to them. Similarly, in the twelfth century Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch (1166‐1199), wrote about the sixth‐ century Sclavene, possibly Slavic, raid into Greece, when numerous canopies were carried off from devastated churches.151 In Corinth, one Sclavene leader even took the big church canopy and used it as his tent‐like dwelling. Already in the 570s, the throne of the Byzantine emperor was often associated with the throne of Christ,152 and the pagan chieftain was possibly impressed by the huge church canopy as a canopy over the imperial throne and by the overarching symbolic significance such an installation carried.153 The sheer beauty of monumental canopies and costly luxurious materials used are perhaps the main reasons why only a tiny percentage of them have survived. As the episode of the canopy from Paros testifies entire canopies or their marble parts were often plundered. Similarly, canopies made of silver and gold were melted down. Some canopies were dismantled and carried off by the Byzantines themselves.
F. Curta “Feasting with “Kings” ” in Ancient ʺDemocracyʺ: Early Medieval Slavic Society of the Early Middle Ages (Sixth to Seventh Century, A.D.) Essays in Medieval Studies, vol. 15 (1998) 19‐ 34; K. M. Setton, “The Emperor Constans II and the Capture of Corinth by the Onogur Bulgars” Speculum 27/3 (1952) 351‐362. 152 Justin IIʹs coins emphasize this quasi‐religious theme of the enthroned emperor, already glorified by Flavius Cresconius Corippus in his poem written on the occasion of the emperorʹs rise to power: “The inner sanctum is ennobled by the imperial seat which is surrounded by four excellent columns, above which a canopy, shining bright with solid gold in imitation of the vault of heaven, overshadows the immortal leader sitting on his throne. [The latter is] ornamented with gems and distinguished with purple and gold. Four arcs (either arches of the canopy – A. Cameron, or arched legs of the throne – Th. Mathews] bend to intersect one another, and above, on the right and left side, matching vicotires alight with wings outspread in the air, carrying a laurel crown in their shining right hands.” A. Cameron, ʺImages of authority: elites and icons in late sixth century Byzantium,ʺ in Byzantium and the Classical Tradition. University of Birmingham Thirteenth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies 1979, eds. M. Mullett and R. Scott (Birmingham, 1981) 205‐34, esp. 221; Th. F. Mathews, The Clash of Gods; A Reinterpretation of Early Christian Art (Princeton, 1993) 105‐106. 153 Curta (1998) 19‐34, with references to: I. Nikolajević, ʺLʹarte bizantina: ricettività e creatività locale,ʺ in Gli Slavi occidentali e meridionali nellʹalto medioevo (Spoleto, 1983) 801‐29, esp. 803. On the symbolism of canopied thrones see also: A. Alföldi, “Zur Geschichte des Throntabernakels” Nouvelle Clio X (1950) 537–66. 151
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In 558‐559, at the time of the Slav and Avar invasion, Emperor Justinian “ordered that those silver ciboria ... that were outside the city be brought in.”154 Silver was melted down in order to ransom prisoners of war.155 Byzantine canopies in situ: Paros and Kalabaka Due to irretrievable losses and alterations of most Byzantine churches, canopies still preserved in situ and consisting mostly of their original parts are limited to only several canopies. Three canopies at two sites in Greece, on the Cycladic island of Paros and in the village of Kalabaka below the rocks of Meteora in Thessaly are extraordinary examples of Byzantine canopies. The church of Panagia Ekatontapyliani on Paros still retains its altar canopy (Cat. no. 53), while the church of the Assumption of the Virgin in Kalabaka has preserved its Middle‐Byzantine altar canopy and the canopy above its Early Christian ambo (Cat. nos. 44, 146).156 The marble canopy from Paros is a relatively big structure – some 2.5 m x 2.5 m in plan, and more than 5 m in height, situated almost in the geometric center of the square‐based sanctuary bay just in front of the semicircular apse of the basilica (Cat. M. Mundell Mango, “The Monetary Value of Silver Revetment and Objects Belonging to Churches, A.D. 300‐700”in EcclSilver (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. ns. 27, 28 with references. 155 M. Mundell Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136. The Byzantine princess Anna Komnene (b. 1083 – d. ca. 1153/4) in her book Alexiad wrote about the “ancient laws and canons of the alienation of sacred objects from churches” for the ransoming of prisoners of war. She quite appropriately compared these laws with the pagan Athens, when Pericles “borrowed” the golden necklace from the Goddess Athena Parhtenos and other valuables from her treasury in times of crisis. (cf. Thucydides ii, 13). Annae Comnenae Alexias [henceforth Alexiad‐a] D. R. Reinsch and A. Kambylis ed. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae vol. 40 (Berlin, 2001) V 2.2; VI 3.3‐VI 4.4; The Alexiad of Anna Comnena [henceforth Alexiad‐b] Transl. E.R.A. Sewter (Baltimore, 1969) 186. 156 The church, dedicated to the Dormition of the Virgin, has been since the 17th century known as Panagia Ekatontapyliani (literary Our Lady of the Hundred Gates) or Katapoliani (literary in the direction of the sea) was built on the remains of two pre‐Christian temples, possibly dedicated to Herakles and the poet Archilochus. According to the legend, the church was initially built by Constantine the Great (d. 337) at the request of his mother, St. Helen, who en route to Jerusalem, was forced by bad weather to stop on Paros. An Early Christian basilica was rebuilt by the mid‐sixth century. A. K. Orlandos, “La forme primitive de la cathédrale paléochrétienne de Paros” in Atti del VI Congresso Internazionale di Archeologia Cristiana Ravenna 23‐30 Sett. 1961 (Vatican, 1965) 159‐168; H. H. Jewell and F. W. Hasluck, The Church of Our Lady of the Hundred Gates (Panagia Hekatontapyliani) in Paros (London, 1920). 154
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nos. 53, 53‐a).157 The canopy in its present state is made of various materials and anachronistic elements. The column bases, arches, and roof plaque on which rests a monolithic pumpkin dome are all made of local Parian marble, while column shafts and Corinthian style capitals are made of grayish Prokonessian marble (Cat. nos. 53‐ b,c).158 The column shafts of Prokonessian marble are most likely sixth‐century elements, while other elements of the canopy made of local material and especially the dome are relatively younger. The fragments of a monolithic canopy dome, similar to the one from the altar canopy, made of local marble are today on display in the narthex of the baptistery built adjacent to the south of the church (Cat. no. 53‐d).159 These fragments along with the seventeenth‐century canopy above the prothesis table at the north‐east corner of the sanctuary, which is in form a smaller replica of the main altar canopy, confirm that local masters occasionally replaced broken canopy fragments with newer ones.160 Closer examination reveals that the altar canopy from Paros had been broken several times in the past, the earliest reference coming from the tenth century when Niketas Magister described the Arabs’ unsuccessful attempt to remove it to Crete.161 The canopies above the ambo and altar table from the Kalabaka church are similarly made from various elements – re‐used Early Christian fragments which were complemented by those from the Middle Byzantine and later periods (Cat. nos. 44, 146).162 The curious canopy above the ambo in Kalabaka is the only such example that has survived, though we have indications that canopies topped ambos in other Jewell and Hasluck (1920); Theologos Chr. Aliprantēs, Hē Hekatontapylianē tēs Parou (Paros, 1996) 51‐53; Orlandos (1965) 159‐168. 158 A. D. Metsanē, “To palaiohristianikó kiborio tes Katapolianes Párou” [Le ciborium paléochrétien de lʹéglise de la Vierge Katapoliane à Paros] ΔΧΑΕ 19 (1996‐97) 319‐334; A. D. Metsanē, “Apo tēn katagraphē palaiohristianikōn glyptōn stēn Katapolianē: to palaiohristianikó kibōrio” in Hē Hekatontapylianē kai he Hristianikē Paros (Paros, 1998) 85‐95. 159 In the narthex of the baptistery there are four fragments that potentially come from the earlier altar canopy. These fragments are rather big – 50 cm x 60 cm, 60 cm x 30 cm, 36 cm x 27 cm, and 34 cm x 36 cm, with the thickness of some 8‐9 cm each. Field notes J. Bogdanović. 160 See also: Metsanē (1998) 85‐95 and Korres (1954) 90. 161 SD (1972) 104 and Life St. Theokiste (1996) 107. 162 Field notes J. Bogdanović. 157
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Byzantine churches (Cat. nos. 43, 44, 148, 176, 177, Figs. 276, 449).163 The ambo is situated along the west‐east axis of the church fully occupying its center and standing in front of the sanctuary. Approximately five meters high, the ambo with a canopy, which can accommodate both a standing and sitting figure, is rather big and almost unrealistically set in the church interior, as if an entire house packed into the church (Cat. nos. 44‐a, 44‐c, Fig. 449). The ambo with its canopy therefore vividly confirms that the absolute size of the church cannot be a leading factor for modern observations that later and relatively smaller Byzantine churches did not have canopies. In Kalabaka the entire structure of the ambo topped by a canopy is made of numerous anachronistic elements, which confirm its re‐building over a prolonged period of time.164 The lower part of the structure is made of various kinds of white, yellowish and green verde antico marble, all of which were available in nearby local quarries active in the Late Antique period (Cat. no. 44‐a).165 Though the footing in the church floor confirms the possibility that an ambo stood in the Early Christian basilica, on the foundations of which the present Byzantine church was built, it is not possible to confirm whether the architectural elements came from the earlier basilica or from somewhere else. The architectural elements are not uniform in design and material, and the southeastern part of the ambo is an obvious alteration. The southeastern trapezoidal segment flanking the steps of the ambo is made of a marble parapet slab that resembles the sanctuary screen typical for Early Christian basilicas
163 Orlandos (1965) 159‐168; G. A. Soteriou, Christianikē kai vyzantinē archaiologia vol. 1 (Athens, 1962) 184‐185, 209‐213, figs. 117‐118; G. A. Soteriou, Hai christianikai Thēvai tēs Thessalias kai hai palaiochristianikai vasilikai tēs Hellados (Athens, 1931) 86‐97, fig. 107; Th. Pazaras, “Protasē anaparastasēs tou ‘Ambōna tes Palaias Metropolēs stē Veroia” in Thymiama (Athens, 1994) 251‐ 254. 164 For example, its six stone columns that support the canopy are not equal in size or sculptural treatment, while some sides of the basket capitals are entirely flat as if originally abutting the wall and not carved in the round to be set in open space. Field notes J. Bogdanović. 165 O. Karagiorgou, Urbanism and Economy in Late Antique Thessaly (3rd – 7th century A.D.). The Archaeological Evidence (Diss., University of Oxford, 2001) 194‐195.
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and Middle Byzantine churches.166 The six‐sided canopy above the ambo is made of local white stone while the pyramidal, wooden roof is decorated with floral motifs and topped by a crest with a golden sphere. In its design the top resembles the sixth‐ century description of the eight‐sided roof of the altar canopy in Hagia Sophia: At the juncture of each to the other stand long backbones which seem to join their course with the triangular faces of the eight‐sided form and rise to a single crest where the artist has placed the form of a cup. The lip of the cup bends over and assumes the shape of leaves, and in the midst of it has been placed a shining silver orb (underlined J.B.). 167 However, the canopy in Kalabaka is presumably the youngest part of the entire installation, its pyramidal roof without any doubt post‐Byzantine. This later imitation of Early Christian canopies can point either to an uninterrupted tradition or to the revival of an earlier tradition, a general trend that has been already observed in Byzantine culture.168 The anachronistic use of spolia in Middle and Late Byzantine periods has been already observed, and though my explanation may sound banal, numerous examples confirm the Byzantines’ insistence on and belief in an uninterrupted tradition, which conforms to the basic theological notion of order within Byzantine oikonomia.169 The anachronistic ambo canopy from Kalabaka made of spolia confirms rather than excludes the possibility that some basic formulaic notions about the canopy’s appearance had been especially promoted. Furthermore, the ambo and its canopy are
For some comparative examples see: C. D. Sheppard, “Byzantine Carved Marble Slabs” ArtB 51/1 (1969) 65‐71, figs. 8‐10; C. Mango, and I. Ševčenko, “Some Churches and Monasteries on the Southern Shore of the Sea of Marmara” DOP 27 (1973) 235‐277, figs. 50, 76, 126‐129, 145, 153, 158. 167 SD (1972) 88. 168 See, for example: Kazhdan and Wharton Epstein (1985) 138‐145. 169 On the use of spolia in Byzantine architecture with references to historicity: R. Ousterhout, Master Builders of Byzantium (Princeton, N.J., c 1999) 140‐145; J.‐P. Sodini, “Marble and Stone Working in Byzantium; Seventh‐Fifteenth Centuries” in The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, A. E. Laiou ed. (Washington, D.C., c2002 ) 129‐ 145; 145f; J. Trkulja, Aesthetics and symbolism of Late Byzantine church façades, 1204‐1453 (Diss., Princeton University, 2004) 109‐116. 166
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covered in post‐Byzantine painting, which once again certainly does not exclude a possibility that similar representations existed earlier, though we cannot prove that.170 Similarly, it has been shown recently that the altar canopy in Kalabaka church was installed not in the Early Christian period, as thought previously, but sometime during the tenth and eleventh centuries, and that it remains in its more‐or‐less original setting up to the present.171 This canopy, some 3.5 to 4 m high, is set on four marble columns upon which rise four marble arches, approximately 10 cm thick, decorated with painted crosses in roundels and topped by a rather more recent eight‐sided pyramidal roof made of wooden planks.172 The interior of the canopy might have been painted originally, judging from hardly visible traces of paint (Cat. no. 146).173 The altar canopy, though smaller in size and different in material and artistic quality in its general form and setting, resembles the altar canopy from Paros: four columns support four arches topped by a flat roof plaque which receives the dome as a lid; the entire structure shelters the altar table and is placed more or less in the geometric center of the sanctuary. Other canopies above altar tables, baptismal and holy water fonts, and ambos Though heavily restored, all three canopies from Paros and Kalabaka have been preserved exactly because they have been located at some distance from the The triangular segment above the rectangular slab of the southeastern section of the ambo is painted with the representation of the Angel on the Tomb while the arches of the canopy are painted with narrative Christological scenes both in the interior and exterior. Field notes J. Bogdanović. 171 Most recently on the altar canopy from Kalabaka showing that it is essentially a Middle‐ Byzantine structure: C. Vanderheyde, “Le ciborium de l’Église de la Dormition de la Vierge à Kalambaka (Thessalie)” TM 15 (2005) 427‐442. 172 Filed notes J. Bogdanović. 173 According to medieval Russian chronicles, interior of altar canopies in the churches of Sts. Boris and Gleb (1115) and of St. John at Holm (11th c) was not only painted but also gilded in bronze and gold, like a starry sky and heavenly firmament: Voronin (1961) 256. The interior of Coptic post‐Byzantine canopies is painted with figurative Christian images: A. Jeudy, “Icônes et ciboria: relation entre les ateliers coptes de peinture d’icônes et l’iconographie du mobilier liturgique en bois” Eastern Christian Art in Its Late Antique and Islamic Contexts 1 (2004) 67‐88, figs. 17‐20. 170
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main urban centers all throughout their history, even to this day.174 The question as to how many other canopies were in Byzantine churches remains open and potentially unanswerable. However, I would suggest that there were many more canopies in the Byzantine tradition than we previously thought. To support this claim we will examine surviving evidence for canopies in Byzantine church from the Early Christian period until ca. 1500. Textual evidence confirms continuous though not indispensable use of canopies in the Byzantine tradition (Tables 1, 3). A couple of contemporary statements are especially revealing. Already in 582, John, bishop of Ephesus with a permanent residence in Constantinople, remarked that a large altar canopy was “customary in all the churches of the capital.”175 None has been preserved in Constantinople in situ. At the threshold of the eleventh and twelfth centuries Byzantine Bishop Theodore of Andida informs us that not all churches have canopies, but that hemispherical form of the bema may have assumed the role of the canopy.176 Theodore’s statement not only opens the question on the meaning and role of canopies as indispensably three‐dimensional objects, which are simultaneously sculpture and architecture literary and metaphorically, but also implies that the Byzantines did not abandon the idea of canopies as important parts of their churches. Canopies presumably had remained in use in churches until the fall of the Byzantine Empire, though not as indispensable furniture. A drawing by the Russian Grigorovich‐Barskii from 1744 is especially informative for our understanding of the prolonged use of canopies in Byzantine churches, because it clearly depicts a liturgical service in progress in the Lavra monastery on Mount Athos with the altar canopy prominent among the furnishings For example, the island of Paros in the Aegean is known to have been deserted for prolonged periods of time during the Byzantine period, occasionally sacked by pirates, or inhabited by hermits. Life of St. Theokiste (1996) 97, 105. On the restoration of the altar canopy from Paros see: Korres (1954) 90; A. Orlandos, Hē xylostegos palaiochristianikē vasilikē tēs Mesogeiakēs lekanēs (Athens, 1952‐1957) 471‐480; Metsane (1996‐1997) 319‐334. 175 Mundell‐Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. ns. 27, 28, with reference to the primary sources. 176 PG 140, 417 col. 443. 174
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(Fig. 532).177 Because the Ottomans imposed in 1423 a strict building regulation that forbade the construction of new ecclesiastical buildings, the depicted altar canopy implies a high possibility that some canopies on Mt. Athos may have been refurbished.178 Most post‐Byzantine canopies above altar tables, holy water fonts and icons that have been preserved on Mt. Athos may have simply replaced older Byzantine structures, the religious meaning of which was rooted in earlier traditions (Figs. 526‐531). While the general fragility of canopies accounts in part for the limited evidence, two additional concerns seem to be crucial for understanding the scope of evidence that has been preserved up to present. First, canopies could have been portable objects or they could have been placed on the top of the altar table, raised above the floor level and cantilevered like proskynetaria, in each case leaving us with no or very scarce material evidence of their existence. Second, the material used for canopies is absolutely important, since canopies made of silver, gold and semi‐ precious materials and those made of wood or potentially of cloth have not survived up to present, although my research shows that the Byzantines knew about these kinds of canopies as well. Therefore, in order to reveal the spread of various canopies in the Byzantine tradition we will focus our attention not only on surviving archaeological evidence for canopies but also on the scarce, indirect, but still discernable material evidence of canopies that have not survived. θάυματα Μοναστήρια του Άγιου Όρους Άθω, έτσι όπως τα είδε και τα σχεδίασε με ξήλο και πολλή επιμέλεια, ο ευλαβής οδοιπόρος μοναχός Βασιλειός Γρηγόροβιτς Μπάρσκυ όταν περιηγήθηκε την ιερή πολιτεία του Άθω το έτος 1744. (Θεσσαλονίκη, 1998) Fig. on p. 60. 178 About Athonite acknowledgement of Sultan Murad II in 1423: A. Fotić, Sveta Gora i Hilandar u Osmanskom carstvu: XV‐XVII vek (Beograd, 2000) 108‐133 and A. Fotić, “Prilagodjavanje i opstanak: Hilandar u Osmanskom carstvu (XV‐XVII vek)” in Hilandar ed. G. Subotić (Beograd, 1998) 91‐102, with references to primary sources. Numerous Athonite churches also have canopies, the oldest dated is the canopy over the phiale in Great Lavra monastery from the seventeenth century, while majority of katholika have eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century altar canopies, like in the Stavroniketa, Dohiarou, and Great Lavra monasteries. L. Boura, “Some Observations on the Grand Lavra Phiale at Mount Athos and Its Bronze Strobilion” ΔΧΑΕ 7 (1975‐76) 85‐96; G. Millet, “Recherches au Mont‐Athos (1) Phiale et simandre à Lavra” BCH (1905) 104‐141. The katholikon at the Hilandar monastery on Mt. Athos, for example, also has an altar canopy, though no work has been done on it, to the best of my knowledge. 177
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Archaeological evidence for canopies is most often restricted to remnants of stone and marble columns, occasionally to stone and marble footings, sockets, and other fittings which can be recognized in church floors.179 Numerous architectural fragments from various archeological sites, museums, and private collections, though dispersed and often without full records of provenance, may point to surviving fragments of now lost canopies.180 These are usually segments of relatively small‐span arches (approximately 1‐2 m in span), relatively thin and short columns (approximately 15 to 20 cm in diameter and up to 2 m in height), or basket capitals with smaller bases, which are occasionally carved on three or all four sides (Figs. 486‐ 511). Smaller and slenderer than those usually employed for church buildings, canopy columns are sometimes distinguished by high‐quality material, usually marble. Some have traces of incrustation with semi‐precious stones and glass paste like examples from Hagia Euphemia and Hagios Polyeuktos (524‐527) in Constantinople (Cat. nos. 68, 85, cf. Figs. 507‐508).181 Traces of color and gold can be seen on the architectural members of the still extant canopy‐shrine of Hosios Loukas The floor is unfortunately one of the first elements of a church building to be altered. It was not uncommon for the floor to be robbed to its foundations, thus removing any trace of the church furnishings, which were only rarely recorded previously. See for example, the case of the Episcopal basilica in Kourion, Cyprus: Megaw (1976) 345‐371. 180 Remains of canopy fragments without provenance can be occasionally noted in private houses. Illustrative examples are the Middle‐Byzantine canopy spandrel fragment in white marble, which was donated by a certain Recep Dinser, who stated that he found it in the ruins of an old house in Emirdag (now catalogued T952 in the Archaeological Museum), and the ninth‐century canopy fragment with the inscription from an unidentified location, possibly the church of St. Tryphon in Kotor, Montenegro, which was donated to the local museum by a certain Ljuba Ivanišević. On the canopy fragment from Turkey: C. S. Lightfoot; E. A. Ivison “The Amorium Project: The 1995 Excavation Season” DOP 51 (1997) 291‐300; C. S. Lightfoot et al. “The Amorium Project: The 1996 Excavation Season” DOP 52 (1998) 323‐336. On the canopy fragment from Montenegro: P. Vežić, “Ciboriji ranoga srednjeg vijeka u Kotoru” [Ciboria of the early Middle Ages in Kotor] PPD 39 (2001‐02) 91‐122. I am thankful to Č. Marinković and D. Preradović‐Petrović for drawing my attention to the article by P. Vežić. 181 Columns of the canopy from Hagios Polyeuktos were inlaid with squares of amethyst framed by triangles and trapezoids of opaque green glass to form hexagons, and diagonal runnels with strips of gold glass. M. Harrison, A Temple for Byzantium. The Discovery and Excavation of Anicia Juliana’s Palace‐Church in Istanbul (Austin, 1989) 78. 179
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(Cat. no. 142‐c). Canopies are often distinguished by special carving of their elements, like spirally fluted or double‐knotted columns, usually attributed to altar and proskynetaria canopies (Cat. nos. 144, 169, 181).182 However, the same elements we recognize today as parts of now lost canopies might have been used for other church elements such as architectural supports or arches above the sanctuary screens, arcosolia, or door and window frames.183 It is extremely difficult to establish the acceptable size range for various structural elements of a canopy, most notably its columns and capitals, since some of the canopies were truly architectural structures in their own right, as surviving examples from Paros and Kalabaka testify. Indeed, those column shafts of approximately 15‐20 cm in diameter may have been used for canopies, but we also know of columns from
For example, J. L. Benson analyzed a number of spirally fluted columns from various archeological sites and museums in Athens, Crete, Chios, Corinth, Delos, Delphi, Eleusis, Epidauros, Kos, Naxos, Lindos, Nikopolis, Patmos, Patras, Rhodes, and Samos. All of them came from Christian sites and were datable mostly to the fifth and sixth centuries, while some could have been younger and potentially were eight‐century elements. While most of these columns are of unknown provenance, some only 15 to 20 cm in diameter, like the ones found at the Athens Agora, Delphi, Epidauros, Kos, or fragments of a column in Naxos museum originally from the local church, may have been parts of canopies. Numerous slim columns, with spiral fluting from the churches in North Syria were also probably made for canopies. J. L. Benson “Spirally fluted columns in Greece” AJA 60/4 (1956) 385‐387 and J. L. Benson “Spirally fluted columns in Greece” Hesperia 28/4 (1959) 253‐272; M.T. Smith (1968) 309. The altar canopy from Old St. Peter’s also had spirally fluted columns, brought from Greece. J. B. Ward Perkins, “The Shrine of St. Peter and Its Twelve Spiral Columns” JRS 42/1‐2 (1952) 21‐33. By the fifteenth century the spirally‐flutted columns in St. Peter were venerated themselves because it was believed that Christ leaned against them as he preached and disputed in Solomon’s Temple, and drove demons from the possessed during His ministry. This notion was highly popularized in seventeenth‐century guide books. W. Chandler Kirwin, Powers matchless: the Pontificate of Urban VIII, the Baldachin, and Gian Lorenzo Bernini (New York, c1997) 80, with further references. For the surviving example of the double‐knotted columns for canopy see minbar from the Zeyrek cammi in Istanbul. Hjort (1979) 199‐289, fig 116. For double‐knotted columns on proskynetaria see most recently: S. Kalopissi‐Verti, “The Proskynetaria of the Templon and Narthex: Form, Imagery, Spatial Connections, and Reception” in Thresholds of the Sacred, ed. Sh. E. J. Gerstel (Washington, D.C., 2006) 107‐134. 183 See, for example reference to three small capitals (c. 1300) decorated with the busts of three aspostles carved in relief, all turning to the right suggesting that initially belonged to a canopy‐ like structure, but attributed to the iconstasis or arcosolium tomb: C. Mango and J. W. Hawkins, “Report on Field Work in Istanbul and Cyprus, 1962‐63” DOP 18 (1964) 319‐340. 182
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altar canopies found in sanctuary areas which have been almost 40 cm in diameter, as was the case with canopy columns from Hagios Polyeuktos in Constantinople, now in the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul (Cat. no. 68).184 Furthermore, even if some of innumerable architectural and sculptural fragments from the sites and museums initially belonged to canopies, now removed from their context, the reconstruction of their original setting is often impossible. Full reconsideration of material evidence from the Latin West, like restored ninth‐ and eleventh‐century canopies in the so‐ called Sala bizantina, Vatican, and canopies made in Early Christian Rome like those in the churches of St. Andrew and St. Alexander, is also wanting.185 However, due to the scope of this dissertation we will try to illuminate the verifiable evidence for canopies which were made and have remained in the territories that were once part of the Byzantine Empire. * It is amazing that various Christian sites throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and especially those dated to the first centuries of Christianity offer no archeological proof for the existence of an altar table, presumably indispensable furniture for the liturgical function of a church.186 Furthermore, in contrast to masonry churches, rock‐cut churches often preserve their liturgical furnishing, including synthrona and ambos, even while altars are conspicuously absent.187 Moreover, rock‐ cut churches in Cappadocia, variously dated from the ninth to the fourteenth centuries, show structural and architectural elements, such as columns, vaults and
Field notes J. Bogdanović. Corpus della scultura altomedievale (Spoleto, 1974) 7 La diocesi di Roma 64‐68, s.v. figs. 10‐11; M.T Smith (1974) 379‐414. 186 On the Christian liturgical requirements of the church since the earliest times see, for example: P. F. Bradshaw, The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship (New York, 22002). 187 For example, the rock‐cut church of St. John, Çavuşin has in its sanctuary preserved one‐ stepped synthronon, throne, and even a small cruciform crypt, but there is no archaeological evidence for the altar. Therefore, its altar, indispensable and presumably among the most precious church objects because of its economic and sacred value must have been portable. N. Teteriatnikov, The Liturgical Planning of Byzantine Churches in Cappadocia OCA 252 (Rome, 1996). 184 185
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domes, known from masonry churches.188 All these elements are also found in canopy structures. Therefore, lack of evidence for altars and other church objects like canopies, which may not even have been obligatory, does not necessarily imply that they did not exist. One valid explanation for the absence of altar tables and eventually their canopies in some churches could be that they were not made of stone but of other less durable materials such as wood and metals. Another reason may well have been that altars and their canopies were sometimes portable. Indeed, the earliest altar in Old St. Peter’s in Rome from before the fifth century was very probably portable, separated from the shrine of St. Peter and positioned somewhere in front of the shrine or near it.189 Though we do not have evidence for the use of portable altars in the East, it is interesting to remark that in the sixth century Emperor Maurice (r. 582‐602) sent an entire altar canopy in pieces from Constantinople to the now lost church of his native town, Arabissos in Cappadocia.190 The episode demonstrates not only that some church canopies might have been portable but also that some might have been assembled on site from pre‐made pieces. Moreover, we should consider a variety of two‐columned and four‐columned canopies. The arcosolium‐like niche with two frontal columns in the Christian building at Dura Europos, Syria (now in Yale University Museum) dated ca. 254 and which served as a baptistery remains the earliest dated canopy‐like installation that served Christian purposes (Cat. no. 1).191 Such half‐canopies formed by two columns instead
188 See for example: Teteriatnikov (1996) and S. Kostof, Caves of God (Oxford, 21989), with further references. 189 More in: J.B. Ward‐Perkins (1994) 469‐489. Actually, a wooden, portable canopy had been in use in the Vatican for centuries for various purposes: to display relics periodically, to cover the Pope during his public appearances, to shelter his bier, to enshrine the Holy Sacrament when it was moved within church. Kirwin (c1997) 85, with references. 190 V. Ruggieri, S.J. Byzantine Religious Architecture (582‐867): Its History and Structural Elements, OCA 237 (1991) 166, with further references. 191 On the archaeological references to the baptistery from Dura, recently: M.‐H. Gates, “Dura‐ Europos: A Fortress of Syro‐Mesopotamian Art” BA 47/3 (1984) 166‐181, esp. 178, with further references.
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of four are generally understudied but must have been more common than we assume today and especially in spatially confined spaces. Half‐canopies in the Medieval West, exemplified by the now lost canopy in the lower church of St. Clemente in Rome (9th c.), have been already studied.192 Canopies formed of two columns placed closely to the back wall are also apparent in the Byzantine tradition although the best known examples are dated to later periods, such as the thirteenth‐century canopy tomb of archbishop Sava II in the church of Holy Apostles in Peć, Kosovo, Serbia or the fourteenth‐century canopy tombs in the Chora monastery in Constantinople (Cat. no. 165, Figs. 510‐511).193 Indeed, the majority of examples we know of today are fully formed, four‐ columned altar canopies coming from churches throughout the wider Mediterranean basin and dated to the fifth and sixth centuries (Table 7.2‐87, Map 2). In fact, extant stone canopies were generally given a date within this time range, and it is only recently that some of them have been reassigned a date as late as the ninth century.194 Most of these early canopies covered altar tables, while a smaller, but still significant number of them were used for baptisteries and tombs (Table 7.1, 4, 9, 23, 26, 28‐29, 32‐ 33, 36‐37, 45‐46, 55, 58‐59, 66, 72). However, according to the evidence I have collected, canopies existed in Middle and Late Byzantine churches as well, and we will especially pay attention to these generally unknown examples (Table 7.88‐184). It is extremely difficult to establish whether older canopies were simply reused or were built anew during the Byzantine period. The three Byzantine examples that survive in situ suggest both possibilities, as we have seen. We do know that older W. Tronzo, “Setting and Structure in Two Roman Wall Decorations of the Early Middle Ages” DOP 41 (1987) 477‐492, figs. 4‐5. 193 Field notes J. Bogdanović. See also: B. Cvetković, “Freske u zapadnom traveju crkve Sv. Dimitrija Pećkoj patrijaršiji i kult kralja Milutina” PrIz 33 [i.e.34] (2000) 3‐9; Hjort (1979) 199‐ 289. 194 M. Piccirillo, “The Architecture and Liturgy of the Early Church” in Cradle of Christianity (Jerusalem, 22006) 51‐113, esp. 55; Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era (c. 680‐850) J. Haldon and L. Brubaker eds. (Aldershot, England and Burlington, VT, 2001) chp. 1; N. Jakšić, “Predromanički reljefi 9. stoljeća iz Kotora” PPD 38 (1999‐2000) 129‐150; D. Preradović‐Petrović, “Ulcinjski ciborijum; natpis i reljefne predstave” GPMK 50 (2002) 247‐264. 192
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canopies were at times re‐used or re‐installed in churches and were used for such a prolonged period of time as the altar canopy in Paros and the ambo canopy in Kalabaka. Moreover, in some churches canopies might have been installed at a later point and not simultaneously with the construction of the church or the installation of its altar table. These trends can be followed from the Early Christian period. For example, in some Early Christian churches, a long, wide slab with sockets for the colonnettes that would have been served as a base for the permanent altar and canopy was employed in order to avoid damaging the floor mosaics of an older building.195 In the fifth and sixth centuries, the design of the floor mosaics in some basilicas would have accommodated bases for stone altar canopies. This can be exemplified by an altar canopy in the fifth‐century Christian basilicas of Sabratha, North Africa and of the village of Mastichari, on the Aegean island Kos, by an altar canopy in the basilica at Kourion, Cyprus (after 365 and before 7th c), or by the church of St. George on Mt. Nebo (586) and the church of St. Stephen at Umm al‐Rasas (ca. 756) in the Syro‐Palestine region (Cat. nos. 7, 16, 42, 59, 84).196 Sometimes the installation of the permanent altar table seems to be an afterthought, as it does in the Chapel of the Mother of God of the church at Mt. Nebo
The building may or may have not served as a church previously. According to the law issued by Emperors Theodosios II and Valentian III, dated November 14th, 435, all pagan shrines and temples along the Mediterranean were ordered closed although they might be consecrated as Christian churches. Codex Theodosianus, XVI, 10, 25 (Mommsen, I, 905). However, the implementation of the law was certainly not immediate and simultaneous everywhere, which can be exemplified by the Parthenon and Erechtheum which were possibly consecrated as churches just before Justinian’s time. J. Strzygowski. “Die Akropolis in alt‐ byzantinischer Zeit,” Mittheilungen der k. d. archaeol. Instit., Athen. Abt., XIV (1889) 272‐273. Numerous sites in the Western Balkans, exemplified by the Heraklea Lyncestis, F.Y.R. of Macedonia, preserved pagan shrines side by side with the Christian sites up to the sixth century. For other examples see J.‐M. Spieser, “La christianisation des sanctuaries païens en Grèce” Neue Forschungen in griechisen Heiligtümern U. Jantzen ed. (Tübingen, 1976) 309‐320. 196 Piccirillo (2006) 51‐113, esp.54‐58; N. Duval, “Architecture et liturgie dans la Jordanie Byzantine” in Les Eglises de Jordanie et Leurs Mosaiques (Beyrouth, 2003) 35‐114; A. Michel, Les églises d’époque byzantine et umayyade de Jordanie (Turnhout, 2001) 61; Parrish (2001) 331‐49. R. Loverance, “Early Byzantine marble church furnishings: some examples from the episcopal basilica of Kourion in Cyprus” in Church and People in Byzantium, R. Morris ed. (Manchester, 1986) 225‐243; Megaw (1976) 345‐371. 195
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(beginning of 7th c.) where altar columns were placed over frescoes, which were consequently damaged (Cat. no. 84). There is not enough evidence to conclude whether such an inserted permanent altar canopy would have replaced a portable one, or whether it was the initial furnishing which the community installed after the consecration of the church. After the Council of Elvira (427) the figurative Christian images in the floor decoration were prohibited and motifs sacred to Christians, images of crosses, Biblical scenes or saints, were placed on the walls instead of the floor as a gesture of respect.197 With the implementation of this prohibition, our indirect evidence for existence of canopies and their relative chronology of their installation in churches which is based upon the evidence of the floor decoration become even more obscure. However, we do know that canopies might have been rebuilt, often incorporating earlier architectural elements, and that such a practice was seemingly wide‐spread throughout Byzantine world. Examples are numerous, including but not limited to the canopies in the churches at Paros and Kalabaka, with which we opened our investigation of Byzantine canopies. Thus, the rebuilding may have been not only due to the “wear‐and‐tear” of furniture over time but also due to discontinuities of church practices. The latter can be exemplified by the church of St. Stephen at Umm al‐Rasas, when after the Muslim conquest in the eight century, new bases for the altar canopy incorporated sixth‐century colonnettes (Cat. no. 63).198 Some canopies could have been brought from earlier churches and re‐installed in later built churches by the Byzantines themselves, as in the Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople, where the canopy which currently serves as the minbar of the Zeyrek camii could have been brought from the older church, possibly from Hagios Polyeuktos, which was abandoned after the eleventh century (Cat. no. 144).199 These
F. Vitto, “The Interior Decoration of Palestinian Churches and Synagogues,” in Bosphorus S. Efthymiadis et al. eds. (1995) 281‐300, with further references. 198 Piccirillo (22006) 51‐113, esp.55. 199 The possibility that the architectural sculpture from the Hagios Polyeuktos was used in Pantokrator canopy is based on stylistic grounds and can be reinforced by the fact that we have some other spolia from the church of Hagios Polyeuktos inbuilt in church walls of the 197
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trends can be observed in smaller‐scale churches outside major centers. We learned, for example, that the altar canopy in the church of the Assumption of the Virgin in Kalabaka is essentially a Middle Byzantine object, made of spolia and local material. Then again, for some churches, new canopies were made, as in the case of the altar canopy in the eleventh‐century Hosios Loukas in Boeotia, Greece (Cat. no. 141).200 Architectural fragments of a canopy, made of local stone, are currently on display in the museum, former refectory, of Hosios Loukas (cat. no. 141‐a).201 Though we do not know exactly where these fragments came from, the footing in the altar space of the katholikon confirms that the altar canopy was planned as indispensable furniture from the outset.202 Furthermore, surviving fragments of architectural sculpture that belonged to a canopy from Hosios Loukas is Middle Byzantine and confirms the use of sculpted canopies after the ninth century.203 Remnants of architectural sculpture, which may have once belonged to canopies from Constantinopolitan churches, such as arches and capitals carved on three or four sides, but are today dispersed throughout the world’s museums, suggest that canopies were made anew in the Middle and Late Byzantine periods in Constantinople (Figs. 486‐509). It has already been pointed out that numerous fragments of architectural sculpture used in the interior of Constantinopolitan
Pantokrator. R. Ousterhout, “Architecture, Art and Komennian Ideology at the Pantokrator Monastery” in Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life, N. Necipoğlu, ed. (2001) 133‐150; Harrison (1989) 106‐107; and A.H. S. Megaw, “Notes on Recent Work of the Byzantine Institute in Istanbul” DOP 17 (1963) 333‐364. By pointing to its double‐ knotted columns, known from Middle and Late Byzantine architectural sculpture, J.‐P. Sodini suggests that Pantokrator canopy is a middle‐Byzantine installation in his “La sculpture médio‐byzantine: le marbre en ersatz et tel qu’en lui‐même” in Constantinople and Its Hinterland, eds. C. Mango and G. Dagron (Aldershot, 1995): 289‐311, esp. 291‐92. I was not able to examine the canopy myself and for the time being we can only ascertain that the canopy was installed in the church of Pantokrator in the Middle Byzantine period. 200 R. W. Schultz and S. H. Barnsley, The monastery of Saint Luke (London, 1901) 29. 201 Filed notes J. Bogdanović. 202 Schultz and Barnsley (1901) plate with the ground plan of the monastery. 203 L. Boura, Ho glyptos diakosmos tou naou tēs Panagias sto monasatēri tou Hosiou Louka (Athens, 1980); L. Boura, “Architectural Sculptures of the Twelfth and the Early Thirteenth Centuries in Greece” ΔΧΑΕ 9 (1977‐79) 63‐72.
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churches are not spolia or re‐carved old sculpture, but were made within several decades around 1300 when stone carving was renewed in the capital following Antique models.204 Canopies above church furnishings, relics, and icons In addition to canopies above altar tables, baptismal and holy water fonts, and ambos, material evidence especially from the later periods has revealed a number of other canopy types. We note in particular the canopy at Galati which covers the bishop’s throne and the canopies over bell tower in the church of the Holy Cross in Aght’amar, Armenia now Turkey (10th c) and in the church of the Virgin Parigoritissa at Arta (late 13th c) (Cat. nos. 126, 163). An entire fifteenth‐century canopy richly painted in New Testament narrative scenes, which symbolizes the Tomb of Christ, was built in the eleventh‐century cathedral Sveti Choveli in Mcheta, Georgia (Cat. no. 182). The stone canopy shelters the place, where according to chroniclers the tunic (chiton) of Christ was buried in the fourth‐century wooden church.205 Despite being relatively well‐preserved, these canopies remain essentially overlooked in general overviews of canopies. Because more instructive Byzantine examples have not survived and because these canopies cannot easily fit in general outlines of Byzantine architecture, the above mentioned canopies are examined as exceptions rather than belonging to wider phenomena of Byzantine canopies.206
H. Belting, “Zur Skulptur aus der Zeit um 1300 Konstantinopel,” MünchJb 3/23 (1972) 63‐93; Hjort (1979) 199‐289; Ousterhout (1987) 137‐141; Th. Macridy, “The Monastery of Lips and the Burials of the Palaeologi.” DOP 18 (1964): 253‐277; Boura (1977‐79) 63‐72; A. Liveri, Die byzantinischen Steinreliefs des 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts im griechischen Raum (Athens, 1996) 27, 36, 178‐180; figs. 70, 72‐73. 205 Plan and remains of this fourth‐century church have been recovered in the 1970s during archaeological works on the south end of the church, at the place of the fifteenth‐century canopy. R. Mepisashvili and V. Tsintsadze, The Arts of Ancient Georgia (London, 1977) 67‐68, 115‐116, 150‐157. 206 It is interesting to note that nineteenth‐century churches from Metsovo, that of St. Charalambos, Holy Trinity, St. George, and St. Pantheleiomon, today exibit canopies above bell‐fries. Field notes J. Bogdanović. 204
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Our investigation of the evidence for canopies is also not exhausted by the evidence provided by extant arches, columns and column footings of monumental canopies. Some churches, particularly smaller ones, may have had canopies placed on other church furnishings or raised on walls by cantilevered brackets. These circumstances make it extremely difficult to posit canopies in small‐scale Middle and Late Byzantine churches. An altar canopy could be placed directly on the altar table itself, as shown by now lost canopies from churches in Dylon and in Egypt, where smaller altar tables have footings for a canopy at the four corners of the table top (Cat. no. 191).207 A canopy whose poles rested on the altar table at the fifth‐ or sixth‐century church of St. Bacchos, Horvat Tinshemet, in Palestine, is especially interesting because its primary function was not to shelter the altar table itself.208 This marble altar table (0.60 m x 0.64 m) is located in front of the apse and has in the middle a round depression with a small hole in its center. In the four corners of the depression are iron nails that were probably meant to support a small canopy. A fragment of the marble reliquary lid was also discovered, thus confirming the existence of a reliquary. Thus, a small canopy fixed on the altar table would have primarily sheltered not the altar table, but by extension the holy relics. It thus becomes a symbol for the place of relics.209 Though we may never be certain how wide spread such a practice was during the Byzantine era, the above mentioned examples indicate that both the variety and the spread of canopies were greater than we can even suspect. At the same time, it stands to reason that, if canopies could have been attached on top of an altar table, W. Déonna, “Mobilier delien: tables antiques d’offrandes avec ecuelles et table d’autel Chrétien” BCH 58 (1934) 1‐90; E. Drioton, “Art syrien et art copte” BSAC 3 (1937) 29‐40, esp. 33, fig. 11. 208 This fifth or sixth century church dedicated to Saint Bacchus and located c. 300 m southwest of Horvat Tinshemet (Sheikh ‘Ali Malikina; Khirbet esh‐Shamiya) was discovered in 1986. U. Dahari, “Hurbat Tinshemet, Church of St. Bacchus” Excavations and Surveys in Israel 18 (1996) 67‐68, 102‐104; M. V. Guérin, Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine vol. 2 (Paris, 1875) 76. 209 In St. Gabriel’s church in Nazareth, such small, modern canopy with its columns resting on the edges of the altar table is still in use (Fig. 589). 207
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more churches could have had such canopies. This must have been especially true of smaller churches with confined sanctuaries, where monumental canopies, comparable to those from Paros and Kalabaka, could not have been accommodated. The canopy from Horvat Tinshemet illustrates how small scale canopies could have served to shelter relics or to signify the location of relics. However, not all the canopies that enshrined relics were necessarily related to altar tables. Canopies above venerated saintly tombs and especially venerated icons, the so‐called proskynetaria, usually consisting of an architectural frame formed of a pair of columns supporting an arch, are generally overlooked in the discussions of Byzantine canopies, despite their significant number in churches (Cat. nos. 135, 145, 154, 160‐162, 173, 180‐181).210 The representation of the icon of the Virgin and Christ Child below a four‐ columned canopy as depicted in the well‐known sixth‐century Syrian Rabbula Gospels (fol. 1b) indicates the three‐dimensionality of the canopy and the limited information about its actual appearance, but not its actual place within the space of a church (Fig. 227).211 This early image of the Mother of God with Christ Child set within an elaborate canopy frame resembles numerous proskynetaria throughout the Byzantine world. Later churches that preserve comparable proskynetaria include the monastic church of Zoodochos Pege in Samari, Messenia (late 12th century), Porta Panaghia in Pylai, Thessaly (1283), and southeast proskynetarion in the Chora katholikon (1316‐21), to name but a few (Cat. nos. 160, 169, 180).212 The Mother of God, Christ and the patron saints of a church are most common subjects of proskynetaria icons.213 Framed within elaborate settings proskynetaria were often physically connected to the sanctuary barriers from the tenth century until the Ćurčić (2000) 134‐160. C. Cecchelli et al eds., The Rabbula Gospels. Facsimile Edition of the Miniatures of the Syriac Manuscript Plut. I, 56 in the Medicaean‐Laurentian Library (Olten and Lausanne, 1959). 212 Hjort (1979) 199‐289; Boura (1977‐79) 63‐72; Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134. 213 Cecchelli (1959). On the proskynetaria icons: Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134; G. Babić, “O živopisanom ukrasu oltarskih pregrada” ZLU 11 (1975) 3‐49. On the patron saint icon within the trilobed marble frame of the twelfth‐century proskynetarion of St. Panteleimon, at Nerezi, F.Y.R. of Macedonia see: Ćurčić (2000) 134‐160; I. Sinkević, The Church of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi: Architecture, Programme, Patronage (Wiesbaden, 2000) 87. 210 211
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end of the Byzantine Empire (Cat. nos. 135, 154, 160‐162, 169, 180).214 Frequently framed by double‐knotted colonnettes and relief arches decorated with geometric, vegetal and zoomorphic motifs, which repeat the patterns from the templon screen, proskynetaria can be carved in marble or other high‐quality stone, made of stucco, or even painted, and are usually placed on the east piers or pilasters of a church, flanking the sanctuary barrier. In single‐aisled small churches, proskynetaria may be placed at the east ends of the south and north walls next to the sanctuary screen.215 However, more detailed analysis of archaeological evidence has shown that, in addition to flanking the sanctuary screen, proskynetaria could have been situated at other places in the church. For example, St. Sophia in Monemvasia (built ca. 1150) once had at least eight frames placed on each of the eight piers that supported the dome of this octagonal church, judging from the colonnette capitals used as corbels and preserved in situ and from fragments of arches now in the Museum of Monemvasia (Cat. nos. 161, 161‐a).216 There is evidence that proskynetaria might have been placed also in the narthex, flanking the doors into the nave and essentially repeating the iconography of the sanctuary screen. Thus, an arched stone frame from the narthex of the church of St. John Eleemon in Ligourio, Argolis (after 12th century) is set next to the entrance doors to the nave and once presumably framed an icon.217 Images of the Virgin and St. John the Baptist are framed individually under marble canopies in the narthex of the Chora katholikon.218 Numerous similar painted representations in coeval churches in Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria suggest that such
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134. Proskynetaria frames from Kalenderhane are especially instructing because in the 13th c. they were made of marble with horizontal entablatures not with arches and then replaced by frames in stucco in the 14th c. Ćurčić (2001) 1106‐1109, with references. On the reconstruction of the proskynetaria canopy, which most likely exposed the relics of the True Cross in Žiča: M. Čanak‐Medić, “Žička Spasova crkva – zamisao svetog Save” [“The Church of the Holy Saviour in Žiča – The Conception of St. Sava”] in Sveti Sava u srpskoj istoriji i tradiciji. S. Ćirković, ed. (Beograd, 1998) 173‐187, Fig. 5. 215 Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, esp. 132. 216 Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, esp 114, figs. 10‐11. 217 Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, esp. 123‐131, with references to Mamoloukos’ work. 218 Hjort (1979) 199‐289. 214
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canopies were often painted instead of sculpted, presumably emulating three‐ dimensional canopies by means of less expensive and more easily acquired artistic technique (Figs. 534‐535).219 Silver, wooden, and textile canopies The material for canopies is a decisive factor for our full understanding of canopies in the Byzantine tradition. In addition to surviving archaeological evidence for stone canopies, written evidence shows that numerous canopies were made of precious metals, usually silver, some of them were made of wood, while a number of them apparently were made of textile. Not a single silver canopy from Byzantine times has been preserved, though textual evidence provides abundant references about their use.220 The fourth‐century martyrium of St. Thecla in present‐day Meryemlik, Turkey had at least in 460 a centrally planned silver canopy above the altar.221 The cathedral of Edessa, rebuilt after the flood of 525 had silver furnishings
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, esp. 123‐131, figs. 21‐26, 28‐30, with references to examples from churches of St. George, Kurbinovo; Hagia Sphia, Trebizond; Panagia Phorbiotissa, Assinou, Cyprus; Panagia Moutoullas, Cyprus; Kakopetria, Cyprus, and others. In the fourteenth‐century church of H. Anargyroi, Kastoria, icons were painted even in the niches on the church exterior and on in paineted frames flanking the entrance doors. Field notes J. Bogdanović. It remains to be examined further whether icons of the patron saint usually placed above entrance doors of Late Byzantine churches may somehow be related to the canopy‐like frames above main doors of the sanctuary screens as the Russian example testify. The icon of St. Paraskevi in the thirteenth‐century eponymous church in Geraki is framed by a polychrome sculpted stone frame on columns. Made by unskilled workshop, the pointed arch and two animal heads on it may suggest Western influences, but it has been already convincingly shown that zig‐zag and rope design has been widely used in Byzantine churches. Trkulja (2004) 102‐103, fig. 134. Furthermore, the pointed arch existed in Byzantine churches, exemplified by the niche with pointed arch on the south façade of the pareklession of Panaghia Pammakaristos in Constantinople, while the motif of the affronted animal forms, presumably lion heads, has been already attested in a number of Byzantine canopies. 220 The rhetor Choricius described the altar table and its colonnettes of the Church of St. Sergius in Gaza as made of silver. The altar of the Martyrium in Jerusalem, was made of silver and gold and was supported by nine colonnettes [Breviarus Hierosolyma]. In the sixth‐century Jerusalem pilgrims reported that the Holy Sepulchre, i.e. the tomb itself, had a silver and gold roof. Mundell‐ Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. 130 with further references. 221 According to hagiography of St. Thecla written c. 460, at least by that time the church contained a sliver ciborium. More in: Mundell‐Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. 130. 219
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and revetments, which were described in 622 in the Chronicle of 1234222 and complemented with a dedicatory hymn.223 In addition to the ten columns of the chancel screen and the ambo in the middle of the church, silver covered the four columns of the altar canopy.224 The most famous silver canopy is certainly the one from the sanctuary of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. An imperial donation, the canopy was also made for imperial services. In the sixth century, after the first ciborium collapsed, the second one was placed just before the eastern apse and extended into the nave. We have two sixth‐century accounts about the altar canopy from Hagia Sophia. Prokopios, Justinian’s court historian, informs us that all the original sanctuary furnishings were embellished with 40,000 lbs. of silver, of which about 10,000 lbs. were used for the altar, the chancel screen and ambo.225 The altar itself was comprised of a gold base, gold columns, and gold trapeza, ornamented with precious stones. The altar table was covered by a silver canopy. Contemporaries also mention cloths with rich silk and gold embroidery that accompanied the entire installation.226 One of the embroidered
Chronicon ad ann. Christi 1234 pertinens. According to: Mundell‐Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. 130. 223 K. E. McVey, “The Domed Church as Microcosm: Literary Roots of an Architectural Symbol,” DOP 37 (1983) 91‐121. 224 The sanctuary arrangement is similar to the one in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and in St. Peter’s in Rome. For the latter, there is archeological and written evidence about the re‐ arrangement of the altar area by the sixth century. The four‐column canopy was raised above the altar table, while six columns from the previous canopy construction formed a chancel screen. There is no reason to believe that the seventh century sanctuary furnishing of the church in Edessa was not re‐arranged in a similar manner: four column altar ciborium and ten columns, mentioned in the hymn as supports of the canopy, now forming a chancel screen. Also see: Mundell‐Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. 130. 225 And as for the treasure of this church ‐ the [vessels of] gold and silver and precious stones which the Emperor Justinian has dedicated here ‐ it is impossible to give an exact account of all of them. I shall allow my readers to form an estimate by means of a single example. That part of the church which is especially sacred and accessible to priests only ‐ it is called sanctuary ‐ exhibits forty thousand pounds of silver. Procopius, Buildings, vol. 7. Trans. H.B. Dewing. (Cambridge and London, 1968‐79) I, 1.65, 28‐29. On the approximation on the silver used for canopy over altar table: Mundell‐ Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. 130. The sheer value of silver, without any work, used for the altar, altar canopy, chancel screen and ambo would be today approximately $2,250,000. 226 In addition to Silentiary’s account see the reference from De Ceremoniis (Table 1, T.71) 222
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hangings depicted Christ standing between Sts. Peter and Paul, while others represented images of divine miracles. Scholars still debate whether these textiles were altar covers or canopy curtains.227 In his encomium, Paul the Silentiary tells us that a canopy that sheltered the main altar of Hagia Sophia rose on four silver columns that carried four silver arches on each side of the structure (cat. no. 69; Table 1, T.32). The canopy was decorated with foliage and the columns were twisted. Its roof was a pyramid formed of eight triangular silver plates, which were joined in a single crest in the form of a cup which assumed the shape of leaves; at the apex were a silver globe and life‐giving cross. The roof, an octagon that rose from four corners of a canopy, looked almost like a cone.228 The four corners of the square base were decorated with silver bowls, candelabra and candles, “expressing beauty rather then giving light.”229 More often, however, less expensive materials such as iron or wood could have been used, and then they would have been eventually sheathed in precious materials.230 Most texts inform us about pieces of precious altar furniture made in thin silver revetment sheets, rather than of solid stone or solid metal, though such canopies also existed. Thus, Patriarch Severus in a sermon delivered at St. Drosis in Antioch (516) described:
See, for example: Taft (2006) 27‐52, esp. 45; Ch. Walter (1993) 203‐228; A. St. Clair, “The Visit to the Tomb: Narrative and Liturgy on Three Early Christian Pyxides” Gesta 18/1 (1979) 127‐ 135; Mathews (1971) 162‐171, sesp 167; P. Speck, “Die ΕΝΔΥΤΗ” JÖB 15 (1966) 323‐375. However, in my opinion, there is not enough evidence to suggest either, and the question must remain open. 228 According to the images found in chronologically later miniatures, the four columns of the ciborium were spanned by the arches supporting an eight‐sided pyramidal roof with a silver orb surmounted by a cross. R. J. Mainstone, Hagia Sophia (London, 1988) 222. 229 SD (1972) 88. 230 For revetment of liturgical furnishing in silver and occasionally gold see also: M. Mundell Mango, “The Uses of Liturgical Silver 4th‐7th Centuries” in Church and People in Byzantium, ed. R. Morris (Birmingham, 1990) 245‐61. 227
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the silver columns placed about the altar which support the cupola (hemisphaira) placed upon their capitals which is ... simply decorated by the iron bars as in a symbolic representation, but which has not been covered in silver.231 * There is insufficient proof for the extent of the use of wooden canopies. In the sixth century Bishop Victor (537‐44) replaced a wooden altar canopy with a silver one in the Basilica Ursiana (built in 370‐384) in Ravenna.232 In the eleventh‐century Byzantine account Etymologicum Gudianum a wooden canopy is also mentioned, though not in the context of a church and thus not sufficient to verify such canopies in contemporary Byzantine churches.233 In the East, in addition to preserved archaeological evidence for wooden canopies from Russia dating to the period after the eleventh century, there is some evidence that Coptic altar canopies in the same period may have been made of wood. Many surviving post‐Byzantine Coptic canopies were made of wood and then painted, in contrast to bare altars, which were devoid of any ornament or painting. The so‐called “Fatimid ciborium” dating from the 10th‐11th c. and preserved in the Coptic Museum in Cairo (inv. no. 909) is originally from the church d’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima) in Cairo (Cat. no. 132). Three other wooden canopies still in the church of Mu’allaqa can be dated to the fourteenth century and attributed to Byzantine origins (Fig. 197).234 * Les Homilae Cathédrales de Sévère d’Antioche. Homélies VCIX CIII, according to: Mundell‐ Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp. 126. Table 1, T.47. 232 SD (1972) 105. A canopy (tiburium) of pure silver and a confessio weighing 120 lbs. were jointly constructed for the church of St. Andrew the Apostle in Rome, built under Pope Symmachus (598‐614). M.T. Smith (1974) 379‐414. 233 Etymologicum Gudianum.365:24. Table 1, T.79. 234 Jeudy (2004) 67‐88, figs. 17‐20. Though the majority of other surviving Coptic canopies are dated to the eighteenth century, their strong resemblance to older canopies suggests very conservative tradition in the use of canopies. On the subjects see also: E. S. Bolman, “Veiling Sanctity in Christian Egypt: Visual and Spatial Solutions” in Thresholds of the Sacred, ed. Sh. E. J. Gerstel (Washington, D.C., 2006) 73‐106. A relatively new wooden canopy from the fourteenth‐century church of the Annunciation at Gračanica Monastery, Kosovo, Serbia, might have replaced an earlier canopy, similarly made of wood, though such a hypothesis is extremely difficult to prove. Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261, fig. 3. 231
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Although no canopy made of textile has survived, we have indirect evidence that such canopies might have existed. In the twelfth‐century Alexiad Anna Komnina briefly writes about an imperial canopy made of curtains.235 Besides canopies where curtains could have been drawn to enclose or opened to reveal their interior (Figs. 208‐ 210, 235, 237‐238, 299, 395‐397, 408, 412, 417, 448, 465, 469, 517‐524, 531, 552‐553, 559, 562, 618), in my opinion, entire canopies could have been made of textile like tents. Canopies represented in Byzantine manuscripts with curiously depicted concave roofs may suggest actual canopies that were formed of textile draped over or attached to a frame of poles like a tent, instead of the stable canopies composed of four columns, curtains and a roof of stone, metal and or wood (Figs. 228, 270).236 However, without additional evidence such an observation is extremely difficult to advance any further.237 Canopies in the Byzantine periphery and in the Byzantine Commonwealth: The case of the Western Balkans and Medieval Russia An overview of archaeological evidence also suggests that canopies were not uniquely used in churches in the main centers of the Byzantine Empire, but were used in the periphery as well. The research of canopies in the Western parts of the Byzantine Empire and the medieval states that emerged in the Balkans in the Middle Byzantine period is burdened by a general notion that they should be omitted from general reviews of Byzantine accomplishments because of their stylistic dependence on Romanesque architecture. However, canopies from the churches on both the
See for example, Alexiad‐a (2001) XII.3.6 and XIII.1.8, with references to imperial canopy called oikiskos, katapetasma, and skēnē. 236 Eusebius of Cesarea and Ammonius of Alexandria., Rabbula Gospels f.2r, 6th c. For additional examples see: Underwood (1950) 43‐138, figs. 34, 35, 36, 38, 44, 53, 55, 56. 237 Same ancient honorific monuments, like recently discovered Early Imperial canopy at Sagalassos, had marble concave roofs modeled as if made of textile (Fig. 552): M.‐H. Gates, “Archeology in Turkey” AJA 99/2 (1995) 207‐255, fig. 21. 235
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Adriatic Littorals and in Southern Italy remained within the broader framework of Byzantine architecture until the eleventh century.238 Most of the canopies found along the Adriatic Littoral were simple in design. Made on four supports of monolithic marble, granite or limestone, they were topped with domed or pyramidal roofs and their decoration paralleled proto‐Byzantine decoration, often featuring acanthus leaves, roundels, and rope‐like motifs, as seen in numerous canopy fragments recovered in fourth‐ to seventh‐century basilicas in Dalmatia in Croatia and again in the ninth‐ to eleventh‐century churches in Shati in Albania, Ulcinj, Budva and Kotor in Montenegro, or in Dubrovnik and Zadar, Dalmatia.239 The surviving fragments of these canopies are usually made of local stone. Canopies dating from the ninth to eleventh centuries often have carved generic vegetal and zoomorphic motifs: palmettes and lilies; birds, usually peacocks; and affronted quadrupeds, most often lions (Cat. nos. 92‐a‐100, 103‐104, 127, 134‐135, 141‐ a).240 Despite their sometimes questionable artistic quality, these canopies are
On the same conclusion on the architectural developments in the Adriatic basin as being dependant on main Byzantine trends by the eleventh century see: S. Ćurčić, Architecture in the Balkans from Diocletian to Süleyman the Magnificent (ca. 300‐ca. 1550) (2008, in press). 239 For further reference to the churches at Bičina‐Polača, Blagaj, Cim, Doboj, Gata, Kaštel Gomilica, Lopud, Mogorjelo, Nin, Novalja, Omiš, Potoci, Rab, Srima, Vid, Vrba and Založje more in: P. Chevalier, Ecclesiae Dalmatiae, L’architecture paleochrétienne de la province Romaine de Dalmatie (IVe – VIIe S.) (Rome‐Split, 1995) vol II, 149‐152; M. Skoblar, “Ranosrednjovekovni ciborij iz Novalje” [Early Medieval Ciborium from Novalja] RIPU 29 (2005) 7‐16. On other canopies from the period in Ston in Dalmatia, Kotor in Montenegro or Shati in Albania: J. Maksimović, “Kamen” [Stone] in Istorija primenjene umetnosti kod srba [History of the Applied Arts with the Serbs] vol. 1 (Belgrade, 1977) 237‐262, esp. 243‐244, figs. 21‐22; 392. On the altar and baptistery canopy from an unidentified church in Budva, canopies from the churches of St. Mary, St. Michael, and St. Tryphon in Kotor, from the church of Archangel Michael in Prevlaka, churches of St. Andrew and the Virgin in Dubrovnik, of the Holy Spirit in Komolac and canopies from Pula, Zadar, Pag, Solin, Krk and other Dalmatian towns see: P. Vežić (2001‐ 02) 91‐122. 240 Fragments of altar canopies from the churches in the basilica of Archangel Michael in Martinići, near Skadar Lake and in Ulcinj, possibly from the church of St. Savior, now lost, are variously dated to the period between ninth and eleventh centuries. P. Mijović, “Ulcinjski ciborijum.” Starinar 36 (1985) 91‐104; P. Mijović, “Le ciboire dʹUlcinj” in Studi in memoria di Giuseppe Bovini (Ravenna, 1989) 403‐418; D. Preradović, Ulcinjski ciborijum, unpublished final work for the Bachelor degree in Art History, University of Belgrade (2000) and Preradović‐ Petrović (2002) 247‐264. 238
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especially important because they occasionally have inscriptions that confirm their Byzantine source (Table 6). In particular, these inscriptions reflect the recurrent diplomatic activities of Byzantine officials in a region, especially in the ninth century, when Dalmatia became a Byzantine military district (theme).241 An inscription on the canopy fragment from Ulcinj, which mentions the Byzantine Emperor Leo V (813‐820) and his son and co‐emperor Constantine, is the most instructive example in this regard (cat. no. 94).242 The canopy from the church in Ulcinj has been stylistically related to the workshops active in the region of Boka Kotorska and Dalmatia from the ninth to the eleventh centuries (Cat. nos. 92, 95‐100).243 The local workshop(s) produced numerous canopies in Byzantine‐rite churches in the wider region. An altar canopy from the ninth‐century Byzantine church of Archangel Michael situated deep in the medieval region of Duklja, modern Montenegro, in the village of Martinići, possibly the city of Lontodocla mentioned by Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitos, is also related to canopies from the region of Kotor (Cat. no. 92).244 In Kotor, remnants of canopies have been recovered in the churches of St. Michael and St. Mary Collegiate (Cat. nos. 95‐96).245 In 809, the Byzantines brought the relics of St. Tryphon, martyr of I. Stevović, “Sveti Andreja u kotorskom natpisu ANDREESCI AD HONOREM SOCIORVMQ MAIOREM+,” [Saint Andrew in the Inscription ANDREESCI AD HONOREM SOCIORVMQ MAIOREM+] Zograf 27 (1998‐99) 23‐33; Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. 242 Following previous work on the subject, D. Preradović‐Petrović (2002) 247‐264 challenged previous opinion that the Byzantine Emperors Leo and Constantine mentioned on the canopy inscription are Leo III (r. 717‐741) and his son Constantine V (r. 741‐775) who became co‐ Emperor in 720, and demonstrated that the canopy should be dated to the ninth instead of eighth century. She effectively confirmed that the prolonged use of Latin instead of or with the addition of Greek script reveals already observed conservativism in the periphery where the autochthonous Christianized populace spoke Latin. 243 Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. 244 V. Korać, Martinići. Ostaci srednjovekovnog grada [Martinići. Les vestiges d’une ville du haut Moyen âge] (Belgrade, 2001) 78‐88, 189. 245 Z. Čuburović, “Djela jedne klesarske radionice u kotorskoj crkvi sv. Mihajla,” Glasnik odeljenja umetnosti CANU 16 (1997) 139‐151. The influence of the architectural design of the church of St. Mary the Collegiate on the church in Studenica, one of the principal Serbian Orthodox medieval churches, has been already observed. Though no original floor or liturgical furnishings from Studenica and subsequent churches built under the Nemanjić family have remained, the remnants of an altar canopy from St. Mary the Collegiate suggest a possibility that those churches initially had canopies as well. M. Čanak‐Medić, Arhitektura 241
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Phrygia in Asia Minor, to Kotor as a means of strengthening Byzantine positions in the Adriatic.246 At least three canopies, for the altar, baptistery, and one, presumably for the reliquary of St. Tryphon (?), were in the eponymous cathedral in Kotor (Cat. nos. 97‐99).247 In 1033‐1036, in Dalmatia, modern Croatia, the Byzantine pro‐consul Grgur built the basilica of St. Anastasia (Sv. Stošija) in Zadar on the site of an Early Christian church, confirming the prolonged use of canopies in Byzantine churches in the region (Cat. no. 127).248 Above the large crypt, on the raised platform he also ordered a monumental stone canopy, eleven fragments of which have been preserved. These are sculpted elements with figural affronted motifs of dogs (or wolfs?), griffins, peacocks, and lions on each of the four arches, all framed with decorative checkerboard and rope‐like patterns. The traces of red, blue and yellow reveal that the canopy was also painted. Elements of an altar canopy similar to the one from the church of St. Anastasia were identified also in the smaller church of St. Thomas in Zadar and in the church of Ss. Peter and Moses in Solin, suggesting that a local workshop may have provided canopies for numerous churches in the region.249 The
Nemanjinog doba [L’architecture de l’époque de Nemanja] vol. 2 (Belgrade, 1989) 210‐212, figs. 48, 104. The church of St. Mary the Collegiate was restored in the thirteenth century, when the canopy over the baptistery might have been transferred to the cathedral of St. Tryphon. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. 246 Stevović (1998‐99) 23‐33, also pointed to the spread of Byzantine saintly cults in the region and the possibility that in addition to relics of St. Tryphon at least two other saints marked the city of Kotor: St. Thomas from Edessa, to whom a church in Kotor was dedicated, and St. Andrew Stratelated from Cilicia, whose name might have been inscribed on the canopy arch built in the walls of the church of St. Tryphon in Kotor. These cults spread from Kotor throughout Adriatic Litorral. See: Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. 247 Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122; J. J. Martinović (1995) 345‐355. 248 S. Ćurčić (2008, in press), with references to I. Petricioli, Katedrala sv. Stošije u Zadru [Cathedral of St. Anastasia in Zadar] (Zadar, 1985) and I. Petricioli, Pojava romaničke skulpture u Dalmaciji (Zagreb, 1960) 15‐18. See also: M. Vasić, Arhitektura i skulptura u Dalmaciji (Belgrade, 1922) 165, figs. 123‐124. 249 For the canopies in the churches of St. Thomas and Sts. Peter and Moses see: I. Petricioli, “Ciborij iz zadarske crkve sv. Tome” [Le ciborium de lʹéglise Sv. Toma (St‐Tomas) de Zadar] SHP 3/11 (Split 1981) 163‐168; Petricioli (1995) 23‐26; Corpus della scultura altomedievale 6 (Spoleto, 1974) figs. 82‐85.
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arch of a canopy with braid design recovered in the centrally planned church (late 10th or early 11th c.) in Rogačići near Blažuj, modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, exemplifies how deep northwest in the Adriatic basin we can observe proto‐Byzantine canopies (Cat. no. 134).250 Although most sites along the Adriatic Littoral remained nominally under Byzantine administration through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, its architecture became noticeably westernized in the eleventh century. The style of numerous altar canopies made for both Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches resembled comparable developments from Western Europe, but remained on territories exposed to Byzantine influences.251 By the fourteenth century, numerous churches along the Adriatic Littoral continued to have canopies, which either incorporated earlier architectural elements or were newly created. One example is the preserved altar canopy from the cathedral of St. Lawrence (Sv. Lovro) in Trogir, Dalmatia, originally in the military province of the Byzantine Empire.252 The altar canopy from the church of San Marco in Venice (c. 1290) is perhaps the best‐known example of a western
On the canopy from Blažuj: I. Čremošnik, “Izvještaj o iskopinama u Rogčićima kod Blažuja“ [Compte rendu sur les fouilles à Rogacici près de Blažuj] GZMS 8 (1953) 303‐314; M. Gavrilović, “Dvije predromaničke crkve iz okolice Sarajeva“ HM 11‐12 (1999) 111‐118; L. Fekeža and M. Gavrilović, “Od dolaska Slavena do pada bosanskog kraljevstva“ (Sarajevo, 2000) 171‐190. 251 For example, Kotor remained a Byzantine outpost until 1186 when it fell to the Serbs. Byzantine formulas, such as domed churches, are most evident in the architecture. However, some other architectural and sculptural trends which can be observed in the area show the indisputable loss of Byzantine characteristics and the preeminence of local and Western Romanesque achievements. Architecture and sculpture in the region are usually chronologically divided into pre‐Romanesque (datable from the ninth to the eleventh centuries) and Romanesque accomplishments (datable to the late eleventh through the thirteenth centuries). S. Ćurčić (2008, in press) with references to I. Petricioli, Od Donata do Radovana. Pregled umjetnosti u Dalmaciji od 9. do 13. stoljeća [From Donat to Radovan: A Review of Art in Dalmatia from the 9th through the 13th centuries] (Split, 1990) and T. Marasović, who offers a more complex understanding of the cross‐cultural influences in the region, ʺByzantine Component in Dalmatian Architecture from 11th to 13th Century,ʺ Studenica et lʹart Byzantin autur de lʹannée 1200, ed. V. Korać (Belgrade, 1988) 455‐461. 252 S. Ćurčić (2008, in press) with further references. 250
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canopy whose columns were Byzantine spolia (Cat. no. 164).253 Similarly, the columns of the altar canopy from the cathedral of Euphrasius in Poreč (1277) are re‐employed Byzantine spolia as well.254 After the eleventh century the design of canopies in the Western regions became generally more elaborate. Some canopies could have been topped by a temple or church‐like lantern, such as the altar canopy in the church of St. Nicholas in Bari or the fourteenth‐century altar canopy still standing in the cathedral of St. Tryphon in Kotor on the opposite side of the Adriatic.255 It is usually assumed that such canopies with an additional lantern at the top shaped in the form of a small church are later features influenced by general architectural trends in Romanesque Western Europe.256 However, it is interesting to notice that a ninth‐century canopy in the basilica of Castel Sant’Elia, presumably built under the Byzantine influence, was also topped by a temple‐like roof (Fig. 195).257 It suggests the possibility that the addition of the lantern at the top of Romanesque and later Gothic canopies might have resulted from earlier concepts not entirely strange to the Byzantines.258 *
B. Brenk, “Il ciborio esagonale di San Marco a Venezia,” L’arte di Bisanzio e l’Italia al tempo dei Paleologi 1261‐1453 (1999) 143‐155. After a long‐term debate whether the alabaster columns with New Testament narratives and inscriptions in Latin are Byzantine spolia or new elements made by local workshop in Venice, see the convincing argument for their seventh‐century dating: R. Warland, “Fruhbyzantinische Vorlage und mittelalterliche Adaptation: die Szenenfolge zur Kindheitsgeschichte Christi auf einer des Ciboriumssaulen von San Marco in Venedig“ Z.Kunstg 56/2 (1993) 173‐182 and O. Vio, The Basilica of St. Mark in Venice (New York, 1999) 110‐113. 254 Demus (1998) 239‐244. 255 J. Maksimović, Kotorski ciborij iz XIV veka i kamena plastika susednih oblasti (Beograd, 1961) 32 with further references. R. Jurlaro, “Un Ciborio Del Secolo 8 in Bari” Archivio Storico Pugliese 26/1‐2 (1973) 315‐324. 256 J. Maksimović (1961) 30‐40. 257 EAM, vol. 4 (1991) 718‐735. 258 Indeed in some Byzantine frescos and mosaics we can see a canopy‐like structure that nests a small house on its top (Figs. 368, 464, 477). However, since most of the canopies of the Byzantines we know of today are preserved up to the level of their columns, any further insistence on the relationship with Western types of canopies with lanterns is not verifiable. 253
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Archaeological evidence also confirms that those who accepted Byzantine Christianity continued to build churches with canopies. For example, we know of several stone and wooden altar canopies which were in use in Russian churches built in the pre‐Mongol period, before the 1230s (Cat. nos. 138‐140, 149‐153, 157‐158, 175). Thus, the church of the Dormition (c. 1073) in the Pečerskii monastery (monastery of the Caves) near Kiev had a marble altar canopy.259 We know that Constantinopolitan masters came to build and decorate the church, and it may be that they were responsible for the canopy as well.260 According to the sources, masters from Byzantium came to make an altar canopy for the eleventh‐century church of St. Sophia in Novgorod.261 Other Russian churches had altar canopies made of local white stone, like the church of Sts. Boris and Gleb built by Vsevolod III (1171‐1213) in Vladimir.262 Though Vsevolod III, son of a Byzantine princess, had strong connections with Constantinople, it seems that a local workshop carved the stone canopy, as its carving resembles flat carving on the façades of the Cathedral of St. Dmitri, also in Vladimir.263 The arch fragment, which was sculpted with geometric patters and birds, once belonged to a canopy made of white stone that stood over the altar table in the Church of the Annunciation in Chernigov.264 Altar canopies made of white stone were attested in the late twelfth and early thirteenth‐century churches of the Saviour and the Dormition in Galich.265 Recently, a footing for a four‐columned wooden altar T. A. Čukova, The Chancel of the Ancient Russian Church: Late 10th to Early 13th Century (St. Petersburg, 2004) 77, with reference to Holostenko (1975) 107‐170. See also: Voronin (1961) 251‐258. 260 A. I. Komeč, “Spaso‐Preobraženskii sobor v Chernigove” DrevIsk (1975) 9‐26. 261 Čukova (2004) 80, with references to medieval sources from Golubinskii (1904) 170 and Komeč (1975) 9‐26. 262 Voronin (1961) 251‐258. 263 In the local museum in Vladimir today, there are on display spirally fluted column fragments and basket capitals made of local white stone, which may have originally belonged to church furnishings and canopies. Fild notes J. Bogdanović. 264 Čukova (2004) 77, with reference to Rjibakov (1949) 86‐87. 265 Church of the Saviour in Galich (end 12th – beg. 13th c) had a canopy of white stone with slander columns 15.5 ‐ 16 cm. Canopy capitals with the impost block (38 cm x 38 cm) were recovered in the church of the Dormition, Galich. Čukova (2004) 79, with references to Ioannisyn (1986) 106‐107 and Pasternak (1944) 111, fig. VII.7. 259
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canopy has been found in the church of St. Nicetas in Yaroslav (e. 12th c).266 Archaeological evidence for three additional wooden altar canopies has been confirmed in the churches of St. Savour in Chernigov (11th c), St. Sophia in Novgorod (ca. 1156), and in the church “Old Throne” in Vladimir‐Volinski (second half of the 12th c).267 Though archeological evidence cannot confirm whether monumental canopies replaced wooden ones, or vice versa, it seems that they coexisted in the early periods and that wooden examples prevailed. Although no wooden churches more recent than the seventeenth century survive, most Russian churches must have been made of wood. These churches presumably also had wooden altar canopies known in Russian as “небо” (literally sky) and “сень” (literally canopy, often made of wood), suggesting that most altar canopies in Russian churches were made of wood rather than marble, as was customary in larger Byzantine churches.268 Moreover, it has been recently demonstrated that not all wooden canopies in Russian churches dating from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries were necessarily above altar tables, as previously thought. According to written evidence some of them sheltered ambos, like in the church in Vshchizh (late 12th to the first third of the 13th c) and some were even integral parts of the sanctuary screens, like the canopy that sheltered the icon over the central doors of the sanctuary barrier in the church of the Nativity in Bogolyubovo, as described in the Hypatian Chronicle of 1175.269
Čukova (2004) 78, with reference to Bulkin (2002) 271. I. Sterligova, “The Precious Decoration of the Russian Sancuary from the 11th to 13th Century: Evidence of Written Sources” in Iconostasis ed. A. Lidov (Moscow, 2000) 360‐381, abstract in English 731‐732. 268 W. C. Brumfield, “Rospisi ‘neba’ v dreviannykh khramakh russkogo severa” SR 59/3 (2000) 694‐965. 269 Sterligova (2000) 360‐381, 731‐732. 266 267
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2.2 The number and place of various canopies in one church: The case of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople Besides supplying data about canopy types, surviving evidence also suggests that a single church might not have had no canopy, a single one or many of them. At least five different kinds of canopies once existing in the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople illustrate the latter case in an especially revealing way. The first altar canopy from Hagia Sophia broke when its first dome collapsed in 558.270 It was replaced and then described by Prokopios and Paul the Silentiary in the sixth century, and then again in mid‐twelfth‐century by Michael, rector of the Patriarchal Academy in Constantinople.271 The silver altar canopy along with other elements of the sanctuary was pillaged by the Crusaders in 1204, but was replaced by another canopy so that the sanctuary could have served the Latin rite.272 The new marble canopy was presumably made of elements taken from the church of the Anastasis, now lost.273 The altar canopy in Hagia Sophia was supposedly restored for Byzantine services some sixty years after the Latin conquest, though the thirteenth‐century marble canopy, not the silver one, most likely continued to be used. The episode also confirms that churches serving both the Roman Catholic and Byzantine Orthodox rites used canopies in the thirteenth century. We learn that for the first time in the twelfth century not only the altar but also the ambo just below Hagia Sophia’s dome had a canopy, which was again attested in
SD (1972) 79 quoting now lost text by John of Malalas reiterated by Thephanes, Kedrenos and other chronicles who spoke about the earthquake of December 557 and about the collapse of the dome in 558 [Agathias, Hist. V, 9, 2‐5; Theophanes, A.M. 6051, 232‐33.]. See also: G. Millet, ʺLa coupole primitive de Ste. Sophie,ʺ Revue beige de philologie et dʹhistoire II (1923) 599ff. 271 Mango and Parker (1960) 233‐244. 272 On the full account of the episode with reference to primary sources, both Byzantine and Latin see: A.‐M. Talbot (1993) 243‐261, esp. 246‐247. 273 A.M. Talbot (1993) 243‐261, esp. 246‐247. 270
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1403 by Clavijo.274 Not enough evidence has been preserved to suggest whether this canopy underwent any changes during the Crusaders. Sometime between 1389 and 1391 an anonymous Russian traveler wrote about other canopies in the church of Hagia Sophia. One canopy in the north aisle enshrined the miraculous icon of the Mother of God, while a wooden canopy, believed to have been made of wood of Noah’s Ark and located at the time at the west end of the north aisle of the church, was presumably venerated as a relic itself.275 Though these canopies mentioned by a Russian traveler were installed in the church most likely after the Latin conquest of 1204 and the reference to the canopy made of wood of Noah’s Ark is certainly shrouded in legend,276 the possibility that such three‐dimensional canopies existed in the Byzantine period remains. There are numerous textual references to the lighting of lamps in front of icons in Constantinopolitan and other Byzantine churches.277 It is often assumed that these icons were mounted either on iconostasis screens or were enshrined by two‐column, aedicule‐like canopies mounted on church piers, pillars, or walls. However, the Russian traveler who described the canopy over the miraculous icon in Hagia Sophia used the Old Slavonic word теремец (teremec), which denotes a pavilion‐like structure, usually any shelter on four columns.278 The icon of the Mother of God and Christ Child below a canopy from the fourteenth‐century Hamilton Psalter (78.A.9, fol. 39v), found in Cyprus and made in Constantinople, provide a visual clue to how
Mango and Parker (1960) 233‐244. Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, transl. G. Le Strange (London, 1928) 74. On the ambo as described in the sixth century with no reference to its canopy see: S. G. Xydis, ʺThe Chancel Barrier, Solea, and Ambo of Hagia Sophiaʺ ArtB 29/1 (1947) 1–24. 275 RussTravelers (1984) 128‐154, esp. 132‐133. 276 For the belief that main doors of the inner narthex of Hagia Sophia were sheathed with wooden planks from Noah’s ark and the reference for their removal by the Crusaders see: RussTravelers (1984) 207 with extensive bibliography on the topic. 277 See, just for the example references from the Pantokrator typokon in BMFD vol. 2 (2000) 725‐ 781. On the subject also: Boura (1982) 479‐491. 278 RussTravelers (1984) 215; Voronin (1961) 254‐255. The Old Slavonic word теремец (teremec) denoted canopy in both secular and religious architecture: S. Nenadović, Ilustrovani rečnik izraza u narodnoj arhitekturi (Beograd, 2002) 77‐78, 351. 274
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such icons flanked by two hanging lamps and mounted on a pedestal could have been enshrined by three‐dimensional canopies and venerated by the faithful (Fig. 413).279 The anonymous Russian traveler mentions yet another canopy, the open lid‐ covered canopy over the stone phiale in Hagia Sophia, although the canopy’s location at the time of his visit remains unverifiable.280 Elsewhere, the traveler speaks of a canopy over the holy water font in front of the katholikon of St. George of Mangana built under Emperor Constantine IX (1042‐59). Though now lost, its existence and exact location as described in the text coincides with the eleventh‐century Byzantine account by Michael Psellos and has been proven by archaeological excavations from the 1920s.281 We may never learn how many more canopies were in Hagia Sophia during its long history as a church. It is interesting to surmise that in addition to the above mentioned five types of three‐dimensional canopies, now lost, more canopies, including those on two columns and two‐dimensional canopies, which signified three‐ dimensional canopies, might have existed. Some of these two‐dimensional and “transitional” types of canopies can still be observed in Hagia Sophia. A canopy‐like structure with curtains executed in opus sectile has continued to shelter the bejeweled cross on stepped base in the western walls of Hagia Sophia’s nave just above its central doors since the sixth century (Fig. 235).282 Furthermore, just above this opus sectile canopy, on the grayish marble gallery floor there is a big roundel of verde antico On the icon most sufficiently Spartharakis, I. “The Proskynesis in Byzantine art” BABesch (1974): 190‐205. 280 RussTravelers (1984) 128‐154, esp. 138‐139. 281 Michael Psellos in the eleventh century, and again described by Russian anonymous in the fourteenth century as “a great stone cup on a column in front of the church, and over the cup there is a lead‐covered canopy; it is enclosed by columns with stone bars between them. The evangelists and apostles are carved on bars, and the columns are carved too.” RussTravelers (1984) 138‐140. For the archaeological evidence: R. Demangel and E. Mamboury, Le quartier des Manganes et la première Region de Constantinople (Paris, 1939) 282 The plaque depicting the Cross on stepped base within a canopy‐like structure with curtains, is surrounded with four additional plaques with roundels, two in low relief and two painted, as if four circles surrounding the main image of the canopied cross suggest a basic outline of the canopies still archaeologically recognizable from numerous early Christian floors, but now inverted upright and raised on the wall. 279
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marble inscribed in a square. On its two western corners, it is framed by two rectangular porphyry plaques while two verde antico columns incorporated into gallery parapets delineate the two eastern corners of the roundel in square (Fig. 236). The two slender columns with interlaced capitals, which serve no structural role, perhaps had the now elapsed function of framing a standing or sitting person observing the services in the naos of the church. The spot is still known as the “lodge of the Empress” and visually denotes the canopied thrones known from Roman imperial architecture.283 Though we do not have any evidence about whether outlined squares around axially positioned roundels marked the position of a throne canopy, the two columns framing an imperial personage would have created the perception of a throne canopy and also an aura of sacred appearance. The sixth‐century Vienna and Florence ivories, which show empresses standing and sitting, both framed by canopy‐ like throne, illustrate the impression created by such an architectural setting (Figs. 237‐ 238).284
Mathews (1971) 96 and 134, suggested that the floor design on the gallery of Hagia Sophia is a marking for the Emperor’s throne. Similarly furnished canopied thrones whose place was delineated by opus sectile patterns framed by four outlined corners may have existed in the imperial chamber in Luxor and in the throne room in Piazza Armerina. See: I. Kalavrezou, “The Imperial Chamber at Luxor” DOP 29 (1975) 225‐251. 284 See: Kalavrezou (1975) 225‐251, with references to works by Lehmann, Alfoldi, and Khaler. On the sitting and standing Byzantine Empress under the throne, presumably in the interior of a church or a palace as depicted on the ivories from the Museo Nazionale, Florence Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna see: R. Delbrueck, Die Consulardiptychen und verwandte Denkmaler (Berlin 1929), nos. 51 and 52; and H. Maguire “The Empress and the Virgin on display in sixth‐century art” talk given on 26 August 26th, 2006 at the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies London, 2006. When referring to the discussion of the canopies with references to work by L. James, Empresses and Power in Early Byzantium (Leicester, 2001) 39 and McClanan, Representations of Early Byzantine Empresses: image and empire (New York, 2002) 168‐73, figs. 7.6 and 7.7. H. Maguire included an observation by A. Cameron who pointed out that the curtained canopy borne on columns that enclosed the empress coincides with the description by Corippus of the canopy over the throne in the Great Consistory of the palace. In laudem Iustini Augusti minoris, III, 195‐203 and 255‐6; ed. and trans. Cameron, with commentary on pp. 188‐9. 283
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2.3 The Iconoclastic Controversy and canopies in the Byzantine church The period of changes in the quality of canopies coincides with the aftermath of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Most likely the evident decline in quality and use of canopies, however, did not result from the theological debates, but rather from declining imperial control over marble quarries and silver production. To support this hypothesis we will particularly examine the evidence on the use of canopies above icons and the dynamics of the overall use of high‐quality marble and silver canopies in the Byzantine tradition until the fifteenth century. In Byzantine studies the Iconoclastic outbursts of the eighth (730‐787) and ninth (813‐843) centuries are usually considered as a main threshold not only for the use of religious images but also for the liturgical and structural changes in a Byzantine church.285 The study of the Iconoclastic period is generally hampered by the lack of surviving evidence, due to the erosion of the surviving monuments in time, external wars of Byzantines with Arabs and Slavs and internal struggles between the Iconoclasts and Iconophiles. The lack of the primary sources about the Controversy, especially those coming from the Constantinople, the birthplace and center of Iconoclasm, leave questions on canopies open ended.286 However, it is also worth
The Byzantine Iconoclasm, literally meaning the destruction of icons, proclaimed anthropomorphic imagery idolatrous. It had its first manifestations in 711, but started in 726 with the official Iconoclastic policy under the Emperor Leo III the Syrian “Isaurian” (r. 717‐ 741). With a twenty‐six year break, the Iconoclastic Controversy lasted until its ultimate condemnation in 843 under the Empress Theodora (842‐856), the wife of the last Iconoclastic emperor, Theophilus (829‐842). C. Mango, “Historical Introduction” in Iconoclasm (1975) 1‐6. On architecture during the Iconoclastic Controversy and for a revision of the wide‐spread notion about significant changes in architecture during the period, see: Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era (c. 680‐850) J. Haldon and L. Brubaker eds. (Aldershot, England and Burlington, VT, 2001) chp. 1. 286 After the Second Council of Nicaea (787) the iconoclastic written sources were confiscated. P. J. Alexander, “The Iconoclastic Council of St. Sophia (815) and Its Definition (Horos)” DOP 7 (1953) 35‐66; H. Ahrweiler, “The Geography of the Iconoclastic World,” in Iconoclasm (1975) 21‐ 27; D. J. Sahas, Icon and Logos (Toronto, Buffalo and London, 1986) 176‐188; Sedam stubova Premudrosti. Istorija Vaseljenskih Sabora. Trans. M. M. Stanković (Beograd, 1998) 122‐168; P. Henry, “What was the Iconoclastic Controversy All About?” ChHist 45 (1976) 16‐31. 285
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noting that the destruction of icons and relics was not so systematic, especially not on the peripheries.287 From a survey of archaeological material concerning canopies, there is not enough evidence to suggest that the use of canopies discontinued during the Iconoclastic Controversy. On the contrary, the trend of the use of canopies for altar tables, baptisteries, holy water fonts, and tombs as established in the Early Byzantine period can be observed after the ninth century as well.288 Not even canopy‐like installations for the especially venerated icons definitely point to changes in the use of canopies after the Iconoclastic Controversy. To the best of my knowledge, there is no indication that theological debates concerning icons during the Iconoclastic Controversy influenced the use of canopies, although it could have been quite possible that some canopies were demolished because of figurative depictions on them.289 The icons themselves could have been
For example, some mosaics in the sanctuaries, inspired by iconophile attitudes, survived in the churches of St. Demetrios and St. George in Thessaloniki and elsewhere. Some iconoclastic mosaics from St. Sophia in Thessaloniki also survived, while the apse mosaic in the monastic church of Hosios David in the same city was only covered over during the Iconoclastic Controversy and after its end uncovered. R. Cormack, “The Arts during the Age of Iconoclasm” in Iconoclasm (1975a): 35‐44. 288 Though throughout this time many churches that were built were dedicated without sacred relics, this certainly does not exclude the use of altar canopies. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that in the later period there was no need for a full‐size baptistery and consequently a large canopy above it since the need for adult baptism ceased. However, Th. Gouma‐Peterson has shown that adult baptism remained practiced in fourteenth‐century Thessaloniki, in “Christ as Ministrant and the Priest as Ministrant of Christ in a Palaeologan Program of 1303” DOP 32 (1978) 197+199‐216. There is no need to mention post‐ninth century massive baptisms of new converts into Christianity, like the Russians (Fig. 381). On the consecration of church altars without relics: Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople, Antirrheticus (Refutation) 2.5 PG 100:344, Theodore of Studios, Orations 9.12 PG 99:788. References according to: J. Pelikan, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600‐1700), vol. 2 of The Christian Tradition. A History of the Development of Doctrine (Chicago and London, 1974) 92‐93. 289 S. Gero, “What Were the Holy Images of the Iconoclasts?” OCA 260 (2000) 331‐343. Written testimony indicates that the ninth‐century altar canopy from the church San Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna was decorated by the depictions of Christ and angels. More in: Maksimović (1961) 32 with further references. 287
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placed within a canopy or even attached to the upper part of the canopy.290 A twelfth‐ century manuscript depicts an icon attached to a canopy over an ambo, confirming the possibility that canopies might have been not only painted but also adorned with icons (Fig. 368). Another twelfth‐century miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript depicts a canopy‐like structure with four icons of Christ, the Mother of God and two archangels, which are each attached to a canopy (Fig. 367). The text of the manuscript explains that these icons were removed by the Iconoclast Patriarch John VII (d. before 867), but does not say what exactly the canopy represents.291 However, an epigram from the Palatine Anthology confirms that icons were attached to the altar canopy in Hagia Sophia, removed during the Iconoclastic Controversy and returned afterwards, while the text “The images of the impostors had cast down here, pious emperors have again set up” was inscribed on the canopy.292 The episode also demonstrates that the canopy itself was not destroyed. The Iconoclasts destroyed many icons and altered church decorations, especially those in sanctuaries where monumental crosses were inserted.293 Claims
More in: H. Wybrew, The Orthodox Liturgy. The Development of the Eucharistic Liturgy in the Byzantine Rite (London, 1989) 147; R. Cormack, Writing in Gold: Byzantine society and its icons (London, c1985) 63, 129. 291 A. Cutler in his article “Under the Sign of the Deesis: On the Question of Representativness in Medieval Art and Literature” DOP 41 (1987) 145‐154 recognizes the structure as a canopy, while V. Sarabianov recognizes the same structure as sanctuary barrier in his article “The Sanctuary Barrier of the 12th‐century Churches in Novgorod” in Russian, abstract in English in Iconostasis ed. A. Lidov (Moscow, 2000) 312‐359, 730‐731. 292 N. Oikonomides “Remarks on the Apse Mosaics of St. Sophia” DOP 39 (1985) 111‐115, quotation on 113. 293 For example, monumental crosses were inserted in the apse mosaics at Hagia Eirene in Constantinople and the Koimesis Church at Nicaea. The stepped cross was traditionally connected with Constantine’s ex voto, the sign of victory and triumph associated with the imperial family. The apse mosaic of Hagia Eirene, in Constantinople made during the reign of Constantine V (741‐775) exemplifies the iconoclastic art and meaning of the cross. Cormack (1975) 35‐44. The decoration was very similar to those found in some Monophysite monastic churches, such as the church of Mar Azizael in Kefr Ze, modern Turkey, which was decorated before 750 and also has an apsidal cross. A terminus ante quem of c. 750 is provided by an inscription on the templon screen. More in: Marlia Mundell, “Monophysite Church Decoration,” in Iconoclasm (1975) 59‐74. However, the life‐giving cross was a visual metaphor of a battle and victory over death by Christ’s resurrection on the third day and both Iconoclasts 290
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had even been raised that “throughout this time the churches that were built were dedicated without sacred relics.”294 Therefore, it may have been that canopies related to saintly tombs, relics and icons were not used during the period, but this does not suggest the same fate for the canopies sheltering the Eucharistic mysteries over altar tables. At the time of the Byzantine Iconoclasm Monophysite churches occasionally had images other than crosses in the apse. The altar decoration with representations of the Eucharist under the altar canopy from the coeval church of Mâr Gabriel, near Kartman, Turkey, clearly depicts the altar table with the vessels of the Eucharist under the domed canopy, surmounted by the orb, with two censers suspended from the canopy’s roof and flanked by trees (Fig. 231).295 Therefore, the mosaic from Mâr
and Iconophiles venerated cross, the only difference being that Iconophiles argued that cross can be venerated only along with the other icons. J. Pelikan, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600‐1700), vol. 2 of The Christian Tradition. A History of the Development of Doctrine (Chicago and London, 1974) 138‐139. The Patriarch Nikephoros of Constantinople (750s‐828) expounded the tenth proof from the Third Antirrheticus as: “Icon depicts the crucifixion in full detail of which the cross is only a part. Those who venerate the cross must therefore venerate the icon of which the cross is part, or they make nonsense of their faith.” According to K. Parry, Depicting the Word. Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries (Leiden, New York and Köln, 1996) 188. 294 Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople, Antirrheticus (Refutation) 2.5 PG 100:344, Theodore of Studios, Orations 9.12 PG 99:788. According to: Pelikan (1974) 92‐93. Iconoclastic texts have not survived at all, most likely due to the order at the Second Council of Nicaea (787) for the confiscation of the Iconoclastic texts. Iconoclastic attitudes can be reviewed partially through the writings of the Iconophiles, and especially through the Acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council at Nicaea and the Horos (Definition) of the Iconoclastic Council at Constantinople (754). Sedam stubova Premudrosti. Istorija Vaseljenskih Sabora trans. M. M. Stanković (Beograd, 1998) 122‐168. About the Seventh Ecumenical Council and its translation into English: D. J. Sahas, Icon and Logos: Sources in Eighth‐Century Iconoclasm. An Annotated Translation of the Sixth Session of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (Nicea, 787), Containing the Definition of the Council of Constantinople (754) and Its Refutation, and the Definition of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (Toronto, Buffalo and London, 1986) 176‐188. About the Iconoclastic Council at St. Sophia: P. J. Alexander, “The Iconoclastic Council of St. Sophia (815) and Its Definition (Horos)” DOP 7 (1953) 35‐66. 295 According to the documents from the monastery the mosaic was commissioned after 512. Trees could be connected with the cross on which Christ was crucified as a symbol of the tree of life and the new Paradise. Although much of the original decoration was lost because of the spatial availability and compositional organization of the apse, it is impossible that human figures might accompany the representation of the Eucharist under the canopy. Mundell (1975) 59‐74; E.J.W. Hawkins, M. C. Mundell, C. Mango, “The Mosaics of the Monastery of Mar
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Gabriel confirms that the canopy as an object was not potentially under the attack of the Iconoclasts. Although the earliest archeological evidence for canopies above icons can be dated to the tenth century, we cannot relate the phenomenon of the proskynetaria exclusively to the post‐Iconoclastic period. Post‐Iconoclastic textual and visual evidence reveals that icons could have been placed either on the altar table framed by a canopy or throughout the church, independent of the altar: on the sanctuary screen in the church of the Nativity in Bogolyubovo, next to the sanctuary barrier in proskynetaria in St. Panteleimon in Nerezi, on piers and pillars in the nave of the church of St. Sophia in Monemvasia, in the church aisles as in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, or in the narthex flanking entrance to the nave in St. John Eleemon in Argolis (Cat. nos. 154, 161, 162 cf. Figs. 402, 413, 469). We do not have enough evidence to confirm or deny that such a practice existed before the Iconoclastic crisis. However, it has been already hypothesized that a direct relation exists between saintly tombs, which were frequently of an arcosolium type and occasionally enshrined by a canopy, and the proskynetaria icons enshrined by an architectural frame.296 The relationship between saintly tombs and portrait icons of the saints most likely existed well before the Iconoclastic crisis. Parallels between the tomb of St. Artemios and his image on the templon in the now lost martyrion of St. Artemios in Constantinople have been attested in the seventh‐century hagiography, while in a similar fashion a seventh‐century ivory plaque most likely depicts St. Menas in front of his canopy‐like shrine (Figs. 561‐562, cf. Figs. 560, 563‐564).297 Visual evidence also suggests that proskynetaria might have existed well before the tenth century. The sixth‐century manuscript illumination from the Rabulla Gospels depicts a canopy, which presumably shelters an icon of the Mother of God with Christ Child (Fig. 227). Samuel, Mar Simeon, Mar Gabriel near Kartmin with a Note on the Greek Inscription” DOP 27 (1973) 279‐296. 296 Ćurčić (2000) 134‐160; Babić (1975) 3‐49. 297 Ćurčić (2000) 134‐160; Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134.
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Despite the fact that imperial treasuries were drained after the Iconoclastic Controversy as a consequence of wars and natural disasters, canopies were continuously used (Table 7, Maps 4‐5). However, the size, material and artistic quality of canopies apparently slowly changed over time after the Iconoclastic Controversy. Canopies made of silver had remained objects of imperial donations.298 Judging from the general production of silver ecclesiastical objects in Byzantium, it may be subsequently assumed that silver canopies were widely used in the sixth century, but remained in use at least up to the ninth and tenth centuries.299 For example, a silver canopy is mentioned in the Melkite Cathedral of Antioch in 845, 967 and 1050 respectively.300 We learn that Iconophile Byzantine Emperor Michael III (842‐867) built his imperial palatine chapel, the church of the Theotokos of the Pharos (864) immediately after the end of Iconoclasm.301 On that occasion the Emperor provided a church with a silver altar canopy with a conical roof.302 Written references reveal that a silver altar canopy existed in the tenth‐century palace church of Romanus I Lecapenus (920‐944), the co‐emperor of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913‐959).303 A similar trend can be observed in the slow decline of the use of marble canopies after the tenth century. Architectural members made in various marble workshops were used for canopies regardless of the relative vicinity of the churches to the quarries.304 The trade of marble liturgical furnishings throughout the Mediterranean has been already attested. For example, marble quarried on the islands of Prokonnesos in the Marmara Sea across from Constantinople, was widely used for making elements for liturgical furnishings – column shafts, capitals, bases, and other members, which were occasionally recognized as parts of canopies, ambos and other
See for example: E. Cruikshank Dood, Byzantine Silver Treasures (Bern, 1973). Mundell Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136. 300 Mundell Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136, esp.130. 301 C. Mango, “The Date and Significance of the Tenth Homily of Photius” DOP 9‐10 (1956) 123+125‐140. 302 Ruggieri (1991) 198‐199. 303 Maksimović (1961) 32 with further references. 304 Karagiorgou (2001) 194. 298 299
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more complex structures.305 During the fifth and sixth centuries, and even some time after, such pre‐made furnishings were shipped not only to Constantinople but throughout the provinces in the Mediterranean basin.306 The four‐columned altar canopy from the Euphrasius basilica of Parenzo (Poreč), modern Croatia, built about 550 and rebuilt once again in the thirteenth century using the original sixth‐century columns, exemplifies how far north‐west we can find canopies whose fragments were made of Prokonnesian marble (Cat. no. 54).307 One of the most remarkable of the sixth‐century marble fragments embedded in the wall of the southern annex of the thirteenth‐century church at Họbi, northwestern Georgia, is a set of monolithic columns with abbreviated versions of Theodosian capitals.308 The capitals are of the Corinthian style and feature eagles in the upper zone, a pearl‐string for a foot‐ring and a bell surmounted by two zones of acanthus leaves. Altogether, these columns may have belonged to a pre‐made canopy imported from sixth‐century Constantinople. A
A complete inventory of building components for a church may have been shipped, as was confirmed by underwater archaeological finds. The Marzamemi shipwreck revealed various elements for church furnishings of Prokonnesian marble, but also a verde antico ambo, which was most likely loaded in a Thessalian harbor. The ship never reached its final destination and though it sank near Sicily, no Sicilian church of that period would have waited for such rich embellishment. Thus, the cargo was most likely intended for a church in Africa, possibly Libya, as some scholars have already suggested. G. Kapitän, “Elementi architectonici per una basilica dal relitto navale del VI secolo di Marzamemi (Siracusa).” Universita Degli Studi di Bologna Institutio di Antichita Ravennati e Bizantine XXVII (1980) 71‐136; G. Kapitän, ʺThe Church Wreck off Marzamemi,ʺ Archaeology 22/2 (1969) 122‐23; Karagiorgou (2001) 194‐195. 306 Kapitän (1980) 71‐136; Kapitän (1969) 122‐23; J.‐P. Sodini, ʺLa commerce des marbres à lʹépoque protobyzantine,ʺ Hommes et richesses dans lʹEmpire byzantin I (IVe‐VIIe siècle) (Paris, 1989) 163‐86; N. Asgari, ʺThe Proconnesian Production of Architectural Elements in Late Antiquity, Based on Evidence from Marble Quarriesʺ in Constantinople and Its Hinterland, eds. C. Mango and G. Dagron (Aldershot, 1995) 263‐88. 307 The column capitals of the altar canopy have been preserved, and were incorporated into Bishop Otto’s canopy from 1277. On that occasion the ciborium was also decorated with the mosaics of the Annunciation and medallions with images of Poreč martyrs. More: Krautheimer (1986) 280, O. Demus “The Ciborium Mosaics of Parenzo” Studies in Byzantium, Venice and the West (London, 1998) 239‐244. However, A. Terry has demonstrated that not all elements of the canopy were made of Prokonnesian marble in “The sculpture at the Cathedral of Eufrasius in Poreč” DOP 42 (1988) 12‐64. 308 W. Djorbadze, “Remains of a Byzantine Ambo and Church Furnishings in Họbi” AA (1984) 627‐639. 305
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story in which a seventh‐century bishop of Thenai in Byzancena, modern Tunisia, buys an altar canopy from a ship captain, confirms that trade of Aegean marble was active in the period.309 Canopy columns in Basilica A at Nea Anchialeos and Basilica B at Philippoi were made of local, Thessalian verde antico marble, yet they were not used immediately after being quarried, because marble quarries in Thessaly were under imperial control until the eighth century.310 In other words, local marble elements were first shipped to Constantinople, put in a stockyard and presumably registered by bookkeepers, and then returned to be used for altar canopies in Thessalian churches. Archaeological and textual evidence further suggests that even where the site of the church was itself abundant in marble, the altar canopy would have been made of imported marbles. The extant altar canopy from Paros has column shafts and capitals of Prokonnesian marble, though the island itself is rich in high‐quality Parian marble. Michael Choniates (Accominatus), brother of Nicetas Choniates and an archbishop of Athens (1175?‐1205) before it was seized by Crusaders in 1205, wrote that the altar canopy of the church of the Mother of God (Theotokos Atheniotissa) on the site of Parthenon in Athens was actually made of purple Egyptian porphyry, the most valued of all marbles in the Late Antique and Byzantine period (Cat. no. 88 cf. Cat. no. 47).311 Situated on the top of the Acropolis, a mound of white marble, the Athens
J.‐P. Sodini, “Marble and Stone Working in Byzantium; Seventh‐Fifteenth Centuries” in The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century ed. Angeliki E. Laiou (Washington, D.C., c2002) 129‐145, esp. 134. 310 Karagiorgou (2001) 194, has demonstrated that though marble stocking presupposes an organized, well‐developed and active trade system, stockyards indeed functioned in Late Antiquity as can be exemplified by Marmorata quarter in Rome and at Ostia. Despite the lack of explicit references that a similar system existed during Byzantine period, she has shown that some kind of stockyard for verde antico marble, and especially for relatively smaller and standardized objects did function in Constantinople possibly by the eighth century. 311 Four columns of porphyry with smaller columns of white marble were still in situ in 1687. K. M. Setton, “Athens in the Later Twelfth Century,” Speculum 19/2 (1944) 179‐207. Without excluding a hypothesis about taste, the insistence on the use of specific marbles may have also reflected the appreciation of certain marbles’ decorative qualities, as reflected in their price. Thus, we know that Egyptian purple porphyry and green porphyry from Krokeai in Lakonia ranged among the most valued (each 250 denarii/ft2), followed by Dokimian and yellow marble from Chemtou (200 denarii/ft2), verde antico (150 denarii/ft2) and ending with 309
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canopy of purple porphyry was imported to adorn the altar table of the Christianized site. The choice of marble for the canopy in Athens was most likely deliberate because we know that the Christians did not have any second thoughts when they used an elaborately carved seat from the Theater of Dionysus, made of ancient marble, for the bishop’s throne. There were also minimal changes to the exterior of the Parthenon when it became a church.312 Yet, such an ostentatious altar canopy set within the premises of one of the most famous Classical temples, confirms not only the significance the Parthenon church had in the Byzantine period but also the role of the canopy in signifying its Christian identity. The use of various marbles for canopies may have been the result of certain aesthetic standards, but may point to the centralized control of the building of religious edifices. Some legal regulations could have induced the use of certain marbles, because most quarries were under strict imperial control during the Early and Middle Byzantine period.313 Such a hypothesis concerning imperial control would potentially explain the almost standardized structural and visual appearance of known canopies throughout the Mediterranean basin until the Middle Byzantine period. Only some kind of imperial control and the standardization of both the elements and structural design of canopies can explain how a canopy from a sixth‐ century church on Paros closely resembles a Middle‐Byzantine canopy in the significantly smaller church in Kalabaka on the opposite side of Greece. The two altar canopies are related in size, construction, shape, decoration, and location within the sanctuary. What is even more fascinating is that both these canopies, like the majority of others, do not employ pendentives or squinches for the transition from the four
Prokonnesian, Lesbian, and the Sangarian marbles (40 denarii/ft2) at the lower price range. Diokletians Preisedikt. Lauffer, S. ed. (Berlin, 1971) 192‐3. 312 Setton (1944) 179‐207. 313 Karagiorgou (2001) 194; Sodini (c2002 ) 129‐145.
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columns to a domed roof, though by the sixth century Byzantine architects were demonstrably capable of building church domes on squinches and pendentives.314 Indeed, for the canopies from Paros and Kalabaka, there was no structural need for pendentives. However, we do know that the sixth‐century canopy, currently in the treasury of San Marco in Venice, which is significantly smaller than the above mentioned altar canopies has a dome on pendentives (Cat. no. 20), thus confirming that structural concerns cannot fully explain the way Byzantines built their canopies. Furthermore, most canopies the Byzantines used or depicted in their manuscripts are without pendentives or squinches, occasionally even without arches, but almost all of them have a flat plaque upon which a pyramidal or domical roof rests as a lid (Figs. 197, 224‐234, 237‐485). Therefore, those who made canopies and those who built churches, despite working on structurally similar architectonic forms – four‐columned structures with a roof – presumably were trained in different workshops.315 After the eleventh century, canopies continued to be built, many from spolia, and a significant number of new canopies from local material. Stylistic characteristics of these later canopies seemingly betray the main trends in the Byzantine tradition as known from the main centers and earlier periods. We are reminded that not a single canopy from Constantinople has been preserved in situ, and so direct comparisons are difficult to make. However, it is interesting to point just to two canopies identified by their arch fragments, today in the Archaeological and Byzantine museums in Istanbul and Athens, respectively (Cat. no. 166, Fig. 506). Both canopies have a border of acanthus leaves and human figures inserted in the arch; the fragments from the Athens’ canopy presumably belonged to tomb canopy.316 These canopies suggest even some new trends in the decorative treatment of canopies, up to then usually devoid of
S. Ćurčić, ʺDesign and Structural Innovation in Byzantine Architecture before Hagia Sophiaʺ in Hagia Sophia from the Age of Justinian to the Present, R. Mark and A. Çakmak, eds. (1992): 16‐ 38. 315 In the Middle‐Byzantine Book of the Prefect, XXII marble workers are distinguished from those who build domes and vaults. SD (1972) 206‐207. 316 Filed notes J. Bogdanović. 314
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human figures. Some of these later canopies that have survived either in photographs or in fragments, are usually treated as examples of local and non‐Byzantine trends, most explicably Western European. It has been only recently that canopies from the Adriatic Littoral, whose style had earlier been unconditionally attributed to Romanesque and Gothic trends in the Western Europe, have been related to wider trends within Byzantine church tradition. Other canopies such as the one over the bishop’s throne in the katholikon of the monastery dedicated to the Virgin in Gelati, Georgia, or the fourteenth‐century canopy currently constituting the minbar from St. Sophia in Ohrid, F.Y.R. of Macedonia (Cat. nos. 159, 176), cannot be so easily explained, and are usually examined as isolated examples of local significance.317 These later canopies, despite problematic stylistic analysis and obscure origins, testify to the canopy’s continual and copious use. Multiple canopies in the cathedral of St. Tryphon in Kotor, Montenegro, or in some Russian churches not only above altar tables, but also above ambos, tombs, phialai, icons, bishop thrones, even above sanctuary screens as in Bogolyubovo and Uspenski Sabor in Moscow Kreml,318 potentially represent a mirror‐image of similar trends in Constantinople, which we analyzed through the example of Hagia Sophia. Newcomers in the Byzantine Commonwealth presumably slavishly copied contemporary trends in the use of canopies from Byzantine churches. The greater variety in design, material and above all quality of artistic accomplishment, which is manifest in these later canopies, suggests the definite loss of imperial control over the production and distribution of liturgical furnishings throughout the Empire and its Christian neighbors, a trend which can be detected in the Early and Middle Byzantine periods.
Pazaras (1994) 251‐254, C. Grozdanov, “Prilozi proučavanju Sv. Sofije ohridske u XIV veku” ZLU 5 (1969) 49‐63; M. Radujko, “L’ ‘Ἀρχιερατικός θρὁνος’ des évêques de Moravica et la peinture de Saint‐Achille à Arilje“ CA 49 (2001) 143‐178; R. Mepisašvili, and T. Virsalaże, Gelati: arkitektura, mozaika, preskebi (Tbilsi, 1982) fig. 54. 318 Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122; Voronin (1961) 251‐258; Sterligova (2000) 360‐381. 317
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2.4 Concluding remarks: Canopies. Renewals of Continuity Our survey has recovered more than one hundred examples of three‐ dimensional canopies from an extensive geographical and chronological range in the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition confirming their wide and continual use (Table 7, Map 1). The majority of known monumental canopies are altar canopies, most of them dated to the period between the fifth and ninth centuries. Though not considered indispensable furnishings, seemingly various forms of canopies were continuously used from the earliest archaeologically verified Christian sites until the end of the Byzantine Empire. This is vividly exemplified by the third‐century baptistery canopy of Dura Europos, in modern Syria, and the fifteenth‐century canopy over a phiale in Thessaloniki, Greece (Cat. nos. 1, 183). Though these two canopies, one a half‐canopy on two columns and the other a full, four‐columned canopy, are significantly different in size, physical appearance and artistic quality, the form and decoration of most canopies throughout the Mediterranean basin, regardless of their primary function, are actually made within a narrow range of shapes. Byzantine canopies are usually centrally planned structures, most often with four columns with capitals which carry four arches that support the flat stone slab cut in the center to receive the heavy pyramidal or domical roof as a lid (Fig. 196). Within a Byzantine church and its subsidiary spaces, canopies were located at several significant locations (Figs. 198, 199; Table 7). Arcosolia, canopy‐like installations in Christian houses and fully developed canopies sheltered baptismal basins since the third century (Cat. nos. 1, 9, 28‐29, 36‐37,45‐46, 55, 58‐59, 66, 72, 98, 107, 115, 136, 151, 156, 183). Similar installations sheltered saints’ relics and tombs of privileged individuals (Cat. nos. 4, 23, 33, 67, 99, 124, 133, 165‐166, 171, 182, 185, Figs. 510‐511). In the altar space, canopies sheltered the holy table at least from the fifth century (Cat. nos. 2‐3, 5‐8, 10‐12, 14‐19, 21‐22, 24‐25, 27, 30‐31, 34‐35, 38‐42, 47‐54, 56‐ 58, 60‐65, 67‐71, 73‐88, 90‐97, 100‐106, 108‐114, 116‐124, 127‐132, 134, 138‐141, 146‐147, 149‐150, 152‐153, 157‐158, 174‐175, 178‐179, 185‐186, 190‐191). Archaeologically
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confirmed since the tenth century and potentially dating from even earlier, canopy‐ like installations were used in conjunction with specially venerated icons (proskynetaria icons) (Cat. nos. 135, 145, 154, 160‐162, 168‐171, 173, 180‐181). After the eight and ninth centuries the ceremony of blessing of water in a separate phiale was performed in the church atrium under the canopies located over holy water fonts,319 although eleventh‐century canopy from the monastery of St. George of Mangana in Constantinople is the earliest ascertained example to verify such a practice in Constantinople (Cat. no. 136). At least since the sixth century canopies were occasionally situated above the ambos (Cat. nos. 13, 43‐44, 148). Canopies over bells and bishops’ thrones also existed in Middle and Late Byzantine churches (Cat. nos. 126, 159, 163, 176?). In the fourteenth century a canopy from Hagia Sophia, believed to have been made of Noah’s ark, was venerated as a relic itself. Therefore, contemporaries occasionally understood canopies not only as mere shelters of the objects they enclosed, but as objects with a potential sacred significance in their own right. The majority of known canopies were made of fine‐quality stone or of silver. Some canopies were cast in bronze and iron and decorated with gems, semi‐precious stones and glass, and sometimes were gilded. Wooden canopies may have been more common, though only a few later examples have survived. When canopies were made of wood, it is likely that many of them would have been sheathed in silver or other precious materials. The choice of marble and silver for canopies suggests that canopies belonged to especially valued furnishings. The use of polychromy and decorative patterns is also revealing in this regard. Occasionally, still visible traces of color and gold on both canopy exterior and interior confirm the special care given to their physical appearance as well as the potential continuity with classical sculpture and architecture, which were also painted. Later examples that survive richly decorated and painted with figurative images and narratives from the Scriptures as in
Millet (1905) 104‐141.
319
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Kalabaka, Sveti Choveli in Mcheta or in Coptic churches presumably emphasized the special sacredness of the space they enclosed within the church premises. The repertoire of designs for canopy members is surprisingly homogenous for canopies of different kind and canopies found in geographically distant areas. The formulaic execution of canopies can be explained by some kind of standardization of elements and diffusion of technical and stylistic solutions. Indeed, the suggested difference in production and distribution of church furnishings in the period after the Iconoclastic Controversy most effectively explains the demonstrable decline in the overall quality of canopies in the later periods. Within this apparent decline of imperial control over the production of canopies, the constant insistence on generic and formulaic motifs, even when the artisans were obviously less skilled and the material used spolia or new material often of lesser quality, suggests yet another parallel phenomenon – the emphasis on the historical continuity of the present with the sacred past, both Christian and pre‐Christian. This continuity within discontinuity can be exemplified by our opening tenth‐century account on the altar canopy from Paros, which clearly draws parallels between the Christian and ancient, pagan past.320 The formulaic and almost generic repertoire of canopy decoration can be observed in the image of the canopy as a whole as in the smallest details. The analysis of the decorative motifs that most often occur on canopies suggests that their pre‐ Christian origins should be sought in both the Hellenistic and Old Testament past, often overlooked in the symbolic analysis of Byzantine accomplishments. If made of marble, canopies are often distinguished by special carving on their elements, like spirally fluted or double‐knotted columns. Spirally fluted and double‐knotted columns have been already associated with the columns from Solomon’s temple.321
Recently, Sodini (c2002) 129‐145, esp. 145, has also observed an insistence on homogenous motifs in marble and stone carving in Byzantium until the fifteenth century, suggesting that it was the result of the Byzantium’s rooting itself in a dignified past and investing itself with magical associations. 321 J. B. Ward Perkins, “The Shrine of St. Peter and Its Twelve Spiral Columns” JRS 42/1‐2 (1952) 21‐33; R. Haussherr, “Templum Salomonis und Ecclesia Christi: Zu einem Bildvergleich der 320
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Usually carved on three or four sides, basket capitals of the columns are most often of Corinthian or Composite variety, both with acanthus leaves. Arches of canopies can be also decorated with a twisting acanthus design or interlaced and braid rope patterns in relief. Acanthus leaves, the so‐called “Solomon knot,”322 and other various rope‐like motifs, as well as generic motifs of palmettes, lilies, quadrupeds, usually lions, and affronted winged creatures, usually birds and griffins are occasionally recognized on canopies. Though generic, pillars of acacia, palmettes, lilies, ropes, affronted winged creatures and lions are related to the framing and thresholds of sacred space.323 For example, interlace and rope designs are frequently used on church elements that define liminal zones such as doors, sanctuary screens, and proskynetaria, and are apotropaic, because they guarded thresholds of sacred space.324
Bible moralisée” ZKunstg 31/2 (1968) 101‐121; I. Kalavrezou‐Maxeiner, “The Byzantine Knotted Column” ByzMetabyz 4 (1985) 95‐103. 322 G. Dēmētrokallis in his “Λακωνικοί λημνίσκοι” LS 16 (2002) 229‐248, with 40 figures, provides an excellent overview of the geometric motif of the Solomon knot, also called the Shield of David, recognizable as a six‐pointed star as it appears in Byzantine architecture, with a brief reference to the same motif in Jewish synagogues. Dēmētrokallis suggests that the motif had magical power and as such was widely used in Constantinople and spread through Peloponesos in the eleventh century. 323 On the wide spread of the mentioned vegetative and rope motifs in Classical, Byzantine and Islamic art see: A. Frantz, “Byzantine Illuminated Ornament: A Study of Chronology” ArtB 16 (1934) 43‐76; J. Trilling, “Medieval Interlace Ornament: The making of a Cross‐Cultural Idiom” ArsM 9/2 (1995) 59‐86. On the significance of birds and lions on canopies see Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122 and Preradović‐ Petrović (2002) 247‐264, where they emphasized the significance of the Scriptures and Old Testament narrative for their interpretation. The birds and peacocks are related to resurrection and paradisiac themes. The motif of a lion, which is only twice mentioned in the New Testament ‐‐ I Peter 5:8, when it is compared with the devil and Revelation 5:5 when Christ is compared with the lion from the tribe of Juda ‐‐ is attributed to Christ, but can also refer to a notion of human will and a choice between evil and good. 324 Trilling (1995) 59‐86; Boura (1977‐79) 63‐72. Entwined rope motif is pertinent to the sanctuary screens in Georgian churches, as well, though it has been shown that having only one access to the apse, instead of two or three, they differed from Byzantine and Slavic examples. Mepisashvili and Vakhtang (1977) 224ff. For the reference on the use of interlace patters in Late Byzantine churches both in the interior and exterior as well as for church furnishing see: Trkulja (2004) 74‐87, where she suggests that rope design, which she calls the “cable motif,” is usually used for the framing of windows and other elements in a church, and points out that the same motif was used for the arch of the fourteenth‐century canopy from Hagia Sophia in Ohrid.
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Similarly, winged creatures like griffins are also connected with the thresholds of treasuries.325 Without going into further analysis of the symbolism of all motifs, it is important that these motifs are also recognizable from the narratives of the Scriptures related to the structural elements and decoration of Solomon’s temple (cf. 1 Kgs. 7, 2 Chr. 3) and the desert tabernacle made of four pillars of acacia overlaid with gold, upon four bases of silver (cf. Ex. 26:32). The fragmentary inscription on the ninth‐ century canopy from the church of Archangel Michael in Prevlaka (Cat. no. 100), in modern Croatia, refers to the propitiation and the veil of the Ark of Covenant (cf. Ex. 25:17‐22, 26:1‐37; Heb. 9, 5).326 Inscriptions preserved on some canopies suggest certain aesthetic, emotional, proprietary, propaganda, but above all religious concerns (Cat. nos. 94, 96‐100, 127, 143‐144, 166, 181, cf. Fig. 411; Table 6).327 These inscriptions quite frequently combine references to the divine and eternal with the personal and contemporary. They are invocations in form and inseparable from the Byzantine belief that the historical moment and person mentioned should be “re‐created” within sacred history and
For the meaning of griffins as guardians of treasures see: L. Boura, The Griffin through the Ages (Athens, 1983). For the use of the motif of the gryphon in Late Byzantine funerary context: S. Ćurčić, “Some Uses (and Reuses) of Griffins in Late Byzantine Art” in ByzELatinW (1995) 597‐601. For the general overview of the motif of a gryphon and its conection with solar motif in pagan and Judeo‐Christian context: RAC vol 10. s.v. Grief. On the connection between lion and gryphon see: B. Goldman, “The Development of the Lion‐Griffin” AJA 64/4 (1960) 319‐ 328. 326 The inscription reads: PROPISIAATORIVUM AD ONORE BEAT I Michaelis … Vežić (2001‐ 02) 91‐122, esp. 112, with reference to work by V. Delonga Hrvati i Karolinzi (Split, 2000) 131. 327 The sixth‐century canopy from S. Marco in Venice, ninth‐century canopy from Ulcinj, Montenegro, and canopy from the Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey) have formualaic votive inscriptions. The now lost inscription on the altar canopy from Hagia Sophia, publicly announced the restoration of images and the orthodoxy of Byzantine Emperors. Other inscriptions remain in fragments, but their excerpts suggest formulaic invocations and prayers. A leaf from the thirteenth‐century Armenian manuscript [Entry into Jerusalem, The T’oros Roslin Gospels, Armenian, 1262, The Walters Art Museum, Ms. W. 539 f. 174 r.] also reveals a canopy‐like structure with the inscription on its eaves, suggestion that inscriptions on Byzantine and Byzantine‐inspired canopies might have been more common than we can assume today. The Book of Kings. Art, War, and the Morgan Library’s Medieval Picture Bible eds. W. Noeal and D. Weiss (Baltimore and London, 2002) 127, fig. 8. 325
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among those who already entered the divine realm, which exists in perpetuity. To support this observation we shall turn to the longest surviving inscription, the one from the Ulcinj canopy, which roughly reads: … (in the glory of the Lord) our Saviour Jesus Christ for the salvation of (the soul?‐ J.B.) of my (wife?) Gusma … in front of the Lord and Lamb … because this structure was made at the time of our pious lords perpetual Augusti (Emperors ‐ J.B.) lords Leo and Constantine (English transl. J.B.).328 Among the most fascinating inscription is composed of a series of three inscribed disks on the interior of one of the four arches of a Byzantine canopy from Pantokrator Monastery, today comprising the minbar in Zeyrek camii (Cat. no. 144‐ a).329 Roundels with monograms were quite frequently used in Byzantine art and architecture at least since the sixth century, and can be seen occasionally on canopies depicted in Byzantine art.330 Although I was not able to reconstruct the entire
The following translation follows the main lines of the translation offered by M. Lončar in Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122, and by Preradović‐Petrović (2002) 247‐264. In addition to anachronistic use of Latin, the conservative local populace anachronistically used the title Augustos instead of title Basileos, widely used in the ninth century. In the ninth‐ century church in Martinići the surviving inscription on the sanctuary barrier is a combination of Greek and Latin suggesting the trend in the wider region. Korać (2001) fig. 71. 329 I am thankful to Prof. R. Ousterhout for allowing me to use his photographs of the interior of the canopy from the Pantokrator monastery which will be published for the first time in his upcoming article on spolia from the Pantokrator (article in preparation). 330 Some of the earliest studied monograms in roundels are from the sixth‐century ivory dyptichs sent by a Byzantine emperor to his consuls. These ivories depict enthroned consuls set in architectural framing with the roundel with a monogram bearing the consul’s name above his figure. N. Netzer, “Redating the Consular Ivory of Orestes” BM 125/962 (1983) 265‐ 271, figs 10‐15. Roundels with monograms are used in the mosaics of Hagia Sophia, flanking tenth‐century Emperor Alexander, the third son of Emperor Basil I and brother of Empror Leo VI: P. A. Underwood and E. J. W. Hawkins, “The Mosaics of Hagia Sophia at Istanbul. The Portrait of the Emperor Alexander” DOP 15 (1961) 187‐218, figs. 4‐5. Roundels with monograms engraved in stone elements of churches, usually on lintels above entrances, columns, and spandrels, are attested throughout the Byzantine Empire, as in the widely known sixth‐century church in Paros, Hagia Sophia and Chora monastery in Constantinople, early fourteenth‐century H. Apostoloi in Thessaloniki, or the almost unknown fourteenth‐century church of St. John the Theologian in Poganovo, which bears medallions with inscribed names of the saint, and of certain nobility Konstantin and Jelena, presumably ktetors of the church. An interesting example is the arch fragment presumably from the marble canopy from St. Demeterios church in Thessaloniki, with a roundel with the inscription related to the healing myron from St. Demetrios’ shrine. Field notes J. Bogdanović. For the monograms on canopies 328
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inscription from Pantokrator, the first two roundels, when read clockwise, as seems correct to me, provide an invocation and prayer Κύριε βοήθει τῷ δούλῷ … (Lord save your servant …), followed by a personal name.331 Thought the name was indecipherable, the inscription was clearly intended to personalize the sacred space of the canopy. The entire inscription is only on one arch of the canopy, today set as the eastern arch of the minbar, which I would suggest was originally the same location in the Christian canopy. The inscribed prayer framed both by the roundels and the canopy, which initially may have framed the Eucharistic mysteries performed on the altar table, seemingly conceals complex emotional, religious and semantic meanings. The inscription set in the interior was not meant to be seen and read by everyone, but was kept hidden only for those initiated, presumably priests, who would not defile its power and would vocalize the dialogue with the divine, when facing East. The prayer inscribed in three roundels with cruciform monograms was meant to be pronounced syllable by syllable. In the first roundel the monogram bears the inscription “Κύ‐ρ‐ιε βο‐(ή)‐θ‐ει,” which is read starting from the “Κύ” at “nine‐ o’clock” and going clockwise. If my reading is correct, the inscription on the second roundel (τῷ δούλῷ) picks up at “twelve‐o’clock” and finishes with the name in the third roundel starting at “three‐o’clock.”332 Reading crosswise and clockwise
see the one on the top of the lintel on the icon canopy from the church of Metropolis in Mystra or even depictions of canopies in manuscripts and textiles (Cat. no. 181, Figs. 411, 453). 331 I have consulted W. O. Fink’s Das byzantinische Monogramm (Diss., Universität Wien, 1971) for the possible visual analogy of the monograms from the Pantokrator monastery and monograms he collected which bear names of Byzantine Emperors and various invocations. However, though I think that the first two monograms are the beginning of a formulaic invocation widely used from the sixth to the sixteenth centuries, the only name which comes close to the monogram in the third roundel is “Alexios,” which was common among the Komneni family, but not related to the church of Pantokrator. This problem certainly deserves further attention. 332 Unfortunately, the arch of the canopy has been cut on the sides in order to conform to its new function as a minbar, and the beginning letter of the third roundel is illegible. However, it is interesting to remark that this kind of “clockwise” reading can be followed on the two mosaic disks with monograms flanking Emperor Alexander on his right‐hand side, and bearing the similar invocation “Κύριε βο(ή)θει (τῷ σῷ) δού(λ)ῷ” in the first roundel and “ὀρθοδόξῷ” in the second. For the image of the inscription and its decipherment from Hagia
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corresponds to the priest’s movements and actions during the liturgy. The cross comprised of words conforms to the priest’s making of the sign of cross with the Gospel book over the altar. The action of reading the entire three‐circled prayer clockwise, or in other words “sunwise,” concurs with the circular movement of the priest walking three times around the altar during the liturgical services.333 Facing east and standing at the foot of the altar table the priest would make an act of remembrance of the person whose name is inscribed on the canopy during the liturgical service. The invocations are usually in a series of three. Each of three times, the priest would start yet another circular movement of the prayer from the three inscribed disks. Following the proposed key, the prayer for an individual intertwines with liturgical service. Through the overarching divine symbolism of cross and disk, Christ and sun, the secret and mystical sense of the text as the “prayer of the mind,” the total symbolism of the canopy expands into the divine mysteries presented on the altar table, which reveal the canopy to be a symbol of the Byzantine Church and a microcosm of Divine Creation. Even when the inscriptions on canopies are absolutely illegible as in the case of the so‐called pseudo‐Kufic motifs used on canopy frames of the proskynetaria icons common in Greece in the tenth and eleventh centuries334 and even on the canopy in the scene of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple as in the mosaic from Hosios Loukas (Fig. 343),335 they seem to me to surpass mere decorative and apotropaic function. Both inscriptions and representations on the architectural elements of Byzantine churches
Sophia see: Underwood and Hawkins (1961) 187‐218, esp. 192, figs. 4‐5. For the fascinating comparanda with the “counterclockwise” reading of texts inscribed on New Ritualist Russian icons (17th‐19th c) and the significance of text for the religious experience see: O. Tarasov, Icon and Devotion (London, 2002) 252‐254, figs. 110‐111, where he particularly examines Loginov’s icon Resurrection of Christ, which also has a cruciform inscription in a roundel. Tarasov proposes a counterclockwise “Baroque” key for its reading, though I would suggest, it is in a way “inverted” Byzantine reading, which conforms with the changes of the rituals of the New Believers in Imperial Russia. 333 According the the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom. 334 Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, esp. 110. 335 Filed notes: J. Bogdanović.
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often have a definite meaning, exemplified by the now lost straight‐forward inscription on the sacred images from the silver altar canopy in Hagia Sophia, restored after the Iconoclastic Controversy, when the restoration of Orthodoxy was announced on the inscription on the canopy. Other generic motifs, most likely pseudo‐Kufic motifs, though intelligible, also carried some deeper religious and spiritual meanings. Pseudo‐Kufic letters are occasionally found represented not only on the images of canopies representing the Temple as in the eleventh‐century mosaic from Hosios Loukas (Fig. 343), but also on the cloak of the Old Testament High Priest as in the early fourteenth‐century fresco depicting Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple from the Hilandar katholikon (Fig. 466).336 Pseudo‐Kufic script on canopies which are, we are reminded, church furnishings, should be rather understood as pseudo‐Hebrew, and related not to the Byzantines’ attempts to write in Arabic, but to represent visually similar Hebrew texts, which were equally foreign to the Greek speaking Byzantines, but nevertheless had remained an integral part of their services.337 The sacredness of inscriptions and exclamations related to canopies, though occasionally illegible or obscure, extended the aura of antiquity. These concluding remarks on the significance of inscriptions on canopies suggest the significant role of canopies in the Byzantine tradition and the complex question of their origins and function.
In addition, we can occasionally see “undulating” pseudo‐Slavonic inscriptions imitating “foreign” script on the cloak of the Old Testament High Priest (Fig. 444). 337 The most obvious reference is the liturgical use of the words “Hosanna in the highest” from the Seraphic hymn, which come from the Hebrew Bible and were incorporated into the Greek Septuagint, without translation and then within the liturgy at least by the mid‐fourth century. M. M. Solovey, The Byzantine Divine Liturgy. History and Commentary. Trans. D. E. Wysochansky (Washington, DC, 1970) 226‐229. G. C. Miles has already shown that from a plethora of pseudo‐Kufic inscriptions from the Byzantine period only a couple of them are actually written in Arabic, and furthermore, none of these can be associated with Byzantine ecclesiastical objects or architecture: “Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area” DOP 18 (1964) 1‐32. Though at this point I cannot demonstrate further that the pseudo‐Kufic inscriptions occasionally seen in Byzantine images of the Presentation into Temple are actually pseudo‐Hebrew, it is interesting to compare my suggestion with attested Hebrew lettering from Isaiah in some early Renaissance paintings of the Presentation into Temple. D. Haitovsky, “A New Look at a Lost Painting: The Hebrew Inscription in Lorenzo Costaʹs ʺPresentation in the Templeʺ AH 15/29 (1994) 111‐120. 336
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* Canopies were not a Byzantine invention. Canopies over objects of worship and statues of divinities were widely used in Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman traditions.338 The Byzantines knew about these structures, and occasionally some of these ancient canopies are crucial for the examination of the survival or modifications of some ideas related to the concept of canopies used by the Byzantine Greeks. Not a monolithic construct, the Byzantine Empire significantly changed over its thousand‐ year history both territorially and demographically, alerting us to possible coeval cultural interactions among the Greeks, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Russians and other peoples who were in direct contact with the Byzantine Christianity and appropriated canopies as integral parts of their churches.339 Surviving later canopies in Orthodox churches in the Balkans, for example, are stylistically mostly Baroque and Neo‐Classical objects but are usually separated by and from humanist vocabulary and related to Oriental and more precisely Ottoman furniture.340 The decline of production of monumental church furnishings including stone canopies is often related to the emergence of wooden carved canopies presumably under the influence of high‐quality Ottoman woodwork.341 However, our evidence from the Byzantine realm confirms that wooden canopies had already existed before Ottoman conquest. The stylistic dependence of wooden furniture in the Ottoman architecture and post‐Byzantine churches is an entirely separate question, which has never been juxtaposed, for example, with already noticed similar stylistic interactions between the so‐called proto‐Byzantine and proto‐Romanesque canopies in the Adriatic Littoral. More recent examples of canopies from post‐Byzantine churches support my hypothesis concerning the continual use of canopies, and About canopies in ancient traditions concisely: B. E. Smith (1956) 107‐129. Field notes J. Bogdanović. 340 See for example: R. F. Hoddinott, “The Tradition of Wood Carving in Macedonia” BM 96/618 (1954) 278‐283. In contrast, Baroque looking canopies in churches in west‐northern parts of the Balkans are related to church furniture introduced under Catholic reform. Field notes J. Bogdanović. 341 Sodini (c2002) 129‐145. 338 339
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previous notions about their limited use and role in Byzantine churches must be superseded. Moreover, these later canopies could have been developed directly from Byzantine canopies and could have extended a much older tradition, rather than being simply re‐introduced into Orthodox churches as a consequence of the general intellectual and theological trends concerning the use and meaning of church canopies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as typified by Bernini’s famous baldacchino in St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.342 In Part Two of the dissertation, we will examine how some notions of already observed trends of “Byzantine humanism” and “revivals” are closely intertwined with the role of canopies in the definition of the sacred. By raising questions about places of human encounter with the sacred, we will examine the role of canopies in understanding Byzantine humanism and its dependence on observed conflating processes with Hellenistic and Jewish traditions, which are historically closely related to Byzantine Christian tradition. Various anachronistic phenomena that accompany our perception of Byzantine canopies most concisely can be explained almost paradoxically by constant renewals of continuity in the use and meaning of canopies. Whether we can also trace these apparent changes and discontinuities within the Byzantine sense of continuity by focusing on places that canopies define, as introduced by the example of the canopy from Pantokrator, is a separate question, which calls for a thematic, rather than chronological examination of canopies.
On the influence of Bernini’s canopy for those in Counter‐Reformation Europe see, for example: Kirwin (c1997) 189‐233.
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Part II THE CANOPY AND THE HUMAN BODY
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Chapter 3 The ciborium represents here the place where Christ was crucified; for the place where He was buried was nearby and raised on a base. It is placed in the church in order to represent concisely the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of Christ. It similarly corresponds to the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord in which, it is written, is His Holy of Holies and His holy place. Next to it God commanded that two wrought Cherubim be placed on either side (cf. Exod. 25:18) ‐ for KIB is the ark, and OURIN is the effulgence, or the light, of God. Germanos, patriarch of Constantinople (d. 733) in his Ecclesiastical History and Mystical Contemplation, on the altar canopy343
Germanos (1984) 58‐59.
343
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In the eighth century, in order to explain the altar canopy in a Byzantine church Germanos, Patriarch of Constantinople (715‐730), combines two highly complex theological symbols subtly intertwined with the notion of the place of the sacred. The altar canopy, according to Germanos, is a symbol for the place of Christ’s death and Resurrection, tangibly materialized in the church space (note the reference “here”). At the same time, the altar canopy is related to the Ark of the Covenant, the most sacred object in the Holy of Holies, which disappeared at the time of the destruction of the First Temple, but was vividly preserved by written tradition (“it is written”).344 Germanos confirms that a canopy was considered a regular part of ecclesiastical furniture, despite the generally accepted scholarly notion that relatively massive furniture like canopies were absent from Middle and Late Byzantine churches due to their increasingly smaller dimensions when compared with Early Christian basilicas.345 Nevertheless, as late as the fifteenth century Symeon of Thessaloniki wrote in his De Sacro Templo about the altar canopy in the Byzantine church.346 The spatial organization and physical appearance of sanctuaries and the location of altar canopies, indeed, differed in pre‐Iconoclastic churches and became more‐or‐less standardized in the post‐Iconoclastic period.347 However, this notion does not imply that altar and other church canopies were also standardized, nor does it exclude the possibility that various sizes and forms of canopies, including symbolic, two‐ dimensional canopies, continued to be used.
About the destruction of the First Temple: Meek (1995) 34‐35. See also the reference to the scholarly notion of the disappearance of the ambos from the Middle Byzantine churches as suggested by C. Mango, “The Life of St. Andrew the Fool Reconsidered” RSBS 2 (1982) 297–313, esp. 302. A recent re‐assessment of such views has been provided by A. Kazhdan, “A Note on the ‘Middle Byzantine’ Ambo” Byz 57/2 (1987) 422‐426, and by U. Peschlow, “Der mittelbyzantinische Ambo aus archäologischer Sicht” in Thymiama (Athens, 1994) 255‐260. 346 Sym. Thess. De Sacro Templo. PG 155, ch.101 col. 309D, ch.133 col. 341B‐C. 347 See, for example: ECBA (1986) 331‐334; C. Mango, Byzantine Architecture (Milan and New York, 1985 [c. 1978]) 249. 344 345
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The historical context of Byzantine views on altar canopies and the surviving archaeological and other material evidence on canopies in Byzantine churches do not necessarily overlap and occasionally reveal the most fascinating anachronisms and generally unnoticed interrelations between canopies and other architectural elements of the Byzantine church. Following Germanos’ words, we will first examine altar canopies before and at the time of Germanos. At least three different and only remotely related ideas may have resulted in more‐or‐less similar architectural solutions for altar canopies and their spatial setting and significance in a Byzantine church. First, we will examine altars and tombs covered by canopies as known from the pagan tradition and then how they were appropriated into complex installations of Christian altar canopies. Then, we will briefly turn our attention to the phenomenon of tetrapylia and tetrakionia known from Roman civic architecture and their importance to the development of four‐columned canopies and four‐columned churches. Finally, we will examine the significance of church spaces symbolizing the presence of God and how they were framed by canopies, by investigating in particular the symbolism of the Ark of Covenant and the Throne of Lord flanked by cherubim. This last model examined through the example of the altar canopy of Hagia Sophia, the cathedral church of Constantinople, will re‐introduce the question of the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem and its role in the definition of the altar canopy in the Byzantine church. The narrative of Christ’s incarnation, resurrection and kingship in heaven – all embodied in the locus of the Tomb of Christ – represents the very core of the Byzantine interpretation of the mysteries performed at the altar and of the promises of the afterlife. This theology became firmly established after the Iconoclastic Controversy.348 Germanos’ explanation is bound to its historical context in the Iconoclastic Controversy, when the influences of Islam and a number of Christian doctrines, which rejected material images and the human nature of Christ, culminated in short‐term
Germanos (1984) 16‐54.
348
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imperial promotions of Iconoclasm (730‐787 and 813‐843).349 An iconophile, who was disdained and exiled from Constantinople during the first Iconoclastic crisis, Germanos actually re‐asserted the Early Christian explanation about the meaning of the altar canopy as the place of Christ’s Crucifixion and burial and its relation to the Ark of the Covenant, which St. Basil offered already in the fourth century.350 Rhetorical images of altar canopies are complex and metaphorical, and do not make explicit references to any form. Yet, they propose the question whether the canopy was visually or spatially related to what it symbolized, the traditional sites in Jerusalem of Christ’s Crucifixion, burial and Resurrection and the believed place of the Lord in the Holy of Holies. A connecting thread for understanding this question, I would propose, is the role of human ministry of Christ and the role of human body.
For good overviews: Haldon and Brubaker (2001); C. Mango “Historical Introduction” in Iconoclasm (1975) 1‐6; R. Taft, The Byzantine Rite: A Short History (Collegeville, Minn., c. 1992) 42; L. Barnard, “The Theology of Images” in Iconoclasm (1975) 7‐13; H. Ahrweiler, “The Geography of the Iconoclastic World” in Iconoclasm (1975) 21‐27; S. Gero, Byzantine Iconoclasm During the Reign of Leo III. With particular attention to the oriental sources (Louvain, 1974); L.W. Barnard, The Graeco‐Roman and Oriental Background of the Iconoclastic Controversy (Leiden, 1974); R. Cormack, “The Arts During The Age of Iconoclasm,” in Iconoclasm (1975) 35‐44; K. Parry, Depicting the Word. Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries (Leiden, New York and Köln, 1996) 178‐181; L. Ouspensky, “Icon and Art,” in Christian Spirituality. Origins to the Twelfth Century, B. McGinn and J. Meyendorff, eds. (New York, 1987) 382‐394; S. Gero, “What Were the Holy Images of the Iconoclasts?” OCA 260 (2000): 331‐343. 350 See: Table 1, T.22. 349
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3.1 Canopies, Saints’ Tombs and Relics And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for the testimony which they held. Rev. 6:9 One of the crucial questions for our understanding of altar canopies is their relation to the sacred relics – the bodily remains of the martyrs and saints. In a Byzantine church the altar table and sacred relics are closely associated concepts, yet, their spatial links involve a controversial question about the relationship between the altar and the tomb. Without attempting any detailed investigation of whether the canopy framed initially the altar or the tomb, the question of how Christian altar‐ tombs sheltered by canopies came into being remains crucial. Despite the lack of archeological evidence, knowledge of Christian canopy‐like architectural structures can be traced in the fourth century. Free‐standing aediculae commissioned by Emperor Constantine I (d. 337) and his heirs sheltered the tomb of the Apostle Peter in the basilica martyrium of St. Peter (begun c. 319‐22, finished c. 333) and the Tomb of Christ (325/6‐c. 335) at Jerusalem, to mention the best known examples.351 These shrines initially functioned as burial markers and eternal houses. They marked important loca sancta and pilgrimage sites soon after being established, but originally they were not meant to function within a church or to shelter the altar. Such solutions would have been consistent with the older funerary traditions and current laws. Jewish and ancient Greek altars were used for animal sacrifices and generally did not appear in funerary contexts. The only exceptions among the Greeks were the altars erected in honor of the heroicized dead.352 Until the fourth century the pagans might choose aedicule‐ and canopy‐like tombs, as well as the so‐called funerary altars, either with a flat top or with architectural crowning elements, from a wide variety of See for example: A. Grabar, Martyrium (London, 1972) 29‐43, 141‐152, chs. 4 and 5. D. C. Kurtz and and J. Boardman, Greek Burial Customs (Ithaca, N.Y., [1971]) 301‐302.
351 352
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tomb types. Two examples of centrally planned Roman mausolea, which were topped by a canopy‐like structure, the mausoleum of the Julii at St. Rémy in France (c. 30‐20 BCE) and the tomb of the Istacidii at Pompeii (79 CE), confirm the fact that a canopy might have symbolized or actually sheltered the tomb (Figs. 512‐513).353 When reduced to the simplest form with four columns or four arches standing at ground level and supporting a canopy, this type of tomb monument, like the late Roman mausoleum at Dana in Syria (Fig. 514), most closely resembled an indoor canopy that sheltered some pagan shrines and later Christian ones.354 In any case, canopy‐like tombs as well as funerary altars were burial markers rather than places of sacrifices.355 Only rarely do we learn that the remains of the deceased were placed in funerary altars.356 Until the end of the fourth century two ceremonies might have been performed at venerated Christian tombs: first the offerings of food and wine provided by the faithful for funerary banquets, the refrigerium, following pagan practices of the Parentalia; and second, the celebration of the Eucharist, symbolizing the sacrifice of Christ for whom the martyr died.357 We know that some pagan altars were surmounted by canopies to shelter a sacrifice and offerings placed on or below the
Over 19m high, the mausoleum of the Julii consists of a square base, reared in steps, an intermediate storey and a “canopy” of twelve Corinthian columns sheltering the statues of the deceased. Since there is no burial chamber found at this “tomb,” it was probably designed as a memorial. The so‐called Pompeian canopy tomb of the Istacidii was raised on a small terrace and surrounded by a balustrade. Its rectangular base was decorated with half‐engaged columns that gave it the look of a pseudo‐peripteral temple with a vaulted burial chamber with niches cut in the inner walls. The upper structure of the tomb was a colonnaded “canopy.” E. D’Ambra, Roman Art (Cambridge, 1998) 115‐117; A. Mau, Pompeii. Its Life and Art (New York, 1982) 411; R. Marta, Architettura Romana. (Rome, 1985) 176‐183; J. M.C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World (Ithaca, New York, 21996) 125‐130; H. Colvin, Architecture and the After‐Life (New Haven and London, 1991) 50‐100. 354 J. S. Curl, A Celebration of Death (New York, 1980) 32‐33. 355 D. E. E. Kleiner, Roman Imperial Funerary Altars with Portraits (Rome, 1987) 21. 356 Toynbee (1996) 62‐63. 357 Toynbee (1996) 379‐414 with references. 353
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altar for the refrigerium office.358 In the late fourth and early fifth centuries, church leaders like St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan and St. John the Chrysostom, patriarch of Constantinople, strongly opposed such practice at Christian tombs, confirming that such practice was widespread.359 Moreover, until the mid‐fourth century laws prohibited the violation of tombs, including those of saints, which were to be venerated in situ, i.e. around their tombs.360 Almost concurrently, by the early 350s, we learn that remains of St. Babylas, a bishop and martyr from Antioch, were moved less than ten kilometers from his tomb to a martyrium built in his honor.361 The martyrium was in the shape of a four‐columned structure, a tetrapylon (Fig. 515). This practice was not received sympathetically by Christian leaders and posed ethical and judicial questions. However, the translation of St. Babylas’ relics initiated by the populace was followed by the imperial translation of the relics of St. Timothy, St. Andrew and St. Luke to Constantinople and their deposition at the Church of the Holy Apostles after 356‐357 (Cat. no. 70).362 From the 380s onwards, we learn of the translation of saintly relics to be deposited below altar
Until the end of the fourth century the refrigerium, following pagan practices of the Parentalia, were included in Christian funerary practices. The character of Christian refrigeria is known both from the inscriptions and from the early Christian writings. More in: R. Krautheimer, “Mensa‐coemeterium‐martyrium.” CA 11 (1960) 17‐40; M.T. Smith, “The Development of the Altar Canopy in Rome,” RACr 50 (1974) 379‐414 with references. 359 H.‐J. Schulz, The Byzantine Liturgy (New York, 1986) 14‐20, 150‐159. St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo (354‐430) remarked much earlier that: In Africa she [Augustine’s mother] had been accustomed to make offerings of pottage, bread and wine at the tombs of the martyrs. When she attempted to do the same here [Milan], she was prevented by the doorkeeper; but as soon as she learned that it was the bishop who had forbidden the practice she complied in so devoted and obedient a spirit that I marveled at the attitude she had so readily adopted... St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo. The works of St. Augustine, The Confessions book IV 2.2. (New York, 1997). 360 C. Mango, “Constantine’s Mausoleum and the Translation of Relics” BZ 83 I (1990) 51‐61, with references to Byzantine laws by Emperor Constans: violation sepulcri 349, reiterated the law from 333 Codex Theodosiani, 9.17.4, ‘De Sepulchri Violati,’ [Theodosiani Libri XVI, T. Mommsen and P. M. Meyer eds., 2 vols. (Berlin, 1905), i. 466]. Emperor Justinian also issed the same laws in Cod.Just. 9.19.4. 361 Mango (1990) 51‐61. 362 Mango (1990) 51‐61; Downey (1957) 855‐924. 358
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tables all around the Mediterranean – from Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, to Italy and Gaul.363 By that time the theologians had already acknowledged that the relics were not to be understood as the particles of dead bodies but as the proof of saintly triumph over death, referring to the narrative of the book of Revelation (6:9).364 This notion played a role in the Iconoclastic crisis and theological debates until the end of the Byzantine Empire and certainly impacted the church planning.365 We will first examine the relationship between the saintly tomb and the altar in the well known example of St. Peter’s aedicula‐grave, even though it is not a Byzantine example, and then compate it to earlier and contemporary practices throughout the Mediterranean, which are less known in scholarship. The shrine of St. Peter, originally a second‐century small aedicula marking the traditional tomb of St. Peter within the cemetery and a pilgrimage site, in the basilica was marked first by a fastigium and then by a large canopy. The fifth‐century grave marker of St. Peter was positioned just in front the apse of a T‐shaped basilica in the Vatican, within the most privileged location within a basilica, as designated by the Roman imperial practice by which the apse was reserved for the imperial throne.366 The grave marker of St. Peter Philostorgius, Historiarum Epitome, iii.2: Pat. Grec. lxv. col. 480 and Chronicon Pascale, sub annis 356‐7: ibid. xcii. col. 733; Jerome, Contra Vigilantium, i.5: Pat. Lat. xxiii. col. 343. According to J. Crook, The Architectural Setting of the Cult of Saints in the Early Christian West, c.300‐1200 (Oxford, 2000) 19, n. 94. In time the relics from all Christendom were deposited in the church of the Holy Apostles. Mango (1990) 51‐61; Downey (1957) 855‐924; C. Walter, Art and Ritual of the Byzantine Church (London, 1982) 156. 364 Mango (1990) 51‐61 and Crook (2000) 19, with references to Cyprianus (d. 258), Liber de laude Martyrii; and Ambrose, Apologia Prophetae David vi.9. Some early patristic fathers connected the holy place with the Christian soul. Clement of Alexandria wrote “the true temple is the assembly of Christian people,” in the same line with Origen’s statement “the holy place is the pure soul.” Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, 8.5. (GCS 17, 22); Origen, Homil. in Levit., 13.5. St. Basil the Great even confirmed that “he who touches the martyr’s bones participates in saintliness and the grace which is there.” St. Basil Sermo in Psalmum 110 PG 30, 4.112. 365 For the post‐Iconoclastic references on altar comprising the saintly relics see, for example: 7th Canon of 7th Ecumenical Council (787); Germanos PG 98, cols.387‐388; Sym. Thess. De Sacro Templo, PG 155, ch. 132‐133. 366 Among the best‐known example is certainly Basilica Nova in Rome. R. Krautheimer, “The Constantinian Basilica” DOP 21 (1967) 115‐140. Diocletian’s basilica in Luxor even has preserved archaeological evidence for the imperial throne: I. Kalavrezou “The Imperial Chamber at Luxor” DOP 29 (1975) 225‐251. 363
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was sheltered by a four‐columned canopy. Two more spiral columns at the corners of the apse, topped by the architrave, linked the backside of the canopy, thus forming together with the canopy a continuous curtained screen, as is visualized on the early fifth‐century ivory casket from Pola (Fig. 210).367 The open canopy‐like shrine with a curtained screen across the apse, in texts labeled as fastigium, rested on four spiral, vine scroll columns, columnae vitineae that Constantine brought de Greciae.368 The jeweled “tower,” a canopy that housed the Blessed Sacrament, as it was mentioned in the Liber Pontificalis, had a pointed roof with diagonal arching ribs surmounted by an orb, as represented on the Pola Casket. At the point of the intersection of ribs, a golden lamp was suspended in the form of a golden corona of lights. There is a reference to four large candlesticks wrought in silver with scenes from the Acts of the Apostles which accompanied other accessories.369 Below the canopy a rectangular enclosure was railed off and slightly raised above the floor level. The canopy stood directly over the Apostle’s tomb. The movable altar was separated from the shrine, positioned somewhere in front of the shrine or near it.370 Even though Old St. Peter’s tomb was covered by a basilica, this basilica did not function as a church. A movable altar would have been brought in only for the celebration of St. Peter’s day and other important feasts, which remained more‐or‐less
The imprints of the two rear column bases of the canopy show that the screen separated the apse from the transept, from shoulder to shoulder, with the canopy projecting forward into the crossing, thus over the tomb. About donations of Constantine to St. Peter’s and the ekphrasis of the interior of the church see in: L. Duchesne, Liber Pontificalis 1 (Paris, 1877). About excavations of St. Peter’s see in: J.B. Ward‐Perkins, “The Shrine of St. Peter and its Twelve Spiral Columns,” in Studies in Roman and Early Christian Architecture, J. B. Ward‐Perkins (London, 1994) 469‐489; Crook (2000) 80‐82. About the representation of the shrine of St. Peter on the Pola Casket as it appeared in the fifth century see: ECBA 56f; J. Beckwith, Early Christian and Byzantine Art (New Heaven/London, 1993) 27f; J.B. Ward‐Perkins (1994) 469‐489. Some preliminary observations on the relation between the canopy‐shrine from the Old St. Peter’s in Rome and the canopy depicted on the Pola casket: J. Bogdanović, ʺThe Proclamation of the New Covenant: The Pre‐Iconoclastic Altar Ciboria in Rome and Constantinople,ʺ ATHANOR 18 (2002) 7‐19. 368 J.B. Ward‐Perkins (1994) 469‐489. 369 M.T. Smith (1974) 379‐414. 370 More in: J.B. Ward‐Perkins (1994) 469‐489. 367
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in continuity with the older Roman practice of bringing sacrificial altars to the tombs of special individuals.371 On the Pola Casket two figures are turned toward the Apostle’s tomb in a gesture of worship, and a pair of female and male frontal orant figures are represented on either side of the shrine (Fig. 210, cf. Fig. 559). It is difficult to interpret what the figures represented on the Pola Casket are actually doing, but their gestures suggest the reverencing of the saintly tomb rather than the celebration of the liturgy. We know that Roman sacrificial altars usually had a pitcher on the left and pater on the right side of the altar, respectively corresponding to the position of the chief priest at the right, and camillus at the left of the altar. The priest is usually represented with his head veiled, and pouring a libation from a patera, while the camillus carrying the pitcher assisted him.372 On the Pola Casket, the two figures below the canopy leaning towards the altar may have represented a priest with his head veiled on the right‐hand side and his assistant opposite him. Since the mouths of the orant celebrants from Pola Casket are open, as if they are chanting or praying, it can be assumed that the service emphasizing the divinely presence connected with the presence of the martyr’s relics is represented. Similarly, we know from the fourth‐century writings of the nun Egeria that the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem was the focal point of the vespers and the resurrection vigil.373 The Tomb of Christ was spatially separated from the sanctuary of the martyrium basilica where the Eucharist was celebrated. The separation of saintly tomb from altar is found again in sixth‐century North Africa. For example, in the martyrium‐church of Candidus, Haïdra, Tunis, one four‐columned canopy on the far west of the church sheltered the martyr’s tomb, while the other four‐columned canopy directly opposite it sheltered the altar in the east (Cat. no. 67).374 The practice of spatially separating places for the celebration of the liturgy and veneration of saints is consistent with the celebration at St. Peter’s shrine as depicted on the Pola Casket. Kleiner (1987) 21ff. Kleiner (1987) 21. 373 More in: Robert Taft, S.J. (1980‐81) 45‐75 with further references. 374 Y. Duval, Loca Sanctorum Africae I (Rome, 1982) 105‐115. 371 372
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The canopy‐like installation sheltering the already existing aedicula of St. Peter’s shrine was structurally and functionally unnecessary. The figures from the Pola Casket suggest that the open canopy‐shrine with curtains effectively functioned for concealing and revealing the participants at certain stages of the celebration and emphasized St. Peter’s presence in the aedicula that stood for his eternal house. Moreover, the canopy centrally positioned at the crossing of the main basilica nave and the transept would have provided access to the locus sanctum on all three sides, from the nave and laterally from the transept, and may have been initially introduced for successfully channeling the movement of celebrants. The canopied saintly shrine and altar were spatially associated in Old St. Peter’s only in the seventh century, when Pope Gregory I (540‐604) returned from Constantinople and remodeled St. Peter’s Tomb, widely known at this time as ciborium sepulcri – sepulchral canopy. Pope Gregory I raised a platform in the apse and the area in front of it, which incorporated the Apostle’s tomb, and thus radically re‐ arranged the entire architectural setting in order to fit both liturgical practice and the purpose of venerating relics. The altar with its canopy on four columns was placed over the tomb, confirming that by that time the association between martyr’s tomb and altar was established in a such a way that it demanded a spatial and physical unity of tomb and altar.375 This re‐arrangement at Old St. Peter’s included one additional important change. The six vine‐scroll columns from the previous canopy were moved to form a templon‐like screen across the front of the chancel376 following the Byzantine sanctuary furnishing employed earlier in Constantinople.377 I would like to propose that the saintly shrine and church altar were spatially linked first in the
It is worth noting that the sources differ about the columns of the canopy. Some state that they were porphyry, while others say that they were silver columns, but in each case the special value to the canopy has been attached. J.B. Ward‐Perkins (1994) 469‐489; Kirshbaum (1959) 158. 376 J.B. Ward‐Perkins (1994) 469‐489. 377 Th. F. Mathews, “An Early Roman Chancel Arrangement and Its Liturgical Uses,” RACr 38 (1962) 73‐95. 375
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Eastern Mediterranean, and once sanctioned by imperial policy, such canopied installations spread throughout the Empire. Already in the fifth‐century Constantinopolitan basilica of St. John the Baptist in Studios Monastery (ca. 453‐4), major elements of liturgical setting suggest the possibility that a canopy shelted both the altar table and saintly relics, even though neither altar nor canopy survive. The space of the basilica’s semi‐circular apse is extended by a Π‐shaped sanctuary enclosure with three openings on each side projecting five meters into the nave (Cat. no. 5).378 The small cruciform crypt which survives under the original floor level, centrally positioned within the sanctuary enclosure, was not accessible on a regular basis, and was most likely designed for accommodating saintly relics, presumably below the altar table above the crypt. Most likely, the altar table and the crypt below it were sheltered by a four‐columned canopy, as textual evidence suggests.379 Therefore, the canopy marked the focal point in the church space, and was accessible from the three sides, not only frontally, just as was the case with St. Peter’s shrine in Rome. The liturgical setting from the church at the Studios monastery, where the altar canopy is not in the semicircular sanctuary apse but in front of it, is not unique to Constantinople and can be observed in other coeval churches throughout the Byzantine Empire. We see that the altar was usually set in front of the semicircular apse in the more‐or‐less geometric center of the sanctuary area, sometimes projecting deeply into the nave as defined by low marble parapets. Occasionally, the sanctuary may have been flanked with tiers of seats for the clergy on three sides (east, north and south) which took place of the synthronon in the semicircular apsidal area of the sanctuary. These principles can be observed in the fifth‐century churches of the Basilica A, Philipi; the Episcopal Church at Aphrodisias in Caria; the Episcopal church
The oldest archeological evidence about altars in Constantinopolitan churches from the fourth and fifth centuries locate them in the nave area in front of the apse. See: Th. F. Mathews, The Early Churches of Constantinople: Architecture and Liturgy (University Park and London, 1971) 11‐41. 379 Table 1, T.61, cat. no. 5. 378
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at Stobi; Church 3 at Diocletianopolis (Hissar); Hosios Leonidas, Corinth‐Lechaion; the three‐aisled basilica at Mastichari, Kos; or Basilica B at Nikopolis (Cat. nos. 11, 15, 16, 21, 31, 35, 40). The same practice was followed in such sixth‐century churches as Basilica A, Nikopolis; Basilica A, at Amphipolis, Basilica B, Philipi; Basilica tis Vardias, Aigina; or the Double basilica of Aliki at Thasos (Cat. nos. 49, 52, 60, 62, 73). The practice for sheltering the altar table and saintly relics by a canopy continued during the Iconoclasm. The sixth‐century single‐apse church in the village Massuh in the diocese of Esbus in Jordan acquired a canopy during church restoration of the seventh and eighth centuries. Four stone bases for the canopy above the altar table were inserted in a secondary use and a stone cross‐shape container for the reliquary was inserted beneath the altar.380 Moreover, one of the columns of the canopy has been hollowed to create a space to insert a metal cross. This feature recalls a similar practice of inserting crosses into church walls and columns after the Iconoclasm.381 Although I am not aware of any surviving example of a Byzantine canopy where saintly relics were directly inserted into the canopy itself as at the eighth‐ or ninth‐century altar canopy from Santa Maria in Sovana (Fig. 193) and tenth‐ century altar canopy from San Ambrogio in Milan,382 such a possibility in the Byzantine domain should not be dismissed promptly. When compared with the practice of inserting devotional crosses with saintly relics into church columns,383 the
M. Piccirillo, “A new church in the village of Massuh in the territory of the diocese of Esbus in Jordan” Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem. http://servus.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/fai/mass00.html Accessed February 2005. 381 N. Teteriatnikov, “Devotional Crosses in the Columns and Walls of Hagia Sophia” Byz 68/2 (1998) 419‐445. 382 EAM vol. 4 (1991‐c2002.) s.v. ciborio, esp. 719; A. Dietl, “Die Reliquienrekondierung im Apsismosaic von S. Clemente in Rom” in Pratum Romanum R. L. Colella et at. eds. (Weisbaden, 1997) 97‐111, esp. 102‐104, fig. 4. 383 Teteriatnikov (1998) 419‐445, esp. 420. 380
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possibility that similar practice of inserting crosses with relics into canopy columns remains uninvestigated, but possible. 384 Not without significance for understanding the phenomenon of the Byzantine altar canopy is the placement of a chancel screen in Jerusalem’s synagogues and churches during the fourth and fifth centuries. These chancel screens also pay witness to the relocation of liturgical rites from exterior sacrificial sites to the interiors of both Jewish and Christian sanctuaries, where liturgical services and practices had certain parallels.385 At first, the movable altars might have been in the nave of Palestinian churches as well. The floor mosaic in front of the apse of the sixth‐century chapel of the Theotokos at Mt. Nebo, where the cult of Moses was especially strong, represents a structural motif recognized as the Jerusalem Temple (Cat. no. 84).386 The depicted edifice is an elongated structure, with the apse on one of its shorter sides, and it is visually recognizable as a basilica. The division among the entrance area, the part of the nave with the sacrificial altar, and the apse area reserved for the Holy of Holies is evident. Once the altar was combined with the saintly remains, the Christian altar, which stood for the bloodless sacrifice of Christ and symbolically for the Tomb of Christ as the place of the Resurrection, emphasized the concept of victory over death. The canopy sheltered both the altar symbolizing both the Tomb of Christ and place of Resurrection and represented the eternal, triumphant house of Christ’s followers.
We are reminded of the canopy from the church of Hagia Sophia, presumably made of the wood of the Ark of Noah, which was venerated as a relic itself. See: RussAnon in RussTravelers (1984) 114‐127; 128‐154, esp. 132‐133. 385 J. Branham, “Sacred Space under Erasure in Ancient Synagogues and Early Churches,” ArtB LXXIV (Sep. 1992) 375‐394; J. Wilkinson, “Jewish Influences on the Early Christian Rite of Jerusalem.” Le Muséon XCII (1979): 347‐359. 386 Branham (1992) 375‐394, with reference to work by S.J. Saller. 384
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3.2 The tetrapylon and victory symbolism of the Byzantine canopy The concept of victorious structures certainly influenced the development of Byzantine canopies. The four‐columned canopies of monumental size, the tetrapyla and tetrakionia, had been already established as triumphal structures in pagan tradition, and it should not be surprising that some of the earliest saintly shrines in the Christian East were tetrapyla, like the earlier mentioned fourth‐century shrine of St. Babylas (Figs. 515‐516). Situated at the intersection of major thoroughfares within the street grid, monumental quadrifrons (four‐way arches) and tetrapyla were imperial canopy‐like markers over the locus mundi, the navel of the world.387 In Leptis Magna, Libya, the Severan quadrifrons covered by a dome was conceived as the enormous throne which symbolized the presence of the Roman Emperor even in his absence.388 The colossal tetrapylon resembled the canopied throne of the Emperor in the audience hall. The tetrapylon also resembled canopy‐like aediculae that sheltered statues of divinities throughout the Roman Empire, which can be exemplified by a statue of the goddess Minerva or Roma in a canopy‐like aedicule as depicted in the Codex [M]arcianus, a manuscript copied from a Greek original (Fig. 557).389 Over time, these associations combined with the pagan notion of the tomb as the house of the dead, often represented by the free‐standing funerary aediculae. Such hybrid architectural installation effectively imbued the sacred place with ceremonial associations of imperial triumph, and the Emperor passing on his ceremonial route below the throne‐like canopy would have been symbolically transformed into a divine person.390 The long‐standing Roman association of tetrapyla with funerary cults, and
Thiel (2002) 299‐326; Milojević (1996) 247‐262. Lehmann (1945) 1‐27. 389 C. Nordenfalk, “Outdoors‐Indoors: A 2000‐Year‐Old Space Problem in Western Art.” PAPS 117/4 (1973) 233‐258. 390 See, for example: M. McCormick, Eternal Victory (Cambridge/New York/New Rochelle/Melbourne/ Sydney, 1986) 297‐327. 387 388
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the numerous sepulchral tetrapyla in the Eastern Mediterranean built by the third century, show how this tradition may have influenced the development of canopied saintly shrines in the Christian East. In 379, the remains of St. Babylas (d. c. 250), a bishop and martyr from Antioch, were sheltered by a quadrifrons structure in Antioch‐Kaoussie, Syria (now Turkey).391 The L‐shaped footings for the piers approximately 3m by 3m in plan, reveal that a massive quadrifrons covered the central space (Fig. 515). Only later do we learn that this memorial structure was enclosed by a balustrade to prevent over‐zealous pilgrims from approaching the relatively humble tomb, and that it was complemented by an enormous cruciform building to accommodate the flowing crowds of pilgrims. A baptistery and sacristy were also added. We also know that the canopy‐like shrine of St. Babylas acquired additional tombs of two Babylas’ successors and an altar within the enclosure, and that the shrine over time functioned as Constantine’s church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople (Cat. no. 70).392 In the encomium of Saint Menas (mid‐4th c.), written after the Arab invasion of Egypt of 640, we learn that the faithful built a “small oratory like a tetrapylon”393 over the original grave of the saint. Though archaeological evidence for the oratory has not been preserved, it most likely resembled four‐arched tombs widely spread in Syro‐ Palestine and Egypt, like the tomb‐shrine of St. Sergios in Tetrapyrgion (Rusafa) or tetrapylon of Mamianus in Antioch.394 By ca. 400 we have another piece of archaeological evidence that confirms the visual and spatial links between the saintly shrine and the tetrapylon. Near Athens, on the island of Ilissos, the eponymous basilica dedicated to the local martyr St. Leonidas
Downey (1935) 55‐72. ECBA (1986) 75. 393 J. B. Ward Perkins, “The Shrine of St. Menas in the Maryût” PBSR 17/4 (1949) 26‐71; P. Grossman, Abû Mînâ (Mainz am Rhein, c1989); P. Grossman, “The pilgrimage center of Abû Mînâ” in Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt, D. Frankfurter, ed. (Leiden, 1998) 281‐ 302. I am grateful to Prof. Ćurčić for calling my attention to the latest work by Grossmann. 394 Table 1 T.36, T. 38; T. Ulbert et al. Resafa II: Die Basilika des Heiligen Kreuzes in Resafa‐ Sergiupolis (Mainz, 1986) 33ff, pl. 49; Thiel (2002) 299‐326; Milojević (1996) 247‐262. 391 392
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was built in the vicinity of the site of his tomb (Cat. no. 38).395 A large squarish bay of a basilica approximately 12 m by 14 m in plan is delineated by four massive piers, each about 3m by 3m in size, forming an area comparable in size to other known tetrapyla. An altar covered by a canopy stood in the center of this tetrapylon core of the basilica, just in front of the large semicircular apse. However, the domed cruciform crypt with the tomb of St. Leonidas was not below the tetrapylon‐like structure, but on the north, linked with the basilica so that it could have been entered from its northern aisle. Thus, the spatial link between the martyrium and the church did exist, and perhaps the saintly shrine and the church sanctuary shared the same formal solution, but were not one and the same. The enormous 120m long basilica of Hosios Leonidas, at Corinth‐Lechaion (450‐60), shares with the Ilissos basilica a similar design, with a massive crossing sanctuary bay, which resembles a tetrapylon and may have been marked by a tower or a wooden dome (Cat. no. 21).396 In case of Hosios Leonidas, at Corinth, we know that the connection between the tetrapylon structure and the sacred locus was established by the almost repetitive placing of another “tetrapylon,” a smaller‐scale canopy, over the sacred locus. Even more fascinating is that the Hosios Leonidas at Corinth had a canopy not only above the altar table in front of the semicircular apse and within the square‐like bema framed by a tetrapylon‐like structure, but also mid‐way along the solea connecting the ambo and sanctuary, just below the “entrance” into the sanctuary. Though the meaning of this additional canopy‐like structure is not clear it is worth noting that similar framing of special spots within church, presumably some kind of sacred loci, can be detected in the sixth‐century basilica B in Thessalian Thebes, Eastern Church in Apollonia, Libya, or basilica D at Caričin Grad, near Lebane, Serbia, a
Most recently on the basilica: A. Karivieri, “The Ilissos Basilica and the introduction of Christian iconography in Athens,” in Acta congressus internationalis XIV archaeologiae christianae: Akten des XIV. Internationalen Kongresses für Christliche Archäologie 62 (2006): 895‐898; Ćurčić (2008) with further references. 396 ECBA (1986) 131‐134; D. Pallas, Les monuments paléochrétiens de Grèce découverts de 1959 à 1973 (Città del Vaticano, 1977) 156‐163. 395
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foundation of Emperor Justinian I (527‐565) (Cat. nos. 48, 50, 83).397 The canopy‐like structure in Caričin Grad, suggested by four massive stone bases forming a square in the central nave, marked the center of the basilica and potentially the place of the ambo (Cat. no. 48). Although we do not know whether another locus that made reference to the sacred relics was located at the center of the basilica of Caričin Grad, the tetrapylon‐like framing, possibly domed, certainly suggests the potential site of the ambo, at the very least its singular importance.398 Moreover, the Episcopal basilica at Caričin Grad is distinguished by two separate chambers with apses flanking the sanctuary. These chambers have doors which open directly into the sanctuary and into the side aisles, and may exemplify the pastophories, which resulted from the liturgical innovations in the Christian East introduced by the sixth century – a proscomide in the north (cf. Exod. 26:35), where the communion was prepared and the Eucharistic vessels were stored, a diaconicon which housed liturgical vestments and sacred texts in the south, and a bema terminating in a grotto with a semicircular apse forming a sanctuary.399 The sixth‐century church of St. Nikon at Sparta shows a similar tendency to group formally and structurally a sanctuary outfitted with altar table and canopy, pastophoria, and other chambers around and below the massive tetrapylon, canopy‐like superstructure (Cat. no. 14). The survival of the Late Antique concept of the tetrapylon and its appropriation in Early Christian canopies are also manifest in the well‐known first church of St. John the Evangelist, in Ephesus, Turkey, built in ca. 450 (Cat. no. 22). The tomb of St. John
V. Kondić and V. Popović, Caričin Grad (Beograd, 1977) 109‐129; RBK 222, Ćurčić (2008). V. Popović, ʺLa signification historique de lʹarchitecture religieuse de Tsaritchin Grad,ʺ CorsiRav 26 (1979) 249‐311, esp. 277‐8. 399 There are numeour works on pastophoria in Byzantine churches: O. Nussbaum, Standort des Liturgen am christlichen Altar vor dem Jahre 1000: Eine archäologische und liturggiegeschichtliche Untersuchung, 2 vols. (Bonn, 1965); Dj. Stričević, “Djakonikon i protezis u ranohrišćanskim crkvama,” Starinar 9‐10 (1958/59) 59‐65; J.‐P. Sodini, “Les disportits liturgiques des basiliques paléochrétienues eu Grece et dans Balkans,” CorsiRav 31 (1984) 441‐473; J. Smith, “Form and Function of the Side Chambers of the Fifth and Sixth‐century Churches in Ravenna,” JSAH 49 (June 1990) 181‐204; N. Teteriatnikov, The Liturgical Planning of Byzantine Churches in Cappadocia, OCA 252 (Rome, 1996) 65. 397 398
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the Evangelist, later replaced by Justinian’s church, also contained in the center of the crossing a huge tetrapylon, a four‐arched vaulted canopy substructure, that sheltered the martyr’s grave.400 The tetrapylon at the crossing of a basilica similar to St. John’s at Ephesus can be detected in the sixth‐century basilica B Junca, in Byzacena, Tunis (Cat. no. 64).401 In case of St. John the Evangelist we do not know whether at first only the canopy existed so that the later fifth century church was built around the site with the tetrapylon at its center, positioning the altar near the apse and behind the tomb for services, or the canopy over the tomb only replicated in smaller scale the pre‐existing tetrapylon.402 The connection of the Roman architecture of the domed tetrapyla with martyrs’ tombs and altar canopies in the Christian East between the fourth and sixth centuries, however, is undeniable (cf. Fig. 516). Furthermore, the four‐columned canopy became a structural, formal and symbolic locus of a church, regardless of its final physical appearance either as a basilica with multiple focal points as in Ilissos and Caričin Grad or as a more centralized planned structure with a central tetrapylon around which were grouped other parts of the church, as in St. Babylas in Antioch and St. Nikon in Sparta. The original concept of a tetrapylon as a triumphal monument, however, survived in the Byzantine tradition through its various forms. For example, a tetrapylon from Aizanoi in Bithynia was turned into a Byzantine chapel in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, sheltering still unidentified tombs.403 The thirteenth‐century four‐columned tomb embedded within one of the four pier clusters that support the dome of the church of St. Sophia in Thessaloniki (Cat. no. 167), exemplifies the extremely sophisticated survival of the concept of a tetrapylon which sheltered the
ECBA (1986) 36, 106‐107 with further reference. RBK 855. 402 A. Thiel (2005) 63‐66. 403 In Aizinoi, we learn of a second‐century marble sarcophagus bearing a picture of Eros and re‐used in the Middle Byzantine period for the privileged tomb under the tetrapylon. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E3143C8 2B0599388A Accessed January 2006. 400 401
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tomb of the privileged individuals within the canopy‐core of a church.404 Recorded in the tenth‐century Synaxarion and mentioned by Clavijo in the early fifteenth century, a bronze tetrapylon over the relics of the forty martyrs of Sebastea was a public monument in Constantinople,405 confirming the long‐living tradition of the triumphal tetrapyla within a Christian context in the Byzantine realm. Though these examples do not suggest that the concept and use of tetrapyla from the Late Antique period remained unchanged in later periods, they support the observation of “revivals” of canopies in the Byzantine church based on various ideas, which did not overlap necessarily. Indeed, as the building of monumental basilicas ceased over time, the original concept of a tetraplyon was seemingly superseded by a four‐columned church, typical for the Middle and Late Byzantine periods – smaller in scale, simplified in form, and more intimate in atmosphere making the church itself a highly symbolic sacred space always encompassing the symbolism of the heavenly sphere (Figs. 199‐200).406 The development of the four‐columned churches in relation to their canopied core, based on four supports topped by a dome, has been already associated with sixth‐century experiments with the domed church design.407 From the sixth to the ninth centuries, the basilica with a dome on four columns was transitional in scale and form, and was ultimately superseded by the four‐columned Middle‐Byzantine church.408 S. Kissas, “A Sepulchral Monument in Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki” Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki 3 (1996) 36‐49, figs. 2‐4; K. Theocharidou, Hē architektonikē tou Naou tēs Hagias Sophias stēn Thessalonikē: apo tēn hidrysē tou mechri sēmera (Athens, 1994) 52‐57. 405 Synaxarium CP 356, 524; R. Janin, La géographie ecclésiastique de l’Empire byzantin (Paris, 1953) 485‐86. 406 Scholars have connected these changes in the architectural program of the Byzantine church with the growing monastic movement after the period of Iconoclasm. C. Mango, “Historical Introduction,” in Iconoclasm (1975) 1‐6 with further references. R. G. Ousterhout, “The Holy Space. Architecture and Liturgy” in Heaven on Earth (c. 1998) 81‐120 with additional references further supported this opinion. S. Ćurčić, ʺDesign and Structural Innovation in Byzantine Architecture before Hagia Sophiaʺ in Hagia Sophia from the Age of Justinian to the Present, R. Mark and A. Çakmak, eds. (Cambridge, 1992) 16‐38. 407 Ćurčić (1992) 16‐38. 408 ECBA (1986) 331‐353. 404
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3.3 The Human Body and Divine Wisdom: Hagios Polyeuktos and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople Sixth‐century building projects for the churches of Hagios Polyeuktos and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, built as structures with central domes, set standards for four‐columned Byzantine church architecture.409 The two churches are built on heavenly models according to the interpretations of contemporary textual evidence. Both churches are especially revealing for our understanding of Byzantine altar canopies in relation to the human body and to divine wisdom. Surviving fragments of glass‐inlaid marble columns of a massive canopy from Hagios Polyeuktos (524‐27) extend the picture of richness and liturgical oppulence in sixth‐century Constantinople. The basilica dedicated to the holy martyr Polyeuktos (d. 259) was built for Anicia Juliana (c. 462 ‐ 528), the last descendant of the former Imperial house before Emperor Justinian I.410 Possibly domed, Hagios Polyeukots was the largest and perhaps the most impressive church built in Constantinople before Justinianʹs rebuilding of Hagia Sophia.411 The recovered architectural sculpture and general architectural outline of the church of Hagios Polyeuktos is suggestive of Solomon’s Temple as described in the Scriptures.412 Moreover, the church had a dedicatory poem to Solomon’s Temple inscribed along the entablature in church nave, which included the lines: Solomon, I have vanquished thee.413 More Oriental than Late Antique in style, the architectural sculpture of Hagios Polyeuktos was made on site especially for the church possibly by a Sassanian
Most recently: Ćurčić (1992) 16‐38. M. Harrison, A Temple for Byzantium. The Discovery and Excavation of Anicia Juliana’s Palace‐ Church in Istanbul (Austin, 1989). 411 The possibility that Hagios Polyeutkos was domed was first promoted by Harrison (1989) 130‐131. See also: Ćurčić (1992) 16‐38. 412 Harrison (1989) 138‐139. 413 Line 48 of the dedicatory poem, according to I. Ševčenko and M. Harrison in: Harrison (1989) 8‐9, 137‐139. 409 410
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workshop.414 The choice of Persian builders was most likely deliberate since the Second Temple of Solomon was probably built by the Persian building workshop as well (cf. 1 Kgs. 5:30).415 Date‐palm‐trees, twisting vine‐grape leafs, pomegranates, and peacocks, carved in deep relief, decorated the walls of Hagios Polyeuktos. A peacock, the bird of Juno and Byzantine Empresses, in the case of Hagios Polyeuktos, most likely also stood in the place of zoomorphic cherubim with wings and numerous eyes, suggested by the eyes on the peacock’s tail feathers. The entire visual repertoire resembled the imagery from the Temple veil and a model of the Heavenly City.416 The sculptural decoration of the canopy of Hagios Polyeuktos also resembled gem‐studded architecture associated with the heavenly models (Cat. no. 68). The design of the canopy columns from the sanctuary of Hagios Polyeuktos is comparable with the representations of canopies depicted in the fifth‐century mosaics of Hagios Georgios in Thessaloniki (Figs. 201‐207), a canopy structure from the sixth‐century Syriac Rabbula Gospel, fol. 1b (Fig. 227), or inlaid marble columns of the canopy from the church of Hagia Euphemia in Constantinople and Hag. Ioannes in Hebdomon (Cat. no. 85, Fig. 508).417 The incrustation on these columns resemble Solomon’s Temple garnished “with precious stones of beauty” and gold (2 Chron. 3:6) and St. John’s depiction of the Heavenly City embellished in jasper, sapphire, chalcedony, emerald, sardonyx, sardius, chrysolite, beryl, topaz, chrysoprasus, jacinth, and amethyst, gold and transparent glass (cf. Rev. 21:19‐20). The last three, amethyst, gold and transparent glass, have been actually recovered from the canopy columns found in the Hagios Polyeuktos.
Harrison (1989) 122‐123. Recently: I. Sharon “Phoenician and Greek Ashlar Construction Techniques at Tel Dor, Israel” BASOR 267 (1987) 21‐42. 416 Harrison (1989) 137‐144. 417 According to A. Lidov the canopied structures from Hagios Georgios are part of the architectural assembly of the Heavenly Jerusalem, as described by St. John (Rev. 21:18‐21). A. Lidov, “Heavenly Jerusalem: The Byzantine Approach,” JewArt 25 (1999) 340‐353. For the faximil of the Rabbula Gospels: Cecchelli (1959). 414 415
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Finished in 527, the church of Hagios Polyeuktos set a standard of building to be matched and aroused the envy of Emperor Justinian I at the very outset of his reign in the very same year. The church of Hagios Polyeuktos was a structural innovation with a new type of domed basilica, and its decorative splendor invoking heavenly realm may have inspired the reconstruction of Hagia Sophia under the patronage of Justinian I.418 According to the recently disputed legend, Justinian boasted at the dedication of Hagia Sophia, his main foundation: Solomon, I have outdone Thee!419 This exclamation echoes the imperial ideal of the Byzantines to make a Church that matches the monumental temple built by Solomon in Jerusalem. The notion that a church is a temple, which is built on earth as an intelligible image of the invisible, stretched back to the fourth century when Eusebius of Cesarea described the new Church at Tyre (317), a foundation of Emperor Constantine I: ... [It] is therefore a great Temple, one of those that have been built all round the earth ‐ that is to say this world is lightened by the sun. By his own Word the mighty Creator of the Universe commanded it to be built on earth as an intelligible picture of things which lie beyond heaven’s vaults...(cf. 1 Cor. 2:9).420 At the same time, Justinian’s exclamation echoes the lines inscribed on Hagios Polyeuktos and evokes a vivid historical scene in Constantinople, a stage for wealthy patrons employing the best talents in the Empire to accomplish never previously seen architectural marvels as houses worthy of God.421 Justinian emulated and advanced the concept of Hagios Polyeuktos in many respects, above all by daring to build Hagia Sophia as an enlarged and structurally improved version of Hagios Polyeuktos.422 However, even if the architectural decoration and inscriptions in Hagios Polyeuktos acknowledged it as the Temple for Byzantium, the church was dedicated to a Christian martyr‐saint, just like the largest Ćurčić (1992) 16‐38. From: Narratio de aedificatione templi Sanctae Sophiae by Pseudo‐Codinus, Bonn Corpus (Bonn, 1843) 143. 420 VC 10.4. 69f. 421 Mango and Parker (1960) 233–245, with extensive refrences to primary souces by Procopius, Paul Silentary, Michael, the twelfth‐century deacon of the church of Hagia Sophia, and others. 422 Ćurčić (1992) 16‐38. 418 419
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and most venerated contemporary churches in Rome which were dedicated to St. Peter and other Apostles and Saints. The church of Hagia Sophia, in contrast, was at least from the fifth century, if not from its inception, dedicated not a person, but to a concept – to Holy Wisdom (Sophia) – where Greek wisdom and biblical revelation interacted to produce a full‐blown Christian humanism.423 Hagia Sophia, the most‐celebrated church of the entire Byzantine Empire, fascinatingly, is dedicated to a concept which is in Eastern Orthodox Christianity considered apocryphal.424 The apocryphal Book of Wisdom and the Book of Proverbs both attributed to Solomon, nevertheless, open complex and subtle relations between Sophia (Wisdom) and the Lord, and in turn provoke questions about how an elaborate altar canopy from the church of Holy Wisdom in Constantinople was related to such complex concept.425 Sophia was “the radiance that streams from everlasting light, the flawless mirror of the active power of God, and the image of His goodness.”426 The first altar canopy from Hagia Sophia crushed when the first dome of the church collapsed, and might have been similar to the coeval altar canopy from Hagios Polyeuktos, which suggested heavenly models made of multi‐gemmed marbles. However, we know for certain that the first canopy from Hagia Sophia was replaced by the one which was sheeted in silver and decorated in precious stones.427 A deliberate choice of silver is worth noting. In the Old Testament and in antiquity silver was used for a great variety of purposes and was treasured for its commercial
Cf. Corinthians 1:21f, 2:1ff. The Book of Wisdom is not included in the Eastern Orthodox Books of the Old Testament, but in the Roman Catholic Canon. In Eastern Orthodox Christianity it is considered as an apocryphal source. 425 Theological‐philosophical cosmogony opens the relationship between the cosmological and cosmogonic idea of uniqueness and oneness of Almighty Creator and Father, and subsequently because the Creator in Genesis is represented like an architect, questions on specific architectural symbols. About the influence of Plato’s Timaeus on the vocabulary and philosophical notions in the Book of Wisdom more in: J. Pelikan, What Has Athens to Do with Jerusalem? Timaeus and Genesis in Counterpoint (Ann Arbor, 22000) 67‐87. 426 Wis. 7:26 according to Pelikan (2000) 76. 427 See, Table 1, T. 40. 423 424
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value (cf. Gen. 13:2; 23:15‐16).428 Following the narrative of the Scriptures, silver for the altar canopies may have been used in emulation of silver for vessels for the sanctuary (cf. Ex. 26:19; 27:17; 2 Kings 12:13) and especially for the sockets, ornaments and hooks for the pillars of the tabernacle (cf. Ex. 26:19; 27:17; Ex. 27:17; 38:19).429 The use of silver for the altar canopy in Hagia Sophia give rise to the hypothesis that Emperor Justinian not only wished to emulate the canopy‐ark, but wanted to go a step farther, by choosing to materialize the idea of the Throne of Wisdom. The canopy’s four silver columns and arches may have referred to the expression of one faith sustained by the four columns of the Evangelists,430 who were the pure words of the Lord “as silver tried in a furnace of earth, purified seven times” (Psalm 12:6). Justinian’s canopy conceptually and visually alluded to the embodiment of the Lord through sublime references to the human body of Christ. The sixth‐century poet Paulos Silentarious described the silver canopy from Hagia Sophia, emphasizing that its fixed silver bowls [outfitting the canopy have] in each bowl … a candelabrum like a candle that burns not, expressing beauty rather than giving light; for these are fashioned all round of silver, brightly polished. Thus the candle flashes a silver ray, not the light of fire.431 The streams of ethereal silver light, reflecting from the canopy, contrast the “light of fire,” earthly light, and recall “the radiance that streams And Abram was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold. Gen. 13:2 My lord, hearken unto me: the land is worth four hundred shekels of silver; what is that betwixt me and thee? bury therefore thy dead. And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant. Gen. 23:15‐16. 429 And thou shalt make forty sockets of silver under the twenty boards; two sockets under one board for his two tenons, and two sockets under another board for his two tenons. Ex. 26:19 All the pillars round about the court shall be filleted with silver; their hooks shall be of silver, and their sockets of brass. Ex. 27:17. And their pillars were four, and their sockets of brass four; their hooks of silver, and the overlaying of their chapiters and their fillets of silver. Ex. 38:19. Howbeit there were not made for the house of the LORD bowls of silver, snuffers, basins, trumpets, any vessels of gold, or vessels of silver, of the money that was brought into the house of the LORD. 2 Kings 12:13. 430 PG 86 (2), cols. 2224‐2225. 431 Table 1, T.40. 428
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from everlasting light” known from the apocryphal description of the Holy Wisdom. The ninth‐century illumination of Prudentius Psychomachia (Leiden, University Library, Codex Burmannorum Q.3 fol. 148v), known as Sapientia seated in the Temple, presumed to be a copy of the late antique original, depicts the personification of Wisdom (Sapientia) seated on a throne in the form of a globe (Fig. 558).432 The free‐standing globe‐throne is sheltered by a domed, temple‐like structure. The canopied throne is centrally set within an open courtyard with twelve towers and twelve gates, three on each side positioned in the cardinal direction, providing the sub‐textual reference to the Heavenly Jerusalem as described by St. John (cf. Rev. 21:12‐13).433 The iconographic motif is similar to representations of Christ in Majesty, as in another of Justinian’s churches, San Vitale in Ravenna, whose apsidal mosaic shows Christ in Paradise enthroned on a globe.434 The architectural concept of Wisdom on a canopy‐like throne is consistent with the altar canopy from Hagia Sophia crowned with a silver orb, as described by Paulos Silentarious (Cat. no. 69): At the juncture of each [arch] to the other … rise to a single crest where the artist has placed the form of a cup … and in the midst of it has been placed a shining silver orb, and a cross surmounts it all. May it be propitious435! The orb on top of canopy is consistent with the imagery of a place of epiphany and the throne of Christ at the time
On the image see also: S. Ćurčić, “From the Temple of the Sun to the Temple of the Lord: Monotheistic Contribution to Architectural Iconography in Late Antiquity.” Architectural studies in memory of Richard Krautheimer, C. L. Striker, ed. (1996) 55‐59. 433 And had a wall great and high, and had twelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels, and names written thereon, which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel: On the east three gates; on the north three gates; on the south three gates; and on the west three gates. Rev. 21:12‐13 434 On the topic: B. Brenk, “The Imperial Heritage of Early Christian Art,” in Age of Spirituality Kurt Weitzmann, ed. (1980) 39‐52. 435 Table 1, T.40. 432
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of His Second Coming when Christ will center the heavenly sanctuary (cf. Rev. 4ff).436 The size of the orb did not matter because the meaning of the sphere was, I would suggest, related to the geometric and supra‐spatial ideas the Greeks nourished since Antiquity.437 The orb as singular, supra‐spatial signifier of the place of propitiation is, therefore, placed above the canopy that frames and signifies the sacred space in the other, earthly realm. Paulos Silentarious confirms that the life‐giving cross at the top of the globe was the place of propitiation (ἱλαος, ilaos).438 When Silentarious described the cross surmounting the canopy in Hagia Sophia he alluded to the appearance of the God in the heavens and the “mercy seat,” (ἱλαστήριος) where the Lord appeared above the Ark of the Covenant in the Tabernacle (cf. Heb. 9:5, Ex. 25, 26 etc.). One is reminded of the Ark cover, a place of expiation (Heb. kăpparā) or God’s throne as related to the cherubim and their touching wings. The Ark supported the mercy seat, a one‐piece After this I looked, and, behold, a door was opened in heaven: and the first voice which I heard was as it were of a trumpet talking with me; which said, Come up hither, and I will show thee things which must be hereafter. And immediately I was in the spirit; and, behold, a throne was set in heaven, and one sat on the throne. And he that sat was to look upon like a jasper and a sardine stone: and there was a rainbow round about the throne, in sight like unto an emerald. And round about the throne were four and twenty seats: and upon the seats I saw four and twenty elders sitting, clothed in white raiment; and they had on their heads crowns of gold. And out of the throne proceeded lightnings and thunderings and voices: and there were seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, which are the seven Spirits of God. And before the throne there was a sea of glass like unto crystal: and in the midst of the throne, and round about the throne, were four beasts full of eyes before and behind. And the first beast was like a lion, and the second beast like a calf, and the third beast had a face as a man, and the fourth beast was like a flying eagle. And the four beasts had each of them six wings about him; and they were full of eyes within: and they rest not day and night, saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty, which was, and is, and is to come. And when those beasts give glory and honour and thanks to him that sat on the throne, who liveth for ever and ever, The four and twenty elders fall down before him that sat on the throne, and worship him that liveth for ever and ever, and cast their crowns before the throne, saying, Thou art worthy, O Lord, to receive glory and honour and power: for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created. Rev 4.
436
Downey (1946) 22‐34, with extended references including those to Timaeus. On the terminology of “supra‐spatial” attributes of God in Orthodox Christianity see also: D. Stăniloae, The experience of God vol 1 (Brookline, Mass., c1994) 171‐184. 438 Table 1, T.40. 437
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slab of gold decorated with two attached golden winged cherubim, with their faces turned towards the seat.439 When stretched and joined, their wings formed a hemispherical shape (Philo. De Cherubim, 7). Placed in the inner, closed part of the sanctuary, the Holy of Holies, the Ark symbolized the Sign of Meeting, an actual dwelling place of the Lord, who invisibly manifested His presence and communicated His will enthroned between the cherubim. The Ark was often depicted in gold above two cherubim as in the Middle Byzantine manuscripts which copied the sixth‐century text of Cosmas Indicopleustes (Vatican copy of Cosmas Indicopleustes folio 48r).440 In the Seraglio codex fol. 333r, Smyrna octateuch fol. 154v, and Vatican graecus 746 fol. 325v, the Ark of the Covenant is sheltered by a canopy, to which the Bible makes no reference, suggesting that the cherubim were replaced in the motif of the Ark by a domed canopy (Figs. 345, 346, 348).441 In some cases, such as in the Vatican graecus 746, fol. 281r, the canopy over the Ark is topped with a cross (Fig. 324).442 Since the Divine Presence, the She’kinah, spoke to Moses from between the cherubim, the canopy obviously assumed the role of the missing cherubim (cf. Figs. 344, 347). The sixth century Syriac hymn (completed c. 543‐554) dedicated to Hagia Sophia, the cathedral of Edessa, describes the altar canopy as the “ten columns that support the Cherubim of its altar” and makes a clear connection of the ten columns with the “ten apostles, those who fled at the time that our Savior was crucified.”443
On the varying accounts of the cherubim in the Old Testament (Gen. 3:24; Ex. 25:18f and in the description of the Temple ‐‐ 1 Kings 6:29; 1 Kings 7:29, 36; Ez. 1:1ff, Ez. 10:1ff, Ez. 41:20): Farbridge (1970) 264‐265; M. H. Woudstra, The Ark of Covenant from Conquest to Kingship (Philadelphia, Pa., 1965) 75. 440 Revel‐Neher (1995) 405‐414 with further references; J. Gutmann, “The History of the Ark,” ZAltW 83 (1971) 22‐29 [reprinted in: Joseph Gutmann, Sacred Images: Studies in Jewish Art from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Northampton, 1989)]; D. Mouriki, The Octateuch Miniatures of the Byzantine Manuscripts of Cosmas Indicopleustes (Diss. Princeton U, 1970) 92. 441 Revel‐Neher (1995) 405‐414 with further reference. 442 Revel‐Neher (1995) 405‐414 with further reference. 443 Portrayed by the ten columns that support the Cherubim of its altar Are the ten apostles, those who fled at the time that our Savior was crucified According to: McVey (1983) 91‐121, esp. 95. 439
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The “cherubim of its altar” could have indicated that a canopy supported by ten columns erected over the altar was ornamented with carved representations of a pair of cherubim.444 However, it also may be that the domed lid of a canopy represented cherubim, just as the ten columns of the canopy only symbolized but not actually depicted the ten apostles. Thus, the touching wings of the cherubim in three‐ dimensional space would have easily acquired the form of a domical or conical roof of a canopy. It has been already suggested that the Byzantines drew imagery of the Ark from Torah shrines rather than from Biblical descriptions.445 At fourth‐century Hamat Tiberias, at Husifah, at sixth‐century Beth Alpha (Figs. 549, 550) and Na’aran, the motif of the Ark is accompanied with a motif of the zodiac wheel – two concentric circles inscribed within a square, so that the central circle depicts Helios riding on a chariot with the moon and the stars in the background and the outer is divided into twelve segments for the zodiac signs and their names.446 The texts by early rabbi interpreted Helios as the She’kinah in the center, while the signs of the zodiac reveal striking analogies with contemporary liturgical poems from synagogues and suggest a meaning of the Ark as the place of the divine presence (cf. Fig. 551).447 The correlation between zodiac signs and the Ark has analogies in Christian contexts too. A mid‐ fourteenth century illustration of Psalm 148 from the church in the monastery Lesnovo, which shows the zodiac signs inside of a Byzantine church, confirms the continuity of the tradition that envisages the Ark as the microcosmic dwelling place of According to: McVey (1983) 91‐121, esp. 95, 105. Mouriki (1970) 98‐100; Hoppe (1994) 19, 31; Meek (1995) 67‐73. 446 Some scholars have interpreted the zodiac as a liturgical calendar, though a fixed calendar was not introduced until about 325, and the zodiac wheel cannot be understood as a calendar in the modern sense. On the problem: Hoppe (1994) 59. 447 The Holy One Blessed‐Be‐He showed Abraham all of the mazalot (zodiac) surrounding his shekinah (Divine Presence); ... and said: just as the zodiac surrounds Me, with My glory in the center, so shall your descendants multiply and camp under many flags, with My shekinah in the center. Midrash Devarim Rabbah According to: J. Gutmann, “Early Synagogue and Jewish Catacomb Art and its Relation to Christian Art,” Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, ed. Hildegard Temporini & Wolfgang Haase, II: Principat, vol. 21/2 (Berlin and New York, 1984) 1313‐1342. 444 445
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the Divine Presence.448 The depiction of Christ inside of a double medallion, with rayed nimbus, and seated on the cherubim, recalls the Old Testament notion that the Lord appears between the cherubim that guarded the Ark of the Covenant and represented His throne.449 The Byzantine imagery of the Ark, therefore, embraced traditional conceptions of the throne of Wisdom and the heavenly throne of Christ. The models could come from the Torah shrines of Jewish synagogues and the Roman Imperial tradition, where thrones extended the aura of deified emperors. In an eleventh‐century illuminated copy (Florence Laurenziana ms. Plut. IX.28, fol. 129v) the Ark of the Covenant in the Tabernacle is accompanied by a text which simultaneously defines the Ark as the place of propitiation (ιλαστήριον) and a “type of the Lord Christ according to the flesh.”450 Thus, the canopy can be seen as a furnishing that both emphasizes Christ’s Incarnation and even signifies the reality of his Presence in absence. This symbolism is especially resonant in the Tomb of Christ, which was conceived as a place (locus) of divine dwelling, even though it remained empty after his Resurrection.
Especially Psalm 148: 3‐4; 7‐14 Praise ye him, sun and moon: praise him, all ye stars of light. Praise him, ye heavens of heavens, and ye waters that be above the heavens. … Praise the LORD from the earth, ye dragons, and all deeps: Fire, and hail; snow, and vapours; stormy wind fulfilling his word: Mountains, and all hills; fruitful trees, and all cedars: Beasts, and all cattle; creeping things, and flying fowl: Kings of the earth, and all people; princes, and all judges of the earth: Both young men, and maidens; old men, and children: Let them praise the name of the LORD: for his name alone is excellent; his glory is above the earth and heaven. He also exalteth the horn of his people, the praise of all his saints; even of the children of Israel, a people near unto him. Praise ye the LORD. 449 More in: S. Gabelić, Manastir Lesnovo. Istorija i slikarstvo (Beograd, 1998) 183f, pl. LIII. 450 According to: Mouriki (1970) 93. 448
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3.4 The Tomb of Christ and Byzantine Altar Canopy The Holy Sepulchre remained empty after Christ’s Resurrection (Anastasis), marking the place in which Christ was believed to be bodily present after His death upon the Cross. Golgotha (literary “the place of the skull”) and the Tomb of Christ are acknowledged as two separate places in the Gospels, the earliest references to the sites of Christ’s Passion and Resurrection.451 How did the architectural forms at these two holy places relate to the form of the altar canopy in the Byzantine church, which symbolized the Tomb of Christ and Golgotha? Despite frequent remodeling, the places commemorating the Cross upon which Christ was crucified and His Tomb remained two crucial foci at the Anastasis‐Golgotha martyrium complex in Jerusalem since the time of Emperor Constantine I.452 The Anastasis‐Golgotha complex comprises the Tomb Aedicula of Christ, which is nowadays essentially a nineteenth‐century installation with a canopy on its top (Fig. 585).453 What did the Tomb Aedicula look like in the Byzantine period? To address this extremely complex subject, we will consult various archeological, visual, and textual sources, and investigate how the Byzantines perceived the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem. Then, we will compare the available evidence on the Tomb of Christ with current Byzantine canopies and The evangelists recorded that Jesus was crucified on Golgotha, which literary means the “place of the skull” (Matt. 27:33; Mk. 15:22; Lk. 23:33; Jn. 19:17; cf. Heb. 13:12), was buried and resurrected from his Tomb. Christ was buried in an unused rock‐cut tomb, which was sealed by a great stone rolled in front of the door (Matt. 27:59ff; Mk. 15:43ff; Lk. 23:53ff; Jn. 19:40ff). The tomb was in a garden at the site of the Crucifixion, (Jn. 19:41‐42) outside the walls of Jerusalem but relatively close to the city (Jn. 19:20). 452 On the history of the site see: H. Vincent and F. M. Abel, Jérusalem: Recherches d’archéologie et d’historie. vol. 2., Jérusalem nouvelle (Paris, 1926), 337‐60; Ch. Coüasnon, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (London, 1974), V. C. Corbo, Il Santo Sepolcro di Gerusalemme : aspetti archeologici dalle origini al periodo crociato. 3 vols. (Jerusalem, 1981‐1982); C. de Vogué, Les Eglises de la Terre Sainte (Paris, 1860); W. Harvey, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem: Structural Survey, Final Report (Oxford, 1935); J. Wilkinson, “The Tomb of Christ. An Outline of its Structural History” Levant 6 (1974) 83‐97; M. Biddle, The Tomb of Christ (Gloucestershire [England], 1999); J. Krüger, Die Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem: Geschichte, Gestalt, Bedeutung (Regensburg, 2000). 453 After the fire of 1808, the Tomb was significantly rebuilt for the last time in recent history. Biddle (1999) 76f, with references. 451
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ecclesiastical architectural accomplishments. This question will lead us to ask what elements of the Tomb Aedicula were decisive for the theological and physical modeling of Byzantine altar canopies. A particular emphasis will be placed on the role of human body. Three historical segments in the architectural history of the Tomb of Christ frame the crucial moments that reveal Byzantine attitudes towards the Holy Sepluchre and the Tomb Aedicule. The building of the Anastasis‐Golgotha complex and the carving out of the Tomb Aedicule happened at the orders of Emperor Constantine I in the fourth century.454 First, in 325/6 the Martyrium basilica (Golgotha basilica) was built on the traditional site of the Crucifixion.455 Both the sites of the Crucifixion and the Tomb of Christ were isolated by cutting away the surrounding living bedrock and earth, thus making them free‐standing shrines. Commemorating the site of Christ’s burial and resurrection the Tomb was ultimately sheltered by the Anastasis Rotunda built around the 340s (Figs. 584‐a, 588).456 The second crucial period for our investigation lasts from the seventh to the eleventh centuries, when local Christians and Byzantines reacted to the frequent destruction of the complex at the hands of the Persians and Fatimids with a series of rebuilding efforts.457 In 614, the complex was devastated by the Persians. Shortly after
J. Wilkinson, “Constantinian churches in Palestine” in Ancient Churches Revealed, ed. Y. Tsafir (Jerusalem, 1993) 23‐27; J. Patrich, “The Early Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Light of Excavations and Restoration” in Ancient Churches Revealed, Y. Tsafir ed., (Jerusalem, 1993) 101‐ 117. 455 Eusebius called the monument martyrium, literary “proof,” “testimony” of the Saviour’s resurrection. VC III, 33.1. See also: J. G. Davies, “Eusebius’ Description of the Martyrium at Jerusalem” AJA 61/2 (1957) 171‐173. 456 ECBA (1986) 60‐63, 462‐463; L. J. Hoppe, The Synagogues and Churches of Ancient Palestine (Collegeville, Minnesota, 1994) 111; B. Kühnel, From the Earthly to the Heavenly Jerusalem. Representations of the Holy City in Christian Art of the First Millennium (Rome, Freiburg, Wien, 1987) 81. 457 A. Ovidiah and C.G. de Silva, “Suplementum to the Corpus of the Byzantine Churches in the Holy Land (part II): Updated material on churches discussed in the Corpus”, Levant 14 (1982) 122‐170; R. L. Wilken, ʺByzantine Palestine: A Christian Holy Landʺ BA 52/4 (1988), 214‐ 217, 233‐237; Hoppe (1994) 108‐109; R. Ousterhout, “Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre,” JSAH XLVIII (1989) 66‐78; M. Canard, “La destruction 454
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in 626 the complex was rebuilt, presumably without any crucial changes in its architecture, under Modestus, the patriarch of Jerusalem.458 Christian shrines in the complex survived the Arab conquest of 638.459 The complex suffered from additional destructions and earthquakes in the tenth century, and was almost completely destroyed under the Fatimid Caliph al‐Hākim bi‐Amr Allah (996‐1021) in 1009, when he set the Tomb of Christ on fire.460 The extent and significance of the Byzantine interventions after Caliph al‐ Hākim’s systematic destruction remain generally understudied. The only known contemporary official Byzantine source that mentions the demolition of the Holy Sepulchre is the Skylitzes’ eleventh‐century Synopsis Historiarum for the years 811‐ 1057, while its thirteenth‐century illustrated version omits the episode.461 Other Byzantine sources remain almost silent about the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre, despite pilgrims’ continual visits to the Tomb and the recurrent interest of Byzantines in the holy places.462 The prevailing scholarly information on the eleventh‐century
de l’Église de la Résurrection par le calife Hākim et l’histoire de la descente du feu sacré” Byz 35 (1965) 16‐43. 458 R. L. Wilken, ʺByzantine Palestine: A Christian Holy Landʺ BA 52/4 (1988) 214‐217, 233‐237, with reference to Sophronios [Latin Translation Expugnationis Hierosolymae, vol. 340 Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalum, G. Garitte, ed. (Louvan, 1973)]. 459 Patrich (1993) 101‐117. 460 Canard (1965) 16‐43. 461 Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. I. Thurn, (Berlin/New York, 1973) 14 [B. 501‐503]. The so‐called Madrid Skylitzes, a copied and illustrated Skulitzes’ Synopsis, lacks about 100 references in comparison to the original compendium, including the lines referring to the Tomb of Christ. V. Tsamakda, The Illustrated Chronicle of Ionnes Skylitzes in Madrid (Leiden, 2002). 462 The memory of the event from 1009 started to vanish quickly in Constantinople. For example, in the eleventh century Michael Psellos, the famous polymath and theologian writing in Constantinople in his short chronicle The Chronographia, describing the years 976‐1078, made no mention of the event. Michael Psellus, Fourteen Byzantine Rulers. The Chronographia, Intr. and transl. E.R.A. Sewter, (Baltimore, 1966). The silence of the Byzantine sources about the destruction of the Tomb of Christ may be explained variously, including official censorship related to unsuccessful Byzantine attempts to re‐conquer Jerusalem and diminished Byzantine imperial presence in the area. The Byzantine society at the time witnessed its decentralization, a kind of “elite reconstruction,” marked by the rise of military aristocracy and new nobility that gained power and wealth due to military conquests. In the light of historical events in which the Byzantines had to face multiple threats at their borders, including the Bulgarian raid
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reconstruction of the Holy Sepulchre by the Byzantines comes from Western sources, while due to the prolonged use of the site, archaeological evidence remains vague.463 What we do know is that the architecture of the whole complex significantly changed after Caliph al‐Hākim’s destruction, and never regained its previous size and form. The architectural program of the Byzantines was presumably relatively modest in scope. The greatest attention was paid to the major locus sanctus, the Holy Sepulchre, which most likely the first structure restored for veneration.464 Eventually,
on Constantinople, the belated reaction of the Byzantines in the Holy Land can be understood. The Byzantines certainly wanted to regain the Holy Land, because we know that Emperors Nichephoros Phokas (r. 963 ‐ 969) and John I Tzimiskes (r. 969 ‐ 976) seriously attempted to re‐ conquer Jerusalem in several campaigns. After Emperor Basil II (r. 976 ‐ 1025), however, an opportunity for the Byzantines to re‐establish their political presence in Jerusalem never occurred again. Canard (1965) 16‐43, with references; B. Krsmanović, Uspon vojnog plemstva u Vizantiji XI veka [The Rise of Byzantine Military Aristocracy in the 11th Century] (Beograd, 2001) 1‐ 32. On the continual visits of pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre see: Biddle (1999) 76. Writing after 1148 the Byzantine princess, Anna Komnene recorded the efforts of simple people, men and women, who desired to venerate the Holy Sepulchre and visit the holy places. Alexiad‐a (2001) X 5.5, 6.6; 7.1; 9.1; 11.7; XIII 9,3; XIV 12.2, 13. A.‐M. Talbot attested twenty‐five medieval pilgrimages to Jerusalem by the Byzantines in “Byzantine Pilgrimage to the Holy Land from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries” in The Sabaite Heritage J. Patrich, ed. (2001) 97‐110. 463 Two major phases of the eleventh‐century Byzantine reconstruction have been identified. The first phase was local in inspiration and technical achievement, probably initiated by al‐ Hakim’s mother Maria and perhaps supported by the Byzantines in the period 1012‐1023. The second phase was Byzantine and imperial in scope and architecture, starting in ca. 1037/38 and finishing either by the time of Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034‐41) before 1041 or of Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (1042‐59) in 1048. The date of 1048 was based on Western sources and early documents of the Latin Kingdom, ultimately rooted in the twelfth‐ century account (after 1165) of William of Tyre, more than a century after the event. Hoppe (1994) 108‐109; Ousterhout (1989) 66‐78. However, we learn from the Synopsis written by Skylitzes that Emperor Romanos III Argyros’ (r. 1028‐1034) rebuilt the Holy Sepulchre. According to the same source, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian (r. 1034‐41) may have eventually finished the reconstruction. Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Ioannes Thurn, (Berlin / New York, 1973) 14 [B. 501‐503]. Skylitzes’ account is consistent with independent accounts by a Christian Arab observer, Yahya ibn Sa’id of Antioch and by the Persian traveler Nasir‐i‐Khusrau, who reported the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as completely restored in 1047. The Antiochene traveler also provided the references for the reconstruction of the Holy Sepulchre by two Byzantine Emperors, Romanos III Argyros and Michael IV the Paphlagonian. According to Biddle (1999) 77‐78, with further references. 464 The Crusaders’ emphasis solely on the recovery of a relic of the True Cross in 1099 and elaborate descriptions of the processions in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre underscore that
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the Byzantines reconstructed the Rotunda.465 Emperor Constantine’s basilica, known as the Martyrium, however, was never restored. The entire complex thus became much smaller, with the main entrance to the complex, and subsequently to the Rotunda, relocated to the south of the courtyard (Fig. 584‐b). The entire complex with the insertion of the apse on the east of the Rotunda and with newly added chapels became oriented. If not during the restoration under Patriarch Modestus in the seventh century, the Rotunda is attested as a church in the ninth century.466 Judging by the contemporary imperial undertakings in Constantinople, it seems as if the Byzantines primarily wanted to restore the loca sancta and the relics associated with them, which by that time had multiplied.467 By the 1040s the Holy Sepulchre complex was rebuilt under the auspices of Byzantine emperors. By the twelfth century, the knowledge held by the people of Constantinople and all across the Byzantine Empire about Jerusalem and the Holy Tomb had diminished, as if the physical reality of the Holy Sepulchre was detached from the Byzantine imperial and historical realm.468 For
both the Rotunda and the Tomb‐shrine of Christ were largely in use by the end of the eleventh century. Folda (1995) 34ff; Biddle (1999) 76f, with references to the primary sources. 465 From the point of view of construction, the rebuilding of both the Tomb and the Rotunda run simultaneously, at least in the initial phases. The external wall of the Rotunda was largely intact, surviving at some points up to 11 m in height, which enabled its reconstruction on the Constantinian walls. However, the gallery and the tall apse, which did not exist before, were added at that time. Patrich (1993) 101‐117. 466 Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades [henceforth Jerusalem Pilgrims] transl. J. Wilkinson (Warminster, 2002) 258‐259 467 On the Byzantine chapels in the Jerusalem complex see: A. J. Wharton, “The baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the politics of sacred landscape” DOP 46 (1992) 313‐325; Ousterhout (1990) 44‐53; Ousterhout (1989) 66‐78; Corbo (1981‐1982) 230. By the eleventh century, a tradition had already been established at Constantinople of rebuilding churches which essentially served as huge reliquaries, exemplified by the churches of Sts. Sergios and Bachos, Myralaion, Mangana, and most famous of all, the Church of the Virgin of Pharos. See: A. Lidov, “Tserkva Bogomateri Faroskoi. Imperatorskii hram‐relikviarii kak Konstantinopolskii Grob Gospodnii” Viz.Mir (2005) 1‐26; P. Magdalino, “Observations on the Nea Ekklesia of Basil I.” JÖB 37 (1987) 51‐64; Mango (1956) 123+125‐140. 468 In the twelfth century George Kedrenos and John Zonaras mainly copied Skylitzes’ account about the negotiations between the Byzantines and the Fatimids after al‐Hakim’s destruction. Byzantine princess Anna Komnene also mentioned the Holy Sepulchre, however, not in reference to its destruction or physical appearance, but mostly in reference to the Crusaders who officiated the church, revealing Byzantine imperial non‐presence on the site. Though
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the Byzantine court, Jerusalem in the mid‐twelfth century was “a great city … built long ago called Jerusalem, now in ruins through the passage of time.”469 The third building campaign started during the interventions by Crusaders, from 1099 onward.470 The entire complex was partially rebuilt during several additional operations (Fig. 584‐c).471 The most significant changes occurred between ca. 1114 and 1149, during the reign of the Byzantine emperors of the Komnenian family. By adding a new choir in place of the eastern apse of the Byzantine church the Latins destroyed the Byzantine chapels on the east and replaced them by chapels with the same dedications surrounding the new apse. However, it seems that no significant changes were done on the Tomb Aedicula itself.472 Byzantine imperial donations for the Tomb continued during that period, though not so as to support significant architectural interventions.473 * The history of the Tomb of Christ until its destruction at the hands of Caliph al‐Hākim is decisive because it overlaps with Germanos’ explanation on the altar canopy. It is generally accepted that the central position of Christ’s tomb in the
Anna Komnene speaks of death of the Latin King Godfrey (c.1060‐1100), who was buried in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, it seems as if she was unaware of the fact and just mentions his death in Jerusalem. Georgius Cedrenus, Synopsis historion, ed. I. Bekker, 2 vols. (Bonn, 1838‐ 39); Zonaras, Epistome historiarum, ed. L. Dindorf, 6 vols. (Leipzig, 1867‐75). Alexiad‐a (2001) XI 8.1. 469 Alexiad‐a (2001) VI.6.1. 470 Most concisely and up‐to date in: J. Folda, The art of the crusaders in the Holy Land, 1098‐1187 (Cambridge; New York, c1995) 53‐64. 471 Hoppe (1994) 108‐109; Ousterhout (1989) 66‐78; Folda (c1995); Corbo (1981‐1982). 472 The only significant change of the Tomb Aedicula occurred in the 1120s, when King Baldwin II (1118‐31) re‐encased the shrine in marble. Hoppe (1994) 108‐109; Ousterhout (1989) 66‐78; Folda (1995) 57‐82. 473 For example, in the late twelfth century Manuel I Komnenos (1143‐80) donated golden cover for the burial bench. Isaak Komnenos the sebastokkratos visited the Holy Land in the 1120s or 1130s, however, it remains unclear whether he donated anything. The Pilgrimage of Joannes Phocas in the Holy Land (in the year 1185) in PPTS 5 (1896) 21; E. Kurtz, “Unedierte Texte aus der Zeit des Kaisers Johannes Komnenos“ BZ 16 (1907) 104‐107, esp. 102; Folda (1995) 75.
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Anastasis Rotunda remained unchanged from the time of Emperor Constantine I.474 Everything else related to its architecture is more‐or‐less hypothetical. The Anastasis Rotunda was made in the form of two concentric cylinders, the central one being the higher of the two.475 The canopy‐like core of the Rotunda sheltering the Tomb, most probably a chamber, was enveloped by an ambulatorium.476 Attempted reconstructions of the early architecture of the Holy Sepulchre before the seventh century are predominantly based on pilgrim accounts and eulogiai, most‐likely representations of the eyewitnesses. The imagery coming from these sources is not uniform, but it is assumed that pilgrims recorded essential elements for the visual identification of the Tomb (Figs. 211‐221).477 The Tomb of Christ, or at least
Already in the seventh century Arculf, a pilgrim from Gaul, left a schematic drawing of the Tomb chamber in the center of the Rotunda [Adomnan’s De locis sanctis (9th c) contains the image, which was reproduced recently in Biddle (1999), fig. 25]. Despite numerous destructions and rebuildings over time, the archaeological evidence suggests that original plan of Anastasis rotunda remained within its major lines, preserving its shape and dimensions from the time of Constantine I. B. Smith, Architectural Symbolism of Imperial Rome and the Middle Ages (Princeton, 1956) 16‐29; Kühnel (1987) 81, Hoppe (1994) 111; Biddle (1999) 28ff. 475 See, for example: Wilkinson (1974) 83‐97, Biddle (1999) 66; RBK vol. 3, s.v. Jerusalem. 476 The imperial mausolea of the period are also distinguished by the central core rising higher than the enveloping structure. C. Howard, Architecture and the After‐Life (New Haven and London, 1991) 115. Twenty supports, columns and piers encircled the central room containing the Holy Sepulchre and separating it from the ambulatory. Presumably from the outset, four groups of three columns and four pairs of piers on the main axes forming a cross were planned, with specific symbolic meaning. The four triads of columns and the four pairs of piers would symbolize “the Twelve Apostles and the four ends of the world to which they bring the four‐fold Gospel of the Trinity.” ECBA (1986) 74. 477 According to my analysis, scholars have classified the surviving visual evidence about the Tomb into five types – a rock‐cut tomb chamber, an empty sarcophagus, a canopy‐like structure, two‐storey and single‐storied architectural structure. J. B. Ward‐Perkins, “Constantine and the Origins of the Christian Basilica,” PBSR (1954) 81. M. T. Smith (1968) 34‐ 35; Egeria (1999) 173‐175; Biddle (1999) 21ff; D. Barag and J. Wilkinson, “The Monza‐Bobio flasks and the Holy Sepulchre” Levant 6 (1974) 179‐187. The two‐storied architectural tombs as preserved on 5th‐ and 6th‐century ivories, such as the most famous one from the ivory plaque (ca. 400, now in Munich) representing the Holy Women at the Tomb and Christ Ascending to Heaven (Fig. 211), may have reflected the actual Holy Tomb, but most probably such depictions presented the generic image of the Roman tombs. Both the Martyrium basilica and the Anastasis rotunda were built in a manner similar to some known mid‐4th‐century cemetery complexes in Rome. For example, the centrally planned mausolea of the members of Constantine’s family, Constantina and Helena, were 474
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its essential elements, were most likely built in the Roman imperial building idiom common for architecture under Constantine I. Wilkinson reconstructed the Tomb based on the descriptions by an early pilgrim to Jerusalem, the nun Egeria (381‐384),478 visual representations on the sixth‐century ampullae from the Monza and Bobbio collections,479 and a stone model of the Tomb of Christ in Narbonne, an object of unknown provenance and function, roughly dated between the fourth and sixth centuries (Figs. 217, 219).480 According to the proposed reconstruction, the Tomb Aedicula was a single‐storey structure with two separate spaces – an antechamber and a tomb‐chamber (Fig. 218). The burial bench was in the north part of the tomb‐ chamber, which most likely had a square plan in the interior.481 The exterior of the Tomb was most likely oval, freed on all sides from the living rock, covered with marble and decorated with columns. The Aedicula had a slightly pointed, conical or pyramidal roof, with an orb surmounted by a cross at the top.482 The roof rested on linked with the basilical buildings of St. Agnese, and Sts. Petrus and Marcelinus. R. Krautheimer, “Mensa‐coemeterium‐martyrium” CA 11 (1960) 17‐40. Surviving mausolea built under Constantine and his immediate successors, and especially the now‐lost Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, may have provided some supplementary information about how the Tomb of Christ may have looked like. M. Johnson, Late antique imperial mausolea (Diss. Princeton U, 1986) 80‐91. 478 Egeria (1999) 173‐175. 479 Kühnel (1987) 93‐95; A. Grabar, Ampoules de Terre Sainte (Monza, Bobbio) (Paris, 1958); G. Vikan, Byzantine Pilgrimage Art (Washington D.C., 1982) 20‐25. 480 The purpose for making the model‐like replica of the Tomb from Narbonne, possibly only a piece of second‐hand evidence for the Jerusalem Tomb, is still debated. It may have been used as a kind of reliquary, possibly used as an Easter Sepulchre. A. Bonnery, “L’Édicule du Saint‐ Sépulcre de Narbonne. Recherche sur l’iconographie de l’Anastasis.” CSMC 22 (1991) 7‐41. V. Sekules: “Easter Sepulchre” Grove Dictionary of Art Online (Oxford UP, Accessed February 2005) http://www.groveart.com. However, in my opinion, the model from Narbonne may have been the most reliable surviving evidence about the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem from the period of Emperor Constantine I. 481 Willibald, a pilgrim at the end of 724, described the basic shape of the tomb as a square, which may be related to the square‐like plan of the inside of the burial chamber as it has been preserved until the present. Biddle (1999) 71. 482 The physical appearance of the roof over the Cave is still debated. I concur with B. Smith that the roof was wooden, not only because he has suggested that Syrian artisans worked on the Anastasis Rotunda, but also because it was the first architectural member to suffer the fire set by the Persians. Smith also suggested that the undersurface of the Tomb roof was potentially painted with the stars. B. E. Smith, The Dome (Princeton, 1972) 16‐29, 26‐27.
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columns, which which were depicted with spiral fluting in numerous representations on pilgrims’ ampullae.483 Though the existence of a canopy resting on columns and set on the top is proposed, it is difficult to prove this.484 The porch of the Aedicula was possibly a prism with a gabled roof. The top of the antechamber was a pediment with a scallop shell motif. The pediment was supposedly supported by columns with spiral fluting, as represented on most Christian pilgrims’ flasks. The entire Aedicula was most likely enclosed by railings, and thus additionally framed within the central space of the Rotunda. Despite an observation that “the Aedicule of modern times is in a far closer continuity with the earliest Cave than has usually been imagined,”485 the actual physical appearance of the Tomb from the time of Constantine I remains controversial and any reconstruction very hypothetical. Its appearance at the time of subsequent reconstructions is equally obscure. We know, for example, almost nothing about how the Tomb may have looked like in 626, when it was rebuilt by Patriarch Modestus. By the eighth century, when Patriarch Germanos wrote about the altar canopy in reference to the place of Christ’s crucifixion, burial and Resurrection, he relied mostly on written theological accounts and not on visual or personal experience of the Tomb in Jerusalem.486 Surviving imagery from the eulogiai, ivories, illuminated manuscripts, or monumental decorative programs, may have depicted the physical appearance of the Tomb of Christ or at least some of its constitutive parts, but these sources of imagery also include many non‐factual or imagined features of the Tomb. Other Byzantine sources from the period very rarely mention the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem. Another Patriarch of Constantinople, Photios (858‐67, 877‐86), The spiral columns were also a prominent feature of St. Peter’s shrine in the Vatican. J.B. Ward Perkins, “The Shrine of St. Peter and Its Twelve Spiral Columns,” JRS XLII (1952) 21‐33. 484 B. E. Smith, The Dome (Princeton, 1972) 16‐29; Patrich (1993) 101‐117, esp. 107. 485 Egeria’s Travels to the Holy Land [henceforth Egeria] transl. J. Wilkinson (Warminster, 1981) 252. 486 Germanos essentially repeated the words of St. Basil of Cesarea (329‐379), who lived in the time when Emperor Constantine I built the martyrium basilica. However, Basil the Great wrote about a ciborium as the Tomb of Christ in his mystagogic history, a theological work, and by its nature, questionable evidence for the physical appearance of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. 483
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however, does mention it just in the aftermath of the Iconoclastic controversy.487 Photios’ description builds upon eyewitness accounts of the Tomb of Christ. Despite being one of the most educated Byzantines in his era, Photios’ account of the Tomb is puzzling and unexpected: Indeed blessed Helena, when she visited Jerusalem and cleared that holy place of the piles of rubbish and filth there extended the buildings and the city wall. She started at a point on the ancient wall overlooking the saving Tomb, extended the perimeter, and enclosed the lifegiving Tomb within the enlarged circuit. She also laid there the foundations of a holy sanctuary, so arranged that it enclosed the lifegiving Tomb as a separate feature in the middle of the Church. It took the place of an ambo, even though it was not used as one. Those intending to enter it have to pass through the sanctuary, and no one can enter the Tomb without going through the gates of the sanctuary. In fact this Tomb, the source of our immortality, though it is natural rock, has been formed into a tomb by masons. The rock has been hollowed out from east to west, forming a narrow chamber. The space thus cut away is high enough to take man standing upright, wide enough only for one man to pass along, but long enough to take three or four in a row. Inside the rock chamber an additional amount of rock has been removed to create a rectangular recess long enough to take a man lying at full length, and on this the faithful Joseph is said to have laid the sinless body of the Lord. The entry for the Tomb, if that is the name to call it, or the mouth of the tomb, where the workman began to cut in, has its opening facing east, and it so happens that any one who approaches make their bow to the west. The stone which originally rolled across the mouth of the tomb and closed it was long ago, it is said, broken in two. Part of it has been bound with copper, and stands next to the tomb, and the other part is placed on the west part of the gallery. This too receives its due veneration, lying there for all to revere. Once a year the stone bound with copper is
Jerusalem Pilgrims (2002) 258‐259. On the role of Photios during the Iconoclasm see: F. Dvornik, “The Patriarch Photius and Iconoclasm” DOP 7 (1953) 67‐98. 487
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anointed with holy balsam by the patriarch, and particularly after the Saviourʹs Passion it serves as a Holy Table. So much for the Tomb itself. Now about the additions made for decoration—or rather, for piety. The tomb has columns the height of a man which are set on bases. On the left and on the right there is an equal number, five on the north matching those on the south, with not the least difference in their shape or size. Between these corresponding rows at the western end there a column stands at the centre, but at the east end there is nothing, so as to leave an opening in front of the mouth of the Tomb. On top of these eleven columns rests a rectangular arrangement of cornices, joining the columns, and on top of these cornices (those on the east and west as well as those on the north and south) rest the elements forming the roof of the tomb. But the maker avoided round vaulting, and made a circular feature instead of an ordinary roof, joining the beams to form a kind of chimney. It was a tall roof, so that the upper end of the roof elements were more like the apex of a cone than a symmetrical roof. What we are now describing we learned from those who have made that blessed place a point of precise attention.488 The eleventh‐century rebuilding of the Tomb continued to commemorate the traditional place of Christ’s entombment and resurrection by employing essentially the same architectural elements. Following the eleventh‐century destruction and reconstruction, we can contrast Photios’ description with the extant description of the Tomb by the Russian abbot Daniel of Chernigov, who visited Jerusalem in 1106/08, just after the Crusader conquest: Here is the description of the Holy Sepulchre: it is a small cave hewn in the rock, having an entrance so low that a man can scarcely get through by going on bended knees; its height is inconsiderable, and its dimensions, equal in length and breadth, do not amount to more than 4 cubits. When one has entered the grotto by the little entrance, one sees on the right hand a sort of bench, cut in the rock of the cavern, upon which the body of our Lord Jesus Photios, Question 316 to Amphilochius. About the Tomb of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Translation according to Jerusalem Pilgrims (2002) 258‐259.
488
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Christ was laid; it is now covered by marble slabs. This sacred rock, which all Christians kiss, can be seen through three small round openings on one side. There are five large oil‐lamps burning night and day suspended in the Sepulchre of our Lord. The holy bench upon which the body of Christ rested is 4 cubits in length, 2 in width, and 1 ½ in height. Three feet in front of the entrance to the cavern there is the stone upon which the angel sat who appeared to the women and announced to them the resurrection of Christ. The holy grotto is cased externally with beautiful marble, like a raised platform (ambo), and is surrounded by twelve columns of similar marble. It is surmounted by a beautiful turret resting on pillars, and terminating in a cupola, covered with silver‐gilt plates, which bears on its summit a figure of Christ in silver, above the ordinary height; this was made by the Franks. This turret, which is exactly under the open dome, has three doors skillfully executed in trellis‐work; it is by these doors that one enters the Holy Sepulchre. It is this grotto, then, which served as the Lordʹs Sepulchre; and I have described it according to the testimony of the oldest inhabitants, who thoroughly know the holy places.489 Photios acknowledges the centrality of the Tomb Aedicula in the Rotunda, which served as a church in the ninth century. The Tomb was separated from the other parts of the Rotunda by an enclosure with gates, in accordance with earlier tradition as recorded by Egeria in the fourth century.490 The Tomb chamber made of stone contained a burial bench cut in rock. Both Photios and Daniel define the size and shape of a stone bench in the chamber in relation to the human body of Christ. Judging by the post‐twelfth‐century visual representations of the Tomb, the three
“Pilgirmage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land. Circa 1106‐1107” in PPTS 4 (New York, 1971[1887‐89]) 12f. Byzantine pilgrims Epiphaios the monk, Germanus of Kosnitza (9th c?), and monk Gregory (9th or 10th c) do not mention the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem Pilgrims (2002) 207‐215; Talbot (2001) 97‐110. 490 Egeria described the Cave of Anastasis and recorded that the Holy Tomb was in the center of the sanctuary cut in the form of chapel. The “chapel” had the porch surrounded with stone railings symbolizing the division between heaven and earth. Egeria (1999) 173‐175. 489
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holes on the side cover of the tomb bench were opened for the veneration of the Tomb at some point between the early eleventh and early twelfth centuries.491 Photios clearly distinguishes the columns and roof of the Holy Sepulchre as crucial architectural elements for visualizing the Tomb. We learn that human‐size columns set on bases enclosed the Tomb chamber, and that they were connected on top by a cornice, possibly a corbel frieze on which rested a pointed wooden roof. The chimney‐like structure on the roof, about which Photios spoke in the ninth century, might have taken during this new reconstruction the form of an open canopy, a “turret resting on pillars, and terminating in a cupola” as abbot Daniel narrated. Numerous visual representations of the Tomb‐shrine of Christ dating from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, like the fourteenth‐century drawing of the Holy Sepulchre from the Vatican library (Fig. 575), I would speculate, may actually refer to the Byzantine reconstruction.492 The majority of the surviving depictions of the Tomb represent the Tomb‐shrine as a two‐storied building with a domed canopy over the burial chamber. An open hexagonal (?) canopy set on columns or paired columns (?) supposedly replaced and replicated previous roof of the Tomb Aedicula. It served in part as a covering for the burial chamber because, most likely, the Rotunda was not domed at the beginning of the eleventh‐century reconstruction.493 When Abbot Daniel visited the Tomb of Christ, it may have been additionally altered by the Crusaders, who started their works in 1099. Abbot Daniel observed L. A. Beliaev, “Russian pilgrim art from the 12th to the 15th century ‐ archaeological elements and problems of Romanesque influence” JBAA 151 (1998) 203‐219. In addition to round openings on the marble slabs encasing the Holy Sepulchre, the same apertures on the slabs enshrining the Manger of the Nativity of Christ and the shrine of the sacred Tree from which the Cross for Christ’s crucifixion was made are mentioned by the twelfth‐century Russian pilgrims Abbot Daniel and John Phokas, a monk. For the small round aperture on a white marble slab which covered the trunk of the sacred tree from which the Cross for Christ’s crucifixion was made is mentioned by Daniel in PPTS (1971) 51.; Phokas in PPTS 5 (1896) 32, talks about the small round aperture in the middle of the white marble slab which covered the cubical manger of the Christ’s Nativity. 492 The Tomb of Christ would remain essentially unchanged until it was significantly rebuilt again in 1555 as post‐eleventh‐century models of the Holy Sepulchre like the on in the church of St. Anna, Augsburg, 1507‐8 suggests. Biddle (1999) 100ff and fig.31 on 31. 493 Ousterhout (1989) 66‐78. 491
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some of Crusaders’ changes himself. According to archaeological evidence, the entire ground level of the Holy Sepulchre was made even with the upper part of the burial bench at some point, and a new installation, presumably repeating the physical appearance of the original bench, was set above it.494 Daniel noted new marble slabs covering the burial bench and a sculpture of Christ at the top of the Tomb Aedicula. In contrast to other elements, with which he was obviously familiar, and which potentially looked like the Byzantine intervention, Daniel attributed the sculpture of Christ to the Crusaders. The only image of the figure of Christ topping a shrine and associated with the Byzantine artistic production known to me is the icon proskinetarion from the Hamilton Psalter (Fig. 413). This depiction of a canopy‐like structure covered by a trellis or net‐like fabric and topped with a half‐length sculpture of Christ comes from the private prayer book of Queen Charlotte of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Armenia, a granddaughter of Theodore Palaeologos, despot of Mystra. This early fourteenth‐century image confirms the framing of sacred spaces along the lines of the models which, to judge from Abbot Daniel’s description of the Holy Sepulchre, seem to have evolved from at least the twelfth century.495 Comparative analysis of the physical appearance of the Tomb from the fourth to the eleventh centuries suggests that columns, lamps, the enclosure and the stone rolled from the entrance are invariably mentioned (Table 8).496 The earliest Corbo (1981‐1982) pl. 4. Leveling the authentic parts of the shrine in order to build new structures is not a new approach. The ancient law about violatio sepulcri was related to the locus religiosus, not so much to its physical appearance and to its architectural setting. For example, a similar approach was used during the re‐modeling of St. Peter’s shrine in Rome in the Constantinian period, when the upper part of the tropaion marking the holy tomb made level with the new floor of the Old St. Peter’s basilica. The new shrine was placed on top of the original one, while the entire re‐arrangement of the “martyrium” zone related to the transept and huge apsidal space was designed for the flow of pilgrims and veneration of the tomb, significantly enlarging but essentially repeating the already established functional scheme from the initial trapaion and the open courtyard at the Old necropolis on the Vatican hill. Crook (2000) 80‐82, E. Kirschbaum, The Tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul (New York, 1959) 143‐64. 495 On bi‐lingual, Greek and Latin, Hamilton Psalter from Cyprus: Spartharakis (1974) 190‐205. 496 The architectural features of the Tomb Aedicula as perceived by the Byzantines over time may be summarized in the following table. It attempts to describe each feature as it is known to have existed in each of the historical periods outlined above: in intial phase of development, 494
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representations of the Tomb of Christ reveal essentially a chamber centrally placed within the Rotunda (Fig. 587). The pilgrim accounts, eulogiai and the Narborne model repeat the motifs of the railings, scalloped shell niches, spiral columns, a lamp suspended from the top of the tomb, and occasionally curtains or hangings suspended from the entrance to the tomb (Figs. 212, 215). The elements that were not mentioned after the seventh century are the sea‐shell hood of the shrine and its curtains. The top of the Tomb aedicula built under Emperor Constantine I presumably had a pediment with a scallop shell motif (Figs. 214, 216, 217, 219). Scalloped shell decoration is a potent, generic image known from pagan and Jewish traditions. The scalloped shell motif recalls the origin of the niches in the semicircular form of the natural grottoes, as in the cave‐tomb of Christ.497 The rounded top of the Jewish depictions of the Ark and of the Roman funerary altar was very often in the form of a
from Constantine to the first destruction in 614; a second phase, representing the post‐ Iconoclastic era; and a third phase, following the destruction in 1009 by Caliph al‐Hākim. TABLE 8: ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF CHRIST’S TOMB IN JERUSALEM architectural features 4th – 6th c 8th – 9th c after 1009 columns + + + twisted columns +/‐ NA + ‐ displaced lattice / trellis work + NA + sea‐shell hood + NA ‐ lamps‐number varies + + + enclosure + + + curtains/hangings + NA NA canopy‐like top ? ? [chimney?] + stone rolled from the entrance + + + [broken in two, one part served as an altar] marble casing NA NA + metal plating of any part of the NA copper silver Shrine Sculpture of Christ NA NA + The term used to describe the aedicula ambo ambo Shrine (little house) 497 The motif is also known from ancient shrines and from exotic architecture represented in the Second and Fourth Pompeian wall painting style. J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, The Roman World. The Oxford History of the Classical World (Oxford and New York, 1988) passim.
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half‐palmettes, eagle, or scalloped shell (cf. Figs. 546, 552‐554).498 Among the Greeks, the shell‐fish was sacred to Aphrodite, and closely related to her birth in a conch, illustrating the mystical relation between the goddess and love that she symbolizes. Therefore, as attested on numerous Roman funerary monuments, the shell exibited the symbolism of birth and of regeneration and, subsequently, within the Christian artistic tradition, the symbolism of the Resurrection.499 Indeed, Constantine had the Holy Sepulchre complex constructed on the site of a demolished shrine of Aphrodite,500 a fact that suggests that some of the sea‐shell sculptural fragments of the pagan shrine might have been re‐employed in the decoration of Christ’s Tomb, albeit for a new, distinctively Christian message. In the Greek pagan tradition, shells alluded to the soul’s voyage across the Ocean to the Blessed Isles, and to the cosmic significance of water as the celestial path to the afterlife, which in Christianity acquired the meaning of rebirth in the rite of baptism.501 St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315‐386) interpreted the biblical story of the flood
Kleiner (1987) 31ff; Toynbee (1996) 44‐45. From various passages of the Old Testament it is clear that palm trees were plentiful in Palestine. As a symbol of the renewal and communication of life the date‐palm tree is known from the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian traditions, and was used by the Hebrews as a symbol of the righteous man. The plausible rationale for this is that it is a straight tree, growing in a barren soil, always bearing its fruit far from the soil, closer to sky, and its best fruit is borne in old age after decades of steadily growing. Thus, the architectural decoration of Ezekiel’s heavenly Temple (cf. Ez. 40:16ff; 41:18ff) and Solomon’s Temple (cf. 1 Kings 6:29ff) with the flourishing palm trees should not be understood only as ornaments, but also as highly suggestive symbols of the righteous (cf. “the righteous shall flourish like the palm‐tree” Ps. 92:12). M. H. Farbridge, Studies in Biblical and Semitic Symbolism (New York, 1970) 27‐49, with further references. Moreover, the Greek terms for the phoenix and date palm are the same (φοῖνιξ), referring to the renewal of life: E. P. Evans, Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture (New York, 1896) 127. In connection to tree and flower symbolism, the palmette might refer to paradisiacal themes as well. 499 W. Déonna, “Aphrodite à la coquille” RA Nov‐Dec (1917) 312‐416, esp. 309, 408. 500 VC II.26.3 501 The “Island of the Blessed” was a place of departure for the souls of the deceased who won the favor of the gods and the future home of all mankind. The idea of the “Island of the Blessed” is recognizable already in the Gilgamesh epic, where Gilgamesh as the Babylonian Noah, was granted eternal life. Early Roman ideas describing the world where Manes (souls) dwelt are not explicitly recorded. In time two distinct places came to be dwellings of the dead. According to some beliefs all human souls went to the Blessed Isles across the Ocean, while 498
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as the prefiguration of Christ’s baptism, in which Noah stood for Christ and the Ark for the Church outside which no salvation is possible: “salvation came in the time of Noah by the wood [the Cross] and the water, and there was the beginning of a new creation.”502 The funerary liturgy which developed in Alexandria emphasized the same motifs of the sea‐shells, eagles, peacock tails, palmettes and light (cf. Fig. 560).503 By the ninth‐century in the Rule of the Monastery of St. John Stoudios in Constantinople we have only remote topographical reflections of Christ’s baptism and resurrection associated with the seashore and the office of lamp‐lighting during the Easter season.504 By the time of first rebuilding of the Tomb of Christ in the seventh century, the sea‐shell decoration known from the early representations of the Tomb was most likely not re‐used. The sea‐shell decoration was thus lost, while its symbolic significance perhaps remained only on a conceptual level, preserving the symbolism according to the others they went to the sky and hemispheres. Farbridge (1970) 216‐217 with further reference; Kleiner (1987) passim; Toynbee (1996) 36‐38, 44‐45. 502 PG 33. col. 982 A‐B. 503 The peacock was believed to have incorruptible flesh, and being sacred to Hera (Juno) it became a symbol of the apotheosis of Roman empresses, as Zeus’ (Jupiter’s) eagle was of Roman emperors. In a Christian context it possibly signified the ascension of the sanctified soul and its union with the Lord. More in: Evans (1896) 310‐311. Augustine (354‐430) Bishop of Hippo, The works of St. Augustine (New York, 1997) De Civitate Dei, xxi.4: “Quis enim nisi Deus creator omnium dedit carni pavonis mortui ne putrescerent?” [For who, except God, the Creator of all things, endowed the flesh of the dead peacock with the power of never decaying?] All of these were connected with the soul’s departure from the body, and its journey to a heavenly destination in the paradisiacal fields, beside the waters, in the light of the saints: ... nourish them in a place of pasturage beside the waters of comfort, in the paradise of joy, whence sorrow and sighing and weeping have fled away, in the light of saints. Raise up their flesh also in the day which thou hast appointed according to thy true promises that cannot lie: grant them the good things of thy promises... Liturgy of St. Mark According to: T. K. Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture. Images for This World and the Next (Princeton, 2000) 51 with further reference. 504Next morning, at the second hour of the day when the precentor knocks three times, we assemble in the Church of [St. John] the great Forerunner. Vested in their priestly robes, the priests and all the brothers take up the venerable crosses and the holy icons. We circle the vineyard close to the monastery with all of us saying in a loud voice the “Christ is risen.” Then, we go out in the same manner to the shore of the sea. The Rule of the Monastery of St. John Stoudios in Constantinople According to: Thomas and Hero (2000) 101.
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of corporeal salvation, in which death is followed by rebirth, and the symbolism of spiritual rebirth, in which symbolic death is reversed by a kind of spiritual resurrection.505 The top of the ark aedicula discovered in the early Palestinian synagogue of Nabratein contains a small hole just above the scalloped shell design (Fig. 547). It was presumably made to accommodate a chain‐held lamp, which was always burning in front of the scrolls housed in a synagogue.506 This archeological fragment confirms that lamplight was an important constituent of the Ark. Descriptions of the Ark of the Covenant often included the menorah (candelabrum), lamps and candlesticks (Exod. 26:32; Chron. 4:20), suggesting that the light in the sanctuary symbolized the light of the She‐kinah (God’s presence) itself.507 A marble plaque from the church of Sustia, east of the Sea of Galilee, has a rare depiction of the canopy‐like arch (Fig. 555).508 A lamp suspended from its seashell top suggests that the Ark‐aedicula and its symbolism were known to the early Christians in Palestine. In the Book of Revelation of St. John the Divine the presence of Christ upon His Second Coming is manifested in the midst of seven candlesticks (Rev. 1‐4). Paulos Silentarious and Germanos both described the altar canopy as the “ark of light,” a model for the Christian image of the Ark of the New Law in Christ. Hangings, possibly curtains suspended before the entrance to the Tomb of Christ are depicted on some ampullae and are mentioned by the pilgrim Etheria who tells that veils decorated with gold were hung for the occasion of the Feast of the Epiphany.509 The evidence of the Monza‐Bobbio ampullae also contributes to our understanding of the function of festal veils. The representations on Monza ampulla
A. J. Wharton (1992) 313‐325. Hoppe (1994) 31. 507 Just for the example, the words of Solomon that through building the Temple he brought the Lord from thick darkness, i.e. through building Temple (faith) the Lord’s light (presence) is kept burning (2 Chron. 6:1). 508 The plaque bears the inscription in Greek: “In the days of Prokopios the priest.” Piccirillo (2006) 51‐113, fig. on p.73. 509 M. T. Smith (1968) 46, with references. 505 506
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no. 3 of the Epiphany (obverse) and on Bobio no. 6 of the Crucifixion both contain curtains (Figs. 212, 215), corroborating the use of festal veils on Christ’s Tomb at the Epiphany and adding the suggestion that they were also used at Easter and on the dies enceniarum, the consecration day of both the Marytrium and the Rotunda Anastasis.510 Veils at the Tomb may have been votive offerings as well. Antonius the Martyr, a native of Placentia in ca. 570 says that “the stone of the tomb [is] as large as a milestone; its ornaments are innumerable. From iron rods hang armlets, bracelets, chains, necklaces, coronets, waistbands, sword‐belts, and crowns of the emperors made of gold and precious stones, and a great number of ornaments given by empresses.”511 However, after the seventh century, curtains at the Tomb of Christ are not mentioned in the sources. What continued to be mentioned are the railings, which according to eyewitnesses were either wooden or bronze, but always signified the division between the heavenly and earthly realm. Egeria and the imagery from the ampullae as well as later descriptions indicate that the railings surrounded the entire Tomb aedicula, not only the entrance to the Tomb, or that even one railing enclosed the Tomb and another its entrance (Figs. 212‐217, 220). Because it is doubtful that the Byzantines kept records on the architectural design of the Tomb of Christ, their reconstructions were not based on a definite pictorial scheme, but rather on the combination of particular iconographic motifs, which the Byzantines built upon their belief system and related imagery. Most likely these images were based on the symbols of the Byzantine rites during the period of Iconoclasm and on generic architectural forms. It is worth noting that Byzantine descriptions of the holy places seen in the Holy Land are repetitive and overlap with the explanation offered by the Gospels and hymnography.512 Generic but highly
P. Geyer, Itinera Hierosolymitana (Prague, 1898), chapters 3‐8, esp. 76, 101. M. T. Smith (1968) 45‐46. 511 Of the Holy Places visited by Antoninus Martyr in PPTS vol. 2 (1897) 15. 512 This can be shown in the account of Abbot Daniel. When Daniel in PPTS 4 (1971), describes the places he visits in the Holy Land he usually combines his descriptions with excerpts from 510
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recognizable forms like a lamp suspended from the top of the Tomb or twisted columns fostered group identity and a sense of sacred presence (Figs. 212‐213, 215).513 Luxury materials with shining qualities like marble, copper or silver mentioned in the descriptions of the Tomb, could have been easily related to the imaginative visions of Heavenly Jerusalem that reflected heavenly glory. When the Byzantines remodeled the Anastasis they framed the newly established sanctuary with two, paired columns, creating a curious “double‐ender” type of a church (Fig. 584‐b).514 On both sides of the triumphal arch of the apse, paired columns and capitals were set upon two big shafts, dividing the added sanctuary and the Rotunda space, which corresponded to church naos. The four marble columns were spolia, dating to the sixth century(?) judging by the engraved Greek monograms found on the capitals.515 The use of paired columns is known from Roman imperial buildings and mausolea built under Emperor Constantine I, but they were also recognized from medieval imagery related to the Temple.516 Moreover, the two columns, or double‐knotted columns at the entrance to the sanctuary have been the Scriptures and the hymnography of the liturgical celebrations of the feasts related to the holy places, events and people he talks about, as if the repetitive mode of these celebrations enable him to memorize and correctly record the plethora of information and data about his visits. The same observation stands for Phocas in PPTS 5 (1896). 513 M. Gray, “The pilgrimage as ritual space” in Holy Ground A.T. Smith and A. Brookes eds. (Oxford, 2001) 91‐97. 514 This eleventh‐century arrangement of the columns was preserved during the Crusaders’ reconstruction and can be seen even today. Corbo (1981‐1982) plates 20‐21. 515 The unusual and anachronistic motive of the engaged paired columns has been already noticed in the context of the Crusaders’ architectural interventions. They were repeated in the choir, which was not a common solution for French cathedrals of the period. Krüger (2000) 108, suggested that the columns served as markers between the Constantinian and Byzantine building. Such a suggestion may be overstated, but the intentional use of spolia and their use as potent symbolic features known from the Hellenistic and Old Testament past, firmly rooted in Jerusalem, is undeniable. 516 Twelve paired columns supported the domed central room of the mausoleum of Constantina, set against the narthex of the basilica of S. Agnese, and provide a comparative example of Roman architecture from the time of Constantine I. Ousterhout (1990) 44‐53. Despite the differences of the three Temples built by Jews – Solomon’s, Zarubable’s and Herod’s – and Ezekiel’s visionary Temple, they all shared the same essential architectural features. C. H. Krinsky, “Representations of the Temple of Jerusalem before 1500” JWCI 33 (1970) 1‐19.
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related to the Temple of Solomon in Byzantine art and texts since the late tenth century.517 The potential relationship between the Ark of the Covenant and the Tomb of Christ is revealed by the formal representations of the Holy Sepulchre on the ampullae. The Tomb Aedicula was usually represented behind the four‐column façade in the same way that the Ark of the Covenant was represented behind the four‐ column façade of the Temple (Figs. 214, 548, 552‐553).518 The Holy Sepulchre and the Places of Divine Presence in the Temple and in the Byzantine Church In a symbol‐system, where the Church becomes a Christianized Temple, the church altar and its canopy can be compared to the Ark of the Covenant kept in the Holy of Holies (cf. 1 Kings 6:19). Initially, the Ark was placed in the portable tent‐like sanctuary called the “Tent of Meeting” or Tabernacle (2 Sam. 7:6).519 The Tabernacle was constructed with tapestry curtains that were decorated with cherubim (Ex. 25:9ff).520 The permanent place of the Ark and the Tabernacle “in the most holy place
I. Kalavrezou, “The Knotted Column,” BSAC 4 (1978) 31‐32. The representations of the Ark could be seen on the Bar Kochba coin (132‐135), from the fragment of the Galilean synagogue at Nabratein (2nd c), over the Torah shrine of Dura (b. 256), on the walls of the catacomb at Beth She’arim (4th c), or on the lintel fragment of the synagogue in Capernaum (c. 360). All four Gospels present Capernaum as an important center of Jesus’ Galilean ministry, which emphasizes the importance of this Jewish structure for better understanding church architecture, especially in light of the fact that pre‐ Constantian Christians sometimes worshipped in synagogues. Hoppe (1994) 30‐32, 39; Ousterhout (1990) 44‐53; Kühnel (1987) 108‐109; Weitzmann and Kessler (1990) 154‐157; Revel‐Neher (1995) 405‐ 414. 519 The word tabernacle a derivative from Latin tabernaculum (tent). Tabernacle in Hebrew is referred by ‘ohel (tent), ‘ohel mo’ed (tent of meeting), ‘ohel ha‐’eduth (tent of testimony), mishkan ‘ohel (dwelling), mishkan ha‐’eduth (dwelling of testimony), mishkan ‘ohel (dwelling of the tent), beth Yahweh (house of Yahweh), godesh (holy), miqdash (sanctuary), hekal (temple). The various expressions in the Hebrew text for the tabernacle make it possible to form a clear idea of its construction, and the description of a “portable tent‐like sanctuary” is the most accurate. More in: J. Morganstern, The Ark the Ephod and the “Tent of Meeting” (Cincinnati, 1945) chps. 6 and 7; The modern Catholic encyclopedia M. Glazier and M. K. Hellwig, eds., (Collegeville, Minn., c. 1994) s.v. tabernacle. 520 The interior was divided into two rooms, differing in their sanctity: “the holy place” (Heb. hekhal) and “the most holy place” (Holy of Holies, Heb. Devir). The room that represented “the 517 518
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[Holy of Holies of the Temple], even under the wings of the cherubim” (1 Kings. 8:6ff) was established by God‐appointed King David and his son Solomon when they built the First Temple in Jerusalem (before 586 BCE).521 The physical presence of the Ark and the Tabernacle symbolized the covenant between God and the people of Israel (1 Sam. 4:3) and from Davidic times on, the Ark and Tabernacle, the Temple, and Jerusalem represented the associated images of the covenant and of the heavenly realm.522 The symbolic union within the Christian edifice of two distinct segments of the Jerusalem Temple, the altar area and the Holy of Holies featuring a Torah shrine, can be interpreted both spatially and liturgically. The Christian church appropriates architectural symbols of the Jewish Temple and expands their meanings so as to fit into a Christian typology. Thus, the Holy of Holies is seen to be Christ’s tomb, the menorah becomes the lamp burning inside the tomb, and the altar on Mt. Moriah, to which Abraham led his son for sacrifice, becomes the Rock of the Crucifixion, to which God conducted his own first‐born son as the only pure sacrifice.523 Furthermore, the stone that the angel rolled in front of the Tomb of Christ after the Resurrection perhaps has a specific link to the Ark of the Covenant and to the Ark of Noah. For exegetes did not describe it as round a shape that would fit the description
holy place” contained the table with the bread of the Presence (shewbread), the altar of incense, and the seven‐branched golden candelabrum (menorah). More in: H.A. Meek, The Synagogues (London, 1995) 30‐39. 521 Based on a heavenly model and preserving the same total measures, the Temple was a stone version of the sanctuary in the Tabernacle. 522 Different aspects of the Covenant between God and his people and union of the Ark, the Temple, and Jerusalem, are elaborately treated in: Kühnel (1987) 17‐28. 523 About this specific architectural symbolism: R. Ousterhout, “The Temple, the Sepulchre, and the Martyrion of the Savior,” Gesta XXIX/1 (1990) 44‐53. On the canopy as a symbolism of sacredness of Jewish Temple: A. Grabar, ‘Essai sur les plus anciennes representations de la “Resurrection du Christ”,’ MonPiot (1979‐80):62‐63, 105‐141. On the relationship between the Tomb of Christ and the Temple and the Holy of Holies with extensive references to the primary sources: Evangelatou (2002) chap. III. 2. Christ’s Resurrection. About liturgical symbolism in: Taft (1980‐81) 45‐75.
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that the stone was rolled, but as cubical, a shape that brings it closer to the shape of the two Arks which preceded the fullness of salvation.524 However, although theologians and pilgrims occasionally conflated the Temple and the Holy Sepulchre from Early Christian times onwards,525 not all interpretations uniformly agree with descriptions from the Holy Land. Photios’ account illuminates our understanding of the relationship between the Holy Sepulchre, the Temple and the Byzantine church. In the first place, he clearly distinguishes the Temple of Solomon from the tomb of Christ: The court of Solomon, itself the ancient Holy of Holies, but now occupied by the godless Saracens and providing them with a site for a mosque, has not been familiar to any one of the Christians in Jerusalem, for Christians cannot enter the places kept holy by Saracens. But the saving Tomb of the Lord of all is one bowshot away from the ancient Jerusalem, which is said to be ʺHighʺ, the meaning of ʺSion,ʺ which means the distance is two stades. For the ancient city surrounded Sion, which served as a watchtower and a garrison, like a large city wall surrounding a smaller place.526 Photios confirms that a mosque was constructed on the remains of Solomon’s Temple and closed to Christian veneration, and that the Tomb of Christ across the mosque assumed the place and meaning of the Zion.527 Thus, by the late ninth century for the Byzantines the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, despite some evocative elements Ousterhout connects the cube with the Altar of Incense at the Temple, but I would like to offer the hypothesis that it referred to the form of the Ark as well. Ousterhout (1990) 44‐53. Namely, those trained in the Antiochene school of exegesis remotely connected the ark of Noah with Danae’s chest. 525 Wilkinson in Jerusalem Pilgrims (2002) 176‐77, pointed to accounts by Eusebios of Caesarea and Cyril of Jerusalem and by Early Christian pilgrims; Kühnel (1987) 102‐110 to numerous visual connections between the Holy Sepulchre and the Temple on ampullae, coins and pyxes; and Brubaker (1999) 291‐302 and Evangelatou (2002) 185‐187 to images in ninth‐century Byzantine manuscripts. 526 Photios, Question 316 to Amphilochius. About the Tomb of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Translation according to Jerusalem Pilgrims (2002) 258‐259. 527 For the topographical significance of these places for the Muslims, Christians and Jews, most recently in: O. Grabar, Jerusalem (Aldershot and Burlington, VT, c2005) esp. ch. Space and holiness in medieval Jerusalem. 524
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of the Temple, was distinguished from the Temple built by Solomon, and explicit references to the Temple of Solomon remain modern speculations. Photios confirms that the Rotunda, initially built as a commemorative structure by Constantine I for the private devotion of pilgrims and without attested liturgical functions,528 functioned in the ninth century as a church.529 Moreover, on special occasions the Aedicula of the Holy Sepulchre itself also served as a church, or rather a chapel. We learn from Photios’ account that the stone, which according to the Evangelists initially enclosed the Tomb of Christ and was rolled over by an Angel, was split into two parts and displayed for veneration (cf. Figs. 213, 221).530 One segment was decked in copper and placed within the Tomb Aedicule, and the other was placed on the western part of the gallery.531 During the Easter celebration, the stone in the Aedicule also served as an altar, thus making the Tomb of Christ a church within the church. However, the Tomb of Christ did not look like coeval altar canopies in Byzantine churches, and its association with them was more strictly conceptual and symbolic. What is of greater importance for our understanding of Byzantine canopies is that both the Russian abbot Daniel and the Byzantine Patriarch Photios did not equate the Tomb‐shrine with the altar canopy, which was the liturgical furnishing that Germanos and contemporary theologians suggested in their writings, but with an ambo, another piece of liturgical furnishing in the Byzantine church.532
Taft (1980‐1981) 45‐75, with reference to Egeria’s account. The Rotunda was a church at least in the late seventh century judging from the account by Arculf, who visited Jerusalem ca. 670, almost fifty years after Patriarch Modestus rebuilt the Rotunda in 626. The Pilgrimage of Arculfus in PPTS 3 (1897). 530 The Rotunda probably functioned as church already after its rebuilding under Patriarch Modestus. Arculf mentions the two altars made out of the stone rolled from the tomb of Christ, as recorded in ninth‐century and subsequent documents. Arculfus in PPTS 3 (1897) 8‐9. 531 The gallery may actually refer to the ground level of the ambulatory, as suggested by other accounts. See for example: Arculfus in PPTS 3 (1897) 8‐9. 532 Even visual representations of altar canopies are rarely associated with the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. An extraordinary example is the early thirteenth‐century fresco of the Communion of the Apostles in the apse of the katholikon of Akhtala monastery in North 528 529
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An ambo, a large oval platform with flights of steps leading up to it, usually stood in the middle of a Byzantine church, almost directly under the dome, and was occasionally topped by a canopy.533 Patriarch Germanos considered the ambo an important liturgical furnishing, signifying the stone of the Holy Sepulchre, which the Angel rolled back from its entrance.534 It was defined as a hill (oros) put on a flat and leveled place, from which announcements could have been made.535 Associations of canopied tombs with the ambo in the Holy Land went beyond the Tomb of Christ. In the twelfth century, Joannes Phocas described the tomb of the Virgin in Gethsemane also as an ambo: “in the midst of the church stands the tomb, which is like a pulpit (ambon) wrought of stone in the shape of a building composed of four arches.”536 However, the ultimate source seems to be the Tomb of Christ according to John of Wurzuburg who in the same century compared the Virgin’s tomb to Christ’s.537 All these eyewitnesses are aware of the lack of human bodies in such canopied “ambo‐ tombs.” In addition, the Byzantines were aware of at least two additional canopied structures at the Anastasis complex in Jerusalem. First, some kind of canopied structure sheltered the relic of the True Cross. This structure, then, stood for the site of Golgotha and the Crucifixion, which is often represented in Byzantine images behind a canopied structure, with curtains tied back at the middle in order to reveal the interior content (Figs. 202, 206, 214, 226, 235, 559).538
Armenia, where the upper part of the depicted altar canopy can be associated with coeval imagery of the Tomb of Christ. Lidov (1999) 340‐353. 533 For the ambos of this and preceding periods, see: Daniel in PPTS (1971); Mathews (1971) 96‐ 99; Kazhdan (1987) 422‐426; Peschlow (1994) 255‐260. 534 Germanos (1984) 63. 535 Kazhdan (1987) 422‐426. 536 Phocas also described the tomb of Rachel as “being formed in the shape of a vault supported by four arches.” Phocas in PPTS 5 (1896) 21, 31. 537 Description of the Holy Land by John of Würzburg (AD 1160‐1170) PPTS vol. 5 (1980) 51‐52. 538 Milner (1996) 77‐99. The Western source, the Regularis Concordia of ca. 970, appointed that on Good Friday “there shall be on one part of the altar, where there is a space, a certain representation (assimilation) of the Sepulchre, and a certain curtain hung about it, in which,
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Second, in the center of the atrium just opposite the eastern apse of the Rotunda, a canopy or small chapel also marked the omphalos, literally the navel or the traditional place of the center of the World.539 The navel of the World was often associated with the site of Adam’s tomb, although the location of Adam’s skull was also related to the site of Golgotha and the Crucifixion, both within the same complex but at another location. Abbot Daniel recorded the position of the omphalos outside the wall of the church of the Resurrection and wrote: “Navel of the earth,” which is covered by a small building on (the vault of) which Christ is represented in mosaic with this inscription: The sole of my foot serves as a measure for the heaven and [my hand] for the earth.”540 To return to Germanos’ explanation of the altar canopy as the single place of Christ’s Crucifixion, burial and resurrection, it remains unquestionable that various sites from the complex at Jerusalem were conflated, symbolically transferred to, and framed by a single altar canopy in the Byzantine church.541 Moreover, such a thesis certainly does not exclude the possibility that one church could have multiple canopies, as the Anastasis complex itself had. For multiple objects, such as ambos and altar canopies, could share similar topology, and under the power of symbolic association, their potential meanings and functions could expand. The Tomb Shrine in the Anastasis church in Jerusalem, which looked like an ambo and occasionally served as a chapel with its own altar, confirms this thesis. The canopied ambo from Kalabaka, though with a post‐Byzantine painting of the Entombment of Christ on its
when the Holy Cross has been venerated, it shall be placed.” Regularis Consordia T. Symons, ed. (Edinburgh, 1953) c.46, 44‐45; c.52, 49‐50. 539 On the omphalos in the eleventh century most recently: Patrich (1993) 101‐117. 540 Daniel in PPTS (1971) 13‐14. Around 1102/3 Seawulf also speaks of the “place called Compas” “at the head of the church of the Sepulchre” The Pilgrimage of Seawulf, PPTS vol. 4 (New York, 1971[1887‐89]) 12 541 The canopy from a stone plaque from a Dumbarton Oaks Collection is often identified as Tomb of Christ. A square‐like hole engraved below a canopy symbolizes the square‐chamber of the Tomb as first suggested by Underwood (1950) 43‐138, figs. 39, 40. However, the Cross of Golgotha is also depicted and confirms that the Byzantines conflated the two sites of the Tomb Aedicula and the Cross of Golgotha by depicting them under a single canopy.
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eastern flight of stairs, suggests that the Tomb of Christ could have been associated with the ambo in the Byzantine tradition literally and architecturally (Cat. no. 44‐b).542 Other canopies symbolizing Christ’s tomb are found in the church of Dečani, Kosovo, Serbia and Sveti Choveli, Georgia (Cat. no. 182, Fig. 525). Photios provides one other enigmatic detail when he speaks of a chimney‐like structure emerging from Christ’s tomb. Why does he not speak explicitly of a canopy? Though a chimney in connection to the Tomb of Christ and especially from the mouth of a theologian may sound strange to us, it would actually explain, it seems to me, the function and physical appearance of the Holy kouvouklion, what the Byzantines called the Aedicula from the fourteenth century and possibly much earlier.543 I would suggest that the “chimney” Photios talks about is essentially a “smoke hole,” in fact, a potential channel of communication with God.544 Photios’ chimney should, in my opinion, be closely related to the phenomenon of the Holy Fire, the miraculous appearance of the light in the Cave of the Holy Sepulchre, first attested in documents dated to the late ninth century and coming from both Arabic and Christian sources.545 His somewhat awkward description seemingly On similar occurrences in the Romaneseque Europe perhaps the best example is the ambo with the medieval copy of the Tomb Aedicula attached to each other in Santo Stefano Rotondo in Bologna: R. G. Ousterhout, “The Church of Santo Stefano: A ʺJerusalemʺ in Bologna” Gesta 20/2 (1981) 311‐321, Fig. 7. 543 In 1375, the Russian pilgrim Archimandrite Arsenius visited the Holy Places and called the Tomb of Christ the kuviklion. PG 165, col. 517. 544 About the concept of the “smoke hole:” M. Eliade, Images and symbols; studies in religious symbolism (New York, 1961) 48ff; Eliade (1987) 121‐124. 545 There is no surviving evidence about the Holy Fire from the time when Emperor Constantine I built the Jerusalem complex, or earlier. Some auxiliary references to the miraculous lighting of Paschal lamps and the light ceremony in Jerusalem in previous periods recorded by Eusebius and the nun Egeria should not be related to the phenomenon of the Holy Fire, which is always associated with the cave within the shrine of the Tomb of Christ. Eusebius, The History of the Church, transl G. A. Williamson (New York, 1965), VI. 9, 249‐249; Egeria (1999) 90. The earliest dated sources dealing with the relic of the Holy Fire are from the ninth‐century writings by monk Bernard and by Arab witnesses. Around 870, Bernard a Frankish monk on pilgrimage, wrote: ʺHoc... dicendum quod Sabbato Sancto, quod est vigilia Paschae, mane officium incipitur in ecclesia: et post peractum officium, Kyrie eleïson canitur, donec veniente angelo lumen in lampadibus accendatur, quae pendent super praedictum sepulcrum: de quo dat patriarcha episcopis et reliquo populo, ut illuminet 542
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confirms that the phenomenon of the Holy Fire was a novelty to the Greeks in Constantinople. The recognition of the miraculous fire at the Holy Sepulchre coincides with the time of harsh persecutions of Christians in Palestine and with the period of the final formulation of the liturgical rite for Holy Saturday which celebrates the burial of Christ, His descent into Hell, and Resurrection.546 A number of seventh‐ to eighth‐century hymnographers, all linked with Syro‐Palestine and above all with the monastery Mar‐Sabas just outside Jerusalem, had established the general pattern for the Byzantine liturgical rite of Holy Saturday.547 Thus, the Byzantine paschal hymnography of the ninth century repeatedly alludes to Christ’s victory over death
sibi in suis locis.ʺ PL 121, col. 572 [Bernardi itinerarium factum in loca sancta anno DCCCLXX]. Essentially the account describes that on Holy Saturday, at the end of the Vigil of the Easter, after singing Kyrie eleison (Lord have mercy), the angel comes and lights the lamps which are suspended above the Tomb. The Patriarch then passes this light to the bishops and the faithful populace. The manuscript which contains the description by Bernard, however, is dated to 970, but scholars maintain that it is based on earlier ninth‐century manuscripts, one presumably kept in the British Museum, but no longer extant. See: Th. Wright, Early Travels in Palestine, Comprising the Narratives of Arculf, Willibald, Bernard, Seawulf, Sigurd, Benjamin of Tudela, Sir John Maundeville, de la Brocquière, and Maundrell (London, 1848), xiv. On contemporary Muslim sources which record essentially the same elements of the rite of the Holy Fire see: F. E. Peters, Jerusalem: The Holy City in the Eyes of Chronicles, Visitors, Pilgrims, and Prophets from the Days of Abraham to the Beginning of Modern Times (Princeton, 1985) 262. For a historical overview of the phenomenon of the Holy Fire see: Auxentios of Photiki (1999) ch. 1. See also: A. Lidov, “The Holy Fire and the Translations of New Jerusalems: Hierotopical and Art‐Historical Aspects” in New Jerusalems, A. Lidov ed. (2006): 58‐70. 546 The liturgical rite on midnight of Holy Saturday encompassed a dramatic setting. After all the lights inside the church had been extinguished as a symbol of mourning and watchful expectation, the priest would come out from the sanctuary with the burning paschal candle, which symbolized the light of the Risen Christ. The rite for the Holy Saturday was celebrated in every church in various forms from the early Christian period. 547 St. Sophronios, Patriarch of Jerusalem (d. 644), St. John of Damascus (ca. 680‐ca.740), and St. Kosmas of Maiuma (ca. 685‐ca.750) took part in formulating the rite, which assumed its more or less present form in ninth‐century Constantinople. Two monks of the monastery of Studios in Constantinople, St. Theodore (759‐826) and St. Joseph, later an Archbishop of Thessaloniki (762‐832), compiled and edited the general pattern of the rites for the entire period of Lent, the so‐called Lenten Triodion. The Lenten Triodion transl. by Mother Mary and Kallistos Ware (London and Boston, 1984 [c1977]) 40‐43. On the concise historical development of the liturgical rites for Easter with references to the primary sources see also: A. Schmemman, Great Lent (Crestwood, 1969) 119‐22. Sophronios in his collection of verses writes of the light of Christ’s resurrection that shines from the Sepulchre and he identifies the Light of the Tomb with Christ himself. PG 137, cols. 3920‐25.
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and the place of his burial through images of light. The ceremony of light that occurs at the Holy Sepulchre in conjunction with the celebration of Christ’s Resurrection in Byzantine churches as developed by the ninth century are parallels too obvious to be dismissed. In the Holy Sepulchre, which by the ninth century, as Photios informed us, served as a church for Holy Saturday, the rite of the Holy Fire must have gained a special meaning. The vigil lamps inside the shrine of the Cave of the Holy Sepulchre and the other lamps in the church would be extinguished, and then the Holy Sepulchre would be sealed and remain in complete darkness. Before entering the tomb, the Patriarch would be searched for any implements that might ignite a flame.548 After the supplications of the Patriarch inside the Tomb and the faithful outside, it was believed that the Holy Fire (τὸ Ἅγιον Φῶς, literally The Holy Light) spontaneously ignited the lamps. With this light the Patriarch would have ignited his candles, exit into the dark Rotunda and pass the light to the faithful. Thus the Holy Fire expresses the universal theme of renewal, the triumph of light over darkness, and becomes a powerful sign of the Resurrection, the promise of the Second Coming and of eternal life in the Heavenly Jerusalem. The Patriarch would reiterate the imagery of Christ as light and the theme of his victory over death, which in the context of the Easter celebration offers an alternative to immortality, Christ becoming the incarnate hypostasis of the eternal God. Therefore, for the Byzantines the miracle of the Resurrection would transcend the splendor of the liturgical cycle and the imagery of the hymnography. The festal greeting “Christ is Risen” would take the faithful back to the tomb‐cave and the eager Muslim accounts reveal that such a custom was also practiced during the Middle Ages, when Muslim officials were designated to seal the Tomb and search for the implements of flame ignition. The same accounts often claim that the fire was the result of clever deceit or magic, but simultaneously they confirm that the Christians believed that the Holy Fire was supernatural. On the anonymous ninth‐century Arabic account, and the accounts by al‐Bīrūni (973‐1048) and by Gregory Abûl Faraj (1226‐1286) see: Auxentios of Photiki (1999) 28‐37, with references. Moreover, the eleventh‐century Persian traveler Nāsir‐i Khusraw provided information that the great flow of Christian pilgrims did happen particularly during the Easter season. For further references see: Canard (1965) 16‐43. 548
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expectation of His Second Coming (“Surely I am coming quickly” Rev. 22:20). The total effect of the liturgical rite is to re‐create mystically the event of the Resurrection. The relics of the Tomb of Christ, the True Cross and the Holy Fire are seen to transcend their own materiality, and the past is brought into line with the present, not just as history but as revelation. In this moment, the end of history and the apocalyptic future of God’s kingdom as announced by Christ were already made accessible. The symbols of the liturgy thus became mediators of the paradoxical transformation of Time into Eternity.549 In other words, the Byzantine understanding of both the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem as an ambo and the Tomb’s “chimney‐like” canopied top is closely related to their understanding of the Tomb of Christ as the place of the Resurrection of the Incarnate Lord and as a channel of communication with God. The narrative from Ex. 40:34 and Lev. 10:1‐2 with Old Testament references about God’s appearance in the form of fire was occasionally depicted in Middle Byzantine manuscripts, sometimes even revealing that miraculous fire could have been collected and held in vessels (Figs. 330, 336, 349, 350, esp. Fig. 351) and can provide visual counterparts about Byzantine understanding of the Holy Fire in Jerusalem. The Byzantines understood the Tomb of Christ as a shrine for two powerful relics, the Holy Tomb in which he was interred and from which he rose, and the Holy Fire, which visibly and palpably confirmed that Christ is Risen. These two relics, which were spatially confined to the Aedicula of the Holy Sepulchre, had two channels of communication to the faithful, the Tomb entrance and its smoke hole, or in Photios’ words the “mouth” and “chimney.” The “mouth” and “chimney,” both zones of passage between two distinct spaces, inform the deeper symbolism of the architectural complex and point to subtle relations between the canopy and the human body. The homologous explanation of the Tomb of Christ with the “mouth” and “chimney” reveals Byzantine “humanism” and yet it always remains deeply conceptual.
Eliade (1961) 172.
549
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Photios’ term “mouth” perhaps relates to a concept of the tomb as a human body, deriving from the abstruse analogies made by Byzantine thinkers between architectural structures and the human body.550 Ultimately, a total continuity is implied between the cosmos, the house and the human body.551 According to Byzantine physiological speculation, the soul left the body through the mouth at the moment of the death.552 Applying this idea to the architectural appearance of the Tomb, its “entrance,” can be seen as a kind of mouth, from which the soul departs in the same way that the resurrected Christ emerges from the Tomb. The words of Photios’ description then begin to make sense. Obviously he did not call the entrance opening of the tomb “entrance,” when he understood it as the exit, a pathway to salvation. Therefore, the term “mouth” was more appropriate from the perspective of the Byzantines.553 Another element of these analogies, the division and passage between human and divine dwellings, was constantly modified throughout the history of this idea and integrated into systems of thought. Archaic symbols conserved an essential unity of structure, and ideas of the center of the world, of the axis mundi, and of communication between the cosmic levels have been attested in the architectural articulation of the Holy Sepulchre. By the ninth century, the “chimney” that Photios mentions, basically a “smoke and light hole,” a canopy lantern designed to accommodate the Easter miracle of the Holy Fire and the light of the Lord, was the subject of another comparison rooted in archaic thinking, which identified it as an St. Maximus the Confessor (580‐662) in his Mystagogy [PG 91, 657‐718, English translation Dom. J. Stead, The Church, the Liturgy and the Soul of Man: The Mystagogia of St. Maximus the Confessor (Still River, MA, 1982) 57‐120], ca. 630 states first that the church is an image of the whole universe, while the sky and the land resemble the church’s sanctuary and nave; second he states that a church is the image and likeness of man, who is made in the image and likeness of God, the nave being man’s body and the altar his mind. 551 M. Eliade has demonstrated this through Euro‐Asian mythology in his Symbolism, the sacred and the arts (New York, 1987) 121‐124. 552 See, for example, Psalter Dionysiou, cod. 65, fol. 11v, ca. 1313. St. Pelikanides, P. Christou, Ch. Mavropoulou‐Tsioumi, and S. Kadas, Οι θησαυροι του Αγιου Όρους, Α. Εικονογραφιμένα χειρόγραφα I (Athens, 1973) figs. 121, 420. 553 In the twelfth century Phocas, PPTS 5 (1896) 19, also writes about the “mouth” of the Holy Sepulchre. Before Photios, in the seventh century, the pilgrim Arculf, PPTS 3 (1897) 6, a native of Gaul, even explained that the “mouth” of the Tomb refers to the wording of the Evangelists. 550
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open passage between heaven and earth.554 The canopy which accommodated the descent of the Holy Fire is vividly depicted in a fourteenth‐century drawing located at the Vatican library (Fig. 575). The interpretation of the Holy Fire offered by Byzantine thinkers differs in a significant way from that of most Latin accounts. In the latter, the Holy Fire miraculously descends from the sky, passes through the openings in the two domes of the rotunda and the aedicula of the Holy Sepulchre, strikes the marble slab inside the tomb chamber and lights the lamps. The immediate cause of the event is attributed to the intercession of an angel or the descent of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove.555 The Byzantine interpretation of the Holy Fire, in contrast, lacks such elaborate visual imagery.556 The Byzantines maintained that the Holy Fire descends from heaven and lights the lamps in the Holy Sepulchre by the divine grace, which could not have been seen. Abbot Daniel clearly expressed this opinion: “Some say that the Holy Spirit descends upon the Holy Sepulchre in the form of a dove; others that it is the lightening from heaven that kindles the lamps above the Sepulchre of the Lord. This is all untrue for neither dove nor lightening is to be seen at that moment; but the divine grace comes down unseen from heaven and lights the lamps in the Sepulchre of our Lord.”557 Any references to a dove, flash of light, an angel, a hand‐like fire,
We are reminded that the part of the Tomb which suffered the most during a fire which caliph al‐Hākim set in the Tomb, was its roof, which may have been wooden. On the archetypal symbols of a mouth and smoke hole see: Eliade (1987) 121‐124. 555 Daniel in PPTS (1971); Auxentios of Photiki (1999) 40‐43. 556 Two twelfth‐century accounts of the Holy Sepulchre which mention the Holy Fire, those by a certain Perdikos, a protonotarios from Ephesus, and an anonymous pilgrim, simply record that the Holy Fire descends and lights the lamps of the Holy Sepulchre. PG 133, cols. 965, 976. According to the life of Saint Meletios the Confessor, a thirteenth‐century monk, when he visited the Holy Sepulchre, he “found worthy to behold the grace‐filled light which in those days continually radiated from the Life‐bearing Tomb.” St. Meletios the Confessor, On Prayer, (Mount Athos, 1991) 1. The reference also reveals that the Byzantines did not associate the grace‐filled, miraculous light exclusively with the rite of the Holy Fire. 557 Daniel in PPTS (1971) Appendix. 554
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small clouds or light rain either come from non‐Byzantine sources or are understood by the Byzantines as only apparitions accompanying the relic of the Holy Fire.558 Despite our interest in the physical reality of the Holy Sepulchre the Byzantines seemed to reflect more on the testimony which the Tomb carried.559 The physical emptiness of Christ’s Tomb was understood through its architectural framing, i.e. through the Rotunda and the centrally‐planned Tomb chamber. The centrality of the Tomb in the entire building and the channels of communication with the sacred between the faithful and the divine was what mattered the most (Fig. 587).560 Following Pseudo‐Dionysius’ explanation (5th c) that “the sensible rites are the images of the intelligible realities” and that “they lead there and show the way to them,”561 the reality of the Tomb of Christ is spiritual and conceptual, and the material symbols are only the means by which it is communicated.562 The Tomb of Christ and the Domed Byzantine Church The architectural elements of the lantern of the Tomb of Christ potentially shared the vocabulary of coeval and later Byzantine church domes. Because the Tomb’s earlier form had already been obscure to Byzantine renovators, contemporary architectural schemes might have served as models in the course of reconstruction. Just as Constantine I relied on current trends of imperial architecture for his building programs, the Byzantine building interventions possibly resulted from the current
Auxentios of Photiki (1999) 43, with references to accounts by Abbot Daniel and by Archimandrite Arsenius in 1375 who talks about the small cloud of smoke which appeared above the Holy Sepulchre when the Holy Fire descended into the Tomb cave. 559 The same conclusion was reached by: Biddle (1999) 81. 560 Eyewitnesses often described the Tomb in the middle of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. See for example, the accounts by Saewulf in PPTS 4 (1971), 9, Apendix II, 98; Daniel in PPTS 4 (1971); Arculfus in PPTS 3 (1897) 6. The significance of the centrality of the Tomb in the building was also recognized by: J. R. Macpherson, “The Church of the Ressurection, or of the Holy Sepulchre” EHR 7/27 (1892) 417‐436. 561 Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (II, 3.2) Greek text in PG 3, cols. 369‐485, English translation in T. L. Campbell transl., Dionysius the Pseudo‐Areopagite: The ecclesiastical Hierarchy (Lanham, New York, London, 1981). 562 On the spiritual reality see also: Germanos (1984) 26. 558
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imperial endowments. Though we know very little about the architectural settings of the relics and shrines in Constantinople, I would suggest that some generic symbols and images associated with the Tomb of Christ determined its reconstruction in Jerusalem. By the Middle Byzantine period, the general trend in ecclesiastical architecture, even though greatly reduced in scale by comparison with Constantinian and Justiniac architecture, was to make a centralized church with a core which essentially was a dome on four columns.563 Even the so‐called “atrophied” cross‐domed churches, as exemplified by the later remodeled twelfth‐century core of the Constantinopolitan church of Christ Saviour in Chora and by the still standing fourteenth‐century King’s church of Joachim and Anna at Studenica, Serbia, essentially resemble a canopy contained within a cubic volume of the central part of the naos (Fig. 582).564 Therefore, the most prominent feature of the Byzantine church acquired the structural appearance of a canopy structure.565 All other architectural unites clustered around the canopy‐like core of the church according to a defined hierarchy, by which the central dome raised on a drum became elongated and attenuated (cf. Fig. 200). Even the external masonry wall of the drum of the dome with engaged colonnettes created a visual illusion of a relatively light domed canopy. The main church dome was usually topped by a sphere and crowned with a cross. The material reality of a “canopied” dome gained the potent symbolic meaning of the heavenly realm which, it seems to me, expanded in light of the symbolism of the heavenly throne. This symbolism was established by the altar canopy of Hagia Sophia and by Christ’s Tomb as it appeared after Byzantine reconstructions of the Holy Sepulchre.
S. Ćurčić, “Articulation of Church Façades during the First Half of the Fourteenth Century,” Vizantijska umetnost sredinom XIV veka, ed. S. Petković (Beograd, 1978) 17‐27. 564 R. Ousterhout, The Architecture of the Kariye Camii in Istanbul DOS 25 (1987), G. Babić Kraljeva crkva u Studenici (1987) 27‐35. 565 While flexible, the middle‐ and late‐Byzantine church plan was obviously associated with sanctity that surpassed the structural or functional roles, since, for example, rock‐cut Cappadocian churches, also had elements such as columns and domes, although structurally unnecessary. Ousterhout (1998) 81‐120. 563
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Little survives of the original church domes built in Constantinople, and not a single original dome survives from the first half of the eleventh century when the last significant Byzantine reconstruction took place at the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem. One of the largest domes in the capital that crowned the church of St. George in Mangana, built by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (1042‐59) in Constantinopole, has not been preserved.566 The internally scalloped dome from the tenth‐century church of Myralaion, built by Romanos I Lakapenos (920‐44) in the 920s, has a cylindrical drum on the outside with eight quasi‐triangular protruding supports (Fig. 576).567 An octagonal dome drum perforated by eight windows and decorated with slender cylindrical colonnettes supported internally scalloped dome of a church of forgotten dedication, built ca. 1000 and today known as Vefa [Molla Gurani] Kilise Camii (Fig. 577).568 In Asia Minor, on the islands of Chios and Rhodos, at Constantinople, and as far as Byzantine Macedonia and medieval Serbia, however, the dome drums of numerous churches include engaged colonettes, executed on marble or high‐quality stone, or, in a later tradition, painted columns at angles, which give the dome the appearance of a canopy.569 The dome drum of the tenth‐century Church of the Virgin in the monastery of Hosios Loukas monastery features engaged marble colonnettes, suggestive of a canopy, as well as, between them, representations of the cross of Golgotha raised on a three‐stepped base (Fig. 583).570 Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos built the church of Nea Moni on the island of Chios, where the extensive use of columns and paired columns in direct contact with the wall has been already R. Demangel and E. Mamboury, Le Quartier des Manganes (Paris, 1939) 19‐37. H. Hallensleben, “Zur Annexbauten der Kilise Camii in Istanbul,” Istanbuler Mitteilungen 15 (1965) 323‐30; ECBA (1986) 356‐358; Mango (1985) 113; Striker, C. L. et al. Kalenderhane in Istanbul: the buildings, their history, architecture, and decoration: final reports on the archaeological exploration and restoration at Kalenderhane Camii, 1966‐1978. (Mainz, c1997); Ćurčić (2008); filed notes N. Stanković and J. Bogdanović. 568 Ćurčić (2008); filed notes N. Stanković and J. Bogdanović. 569 See for example, Ch. Bouras, Nea Moni on Chios: history and architecture (Athens, 1982) 106‐ 110, 152, with references. 570 Filed notes J. Bogdanović. 566 567
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noted (Fig. 578).571 The unique feature of the paired, “classicizing” columns supporting the dome as occasionally depicted in reference to the Tomb of Christ is comparable to the paired, freestanding marble colonnettes of the dome in Nea Moni and two later churches preserved on Chios, Panagia Krina and Haghioi Apostoloi at Pyrgi, as well as church of Fountoukli on Rhodos (Figs. 579, 580, 581 cf. 211).572 In the context of the canopy at the top of the Tomb of Christ the place of the Resurrection and Divine Presence, the church dome would have been most closely related to the Holy Sepulchre. Even if the Anastasis Rotunda were domed, an architectural feature, such as a dome, could have been the repetitive physical manifestation of the Tomb of Christ. In this respect the domes both of the Rotunda and of the Tomb would mean the same thing for the faithful, and potentially referred not only to the structure that sheltered the rock‐cut tomb, but also to the enlarged structure of the Anastasis rotunda that sheltered the Tomb itself.573 Some tenth‐ and eleventh‐century Constantinopolitan churches and reliquary shrines illuminate the contemporary approach of re‐sizing and multiplying images with special, sacred connotations.574 The Byzantine reconstruction of the Tomb‐shrine with a canopy‐like top may be related to some contemporary trends in Byzantine art and architecture.
Bouras (1982) 106‐110. On Byzantine examples of the dome with paired columns see: Bouras (1982) 109. 573 Since Syrian artisans worked on the Anastasis Rotunda, the hypothesis that the roof of the structure was most probably domical, perhaps of conoid shape slightly pointed, which is very similar to a pyramidal roof, may explain some differences in the visual representations of the Tomb. Furthermore, it should be emphasized that even if Constantine’s structure were two‐ storied, the pilgrims’ mementos would focus on the eye‐level representations of the most important elements of the Tomb, which they wanted to remember after returning home. Moreover, as the Tomb‐shrine of Christ may have been identified with the Anastasis Rotunda, similarly the Ark of Covenant was often related to the Temple. H. Rosenau, Vision of the Temple. The Image of the Temple of Jerusalem in Judaism and Christianity (London, 1979) 19‐25. In addition, it is interesting that the twelfth‐century copies of the Holy Sepulchre in the West, like those in Cambridge England, ca. 1130, Santo Stefano Rotondo in Bologna, Italy, ca 1150, Sto. Sepúlcro Torres del Rió, Spain, 12th c, all have dome drums with engaged colonnettes and refer to architectural copies of the Holy Tomb in Jerusalem. On Santo Stefano in Bologna and comparative Romanesque examples in the West: Ousterhout (1981) 311‐321. 574 See for example, W. B. R. Saunders, “The Aachen Reliquary of Eustathius Maleinus, 969‐ 970” DOP 36 (1982) 211‐219; R. Ousterhout, “Reliquary of Saint Anastasios the Persian” in 571 572
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Since the Early Christian period the meaning of the Tomb of Christ was understood not as the natural extension of the tradition of ancient Greek heröon architecture and Roman imperial mausolea as tomb places, but as the place of divine majesty and of honor given to the Lord.575 In light of the semi‐religious character of the heröon, part shrine and part tomb, the Tomb of Christ can be closely associated with Christian shrines. The anachronistic use of the ancient term heröon for some Middle Byzantine churches and especially mausolea has already been observed for the Church of the Archangel Michael, the mausoleum of the Komnenian dynasty.576 Coeval and architecturally similar to the later Crusaders’ rebuilding of the Holy Sepulchre during the reign of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem (r. 1118‐1131), the heröon at Pantokrator monastery shared with the Holy Sepulchre yet another feature: both structures accommodated precious relics related to Christ’s death. Apart from the Tomb of Christ the fragments of the True Cross were kept at the Holy Sepulchre, while the Church of the Archangel Michael at Pantokrator monastery in Constantinople housed the tomb of Emperor Manuel I which was closely associated with the “Red Stone of Ephesos,” the stone slab upon which Jesus was believed to lie after the Deposition from the Cross, a holy relic brought by Manuel from Ephesus.577
Glory of Byz (1997) 460‐461; and Oikonomides (1980‐81) 239‐247, with references to the Middle‐ Byzantine churches of Pharos, Mangana, and Nea Ekklesia. 575 J.B. Ward‐Perkins, Roman Imperial Architecture (Harmondsworth and New York, c. 1981) 490, 495‐516. 576 In the typikon of the monastery the mausoleum was called heröon: Pantokrator in BMFD vol. 2 (2000) 725‐74, esp. 756. The terms naos and ekklesia, both meaning a church, were interchangeably used for mausolea during the Middle Byzantine period. Bouras (1982) 141. Although the heröon generally ceased to be used by the twelfth century, for example, John Skilitzes (11th‐12th c) [Synopsis historiarum, Life of Emperor Nicephoros, sec. 23.28], Theodorus II Ducas Lascaris (13th c) [Epistulae, Epistle 141] and Georgios Pachymeres (13th‐14th c) [Συγγραφικαὶ ἱστορίαι (libri vi de Michaele Palaeologo) 87.5] used the word ἡρῷον (heröon) in their works. 577 Most likely the Church of the Archangel Michael was originally conceived as a huge single‐ aisled, domed church. However, during its construction a large, sixteen‐sided dome was added on the west side of the church. According to Ousterhout, who also points to the similarity between the Holy Sepulchre and Archangel Michael’s church, the Pantokrator dome was an afterthought and was included in the design during the building process. R. Ousterhout et al., “Study and restoration of the Zeyrek Camii in Istanbul: first report, 1997‐98”
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Reliquary shrines and church vessels further support connections between the Tomb of Christ and Byzantine church. The eleventh‐century “Jerusalem” originally from Constantinople, now in St. Sophia in Novgorod (Fig. 594), emulates Golgotha and the Tomb of Christ as the places of His sacrifice, entombment and Resurrection and suggests the Byzantine architectural concept of the Heavenly Jerusalem.578 This silver “Jerusalem” basically consisted of a circular paten with a canopy structure above and was decorated with gold and precious stones (cf. Rev. 21: 11ff). In the center of the paten a depiction of the cross, was inscribed with the chi‐rho monogram of Christ and NIKA (“Christ is victorious”).579 The object was topped by a dome with a lily in the center, from which a sphere holding a cross emerged. The structure had six columns supporting arches between which were probably represented the six pairs of Apostles, the foundations and gates of the New Jerusalem (cf. Rev. 21:14). The twelve Apostles were depicted below the arcaded “gates” in the twelfth‐century “Jerusalem” made after the Constantinopolitan model, also from the Novgorod’s church (Fig. 595). The arches were enclosed with grilles, just as in the Tomb of Christ, and within liturgical context they served the function of “veiling” the Eucharistic gifts even while they were translucent enough to permit contemplation of the sacred mysteries.580 The reliquary of St. Anastasios the Persian (960‐970, now in the cathedral treasury of Aachen), a small‐scale “church,” shows the basic scheme of the soaring system of the cross‐in‐square Middle Byzantine church, a dome over the cube (Fig. 593).581 Though its original function is unknown, the reliquary bears inscriptions referring to the City of God and the Resurrection, as if a small scale “City of God.”
DOP 54 (2000) 265‐70; Ousterhout (2001) 133‐150. On the relic of the “Red Stone of Ephesus:” Janin (1953) 525‐23, 564‐66; C. Mango, “Notes on Byzantine Monuments” DOP 23 (1969‐70) 369‐375. 578 I. A. Sterligova, “Jerusalems as Liturgical Vessels in the Old Rus,” in Jerusalem in Russian Culture, A. Batalov and A. Lidov, eds. (1994) 46‐62. (in Russian) 579 Oikonomides (1980‐81) 239‐247; Ryndina (1996) 69‐106. 580 Sterligova (1994) 46‐62 with further references. 581 Saunders (1982) 211‐219. On the reliquary recenty: Ousterhout (1997) 460‐461, cat. no 300.
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The symbolic association of an object with the architecture and idea of Heavenly Jerusalem may have been connected with the Byzantine reconstruction of the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem.582 Both the Tomb, as usually depicted after 1009, and the reliquary are cubes with a dome. Moreover, both feature a scalloped dome on a drum with windows and engaged columns, similar to the ones from the Vefa Kilise.583 While it is impossible to ascertain whether pre‐existing or contemporary architectural forms influenced the reconstruction of Christ’s tomb by the Byzantines, or indeed to what extent the architectural forms of Christ’s tomb and of other sacred sites in the Holy Land fostered symbolic and material expression in Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture and furnishing, there is an undeniable similarity between the features of the Tomb Shrine and those of the Byzantine domed church. By the time of the Komneni the Byzantines were once again very concerned with the significance of the sacred places in the Holy Land.584 However, as it was clear that they could not regain their imperial presence in the Holy Land, the significance of the relics seemed to expand, and their presentation was diversified by display in luxurious reliquaries whose form reflected the form of a church exterior.585
A. Grabar first suggested that the Byzantine reliquary today in Aachen represented the Holy Sepulchre in his “Le reliquaire byzantin de la cathédrale s’Aix‐la‐Chapelle” L’art de la fin de l’Antiquité et du Moyen‐Âge 33/1 (Paris, 1968) 427‐433; and the same opinion was recently confirmed by Saunders (1982) 211‐219. 583 The mausoleum of count Bohemond, who was in the service of King Baldwin I (1110‐1118), is a suitable comparative example of early Crusader architecture. In its architectural design and decoration, the tomb added to the cathedral of Canosa, Apullia, has free‐standing colonnettes on the drum of the dome. Built in 1111, its architecture presumably resembled Roman‐Byzantine architecture from the Holy Land. Folda (1995) 53‐54. 584 Magdalino (1987) 51‐64. 585 The verde antico lid of Manuel I Komnenos’ sarcophagus in the shape of a multi‐domed church is another example. As it has been convincingly suggested, it may have been actually part of the sarcophagus of Basil I, the patron of Nea Ekklesia. It may have been that Basil secured a sarcophagus which symbolically and formally resembled his most famous building project in the capital. The reuse of marble decorative elements for the churches of the monastery of Lips, Christ Pantokrator (1118‐1124), the so‐called Kalenderhane Camii (late 12th c), and Monastery of Chora (1316‐19) suggests a continuous appreciation of luxurious church‐ like and canopy‐shaped objects among imperial patrons. Krsmanović (2001) 69; Karagiorgou (2001) 193. 582
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3.5 Concluding remarks: The Canopy as the Microcosmic Place of Presence Similarities between the domed Byzantine church and the canopy are almost self‐evident. First, the church core itself, resting on four columns (or piers) that support the dome drum raised on four pendentives, topped by a hemisphere, and crowned with a cross, resembles the basic form of the majority of canopies. Second, the decorative program of the canopy core of the Byzantine church resembles a canopy with its overarching cosmological symbolism. Christ Pantokrator, the ruler of the universe that He created and redeemed, was most often depicted at the apex of the dome.586 Christ, most often portrayed in bust, was usually represented against a blue or golden background holding a Gospel book, embracing and blessing the congregation below while light streamed through the drum’s windows. Heavenly bodies such as wheels, cherubim, seraphim and archangels often encircled the roundel of Christ Pantokrator. The dome rested on a drum inhabited by prophets, who predicted, or Apostles, who witnessed Christ, and was supported by four spherical triangles usually depicting the four seated Evangelists. Four columns supporting the domical suprastructure were frequently rendered with the images of the sanctified church members, all symbolizing “pillars” of the Church. In the dome, the themes of Christ Pantocrator, Christ Enthroned or Ascension of Christ were usually depicted. Christ’s Ascension was usually represented in the Middle Byzantine churches such as Panagia ton Chalkeon at Thessalonniki (1028), church of Ağas‐Alti Kilisel, Irhala, Cappadocia (11th c), St. Gregory “Prosvetitel”, Armenia (c. 1215), Holy Apostles, Peć (1232‐33). Christ enthroned has been depicted in the Martorana on Sicily (1143). Christ Pantcorator has been depicted in the main dome of the churches: the church of the Holy Mother of God Eleoussa (Our Lady of Compassion) in Veljusa, Macedonia (c. 1080), the church in Daphni (c. 1100), a Capella Palatina, Palermo (mid‐12th c), Panagia tou Arakou Lagudera, Cyprus (1192), St. Nicholas tis Rodias outside Arta (12‐13th c.), Spilia Pendeli, Attica (1233‐34), St. Peter, Ras (13th c), St. Sophia Trebizond (1238‐1263), St. Catherine, Thessaloniki (late 13th c), St. John Caneo (c. 1290), Parigoritissa, Arta (1295), St. Virgin Peribleptos, Ochrid (1295); Calendzihi, Georgia (1384‐1396), Holy Apostles in Thessaloniki (1314), Staro Nagoričino (1317), Gračanica (1321), Virgin Hodegetria, Peć (c. 1330), Lesnovo (1341‐49), the church of Andreaš on the River Treska (1388‐89), Virgin Peribleptos, Mystra (14th c), the church of Savior, near Novgorod (1374), church of the Dormition of the Virgin, Volotovo Polje, near Novgorod (14th c) Markov Monastery (1376‐1381). All the references to the painted program in church domes according to the field notes by Dr. Lj. D. Popovich. 586
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By re‐assessing the complex question of the original structure of the Tomb of Christ and the fidelity of its subsequent forms, the preceding survey suggests that the Tomb Aedicule, essentially an enclosed chamber, was modified during the periods of reconstruction under the Byzantines into a chamber whose roof had acquired a canopy‐like form. The changes of devotional practices at the Holy Sepulchre after the eighth‐ and ninth‐century Iconoclastic crisis may account for the change in the Tomb‐ Aedicule’s appearance. Both Daniel and Photios note that the structure of the Tomb has canopy‐like roof, not mentioned in the period before the seventh century. Moreover, the meaning of elements employed in various stages of architectural history of the Tomb of Christ, and especially references to the ambo and chimney further reveal the Byzantine understanding of the relationship between the Holy Sepulchre and the Byzantine church in particular and their relation to the sacred. They suggest the Byzantine attitudes towards the actual Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem which only remotely overlapped, if at all, with coeval theological explanations of the Tomb of Christ. All these changes indicate subtle changes in the pattern of devotion of the Holy Sepulchre under the Byzantines. The use of some generic architectural features, such as the canopied top of the Holy Sepulchre after its rebuilding under the Byzantines, reveals the long‐living importance of the canopy. Changing Byzantine perceptions of the Tomb‐Shrine have illuminated changing notions of the church, the temple and the sacred in general. It has been demonstrated that any resemblance of the Tomb of Christ with the Temple and its features during the Byzantine reconstructions were essentially conceptual, not material. The canopy‐like crowning of the Tomb of Christ was likely inspired by the need to accommodate and to express architecturally the meaning of the Holy Fire (Greek Ἅγιος Φῶς, Holy Light). The miracle of the Holy Fire after the period of Iconoclasm, I would propose, acted as a powerful vehicle for strengthening the Byzantine beliefs in the Incarnation, additionally stimulating the flow of pilgrims to Jerusalem, and induced controversial disputes about the superiority of the faith of the
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Byzantines over the faith of the Muslim landlords in the Holy Land.587 These may have been the reasons why caliph al‐Hākim ordered the destruction of churches in the Holy Land in 1009, when the Holy Sepulchre was almost completely destroyed.588 The holy relics, furniture, and everything which could have been removed, was taken.589 The Tomb of Christ cut in the living bedrock was set on fire, but only its roof and some upper parts of the chamber suffered.590 By placing a “chimney‐like” canopy on the Tomb Aedicule, a powerful and recognizable image for the framing of sacred revelations confirmed the symbolism of the Holy Sepulchre as the place of Resurrection and Divine Light. The identification of the Holy Sepulchre as an ambo shows how theological and spatial principles subtly result in the conflation of not only two liturgical furnishings but also of a furnishing with an entire church. The material reality of Christ’s Tomb at Jerusalem, which was theologically connected to the altar canopy, was nevertheless actually related to the ambo. The canopy enclosure in the middle of the sixth‐century basilica in Caričin Grad suggests that the ambo may have been enclosed by a canopy even in the pre‐Iconoclastic period. The ambo itself may have acquired a canopy on its top, to judge from the surviving evidence of the ambo in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople or the canopy from the church in Kalabaka. In the In the 10th century in his letter, certain Aretheos from Ceaserea to the emir of Damascus, used the miracle of the Holy Fire as a polemical argument to show the superiority of Christianity over Islam. More in: Canard (1965) 16‐43, with references. In the 1360s, Monk Joasaph, former Byzantine emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (ca. 1295‐1383) also used the miracle of the Holy Fire at the Tomb of Christ as an argument in his apologetic treatise on the Muslim faith. PG 154, col. 517. 588 See, for example, Canard (1965) 16‐43. Similarly, certain Radulfus Glaber (ca. 985‐ca.1048) witnessed both the rite of the Holy Fire and the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre. More in: Auxentios of Photiki (1999) 30‐37, n. 102. 589Canard (1965) 16‐43, with references to the accounts by Gregory Abûl Faraj and ibn al‐ Qalanisi. Recently, M. Evangelatou demonstrated the significance of the Holy Sepulchre for fostering iconophile arguments on relics in “The Holy Sepulchre and Iconophile Arguments on Relics in the Ninth‐Century Byzantine Psalters” Eastern Christian Relics, A. Lidov, ed. (Moscow, 2003) 181‐204, with extensive references. 590 Such a destruction, despite the previous ones and numerous earthquakes that struck the Holy Land over time, is considered the major event in the architectural history of the Tomb of Christ after Constantine. Biddle (1999) 73. 587
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Middle and Late Byzantine periods, when most churches became miniscule in scale, the use of monumental ambos gradually diminished.591 Like in Constantinopolitan Hagia Sophia or at the Tomb of Christ, the most characteristic feature of the Byzantine church was the naos with centrally positioned dome that created a directional ambivalence, a central focus and a vertical axis. This novel organization of space corresponded to the exigencies of worship of the mature Divine Liturgy, which saw the reduction of the processions characteristic of the Early Christian service. As the liturgy was reduced to a series of appearances, the most sacred activities were restricted to the bema, centered in the altar and sheltered by a canopy, and to the central space of the naos below a dome.592 The re‐focusing, or rather multi‐focusing, architecture of the church building seems to be closely linked to the liturgical rites. In the bema, even when a canopy sheltering the altar was missing, in addition to hemispherical form of the bema itself, a painted version of a canopy fully replaced its symbolic meaning.593 A single or triple window in the apse, the sole source of natural light for the altar space, was positioned so that during the morning liturgy the light touches the holy table.594 Framed either by a painted canopy on the eastern wall or by an actual canopy, the light on the altar would illuminate the actual Eucharistic mystery, as transfigured nature of life in Christ, the Lamb in the City of God (Rev. 21:22‐26).595 The painted canopies on the apsidal walls of church of the Holy Trinity in Sopoćani, Serbia (c. 1260), the Virgin church in the monastery of Gradac, Serbia (c. Though it ultimately disappeared from the liturgical furnishing in the Christian East, the ambo was in use in St. Sophia in Ochrid until the fourteenth century. C. Grozdanov, “Prilozi proučavanju Sv. Sofije ohridske u XIV veku” ZLU 5 (1969) 49‐63. 592 In addition, important parts of other Byzantine rites – such as marriage, coronation, and funerary rites – took place below the dome or domical vaults of a church and in the context of specific smaller‐scale ciboria within the church, although they were not exclusively confined in these locations. 593 Moreover, by the eleventh‐twelfth centuries we learn from Theodore of Andida PG 140, 417, cols. 443‐444, (Table 1, T. 82) that not all churches have altar canopies but that hemispherical form of the bema can replace the meaning of the sky over the altar table. 594 Gerstel (1999) 37. 595 Taft (1997) 137. 591
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1270),596 St. Achilleios in Arilje, Serbia (1296),597 Brontocheion, Mystra (13th c), St. Joachim and Anna, Studenica, Serbia (14th c), St. Demetros in the Markov Manastir, F.Y.R. of Macedonia (1376‐81) and St. Nicholas Orphanos in Thessaloniki (1310‐20) exemplify two‐dimensional frames for altar tables (Figs. 396, 405, 421, 426, 427, 438‐ 439, 467).598 A remarkable and unique representation of the Celestial Liturgy combined with the officiating bishops holding a scroll inscribed with the beginning of the prayer of prothesis as depicted in the apse of the church of St. Demetros in the Markov monastery, even suggests the specific moment in the Divine Liturgy: the Great Entrance (Fig. 422).599 Peter of Alexandria officiating on Christ’s left holds a book on which the prophetic words are inscribed: “As a Lamb is dumb” (cf. Isa. 53:7).600 The dead Christ is represented on the altar table sheltered by a four‐column domed canopy, possibly made of marble, providing the evidence that the major Christian iconographical motifs related to the liturgical use of canopies, as officially formulated after the Iconoclastic controversy, remained similar, if not the same, in the Late Byzantine period.601 The monumental solea and ambo had also gradually transformed into new liturgical features. The solea became an elevated altar space and the ambo was replaced by a central ambo‐rosette just below the dome. Several churches built in Serbia in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that have retained their original floors
O. M. Kandić, Manastir Gradac (Beograd, 1989) 33. M. Čanak‐Medić, Sveti Ahilije u Arilju (Beograd, 1996) 22‐23; B. Živković, Arilje. Crteži fresaka (Beograd, 1970) n.p. 598 O. Kandić and D. Milošević, Manastir Sopoćani (Beograd, 1994) 42‐43. 599 C. Grozdanov, “Iz ikonografije Markovog manastira. Božanska liturgija” Zograf 11 (1980) 63‐ 84. 600 Walter (1982) 220‐221. 601 The liturgical rites and associated iconographical motifs, however, most likely existed before the Iconoclasm, and were only during the controversy standardized. For example, the mosaic floor with fragments of a depiction of the “Peaceful Kingdom” of the prophet Isaiah and inscriptions in Greek in front of the canopy has been recovered in the late‐fifth century Cilician basilica A in Corycus (Kizkalesi): Hill (1996) 116‐121. 596 597
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occasionally have two‐dimensional ambo‐rosettes.602 Although most of these churches were built in marble and stone in the Romanesque building idiom, we know that the floor of the Žiča katholikon was accomplished by the workshop from Constantinople, suggesting that such a practice of setting a rosette in the place of an ambo together with floor design existed in main Byzantine centers as well (cf. Cat. no. 155).603 The floor ambo‐rosettes from Serbian churches can be related to the much earlier floor from the church at Nea Moni on Chios founded by Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomachos. The floor design below the naos dome of Nea Moni and the impressive penthaomphalon floor design framed by four slender columns, just below the central dome of the narthex of Nea Moni, suggest the practice of using of ambo rosettes as “two‐dimensional” canopies in the Middle and Late Byzantine periods (Cat. no. 137, Fig. 565). Occasionally framed by four circles at the corners of the square enclosing it, the ambo rosette visually and symbolically repeated the four‐columned domed framing of the church core within an approximately square ground plan. In the eleventh century, Psalm 33 was chanted during the distribution of the antidooron after the prayer behind the ambo, just below the main church dome.604 The same Psalm 33: 13‐ 14 – The Lord looketh from heaven; he beholdeth all the sons of men. From the place of his habitation he looketh upon all the inhabitants of the earth –framed the bust of Christ Pantokrator in the dome of Sts. Peter and Paul in Ras, Serbia, painted during the twelfth century. It illustrates the significance of inscribed quotations from the Psalms Medieval ambo rossetes in the church floors are attested in the churches of Holy Saviour, Žiča (ca. 1220, with the floor from 14th c), Christ’s Ascension, Mileševa (before 1228), the Dormition of the Virgin, Morača (1251‐52), Pridvorica (ca. 1250s), St. Nicholas near Scadar Lake (1280), St. Achilleos near Arilje (1290), Holy Apostles in Peć (1330s), to name but a few. V. J. Djurić and G. Babić, Srpska umetnost u srednjem veku, vol. 1 (Beograd, 1997) images on pages 134, 139, 140, 148, 159. 603 For the Constantinopolitan masters working on marble floor in Žiča see: V. J. Djurić and G. Babić (1997) vol. 1, 126; V. Petković, Spasova crkva u Žiči (Beograd, 1911) 3‐18. Recently, S. Ćurčić connected the opus sectile floor from the bema of the Kalenderhane with the workshop in Žiča in “Kalenderhane in Istanbul: The Buildings, Their History, Architecture, and Decoration by Cecil L. Striker Y. Doğan Kuban (book review)” Speculum 76/4 (2001) 1106‐1109. 604 H. Wybrew, The Orthodox Liturgy (London, 1989) 137. 602
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in a Byzantine church.605 In this way, the canopy’s symbolism as a microcosmic locus of divine presence received an adapted and renewed form. After the Iconoclastic controversy, throughout the Mediterranean Basin the four‐columned Byzantine church, with a dome on the drum with engaged colonnettes, and similarly shaped reliquaries, with canopy‐like crownings resembling the Holy Sepulchre, spatially, visually, conceptually and literally emphasized the Byzantine beliefs in the Incarnation. References to the human ministry of Christ and human body for Byzantine canopies including the Tomb of Christ and other canopy‐like structures in Jerusalem and the Holy Land are always present in the surviving Byzantine records. Any locus in contact with the saint and or divine retained sacred properties was emphasized by architectural metaphorical and homologous language. However, references to the actual human body of the saintly figure remained always indirect and sublime, intellectual rather than literal, illuminating the meaning of the microcosmic Presence as the Byzantines understood it. To underscore this conclusion, in the following chapter we will examine in particular those canopies that framed incorrupt human bodies, “dead and alive,” most explicitly: saintly shrines and outer priestly vestments.
Field notes Dr. Lj. D. Popovich.
605
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Chapter 4 An exceedingly precious purple cloth was spread out over the earth and above it the great man was standing, gleaming wondrously and indescribably both from his body and from his clothing and seen entirely in light. Description of Hosios Loukas as he would often appear in a dream of the faithful during his lifetime.606
C. L. and W. R. Connor, The Life and Miracles of Saint Luke of Steiris [henceforth Life StLuke] (Hellenic College P, 1994), ch. 63. 53‐55.
606
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4.1 Canopies Enclosing Space for the Holy: The Shrines of St. Euphemia, St. Demetrios and Blessed Loukas Simultaneously present in heaven in spirit, and on earth in their physical, incorruptible remains, the saints occupy an important place in the oikonomia (economy) of salvation because they healed, comforted, and otherwise protected the believers.607 In popular and private piety and through the miracles of saintly relics that recall Gospel miracles and the hope for corporeal salvation on a daily basis, ancient beliefs in the supernatural powers of celestial beings and in the impenetrable border between humankind and the deities were shifted and transformed, while the division between humankind and the divine became more transparent.608 Already in the fourth century, St. John Chrysostom theologically approved the practice of saintly veneration by emphasizing the prophylactic value of the relics of saints.609 According to the Byzantine belief in deification achieved by the Incarnation of the Logos, saints communicated divine truth as the matter of divine revelation.610 The presence of the relics and the powers they exposed, issuing from the saint and, ultimately, from God, therefore, received a prominent place in the Byzantine realm. The places of such divine intercessions, by definition, were not meant to be hidden. Within the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition, canopied, semi‐transparent shrines, enclosing saints’ remains at the same time as revealing them, are especially interesting phenomena, because they defined the human bodies within the church space. Starting in the fourth century and culminating in the Middle and Late Byzantine periods, it became customary to translate entire bodies, to permit their
For a concise overview of the plan of salvation in Christian tradition: J. Pelikan, The Growth of Medieval Theology (600‐1300), vol. 3 of The Christian Tradition. A History of the Development of Doctrine (Chicago and London, 1978) 106‐157. 608 A. Vauchez “The Saint” in The Medieval World, J. Le Goff ed. (London, 1990) 313‐346. 609 John Chrysostom, Laudation martyrum Aegyptiorum, PG 50, cols. 601, 694‐95. According to Walter (1982) 181‐182. 610 J. Meyendorff (1974b) passim; Pelikan (1974) 10‐16; P. Nellas, Deification in Christ (Crestwood, New York, 1987). 607
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fragmentation, and to expose them in architectural settings other than the altar table in the sanctuary space.611 Such a practice also required specially designed shrines that were visible and accessible not only to the clergy, but also to the faithful. Disturbing the dead and enclosing them within the church space has been sanctioned by a Christian way of seeing the relation between the dead and the living, which emphasized the physical closeness of the living and the remains of the saints, who interceded for them and protected them.612 In this context, the significance of the frame of the relic, as a place where heaven and earth met, became very important. The shape of the relic, whether it was part of a saint’s body or the entire body, seemingly determined the construction of the shrine itself, and yet, by examining several Byzantine saintly shrines in detail, we will demonstrate that such a conclusion may be premature and not so straightforward. * The Constantinopolitan shrine of St. Euphemia reveals how a practice of translating and enshrining saintly relics might have influenced the entire spatial concept of a Byzantine church. The large hexagonal hall of the fifth‐century Palace of Antiochos was converted into the church of Hagia Euphemia, when the relics of the saint were transferred from her original martyrium in Chalcedon, Bithynia to Constantinople, in the seventh century (Cat. no. 85).613 The relics were carried off C. Mango, “Saints,” The Byzantines, G. Cavallo ed., (Chicago/New York, 1997) 255‐280, with older bibliography; C. Walter, Art and Ritual of the Byzantine Church (London, 1982) 144‐158.; D. Abrahamse, “Rituals of Death in the Middle Byzantine Period” GOTR 29/2 (1984) 125‐134; Crook (2000) ch. 1, esp. n. 4, n. 119 612 P. Brown, The Cult of the Saints (Chicago, 1981) 1‐22. 613 R. Krautheimer and Th. Mathews are of the opinion that the church dates from the sixth century. Krautheimer (1986) 71, 77, 231; Mathews (1971) 61‐67. It has been suggested that the church postdated the sixth century and that the translation of relics happened in 796: C. Mango, “The relics of St. Euphemia and the Synaxarion of Constantinople,” Opora 53 (1999) 79‐ 87; A Lost Art Rediscovered Sh. E.J. Gerstel and J. A. Lauffenburger, eds., (Baltimore and University Park, Pa, c. 2001) 200. On the opinion that the relics were translated in 680: J. Bardill, “The Palace of Lausus and Nearby Monuments in Constantinople: A Topographical Study” AJA 101/1 (1997) 67‐95, esp. 67, n. 3. On the translation of relics of St. Euphemia to Constantinople in the 620s see: H. Goldfus, “St Euphemia’s Church by the Hippodrome of Constantinople within the Broader Context of 7th‐Century History and Architecture,” Ancient 611
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during the Iconoclasm and then returned to Constantinople once again in 796.614 The conversion of the secular building into a church involved several major interventions, like the shifting of the buildingʹs axis in order to give the sanctuary apse a proper eastward orientation and the construction of a Π‐shaped sanctuary enclosure which projected into the domed central space. The marble canopy in Hagia Euphemia was massive with a shallow, monolithic dome (Cat. no. 82). The relics of St. Euphemia were placed within a box‐type altar with a confessio directly beneath the altar table, into which one could put his or her hand to touch the relics.615 The canopy from Hagia Euphemia is instructive for several reasons. It confirms that altar canopies continued to be used in Constantinople after the Iconoclasm. However, the canopy sheltered both the sacred relics and the altar table in an innovative way for Constantinople, possibly initiated by the practice from the original martyrium of St. Euphemia in Bithynia as recorded in the late fifth and early sixth centuries.616 We know that in Bithynia the entire body of Hagia Euphemia was set in a “long silver coffin” within her saintly shrine in the domed rotunda (cf. Fig. 564). The shrine had an aperture in the left side of the coffin, secured with small doors, through which the faithful inserted an iron rod with a sponge attached so as to reach the sacred relics and, after turning it round, drew it out, covered with stains and clots of blood. The shrine was oriented to the East, but it is not clear whether there was also an altar and, if so, what its relation was to the saintly shrine.617 Since there was not space for the entire body beneath the altar of the Constantinopolitan church of West and East 5/1‐2 (2006) 178‐197. I am grateful to Prof. Ćurčić for bringing this article to my attention. 614 F. Halkin in “Euphémie de Chalcédoine: Légendes Byzantines” Speculum 41/3 (1966) 536‐ 538, has already shown that the deposition of relics in 796 happened for the second time, after the return of relics to post‐Iconoclastic Constantinople. 615 Mango (1999) 79‐87; Mathews (1971) 61‐67. 616 Mango (1999) 79‐87; Halkin (1966) 536‐538. 617 Evagrius Scholasticus in his Ecclesiastical History (AD 431‐594), translated by E. Walford (1846), Book 2, chp. 3 “Description of the Church of St. Euphemia,” 48‐50. Recently, Goldfus (2006) 178‐197, has been proposed that both in Bythinia and at least in seventh‐century Constantinople, the relics were separated from the altar in a special chamber or niche north to the sanctuary.
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Hagia Euphemia, it is likely that only smaller parts of the remains were actually brought to Constantinople. This would be consistent with the earlier practice of sending portions of blood exuding from the saintly relics from the martyrium as mentioned by Evgarius Scholasticus in the sixth century.618 Whatever the case, the canopy of Constantinopolitan Hagia Euphemia suggests a symbolic construct according to which the altar relics were simultaneously venerated in private and liturgical devotion. The deposition of relics directly under the altar differed from the earlier practice whereby the relics were usually buried in the crypt and eventually were related spatially to the altar above it, as was the case with the churches of St. John in the Studios monastery, Chalkoprateia and the Hebdomon, to name but a few in Constantinople and its immediate vicinity.619 The example from Hagia Euphemia also confirms that, after the Iconoclasm, the attitudes towards relics used for private devotion and ones used for consecrating an altar may have overlapped, the relics themselves occupying similar spatial frames. However, in my opinion, private devotion of saintly relics and the consecration of the altar were essentially two different phenomena which continued to dictate the spatial accommodation of the relics within the church altar and within a saintly shrine after the Iconoclasm as well.620 Indeed, the size of saintly remains, particles of saintly relics or entire bodies, but above all, the type of devotion, liturgical In ca. 1200 Anthony of Novgorod reported that he saw the relics of Hagia Euphemia in a silver reliquary in another church: Janin (1953) 455‐70. 619 More in: Mathews (1971) 67. 620 On the opinion that the relics, places of commemoration and the altar were usually separated in the Early Christian period see: Grabar (1972) 37‐43, chps. 4, 5. In Syro‐Palestine, starting in the sixth century, a reliquary, a box for sacred relics, often resembling a small sarcophagus, was sometimes placed beneath the altar, either within a stone recess, or directly on top of the floor. The saintly cult was celebrated mostly in side chambers, where the reliquaries were displayed for veneration, exemplified by the church of St. Stephen at Umm al‐ Rasas, where its north‐side room, square in plan, first had a screen at the entrance, and an altar with posts was embedded in the mosaic floor later on. In the second stage an apse and vaulting were added to the room, and on the central segment of the apsidal wall, an aedicule‐ shrine was built and dedicated to the cult of St. Stephen whose remains had been brought from Jerusalem. Piccirillo (2006) 51‐113. 618
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or private, dictated the installation of an altar canopy with saintly particles and a saintly shrine for bodily remains. These two different concepts of a relic were often reflected materially by two distinct installations set in different locations within a church. * Post‐Iconoclastic texts on the miracles of an early Christian saint, St. Demetrios, confirm oscillating trends in devotion to saintly relics set within specially constructed shrines and in the importance of the shrines themselves.621 The miraculous healing of Leontius, the fifth‐century eparch of Illyricum, was presumably the main reason he built the shrine of St. Demetrios. Leontius’ interests were divided between two capitals of Illyricum, Sirmium, modern Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia, and from 441‐2 onward, Thessaloniki, Greece, and it remains highly possible that the saint’s relics were at some point enshrined in both cities (cf. Cat. nos. 19, 124‐125).622 Destroyed by the Avars in 582, Sirmium ceased to be the focal point of the saintly cult. In Thessaloniki, almost concurrently we learn that the locus of the saint’s cult was transferred from the “crypt” under the transept and apse, the former site of Roman baths, where according to legend Demetrios was martyred and buried, to the silver hexagonal shrine in the middle of the nave length, close to its northern colonnade (Cat. nos. 124, 124‐a, 125).623 The two loci in the church of Hagios Demetrios were not only without any direct spatial link to each other, but were also known by two different terms in Byzantine sources (Cat. nos. 124‐a, 125). The “οἰκίσκος” [oikiskos] or the “small house” of the saint was within the crypt‐like space below the church sanctuary, originally a
Ch. Walter, The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition (Ashgate, 2003) 76‐93 with references to work by P. Lamerle, Les plus anciens recueils des miracles de saint Démétrius I, Le texte (Paris, 1979) 10‐11 and P. Lamerle, Les plus anciens recueils des miracles de saint Démétrius II, Commentaires (Paris, 1981) Appendix. 622 Walter (2003) 76‐93. 623 D. I. Pallas, “Le ciborium hexagonal de Saint‐Démétrios de Thessalonique. Essai dʹinterprétation” Zograf 10 (1979) 44‐58. 621
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two‐storey construction with direct access to the street.624 The “κιβώριον” [kiborion, ciborium], a six‐sided enclosed shrine of the saint where his icon and not his saintly remains were displayed, was in the main nave of the church. We do not know whose relics were under the altar table in the church of Hagios Demetrios, but after the fire of 1917, it was clear that the reliquary under the altar table contained fragments of bloodstained garments and not bodily particles, and furthermore that it was never the focus of the saintly cult of St. Demetrios.625 From the ninth century St. Demetrios received another sacred locus within the church, in a grotto‐like crypt inside the oikiskos where a circular marble canopy marked the remains of the public bath. According to legend Demetrios was martyred on this spot and the fountain, which provided holy water to pilgrims, was wrongly believed to come from the hexagonal ciborium in the nave.626 Therefore, the altar canopy and the two saintly shrines of St. Demetrios were separate installations, spatially and functionally distinct.627 The ciborium of St. Demetrious in the nave was replaced after fires at least twice during the seventh century alone and both times in silver (Cat. no. 124‐a, cf. Fig. 563). It could have survived the Saracen attack of 904, but was for sure ransacked by the Normans in 1185.628 In all likelihood the ciborium was never a true canopy.629
Pallas (1979) 44‐58; R. Cormack, “The Church of St Demetrius: The Watercolours and Drawings of W.S. George,” in The Byzantine Eye (London, 1989) figs. 3‐4; Cormack (1986) 547‐ 555; R. S. Cormack, “The Mosaic Decoration of St. Demetrios, Thessaloniki: A Reexamination in the Light of the Drawings of W. S. George,” BSA 64 (1969) 17–52, pl. 3 (black/white), pl. 7 (color). 625 Walter (2003) 76‐93, with references to the works by Lamerle and Soteriou. 626 Mango (1985) 75‐79. Cormack suggests that the crypt became the place of veneration in the centuries after the Iconoclasm: R. Cormack, “The Making of a Patron Saint: The Powers of Art and Ritual in Byzantine Thessaloniki,” Themes of Unity in Diversity, I. Lavin, ed. (1986) 547‐555. Ch. Bakirtzis, “Byzantine Ampullae from Thessaloniki” in The Blessings of Pilgrimage, R. Ousterhout ed. (Urbana‐Chicago, 1990) 140‐149, esp. 147. 627 For the reference about the canopy above the altar in St. Demetrius church, more in: R. F. Hoddinott, Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia and Southern Serbia (London, 1963) 130; ECBA (1986) 124; Mango (1985) 75‐79. 628 From the Life of St. Elias the Younger we learn that the ciborium was in situ just before the Arab attack of 904: P. Yannopoulos, “La Grèce dans la vie de S. Élie le Jeune et dans celle de S. Élie le Spéléote,” Byz 64 (1994) 193‐221, esp. 215‐216. Most recently on the history of the shrine: Ch. Bakirtzis, “Pilgrimage to Thessalonike: The Tomb of St. Demetrios,” DOP 56 (2002) 175–92 624
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Rather, the ciborium was an enclosed six‐sided chamber with eight engaged columns supporting a pointed, most probably conical roof bearing a silver sphere at the top (Cat. no. 124‐a).630 The lower part of the sphere atop the canopy was surrounded by shoots of lilies, crowned by a life‐giving cross, “the trophy that is victorious over death: by its silver composition it amazes our corporeal eyes, while bringing Christ to mind, it illuminates with grace the eyes of the intellect.”631 The accounts also suggest that the ciborium had its own doors. From the canopy roof the lamps were suspended, confirming the mystical presence of the saint. The shrine also contained a golden votive crown.632 In the middle of a shrine there was a “bed” made of silver with a golden “throne,” embellished by precious stones for “Christ’s most glorious martyr Demetrius,”633 and one more silver throne for the Lady Eutaxie, as depicted on icons and mosaics of the church.634 The “bed” and “thrones” most likely referred to the canopy‐like proskynetaria installations and their constitutive elements, probably a single bench‐like stand for the icon of St. Demetrios that only resembled a “bed,” because no bed could fit into the shrine.635 Canopy‐like installations for icons are occasionally depicted in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts, like the canopy enshrining the icon of St. Basil the Great in the thirteenth‐century psalter from the monastery Dionysiu at Mount Athos (Fig. 402).636 The image of the saint is in the text related to the liturgy he compiled, suggesting the liturgical use of the icon. However, and C. Morrisson, “The Emperor, the Saint, and the City: Coinage and Money in Thessalonike from the Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Century” DOP 56 (2002) 173‐203. 629 Cormack (1986) 547‐555. 630 Hoddinott (1963) 128f; Cormack (1985) 62‐70, 77. 631 Quotation from an unknown relative of the seventh‐century Prefect of Illyricum. SD (1972) 129. On the symbolism of the lily and the split‐palmette resembling a lily, as described in connection with the porch of the Solomon’s Temple (1 Kings 7:19), and in the Song of Solomon (2:2; 5:13; 6:2f) and Hosea (14:5), where they are closely related to Jerusalem and Israel, and more generally to trust in the Lord: Farbridge (1970) 46. 632 Cormack (1986) 547‐555. 633 SD (1972) 129. 634 Cormack (1986) 547‐555. 635 Pallas (1979) 44‐58. 636 Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974) 427; color fig. 158.
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canopy‐like installations for private devotion to icons are also occasionally recorded and depicted in Byzantine manuscripts.637 For example, the Slavic version of the works of Constantine Manasses (Vat. Slav 2, fol. 122v) shows the seventh‐century Byzantine Emperor Herakleios praying before the enshrined icon of the Virgin under the canopy. A canopy enshrining an icon of the Virgin, presumably large enough to accommodate seven people for devotion, is also depicted in the Hamilton Psalter (Fig. 413).638 The post‐Iconoclastic accounts about St. Demetrios record that the icon of the Virgin “visited” the saint in his shrine in Thessaloniki, suggesting the practice of icon processions and the developed ritual of saintly veneration.639 What is important for our understanding of the role of St. Demetrios’ shrine in Thessaloniki is that not the relics, but the image of St. Demetrios interceded on behalf of the saint. The sixth‐century ciborium of St. Demetrios and its subsequent replacements set in a prominent space in the church functioned as a glittering stage‐prop for the miraculous intercessions of the saint. The insistence on the more‐or‐less consistent location, size, decoration and luxurious materials used for the shrine in the church nave were important to convey the message of the beauty of this saintly house, pleasing to the beholders, including the most important viewer of all, God.640 The saint would often appear to the faithful emerging from his ciborium as he was represented in his icons.641 The polygonal silver ciborium was an essential element for the recognition of the saint and his apparitions, because St. Demetrios was so closely associated to his shrine, as archaeological evidence, votive mosaic panels in the For example, the eleventh‐century description of the veneration of the saint informs us that a supplicant had a vision, visited the saint’s body, kissed it, and then moved to a separate space to venerate the icon. More in: Kazhdan and Maguire, “Hagiographical texts as sources on art” DOP 45 (1991) 1‐22, esp. 15 638 On the meaning of these icons for private devotion see: N. Paterson‐Ševčenko, “Icons in the Liturgy” DOP 45 (1991) 45‐57, esp. figs. 2 and 5. On the devotion in front of icons as depicted in the Hamilton Psalter recently: B. V. Pentcheva, Icons and power: the Mother of God in Byzantium (University Park, Pa., 2006) 180‐187. 639 H. Belting, Likeness and Presence (Chicago, 21996) 65‐69, 184‐85. 640 Cormack (1985) 77. 641 Bishop John of Thessaloniki, Miracle no. 10 [Table 1, T. 52]. For the English translation of the tenth miracle see also: SD (1972) 129‐130. 637
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church, and textual accounts all corroborate (Fig. 563). The insistence on the architectural framing of the saint also suggests that the ciborium, though highly visible, was accessible to the pious for private devotion only under controlled conditions. It acted as a container of sacredness, and in time the ciborium itself was invested with the same sacredness. Over time, the shrine enclosing the space of saintly presence rather than the saintly body itself increased in importance as the accounts of the miraculous intercessions accomplished by St. Demetrios spread throughout the Byzantine world. A certain Cyprianus, bishop of Theani, after being aided by a person identical in appearance to St. Demetrios, as he was portrayed on the icon at the Thessaloniki shrine, commissioned a replica of the ciborium for his church back in North Africa.642 Similarly, the replica of the ciborium from Thessaloniki was presumably built in Constantinople, while the reliquary, though octagonal, today in the Armory of the Kremlin museums, confirms the importance of the physical characteristics of the shrine (Fig. 592). Made for the coronation of Emperor Constantine X Doukas (1059‐67) and his second wife Eudokia Makrembolitissa, the small‐scale ciborium‐reliquary from Moscow has an inscription in Greek: “I am the faithful image of the ciborium of the martyr Demetrius...”643 The replica of the original shrine in Thessaloniki, the eleventh‐century ciborium‐reliquary essentially depicts an enclosed chamber with a lantern‐like roof. The engaged columns are connected on the level of the foliated capitals not by an entablature but by a rope‐like cord. The rope connecting the silver columns is tied around the column necks so as to produce the look of a veil with embroidered acanthus leaves instead of masonry walls carved with foliated motifs. Motifs of embroidery, ropes, acacia, and silver columns are suggestive of the Temple veil and the place of the Holy of Holies. Though we do not have any reference to curtains for
Lemerle (1979) 234‐41. N. Theotoka, “Περὶ τῶν κιβωρίων τῶν ναῶν τοῦ ἁγίου Δημητρίου Θεσσαλονίκης καὶ Κωνσταντινουπόλεως” Μακεδονικά 2 (1941‐52) 395‐413. 642 643
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St. Demetrios’ shrine in Thessaloniki, we learn about the use of movable curtains for saintly shrines from the church of St. Menas in Maryût, Egypt (cf. Fig. 562).644 Although, the canopy‐like roof of the ciborium‐reliquary is silver‐gilded, its materialization gives the appearance of being made of textile. Eight ropes on the reliquary are tied at the apex of the roof as if to suggest the rising movement of the cloth above the shrine chamber. The materialization of the reliquary evokes a play between light and darkness as well. On the cornice level, the lamp‐like cups situated between the columns and below the arches hint at a mystical light shining from the darkness of the chamber interior. The expressive content of the reliquary conforms to witnesses’ accounts of visions of St. Demetrios, who would appear glowing dressed in a white chlamys: “the door opened to reveal the saint just inside. The observer fell to the floor at the sight of the saint, who appeared as ‘on the more ancient icons’ with rays of light gleaming from his face so that the observer was light with brightness…”645 Rather than pleading for a veristic replication of the ciborium from Hagios Demetrios, the artist of the ciborium‐reliquary sought to employ generic architectural symbols and mental images with potent meanings in order to convey the sacredness the reliquary symbolized.646 Once again, the generic symbols and their conflation in various objects did not contradict the Byzantine view of sanctity, which was typological rather than chronological or topographical. Thus the form and symbolism of the eleventh‐century ciborium‐reliquary of St. Demetrios can be related to the canopy‐like shrine of the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem. Like the Holy Sepulchre, in which the Tomb Aedicula bore witness to the human ministry of Christ, the ciborium‐reliquary confirms that the main object of venerating the shrine of St. Demetrios in his eponymous church was not the physical remains of
C. Hahn, “Seeing and Believing: The Construction of Sanctity in Early‐Medieval Saints’ Shrines” Speculum 72/4 (1997) 1079‐1106 with references to primary sources. 645 Lemerle (1979) 145,157, 160‐1. English translation of the account: Cormack (1985) 67. 646 On the opposite view see A. Grabar, “Quelques reliquaires de saint Démétrios et le martyrium du saint à Salonique” DOP 5 (1950) 1+3‐28, where he suggested that the reliquary from Moscow is a faithful coeval replica of the shrine of St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki. 644
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the saint. For, like the tomb‐bench in Christ’s tomb, the bench‐like “bed” from the ciborium of St. Demetrios implies the saint’s presence despite his visible absence. After the Iconoclasm, the “enthroned” icon of St. Demetrios on the “bed” in his eternal house ensured his everlasting presence. In the seventh century Bishop John of Thessaloniki recorded the attitude of the Thessalonians to the saintly relics, when he affirmed that they did not have the habit of exposing their saintsʹ relics in order to inspire pious sentiments.647 Therefore, the ciborium of St. Demetrius as a main object of veneration exposed neither saintly body nor its fragments, and it was never its principal function to do so. Rather, it “localized” the apparitions of the saint and his miraculous actions; it provided a testimony to how divine grace became more vivid and accessible to the beholders. The parallels between St. Demetrios’ ciborium and similar shrines from the Early Byzantine period, like the fifth‐century silver canopy of St. Thecla in her church at Meriamlik, near Seleucia in Isauria, modern Turkey, or the coeval shrine of St. Menas in Maryût, Egypt have been already mentioned.648 However, the deployment of canopy‐like shrines continued in later periods as well, as our example of the miraculous shrine of a tenth‐century saint, Hosios [Blessed] Loukas in the eponymous monastery in Boeotia, Greece, exemplifies. * The tomb‐shrine of Hosios Loukas today is marked by a modern cenotaph in the northern arm of the crypt of the katholikon, while almost axially above it, on the ground floor of the katholikon, set within the walls of the narrow opening of the eastern wall of its northern arm, is a healing tomb‐shrine of Hosios Loukas venerated by pilgrims (Cat. no. 142).649 The four columns and sculpted architraves of the
Bishop Johnʹs Miracle no. 5, according to Lemerle (1979) 87‐90, 50‐4. See, for example: Hill (1996) 37; Hahn (1997) 1079‐1106. 649 Moreover, the assumption about the location of the original tomb of the mid‐tenth‐century saint Hosios Loukas in the crypt is taken as fact, though the architectural study of the katholikon showed that its crypt and the main church corpus above it is a unitary, early‐eleventh‐century 647 648
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canopy‐like shrine in the church still survive, while once a pyramidal roof crowned them (Cat. no. 142‐a).650 Some scholars maintain that, since Byzantine accounts do not refer to this shrine as a canopy, it is a rather modern installation.651 I concur with those who recognize it as the medieval tomb‐shrine of Hosios Loukas, most likely erected for the occasion of the translation and elevation of the saintly relics in the service of the anakomidi, probably in 1011.652 According to the Life of Hosios Loukas, the saint was buried under the floor of his monastic cell by a priest named Gregorios in fulfillment of the saint’s wishes: “You will find fired bricks when you dig out the spot where I am lying [in his monastic cell]. Lifting these out and beautifying the place in a modest fashion take care to give dust to dust; then arrange the bricks on the surface of the earth.”653 The first reference to the shrine of blessed Loukas comes six months after his death in 953, when a monk, Kosmas from Paphlagonia, on his way to Italy had a strange dream in which he was instructed to end his journey and start serving “new Luke.”654 According to the legend, Kosmas found the saintly tomb in the former cell of Loukas. He “built it up and arranged to raise it above the level of the ground. He embellished it with slabs of the local stone, and setting lattice work in a circle around it and garlanding it, he thus made it a place not to be trodden upon or touched except by those wishing to draw construction. N. Chatzidakis, Hosios Loukas. Sources, Donors and Dates of Monuments (Athens, 1997) 10, with references to works by Ch. and L. Bouras. 650 Schultz and Barnsley (1901) 22‐29, pl. 46. 651 E. Stikas does not believe that the shrine existed in medieval period at all and suggests that it is eighteenth‐century addition. E. Stikas, Τὸ Οἰκοδομικὸν Χρονικὸν τῆς Μονῆς Ὁσίου Λουκᾶ Φωκίδος (Athens, 1970) 174‐78; E. Stikas Ὁ Κτίτωρ τοῦ Καθολικοῦ τῆς Μονῆς Ὁσίου Λουκᾶ (Athens, 1974/5) 103‐27. 652 According to the canticle from the anakomidi, the translation of relics of Hosios Loukas happened on May 3rd which coincided with the feast of the Ascension. In the eleventh century such a coincidence occurred only three times: in 1011, 1022, and 1095. The author of the canticle speaks also of the “invasion of the Scythians” a phrase which possibly refers to the Bulgrians, thus suggesting the dating of the canticle before the abolition of the state of the Bulgarian sovereign Samuel (r. 976‐1014), and therefore the year 1011 as the most probable year of the translation of the relics. See: M. Chatzidakis, “A propos de la date et du fondateur de Saint‐Luc” CA 19 (1969) 127‐150. 653 Life StLuke (1994) ch. 64. 654 Life StLuke (1994) 66.9
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near to it in faith and much veneration.”655 The reference to the lattice work, usually understood as a protective barrier, is a common explanation for how the shrines were enclosed and beautified in the Byzantine tradition, like the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the shrine of St. Menas in Egypt, or the shrine of St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki (Figs. 562‐563, cf. Fig. 560).656 The location of the monastic cell of Hosios Loukas is not specified in the Life. Assuming that the place of the saint’s death and entombment has been preserved through oral tradition and marked by subsequent architectural structures, the present location of the saintly shrine potentially marks the original location of his monastic cell and later his tomb. Following the narrative of the miracles of Hosios Loukas the healing‐tomb‐shrine was most likely in the church (naos), not in the crypt.657 Most telling is the account of a certain John, whose feet suffered from some malady. He “enter[ed] the divine church, prostrated himself at the miraculous tomb.”658 Neither this nor any other excerpt, however, clarifies which divine church is in question, though we may guess that it was the church of St. Barbara, the only one mentioned in the Life of Hosios Loukas.659 Two years after Loukas’ death, his fellow monks completed the monastery church and turned his cell into a “sacred oratory in the shape of a cross” which sheltered the saintly tomb.660 The location of these buildings cannot be
Life StLuke (1994) ch. 66, esp. 66.16‐21. Life StLuke (1994) ch. 66.18; Chatzidakis (1997) 10. 657 In Life StLuke (1994) chps. 79.24, 82, Luke’s burial place (taphos) is described as being in a church building, a naos. The tomb is variously described in the Greek text of the Life StLuke (1994) as: σορώς, [soros] (ch. 81), λάρναξ [larnax] (ch. 82), τάφως [taphos] (ch. 79) or θήκη [theke] (ch. 74). The last term theke, literary means a box, possibly tomb chest, but also a room, or a chamber because when the author refers to the actual sarcophagus he uses the term larnax (ch. 73.9). 658 Life StLuke (1994) ch. 79.23‐25. 659 We learn from the Life StLuke that the building of the church of St. Barbara began during Hosios Loukas’ life. 660 Life StLuke (1994) ch. 67.12. The Greek word for the oratory (εὐκτήριον, eukterion) has a wide range of meanings: a chapel, church, tent, martyr memorial, among others. PGL s.v. εὐκτήριος Β. The word certainly does not define the size of the structure, because it may be a small chapel like the one dedicated to Prokopios (ch. 39) but certainly also the entire church, because the word was used to describe the church of the Anastasis in Jerusalem [VC 3.25]. Thus, the 655 656
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verified, and it remains unclear whether the two central churches of the monastery, those of the Mother of God and the main church with its crypt, are the two buildings mentioned in the narrative of the Life, namely, the church of St. Barabara (ch. 59) and the oratory (ch. 67).661 The church of the Mother of God might be the original church of St. Barbara, although the crypt under the present church of St. Luke, occasionally identified as the oratory, is dedicated to St. Barbara.662 This certainly does not exclude the possibility that another church, dedicated to St. Barbara and predating the present church of St. Luke, might have existed at the site of the present katholikon.663 The oratory, which sheltered the tomb, would be either the refurbished monastic chamber of Hosios Loukas attached to the church of St. Barbara on its north side, or the entire structural complex of the cruciform church of the Mother of God to which the chamber of Hosios Loukas was abutted on the south. In any case, the monastic cell of Hosios Loukas would be confined to the location of the north arm of the present katholikon and would have been initially an independent structure like the shrines of St. Thecla or St. Menas.664
eukterion of Hosios Loukas may well have been the entire church, and its shape of a cross may have referred to the cross‐shaped plan of the church, similar to the plans of the katholikon or the church of the Theotokos. 661 P. Mylonas, ʺNouvelles remarques sur le complexe de Saint‐Luc en Phocideʺ CA 40 (1992) 115‐22; P. Mylonas, ʺGavits arméniens et Litae bizantines. Observations nouvelles sur le complexe de Saint‐Luc en Phocideʺ CA 38 (1990) 99‐122. The existence of the two churches today certainly does not exclude the possibility that yet another church existed, the one which, according to the Life of St. Luke, was dedicated to St. Barbara, a patron saint of the Byzantine military aristocracy. The north church, that of the Mother of God, according to the texts and because of its material splendor, is often attributed to Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (r. 959‐ 963), who Hosios Loukas foretold that “would take over the Crete” from the Saracenes and who potentially honored the monastery of Hosios Loukas by a huge architectural undertaking. L. Bouras, Ho glyptos diakosmos tou naou tis Panagias sto monasatiri tou Hosiou Louka (Athens, 1980) 22‐56; C. Connor “Hosios Loukas as a Victory Church” GRBS 33 (1992) 293‐308. 662 Mylonas (1990) 99‐122, has already proposed this possibility, it has been showed that the present katholikon is a unitary construction. Chatzidakis (1997) with further references. 663 Mylonas (1992) 115‐22. 664 On the shrine of St. Thecla: Hill (1996) 30‐31, 208‐214. On the shrine of St. Menas: Ward Perkins (1949) 26‐71; Grossman (1989); Grossman (1998) 281‐302.
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The steeply inclined terrain suggests that the monastic cell of blessed Loukas and later his tomb were within a tower‐like structure (Cat. no. 141, Fig. 568). As Loukas himself established a church dedicated to St. Barbara, a fourth‐century martyr, whom he especially venerated, he potentially used the life of St. Barbara as a model for his monastic life.665 In addition to obvious similarities between the two saints, mostly in terms of their dedication to faith, chastity and charity, St. Barbara, who lived in a tower, imprisoned by her pagan father Dioscurus who forbade her interest in Christianity, may have inspired Hosios Loukas to isolate himself voluntarily in a humble cell within a tower‐like structure – an ultimate refuge during the raids of the Muslim Arabs in the region and a typical place of retreat of Christian ascetics.666 Furthermore, Hosios Loukas as a young monk served a stylite in Zemena667 and therefore personally knew of the ascetic practices of those who lived within the limited enclosed spaces of elevated structures comprising elements such as walls, columns and rafters. On the occasion of the translation of the relics for the yearly veneration on May 3rd, the bodily remains of Hosios Loukas were exhumed from the tomb in his cell and translated to a new shrine in 1011.668 According to the anakomidi, the construction of
Life StLuke (1994) ch. 69. Christian saints often assumed the place of walls, columns, and rafters of the church: S. A. Harvey, Asceticism and Society and Crisis: John of Ephesus and the Lives of the Eastern Saints (Berkeley, 1990) 37, 50. On the position of the monastic cells in Serbian church towers recently: S. Ćurčić, “Monastic Cells in Medieval Serbian Church Towers. Survival of an Early Byzantine Monastic Concept and Its Meaning” in Sofia [Compendium of scholarly articles about Byzantine and Old Russian art in honor of A. I. Komeč] (Moscow, 2006) 491‐514, with references to older scholarship. 667 ch. 35ff. Connor suggested that Zemena is Zemainas, part of the diocese of Corinth, and located near Corinthian Gulf, to the west of Sicyon, and mentioned in the Notitiae Episcopatuum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae [ed. J. Darrouzes 7, 494 (p.282); 9. 377 (p.302); 10.466 (p.323); 13.434 (p.361); 21.115 (p.420)]. Life StLuke (1994) 159. 668 The inscription 1014 from the sculpture in the monastery of Aliveri on Euboea, which is extremely close to the sculptural remains found in the monastery of Hosios Loukas, suggests that the katholikon was finished by 1011, rather than by 1022. Portrait of St. Nikon Metaniotes (active in Crete 961‐ca.1000) painted in the church, supports the assumption that the katholikon may have been built in the first decades of the 11th century. C. L. Diehl suggested that the katholikon was built by Emperor Basil II, who might have visited the shrine of Hosios Loukas 665 666
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the present katholikon was complete by that time. The superb building of the katholikon, and its sophisticated decoration in expensive marble, opus sectile and golden mosaics suggest imperial donations (Cat. no. 142b, Figs. 569‐570, 573). During this eleventh‐century enlargement of the monastery the original tenth‐century chamber, potentially the original monastic cell of Hosios Loukas within a towered building, was reconstructed and incorporated into the monastic complex as its central focus.669 The chamber may have retained some of the features of the older structure. The massive walls and the super‐structure of the northern arm of the cross of the surviving main monastery church suggest further that this structure initially may have been a tower (Fig. 568). The two surviving churches were joined to each other, so that the eastern half of the northern segment of the katholikon abutted the nartheces of the north church. Thus, the location of the shrine near the northern entrance to the katholikon became a node of communication, which enabled pilgrims to approach the shrine in an orderly manner (Cat. no. 141).670 The square‐like floor plan of the small‐sized chamber (ca. 3.5 m x 3.5 m) was covered with carpet‐like opus sectile floor (Fig. 573).671 The interior of this more than five‐meter‐high space was encased in ash‐green marble. The supporting arch of the chamber’s eastern wall was possibly reconstructed so that the wall was reduced to some 4.5 meters in height. The vault and upper parts of this space were covered with on his way to Athens in a military campaign of 1019. More in C. L. Diehl, L’église et les mosaïques du Couvent de Saint‐Luc en Phocide (Paris, 1889) 11. On the 1011 date: N. Oikonomides, ʺThe First Century of the Monastery of Hosios Loukasʺ DOP 46 (1992) 245‐255. 669 Discovered under the marble casing of the katholikon, a fresco depicting Jesus of Navi, an Old Testament figure, is located on the wall near the shrine. The fresco initially belonged to the south‐western corner of the outer narthex of the church of the Virgin, thus confirming that the church of the Mother of God was built before the present‐day katholikon. Stikas (1970) 174‐ 78 and Stikas (1974/5) 103‐27. I would suggest that during the early‐eleventh‐century reconstruction of the monastery, on the occasion of the confirmation of the saintly cult of Hosios Loukas, the original church of St. Barbara was replaced by a new, two‐storey katholikon (?), whose crypt, potentially intended for monastic burials retained the original dedication to St. Barbara. 670 Mylonas (1990) 99‐122 and Mylonas (1992) 115‐22. 671 The size of the enclosing space is comparable to the tiny room in the crypt of St. Menas, which was approximately 3m x 3m. Ward Perkins (1949) 26‐71.
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golden mosaics and frescoes. A narrow opening approximately one meter wide and some three meters high is set almost in the middle of the eastern wall of the chamber and was also reveted in marble. Into this opening a canopy‐like shrine for Hosios Loukas was inserted (Cat. no. 142b). The shrine of Hosios Loukas marked a focal point of those pilgrims who came to the shrine to seek divine intercession from the saint, sometimes lighting candles, and occasionally sleeping next to the shrine.672 Since the location of the shrine is most likely related to the original monastic cell and later to the tomb of Hosios Loukas, the tomb‐shrine took the meaning and later the form of the saintly house. The canopy‐ shrine of Hosios Loukas and its decoration resemble the shrine of St. Menas as depicted on the ivory from Milan (Cat. no. 142‐b, Fig. 562). At first, the canopy‐like shrine appears simple enough, a succession of four vertical supports and horizontal beams topped by a pyramidal roof. Each element of the canopy is made of various marbles incorporated into the wall of the katholikon, seemingly well‐balanced and centrally positioned. Upon more careful investigation the imperfections become more than obvious. Neither is the shrine a coherent stylistic whole, nor is it centrally positioned. The columns and architraves reveal different sculptural treatment and decoration, as well as remains of color and gold (Cat. no. 142‐c). The embellishment of the shrine is achieved by re‐used marble columns and sculpted architraves. The architrave slabs and the semi‐engaged columns of the western and eastern halves of the canopy significantly differ from each other in style and material. The western architrave and columns of the canopy are made of greenish Thessalian marble. The architrave is decorated with a zone of acanthus leaves. The columns have Corinthian capitals and are set on a high, prismatic, green marble stylobate and red marble plinth slabs. Remnants of color are visible on carved parts of both the architrave slab and column capitals. The stylobates of the canopy columns resemble the stylobates of the
Walter (1993) 203‐228, esp. 223.
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bema screen of the katholikon. The eastern architrave slab and columns are made of white Proconessian marble with gray streaks. The remains of gold are visible on the slab. The column capitals show the motif of King Solomon’s knot framed by palmette leaves (Cat. no. 142‐c).673 A mosaic with the representation of the Mother of God Aristerokratousa is set in the lunette of the arch on the inner side of the eastern wall of the northern arm of the katholikon and is asymmetrically set over the opening with the shrine just below the arch (Cat. no. 142‐b). A sophisticated set of visual contrivances provides a key to understanding the sensibilities of the Byzantine beholders, who when approaching the shrine, would have permanently captured in their minds the encounter with the sacred. The Byzantines often linked the shining properties of marbles to saints’ visions, connecting the brightness and the abundance of shining light with the images of the heavenly kingdom (Cat. no. 162‐b).674 The use of local stone for the shrine of Hosios Loukas as recorded in his Life and the later use of marbles for the shrine and of opus sectile for the floor in the katholikon were deliberate choices made in the spirit of piety.675 Like St.
On the motif of King Solomon’s knot recently: G. Dimitrokallis, “Lakonikoi Limniskoi (Le motif des ‘lemiscoi’ en Laconie)“ LS 16 (2002) 229‐248. 674 Ex. 24:14, Ps. 18:7, Ez. 8:2, Matt. 24:27. Jn. 1, Rev. 4, 10. The Byzantine use of colored marbles was related to their elusive and mysterious properties. The fourth‐century vision of Dorotheos visualizes the kingdom of God as a bright dwelling with radiant walls, gates, porticoes and courtyards. The veins and abstract patterns of the marble slabs were sometimes experienced as figurative images, just like painted ones. This imaginative re‐creation of the shapes and details was often stimulated by narratives the beholders knew and which influenced their perception. McVey (1983) 91‐121; J. Bremmer, “The Vision of Dorotheos” in Early Christian Poetry. A collection of Essays, J. den Boeft and A. Hilhorst eds. (Leiden/New York/ Köln, 1993) 253‐261; G. P. Majeska, “Notes on the Archeology of St. Sophia at Constantinople: The Green Marble Bands on the Floor” DOP 32 (1978) 299‐308; M. L. Fobelli, The Imagery of the Heavenly City in Sixth‐Century Byzantium: Marbles and Images “Not Made by Human Hand” in New Jerusalems, A. Lidov, ed (Moscow, 2006) 48‐53, with references to the ekphrases of St. Stephen in Gaza by orator Coricius, who explained the marbles of the church, now lost, as paintings, of Hagia Sophia by Paul Silentiary, who compared marble columns with flowers and by Clavijo, who wrote about the images of the Mother of God with the Child and of St. John the Baptist on a marble screen in the galleries during his visit to Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. 675 From the narrative of St. Barbara, a monastic model for Hosios Loukas, we learn that her father built a bathhouse made of marble next to her tower. The Life StLuke (1994) (ch. 69) also informs us about baths, which have been archaeologically confirmed in the southeastern 673
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Demetrios, Hosios Loukas would often appear in a dream as a luminous body floating above the “carpeted” floor.676 In the dream of a certain Christopher, who slept near the saint’s shrine, the blessed appeared “at night in [his] sleep, bright and gracious.”677 Other accounts describe the gleaming apparition of the blessed Loukas as floating above ground.678 Visions of de‐materialized saints most closely resemble other accounts of saintly apparitions as well as Byzantine icons. One such icon, illustrating the Virgin, is depicted below a canopy in the Rabulla Gospels (Fig. 227, cf. Fig. 420).679 The relatively small size of the temple‐like shrine in comparison to the size of the human body of Loukas conforms to ancient visions of oversized statues of pagan gods within temples or images of human figures framed by canopies as depicted in Byzantine manuscripts (Figs. 566‐567). The human body of the saint was of the same height as his shrine‐house, dominating its interior and giving the impression of an overwhelming presence within the shrine. The disproportionate presence of Hosios Loukas was further emphasized by two monumental bust‐portraits over the shrine showing him as praying towards the east (Fig. 571). One is a fresco on the eastern wall just above the shrine, and the other is a mosaic on the western wall directly
segments of the monastery. Like the bathhouse of St. Barbara, the tomb of Hosios Loukas is sometimes described as a new Siloam (ch. 69), a pool of water in Jerusalem with healing properties (Jn. 9.7‐11), because the moisture on the surface on the saintly tomb had miraculous properties (ch. 71, 72, 73, 83). The marble bathhouse of St. Barbara gained extraordinary properties when she miraculously engraved the sign of the cross into the marble walls with her finger. 676 On the “marvelous floor” in front of the shrine of St. Thecla: G. Dagron, Vie et miracles de Sainte Thècle: Texte grec, traduction et commentaire, SH 62 (Brussels, 1978) 335‐37. On the liturgical significance of the opus sectile pavements: D. Glass, “Papal Patronage in the early twelfth century: notes on the iconography of cosmatesque pavements” JWCI 32 (1969) 386‐90. 677 Life StLuke (1994) ch. 82. 678 Life StLuke (1994) ch. 63.53‐55 “An exceedingly precious purple cloth was spread out over the earth and above it the great man was standing, gleaming wondrously and indescribably both from his body and from his clothing and seen entirely in light.” 679 The image from the Rabulla Gospels is comparable to the description of Arsenios in the Apophtegmata Patrum, Acts of James and Marian the Martyr – a vision of a youth who “shone with a dazzling light” and whose “feet did not touch the earth:” Rush, Death and Burial in Christian Antiquity (Washington, 1941) 217f. The believers also saw St. Thecla as an apparition: Sainte Thècle (1978) 335‐37, 377‐79.
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opposite the shrine. The almost life‐like mosaic portrait of Hosios Loukas shows him with outstretched arms. Almost as if about to embrace the beholder, his expansive gesture of prayer resembles surviving images of St. Menas (Fig. 572).680 In relation to the mosaic image of the Virgin and Christ child and the donor composition next to it, the beholders are constantly “visiting” the saint in his shrine, as the accounts from Hagios Demetrios suggested that the Virgin, presumably an icon, occasionally “visited” the saint in his shrine (Cat. no. 142b). The metaphor of sight and of the exchange of gazes between the saint and beholders is dominant: Hosios Loukas is seen, himself who has the all‐seeing eye.681 The communication node marked by the canopy‐shrine of Hosios Loukas functioned as a visual and corporeal shell for the entire site. Various perceptional tricks effectively manipulated the beholder’s sense of proportion and size on multiple levels. First, visitors coming to the shrine passed through the north doors of the katholikon and, once inside the tiny corridor, encountered the canopied shrine squeezed in the church walls (Fig. 571). They would behold the sacred on a personal, human‐size level, because the dimensions of the shrine perfectly accommodated a standing human figure. Then, they would proceed toward the main space of the katholikon, eventually venerating the icons on the main iconostasis (Fig. 569). Entering the open space of the katholikon they would enter yet another canopy‐like space, the immense space below the main church dome. Emphasized by the hovering image of Christ Pantokrator in the main dome, the visitors would have been overwhelmed with the presence of God inside this church‐ canopy and would have become integrated with it as it surrounded them (Fig. 570). Finally, the visitors would exit the church either through the southern door or via the subsidiary space through the north‐western door of the katholikon. The eighteenth‐ century drawing by the Russian pilgrim Barsky was made from the perspective of the An image of St. Luke himself appears in the church many times: in the northeast and northwest chapels of the katholikon and above his shrine on the western side of the east wall of the north arm of the katholikon. 681 About this concept see: Hahn (1997) 1079‐1106. 680
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south gallery and looks towards the shrine (Fig. 574). Assuming that Barsky made his drawing after he venerated the shrine, we can hypothesize that his point of view indicates his movement within the church from north to south. We cannot know whether Loukas’ body was present in his shrine, but, as we have seen and shall see further, the visual language of the shrine itself has its own way of disclosing his actual presence. In the interior of the shrine a tub‐like stone container may have originally contained his bodily remains. At present, the shrine indeed shelters a wooden‐frame casket with glass covers that reveal the saintly remains inside.682 Even if the shrine originally contained relics, they were not displayed for continuous visual exposition. The metal fittings on the sides of the vertical columns of the canopy confirm that it was enclosed either by marble slabs alone or by marble slabs with subsequently added hanging curtains, as recorded in an early twentieth‐century photograph of the shrine.683 Screening curtains on canopy‐like shrines, such as these, could have been potentially removed at certain points to reveal the interior. They could have resembled curtains from the shrine of St. Menas or from the Late‐Byzantine shrine in the church of the Taxiarchs at Kalyvia‐Kouvara in Attica (Cat. no. 172), where a twin‐arched canopy has a large closure slab which was at some point plastered over and decorated with the image of hanging curtains.684 The enclosing marble panels of Hosios Loukas’ shrine had window‐like openings. The idea of vertical panels fit between the columns of the shrine coincides with the depiction of other Byzantine shrines, which essentially resembled small houses. The manuscript illumination of the shrine of St. Gregory Nazianzos (Fig. 567) clearly reveals the shrine to be a small house with an opening above the marble The enclosure slab of the sarcophagus in the north part of the crypt flanking the bema may have been originally the slab over the tomb of Hosios Loukas. The slab is cut on all four edges, thus revealing that some canopy was above it, potentially the same one on the ground floor. Schultz and Barnsley (1901) recorded the cuttings on the slab and Boura (1980) 133, confirmed that in its measures it does not belong to the tomb in the crypt as it is placed today. Boura also hypothesized that it may have been the slab from the tomb of Hosios Loukas, though she connected it with the tomb on the crypt, not with the tomb‐shrine. 683 Field notes J. Bogdanović; ref. to photo Schultz and Barnsley (1901). 684 Ćurčić (2000) 134‐142, with further references. 682
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container of the body.685 The presence of dividing enclosures and curtains suggests that the canopied structures were indeed understood as small houses, whose interiors could have been viewed on special occasions, during miraculous revelations and divine intercessions made on the saint’s behalf. Therefore, it is not surprising that the burial chapel of St. Euphemia, essentially a chamber, was occasionally depicted as a canopy when it showed her miracle confirming the Definition of Chalcedon (Fig. 564).686 It is also important to notice that the canopy‐shrine of Hosios Loukas was not made after the model of altar canopies, as the altar canopy which once existed in the katholikon sanctuary and whose fragments today may be identified among sculptural elements in the monastery museum suggests (Cat. nos. 141,141‐a).687 Rather, like other shrines that I have analyzed, the shrine of Hosios Loukas, even though similar to altar canopies, followed its own independent development, from chamber to semi‐ transparent, canopy‐like shrine (Cat. nos. 142‐1, 142‐9, Figs. 571, 572). Moreover, saints’ shrines could have been opened or closed for various occasions. The permeability of small scale temple‐shrines channeled personal communication
Ćurčić (2000) 134‐142. According to the legend, the early‐fourth‐century martyr Euphemia was born in Chalcedon and was burned for refusing to deny Jesus Christ. The flames could not destroy her bodily remains and she was entombed in a small chapel which grew into healing shrine. In 451 CE, the assembled church dignitaries during the Synod of Chalcedon discussed the nature of Christ. The Patriarch proposed that a book of each doctrine, one which defined Christ as having only a divine nature and the other which asserted his dual nature, to be placed in the casket of St. Euphemia, where God would show where his favor rested. The casket was opened and the two books placed in her hands, after which it was closed and the participants prayed for a divine sign to guide them. When the casket was opened again, the book on the single nature of Jesus Christ was at St. Euphemia’s feet, while the book that spoke of the two natures of Christ was in her hands. Evagrius Scholasticus. Ecclesiastical History (AD 431‐594), transl. E. Walford (1846) Book 2, chp. 4 “Council of Chalcedon,” 51‐63. Therefore, the casket was obviously within the shrine of her chamber, though no explicit reference to the canopy was made. It seems more likely that the depiction of a canopy actually served to visualize the events from the interior of the shrine‐chamber. The Byzantine image of St. Euphemia in her shrine: G. Millet, Monuments byzantins de Mistra (Paris, 1910) fig.4. 687 The sockets in the floor of bema for the altar of the katholikon, were recorded by Schultz and Barnsley (1901) ground plan and Stikas (1974/5) fig. 12. 685 686
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between the faithful and the divine. The shrine’s architectural frame was a powerful material feature for enclosing the sacred space of the saint’s mystical presence and for dividing it from the rest of the shrine populated by the faithful. The relation between the place of divine presence and the bodily presence of Loukas reveals that the physical presence of the saintly body was not a decisive component for divine intercession. Although most of the miracles Hosios Loukas performed did happen in the vicinity of his shrine, his actual bodily presence in the shrine was not crucial. Finally, the bodily remains of Hosios Loukas were removed by the Crusaders in the thirteenth century and returned from the Vatican to the monastery only in 1986.688 It may well be that at some point from 1205 to 1460, the northern arm of the crypt was recognized as the place of the original tomb of Hosios Loukas, which was accompanied by two elaborate tombs in the eastern part of the crypt, flanking the altar on the north and south.689 The attributed tomb of Hosios Loukas, situated on the level of the crypt of St. Barbara, slightly westward below the location of the shrine in the katholikon, is symbolically marked by a marble cenotaph of recent date. No archeological data confirms the existence of the actual tomb at the place of the cenotaph. By the time the Orthodox monks re‐established the monastery of Hosios Loukas in the seventeenth century, it had been stripped of most of its church furnishings, and the memory of the shrine of Hosios Loukas was confined to the textual evidence coming from his Life and the services dedicated to him, since the monastery archives and treasuries remained empty. At that time the saintly body had
In 1204, shortly after the huge sequential building campaigns of the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, Boniface de Montferrat, king of Thessaloniki, drove the Orthodox monks from Hosios Loukas. From 1205 until 1308 De la Roche family owned the monastery, and afterwards until the Turkish conquest in 1460, it was in the possession of the Catalans. Sometime during the thirteenth century the bodily remains of Hosios Loukas were removed by the Crusaders, and ultimately ended up in the Vatican. Hieronymos Liapis, The Monastery of Hosios Loukas in Boeotia (Athens, 2005) 8‐10. 689 According to obviously fabulous legends these still unidentified tombs are attributed to Emperor Romanos II and his wife, who were buried in Constantinople. Other scholars assume that the two tombs are those of Hosios Loukas’ abbot successors. C. L. Connor, Art and miracles in medieval Byzantium (Princeton, c1991) 83‐93. 688
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been missing from the monastery for a long time.690 The prophetic words of Hosios Loukas, when he foresaw his own death and the future glory of the monastery, emphasize the site of his death: You will find fired bricks when you dig out the spot where I am lying [in his monastic cell]. Lifting these out and beautifying the place in a modest fashion take care to give dust to dust; then arrange the bricks on the surface of the earth, for God will bring glory to this place through the mysterious reasons which He Himself knows, until the end of the world, as crowds of believers come together here praising His divine name.691 From the passage it is clear that the place of Hosios Loukas’ life and death would be venerated. However, the physical remains failed to serve as the monumental focal point of the building. The primary reason was that the saintly body was missing from the monastery for much of its history. Another reason was that the location of the shrine was not the focus of either of the two churches, but was at a spot joined by the two churches. Nevertheless, through the introduction of the canopy as a signifier of Hosios Loukas’ presence in the church, the prophetic words were fulfilled, even though we might not have understood them so promptly.
The seventeenth‐century travel accounts express disappointment that the bodily remains could not be observed. It is interesting to note that the time of these missions to the Levant, which stirred late seventeenth‐century French interest in the Byzantine civilization and its architecture, coincided with interest in saintly shrines. Spon (1679) [1678]; Auzépy and Grélois (2001) 39‐43; Eisner (c1991) 56‐57. 691 Life StLuke (1994) ch. 64. 690
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4.2 The Moving Canopy: The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios In addition to the familiar stationary four‐columned canopies used as liturgical church furnishings and saintly shrines, there were also canopies that “moved” within and around the church. The latter, albeit rare and understudied, consist of a number of objects such as candle‐ and cross‐stands, liturgical vessels (artophoria) and cloths (phelonia, sakkoi, epitaphioi) that occasionally contain depictions of canopies and at times are even in the shape of canopies (Figs. 592‐607). These objects often define sacred space, whether explicitly or implicitly. Our examination of outer priestly vestments, essentially tent‐like objects in their form, will demonstrate the way Byzantines perceived the relationship between the human body and the canopies that framed places of divine presence within a liturgical context. We will show how a Byzantine bishop, dressed in his ceremonial vestments, emulated Jesus in his role as High Priest (cf. Heb. 10:20f)692 and entered into His spiritual rebirth in the sanctuary. The concept of ritual and spiritual transformation of the human body is a crucial link in the total continuity of symbolism between the different two‐dimensional and three‐ dimensional canopies in a church, the altar canopy, kuvouklion and epitaphios – all symbols of the Holy Sepulchre – and, finally, the canopy‐like phelonion and sakkos, which were the outer vestments of Byzantine priests and archibishops. * Knowledge of Byzantine sacerdotal vestments is relatively obscure, though we do know that from the earliest Christian times officiating priests approaching places of divine manifestation were vested in special garments.693 Surprisingly little evidence
By a new and living way, which he hath consecrated for us, through the veil, that is to say, his flesh; And having an high priest over the house of God (Heb. 10:20‐21). 693 J. Braun, S.J., Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907); P. Johnstone, The Byzantine Tradition in Church Embroidery (London, 1967); W. Th. Woodfin, Late Byzantine Liturgical Vestments and the Iconography of Sacerdotal Power (Ph.D. Diss. U of Illinois at Urbana‐ Champaign, 2002). See also: L. Mirković (1995) 128ff. 692
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for the ordination of priests in the Byzantine church has survived.694 What is striking is that the earliest acknowledged explanations of the priesthood in the Byzantine church, coming from ninth‐century writings and the seventh‐century liturgy, are directly related to the Epistle to the Hebrews, in which the priesthood is envisioned as absorbing the Judaic traditions of priesthood in the Temple: Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our profession, Christ Jesus (Heb 3:1) and And no man taketh this honour unto himself, but he that is called of God, as was Aaron (Heb 5:4).695 It is difficult to correlate the ceremonial dress prescribed in the Holy Scriptures for Levite priests with corresponding vestments of Christian priests because descriptions varied and literal comparisons seem anachronistic.696
The development of Christian liturgy and priestly vestments in the first centuries of Christianity cannot be traced through written evidence, because nothing earlier than the fourth and fifth centuries has survived. The historical development of priestly phelonia and sakkoi has been studied on essentially antiquarian and ritualistic models. Each of the two approaches has its own tenets and drawbacks. The antiquarian approach suggests that over the first few centuries of Christianity, priestly liturgical attire evolved from the ordinary dress of the Roman citizens and from Roman imperial garments. R. A. S. Macalister, Ecclesiastical Vestments: Their Development and History (London, 1896) 2‐3. The ritualistic approach proposes that the vestments of early Christian priests were modeled after the liturgical garments of the Jewish Levitical priesthood, linking the Mosaic traditions to the liturgical vestiture of Christian rites. The most frequent objection to the ritualistic approach is that early Christian priests could not have been dressed following the priestly traditions of synagogue worship, because except for talith, a prayer shawl with a ritually knotted fringe at each corner, no particular vestments were worn by the priest. Potential references to the worship in the Temple are usually dismissed as historically untenable. Archimandrite Chrysostomos, Orthodox Liturgical Dress. An Historical Treatment (Boston, 1981) 19. 695 Bishop Basil of Sergievo, “The Making of a Priest in the Byzantine Tradition” in Abstracts of the Conference held on 24 September 2001 “Concepts of the Priesthood in Early Jewish and Christian Sources” Centre for Advanced Religious and Theological Studies. The Mystagogia of Maximus the Confessor; the oldest MS text of the service belongs to the ninth century, but the service reflects Maximusʹs understanding of liturgy in the seventh century. It also reflects the world of Dionysius the Areopagite in the sixth century. Other aspects are attested in the fourth‐century Fathers, while the spirit of the prayers can be traced back to the Apostolic Tradition at the beginning of the third century. What is most striking, however, is that the service expresses liturgically the understanding of the word of Christ that is found in the Epistle to the Hebrews. 696 For example, the ephod described in the Scriptures can be reconstructed as either a short two‐ piece richly embroidered garment, fastened upon the shoulders with two onyx stones (Ex. 28:5‐ 12, cf. Isa. 9:6, Lk. 15:4‐5), or as a long seamless, outer garment of blue linen with an opening for the head (Ex. 28:31‐35). 694
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However, liturgical practices may have preserved sacred, unwritten traditions of the Christian church, and account for this analogy between Judaic and Christian garments.697 The Byzantine sources on the priestly vestments conflate their information once again. The Greek‐speaking Byzantines knew of two distinct types of outer priestly vestments, the phelonion and the sakkos. The first of these had been used in the Christian east since the fourth century.698 It is a long, wide cloak, sleeveless and cone‐ shaped, with an opening at the top for the head.699 In its generic form it is a tent‐like object. When serving in the Eastern rite – the Greek, Armenian, Syrian, Chaldaean, and Coptic rites – the priest wore a phelonion‐like garment that acquired its various
St. Basil of Caesarea (d. 379 C.E.) in his treatise On the Holy Spirit, 66 wrote: “For, as it is well known, we are not satisfied with saying the words which the Apostle and the Gospel have recorded, but before and after these words we add other words, on the grounds that they have great strength for the mystery. And these words we have received from the unwritten teaching.” Citation according to M. Barker, The Great High Priest. The Temple Roots of Christian Theology (London and New York, 2003) 76. 698 On the early use of phelonion: J. Goar Euchologium (Paris, 1647) 112. The phelonion and its Western liturgical equivalents, paenula, planeta and casula [chasuble] are most often related to official clothing from the times of the Roman Republic. When analyzing their distinctive cuts, quality of cloth and workmanship, scholars usually attributed them to a particular social rank and the wealth of those who wore them. The same is true even if the name of the vestment itself bore witness to familiar descriptive words. For example, St. Isidore of Seville (ca. 600 C.E.), when enumerating the vestments of the Levitical priesthood, related chasuble to casula, a Latin word for a small house. St. Isidore of Seville, De Originibus, lib. xix, cap. xxi. However, by the time of St. Isidore of Seville, the word casula ceased to be used in the vernacular languages of Western Europe, including Spain. Thus, most scholars recognize casula as a garment from the domestic realm of a Roman house, which only eventually in the ninth century during the Carolingian reform, gained its symbolic meaning and was related to Levitical garments. Braun (1907) 149‐169; 155‐169; Macalister (1896) 44‐45; Wh. B. Marriot, Vestiarium Christianum; The Origin and Gradual Develompent of the Dress of Holy Ministry in the Church (London, 1868) lx‐lxvii, 72‐74. Nevertheless, it remains fascinating that the name of this priestly garment could have also originated from its description in the most basic sense and denoted its shape. Thus, the casula, a small house made of textile, could have referred to a tent, the most basic form of a house. 699 Braun (1907) 149‐247, esp. 245‐247. That the Syrian phaina was formerly a closed mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris [cf. Figs. 16, 112, 284, in Braun (1907)]. 697
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names depending on the liturgical language.700 The etymology of the word phelonion is obscure. Byzantine sources reveal that the words phelonion [φελόνιον, φελώνιον] and phainolion [φαινόλιον] were used interchangeably.701 Such differences in transcription, even in works by the same author, may point to mistakes which arose from the process of writing and copying the texts.702 Differences in transliteration may also point to oral tradition and changes in language, so that some words over time became unfamiliar to contemporary writers. It may well have been that our sources used words which were not originally ancient Greek.703 The Greek words that may have provided the roots for an older transliteration of the word phainolion, also preserved in Coptic rite, are phaino [φαίνω] and olos [ὂλος]. Because the verb phaino literally means “to bring into light,” [or “to cause to appear,” and “to become manifest,” implying “to become visible,”] and a word olos means “everything,”704 phainoloion may have suggested a garment which covered the entire body of the officiating priest, hiding his individual characteristics and revealing him as a sacred person invested with a priestly office. Inspired by the narrative and descriptions from the Holy Scriptures and priestly traditions, the phelonion could derive from priestly garments known from the written Mosaic traditions, as prayers said during vesting suggest. When putting on
Thus, we know of the Armenian shurtshar, šurdzar, the Syriac phaina, phayno, the Chaldean‐ Assyrian snaaphra or phaina, paynā, the Coptic burros, felonion, phanolion, kuklion, and the Ethiopian kāppā. In the West phelonion‐like garments were also variously known as paenula, planeta and casula [chasuble]. Braun (1907) 149‐247, esp. 169‐172, 245‐247. Marriot (1868) lx‐ lxvii. 701Lampe (1964‐68) 1469, 1473. On the variety of transliterations of the same words as used in the Byzantine period see: Woodfin (2002) 23. 702 See, for example: Symeon of Thessaloniki PG 155, cols. 259‐260; 387‐389; 872. 703 Rhinton (ca. 320 B.C.E.), a dramatic poet, stated that the phelonion was an ancient garment, which had been in use “before Agamemnon.” As cited by Julius Pollux, tom. ii, lib. vii, cap. 13, p. 729, and recorded by Marriot (1868) lxi. Moreover, St. John Chrysostom (d. ca. 407 C.E.), also researched the meaning of the phelonion and concluded that it denoted both the outer garment but also the case cover for the Bible (sic!). Marriot (1868) 197. Braun (1907) 155‐163, is of the opinion that phelonion derives from paenula, a formal garment worn by soldiers and in ordinary life in late Antiquity. 704 Lampe (1964‐68) 1469. 700
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his phelonion, the priest would recite Ps. 132:9: Thy priests, O Lord, shall clothe themselves in righteousness, and the saints shall rejoice with joy always now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen. In the eighth century, Patriarch Germanos compared a phelonion both with the outer garment of Aaron and with the seamless garment of Christ, which symbolized His flesh.705 Until the eleventh century the phelonion is depicted as a plain, single‐colored robe.706 After the eleventh century the patriarchal phelonion occasionally included depictions of crosses, and became known as polystavrion (Figs. 288, 449‐450, 467, 482). By the fourteenth century the use of these polystauria had been extended to the metropolitans and, later still, to all bishops.707 Despite being frequently depicted in visual arts and described in texts, not a single phelonion from Byzantine times has survived.708 At the beginning of the Komnenian period Byzantine church prelates also started to wear a sakkos instead of a phelonion.709 For example, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081‐1118) supposedly granted the right to the Metropolitan of Lakedaimonia to wear a sakkos in a now‐lost chrysobullos of 1082/3.710 We do not know how this vestment may have looked, and it also remains unclear whether it was a special kind of imperial garment, or whether it was an exclusively priestly vestment tailored for the Metropolitan.711
PL 98: 394. Germanos (1984) 66‐67; Marriot (1868) 82‐87. There are numerous depictions of phelonia in visual arts: Braun (1907) Figs. 110‐112. 707 Braun (1907) 237. 708 In contrast to the practice in the West where a priest wore a chasuble, an equivalent of the phelonion, exclusively for the liturgical service, in the Christian East, priests and occasionally readers wore phelonia, not only for the Eucharistic rites but also for other rites such as marriage, baptism, consecration of a bishop, and various ecclesiastical processions. Braun (1907) 155‐163. 709 E. Piltz, “Costume in Life and Death in Byzantium” in Bysans och Norden. Akta för Nordiska forskakursen I byzantinsk konstvenskap 1986 E. Piltz ed. (Stockholm and Uppsala, 1989) 153‐165, esp. 161. 710 An imperial sakkos was in exceptional cases granted by Byzantine Emperors to important church prelates to wear. T. Papas, Studien zur Geschichte der Messgewänder im byzantinischen Ritus (Munich, 1965) 126. 711 Among Byzantine ecclesiastical garments, the Episcopal sakkos is unique in form and meaning with no adequate liturgical counterpart in the West. The closest counterpart for the sakkos in the West is a dalmatic, which is similar to sakkos in form. Braun (1907) 302‐305. 705 706
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The term sakkos had been used in Patristic literature since the fourth century, mostly for penitential garments.712 The ninth‐century miniature depicting the homily of Gregory of Nazianzus preached on the occasion of a storm shows the bishop wearing a sakkos, which visually resembles a phelonion rather than an imperial sakkos.713 Though Germanos in his work Historia Ekklesiastike kai Mystike Theoria does not mention a sakkos, it may not have been utterly unknown to the Byzantine prelates. He does, after all, exclude descriptions of other important priestly vestments, like epimanikia [the liturgical cuffs] and mitre [the headgear of the priest], and of priestly staff from his texts, perhaps because the scope of his treatise, “church history and mystical theory,” excluded this particular kind of symbolism. Indeed, the earliest acknowledged textual reference to the episcopal sakkos comes from the late twelfth‐century patriarch of Antioch and principal Byzantine canonist, Theodor Balsamon.714 In his Meditata sive responsa, Theodor Balsamon explained the meaning of sakkos in the context of the Levitical ephod and garment of Aaron,715 in a manner similar to Germanos’ earlier explanation of the phelonion, and Balsamon’s account of the symbolism of the sakkos remained quasi‐official explanation. Balsamon also recorded that the Byzantines maintained that their liturgy was ultimately rooted in the worship of the Temple in Jerusalem. Furthermore, it
Theodoretus Cyrrhensis and John Chrysostom mention sakkoi in their writings: Thdt. Historia ecclesiastica I. 24. I (3.806), Chrysostom Homilia in poenitentiam Ninivitarum PG 64.425A, according to Lampe (1961) 1211. 713 On the ninth‐century miniature depicting the homily of Gregory of Nazianzus, Paris. greac. 510, f. 78, father of Gregory of Nazianzus, a bishop, is depicted in a cloak, which is presumably a penitential sakkos: Walter (1982) 17, fig. 4. Already in the eleventh century the Orthodox bishops were occasionally depicted in monumental painting wearing sakkoi. Piltz (1989) 153‐ 165. 714 Theodor Balsamon, PG 138, col. 989A, 1020C, 1025C‐1028AB. See also reference to sakkos in an early‐fifteenth‐century text by Symeon of Thessaloniki: Sym. Thess. PG 155, col. 396. 715 Theodor Balsamon, PG 138, col. 1028. The Ephod as a garment worn by priests in ancient Israel was apparently invested with a numinous quality, for it aided access to the divine (Judg. 17: 5). Although originally it was used not only for religious rituals but also for divination, the latter function was lost by the time of the Second Temple. A Dictionary of the Bible. W. R. F. Browning ed. (Oxford, 1997) s.v. ephod; The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. J. Bowker ed. (Oxford, 2000) s.v. ephod; Barker (2003) 211. 712
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seems as if the ritual elements of Byzantine liturgies preserved, with relative independence from written sources, the mystical symbolism of tent‐like vestments. Without such traditions of symbolism, Christians of later centuries could not preserve the meaning of these vestments themselves. By the thirteenth century, the Byzantine patriarchs are known to have officiated liturgies for the three Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church – Easter, Nativity, and Pentecost – dressed in special sakkoi.716 Thus, it seems that the Byzantines knew several types of sakkoi and that their meaning and use changed over time.717 Only in post‐Byzantine times, after the sixteenth century, did the sakkos completely replace the previously worn phelonion.718 Three sakkoi – the so‐called Dalmatic of Charlemagne in the Vatican Treasury, and the so‐called Minor and Major sakkoi of Metropolitan Photios (Fig. 607), now in the Kremlin Vestiary – all dating from the fourteenth to the fifteenth centuries and all three essentially ponchos with incisions on their sides, are the only known Byzantine Episcopal sakkoi to have survived.719 Therefore, not only were the phelonion and the sakkos the only two outer ecclesiastical vestments, but, despite their slightly different cuts, they also covered the entire body of the officiating priest or bishop, respectively.720 Both garments are compared with the Levitical High Priestly garments and the seamless purple mantle
In the thirteenth century, Demetrios Chomatenos PG 119, cols. 949‐952, records that the Patriarch wore a sakkos on Easter, Nativity, and Pentecost. Johnstone (1967) 15; Piltz (1976) 19, Walter (1982) 17‐18. 717 Woodfin (2002) 36‐37, 100‐108, provides most recent overview of the state of research on sakkoi. On the sakkos see also: Braun (1907) 302; Piltz (1989) 153‐165, esp. 161; Johnstone (1967) 15; ODB (1991) s.v. sakkos. 718 Piltz (1989) 153‐165. 719 On all three sakkoi, most extensively: E. Piltz, Trois sakkoi byzantins. Analyse iconographique (Stockholm and Uppsala, 1976). 720 Phelonia used in Eastern rites, may have been different in their cuts, since some of them were seamless, other were cut on front etc. The differences most likely resulted from practical reasons to accommodate the officiating priest to offer the liturgical service, since the sack‐like garment heavily restricted the use of hands. 716
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which Christ was given during His passion, though such attributions are anachronistic, and furthermore, the sakkos was never made of purple textile.721 A short overview of the ceremonial vesting of the High Priests set within a liturgical context can explain how the Byzantines overcame these anachronistic problems. Since ancient times vesting, second only to anointing with oil, is the great symbol of priesthood and the definite proclamation of priests as holy.722 The ceremonial vesting in a sakkos was part of the Byzantine insistence on uninterrupted priestly tradition, the roots of which can be sought as far back as the Temple tradition.723 Sometimes liturgical practices and beliefs stretched back to the First Temple Period (10th c B.C.E. – 586 B.C.E.). Among these are the liturgical practices by which the officiating priest faces east and the spiritual concept of deification by which a gift of wisdom makes human beings like gods, gifted with eternal life.724 Similarly,
In the fifteenth century Symeon of Thessaloniki recorded that a sakkos is a sacred vestment, which in form and etymology imply the penitential sack‐like costume (cf. Matt. 11:21, Lk. 10:13). Yet, he further informs us that a sakkos was worn by the most important archbishops only when celebrating Great feasts, and that it was never made of purple cloth because purple was the color of mourning in an ecclesiastic context. Sym. Thess. PG 155, col. 260, 389, 713‐716, 872. 722 Throughout the Second Temple period (515 B.C.E – 70 C.E.), High Priests came from the house of Levi, and were described as angels, the holy ones. When a priest was consecrated he was literally made into a holy one, since the Hebrews knew angels as the holy ones. Barker (2003) 124‐129, points to sources in: Philo, On Dreams 2.189, 231; Malachi 2, Book of Revelation. The priests called angels can be found in the Scriptures, as well. Suffer not thy mouth to cause thy flesh to sin; neither say thou before the angel, that it was an error: wherefore should God be angry at thy voice, and destroy the work of thine hands? (Eccl. 5:6) 723 See, for example: Barker (2003) 136‐140. 724 Origen in his Homily 5 on Numbers, compared the Christian practice of praying towards the east to the secret of the temple which was guarded by the priest. Worshipping towards the east distinguished the adherents of the first temple customs from the followers of the compilers of the Mishnah. Facing the east to pray and signing with the cross can be identified as customs dating back to the first temple. During Tabernacles in the second temple, a procession would turn back at the eastern gate and face towards the temple saying: “Our fathers when they were in this place turned with their backs towards the temple of the Lord and their faces towards the east and they worshipped the sun towards the east; but as for us, our eyes are turned toward the Lord” (M. Sukkah 5.4.). Also, Ezekiel’s account of men in the temple facing east, holding branches before their faces and worshipping the sun (Ez. 8.16‐18). Therapeuts (Philo, On The Contemplative Life 27) and the Essenes (Josephus War 2.128) also facing the rising sun, 721
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the prayers for the Lord to come to the temple reveal the tabernacle as the place where the Lord could dwell (Ex. 25:8, LXX “appear”) and could speak to Moses from between the cherubim of the ark (Ex. 25:22). These mystical, sacred traditions most likely continued because of ongoing liturgical practices which, as St. Basil recorded, often remained unwritten, in order “to keep the things of the hidden God unshared, undefiled by the uninitiated.”725 When the priestly celebrants wore their often richly decorated, tent‐like vestments, the decorative function was not essential because the priests acted as instruments of God, through the Grace of the Holy Spirit. The inaudible prayers of the officiating priest, still preserved in Orthodox churches, demonstrate the function of the outer vestments to conceal the celebrant and his individual characteristics, rather than to adorn him: No one caught up in the desires and delights of the flesh is worthy to come forth or draw near to minister to You, the King of Glory; for to serve You is great and awesome even for the heavenly powers.... Therefore I implore You, as alone benevolent and quick to hear, look on me Your sinful and unworthy servant, and purge my heart and soul of an evil conscience, rendering me able, by the power of Your Holy Spirit, and invested with the grace of Priesthood, to stand before this Your holy table and consecrate Your pure and sacred Body and Your precious Blood....
Rev. 7 describes a great multitude holding palm branches, standing before the angel who came from the sunrise with the seal of the living God. Barker (2003) 76‐78. 725 Sacred, unwritten traditions mentioned by Clement of Alexandria used similar imagery: those who have the truth enter by drawing aside a curtain (Misc. 7.17), suggesting that there were among the Hebrews some things delivered unwritten (Misc. 5.10). Origen spoke of unwritten or sacred tradition (e.g Celsus 3.37; 6.6 Preface to the First Principles) and the mystery established before the ages (On Mat. 7.2). Barker (2003) 77, demonstrated how the phrase “before the ages” indicated also the place – the holy of holies, since whatever happened there was deemed to be beyond time and thus outside the material creation. She also shows that one of the secrets of the holy of holies was the resurrection, the state beyond time and matter (cf. Lk. 20:36). Furthermore, Dionysius in the Ecclesiastic Hierarchy 372A, addressed the treatise to Timothy to keep the things of the hidden God unshared, undefiled by the uninitiated.
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Like the Byzantine sources, the Hebrew Scriptures are also almost completely silent about the vesting of the High Priests and its potential symbolic meaning. The most revealing description of priestly vesting and its significance for the spiritual transformation of the High Priest is found in the Slavonic Enoch, which has Christian interpolations.726 Enoch, the archetypal High Priest, ascended through ten heavens and stood before the Lord, who enthroned amidst the cherubim and seraphim said to Archangel Michael: “Take Enoch and take him from his earthly clothing and anoint him with the delightful oil and put him into the clothes of glory” (2 En. 22). After changing from earthly garments to garments of glory Enoch described himself as follows: “And I gazed at all of myself, and I had become like the glorious ones and there was no observable difference (2 En. 22).”727 In other words, Enoch the High Priest spiritually ascended and was transformed into an angel and holy one by his consecration as the High Priest.728 The priestly office of the first High Priest, Aaron (“the light‐bringer”), older brother of Moses, is also described in Exodus 28:31‐35:
The Slavonic Enoch, also known as 2 Enoch, was discovered in 1886 by Prof. Sokolov in the archives of the National Belgrade Library. The text is thought to be a Slavonic version of an originally Greek manuscript, possibly translated from Hebrew or Aramaic. Due to its Christian interpolations, it is dated to the period between the first and seventh centuries. 727 Barker (2003) 129. 728 Barker (2003) 129. It is worth noting that Moses had a shining face as he came down from Sinai (Ex. 34.29‐35). 726
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And you shall make the robe of the ephod all of blue. And there shall be an hole in the top of it, in the midst thereof: it shall have a binding of woven work round about the hole of it … that it be not rent. And beneath upon the hem of it you shall make pomegranates729 of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, round about the hem thereof; and bells of gold between them round about … And it shall be upon Aaron to minister: and his sound shall be heard when he goes in unto the holy place before the LORD, and when he comes out, that he die not. The ephod typified Christ as the High Priest (cf. Heb. 3:1, 5:4) who mediated between God and humanity and provided access to divine life.730 The theological insistence on the sacramental presence of Christ stimulated ecclesiastical ceremonies from the post‐Iconoclastic period,731 and by the fourteenth century, it resulted in visual representations of Christ himself as supreme hierarch, wearing the patriarchal sakkos (Fig. 610).732
Kalavrezou‐Maxeiner (1985) 95‐103 demonstrated how the word “pomegranate” comes from the official translations of the Bible, referring to the Hebrew term rimon, and Greek rhoiskos. The original terms have in both languages dual meaning of both the “pomegranate” and “knot.” In the tenth‐century lexicon of Suidas the word is explained as the “knot in the shape of pomegranate.” 730 Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our profession, Christ Jesus – Heb 3:1; And no man taketh this honour unto himself, but he that is called of God, as was Aaron. – Heb 5:4. On Christ as the High Priest and Ascension: J. Baggley, Festival Icons for the Christian Year (Crestwood, NY, 2000) 134. 731 Walter (1982) 220. 732 Ch. Walter, “La place des évêques dans le décor des absides byzantines” Revue de lʹArt 24 (1974) 81‐89; T. Papamastoratis, “The Representation of Christ as the Great Arch‐priest” DHAE 4/12 (1992) 67‐68; A. M. Lidov, “Schism and Byzantine Church Decoration” in The Eastern Christian Church. The Liturgy and Art, A. M. Lidov ed. (1994): 17‐35. On the individual representations of Christ the High Priest, exemplified by the image of Christ the High Priest in fresco painting in Lesnovo, F.Y.R. of Macedonia, ca. 1346 see: Gabelić (1998) 68‐69. On the historical circumstances of the phenomenon: G. Dagron, Empereur et prêtre: étude sur le ʺcésaropapismeʺ byzantin ([Paris], c1996) 315‐322. However, it should be noted that in Middle Byzantine manuscripts High Priestly vestments of the Hebrew High Priests are represented as pelerine‐like cloaks fastened with a broach on the front, different in cut from the known sakkoi (Figs. 331, 337, 342, 352‐358, 445). 729
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Indeed, over time, the Byzantine fresco program of the sanctuary became populated with images of the Communion of the Apostles, where Christ framed by a canopy is Himself vested in the garments of His flesh – a chimation, phelonion, or sakkos.733 Following the narrative of Christ’s self‐offering at the Last Supper and on Calvary, the motif gained its liturgical meaning by emphasizing the totality of the Lord in time and eternity, from Incarnation to Last Judgment, through the Eucharistic sacrifice. Christ the Priest is sheltered by the altar canopy, which is occasionally veiled in curtains (Figs. 395, 396, 406, 412, 448). Officiating angels in these images are often vested in sticharia and have oraria as deacons. Guarding the altar canopy angles often hold rhipidia (liturgical fans) with the engraved cherubim, which guard the dwelling of the Lord.734 These images fully corresponded to the Byzantine official explanation of sacred mysteries and their setting in the Byzantine church as offered by
The Communion of the Apostles as an event was not described in the Gospels, but it could derive from the narrative of the Last Supper (Mt. 26:26‐29, Mk. 14:22‐25, Lk. 22:17‐19, 1 Cor. 11:23‐26). Among the earliest depictions of the Communion of the Apostles are in the sixth‐ century Rossano and Rabbula illuminated Gospels, and on the contemporary liturgical vessels such as the Riha and Stuma paten. By the fourteenth century, the Last Supper was occasionally painted in the altar apse next to the Communion of the Apostles. The church of Andreas on the river Treska is one illustrative example. More in: V. J. Djurić, Vizantijske freske u Jugoslaviji (Beograd, 1974) 158. The Communion of the Apostles in the Byzantine monumental painting first appeared in the side chapels of the early‐tenth‐century church of the Nativity near Sagri on the island of Naxos. By the mid‐eleventh century, in addition to being pained on the side walls of the sanctuary (e.g. church of Panagia Chalkeon, Thessaloniki and in church of Karadaş Kilise in Soğanli Valley, Cappadocia), the motif was transferred to the middle register and in the center of the altar apse (e.g. churches of St. Sophia in Ohrid and in Kiev). From the twelfth century on, sometimes on the lower level of the apsidal wall two liturgies might be painted one above the other. The upper liturgy is the Communion of the Apostles and the lower of the Holy Bishops like in the church of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi (1164). Sh. Gerstel, “Apostolic Embraces in Communion Scenes of Byzantine Macedonia,” CA 44 (1996) 141‐148; Walter (1982) 192; A.J. Wharton (1988) 44. On the depiction of the Communion of Apostles in Byzantine manuscripts see also: Evangelatou (2002) 202‐204. 734 The depicted rhipidia are most likely painted after actual liturgical fans, which had been used in Byzantine churches since the sixth century. For example, two sixth‐century silver rhipidia, one from Riha, currently in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington, D.C. and the other from Stuma, currently in the Archeological Museum, in Istanbul, Turkey have depictions of the tetramorph with four (six) wings, human hands, feet, and wheels of fire. E. Cruikshank Dood, Byzantine Silver Treasures (Bern, 1973) 34‐40, figs. 29‐32. 733
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Patriarch Germanos as early as the eighth century, whose interpretation remained prevalent throughout the Byzantine Empire until its fall.735 * The tent‐like Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios of Russia (1408‐1431), today in the Kremlin Armory collection in Moscow (inv. no. TK‐4), further exemplifies the complex and subtle relationships between the human body and canopies in the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition (Fig. 607).736 The dense decoration of the sakkos is overwhelming because it looks as if the entire painted program of a church has been compressed onto a man‐size vestment (Fig. 608). Indeed, with all its elaborate embroidery, the Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios was a veritable summation of the Eastern Christian faith and a replica of a Byzantine church.737 Set against the coeval hesychast controversy and polemics concerning union with Rome, the sakkos with the inscribed confession of faith was more than a mere ecclesiastic object, but a carefully tailored theological and diplomatic object.738 A sophisticated combination of
Germanos (1984) 52‐55. The basic reference for the Major sakkos of Metropolitan Photios in: Piltz (1976) 13‐27. Good entry with extended bibliography on the sakkos including Russian sources in: Medieval Pictorial Embroidery, N. A. Mayasova ed. (Moscow, 1991) 44‐51, cat. no 10. The reference to sakkos was made related to the exhibition on Late Byzantine and Post‐Byzantine Art at the Metropolitan Museum in New York (March 23rd, 2004–July 4th, 2004). W. Woodfin, “Liturgical Textiles” in Faith and Power (c2004.) 295‐299, Fig. 10.6. 737 Piltz (1976) 59. When analyzing the so‐called Minor sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, B. Schnitzer, “Von der Wandmalerei zur Gewandmalerei: Funktionen eines Medienwechsels in der spätbyzantinischen Kunst” MarbJb 24 (1997) 59‐69, similarly concluded that the imagery on the sakkos came from the imagery within the church.. 738 Rooted in early Christian monastic contemplative practices, hesychasm, a state in which monks sought to receive the vision of God, was revived in the fourteenth century, when it acquired its dogmatic concept under theologian and saint Gregory Palamas (ca. 1296‐1359) and spread after several church councils, most notably under Constantinopolitan Patriarch Philotheos Kokkinos (1353‐55, 1364‐76). J. Meyendorff, Introduction à l’étude de Grégoire Palamas (Paris, 1959); J. Meyendorff, Byzantine Hesychasm: Historical, Theological and Social Problems (London, 1974); D. M. Nicol, Church and Society in the Last Centuries of Byzantium (Cambridge, 1979). On the sakkos as a historical document: M. S. Theocharis, “Le sakkos de Photios, métropolite de Kiev: un document confessionnel et diplomatique.” DrevIsk (Sankt‐Peterburg, 1999) 418‐429; H. Fros, “Hagiographie brodée” AB 103 (1985) 105‐108; D. Obolensky, “Some notes Concerning a Byzantine Portrait of John VIII Palaeologus” EChR 4/2 (1972) 141‐146; J Meyendorff, “Is ‘Hesychasm’ the Right Word? Remarks on Religious Ideology in the 735 736
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images and text is a visual construct which emphasized the Byzantine understanding of the Incarnation and Christ’s role as Savior. Formal analysis of the imagery and its liturgical meaning reveals numerous parallels which essentially support such a hypothesis. Made of one piece of cloth, the sakkos of Metropolitan Photios is enclosed by nine surviving buttons on the sides, and has an opening for the head at its center and wide rims instead of sleeves. The sakkos is made of blue satin and embroidered with scenes, figures, floral motifs, and inscriptions in silk threads and silver‐gilt wire.739 All the images, their framing, and many details are outlined with thousands of pearls. On the side sections of the sakkos hang ten silver bells and sixteen tassels with silver‐gilt knots.740 The sakkos depicts twenty‐seven scenes and 109 individual figures. Within the central parts of the sakkos the Greek text of the Nicene Creed encapsulates images of liturgical feasts intertwined with the figures of Old Testament prophets, Christian hymnographers, and royal couples. Old Testament themes, Holy bishops, martyrs and saints fill the remaining surfaces.
Fourteenth Century,” in Okeanos. Essays Presented to I Ševčenko on His Sixtieth Birthday by His Colleagues and Students, eds. C. Mango and O. Pritsak, HUkSt 7 (1983) 447‐457; P Guran, Sainteté royale et pouvoir universel en terre dʹOrthodoxie. (Fin du Moyen Age et début de lʹépoque moderne) Ph. D. diss. École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (2003) 343‐353. 739 On the Byzantine origin of the materials used for a sakkos see: The Armory. A Guide V. S. Goncharenko and V. I. Narozhnaya eds. (Moscow, 2000) 228‐232. 740 Though it is generally well‐preserved the sakkos has sustained some losses of silk and embroidery. Pearl stringing does not always follow the contours accurately and so are a sign of the faulty workmanship of subsequent additions to the otherwise meticulous outlines. The pearl string and the hem design are identical to those on the fourteenth‐century, wrongly‐ labeled Minor sakkos of Photios, and are presumably seventeenth‐century additions. In connection to unpublished work by M. M. Denisova who first suggested a mid‐fourteenth‐ century dating of the Minor sakkos, scholars today generally agree that the two sakkoi show some similarities including the pearl‐embroidered decoration on the hem, due to the restorations of the vestments in the St. Barsonophios Convent in Moscow, by a nun, Domnikea Volkova, in 1631 and 1642. Mayasova (1991) 10‐12, 44‐51, with reference to work by I. E. Zabelin.
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Both sides of the sakkos show the same compositional scheme (Fig. 608).741 The major part of each side of the vestment is a rectangle two squares long, framed by a narrow border inscribed with the Nicene Creed. Each square has a centrally positioned cross with a depiction of the Crucifixion and Descent into Hell on the front side, and of the Ascension and Dormition of the Virgin on the back. Each cross is framed by L‐shaped corners with additional New Testament scenes, except for the two very bottom corners on the front, which contain images of contemporary historical figures, Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaeologos (1425–48) and Grand Prince Vasilii Dimitrijevič (1371‐1425) with their spouses. On each side of the vestment, the two squares enclosed by the Nicene Creed are approximately in the geometric center, broached with an additional scene (Figs. 608, 614‐615). In the center of the front side of the sakkos is the image of the Tomb of Christ. At precisely the same location on the opposite side is the image of the Transfiguration. Roundels with busts and half‐length figures of Old Testament prophets and Christian saints, full‐length figures of prophets and saints, and New Testament scenes fill the remaining space within the rectangular enclosures. The vestment’s collar is lined by three‐lobed arches framing half‐length figures of the Virgin Orans, angels and seraphim on the front, and a Deisis‐like scene with the Dead Christ as the Man of Sorrows, the Virgin, John the Theologian, archangels and seraphim on the back. At the bottom, at the widest part of the trapezoidal sakkos, there are Old Testament and exegetical scenes: the Sacrifice of Abraham and Jacob’s Ladder on the front side, and the Tree of Jesse and Moses’ vision of the Burning Bush on the It is rather difficult to distinguish what was the front and what the back side of the sakkos, since the sides and collar hems are symmetrically identical. The Crucifixion embroidered on the sakkos at first points to its back, because other surviving sakkoi and phelonia often have crosses depicted on their back. However, the beginning of the text of the Nicene Creed is on the same side of the sakkos where the Crucifixion is. Moreover, the surviving epitrachelion which Metropolitan Photios wore around his neck and over his sakkos has the depiction of a Deisis theme with the Dead Christ as the Man of Sorrows, an exact replica of the imagery from the sakkos collar which is on the opposite side from the Crucifixion. I am grateful to Dr. Yuliana Boycheva for the reference to the iconographic program of the epitrachelion of Metropolitan Photios. 741
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back. Roundels with half‐length figures of Christian martyrs are embroidered on the sleeves. Presumably a later addition, the red‐silk hem with pearl decoration borders the sakkos at the bottom. Floral garlands and ornamental motifs decorate the sleeves. Some forty figures of the holy bishops with Greek inscriptions are embroidered in two tiers below the four‐lobed arches and flank the major part of the sakkos (Figs. 607‐608).742 Those bishops, who would be on Photios’ right‐hand side when he wore the sakkos, are also all dressed in sakkoi. Those on Photios’ left‐hand side wear phelonia. The interchangeable use of sakkoi and phelonia, in my opinion, suggests that the Byzantines did not have a decisive understanding of the liturgical differences between these vestments.743 On the front of the sakkos, the right‐hand tier of the holy bishops ends at the bottom next to the image of the Byzantine Emperor John Palaeologos with Metropolitan Photios himself. The standing figure of Photios is fully clad in liturgical attire, wearing sticharion, epitrachelion, sakkos, omopohorion and epimanikia (Fig. 609).744 He is making a gesture of blessing with his right hand and holding a book in his left. Set within a canopied architectural frame, as if he were within an iconostasis door during the service, Metropolitan Photios is identified by the Greek inscription: ‛Ο // ΠA // ΝΙ // Ε // ΡΩ // ΤΑ // ΤΟΣ // Μ(ΗΤ)ΡΟ // ΠΟ // ΛΙ /// ΤΗΣ // ΚΙ // Ε// Βογ (sic!) Κ // ΑΙ // ΠAΣ(ΗΣ) // ΡΩΣΙ(ΑΣ) //ΦΩΤΙΟΣ, “All Holy Metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia Photios.”745
About the Gothic‐like four‐lobed arches on the silver gilt revetment for the Gospel Books by Feodor Koški made in 1392/93 by a Russian and Greek workshop and its Byzantine provenance see: A. V. Ryndina, “Oklad evangelija Uspenskogo Sabora” DrevIsk 3 (1983) 143‐ 166. 743 The rank of bishops depicted on the right‐hand and left‐hand side relative to the wearer cannot be distinguished. However, more expensive sakkoi may have been also a commodity not available to all bishops, who would retain phelonia instead. Moreover, Symeon of Thessaloniki, when explaining sacred vestments in his work on the Divine Liturgy, writes that a bishop should have been dressed either “in phainolion, sakkos or polystaurion.” PG 155, 260BC; and PG 155, 871‐72AB, Question 19. See also: Marriot (1868) 168‐171, esp. 170. 744 On each piece of liturgical clothing see, for example: Woodfin (2002) 20‐33, with references. 745 Moreover, on the shoulders there is another, probably seventeenth‐century inscription in pearl string “Photios Metropolitan.” On the latter see: Mayasova (1991) 44‐51; Piltz (1976) 36. 742
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Centrally embroidered on the front, the canopy representing the Tomb of Christ is the pivotal point for our investigation of canopy‐like objects. Formal and iconographic analysis of the sakkos further set within a liturgical context can visualize and explain how the Byzantines and those nourished on their traditions understood the vibrant relationship between the human body and the canopy as an architectural structure. The canopy above Christ’s dead body is a four‐columned structure topped by a dome with three suspended lamps (Fig. 615‐a). It shelters the prismatic tomb‐bench on which lies the body of the dead Christ wrapped in linen shrouds (cf. Matt. 27:59ff; Mk. 15:43ff; Lk. 23:53ff; Jn. 19:40ff). Two embroidered stars flank the dome. Embroidered between the canopy columns the Greek inscription ΙC ΧC // ‛Ο’ΕΠΙ // ΤΆΦΙ // ΟC, “Jesus Christ on the tomb,” confirms that this image represents the Holy Sepulchre. The scene of the Transfiguration of Christ, inscribed in Greek ΙC ΧC // Η ΜΕ // ΤΑ /// ΜΟΡΦ // ΟCΙC, “Jesus Christ, the Transfiguration” is on the opposite side of the Holy Sepulchre (Fig. 615‐b). It follows the iconography of the Transfiguration which was widely recognizable by the early fifteenth century (cf. Matt. 17:1‐19, Mk. 9:2‐9, Lk. 9:28‐37, and 2 Pet. 1:16‐18).746 Hovering within the mandorla of light above Mount Tabor, the standing figure of Christ blesses with his right hand and holds a scroll in his left. Facing Him are Elijah, on Christ’s right, holding a prophetic scroll, and
On the Greek‐born Metropolitan Photios: Sofiskaja vtoraia letopis’, Polnoe Sobranie Russkih Letopisei, vol. VI/2 (Moskva, 2001) 40‐54; A. N. Mouravieff, The History of the Russian Church (Oxford, 1842; reprinted New York, 1971) 71‐75; Makarij [Metropolitan of Moscow], Istoria russkoi tserkvi, vol. 4 (Sankt Petersburg, 1886) 86‐107; J. Fennell, A History of the Russian Church to 1448 (London and New York, 1995) 162‐169; J. Meyendorff, “Society and Culture in the Fourteenth Century: Religious Problems” XIV Congrès International des Études Byzantines, Rapports I. Bucharest 6‐12 September 1971 (1971) 51‐65. 746 On the iconography of the Transfiguration in Byzantine art: G. Millet, Recherches sur l’iconographie de l’Evangile aux XIVe, XVe et XVIe siècles d’après les monuments de Mistra, de la Mecédoine et du Mont Athos (Paris, 1916) 216‐231; S. Dufrenne, “La manifestation divine dans l’iconographie byzantine de la Transfiguration” in Nicée II, 787‐1987. Douze siècles d’images religieuses, F. Boespflug and N. Lossky eds. (Paris, 1987) 185‐206; J. Elsner, “Image and Iconoclasm in Byzantium” ArtHist 11/4 (1988) 471‐491.
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Moses, on His left, holding the tablets of the Law. Below them, set against a rocky landscape, three bent figures, though without inscriptions, represent the Apostles Peter, James, and John. Their gestures reveal their awe in the presence of the incomprehensible, radiating body of the transfigured Lord.747 An excerpt from Metropolitan Photios’ will reveals that the two themes of the Tomb and the Transfiguration illustrate his personal preoccupations: “[I desired] to contemplate clearly and properly the unutterable values of the life beyond the grave. When I had clearly and spiritually realized the essence of the present life, that is that all temporal things are worthless and covered with dust … I saw how to look at true life and how to see the great life from the small, and the immortal life from the temporary.”748 Thus, the iconography of the sakkos presents, on the one hand, a scene of the empty Tomb and, on the other, the glorified Christ, two representations of the kind of life that lies beyond death, the death that is revealed to be not simply everlasting dust, and the life that is shown to extend far beyond life in time. The two scenes are further linked by strong geometric structures, which, intertwining as they do, reflect Photios’ spiritual message. The two stars in the sky on each side of the canopy complement the two figures of Moses and Elijah on top of separate mountain peaks flanking the mandorla of light (Fig. 615). To the Byzantines, Moses and Elijah symbolized under the titles of the Law and Prophecy the Old Covenant, which was fulfilled with the Incarnation of the Lord.749 Both Moses and Elijah experienced visions of God, Moses on Mount Sinai (Ex. 34:29‐35) and Elijah on Mount Sinai (1 Kgs. 19:8‐13) and Mount Carmel (1 Kgs. 18:42). Furthermore, Moses who experienced death (Num. 31:2, Deut. 32:50)
On the material experience of uncreated light, which had an afterlife in the Grand‐ principality of Moscow, the eleventh‐century monk, St. Simeon the New Theologian left possibly the best descriptions: H. Alfeyev, St. Symeon the New Theologian and the Orthodox Tradition (Oxford, 2000) 169‐174; 215‐240; 278‐281. 748 A.‐E. N. Tachiaos, “The Testament of Photius Monembasiotes, Metropolitan of Russia (1408‐ 1431): Byzantine Ideology in XVth Century Muscovy” CM 8‐9 (1984‐85) 77‐109, citation on 104. 749 Baggley (2000) 68 with reference to St. John Chrysostom. See also: Symeon the New Theologian, Theol. Chapt. 2.14 [1132 A] 747
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represents the dead, while Elijah who was taken into heaven by the chariot of fire (2 Kgs. 2:11) represents the living.750 The trinitarian nature of the theophany is suggested by the three lamps suspended from the canopy and by the three light rays extending down to the three apostles from the mandorla of light of the Transfiguration (Fig. 615). Known as the “lamps of God” in patristic literature, the apostles announced the mystery of divine life, the spiritual identity of the believers with Christ (Acts. 2:44), and the replacement of the Old by the New Covenant (Acts.10:9ff). The symbolism of the ever‐burning lamp of Jesus’ tomb, prefigured in the ever‐burning light of the menorah lamp, is familiar: “out of the tomb comes the risen Christ, the light that illuminates, i.e. saves.”751 The lamps are suspended from the canopy roof, illustrating that the sparkling lamplight came not from the outside, but from the inner space of the canopy. The image conveys the sensation of the participants during the midnight service on Saturday just before the Easter liturgy when “the sun hid its rays and the stars cast aside their brightness” and when the church is left in darkness except for the lamp in the sanctuary.752 The greatest mystery of the Orthodox Church – Christ’s voluntary Passion, Death and Resurrection – is foretold during the services for the Transfiguration, in which Christ’s divinity and perfect humanity are particularly emphasized.753 The Holy Sepulchre, depicted opposite the Transfiguration, has been the focus of the vespers and the resurrection vigil since the fourth century.754 The image matches the verses of the Vespers celebrated on Good Friday: “In the flesh you were of your own will enclosed within the tomb, yet in your divine nature you remain un‐ The theophanies of Moses and Elijah are included in the Scripture readings at Vespers for the feast of Transfiguration. Baggley (2000) 61. 751 For the symbolism of light in the Christian liturgy concisely: R. Taft, S.J. “The Liturgy of the Great Church: An Initial Synthesis of Structure and Interpretation on the Eve of Iconoclasm” DOP 34‐35 (1980‐1981) 45‐75; Papademetriou (1973) 44‐47. 752 Ikos on Holy Saturday. The Lenten Triodion transl. by Mother Mary and Kallistos Ware (London and Boston, 1984 [c1977]) 650. 753 Baggley (2000) 60, 65. 754 Taft (1980‐1981) 45‐75. 750
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circumscribed and limitless.”755 On the sakkos, the Tomb takes the recognizable architectural form of a canopy. The canopy is represented with some notions of three‐ dimensionality, as if the viewer at the same time sees the canopy’s exterior and its contents within the interior. The dramatically revealed, outstretched body of Jesus is the measure for the span of the canopy and simultaneously for the prismatic tomb‐ bench below it.756 The embroidered canopy is palm‐size, only some 10 cm by 12 cm. However, it captures the powerful image of the bodily presence of Christ in the Tomb when God was completely human. It internalizes the spiritual experience of Christ’s death, which was crucial for the redemption of humankind as the Byzantines understood it. It enables contemplation of death on the human order and dramatizes the existential place of humanity in the divine plan, which, beginning with the creation of Adam, continues with the revelation of God to Moses on Mount Sinai, and culminates in Jesus Christ. Although representing the narrative of the events of Christ’s earthly ministry, the iconographic pair “Holy Sepulchre and Transfiguration,” therefore, is not primarily decorative, nor does it serve mainly to record a narrative (Fig. 615). Instead, the canopy and its counterpart, the mandorla of light, are sophisticated visual codifiers for two things: first, the “spatial and supra‐spatial shortcuts” to the earthly and divine abodes of God, and second, the complex, esoteric essence of the liturgical rites. This concept can be illustrated by Ikos757 fifteen of the Kontaktion of the liturgical hymn, Akathistos: “The Word was indescribably wholly present here below, yet in no wise absent from the realm on high: God descended to earth, yet underwent no change of place.” The image of the Crucifixion above the Tomb of Christ denotes the events of Good Friday. Below the Sepulchre is the Descent into Hell on Holy Saturday, when
Lenten Triodion (1984 [c1977]) 615. On the similar conclusion about the significance of the measure of human body for the tomb related to the images of the Holy Sepulchre in the ninth‐century manuscripts: Evangelatou (2003) 181‐204 and Evangelatou (2002) 176‐178, with further references. 757 From oikos, literally “house,” here longer stanza. 755 756
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Christ, “the creator of Light,” was still bodily present in the tomb. All these images of the Passion of Christ illustrate a series of events, which are liturgically re‐enacted in Holy Week. The explanatory verses for the matins for Holy Saturday match the image of the Holy Sepulchre and the burial of the “creator of Light:” “Today a tomb holds Him who holds creation in the hollow of his hand; a stone covers Him who covered the heavens with glory; life sleeps and Hell trembles, and Adam is set free from his bonds; Glory to Your dispensation, whereby You have accomplished all things, granting us an eternal Sabbath, Your most holy Resurrection from the dead.”758 The verses close the earthly ministry of Christ, which started with His Nativity according to the flesh, and its imagery recalls the verses for the ninth hour of Christmas Eve: “He who holds the whole creation in the hollow of his hand, today is born of the Virgin. He whom in essence none can touch is wrapped in swaddling clothes as a mortal.”759 The Moving Canopy and Its Space Once “clothed Himself in created flesh”760 God made material forms vehicles of spirituality. And, God also defined space. The image of a canopy, which captures the place of God in space, was so powerful that even when Christ’s body was missing, as in the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or in its depictions, the Byzantines customarily connected the presence of Christ to sacred places. This can be exemplified by numerous depictions of the Holy Sepulchre on pilgrims’ ampullae, which usually depicted the Tomb after the Resurrection (Figs. 212‐217, 615).761 For, the Byzantines experienced His presence even in His absence, the canopy thus seemingly frames God, by nature infinite, delineating the unlimited. It is simultaneously the cave and manger, the cave and tomb bench as liturgical services suggest (Figs. 240‐241; cf. Mk
Lenten Triodion (1984 [c1977]) 565‐661, with a citation on the burial of the “creator of Light” sang in the Holy Satruday office of matins on p. 635. 759 The Festal Menaion transl. by Mother Mary and Kallistos Ware; introd. by G. Florovsky (South Canaan, PA, 1998) 245. 760 Festal Menaion (1998) 238. 761 On the ampullae see: Grabar (1958). 758
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15:46).762 The canopy also becomes the earthly image of Christ’s throne, because it is related to the extended celebration of Christ’s Resurrection and His role as King of Glory at Pentecost. Within the re‐enacted mystery of the Eucharist in the sanctuary during the Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church, and especially on Easter Sunday, Christmas, and Pentecost, when Metropolitan Photios wore his sakkos, the canopy became a powerful signifier of the Holy Tomb, the Cave of the Nativity, the Lord’s throne, and the altar itself.763 Immediately recognizable, the canopy is thus once again a basic architectural device for framing the sacred place and hidden divine glory. The canopy could acquire, almost concurrently, multiple meanings in the minds of the Byzantines who tended to conflate their traditional imagery. The mandorla of radiating divine light around Christ in the Transfiguration embroidered on the sakkos, like the canopy depicting Christ’s Tomb, reveals the “supra‐spatial” 764 condition of the heavenly “place” of glory, which is unapproachable for created beings (Fig. 615). Although without making explicit reference to the
Already in the eighth century Germanos (1984) 59, associated the conch of the apse with the “cave in Bethlehem where Christ was born, as well as the cave in which he was buried.” 763 Though we do not know when exactly Metropolitan Photios wore his sakkos, I propose that its cloth, form and imagery suggest that Metropolitan wore his sakkos at least for the celebration of Easter, which in its ritual and setting required the Pre‐sanctified liturgy. Paschalion Chronikon, written in the 630s, is the earliest acknowledged source, which confirms that the Byzantines served the so‐called Pre‐sanctified liturgy. Following the elements of the early liturgy, the Pre‐sanctified liturgy composed essentially of the office of the vespers and a communion rite from the Pre‐Sanctified Gifts, which were consecrated on the preceding Sunday. Documentary evidence suggests that the Pre‐Sanctified liturgies of Palestine and Constantinople were cross‐fertilized by the seventh century, and that it possibly derived from St. Saba’s monastic custom. The Byzantines served the Pre‐sanctified liturgy during Easter, and some other important Feasts and ceremonies, like marriages or coronations. About the topic: S. Alexopoulos, The Presanctified Liturgy in the Byzantine Rite: A Comparative Analysis of its Origins, Evolution, and Structural Components (Ph.D. Diss. University of Notre Dame, 2004). 764 Symeon of Thessalonike in his treatise On the Holy Liturgy compared the church sanctuary to the Holy of Holies, “which is above the firmament and the heavens,” to a “symbol of the higher and supra‐heavenly spheres, where the throne of God and his dwelling place are said to be.” The difference between the heavenly realm and the earthly world, according to Symeon of Thessalonike was that “above it [the Holy Temple] is done without any veils or symbols, but here it [the Byzantine church] is accomplished through symbols, because we humans are burdened with the flash that is subject to corruption.” Sym. Thess. De sacro liturgia. PG 155, 292A, 337‐340. 762
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penetration of any physical barrier, the Transfiguration narratives (Mk. 9:2‐8, cf. Ezek. 40:2; Matt. 17:1‐8; Lk. 9:28‐36) emphasize the verticality of the spiritual channel between the supra‐spatial place of Divine Glory and the Lordʹs theophany on a high mountain peak just below the sky. The image of sky as veil is more explicitly suggested in the narrative of Christ’s death when the Holy Spirit moved Christ up through heaven, the veil, to the Lord (Mk. 15:38‐39; Matt. 27:51‐54; Lk. 23:44‐47). The architectural ambiguity of the central locus and vertical axis of the canopy‐like Tomb of Christ and its permeability relate to a Byzantine understanding of Christ as the one who penetrates all physical barriers. To the Byzantines the canopy was an efficient visual construct which simultaneously displayed the body of Christ sealed inside His Tomb and inside his mortal, human body. At the same time, the canopy acknowledged the Tomb’s emptiness after the Resurrection when the sealing‐stone was rolled away and the Angel set on it and announced the triumph of Christ and everlasting life. The central image of Transfiguration, which anticipates the Resurrection before the death of Christ on the Cross and His Entombment in the Holy Sepulchre, coordinates the imagery of the mystery of the resurrection of the body. The Lord as light, represented on the sakkos in the Transfiguration, is described in significant portions of the liturgical celebration of three Great Feasts.765 As if set free of any spatial and temporal limitations, Christ the Light “multiplies” on the sakkos since the image is embroidered within the crosses depicting Christ’s Ascension, and the Virgin’s Dormition (Fig. 607‐b). Christ the Light in the Ascension marks the mid‐ Pentecost observance, which for the Byzantines started immediately after the Easter celebration of Christ’s Resurrection.766 The Dormition of the Mother of God,
It is important to notice that by that time, following the theological debates about the nature of light of the Transfiguration, the Byzantines understood the light as the manifestation of God himself, not as a symbol of divinity, nor as the light of intellectual knowledge. Hierodiakon N. Sakharov, “The Uncreated Light in Palamas and in Elder Sophrony” in Ho Hagios Grēgorios ho Palamas stēn historia kai to paron, G. I. Mantzaridēs ed. (2000) 307‐318. 766 Baggley (2000) 134‐136. 765
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celebrated at Great Vespers by the verses “the source of life is laid in the tomb, and the tomb itself became the ladder to heaven,”767 reaffirms the Byzantine belief that God became man so that man might become God.768 Christ the Light receiving the soul of the Virgin is simultaneously the center of radiance of the Holy Spirit, which descends from the cross as the tongues of fire onto Apostles, and explodes into a glorious representation of the Pentecost depicted on the sakkos’ shining back. Therefore, the representation of the uncreated Light gathers together the imagery of the Great Feasts of the Transfiguration, Resurrection, Ascension, and Dormition, and finally Pentecost, which marks the end of the Easter season, all images being embroidered on the sakkos.769 * According to the liturgical practice, Metropolitan Photios would be ceremonially dressed by acolytes in his sakkos within the rite of prothesis (proscomedy). The rite was celebrated in a subsidiary altar space also called prothesis, where the garment was presumably kept.770 The dressing ceremony included special prayers
Festal Menaion (1998) 504‐506. This comes from famous apophthegm by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c.125‐c.202): “He (the Logos) became man that man might become god.” 769 Liberated from the confinements of time and space, the uncreated Light brings the fulfillment of the Trinitarian life through illumination and sanctification. Compare with the sessional hymns, sung at matins for the Wednesday of Mid‐Pentecost: The Pentecostarion transl. by the Holy Transfiguration Monastery (Boston, 1990) 193. 770 Gemistos the Deacon (late 14th c.) is our earliest surviving source about public vesting of the archbishops in the middle of the naos. I am grateful to Dr. W. T. Woodfin who called my attention to Gemistos the Deacon. Woodfin (2002) 179, with reference to Dmitrievskii, Opisanie liturgicheskikh rukopisei II, 302‐303. See also: Festal Menaion (1998) 653, Piltz Costume (1989) 153‐ 165, esp 160. Although W. T. Woodfin analyzing writings by Symeon of Thessalonike [De Sacro Templo, PG 155, col. 709A] suggests a public vesting of the bishop, a practice which remains among Orthodox Slavs up to the present, it is unclear whether Photios, being Greek himself, might have remained loyal to the older Greek tradition of clothing in the proscomedy. Recently, S. Alexopoulos, The Presanctified Liturgy in the Byzantine Rite: A Comparative Analysis of its Origins, Evolution, and Structural Components (Ph.D. Diss. University of Notre Dame, 2004) 185, suggested that in the Byzantine tradition, the prothesis prayer during the rite is focused on the offering. With the petition that God bless and accept the offering, in Prothesis rite during the pre‐sanctified, focus is not on the offering but on the celebrants, that they be enabled and strengthen to offer the pre‐sanctified sacrifice. In other words, prayers for the Prothesis rite 767 768
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according to the rules of St. John Chrysostom.771 During the stanzas inserted between the verses of the Lauds (the morning Psalms 148‐150 “Praise the Lord” at the end of the matins) Photios would be dressed in all his vestments. As his attendants were putting the sakkos on him, Psalm 132:9 was sung: “Your (high) priests shall be clothed with righteousness, and Your righteous shall rejoice.” By the time the Metropolitan was fully vested, the liturgy would have begun. The liturgy started with the liturgy of the Word, the Little Entrance, symbolizing Christ’s adventus and epiphany.772 The Gospel book was taken from the altar in the semicircular apse of the sanctuary, which symbolized the Nativity cave. Carried counterclockwise around the altar and out the north door of the iconostasis, the Gospels were returned to the sanctuary through the central doors, also known as holy doors. When the procession, led by a deacon carrying the Gospel Book, reached the sanctuary, the Holy Scripture was ceremonially “enthroned” on the altar as the Word of God. After the sermon, the doors to the church were closed and the liturgy of the Faithful, the Great Entrance, would begin with the processional transfer of the Holy Gifts, symbolizing Christ’s entry into Jerusalem followed by His crucifixion, death and resurrection. The Holy Gifts were set on the altar in the apse, which then assumed the symbolism of the cave tomb, the place of Resurrection. The liturgy of the Faithful represented Christ’s sacrifice and the promise of the afterlife upon His Second Coming for the faithful through transcendental contemplation of the eschaton.773 By the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Byzantines closed the iconostasis doors just after the Great Entrance, to be opened before the recitation of the Nicene Creed.774 The exclamation “The doors! The doors! Let us attend!,” liturgically and literally gives a
may have been originally vesting prayers for the clergy, and are similar to the vesting rites of the regular liturgy. 771 Piltz Costume (1989) 153‐165, esp 160. See also: Sym. Thess. PG 155, col. 176. 772 Solovey (1970) 181. 773 On the Great Entrance and liturgical arts: Walter (1982) 220; Solovey (1970) 226. 774 Taft (1975) 405‐411.
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warning to the faithful to remain attentive to the anaphora and sacred mysteries, which the celebrating priest performs within the sanctuary. The doors were closed when Jesus suddenly appeared among the disciples after His death on the Cross (cf. Jn. 20:19, 26)775. Within the Byzantine liturgy, as for doubting Thomas, the shut door emphasized the closed room and the physically enclosed, boxed‐like space of the sanctuary during the performance of the Eucharistic mystery. The closed doors are a physical barrier between the church naos and the sanctuary, the place where the Lord dwells. During the liturgical sacrifice the Lord mystically enters the sanctuary, as Christ miraculously entered the shut room from “beyond” after His sacrifice on the Cross. Within the Great Entrance, Metropolitan Photios would have opened the central sanctuary gates, a symbol of the opening of the gates to heaven at Christ’s Second Coming. As depicted on his sakkos and set in liturgical time and space, the High Priest of Kiev and All Russia fully clad in his liturgical attire would be transformed, as it were, into a living icon, embracing in his person the church and the presence of Christ. His face framed by the sakkos, Photios iconically, i.e., frontally, recapitulated the image embroidered on the sakkos’ front (Figs. 609‐610). Thus, the human body of the Metropolitan, having become a new kind of spiritual presence, served as the vehicle of divine grace. The sakkos of Metropolitan Photios was not a mere illustration of the Scriptures, nor a guide through the liturgical texts. Though it borrows its imagery from them, it actively appropriates them within the actual liturgical setting and the ongoing worship of the congregation. The two‐sided appearance of the sakkos would have “de‐materialized” the body of Metropolitan Photios. When he moved, the alternating images on the front and back sides of the sakkos functioned like images on double‐sided processional icons. Moreover, I would suggest that the centrally embroidered, “man‐made” canopy and the “uncreated” mandorla of divine light Then the same day at evening, being the first day of the week, when the doors were shut where the disciples were assembled for fear of the Jews, came Jesus and stood in the midst, and saith unto them, Peace be unto you; And after eight days again his disciples were within, and Thomas with them: then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst, and said, Peace be unto you; cf. Lk. 24:36‐43. 775
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visually and spiritually captured the immediate, intelligible reality of the sacraments and the real presence of Christ, which is never static. As Theodor Balsamon and other Byzantine theologians explained, the Patriarch was the High Priest and the “living icon of Christ,”776 the Divine Presence Itself (cf. Heb. 9:11‐12; Heb. 9:24).777 As a “moving,” self‐contained object in space, the sakkos strongly resembled two‐sided processional icons. Relying on the language of ekphraseis, the Byzantines understood liturgical objects such as Metropolitan Photios’ sakkos as self‐contained objects moving in space.778 Most likely, this living, spatial icon inspired deep emotional responses, as the dramatic sacrificial and theophanic images on it suggest.779 As any other icon in the Byzantine tradition that had to preserve the belief in the divine Incarnation, the visual content of the moving canopy in space could have been experienced collectively or individually when Metropolitan Photios wore his sakkos.780 The icon‐like sakkos conveyed different but equally important messages to the faithful within the naos, to
John of Euchaita (11th c) spoke of the patriarch as anointed of the Lord (PG, vol. 120, cols. 1163, 1183). By the twelfth‐century, Theodor Balsamon [in Rhalles and Potlis, III, 44‐45] and again in the fourteenth, Matthew Vlastares [in Rhalles and Potlis, VI, 428] described patriarchs as ʺanointed of the Lordʺ (Christos Kyriou) and the ʺliving icon of Christʺ (zosa eikon Christou). According to Geanakoplos such attributions derived from the older, at least fourth‐century tradition, observed in works by Eusebius of Caesarea, who combined Hellenistic ideas of kingship with scriptural and Christian traditions. D. J. Geanakoplos, ʺChurch and State in the Byzantine Empire; A reconsideration of the Problem of Caesaropapismʺ ChHist 34/4 (1965) 381‐ 403, with references to L. Brehier, Dict. dʹhistorie et geog. eccl. IX, cols. 160‐61. See also: L. Thunberg, “The Human Person as Image of God. Eastern Christianity” in Christian Spirituality. Origins to the Twelfth Century, B. McGinn and J. Meyendorff, eds. (1987) 291‐312. 777 But Christ being come an high priest of good things to come, by a greater and more perfect tabernacle, not made with hands ... he entered in once into the holy place, having obtained eternal redemption for us. Heb. 9:11‐12. For Christ is not entered into the holy places made with hands, which are the figures of the true; not into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us. Heb. 9:24. 778 On the double‐sided icons: A.W. Carr (1997) 125‐126, cat. no. 72. 779 On the emotional responses to the similar images, often found in devotional icons see, for example: A.W. Carr (1997) 125‐126. 780 References to icons as the result of Incarnation according to Byzantine sources are innumerable. For the overview see, for example: L. Barnard, “The Theology of Images” in Iconoclasm (1975) 7‐13; Icon and Logos (1986); Ouspensky (1987) 382‐394. 776
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the celebrating clergy in the sanctuary, and to Metropolitan Photios. The faithful within the naos would occasionally and only partially see the imagery on the sakkos during the service when Metropolitan Photios revealed himself through the sanctuary doors during the processional movements of the liturgical entrances. If we keep in mind the circular trajectory of Byzantine rites conducted by the clergy and the essentially stationary congregation of laypeople during the liturgical appearances, the movements, gestures and words of Metropolitan Photios would have channeled the gazes and emotional responses of the faithful to the “living icon.” Because of the numerous images in movement the faithful in the church would focus on the sakkos in its entirety and predominately on its shiny back, not screened by Photios’ hand gestures, vestments, jewelry, and the Gospels that he carried. If focused on any specific images, they would observe the contemporary historical figures at the bottom of the sakkos, representing the historical Orthodox society.781 It is very unlikely that the faithful would have contemplated any specific images or that these images were specifically intended for “public display.” Some images from the sakkos were rarely represented in monumental church programs,782 suggesting that the sakkos’ decorative program was highly personalized. Images of the
There are at least two reasons why the faithful would not have been able to look at the images of the Sacrificed Christ. First, the imagery on the sakkos collars and upper parts would be partially screened by epitrachelion and encolpia. Second, during the Pre‐sanctified Liturgy the faithful would most likely kneel in front of the images of Dead Christ. Based on the Late Byzantine practice of the faithful kneeling in front of the Pre‐sanctified Gifts, when the priest transferred them from the prothesis to the altar, having already been sanctified and thus, constituted the True image of Christ. Alexopoulos (2004) 268, with references to the works by Symeon of Thessaloniki and Nicholas Cabasilas. 782 For example, the centrally embroidered Tomb of Christ is rarely depicted in monumental church painting, and then mostly in the context of the Holy Women at the Tomb. Evangelatou (2002) 164‐212. Similarly, the image of Christ as the Man of Sorrows embroidered on the collar, despite some suggestions [Belting (1996)] that it may have represented a funerary “portrait” icon of Christ historically anchored between His Crucifixion and Resurrection, was also more likely a devotional one created for the feast of Easter. Christ as the Man of Sorrows, who is living as God and who, as a man, joins the dead, is depicted as a Redeemer in life as in death. I concur with the observation by L. Uspenski, “Nerukotvornii obraz spasitelia” in Pravoslavnaia ikona, A. Strizhev ed. (Moskva, 1998) 310‐314, who has quite effectively demonstrated that the image is not a portrait. 781
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dead Christ from the sakkos were most likely intended for devotional practices as a reminder of Photios’ priestly office. Their primarily function was not to be “seen,” but to be contemplated. When Metropolitan Photios wore his sakkos, he was aware of the images he bore on his vestment and in particular of the powerful dialogue between the central images of the Tomb of Christ and the Transfiguration. In contrast to understanding specific images on the sakkos, what seems to be more important for the observing faithful was that outside the sanctuary, the Holy of Holies of the church, Photios’ splendid attire gave him the aspect of an incorporeal angel, even while clothed in the material of this world. In other words, he represented a visible manifestation of the Lord. He read from the Holy Scriptures, and delivered prayers and sermons standing in the midst of the church congregation below the church dome, at a place once occupied by an ambo, which symbolized the stone that angel rolled away from the Tomb of Christ. Clothed in this way and perceived by the congregation as an angel, Metropolitan Photios became a channel for the congregation’s spiritual ascent and its experience of the cosmic dimension of Christ’s death and Ascension to the Heavenly Jerusalem, a channel opened up through the visual language of the liturgy formulated by Byzantine monks during the Iconoclastic Controversy. The sakkos was a subtle boundary between the material and spiritual states, between the visible and the invisible creation. Metropolitan Photios, vested in his sakkos, thus was more than human. Photios’ ceremonial re‐clothing in the sakkos as the garment of glory imitates Jesus as the High Priest and His spiritual re‐birth in the sanctuary. Within the altar space, symbolizing the invisible, heavenly world beyond the earthly domain, Metropolitan Photios and the attended clergy were for the most part screened from the eyes of the laity. Making circulatory movements around the altar table with the Holy Gifts, they would have essentially sheltered it and visually reflected the mysteries performed. While praying with his arms outstretched
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sideways and facing east,783 guarding the altar and the Eucharistic mystery entrusted to him and exclaiming Φῶς Χριστοῦ (Phos Christou, The Light of Christ)! with reference to the Resurrection Light, Metropolitan Photios continued the long‐living, ancient tradition of the priesthood that had been enriched with Byzantine liturgical rites.784 The New Body: The Garment of Glory and the Liturgical Body Ceremonially dressed in his sakkos, Photios, the High Priest of all Russians, personified Jesus as the High Priest proclaiming His authority in the succession of High Priests on multiple levels. The sakkos was the garment of glory, and became the new, liturgical body of Metropolitan Photios. The exceptionally richly decorated sakkos indeed was undeniably a splendid object and the garment of glory. It is prefigured in the ephod as described in Exodus 28:2: “And you shall make holy garments for Aaron your brother for glory and for beauty.”785 The divine light (θεία ἔλλαμψις) possessed by Adam and Eve before their fall was a dress of glory.786 After the fall they were deprived of divine glory and became naked, dressed in “garments of skin,” as if clothed in mortality (Gen. 3:21). Once God clothed Himself in mortality, through his Son, Jesus, the dress of glory, which Adam
In other words, Photios would pray in orans position, repeating the prayer position of the Virgin Orans with Christ‐Child from the collar on his sakkos. 784 The readings which originally belonged to the Old Testament Lectionary were in the eighth century replaced by readings on vespers during Lent, including Ps. 140:2: Let my prayer be set forth before thee as incense; and the lifting up of my hands as the evening sacrifice. The exclamation Φῶς Χριστοῦ φαίνει πᾶσι (the light of Christ illuminates all) refers to the Resurrection Light. It derives from the lucernarium rite as attested as early as the 4th c by St. Basil [On the Holy Spirit, transl. D. Anderson (Crestwood, NY. 1997) ch. 73, 110] and Gregory of Nyssa [The life of Saint Macrina, transl. K. Corrigan (Toronto, 1987) 49]. The same inscription Φῶς Χριστοῦ φαίνει πᾶσι has been inscribed on fourth‐ and fifth‐century oil lamps from Syria. Bauer, ʺInschriften auf früchristlichen Tonlampen unter besonder Berucksichtingung der Inschrift ʹDas Licht Christi scheint allenʺ in Byz. Neugr. Jahbücher 4 (1923) 299. The exclamation, which over time became also part of the Nicene Creed, was also related to the Lenten cycle of reading from Genesis and Exodus. On the topic with further references: Alexopoulos (2004) 193‐195, 209. 785 Cf. Jn. 1:14: “The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, (and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father,) full of grace and truth.” 786 G. C. Papademetriou, Introduction to Saint Gregory Palamas (New York, [1973]) 44‐47. 783
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and humankind lost, could be once more regained. The body of Christ, born in the cave at Bethlehem, transfigured on Mount Tabor, and buried in Jerusalem, was therefore intentionally embroidered on the sakkos multiple times. The appearance of the infinite Lord in space as circumscribed man is the foundation of Byzantine ideas about the deification of man.787 The repetitive re‐enactment of the past during the liturgical mysteries was an active process moving towards deification. As a monk and theologian, Photios was interested in scholarly exegesis of the Scriptures, but he understood it by carrying it into effect. In this interpretation, connected to the liturgical rites of the Great Feasts, Metropolitan Photios lived and adopted the experience of the biblical people as his own. Depicted in the Transfiguration on the sakkos, Moses and Elijah, who witnessed the Lord, proclaimed the possibility of deification. They were also subtle models for the monk–turned–bishop.788 Already in the fourth‐century Christian East, Elijah and Moses became hagiographical models for monks emerging from monastic seclusion in order to serve the church as important prelates.789 Comparisons with Photios are based on monastic virtues combined with active pastoral care. Elijah’s forty‐day fast could be compared to Metropolitan Photios’ lifelong abstinence. Elijah’s act of relieving a widow’s hunger reminds us of Photios’ care for needy Russians and all Orthodox people. Elijah’s heavenly ascent in a chariot of fire resembles Photios’ “sublime living, removed from earth to heaven, having made his virtues a chariot through the Spirit.”790 Or, in Photios’ own words: “I … endeavored to relate myself spiritually to the lucid heavenly powers by subordinating myself to them, and G. Mantzaridēs, Time and Man (South Canaan, Pa., 1996) 19; G. Mantzaridēs, The Deification of Man: St. Gregory Palamas and the Orthodox Tradition, (Crestwood, New York, 1984). 788 A. Sterk, “On Basil, Moses, and the Model Bishop: The Cappadocian Legacy of Leadership” ChHist 67/2 (1998) 227‐253. 789 Sterk (1998) 227‐253, recognized the iconographic representations and borrowings from famous orations in the case of the early fourteenth‐century life of St. Sava, the first Archbishop of Serbia. The same parallel could be extracted for Metropolitan Photios. Photios in his will himself acknowledged his borrowings from discourses of “the Theologian” [Gregory of Nazianzus]. Tachiaos (1984‐85) 77‐109, esp. 102. 790 Sterk (1998) 227‐253, esp. 233; citing GNO X.125.3‐5 Encomium on Basil 39. 787
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promoting the sublime intellect far more than the body.”791 Similarly, Moses, though never a monk himself, delivered his people from tyranny just as the Byzantine priesthood was to restore the people of God in their own era. Once chosen a Metropolitan, Photios’ monastic life was characterized by firmness in his way of life rather than by physical withdrawal. In that way, he resolved his conflict between active ministry in the church and personal preference for monastic values.792 Moses and Elijah on the sakkos point to Christ the Light (Fig. 615‐b). In the Homily on the Pentecost by Gregory Palamas (ca. 1296‐1359), followed by Photios’ own writings about the ordination of priests, the presence of Christ among the faithful passes through the Holy Spirit to the bishops until the end of time.793 As vehicles for the transmission of the grace of the Holy Spirit, Byzantine bishops impersonated the presence of Christ after His Incarnation on earth.794 Jesus’ body, thus, once again becomes the vehicle of communication with the omnipresent invisible God. Palamas’ Homily about the Dispensation of Christ delivered on Holy Saturday reveals that the Byzantines believed that glory was incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, and that through Christ’s sinless human nature, the heavens had been opened to humankind.795 Just as the Holy Spirit raised Christ from the dead, the Holy Spirit transfigures mortal bodies of believers into Christ’s glorious body (cf. Phil. 3:21). The anthropological link between the earthly and divine abodes of glory is effectively visualized in the sakkos. The outstretched body of Jesus under the canopy relates the body of Jesus both to Photios’ own body and to the sakkos itself as Photios’ new body. First, the body of Christ under the canopy conceived as his Tomb reveals Photios’ body to be the flesh of mortality, which all human beings are given at birth. Second, regarded the place of resurrection, the canopy houses the Eucharistic mystery of the transfiguration of bread Tachiaos (1984‐85) 77‐109, esp. 102. cf. Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration 21.37, line 2; Gregory on Nyssa, Encomium GNO X.1.2., 120.7‐21. 793 Gregory Palamas, Homily 24, On the Pentecost, PG 151, 316B‐317A. On Photios’ position regarding the ordination of priests see: Makarij [Metropolitan of Moscow] (1886) 270, 380‐385. 794 Guran (2003) 343‐353. 795 Gregory Palamas, The Homilies of Saint Gregory Palamas (South Canaan, PA, 2002) 177‐208. 791 792
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and wine, and thus corresponds to the sakkos’ image of the radiating body of the transfigured Christ on Mount Tabor (Fig. 615). The two sides of the sakkos, comprising two squares with L‐shaped corners framing the central crosses, resemble large liturgical cloths (endytai), which are spread directly over the altar table. Symbolizing the cloths in which Christ’s body was wrapped in the tomb these altar cloths are depicted in fresco paintings and explained in liturgical texts (Figs. 611‐614).796 By the Middle Byzantine period, the liturgical cloth known as aer and epitaphios referred to the bodily presence of Christ in the Tomb and the expectation of His Resurrection. The two sides of the sakkos strikingly resemble the rectangular cloths covering Christ’s body on two fourteenth‐century epitaphioi at the Princeton Art Museum and at the Museum of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Belgrade (inv. no. 4660) (Fig. 613).797 Following the notions of imitatio Christi, which prevailed in medieval piety, these cloths suggest a very complex symbolism, in which Photios’ own body is a garment of mortality while the sakkos is conceived as a burial shroud over his flesh, the glorious garment of his afterlife and the altar cloth for the “walking” altar of his soul. By the fourteenth century, the epitaphios was used during the services on Good Friday and Holy Saturday.798 On Good Friday, during the vespers the epitaphios is brought out of the sanctuary in a procession through the northern door of the iconostasis and placed under a flower‐covered temporary canopy known either as an epitaphios or kouvouklion, which stands in the center of the church for the veneration of Mirković (1995) 102‐103; Germanos (1984) 20. On the so‐called Princeton epitaphios: S. Ćurčić, “Epitaphios” in Byzantium at Princeton. Byzantine art and archeology at Princeton University. S. Ćurčić and A. St. Clair eds. (Princeton, N.J., 1986) 135‐138. On various aspects of the epitaphios of King Milutin: L. Mirković, “Dve srpske plaštanice iz XIV stoleća u Hilandaru” GSND 11 (Skoplje, 1932) 113‐120; S. Mandić, “Svilen pokrov za dar manastiru” Drevnik (Belgrade, 1975) 65‐80; M. Jovanović‐Marković, “Dve srednjevekovne plaštanice. Zapažanja o tehnici izrade” Zograf 17 (1986) 57‐72; Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261; Belting (1990) 97‐99, 127ff; To Vyzantio se oikoumenē: Vyzantino kai Christianiko Mouseio T. Almpanē ed. (Athēna, 2001) 271; S. Mileusnić, Muzej srpske pravoslavne crkve (Beograd, 2001) 67‐71; S. Mileusnić, “Epitaphios of King Stefan Uroš II Milutin” in Faith and Power (c2004.) 315‐316. 798 Mirković (1995) 117‐118. 796 797
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the faithful. The whole rite, also called the epitaphios, reenacts the burial of Christ.799 The canopy‐like shrine with suspended lights and incense burners above Christ’s body are also occasionally depicted on epitaphioi, recalling the Sepulchre of Christ on the sakkos of Metropolitan Photios which is inscribed with epitaphios (Figs. 605‐606, 611, 613). It was the experience of death as a crucial transition to another mode of being, that encapsulated the cyclic movement of liturgical time.800 It was the experience of spiritual transition that provided an overarching continuity from one canopy‐like framing of sacred space to another, from church, through altar canopy, kouvouklion, epitaphios, to sakkos and its centrally embroidered canopy. The transformation of Christ’s body within the Eucharist implied the spiritual transformation of Photios’ body as the High Priest within the sanctuary, a role proclaimed by the appearance of a new body, the one represented by his sakkos (Fig. 614). The sakkos of Metropolitan Photios as a new, liturgical body retells the story of what happens to a man when he encounters places of God’s manifestation. Enclosed entirely within the sakkos, except for his head, he would re‐enact a moving tent with bells, gaining his authority from ancient times and resembling Aaron, “the light‐
The modern practice of the Easter celebration involves the burial cortege, which is carried around the church in a procession with bells, candles and censers, during the Matins of Easter Eve, and is then returned to the sanctuary until Ascension Day. However, the use of the epitaphios in the Byzantine period remains obscure. It is generally accepted that the epitaphios was not liturgically and symbolically distinguished from the aer, another liturgical cloth, before the fourteenth century. The aer covers the sanctified bread and wine of the Eucharist, signifies both the firmament and the sealing of Christ’s Tomb, and is used in the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, which recapitulates the liturgical year in a week. For general references to epitaphios in: L. Mirković, Crkveni umetnički vez (Beograd, 1940) 15‐16; G. Millet, Broderies religieuses de style byzantine (Paris, 1947) 86‐109; Johnstone (1967) 117‐118; M. Theocharis, “Gold‐Embroidered Ornaments” in The holy and great Monastery of Vatopaidi vol. 2 (Mount Athos, Greece, c1998) 420‐456; Innemée “Epitaphios” (2004) http://www.groveart.com. See also: S. Mandić, “Svilen pokrov za dar manastiru” Drevnik (Belgrade, 1975) 65‐80; M. Jovanović‐Marković, “Dve srednjevekovne plaštanice. Zapažanja o tehnici izrade” Zograf 17 (1986) 57‐72; Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261; Almpanē (2001) 271; L. Mirković, Herotologija (Beograd, 1961) 167‐169; H. Belting, The Image and Its Public (1990) 97‐99, 127ff; Ćurčić (1986) 135‐138; D. Tasić, “Hvostanska plaštanica” Starinar 13‐14 (1962‐63) 151‐161; Woodfin (c2004.) 295‐299. 800 On the mystical significance of death: M. Eliade, Myths, Dreams, Mysteries (New York, c1960) 229‐231. On liturgical time: Mantzaridēs (1996) 87‐108. 799
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bringer,” brother of Moses and the first High Priest as described in Exodus. Like Aaron, Photios was also supposed to encounter the Lord and “die not” (cf. Ex. 28:35). Aaron wore a vestment which represented the whole world (Wisd.18:24; Philo Laws 1.84; Flight 110). In the first century, both Josephus and Philo, who came from priestly families, recorded that the veil of the Holy of Holies was made of mixed threads – linen and gold, possibly wool – of four colors and embroidered with cherubim. The four colors represented the elements from which the material world was woven: red stood for fire, blue for air, white for earth, and purple for sea. Similarly the garment of the High Priest was made of cloth that resembled the veil of the Holy of Holies. Philo speculated that the outer garment of the High Priest represented a replica of the universe and was made thus so that the High Priest wore an “image of All.” The High Priest thus represented the divine within creation, just as did the Holy of Holies. In other words, both the Holy of Holies and the High Priest were similarly “clothed” in the interweaving of the divinity with the material world.801 The skilled work of the mixed materials of blue satin, silver and multicolored silk threads, and silver bells emphasizes not only that the cloth of the Episcopal sakkos, like the sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, was made of materials symbolically related to the earthly and divine, but also that the Byzantine High Priest and the church were similarly “vested” as the ancient High Priests and the Holy of Holies of the Temple. We know that High Priests wore different vestments from other priests, they alone were permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, and they alone, as angelic figures, were permitted to see the furnishings of the tabernacle (Num. 4.1‐15).802 The eleventh‐ century Octateuch illumination from Constantinople, that depicts Moses’ Tabernacle furnishing and vestments (Fig. 616), confirms that the Byzantines even visually preserved a belief that Bezaleel, trained to work in all kinds of workmanship, made both the veil of the tabernacle and Aaron’s ephod, presumably of the same cloth. In a
Barker (2003) 137. Barker (2003) 127, with references to the Testament of Levi, second‐century Qumran text with Christian interpolations. 801 802
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similar manner, the surviving Byzantine Episcopal sakkoi resemble Byzantine churches, and in particular the sanctuary and its furnishing. Formally and symbolically, Metropolitan Photios dressed in his sakkos mirrored the church and its interior decoration, as if the celebrant were clothed in images as the church was painted in them.803 The purpose of the veil and the priestly vestments was to conceal and yet to reveal the place of the presence of the Lord, as if this presence was in the face of the High Priest Himself. Aaron took off his robe when he entered the Holy of Holies because the vestment was the visible form of one entering the Holy of Holies. The veil was the matter which made visible of whomever passed through the veil from the world beyond it.804 Those who shed their earthly clothing could be robed, on the other side of the veil, in garments of glory, or, in other words, could be born again and become divine. The story exemplifies the Old Testament idea of the spiritual transformation of High Priests who entered the Holy of Holies and simultaneously entered heaven and became divine themselves.805 Set in contemporary theological discussions about the fulfillment of two natures of Christ, the body of Metropolitan Photios and his re‐clothing represent a Byzantine interpretation of the divinely inspired transformation of the human body. Woodfin (2002) 146. M. Barker, “Beyond the Veil of the Temple. The High Priestly Origin of the Apocalypses” SJT 51/1 (1998) 1‐21. 805 Barker (1998) 1‐21, discussed the origins of the Apocalypses in the tradition of the High Priest of the First Temple. She has shown how Philo commented that when the High Priest entered the holy of holies he was not a man. Translating Leviticus 16.17: “there shall be no man in the holy of holies when he (Aaron) enters to make atonement...”’ as: “When the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies he shall not be a man,” Philo conveyed that the High Priest was more than human (On Dreams 2.189). Barker also commented on how Enoch was taken to stand before the heavenly throne, when Michael was told to remove his earthly clothing, anoint him and give him the garments of glory; “I looked at myself, and I had become like one of his glorious ones” (2 En. 22.10). Further, she suggested the strong resemblance of this account with Zechariah 3, where Joshua, the High Priest, stands before the Lord, is vested with new garments and given the right to stand in the presence of the Lord. In the fourth century BCE some of these ideas were preserved in Plato’s Timaeus, while in the sixth century Cosmas Indicopleustes (Christian Topography 3.13) wrote that the Lord hid Moses in a cloud on Sinai, took him out of all earthly things “and begot him anew like a child in the womb.” 803 804
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The consistent Byzantine imagery of re‐clothing with heavenly garments for spiritual rebirth illustrates their idea of deification (cf. 2 Cor 5:1‐4). Photios himself narrated his spiritual re‐clothing when his monastic elder and teacher, Akkakios, consecrated him as a monk. Photios said: “He supported me with faith, wrapped and clothed my flesh with sobriety, wisely poured into me the warmth of divine love.”806 Ceremonially clothed in his metropolitan sakkos, garment of Incarnation, as a contemporary of Metropolitan Photios, Archbishop Symeon of Thessaloniki, called the sakkos, Photios was dressed in a new body and by grace united with the divinity.807 The Sakkos, the Tent, and the Church When the Metropolitan wore his sakkos, he would have reenacted the sacred tent, the Mosaic tabernacle in which the Lord could dwell. Thus animated, the tent‐ like sakkos was a “living church” in an actual church. In the Byzantine church subtle boundaries between the material and spiritual states, between visible and invisible creation can be observed on multiple levels. We have demonstrated the relationship between the sakkos and four‐columned altar canopy, and yet the same principles apply for the sakkos and four‐columned sanctuary screen. The setting of the liturgical mysteries in the sanctuary behind the screen was understood by the Byzantines at
Tachiaos (1984‐85) 77‐109, citation on 104. On the back of the sakkos of Metropolitan Photios the Glorification of Christ, the Virgin and the Holy Spirit comprise the essence of the Incarnation. The sakkos and its imagery, therefore, confirm the Patristic writings by Symeon of Thessaloniki: Sym. Thess. PG 155, col. 713‐716. The Resurrected Christ on Easter Sunday enabled the great mystery of the fulfilled hypostatical union of the human body with the divinity in the person of Christ, present in the Eucharist, which will shine at the Second Coming as the great cosmic body of Christ the Savior. I. Drpić, ʺArt, Hesychasm and Visual Exegesis: Parisinus Graecus 1242 Revisited,ʺ DOP 62 (2008, in press) came to a similar conclusion. I am grateful to Drpić who shared his manuscript with me even before it was accepted for publication. Photios himself narrated his spiritual re‐clothing when his monastic elder and teacher, Akkakios, consecrated him as a monk. Photios said: “He supported me with faith, wrapped and clothed my flesh with sobriety, wisely poured into me the warmth of divine love.” Tachiaos (1984‐85) 77‐109, citation on 104. 806 807
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least since Patriarch Germanos: The chancel barriers indicate the place of prayer: the outside is for the people and the inside, the Holy of Holies, is accessible only to the priest.808 We still need to understand fully the sanctuary barrier of the Byzantine church. It has been suggested that the profane subjects on the sanctuary barrier substituted for the direct view of the mysteries enacted within the sanctuary by offering a focal point for the lay piety and more personal devotional practices.809 However, the sanctuary screen was a mixture of different images, sometimes including the cherubim, as on the painted iconostasis from the White Church at Karan (1340‐1342) or the painted columns defining the bema in the twelfth‐century Church of the Saviour at Nereditsa, Russia (Figs. 536‐537).810 Various floral and geometric ornaments, which often comprised various versions of Solomon knots, are known from the descriptions of the veil of the Holy of Holies. The same motifs decorated Byzantine sanctuary barriers and marble parapets, like in the eleventh‐century church of Hosios Loukas, in Boeotia, Greece.811 The fresco of the Bishops celebrating the Liturgy from the sanctuary of the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul in Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria (ca. 1230), depicts High Priests dressed in sakkoi facing the actual altar table (Fig. 617). Moreover, the semicircular altar space is in its lowest zone depicted with hanging curtains as if the sacred veils enclosed the sanctuary beyond the sanctuary barrier by metaphorical extension.812 The painted draperies possibly bore witness to the tradition of using the
According to Sozomenos, already in the fifth century Ambrose bishop of Milan forbade emperor Theodosios to enter the sanctuary, confirming that the sanctuary was reserved for the clergy. Walter (1993) 203‐228. 809 Walter (1993) 203‐228, esp. 244. 810 The sixth‐century Syriac hymn on the church in Edessa also speaks of the cherubim of the altar. McVey (1983) 91‐121. This was the place where the Lord appeared (Ex. 25.22, Lev. 16.2). 811 Field notes J. Bogdanović. 812 The Bulgarian example of painted sacred textile on the interior walls of the sacred space is not a solitary one. Moreover, such a tradition has been already noticed in ancient traditions in the Mediterranean basin. For example, the painted draperies of the peplos were applied to the decoration of the cella of Athena Polias of the Erechtheion, as a replica of the sacred tent erected for the Athenians at Delphi. L. de Ronchaus, Au Parthénon (Paris, 1886) ch. 2, with reference to Euripides, Ion, lines 1132‐1165. 808
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curtains for sanctuary barriers. Although the early Christian sanctuary was separated from the laity by low parapets placed between squat pillars, which were at some point raised to carry an architrave, we do not have a positive answer as to whether or not curtains were hung from the architrave.813 By the Middle‐Byzantine period the sanctuary barrier of the Byzantine church was closed by dense curtains and subsequently by icon panels which eventually formed multi‐tiered wall of icons: the iconostasis.814 Thus, the Byzantines over time symbolically replaced the veil of the Holy of Holies by the sanctuary barrier. The expression of the idea in the material form varied while liturgical practices preserved its meaning. In Coptic, Syriac and Armenian traditions, and occasionally in Greek Orthodox churches, drawing a curtain to screen the holy place is still part of the liturgy.815 On the sakkos, just below the inscription with the introductory words of the Nicene Creed, the image of Christ as Unsleeping Eye, usually depicted above church doors or on the eastern walls of the sanctuary, is flanked by the images of Archangel Gabriel and the Mother of God from the Annunciation. The east sections of the church in front of the sanctuary usually have a similar bi‐partite depiction of the Annunciation referring to the news about the Incarnation and Salvation (cf. Gen. 49:9, Num. 24:9).816 On the Russian high iconostasis the Unsleeping Eye is occasionally placed on a direct axis above the central iconostasis doors, reflecting its apotropaic role of guarding entrances and gates during the mysteries, and warns the faithful to be attentive for
813 Most recently with extensive bibliography: Taft (2006) 27‐52; Bolman (2006) 73‐106; Walter (1993) 203‐228. 814 For the most recent state of research see: A. Lidov, Ikonostas (Moscow, 2000). 815 Barker (2003) 96. In the fifteenth century Symeon of Thessaloniki confirms the use of curtains for altar tables: Sym. Thess. De Sacro Templo PG 155, ch. 133, col. 341BC. On the use of sanctuary curtains as a consequence of monastic practices: Taft (1975) 411‐413. 816 The mystical Incarnation of Christ according to flesh is in the monumental program of a Byzantine church usually represented by the Virgin and Child in the highest zone of the apse conch and flanked by the representation of the Annunciation on the piers of the sanctuary arch. O. Demus, Byzantine Mosaic Decoration: Aspects of Monumental Art in Byzantium (London, 1976) 22‐26.
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fear that “they may fall like Peter waiting outside in the atrium of the High Priest.”817 Therefore, the iconography of the imagery embroidered on Photios’ sakkos reflected the post‐Iconoclastic church painted programs, including the sanctuary walls and sanctuary barriers, which, from the twelfth century onwards comprised the images of the Great Deisis and the Feast cycles,818 as well as the Late Byzantine images of Unsleeping Eye and Dead Christ as the Man of Sorrows, associated with liminal church spaces such as sanctuary entrance and apse.819 During the liturgy, Photios passed through the iconostasis, referred to as the templon from the ninth century on.820 In other words, Photios passed through the inner veil of the temple, as did Christ the High Priest (cf. Heb. 6:19, 9:3) and His Old Testament predecessors. The knowledge of scholars about the two veils of the temple – the one at the entrance to the temple which separated the Holy Place from the outer court, the other which veiled the Holy of Holies from the Holy Place – is extremely Taft (1975) 410, with reference to: Protheoria 21‐22, PG 140, 445, 448. Woodfin (2002) 152‐153; J.‐M. Spieser, “Le développement du templon et les images des Douze Fêtes” in Les images dans les sociétés médiévales: Pour une histoire compare. J.‐M. Sansterre and J.‐Cl. Schmitt eds. (1999) 131‐164.; Sym. Thess. De Sacro Templo PG 155, col 345 CD. 819 The images of the Unsleeping Eye and Dead Christ as the Man of Sorrows, embroidered on opposite sides of the sakkos, are crucial for the comparison of the sakkos with a church building since their iconography developed relatively late in the Byzantine tradition. On the image of Unsleeping Eye: Gabelić (1998) 179; B. Todić, “Anapeson. Iconographie et signification du thème” Byz 64 (1994) 134–165. On the image of Dead Christ as the Man of Sorrows: A. Weyl Carr, “Double‐Sided Icon with the Virgin Hodegetria and the Man of Sorrows” in Glory of Byz (1997) 125‐126, cat. no. 72; Belting (1990) 97‐99, 127ff; Belting (1996) 262‐65. Both images of the Man of Sorrows and Unsleeping Eye are often depicted on east church walls of the sanctuary area and protheses, north to the sanctuary. By the fourteenth century, a prothesis was a chapel north of the sanctuary: K. Gamber, “Ein byzantinisches Prothesis‐Bild und der spätmittelalterliche Erbärmde‐Christus” Hermeneia 1/2‐3 (1985) 61‐71; M. Altripp, Die Prothesis und ihre Bildausstattung in Byzanz unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Denkmäler Griechenlands (Frankfurt am Main, c1998) 187‐240; Sh. E.J. Gerstel, Beholding the Sacred Mysteries: Programs of the Byzantine Sanctuary (Seattle, Wash:, 1999) 68‐78; I. M. Djordjević, “Dve zanimljive predstave mrtvog Hrista u srpskom zidnom slikarstvu srednjeg veka” ZRVI 37 (1998) 185‐198; Uspenski (1998) 310‐314. On the sakkos the image of the Unsleeping Eye is embroidered just bellow the vestment collar on the vertical axis high above the depiction of the Tomb of Christ, and right below the Virgin Orans. On the opposite side of the sakkos, the Dead Christ as the Man of Sorrows is just above the Old Testament representation of the Hospitality of Abraham and on the axis above the Transfiguration. 820 Walter (1993) 203‐228. 817 818
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limited and it is difficult to demonstrate what exactly the Byzantines knew about them. Josephus wrote that the veil of the Holy of Holies had been embroidered with flowers and patterns, but not animal forms (Ant. 3.124).821 The outer curtain was embroidered in Babylonian work. He added that the whole tabernacle represented the universe. Philo (Questions on Exodus 2.85) also wrote that Moses thought it right that the divine temple of the Creator of all things would be woven of such and so many things as the world was made of, being the universal temple, which existed before the holy temple. According to the Priestly Code the hangings of the Temple derived from those of the Tent of Meeting.822 Thus, it seems as if Mosaic tradition preserved the memory of the holy tent which existed before the permanent structures of the Temple in Jerusalem. Various isolated testimonies provide evidence about the temple veil at particular moments of the temple’s history.823 Antiochus Epiphanes took the temple veil as loot when he sacked Jerusalem in 169 B.C.E. (1 Macc. 1.21‐22). Pausanius (Description of Greece V 12.2) in the second century wrote about a woolen curtain in the temple of Zeus in Olympia dedicated by Antiochus. Another veil was looted by Titus after the sack of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., and a second‐century rabbi reported having seen the veil in Rome. Later traditions record that the temple veil was kept in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Bishop Anthony of Novgorod in ca. 1200 (Pilgrim book), shortly before the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders, identified the altar curtain in Hagia Sophia made of silver and gold as the veil for the Second Temple, brought to Constantinople from Rome. He was also told that the veil was hung to prevent women and all the people from seeing the liturgical mysteries when they attended services. Although it is difficult to verify these stories, it is not entirely impossible that the later Christians not only knew about the veil of the temple, but also that they Flavius Josephus in “Jewish Antiquites,” according to: Barker (2003) 205. F. M. Cross, “The Tabernacle: A Study from an Archaeological and Historical Approach” BA 10/3 (1947) 45‐68. 823 All references according to: Barker (2003) 205‐206. 821 822
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owned it at some points. Caring for the ancient tradition and values of the past, those Christians may have venerated the veil as a relic, which concisely and powerfully symbolized their preparation for the future.824 Furthermore, for the Byzantines, following the Epistle to the Hebrews, Jesus’ flesh was the veil of the temple (Heb. 10:20f).825 The writer to the Hebrews, who knew that the High Priest was the Lord and Melchizedek, could say that the veil of the temple was the flesh of Jesus, the garment of mortality and the created world. The Infancy Gospel of James (11:1‐2) recorded that Mary was chosen to weave the new veil of the temple, while she was pregnant with her son.826 While it is possible that the concept of Christ as Lord robed in the matter of human flesh could have been deduced from the Epistle, both the depiction of Christ as High Priest at the Church of Peter and Paul and Photios’ sakkos suggest that the correlation between the vestments of the High Priest and the temple veil has been preserved otherwise, most likely through liturgical traditions.827 According to this interpretation, the embroidered canopy over Jesus’ body becomes a symbol of the sakkos itself (Figs. 607, 609, 612‐613, 615a). Like the temple veil, both the sakkos and its embroidered canopy simultaneously concealed and yet revealed the glory of God. The sakkos gained multiple meanings as a Byzantine replica of the Hebrew ephod, a sacred tent and inner sanctuary, and of the Temple. The sakkos as Photios’ “other, transformable body” imitates Jesus’ body and becomes the temple veil, the matter signifying the flesh. Appealing analogies may be found with the tunic of the Virgin at Chartres and old peploi of Athena which were used as sacred hangings in the temple. B. Nagy, “The Ritual in Slab V‐East on the Parthenon Frieze,” CP 73 (1978) 136‐41; M. C. Roop, “The Parthenon Frieze and the Apadana Reliefs at Persepolis. Re‐Assessing a Programatic Relationship” AJA 89/1 (1985) 103‐ 120. 825 By a new and living way, which he hath consecrated for us, through the veil, that is to say, his flesh; and having an high priest over the house of God. Heb. 10:20‐21. 826 On the association between curtain of Moses’ tabernacle and temple veil Mary wove, which symbolized the body of Christ recently: M. M. Fulghum, “Under Wraps: Byzantine Textiles as Major and Minor Arts” Decorative Arts 9/1 (2001‐02) 13‐33, esp. 28. I am grateful to Prof. H. Mayer for calling my attention to Fulghum’s work. 827 Barker (2003) 138 with further references. 824
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The Sepulchre of Christ on the sakkos indicates that the Metropolitan entered the sanctuary to celebrate the Great Feasts as an initiated man and a High Priest. The Tomb of Christ thus reflected the liturgical sacrifice of Christ on the altar table, the dark mystery of Christ’s grave and the place of His resurrection, the open chest, the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord, the κιβ as Patriarch Germanus explained. The altar corresponded to the ark with its two cherubim in the Holy of Holies, beyond the veil in the desert tabernacle. Dressed in the “garment of fire and light,” Photios, the Christ‐like High Priest, would recover the image of glory that Adam had lost. After celebrating the rites within the sanctuary and the church, following the immediate contact with the divine, the Byzantine High Priest was illuminated, purified, and transfigured. The shiny “back” of the sakkos, in which Metropolitan Photios was vested from the head down, reflected the eschatological descent from heaven to earth, Son’s descent in Incarnation and the imagery of the universal Light of God deriving from the Transfiguration and the Light of the Holy Fire at the Holy Sepulchre.828 The sakkos became the symbol of the Light of God, the ὅριον. Thus, by using repetitive imagery and through liturgical practice the Byzantines retained the memory of various canopy‐like objects, including tent‐like vestments, as kiboria, “for KIB is the ark, and OURIN is the effulgence, or the light, of God.”829 A fourteenth‐century fresco of the Service of the Hierarchs from the Church of Christ Pantocrator, at Dečani, Kosovo, Serbia, efficiently visualizes the mystery of the liturgical sacrifice as well as the conflated imagery and meanings of church canopies and tent‐like priestly vestments (Fig. 423). The officiating priests St. John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great dressed in phelonia read the liturgical texts and guard the
In Orthodox theology those theophanies of the glory of God are equated with the revelation of God on Mt. Tabor as the universal light of God. The Lord, having been transfigured, shone and manifested the glory, splendor and light of God as He always is. Palamas [Homily 34 in PG 41, col. 433B; St. Gregory Palamas, Triads, 15] also wrote that the Transfiguration on Mt. Tabor was a revelation of God uncircumscribed by time and space. 829 Germanos (1984) 58‐59. 828
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sacrificial body of the dead Christ in the Tomb.830 The body is laid on the altar table below the canopy. Between the two lit candles under the canopy dwells the seraph holding two liturgical fans inscribed with the thrice‐holy hymn. Moreover, the officiating High Priests dressed in canopy‐like phelonia themselves symbolize the seraphim guarding the Tomb of Christ and the Ark of the Covenant. A fourteenth‐ century unpublished manuscript (MS 2273) from the National Library of Athens supports this observation with a very explicit explanation of the phelonion in the context of seraphim: “As for the pheloni (sic!) and its flaps down to the feet, it is an allegory for the six‐winged seraphim that were appointed on all sides of the Ark of the Covenant and praise the Lord with three prayers.”831 The final reference is to angelic acclamation “Ἃγιος, ἃγιος, ἃγιος Κ(ύριο)ς” (“Holy, holy, holy Lord”). Sung within different stages of the Divine Liturgy in the sanctuary and emphasizing the Byzantine notions of the cyclic eternity of liturgical time and space, at least from the fourth century on, these hymns implied that the angels participated with the faithful in all stages of the liturgy. Finally, these prayers preceded the Eucharistic prayer, which reenacted the transubstantiation of the Holy Gifts.832 Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261 I am grateful to Prof. M. Mavroudi who translated the text for me and brought to my attention its significance for the investigation of outer priestly vestments in the context of ancient traditions. It is worth mentioning that phelonia are also occasionally described in cherubic contexts. Symeon Thessaloniki talks about sides of phelonia as “wings” which uncover hands during the service. Sym. Thess. PG 155, col. 389A. 832 Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch had understood already in the first century the singing of the Holy, Holy, Holy as an angelic symphony with the believers. 1 Clem. 34; Eph. 4. The Trisagion hymn was first attested at the Council of Chalcedon (451), revealing the theme of the eternal celestial service of the angels before the throne of God. Sung before the Liturgy of the Word, the Trisagion precedes the Liturgy of Faithful, which signifies Christ’s sacrifice and promise of the afterlife upon His Second Coming for the faithful through transcendental contemplation of the eschaton. During the Liturgy of Faithful the Cherubicon reenacts the cherubim song of praise for the transubstantiation and mystical presence of Christ, and praise for the receiving of Holy Communion. The Seraphic hymn is the concluding one, harmonizing the heavenly prayer sung by angels and earthly prayer sung by the faithful. Introduced within the liturgy by the mid‐fourth century, the Seraphic hymn is a mixture of the vision of Isaiah (Isa. 6:3), in which he saw God sitting on a throne guarded by the seraphim, and Gospel accounts referring to Christ’s entrance into New Jerusalem as the Lamb of God (Mt. 21:9; Mk. 11:9‐10; Lk. 19:38; Jn. 12:13). Pelikan (1978) 158‐174; Walter (1982) 220; Germanos (1984) 16‐23; 830 831
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The Christian altar representing the Tomb of Christ in the sanctuary of the Byzantine church was, therefore, the place of the Resurrection. As a liturgical Eucharistic rite, and especially during the Easter celebration focused on the light of the Resurrection, it is linked to the vision of God as Light, which was to the Byzantines the aim and purpose of human existence. The liturgical texts found at Qumran (2nd c. B.C.E) suggest that the Holy of Holies in the temple was the place where the High Priests had themselves been “resurrected.”833 The sixth‐century floor mosaic from the east church at Qasr‐el‐Lebia in Libya (539‐40) contains an image of the personification of Renewal depicted behind the curtained canopy‐like structure (Fig. 618).834 It is difficult to say whether this image could have reflected the knowledge of the meaning of ancient priesthood, but its central position, presumably near the sanctuary area, suggests practice of ancient liturgical rites. The fifteenth‐century sakkos of Metropolitan Photios demonstrates that the liturgical celebrations of the Byzantines preserved the mystical meaning of the priestly vestments ultimately rooted in worship at the Temple in Jerusalem. How and why these anachronistic renewals of the priestly tradition of using canopies and canopy‐like vestments came into being is a separate question, yet it seems as if the Church’s angelic priesthood were a living continuation of the ancient traditions, established even before the Second Temple was destroyed in 70 C.E.835 The later Byzantine insistence on deification is closely related to Old Testament theophanic visions and is based on the Prophecy about the Messiah (1 Mos. 49:4). Exemplified by the liturgical significance of the Major sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, the Byzantine belief in deification may be understood to operate in these images. Moreover, these visions and the liturgical use of the sakkos explain how human bodies – both of Jesus
H.‐J. Schulz, The Byzantine Liturgy (New York., 1986) 142‐158; Wybrew (1989) 47‐66; Solovey (1970) 183‐189; 226‐229; 262‐264. 833 Barker (2003) 99. 834 For the image explained in the secular context see: E. D. Maguire and H. Maguire, Other Icons: Art and Power in Byzantine Secular Culture (Princeton, N.J., c2007) 63‐65, Fig. 57. 835 Barker (2003) 105.
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and of the officiating High Priest – became essential for the materialization of sacred space and history. It was the experience of spiritual transition which was crucial for the dynamic spatial transition through different canopies, which framed the sacred space defined by human bodies. Like canopies, free‐standing permanent objects in the church sanctuary, the sakkos of Metropolitan Photios and its embroidered canopy clarify the Byzantine understanding of the active role of the human body in architecturally framing hidden and revealed places of God’s presence on earth. The measure of the human body simultaneously mattered and did not matter for the materialization of these canopies. The human body of both the High Priest and Jesus provided the basic unit of measure for canopies, regardless of whether their absolute measurement was only palm‐size, as in the canopy embroidered on the sakkos. In no way, however, did these measurements and forms imply a statement about the size and form of God. To the Byzantines, the human body was just an active vehicle in communicating the paradoxical decision of the omnipresent and supra‐spatial Lord to put on the swaddling clothes of an infant and inhabit the humblest places on earth.
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4.3 Concluding remarks: The Sensible Rites and Images of Intelligible Realities836 The material reality of Byzantine canopies was tied to the notion of the human body and human ministry of Christ, but mostly on a conceptual level. For example, saints’ shrines depended on traditional rites of veneration more than on the actual bodily remains. In fact, many Byzantine pilgrims venerated “empty” shrines. In addition to the most obvious example of the Tomb of Christ, pilgrims continued to pray at the shrines of St. Nicholas in Myra, St. Thecla in Isauria, in Asia Minor, or Hosios Loukas long after the bodies of the saints were removed. However, the fact that the holy shrines were built within churches assumes the corporate identity of the faithful beholders, patron saints, High Priests, and Christ Himself, as shown by the invocation of their names in prayers or liturgical celebrations.837 The location of a prayer was significant. Prayer to a saint was most effective if it was made at the saint’s tomb or near his translated relics. The belief that the protection of the saints was strongest in places connected with their cultic presence might have influenced the choice of the location of saintly shrines within the church. However, often saints communicated their powers in remote places, when they would appear in a dream of the faithful. The architectural background in the form of a canopy effectively and visually “localized” saintly miracles (Figs. 210‐221, 232, 560‐564, 572). Canopies framing images of saints, in a similar manner, shared a common spatial organization and architectural vocabulary, with all visual elements readily understood by the beholders. The conflated imagery of various shrines and divine apparitions tied to them regardless of chronological and geographical confines can be explained by strong corporeal ties between the saints, their images, and their power to transfer grace through the images. Local traditions of fraternal bonds probably emphasized this understanding among the Byzantines and their Slavic and Bulgarian neighbours. Reference to work by Pseudo‐Dionysius. Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (II, 3.2). PG 3, cols. 369‐485. About the theological approval of this notion: Crook (2000) 32, with further references.
836 837
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Symbolic and highly sensible rites of incorporation such as traditions of communal meals, emotional and symbolic bonds such as kissing one another and the symbols of naturae imitatio, provide a better understanding of the cordial acceptance of Christian communion, holding and kissing sacred objects such as a cross or an icon, or pronouncing the prayers. Moreover, these uniting acts involved a mutual transference of personality.838 The transfer of the characteristics of a particular saint to another persona was theologically justified and traditionally acceptable.839 This pattern can be observed in many of the canopies that I have focused on in this chapter: the shrines of St. Euphemia, St. Demetrios, St. Menas, Blessed Loukas, and even the sakkos of Metropolitan Photios. Moreover, the canopy‐frame and the divine presence within it were understood by the Byzantines as a single symbolic whole. The canopy‐frame was a subtle boundary between the sacred and the worldly, and yet, the unitary material basis of the canopy frame and the content within the canopy, often emphasized by shared features of decoration or inscriptions, suggest that the canopy and its framing were more related to the sacred “supra‐spatial” realm rather than to the worldly. A canopy located above a person or body or framing the place with which a saint was once associated was thus charged with the significance of sacred time, wherein the present moment recapitulates the total past, present and future within the framework of a given worldly space.840 The same concept applies for the outer priestly vestments of the Byzantines which essentially functioned as canopies. The canopy symbolizing the Tomb of Christ and place of Resurrection embroidered on Metropolitan Photios’ sakkos was not the most prominent visually during the service because it was at least partially concealed by the Metropolitan’s epitrachelion as well as by his encolpia. However, the unusual setting of the embroidered canopy, at the very center of the
A. van Gennep, The Rites of Passage, trans. M. B. Vizedom and G. L. Caffee (Chicago, 1960) 29‐30. 839 cf. St. Paul’s epistles esp. Phil. 4, according to: Pelikan (1978) 174‐184. 840 On the similar concepts: J. Z. Smith, To Take Place: Towards Theory in Ritual (Chicago, 1987) 113. 838
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sakkos and Photios’ chest, just below his heart, cannot be a coincidence. The encolpia pendants held on a chain at the center of the chest just below the heart often with the particles of the True Cross, signifying that the High Priest wore Christ in his heart,841 was superimposed with the embroidered canopy as well as the canopy’s function to repeat and re‐create a new present. Within the liturgical rites, the True Cross, the Tomb of Christ and the heart of the High Priest and their respective images would be symbolically and literally framed and re‐created at least three times: by a single canopy embroidered on the sakkos, by the tent‐like sakkos, and by the domed church. Although the perceptions of saintly shrines and sacerdotal vestments may have changed over time – perceptions at times fading away, later being revived, and, in the case of the vestments, reinforced only in late periods by fresh biblical exegesis, – it is fascinating that the Byzantines maintained the knowledge that canopies and their overarching symbolism of divine creation were part of the mystical tradition of liturgical rites. The tent‐like form of phelonia and sakkoi can be related to the Byzantine understanding and appropriation of the form of the universal temple, the holy tent as known from the written Mosaic traditions. Though it is difficult to connect with historical accuracy ritualistic patterns for the use of tent‐like garments, they conceptually conform to surviving writings about liturgical vestments by the Byzantine writers and theologians. The liturgical celebrations of the Byzantines thus not only preserved the mystical meaning of the High Priestly vestments that otherwise might not have been known among Christians living in later centuries, but also imply that the Byzantines embraced complex meanings of canopies, both stationary and moving, as places of divine presence and understood them within liturgical and other ecclesiastical rites. In continuation of a tradition which made the The encolpion can be either the pectoral cross, panagia with the icon of the Mother of God and Christ Emanuel, or encolpion of Christ. Already in the ninth century we learn about the fragments of True Cross enshrined in encolpia, when in 811 Patriarch Nicephoros sent his encolpion to Emperor Leo III (r. 795‐816). Marriot (1868) 198. According to Symeon of Thessaloniki PG 155, col.257, encolpia symbolized that the High Priest wore Christ in his heart and that he believed in the intercession of His mother. On the encolpia see also: Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity, K. Parry ed. (Malden, MA, Oxford, Carlton, 2001) 368. 841
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liturgy the principal indication of the Incarnation, divine grace was seen to cooperate with the human body to achieve a potent symbolic meaning for the canopy, whether furnishing or vestment, stone or textile, three‐dimensional or two. Examined in their ritualistic and liturgical use, Byzantine canopies effectively exemplify how for the Byzantines historia connected the liturgical rites to the history of salvation, while theoria was a contemplation of liturgical realities beyond the material world.
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EPILOGUE: THE CANOPY WITHIN A CANOPY
Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple, icon, Monastery of Hilandar, Mt. Athos, 14th c842
S. Radojčić, The Icons of Serbia and Macedonia (Beograd, 21963) 174, fig. 27.
842
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Throughout this work we have been emphasizing the role of canopies in the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition by focusing on Christological concepts. The vision of divine glory retained a central place in post‐Nicene Eastern Christian spirituality throughout the Byzantine era, wherein the form and body of God were revealed through His historical manifestation as Jesus, Mary’s son, and the great significance of the Virgin in the Byzantine Christianity cannot be overlooked.843 An early fourteenth‐ century icon of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple, today in the monastery Hilandar on Mt. Athos, Greece, exemplifies the Marian concept of “Ark‐Virgin‐ Church” as well as the overarching architectural and ontological construct of the Byzantine canopy in the person of Mary.844 The icon depicts the young Mary brought to the Temple, signified by generic architectural backdrops with a canopied structured prominently depicted at the icon’s geometric center. A towering building on the left hand side of the icon suggests the image of the Temple, while the canopy suggests the most sacred space of the Temple, the Holy of Holies.845 The hut‐like canopy on the Hilandar icon rests on four slender columns with quasi‐Corinthian capitals upon which four arches support a pyramidal roof. The canopy simultaneously frames and reveals the focus of the icon narrative. The pattern of the canopy acquires a crucial role in engaging believers emotionally, intellectually, and spiritually with the sacred. The icon follows a recognizable iconographic formula for the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple that had developed in the Christian East by the early eleventh century.846 The icon narrative represents little Mary brought by her parents Joachim
Most recently: A. Golitzin, “The Form of God and Vision of the Glory: Some Thoughts on the Anthropomorphite Controversy of 399 AD” in Mistagogia: Experienta lui Dumnezeu in Orthodoxie, I. Ica Jr. ed., (Sibiu, 1998) 184‐267. 844 On the icon: D. Bogdanović et al. Chilandar (Belgrade, 1997) 86. 845 I concur with those who suggest that the red curtain stretching between the roofs of the two architectural structures indicates that the scene depicted is taking place inside the Temple. At the same time, the red curtain suggests the edge of the Lord’s cloak, the garments of salvation from the Vision of Isaiah (cf. Isa. 61:10). A. Tradigo, Icons and Saints (Los Angeles, c2006) 98‐ 100. 846 The second‐century account of the Protoevangelion (Infancy Gospel) of James is among the earliest recognitions of Mary’s importance for the Christian faithful. Patristic writings of the 843
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and Anna to the High Priest Zacharias. Not looking back at her parents, self‐offering Mary is joyfully stretching her arms towards Zacharias. Standing at the open doors of the Temple sanctuary, the High Priest is welcoming Mary to the most sacred space.847 The narrative of the central event is framed by two additional scenes. On the left hand side the curtain of the doors of a towering building is tied in the middle and pushed aside, acknowledging that the seven maidens, following Mary, have just come in. Seven daughters of Zion adorned by seven virtues accompany and offer Mary as a sacrifice to God.848 On the right hand side behind Zacharias, the Virgin’s future life in the Temple is depicted. Mary is sitting on top of a stepped platform in the inner sanctum, the upper room and the heart of the Temple. Fed with the bread of contemplation by an angel, the Virgin receives the divine nourishment. The entire composition is almost symmetrically organized and emotionally charged around Mary’s family and the High Priest Zacharias depicted in front of the canopy. The participants are linked together by intimate gestures that emphasize
fourth and fifth centuries further developed the spiritual importance of the life of Mary, and her role in the paradoxical coexistence of the Savior’s human and divine natures. Maximus Confessor, Life of the Virgin, Tarasius of Constantinople, George the Hymnographer, Kontakion on the Presentation, according to: Tradigo (c2006) 98‐100; Pentcheva (2006) ch. 1. The apocryphal Protoevangelion of James referring to The Presentation of the Virgin received its visual counterparts as early as late tenth century, judging by the image of the presentation of the Virgin in the Menologion of Basil II gr. 1613, fol. 198, illuminated in Constantinople between 976 and 1025. The Patristic writings on Mary are immense, and for a condensed overview in English see: J. Pelikan, The Christian Tradition. A History of the Development of Doctrine. vol. 1 The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100‐600), (Chicago, 21975) 241‐42, 259‐65, 270‐71, 276‐ 77, 289, 314. On the Marian feasts: M. Jugie, “La première fête mariale en Orient et en Occident, l’avent primitif,” EO 22 (1923) 129‐52. About the visual representations of the Life of the Virgin the most exhaustive study is offered by J. Lafontaine‐Dosogne, “Iconography of the Cycle of the Virgin” in Kariye Djami 4 vols. P. A. Underwood, ed. vol. 4 (1966) 163‐93; 197‐241; J. Lafontaine‐Dosogne, Iconographie de l’enfance de la Vierge dans l’Empire byzantin et en Occident vol .1 (Brussel, 1992). On the visual representations of Mary according to the Apocrypha see also: D. R. Cartlidge and J. K. Elliott, Art of Christian Legend: Visual Representations of the New Testament Apocrypha (London, New York, 2001) 21‐46. 847 We are reminded that only the High Priest could have accessed the Holy of Holies, once a year. 848 In my opinion, the fact that a girl enters the space reserved only for men, and in particular for High Priests, emphasizes the power of her role in a spiritual and mystical transformation, when she herself becomes the Temple of God.
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their close human relationships, presented not as dry recollections of facts but as vivid memories of living realities that acknowledge the ephemeral nature of events in the world and the poignancy of love and absence. A perplexed mother, Anna looks straight at her discomforted husband Joachim, who is touching his chest devoutly. The icon captures the supremacy of time and human transience in this world. The greater the love and remembrance of the loved ones, the more acute is their presence in the absence. We can empathize with family encounters and remembrance of absent loved ones by looking at Joachim’s hand floating in empty space, having embraced his daughter, three‐year old Mary, a moment before being entrusted to the High Priest. The repeating pattern of the canopy highlights important subjects of the icon by setting them within an imaginary but well‐defined space for the beholder. The canopy on the icon with all its architectural elements potentially resembles a canopy, the actual piece of church furnishing found in coeval churches. In the foreground, in the center of the icon, the arms and bodies of Mary’s parents and the High Priest Zacharias form yet another canopy, a “living” canopy. The man‐made sanctuary canopy simultaneously frames the altar table and foreshadows the “living” canopy, the one over the small figure of Mary surrounded by the towering figures of her parents and the High Priest.849 The two canopies are depicted with similar size and form, and balance not only the composition of the icon, but also the content and meaning of the icon. The “living” canopy draws attention to Mary as the source of life, as the most sacred vessel, chosen by God to be his Mother.850 The altar ciborium
849 Though we cannot observe an altar table on the icon from Hilandar, other images depicting the Presentation of the Virgin often show tables covered in red cloths, providing a powerful and suggestive imagery of altar tables. Thus, even when an altar table is not depicted, the repetitive and conservative imagery of the same subject influenced the beholders to connect the canopy from the Presentation of the Virgin with the familiar images of altar canopies (Figs. 280, 300‐307,370, 372, 386,430, 478, 479). 850 Mary as a living temple and the living ark was explained in the sources known to the Byzantines: Protoevangelion of James; Tarasios of Constantinople, Life of the Virgin; St. Germanos, Homily for the Presentation; George the Hymnographer, Kontakion on the Presentation, Acts of the Third Ecumenical Council, Mansi IV, 580E, 1253A/C, 1256B; Epiphanios of Cyprus, In laudes S. Mariae deiparae, (dubia), PG 43, 488CD, 492B/D, 496D; Andrew of Crete, In nativitatem B. Mariae
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simultaneously emphasizes Christian beliefs in the girl’s ultimate destiny and her role in the salvation of the humankind. For those who accepted the Byzantine doctrine of the Incarnation, the Virgin and the Temple were identified with one another, since “Mary lives inside the sanctuary just as Jesus will live inside her body; Christ’s divinity thus is entirely hidden within his humanity.”851 Together, the two canopies on the icon integrate events of the Presentation of the Virgin. The upper room of the inner sanctuary where she receives the divine nourishment of heavenly bread, furthermore, foreshadows the liturgical and Eucharistic events witness in the church.852 The suggestive realism of the “living” canopy based on the depiction of human contacts and the realism of the man‐made canopy depicted as an altar canopy complement the devotional and liturgical response of the Byzantines and those embracing their tradition. The icon, a relatively large painted wooden panel, was presumably originally kept at a prominent place of the church, in which the event depicted on the icon was especially commemorated and remembered every day. The icon itself may have been placed below the canopy‐like proskynetarion in the church. Kept in the Hilandar katholikon, which is dedicated to the Presentation of the Virgin, this festal icon undoubtedly occupied a very special place in the liturgical life of the monastic IV, PG 97, 868C, Canon in B. Annae conceptionem, PG 97, 1316AB. References to Christ building his temple, i.e. his body from his mother’s flesh in: Acts of the Third Ecumenical Council, Mansi IV, 613A, 624D, 633D, 656A, Mansi V, 24C, 40C, 292BC, 305B; Acts of the Fourth Ecumenical Council, Mansi VI, 669B, 736B; Acts of the Fifth Ecumenical Council, Mansi IX, 584E; Cyril of Alexandria, Festive Letters, SC 372, 324 (Letter V.7:90‐91), SC 392, 106 (VIII.6:69‐ 76); Andrew of Crete, In nativitatem B. Mariae II/IV, PG 97, 883A, 868B; Patriarch Photios, Epistulae, ed. Laourdas – Westerink (1983‐85), III, 35 (epistle 284:1303‐1308). All references according to: Mouriki (1970) 124, Evangelatou (2002) n. 706, and M. van Esbroeck, “The Virgin as the True Ark of the Covenant” in Images of the Mother of God M. Vassilaki ed. (Aldershot and Burlington, VT, c2005) 63‐68. 851 Tradigo (c2006) 98. 852 The upper room is always emphasized by the fact that Virgin is seated on the stepped base of the inner sanctum, occasionally itself sheltered by a canopy. However, the upper room of the Last Supper was supposedly located on another site of Old Jerusalem initially outside the city walls, on Mt. Zion. Though it would have been interesting to investigate further whether and how the two cites were combined in the Byzantine tradition of the church sanctuaries, such a question is out of scope of current investigation.
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community, and especially during the celebration of the feast of the Presentation of the Virgin, which was initiated in the sixth century and widely spread after the Iconoclasm.853 In accordance with the spirit of Byzantine liturgy, which aims to connect the earthly and heavenly through eternal and unchangeable archetypes, the liturgical celebration of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple transformed itself into a unique, eternally meaningful event. The story of the Presentation of the Virgin was a source for Byzantine hymnology, which underlines the narrative as a vehicle for communicating its spiritual truth through its continuous commemoration and through the re‐creation of an unchangeable reality within the church. Literal and historical fidelity to the apocryphal event depicted on the icon, as has often been observed in this study, was not of primary importance to the beholders. What mattered was the commemoration of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple in the church, a remembrance of Mary’s total, “child‐open” dedication to God and her future vocation as a living Temple, the living Ark and Mother of the incarnate Lord.854 Inseparable emotional, intellectual and spiritual aspects of the canopy reveal the meaning of the Virgin in Byzantine Christianity, as an expression and a container of the Lord’s glory, of divine law and of his promise of salvation, closely associated with Noah’s Ark and the Ark of the Covenant. In Byzantine interpretation the Old Testament menorah, closely related to the story of the Burning Bush and the immaculate conception of the Son of God (cf. Ex. 3:2‐6) became the symbol of Mary (Figs. 444‐445).855 Typological associations of the Biblical Arks and the Virgin are
On November 21, 543 Byzantine Emperor Justinian I instituted the public celebration of the Marian feast of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple. The feast day later spread to Constantinople, presumably at some point in the seventh and eighth centuries, and further on throughout the Byzantine Empire. Tradigo (c2006) 98. 854 The typological association of the Virgin and the tabernacle is illustrated by an image of the Smyrna Octateuch, fol. 81v in which the Virgin and Child are enclosed within a double frame decorated with pearls and stones and in a shell‐like niche. Mouriki (1970) 124; Revel‐Neher (1995) 405‐414. On the liturgical development see: Festal Menaion (1998) 51‐52. 855 The self‐designation of the Lord who spoke to Moses from the bush with the words “I am that I am” (Ex. 3:14) is in a way repeated with His proclamation “I am Alpha and Omega” in the last book of the New Testament (Rev: 1:8, 11:1f). 853
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extensive in Byzantine sources after the Council of Ephesus and reached their climax in the Iconoclastic period.856 The ninth‐century Synodicon of Orthodoxy typifies theological writings on the Ark and the Virgin: Those who know that the rod and tablets of the Law, the Ark of the Covenant, the Menorah, the table and the censer foretell and prefigure the Theotokos Mary, and who know that these things prefigure her but she was not these things, but that she was born a girl and remained a Virgin after giving birth to God; those who for this reason prefer to represent her in images rather than to symbolize her in these types: may their memory be eternal.857 The Ark with the image of Mary on it and occasionally with the image of Christ hovering above it is depicted in Late Byzantine programs.858 In post‐Iconoclastic theology and hymnography, the image of Virgin, usually painted in the conch of the altar apse, also became an all‐embracing symbol of the Church, associated with the liturgy celebrated in it.859 The generic pattern of the canopy on the Hilandar icon, therefore, simultaneously takes the shape and meaning of the entities it covers. By framing the image of the Presentation of the Virgin into Temple, the constitutive part of a whole is focused, far from fragmented; on the contrary the The Virgin was associated with the Ark of Noah in the works by Hesychius of Jerusalem, Germanos of Constantinople, John of Damascus and Andreas of Crete. Mouriki (1970) 85. See also Table 5. 857 The scene of the high priests Aaron and Moses officiating before the Ark of the Covenant was usually interpreted as an Old Testament prefiguration of the Virgin. R. Cormack, “The Painting after Iconoclasm,” in Iconoclasm (1975b) 147‐163, esp. 153‐154. 858 Some examples are the fourteenth‐century fresco of the parekklesion in the church Christ in Chora (Kariye Camii) in Constantinople, St. Clement in Ochrid (1295), the Holy Apostles in Thessalonike (1310‐1314), Gračanica (c. 1321), Lesnovo or St. Nicholas in Curtea‐de‐Argeş (1512‐1521). Revel‐Neher (1995) 405‐414; P. Underwood, The Kariye Djami (New York, c. 1966) passim; R. G. Ousterhout, The architecture of the Kariye Camii in Istanbul (Washington, D.C., c. 1987); M. N. Bêljaev, “La ‘Tabernale du Témoignage’ dans la peinture balkanique du XIVe siecle” in L’art byzantin chez les Slaves; les Balkans (Paris, 1930) 315‐324. The apse of the so‐called Moses Chapel in St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mt. Sinai (Fig. 445) is decorated with a fourteenth‐century representation of the Tabernacle surmounted with the circular icons of the Virgin Mary with Christ above the entire scene: H. L. Kessler, “ ‘Thou Shalt Paint the Likeness of Christ Himself’: The Mosaic Prohibition as Provocation for Christian Images” JewArt 23‐24 (1997‐98) 124‐139. On the depiction of Christ in a roundel as a specific symbol of un‐ circumscribable image see, for example: Evangelatou (2002) 35‐40 and ibid. (2003) 181‐204, with references. 859 More in: A. Lidov, “Heavenly Jerusalem: The Byzantine Approach” JewArt 25 (1999) 340‐ 353. 856
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function of a canopy‐frame was to emphasize the complexities and diversities within the unity. During liturgical celebrations, the space of a church and the space of the icon, real and imaginary‐liturgical, are gathered into fully lived space. The spatial link between the Temple and the Church, as suggested in the scriptures on the conceptual level (cf. Ezek. 44:22, Matt. 19:12, Isa. 56:4‐5, 1 Cor. 11:3‐16), is signified by the canopy’s repeating pattern. A simple, hut‐like canopy used to depict the Holy of Holies, the most sacred space of the Jewish Temple, looks like an architectural and iconographic convention. The interior of the four‐columned core of Byzantines churches was also depicted according to fixed conventions.860 The canopy church core in its essence became a “shadow” image of the New Jerusalem, with all the symbolic and liturgical meanings that the Heavenly Jerusalem acquired in Christian thought. It is very difficult to trace how and to what extent the Byzantines kept the memory of the Temple alive, although some threads are undeniable. Indeed, the canopy on the icon suggests the Holy of Holies of the Jewish Temple, but the question remains which one – the Second or the First Temple? In Byzantine chronicles, the Second Temple served as the focal point for the organization and measurement of events in human history, because the central event of the Incarnation marked a radical change in the conception of time by the Byzantines, in which they started to calculate time from that point in order to ascertain the age of the world and the date of the
In painted compositions, the canopy was often attached to the building exterior in order to emphasize the fact that the depicted event took place in the interior, and was often associated with the events that took place in the Temple. Four‐columned canopies as signifiers for the Temple in the themes of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple, Presentation of Christ in the Temple, or Christ Teaching in the Temple can be exemplified by the fresco paintings in Sopoćani, Serbia (1260s), Bogorodica Ljeviška church (the Church of the Holy Virgin of Ljeviša), Prizren (1307) and the katholikon at the monastery Manasija, Serbia (1407‐1417). A. Stojaković, Arhitektonski prostor u slikarstvu srednjovekovne Srbije (Novi Sad, 1970) 166; V. Djurić, Sopoćani (Beograd, 1963) pl. XII; D. Panić and G. Babić, Bogorodica Ljeviška (Beograd, 1975) 123. However, in the chapel of St. Nicholas, at Sopoćani a canopy from the depiction of the ordination of St. Nicholas for a priest and then bishop also indicates the church. B. Živković, Sopoćani. Crteži fresaka (Beograd, 1984) 32. 860
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Second Coming.861 However, our analysis of the major sakkos of Metropolitan Photios has already demonstrated that the Byzantine memory of the Holy of Holies stretched back to the First Temple, the desert temple made of cloth. Then again, a canopy signifying the Temple on the Hilandar icon might have related not only to the Byzantine church, but even to a specific church, the New Church of St. Mary in Jerusalem. The feast of the Presentation of the Virgin on November 21 and its establishment in liturgical practice in the sixth century coincides with the dedication day of the New Church of St. Mary in Jerusalem, also known as the Nea, built by the priest and hegumenos of the monastery named Constantius and under Patriarch Elias.862 Justinian’s New Church of St. Mary in Jerusalem in the proximity of Herod’s Temple is attested in the writings by Prokopios, by its depiction on the sixth‐century Madaba Map, and by archaeological excavations in the Jewish quarter of the Old City in Jerusalem in the 1970s.863 The Nea was destroyed in the late sixth or early seventh centuries either by an earthquake or by the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614, yet, surviving archaeological evidence generally coincides with Prokopios’ written records on the church and its generic illustration on the Madaba Map as a canopy‐like front of a basilica.864 Actual buildings in Jerusalem may have been models for the icon’s architectural backdrops, a fact that suggests that the iconographical models for the Presentation of the Virgin were far older than the tenth R. Fishman‐Duker, “The Second Temple Period” Byz 47 (1977) 126‐56; V. Grumel, La Chronologie: Traite d’etudes byzantines 1 (Paris, 1958), esp. 73‐97, 222‐225, with references to works by Malalas, Cedrenus and other Byzantine chroniclers. 862 N. Avigad, “The Nea: Justinianʹs Church of St. Mary, Mother of God, Discovered in the Old City of Jerusalem,” in Ancient Churches Revealed, Y. Tsafrir, ed. (Jerusalem, 1963) 128‐135, esp. 133. 863 Procopius Buildings vol. 7. Trans. H.B. Dewing (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1968‐79) 342‐49; M. Avi‐Yonah, The Madaba Mosaic Map (Jerusalem, 1954) 50‐60, esp. 51 (figs. 12‐13 and pl. 7), A. Ovadiah and C. Gomez de Silva, Supplementum to the Corpus of the Byzantine Churches in the Holy Land (reproduced from Levant 13 [1981], 14 [1982], 16 [1984]), Colchester and London 1984, 221‐222; Avigad (1963) 128‐135. 864 Built, certainly not without purpose, on a highly inaccessible and difficult site in closest proximity of the Temple Mount, only the north and south apses of this once immense three‐ apsidal basilica (~ 110m x 52m in size) have been recovered during the excavations. Avigad (1963) 128‐135. 861
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century.865 However, even if we never knew about canopies in the Nea church in Jerusalem, which based on our knowledge of Justinian’s building program elsewhere must have existed, the material reality was not crucial to the Byzantines, and once again, within a liturgical context, the generic imagery of canopy could easily acquire multiple meanings of anachronistic and spatially unrelated objects. With the development of the Eucharistic practice, the significance of the Heavenly Jerusalem overlapped with the importance of the earthly Jerusalem. After the Iconoclastic controversy the Eucharist became the heart of Byzantine worship. The Eucharistic mystery closely related to the joyful mystery of the Incarnate Logos remained the focus of Byzantine Christianity, wherein all salvation history was recapitulated and personalized in the incarnate Christ. The canopies assumed the sublime meanings of Christ’s earthly ministry as transferred to the sacraments.866 Christ, along with the intercessors between the Lord and humankind ‐‐ the Virgin Mary and saints ‐‐ formed the doctrinal core of Byzantine “humanism.” The beginning path to salvation and the appearance of the new “spiritual temple” in the person of Virgin Mary provided the unbroken chain of “sublime notions: the Virgin, the altar, the temple, the holy city, and, finally, the garden of Paradise.”867 The saints, by being Christ‐like, and the Virgin, because through her the Logos (Word of God) became flesh, represented gates to Heaven.868 The canopy visually and conceptually A. Grabar was among first scholars to speculate that the identification of parts of the church and of liturgical objects with the events mentioned in the Gospels was stimulated by interest in loca sancta and the emerging cult of relics in Jerusalem. A. Grabar, “Le témoignage d’un hymne syriaque sur l’architecture de la cathédrale d’Êdesse au VIe siècle et sur la symbolique de l’édifice chrétien,” CA 2 (1947) 29‐67. 866 Canopies certainly symbolized sacraments other than the Eucharist. For example, in medieval illuminated manuscripts the Virgin as a “source of life,” Jesus Christ and Christian Church, was often identified with canopies that denoted baptismal fonts. Underwood (1950) 43‐138. 867 Lidov (1999) 340‐353, quotation on 348. On the place of Mary in the history of salvation and her intercessory position between Christ and humankind see also: Pelikan (1978) 158‐174; Underwood (1950) 43‐138. 868 Although the Virgin’s prerogative of being “full of grace” (Lk. 1:28) is matched by that of St. Stephen the Protomartyr, who was also said to be “full of grace” (Acts 6:8, 7:55) she is the only saint to whom the words “in him dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead bodily” (Col. 2:9) can be 865
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emphasized this liminal zone, as a liturgical threshold for purification (cf. Lk. 2:22)869 and for the recognition of Jesus as Christ (cf. Lk. 2:25‐26),870 and as a locus of spiritual transformation, which is a movement from renewed human life to an angelic state of being. The events depicted or re‐enacted within the canopies, as on the Hilandar icon, formed the indecomposable continuum. Memories of places marked by canopies identified saints as individuals and linked them to the networks of Byzantine culture. Consequently, canopies proclaimed sacred history, personalized in the Incarnate Christ, the Son of God. Moreover, though canopies and related sacred objects with similar shapes or meanings multiplied in the Byzantine church after the Iconoclasm, this was not a sign of changes in the Byzantine iconography, but rather of an embrace of all its complex meaning in subordination to the ecclesiastical rites. The reaction to canopied space involves both an emotional response and a contemplative experience. The simple form of the four columns with a roof was charged with powerful mental and real images. The canopy as an architectural structure thus becomes a powerful signifier for the communication and connection between the interior and outer worlds, on both metaphysical and more literal, physical levels. A link between the two worlds, in one case seen from the inside, in the other from the outside, is made possible by a canopy frame.871 Whether it took the form of a dome or an elongated pyramidal cup, the canopy top designated a sacred space below and remained a very suggestive head‐like form, reminding the faithful that there is always something above. Similarly, canopy columns delineating the sacred space reminded them of the space beyond. The architectural form of the canopy therefore, resolves the problem of how un‐representable space, which in the minds of the Byzantines is the supra‐space of God, constitutes the discursive literary applied. Thus, she occupied the first place in any commemoration of the saints, surpassing them in purity and in piety. Pelikan (1978) 160‐174. 869 And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought him to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord. 870 And, behold there is a man in Jerusalem, whose name was Simeon … And it was revealed to him by the Holy Ghost, that he should not see death, before he had seen the Lord’s Christ. 871 On the canopy as an artistic convention see also: Nordenfalk (1973) 233‐258.
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conditions for creation and articulation of places on earth, that can be appropriated and understood repeatedly in different contexts. By communicating the divine presence canopies in the Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition acquired the twofold function of internalizing the material world and sublimating its spiritual reality and of externalizing the spiritual world and materializing the sublime. The canopy thus becomes a symbol for what is built, what is not built, and what cannot be built—the visible, the invisible, and the un‐ representable to the eye of the beholder. The central focus and dominant vertical axis that the canopy provides are connected principally to the centrally positioned ritual content of the Byzantine church, not to its multi‐focal material reality and spatial organization. In conceptual terms, all Byzantine canopies could have been understood simultaneously as being central objects of sacred focus and as unified with one another.
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CANOPIES: THE FRAMING OF SACRED SPACE IN THE BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION. Volume 2 Jelena Bogdanović A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY Adviser: Prof. Slobodan Ćurčić June 2008
APPENDICES
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TABLES
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TABLE 1: TEXTS WITH REFERENCES TO CIBORIA OR CANOPIES: T.1 6 B.C.E. and older Orphica, Hymni. Hymn P line39. Τετρακίονος: Παλλάδα τ’ ἐγρεμάχην κούρην, Ἀνέμους τε πρόπαντας καὶ Βροντὰς Κόσμου τε μέρη τετρακίονος αὐδῶ∙Μητέρα τ’ ἀθανάτων, Ἄττιν καὶ Μῆνα κικλήσκω… W. Quandt, Orphei hymni, 3rd ed. Berlin: Weidmann, 1962 (repr. 1973): 1‐57. T.2 3 B.C.E Delphi Hegesander, Fragmenta. 21:3‐5 κιβώριον Ἡγήσανδρος ὁ Δελφὸς Εὐφορίωνά φησι τὸν ποιητὴν, παρὰ Πρυτάνιδι δειπνοῦντα, καὶ ἐπιδεικνυμένου τοῦ Πρυτάνιδος κιβώριά τινα δοκοῦντα πεποιῆσθαι πολυτελῶς, τοῦ κώθωνος εὖ μάλα προβεβηκότος, λαβὼν ἓν τῶν κιβωρίων, ὡς ἐξοινῶν καὶ…(5) μεθύων ἐνεούρησε. K. Müller, FHG 4. (Paris: Didot, 1841‐1870): 412‐422. T.3 3‐2 B.C.E. Lydia, Anatolia Nicander Fragmenta Fragment 81 line 3 Κιβώριον not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans: (81.) σπείρειας κυάμων Αἰγύπτιον, ὄφρα θερείης ἀνθέων μὲν στεφάνους ἀνύσῃς τὰ δὲ πεπτηῶτα ἀκμαίου καρποῖο κιβώρια δαινυμένοισιν ἐς χέρας ἠιθέοισι πάλαι ποθέουσιν ὀρέξῃς. ῥίζας δ’ ἐν θοίνῃσιν ἀφεψήσας προτίθημι. (5) A.S.F. Gow and A.F. Scholfield, Nicander. The poems and poetical fragments. (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1953): 138‐166. T.4 3‐2 B.C.E. Rhodos Callixenus Hist., Fragmenta Fragment 1 line 148 κιβώριον Περὶ δὲ τὸν προσαγορευόμενον κάλαθον οὐχ ἕλικες, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν Ἑλληνικῶν, καὶ φύλλα τραχέα περίκειται, λωτῶν δὲ ποταμίων κάλυκες, καὶ φοινίκων ἀρτιβλάστων (145) καρπός∙ ἔστι δ’ ὅτε καὶ πλειόνων ἄλλων ἀνθέων γέγλυπται γένη. Τὸ δ’ ὑπὸ τὴν ῥίζαν, ὃ δὴ τῷ συνάπτοντι πρὸς τὴν κεφαλὴν ἐπίκειται σπονδύλῳ, κιβωρίων ἄνθεσι καὶ φύλλοις ὡσανεὶ καταπεπλεγμένοις ὁμοίαν εἶχε τὴν διάθεσιν. Τοὺς μὲν οὖν κίονας οὕτως Αἰγύπτιοι κατασκευάζουσι (150), καὶ τοὺς τοίχους δὲ λευκαῖς τε καὶ μελαίναις διαποικίλλουσι πλινθίσιν∙ ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἀπὸ τῆς ἀλαβαστίτιδος προσαγορευομένης πέτρας. K. Müller, FHG 3. (Paris: Didot, 1841‐1870): 55‐66.
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T.5 2 B.C.E. Knidos Agatharchides Geogr., Fragmenta. Volume‐Jacoby, 2A,86,F Fragment 19 line 88 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans λωτός τε γὰρ φύεται πολύς, ἐξ οὗ κατασκευάζουσιν ἄρτους οἱ κατ’ Αἴγυπτον δυναμένους ἐκπληροῦν τὴν φυσικὴν τοῦ σώματος ἔνδειαν, τό τε κιβώριον δαψιλέστατον ὑπάρχον φέρει τὸν καλούμενον Αἰγύπτιον κύαμον. (7) ἔστι δὲ καὶ δένδρων γένη πλείονα, καὶ τούτων αἱ μὲν ὀνομαζόμεναι περσαῖαι καρπὸν διάφορον… F. Jacoby, FGrH 86. [Leiden: Brill, 1923‐1958 (repr. 1954‐1969)]: 2A:206‐222; 3B:741 addenda. T.6 1 B.C.E. Agyrium (now Agira), Sicily. Diodorus Siculus Hist., Bibliotheca historica (lib. 1‐20). Book 1 ch. 34 sec. 6 line4 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans οὐ γὰρ μόνον τροφὰς παρέχονται ποικίλας καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς δεομένοις ἑτοίμας καὶ δαψιλεῖς, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν εἰς τὸ ζῆν ἀναγκαίων οὐκ (6.) ὀλίγα φέρουσι βοηθήματα∙ λωτός τε γὰρ φύεται πολύς, ἐξ οὗ κατασκευάζουσιν ἄρτους οἱ κατ’ Αἴγυπτον δυναμένους ἐκπληροῦν τὴν φυσικὴν τοῦ σώματος ἔνδειαν, τό τε κιβώριον δαψιλέστατον ὑπάρχον (7.) φέρει τὸν καλούμενον Αἰγύπτιον κύαμον. K.T. Fischer (post I. Bekker & L. Dindorf) and F. Vogel, Diodori bibliotheca historica, 5 vols., 3rd ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1:1888; 2:1890; 3:1893; 4‐5:1906 (repr. Stuttgart, 1964): 1:1‐533; 2:1‐461; 3:1‐ 497; 4:1‐426; 5:1‐336. T.7 1 B.C.E. ‐1 C.E. Nysa, Anatolia Rome Strabo Amasiotes Geogr., Geographica Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Τοῖς δ’ Αἰγυπτιακοῖς καὶ ταῦτα προσθετέον ὅσα ἰδιάζοντα, οἷον ὁ Αἰγύπτιος λεγόμενος κύαμος ἐξ οὗ τὸ κιβώριον, καὶ ἡ βύβλος∙ ἐνταῦθα γὰρ καὶ παρ’ Ἰνδοῖς μόνον∙ ἡ δὲ περσέα ἐνταῦθα μόνον καὶ παρ’ Αἰθίοψι, δένδρον μέγα, καρπὸν ἔχον γλυκὺν καὶ μέγαν, (5) καὶ ἡ συκάμινος ἡ ἐκφέρουσα τὸν λεγόμενον καρπὸν συκόμορον∙ σύκῳ γὰρ ἔοικεν∙ ἄτιμον δ’ ἐστὶ κατὰ τὴν γεῦσιν∙ γίνεται δὲ καὶ τὸ κόρσιον καὶ ὅμοιόν τι πεπέρει τράγημα, μικρῷ αὐτοῦ μεῖζον. A. Meineke, Strabonis geographica, 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1877 (repr. 1969): 1:xiii‐xv, 1‐396; 2:397‐814; 3:815‐1173.
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T.8 1 C.E. ? Claudius Iolaus Hist., Fragmenta Fragment 1 line 13 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans … Κολοκάσιον μέντοι καλοῦσι τὴν ῥίζαν. Τὸ δ’ ὑπερπεφυκὸς κιβώριον ὄψιν ἡδεῖαν ἐδωδίμους τε τὰς φλέβας παρέχον Αἰγυπτίοις∙ περὶ δὲ τὸν Νεῖλον φύεται πολλή. Ἡ δὲ περὶ τὸν Βῆλον ἕλκη θε ραπεύει δυσίατα… K. Müller, FHG 4. (Paris: Didot, 1841‐1870): 363‐364. T.9 1 C.E. Post 1 C.E. Anazarbus, Cilicia Dioscorides Pedanius Med., De materia medica Book 2 ch. 106 sect. 1 line7 Κιβώριον; κιβώριον = κιβώτιον ‐‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans (1.) ὁ δὲ Αἰγύπτιος κύαμος, ὃν ἔνιοι Ποντικὸν καλοῦσι, πλεῖστος ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ γεννᾶται, καὶ ἐν Ἀσίᾳ δὲ καὶ ἐν Κιλικίᾳ ἐν ταῖς λίμναις εὑρίσκεται. ἔχει δὲ φύλλον μέγα ὡς πέτασον, καυλὸν δὲ πηχυαῖον, δακτύλου πάχος, ἄνθος δὲ ῥοδόχρουν, διπλάσιον μήκωνος, ὅπερ ἐξανθῆσαν φέρει σφηκιᾷ παραπλήσιον (5) θυλακίσκον, ἐν ᾧ κύαμος μικρὸν ὑπεραίρων τὸ πῶμα ὡς πομφόλυξ. καλεῖται δὲ κιβώριον ἢ κιβώτιον διὰ τὸ τὴν φυτείαν τούτου γίνεσθαι ἐν ἰκμοβώλῳ ἐντιθεμένου οὕτω τε εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ (2.) ἀφιεμένου. M. Wellmann, Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei de materia medica libri quinque, 3 vols. [Berlin: Weidmann, 1:1907; 2:1906; 3:1914 (repr. 1958)]: 1:1‐255, 2:1‐339, 3:1‐108. T.10 1‐2 C.E. Ephesus Soranus Med., Gynaeciorum libri iv Book 1 ch. 57 sect. 1 line7 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Τίνα κυούσης τῆς γυναικὸς ἐντὸς τῆς μήτρας φύονται. (1.) Καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ᾠῶν μετὰ τὸ κέλυφος ἔνδοθεν ὑμὴν ὑπέγκειται τοῦ ὀστράκου διαπεφυκὼς τοῦ περικειμένου, κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν κυοφορουσῶν ἐκ τοῦ σπέρματος ὑμὴν γενόμενος ἔνδοθεν ὑπέγκειται τῇ ὑστέρᾳ συναφὴς αὑτῷ καὶ ἀστόμωτος ὑπάρχων, προσπεφυκὼς δὲ ἔνδοθεν τῷ πυθμένι τῆς μήτρας καὶ συγκεκριμένος ἐκ (5) νεύρων καὶ φλεβῶν ἀρτηριῶν τε καὶ σαρκός, τύπος τις πορφυροῦς κατὰ χρόαν, τῷ σχήματι ἐμφερὴς κιβωρίου θύλακι, παχὺς μὲν | καθ’ ὃ προσπέφυκεν τῷ πυθμένι τῆς μήτρας, ὑμενώδης δὲ κατὰ τὰ ἄλλα καὶ (2.) λεπτὸς δι’ ἣν αἰτίαν μικρὸν ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν. J. Ilberg, Sorani Gynaeciorum libri iv, de signis fracturarum, de fasciis, vita Hippocratis secundum Soranum [CMG 4. Leipzig: Teubner, 1927]: 3‐152. T.11 2 C.E. Pergamon, Anatolia Galenus Med., De alimentorum facultatibus libri iii. vol. 6 623:12 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans … ὧν ἔνιά τινεϲ τῶν κατὰ τοὺϲ ἀγροὺϲ ἐμβάλλοντεϲ εἰϲ ἅλμην ἢ ὄξοϲ ἀποτίθενται καθάπερ καὶ τὰϲ (10) γογγυλίδαϲ καὶ τὰ κρόμυα τά τ’ ἀμπελόπραϲα καλούμενα καὶ
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πύρεθρον ἕτερά τε τοιαῦτα. τούτου δέ πωϲ τοῦ γένουϲ ἐϲτὶ καὶ κιβώρια καὶ κολοκάϲια καὶ τὸ καλούμενον ἄβατον. πρόδηλον δ’, ὅτι πρὸϲ τῷ βραχεῖαν τροφὴν διδόναι τῷ ϲώματι κακόχυμα πάντ’ ἐϲτὶ ταῦτα, καὶ τινά γ’ αὐτῶν καὶ κακοϲτόμαχα, πλήν, ὡϲ ἔφην, τῶν ἀκανθωδῶν ἄρτι τῆϲ (15) (624.) γῆϲ ἀνιϲχόντων∙ G. Helmreich, Galeni de alimentorum facultatibus libri iii [CMG 5.4.2. Leipzig: Teubner, 1923]: 201‐386. T.12 2 C.E. Pseudo‐Galenus Med., De theriaca ad Pamphilianum Vol. 14 303:3 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans … οὐδὲν γὰρ οὕτως ἐστιν ἰσχυρὸν ἐν ἰατρικῇ βοήθημα, ὃ τὴν ἐξ αὐτοῦ γινομένην ὄνησιν δύναται ἐπαγαγεῖν, ἢ ἀντιπρασσόμενον ὑπὸ τῶν κατὰ δίαιταν, ἢ μὴ συνεργούμενον. πεπίστευται δὲ καὶ ταῖς (15) γυναιξὶ τὰς ἐπιμηνίους καθάρσεις κινεῖν, καὶ τὰ νεκρὰ τῶν ἐμβρύων ἐκβάλλειν, ἃ δι’ ἀσθένειαν οὐ δύναται ἡ φύσις ἀποτρίψασθαι πολλάκις θέλουσα. δίδοται δὲ ἐπὶ τού (303.) των διὰ γλυκέος, ἢ μελικράτου προεφηψημένου, δικτάμνου, ἢ πηγάνου, κυάμου Αἰγυπτίου τὸ μέγεθος, ὅ τινες ἐπιχωρίως κίθη καὶ κιβώριον καλοῦσι. χρήσιμος δὲ καὶ ὑδρωπικοῖς καὶ ἰκτερικοῖς μετὰ ἀσάρου ἀφεψήματος. C.G. Kühn, Claudii Galeni opera omnia, vol. 14. Leipzig: Knobloch, 1827 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1965): 295‐310. T.13 2 C.E. Alexandria, Rome Aelius Herodianus et Pseudo‐Herodianus Gramm. et Rhet. Περὶ ὀρθογραφίας vol.3,2 533:22. Κιβώριον = κιβούριον A. Lentz, Grammatici Graeci, vol. 3.2. Leipzig: Teubner, 1870 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1965): 407‐611. T.14 2 C.E. Pausanias Hist., Fragmenta Fragment 4 line 63 τετρακίονος …στήλης χαλκῆς ἐχούσης Ἀμαλθείας κέρας ἔμπροσθεν αὐτῆς. Καὶ ποιήσας ἐκεῖ τετρακιόνιον ἐν ὕψει ἔστησεν αὐτὴν τὴν Τύχην, καταστήσας ἔμπροσθεν αὐτῆς βωμὸν… K. Müller, FHG 4. (Paris: Didot, 1841‐1870): 467‐471. T.15 2‐3 C.E. Naucratis, near Alexandria, Egypt Athenaeus Soph. Deipnosophistae (Banquet of the learned of Athenæus) Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans and a chalice Book 3 Kaibel paragraphs 1‐2 ΚΙΒΩΡΙΑ. Νίκανδρος ἐν Γεωργικοῖς (fr. 81 Schn)∙σπείρειας κυάμων Αἰγύπτιον, ὄφρα θερείης ἀνθέων μὲν στεφάνους ἀνύσῃς, τὰ δὲ πεπτηῶτα (5) ἀκμαίου καρποῖο κιβώρια
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δαινυμένοισιν εἰς χέρας ἠιθέοισι πάλαι ποθέουσιν ὀρέξῃς. ῥίζας δ’ ἐν θοίνῃσιν ἀφεψήσας προτίθημι. ῥίζας δὲ λέγει Νίκανδρος τὰ ὑπ’ Ἀλεξανδρέων κολοκάσια καλούμενα∙ ὡς ὁ αὐτός (fr. 82)∙ (10) κυάμου λέψας κολοκάσιον ἐντμήξας τε. ἐστὶ δ’ ἐν Σικυῶνι Κολοκασίας Ἀθηνᾶς ἱερόν. ἐστὶ δὲ καὶ κιβώριον εἶδος ποτηρίου (XI 477e). (2.) Θεόφραστος δ’ ἐν τῷ περὶ φυτῶν οὕτω γράφει (h. pl. 4, 8, 7)∙ ‘ὁ κύαμος ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ φύεται μὲν ἐν ἕλεσι καὶ λίμναις. καυλὸς δ’ αὐτοῦ μῆκος μὲν ὁ μακρότατος εἰς δʹ πήχεις, πάχος δὲ δακτυλιαῖος, ὅμοιος καλάμῳ μαλακῷ ἀγονάτῳ∙ διαφύσεις δ’ ἔνδοθεν ἔχει (5) δι’ ὅλου διειλημμένας ὁμοίας τοῖς κηρίοις. ἐπὶ τούτῳ δ’ ἡ κωδύα καὶ τὸ ἄνθος διπλάσιον ἢ μήκωνος∙χρῶμα δ’ ὅμοιον ῥόδῳ κατακορές. παραφύεται δὲ φύλλα μεγάλα∙ ἡ δὲ ῥίζα παχυτέρα καλάμου τοῦ παχυτάτου καὶ διαφύσεις ὁμοίας ἔχουσα τῷ καυλῷ. (10) ἐσθίουσι δ’ αὐτὴν καὶ ἑφθὴν καὶ ὠμὴν καὶ ὀπτήν, καὶ οἱ περὶ τὰ ἕλη τούτῳ σίτῳ χρῶνται. γίνεται δὲ καὶ ἐν Συρίᾳ καὶ <κατὰ> Κιλικίαν, ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἐκπέτ τουσιν αἱ χῶραι∙ καὶ περὶ Τορώνην τῆς Χαλκιδικῆς ἐν λίμνῃ τινὶ μετρίᾳ τῷ μεγέθει, καὶ αὕτη πέττεται καὶ Book 11 Kaibel paragraph 54 (54.) ΚΙΒΩΡΙΟΝ. Ἡγήσανδρος ὁ Δελφὸς Εὐφορίωνά φησι (FHG IV 417) τὸν ποιητὴν παρὰ Πρυτάνιδι δειπνοῦντα καὶ ἐπιδεικνυμένου τοῦ Πρυτάνιδος κιβώριά τινα δοκοῦντα πεποιῆσθαι πολυτελῶς, τοῦ κώθωνος εὖ μάλα προβεβηκότος, λαβὼν ἓν τῶν κιβωρίων ὡς ἐξοινῶν (5) [καὶ μεθύων] ἐνεούρησε. Δίδυμος δέ φησι (p. 75 Schm) ποτηρίου εἶδος εἶναι, καὶ τάχ’ ἂ εἴη τὰ λεγόμενα σκυφία διὰ τὸ κάτωθεν εἰς στενὸν συνῆχθαι ὡς τὰ Αἰγύπτια κιβώρια. Volume 2,2 58:2: Καλλίμαχος δὲ ἄλεισον τὸ αὐτὸ (35) καλέσας καὶ κισσύβιον τὴν ἀκριβῆ τῶν ὀνομάτων θέσιν οὐ διαφυλάττει. εἰκάσειε δ’ ἄν τις ὑπὸ ποιμένων τὸ πρῶτον ἐργασθῆναι ἐκ κισσίνου ξύλου. ἄλλοι δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ χεῖσθαι ὅ ἐστι χωρεῖν∙ ὅθεν καὶ ἡ τοῦ ὄφεως κατάδυσις (58.) χειή, καὶ κήθιον τὸ χήτιον τὸ χωροῦν τοὺς ἀστραγάλους. τινὲς δὲ καὶ κυμβίον τὸ αὐτὸ καλοῦσι. κιβώριον. Ἡγήσανδρος ὁ Δελφὸς Εὐφορίωνά φησι τὸν ποιητὴν δειπνοῦντά που, τοῦ κώθωνος εὖ μάλα προβεβηκότος, λαβόντα ἓν τῶν κιβωρίων ὡς ἔξοινον καὶ μεθύοντα ἐνουρῆσαι. συνῆκται δὲ κάτωθεν εἰς στενὸν ὡς τὰ Αἰγύπτια, φησί, κιβώρια. (5) G. Kaibel, Athenaei Naucratitae deipnosophistarum libri xv, 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1‐2:1887; 3:1890 (repr. Stuttgart, 1‐2:1965; 3:1966): 1:1‐491; 2:1‐498; 3:1‐560. T.16 3‐4 C.E. Eusebius Theol. et Scr. Eccl., Demonstratio evangelica Book 6 ch. 18 sec. 41 and elsewhere Καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ (41.) δυνάμει γοῦν τοῦτο ἐδήλου λέγων∙ «ἀφίεται ὑμῖν ὁ οἶκος ὑμῶν ἔρημος»∙ αὐτίκα γοῦν ἐπὶ τῷ πάθει αὐτοῦ «τὸ καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ ἐσχίσθη ἀπὸ ἄνωθεν ἕως κάτω», ὥσπερ οὖν ὁ Ἰώσηπος ἱστορεῖ γεγονέναι κατὰ τοὺς Ὀζίου χρόνους. εἶτα πρότερον μὲν «ἐσείσθη τὰ πρόπυλα», ὅτε «ἡ γῆ ἐσείσθη» κατὰ τὸν τοῦ (5) πάθους αὐτοῦ καιρόν∙ μετ’ οὐ πολὺ δὲ καὶ τὴν ἐσχάτην ὑπέμεινε πτῶσιν, λαβών τε τὴν ἐξουσίαν ὁ πατάσσων «διέκοψεν εἰς κεφαλὰς ἁπάντων». … I.A. Heikel, Eusebius Werke, Band 6: Die Demonstratio evangelica [Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller 23. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1913]: 1‐492.
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T.17 4 C.E. Nyssenus Gregory Nazianzes De vita Mosis Καταπετάσματα Ch. 1 sec. 50:1. (50.) Καταπετάσματα δὲ καὶ παραπετάσματα καὶ ὁ τοῦ ναοῦ περίβολος καὶ ὁ τῶν στύλων ὑπερτεινόμενος ὄροφος καταλλήλως πάντα διὰ τῆς ὑφαντικῆς ἐπιστήμης ἐκ τῆς προσφόρου ἕκαστον ὕλης ἐπετελεῖτο. Τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ἦν τῶν ὑφασμάτων ὑάκινθος ἡ βαφὴ καὶ πορφύρα καὶ τὸ πυραυγὲς (5) τοῦ κοκκοβάφους ἐρυθήματος, τό τε λαμπρὸν τῆς βύσσου ἡ αὐτοφυής τε καὶ ἀνεπιτήδευτος ἰδέα. Ἑτέροις δὲ λῖνον καὶ ἄλλοις τρίχες πρὸς τὰς τῶν ὑφασμάτων χρείας παρελαμβάνοντο. Ἦν δὲ ὅπου καὶ τὰ ἐρυθρὰ τῶν δερμάτων πρὸς τὴν τοῦ κατασκευάσματος ὥραν εὔθετα ἦν. (10) (51.) Καὶ ταῦτα μὲν μετὰ τὴν ἐκ τοῦ ὄρους κάθοδον κατὰ τὸ ἐκτεθὲν αὐτῷ τῆς δημιουργίας ὑπόδειγμα ὁ Μωϋσῆς διὰ τῶν ὑπουργούντων κατεσκευάσατο. Τότε δὲ ἐν ἐκείνῳ τῷ ἀχειροποιήτῳ ναῷ γενόμενος, καὶ οἵῳ χρὴ τὸν ἱερέα κόσμῳ λαμπρύνεσθαι τῶν ἀδύτων ἐπιβατεύοντα νομοθετεῖται … Ch. 1 sec. 61 (61.) Καὶ οὕτως αὐτοῖς τήν τε σκηνὴν ἐπήξατο καὶ τὰ νόμιμα παρατίθεται, τὴν ἱερωσύνην κατὰ τὴν γενομένην αὐτῷ θεόθεν διδασκαλίαν καταστησάμενος. Καὶ ἐπειδὴ πάντα κατὰ τὴν θείαν ὑφήγησιν διὰ τῆς ὑλικῆς δημιουργίας κατεσκευάσατο, τὴν σκηνήν, τὰ προπύλαια, τὰ ἐντὸς πάντα, θυμιατήριον, (5) θυσιαστήριον, λυχνίαν, παραπετάσματα, καταπετάσματα, τὸ τῶν ἀδύτων ἐντὸς ἱλαστήριον, τὸν τῆς ἱερωσύνης κόσμον, τὸ μῦρον, τὰς διαφόρους ἱερουργίας, τὰ καθάρσια, τὰ χαριστήρια, τὰ τῶν κακῶν ἀποτρόπαια, τὰ ἐπὶ τοῖς πλημμεληθεῖσιν ἱλεωτήρια, πάντα κατὰ τὸν δέοντα τρόπον (10) ἐν αὐτοῖς διατάξας, ἐκίνησεν ἐν τοῖς ἐπιτηδείοις τὸν φθόνον καθ’ ἑαυτοῦ, τὸ συγγενὲς τῇ φύσει τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἀρρώστημα, (62.) ὡς καὶ τὸν Ἀαρὼν ταῖς τιμαῖς τῆς ἱερωσύνης τιμώμενον καὶ τὴν ἀδελφὴν αὐτοῦ Μαριάμ, ζηλοτυπίᾳ τινὶ γυναικωδεστέρᾳ πρὸς τὴν γενομένην αὐτῷ θεόθεν τιμὴν ὑποκινηθεῖσαν, φθέγξασθαί τι τοιοῦτον, ἐφ’ ᾧ παρεκινήθη τὸ Θεῖον εἰς τὴν τοῦ πλημμελήματος κόλασιν. Ἔνθα δὴ καὶ πλέον τι (5) θαυμάζειν ἄξιον τῆς ἀνεξικακίας τὸν Μωϋσέα, ὅτι τοῦ Θεοῦ τὴν ἄλογον βασκανίαν τοῦ γυναίου κολάζοντος, ἰσχυροτέραν τὴν φύσιν τῆς ὀργῆς ποιησάμενος, τὸν Θεὸν ὑπὲρ τῆς ἀδελφῆς ἱλεώσατο. J. Danielou, Grégoire de Nysse. La vie de Moïse, 3rd edn. [SC 1 ter. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1968]: 44‐326. Cf. Philo, De vita Mosis. book 2 sec.81:1 … εἰ δὲ βουληθείη τις τοὺς ἐν τῷ προπυλαίῳ πέντε τῷ ὑπαίθρῳ συνάπτοντας, ὃ κέκληκεν αὐλήν, τιθέναι χωρίς, ἀπολειφθήσεται ὁ ἁγιώτατος πεντηκοντάδος ἀριθμός, δύναμις ὢν τοῦ ὀρθογωνίου τριγώνου, ὅπερ ἐστὶ τῆς τῶν ὅλων γενέσεως ἀρχή, συμπληρωθεὶς ἐκ τῶν ἐντὸς κιόνων, τεσσαράκοντα μὲν τῶν καθ’ ἑκατέραν πλευρὰν εἴκοσιν, ἓξ δὲ τῶν ἐν (5) μέσῳ δίχα τῶν παρὰ ταῖς γωνίαις ἀποκεκρυμμένων, τεσσάρων δὲ τῶν (81.) ἀντικρύ, ἐφ’ ὧν τὸ καταπέτασμα. τὴν δ’ αἰτίαν, ἧς ἕνεκα τοὺς πέντε τοῖς πεντήκοντα συγκατατάττω καὶ χωρὶς αὐτῶν τίθημι, δηλώσω. ἡ πεντὰς αἰσθήσεων ἀριθμός ἐστιν, αἴσθησις δ’ ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ τῇ μὲν νεύει πρὸς τὰ ἐκτός, τῇ δὲ ἀνακάμπτει πρὸς νοῦν ὑπηρέτις οὖσα (82.) φύσεως νόμοις αὐτοῦ. διὸ καὶ τὴν μεθόριον χώραν ἀπένειμε τοῖς πέντε∙ τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἐντὸς αὐτῶν ἐκνένευκε πρὸς τὰ ἄδυτα τῆς σκηνῆς, ἅπερ ἐστὶ συμβολικῶς νοητά, τὰ δ’
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ἐκτὸς πρὸς τὸ ὕπαιθρον καὶ τὴν αὐλήν, ἅπερ ἐστὶν αἰσθητά∙ παρὸ καὶ ταῖς βάσεσι διήνεγκαν, χαλκαῖ γάρ εἰσιν∙ ἐπεὶ δὲ τῆς ἐν ἡμῖν αἰσθήσεως κεφαλὴ μὲν καὶ (5) ἡγεμονικὸν ὁ νοῦς, ἐσχατιὰ δὲ καὶ ὡσανεὶ βάσις τὸ αἰσθητόν, εἴκασε δὴ (83.) τὸν μὲν νοῦν χρυσῷ, χαλκῷ δὲ τὸ αἰσθητόν. μέτρα δὲ τῶν κιόνων ταῦτα∙ L. Cohn, Philonis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt, vol. 4. Berlin: Reimer, 1902 (repr. De Gruyter, 1962): 119‐268. Cf. New Testament Novum Testamentum, Evangelium secundum Matthaeum. Chapter 27 section 51 line 1. (51.) Καὶ ἰδοὺ τὸ καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ ἐσχίσθη ἀπ’ ἄνωθεν ἕως κάτω εἰς δύο, καὶ ἡ γῆ ἐσείσθη, καὶ αἱ πέτραι ἐσχίσθησαν, (52.) καὶ τὰ μνημεῖα ἀνεῴχθησαν καὶ πολλὰ σώματα τῶν κεκοιμημένων ἁγίων ἠγέρθησαν, (53.) καὶ ἐξελθόντες ἐκ τῶν μνημείων μετὰ τὴν ἔγερσιν αὐτοῦ εἰσῆλθον εἰς τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν καὶ ἐνεφανίσθησαν πολλοῖς. Novum Testamentum, Evangelium secundum Marcum. Chapter 15 section 38 line 1. (38.) Καὶ τὸ καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ ἐσχίσθη εἰς δύο ἀπ’ ἄνωθεν ἕως κάτω. (39.) Ἰδὼν δὲ ὁ κεντυρίων ὁ παρεστηκὼς ἐξ ἐναντίας αὐτοῦ ὅτι οὕτως ἐξέπνευσεν εἶπεν, Ἀληθῶς οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος υἱὸς θεοῦ ἦν. Novum Testamentum, Evangelium secundum Lucam. Chapter 23 section 45 line 2. (45.) τοῦ ἡλίου ἐκλιπόντος, ἐσχίσθη δὲ τὸ καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ μέσον. (46.) καὶ φωνήσας φωνῇ μεγάλῃ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν, Πάτερ, εἰς χεῖράς σου παρατίθεμαι τὸ πνεῦμά μου∙ τοῦτο δὲ εἰπὼν ἐξέπνευσεν. Novum Testamentum, Epistula Pauli ad Hebraeos. Chapter 9 section 3 line 2. (1.) Εἶχε μὲν οὖν [καὶ] ἡ πρώτη δικαιώματα λατρείας τό τε ἅγιον κοσμικόν. (2.) σκηνὴ γὰρ κατεσκευάσθη ἡ πρώτη ἐν ᾗ ἥ τε λυχνία καὶ ἡ τράπεζα καὶ ἡ πρόθεσις τῶν ἄρτων, ἥτις λέγεται Ἅγια∙ (3.) μετὰ δὲ τὸ δεύτερον καταπέτασμα σκηνὴ ἡ λεγομένη Ἅγια Ἁγίων, (4.) χρυσοῦν ἔχουσα θυμιατήριον καὶ τὴν κιβωτὸν τῆς διαθήκης περικεκαλυμμένην πάντοθεν χρυσίῳ, ἐν ᾗ στάμνος χρυσῆ ἔχουσα τὸ μάννα καὶ ἡ ῥάβδος Ἀαρὼν ἡ βλαστήσασα καὶ αἱ πλάκες τῆς διαθήκης, (5.) ὑπεράνω δὲ αὐτῆς Χερουβεὶν δόξης κατασκιάζοντα τὸ ἱλαστήριον∙ περὶ ὧν οὐκ ἔστιν νῦν λέγειν κατὰ μέρος. T.18 4 C.E. Alexandria Καταπετάσμα Cyrillus Alexandrinus Theol., De adoratione et cultu in spiritu et veritate. Vol. 68 page 620ff Κιβωτὸν γενέσθαι ἐκ ξύλων ἀσήπτων καὶ χρυσίου καθαροῦ, φησὶ, καὶ ἦν ὁ νόμος ἐν αὐτῇ, τουτέστιν, ὁ θεῖος λόγος, ἤτοι τὰ μαρτύρια. Τύπος γὰρ ἦν τὸ χρῆμα, τοῦ ἐκ Θεοῦ φύντος Λόγου, κατοικήσαντος ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ σαρκὸς ἐν ὁμοιώματι γεγονότος, (5) κατὰ τὰς Γραφάς. Εἶτα καταπέτασμά τι τέσσαρσι στύλοις ἐπιτετανυσμένον, ἀπαιωρεῖσθαι τῇ κιβωτῷ δεῖν ἔφη. Ὄνομα δὲ τῷ καταπετάσματι, τὸ ἱλαστήριον. Χριστὸς δὲ καὶ τοῦτο. «Ἱλασμὸς γάρ ἐστιν ὑπὲρ τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ἡμῶν, καὶ ἱλαστήριον διὰ (10) πίστεως.» Ὠνόμαζε γὰρ οὕτως ὁ Παῦλος αὐτόν∙γεγράφατο δὲ καὶ οἱονεί πως ἐν κύκλῳ τοῦ ἱλαστηρίου τὰ Χερουβὶμ, τῶν ἀνωτάτω δυνάμεων τὴν ὑπὸ Θεῷ δουλείαν∙ Θεὸς γὰρ ὁ Λόγος∙ καὶ τὸ ἀγχοῦ δὴ μάλα, καὶ
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μὴν καὶ τὸ παρεστάναι λειτουργικῶς, εὖ μάλα σημαίνοντα. (15) Εἶτα Θεὸς ἔφη πρὸς Μωσέα∙ «Καὶ γνωσθήσομαί σοι ἐκεῖθεν, καὶ λαλήσω σοι ἄνωθεν τοῦ ἱλαστηρίου ἀναμέσον τῶν δύο Χερουβὶμ τῶν ὄντων ἐπὶ τῆς κιβωτοῦ τοῦ μαρτυρίου.» Ἦν δὲ, ὡς ἔφην, ἡ κιβωτὸς ὁ Χριστὸς, ὡς ἐν ἀφθάρτῳ σώματι Θεὸς Λόγος, (20) πλὴν εἰς γῆν ἡ κιβωτός PG 68: 132‐1125. Cyrillus Alexandrinus Theol., Commentarius in xii prophetas minores. Volume 2 page 516 … “Ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς πάλιν κράξας φωνῇ μεγάλῃ “ἀφῆκε τὸ πνεῦμα. καὶ ἰδοὺ τὸ καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ “ἐσχίσθη εἰς δύο ἀπὸ ἄνωθεν ἕως κάτω, καὶ ἡ γῆ ἐσείσθη, “καὶ αἱ πέτραι ἐσχίσθησαν, καὶ τὰ μνημεῖα ἠνεῴχθησαν, (15) “καὶ πολλὰ σώματα τῶν κεκοιμημένων ἁγίων ἠγέρθησαν.” ἐπειδὴ δὲ χρὴ τοῖς γεγονόσι πιθανὸν ἐφαρμόσαι λόγον, ἔοικεν ὑποδηλοῦν τὸ καταῤῥήγνυσθαι μὲν τὰς πέτρας, ἐμφράττεσθαι δὲ τὰς φάραγγας τήν τε τῶν Ἰουδαίων πώρωσιν, καὶ τὴν τῶν τοῖς εἰδώλοις λελατρευκότων εἰς τὸ ἄμεινον μετα δρομήν (20). P.E. Pusey, Sancti patris nostri Cyrilli archiepiscopi Alexandrini in xii prophetas, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon P, 1868 (repr. 1965): 1:1‐740; 2:1‐626. Cyrillus Alexandrinus Theol., Commentarii in Joannem. Vol. 1 page 574 “Ἐγώ εἰμι “ἡ θύρα,” καί “Οὐδεὶς ἔρχεται πρὸς τὸν Πατέρα, εἰ μὴ δι’ “ἐμοῦ.” ἐν κύκλῳ γεμὴν περιτείνεσθαι τὴν σκηνὴν διατάττει τῶν ἐν αὐτῇ πάντων περιεκτικὴν, ὡς μίαν ὁρᾶσθαι, (5) καὶ μὴ πολλάς. εἷς γὰρ ἐν ἡμῖν ὁ Χριστὸς, κἂν πολυτρόπως νοῆται, σκηνὴ μὲν διὰ τὸ καταπέτασμα τῆς σαρκὸς, κιβωτὸς δὲ τὸν θεῖον ἔχουσα νόμον, ὡς Λόγος τοῦ Θεοῦ καὶ Πατρός∙τράπεζα δὲ πάλιν, ὡς τροφὴ καὶ ζωή∙ P.E. Pusey, Sancti patris nostri Cyrilli archiepiscopi Alexandrini in D. Joannis evangelium, 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon P, 1872 (repr. 1965): 1:1‐728; 2:1‐737; 3:1‐171. T.19 4 C.E. Athanasius Theol., Expositiones in Psalmos. Vol. 27 221:30. πύργος Κυκλώσατε Σιὼν, καὶ περιλάβετε αὐτήν. Ταῦτα τὸ Πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον τοῖς ἀποστόλοις παρακελεύεται, οἱονεὶ τεῖχος αὐτοὺς γενέσθαι τῆς Σιὼν, τουτέστιν τοῦ θεοσεβοῦς πολιτεύματος. Διηγήσασθε ἐν τοῖς πύργοις αὐτῆς. Καὶ τίνες ἂν εἶεν οἱ πύργοι τῆς (30) Ἐκκλησίας ἢ οἱ κατὰ καιρὸν αὐτῆς ἡγούμενοι καὶ οἱ δίκαιοι, οἷς καὶ διηγοῦνται τὰ μεγαλεῖα τοῦ Θεοῦ οἱ ἀπόστολοι; [Ταῖς τὴν Ἐκκλησίαν καὶ τὸ θεοσεβὲς πολίτευμα φρουρούσαις θείαις δυνάμεσιν, ἀγγέλοις τε ἁγίοις (35) προσφωνεῖ τὸ Πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον λέγον∙ Κυκλώσατε τοὺς πύργους. Τὰ γὰρ κρείττονα τῆς πόλεως ὡς ἀναγκαιότερα πρὸς παραφυλακὴν ἀριθμῷ παραδέδοται τοῖς φρουροῖς.] PG 27: 60‐545, 548‐589. T.20 4 C.E. Antioch John Chrysostom παραπετάσμα ‐ curtains around the altar table – canopy?
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In Acta apostolorum Vol. 60 54:10. Διὰ τοῦτο καὶ εὐφημίαις αὐτοὺς ἀμείβονται οἱ παθόντες εὖ, καὶ παραπετάσμασι, καὶ λαμπάδων πλήθει, καὶ (10) στέμμασι, καὶ κλάδοις, καὶ ἐσθῆτι λαμπρᾷ. PG 60: 13‐384. 1 Cor. Hom. 36.5: Volume 61 page 104 line 63. Εἶτ’ ἐπειδήπερ ἐν ἑσπέρᾳ ταῦτα γίνεται, ἵνα μηδὲ τὸ σκότος παραπέτασμα ᾖ τῶν κακῶν τούτων, ἐπεισάγονται λαμπάδες πολλαὶ οὐκ ἐῶσαι λαν (105.) θάνειν τὴν ἀσχημοσύνην. PG 61: 9‐382. T.21 4‐5 C.E. Antioch Constantinople Joannes Chrysostomus Scr. Eccl., In Acta apostolorum. Vol. 60 297:13 κιβώρια μικρὰ‐Chalices or shrines Ποιῶν, φησὶ, ναοὺς ἀργυροῦς Ἀρτέμιδος. Καὶ πῶς ἔνι ναοὺς ἀργυροῦς γενέσθαι; Ἴσως ὡς κιβώρια μικρά∙ πολλὴ γὰρ ταύτης ἦν ἡ τιμὴ ἐν Ἐφέσῳ, ὅπου καὶ τὸ ἱερὸν αὐτῶν ἐμπρησθὲν οὕτως ἐλύπησεν αὐτοὺς, ὡς τὸν ἐμπρήσαντα κελεύειν (15) μηδὲ ὀνόματι λέγεσθαι. PG 60: 13‐384. T.22 4 C.E. Cappadocia Asia Minor St. Basil the Great. Historia Mystagogica Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy? Theological τὸ κιβούριὁν ἐστι ἀντὶ τοῦ τόπου ἔνθα ἐσταυρώθη ὁ Χριστός∙ ἐγγὺς γὰρ ἦν ἦ τόπος καὶ ὑπόβαθρος ὅπου ἐτάφη … ἔστι δέ καὶ κατὰ τὴν κιβωτὸν τῆς διαθήκης κυρίου ἐν ᾗ λέγεται ἅγια ἁγίων … ἐν ᾗ προσέταξεν ὁ θεὸς γενέσθαι δύο χερουβὶμ … τὸ γὰρ κιβ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ οὖριν … φῶς κυρίου Bas. Historia Mystagogica 4:258.18 T.23 4 C.E. Pergamon, Anatolia Oribasius Med., Collectiones medicae (lib. 1‐16, 24‐25, 43‐50). Book 12 ch. nu* sec. 6 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans ὁ δὲ καυλὸς οὐ λεῖος, παχύς, μέλας, ὅμοιος τῷ τοῦ κιβωρίου∙ ῥίζα μέλαινα, παχεῖα, ῥοπαλοειδής, ἥτις τέμνεται φθινοπώρῳ. J. Raeder, Oribasii collectionum medicarum reliquiae, vols. 1‐4 [CMG 6.1.1‐6.2.2. Leipzig: Teubner, 6.1.1:1928; 6.1.2:1929; 6.2.1:1931; 6.2.2:1933]: 6.1.1:4‐27, 30‐65, 67‐91, 93‐109, 111‐153, 155‐192, 194‐245, 247‐300; 6.1.2:4‐237, 239‐297, 298; 6.2.1:4‐291; 6.2.2:4‐69. T.24 4‐6 C.E. Egypt, Palestine
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Marcus Eremita. De baptismo Sec. 4 line 91. Καταπετάσματα – baptistry canopy? Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ ναὸς οὗτος τὸ ἐσώτερον τοῦ καταπετάσματος, (90) ὅπου πρόδρομος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν εἰσῆλθεν Ἰησοῦς, καὶ οἰκεῖ ἐν ἡμῖν κατὰ τὸν Ἀπόστολον λέγοντα∙ «Ἢ οὐκ ἐπιγινώσκετε ὅτι Χριστὸς οἰκεῖ ἐν ὑμῖν, εἰ μήτι ἄρα ἀδόκιμοί ἐστε;»∙ ὅπερ ἐστὶ τὸ ἐνδότατον καὶ ἀπόκρυφον καὶ εἰλικρινὲς χώρημα τῆς καρδίας, ὃ εἰ μὴ διὰ Θεοῦ καθολικῆς (95) καὶ νοερᾶς ἐλπίδος ἀνοιγῇ, οὐκ ἔστι βεβαίως ἐπιγνῶναι τὸν ἐνοικοῦντα, οὔτε εἰδέναι εἰ προσεδέχθησαν ἡμῶν αἱ λογικαὶ θυσίαι ἢ οὔ. G.‐M. de Durand, Traités I [SC 445. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1999]: 296‐396. T.25 5 C.E. St. Ursiana church, Ravenna Altar canopy, made of silver and replaced by wooden canopy; Agnellus XXVI, De Victor c. 66: He [Victor] also made a silver ciborium of wonderful workmanship above the altar of the holy Ursiana church, so named after the person who built it. Some say that he did this in conjunction with the people, while others say that the orthodox emperor Justinian, the elder, acting on a suggestion, decided that he should do such a work and offered his help. Moved by charity, he bestowed upon the blessed Victor the entire tax‐revenue of Italy for one year. When he [Victor] had received this, he removed the old wooden ciborium and made the one you see now, constructed of 2,000 Ibs. of silver, accurately weighed. Upon the arches of the ciborium are written the following verses: ʺThis vow Victor the priest together with his flock absolved unto Christ; Victor who by his love increased the faith of the people....ʺ From the remainder he made various vessels for the bishopʹs table, some of which remain to the present day. He also made for the altar of the holy Ursiana church a cloth (endothim) of pure gold and silken thread, very heavy, having a shell (cocca) in the center. Among the five images that are on it we recognised his own, while under the representation of the Saviourʹs feet the following inscription is woven in purple: ʺVictor the bishop, servant of God, offered this adornment for the day of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ, in the fifth year of his ordination.ʺ Translation: Mango SD 105. T.26 5 C.E. Antioch Theodoretus of Cyrrhus (Cyrus). Historia Ecclesiastica Imperial hangings around the altar in the Anastasis Basilica in Jerusalem Διεκοσμεῖτο δὲ καὶ τὸ θεῖον θυσιαστήριον βασιλικοῖς τε παραπετάσμασι, καὶ κειμηλίοιςλιθοκολλήτοις χρισοῖς. PG 82 988C T.27 5 C.E. Seleucia, Isauria Basilius Seleuciensis De vita et miraculis sanctae Theclae libri ii. Book 2 sec.30 κοινὸν ‐ Saintly shrine; Canopy over St. Thecla shrine connected to the concept of oikos [κοινὸν τάφοις καὶ εὐκτηρίοις οἴκοις] Μήτε γὰρ εἶναί τι κοινὸν τάφοις καὶ εὐκτηρίοις οἴκοις, πλὴν εἰ μή τις ἄρα καὶ νεκρὸς γεγονὼς μὴ εἴη νεκρός, ἀλλὰ ζῇ τε τῷ Θεῷ καὶ ἄξιος ᾖ (35) τοῦ καὶ μάρτυσιν συνοικεῖν καὶ
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ὁμοστεγεῖν, ὡς Συμπόσιος ἐκεῖνος ὁ θεσπέσιος, ὡς Σάμος ἐκεῖνος ὁ θεῖος ἀνήρ, ὡς εἴ τις ἄλλος παραπλήσιος ἐκείνοις. Book 1 section 28: ἐν ᾧπερ τόπῳ ἡ θεία καὶ ἱερὰ καὶ λειτουργικὴ πέπηγε τράπεζα, ἐν περιστύλῳ καὶ (10) ἀγυροφεγγεῖ καθιδρυμένη κύκλῳ, καὶ παντὸς μὲν πάθους, πάσης δὲ ἀρρωστίας αὐτόθεν ἀφιεῖσα πηγὰς ἰαμάτων, ὥσπερ ἔκ τινος ὑδρορρόης τῆς παρθενικῆς χάριτος ἐκεῖθεν ἐπαντλούσης τοῖς αἰτοῦσι καὶ δεομένοις ἰάματα∙ ὡς εἶναι πάνδημον ἰατρεῖον τὸν τόπον, καὶ κοινὸν καθεστάναι τῆς γῆς ἁπάσης ἱλαστήριον. Τὸν (15) γοῦν ναὸν αὐτῆς ἤγουν καὶ πόλιν—καὶ γὰρ εἰς πόλεως λοιπὸν περιελήλαται καὶ σχῆμα καὶ χρείαν καὶ κάλλος—οὐκ ἂν εὕροις χωρὶς ἀστῶν ἢ ξένων ποτέ, πάντων πάντοθεν ἐπιρρεόντων εἰς αὐτήν, τῶν μὲν ἐπὶ τιμῇ καὶ εὐχῇ μόνον, καί τι τῶν οἰκείων ἀναθεῖναι αὐτῇ καὶ ἀνιερῶσαι σπουδαζόντων, τῶν δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ θεραπείᾳ καὶ (20) βοηθείᾳ τῶν συνεχόντων αὐτοὺς παθῶν καὶ ἀλγημάτων ἢ καὶ δαιμόνων. G. Dagron, Vie et miracles de sainte Thècle [SH 62. Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1978]: 168‐ 412. T.28 5 C.E. Monastery of Rufinianae, near Bosphoros Callinicus, Vita sancti Hypatii. Ch. 28 sec. 3 Κιβώριον‐ shrine? Ἑώρακα ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ νυκτὶ τὴν γυναῖκα ἔξω τοῦ πυλῶνος καθεζομένην καὶ τὸν διάβολον ἀπὸ ὀλίγου διαστήματος αὐτῆς ἐν κιβωρίῳ καθεζόμενον σχήματι βασιλικῷ καὶ πολλῶν δαιμόνων ἔχοντα παράστασιν. G.J.M. Bartelink, Callinicos. Vie dʹHypatios [SC 177. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1971]: 62‐298. T.29 5 C.E. Gaza Marcus Diaconus Scr. Eccl., Vita Porphyrii episcopi Gazensis Chapter 75 line 15 Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine? … Συνεβούλευον οὖν τινες κτισθῆναι αὐτὴν κατὰ τὴν θέσιν τοῦ καυθέντος εἰδωλείου∙ στρογγυλοειδὲς γὰρ ὑπῆρχεν, περιβεβλημένον δυσὶν στοαῖς ἀλληλοεσωτέραις, τὸ δὲ μέσον αὐτοῦ ἦν ἀναφυσητὸν κιβώριον καὶ ἀνατεταμένον (15) εἰς ὕψος, εἶχεν δὲ καὶ ἄλλα τινὰ ἃ τοῖς εἰδώλοις ἔπρεπεν, εὔθετα δὲ πρὸς τὰ γινόμενα παρὰ τῶν εἰδωλομανῶν μυσαρά τε καὶ ἀθέμιτα. H. Gregoire and M.‐A. Kugener, Marc le Diacre. Vie de Porphyre, évêque de Gaza. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1930: 1‐79. T.30 Post 5 C.E. Catenae (Novum Testamentum), Catena in Acta κιβώρια μικρὰ‐Chalices or shrines, on page 320 line 31 {Τοῦ Χρυσοστόμου.} Τήν τε παρουσίαν ἀπαγγεῖλαι, καὶ προθυμοτέρους ποιοῦντας, μάλιστα πάντων τῇ Ἀσίᾳ ἐνδιατρίβει∙εἰκότως (25) ἐκεῖ γὰρ ἦν τυραννὶς τῶν φιλοσόφων∙ καὶ ἐλθὼν πάλιν αὐτοῖς διελέγετο∙ καὶ γὰρ πολλὴ ἦν ἡ δεισιδαιμονία. Ἀποστείλας δὲ εἰς
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Μακεδονίαν δύο τῶν διακονούντων αὐτῷ, Τιμόθεον καὶ Ἔραστον, αὐτὸς ἐπέσχε χρόνον εἰς τὴν Ἀσίαν. (30) {Τοῦ αὐτοῦ.} Ἴσως ὡς κιβώρια μικρὰ πολλὴ ταύτης ἡ τιμὴ ἐν Ἐφέσῳ∙ὅπου καὶ τὸ ἱερὸν αὐτῶν ἔμπροσθεν οὕτως ἐλύπησεν αὐτοὺς, ὡς τὸν ἐμπρήσαντα κελεῦσαι μηδὲ ὀνόματι λέγεσθαι∙… (321.) … πανταχοῦ τὴν εἰδωλολατρίαν ἀπὸ χρημάτων∙καὶ οὗτος διὰ χρήματα, οὐ τῆς εὐσεβείας κινδυνευούσης αὐτοῖς, ἀλλ’ ὡς τοῦ πορισμοῦ τὴν ὑπόθεσιν οὐκ ἔχοντος. J.A. Cramer, Catenae Graecorum patrum in Novum Testamentum, vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1838 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1967): 1‐424. T. 31 498‐514 Rome κιβωρια μικρά LIII. Sanctus Symmachus. Anno Christi 498, Anastasii Imp. 8 Theodor. Regis 5. ...ἔνι ναούς ἀργυροῦς γένεται, ἴσως ὡς κιβωρια μικρά; et quomodo possibile erat fieri delubra argentea, forte aediculas... T.32 6 C.E. Jerusalem Sophronius, Historia liturg.2 Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy? Ὁ κιβώριός στιν εἰς τύπον τῆς κιβωτοῦ τοῦ Νῶε τὸ μὲν κιβ κιβωτός τὸ δὲ ὥριον τουτέστι διάταξις αὐτοῦ. … Ὁ κιβώριός ἐστιν εἰς τύπον τῆς κιβωτοῦ ˙ τὰ δέ παρακιόνα κατὰ μίμησιν τῶν τεσσάρων ζώων τῶν ὀφθέντων τῷ προφήτῃ. PG 87: 3984. T.33 6 C.E. Antioch John Malalas, Chronographia Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy Ἐν αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ χρόνῳ φιλοκαλουμένου τοῦ τρούλλου τῆς μεγάλης ἐκκλησίας, ῥήξας γὰρ ἦν εἰς φανεροὺς τόπους ἐκ τῶν γεγονότων (20) (490.) κατὰ φιλανθρωπίαν θεοῦ φόβων, αἰφνιδίως ἐργαζομένων τῶν Ἰσαύρων ἔπεσε τὸ ἀνατολικὸν μέρος τῆς προϋποστολῆς, καὶ συνέτριψε τὸ κιβούριον σὺν τῇ ἁγίᾳ τραπέζῃ. κατηνέχθη δὲ καὶ τὸ λοιπὸν μέρος τὸ ἀπομεῖναν καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ εἰλήματα ἐκτίσθη δὲ ὁ αὐτὸς τροῦλλος ὑψωθεὶς ἐπὶ πόδας εἴκοσι.(5) PG 18. 708B T.34 5‐6 C.E. Joannes Malalas Chronogr., Chronographia. 232:19. τετρακίονος ...ἐχούσης Ἀμαλθείας κέρας ἔμπροσθεν αὐτῆς. καὶ ποιήσας ἐκεῖ τετρακιόνιν ἐν ὕψει ἔστησεν αὐτὴν τὴν τύχην, καταστήσας ἔμπροσθεν αὐτῆς βωμὸν ὑψηλόν∙ ἥντινα στήλην
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τῆς τύχης μετὰ τελευτὴν Σελεύκου Δημήτριος ὁ υἱὸς Ἀντιγόνου τοῦ Πολιορκητοῦ ἀπήγαγεν ἐν Ῥώσῳ ἐν τῇ πόλει τῆς Κιλικίας. ἡ δὲ αὐτὴ (10) πόλις Ῥῶσος ἐκτίσθη ὑπὸ Κίλικος τοῦ υἱοῦ Ἀγήνορος. L. Dindorf, Ioannis Malalae chronographia [CSHB. Bonn: Weber, 1831]: 23‐496. T.35 6 C.E. Antioch Joannes Malalas Chronogr., Chronographia. Τετραπύλον Page 223 line 3 Ἐκεῖθεν δὲ ἐξελθὼν ὁ Αὔγουστος κατέλαβε τὴν Λαοδικέων (223.) πόλιν τῆς Συρίας∙ καὶ ἔκτισεν ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ πόλει θέατρον μέγα πάνυ, στήσας ἑαυτῷ ἐκεῖ στήλην μαρμαρίνην. ἔκτισε δὲ ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ πόλει καὶ τὸ μέγα τετράπυλον, ὄντα μικρόν∙ καὶ κοσμήσας αὐτὸ κίοσι καὶ μαρμάροις ἀνοικοδομήσας καὶ μουσώσας ἐθριάμβευσεν ἐν αὐτῷ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ νίκην, στήσας ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ τετραπύλῳ (5) στήλην χαλκῆν μετὰ τεσσάρων ἵππων. Cf. Page 232 line 19. Καὶ ἀνιὼν ἐπὶ τὴν Ῥώμην ἦλθεν ἐν Ἀντιοχείᾳ τῇ μεγάλῃ, καὶ ἔκτισεν ἔξω τῆς πόλεως ἐμβόλους δύο μεγάλους πρὸς τῷ ὄρει τῷ λεγομένῳ Σιλπίῳ, ἔχοντας διαστήματα μιλίων δʹ, ὑπορόφους καὶ πανευπρεπεῖς. καὶ κατὰ ῥύμην κτίσας τετράπυλα διὰ εἰλημάτων, φιλοκαλήσας αὐτὰ μουσώσει καὶ μαρμάροις, καὶ (20) τὴν πλατεῖαν δὲ χαλκουργήμασι καὶ ἀγάλμασι κοσμήσας καὶ τειχίσας τοὺς αὐτοὺς ἐμβόλους καὶ τὸ ὄρος ἀποκλείσας ἔσωθεν … L. Dindorf, Ioannis Malalae chronographia [CSHB. Bonn: Weber, 1831]: 23‐496. T.36 6 C.E. Antioch Joannes Malalas Chronogr., Chronographia Page 397 line 16 Τετραπύλον … καὶ παραλαβόντες τὴν Ῥουφίνου βασιλικὴν καὶ τὴν λεγομένην Ζηνοδότου ἔβαλον πῦρ, καὶ ἐκαύθη (15) πᾶσα ἡ Ῥουφίνου καὶ τὰ δύο τετράπυλα τὰ ἐντεῦθεν κἀκεῖθεν καὶ τὸ πραιτώριον τοῦ κόμητος τῆς ἀνατολῆς, καὶ πάντα κατηνέχθη ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς διαφθαρέντα. καὶ ἔφυγεν ὁ κόμης τῆς ἀνατολῆς εἰς Ἀλεξάνδρειαν τὴν Καμβύσου. καὶ πιάσαντες οἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ Πρασίνου μέρους τὸν νυκτέπαρχον Μηνᾶν καὶ ἀνακείραντες (20) αὐτόν, ἐξέβαλον τὰ συκότια αὐτοῦ. καὶ μετὰ τὸ σῦραι τὸ λείψανον αὐτοῦ ἐκρέμασαν αὐτὸ ἐν τῷ ἑστῶτι χαλκῷ ἀνδριάντι τῷ λεγομένῳ Κολονισίῳ τὸ μέσον τοῦ ἀντιφόρου∙ καὶ μεταγαγόντες (398.) τὸ λείψανον, σύραντες ἔξω τῆς πόλεως Ἀντιοχείας ἔκαυσαν φρυγάνοις. L. Dindorf, Ioannis Malalae chronographia [CSHB. Bonn: Weber, 1831]: 23‐496. T.37 6 C.E. Antioch Evagrius Scholasticus Scr. Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica. 56:20. Τετραπύλον
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ἔνιοι τῶν Ἀλεξανδρέων παροτρύνοντος Τιμοθέου, ὡς ἐγράφη τῷ Λέοντι, ἐπελθόντες τὸν Προτέριον διαχειρίζονται, ξίφους κατὰ τῶν σπλάγχνων ὠσθέντος, κατὰ τὸ πανάγιον βαπτιστήριον καταπεφευγότα∙ ὃν καὶ καλωδίῳ περιαρτήσαντες ἀνὰ τὸ καλούμενον Τετράπυλον (20) τοῖς πᾶσιν ἐπεδείκνυον, ἐπιτωθάζοντές τε καὶ κραυγά ζοντες Προτέριον εἶναι τὸν ἀνῃρημένον. J. Bidez and L. Parmentier, The ecclesiastical history of Evagrius with the scholia. London: Methuen, 1898 (repr. 1979): 5‐241. T.38 6 C.E. Syria Evagrius Scholasticus Scr. Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica. 125:4 Τετραπύλον – reference to the earthquake which destroyed tetrapylon of Mamianus in Antioch Τοῦ δὲ τετραπύλου τοῦ ὑπὸ Μαμιανοῦ γεγενημένου οὐδὲ ψιλὸν ἴχνος κατειλήφαμεν. J. Bidez and L. Parmentier, The ecclesiastical history of Evagrius with the scholia. London: Methuen, 1898 (repr. 1979): 5‐241. T.39 6 C.E. Syria Evagrius Scholasticus Scr. Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica. 5.21 παραπέτασμα ‐altar canopy? Curtains around the altar table, possibly from the altar canopy 21. Γεγόνασι δὲ καὶ θεοσημεῖαι τὴν βασιλείαν αὐτῷ (15) προφητεύουσαι. Πόρρω γὰρ τῶν νυκτῶν ἐπιθυμιῶντί γε αὐτῷ τῶν ἀνακτόρων εἴσω τοῦ ἱεροῦ οἴκου τῆς ἁγίας καὶ πανάγνου παρθένου καὶ θεοτόκου Μαρίας, ὃς πρὸς τῶν Θεουπολιτῶν Ἰουστινιανοῦ προσηγόρευται, τὸ ἀμφὶ τὴν ἱερὰν τράπεζαν παραπέτασμα πυρίφλεκτον γέγονεν, ὡς (20) καὶ πρὸς ἔκπληξιν καὶ θάμβος ἐλθεῖν τὸν Μαυρίκιον καὶ δεῖσαι τὸ ὅραμα∙ J. Bidez and L. Parmentier, The ecclesiastical history of Evagrius with the scholia. London: Methuen, 1898 (repr. 1979): 5‐241. T.40 6 C.E. Constantinople Paul the Silentary. Descriptio S. Sophiae πύργος ‐ Altar canopy in Hagia Sophia Χρυσείς δ’ἐφύπερθε παναχράντοιο τραπέζης ῎Ασπετος εὐρυκέλευθον ες ἠέρα πύργος ἀνέστη, Τετραπόροις ἁΐψισιν ἐπ’ἀργυρέῃσι βεβηκώς. Κίοσι δ’ἀργυρέῃσιν ἀείρεται, ὧν ἐπὶ χόρσης ’Αργυρέους ἵδρυσε πόδας τετράζυγος ἁψίς. SD (1972) 88. Full description of the altar canopy: Χρυσείης δ’ ἐφύπερθε παναχράντοιο τραπέζης (720) ἄσπετος εὐρυκέλευθον ἐς ἠέρα πύργος ἀνέστη, τετραπόροις ἁψῖσιν ἐπ’ ἀργυρέηισι βεβηκώς. κίοσι δ’ ἀργυρέηισιν ἀείρεται, ὧν ἐπὶ κόρσης ἀργυρέους ἵδρυσε πόδας τετράζυγος ἁψίς. ὑψόθι θ’ ἀψίδων ἀνατείνεται οἷά τε κώνου (725) εἴκελον, ἀλλ’ οὐ πάμπαν ὁμοίιον∙ οὐ γὰρ ἑλίσσει νειόθεν εὐκύκλοιο περίτροχον ἄντυγα πέζης, ἀλλά τις ὀκτάπλευρος ἔφυ βάσις, ἐκ δὲ κελεύθου
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εὐρυτέρης κατὰ βαιὸν ἐς ὀξυκόρυμβον ἀνέρπει, ὀκτὼ δ’ ἀργυρέας τανύει πλάκας∙ ἁρμονίης δὲ (730) ζευγνυμένης δολιχὴ ῥάχις ἵσταται∙αἱ δὲ τριγώνοις εἰδόμεναι μίσγουσι πόρους ὀκτάζυγος οἴμου εἰς ἓν ἀγειρομένους κορυφῆς σημήϊον ἄκρης∙ὁππόθι καὶ κρητῆρος ὑπήραρεν εἰκόνα τέχνη χείλεά τε κρητῆρος ὑποκλασθέντα πετήλων (735) εἶδος ἐμορφώσαντο. μέσωι δ’ ἐνεθήκατο χώρωι εἶδος ἐμορφώσαντο. μέσωι δ’ ἐνεθήκατο χώρωι ἀργύρεον στίλβοντα πόλου τύπον∙ ὑψόθι δ’ αὐτοῦ σταυρὸς ὑπερτέλλων ἀναφαίνεται∙ ἵλαος εἴη. ἁψίδων δ’ ἐφύπερθεν ἕλιξ πολύκεστος ἀκάνθης πέζα διερπύζει νέατον περὶ πυθμένα κώνου. (740) ὀρθοτενεῖς ἀκτῖνας, ἴσας εὐώδεϊ καρπῶι ὄγχνης καλλικόμοιο, διακριδὸν ὑψόθι φαίνει λαμπομένας σελάεσσιν, ὑπερτέλλουσι δὲ πέζης. ὁππόθι δ’ ἀλλήλοισιν ἀρηρότα πείρατα πέζης ἁρμονίην τεύχουσιν, ἐνιδρύσαντο παγέντας (745) ἀργυρέους κρητῆρας. ἐπὶ κρητῆρι δ’ ἑκάστωι πυρσοφόρους στήσαντο, λιπαυγέα δείκελα κηροῦ, κόσμον ἀπαγγέλλοντα καὶ οὐ φάος∙ ἀργυρέοις γὰρ πάντοθι τορνωθέντα περιστίλβουσι μετάλλοις φαιδρὰ λεαινομένοισιν∙ ἀπυρσεύτωι δ’ ἀμαρυγῆι (750) ἀργυρέην ἀκτῖνα καὶ οὐ φλόγα κηρὸς ἰάλλει. κίοσι δὲ χρυσέαις ἱερῆς πάγχρυσα τραπέζης νῶτα κατηρείσαντο, κατὰ χρυσέων δὲ θεμείλων ἵσταται, ἀφνειῶν δὲ λίθων ποικίλλεται αἴγληι. PG 310. 86, cols. 2147‐48. 720ff. T.41 6 C.E. Amidenus Aëtius. Iatricorum libri i‐vi Iatricorum liber i. Ch. 199 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans (199.) Κιβώριον. Τὸν χλωρὸν καρπὸν τῶν αἰγυπτίων κυάμων καλοῦι κιβώριον, ὅθεν ἐκ τοῦ περὶ κυάμων λόγου καὶ περὶ τούτου δεῖ κοπεῖθαι. A. Olivieri, Aëtii Amideni libri medicinales i‐iv [CMG 8.1. Leipzig: Teubner, 1935]: 17‐146. T.42 6 C.E. Constantinople Stephanus Gramm. Byzantius, Ethnica Page 60 line2 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans (60.) ὁπόσας γὰρ ἄν τις ἀποκείρῃ, φύονται αὖθις ἕτεραι. κολοκάσιον μέντοι καλοῦσι τὴν ῥίζαν, τὸ δ’ ὑπερπεφυκὸς κιβώριον, ὄψιν ἡδεῖαν ἐδωδίμους τε τὰς φλέβας παρέχον Αἰγυπτίοις.“ A. Meineke, Stephan von Byzanz. Ethnika. Berlin: Reimer, 1849 (repr. 1958): 1‐713 T.43 6 C.E. Athens Simplicius Phil., In Aristotelis quattuor libros de caelo commentaria. Vol. 7 417:9. Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans … οἷον εἰς φύλλον λαχάνου ἢ δένδρου ἢ τῶν Νειλῴων κιβωρίων, συστρεφομένας καὶ σφαιρουμένας ἠρεμεῖν∙ J.L. Heiberg, Simplicii in Aristotelis de caelo commentaria [Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca 7. Berlin: Reimer, 1894]: 1‐361, 365‐731.
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T.44 6 C.E. Alexandria Cosmas Indicopleustes Geogr., Topographia Christiana. Book 2 sec. 81 line 7 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Καὶ οὗτος δὲ ὁ ποταμὸς καὶ κιβώρια ἔχει καὶ τὰ καλούμενα νειλαγαθία καὶ φύλλα καὶ λωτάρια καὶ κροκοδείλους καὶ ἕτερα, ἃ ἔχει ὁ Νεῖλος. W. Wolska‐Conus, Cosmas Indicopleustès. Topographie chrétienne, 3 vols. [SC 141, 159, 197. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1:1968; 2:1970; 3:1973]: 1:255‐569: 2:13‐373; 3:13‐381. T.45 6 C.E. Alexandria Hesychius Lexicogr., Lexicon. Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans and a chalice Alphabetic letter kappa entry 2603 line 1: κιβώριον∙ Αἰγύπτιον ὄνομα ἐπὶ ποτηρίου .. Alphabetic letter kappa entry 4338 line 3: καὶ τὸ Αἰγύπτιον κιβώριον λεγόμενον καὶ κολοκάσιον K. Latte, Hesychii Alexandrini lexicon, vols. 1‐2. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1:1953; 2:1966: 1:3‐ 492; 2:1‐806. T.46 6 C.E. Alexandria Hesychius Lexicogr., Lexicon. κιβώτον ‐Saintly tomb Alphabetic letter kappa entry 2604 line 1: κιβωτός∙ λάρναξ vg ξυλίνη. ἢ σορός K. Latte, Hesychii Alexandrini lexicon, vols. 1‐2. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1:1953; 2:1966: 1:3‐ 492; 2:1‐806. T.47 6 C.E. 516 St. Drosis in Antioch Patriarch Severus. Les Homilae Cathedrales de Sévère d’Antioche. Homélies VCIX CIII: Hemisphaira‐Altar canopy … the silver columns placed about the altar which support the cupola (hemisphaira) placed upon their capitals which is ... simply decorated by the iron bars as in a symbolic representation, but which has not been covered in silver. Mundell‐Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136. T.48 6‐10 C.E. Vitae Symeonis Stylitae Junioris. Ch 129 line 107. Καταπετάσματα
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…Καὶ ἰδοὺ ἀπὸ τῆς δεξιᾶς γωνίας τοῦ ἀφηλιώτου αὔρα σιγηρὰ ἦλθεν, καὶ ἰδοὺ ὡς εἶδος τοῦ στερεώματος (105) καὶ ὡς εἶδος σαπφείρου ἐπὶ νώτου καὶ χειρῶν τεσσάρων ἀνδρῶν κατασειόντων ὡς ἐπὶ τοῦ καταπετάσματος τοῦ θυσιαστηρίου καὶ ἐν φόβῳ ἀρρήτῳ πετομένων∙ τὸ δὲ ὑπεράνω αὐτῶν στρογγυλοειδὲς ἦν, ἀνανεῦον καὶ καλύπτον τὸν καθήμενον∙ P. van den Ven, La vie ancienne de S. Syméon Stylite le jeune (521‐592) [SH 32. Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1962]: 1‐224. T.49 7 C.E. Cathedral of Edessa Chronicon ad ann. Christi 1234 pertinens (Dedicatory hymn of 622 recorded in Chronicle of 1234) Altar canopy made of silver Mundell‐Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136 K.E. McVey, “The Domed Church as Microcosm: Literary Roots of an Architectural Symbol,” DOP 37 (1983) 91‐121 T.50 7 CE Emperor Maurice (r. 582‐602) sent an entire altar canopy in pieces from Constantinople to the church in his native town, Arabissos in Cappadocia. V. Ruggieri, S.J. Byzantine Religious Architecture (582‐867): Its History and Structural Elements, OCA 237 (1991) 166, with further references. T.51 7 CE Cyprus Leontius Episcope Scr. Eccl., Hagiogr. Vita Joannis Eleemosynarii episcopi Alexandrini. Page 360 line 6 Καταπετάσματα ‐Katapesmata in reference to sanctuary Ὡς οὖν ἡ ἁγία κυριακὴ κατέλαβεν καὶ τῷ ἁγίῳ καὶ φοβερῷ θυσιαστηρίῳ παρέστη—αὐτὸς γὰρ καὶ τὴν ἀναίμακτον θυσίαν προσφέρειν ἔμελλεν—ἤδη λοιπὸν τοῦ διακόνου τὴν καθολικὴν ὑπάγοντος πληρῶσαι καὶ (5) τοῦ ἁγίου καταπετάσματος ὑψοῦσθαι μέλλοντος, εἰς ἔννοιαν τοῦ μιμητοῦ ἀληθῶς τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ μαθητοῦ ὑπηκόου ὁ μνησικακῶν αὐτῷ ἀνῆλθεν καὶ εὐθέως ἐκείνου τοῦ θείου προστάγματος μνημονεύσας τοῦ φάσκοντος «Ἐὰν προσφέρῃς τὸ δῶρόν σου ἐπὶ τὸ θυσιαστήριον κἀκεῖ μνησθῇς ὅτι ὁ ἀδελφός σου ἔχει τι κατὰ σοῦ, ἄφες σου τὸ δῶρον ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ θυσιαστηρίου (10) καὶ ὕπαγε, πρότερον διαλλάγηθι τῷ ἀδελφῷ σου καὶ τότε ἐλθὼν πρόσφερε τὸ δῶρόν σου», δηλοῖ τῷ τὴν διακονικὴν εὐχὴν ἤδη λοιπὸν παρ’ ὀλίγον πληρώσαντι διακόνῳ ἀναλαβέσθαι ἐξ ἀρχῆς, καὶ ἐὰν τελειώσῃ πάλιν ἀναλαβέσθαι, ἄχρις οὗ ἂν φθάσῃ ἡ αὐτοῦ πανάρετος ἁγιωσύνη∙προσεποιήσατο γὰρ τὴν γαστέρα αὐτοῦ νύξασαν αὐτόν. A.‐J. Festugière and L. Rydén, Léontios de Néapolis, Vie de Syméon le Fou et Vie de Jean de Chypre [Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 95. Paris: Geuthner, 1974]: 343‐409. T.52 7 C.E. Thessaloniki Joannes I Scr. Eccl. et Hagiogr., Miracula sancti Demetrii.
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Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine Miracle 1 page 66 line 24. Ὁ δὲ φορέσας, καὶ μηδὲ παρά τινος ὑποστηριζόμενος, ἄπεισιν εἰς τὸ λεγόμενον κιβώριον τὸ ἀργυροῦν τοῦ ἁγίου καὶ πανενδόξου μάρτυρος Δημητρίου, ἔνθα φασί τινες κεῖσθαι ὑπὸ γῆν τὸ πανάγιον αὐτοῦ λείψανον. Miracle 6 page 93 lines 2ff. Περὶ τοῦ ἀργυρέου θρόνου (2t) [55] Τοῦ φιλαλήθους τούτου ἀρχιερέως ἀκηκόαμεν καὶ τοῦτο διηγουμένου, διὰ (3) μεγίστην τοῦ ἀθλοφόρου πρόνοιαν καὶ κηδεμονίαν τῆς πόλεως, ἣν θεοῦ βουλήσει ἐν τοῖς κατόπιν ἡμεῖς διασαφηνίσαι σπουδάσομεν. Συνέβη, φησί, τὸ ἐν τῷ παναγίῳ (5) αὐτοῦ τεμένει κιβώριον, ὅλον ὑπάρχον ἐξ ἀργύρου λελαμπρυμένον, ἐμπρησθῆναι νυκτός, ὡς διαλυθῆναι πάντα τὸν ἄργυρον, καί τι μέρος αὐτοῦ μειωθῆναι. Ὁ γοῦν εἰρημένος ὁσιώτατος ἀρχιεπίσκοπος, σπεύδων ἐκ καινῆς κατασκευάσαι τὸ προλεχθὲν ἅγιον κιβώριον, καὶ μὴ εὑρίσκων ἀναλογοῦσαν τὴν ὁλκὴν τοῦ χωνευθέντος ἀργύρου πρὸς τὴν τοῦ παντὸς ἔργου συμπλήρωσιν, ἐβουλεύετο τὸν ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ πανσέπτῳ (10) ναῷ ἀργύρεον θρόνον λῦσαι, καὶ ἀποτελέσαι ὡς ἀναγκαιοτέραν τὴν τοῦ λεχθέντος κιβωρίου κατασκευήν, διότι καὶ τὸ ἡγιασμένον μνημεῖον τοῦ μάρτυρος λέγεται περιέχειν, ἄλλως δὲ καὶ τοῦ παντὸς οἴκου ἐτύγχανεν ὡς ἀληθῶς μεγίστη εὐπρέπεια. [56] Καὶ δὴ ταύτην αὐτοῦ στήσαντος παρ’ ἑαυτῷ μηδενὸς ἄλλου εἰδότος τὴν βουλήν, οὐδὲ γὰρ ἄλλη πρόφασις ὑπῆν ὅθεν τὸ λεῖπον τοῦ ἀργύρου τὴν ἀναπλήρωσιν δέξηται, (15) φαίνεται κατ’ ὄναρ ὁ πάντων ἡμῶν ἀρωγός, ὁ μέγας τοῦ Χριστοῦ μάρτυς Δημήτριος, ἀνδρί τινι καλλίστῳ τὸν βίον καὶ τῆς τοῦ πρεσβυτερίου κατηξιωμένῳ τιμῆς, τοὔνομα Δημητρίῳ, λέγων∙ «Ἄπελθε λάλησον τῷ ἐπισκόπῳ τῆς πόλεως∙ ‘μὴ τολμήσῃς λῦσαι τὸν θρόνον τοῦ οἴκου μου’.» Καὶ δὴ τοῦτο πράξαντος τοῦ πρεσβυτέρου, πρῶτον μὲν ὁ ἀρχιερεὺς κατεπλάγη διὰ τὸ φανερωθῆναι αὐτοῦ τὴν ἐνθύμησιν∙ (20) οὐδεὶς γάρ, ὡς εἶπον, ἄλλος ἠπίστατο τὸ κρυπτῶς αὐτῷ βεβουλευμένον. Miracle 10 page 115 line 3ff. Τοῦτο δὴ τὸ θεοδώρητον τέχνασμα κατὰ τοὺς ὕπνους ὁ ἀνὴρ ἐν τῷ ναῷ θεασάμενος, τὸ παρ’ ἡμῖν καλούμενον ἡγιασμένον κιβώριον, ἐπηρώτα δῆθεν τοὺς πλησίον∙ «Τὸ τοῦτο, ἀδελφοί, τὸ καινοθαύμαστον ποίημα κατὰ τὸ μῆκος τοῦ (5) ναοῦ μέσον ἐφίδρυται; οὐ γὰρ ἂν ταύτην εἰλήχει τὴν χώραν εἰ μὴ μεγάλης τινὸς ἠξίωτο τῆς προφάσεως.» Τῶν δὲ φησάντων ὡς «Ἐκεῖσε παρὰ τῶν πατέρων ἠκούσαμεν κεῖσθαι θεοπρεπῶς τὸν ὑπερένδοξον ἀθλοφόρον Δημήτριον—Ἐπεθύμουν, ἔφη ὁ ἀνήρ, τῆς κατὰ τὸ ἔνδον ὁράσεως.» Οἱ δὲ ὑπεδείκνυον αὐτῷ τὸν πρὸς ταῖς ἀργυραῖς θύραις ἱστάμενον ὑπηρέτην, μὴ ἄνευ τούτου φάσκοντες οἷόν τε εἶναί τινα (10) τῶν ἔνδον τυχεῖν. ᾯ καὶ προσελθὼν ὁ ἀνὴρ ἠξίου ἀνοιγῆναι αὐτῷ προσκυνῆσαι βουλομένῳ καὶ ἁγιασθῆναι τῇ θεοπαρόχῳ τοῦ μνήματος χάριτι. [89] Τοῦ δὲ διανοίξαντος τὰς θύρας, μήπω εἰσελθὼν ὁ ἀνὴρ εἶδε μὲν τὸ καὶ ἡμῖν ὁρώμενον ἀργύρεον κατὰ τὸ μέσον ἱδρυμένον ὥσπερ σκιμπόδιον, οὗ κατὰ τὸ πρὸς κεφαλῆς μέρος θρόνον τινὰ λαμπρὸν ἐκ χρυσίου καὶ λίθων πολυτελῶν κατεσκευασμένον, (15) καὶ τὸν πανένδοξον ἀθλοφόρον τοῦ Χριστοῦ Δημήτριον ἐφεζόμενον οὕτως ὁποίῳ σχήματι κατὰ τὰς εἰκόνας ἐγγράφεται∙ κατὰ δὲ τὸ πρὸς τοῖς ποσὶ τοῦ κραββάτου μέρος ἕτερον θρόνον, λαμπρὸν μὲν καὶ αὐτόν, ἐξ ἀργύρου δὲ πάντα συγκείμενον, ἐφ’ ᾧ καθεζομένην ὁρᾷ γυναῖκά τινα εὐπρεπεστάτην καὶ κοσμίαν ἰδέσθαι, σεμνοφανῶς ἐφ’ ᾧ καθεζομένην ὁρᾷ γυναῖκά τινα εὐπρεπεστάτην καὶ κοσμίαν ἰδέσθαι,
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σεμνοφανῶς καὶ ἀπερίττως ἠμφιεσμένην, καὶ ἀτενὲς πρὸς τὸν μάρτυρα βλέπουσαν. (20) [90] Miracle 12 page 125 line 11 οὕτω γάρ (10) με λέγειν τὸ πέρας τοῦ πράγματος ἔπεισεν, ἀνήφθη πυρὶ τὸ ἅγιον αὐτοῦ κιβώριον τὸ ἀργύρεον, περὶ οὗ πολλάκις ἀνωτέρω ἐμνημονεύσαμεν. Miracle 15 page 162 line 9 Ὁ δὲ ὑπεδείκνυεν αὐτοῖς τὸ ἅγιον τοῦ ναοῦ κιβώριον λέγων∙«Ἐνταῦθά ἐστιν.» [167] Οἱ δὲ ἄνδρες, ὧν ἡ ὅρασις ἦν ὡς ἀγγέλων θεοῦ, πλησιάσαντες τῷ τόπῳ εἶπον τῷ ὑπηρέτῃ∙ “Κροῦσον καὶ μήνυσον (10) ἡμᾶς αὐτῷ.” P. Lemerle, Les plus anciens recueils des miracles de saint Démétrius et la pénétration des Slaves dans les Balkans, vol. 1. (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1979): 50‐165. T.53 7 C.E. Chronicon paschale. vel Chronicon Alexandrinum, vel Chronicon Constantinopolitanum, vel Fasti Siculi Page 713 κιβούρια – [altar] canopies (712.) Καὶ ἀπὸ κβʹ καὶ αὐτῆς τοῦ ἰανουαρίου μηνὸς γράφεται, τῆς βασιλείας Ἡρακλείου νέου Κωνσταντίνου ἔτος ηʹ. ... … εἰσῆλθαν δὲ καὶ εἰς τοὺς ἁγίους Κοσμᾶν καὶ Δαμιανὸν ἐν Βλαχέρναις, καὶ εἰς τὸν Ἀρχάγγελον πέραν εἰς τὰ Προμώτου, καὶ (10) οὐ μόνον ὅτι τὰ κιβούρια καὶ ἄλλα κειμήλια ἀφείλαντο, ἀλλὰ καὶ αὐτὴν τὴν ἁγίαν τράπεζαν τῆς ἐκκλησίας τοῦ Ἀρχαγγέλου κατέκλασαν, καὶ πάντας μετὰ τῶν ἀφαιρεθέντων αὐτῶν μετῴκισαν πέραν τοῦ Δανουβίου, μηδενὸς ἀντιστατοῦντος. τναʹ Ὀλυμπιάς. (15) L. Dindorf, Chronicon paschale, vol. 1 [CSHB. Bonn: Weber, 1832]: 3‐737. T.54 7 C.E. Syceota Georgius Syceota Theol., Vita sancti Theodori Syceotae. Section 162 line 79 Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine Κατελθόντος δὲ αὐτοῦ ἐν μιᾷ σαββάτου ἐν τῷ μοναστηρίῳ τῆς Θεοτόκου καὶ ποιοῦντος τὴν λειτουργίαν ἐν τῷ εὐκτηρίῳ ὅπου τὸ κιβώριον, ἦλθόν τινες δύο ἄνδρες, Ἀντίοχος καὶ Ἐλπίδιος οὕτω καλούμενοι, ἔχοντες πνεύματα ἀκάθαρτα ἀμφότεροι, (80) ἐκ τῶν μερῶν τῆς Ἀγκυρανῶν μητροπόλεως∙ ὁ δὲ Ἀντίοχος καὶ ἐπίτροπος ἐγένετο κτήτορος τῆς πόλεως εἰς τὰ χωρία αὐτοῦ. See also reference to the curtains of the sanctuary above the holy doors, Vita 1 sec. 80 line 7: «ὅταν ὁρᾶτέ με λαμπρὸν τὸ πρόσωπον ἔχοντα, ὁρῶ ὥσπερ ἀληθινὸν καὶ ὑπέρλαμπρον καταπέτασμα ἐπάνω τῶν ἁγίων δώρων∙ A.‐J. Festugière, Vie de Théodore de Sykeôn, vol. 1 [SH 48. Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1970]: 1‐161.
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T.55. 7‐10 C.E. Vitae et Miracula Sancti Anastasii Persae. Miracula sancti Anastasii Persae Sec. 7 Τετραπύλον – shrine St. Anastasius the Persian Εἰσελθόντος ἐν τῇ πόλει τοῦ ἁγίου λειψάνου, κοινῇ βουλευσάμενοι οἱ τῆς αὐτῆς (20) πόλεως ἀπήρξαντο κτίζειν εὐκτήριον τῷ ἁγίῳ πλησίον τοῦ Τετραπύλου τοῦ ἐν τῷ μέσῳ τῆς πόλεως. Ἔστησαν δὲ καὶ εἰκόνα αὐτοῦ ἐκεῖσε. Ἔτι δὲ κτιζομένου αὐτοῦ, ἐπιστὰς ὁ μάρτυς τῇ δυστήνῳ ταύτῃ κατ’ ὄναρ ἐν σχήματι μοναχοῦ φησιν αὐτῇ∙«Τὰς ψυάς σου πονεῖς;» Ἡ δὲ πρὸς αὐτόν∙ «Οὐχί, δέσποτα, οὐδὲν κακὸν ἔχω, ὑγιής εἰμι.» Ἅμα δὲ τῷ λόγῳ διυπνίσασα καὶ αἰσθομένη διεμπεσοῦσαν αὐτῇ (25) σφοδρῶς τὴν ἀλγηδόνα, ἤρξατο βοᾶν καὶ στενάζειν καὶ συνέχεσθαι, ὥστε μὴ δύνασθαι αὐτὴν μηδ’ ὅλως ἀνανεῦσαι ἀφόρητα πάσχουσαν, ὅπως σχολὴν ἄγουσα ἀναλογίσηται καὶ συζητήσῃ ἐν ἑαυτῇ τίς ἡ αἰφνίδιος αὕτη ὀδύνη καὶ ἐκ ποίου αἰτίου. Ἀλλ’ ἐν τούτοις διετέλεσεν ἡμέρας τέσσαρας. Πέμπτης δὲ ἡμέρας ἐπιφωσκούσης, ὁρᾷ ἐπιστάντα αὐτῇ πάλιν τὸν ἅγιον καὶ (30) λέγοντα∙ «Κάτελθε εἰς τὸ Τετράπυλον καὶ παρακάλεσον τὸν ἅγιον Ἀναστάσιον καὶ ὑγιαίνεις.» Ἀναστᾶσα δὲ αὕτη καὶ εἰς μνήμην ἐλθοῦσα τῶν δυσφήμων αὐτῆς ῥημάτων ὧν ἐλάλησεν κατὰ τῆς ἰδίας κεφαλῆς, προσκαλεσαμένη τοὺς παῖδας αὐτῆς, λέγει αὐτοῖς∙ B. Flusin, Saint Anastase le Perse et lʹhistoire de la Palestine au début du viie siècle, vol. 1. (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1992): 41‐91. T.56 Post 7 C.E. Vita et Miracula Sancti Demetri. Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine Page 239 line 25 «Ἄφροντις γενοῦ χάριν τῶν ζητουμένων μαρμάρων∙ πλοῖον γὰρ σήμερον ἀπὸ πελάγους κατέρχεται ἔχον κιβώριον καὶ ἄμβωνα, ἅπερ λόγῳ τοῦ συμμάρτυρός μου Βίκτορος ἐν βασιλείᾳ (25) ἠγοράσθησαν, κἀκεῖνος μὲν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ χρείαν εὗρεν ἐπὶ τόπου πληρῶσαι, ἐμοὶ δὲ ταῦτα παρέπεμψεν.» Page 240 line 6 «Σὺ αὐτὸς ἄπιθι πρὸς τὸν ναύκληρον καὶ εἰπὲ αὐτῷ∙ ‘μὴ γίνου ψεύστης, πρῴρᾳ γὰρ ἔχεις τοῦ πλοίου τόν (5) τε ἄμβωνα καὶ τὸ κιβώριον καὶ τὰ κιόνια στοιβῇ καὶ στυππείῳ κατειλημμένα∙ καὶ μηδὲν φροντίσῃς διὰ τοὺς ἐπιτάξαντάς σοι ταῦτα ἀπαγαγεῖν ἐκ βασιλείας λόγῳ τοῦ ἁγίου καλλινίκου μάρτυρος Βίκτορος∙ εὑρὼν ἐπὶ τόπου ἅπαντα τὰ ζητούμενα, παρεχώρησεν ἡμῖν ταῦτα ὁ μάρτυς’.» P. Lemerle, Les plus anciens recueils des miracles de saint Démétrius et la pénétration des Slaves dans les Balkans, vol. 1. (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1979): 168‐241. T.57 After 9 C.E. οἰκίσκος ‐‐ Chapel‐canopy? Shrine of St. Demetrios, Thess. D. Pallas ʺLe ciborium hexagonal de saint‐Demetrios de Thessaloniqueʺ Zograf 10 (1979) 44‐58.
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T.58 8 C.E. Constantinople Germanos Ecclesiastical History and Mystical Contemplation Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy Τὸ κιβώριόν ἐστι ἀντι τοῦ τόπου ἔνθα ἐσταυρώθη ὁ Χριστός ἐγγὺς γὰρ ἦν ὁ τόπος καὶ ὑπόβαθρος ὅπου ἐτςάη … ἀλλά διά τὸ ἐν συντομίᾳ ἐκφέρεσται, τὴν σταύρωσιν τὴν ταφὴν καὶ τὴν ἀνάστασιν τοῦ Χριστοῦ εν τῇ ᾽Εκκλησία τέτακται. ῎Εστι δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὴν κιβωτὸν τῆς διαθήκης Κυρίου, ἐν ἧ λέγεται ῞Αγια ῾Αγίων καὶ ἁγίασμα αὐτου ἐν ἧ προσέταξεν ὁ Θεὸς γενέσθαι δύο χερουβὶμ ἑκατέρωθεν τορευτά τὸ γὰρ ΚΙΒ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ ΟΥΡΙΝ φωτισμὸς Θεοῦ, ἤ φῶς Θεοῦ. Historia mystica ecclesiae catholicae (e cod. Vat. graec. 790 et cod. Neapolit. graec. 63) Germanos (1984) 58‐59. T.59 8‐9 C.E. Constantinople / Samothrace Theophanes Confessor Chronogr., Chronographia. 494:29: Τετράβηλον‐‐ Tetravila of the Hagia Sophia, possibly curtains for the canopy … τῇ δὲ κεʹ τοῦ Δεκεμβρίου μηνὸς τῆς εʹ ἰνδικτιῶνος (25) Μιχαὴλ ὁ γαληνότατος ἔστεψε Θεοφύλακτον, τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ, εἰς βασιλέα ὑπὸ Νικηφόρου πατριάρχου ἐν τῷ ἄμβωνι τῆς μεγάλης ἐκκλησίας, ἡμέρᾳ εʹ τῆς ἑβδομάδος, καὶ προσήγαγε πολυτελῆ κόσμον τῷ ἁγίῳ θυσιαστηρίῳ ἐν σκεύεσι χρυσοῦ διαλίθοις καὶ τετραβήλοις ἀρχαιοτεύκτοις ἐκ χρυσοῦ καὶ πορφύρας λαμπρῶς καθυφασμένοις καὶ (30) θαυμασταῖς ἁγίαις εἰκόσι πεποικιλμένοις. ἐδωρήσατο δὲ καὶ τῷ πατριάρχῃ χρυσίου λίτρας κεʹ, καὶ τῷ εὐαγεῖ κλήρῳ λίτρας ρʹ φαιδρύνας τὴν ἁγίαν ἑορτὴν καὶ τὴν τοῦ παιδὸς ἀναγόρευσιν. C. de Boor, Theophanis chronographia, vol. 1. Leipzig: Teubner, 1883 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1963): 3‐503. T.60 8‐9 C.E. Constantinople, Samothrace Theophanes Confessor Chronogr., Chronographia P. 232‐3.31 Κιβώριον ‐‐ Altar canopy Τούτῳ τῷ ἔτει μηνὶ Μαΐῳ ζʹ, ἡμέρᾳ γʹ, ὥρᾳ εʹ, φιλοκαλουμένου (27) τοῦ τρούλλου τῆς μεγάλης ἐκκλησίας, (ἦν γὰρ διερρηγμένος ἐκ τῶν γενομένων σεισμῶν) ἐργαζομένων τῶν Ἰσαύρων, ἔπεσε τὸ ἀνατολικὸν μέρος τῆς προϋποστολῆς τοῦ ἁγίου θυσιαστηρίου καὶ συνέτριψε τὸ (30) κιβώριον καὶ τὴν ἁγίαν τράπεζαν καὶ τὸν ἄμβωνα. καὶ κατεγινώσκοντο οἱ μηχανικοί, ὡς ὅτι περ ἀποκάτωθεν οὐκ ἐποίησαν τὴν κρέμασιν φυγόντες τὴν ἔξοδον, ἀλλ’ ἐτρύπησαν τοὺς πινσοὺς τοὺς βαστάζοντας τὸν τροῦλλον, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο οὐκ ἐβάσταξαν. C. de Boor, Theophanis chronographia, vol. 1. Leipzig: Teubner, 1883 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1963): 3‐503.
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T.61 9 C.E. Constantinople Theodore of Studion Κιβούριον τοῦ Προδρόμου ‐ Chalice?; Altar canopy above the relics of St. John the Baptist? (42.) Εἰς τὸ κιβούριον τοῦ Προδρόμου (t) Θείας τραπέζης συγκαλύπτραν με βλέπων (1) Χερουβικὴν νόμιζε ταξιαρχίαν∙Χριστὸν γὰρ ἔνδον μυσταγωγεῖσθαι νόει, τὸν τῶν ἄνω τε Δεσπότην καὶ τῶν κάτω. PG 99.1793D P. Speck, Jamben auf verschiedene Gegenstaende [Supplementa Byzantina 1. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1968]: 109‐308. T.62 9 C.E. Constantinople Photius Theol., Scr. Eccl. et Lexicogr., Epistulae et Amphilochia. Amph. epistle 318 line 2. Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans; κιβώτιον = κιβώριον Περὶ φυτοῦ τοῦ λεγομένου κιβωτίου (1t) Τὸ μὲν φυτόν, ἱερώτατον τέκνον καὶ ἀδελφέ, κιβώτιον ἢ κιβώριον τοῖς (2) περὶ ταῦτα φιλοσοφήσασι καλεῖται∙ ὁ δὲ τούτου καρπός, οὐκ ἐν πάσαις χώραις γινόμενος, Αἰγύπτιος ὀνομάζεται κύαμος∙ B. Laourdas and L.G. Westerink, Photii patriarchae Constantinopolitani Epistulae et Amphilochia, vols. 1‐6.2 [Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana. Leipzig: Teubner, 1:1983; 2:1984; 3:1985; 4:1986; 5:1986; 6.1:1987; 6.2:1988]: 1:2‐197; 2:1‐253; 3:4‐166; 4:1‐190; 5:1‐ 263; 6.1:1‐138. T.63 9 C.E. Constantinople Photius Theol., Scr. Eccl. et Lexicogr., Homiliae. Homily 10 page 102 στυλίσκοις ὑπωρόφοις ὄροφος – altar canopy Ἄργυρος δὲ περὶ τὰς πυλίδας καὶ στυλίδας τοῦ (102) θυσιαστηρίου σὺν τοῖς περιστῴοις καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ κωνοειδὴς καὶ τῇ θείᾳ τραπέζῃ ἐπικείμενος σὺν τοῖς ὑπερείδουσι στυλίσκοις ὑπωρόφοις ὄροφος. Καὶ μαρμάρων δὲ πολυχρώμων ὅσα μὴ χρυσὸς ἐπέδραμεν ἢ ἄργυρος περιέλαβεν, ἀμήχανόν τι καὶ τερπνὸν φιλοτέχνημα τὰ ὑπόλοιπα τοῦ ναοῦ διεκόσμησεν. B. Laourdas, Ἑλληνικά 12 Παράρτημα, (Thessalonica, 1857‐1866): 1‐186. C. Mango, The Homilies of Photius Patriarch of Constantinople (Cambridge, MA, 1958). T.64 9 C.E. Constantinople Georgius Choeroboscus Gramm., De orthographia. Page 233 line 29 Κιβώριον Κιβώριον = κιβούριον Κιβώριον καὶ Κιβούριον γάρ. J.A. Cramer, Anecdota Graeca e codd. manuscriptis bibliothecarum Oxoniensium, vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1835 (repr. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1963): 167‐281.
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T.65 9 C.E. Lesbos Vita sanctorum Davidis, Symeonis et Georgii Mitylenae. Sec. 14 line 7. Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy; Shrine?; Reliquary? (14.) Τῶν δὲ ἁγίων καὶ μακαρίων ἀνδρῶν τούτων οὕτως βιούντων καὶ κατὰ Θεὸν ἐν τῷ σμικροτάτῳ καὶ εὐτελεῖ ἐκείνῳ βράχει ἀσκουμένων, τοῦ λαοῦ τὰς ἑσπερινὰς εὐχὰς τῷ Κυρίῳ ἐν τῷ ναῷ τῆς ἁγίας καὶ ἐνδόξου μάρτυρος Θεοδώρας τῷ ἐν τῷ τοῦ κάτω λιμένος ὄχθει διακειμένῳ προσφέροντος, τὸ τελευταῖον Κύριε, ἐλέησον, προσφωνοῦντος (5) καὶ πάντων τὰς χεῖρας καὶ τὰ ὄμματα πρὸς ὕψος ἐκπετασάντων ἀθρόως, ὁ ἐν τῷ ὕπερθεν κιβωρίῳ τῆς ἁγίας τραπέζης πεπηγμένος σταυρὸς πολλῷ τῷ ῥοΐζῳ ἀνασπασθεὶς τῆς ἀψίδος ἐφήψατο∙ αὖθις δὲ τὴν κορυφὴν πρὸς τὸ κατάντες κεκλικώς, ἐν τῷ τοῦ ἐδάφου χώρῳ διατρήσει ἐλεεινῶς κατεφύτευσε, μεμενηκὼς ἐν τῷ παρ’ ἑαυτοῦ τοιούτῳ (10) σχήματι ἀσάλευτος. J. van den Gheyn, ʺActa Graeca ss. Davidis, Symeonis et Georgii Mitylenae in insula Lesbo,ʺ AB 18 (1899): 211‐259. T.66 9‐10 C.E. Jerusalem? Vita Eustratii Κιβώριον‐Seven‐sided canopy‐shrine Page 397 line 22 52. Ἐκεῖθεν τοιγαροῦν τὸ μαννοφόρον τοῦτο οἱ τοῦ ὁσίου φοιτηταὶ μετὰ τοῦ ἡγιασμένου αὑτῶν πατρὸς Νικολάου ἄραντες, τὸ γλωσσόκομον, καὶ γηθοσύνως, ὡς ὁ προφήτης πάλαι καὶ μέγας βασιλεὺς Δαυὶδ ἐπὶ τῇ μεταθέσει τῆς κιβωτοῦ, ἀνιόντες, ὡς πλη‐ (15)σίον τῶν ἐν τῇ Προύσῃ θερμῶν ὑδάτων γεγόνασιν, γραῦς ὡς ἐτῶν ὀγδοήκοντα δαιμονιῶσα ἔτη πολλὰ καὶ τῆς τοῦ Δαίμονος ἀπαλλαγῆναι μὴ ἰσχύουσα ἐπιβουλῆς ἑωράκει τὸν ὅσιον∙ τοῦτο γὰρ οἱ ἀποκομισταὶ * πεποιήκασιν παρευθὺ τῆς ἰάσεως. 53. Τὸν μέντοι ἱερὸν τῆς τοῦ ὁσίου πατρὸς κατειληφότες νεὼν (20) καὶ ἐπίπροσθεν τοῦ ἁγίου θυσιαστηρίου ἀνακλίναντες τὸ σεπτότατον κιβώριον καὶ τοῦτο ἀνακαλύψαντες, μονάζουσά τις ἐξηραμμένην ἔχουσα τὴν χεῖρα προσελθοῦσα καὶ τὴν τοῦ ἁγίου δεξιὰν μετὰ τῆς ὑγιοῦς κουφίσασα χειρὸς καὶ τῇ πασχούσῃ ἐπιθεῖσα, ὁ εἰς αἰῶνα ζῶν ἀληθῶς σημειοφόρος πατὴρ κρατήσας τὴν πάσχουσαν (25) ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον ἔσφιγξεν, ὡς ἀναβοήσασαν αὐτὴν ἰσχυρῶς παρευθὺ ὑγιῆ τὴν χεῖρα ἀπολαβεῖν. Page 398 line 10 Αἰσθόμενοι τοίνυν οἱ μοναχοὶ τὸ γεγονὸς καὶ τούτους τοῦ ναοῦ ἐξεώσαντες, τῇ ἐπαύριον ἕτερον ἐπιθεῖναι βουλόμενοι, ἐπειδὴ ἀποκεκαλυμμένον τὸ ἱερὸν ἐφάνη κιβώριον, παρευθὺ οἱ πάσχοντες τῆς τῶν Δαιμόνων ἠλευθερώθησαν (10) μάστιγος, εἴς τε τὰ οἰκεῖα σωφρονοῦντες ὑποστρέψαντες ὑγιεῖς καὶ ἐρρωμένοι ἕως τέλους τῇ τοῦ Κυρίου δυνάμει καὶ χάριτι διετέλεσαν. A. Papadopoulos‐Kerameus, Ἀνάλεκτα Ἱεροσολυμιτικῆς σταχυολογίας, vol. 4. St. Petersburg: Kirschbaum, 1897 (repr. Brussels: Culture et Civilisation, 1963): 367‐400.
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T.67 10 C.E. Constantinople Synaxarion CP Τετραπύλον‐Bronze canopy over relics of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste Synaxarium mensis Martii. Day 9 section 1 line 42. Synaxarion CP 356, 524: Ἄθλησις τῶν ἁγίων καὶ ἐνδόξων τεσσαράκοντα μαρτύρων τῶν ἐν Σεβαστείᾳ τῇ πόλει μαρτυρησάντων κατὰ τοὺς καιροὺς Λικινίου ἐπὶ Ἀγρικολάου ἡγεμόνος. … Τελεῖται δὲ ἡ αὐτῶν σύναξις ἐν τῷ μαρτυρείῳ (40) αὐτῶν, τῷ ὄντι πλησίον τοῦ Χαλκοῦ Τετραπύλου. H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum 62, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 497‐576. See also: Synaxarion CP, Synaxarium mensis Septembris. Day 30 section 1 line 91. Τελεῖται δὲ ἡ αὐτοῦ σύναξις ἐν τῷ μαρτυρείῳ τοῦ ἁγίου μάρτυρος Θεοδώρου, (90) τῷ ὄντι πλησίον τοῦ χαλκοῦ τετραπύλου. H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum 62, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 1‐94. (=Synaxarium mensis Novembris. Day 1 section 4 line 8; H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum 62, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 185‐266.) Synaxarion CP Synaxarium mensis Decembris Day 29 section 7 line 2. Καὶ τὰ ἐγκαίνια τῶν ἁγίων μʹ μαρτύρων, πλησίον τοῦ Χαλκοῦ Τετραπύλου. H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum 62, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 269‐362. Synaxarion CP Synaxarium mensis Januarii. Day 26 section 2 line 10. Κύριος, γενομένου εἰς τὰ τελευταῖα τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ νέου Θεοδοσίου υἱοῦ Ἀρκαδίου καὶ Εὐδοξίας, (5) μηνὶ ἰαννουαρίῳ εἰκοστῇ ἕκτῃ, ἡμέρᾳ κυριακῇ, ὥρᾳ δευτέρᾳ τῆς ἡμέρας∙ ἐν ᾗ κατέπεσον τὰ τείχη τῆς πόλεως καὶ μέρος πολὺ τῶν οἰκημάτων, κατεξαίρετον δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν Τρωαδισίων ἐμβόλων ἕως τοῦ χαλκοῦ Τετραπύλου. H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum 62, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 363‐436. Synaxarion CP Synaxarium Ecclesiae Constantinopoleos, Synaxarium mensis Augusti Day 1 section 2 line 5. Τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμέρᾳ μνήμη τῶν ἁγίων τοῦ Χριστοῦ μαρτύρων Πολυεύκτου, Θεοδώρου, Κηρύκου, Ἐλεαζάρου καὶ τῆς συνοδίας αὐτῶν. Τελεῖται δὲ ἡ αὐτῶν σύναξις ἐν τοῖς Βιγλεντίου, πλησίον τοῦ Χαλκοῦ Τετραπύλου. (5) H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 859‐938. The canopy is mentioned by Clavijo in 15th c as in ruins (Janin Le Geographie de CP 485‐86) The canopy is also mentioned in the Typicon of Hagia Sophia from the 9th‐10th c (J. Mateos, Le Typicon de la Grande Église, Tome I: Le cycle des douze mois [OCA 165. Rome: Pontificum Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, 1962]: 2‐386.)
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T.68 10 C.E. Constantinople Nicetas Magister, Vita S. Theoctistae Lesbiae ορόφιον ‐Altar canopy at Paros, still in situ But when we saw the orophion (canopy) over the venerable and holy altar inside the gate (of the sanctuary), we were astonished at the delightful (sight). For the carving did not seem to be made of marble nor wrought by (human) hands with (tools of) iron and skill. (It looked), instead, as if (it had been made) out of milk mixed with juice of the fig tree (in order to thicken) and had been cast in the shape of canopy. Made of such stone I saw once (a statue of) Selene (the goddess of moon) driving a chariot drawn by bulls. The (canopy) lay broken in pieces and we ran up to it and stood before it, uttering all manner of curses and revilement at the man who smashed it, for it was surely a treasure and an heirloom and offering worthy of the house of God. Nicetas Magister, Vita S. Theoctistae Lesbiae, ch. 3f., ASS Nov. IV, 256; SD (1972) 104. T.69 10 C.E. Constantinople Synaxarium CP, Synaxarium mensis Octobris, Day 26 section 1 line 110 Κιβώριον ‐οἴκος / Saintly shrine Θεοδόσιος δέ, ὁ τηνικάδε τῆς ἐκκλησίας ταύτης ἐπίσκοπος, διαπορούμενος πόθεν ἄρα εὐπορήσας ἀργύρου τὸ κιβώριον πάλιν εἰς τὸ ἀρχαῖον κάλλος (110) ἀποκαταστήσει, καὶ μὴ ἔχων ὃ διαπράξεται, εἰς νοῦν ἔθετο τὸν ἐν τῷ βήματι ἀρχιερατικὸν θρόνον ἀργυροῦν ὄντα καθελεῖν. Τούτου δὲ καθ’ ἑαυτὸν ἤδη τὸ λογισθὲν πληρῶσαι κυρώσαντος, ὁ ἅγιος κατ’ ὄναρ ἐπιφαίνεταί τινι τῶν εὐλαβῶν (115) πρεσβυτέρων, λέγων εἰπεῖν τῷ ἐπισκόπῳ φείσασθαι τοῦ ἱεραρχικοῦ θρόνου. Ὁ δὲ ἐξαναστὰς καὶ εἰπὼν ἔδοξεν αὐτῷ ὡς ὀνειραζόμενος∙ καὶ πάλιν τοῦ ἐπισκόπου τοῦτον καθελεῖν ἀναμφιβόλως ὁρμῶντος, ὁ ἅγιος δὶς τῷ αὐτῷ πρεσβυτέρῳ (120) ἐπιφανεὶς φάσκει εἰπεῖν τῷ ἐπισκόπῳ ὑπενδοῦναι μικρὸν τῆς ὁρμῆς καὶ ὡς∙ «Πλέον σοῦ φροντίζω περὶ τοῦ οἴκου μου.» H. Delehaye, Acta Sanctorum 62, Brussels, 1902 (repr. Wetteren, Belgium: Imprimerie Cultura, 1985): 95‐184. T.70 10 C.E. Vita Eliae Junioris. Sec. 69 line 1512. Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine‐ Shrine of St. Demetrios Καὶ ἐν τῷ ἀπιέναι, θεωρῶν τὴν πόλιν, ὁ θεοφόρος ἐστέναξε καί, ὡς ἀνιώμενος, ἔλεγε πρὸς τὸν μάρτυρα∙ «Ὦ μάρτυς τοῦ Χριστοῦ Δημήτριε, ποῦ εἶ νῦν; Ἐν ποίοις τόποις ἐνδιαιτᾷς, ἢ τίνα ἐπουράνιον ἁψῖδα περιπολεῖς;». Καὶ (1510) τὰ τούτοις ὅμοια καὶ ἐν τῷ νεῷ γενόμενος καὶ ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ κιβωρίῳ τοῦ μάρτυρος παραστὰς ἔλεγε. … G. Rossi Taibbi, Vita di Santʹ Elia il Giovane. (Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di studi bizantini e neoellenici, 1962): 2‐122. T.71 10 C.E. / Compilation of texts 6‐10 C.E. Constantinople Constantinus VII Porphyrogenitus, De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (lib. 1.84‐2.56)
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Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy Excerpt with reference to the canopy with golden curtains in Hagia Sophia. (lib. 1.84‐2.56) Page 591 line 19. τὸ δὲ τριβουνάλιον, ἐν ᾧ κατὰ τύπον ἵστανται οἱ φίλοι καὶ θεωροῦσιν τὸν βασιλέα, ἀπιόντος ἐν τῷ προκένσῳ τῆς ἐκκλησίας καὶ πάλιν ὑποστρέφοντος, ἐξωπλίσθη κατὰ τὴν προῤῥηθεῖσαν (15) τῆς δοχῆς ἐξόπλισιν. ὁ δὲ τῆς ἁγίας Σοφίας μέγας ναὸς ἐξωπλίσθη κατὰ τὸ εἰωθὸς τοῦ πάσχα. εἰς δὲ τὰ κατηχούμενα, ἤγουν ἄνωθεν τῶν βασιλικῶν πυλῶν, ἐκρεμάσθησαν τὰ χρυσᾶ βῆλα τῶν κιόνων τοῦ κιβωρίου καὶ ἕτερα βῆλα καὶ ἐνδυταὶ ἀπό τε τῆς ἁγίας Σοφίας καὶ τῆς νέας ἐκκλησίας∙(20) … Porphyrogenitus also mentions canopy on silver columns and with golden curtains in the palace of Bonus constructed by Emperor Roman Lacapene I (920‐944) dedicated to E. Constantine I – celebration of 21st of May and the veneration of the Cross [τὸ ἀργυροῦν κιβώριον, τοῦ ἁγίου Κωνσταντίνου; Page 534 line 16]; as well as canopy in Consistorium [Καὶ κατέρχονται μέχρι τοῦ μεγάλου Κονσιστωρίου, ἔνθα ἵστανται οἱ ὕπατοι κονσιστώριον καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ συγκλητικοί, καὶ ἵστανται οἱ δεσπόται εἰς τὸ κιβώριον …; Vol. 2 page 1 line 15]. A. Vogt, Le livre des cérémonies, 2 vols. (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1:1935; 2:1939) (repr. 1967): 1:1‐ 179; 2:1‐187. T.72 10‐15 C.E. Constantinople Pseudo–Codinus Hist., Patria Constantinopoleos. Book 2 sec. 55. Τετραπύλου ; Τετράβηλον ‐ canopy Περὶ τοῦ Τετραπύλου. Τὸ δὲ νῦν λεγόμενον Τετράπυλον πρώην ὠνομάζετο Τετράβηλον καὶ διήρκεσεν ἔτη ρξʹ μέχρι Ζήνωνος∙ἦν δὲ ἐκεῖσε κουβούκλιον ἐπάνω τῶν κιόνων ὑπὸ τοῦ μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου κτισθὲν καθ’ ὁμοίωσιν τῆς Ῥώμης. T. Preger, Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, pt. 2. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1907) 55. c.61‐ m61; (repr. 1975): 135‐289. T.73 10‐15 C.E. Constantinople Pseudo‐Codinus Hist., Patria Constantinopoleos. Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine Shrine for the sandals of Christ, in the Chalki of the Saviour. Book 3 section 213, line 14: Τὴν δὲ Χαλκῆν τὸν Σωτῆρα ἀνήγειρεν Ῥωμανὸς ὁ γέρων ὑπὸ στυρακίων δύο μικρὸν πάνυ, ὥς ἐστιν ὁρώμενον τὸ θυσιαστήριον, ποιήσας καὶ δώδεκα κληρικούς. Ὁ δὲ Ἰωάννης ὁ Τζιμισκὴς ἐπλάτυνεν καὶ ἀνήγειρεν αὐτὸν καὶ καλλωπίσας ἐκ χρυσοῦ καὶ ἀργύρου πολλοῦ (5) … τὰ δὲ ἱερὰ στέμματα καὶ σκῆπτρα καὶ δίσκους καὶ λυχνίας χρυσᾶς τε καὶ ἀργυρᾶς καὶ ἐσθῆτας χρυσᾶς καὶ ἄμφια βασιλικὰ ἰδιόκτητα αὐτοῦ ἐχαρίσατο καὶ ἀκίνητα κτήματα προσεκύρωσε πλεῖστα∙ κἀκεῖσε ἀπέθετο ἅπερ αὐτὸς (10) ἀπὸ τοῦ ἰδίου ταξιδίου ἔφερεν, τήν τε τιμίαν σταύρωσιν, τὴν ἁγίαν εἰκόνα τῆς Βηρυτοῦ καὶ τὰ ἅγια σανδάλια τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ θεοῦ ἡμῶν ἐν ποικίλοις χρυσοῖς καὶ διαλίθοις κιβωρίοις. Καὶ τὸ ἑαυτοῦ μνῆμα ἐκεῖσε ἐποίησε καὶ ἐτέθη ἐκεῖ. (15)
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T. Preger, Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, pt. 2. Leipzig: Teubner, 1907 (repr. 1975): 135‐289. T.74 11 C.E. Michael Psellus Phil., Theol., Polyhist., Epist. et Hagiogr., Theologica. Καταπέτασμα‐Curtains above the Cross with reference to Mosaic law: Ἥ τε ‘λυχνία τορευτὴ χρυσῆ’ καὶ ‘ὁ καυλὸς αὐτῆς’ χρυσοῦς ‘καὶ οἱ (10) καλαμίσκοι’ αὐτῆς ‘καὶ οἱ κρατῆρες καὶ οἱ σφαιρωτῆρες καὶ τὰ κρίνα καὶ οἱ ἐκτετυπωμένοι καρυΐσκοι καὶ ὁ ἐπαρυστὴρ καὶ τὰ <ὑποθέματα> ‘Ἡ δὲ σκηνὴ δέκα’ ἦσαν ‘αὐλαί’, ἑκάστη τὸ ‘μῆκος’ αὐτῆς ‘εἴκοσι καὶ ὀκτὼ πήχεων, καὶ τὸ εὖρος τεσσάρων’∙ ἦν δὲ ξύμπασα ‘ἐκ βύσσου (15) κεκλωσμένης καὶ ὑακίνθου καὶ πορφύρας καὶ κοκκίνου κεκλωσμένου’ συνυφασμένη. ὑπήρειδόν τε τὴν σκηνὴν ‘στῦλοι ἐκ ξύλων ἀσήπτων’ τὸ πλῆθος ‘εἴκοσιν’, ἔξωθεν ὑπηλειμμένοι χρυσῷ. τὸ δὲ ‘καταπέτασμα’ τῆς σκηνῆς πεποίητο ‘ἐξ ὑακίνθου καὶ πορφύρας καὶ κοκκίνου καὶ βύσσου’, καὶ ἦν ‘ἐπιτεθειμένον ἐπὶ τοὺς στύλους’. (20) Καὶ ‘ἡ κιβωτὸς ἔνδον’ ἐτέθειτο ‘τοῦ καταπετάσματος’, καὶ ἦν ‘τὸ καταπέτασμα διορίζον ἀνὰ μέσον τοῦ ἁγίου καὶ ἀνὰ μέσον τοῦ ἁγίου τῶν ἁγίων, κατεκάλυπτε’ δὲ καὶ ‘τὴν κιβωτὸν τοῦ μαρτυρίου’ ὥστε μὴ φαίνεσθαι. ‘ἡ δὲ τράπεζα ἔξωθεν’ ἵδρυτο ‘τοῦ καταπετάσματος πρὸς βορρᾶν, ἡ δὲ λυχνία ἀπέναντι αὐτῆς πρὸς νότον’. τὸ δὲ ‘θυσιαστήριον’ ἦν ‘τετράγωνον (25) ξύλινον, πέντε πήχεων τὸ μῆκος καὶ πέντε πήχεων τὸ εὖρος καὶ τριῶν πήχεων τὸ ὕψος’ …∙ P. Gautier, Michaelis Pselli theologica, vol. 1. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1989): 1‐447. T.75 11 C.E. Michael Psellus Phil., Theol., Polyhist., Epist. et Hagiogr., Laudatio in Joannem Crustulam. Line 39. Καταπέτασμα Ἐβουλόμην μὲν οὖν, ὦ ἄνδρες, παλινῳδίαν τε ᾆσαι καὶ τοῦ στίφους ἐκφυγεῖν τὴν συνέλευσιν, ἢ μᾶλλον, ὥσπερ τι ῥεῦμα κυκλικῶς ποιοῦν τὴν διέξοδον, ἀφ’ οὗ προσῆλθον (35) παλίνορσος ἀπελεύσεσθαι∙ οὐδὲ γὰρ ἦν που τόπος κενὸς εἰς ὃν ἂν παραγεγονὼς ἴσως ἔστην, τοῖς πολλοῖς συνᾴσων καὶ τὴν συνήθη ποιησόμενος εὐαρέστησιν, ἀλλ’ ἦσαν πάντα πάντων μεστά, ἡ πρώτη σκηνή, τὸ ἱλαστήριον, τὸ καταπέτασμα, ὁ ναός, τὰ παρασκήνια, οἱ πρόνεῳ, τὰ ἐκτός, τἆλλα σύμπαντα. P. Gautier, ʺEloge inédit du lecteur Jean Kroustoulas par Michel Psellos,ʺ Rivista di studi bizantini e neoellenici, 17‐19 (1980‐1982): 128‐145. Cf. Epistula ad Michaelem Cerularium 7.Ἀλλὰ βραχύ τι τῷ τοῦ Ἀποστόλου προσχρήσομαι ῥήματι∙ οὐ φιλόσοφός εἰμι οὐ διδάσκαλος, οὐχ ὑπελθὼν ἑκουσίως τὸν τοῦ Κυρίου ζυγόν, οὐ ‘τὴν νέκρωσιν’ περιφέρων ‘τοῦ Ἰησοῦ’, ἀλλὰ πέφρικα τὸ τοῦ Θείου βήματος (190) πῦρ—πῶς ἂν εἴπῃς; —καὶ πόρρω μετὰ τῶν κατηχουμένων ἕστηκα καὶ οὐδέποτέ μοι ὁ ὀφθαλμὸς ἐνητένισται μελιζομένου τοῦ ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν θύματος. σὺ δὲ μόνος τῶν πάντων ἱλαρᾷ τῇ ψυχῇ καὶ μειδιῶσι χείλεσι τῶν ἀδύτων κατατολμᾷς, καὶ παρασείσας ἠμελημένως τὸ καταπέτασμα, (195) κυκλοῖς τὸ θυσιαστήριον καὶ μεταχειρίζῃ τὸν ἄληπτον λόγον καὶ ἀκατάληπτον∙ αὐτῷ γὰρ ‘τῷ πρώτῳ φωτὶ’ προσεπέλασας, ὅθεν σκιαί σοι τἆλλα καὶ ὄναρ καὶ παίγνια. διὰ ταῦτα καὶ βασιλέων κατολιγωρεῖς καὶ πάσαις ἀνταίρεις δυνάμεσι. (200)
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U. Criscuolo, Michele Psello, Epistola a Michele Cerulario [Hellenica et byzantina neapolitana 15. (repr. Naples: Bibliopolis, 1990)]: 21‐31. T.76 11 C.E. Constantinople Nicetas Stethatus. Vita Simeonis Novi Theologici. Sec. 93 line 13. Καταπετάσματα (93.) Τί τοίνυν γίνεται; εὐθὺς οἱ τὸ δεινὸν τοῦτο τολμήσαντες ἀποστέλλονται καὶ τὰς μὲν τῶν τοῦ ὁσίου ἀνδρὸς εἰκόνων—ὢ πῶς ἀδακρυτὶ τὸ τολμηθὲν τότε τοῖς ἀκούουσι διηγήσομαι; —ἀξίνῃ καθεῖλον φονώσῃ χειρί, ποτὲ μὲν κατὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς τὴν εἰκόνα παίοντες ἀσχέτῳ θυμῷ, ποτὲ δὲ κατὰ τῶν στέρνων, ἄλλοτε κατὰ τῆς γαστρός, (5) ἐνίοτε δὲ κατὰ τῶν μηρῶν, καὶ οὐ πρότερον τοῦ παίειν ὑφῆκαν, ἕως οὗ εἰς κόνιν ταύτας ἐλέπτυναν∙ τὰς δὲ ἀσβόλῃ καὶ τιτάνῳ προσεπιχρίσαντες ἐξηφάνισαν, ὁλοφυρομένων περιπαθῶς τῶν ὁρώντων μοναχῶν τε καὶ λαϊκῶν τὰ πραττόμενα παρὰ χριστιανῶν ἐν μέσῳ τῆς τῶν πιστῶν ἐκκλησίας, ἃ πάλαι παρὰ τοῦ Κοπρωνύμου ἐπὶ καταστροφῇ (10) τῶν θείων ἐκκλησιῶν γεγόνασι, καὶ τοὺς δραματουργοὺς τῶν τοιούτων μὴ δυναμένων ἀμύνασθαι διὰ τὴν ὁμωνυμίαν τῆς πίστεως. καὶ τὰ μὲν τῆς σκηνῆς ὡς ἔν τισι τῶν ἐκκλησιῶν καὶ ἱερῶν καταπετασμάτων καλλωπισμοῦ ἕνεκα γράφεται, παλαῖστραί φημι καὶ κυνηγέσια καὶ ὀρχῆστραι, κυνῶν δὲ γένη καὶ πιθήκων καὶ ἑρπετῶν θηρίων τε καὶ πετεινῶν (15) ἀγέλαι καὶ ἵππων, τέρψις ἐλογίσθη καὶ κόσμος αὐτοῖς∙ ἀνθρώπου δὲ μορφαὶ καὶ εἰκόνες, οὗ τὴν μορφὴν ὁ πλαστουργὸς πεφιληκὼς ἐμορφώθη καὶ μεθ’ ἧς γράφεται ἄνθρωπος τέλειος καὶ θεὸς τέλειος ἐν μιᾷ γνωριζόμενος ὑποστάσει, ὡς εἴδωλον καθῃρέθη ἐκ μέσου τῆς ἐκκλησίας, καὶ οὐδεὶς ἐγένετο λόγος τοῦ σκανδάλου τούτοις ἢ τῶν (20) σκανδαλισθέντων ἀνθρώπων. ὡς ἀπόλοιτο ἡ κακία καὶ ὁ ταύτης αἴτιος φθόνος δι’ οὗ πάντων ἁγίων αἱ μυριάδες ἔργον θανάτου βιαίου γεγόνασι. οὕτω φθονηθεὶς ὁ χρυσοῦς τὴν γλῶτταν Ἰωάννης τῷ αἰγυπτίῳ Θεοφίλῳ ἔργον τοῦ φθόνου αὐτοῦ οὐράνιος ἄνθρωπος γέγονεν∙ οὕτω καὶ τῷ σοφῷ Στεφάνῳ τῆς ἀλεξίνης ὁ ἐμὸς Συμεὼν τὸ (25) σκεῦος τῆς ἐκλογῆς τὸ πολύφωνον ὄργανον τοῦ πνεύματος φθονηθεὶς τὰ ἴσα δεινὰ τῷ ῥηθέντι ἁγίῳ παρ’ ἐκείνου ὑπέμεινε. I. Hausherr, Un grand mystique byzantin. Vie de Syméon le Nouveau Théologien par Nicétas Stéthatos [OC 12. Rome: Pontificum Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, 1928]: 1‐230. Cf Nicetas Epist. Constantinopolitanus (11 C.E.), Epistulae ad Nicetam Stethatum. Epistle 3 line 16: Καταγέλαστος δέ ἐστιν ὁ λέγων τὸ διάκονον ἐπιφωνοῦντα. «τὰς θύρας, τὰς θύρας» προτρέπεσθαι τοὺς ἱσταμένους (10) ἔξωθεν τοῦ θυσιαστηρίου προσέχειν τοῖς θείοις μυστηρίοις. Εἰ γὰρ μυστήρια, πάντως καὶ ἀπόκρυφά εἰσι∙ τὸ δὲ ἀποκεκρυμμένον τίς ἂν κύριος λογισμοῦ προτρέποιτο τὸν ἐκτὸς ταῦτα κατανοεῖν; Μυστήρια γάρ εἰσι τὰ παρὰ τῶν ἱερέων νῦν πραττόμενα καὶ ἐν σιγῇ τελοῦνται. Ἐν ἄλλοις (15) δὲ τόποις αὐτὸς ἑώρακα καὶ καταπέτασμα περὶ τὸ θεῖον βῆμα κρεμάμενον κατὰ τὸν καιρὸν τῶν μυστηρίων ὑφαπλοῦσθαι καὶ καλύπτειν, ὥστε μηδ’ αὐτοὺς τοὺς ἱερεῖς ὁρᾶσθαι παρὰ τῶν ἔξωθεν. Τοῦτο δὲ καὶ ὁ μακαριστὸς ἐν πατριάρχαις ἐποίησε κυρὸς Εὐστάθιος. Εἰ δὲ καὶ ἀναγωγῆς∙ (20) τρόποις μετεωρῆσαι θέλει τὸ νόημα, οὐκ ἀπορήσει τοῦ Πνεύματος. J. Darrouzès, Nicétas Stéthatos, Opuscules et Lettres [SC 81. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1961]: 230‐ 234.
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T.77 1047; other editions 15‐17 C.E. Sparta? Peloponnesus? Vita et Miracula Niconis. Ch. 55 line 25. Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine Ὡς γοῦν πολὺς ἀπετίκτετο κλόνος τῷ ἀθλίῳ ἐκ τῆς συνεχούσης ἀνάγκης, καὶ αὐτὴ σχεδὸν ἡ τοῦ ἄσθματος αὐτῷ ὁλκὴ ἐξεκόπτετο, τῆς ἀπῃωρημένης λυχνίας ἄνωθεν τοῦ κιβωρίου λαβόμενος κατὰ τὸ (25) λανθάνον—συνείχετο γὰρ ἤδη καὶ δίψει ἀφορήτῳ—τῷ ἰδίῳ ἐγχέει στόματι, καὶ παραχρῆμα—ὢ θείας ἐπισκοπῆς, ὢ ταχείας βοηθείας—καχεξίᾳ τινὶ ληφθεὶς καὶ ναυτιασμῷ πρὸς ἔμετόν τε τραπεὶς ὑπὸ τῆς λίγγης, τῷ ἐμέτῳ καὶ ὁ ὄφις συνεξῆλθε ζῶν τε καὶ κινούμενος καὶ κατὰ γῆς ἕρπων ἄχρι (30) καὶ τοῦ κυκλώματος τοῦ σύνεγγυς τῆς ἱερᾶς θήκης ξεστοῦ λίθου καὶ λείου, ἐν ᾧ καὶ ἑαυτὸν οἷον περιδινήσας ὁ ὄφις καὶ συσπασθείς, νεκρὸς ἐκ τοῦ εὐθέως γεγένηται. D.F. Sullivan, The life of Saint Nikon. (Brookline, Mass.: Hellenic College P, 1987): 26‐270. T.78 11 C.E. Constantinople, Trapezunt Joannes VIII Xiphilinus Rhet. et Scr. Eccl., De miraculis sancti Eugenii. Line 497. Κιβώριον‐Saintly shrine; Lamps on the canopy‐shrine over the tomb Ἐν τούτοις τοίνυν οὔσης τῆς πόλεως ἐπιφαίνεταί τινι ὄναρ ὁ ἅγιος, (495) ἐπισκήπτων δι’ αὐτοῦ τῷ τοῦ παντίμου τεμένους ποιουμένῳ τὴν πρόνοιαν σταυροειδῶς ἐκκρεμάσαι κανδήλας τοῦ ἱεροῦ κιβωρίου, ὃ δὴ τῆς μυρορρόης ὑπέρκειται τοῦ ἁγίου σοροῦ. J.O. Rosenqvist, The hagiographic Dossier of St. Eugenios of Trepizond in Codex Athous Dionysiou 154 [Acta Universitatis Uppsaliensis. Studia Byzantina Uppsaliensia 5. Uppsala: U of Uppsala, 1996]: 170‐202. T.79 11 C.E. Etymologicum Gudianum. Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy 321:21: Κιβώριον, τὸ κὶβ σημαίνει κιβωτὸς, τὸ δὲ ὤριον φωτισμὸς, ἢ… 365:24: Λεκτίκιον, παρὰ τὸ λέχος, ὃ σημαίνει τὴν κοίτην∙κιβώριον ἐκ ξύλων, ὃ ἔχουσιν αἱ παρθένοι πρὸς τὸ καλύπτεσθαι αὑτάς. F.W. Sturz, Etymologicum Graecae linguae Gudianum et alia grammaticorum scripta e codicibus manuscriptis nunc primum edita [Leipzig=, 1818 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1973)] 229‐584. T.80 11‐12 C.E. Constantinople Georgius Cedrenus Chronogr., Compendium historiarum. Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy; Ambo‐canopy? in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople Volume 1 page 677 line 1 Τῷ δὲ λβʹ ἔτει τῆς βασιλείας Ἰουστινιανοῦ φιλοκαλουμένου (20) τῶν τρούλου τῆς μεγάλης ἐκκλησίας (ἦν γὰρ διερρηγμένος ἐκ τῶν ἐπιγενομένων ἀλλεπαλλήλων σεισμῶν) ἔπεσε τὸ ἀνατολικὸν μέρος τῆς προϋποστολῆς τοῦ ἁγίου θυσιαστηρίου, καὶ συνέτριψε τὸ κιβώριον (677) καὶ τὴν ἁγίαν τράπεζαν καὶ τὸν ἄμβωνα. συνιδὼν οὖν ὁ βασιλεὺς ἤγειρεν ἄλλους
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πινσοὺς καὶ ἐδέξατο τὸν τροῦλον, καὶ οὕτως ἐκτίσθη ὑψωθεὶς πλέον εἴκοσι ποδῶν εἰς ὕψος τοῦ πρώτου κτίσματος. I. Bekker, Georgius Cedrenus Ioannis Scylitzae ope, 2 vols. [CSHB. Bonn: Weber, 1:1838; 2:1839]: 1:3‐802; 2:3‐638. T.81 11‐12 C.E. Constantinople Joannes Zonaras Hist. et Gramm., Epitome historiarum (lib. 13‐18) Page 170 line 16. Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy; Ambo Canopy? … τῆς δὲ μεγάλης ἐκκλησίας ἀπαρτισθείσης ἤδη καὶ καθιερωθείσης, συνέβη πεσεῖν ἐκ σεισμοῦ τὴν πρὸς ἀνατολὴν μεγάλην σφαῖραν τοῦ τοιούτου (15) ναοῦ, ἣ πεσοῦσα τό τε κιβώριον τῆς ἁγίας τραπέζης καὶ αὐτὴν ἐκείνην τὴν παναγῆ τράπεζαν καὶ τὸν ἄμβωνα συνέτριψεν∙ὅθεν λέγεται καὶ τὸν τροῦλον προστάξει τοῦ βασιλέως… T. Büttner‐Wobst, Ioannis Zonarae epitomae historiarum libri xviii, vol. 3 [CSHB. Bonn: Weber, 1897]: 1‐768 T.82 11‐12 C.E. Andida, Pergamon, Anatolia Theodore of Andydas Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy; and reference that not all churches have kiboria. Καἰ δὴ ὡς οὐρανὸν μὲν τὸ ἐπάνωθεν τἧς ἁγίας τραπέζης ὁρόφιον ἀπαρτίζουσαι · ὡς ὅλην δὲ γῆν ὁρίζονται τὸ ὑπο τεσσάρων κιόνων τοὒ κιβωρίου συγκλειόμενον ἢ περιγραφομενον ἱερὸν ἔδαφος · ἐν ᾠ πληροὒται καὶ ο προφητικὸς λόγος, ὁ, « Εἰργάσατο σωτηρίαν ἐν μέσῳ τῆς γῆς ὁ Θεός · » [cf. Psalm 73:12 and reference to the middle of the earth] πάντων γὰρ ὁμολογούντων ἐν Ἱεροσολύμοις περιγράφθαι τῆς γῆς τὸ μεσαίτατον, ἔνθα δὴ καὶ πάντα τὰ τοὒ πάθους ὑπέστη ὁ Κύριος, τὴω προδοσίαν τὴν κρίσιν, τὰ πρὸ τοὒ σταβροὒ, καὶ τὰ μενὰ τὸν σταβρόν · ἐπεὶ καὶ ἡ ἁγία τράπεζα μεθόριον οὐρανοῢ καὶ γῆς ὡς παραδείκνυται, καὶ κατὰ τὸ μέσον τῶν κιόνων καὶ τῶν κύκλῳ ῾ριπιδων ἔχει τὴν στάσιν ... τῳ δὲ λέγοντι, Ἀλλ᾽ οὒ πάσα ἐκκλησία κιβώριον ἔχει καὶ κριπἲδας καὶ κίονας, ἀρκέσει τὸ τοὒ βήματος ἡμικύκλιον ἐν πάσῃ ἐκκλησίᾳ νομοθετηθέν · οὖ καὶ ὁ μὑαξ τὸ οὐράνιον ἡμισφαιριον σχηματίζει, ἐν μέσῳ ἔχον καταντικρὺ τὴν ἁγίαν τράπεζαν. PG 140, 417, col 443 Theordous Andidensis Episcopus. De divinae Liturgiae symbolis ac mysteriis, Comentatio liturgica: 441‐444. T.83 12 C.E. Thessaloniki Eustathius Philol. et Scr. Eccl., Commentarii ad Homeri Iliadem. Vol. 3 page 519:8 Κιβώριον‐not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Θηριακοῖς τὰ ὑπ’ Ἀλεξανδρέων καλούμενα κολοκάσια, ὧν παρώνυμος Ἀθηνᾶ Κολοκασία ἐν Σικυῶνι, καὶ ὅτι τὸ φυτόν, οὗ ἡ ῥηθεῖσα ῥίζα καὶ ὁ κύαμος, κιβώριον ἐκαλεῖτο, ἱστορεῖ Ἀθήναιος. M. van der Valk, Eustathii archiepiscopi Thessalonicensis commentarii ad Homeri Iliadem pertinentes, vols. 1‐4. Leiden: Brill, 1:1971; 2:1976; 3:1979; 4:1987: 1:1‐802; 2:1‐838; 3:1‐944; 4:1‐991.
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T.84 12 C.E. 1110–16 Constantinople Typikon of Empress Irene Doukaina Komnene for the Convent of the Mother of God Kecharitomene Πέπλα ‐Curtains of the four columns? Canopy? Π<έπλ>α τῶν δʹ διαστύλων Kecharitomene in BMFD vol. 2 (2000) 716. T.85 12 C.E. Michael Accominatus, an archbishop of Athens (1175?‐1205) Altar canopy Church of the Mother of God (Theotokos Atheniotissa) on the site of Parthenon in Athens K. M. Setton, “Athens in the Later Twelfth Century,” Speculum 19/2 (1944) 179‐207. T.86 12 C.E. Constantinople Anna Comnena Hist., Alexiad. Book 12 chapter 3 section 6 line 18. Καταπέτασμα‐imperial canopy Καὶ τοῦτο μόνον, ὅτι (15) βασιλὶς παρέπεται τῷ στρατεύματι, ὁ φερόμενος ταῖν ἡμιόνοιν οἰκίσκος ἐδείκνυ καὶ τὸ ἄνωθεν βασιλικὸν καταπέτασμα, τὰ δ’ ἄλλα ἐπηλυγάζετο τὸ θεῖον ἐκείνης σῶμα. Alexiad‐a. XII.3.6 T.87 12‐13 C.E. Constantinople Nicolaus Mesarites Rhet., Descriptio ecclesiae SS. Apostolorum. ὀρόφιον ‐‐ altar canopy of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople Chapter 38 section 6 Αὐτὴ δὲ ἡ ἱερὰ Χριστοῦ τράπεζα τὰ τῶν εἰς σφαγὴν ἑαυτοὺς ὑπὲρ αὐτοῦ δόντων σώματα Λουκᾶ καὶ Ἀνδρέου καὶ Τιμοθέου τῶν ἀποστόλων ὅσα καὶ ἄσυλον θησαυρὸν κατακρύπτει παρ’ ἑαυτῇ, ἐξ ἀργύρου πᾶσα πεποιημένη καθαροῦ τε καὶ διειδοῦς. (6.) τὸ δὲ τῆς ἱερᾶς καὶ θείας τραπέζης ὑπερκείμενον ὀρόφιον, ὃ καὶ καταπέτασμα τοῖς πολλοῖς καλεῖν σύνηθες, ἐκ τετραγώνου μὲν ἄρχεται τέτρασιν ὑπανεχομένου κίοσιν, ἐς δὲ τὸ πυραμοειδὲς καταλήγει ταῖς ἐκ βασιλικοῦ λίθου τριγώνοις πρισταῖς πεποιημένον πλαξίν, ἃς τοσοῦτον ἐλέπτυνεν ὁ τεχνίτης, ὡς (5) δοκεῖν ἐξ ὑφασμάτων βυσσίνων λευκῶν τουτὶ διατετάσθαι τὸ καταπέτασμα. G. Downey, ʺNikolaos Mesarites: Description of the Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople,ʺ TAPA 47 (1957): 897‐918.
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T.88 12‐13 C.E. Constantinople Nicolaus Mesarites Rhet., Seditio Joanni Comneni. Page 35 line 12. καταπέτασμα – altar canopy? καὶ οἱ μὲν τιτρωσκόμενοι καὶ ἄκοντες ὑπεχώρουν, ἕτεροι δὲ κακοῦργοι ἀτραυμάτιστοι τοὺς τραυματίας τάχιον διεδέχοντο, καὶ τούτους ἕτεροι πάλιν, τοῦ πολυτελοῦς τοῦ ναοῦ πάντα μετακαλουμένου διάρπαγμα θέσθαι τὸν πολυτάλαντον ἄργυρον, (10) τὸν πολυτίμητον μάργαρον, τὸν ἀτίμητον σμάραγδον, τὸν λυχνίτην τὸν ἔντιμον, τὸ χρυσίον τὸ εὔροιζον. τὸ γάρ τοι καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ ἅπαν ἀργύρεον καὶ οἱ ὑπανέχοντες κίονες περιηργυρωμένοι. κεχρυσωμένοι, διαυγεῖς, ἀποστίλβοντες∙ ἐκ τετραγώνου τὸ καταπέτασμα, γεωμετρικὴ πυραμὶς εἰς ὀξὺ καταλήγουσα∙ σταυροὶ ζωοποιοί (15) τε καὶ τίμιοι, ἀπ’ ἄκρου εἰς ἄκρον ἠμφιεσμένοι χρυσῷ∙ ἄξιοι λίθοι ἐν τούτοις πολλοῦ ἐμπεπορπημένοι, ἐξηρτημένοι, ἐμπεπηγμένοι οἱ μάργαροι ἀπεσφαιρωμένοι ἐς εὔτορνον, περιστεραὶ τῆς ἱερᾶς ἄνωθεν ἀπῃωρημέναι τραπέζης, οὐ περιηργυρωμέναι, οὐκ ἐχρυσωμέναι. ἀλλὰ τὸ σύμπαν χλωρῷ χρυσίῳ σὺν τοῖς μεταφρένοις ἐκστίλβουσαι, ἐκ (20) λίθου πρασίνου διακεκοσμημέναι αἱ πτέρυγες, τῷ διαπεπερονημένῳ μαργάρῳ ἀστράπτουσαι, χαλαραὶ τὰ πτίλα∙ ἐοίκασιν ἐναέρια πέτεσθαι καὶ ἄρτι φθάνειν ἐπὶ κατάπαυσιν∙ τοῖς ῥάμφεσιν ἀπῃωρημένα τὰ κάρφη, οὐ πτόρθοι ἐλαίας, ἀλλ’ ἐκ μαργάρων καὶ ταῦτα ἐς σταυρικὸν σημεῖον διαγραφόμενα. (25) A. Heisenberg, Nikolaos Mesarites, Die Palastrevolution des Johannes Komnenos [Programm des K. Alten Gymnasiums zu Würzburg für das Studienjahr 1906‐1907. Würzburg: Köningliche Universitätsdruckerei von H. Stürzt, 1907] T.89 12‐13 C.E. Constantinople Nicetas Choniates. Chronographia 357 Καταπετάσματα‐Altar canopy in Hagia Sophia Μετ’ οὐ πολὺ δὲ κατασπῶσι καὶ τὸ τοῦ Μεγίστου Νεὼ καταπέτασμα ἐς μυρίας πολλάκις ἀργύρου μνᾶς ἀριθμούμενον, καὶ τούτου εὐροιζοτέρου παντός, καὶ εἰς βάθος χρυσῷ πυκαζόμενον. J. van Dieten, Nicetae Choniatae historia, pars prior [Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. Series Berolinensis 11.1. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1975]: 1‐635, 637‐655. T.90 12 ‐14 C.E. / Before 1360 Anon. Marc. Gr. 444 Ορόφιον‐baptismal canopy from the Progymnasmata; now lost Της δʹ οροφής ένδον ταύτης ό γραφευς όλα χρώματα συγκεράννυσι και τον βαπτισμδν του Σωτήρας εκεί καταζωγραφεϊ όστις δη και κατά καιρόν, της θείας κάτω κολυμβήθρας ύδατος έμπλησθείσης αγίου, ένδον ευθύς του ύδατος όραται, αισθητώς ώσανεί βαπτιζόμενος, και ό τοις άνω αεί έμφιλοχωρών θεός κάτω διʹέμέ τηνικαΰτα γίνεται και προσπελάζει τη γη. Φιλώ σου την χείρα, γραφεΰ, ει δε γε βούλει, την έπίνοιαν. Καθʹ υδάτων γαρ γράφεις, όπερ πολλφ των λίαν αδυνάτων εστίν. B. Flusin, “L’ekphrasis d’un baptistère byzantin” TM 15 (2005): 163‐181.
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T.91 13 C.E. d. 1232 Novgorod Anthony of Novgorod Катапезма ‐Slavic version of the Greek word καταπετάσμα; Curtained altar canopy in Hagia Sophia T.92 13 C.E. Constantinople Deed of concession to the Genoese of certain areas of Constantinople (October 13, 1202) [with the Inventory of the So‐called Palace of Botaniates] καταπέτασμα – altar canopy harmosphenion – icon canopy? The holy church is domed, has a single apse and four columns, one of them being of white Bithynian marble. … The partition of the bema (sanctuary) consists of four posts of green [marble] with bronze collars, two perforated closure slabs, a marble entablature and a gilded wooden templon. The marble canopy (καταπέτασμα) of the holy table, the latter having four straight moldings, is [supported] on four reed‐like (slender) columns and is enclosed by means of two railings and two closure slabs as well as railing doors and [other] little doors. Above the west doors is a carved marble icon. The floor consists of an interlace of green slabs and opus sectile and a border of Phlegmonousian marble. To the south is an extension in the shape of an arch [or: having an arch], adorned with paintings and a little conch decorated with mosaic. Its partition consists of three slender columns, [paneling known as] a harmosphenion [canopy for proskynetaria icons – J.B.?], and a marble entablature. The two entrances [into it] have marble railings, and the other [third?] is closed. The floor is of white marble with opus sectile and roundels. The outer semi‐circular terrace, which is decayed, has two reed‐like (slender) columns and a marble floor. To the north there is an extension in the shape of an arch, decorated with images, a conch that is not shut off [canopy frame for proskynetaria icons – J.B.?], and a floor of plain marble. The partition towards the west consists of columns and two railings with latticed doors and two reed‐like columns, a rail, two lattices, and the window panes missing in the clerestory. F. Miklosich and J. Muller, Acta et diplomata Graeca mediiaevi iii (Vienna, 1865) 3:55‐57, and x‐xv. Translation J.B. according to: Mango SD 240 and R. Ousterhout, Master Builders of Byzantium (Princeton, N.J., c 1999) 35‐36, with reference to Angold “Inventory” 254‐66. T.93 13 C.E. 1247 Skoteine, Asia Minor Testament of Maximos for the Monastery of the Mother of God at Skoteine near Philadelphia θείo τρούλλo‐sacred dome; canopy? Small metal crosses with a censer in the sacred dome. Σταυρία χυτὰ μετὰ θυμιατοῦ ἐν τῷ θείῳ τρούλλῳ. Skoteine in BMFD vol. 3 (2000) 1186.
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T.94 14 C.E. ~1340 Thessaloniki Grigorios of Thessaloniki. Φυσικά, Θεολογικά, Ἠθικά τε καὶ πρακτικά [Phisica, Theologica. Philokalia] ch.5 Reference to Κιβώριον / structure of the canopy and microcosmic symbolism: earth is related to number four and a square, and heavens to a circle. T.95 14 C.E. Constantinople / Thessaloniki Isidorus Glabas. Metropolitan Homiliae in sanctum Demetrium. Homily 1 page 26 Καταπετάσματα – canopy Καταπετάσματα ὁ θαυμαστὸς Δημήτριος, διὰ τοῦτο μόνον ἐδόθη τῷ βίῳ, (15) ἵνα μόνος πᾶσιν ὧν δέονται διαρκῇ, οὐ μιᾶς τινος μόνον ἕνεκεν χρείας τὸ χρήσιμον ἔχειν φαινόμενος, ὡς ὁ σῖτος πείνης παραμυθία καὶ δίψης τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ ἄλλης ἀνάγκης ἐπίκουρον ἄλλο, ἀλλὰ πολλῶν ὄντων καὶ μεγάλων, ὧν ἄνθρωπος ἑκάστοτε δεῖται, τούτων ἁπάντων Δημήτριος σὺν θεῷ καὶ μετὰ θεὸν δοτήρ, προμηθεύς, χορηγός, εὐεργέτης καὶ εἴ τι (20) τοιοῦτον ἀεὶ γινόμενος. Εἰς τοῦτον γὰρ οἱ καταφυγόντες «ἰσχυράν, κατὰ τὸν Ἀπόστολον, παράκλησιν ἔχομεν κρατῆσαι τῆς προκειμένης ἐλπίδος», προσθείην δ’ ἂν καὶ τῆς ζητουμένης χρείας, καὶ τοῦτον ὡς ἄγκυραν τῆς ἡμετέρας ἔχομεν ψυχῆς ἀσφαλῆ τε καὶ βεβαίαν καὶ εἰσερχομένην εἰς τὸ ἐσώτερον τοῦ καταπετάσματος, ὅπου πρόδρομος ὑπὲρ (25) ἡμῶν εἰσῆλθεν Ἰησοῦς∙ ἀλλά γε διὰ τοῦτο πολυειδεῖς οὕτω διανέμειν πεπλούτηκε τὰς δωρεάς, ἐπεί περ ὅτ’ ἐχρῆν ποικίλως τὸν τούτων ἐθεράπευσε δοτῆρα∙ εἴ τινα μὲν γὰρ τῶν ἁγίων ἀρετὴν ἐκ νέου μετιόντα σκοπήσεις, ψυχῆς τε κάθαρσιν φιλοσοφοῦντα καὶ ὅσα μὲν ἄνω φέρει καὶ πρὸς θεὸν προθύμως διώκοντα, ὡς δὲ σκύβαλα, ὅπερ εἰσὶν ἀληθῶς, τὰ (30) κάτω καὶ φρονοῦντα καὶ ἀπορρίπτοντα, τοῦτο καὶ ὁ καλὸς ἐτύγχανε Δημήτριος ἅμα τῆς φρονούσης ἁψάμενος ἡλικίας∙ B. Laourdas, ʺἸσιδώρου ἀρχιεπισκόπου Θεσσαλονίκης ὁμιλίαι εἰς τὰς ἑορτὰς τοῦ ἁγίου Δημητρίου,ʺ Ἑλληνικὰ 5 (1954): 19‐65 T.96 14 C.E. Constantinople Theoktistos the Stoudite Apsis; apsida ‐ ἁψῖδα / Tomb canopy tomb canopy of St. Athanasios I (1289–93, 1303–1309), who was buried some time after 1323 presumably in the church of Christ Savior in Athanasios’ monastery on Xerolophos, now lost 10. ἔδοξε τοίνυν αὐτοῖς ἁψῖδα περὶ τὸν τάφον ἀνεγεῖραί τινα, καὶ ὀρύσσειν ἀρξάμενοι, φθάνουσιν ἵνα καὶ τὸ πανίερον σῶμα τοῖς χώμασι συγκεκάλυπτο. Theoktistos (1983): 44‐123.
319
T.97 14 C.E. Trebizond Anonymous. Digenes Akrites Grotaferrata version apsida ‐ ἀψίδα; Tomb canopy‐‐tomb of Digenes Akrites Digenes Akrites, J. Mavrogordato ed. and transl. (Oxford, 1956) 246‐247, col. 240‐245. T.98 14 C.E. / (1348‐49) Novgorod Stephen of Novgorod. From the “Wanderer of Stephen of Novgorod” Canopy – кивот / Old Church Slavonic version for the Greek word kibotion Canopy over the icon – in the open space! Reference to the Tuesday miracle in Constantinople with the icon. Stephen of Novgorod. From the “Wanderer of Stephen of Novgorod” in RussTravelers (1984): 15‐47, 36‐37 T.99 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod Stephen of Novgorod. From the “Wanderer of Stephen of Novgorod” Canopy – киотъ/ Old Church Slavonic version for the Greek word kibotion, ark, chest Canopy over the icon According to Stephen – the miraculous icon of Christ Saviour in the church of the Holy Apostoloi, Constantinople stabbed by the unbeliever ‐ Jew Stephen of Novgorod. From the “Wanderer of Stephen of Novgorod” in RussTravelers (1984): 15‐47, 42‐43 T.100 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod? RussAnon apsida ‐ ἀψίδα / Apsida – Slavonic version of the Greek word ‐‐Canopy over phiale Open lid‐covered canopy over the stone phiale in Hagia Sophia RussAnon. Tale of the Holy Places, of The City of Constantinople and of the Holy Relics Preserved in Jerusalem and Collected by the Emperor Constantine in the Aforementioned City in RussTravelers (1984): 128‐154, 138‐139 T.101 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod? RussAnon Canopy – теремець/ Old Church Slavonic ‐‐ Canopy over the icon Canopied shrine over the miraculous icon of the Mother of God in the north aisle of Hagia Sophia
320
RussAnon. Tale of the Holy Places, of The City of Constantinople and of the Holy Relics Preserved in Jerusalem and Collected by the Emperor Constantine in the Aforementioned City in RussTravelers (1984): 128‐154, 132‐133 T.102 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod? RussAnon Canopy – Russian word for columns!‐‐Canopy shrine Canopy made of wood (of Noah’s Ark!) at the west end of the north aisle of Hagia Sophia. The Canopy itself was venerated as a relic RussAnon. Tale of the Holy Places, of The City of Constantinople and of the Holy Relics Preserved in Jerusalem and Collected by the Emperor Constantine in the Aforementioned City in RussTravelers (1984): 128‐154, 132‐133 T.103 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod? RussAnon Canopy – кивор‐Slavic version of the word kiborion / Canopy shrine Canopy over the body of St. Polyeuktos in the church of Holy Apostols in Constantinople. The body must have been in the near‐by church until the 11th century and then moved to the Holy Apostles. RussAnon. Tale of the Holy Places, of The City of Constantinople and of the Holy Relics Preserved in Jerusalem and Collected by the Emperor Constantine in the Aforementioned City in RussTravelers (1984): 128‐154, 148‐149 T.104 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod? RussAnon Canopy – кивор; Canopy shrine Canopy over the body of St. Spiridon in the church of Holy Apostols in Constantinople located north to the sanctuary which was in the center of the church RussAnon. Tale of the Holy Places, of The City of Constantinople and of the Holy Relics Preserved in Jerusalem and Collected by the Emperor Constantine in the Aforementioned City in RussTravelers (1984): 128‐154, 148‐149 T.105 14 C.E. / (1389‐1391) Novgorod? RussAnon Canopy – теремець; Old Church Slavonic Canopy over the phiale in the monastery of St. George of Mangana in Constantinople RussAnon. Tale of the Holy Places, of The City of Constantinople and of the Holy Relics Preserved in Jerusalem and Collected by the Emperor Constantine in the Aforementioned City in RussTravelers (1984): 128‐154, 138
321
T.106 14 C.E. οἰκίσκος ‐‐ Canopy over the icon Oikiskos John Prodromos in Serres, Thess. “Ἡ μητρόπολις τῶν Σερρῶν κατὰ τὴν ἔκφρασιν τοῦ Πεδιασίμου” EEBS 19 (1949) 259‐271. T.107 14 C.E. Chronicon Moreae (recensiones Η et Τ). Line 7792 κιβούριον – altar canopy Ὥρισε κ’ ἐπαρήγγειλεν, μεθ’ ὅτου ἀποθάνῃ, μὴ προῦ περάσῃ ὁ καιρὸς ἐκεῖνος γὰρ ὁ χρόνος, τὰ ὀστέα του μοναχὰ νὰ βάλουσι εἰς σεντοῦκι στὸν ἅγιον Ἰάκωβον Μορέως, ἐκεῖ εἰς τὴν Ἀνδραβίδαν, (7790) στὴν ἐκκλησίαν ὅπου ἔποικεν καὶ ἔδωκεν στὸ Τέμπλο, εἰς τὸ κιβούριον, τὸ ἔποικεν, ὅπου ἦτον ὁ πατήρ του∙εἰς τὴν δεξιάν του τὴν μερέαν νὰ ἔνι ὁ ἀδελφός του, κ’ ἐκεῖνος νὰ ἔνι ἀριστερά, καὶ ὁ πατήρ του μέσα. Ἐδιόρθωσεν κ’ ἐπρόνοιασεν τέσσαρους καπελλάνους, (7795) τοὺς ὀνομάζουν οἱ Ρωμαῖοι ἱερεῖς τοὺς λέγουν ὅλοι, νὰ στήκουσιν ἀδιάλειποι εἰς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων, νὰ ψάλλουσιν καὶ λειτουργοῦν ἀεννάως διὰ τὲς ψυχές τους∙ εἰς ἐντολὴν κι ἀφορισμὸν ὥρισε, ἐγράψανέ το, ποτὲ νὰ μὴ ἔχουν σκάνταλον ἀπὸ ἄνθρωπον τοῦ κόσμου. (7800) J. Schmitt, The Chronicle of Morea. London: Methuen, 1904: 3‐597. T.108 15 C.E. Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius Theol., Grammatica Part 2 page 457:32 Κιβώριον κιβώριον, τὸ ἀγριοιντύβιον M. Jugie, L. Petit, and X.A. Siderides, Oeuvres complètes de Georges (Gennadios) Scholarios, vol. 8. Paris: Maison de la bonne presse, 1936: 351‐498. T.109 15 C.E. Thessaloniki Symeon of Thessaloniki. De Sacro Templo PG 155, ch. 133, col. 342 B/D Κιβώριον‐Altar canopy Καταπετάσμα – the curtains of the altar canopy … καὶ κιβώριον ὐποκάτω ταύτης ἀντἰ τοῦ μνήματος. Καὶ ἐν αὐτῷ τῶν ὐπὲρ Χριστοῦ τυθέντων τὰ λείψανα, ότι ἀληθῶς Χριστοῦ τάφος καί μνῆμα. Καὶ οί συνθανόντες αὐτῷ ἐκείσε συνθάπτονται, καὶ θυομένου συναπολαύουσιν, ὡς καὶ συναναστάντος τότε συνδοξασθήσονται. Τὸ καταπέτσαμα δὲ καὶ εἰς τιμὴν Ἰησοῦ τοῦ τιμιωτάτου τε καὶ πολτιμήτου, καὶ εἰς τύπον τῆς ἐπουρανίυ σκηνῆς. Καὶ ἐκ τεσσάρων στύλων διἀ τὸ ἐκ περάτων εἰναι τὸ ἁθрοισμα τῶν ἐκ τῆς τрαπέζης ζώντων ἐκείνων καὶ διὰ τεσσάрων συστῆναι τῶν συγκαεσαμένων Εὑαγγελίων καὶ τῶν κηρυξἁντωναὑτάΔιὸ καὶ ἐνταίς τέσσαροι γωνίαι μέρη ὐφασμάτων ή τράπεζα γυμνὴ δέχεται ὅτι κἀκεῖνοι ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς οί τὰ Εὑαγγέλια γράψαντες … PG 155
322
T.110 n.d. / Pre‐Christian period? Fragmenta Alchemica. Vol. 2 379:21. Κιβώριον‐? possibly Egyptian beans … εἰ δὲ τῶν μειζόνων καθὼς γέγονεν ἐν τῷ (20) κιβωρίῳ καὶ ἐν τοῖς χαλκοῖς κίοσιν, γύψου …, ταυροκόλλης … δʹ, ἰχθυοκόλλης M. Berthelot and C.É. Ruelle, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs, vol. 2. Paris: Steinheil, 1888 (repr. 1963): 377‐379. T.111 n.d. Magica, Papyri magicae. Number 4 line 1110 Κιβώριον‐ shrine? .. τὸν δὲ θεὸν ὄψῃ ἐπὶ κιβωρίου καθήμενον, ἀκτινωτόν, (1110) τὴν δεξιὰν ἀνατεταμένην ἀσπαζόμενον, τῇ δὲ ἀριστερᾷ <κρατοῦντα> σκῦτος, βασταζόμενον ὑπὸ βʹ ἀγγέλων ταῖς χερσὶν καὶ κύκλῳ αὐτῶν ἀκτῖνας ιβ. A. Henrichs and K. Preisendanz, Papyri Graecae magicae. Die griechischen Zauberpapyri, vols. 1‐2, 2nd ed. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1:1973; 2:1974: 1:1‐62, 66‐200; 2:1‐208.
323
TABLE 2: TEXTS WITH REFERENCES TO κιβώριον:
chalice
Egyptian beans
other
title & type of work
REMARKS:
reliquary or
REFERENCE to κιβώριον
ambo canopy
WORK:
altar canopy
TEXT. DATE PLACE no.
T.2
T.3
T.4
T.5
T.6
T.7
T.8
T.9
T.10 T.11
3 B.C.E Delphi
Hegesander, Fragmenta. Historical; Antiquarian 3‐2 Lydia, Nicander Fragmenta B.C.E. Anatolia The poems and poetical fragments Poems 3‐2 Rhodos Callixenus Hist., B.C.E. Fragmenta Historical; Antiquarian 2 Knidos Agatharchides B.C.E. Geogr., Fragmenta Historical; Geographical; Antiquarian 1 Agyrium Diodorus Siculus B.C.E. (now Hist., Bibliotheca Agira), historica (lib. 1‐20). Sicily. Historical; Antiquarian 1 Nysa, Strabo Amasiotes B.C.E. ‐ Anatolia Geogr., Geographica 1 C.E. Rome Geographical; Historical; Antiquarian 1 C.E. ? Claudius Iolaus Hist., Fragmenta Historical; Antiquarian 1 C.E. Anazarbus, Dioscorides Pedanius Post 1 Cilicia Med., De materia C.E. medica Medical 1‐2 Ephesus Soranus Med., C.E. Gynaeciorum libri iv 2 C.E. Pergamon, Galenus Med., Anatolia De alimentorum facultatibus libri iii. Medical
324
?
?
X
Text written by the Priest of the temple of Apollo
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
κ ι β ώ ρ ι ο ν = κιβώ τ ι ο ν
X
X
X
T.12
2 C.E.
T.13
2 C.E.
T.15
2‐3 C.E.
T.21
4‐5 C.E.
T.22
4 C.E.
T.23
4 C.E.
T.28
5 C.E.
T.29
Pseudo‐Galenus Med., De theriaca ad Pamphilianum Medical Alexandria, Aelius Herodianus et Rome Pseudo‐Herodianus Gramm. et Rhet Grammatical Naucratis, Athenaeus Soph. near Deipnosophistae Alexandria, Poetical, Antiquarian Egypt Antioch John Chrysostom Const.‐ople In Acta apostolorum Patriarch Exegetical, Homiletic Cappadocia St. Basil the Great , Asia Historia Mystagogica Minor Theological Pergamon, Oribasius Med., Anatolia Collectiones medicae (lib. 1‐16, 24‐25, 43‐50) Medical Monastery Callinicus, of Vita sancti Hypatii Rufinianae, Monk near Hagiography Bosphoros
X
Κιβώριον = κιβούριον
X
X
?
?
κιβώρια μικρὰ
?
X
τὸ γὰρ κιβ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ οὖριν … φῶς κυρίου
?
?
5 C.E.
Gaza
?
T.30
Post 5 C.E.
?
?
κιβώρια μικρὰ
T.31
Rome
?
?
κιβώρια μικρὰ
T.32
5‐6 C.E. 6 C.E.
Jerusalem
?
T.33
6 C.E.
Antioch
X
ὁ κιβώριός στιν εὶς τύπον τῆς κιβωτοῦ τοῦ Νῶε τὸ μὸν κιβ κιβωτός τὸ δὲ ὤριον τουτέστι διςταξις αὐτοῦ
Marcus Diaconus Vita Porphyrii episcopi Gazensis Diacon Hagiography Catenae (Novum Testamentum), Catena in Acta Exegetical Sanctus Symmachus. Anno Christi 498 Sophronius Historia liturg.2 Theological
John Malalas, Chronographia Historical, Antiquarian, Theological
325
Also double tetrapylon from the Hellenistic past as a propylaeum to sacred precinct; The author probably comes from Syria Roman structure in Gaza, presumably tetrapylon‐like with a dome
T.41
6 C.E.
T.42
6 C.E.
T.43
6 C.E.
T.44
6 C.E.
T.45
6 C.E.
T.52
7 C.E.
T.53 T.54
7 C.E. 7 C.E.
T.56
Post 7 C.E.
T.58
8 C.E.
T.59
8‐9 C.E.
Amidenus
Aëtius Iatricorum libri i‐vi Medical Const.‐ople Stephanus Gramm. Byzantius, Ethnica Lexicographic, Grammatical, Geographical, Antiquarian Athens Simplicius Phil. In Aristotelis quattuor libros de caelo commentaria Philological, Natural History, Commentaries, Antiquarian. Alexandria Cosmas Indicopleustes, Topographia Christiana. Theol., Geog., Antiq. Alexandria Hesychius Lexicogr., Lexicon. Lexicon
Thessalonik Joannes I, Miracula i sancti Demetrii. Archiepiscop Hagiography Const.‐ople Chronicon paschale. Syceota Georgius Syceota Theol., Vita sancti Theodori Syceotae Hegoumenos Hagiography Vita et Miracula Sancti Demetri Hagiography Const.‐ople Germanos Ecclesiastical History and Mystical Contemplation Patriarch Theological Const.‐ople, Theophanes Samothrace Confessor Chronographia Confessor Historical, Antiquarian
326
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
He also mentions that κιβώτιον is a saintly tomb (λάρναξ) of wood (ξυλίνη) or a shrine (σορός)
X
?
? X
κιβούρια
?
X
X
τὸ γὰρ ΚΙΒ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ ΟΥΡΙΝ φωτισμὸς Θεοῦ, ἤ φῶς Θεοῦ.
?
X
?
Silver ciboria but with reference to chalices
T.61
9 C.E.
T.62
9 C.E.
T.64
T.65
T.66 T.69
T.70 T.71
T.73
T.77
T.78
Const.‐ople Theodore of Studion Theological Hymnography
?
?
?
X
?
Κιβώριον = κιβούριον
X
?
X X
X
Seven‐sided ciborium shrine! The shrine is also considered a house (οἴκος) of St. Demetrios
X
X
Silver columns and golden curtains. Reference to canopy in the Consistorium Palace Compilation of texts 6‐10 C.E
X
Shrine for the sandals of Christ, in the Chalki of the Saviour
X
11 C.E. Const.‐ople, Joannes VIII Trapezunt Xiphilinus, De miraculis sancti Eugenii Patriach, Nomopylax Hagiography
X
Textual borrowings from the Life of St. Luke of Phocis, the saint is depicted in the mosaics. Other editions 15‐17 C.E. Lamps on the canopy‐shrine, Over the tomb
Const.‐ople Photius Theol., Epistulae et Amphilochia Patriarch Epistol.; Theol.; Antiq. 9 C.E. Const.‐ople Georgius Choeroboscus De orthographia. Diacon Grammatical 9 C.E. Lesbos Vita sanctorum Davidis, Symeonis et Georgii Mitylenae Hagiography 9‐10 Jerusalem? Vita Eustratii C.E. Hagiography 10 C.E. Const.‐ople Synaxarium: Octobris, 26 Synaxarium cf. Hagiography 10 C.E. Vita Eliae Junioris Hagiography 10 C.E. Const.‐ople Constantinus VII Porphyrogenitus De cerimoniis Emperor Historical; Church History; Ecclesiastical; Antiquarian 10‐15 Const.‐ople Pseudo‐Codinus Hist., C.E. Patria Constantinopoleos. Historical, Antiquarian 1047 Sparta? Vita et Miracula Peloponnesu Niconis s? Hagiography
327
Κιβούριον τοῦ Προδρόμου Chalice of St. John the Baptist? Or altar canopy above the relics of St. John the Baptist? κιβώτιον = κιβώριον
T.79
11 C.E.
T.80
11‐12 C.E.
T.81
11‐12 C.E.
T.82
11‐12 C.E.
Etymologicum Gudianum. Grammatical, Theological
Const.‐ople Georgius Cedrenus, Compendium historiarum. Monk; Histor., Chronogr.; Antiq. Const.‐ople Joannes Zonaras, Epitome historiarum Monk ; Histor.; Antiq. Andida, Theodore of Andydas Pergamon, PG 140, 417, col 443‐ Anatolia 44 Episcope Theological
T.83
12 C.E. Thessalonik Eustathius Philol., i Commentarii ad Homeri Iliadem. Archiepiscope Commentaries; Antiq. T.94 14 C.E. Thessalonik Grigorios of Thess. ~1340 i Phisica, Theologica Philokalia T.107 14 C.E. Frankish Chronicon Moreae Morea T.108 15 C.E. Const.‐ople Gennadius Scholarius, Grammatica Patriarch Grammatical; Theological T.109 15 C.E. Thessalonik Symeon of i Thessaloniki De Sacro Templo
?
X
?
Κιβώριον, τὸ κὶβ σημαίνει κιβωτὸς, τὸ δὲ ὤριον φωτισμὸς, ἢ ..... Λεκτίκιον, παρὰ τὸ λέχος, ὃ σημαίνει τὴν κοίτην∙κιβώριον ἐκ ξύλων, ὃ ἔχουσιν αἱ παρθένοι πρὸς τὸ καλύπτεσθαι αὑτάς. wooden canopy!
X
?
X
X
Not all churches have kiboria, however, the hemispherical form of the bema can suggest the sky (ouranos) above the holy table.
?
?
Earth no 4, Heavens – circle.
X
X
X
X
Curtained altar canopy
NOT DATED T.110 ?
T.111 ?
Fragmenta Alchemica Alchemical Magica, Papyri magicae Magic
328
?
?
?
?
TABLE 3: TERMS FOR CANOPIES TEXT DATE PLACE no. T.1
T.2
6 B.C.E. and older 3 B.C.E Delphi
T.3
3‐2 B.C.E.
T.4
3‐2 Rhodos B.C.E. 2 B.C.E. Knidos
T.5
T.6
T.7
T.8 T.9
T.10
T.11
T.12
T.13
T.14 T.15
T.16
T.17
Lydia, Anatolia
WORK
WORD
TYPE OF CANOPY
REMARKS:
Orphica, Hymni. Hymn P line39.
τετρακίονος
?
Hegesander, Fragmenta. Nicander Fragmenta
κιβώριον
?
Historical; Antiquarian
Κιβώριον
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Text written by a priest of the temple of Apollo
Callixenus Hist., κιβώριον Fragmenta Agatharchides Κιβώριον Geogr., Fragmenta 1 B.C.E. Agyrium Diodorus Siculus Κιβώριον (now Agira), Hist., Bibliotheca Sicily. historica 1 B.C.E. Nysa, Strabo Κιβώριον ‐1 C.E. Anatolia Amasiotes Rome Geogr., Geographica 1 C.E. ? Claudius Iolaus Κιβώριον Hist., Fragmenta 1 C.E. Anazarbus, Dioscorides Κιβώριον Post 1 Cilicia Pedanius Med., κιβώριον = C.E. De materia medica κιβώτιον 1‐2 C.E. Ephesus Soranus Med., Κιβώριον Gynaeciorum libri iv 2 C.E. Pergamon, Galenus Med., Κιβώριον Anatolia De alimentorum facultatibus libri iii. 2 C.E. Pseudo‐Galenus Κιβώριον Med., De theriaca ad Pamphilianum 2 C.E. Alexandria, Aelius Κιβώριον = Rome Herodianus et κιβούριον Pseudo‐ Herodianus Gramm. et Rhet 2 C.E. Pausanias Hist., τετρακίονος Fragmenta 2‐3 C.E. Naucratis, Athenaeus Soph. Κιβώριον near Deipnosophistae Alexandria, Egypt 3‐4 C.E. Eusebius, Καταπέτασμα Demonstratio evangelica 4 C.E. Nyssenus Gregory Καταπετάσματα Nazianzes De vita Mosis.
329
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans κιβώριον = κιβώτιον not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
?
?
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
Κιβώριον = κιβούριον
Canopy?
Influenced Malalas, same reference not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans; also a reference to a chalice used in pagan temples
Chalice
T.18
4 C.E.
Alexandria
T.19
4 C.E.
T.20
4 C.E.
Antioch
T.21
4‐5 C.E. Antioch Const‐ople
T.22
4 C.E.
Cappadocia Asia Minor
T.23
4 C.E.
Pergamon, Anatolia
T.24
4‐6 C.E. Egypt, Palestine 5 C.E. Ravenna
T.25
T.26
T.27
T.28
T.29
T.30
T.31
T.32 T.33 T.34 T.35
5 C.E.
Antioch
Cyril. Alexandr., Καταπετάσμα De adoratione et cultu in spiritu et veritate. Athanasius πύργος Theol., Expositiones in Psalmos. John παραπετάσμα canopy? Chrysostom 1 Cor. Hom. 36.5 Eph. Hom. 3.5 Joannes κιβώρια μικρὰ Chalices or Chrysostomus, shrines In Acta apostolorum St. Basil the Κιβώριον Altar Great Historia canopy? Mystagogica Oribasius Med., Κιβώριον ? Collectiones medicae (lib. 1‐16, 24‐25, 43‐50) Marcus Eremita Καταπετάσματα baptistry De baptismo canopy? Agnellus XXVI, Altar De Victor canopy
Theodore of Cyrrhus Church History 5 C.E. Seleucia Basilus Isauria Seleuciensis De vita et miraculis sanctae Theclae 5 C.E. Monastery of Callinicus, Vita Rufinianae, sancti Hypatii near Bosphoros 5 C.E. Gaza Marcus Diaconus, Vita Porphyrii episcopi Gazensis after 5 Catenae (Novum C.E. Testamentum), Catena in Acta 5‐6 C.E. Rome Sanctus Symmachus. Anno Christi 498 6 C.E. Jerusalem Sophronius Historia liturg.2 6 C.E. Antioch John Malalas, Chronographia 5‐6 C.E. Antioch Joannes Malalas, Chronographia 6 C.E. Antioch Joannes Malalas, Chronographia.
παραπετάσμα
κοινὸν
Saintly shrine
Κιβώριον
shrine?
Κιβώριον
Saintly shrine?
curtains around the altar table – canopy?
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
Altar canopy, made of silver replaced by wooden; St. Ursiana church Imperial hangings around the altar in the Anastasis Basilica in Jerusalem Canopy over St. Thecla shrine Connected to the concept of oikia (small house): κοινὸν τάφοις καὶ εὐκτηρίοις οἴκοις
κιβώρια μικρὰ Chalices or shrines
κιβωρια μικρά
Chalices or shrines
Κιβώριον Κιβώριον τετρακίονος
Altar canopy? Altar canopy
Τετραπύλου
330
T.36
6 C.E.
Antioch
T.37
6 C.E.
Antioch
T.38
6 C.E.
T.39
6 C.E.
T.40
6 C.E.
T.41
6 C.E.
T.42
6 C.E.
T.43
6 C.E.
T.44
6 C.E.
T.45
6 C.E.
T.46
6 C.E.
T.47
T.49
6 C.E. 516 6‐10 C.E. 7 C.E.
T.50
7 CE
T.51
7 CE
T.52
7 C.E.
T.48
Joannes Malalas, Chronographia
Τετραπύλου
Evagrius Τετραπύλου Scholasticus Scr. Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica. Syria Evagrius Τετραπύλου Scholasticus Scr. Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica. Syria Evagrius παραπετάσμα altar Scholasticus Scr. canopy? Eccl., Historia ecclesiastica Const‐ople Paul the πύργος Altar Silentary. canopy Descriptio S. Sophiae Amidenus Aëtius, Κιβώριον ? Iatricorum libri Const‐ople Stephanus Κιβώριον ? Gramm. Byzantius, Ethnica Athens Simplicius Phil., Κιβώριον ? In Aristotelis quattuor libros de caelo commentaria Alexandria Cosmas Κιβώριον ? Indicopleustes, Topographia Christiana. Alexandria Hesychius, Κιβώριον ? Lexicon. Alexandria Hesychius, κιβώτιον Saintly Lexicon. tomb St. Drosis in Patriarch Severus hemisphaira Altar Antioch Sermon canopy Vitae Symeonis Καταπετάσματα Stylitae Junioris Cathedral of Chronicle of 1234 Altar Edessa canopy Arabissos in Cappadocia
Cyprus
Leontius, Vita Joannis Eleemosynarii episcopi Alexandrini Thessaloniki Joannes I, Miracula sancti Demetrii.
Καταπετάσματα Altar canopy?
Κιβώριον
331
Saintly shrine
Reference to the tetrapylon of the monastery of Rufinianus (T.28)
Refernce to the earthquake which destroyed tetrapylon of Mamianus in Antioch Curtains around the altar table, possibly from the altar canopy Altar canopy in Hagia Sophia
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Altar canopy made of silver Dedicatory hymn of 622 E. Maurice (r. 582‐602) sent an entire ciborium in pieces from Constantinople to the church in his native town. Katapesmata in reference to sanctuary
Shrine of St. Demetrios, Thess.
T.53
7 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.54
7 C.E.
Syceota
T.55
T.56 T.57 T.58
T.59
T.60
T.61
Chronicon paschale.
Georgius Syceota, Vita sancti Theodori Syceotae 7‐10C.E. Vitae et Miracula Sancti Anastasii Persae. after 7 Thessaloniki Vita et Miracula C.E. Const‐ople Sancti Demetri after 9 Thessaloiniki Vita et Miracula C.E. Const‐ople Sancti Demetri 8 C.E. Const‐ople Germanos Ecclesiastical History and Mystical Contemplation Patriarch 8‐9 C.E. Const‐ople Theophanes Samothrace Confessor, Chronographia 8‐9 C.E. Const‐ople, Theophanes Samothrace Confessor, Chronographia Confessor 9 C.E. Const‐ople Theodore of Studion Photius, Epistulae et Amphilochia Patriarch Photius, Homiliae. Hm. 10
κιβούρια
[altar] canopies
Κιβώριον
Saintly shrine
Τετραπύλον
Saintly shrine
shrine of St. Anastasius the Persian
Κιβώριον οἰκίσκος Κιβώριον
Saintly shrine Chapel‐ canopy? Altar canopy
Shrine of St. Demetrios, Thess. Shrine of St. Demetrios, Thess.
Τετράβηλον
Canopy?
Κιβώριον
chalices? Altar canopy?
Tetravila of the Hagia Sophia, possibly curtains for the canopy Silver ciboria
Κιβούριον τοῦ Προδρόμου
Altar canopy
Κιβώριον
?
στυλίσκοις ὑπωρόφοις ὄροφος Κιβώριον
altar canopy
Altar canopy from the church of Pharos
not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Κιβώριον = κιβούριον
T.62
9 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.63
9 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.64
9 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.65
9 C.E.
Lesbos
T.66
9‐10 C.E.
Jerusalem?
Georgius Choeroboscus, De orthographia. Vita sanctorum Davidis, Symeonis et Georgii Mitylenae Vita Eustratii
T.67
10 C.E.
Const‐ople
Synaxarion CP
Τετραπύλον
T.68
10 C.E.
Const‐ople
ορόφιον
T.69
10 C.E.
Const‐ople
Nicetas Magister, Vita S. Theoctistae Lesbiae Synaxarion CP, Synaxarium mensis Octobris, Day 26
Κιβώριον
Κιβώριον
Κιβώριον οἴκος
332
Altar canopy Shrine? Reliquary? Seven‐sided canopy‐ shrine Saintly shrine
Altar canopy Saintly shrine
vel Chr. Alexandrinum, vel Chr. Constantinopolitanum, vel Fasti Siculi – on the Arab destruction
Altar canopy above the relics of St. John the Baptist rather than a chalice not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans κιβώτιον = κιβώριον
Bronze canopy over relics of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste The canopy is mentioned by Clavijo in 15th c as in ruins altar canopy at Paros, still in situ Shrine of St. Demetrios, Thess.
T.70
10 C.E.
Vita Eliae Junioris
T.71
10 C.E. (6‐10 C.E.)
Const‐ople
Constantinus VII Porphyrogenitu, De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (lib. 1.84‐2.56) Emperor
T.72
10‐15 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.73
T.74 T.75
T.76
T.77 T.78
T.79 T.80
T.81
T.82
T.83
T.84
Κιβώριον Κιβώριον
Pseudo– Τετραπύλου Codinus, Patria Τετράβηλον Constantinopoleos 10‐15 Const‐ople Pseudo–Codinus, Κιβώριον C.E. Patria Constantinopoleos 11 C.E. Const‐ople Michael Psellus, Καταπέτασμα Theologica. 11 C.E. Const‐ople Michael Psellus, Καταπέτασμα Laudatio in Joannem Crustulam. 11 C.E. Const‐ople Nicetas Καταπετάσματα Stethatus, Vita Simeonis Novi Theologici. Vita et Miracula Κιβώριον 11 C.E. Sparta? Peloponnesus? Niconis 1047 11 C.E. Const‐ople, Joannes VIII Κιβώριον Trapezunt Xiphilinus, De miraculis sancti Eugenii 11 C.E. Etymologicum Κιβώριον Gudianum. 11‐12 Const‐ople Georgius Κιβώριον C.E. Cedrenus, Compendium historiarum. 11‐12 Const‐ople Joannes Zonaras, Κιβώριον C.E. Epitome historiarum 11‐12 C.E.
Andida, Theodore of Pergamon, Andydas Anatolia 12 C.E. Thessaloniki Eustathius, Commentarii ad Homeri Iliadem. 12 C.E. Const‐ople Typikon of the 1110–16 Kecharitomene
Κιβώριον Κιβώριον Π<έπλ>α
333
Saintly shrine Altar canopy
canopy
Saintly shrine
Shrine of St. Demetrios, Thess. Multiple meanings: Altar canopy; canopy on silver columns and with golden curtains in the palace of Bonus constructed by Emperor Roman Lacapene I (920‐944) dedicated to E. Constantine I – celebration of 21st of May and the veneration of the Cross; imperial canopy in Consistorium
Shrine canopy?
Shrine for the sandals of Christ, in the Chalki of the Saviour Curtains above the Cross reference to Mosaic law.
Saintly shrine Saintly shrine
Other editions 15‐17 C.E.
Altar canopy Altar canopy Ambo‐ canopy? Altar canopy Ambo Canopy? Altar canopy
Canopy?
Lamps on the canopy‐shrine over the tomb
Information that not all churches have canopies (kiboria) not a canopy but kind of Egyptian beans Π<έπλ>α τῶν δʹ διαστύλων τ. ... τύπον ἔχοντα σταυροῦ εἰκονισμεν… Curtains of the four columns?
T.85
12 C.E.
Athens
Michael Accominatus
T.86
12 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.87
12‐13 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.88
12‐13 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.89
12‐13 C.E.
Const‐ople
T.90
12 ‐14 C.E. Before 1360 13 C.E. d. 1232
Anna Comnena, Καταπέτασμα Imperial Alexiad. canopy Nicolaus ὀρόφιον altar Mesarites, canopy Descriptio ecclesiae SS. Apostolorum. Nicolaus καταπέτασμα altar Mesarites, Seditio canopy? Joanni Comneni Nicetas Καταπετάσματα Altar Choniates, canopy Chronographia Anon. Marc. Gr. ορόφιον baptismal 444 canopy
T.91
Novgorod
T.92
13 C.E.
T.93
13 C.E. 1247
T.94
14 C.E. ~1340
T.95
14 C.E.
T.96
14 C.E.
T.97
14 C.E.
T.98
14 C.E. Novgorod (1348‐9)
Anthony of Novgorod
Const‐ople
Deed of concession to the Genoese of certain areas of Constantinople (October 13, 1202) Skoteine, Testament of near Maximos for the Philadelphia Monastery at Asia Minor Skoteine Thessaloniki Grigorios of Thessaloniki, Philokalia
Altar canopy
Anonymous Epic poem Stephen of Novgorod
Altar canopy of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople
Altar canopy in Hagia Sophia
baptismal canopy from the Progymnasmata; now lost
Катапезма Slavic version of the Greek word Καταπετάσμα Καταπέτασμα [harmosphenion]
Altar canopy
Curtained altar canopy in Hagia Sophia
altar canopy [icon canopy?]
from the Inventory of the So‐ called Palace of Botaniates
θείo τρούλλo
canopy?
Small metal crosses with a censer in the sacred dome (potentially a canopy).
Κιβώριον
canopy?
Reference to structure of the canopy and microcosmic symbolism: Earth – 4 ‐square, Heavens – circle!
Const‐ople Isidorus Glabas, Καταπετάσματα canopy Thessaloniki Homiliae in sanctum Demetrium Const‐ople Theoktistos the Apsis Tomb Stoudite apsida ‐ ἁψῖδα canopy
Trebizond
Church of the Mother of God (Theotokos Atheniotissa) on the site of Parthenon in Athens
apsida ‐ ἀψίδα Canopy – кивот Old Church Slavonic version for the Greek word kibotion
334
Tomb canopy Canopy over the icon – in the open space.
tomb canopy of St. Athanasios I (1289–93, 1303– 1309), who was buried some time after 1323 presumably in the church of Christ Savior in Athanasios’ monastery on Xerolophos, now lost tomb of Digenes Akrites Reference to the Tuesday miracle in Constantinople with the icon
T.99
14 C.E. Novgorod (1348‐9)
Stephen of Novgorod
T.100
14 C.E. (1389‐ 1391)
Novgorod?
RussAnon
T.101
14 C.E. (1389‐ 91)
Novgorod?
RussAnon
T.102
14 C.E. (1389‐ 1391)
Novgorod?
RussAnon
T.103
14 C.E. (1389‐ 1391)
Novgorod?
RussAnon
Canopy – кивор Slavic version of the word kiborion!
Canopy shrine
T.104
14 C.E. (1389‐ 1391)
Novgorod?
RussAnon
Canopy – кивор
Canopy shrine
T.105
14 C.E. (1389‐ 1391)
Novgorod?
RussAnon
Canopy over the phiale
T.106
14 C.E. Thessaloniki
Canopy – теремець Old Church Slavonic οἰκίσκος
T.107
14 C.E.
T.108
15 C.E.
T.109
15 C.E.
T.110
n.d. n.d.
Frankish Morea Const‐ople
Canopy – киотъ Old Church Slavonic version for the Greek word kibotion, ark, chest apsida ‐ ἀψίδα Apsida – Slavonic version of the Greek word Canopy – теремець Old Church Slavonic Canopy – Russian word for columns!
Chronicon Moreae
Gennadius Scholarius, Grammatica Thessaloniki Symeon of Thessaloniki De Sacro Templo
κιβούριον Κιβώριον Κιβώριον
Canopy over the icon
According to Stephen – the miraculous icon of Christ Saviour in the church of the Holy Apostoloi, Const‐ople stabbed by the unbeliever ‐ Jew
Canopy over phiale
Open lid‐covered canopy over the stone phiale in Hagia Sophia
Canopy over the icon
Canopied shrine over the miraculous icon of the Mother of God in the north aisle of Hagia Sophia Canopy made of wood (of Noah’s Ark!) at the west end of the north aisle of Hagia Sophia. The Canopy itself was venerated as a relic! Canopy over the body of St. Polyeuktos in the church of Holy Apostols in Constantinople. The body must have been in the near‐ by church until 11th century and then moved to the Holy Apostles. Canopy over the body of St. Spiridon in the church of Holy Apostols in Const‐ople located north to the sanctuary which was in the center of the church Canopy over the phiale in the monastery of St. George of Mangana in Const‐ople
Canopy shrine
Canopy over the icon altar canopy ?
Canopy of John Prodromos in Serres, Thess.
Altar canopy
?
? possibly Egyptian beans
Shrine?
NOT DATED
T.111
Fragmenta Alchemica Magica, Papyri magicae
Κιβώριον Κιβώριον
335
TABLE 4: COPYING TEXTS WITH REFERENCES TO CIBORIA OR CANOPIES: 1. Cat. nos. T.3 Æ T.15 Æ T.45 Æ T.83 Date: 3‐2 B.C.E. Æ2‐3 C.E. Æ 6 C.E. Æ 12 C.E. Place: Lydia, Anatolia Æ Naucratis, near Alexandria, Egypt Æ Alexandria, Egypt Æ Thessaloniki, Greece Work: Nicander Fragmenta. Æ Athenaeus Soph. Deipnosophistae Æ Hesychius Lexicogr., Lexicon. Æ Eustathius Commentarii ad Homeri Iliadem. Type of work: poems Æ poetical, antiquarian Æ lexicon Æ commentaries, antiquarian Remarks: Nicander uses the word κιβώριον for a kind of Egyptian beans; Athenaeus cites directly Nicander and expands the meaning of the word to a chalice used in pagan temples; Hesychius uses the word κιβώριον in his lexicon and combines it with the word κιβώτιον, a saintly tomb (λάρναξ) of wood (ξυλίνη) or a shrine (σορός) Archbishop Eustathius cites directly Nicander and Homer, and uses the word κιβώριον for a kind of Egyptian beans 2. Cat. nos. T.8 Æ T.42 Date: 1 C.E. (?) Æ 6 C.E. Place: ? Æ Constantinople Work: Claudius Iolaus, Fragmenta Æ Stephanus Gramm. Byzantius, Ethnica Type of work: historical, antiquarian Æ lexicographic, grammatical, geographical, antiquarian Remarks: Claudius Iolaus uses the word κιβώριον for a kind of Egyptian beans; Stephanus Gramm. cites directly Claudius Iolaus 3. Cat. nos. T.21 Æ T.30 Æ T.31 Date: 4‐5 C.E. Æ after 5 C.E. Æ 498‐514 Place: Antioch and Constantinople Æ Mediterranean basin Æ Rome Work: John Chrys., In Acta apostolorum Æ Catenae (Novum Testamentum), Catena in Acta Æ Pope Symachus, Anno Christi 498, Anastasii Imp. 8 Theodor. Regis 5. Type of work: exegetical, homiletic Æ exegetical Æ commentaries, antiquarian Remarks: John Chrysostom uses the expression κιβώρια μικρὰ for either chalices or reliquaries; Pope Symachus adopts explanation by Chrysostom; Chrysostom’s explanation enters catenae. 4. Cat. nos. T.22 Æ T.58 Æ T.79 Date: 4 C.E. Æ 8 C.E. Æ 11 C.E. Place: Cappadocia, Asia Minor Æ Constantinople Æ Constantinople Work: St. Basil the Great, Historia Mystagogica Æ Germanos Ecclesiastical History and Mystical Contemplation Æ Etymologicum Gudianum Type of work: theological, exegetical Æ theological, exegetical Æ grammatical, theological Remarks: St. Basil the Great explains the ciborium, possibly referring to the altar canopy: τὸ γὰρ κιβ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ οὖριν … φῶς κυρίου; Patriarch Germanos adopts explanation by Basil the Great: τὸ γὰρ ΚΙΒ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ ΟΥΡΙΝ φωτισμὸς Θεοῦ, ἤ φῶς Θεοῦ;
336
By the 11th c the explanation enters Etymologicum Gudianum: Κιβώριον, τὸ κὶβ σημαίνει κιβωτὸς, τὸ δὲ ὤριον φωτισμὸς, ἢ ...; however it is combined with additional explanation of wooden canopies, suggesting that there are also wooden canopies in Byzantine churches: Λεκτίκιον, παρὰ τὸ λέχος, ὃ σημαίνει τὴν κοίτην∙κιβώριον ἐκ ξύλων, ὃ ἔχουσιν αἱ παρθένοι πρὸς τὸ καλύπτεσθαι αὑτάς. Germanos’ work was widely published and remained quasi‐official explanation for the ciborium until the 15th c 5. Cat. nos.
T.28 / T.29 Æ T.52 / T.54 Æ T.56 / T.57 Æ T.65 Æ T.66 / T.69 / T.70 Æ T.73 Æ T.77 / T.78 Æ T.103 / T.104 Date: 5 C.E. / 5 C.E.Æ 7 C.E. / 7 C.E. Æ after 7 C.E. / after 9 C.E. Æ 9 C.E. Æ 9‐10 C.E. / 10 C.E. / 10 C.E. Æ 10‐15 C.E. Æ 11 C.E. / 11 C.E. Æ 14 C.E. / 14 C.E. Place: Monastery of Rufinianae, near Bosphoros, the author probably comes from Syria / Gaza Æ Thessaloniki / Syceota Æ Constantinople Æ Lesbos Æ Jerusalem? / Constantinople Æ Constantinople Æ Sparta? Peloponnesus? / Constantinople, Trapezunt Æ Novgorod‐ Constantinople / Novgorod‐ Constantinople Work: Callinicus, Vita sancti Hypatii / Marcus Diaconus Scr. Eccl., Vita Porphyrii episcopi Gazensis Æ Joannes I Scr. Eccl. et Hagiogr., Miracula sancti Demetrii / Georgius Syceota Theol., Vita sancti Theodori Syceotae Æ Vita et Miracula Sancti Demetri Æ Vita sanctorum Davidis, Symeonis et Georgii Mitylenae Æ Vita Eustratii / Synaxarium Ecclesiae Constantinopoleos, Octobri 26 / Vita Eliae Junioris Æ Pseudo–Codinus, Patria Constantinopoleos Æ Vita et Miracula Niconis / Joannes VIII Xiphilinus, De miraculis sancti Eugenii Æ RussAnon / RussAnon Type of work: hagiography, monastic tradition / hagiography, monastic tradition Æ hagiography / hagiography Æ hagiography Æ hagiography Æ hagiography / hagiography / hagiography Æ historiographical Æ hagiography / hagiography Æ pilgrim diary, antiquarian / pilgrim diary, antiquarian Remarks: In the 5th c, Callinicus uses of the word κιβώριον for a saint’s shrine or reliquary, while Marcus the deacon the same word for Roman structure in Gaza, presumably on four columns with a dome. In the 7th c, Archbishop John uses the same term κιβώριον for the ciborium‐ shrine of St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki, which most likely never was in the shape of a canopy. At the same time, hegumenous George uses the same term κιβώριον for the saint’s shrine of St. Theodore Syceote After the 7th c. the term κιβώριον is used in hagiographies for various saints’ shrines, but always in connection with the shrine of St. Demetrios, once the term entered the Synaxarium CP. At least since the 10th c, judging by the Synaxarium CP, the ciborium‐shrine of St. Demetrios is also related to the concept of his eternal house (οἴκος). After the 10th c the word is used even for the shrine for the sandals of Christ in Constantinople. In the 14th c Russian anonymous pilgrim uses Slavic version of the word κιβώριον for saints’ canopies in the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.
337
6. Cat. nos. Date: Place:
T.9 Æ T.32 / T.46Æ T.62 Æ T.98 / T.99 1 C.E. (after 1 C.E.) Æ 6 C.E. / 6 C.E. Æ 9 C.E. Æ 14 C.E. / 14 C.E. Cilicia Æ Alexandria, Egypt / Jerusalem Æ Constantinople Æ Novgorod‐ Constantinople / Novgorod‐Constantinople Dioscorides Pedanius Med., De materia medica Æ Sophronius, Historia liturg.2 / Work: Hesychius Lexicogr., Lexicon. Æ Photius Theol., Epistulae et Amphilochia Æ Stephen of Novgorod, “Wanderer of Stephen of Novgorod” Type of work: medical treatise Æ church history / historical, antiquarian Æ epistolary, church history Æ pilgrim diary, antiquarian / pilgrim diary, antiquarian Remarks: Dioscorides Pedianus conflated the words κιβώριον and κιβώτιον in the 1st c. The combination of the two words with references to shrines and wooden reliquaries is attested in the 6th c in Hesychius’ lexicon and Sophronios’ history of liturgy (Ὁ κιβώριός ἐστιν εἰς τύπον τῆς κιβωτοῦ ˙ τὰ δέ παρακιόνα κατὰ μίμησιν τῶν τεσσάρων ζώων τῶν ὀφθέντων τῷ προφήτῃ 2 PG 87, 3984). The conflation is attested in the 9th c by Constantinopolitan Patriarch Photios. In the 14th c. Stephen of Novgorod used the Slavic version of the word κιβώτιον to describe the canopy over the miraculous icon in Constantinople. 7. Cat. nos. T.14 Æ T.35 / T.36 Æ T.38 Æ T.67 Date: 2 C.E. Æ 5‐6 C.E. Æ 6. C.E. Æ 10 C.E. Place: Asia Minor Æ Antioch / Antioch Æ Syria Æ Constantinople Work: Pausanias Hist., Fragmenta Fragment 4 Æ Joannes Malalas, Chronographia Æ Evagrius Scholasticus, Historia ecclesiastica Æ Synaxarion CP Type of work: geographical, historical, antiquarian Æ historical, antiquarian Æ church history Æ synaxarium, liturgical calendar Remarks: In the 6th c John Malalas, whom also quotes Evagrius Scholasticus, write of stone tetrapylon adorned in bronze, which was built in Antioch by a certain Mammianus, a member of the senate during the reign of Zeno (474‐491), by repeating the words from Pausanias. Bronze canopy (tetrapylon) over relics of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste in Constantinople was a public monument mentioned in the Synaxarium from the 10th c. onward. In the 15th c the canopy from Constantinople was mentioned by Clavijo as in ruins.
338
TABLE 5: EXAMPLES OF BYZANTINE TEXTS THAT RELATE OLD TESTAMENT ARKS TO CHRIST, VIRGIN AND CHURCH:
1. Joannes Damascenus Theol. et Scr. Eccl., “Homilia in sabbatum sanctum” vol. 96, page 624, lines 23‐30: Νῶε μὲν ἐν κιβωτῷ καθειργόμενος, καὶ ξύλῳ σώζων δευτέρου κόσμου τὰ σπέρματα, καὶ πάλιν ἀρχὴ τοῦ γένους γενόμενος, Χριστὸν ἑκουσίως ἐτύπου θαπτόμενον, τὸν κλύσαντα μὲν τὴν ἁμαρτίαν τῷ ἐκ πλευρᾶς αὐτοῦ ῥεύσαντι μεθ’ ὕδατος αἵματι, τῷ δὲ τοῦ σταυροῦ ξύλῳ τὸ γένος ἡμῶν ἅπαν διασώσαντα, καὶ κοινοῦ βίου, καὶ νέας πολιτείας καθηγεμόνα γενόμενον. 2. Constantinus Manasses, Poeta et Hist., Compendium chronicum. PG 127 col. 235: …ἐπείσθη Νῶε τῷ θεῷ, τὸ κελευσθὲν ἐποίει, ξυλοστεγὲς εἰργάζετο τῆς κιβωτοῦ τὸ κύτος, μυρίους ἔνδον ἑλιγμοὺς λαβυρινθώδεις φέρον. καὶ Νῶε μὲν ἐνέθετο τῇ κιβωτῷ τὰ ζῷα, ποντογενῆ, χερσογενῆ, πτηνά, πεζοποροῦντα… 3. Romanus Melodus Hymnograph, Ἀκάθιστος ὕμνος section 23, lines 6‐10: Χαῖρε, σκηνὴ τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ Λόγου χαῖρε, ἁγία ἁγίων μείζων∙ χαῖρε, κιβωτὲ χρυσωθεῖσα τῷ πνεύματι∙ χαῖρε, θησαυρὲ τῆς ζωῆς ἀδαπάνητε∙ χαῖρε, τίμιον διάδημα βασιλέων εὐσεβῶν∙… 4. Cyrillus Alexandrinus Theol., De adoratione et cultu in spiritu et veritate. Οὐκοῦν ἐπεκρέματο μὲν τοῖς στύλοις τὸ καταπέτασμα, κατακαλύπτον(30) ἔσω τὴν κιβωτὸν, τύπος δ’ ἂν εἴη Χριστοῦ, τοῖς τῶν ἁγίων εὐαγγελιστῶν κηρύγμασιν αἰρομένου τε ὑψοῦ, καὶ ἐν δόξῃ θεότητος ὁρωμένου τοῖς ἐν τῇ ἁγίᾳ σκηνῇ, τουτέστι, τῇ Ἐκκλησίᾳ. Τέσσαρες δὲ οἱ στύλοι, χρυσοῖ καὶ περιάργυροι∙ἰσάριθμοι δὲ αὐτοῖς (35) οἱ εὐαγγελισταὶ, λαμπροί τε καὶ τίμιοι. Οὐκοῦν ἔκειτο μὲν ἡ κιβωτὸς, ἄνωθεν δὲ κάτω διῆκον τὸ καταπέτασμα, τὸ ἐκ βύσσου καὶ πορφύρας καὶ τῶν ἄλλων, οὐχ ὁρατὴν ἐτίθει. * The texts are written in reference to the Old Testament: Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shall thou make in the ark, and shall pitch it within and without with pitch. And this is the fashion which thou shall make it of: The length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits. A window shall thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shall thou finish it above; and the door of the ark shall thou set in the side thereof; with lower, second, and third stories shall thou make it. And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; and every thing that is in the earth shall die. But with thee will I establish my covenant; and thou shall come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sonsʹ wives with thee. And of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shall thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female. Gen. 6:14‐22. * Of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind, two of every sort shall come unto thee, to keep them alive. And take thou unto thee of all food that is eaten, and thou shall gather it to thee; and it shall be for food for thee, and for them. Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he. 2. Moses 25:10‐20; 37:1‐9.
339
TABLE 6: CANOPIES WITH INSCRIPTIONS: Cat. no. 20 Date: 6 C.E. Place: From Constantinople, now in Venice treasury Canopy: Small‐scale canopy, artophorium (?) Inscription: Ὑπερ εὐχῆς κ(αὶ) σωτηρίας τῆς ἐνδοξοτάτης Ἀναστασίας For the blessing and salvation of the most glorious Anastasia (Engl. transl. J.B.) Remarks: Votive inscription Bibliography: A. Guillou, “Inscriptions Byzantines importes en Italie,” in Epigraphia Medievale Greca e Latina. Ideaologia e Funzione (Spoleto, 1991) 119‐152, esp. p. 141. Cat. no. 40 Date: 6 C.E. Place: From Basilica B, Nikopolis, Greece Canopy: Fragment of an arch of the canopy, possibly altar canopy Inscription: Καὶ τοῦτο τὸ καλὸν Δουμετίου And all of good Dometios (Engl. transl. J.B.) Remarks: Votive inscription (?), Kitzinger suggests that Dometios is the individual who donated the piece of furnishing, potentially altar canopy to a church; Dometios’ name is given in the form of monogram, that is read in the cruciform key starting from 6 o’clock up Bibliography: E. Kitzinger, “Studies on Late Antique and Early Byzantine Floor Mosaics: I. Mosaics at Nikopolis” DOP 3 (1951) 81+83‐122, with further reference Cat. no. 69 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Hagia Sophia, Constantinople Canopy: Inscription on the silver altar canopy after the Iconoclastic controversy, now lost Inscription: Ἃς οἱ πλάνοι καθεῖλον ἐνθάδ᾽ εἰκόνας ἄνακτες ἐστήλωσαν εὐσεβεῖς πάλιν The images of the impostors had cast down here, pious emperors have again set up. Remarks: The same inscription found on the conch of the apse of Hagia Sophia Bibliography: N. Oikonomides “Remarks on the Apse Mosaics of St. Sophia” DOP 39 (1985) 111‐115, esp. 113‐114, n. 31. Cat. no. 94 Date: 9 C.E. Place: From the church of St. Saviour (?), Ulcinj, Montenegro Canopy: Altar canopy ? Several fragments with inscriptions Inscription: One possible reading (a): SALVATORI NOSTRI IhV XR[I] [C]ONIVGE MEA GVSMV PRO REMEDIO ANI[ME] S IDEM DIE TAGNI QUIA OC EDIFICVM EDIFICATVM ES(t) SUB TEMPORIBUS DOMINI NOSTRI PI[I]S PERPETUO A[V]GUSTI D[OMI]N[I] LEO ET D[OMI]N[I] CONSTANI
340
our Saviour Jesus Christ for the salvation of my (wife?) Gusma (Christianized name, corrupted version of Cosma) [obscure perhaps T Agni (refers to the transfiguration) of the Lamb (? – j.b. with reference to the Eucharistic mystery performed on the altar table)] … this structure was made at the times of our pious lords perpetual Augusts (Emperors) lords Leo and Constantine (Engl. transl. J.B.) Other possible reading (b): … (ad honorem domin)I SALVATORI NOSTRI INV XR(i) (c)ONIVGE MEA GVSMV PRO REMEDIO ANI(ME)… S ANT(e) SIDEM D(e)I ET AGNI … QUIA (h)OC EDIFICVM EDIFICATVM ES(t)…SVB TEMPORIBVS DOMINI NOSTRI PI(i)S PERPETVUO A(u)GVSTI D(omi)N(i) L(e)O ET D(omi)N(i) C(on)S(tantini) …(in the glory of the Lord) our Saviour Christ for the salvation of (the soul?‐ j.b.) of my (wife?) Gusma … in front of the Lord and Lamb … because this structure was made at the times of our pious lords perpetual Augusts (Emperors) lords Leo and Constantine (Engl. transl. J.B.) Remarks: Inscription run on all four sides of the canopy, which survived only in fragments Bibliography: (a) D. Preradović‐Petrović, “Ulcinjski ciborijum; natpis i reljefne predstave” GPMK 50 (2002) 247‐264. (b) M. Lončar in P. Vežić, “Ciboriji ranoga srednjeg vijeka u Kotoru” [Ciboria of the early Middle Ages in Kotor] PPD 39 (2001‐02) 91‐122. Cat. no. 96 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Church of Archangel Michael, Kotor, Montenegro Canopy: ? Inscription: + (i)N N(o)M(ine) D(o)M(ini) D(e)I ET SALV(atoris) N(ostri) III(es)V(s) XRI(sti) Remarks: Fragment of a canopy Bibliography: D. Preradović‐Petrović, “Ulcinjski ciborijum; natpis i reljefne predstave” GPMK 50 (2002) 247‐264. Cat. no. 97 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Cathedral of St. Tryphon, Kotor, Montenegro Canopy: ? Inscription: ANDREE S(an)C(t)I AD HONOREM SOCIORVMQ(ue) MAIOREM+ Remarks: Canopy arch embedded in the walls of the cathedral of St. Tryphon Reference to St. Andrew Stratelated from Cilicia, whose relics were translated to Kotor in the ninth century Bibliography: I. Stevović, “Sveti Andreja u kotorskom natpisu ANDREESCI AD HONOREM SOCIORVMQ. MAIOREM+,” Zograf 27 (1998‐99) 23‐33 Cat. no. 98 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Cathedral of St. Tryphon, Kotor, Montenegro Canopy: Baptistery canopy Inscription: + HOC OPVS EST LABO(r) … TAM PVLCHRE DE (coratum +)
341
Remarks:
Fragments of the baptistery canopy from the cathedral of St. Tryphon Baptistery font has surviving two fragments: one depicting two affronted peacocks drinking from the chalice and framed by two solar discs; other a lion and a bird (eagle or dove) flanking the Tree of Life Bibliography: P. Vežić, “Ciboriji ranoga srednjeg vijeka u Kotoru” [Ciboria of the early Middle Ages in Kotor] PPD 39 (2001‐02) 91‐122. Cat. no. 99 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Cathedral of St. Tryphon, Kotor, Montenegro Canopy: [Shrine ?] canopy Inscription: (N)IKIFORVS N (…) Remarks: Fragment of the unidentified canopy Reference to certain Nikephorios either Byzantine Emperor Nicephoros (806‐812) or local nobleman (n)IKIFORVS N(obilis cathari) Bibliography: P. Vežić, “Ciboriji ranoga srednjeg vijeka u Kotoru” [Ciboria of the early Middle Ages in Kotor] PPD 39 (2001‐02) 91‐122. Cat. no. 100 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Church of Archangel Michael in Prevlaka, Croatia Canopy: Altar canopy (?) Inscription: PROPISIAATORIVUM AD ONORE BEAT I Michaelis Remarks: Reference to the propiatory and the veil of the Ark of Covenant (cf. Exod. 25:17‐ 22, 26:1‐37; Heb. 9, 5) Bibliography: V. Delonga Hrvati i Karolinzi (Split, 2000) 131. Cat. no. 127 Date: 9 C.E. Place: Church of St. Anastasia (Sv. Stošija) in Zadar, Croatia Canopy: Altar canopy Inscription: O principis Peto principum coalestis aulae claviger devotionis suscipe munusculum quod v(overam) proconsul ego infirmus Gregorius qui nominor ut pio mihi conferas pro parvis mag (na munera). Remarks: Reference to the Byzantine pro‐consul Grgur, who built the basilica of St. Anastasia in Zadar Bibliography: M. Vasić, Arhitektura i skulptura u Dalmaciji (Belgrade, 1922) 165, figs. 123‐124. Cat. no. 143 Date: Middle Byzantine / After 11 C.E.? Place: Amorium church,Turkey Canopy: Altar canopy (?) Canopy spandrel fragment (T952) in white marble Inscription: το κ(αὶ) κοπιακóτη το κ(αὶ) τ Remarks: Bibliography: C. S. Lightfoot; E. A. Ivison “The Amorium Project: The 1995 Excavation Season” DOP 51 (1997) 291‐300; C. S. Lightfoot et al. “The Amorium Project: The 1996 Excavation Season” DOP 52 (1998) 323‐336.
342
Cat. no. Date: Place: Canopy: Inscription:
144 After 11 C.E. ? [secondary use ?] Church of Pantokrator, Constantinople, Zeyrek camii, Istanbul Altar canopy (?), now minbar, with the inscriptions in monograms in roundels Κύριε βοήθει τῷ δούλῷ … Lord save your servant … (Engl. transl. J.B.) Remarks: Inscription as a sequel of three cruciform monograms in roundels; the reading of the cruciform monograms is similar to monogram from Basilica B in Nikopolis (cat. no 40) Bibliography: Translation unpublished; Photo courtesy Prof. R. Ousterhout Cat. no. 166 Date: 13 C.E. Place: From Athens, Greece Canopy: Arches from a [tomb ?] canopy Inscription: Remarks: Fragmentary inscription runs on two arches of the three arches preserved. On the first arch [166a] is the inscription with reference to the Christmas hymn. On the third arch [166b] names of Old Testament prophets and Kings, Solomon and David, as well as of John the Baptist are inscribed. The inscription from the first arch accompanies the figurative representation of the Nativity scene from the arch. Similarly the names of Solomon, David and John the Baptist are positioned above their figurative representations in high relief on the intrados of the arch. Bibliography: Athens, Byzantine Museum, Glypta (1999) cat. 263‐265; L. Bréhier, ʺNouvelles recherches sur l’histoire de la sculpture byzantine,ʺ Nouvelles Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires 21/9 (1913) 29 ff. Cat. no. 181 Date: 14 C.E. Place: Church Perivleptos, Mystra Canopy: Icon canopy Inscription: illegible Remarks: monogram in roundel Bibliography: ‐‐‐
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TABLE 7: LIST OF CANOPIES IN BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION Cat DATE LOCATION CONTEXT TYPE OF No. REMARKS CANOPY
1
3 C.E.
Dura Europos
2
After 4 C.E.
3
4‐5 C.E.
4
5 C.E.
Basilica at Metropolis, Gortyn, Greece Mogorjelo, Dalmatia Bosnia and Herzegovina Memoria, Majsan, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina
5
5 C.E.
6
5 C.E.
7
5 C.E. 5 C.E. 5 C.E. 5 C.E.
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
5 C.E. 5 C.E. 5‐6 C.E. 5 C.E. 5 C.E.
16
5 C.E.
17
5 C.E.
St. John the Baptist, in the Studion, Constantinople Bargala, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia Basilica Sabratha in North Africa Basilica Sbeitla, Tunis, North Africa Basilica Sbeitla, Tunis, North Africa Basilica at Tigzirt, Algeria Basilica A, Philipi, Greece Basilica A, Theba, Thessaly Basilica A, Thebes H. Nikon in Sparta Church 3A in Diocletianopolis (Hissar), Bulgaria H. Ioannis on the Aegian island Kos East Basilica, Xantos, Lycia
Two‐columned “arcosolium‐type” canopy Opus sectile flooring
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Tomb of a local saint Tomb canopy? Maxim (Maximus) who died in 346 in the 5th c added altar and the entire space canopied Altar canopy?
Converted tomb site into baptistery covered by an eight‐sided canopy
Altar and baptistery canopies Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Ambo canopy Altar canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
344
18
5 C.E.
19
5 C.E.
20
5 C.E.
21
5 C.E. 450‐60
Hosios Leonidas in Corinth‐Lechaion, Greece
22
5 C.E. c. 450
23
5 C.E. c. 450
St. John the Evangelist, Ephesos, modern Turkey St. John the Evangelist, Ephesos, modern Turkey
24
5 C.E. c. 490 5 C.E. 494‐6 5 C.E. 494‐6 late 5 C.E.
25 26 27
28
5 C.E.
29
5‐6 C.E.
30
5‐6 C.E. 5‐6 C.E.
31
32
5‐6 C.E.
33
5‐6 C.E.
Heraeon basilica at Samos Basilica in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), Serbia Venice, Italy
Abu Mîna or St. Menas in Egypt St. Theodor at Gerasa, Palestine St. Theodor at Gerasa, Palestine Cilician basilica A in Corycus (Kizkalesi), Turkey East Church, Mampsis, Negev desert Petra baptistery, Jordan Basilica of Bir al‐ Knissia at Carthage Episcopal church at Aphrodisias in Caria, Asia Minor Basilica IV in Mactaris, now Makhthar, Tunisia North Africa
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Inscription [in Greek] only on two sides, canopy most likely abutted to the north wall; from Constantinople Two canopies – over the altar table and on the crossing like in Caričin Grad
Small‐scale canopy artophorion?
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Tomb‐canopy in the Tomb canopy north apse of the baptistery; Column fragments in situ Altar Canopy
Altar Canopy
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Baptistery canopy
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Canopy over baptistery which replaced older baths Arch of a canopy inscription, figure Daniel in the Lion’s Den
Baptistery canopy
345
Tomb canopy?
34
5‐6 C.E.
35
5‐6 C.E. 5‐6 C.E. 5‐6 C.E. 5‐6 C.E.
36 37 38
39
5‐6 C.E.
40
5‐6 C.E. 5‐6 C.E. Early Christian 5‐6 C.E. Early Christian 5‐6 C.E.? Early Christian 5‐6 C.E.? Early Christian 5‐6 C.E. Before mid‐ 7 C.E. 5‐6 C.E. Before mid‐ 7 C.E. After 5 C.E.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
6 C.E.
49
6 C.E.
Basilica Philiatra Messenia, Peloponnesos Greece Episcopal Basilica, Stobi, F.Y.R.O.M. Episcopal Basilica, Stobi, F.Y.R.O.M. Nessana, Negev desert, Palestine Church of Ilisos, Greece Basilica in the village Massuh, diocese of Esbus in Jordan Basilica B, Nikopolis, Epiros Church of St. Bacchus, Horvat Tinshemet Palestine Basilica in Kourion, Cyprus
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Hexagonal canopy over baptismal font Two‐columned canopy
Baptistery canopy Baptistery canopy Altar canopy?
Canopy‐like structure above bema, approx. 20m x 20m Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Canopy placed on the altar table
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
St. Demetrios Thessaloniki
Parts in Istanbul Museum Ambo canopy
Church of the Virgin, Kalabaka
In situ
Basilica at Carthagenna, Cahrtage Basilica at Bir Ftouha, Canopy marked both the [Chartage] baptistery and martyr’s tomb Church of St. George former Hephaisteon on the Acropolis, Athens D‐Basilica Caricin Grad, Lebane, Serbia Basilica A, Nikopolis, Epiros
346
Ambo canopy
Baptistery canopy Baptistery canopy Altar canopy ?
Altar canopy Two‐columned canopy in the entrance zone Altar canopy
50
6 C.E.
Basilica B, Thessalian Thebes
51
6 C.E. 6 C.E. c. 540 6 C.E. c. 550
Basilica at Knidos
Altar canopy Four‐columned structure at the entrance to the bema Altar canopy
Basilica B, Philipi
Altar canopy
Panaghia Ekatontapyliani Paros, Greece Cathedral complex, Poreč Cathedral complex, Poreč Il‐Anderin church, Syria It‐Tuba church, Syria
In situ
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
lost lost
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Moses Basilica on Mt. Nebo
Altar canopy Baptistery canopy Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
52 53
54 55 56 57 58
59 60 61 62
6 C.E. c. 550 6 C.E. c. 550 6 C.E. 6 C.E. 583 6 C.E.
6 C.E. 586 6 C.E. mid‐6 C.E.? 6 C.E. 6 C.E.
St. George on Mt. Nebo Basilica A, Amphipolis, Basilica A at Nea Anchileos Basilica tis Vardias, on the island of Aigina Church of St. Stephen at Umm al‐Rasas, Syria Basilica B Junca Byzacena, Tunis
63
6 C.E. ca. 574‐603
64
6 C.E.
65
6 C.E.
Basilica Juvenes, Maktar, Tunis
66
6 C.E.
67
6 C.E.
Basilica Lariscus, Byzacena, Tunis, Basilica at Haïdra, Tunis
today known as church of Altar canopy Agia Photeini
Altar canopy
Tetrapylon‐canopy at the crossing; comparable to Ephesos Canopied structure above Altar canopy? altar table in front of apse, delineating the bema Baptistery canopy Altar canopy Tomb canopy
347
68
71
6 C.E. 524‐527 6 C.E. replaced in mid‐12 C.E. 6 C.E. 6 C.E.
72
6 C.E.
73
6 C.E.
74
6 C.E.
75
6 C.E.
76
6 C.E.
77
6 C.E.
78
6 C.E.
79
6 C.E.
80 81 82
6‐7 C.E. 6 C.E. 6‐7 C.E.
83
6‐7 C.E.
84
85
6‐7 C.E. beginning of 7th c e. 7 C.E.?
Chapel of the Mother of God of the church at Mt. Nebo Hagia Euphemia, Constantinople
86
6‐8 C.E.
St. Stephen at Umm al‐Rasas, Palestine
69
70
Hagios Polyeuktos, Constantinople Hagia Sophia, Constantinople
Glass‐inlaid marble columns lost
Holy Apostles, Constantinople Ss. Cosmas and Damian, Jerash/Gerasa Jordan St. John the Baptist, Jerash/Gerasa Jordan Double basilica at Aliki, Thasos, Greece Double basilica in Srima, Dalmatia, Croatia Basilica in Salona, Dalmatia, Croatia Blagaj‐ Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina Cim‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Doboj‐ Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina Gata‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Vid‐ Dalmatia Cathedral of Arnithi on Rhodes Central church Apollonia, Libya Eastern church Apollonia, Libya
Lost; Destroyed in the 15 C.E.
Altar canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy Altar canopy
Baptistery canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy Altar canopy
Approx. 2m x 2m
Altar canopy
Canopy‐like structure above bema, approx. 10m x 10m Altar canopy
Marble columns
348
Altar canopy with the shrine reliquary below Altar canopy
87
88
89 90 91
92
93
6‐8 C.E.
Church at Rehovot in the Negev desert, Palestine After 6 C.E. Church of the Virgin on the Acropolis, Greece 4‐9 C.E. Shrine of St. Menas, Maryût, Egypt 9 C.E. Pharos church, 864 Constantinople 9 C.E. Cathedral of the Holy Mary on the island of Rab, Dalmatia 9 C.E. Basilica of Archangel Michael in Martinići, near Skadar Lake, Montenegro 9 C.E. ? Unidentified location
94
9 C.E.
Church in Ulcinj
95
9 C.E.
96
9 C.E.
97
9 C.E.
98
9 C.E.
99
9 C.E.
St. Mary Collegiate, Kotor, Montenegro St. Michael, Kotor, Montenegro St. Tryphon, Kotor, Montenegro St. Tryphon, Kotor, Montenegro St. Tryphon, Kotor, Montenegro Archangel Michael, Prevlaka St. Andrew, Dubrovnik, Croatia The church of Virgin, Dubrovnik, Croatia
100 9 C.E. 101 9 C.E. 102 9 C.E.
Altar canopy
Parthenon; still in situ in 12 C.E.
Altar canopy
Octagonal baptistery at the shrine of St. Menas lost
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Fragments
Altar canopy
Fragments; Arch in the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore Inscription – Leo VI Constantine V; In fragments; National Museum, Belgrade; Museum in Boka Kotorska Stone fragments
canopy
Stone fragments; white‐ yellowish sandstone Stone fragments Arch with an inscription Stone fragments
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Stone fragments
Baptistery canopy Reliquary canopy
Stone fragments
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
349
103 9 C.E.
104 9 C.E. 105 9‐11 C.E. 106 9‐11 C.E. 107 9‐11 C.E. 108 9‐11 C.E. 109 9‐11 C.E. 110 9‐11 C.E. 111 9‐11 C.E. 112 9‐11 C.E. 113 9‐11 C.E. 114 9‐11 C.E. 115 9‐11 C.E. 116 9‐11 C.E. 117 9‐11 C.E. 118 9‐11 C.E. 119 9‐11 C.E. 120 9‐11 C.E. 121 9‐11 C.E. 122 9‐11 C.E. 123 9‐11 C.E.
The church of Holy Spirit (on the site of Byzantine basilica) Komolac Croatia Novalja‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Krk, Dalmatia, Croatia Unidentified church, Budva, Montenegro Unidentified church, Budva, Montenegro Pula ‐Dalmatia, Croatia Zadar ‐Dalmatia, Croatia Pag ‐Dalmatia, Croatia Solin ‐Dalmatia, Croatia St. Tomas Zadar Ss. Peter and Moses in Solin, Croatia Birčina‐Polača Dalmatia, Croatia Hagios Andreas, Peresterai, Greece Church of St. Nicholas, Myra, now Turkey Shati, Albania Lopud‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Omis‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Potoci‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Rab‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Vrba‐ Dalmatia, Croatia Zalozje – Dalmatia, Croatia
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Stone fragments
Altar canopy
Stone fragments
Baptistery canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Archeological Museum, Zadar
Altar canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Baptistery canopy Column fragments in situ Altar canopy
Fragments of marble arch Altar canopy Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
350
124 9‐10 C.E.
St. Demetrios Thessaloniki, Greece
125 After 9 C.E. St. Demetrios Thessaloniki, Greece
126 10 C.E. 915‐21
127 11 C.E. 1033‐1036 128 11 C.E. 129 11 C.E. 130 11 C.E.
131 11 C.E. 132 10‐11 C.E. Or 14 C.E.
133 10‐11 C.E. 134 10 ‐11 C.E.
135 10 C.E. and later 136 11 C.E. Ca. 1050s
Church of the Holy Cross, Aght’amar, Armenia, now Turkey Basilica of St. Anastasia (Sv. Stošija) Zadar, Croatia Nin, Dalmatia, Croatia Church of St. Michael Ston, Dalmatia Church of St. Mary, Biskupija, Knin
Kastel‐Gomilica, Dalmatia, Croatia D’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima), Hanging Church, dedicated to St. Mary in Cairo, Egypt Great Lavra, Mt. Athos, Greece Church in Rogačići near Blažuj Bosna and Herzegovina Church of the Virgin, Hosios Loukas, Greece St. George in Mangana, Constantinople
Marble fragments of the arch in the crypt
Altar canopy? Canopy over the shrine? Canopy shrine
Seven‐sided canopy on seven columns and abutted to the wall; Partially preserved in situ Canopy over a bell‐tower
Altar canopy
Stone canopy
Altar canopy
Stone fragments
Altar canopy
Two same‐size canopies from the same church Croatian Academy of Sciences and Art‐ Sculpture Museum
Altar canopy
“Fatimid” ciborium from the d’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima) in Cairo, Egypt Coptic Museum in Cairo (inv. no. 909) Canopy‐like tomb of St. Athanasios
Altar canopy
Icon canopy
Canopy over quatrefoil phiale comparable with post‐Byzantine phiale on Mt. Athos; lost
Canopy over phiale
351
Altar canopy
Tomb canopy Altar canopy
137 11 C.E.
Nea Mone, Chios
138 11 C.E.
St. Savour in Chernigovo Church of the Dormition in the Pečerskii monastery (monastery of the Caves) near Kiev, Ukraine St. Sophia in Novgorod, Russia Hosios Loukas
139 11 C.E. c. 1073
140 11 C.E. 141 11 C.E. and later 142 11 C.E. and later 143 11 C.E. and later 144 11 C.E. and later
145 11 C.E. and later 146 11‐12 C.E. 147 11‐12 C.E.
148 12 C.E. 149 12 C.E. ca. 1156 150 2/2 12 C.E.
151 12 C.E. 1165 152 12 C.E. 1171‐1213 153 12 C.E. c. 1186
Four‐columned structure in the narhex supporting the dome wooden
Altar canopy
marble altar canopy, lost
Altar canopy
marble altar canopy, lost
Altar canopy
Sculpted fragments
Altar canopy
Hosios Loukas
Sculpted, Painted, gold
Canopy shrine
Amorium church, Turkey Church of Pantokrator, Constantinople
Canopy fragments, arch, inscription Canopy fragments – spolia from H. Polyeuktos? incorporated into minbar of the Zeyrek camii, Istanbul
Altar canopy ?
Icon canopy
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
lost
Ambo canopy
wooden
Altar canopy
wooden
Altar canopy
reconstructed
Phiale canopy
Local stone
Altar canopy
Altar canopy
Androusa, Samarina, Greece Church of the Virgin, Kalabaka, Greece Church of the Dormition, Apolonia, Albania Hagia Sophia, Constantinople St. Sophia in Novgorod, Russia The church “Old Throne” in Vladimir‐ Volinski, Russia Bogolyubovo, Russia SS. Boris and Gleb built by Vsevolod III in Vladimir, Russia Church of the Annunciation in Chernigov, Russia
352
Altar canopy? Tomb canopy?
154 12 C.E.
Icon canopy
155
Altar canopy?
Canopy above the phiale in the exonarthex of King Radoslav
Phiale canopy
Altar canopy
In situ
Episcopal Throne Canopy
Icon canopy
Icon canopy
Icon canopy
In situ
Canopy for the bell Altar canopy
156
157 158
159
160
161 162
163 164
St. Panteleimon, at Nerezi, F.Y.R.O.M. 12‐13 C.E. Kalenderhane camii Constantinople 12‐13 C.E. Church of the Mother 1196‐1235 of God, Studenica, Serbia 12‐13 C.E. Church of Saviour Galich, Russia 12‐13 C.E. Church of Dormition, Galich, Russia 12‐13 C.E. Monastery of the Virgin, Gelati, Georgia Late 12 C.E. Zoodochos Pege in Samari, Messenia, Greece 12 C.E. and St. Sophia in later Monemvasia, Greece After 12 St. John Eleemon in C.E. Ligourio, Argolis, Greece 13 C.E. Panagia Parigoritissa, Arta, Greece 13 C.E. Venice, Italy c. 1290
165 13 C.E.
166 13 C.E.
167 13 C.E.
168 13th c and later
Church of Holy Apostles in Peć Monastery, Kosovo, Serbia From Athens Greece St. Sophia, Thessaloniki, Greece
Geraki, Greece
Alabaster columns early Byzantine spolia; inscriptions added in Latin Arcosolium tomb‐canopy of Sava II lost Arch fragments with inscription with reference to the Christmas hymn Painted; originally set within the walls; arcosolium in the south aisle of the church; fragments in Athens Museum
353
Altar canopy
Tomb canopy
[Tomb] canopy
Tomb canopy
Icon canopy
169 13 C.E.
170 13 C.E. 171 13‐14 C.E.
172 13‐14 C.E.
173 13‐14 C.E.
174 13‐15 C.E.
175 14 C.E. 176 14 C.E.
177 14 C.E. 1300‐17 178 14 C.E.
179 14 C.E.
180 14 C.E. 181 14 C.E. 182 15 C.E. 183 15 C.E.
Porta Panaghia in Pylai, Thessaly, Greece Gradac, Serbia Church of Christ’s Ascension, Žiča monastery, Serbia
Church of the Taxiarchs, Kalyvia‐ Kouvara, Attica, Greece St. Demetrios ‐ Metropolis, Mystra, Greece St. Demetrios ‐ Metropolis, Mystra, Greece Church of St. Nicetas, Yaroslav, Russia St. Sophia, Ohrid, F.Y.R.O.M
Old Cathedral, Beroia, Greece St. Lawrence (Sv. Lovro) in Trogir, Dalmatia d’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima) in Cairo, Egypt Chora katholikon, Constantinople Church of Perivleptos in Mystra Cathedral of Sveti Choveli, Mcheta, Georgia St. Demetrios, Thessaloniki
Icon canopy
Fragments of fitting for the stone canopy installation on northeastern pillar of the church Proskynetarion, painted In situ
Icon canopy Icon or reliquary canopy‐shrine
Two‐columned canopy abutted to wall
Icon canopy
Altar canopy
wooden
Altar canopy
Throne of Archbishop Grigorije; Re‐used fragments for the minbar
Canopy fragments
Canopy Episcopal Throne? Ambo canopy? Altar canopy? Ambo canopy?
Altar canopy
Three canopies
Altar canopy
Icon canopy
Icon canopy
Painted canopy, built in Shrine canopy – the 15th c, cathedral “Tomb of Christ” begun in 1010; In situ Eight‐sided canopy in the Phiale canopy church atrium; destroyed
354
184 15 C.E. 1417‐29
185 n.d.
186 n.d
Trebizond
Tomb‐canopy of Alexios Komennos IV, Trebizond The tomb is next to the north apse of the Chrysokephalos church; destroyed NOT DATED Mt. Olive, Ascension Octagonal altar canopy which also surmounted the rock with the footprints of Jesus; destroyed Es‐Sesah, Egypt Marble columns
187 n.d.
The Tower of Winds in Athens reused for Christian purposes during Byzantine period
188 n.d.
189 n.d.
Medieval church, Jajce, Bosna and Herzegovina Natrun, Egypt – two churches Dylon
190 n.d 191 n.d
Tomb‐canopy
Altar canopy With the rock with Jesus’ footprints below – no other relic Altar canopy Eight footings in the floor Eight‐sided indicate that some kind of canopy a canopy was installed in the ancient structure by Christians who also included spolia with crosses in the floor only arch preserved Tomb canopy inscription, human figure Museum Athens, Greece Two fragments Canopy fragments marble
Altar canopies
Canopy placed on the altar table
Altar canopy?
355
CATALOGUE – ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR CANOPIES
356
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
1 Baptistery canopy Christian Chapel, Dura Europos, Syria 240s Two‐columned stone canopy, painted in fresco Yale University Art Museum Two‐columned “arcosolium‐type” canopy above baptismal font arch: Grapes, pomegranates, sheafs of grain. West wall, canopy over baptismal font, vault: Starry sky. West wall, lunette above baptismal font: Good Shepherd holding ram on shoulders and flock of rams, some grazing; plants; to left, trees. Below, Adam and Eve: Fall of Man ‐‐ Tree with two pomegranates?, flanked by Adam and Eve holding leaves, each with arm raised to the tree; serpent on ground; two pilasters representing walls of Garden of Eden.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
Index‐31 D93 CpCi D9,1 A 168434 Excavations at Dura‐Europos. Final Report, VIII, pt. 2 (1967), pl. XXIII; 31 D93 CpCi D9,1 A3 020281 Hopkins, C., & Baur, P., Christian Church at Dura‐Europos (1934), pl. XLIX; 31 D93 CpCi D9,1 A3 bis 168586 Grabar, A., Beginnings of Christian Art (1967), color fig. 60; 31 D93 CpCi D9,1 A3 ter 168435 Excavations at Dura‐ Europos. Final Report, VIII, pt. 2 (1967), pl. XXXI K. Weitzmann and H. L. Kessler. The Frescoes of the Dura Synagogue and Christian Art. DOS 28, Washington, DC: DORLC, c. 1990; Excavations at Dura‐Europos. Final Report, VIII, pt. 2 (1967), pp. 44‐45; pl. XXIII; plan VIII; A. Grabar, Beginnings of Christian Art (1967) , p. 68; color figs. 59‐60 M.‐H. Gates, “Dura‐Europos: A Fortress of Syro‐Mesopotamian Art” BA 47/3 (1984) 166‐181
357
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
2 Altar canopy Basilica at Metropolis, Gortyn, Greece After 4th c Sodini (1984) 441‐73.
358
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
3 Altar canopy Mogorjelo, Dalmatia Bosnia and Herzegovina 4th‐5th c Sodini (1984) 441‐73; Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
359
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
4 Tomb canopy? Memoria, Majsan, Dalmatia, Croatia 5th c Piers supporting dome above the tomb, which may have been canopied.
J. Bogdanović drawing S. Ćurčić, Architecture in the Balkans from Diocletian to Süleyman the Magnificent (ca. 300‐ca. 1550) (2008, in press); Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
360
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
5 Altar canopy? St. John Studion, Constantinople 5th c Now lost St. John the Baptist, Studios Monastery, plan
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ćurčić (2008) Ćurčić (2008) with references. T.F. Mathews (1971) 19‐27.
361
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
6 Altar and baptistery canopies Bargala, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia 5th c Converted tomb site into baptistery covered by an eight‐sided canopy
6‐a altar canopy, ground plan of the basilica
Source of ill. Bibliography
6‐b remains of the eight‐sided baptistery canopy B. Aleksova and C. Mango, “Bargala: A Preliminary Report” DOP 25 (1971) 265‐281, figs. 24 and 27. Aleksova and Mango (1971) 265‐281
362
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
7 Altar canopy Basilica Sabratha, North Africa 5th c The disturbance of mosaics suggests the installment of altar canopy in later instance; built by Emperor Justinian 7a‐a ground plan
7b interior view
Source of ill. Bibliography
H. Maquire, Earth and Ocean (University Park, Penn, 1987) fig. 70 plan, fig 71 view R. Bartoccini, Guida di Sabratha (Roma‐Milano, 1927) 35;
363
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
8 Altar canopy Sbeitla, Tunis, North Africa 5th c
Michel (2001) 226‐237.
364
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
9 Baptistery canopy Sbeitla, Tunis, North Africa 5th c Baptistery with a canopy?
Source of ill. Bibliography
Index Michel (2001) 226‐237.
365
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
10 Altar canopy Basilica at Tigzirt, Algeria 5th c Michel (2001) 226‐237.
366
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
11 Altar canopy Basilica A, Philipi. 5th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
11‐a [up] ground plan; 11‐b [bottom] cross section R. F. Hoddinott, Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia and Southern Serbia. (London, 1963) Hoddinott (1963)
367
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
12 Altar canopy Basilica A, Thebes, Thessaly 5th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
RBK (1963‐), Fig.12 RBK (1963‐), 594; Soteriou, G. A. Hai christianikai Thēvai tēs Thessalias kai hai palaiochristianikai vasilikai tēs Hellados (Athens, 1931) 86‐97.
368
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
13 Ambo‐canopy Basilica A, Thebes, Greece 5‐6th c
Orlandos (1965) 159‐168, fig. 506 Soteriou (1931)
369
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
14 Altar canopy H. Nikon, Sparta 5th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ćurčić (2008) Ćurčić (2008) with references.
370
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
15 Altar Canopy Diocletianopolis (Hissar), Church 3, plan, Bulgaria 5th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović drawing R.F. Hoddinott, Bulgaria in Antiquity, (London, 1975) 300‐12 Ćurčić (2008), with references.
371
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
16 Altar canopy Kos, island, Greece 5th‐6th c.
Ćurčić (2008) D. Pallas, Les monuments paléochrétiens de Grèce découverts de 1959 à 1973 (Città del Vaticano, 1977) 230‐33; D. Parrish, ʺAn Early Byzantine Mosaic Workshop Based on Kos: Architectural Context and Pavement Design,ʺ AntTard 9 (2001) 331‐49.
372
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
17 Altar canopy 5th c.
Parrish (2001) 331‐49. Parrish (2001) 331‐49 with references.
373
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
18 Altar canopy Hereon Basilica, Xantos, Lycia 5th c. Soteriou (1931)
374
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
19 Altar canopy Basilica in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), Serbia 5th c. Urban basilica, canopy built in the second building phase
Source of ill. Bibliography
V. Popović, “Kult Svetog Dimitrija Solunskog u Sirmijumu i Raveni” SANU 10 (1998) 43‐57 Popović (1998) 43‐57
375
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
20 Artophorion? Canopy shrine? Constantinople? 5th c (6th ?) Marble S. Marco, Treasury, Venice, Italy Inscription only on two sides, canopy most likely abutted to the north wall
20‐a general view
Source of ill. Bibliography
20‐b inscription EAM, vol. 4, s.v. ciborio EAM, vol. 4; Ćurčić (1991): 251‐261; Guillou (1991) 119‐156.
376
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
21 Altar canopy Hosios Leonidas, Corinth‐Lechaion 450‐60 (?). Two canopies – over the altar table and in the entrance zone to the sanctuary
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović drawing ECBA (1986) 131‐134. Ćurčić (2008) with references.
377
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
22 Canopy at the crossing, Martyrium Church of St. John: First state Reconstruction cent. St. John the Evangelist. First church, Ephesus (Extinct City), Turkey c. 450 Reconstruction plan, with outline of Justinianic church superimposed
Thiel (2005) ECBA 1986; Thiel (2005)
378
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
22‐a Canopy at the crossing, Martyrium Church of St. John: First state Reconstruction cent. St. John the Evangelist. First church, Ephesus (Extinct City), Turkey c. 450 Reconstruction plan, with outline of Justinianic church superimposed
ECBA 1986; Thiel (2005)
379
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
22‐b Altar canopy St. John the Evangelist. First church, Ephesus (Extinct City), Turkey c. 450
Source of ill. Bibliography
Thiel (2005) ECBA (1986); Thiel (2005)
380
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
23 Tomb canopy St. John the Evangelist. First church, Ephesus (Extinct City), Turkey c. 450 Baptistery in the north apse
Source of ill. Bibliography
Thiel (2005) ECBA (1986); Thiel (2005)
381
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
24 Altar canopy Abu Mîna, St. Menas, Egypt c. 490.
ECBA (1986).
382
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
25 Altar canopy St. Theodor at Gerasa, Palestine 494‐6
Source of ill. Bibliography
Mango (1985) fig. 18 Michel (2001) 226‐237.
383
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
26 Baptistery canopy St. Theodor at Gerasa, Palestine 494‐6 Reconstruction
Mango (1985) figs. 19‐20 Michel (2001) 226‐237.
384
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
26‐a altar canopy St. Theodor at Gerasa, Palestine 494‐6 Reconstruction
Michel (2001) fig. 205 Michel (2001) 226‐237.
385
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
27 Altar canopy Cilician basilica A, Corcus (Kizkalesi), Turkey Late 5th c. Hill (1996) 116‐121.
386
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
28 Baptistery canopy East Church, Mampsis, Negev Desert 5th c. Piccirillo 2006) 51‐113.
387
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
29 Baptistery canopy Petra, Jordan 5th‐6th c.
Bikai, P. M. and V. Egan, “Archeology in Jordan” AJA 101/3 (July, 1997): 493‐535, fig. 27 Bikai and Egan (1997) 493‐535, Bikai, P. M. “The Churches of Byzantine Petra.” NEA 65/4 (Dec., 2002): 271‐276.
388
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
30 Altar canopy Basilica of Bir al‐Knissia, Carthage, Tunis 5th‐6th c. Duval and Lezine (1959): 71‐147.
389
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
31 Altar canopy Episcopal church at Aphrodisias, Caria, Asia Minor 5‐6th c
S. Campbell, The Mosaics of Aphrodisias in Caria (Toronto, 1991) fig. 7.
390
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
32 Baptistery canopy Basilica IV, Mactaris, Tunisia 5th‐6th c. Canopy over baptistery which replaced older baths
391
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
33 Arch of a canopy (tomb canopy?) North Africa 5‐6th c Arch fragment of a canopy
Index
392
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
34 Altar canopy Philiatra 5‐6th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
RBK (1963‐) fig.5 RBK (1963‐) 590
393
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
35 Altar canopy Episcopal basilica complex, plan, Stobi 5th‐6th c.
Source of ill. Bibliography
35 ground plan J. Bogdanović drawing Ćurčić (2008), with references. E. Kitzinger, “A Survey of the Early Christian Town of Stobi. DOP 3 (1946) 81‐162.
394
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
36 Baptistery canopy Episcopal basilica complex, plan, Stobi 5th‐6th c.
36‐a ground plan
Source of ill.
Bibliography
36‐b view after restoration J. Bogdanović drawing 36‐a C. J. Downing, “Wall Paintings from the Baptistery at Stobi, Macedonia, and Early Depictions of Christ and the Evangelists” DOP 52 (1998) 259‐ 280, fig. 4 (36‐b) Ćurčić (2008), with references; Downing (1998) 259‐280.
395
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
37 Baptistery canopy Nessana, Negev desert, Palestine 5th – 6th c. Piccirillo (2006) 51‐113.
396
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
38 Altar canopy? Ilissos Basilica, near Athens, Greece 5th c.
J. Bogdanović drawing Ćurčić (2008), with references; A. Karivieri, “The Ilissos Basilica and the introduction of Christian iconography in Athens,” in Acta congressus internationalis XIV archaeologiae christianae: Akten des XIV. Internationalen Kongresses für Christliche Archäologie 62 (2006)
397
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
39 Altar canopy Basilica in the village Massuh, diocese of Esbus in Jordan 5th – 6th c. M. Piccirillo, “A new church in the village of Massuh in the territory of the diocese of Esbus in Jordan” Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem. http://servus.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/fai/mass00.html Accessed February 2005.
398
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
40 Altar canopy Basilica B, Nikopolis, Greece 5th c
Ćurčić (2008) E. Kitzinger, “Studies on Late Antique and Early Byzantine Floor Mosaics: I. Mosaics at Nikopolis” DOP 3 (1951) 81+83‐122; ECBA (1986) 131; Ćurčić (2008) with references.
399
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
40‐a [Altar] canopy Basilica B, Nikopolis, Greece 6th c Arch of the [altar] canopy with an inscription (Καὶ τοῦτο τὸ καλὸν Δουμετίου – personal name in the form of monogram); note that the canopy post‐dates the church itself!
Kitzinger (1951) fig. 17. E. Kitzinger, “Studies on Late Antique and Early Byzantine Floor Mosaics: I. Mosaics at Nikopolis” DOP 3 (1951) 81+83‐122; ECBA (1986) 131; Ćurčić (2008) with references.
400
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
41 Altar canopy Church of St. Bacchus, Horvat Tinshemet Palestine 5th – 6th c. U. Dahari, “Hurbat Tinshemet, Church of St. Bacchus” Excavations and Surveys in Israel 18 (1996) 67‐68, 102‐104.
401
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
42 Altar canopy Basilica in Kourion, Cyprus 5th – 6th c.
A.H. S. Megaw, “Excavations at the Episcopal Basilica of Kourion in Cyprus in 1974 and 1975: A Preliminary Report” DOP 30 (1976) 345‐371, fig. A. Megaw (1976) 345‐371; R. Loverance, “Early Byzantine marble church furnishings: some examples from the episcopal basilica of Kourion in Cyprus” in Church and People in Byzantium, R. Morris ed. (Manchester, 1986) 225‐243.
402
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
43 Ambo‐canopy H. Demetrios, Thessaloniki, Greece 5‐6th c Marble In fragments Archeological Museum, Istanbul, Turkey No enough evidence to firmly confirm that there was a canopy – field notes J.B.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Orlandos (1952‐57) Orlandos (1952‐57)
403
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
44 Ambo‐canopy Church in Kalabaka Early Christian; 5‐6th c Marble restored
Source of ill. Bibliography
Orlandos (1952) Orlandos (1952)
404
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
44‐a Ambo‐canopy Church in Kalabaka Early Christian; 5‐6th c Marble restored
Source of ill. Bibliography
Postcard
405
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
44‐b Ambo‐canopy Church in Kalabaka Early Christian; 5‐6th c Marble restored
Source of ill. Bibliography
Orlandos (1952‐57)
406
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
44‐c Ambo‐canopy Church in Kalabaka Early Christian; 5‐6th c Marble restored
Internet – image in the public domain
407
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
45 Baptistery canopy Basilica at Carthagenna, Cahrtage 5th – 6th c.
Duval, N. and A. Lezine, “Necropole Chretienne et Baptistere Southeran a Chartage.” CA 10 (1959): 71‐147, figs. 58, 60. Duval and Lezine (1959): 71‐147.
408
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
46 Baptistery canopy Basilica at Bir Ftouha, [Chartage] 5th – 6th c. Martyr’s tomb (?) was during early Christian period appropriated for baptistery. The locus was canopied.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
S. T. Stevens, “Excavations of an Early Christian Pilgrimage Complex at Bir Ftouha (Carthage)” DOP 54 (2000) 271‐274, fig. 3 Stevens (2000) 271‐274
409
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
47 Altar canopy Church of St. George on the Acropolis, Athens After 5th c Hephasteion
RBK (1963‐) fig.8 RBK (1963‐) 374
410
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
48 Altar canopy and two‐columned canopy in the entrance zone Caričin Grad basilica D 6th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
V. Kondić and V. Popović, Caričin Grad (Beograd, 1977) fig. 82 Kondić and Popović (1977) 109‐129; Ćurčić (2008) with further references.
411
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
48‐a Baptistery canopy Caričin Grad, Lebane, Serbia Episcopal Basilica, Baptistery with canopy‐like structure
V. Korać and M. Šuput. Arhitektura vizantijskog sveta. (Beograd, 2005) fig. 52 Kondić and Popović (1977) 109‐129.
412
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
49 Altar canopy Basilica A, Nikopolis, 6th c.
ECBA (1986) fig. 87 ECBA (1986) 131; Ćurčić (2008) with references.
413
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
50 Altar canopy Basilica B, Thessalian Thebes 6th c. Four‐columned structure at the entrance to the bema
414
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
51 Altar canopy Basilica at Knidos 6th c. Marble sockets for the altar canopy found in situ
Love, I. C. “A Preliminary Report of the Excavations at Knidos, 1969” AJA 74/2 (1970) 149‐155, Fig 17. Love (1970) 149‐155.
415
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
52 Altar canopy Basilica B, Philipi, Greece c. 540
Chrysanthaki and Bakirtzis, Philippi (Athens, 1995) fig.34 Hoddinott, R. F. Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia and Southern Serbia (London, 1963); Chrysanthaki and Bakirtzis (1995).
416
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
53 Altar Canopy Panagia Hekatontapyloni (Katapoliani), Paros c. 550
Ground plan ‐ J. Bogdanović drawing after Hasluck M. Bonfioli, Tre arcate marmoree protobyzantine a Lison di Portogruaro. Roma: De Luca Editore, 1979. Ćurčić (2008), with references.
417
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
53‐a Altar Canopy Panagia Hekatontapyloni (Katapoliani), Paros c. 550
Source of ill. Bibliography
Bonfioli, 1979. Bonfioli, 1979. Ćurčić (2008), with references.
418
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
53‐b Altar Canopy Panagia Hekatontapyloni (Katapoliani), Paros c. 550
Postcard M. Bonfioli, Tre arcate marmoree protobyzantine a Lison di Portogruaro. Roma: De Luca Editore, 1979. Ćurčić (2008), with references.
419
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
53‐c Altar Canopy Panagia Hekatontapyloni (Katapoliani), Paros c. 550
postcard M. Bonfioli, Tre arcate marmoree protobyzantine a Lison di Portogruaro. Roma: De Luca Editore, 1979. Ćurčić (2008), with references.
420
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
53‐d Altar Canopy Panagia Hekatontapyloni (Katapoliani), Paros c. 550 Canopy fragments from previous canopies
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović M. Bonfioli, Tre arcate marmoree protobyzantine a Lison di Portogruaro. Roma: De Luca Editore, 1979. Ćurčić (2008), with references.
421
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
54 Altar canopy Cathedral complex, Poreč c. 550
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović drawing ECBA 1986; Ćurčić (2008); Terry (1988) 12‐64.
422
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
54‐a Altar canopy Cathedral complex, Poreč c. 550 Altar canopy (1277) with sixth‐century re‐used columns
Source of ill. Bibliography
Image in the public domain
423
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
55 Baptistery canopy Cathedral complex, Poreč c. 550 The baptistery has not survived, though some of the architectural sculpture at the site might have been used for it. A. Terry provided a convincing argument that the canopy existed Terry (1988) 12‐64.
424
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
56 Altar canopy Il‐Anderin church, Syria 6th c H. C. Butler, Early Churches in Syria, Fourth to Seventh centuries. Amsterdam, 1969.
425
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
57 Altar canopy It‐Tuba church, Syria 583
Butler (1969). Butler (1969).
426
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
58 Altar Canopy Mt. Nebo Basilica, Moses 6‐7th c
Source of ill.
H. Buschhausen et al. Byzantinische Mosaiken aus Jordanien (Wien: Amt der Nö. Landesregierung, Abt. III/2 Kulturabteilung, 1986) fig. 67 Buschhausen (1986)
Bibliography
427
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
58‐a Baptistery canopy Mt. Nebo Basilica, first baptistery 537 mosaics
Source of ill. Bibliography
Buschhausen (1986) fig. 68 Buschhausen (1986)
428
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
58‐b “Two‐dimensional” baptistery canopy Mt. Nebo Basilica, south baptistery 6‐7th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
Buschhausen (1986) fig. 70 Buschhausen (1986)
429
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
59 Altar canopy St. George Church Mt. Nebo 586
Source of ill.
A. Michel, Les églises d’époque byzantine et umayyade de Jordanie. (Turnhout: Brepols, 2001) figs.320‐321. Michel (2001) 340‐345.
Bibliography
430
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
60 Altar canopy Amphipolis, Basilica A mid‐6th c (?).
Source of ill. Bibliography
N. Zikos, Amphipolis (Athens, 1989) fig.3 Zikos (1989)
431
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
61 Altar canopy Basilica A, Nea Achileos 6th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
J.‐P. Sodini, “Les dispositifs liturgiques des basiliques paléochrétienues en Grèce et dans Balkans” CorsiRav 31 (1984) 441‐73 Sodini (1984) 441‐73
432
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
62 Altar canopy Basilica tis Vardias, on the island of Aigina, Greece 6th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ch. Pennas, Byzantine Aigina. (Athens, 2005) fig. 7 Pennas (2005)
433
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
63 Altar canopy St. Stephen, Umm al‐Rasas, Syria 6th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
Michel (2001) fig. 364. Michel (2001) 388‐394; Piccirillo (2006) 51‐113.
434
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
64 Tetrapylon‐like canopy at the basilica crossing Basilica B Junca, Byzacena, Tunis 6th c
RBK (1963‐) fig.11 RBK (1963‐) 856
435
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
65 Altar canopy ? Basilica B Junca, Byzacena, Tunis 6th c
436
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
66 Baptistery canopy Basilica Lariscus, Schola Juvenes, Tunis, North Africa 6th c
RBK (1963‐) fig. 2 RBK (1963‐) 844
437
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
67 Altar and tomb canopies Basilica at Haïdra, Tunis 6th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
Duval Y. (1982) RBK (1963‐) 848; Duval (1982) 105‐115
438
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
68 Altar canopy Hagios Polyeuktos, Constantinople, 524 ‐527, glass‐inlaid marble column of the altar canopy 6 C.E. (524‐527) Canopy column Archeological museum, Istanbul Part of an inlaid marble column; inlay (squares of amethyst, triangles and trapeziums of green glass, and in the diagonal runnels, strips of gold glass); found in the sanctuary of H. Polyeuktos
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photo: J. Bogdanović Martin (1989) and figs. 82, 94
439
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
69 Altar canopy Hagia Sophia, Constantinople 6 C.E. Silver, gild, precious stones lost Ideal reconstruction according to Paul Silentary’s account
ECBA 1986; Rowland (1988); Mundell‐ Mango (c. 1992) 123‐136; Bonfioli (1979).
440
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
70 Altar [shrine] canopy Holy Apostles, Constantinople Lost, destroyed in the 15th c Ideal reconstruction of the ground plan with the disposition of the central canopy‐shrine
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Mango (1990) 51‐61. Mango (1990) 51‐61; Downey (1957) 855‐924.
441
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
71 Altar canopy Sts. Cosmas and Damian, Jerash, Jordan Duval (2003) 35‐114.
442
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
72 Baptistery canopy St. John the Baptist, Jerash, Jordan Duval (2003) 35‐114.
443
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
73 Altar canopy Aliki, double basilicas, Thasos 5th c by ca. 500 Remnants of altar canopies in both churches
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović drawing Ćurčić (2008) with references; Sodini (1984) 441‐73.
444
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
74 Altar canopy Srima, double basilica 6 C.E. Altar canopy in north church
J. Bogdanović drawing Ćurčić (2008) with references; Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
445
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
75 Altar canopy Basilica in Salona, Dalmatia, Croatia 6 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
446
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
76 Altar canopy Blagaj, Bosnia and Herzegovina 6 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
447
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
77 Altar canopy Cim, Croatia 6 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
448
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
78 Altar canopy Doboj, Bosnia and Herzegovina 6 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
449
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
79 Altar canopy Gata, Croatia 6 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
450
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
80 Altar canopy Vid, Dalmatia, Croatia 6 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
451
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
81 Altar canopy Cathedral of Arnithi, Rhodes, Greece 6 C.E. Sodini (1984) 441‐473
452
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
82 Altar Canopy Apollonia, Libya
RBK 91963‐) Fig.2. RBK (1963‐) 222.
453
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
83 Canopy Apollonia, Libya RBK (1963‐) 222.
454
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
84 Altar Canopy Theotokos Chapel, Mt. Nebo, built in 597. 6‐7 C.E./ beginning of 7th c
Buschhausen (1986) figs. 71‐72
455
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
85 Altar canopy Hagia Euphemia, Constantinople, ideal reconstruction, c.7th c?/ 8th or 9th c. Istanbul archeological museum no. 5078 Reconstruction of the sanctuary furnishing; 6th c. (?), marble inlaid columns of the altar canopy
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Mathews (1971). Mathews ‐athanor Belting, Naumann
456
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
86 Altar canopy St. Stephen at Umm al‐Rasas, Palestine 6‐8 C.E.
Michel (2001) 388‐391
457
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
87 Altar canopy Church at Rehovot in the Negev desert, Palestine 6‐8 C.E. Michel (2001) 33‐35
458
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
88 Altar canopy Church of the Virgin on the Acropolis, Greece still in situ in 12 C.E. Parthenon
J. M. Hurwit, The Athenian Acropolis (Cambridge, 1999) fig 235. (drawing by M. Korres)
459
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
89 Baptistery canopy Shrine of St. Menas, Maryût, Egypt 4‐9 C.E. Octagonal baptistery at the shrine of St. Menas Ward Perkins (1949) 26‐71.
460
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
90 Altar canopy Pharos church, Constantinople 846 Lost Lidov (2005) 1‐26; Magdalino (1987) 51‐64; Mango (1956) 123+125‐140.
461
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
91 Altar canopy Cathedral of the Holy Mary on the island of Rab, Dalmatia 9 C.E. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
462
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
92 Altar canopy Basilica of Archangel Michael in Martinići, near Skadar Lake, Montenegro 9th c Found in situ Ground plan of the church with the disposition of the canopy
Source of ill. Bibliography
Drawing J. Bogdanović after Korać (2001) fig. 48 Korać (2001) 78‐88.
463
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
92‐a Altar canopy Basilica of Archangel Michael in Martinići, near Skadar Lake, Montenegro 9th c Local stone Found in situ Fragments and reconstruction of the canopy
Source of ill. Bibliography
Korać (2001) figs. 76, 78, 107. Korać (2001) 78‐88.
464
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
93 Canopy fragments Unidentified original location; museum label suggests North Italy [?] 8th‐9th c limestone Walters art museum, Baltimore, MD, inv. no. 27. 563 The peacocks and braided design in relief show Byzantine influence Technical characteristics and carving are also comparable to known Byzantine canopies, comparable to canopy no. 92.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photo J. Bogdanović
465
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
94 Altar canopy Unidentified church in Ulcinj, Montenegro 9th c stone National Muesum, Beograd; Museum in Ulcinj Arch of the canopy and several other fragments
Source of ill. Bibliography
Preradović‐Petrović (2002) 247‐264 Preradović‐Petrović (2002) 247‐264; Djurić and Babić (1997) 30‐34.
466
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
95 [Altar] canopy St. Mary Collegiate, Kotor, Montenegro 9th c Canopy fragment
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122, with further references.
467
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
96 Canopy St. Michael, Kotor, Montenegro 11th c Various fragments One fragment has an inscription: + (i)N N(o)M(ine) D(o)M(ini) D(e)I ET SALV(atoris) N(ostri) III(es)V(s) XRI(sti) Preradović‐Petrović (2002) 247‐264; Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122.
468
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
97 Canopy fragment Kotor, Montenegro 11th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
A. Nazro and Z. Ladić, History of the Croatians, Illustrated Chronology (Zagreb, 2003) fig. on p. 51 Nazro and Ladić (2003); Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122; Stevović (1998‐99) 23‐33.
469
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
97‐a Canopy fragment Kotor, Montenegro 11th c Drawing of the arch fragment
Source of ill. Bibliography
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122; Stevović (1998‐99) 23‐33.
470
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
98 Baptistery canopy Kotor, Montenegro 11th c Canopy fragments
Source of ill. Bibliography
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122.
471
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
99 Reliquary canopy Kotor, Montenegro 11th c Canopy fragments
Source of ill. Bibliography
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122.
472
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
100 Altar canopy Archangel Michael, Prevlaka 11th c In fragments
Source of ill. Bibliography
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122.
473
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
101 Altar canopy St. Andrew, Betiga near Dubrovnik, Croatia 9th c stone Archaeological Museum, Pula Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122, with further references.
474
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
102 Altar canopy The church of Virgin, Dubrovnik, Croatia 9th c stone Fragments
Source of ill. Bibliography
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122
475
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
103 Altar canopy The church of Holy Spirit (on the site of Byzantine basilica) Komolac Croatia 9th c Inscription on the body of the animal “lav” (lion) – potentially a reference to King David killing a lion?
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122. Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122
476
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
104 Altar canopy Novalja‐ Dalmatia, Croatia 9th c stone In fragments on various locations
Source of ill. Bibliography
M. Skoblar, “Ranosrednjovekovni ciborij iz Novalje” RIPU 29 (2005) 7‐16, figs. 8‐10. Skoblar (2005) 7‐16.
477
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
105 Altar canopy Krk, Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c stone Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
478
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
106 Altar canopy Unidentified church, Budva, Montenegro 9th‐11th c stone Stone fragments Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122, with further references.
479
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
107 Baptistery canopy Unidentified church, Budva, Montenegro 9th‐11th c stone Stone fragments Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122, with further references.
480
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
108 Altar canopy Pula ‐Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
481
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
109 Altar canopy Zadar ‐Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
482
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
110 Altar canopy Pag, Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
483
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
111 Canopy Solin, Dalmatia, Croatia 9th c limestone Archeological Museum, Split Fragment of a canopy with the votive inscription PRO DUCE TREPIME(ro) [reference to Croatian ruler Trpimir]
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
http://www.mdc.hr/split‐arheoloski/hr Image in the public domain Vežić (1997) 101‐116.
484
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
112 Altar canopy St. Tomas Zadar 9th‐11th c Stone Vežić (1997) 101‐116.
485
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
113 Altar canopy Ss. Peter and Moses in Solin, Croatia 9th‐11th c Limestone Fragments
P. Vežić, “Bazilika Sv. Ivana Krstitelja (Sv. Nediljica) u Zadru” RIPU 23 (1999a): 7–16, fig. on p. 14. Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
486
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
114 Altar canopy Birčina‐Polača Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152.
487
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
115 Baptistery canopy Hagios Andreas, Peresterai, Greece 9th‐11th c
Ćurčić (2008) Ćurčić (2008) with references
488
Number 116 Title Place of origin Myra, St. Nicholas Church Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
9‐11th c
interior view
ground plan of the church Source of ill. Bibliography
Mango (1985), figs. 130‐131
489
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
117 Altar canopy Shati, Albania 9th‐11th c Fragments of marble arch Maksimović (1977) 237‐262, esp. 243‐244.
490
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
118 Altar canopy Lopud‐ Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
491
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
119 Altar canopy Omis‐ Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
492
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
120 Altar canopy Potoci‐ Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
493
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
121 Altar canopy Rab‐ Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
494
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
122 Altar canopy Vrba‐ Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
495
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
123 Altar canopy Zalozje – Dalmatia, Croatia 9th‐11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
496
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
124 Thessaloniki St. Demetrios 10th‐11th c Marble Ground plan
Source of ill. Bibliography
ECBA (1986) fig. 79 Bakirtzis (2002) 175‐192.
497
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
124‐a canopy Thessaloniki St. Demetrios 10th‐11th c Marble Reconstruction after Orlandos
Hoddinott (1963).
498
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
124‐b Arch fragments of a canopy? Thessaloniki St. Demetrios 10th‐11th c Marble Thessaloniki St Demetrios crypt
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photo courtesy N. Stanković Bakirtzis (2002) 175‐192.
499
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
125 Canopy shrine Thessaloniki St Demetrios crypt After 9 C.E. marble in situ Seven‐sided canopy on seven columns and abutted to the wall; Canopy over the myrrhobletic basin, older bath
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photo J. Bogdanović Bakirtzis (2002) 175‐192.
500
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
126 Canopy over a bell‐tower Church of the Holy Cross, Aghtʹamar, Turkey, [Armenia] 915‐21 View from southeast
INDEX
501
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
127 Altar canopy Basilica of St. Anastasia (Sv. Stošija) Zadar, Croatia 11 C.E.; 1033‐1036 Ground plan
Drawing J. Bogdanovic Ćurčić (2008) with further references.
502
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
127‐a Altar canopy Basilica of St. Anastasia (Sv. Stošija) in Zadar, Croatia 11th c stone Canopy fragment from the altar canopy of Byzantine proconsul Grgur
A. Nazro and Z. Ladić, History of the Croatians, Illustrated Chronology (Zagreb, 2003) fig. on p. 51 Ćurčić (2008), with references to Petricioli (1985) and Petricioli (1960) 15‐18. Vasić (1922) 165, figs. 123‐124.
503
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
128 Altar canopy Nin, Dalmatia 11th c I. Petricioli, “Ciborij katedrale hrvatskog biskupa u Ninu“ Peristil 38 (1995) 23‐26.
504
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
129 Altar canopy Church of St. Michael, Ston, Dalmatia 11th c Stone fragments Split Djurić and Babić (1997) 30‐34.
505
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
130 Altar canopy Church of St. Mary, Biskupija, Knin 11th c Museum Split
Source of ill. Bibliography
Guide SM (1980)
506
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
130‐a Altar canopy Church of St. Mary, Biskupija, Knin 11th c Split Two canopies on the left are both coming from the same church in Nin
Guide SM (1980) Djurić and Babić (1997) 30‐34.
507
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
131 Altar canopy Kaštel Gomilica, Dalmatia, Croatia 11th c Chevalier (1995) vol II, 149‐152
508
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
132 Altar canopy Cairo, Hanging Church d’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima), Hanging Church, dedicated to St. Mary in Cairo, Egypt 10‐11th c or more likely 14th c Well‐preserved Coptic Museum in Cairo (inv. no. 909) “Fatimid” canopy from the d’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima) in Cairo, Egypt
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
old photo Bolman (2006) fig. 27. Bolman (2006) 73‐106; Jeudy (2004) 67‐88.
509
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
133 Tomb canopy Great Lavra, Mt. Athos, Greece, Katholikon 10‐11 C.E. Tomb canopy of St. Athanasios
Source of ill. Bibliography
D.O. Dolger BF. P. 2002. 001198 unpublished
510
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
134 Altar canopy Church in Rogačići near Blažuj, Bosna and Herzegovina 10‐11th c Arch fragment
Djurić and Babić (1997) fig. 11 Čremošnik (1953) 303‐314; Gavrilović (1999) 111‐118; Djurić and Babić (1997) 30‐34.
511
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
135 Icon canopy Church of the Virgin, Hosios Loukas, Greece 10 C.E. and later marble
Source of ill. Bibliography
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) fig. 5 Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134 with older references
512
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
136 Canopy over phiale St. George in Mangana, Constantinople 11th c lost Canopy over quatrefoil phiale comparable with post‐Byzantine phiale on Mt. Athos; proven by archaeological excavations from the 1920s Demangel and Mamboury (1939)
513
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
137 Canopy substructure in the narthex Nea Moni Chios 11 C.E. Four‐columned structure in the narthex supporting the dome.
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ground plan ‐ drawing J. Bogdanović; detail of the floor of the narthex – Bouras (1982) fig. 71a Ćurčić (2008) with references; Bouras (1982) esp. 89‐96.
514
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
138 Altar canopy St. Savour in Chernigovo 11th c wood lost Sterligova (2000) 360‐381.
515
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
139 Altar canopy Church of the Dormition in the Pečerskii monastery (monastery of the Caves) near Kiev, Ukraine 11th c marble lost Čukova (2004) 80, with reference to Holostenko (1975) 107‐170. See also: Voronin (1961) 251‐258.
516
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
140 Altar canopy St. Sophia in Novgorod, Russia 11th c marble lost Čukova (2004) 80, with references to medieval sources from Golubinskii (1904) 170 and Komeč (1975) 9‐26.
517
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
141 Altar canopy Hosios Loukas, Greece 11th c and later Ground plan of the katholikon showing sockets for the altar canopy
Source of ill. Bibliography
518
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
141‐a Canopy Hosios Loukas 11th c and later Local stone Museum at Hosios Loukas, parts of an altar or proskynetarion canopy?
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photo J. Bogdanović
519
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
142 Canopy shrine Hosios Loukas shrine 11th c and later
Photo J. Bogdanović
520
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
142‐a Canopy shrine Hosios Loukas shrine 11th c and later Ideal reconstruction
Stikas (1974‐75) Stikas (1974‐75)
521
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
142‐b Canopy shrine Hosios Loukas shrine 11th c and later
Photo J. Bogdanović
522
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
142‐c Hosios Loukas shrine 11th c and later marbles, paint, gold
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photo J. Bogdanović
523
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
142‐d Canopy shrine Hosios Loukas shrine 11th c and later
Stikas (1974‐75) Stikas (1974‐75)
524
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
143 [Altar] canopy Amorium church, Turkey 11 C.E. and later T952 in the Archaeological Museum Canopy fragments, arch, inscription Lightfoot; Ivison (1997) 291‐300; Lightfoot et al. (1998) 323‐336.
525
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
144 Canopy Pantokrator monastery After 11th c / 13‐14th c? Marble, roof‐secondary‐wood Re‐used as minbar Pantokrator monastery spolia – H. Polyeuktos?
Photos courtesy: R. Ousterhout Hjort (1979) 199‐289.
526
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
144‐a Canopy Pantokrator monastery After 11th c / 13‐14th c? Marble, roof‐secondary‐wood Re‐used as minbar Pantokrator monastery Inscription Palaeologan monograms ?
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photos courtesy: R. Ousterhout unpublished
527
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
145 Androusa Samarina, Greece Zoodochos Pege 11th c and later Proskynetaria icons Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134.
528
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
146 Altar canopy Kalabaka ‐ altar
postcard Vanderheyde (2005) 427‐442
529
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
147 Altar canopy Church of the Dormition, Apolonia, Albania 11th‐12th c
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović drawing Ćurčić (2008) with further references.
530
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
148 Ambo canopy Hagia Sophia, Constantinople 12th c Now lost reconstruction
Rohault de Fleury, La Messe, vol. 3; reconstruction after the poem by Paulos Silnetarios and Constantine Porphyrogenitos Mango and Parker (1960) 233‐244; Xydis (1947) 1–24, with references.
531
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
149 Altar canopy St. Sophia in Novgorod, Russia 12th c / ca. 1156 wood Now lost Sterligova (2000) 360‐381.
532
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
150 Altar canopy The church “Old Throne” in Vladimir‐Volinski, Russia 2/2 12 C.E. wood Now lost Sterligova (2000) 360‐381.
533
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
151 Phiale canopy Bogolyubovo 1165 Now 17th‐c reconstruction In the courtyard opposite the southwest corner of the Cathedral stood a canopy on columns. Excavations have revealed remains of the round, three‐ tiered pedestal on which the chalice stood. Along the edges of the pedestal were the circular bases of eight slender columns decorated at the corners with griffins. The canopy was over the chalice which contained holy water. Built about 1165, the ciborium appears to have been the last of the edifices erected here.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Voronin (1961) 251‐258. Voronin (1961) 251‐258.
534
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
152 Altar canopy Sts. Boris and Gleb built by Vsevolod III in Vladimir, Russia 12 C.E. Local stone Voronin (1961) 251‐258.
535
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
153 Altar canopy Church of the Annunciation in Chernigov, Russia 12 C.E. / c. 1186 White stone arch fragment of a canopy sculpted with geometric patters and birds Čukova (2004) 77, with reference to Rjibakov (1949) 86‐87.
536
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
154 Icon canopies Nerezi 12 C.E. marble The canopy over the icon of Virgin broken, the canopy over St. Panteleimon in better condition Two icon canopies flanking the sanctuary
Source of ill. Bibliography
I. Sinkević, The Church of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi: Architecture, Programme, Patronage (Wiesbaden, 2000) 87. Sinkević (2000).
537
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
155 [Altar] canopy and icon canopies Kalendarhane 12‐13 C.E. Patterns of the opus sectile floor suggest two‐dimensional or even free‐ standing altar canopy; canopy frames for the proskynetaria icons on the western side of the eastern piers have been preserved in situ
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
C. L. Striker and Y. D. Kuban, “Work at Kalenderhane Camii in Istanbul: Third and Fourth Preliminary Reports” DOP 25 (1971) 251‐258, fig. A Striker and Kuban (1971) 251‐258.
538
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
156 Phiale Canopy Church of the Mother of God, Studenica, Serbia 12‐13 C.E. / 1196‐1235 marble Marble sockets remain in situ Octagonal canopy above the phiale in the exonarthex of King Radoslav; canopy was initially built as an open structure in front of the church, before the exonarthex was built.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
Ground plan [up] – image in the public domain S. Nenadović, Gradjevinska tehnika u srednjovekovnoj Srbiji. (Beograd, 2003) fig. 754 – view of the phiale [bottom]
539
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
157 Altar canopy Church of Dormition, Galich, Russia 12‐13 C.E. White stone lost Church of the Saviour in Galich (end 12th – beg. 13th c) had a canopy of white stone with slander columns 15.5 ‐ 16 cm. Čukova (2004) 79, with references to Ioannisyn (1986) 106‐107.
540
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
158 Altar canopy Church of Dormition, Galich, Russia 12‐13 C.E. White stone Canopy capitals with the impost block (38 cm x 38 cm) were recovered in the church Čukova (2004) 79, with references to Pasternak (1944) 111, fig. VII.7.
541
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
159 Canopy over the Episcopal throne Monastery of the Virgin, Gelati, Georgia 12‐13th c In situ
Source of ill. Bibliography
Mepisašvili and Virsalaże (1982) fig. 54. Mepisašvili and Virsalaże (1982)
542
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
161 Icon canopy Hagia Sophia church, Arta, Monemvasia, Greece 12th c White marble Arta museum Arch for the icon stand
P. Kalamara, “The Sculptures” in Monemvasia (Athens, 2001) 19‐39, Fig. 33 Kalamara (Athens, 2001) 19‐39.
543
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
161‐a Canopies over icons St. Sophia Monemvasia, Greece 12 C.E. and later Inner sides of piers in the church nave Four marble brackets embedded in the piers suggest two canopy frames for icons
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) fig. 10. Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134.
544
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
162 Icon canopy St. John Eleemon in Ligourio, Argolis, Greece After 12th c East wall of the narthex
Source of ill. Bibliography
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) fig. 31. Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134.
545
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
163 Canopy for the bell Panagia Parigoritissa, Arta, Greece 13th c In situ
Source of ill. Bibliography
Photos courtesy S. Ćurčić A. Orlandos, H Παρηγορήτσσα της Άρτης (Athens, 1963) 137‐140.
546
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
164 Altar canopy Constantinople? Alabaster with engraved reliefs St. Marco, Venice.
column, detail O. Vio, The Basilica of St. Mark in Venice (New York, 1999) figs. 82, 83. Braun, J. Der Christliche Altar in seiner geschitlichen Entwicklung (München, 1924). EAM, vol. 4, s.v. ciborio
547
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
165 Tomb canopy Church of Holy Apostles in Peć, Kosovo 13th c Arcosolium tomb of Sava II
Source of ill. Bibliography
Cvetković (2000) 3‐9.
548
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
166 Three arches from a [tomb] canopy Greece, Athens 13th c. Arch 1: h. 100cm, w. 190cm; Arch 2: h. 95cm, w. 123cm stone, marble; Arch 3: h. 72cm, w. 122cm Sculpture, stone, marble Athens: Byzantine Museum; provenance Athens: Collection, Theseum Arch 1: Christ: Nativity; and Magi: Adoration (Christmas Hymn) ‐‐ Two Magi crowned? holding gifts?; nimbed angel; flock of sheep among trees; shepherd wearing hat and garment of skins, holding staff and unidentified object; Joseph the Carpenter nimbed, seated; inscriptions from Christmas Hymn. Arch 2: Christ: Harrowing of Hell ‐‐ Eve (almost entirely destroyed); Christ cross‐nimbed, fragment of door and lock of hell beneath feet, cross with double traverse in left hand, right hand grasping arm of Adam, nimbed, emerging from sarcophagus. Arch 3: Solomon (lower portion destroyed), David, scroll in left hand, standing on tower?, both nimbed and crowned, and John Baptist (only head remaining), each with name inscribed.
Illustration
Arch 1
Arch 2
549
Source of ill. Bibliography
Arch 3 INDEX‐20 A86 MB A03,002 Strzygowski, J., ʺReview of Noack, F., Die Geburt Christi in der bildenken Kunst bis zur Renaissance (1894),ʺ BZ 4 (1894): 601‐605 Kehrer, H., Die Heiligen Drei Könige, II (1909):. 94; figs. 84‐85 Bréhier, L., ʺÉtudes sur l’histoire de la sculpture byzantine,ʺ Nouvelles Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires, XX, no. 3 (1911) , pp. 91‐ 92; pl. XXII (2) Bréhier, L., ʺNouvelles recherches sur l’histoire de la sculpture byzantine,ʺ Nouvelles Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires, XXI, no. 9 (1913) , 1‐66, esp 29 ff.; pls. X (18), XI (19) Athens, Byzantine Museum, Guide (1924) , pp. 37 ff., no. 10; fig. 17 Bréhier, L., ʺVoussures à personages sculptés du Musée d’Athènes,ʺ Schlumberger: Mélanges (1924) , pp. 425 ff.; pl. XXVI Xyngopoulos, A., ʺFrankobyzantina glypta en Athenais,ʺ Archaiologike Ephemeris (1931‐1932) , pp. 70 ff.; figs. 1‐13 Athens, Byzantine Museum, Guide (1932) , p. 48 (155); fig. 24 (A) Maksimovic, J., ʺSculpture byzantine du XIIIe siècle,ʺ Art byzantin du XIIIe siècle, Sopocani, 1965 (1967) , pp. 32‐33; figs. 19‐20 Grabar, A., Sculptures byzantines de Constantinople, II (1976) , cat. 128; pp. 124‐125; pls. XCVI, XCVIIa Liveri, A., Die byzantinischen Steinreliefs des 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts im griechischen Raum (1996) , pp. 27, 36, 178‐180; figs. 70, 72‐73 Athens, Byzantine Museum, Glypta (1999) , cat. 263‐265; pp. 189‐191.
550
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
167 Tomb canopy St. Sophia, Thessaloniki, reconstruction 13th c. Arcosolium tomb in south aisle. St. Sophia
Source of ill. Bibliography
Kissas (reconstruction by Marconi) Photos: Ivan Drpić S. Kissas, “A Sepulchral Monument in Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki” Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki 3 (1996) 36‐49.
551
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
168 Icon canopy Geraki, Greece 13th c and later Trkulja (2004) 102‐103, fig. 134.
552
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
169 Porta Panagia , Greece 13th c Marble In situ Marble frames for proskynetaria icons
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) figs. 12‐13. G. Babić, “O živopisanom ukrasu oltarskih pregrada.” ZLU 11 (1975) 3‐ 49. Kalopissi‐Verti (2006): 107‐134.
553
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
170 Icon canopy Gradac, Serbia 13th c Marble In situ Proskynetaria icons
Babić (1975) 3‐49. Babić (1975) 3‐49.
554
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
171 Icon or reliquary canopy Church of Christ’s Ascension, Žiča monastery, Serbia 13th ‐14th c Only canopy sockets have been preserved Reconstruction according to archaeological evidence
M. Čanak‐Medić, “Žička Spasova crkva – zamisao svetog Save” in Sveti Sava u srpskoj istoriji i tradiciji. S. Ćirković, ed. (Beograd, 1998) 173‐187. Čanak‐Medić (1998) 173‐187.
555
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
172 Canopy‐shrine The Church of the Taxiarchs, Kalyvia‐Kouvara, Attica, Greece 13th ‐14th c In situ
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ćurčić (2000) 134‐142. Pallas (1979) 44‐58; Ćurčić (2000) 134‐142, with further references.
556
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
173 Icon canopy Metropolis Mystra , Greece 13th‐14th c
Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) figs. 15‐16. Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134; Boura (1977‐79) 63‐72.
557
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
174 Altar canopy Mystras, St. Demetrios, Metropolis 13th‐15th c
Korać and Šuput (2005), fig. 535 Korać and Šuput (2005) 372‐285, with further references.
558
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
175 Altar canopy Church of St. Nicetas, Yaroslav, Russia 14th c wood Only sockets have been recovered Čukova (2004) 78, with reference to Bulkin (2002) 271.
559
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
176 Canopy St. Sophia, Ohrid, F. Y. R. O. M. 14th c St. Sophia, Ohrid Fragments of a canopy, traditionally known as Throne of Archbishop Grigorije were incorporated into minbar
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
Th. Pazaras, “Protasē anaparastasēs tou ‘Ambōna tes Palaias Metropolēs stē Veroia” in Thymiama: stē mnēmē tēs Laskarinas Boura (Athens, 1994) 251‐254. K. Petrov, Dekorativna plastika na spomenitse od XIV vek vo Makedonia, Godišen Zbornik 15 (1963) 200ff; Pazaras (1994) 251‐254; C. Grozdanov, “Prilozi proučavanju Sv. Sofije ohridske u XIV veku” ZLU 5 (1969) 49‐63.
560
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
176‐a Canopy St. Sophia, Ohrid, F. Y. R. O. M. 14th c St. Sophia, Ohrid Details
Source of ill. Bibliography
Pazaras (1994) 251‐254. Petrov (1963) 200ff; Pazaras (1994) 251‐254; Grozdanov (1969) 49‐63
561
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
177 Ambo canopy Old Cathedral, Beroia 1300‐1317 Only canopy fragments preserved
Pazaras (1994) 251‐254 Pazaras (1994) 251‐254
562
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
178 Altar canopy St. Lawrence (Sv. Lovro) in Trogir, Dalmatia 14th c S. Ćurčić (2008, in press) with further references.
563
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
179 Altar canopies D’al‐Mu’allaqa (Mas al‐Qadima) in Cairo, Egypt 14th c wood Three altar canopies from the Coptic church
L.‐A. Hunt, “The al‐Mu allaqa Doors Reconstructed: An Early Fourteenth‐ Century Sanctuary Screen from Old Cairo.” Gesta 28/1 (1989): 61‐77. C.C. Walters, Monastic Archeology in Egypt Modern Egyptology Series (Westmister, 1974) 58.
564
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
180 Icon canopy Constantinople, Karye Cammi 14th c Proskynetaria icons
Source of ill. Bibliography
Hjort (1979) 199‐289, figs. 26‐27 Hjort (1979) 199‐289
565
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
181 Icon canopy Church of Perivleptos in Mystra 14th c Marble with inlaid wax and mastic, paint and gold Mystras museum inv. No 1166 Proskynetaria icon with Christ Enthroned Found in the secondary use in the south side narthex of the Perivleptos
Source of ill. Bibliography
D. Evgenidou, The City of Mystras (Athens, 2001) cat. no 27. Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134.
566
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
182 Canopy‐tomb of Christ Cathedral of Sveti‐Choveli, Mcheta, Georgia 15th c. [the building of the cathedral begun in 1010]
Source of ill. Bibliography
Mepisashvili and Tsintsadze, The Arts of Ancient Georgia (London, 1977) Mepisashvili and Tsintsadze, The Arts of Ancient Georgia (London, 1977) 67‐ 68, 115‐116, 150‐157
567
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
183 Phiale canopy Thessaloniki, St. Demetrios church 15th c Destroyed
G. A. Soteriou, Christianikē kai vyzantinē archaiologia vol. 1 (Athens, 1962) 218, fig. 121 Soteriou (1962) 218.
568
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
184 Canopy tomb, Alexios Komennos IV, Trebizond 1417‐29 lost The tomb was next to the north apse of the Chrysokephalos church
Photo from 1916. A. Bryer, “The Historian’s Digenes Akrites” in Digenes Akrites: new approaches to Byzantine heroic poetry R. Beaton and D. Ricks eds. (Brookfield, VT, c1993) 93‐102. A. Eastmond, Art and identity in thirteenth‐century Byzantium: Hagia Sophia and the empire of Trebizond (Aldershot ; Burlington, VT, c2004).
569
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
185 Altar canopy Mt. Olive, church of the Ascension n.d. Mt. Olive, Holy Land On the top of the Mount of Olives the pilgrims rested in the church of the Ascension. The Crusaders reconstructed the octagonal form sanctuary. The centre of the building was occupied by an octagonal canopy that surrounded the altar and a rock on which could be seen the footprints left by Jesus. When the Muslims retook the city, the church was destroyed. Of the sanctuary only the bases of the external pillars of the church and the central canopy with its cupola and walled side openings remained. Of note are the small sculpted capitals with facing birds and interlaced motives.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/crus/CRU005.html © copyright text by Michele Piccirillo; photos by Garo Nalbandian and Basilio Rodella
570
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
186 Altar canopy Es‐Sesah, Egypt n.d. Marble columns found in situ C.C. Walters (1974) 58.
571
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
187 Canopy The Tower of Winds, Athens n.d. Reused canopy for Christian purposes during Byzantine period; Eight footings in the floor indicate that some kind of a canopy [baptistery?] was installed in the ancient structure by Christians who also included spolia with crosses in the floor
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
572
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
188 [Tomb] canopy n.d. Museum Athens, Greece only arch preserved; inscription, human figure
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX
573
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
189 canopy Medieval church, Jajce, Bosna and Herzegovina n.d. Only two fragments found Zemaljski Museum, Bosna and Herzegovina Crowning elements of the canopy
Source of ill. Bibliography
Courtesy Ms. Lidija Fekeža unpublished
574
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration Source of ill. Bibliography
190 Altar canopy Natrun, Egypt n.d. Marble C.C. Walters (1974) 58.
575
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
191 Altar canopy Dylon n.d. Marble Canopy was placed on the altar table
Barnea (1940) Fig. 3 Déonna (1934) 1‐90; Drioton (1937) 29‐40.
576
CANOPIES: THE FRAMING OF SACRED SPACE IN THE BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION. Volume 3 Jelena Bogdanović A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY Adviser: Prof. Slobodan Ćurčić June 2008
ILLUSTRATIONS – OTHER WORKS
577
Fig. 192 Altar canopy, Santa Maria Magiorre, Rome, 5th c [EAM, vol. 4 (1991) 718‐735.]
578
Fig. 193. Altar canopy, Santa Maria, Sovino, Italy, 8th‐9th c [EAM, vol. 4 (1991) 718‐735.]
579
Fig. 194. Altar canopy, San Apolinare in Classe, Ravenna, Italy, ca. 800 [Courtesy N. Stanković]
580
Fig. 195. Altar canopy, Castel Sant Elia, Italy, 9 C.E.? [EAM, vol. 4 (1991) 718‐735.]
581
Fig. 196. Typical canopy construction [Korać (2001) fig. 77]
582
A
B Fig. 197. Typical depiction of canopies in Byzantine visual art: [197 A: Orlandos fig. 441 with references to canopies depicted in Vienna Genesis, Menologion of Basil II, in the Chora Monastery; 197 B: 9th ‐10th c manuscripts: a, f Marc. Gr 1.8; b. Stavronikita 13; c, e, g Dionysious 34; d,h Paris gr. 70]
583
Fig. 198. Location of various canopies within the Byzantine church, Ideal reconstruction [J. Bogdanović]
584
Fig. 199. Location of canopies within the ideal Byzantine church – cross‐section [J. Bogdanović]
585
Fig. 200. Relative size and disposition of various canopies within the ideal Byzantine church [J. Bogdanović]
586
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
201 Panel 1 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Seven of originally eight mosaic panels of the dome of H. Georgios with depiction of canopy‐like structures Panel 1 (southeast), saint (destroyed); Leo, Saint, inscribed soldier, June; Philemon of Egypt, inscribed flute‐player. Architectural background is filled with canopy‐like structures
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3a 164324 Cahiers archéologiques, XVII (1967), fig. 3 p. 61; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3aa 164285 Cahiers archéologiques, XXX (1982), fig. 4 p. 27; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3b 164207 Munich, Hirmer 581.1363; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3ba 164204 Munich, Hirmer 581.1363; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3bb 164202 Munich, Hirmer 581.1363; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3c 164205 Munich, Hirmer 581.1364; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3d 164327 Cahiers archéologiques, XVII (1967), fig. 7 p. 63; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3e 164326 Cahiers archéologiques, XVII (1967), fig. 6 p. 63; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3f 164325 Cahiers archéologiques, XVII (1967), fig. 4 p. 62; 42 T3446 ChGg D9,1 B3g 164323 Cahiers archéologiques, XVII (1967), fig. 2 p. 61 Weigand, E., ʺKalenderfries von Hagios Georgios in Thessalonike,ʺ Byzantinische Zeitschrift, XXXIX (1939) , pp. 116‐145; pl. I; Volbach, W. F., Early Christian Art (1962) , pp. 335‐336; pls. 124‐127; Grabar, A., ʺSaint‐ Georges,ʺ CA XVII (1967) , pp. 66‐81; figs. 2‐8; Gounares, G., ʺEpigraphai, Agios Georgios,ʺ Makedonika, XII (1972) , pp. 201‐227; figs. 1‐18; Kleinbauer, W. E., ʺMosaics of Hagios Georgios, Thessaloniki,ʺ Viator, III (1972) , pp. 44‐ 83; figs. 1, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 22; Soteriou, M., ʺIconographie de la coupole de Saint‐Georges,ʺ In Memoriam Panayotis A. Michelis (1972) , pp. 222‐230; figs. 1‐2, 7‐10; Kleinbauer, W. E., ʺOrants in the Mosaic Decoration,ʺ CA XXX (1982) , pp. 25‐45; figs. 1‐4, 6‐11.
587
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
202 Panel 2 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Panel 2 (south), Onesiphorus of Ephesus, inscribed soldier, August; Porphyrius of Paros, inscribed August; In the south and north panels (Panels 2, 6), there is a canopy with a hexagonal canopy, and the Dove of the Holy Ghost descending toward a large jewelled Cross ‐‐ The Cross of Golgotha ?
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX Same as for cat. no. 201
588
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
203 Panel 3 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Panel 3 (southwest), Cosmas of Cilicia (inscription destroyed); Damian of Cilicia, inscribed physician, September; In the center of the southwest and northwest panels (Panels 3, 5), there is a canopy with four columns and a round canopy over an altar on which is a closed jewelled book.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX Same as for cat. no. 201
589
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
204 Panel 4 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Panel 4 (west), saint (inscription destroyed), Romanus of Antioch, inscribed presbyter (only inscription of name and occupation remains); Eucarpius, Saint, possibly Eucarpius of Nicomedia, inscribed soldier, December; In the west panel (Panel 4) there is a low chancel screen instead of a canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX Same as for cat. no. 201
590
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
205 Panel 5 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Panel 5 (northwest), saint (inscription destroyed); Ananias of Phoenicia, inscribed presbyter, January; In the center of the southwest and northwest panels (Panels 3, 5), there is a canopy with four columns and a round canopy over an altar on which is a closed jewelled book.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX Same as for cat. no. 201
591
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
206 Panel 6 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Panel 6 (north), Basiliscus, Saint, possibly Basiliscus, Soldier, inscribed soldier, April; Priscus of Tomi, inscribed soldier, October; In the south and north panels (Panels 2, 6), there is a canopy with a hexagonal canopy, and the Dove of the Holy Ghost descending toward a large jewelled Cross.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX Same as for cat. no. 201
592
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
207 Panel 7 of the dome mosaics with the depiction of canopy‐like structures Thessaloniki: Church, H. Georgios late 4c. ‐ early 6c Mosaic losses in the panel Greece, Thessaloniki, Church, H. Georgios, Naos, dome, zone 3 Panel 7 (northeast), Philip of Heraclea, inscribed bishop, October; Therinus, Saint, inscribed soldier, July; Cyril of Gortyna, inscribed bishop, July. In the northeast panel (Panel 7), a triangular pediment depicts two flying nimbed angels supporting a medallion enclosing the bust of Christ nimbed, beardless. Before these backgrounds stood originally twenty saints, all orant, names, occupations and months of feasts inscribed; only sixteen saints remain.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX Same as for cat. no. 201
593
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
208 Ivory pyx with the representation of canopy structure Asian; Anatolian; Byzantine; Made in the eastern Mediterranean 500s 33 x 35 in. (83.8 x 88.9 cm) Ivory New York, Metorpolitan Museum of Art. Ivory pyxis (Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917 17.190.57). Pyx Depicting Women at the Tomb of Christ; The Myrophores at the Tomb. Narrative scenes such as this made visible the words of the Gospels, which describe a group of women, including the Virgin Mary, visiting the empty tomb of the risen Christ. Here, three women stand with their hands raised in the orant, or prayer, pose. Two swinging censers, approach a domed space where tied‐back curtains reveal an altar. In the early church, the altar became understood as the symbol of Christʹs tomb. On the altar is the gospel book; above it, a hanging lamp. Ivory containers, like this finely carved example worked from a cross section of an elephantʹs tusk, may have been used to carry the bread of the Eucharist to those too ill or elderly to attend the service.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Copyright 2002 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved. Accession Number: 17.190.57 ; MMA_.17.190.57 St. Clair, A. “The Visit to the Tomb: Narrative and Liturgy on Three Early Christian Pyxides.” Gesta 18/1 (1979): 127‐135.
594
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
209 Ivory pyx with the depiction of the canopy over altar ? table with a cross Early Christian ivory Cleveland, The Cleveland Museum of Art. Ivory pyxis (51,114a,b). See cat. no. 208
St. Clair, A. “The Visit to the Tomb: Narrative and Liturgy on Three Early Christian Pyxides.” Gesta 18/1 (1979): 127‐135. St. Clair (1979) 127‐135.
595
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
210 Pola Casket with the representation of Old St. Peter’s shrine Pola, Istria 5th c. Ivory Damaged and with a replaced wooden core
Ward‐Perkins, J. B. Studies in Roman and Early Christian Architecture. London: Pindar P, 1994. Weitzmann, Kurt, ed. Age of Spirituality: A Symposium. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, c. 1980b. Bogdanović, J. ʺThe Proclamation of the New Covenant: The Pre‐Iconoclastic Altar Ciboria in Rome and Constantinopleʺ ATHANOR 18 (2002) 7‐19
596
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
211 The Myrophores at the Tomb and Christ ascending to heaven. Ca. 400 ? ivory Munich, Bayerishces Nationalmuseum. Ivory plaque (MA 157).
Courtesy Maria Evangelatou from her dissertation (2002)
597
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
212 Monza, Cathedral Treasury. Ampulla no. 3. Most likely pilgrim token from the Holy Land ‐ Jerusalem 4‐6th Pilgrims’ ampullae with depicted canopies over the tomb of Christ The Myrophores at the Tomb.
INDEX Grabar, A. Ampoules de Terre Sainte (Monza, Bobbio). Paris: C. Klincksieck, 1958. Vikan, G. Byzantine Pilgrimage Art. Washington D.C.: DOCBS 5, 1982.
598
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
213 Monza, Cathedral Treasury. Ampulla no. 5 4‐6th Pilgrims’ ampullae with depicted canopies over the tomb of Christ The Myrophores at the Tomb.
Grabar (1958); Vikan (1982)
599
Number Title
Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
214 Monza, Cathedral treasury, ampulla 13, obverse and reverse [up] Washington D.C., Dumbarton Oaks collection, ampulla 18, obverse and reverse [bottom] Pilgrims’ ampullae with depicted canopies over the tomb of Christ
Source of ill. Bibliography
Grabar (1958); Vikan (1982); Kühnel, Bianca. From the Earthly to the Heavenly Jerusalem. Representations of the Holy City in Christian Art of the First Millennium. Rome/Freiburg/Wien: Herder, 1987.
600
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
215 Bobbio, Cathedral Treasury. Ampulla no. 6 (detail). 4‐6th Pilgrims’ ampullae with depicted canopies over the tomb of Christ The Tomb of Christ with the hangings on the rod.
INDEX Grabar (1958); Vikan (1982); Kühnel (1987).
601
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
216 Monza, Cathedral Treasury. Ampulla no. 11 (detail). Pilgrims’ ampullae with depicted canopies over the tomb of Christ The Myrophores at the Tomb.
Evangelatou (2002) Grabar (1958); Vikan (1982); Kühnel (1987).
602
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
217 Representations of the Holy Sepulchre on ampullae from Monza and Bobbio. 4‐6th Pilgrims’ ampullae with depicted canopies over the tomb of Christ
ʺType Aʺ according to Barag – Wilkinson (1974), fig. 2. Wilkinson (1974)
603
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
218 Reconstruction of the Constantinian Holy Sepulchre according to Wilkinson
Source of ill. Bibliography
Wilkinson (1972), pl. X. A. Wilkinson (1972)
604
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
219 ʺThe Narbonne modelʺ of the Holy Sepulchre. 4‐6th c Marble Narbonne, Musée dʹArt et dʹHistoire.
Source of ill. Bibliography
Biddle (1999) fig. 16 Biddle (1999), with further references.
605
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
220 Holy Sepulchre. possibly form Syria 5th‐6th c Floor mosaic Copenhagen, National Museum, Antiksamling. Floor mosaic (15.137)
Biddle (1999) fig. 23 Biddle (1999), Underwood, P. “The Fountain of Life in Manuscripts of the Gospels.” DOP 5 (1950) 43‐138.
606
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
221 Holy Sepulchre and Cross of Golgotha (?) under the canopy with a cross Part of a chancel screen Late 6th e. 7th c Marble Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Collection. Marble plaque (38.56). Two‐sided plaque with the canopy on one side and the conch shell on the other
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Biddle (1999) fig. 24 Biddle (1999); Underwood (1950) 43‐138.
607
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
222 Riha paten with the communion of the Apostles under canopied structure From Riha, Syria 6th c silver gilt Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Communion of the Apostles
Smith, B. E. The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas. Princeton: Princeton UP, c.1978 Smith, B. E. (c.1978).
608
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
223 Communion of the Apostles, Stuma Paten From Stuma, near Aleppo, Syria. 565 ‐ 578 d. 36.5‐36.8cm, h. 2.8‐3.1cm Metal paten, silver‐gilt, repoussé Istanbul: Museum, Archaeological Museum Obverse, center: Christ: Communion ‐‐ Christ bearded, pearled crossed nimbus, twice represented behind draped altar on which is loaf on paten, giving communion through chalice to foremost of six apostles, three with pearled nimbi, to left, and fragment of loaf to veiled hands of foremost of five apostles, four with pearled nimbi, to right; in foreground, Apostle Peter, pearled nimbus, bending over; lamp hanging from altar‐canopy with foliate ornament in background. Border: Geometric and foliate ornament. Rim: Cross; inscription giving names of donors Sergios and Maria. Reverse: Impressions of five silver stamps, 1) round stamp with bust of Justin II, nimbed, wearing crown, inscription STEPHANOU; 2) hexagonal stamp with bust, monogram of Justin II, inscription MEGALOU; 3) square stamp with monogram of Tiberius II, illegible inscription; 4) long stamp with monogram of Peter, inscription IOANNIS; 5) cross stamp with monogram of Peter, inscription SEBASTOU. The utensil was used in the altar.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐50 C758 MA P,3 029208 Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Silver from Early Byzantium (1986), fig. 34.3; 50 C758 MA P,3 A1 168219 Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Silver from Early Byzantium (1986), fig. 34.6. Dodd, E., Byzantine Silver Stamps (1961) cat. 27; p. 108; figs. p. 109; Dodd, E., ʺByzantine Silver Stamps, Supplement II,ʺ DOP 22 (1968) , pp. 147‐149; Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Silver from Early Byzantium (1986) , cat. 34; pp. 159‐164; figs. 34.1‐34.8.
609
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
224 Funerary stela with architectural canopy‐like frame on four columns Byzantine, Asian; Anatolian; Byzantine, Egypt 500‐700 20 11/16 x 14 9/16 in. (52.5 x 37 cm) Limestone with red, green, and black paint The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York Funerary stelae from the Byzantine period in Egypt, carved in stone and usually painted, were permanent monuments to the deceased. While normally embedded in walls or floors near the tomb, some were part of larger structures. Their decorations include scenes of paradise and symbols of the Christian Church. This example, said to be from the Upper Nile Delta town of Armant, bears the name of a prominent citizen who was buried near the marker. Probably from Armant, Egypt Inscriptions and Marks: Inscribed in Coptic: To the memory of the deceased, Taeiam, who departed from this life on the eighteenth of Choiak [December] of the seventh indiction. She sleeps in Christ.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
The AMICO Library: MMA_.36.2.6
610
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
225 Tomb Plaque Byzantine ? 400‐800 12 3/4 x 8 7/16 x 2 1/16 in. (32.4 x 21.4 x 5.2 cm) Terracotta Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York This plaque is thought to be a cover for a niche in a columbarium, or communal tomb. The Christogram identifies the deceased as Christian. Scholars debate the meaning of the inscription, which may be a prayer for the deceased.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
The AMICO Library: MMA_.1985.147
611
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
226 Cast of terra‐cotta bread stamp with a canopy‐like frame 5th or 6th c Baked clay Arles
Galavaris, G. Bread and the Liturgy; The Symbolism of Early Christian and Byzantine Bread Stamps. Madison, U of Wisconsin P, 1970. Galavaris (1970).
612
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
227 Virgin and Christ child, Rabbula Gospels fol. 1b. Syria 586. Manuscript Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Tuscany, Florence, Italy Icon of Virgin Mary and Christ child under canopy
Cecchelli, C., et al eds. The Rabbula Gospels. Facsimile Edition of the Miniatures of The Syriac Manuscript Plut. I, 56 in the Medicaean‐Laurentian Library. Olten and Lausanne: Urs Graf‐Verlag, Pubs., 1959. Cecchelli (1959).
613
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
228 Eusebius of Cesarea and Ammonius of Alexandria., Rabbula Gospels f.2r. Syria 586. Manuscript Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Tuscany, Florence, Italy Canopy with tent‐roof – textile?
Source of ill. Bibliography
Cecchelli (1959). Cecchelli (1959).
614
Number Title
229 Evangelists John and Matthew, Florence: Library, Biblioteca Laurenziana, Plut.I.56, fol. 9v., Rabbula Gospels f.2r.. Place of origin Syria Date 586. Dimensions Medium Manuscript, canon table Condition Location Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Tuscany, Florence, Italy Subject Description Evangelist John, name inscribed, seated on chair with footstool before lighted standing lamp, holding open roll inscribed with John 1:1, and to right, Evangelist Matthew, name inscribed, seated on bench with footstool, holding open book inscribed with Matthew 1:18, each evangelist seated under canopy forming part of arch of Canon Table surmounted by four birds, and with medallion inclosing rosette in lunette. Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 F63 LL 1,9B 002962 Ht.Et.; 32 F63 LL 1,9B bis 134867 Rabbula Gospels (1959), pl. 9b Garrucci, R., Storia della arte cristiana, III (1876) , pl. 135 (2); Rabbula Gospels (1959) , pp. 14, 63‐64; color pl. 9b; Weitzmann, K., Late Antique and Early Christian Book Illumination (1977) , pp. 99‐100; color pl. 35; Sörries, R., Christlich‐antike Buchmalerei im Ãœberblick (1993) , p. 97; pl. 55
615
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
230 Vienna Genesis, Theol.gr.31, fol. 4r Syria 6th c Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Vienna: Library, Nationalbibliothek 1) Abraham: Rescue of Lot; and Abraham: met by King of Sodom (Genesis 14:16, 17) ‐‐ Abraham indicating with right hand Lot and his family with horses and sheep, and speaking with Bera, King of Sodom, crowned. 2) Abraham blessed by Melchisedek (Genesis 14:18, 19) ‐‐ Abraham extending draped hands to Melchisedek crowned, holding paten and chalice, standing before altar under canopy with curtains.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 V66 LNa 1,4A 034480 Walter, Christopher. Art and Ritual of the Byzantine Church. London: Variorium Publications LTD, 1982. Garrucci, R., Storia della arte cristiana, III (1876) , pl. 113 (3) Gerstinger, H., Die Wiener Genesis (1931) , pp. 79 ff.; pl. 7 Sörries, R., Christlich‐antike Buchmalerei im Überblick (1993) , p. 47; pl. 19
616
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
231 Four‐columned canopy Mâr Gabriel, near Kartmin, Turkey 512 Mosaic
Hawkins, E.J.W., M. C. Mundell, C. Mango, “The Mosaics of the Monastery of Mar Samuel, Mar Simeon, Mar Gabriel near Kartmin with a Note on the Greek Inscription.” DOP 27 (1973): 279‐296. Bryer, A. and J. Herrin, eds. Iconoclasm. Papers Given at the Ninth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, March 1975. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 1975.
617
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
232 Pilgrim stamp of St. Isidore Chios 6th c bronze Walters Museum of Art, Baltimore, MD, inv. no 54.230 St. Isidore was martyred on the Greek island of Chios in 251 CE. The well into which his body was thrown became a healing shrine and is represented on the right hand side of the stamp. The shrine is depicted as if a canopy‐like shelter over the well – signified by a vessel, which resembles phiale. The ship refers to Isidor’s role as a patron saint of sailors. On the back there is an inscription which is legible when imprinted in clay.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović
618
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
233 Plaque of the Nativity Syro‐Palestine 7th‐8th c Ivory Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington, D.C., inv. no. BZ 199.30 The Nativity The Christ Child rests on an altar, rather than in a manger, while Joseph and the midwife meditate on the mystery of his birth. The composition is filled with architectural backdrops which evoke the city of Bethlehem. The canopy and grille to Joseph’s left and the altar with its rounded niche may refer to specific structures in the church of the Nativity. Under the great altar of the church of the Nativity there was a grotto and a manger where Christ was born.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović
619
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
234 Justin II holds a canopy as a donation San Apollinare in Classe, Italy 6th c mosaic
Source of ill. Bibliography
F. W. Deichmann, Ravenna (1976) 273‐279. F. W. Deichmann, Ravenna (1976) 273‐279.
620
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
235 Canopy of the Cross of Golgotha Hagia Sophia, Constantinople 6th c Opus sectile Nave, western wall, above central door Cross on stepped base within canopy‐like structure with curtains; Four circles surround the canopy as if the “canopy is inverted” in all directions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Th. E. Detorakes, Hagia Sophia (Athens: Ephesos, 2004). Th. E. Detorakes, Hagia Sophia (Athens: Ephesos, 2004).
621
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
236 “Empress Lodge” Hagia Sophia, Constantinople 6th c Opus sectile and two verde antico columns Western gallery, above central door looking towards the apse
J. Bogdanović
622
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
237 Byzantine Empress (Ariadne ?) under canopy Constantinople Ca 500 Ivory Milan Curtained canopy with a domical roof sheltering Byzantine Empress. The roof resembles the so‐called pumpkin dome, but is also “umbrella‐like” similar to two‐dimensional conches depicted in coeval Byzantine mosaics, like the one over Byzantine empress Theodora in San Vitale in Ravenna. The fluted shafts of the canopy columns and Corinthian‐like capitals suggest models from wooden architecture. The shape of the canopy is comparable with the depiction of canopy in Cilicia Skevra 1193 Gospel Book 1653 fol. 54. – cat. no. 369. The two heraldically positioned eagles, holding a rope as if laurel wreath, are characteristic elements of Roman imperial iconography.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Kalavrezou (1975) 225‐251.
623
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
238 Byzantine Empress (Ariadne ?) under canopy Constantinople Ca 500 Ivory Vienna See cat. no. 237.
Kalavrezou (1975) 225‐251. Kalavrezou (1975) 225‐251.
624
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
239 Icon with the Koimesis of the Virgin Mary Probably made in Constantinople late 10th century 7 1/4 x 5 3/4 in. (18.4 x 14.6 cm) Ivory The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York The Koimesis “The Koimesis, or ʺfalling asleep in death,ʺ of the Virgin is first found in Byzantine art in the 900s. This image would become one of the most popular icons in the Middle and Late Byzantine world, often appearing over the doors of churches to be contemplated by the faithful as they left the service. In painted icons and in ivory ones like this example, the Virgin is shown lying on a bier, or pallet, for the dead. Christ stands behind her holding up her soul, as if it were a baby, offering it to attendant angels to take to heaven. The apostles stand witness, led by Saint Paul at her feet and Saint Peter behind her head. The holes on the ivory suggest that it may have been used as decoration on a book cover, probably in the Latin West, where Byzantine ivories were prized for such purposes. “ Inscriptions and Marks: Inscribed in Greek: The Koimesis Here, the canopy‐like frame, with the delicate lattice‐work, is suggestive not only of interior canopy‐shrines studded with luxury stones and highly decorated, but also of doors, and other liminal zones in Byzantine ecclesiastical tradition.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
The AMICO Library: MMA_.17.190.132
625
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
240 Khludov Psalter, folio 131v (detail) Constantinople 9th Illuminated manuscript Moscow, State Historical Museum, Cod. 129. Psalm 131:6. – The church apse depicted as a canopy; Canopy over the Holy Manger David prophesying concerning Christ’s birth at Bethlehem. The apse of the Church of the Nativity is represented by a canopy that shelters the Holy Manger.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Evangelatou (2002)
626
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
241 Khludov Psalter, folio 9v. Constantinople 9th Illuminated manuscript Moscow, State Historical Museum, Cod. 129. Psalm 9:33 – The Tomb of Christ as a canopy Christ rising from the Tomb.
Evangelatou (2002)
627
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Context
242 Plaque with the Crucifixion and the Stabbing of Hades Byzantine mid‐10th century 5 x 3 1/2 in. (12.7 x 8.9 cm) Sculpture (Ivory) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York, USA The Crucifixion “This Byzantine depiction of the Crucifixion emphasizes Christʹs victory over death. Christʹs body is shown limply attached to the cross, his arms bent at the elbows and his legs turned, pushing his hip slightly outward. His head falls forward against his left shoulder. The Virgin and Saint John the Baptist mourn his passing, and underneath the foot support, the three soldiers divide Christʹs seamless garment. These figures are frequently portrayed as witnesses to Christʹs sacrifice for humankind. The presence of the bearded reclining man stabbed by the base of the cross, however, is unique among surviving Byzantine representations of the Crucifixion. Depicted as a defeated and subdued warrior, this figure personifies Hades, the Classical ruler of the underworld, the abode of the dead. In this case, the cross signifies both the weapon with which Christʹs Crucifixion wins manʹs salvation and a victory standard. The impact of this message is brilliantly conveyed through the simplicity of the composition, which is marked by large areas of uncarved ivory underneath the architectural canopy. The resulting shallow space creates a dramatic stage for the figures, whose elongated bodies are articulated by the finely chiseled folds of their classically inspired drapery.”
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
The AMICO Library: MMA_.17.190.44
628
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
243 Khludov Psalter, folio 115r (detail). Constantinople 9th Illuminated manuscript Moscow, State Historical Museum. Cod. 129 Psalm 109:4. Communion of the apostles ‐‐ Altar Canopy Communion of the apostles, flanked by David and Melchisedek.
Evangelatou (2002)
629
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
244 Mount Athos, Monastery,Dionysiu, cod. 34, Gospel Book, fol. 9r 10th c. Illuminated Manuscript. miniature, headpiece Mount Athos, Monastery,Dionysiu, cod. 34 Front page from the Gospel of Matthew Inscription with reference to the Gospel of Matthew is inscribed in golden letters beneath a canopy‐like frame. The canopy strongly resembles actual church canopies with pyramidal roofs.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐ 32 M92A MyDy 4,9A 072409 Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935), pl. XXXIII (187) Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935), pp. 116, 125; pl. XXXIII (187); Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974), p. 409; color fig. 79
630
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
245 Mount Athos, Monastery, Dionysiu, cod. 34, Gospel Book, fol. 116r 10c. Illuminated Manuscript. miniature, headpiece Mount Athos, Monastery, Dionysiu, cod. 34 Front page from the Gospel of Mark Inscription beneath a canopy with a pumpkin dome. See also cat. no. 244.
INDEX‐ 32 M92A MyDy 4,116A 072410 Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935), pl. XXXIII (188) Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935) , pp. 16, 25; pl. XXXIII (188); Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974) , p. 409; color fig. 80
631
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
246 Mount Athos, Monastery, Dionysiu, cod. 34, Gospel Book, fol. 183r 10c. Illuminated Manuscript. miniature, headpiece Mount Athos, Monastery, Dionysiu, cod. 34 Inscription beneath a canopy. See also cat. nos. 244‐5.
INDEX‐ 32 M92A MyDy 4,183A 072411 Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935), pl. XXXIII (189) Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935) , pp. 16, 25; pl. XXXIII (189)
632
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
247 Pantokrator Psalter, folio 165r. 9th Illuminated manuscript Mount Athos, Pantokrator Monastery. Cod. 61 Psalm 13:12‐16. – depiction of the Temple David and the iconoclasts John the Grammarian argue the issue of idols in the presence of Beseleel, the Temple artist. In the background is an image of the temple and its implements. The chest of the ark of covenant placed on the draped table resembles Byzantine artophoria and is sheltered with two cherubim, thus recalling the imagery of Byzantine altar canopies.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Evangelatou (2002)
633
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
248 Khludov Psalter, folio 66r. Constantinople 9th Illuminated manuscript Moscow, State Historical Museum. Cod. 129 Psalm 68:10 – Canopy signifying the Temple Christ expelling the merchants and money‐changers from the Temple. The Temple is depicted as a three‐columned canopy with red domical roof.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Evangelatou (2002).
634
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
249 Khludov Psalter, folio 50r Constantinople 9th Illuminated Manuscript, margin Moscow, State Historical Museum. Cod. gr. 129. Psalm 51 ‐‐ Throne Canopy Psalm, Title (LXX, Psalm 50, verses 1‐2): David: rebuked by Nathan ‐‐ Nathan nimbed, addressing David crowned seated on bench with footstool, under canopy, Bathsheba crowned, standing behind him. 2) Uriah the Hittite: Death ‐‐ Archers on wall of city of Rabbah, body of Uriah holding lance and shield lying before it; soldiers of Joab armed and mounted. Of particular significance is the depiction of the imperial canopy of king David.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX32 M89 MHs 1,50A 002357 New York, Frick; 32 M89 MHs 1,50A bis 153488 Shchepkina, M., Miniatiury Khludovskoi Psaltyri (1977), color pl. fol. 55r Shchepkina, M., Miniatiury Khludovskoi Psaltyri (1977) , color pl. fol. 55r
635
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
250 Khludov Psalter, folio fol. 106v. Constantinople 9th Illuminated Manuscript, margin Moscow: Museum, Historical Museum, gr.129 Psalm 105 ‐‐ Throne Canopy 1) (LXX, Psalm 104), verse 26; Moses: before Pharaoh ‐‐ Moses, name inscribed, nimbed, addressing Pharaoh, name inscribed, crowned, seated on bench with footstool. 2) Psalm 105 (LXX, Psalm 104), verse 29; Moses: Plague of Water into Blood ‐‐ Streams flowing from two Personifications of Rivers. 3) Psalm 105 (LXX, Psalm 104), verses 30‐31; Moses: Plague of Frogs, and of Flies ‐‐ Pharaoh, inscribed, crowned, seated on bench with footstool under canopy, surrounded by flies and frogs; group of Egyptians. 4) Psalm 105 (LXX, Psalm 104), verses 32‐33; Moses: Plague of Hail ‐‐ Hail falling from arc of heaven on vines.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐‐ 32 M89 MHs 1,106B 002425 New York, Frick; 32 M89 MHs 1,106B bis 153558 Shchepkina (1977), color pl. fol. 106v Shchepkina (1977) , color pl. fol. 106v
636
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
251 Khludoff Psalter, gr.129, fol. 163v Constantinople 9th c Illuminated Manuscript, illustration on the margin Moscow: Museum, Historical Museum Presentation in the Temple – Canopy signifying the Temple 1/ Canticle: Zacharias; Zacharias and Child John ‐‐ Zacharias wearing high priestʹs vestments, standing, holding infant John Baptist, both nimbed, names inscribed; inscription. 2) Symeon’s Prayer. Christʹs Presentation to the Temple. Canticle: Simeon; Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Joseph holding two doves; Virgin Mary nimbed, holding cross‐nimbed Christ Child; Simeon nimbed, name inscribed, extending draped hands, behind altar under canopy. Image/Text Assoc. Margin Text Canticle: Zacharias Greek; Margin Text Canticle: Simeon Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 M89 MHs 1,163B 002459 New York, Frick; 32 M89 MHs 1,163B bis 153594 Shchepkina (1977), color pl. fol. 163v Shchepkina (1977) , color pl. fol. 163v
637
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
252 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, fol. 367v Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale, gr.510. Punishment of the Orthodox – altar canopy Historical event of the Punishment of the Orthodox is represented in three registers: 1) Bishop, monk wearing cucullio, and four male figures set adrift in burning boat; 2) group of Arians, holding pickaxes and flaming torches, approaching three buildings, two already burning; to right, pillaged altar under canopy; inscription; 3) two Arian soldiers wearing armor, dragging with ropes an aged Orthodox; building; inscription. Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 33. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Facing page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 33 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,367B 002042 Omont, H. A., Miniatures des manuscrits grecs (1929), pl. LII 32 P23 LNa 51,367B bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/05(30) H. Omont, Miniatures des manuscrits grecs (1929) , p. 28; pl. LII
638
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
253 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, fol. 137r Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.510 Canopy signifying the Temple 1) Adoration of the Magi; 2) Massacre of the Innocents; 3) Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Joseph the Carpenter, name inscribed, nimbed, holding two doves; Virgin Mary, nimbed, holding Christ Child, cross‐ nimbed, towards Simeon, name inscribed, nimbed, standing with draped hands before altar under canopy; inscription. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Full‐page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 19 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,137A 002016 Omont (1929), pl. XXXII 32 P23 LNa 51,137A bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/03(1) Omont (1929) , p. 20; pl. XXXII
639
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
254 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, fol. 332v Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.510 Gregory Nazianzan, Oratio 24. – canopy over pagan idols and empty Christian canopy with the image of Christ above [beyond] it 1) Cyprian of Nicomedia: The magician Cyprian as pagan, name inscribed, holding roll, seated on bench with footstool before pagan statue under canopy, extending right hand to two small idols, standing in water in basin, to invoke a demon who shall aid him in his purposes against Justina of Nicomedia; to left of Cyprian, a globe on standard on table, and to right, rotuli in scrinium; to left, Justina of Nicomedia: Scene, in Prayer ‐‐ Winged demon above building, fleeing in fear to Cyprian from Justina of Nicomedia, nimbed, standing before an empty draped altar under canopy, with hands raised to bust of Christ, cross as nimbus, inclosed in rayed medallion; inscription; just above the canopy 2) Cyprian of Nicomedia: Martyrdom and Baptism.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,332B 002037 Omont (1929), pl. XLVII; 32 P23 LNa 51,332B bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/05(34) Omont (1929) , pp. 6 ff.; pl. XLVII; Brubaker, L., ʺPatronage and Art in Ninth‐ Century Byzantium,ʺ DOP 39 (1985) , p. 11; fig. 8
640
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
255 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, fol.67v Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale, Par. gr.510. Gregory consecrated bishop of Sasima Gregory Nazianzen: Text, Oratio 09 1) Isaiah: Vision ‐‐ God nimbed, holding book, seated on lyre‐backed throne with footstool within mandorla above two fiery wheels?, flanked by six seraphim; below the seraphim, two groups of nimbed angels, two facing with draped hands, four each holding staff, flanked by six cherubim with eyes in wings; the second cherub on left side holding live coal in pincers, touching lips of Isaiah, name inscribed, kneeling; inscription. 2) Gregory Nazianzen: Scene, consecrated as Bishop ‐‐ Five monks?, each holding lighted candle; five deacons, three each holding lighted candle, one swinging censer, one holding acerra; two bishops supporting book, attending Basil the Great, nimbed, wearing bishopʹs vestments, standing beside altar, consecrating Gregory Nazianzen, wearing bishopʹs vestments, as bishop; in background, cross‐surmounted canopy flanked by four lighted candles in candlesticks; church with draped portal; inscription. Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 9. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Facing page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 09 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,67B 002010 Omont (1929), pl. XXV 32 P23 LNa 51,67B bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/09(35) Omont (1929), p. 16, pl. XXV, Brubaker (c1999)
641
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
256 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, 104r Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.510 Prayers for the haling of Galates, son of Emperor Valens – canopy shrine or altar canopy 1) Basil the Great: Scene, with Basil the Elder and Emmelia in Mountains 2) Basil the Great writing – Basil wearing bishop’s vestments, seated on bench with footstool on which is inkpot, as scribe writing with pen in book on desk; building; Basil the Great: Scene, healing Son of Emperor Valens ‐‐ Standing before canopy, Basil, name inscribed, nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments, holding book, and attended by deacon swinging censer and holding box, receiving the Emperor Valens, crowned, with attendant, come to ask prayers for gravely ill Galates, Son of Valens, reclining on bed; inscription; Prayers for the haling of Galates, son of Emperor Valens are taking places in close conjunction to the canopy, while the presence of the ill person is not requested; Basil the Great: Scene, sent into Exile ‐‐ Emperor Valens, crowned, seated on throne with footstool, as scribe, holding pen and open roll, attempting to sign (pen breaks three times) decree sending Basil into exile; attendant thrusting Basil, nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments, into exile; building; inscription; 3) Basil the Great: Scene, protecting a Widow; 4) Basil the Great: Scene, Funeral Procession Image/Text Assoc. Facing page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 43 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,104A 002015 Omont (1929), pl. XXXI; 32 P23 LNa 51,104A bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/02(2) Omont (1929) , pp. 19 ff.; pl. XXXI
642
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
257 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, 143v Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.510 Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 17. ‐‐ Throne Canopy 1) Jeremiah: cast into Dungeon ‐‐ Zedekiah crowned, at window of building; two male figures lowering Jeremiah, nimbed, by cords into dungeon; inscription; David: rebuked by Nathan, and David: repentant ‐‐ Bathsheba, name inscribed, crowned, seated under canopy behind vacant throne of David, with footstool; Archangel Michael, inscribed, nimbed, holding spear, behind David crowned, nimbed, kneeling with hands extended to Nathan, name inscribed, nimbed, standing; small building in foreground; inscription from II Samuel 12:13; 2) Christ: Parable, Good Samaritan; 3) Christ: Miracle of healing Paralytic.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,143B 002017 Omont (1929), pl. XXXIII; 32 P23 LNa 51,143B bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/03(45) Omont (1929) , pp. 20 ff.; pl. XXXIII
643
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
258 Gregory Nazianzen and Emperor Theodosius, Homilies, Par. gr.510, fol. 239r Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 42. ‐‐ Throne Canopy Gregory Nazianzen: Scene, asking Release ‐‐ Attended by two bishops, Gregory nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments, soliciting permission of Theodosius I to retire from patriarchate of Jerusalem; Theodosius crowned, nimbed, and attended by two officials, each holding sword in sheath over shoulder; to right, the imperial throne with footstool under canopy; inscription; 2
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,239A 002031 Omont (1929), pl. XLI; 32 P23 LNa 51,239A bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/04(39) Omont (1929) , p. 24; pl. XLI; Der Nersessian, S., ʺHomilies of Gregory of Nazianzus,ʺ DOP 16 (1962) , p. 215; fig. 12
644
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
259 Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Par. gr.510, fol. 367v Constantinople 879 ‐ 883 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.510 Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 33. Scene, Historical: Punishment of the Orthodox ‐‐ 1) Bishop, monk wearing cucullio, and four male figures set adrift in burning boat; 2) group of Arians, holding pickaxes and flaming torches, approaching three buildings, two already burning; to right, pillaged altar under canopy; inscription; 3) two Arian soldiers wearing armor, dragging with ropes an aged Orthodox; building; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 51,367B 002042 Omont (1929), pl. LII; 32 P23 LNa 51,367B bis London, Courtauld Institute 219/05(30) Omont (1929) , p. 28; pl. LII
645
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
260 John of Damascus, Sacra Parallela, gr.923, fol. 9r Palestine ? / Italy ? 9th c Illuminated Manuscript, margin Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale, gr.923 Canopy over pagan idol Moses: communicating with God ‐‐ Moses raising draped hands to Hand of God in rays issuing from arc of heaven; Israelite: worshipping Idol ‐‐ Israelites with draped hands standing before idol on pedestal under canopy
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 62,9A 000001 New York, Frick; 32 P23 LNa 62,9A A1‐ A2 146105 Weitzmann, K., Sacra Parallela (1979), fig. 77 Weitzmann, K., Sacra Parallela (1979) , pp. 60, 134, 136, 146; fig. 77
646
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
261 John of Damascus, Sacra Parallela, gr.923, fol. 210v 9th c Illuminated Manuscript, margin Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale, gr.923 Throne Canopy Elisha: Healing of Naaman ‐‐ Messenger of Naaman standing before Elisha seated on bench with footstool under canopy; messenger giving reply of Elisha to Naaman standing beside quadriga; below, Naaman twice represented, in Jordan and emerging towards garment.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 62,210B 000526 New York, Frick; 32 P23 LNa 62,210B bis 146296 Weitzmann (1979), fig. 177 Weitzmann (1979) , pp. 93‐94; fig. 177
647
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
262 Gospel Book, Par. gr.70, fol. 305r Constantinople 964 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, title Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.70 Four‐columned canopy as a grame for chapter heading for the Gospel of John. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐‐Title Incipit NT, John 01:01 Greek Altar canopy sheltering Gospel book? Note the intricate construction of the canopy which suggests the canopy roof composed of a drum and a domical roof
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 127,305A 039310 Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935), fig. 82 Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinische Buchmalerei (1935) , p. 14; fig. 82
648
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
263 Gospel Book, Par. gr.70, fol. 180v Constantinople 964 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, title Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.70 Canopy. Frame for chapter heading for the Gospel of Luke. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Title Incipit NT, Luke 01:01 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 127,180B No negative Hte. Et. c.1456 32 P23 LNa 127,180B bis 039309 Weitzmann, K. (1935), fig. 81 Weitzmann (1935) p. 14; fig. 81
649
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
264 Gospel Book, Par. gr.70, fol. 110r Constantinople 964 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, title Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.70 Furniture, Liturgical: Canopy ? Canopy. Frame for chapter heading for the Gospel of Mark. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Title Incipit NT, Mark 01:01 Greek Framing the sacred word ‐‐ word vs. space
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 127,110A 039308 Weitzmann (1935), fig. 80 Weitzmann (1935) , p. 14; fig. 80
650
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
265 Gospel Book, Par. gr.70, fol. 9r Constantinople 964 Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, title Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.70 Furniture, Liturgical: Canopy ?, candle Canopy flanked by candles in two candlesticks. Frame for chapter heading for the gospel of Matthew Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Title Incipit NT, Matthew 01:01 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 127,9A 039307 Weitzmann (1935), fig. 79 Weitzmann (1935) , p. 14; fig. 79
651
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
266 Gospel Book, gr.I.8, fol. 3r Constantinople 9c. ‐ 10c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, prefatory Venice: Library, Biblioteca Marciana, gr.I.8 Altar canopy in the shape of a small temple‐shrine Cross suspended from lamp (or votive crown?) beneath cross‐surmounted canopy, which frames the title of the Gospel book.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 V45 LMr 2,3A 070874 Weitzmann (1935), pl. XVII (92) Weitzmann (1935)
652
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
267 Gospel Book, gr.I.8, fol. 183r Constantinople 9c. ‐ 10c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, prefatory Venice: Library, Biblioteca Marciana, gr.I.8 Two crosses and inscription beneath canopy with a pumpkin dome which rests on arches and columns. Illustration at beginning of Luke. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Headpiece Incipit NT, Luke 01:01
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 V45 LMr 2,183A No negative Millet C545
653
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
268 Gospel Book, gr.I.8, fol. 13r Constantinople 9c. ‐ 10c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, prefatory Venice: Library, Biblioteca Marciana, gr.I.8 Four vessels or lamps on canopy beneath which is a cross on a tripod (?). Illustration at beginning of Matthew. Headpiece Incipit NT, Matthew 01:01 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 V45 LMr 2,13A 070875 Weitzmann (1935), pl. XVII (93) Weitzmann (1935)
654
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
269 Khludov Psalter, folio 1v Constantinople 9th c Illuminated manuscript Moscow, State Historical Museum Cod. 129 The First Page of the Psalter – canopy‐like frame of the image – throne canopy Facing the first Psalm. David the psalmist enthroned below a medallion of Christ and canopy‐like structure
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Evangelatou (2002)
655
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
270 Frontispiece with the canopy, Gospel Book, Erevan, Matenadaran n. 9430, f.4 10th c Illuminated manuscript
Source of ill. Bibliography
656
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
271 Mother of God with Christ child under canopy Constantinople 2/2 10th c Ivory triptych
657
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
272 Mother of God with Christ Child under canopy Constantinople 2/2 10th c Ivory Walters Art Museum, Baltimore MD, inv. no. 71.158. The centre of the triptych shows Virgin holding Christ and pointing towards him with her right hand, presenting him to the viewer as divine. The Vigin hand overlaps the column of a canopy‐like frame connecting her to the viewer’s space.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović
658
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
273 Mother of God with Christ Child under canopy Constantinople 2/2 10th c Ivory Dumbarton Oaks Collection, inv. no. BZ1946.14 Central part of the triptych, similar to the one from the Walters museum.
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. Bogdanović
659
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
274 Crucifixion under canopy‐like frame Constantinople ? Late 10th c Ivory Walters Art Museum, inv. no. 71.113 The Crucifixion Central part of the triptych. Unusual inclusion of a latticed canopy supported by columns.
J. Bogdanović
660
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
275 The Nativity under canopy‐like frame Byzantine 10th c Ivory The Nativity
Source of ill. Bibliography
Glory of Byz 98 Glory of Byz 98
661
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
276 Ambo canopy 10th c Vatican Menologion Ambo‐canopy
662
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
277 Virgin Mary testing with bitter water Goreme: Church, Tokali Kilisse, New Church Mid‐10th c Fresco Nave, vault, section 1: Virgin Mary: doubted, Testing with Water; and Joseph the Carpenter: Testing with Water ‐‐ Before canopy, Zacharias, name inscribed, nimbed, standing beside altar, holding cup to lips of Virgin Mary inscribed ʺMother of Godʺ (Greek), nimbed; behind the Virgin, Joseph, name inscribed, nimbed, drinking from cup; title inscription; to right, Virgin Mary: doubted by Joseph ‐‐ Joseph the Carpenter, name inscribed, nimbed, addressing Virgin Mary inscribed ʺMother of Godʺ (Greek), nimbed, holding spindle; inscription, ʺYou who were cared for by God, why have you done this?ʺ (Greek); to extreme right, Virgin Mary: Visitation ‐‐ Virgin Mary inscribed ʺMother of Godʺ (Greek), and Elizabeth, both nimbed, in close embrace; attendant, inscribed, standing at portal of building; title inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
Index‐31 G6 ChTKN 2,5 A5 003772 Jerphanion, G. de, Eglises rupestres de Cappadoce Album, II (1928), pl. 75 (1) ; 31 G6 ChTKN 2,5 A5 bis 126408 Restle, M., Byzantine Wall Painting in Asia Minor (1967), II, fig. 111 Epstein, A., Tokali Kilise: Tenth‐Century Metropolitan Art in Byzantine Cappadocia (1986) , pp. 68‐69; fig. 59
663
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
278 Christ among doctors, John Chrysostom, Homilies, Athens 211, fol. 226r Byzantine late 9c. miniature, headpiece , pen drawing with color wash Athens: Library, National Library, Athens 211 John Chrysostom, Homilies Christ: among Doctors ‐‐ John Chrysostom nimbed, as bishop, holding book, standing beside the youthful Christ cross‐nimbed, roll in left hand, seated on cushioned bench with footstool, indicating group of doctors seated on cushioned bench with footstool; in foreground, vase; in background, canopy. Illustration for John Chrysostom, Homily, On the Massacre of the Innocents and On Christ Among the Elders. Image/text Miniature, headpiece Incipit John Chrysostom, Homily, On the Massacre of the Innocents and On Christ Among the Elders
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Index‐32 A86 LNa 5,226A 047613 Seminarium Kondakovianum, V (1932), pl. XX (2) Grabar, A., ʺMiniatures greco‐orientales, II,ʺ Seminarium Kondakovianum, V (1932) , pp. 268 ff., 295 ff.; pl. XX (2); Madigan, S., Athens 211 and the Illustrated Homilies of John Chrysostom (1984) , pp. 168‐170; Athens, National Library, Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, III (1997) , pp. 43‐45; color fig. 33
664
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
279 Saint Petersburg, gr.286, fol. 1r 10c. Illuminated Manuscript, Gospel Book, miniature, headpiece Saint Petersburg: Library, Public Library, gr.286 Inscription beneath canopy. Title of Gospel of John.
INDEX‐32 S22P22 LPb 18,1A 072412 Weitzmann (1935), pl. XXXIII (190) Weitzmann (1935) , pl. XXXIII (190)
665
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
280 Presentation of the Virgin Mary in the Temple Constantinople 10th c. h. 15cm, w. 13.2cm Ivory plaque Berlin: Museum, Staatliche Museen, inv.no 2551 Provenance: Paris: Collection, Desmottes The Presentation of the Virgin – Temple as a canopy Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Joachim and Anna nimbed, conversing; Daughters of the Hebrews and boys, some carrying lighted candles, accompanying Virgin Mary nimbed, hands raised toward high priest nimbed, standing before canopy; above Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Angel (broken off except for feet, piece of drapery and wing) descending to Virgin Mary nimbed, seated holding loaf; title inscription – the Holy of Holies (in Greek)
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐21 B51 MStl P3,107 002885 Goldschmidt, A., & Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, II (1934), pl. IV (11) Berlin, Die Elfenbeinbildwerke (1900‐1902) , p. 96; pl. 4 (9A); Goldschmidt, A., & Weitzmann, K., Die byzantinischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, II (1934) , p. 28; pl. IV (11); Cutler, A., Hand of the Master (1994) , pp. 229, 270 n. 88, 279 n. 101; fig. 238; Brunswick, Herzog Anton Ulrich‐Museum, Glanz der Ewigkeit: Meisterwerke aus Elfenbein der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin (1999) , cat. 11; p. 44
666
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
281 David Casket Constantinople ? 9c. ‐ 10c. Ivory Rome: Palace, Palazzo Venezia Body, right end, zone 1: David: anointed ‐‐ Sons of Jesse watching David anointed with horn of unction by Samuel standing under canopy (destroyed). Body, right end, zone 2: David: playing before Saul ‐‐ David seated on faldstool, playing harp to Saul reclining on bed; two attendants; footstool.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐21 R76 PaV C8,1 E 005927 Goldschmidt & Weitzmann (1930), pl. LXX (123c) Goldschmidt & Weitzmann (1930) , p. 63; pl. LXXI (123c)
667
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
282 Marriage of Roman and Eudocia Constantinople Ca. 950 ivory
668
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
283 Entry into Jerusalem Constantinople 10th c ivory
669
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
284 Evangelist Mark, Garret 6, Princeton fol. 54b 9th c
INDEX
670
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
285 Death of Patriarch Athanasius, Mount Athos: Monastery, Rossikon, 6; Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies Constantinople 11th c Illuminated manuscript Mount Athos: Monastery, Rossikon, 6 Death of Patriarch Athanasius – the bier is depicted as if sheltered by a canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
671
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
286 Death of Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Jerusalem Taphou 14 11th c Illuminated manuscript Jerusalem, Library of the Greek Patriarchate Taphou 14
672
Number Title
287 Mausolus of Caria and the Colossus of Rhodes, Jerusalem cod Taphou 14, fol 311v. Place of origin Date 11th c Dimensions Medium Condition Location Jerusalem, Library of the Greek Patriarchate cod Taphou 14 Subject Mausolus of Caria and the Colossus of Rhodes [Mausoleum of Halikarnassos] Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
673
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
288 Communion of the Apostles, St. Panteleimon, Nerezi, 1164, fresco in the apse. Nerezi: Church, St. Pantaleimon 1164 Fresco Sanctuary, apse, semidome Communion of the Apostles Virgin Mary and Christ Child: Type Orant (16c.). Sanctuary, apse, wall, zone 1: Christ: Communion ‐‐ Two nimbed angels wearing stephanes and deacon’s vestments, each holding flabellum, behind draped altar above which is altar canopy and on which are paten and chalice; behind the altar, attended by two nimbed angel deacons, Christ, crossed decorated nimbus, twice represented, once with left hand on bread in paten, with right hand presenting bread to Apostle Peter at head of group of five apostles, all nimbed, including Andrew and Luke embracing, again presenting chalice to Apostle Paul at head of group of five apostles, all nimbed (some of the apostles repainted in 16c.); two candlesticks with lighted candles.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
Index‐31 N3559 ChP 5,1 A‐B 156197 Frühmittelalterliche Studien, II (1968), fig. 43; 31 N3559 ChP 5,1 B1a 117717 Millet, G., Peinture du moyen Age en Yougoslavie, I (1954), pl. 15 (1) ; 31 N3559 ChP 5,1 B1aa 083315 Wulff, O., & Schmit, T., Byzantinisch‐russische Monumentalmalerei (1926), pl. 52; 31 N3559 ChP 5,1 B1b 118284 Hamann‐Maclean, R., & Hallensleben, H., Monumentalmalerei in Serbien und Makedonien, Text, I (1976), pl. 33 Cassidy, B., ed. Iconography at the Crossroads: papers from the colloquium sponsored by the Index of Christian Art, Princeton University, 23‐24 March 1990. Princeton, N.J: Index of Christian Art, Dept. of Art and Archaeology, Princeton U, 1993. Sinkević, I., Church of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi (2000) 32‐25; color figs. XVI‐ XVIII, figs. 14‐16; pls. 9‐11
674
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
289 Presentation of Christ, St. Panteleimon, Nerezi, 1164, fresco in the apse. Nerezi: Church, St. Pantaleon 1164 Fresco Naos, south arm, south wall, zone 1: Presentation of Christ Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Two lamps suspended from altar canopy made of marble and set above draped altar on which is book. The event is explained by Prophetess Anna nimbed, veiled, holding a scroll inscribed ʺThis infant consolidated heaven and earthʺ (Greek) in left hand, right hand extended toward Christ Child cross‐nimbed. Virgin Mary is holding Child; she is nimbed, veiled (lower part of body destroyed). Simeon is nimbed, his draped hands extended. Joseph the Carpenter nimbed, doves in draped right hand; buildings (not seen here) complement the image.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Sinkević (2000) color figs. XXXIX Sinkević (2000) 48‐50.
675
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
290 Communion of the Apostles Perachorio: Church, Church of the Apostles, Cyprus 1160 ‐ 1180 fresco Damaged. Sanctuary, apse, wall, zone 1 Christ: Communion ‐‐ Two nimbed angels, each wearing deaconʹs vestments, holding flabellum, before altar‐canopy above draped altar on which are paten decorated with “pseudo‐Kufic” and asterisk, veil, and two chalices or censers, flanked by Christ cross‐nimbed, within cathedra?, twice represented, once holding paten in draped left hand and with right hand extending bread toward Peter and five gesturing apostles, and again, inscribed [IC] XC, extending chalice toward Evangelist John, drinking and five apostles, all nimbed; inscriptions of scene titles (fragmentary).
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐31 P4111 ChA D9,1 A 150037 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 2 foll. 348; 31 P4111 ChA D9,1 A2aa 150046 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 23 foll. 348; 31 P4111 ChA D9,1 A2ab 150044 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 21 foll. 348; 31 P4111 ChA D9,1 A2ac 150045 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 22 foll. 348 Megaw, A., & Hawkins, E., ʺChurch of the Holy Apostles at Perachorio, Cyprus,ʺ DOP 16 (1962) 300‐307; figs. 2, 21‐25
676
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
291 Presentation in Temple Perachorio: Church, Church of the Apostles, Cyprus 1160 – 1180/15c. fresco Fragmentary; damaged. Naos, bay 2, south wall, zone 2 (15c.‐restoration) Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Within architectural setting, Joseph the Carpenter nimbed, holding two doves in draped hands behind Prophetess Anna, nimbed, veiled, holding inscribed scroll; draped altar before altar‐canopy with pyramidal roof; flanked by Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, hands raised, and Simeon of Jerusalem, standing on steps, with draped hands holding Christ Child, inscribed IC XC, cross‐nimbed, right arm extended toward her.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐31 P4111 ChA D9,1 C5ba 169223 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 34 foll. 348; 31 P4111 ChA D9,1 C5bb 150055 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 35 foll. 348; 31 P4111 ChA D9,1 C5c 169224 DOP 16 (1962), fig. 36 foll. 348 Megaw, A., & Hawkins, E., ʺChurch of the Holy Apostles at Perachorio, Cyprus,ʺ DOP 16 (1962) , figs. 34‐36
677
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
292 The Crucifixion and Koimesis on the ivory diptych 12th Diptych, Ivory plaque St Petersburg, Hermitage Museum. The Crucifixion and Koimesis Left wing of a diptych which depicts Crucifixion with the abbreviated depiction of the resurrection below (rising of the dead). The wing has a depiction of a curtained canopy; my guess is that the canopy with curtains represent the temple, which veil has been torn at the moment of the Crucifixion I. Kalavrezou speaks about the other wing with Koimesis: Virgin is the mother of the Incarnate Logos, he is the Saviour of her soul, depicting how the Byzantines saw death and afterlife in relation to the human body, the soul is imagined to leave the body in the manner that a child would live the body of his mother – reference to the passage and pain suffered; similarly the Crucifixion depicts the moment of Christ’s death on the Cross and reduced Anastasis when the dead rise from their tombs, proof not only of human nature and incarnation but also of the redemption that has come to mankind through his sacrifice.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
A. Bank, Byzantine Art in the Collections of Soviet Museums (Leningrad, 1977) Figs. 143‐144. I. Kalavrezou, Exchanging embrace: The body of Salvation in Images of the Mother of God. Perceptions of the Theotokos in Byzantium, M. Vassilaki, ed. (Aldershot, 2005) 103‐115
678
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
293 John the Baptist within the historiated initial, “The Gospel Book of Miroslav” f. 36v Serbia 4/4 12th c Illuminated manuscript Old Church Slavonic manuscript. John the Baptist is depicted under a canopy with double‐knotted columns and foliated motifs. The canopy has stepped podium which resembles the ambo and the other depictions of the Elevation of the Cross.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
679
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
294 Mount Athos: Monastery, Dionysiu, 65, Psalter, fol. 12r first half 12th c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, prefatory Mount Athos: Monastery, Dionysiu 65 Sabas, Illuminator Legend, Sinners in Hell ‐‐ Nude sinner covered with sores, arms bound behind, legs shackled, seated in grotto representing Hell; above to right, half figure of Christ, cross‐nimbed, inscribed IC XC, right hand raised; inscriptions; below, Angel: Scene, Ministrations ‐‐ Two nimbed angels holding staffs, one holding vessel, the other with vessel? in left hand, right raised to (anointing?) bowed head of Elect in monkʹs habit, holding book beside altar‐canopy above the altar? on which is book; illegible inscriptions. The canopy is a shrine‐like with the doors.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 M92A MyDy 24,12A 139203 Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974), color fig. 122 Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974), 420; color fig. 122 Cutler, A., Aristocratic Psalters, I (1984) 104; fig. 363
680
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
295 Calling of Suitors, Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 131v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Calling of Suitors Virgin Mary: Calling of Suitors ‐‐ Priest and group of suitors; High Priest Zacharias wearing miter, swinging censer over rods of suitors placed on draped altar under altar‐canopy; buildings, one with cross‐surmounted dome; below, suitors holding rods; Joseph the Carpenter, dove perched on head, receiving dove‐surmounted staff from High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter; priest? wearing miter, and two elders, Virgin Mary nimbed, hands extended to rayed Hand of God issuing from arc of heaven above altar under altar‐canopy behind barrier; buildings, one with cross‐ surmounted dome. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,131B 013260 Omont, H., ʺMiniatures des homélies sur la Vierge du moine Jacques,ʺ Bulletin de la Société française de reproductions de manuscrits à peintures, XI (1927), pl. XVI (2) Omont, H., ʺMiniatures des homélies sur la Vierge du moine Jacques,ʺ Bulletin de la Société française de reproductions de manuscrits à peintures, XI (1927) 18; pl. XVI (2)
681
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
296 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 125v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Calling of Suitors Virgin Mary: Calling of Suitors ‐‐ Group of priests and elders addressed by High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter; to right, High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter, kneeling before draped altar decorated with cross, looking up at nimbed angel holding scepter, descending from cathedra; cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; buildings, one with cross‐ surmounted dome. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,125B 013257 Omont (1927), pl. XV (3) Omont (1927) 18; pl. XV (3)
682
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
297 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 135r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Mary’s Espousal Virgin Mary: Espousal ‐‐ Draped altar under altar‐canopy within cross‐ surmounted building; priests, one wearing miter, behind High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter, consigning the little Virgin Mary nimbed, to Joseph the Carpenter nimbed; buildings. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,135A 013263 Omont (1927), pl. XVII (1) Omont (1927) 18; pl. XVII (1)
683
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
298 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 142r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary and Joseph: Return from Temple ‐‐ Draped altar decorated with cross under canopy within cross‐surmounted building; priests behind High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter, taking leave of Virgin Mary nimbed; Joseph nimbed, holding staff and another object, looking back; buildings; below before building, kinsmen taking leave of Virgin Mary and Joseph the Carpenter, both nimbed; Virgin nimbed, following Joseph nimbed, adze? in girdle, holding saw on staff over shoulder, and carpenterʹs square. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,142A 013262 Omont (1927) pl. XVII (2) Omont (1927) 18; pl. XVII (2)
684
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
299 Vision of Isaiah, Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 162r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Isaiah: Vision ‐‐ The Sixty Valiant represented as angels holding scepters, two folding up curtain of the heavens with stars and rayed Personifications of Sun and Moon, above God nimbed, seated on cushioned bench with footstool, attended by choir of angels, three nimbed, two holding scepters, two cross‐ inscribed globes, and flanked by four tetramorphs, the angel nimbed, two having eyes in wings; to right, cherub and seraph, both nimbed; below, to left, nimbed cherub beside draped altar under altar‐canopy or building, placing coal on lips of Isaiah, hands draped; to right, Isaiah orant. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam V, 11. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 05:11 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,162A 013274 Omont (1927), pl. XXI (1) Omont (1927), 20; pl. XXI (1))
685
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
300 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 123r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Life in Temple ‐‐ Group of priests and elders behind High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter, hands extended; draped altar under cross‐ surmounted altar‐canopy behind barrier; to right before cathedra, Virgin Mary nimbed, holding open book, seated on cushioned bench with footstool; buildings, one with cross‐surmounted? dome. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, IV. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,120A 013258 Omont (1927), pl. XV (1) Omont (1927) 17; pl. XV (1)
686
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
301 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 103v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Priest and two elders standing behind High Priest Zacharias nimbed, wearing miter?, holding censer, looking at nimbed angel, scepter in left hand, descending, giving loaf to child Virgin Mary nimbed, standing under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy beside draped altar and cathedra behind barrier; buildings with cross‐ surmounted domes. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 25‐ 27. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:25‐27 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,103B 013253 Omont (1927), pl. XIII (2) Omont (1927) 17; pl. XIII (2)
687
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
302 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 100bis v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Life in Temple ‐‐ Group of elders standing behind High Priest Zacharias, nimbed?, wearing miter, swinging censer before draped altar decorated with cross, under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy beside cathedra; below, kinswomen behind Joachim and Anna, both nimbed, standing behind Virgin nimbed, standing beside draped altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐ canopy beside cathedra. Buildings. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 23‐24. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:23‐24 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,100bis B 013252 Omont (1927), pl. XIII (1) Omont (1927) 16; pl. XIII (1)
688
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
303 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 123r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Life in Temple ‐‐ Acolyte suspending four lamps; draped curtain; to right, the Sixty Valiant representing by wingless angels, some holding spears, one a sword and cross‐inscribed globe, all behind Virgin Mary nimbed, holding open inscribed book, seated on cushioned bench with footstool; to right, draped altar decorated with cross under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; building; below, seven angels, each holding spear, driving into pit of hell Satan and winged demons (destroyed). Decorated initial. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, IV. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,123A 013259 Omont (1927), pl. XV (2) Omont (1927) 18; pl. XV (2)
689
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
304 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 92v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Daughters of the Hebrews holding lighted candles; Joachim and Anna, both nimbed, hands extended to High Priest wearing miter, nimbed, placing child Virgin Mary nimbed, in cathedra beside cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; buildings; below, Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Acolyte suspending three lamps; High Priest nimbed, wearing miter, entering temple through draped portal; nimbed angel holding sceper, within cathedra, giving loaf to Virgin Mary nimbed, beside altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy behind barrier decorated with crosses. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 16‐22. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:16‐22 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,92B 013249 Omont (1927), pl. XII (3) Omont (1927) 16; pl. XII (3)
690
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
305 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 193r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Purple Wool ‐‐ Elders and priest wearing miter, standing behind James, Son of Joseph, nimbed, presenting basket to Virgin Mary nimbed, giving veil to Simeon of Jerusalem, nimbed, hands draped, standing beside draped altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy beside cathedra; building. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, VI, 9‐11. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 06:09‐11 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,193A 013280 Omont (1927), pl. XXIV (2) Omont (1927) 22; pl. XXIV (2)
691
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
306 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 91r Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Daughters of the Hebrews holding lighted candles; Joachim and Anna, both nimbed; child Virgin Mary nimbed, received and kissed by High Priest nimbed, standing under cross‐surmounted altar‐ canopy beside cathedra; building. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 15. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:15 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,91A 013251 Omont (1927), pl. XII (2) Omont (1927) 16; pl. XII (2)
692
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
307 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 87v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Kinsmen behind Joachim nimbed, standing beside Anna nimbed, presenting child Virgin Mary nimbed, to High Priest nimbed, wearing miter, standing before cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy to left of cathedra; buildings; below, Daughters of the Hebrews holding lighted candles, received by High Priest wearing miter, and elders, all before building. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 12‐14. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:12‐14 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,87B 013250 Omont (1927), pl. XII (1) Omont (1927) 16; pl. XII (1)
693
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Artist Subject Description
308 Par. gr.1208, Jacobus, Homiliae, fol. 254v Constantinople 1130s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Par. gr.1208 Kokkinobaphos Master Virgin Mary: doubted, Vindication ‐‐ Joseph and Virgin Mary nimbed, pointed to by High Priest nimbed, wearing miter, addressing priests standing beside draped altar under altar canopy before building; below, draped altar under altar‐canopy before building; High Priest nimbed, wearing miter, bowing before Virgin nimbed, head bent; Joseph nimbed, preceded by sons, Judas, Joses, Simon and James carrying staff over shoulder, and basket. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, VI. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 06 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 57,254B 013299 Omont (1927), pl. XXX (1) Omont (1927) 24; pl. XXX (1)
694
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
309 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 68v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana 1) Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Daughters of the Hebrews holding lighted candles; Joachim and Anna veiled, both nimbed, hands extended to High Priest, nimbed, wearing miter, placing child Virgin Mary, nimbed, veiled, in cathedra beside cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; buildings, one with cross‐ surmounted dome, in background; below, 2) Virgin Mary, life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Acolyte suspending three lamps; High Priest nimbed, wearing miter, entering temple through draped portal; nimbed angel holding scepter within cathedra, giving loaf to Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, beside altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐ canopy. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 16‐22. Image/Text Ass. ‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:16‐22 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,68B 001890 Stornajolo, C., Miniature della omilie di Giacomo monaco (1910), pl. 29 Stornajolo, C., Miniature della omilie di Giacomo monaco (1910) 12; pl. 29 Lafontaine‐Dosogne, J. Iconographie de lʹenfance de la Vierge, I (1964) , fig. 84
695
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
310 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 8v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Joachim: Offerings rejected ‐‐ Israelites, two holding caskets, Anna and Joachim, each holding casket, all bringing gifts to High Priest standing beside cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy before cathedra and draped altar behind barrier; below to left, Israelites, two holding caskets, on way to temple, bearing gifts; to right, group of Israelites, three with hands raised towards Joachim and Anna; buildings in background. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam I, 5‐6 Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 01:05‐06 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,8B 001865 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 4 Stornajolo (1910) 9; pl. 4 Lafontaine‐Dosogne (1964) 63; fig. 35
696
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject
Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
311 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 65r Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Presentation, High Priest 2. Scene, Furniture, Liturgical: Altar‐ canopy, Furniture, Liturgical: Cathedra, Building, Daughters of the Hebrews 2. Scene, Candle, James the Monk: Text, In Deiparam, III Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Kinsmen behind Joachim standing beside Anna veiled, presenting child Virgin Mary, nimbed, veiled, to High Priest, nimbed, wearing miter, standing before altar‐canopy to left of cathedra; buildings; below, Daughters of the Hebrews holding lighted candles, received by High Priest and elders; building. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 12‐14. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:12‐14 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,65A 001888 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 27 Stornajolo (1910) 12; pl. 27
697
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
312 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 67v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Daughters of the Hebrews holding lighted candles; Joachim and Anna, both nimbed; child Virgin Mary nimbed, received and kissed by High Priest, nimbed, standing under cross‐ surmounted altar‐canopy beside cathedra; building in background. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 15. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:15 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,67B 001889 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 28 Stornajolo (1910) 12; pl. 28 Lafontaine‐Dosogne (1964) , fig. 83
698
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
313 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 190r Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: doubted, Vindication ‐‐ Joseph the Carpenter and Virgin Mary veiled, standing, declared innocent by High Priest wearing miter; priests standing beside altar with cross‐inscribed frontal, under altar‐ canopy before building; below, the High Priest, wearing miter, standing beside altar with cross‐inscribed frontal before cross‐surmounted building, taking leave of Virgin Mary, Joseph and his four sons, Judas, Josetos, Simon and James. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, VI. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 06 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,190A 001941 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 82 Stornajolo (1910) 18; pl. 82
699
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
314 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 142r Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Purple Wool ‐‐ Elders and priest standing behind James, Son of Joseph, nimbed, presenting basket to Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, from which she has taken veil and laid it on draped hands of Simeon of Jerusalem, nimbed, standing beside altar under altar‐canopy surmounted by dome, beside cathedra; building with cross‐surmounted dome in background. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, VI, 9‐11. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 06:09‐11 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,142A 001920 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 62 Stornajolo (1910) 16; pl. 62
700
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
315 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 100r Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Espousal ‐‐ Altar‐canopy above altar with cross‐inscribed frontal behind group of priests attending High Priest Zacharias wearing miter, consigning the little Virgin Mary, nimbed, veiled, to Joseph the Carpenter, nimbed; buildings in background. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, IV. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,100A 001902 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 41 Stornajolo (1910) 13; pl. 41
701
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
316 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 97v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Calling of Suitors ‐‐ Priest and group of suitors; High Priest Zacharias wearing miter, swinging censer above rods of suitors placed on altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; in background, buildings with cross‐surmounted dome; below, High Priest Zacharias, wearing miter, returning dove‐surmounted staff to Joseph the Carpenter with dove perched on head; behind Joseph, disappointed suitors, each holding rod; three elders; Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, standing with hands raised to Hand of God issuing from arc of heaven above altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; buildings. Illustration of James the Monk, In Deiparam, IV. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,97B 001901 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 40 Stornajolo (1910) 13; pl. 40 Lafontaine‐Dosogne (1964) fig. 98
702
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
317 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 93v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Calling of Suitors ‐‐ Group of priests or elders in council with High Priest Zacharias, nimbed, wearing miter; to right, nimbed angel holding cross‐staff, descending from cathedra to the High Priest Zacharias, represented a second time, nimbed, wearing miter, kneeling before cross‐ surmounted altar‐canopy to left of altar with cross‐inscribed frontal; paten? on the altar; in background, buildings with cross‐surmounted dome. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, IV. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,93B 001899 Stornajolo (1910), pl. 38 Stornajolo (1910) 13; pl. 38
703
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
318 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 92r Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Life in Temple ‐‐ Acolyte suspending three lamps before draped curtain; to right, the Sixty Valiant represented by wingless angels, some holding spears, one a sword and cross‐inscribed globe, behind Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, seated on bench with footstool, holding open inscribed book; altar with cross‐inscribed frontal under altar‐canopy; building in background; below, seven angels, each holding spear, driving into pit of hell Satan, chained, and winged demons. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam, IV. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 04 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,92A 001898 Stornajolo (1910) pl. 37 Stornajolo (1910) 13; pl. 37
704
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
319 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 76v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Priest and two elders standing behind High Priest Zacharias wearing miter, holding censer, looking at nimbed angel descending, holding scepter, giving loaf to child Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, standing under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy beside altar and cathedra; buildings with cross‐surmounted dome in background. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 25‐27. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:25‐27 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,76B 001892 Stornajolo (1910) pl. 31 Stornajolo (1910) 12; pl. 31
705
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
Artist Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
320 James the Monk, Sermons, gr.1162, fol. 74v Constantinople 1140s ‐ 1150s Illuminated Manuscript, miniature Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Virgin Mary: Life in Temple ‐‐ Group of elders standing behind High Priest Zacharias, nimbed, wearing miter, swinging censer before altar with cross‐ inscribed frontal under cross‐inscribed altar‐canopy beside cathedra; buildings in background, one with cross‐surmounted dome; below, kinswomen behind Joachim and Anna, both nimbed, standing behind Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, standing beside altar with cross‐inscribed frontal under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy beside cathedra; buildings in background, one with cross‐surmounted dome. Illustration for James the Monk, In Deiparam III, 23‐24. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Miniature Text James the Monk, In Deiparam 03:23‐24 Greek Kokkinobaphos Master
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 10,74B 001891 Stornajolo (1910) pl. 30 Stornajolo (1910) 12; pl. 30 Lafontaine‐Dosogne (1964) fig. 85
706
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject
Description
321 Psalter, Vat. gr.1927, fol. 154v Constantinople first half 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Psalm 084 (LXX, 083); Christ‐Logos 2. Scene; Furniture, Liturgical: Altar‐ canopy; Cross: surmounting Altar‐canopy; Bird: in Nest; Bird: Sparrow; Bird: Swallow; Heaven: Arc Psalm 84, verse 1 (LXX, Psalm 83, verse 2) ‐‐ Group of elders with hands extended to bust of Christ‐Logos, cross‐nimbed, under cross‐surmounted canopy; inscription; Psalm 84, verse 3 (LXX, Psalm 83, verse 4) ‐‐ Nests of sparrow and swallow in two trees on hill; inscription; Psalm 84, verse 8 (LXX, Psalm 83, verse 9) ‐‐ Group of elders with hands raised to arc of heaven; inscription. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Column Text OT, Psalm 084:01 (LXX, 083:02) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 084:03 (LXX, 083:04) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 084:08 (LXX, 083:09) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 23,154B 001322 Department DeWald, E., Illustrations in the Manuscripts of the Septuagint, III, 1 (1941) , 25; pl. XXXVI
707
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
322 Psalter, Vat. gr.1927, fol. 132r Constantinople first half 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Psalm 74 (LXX, Psalm 73, verses 1‐2 ‐‐ Beneath arc of heaven, David crowned, nimbed, standing, pointing with right hand to group of men representing the congregation; to right, in cleft of Mount Zion, bust of Virgin Mary, nimbed, holding Christ Child, cross‐nimbed; inscription; below, Psalm 74 (LXX, Psalm 73), verse 7 ‐‐ Group of enemies, two setting fire with torches to altar‐canopy above altar with cross‐inscribed frontal; inscription; Psalm 74 (LXX, Psalm 73), verses 12, 13‐14 ‐‐ Christ‐Logos cross‐nimbed, flanked by two supplicating male figures, standing on mount above three serpents in sea, and to right, crowned king fed upon by birds (Pharaoh: Judgment for Treachery); inscriptions. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Column Text OT, Psalm 074:01‐02 (LXX, 073:01‐02) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 074:07 (LXX, 073:07) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 074:12 (LXX, 073:12) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 074:13‐14 (LXX, 073:13‐14) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 23,132A 001312 Department DeWald (1941) 21; pl. XXXI
708
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
323 Psalter, Vat. gr.1927, fol. 146v Constantinople first half 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Zone 1: Psalm 79 (LXX, Psalm 78), verses 1‐2 ‐‐ Two male figures representing the heathen, beating with clubs two male figures lying on ground beside draped alter under altar‐canopy; to right, city wall of Jerusalem; dead bodies devoured by wild beasts including lion; inscriptions; Zone 2: Psalm 79 (LXX, Psalm 78), verse 11 ‐‐ Those that are appointed to die represented by group of prostrate male figures; inscriptions; Psalm 79 (LXX, Psalm 78), verse 13 ‐‐ Arc of heaven above group of people giving thanks; inscription. Landscape. Image/text Ass. ‐‐ Column Text OT, Psalm 079:01‐02 (LXX, 078:01‐02) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 079:11 (LXX, 078:11) Greek Column Text OT, Psalm 079:13 (LXX, 078:13) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 23,146B 001318 Department DeWald (1941) 24; pl. XXXIV
709
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
324 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 281r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Leper (Leviticus 13:1‐46) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments resemble Byzantine sakkoi –cut on the side, hand extended toward leper; cross‐surmounted canopy above draped altar, (presumably place of the tabernacle from which God speaks to Moses and Aaron) and cathedra; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,281A 033079
710
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
325 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 283r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Leper Cleansing (Leviticus 14:4) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, hand extended toward healed leper carrying bird; bird on ground; draped altar ? under canopy in background; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,283A 033080
711
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
326 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 292v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Scapegoat (Leviticus 16:20 ff.) ‐‐ Aaron in high priestʹs vestments, holding whip, driving away scapegoat; altar under canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,292B 033082
712
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
327 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 302r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Shewbread (Leviticus 24:6) ‐‐ Aaron in high priestʹs vestments, placing loaves on table; man bringing bowl of loaves; draped altar under canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,302A 033084
713
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
328 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 320r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Trial of Jealousy (Numbers 5:24) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, standing behind barrier before canopy, giving vessel of bitter water to woman; another woman; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,320A 033087
714
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
329 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 322v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law of Nazarite (Numbers 6:10) ‐‐ Nazarite bringing two doves and ram to Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, seated on cushioned bench; draped altar under canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,322B 033088
715
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
330 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 275r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Strange Fire Abihu and Nadab: Strange Fire (Leviticus 10:1‐2) ‐‐ Fire from Hand of God in top of altar‐canopy above draped altar striking Abihu and Nadab, one bearing fire in censer; below, Moses and Aaron: conversing (Leviticus 10:3) ‐ Moses nimbed, conversing with Aaron. Inscriptions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,275A 033078
716
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
331 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 334r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana 1) Miriam: punished with Leprosy (Numbers 12:10) ‐‐ Miriam and Aaron, high priestʹs vestments, before Moses nimbed, standing before draped altar under altar‐canopy; rayed Hand of God issuing from arc of heaven; 2) Moses: Spies of Canaan (Numbers 13:3) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, sending spies, armed, into Canaan. Inscriptions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,334A 033090
717
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
332 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 273v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Very damaged. Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Leper Cleansing (Leviticus 14:4) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments?; healed leper; two canopies in background.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,273B 033077
718
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
333 Moses and Aaron before the tabernacle, Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 342v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Aaron: Blossoming Rod (Numbers 17:7) ‐‐ Twelve rods, one blossoming, leaning against barrier around altar under altar‐canopy; Aaron in high priestʹs vestments, and Moses, both nimbed and holding rolls, standing to right; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,342B 033094
719
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
334 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 272r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Very damaged. Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Leper (Leviticus 13:1‐46) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, hand extended toward leper; cross‐surmounted canopy above altar, and cathedra.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,272A 033076
720
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
335 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 265v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Offering of Herd (Leviticus 1:5‐9) ‐‐ Aaron standing beside man killing bullock with knife before altar under altar‐canopy; group of priests; below, three priests before blazing altar; inscriptions. Altar is lighted and the blazing altar takes the shape of a canopy. In the upper register there is a slab or rug which resembles opus sectile in front of Byzantine canopy shrines.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,265B 033071
721
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
336 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 260r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Tabernacle filled with Glory (Exodus 40:34) ‐‐ Rays from starred arc of heaven [like heavenly fire – holy light?] falling upon canopy over altar; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,260A 033070
722
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject
Description
337 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 241r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Instruction, Aaron set apart; High Priest: Aaron; Furniture, Liturgical: Altar‐canopy; Cross: surmounting Altar‐canopy; Furniture, Liturgical: Cathedra; Utensil: Container, Bowl Moses: Instruction, Aaron set apart (Exodus 28:1) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, wearing high priestʹs vestments, bearing bowl toward altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy before cathedra; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,241A 033060
723
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
338 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 345r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Heave Offering (Numbers 18:8 ff.) ‐‐ Five men bearing lamb, goat, jar and dove to two Levites; draped altar under altar‐canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,345A 033105
724
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
339 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 365v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: teaching (Numbers 30:1 ff.) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, teaching law concerning vows to Israelites; draped altar under altar‐canopy in background; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,365B 034803
725
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
340 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 367v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Clothes washed (Numbers 31:24) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, standing beside draped altar under canopy, directing three men washing clothes in stream; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,367B 033110
726
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
341 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 395v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: Law, Offering of Blood (Deuteronomy 12:27) ‐‐ Two men, one killing lamb with knife?, blood flowing into bowl, one pouring blood from bowl on steps of draped altar under canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,395B 033117
727
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
342 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 102r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Instruction, Aaron set apart (Exodus 28:1) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, wearing high priestʹs vestments, bearing bowl toward altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy before cathedra; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,102A 034619 Hesseling, D., Miniatures de lʹoctateuque grec de Smyrne (1909), pl. 63 (197) Hesseling, D., Miniatures de lʹoctateuque grec de Smyrne (1909) , pl. 63 (197)
728
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
343 Presentation in the Temple Katholikon Hosios Loukas, Boeotia, Greece 11c. mosaic Presentation in the Temple – Temple depicted as a canopy Temple depicted as a canopy with “pseudo‐Kufic” (pseudo‐Hebrew ?) inscription; behind inscription in Greek reads “The Baptism.”
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
729
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
344 The priests with the ark, Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 231r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana
M. Evangelatou (2002)
730
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
345 Octateuch, Vat. gr.746, fol. 325v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana Moses: before Ark of Covenant (Numbers 7:89) ‐‐ Aaron as high priest? and Moses, both nimbed, standing to left of Ark of Covenant flanked by goat and lamb; above, two tetramorphs, two doves, altar‐canopy, and rayed? Hand of God issuing from arc of heaven; to right, seven‐branched candelabrum; inscriptions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 19,325B 033089
731
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
346 Moses and Aaron before the tabernacle and the ark., Topkapi Sarayi Library. Cod. G.I.8, folio 333r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript
M. Evangelatou (2002)
732
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
347 Zacharias and Abias with the ark. Cod. gr. 1186, folio 82r 11‐12c. Illuminated Manuscript Mount Sinai, Monastery of St Catherine.
M. Evangelatou (2002)
733
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
348 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 154v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: before Ark of Covenant (Numbers 7:89) ‐‐ Aaron and Moses, both nimbed, standing to left of Ark of Covenant flanked by goat and lamb; above, two tetramorphs, two doves, altar‐canopy and Hand of God issuing from arc of heaven;; to right, seven‐branched candelabrum; inscriptions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,154B 034800 Hesseling, D., Miniatures de lʹoctateuque grec de Smyrne (1909), pl. 68 (223) Hesseling, D., Miniatures de lʹoctateuque grec de Smyrne (1909) , pl. 68 (223)
734
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
349 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 115v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Tabernacle filled with Glory (Exodus 40:34) ‐‐ Rays from arc of heaven [heavenly fire ?] falling upon canopy over altar; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,115B 034625 Hesseling (1909), pl. 65 (208) Hesseling (1909) pl. 65 (208)
735
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
350 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 118v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Offering of Herd (Leviticus 1:5‐9) ‐‐ Aaron standing beside man killing bullock with knife before altar under altar‐canopy; group of priests; below, three priests before blazing altar; inscriptions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,118B 034626 Hesseling (1909), pl. 65 (209) Hesseling (1909) pl. 65 (209)
736
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
351 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 125v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Abihu and Nadab: Strange Fire (Leviticus 10:1‐2) ‐‐ Fire from Hand of God in top of canopy above altar striking Abihu and Nadab, one bearing fire in vessel (censer?); below, Moses and Aaron: conversing (Leviticus 10:3) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, conversing with Aaron. –God appearing among humans in the form of Fire/Light?
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,125B 034793 Hesseling (1909), pl. 66 (212) Hesseling (1909) pl. 66 (212)
737
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
352 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 128r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Leper (Leviticus 13:1‐46) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, hand extended toward leper; cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy above draped altar, and cathedra; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,128A 034794 Hesseling (1909), pl. 66 (213) Hesseling (1909) , pl. 66 (213)
738
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
353 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 129v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Leper Cleansing (Leviticus 14:4) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, hand extended toward healed leper carrying bird; bird on ground; draped altar under altar‐canopy in background; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,129B 034795 Hesseling (1909), pl. 66 (214) Hesseling (1909) , pl. 66 (214)
739
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
354 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 134r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Scapegoat (Leviticus 16:20 ff.) ‐‐ Aaron in high priestʹs vestments, holding whip, driving away scrapegoat; altar under altar‐canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,134A 034797 Hesseling (1909), pl. 66 (216) Hesseling (1909), pl. 66 (216)
740
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
355 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 139v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Shewbread (Leviticus 24:6) ‐‐ Aaron in high priestʹs vestments, placing loaves on table; man bringing basket of loaves; altar under altar‐ canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,139B 034629 Hesseling (1909), pl. 67 (218) Hesseling (1909) , pl. 67 (218)
741
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
356 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 151v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Trial of Jealousy (Numbers 5:24) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, standing behind barrier before altar‐canopy, giving vessel of bitter water to woman, another woman; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,151B 034632 Hesseling (1909), pl. 67 (221) Hesseling (1909), pl. 67 (221)
742
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
357 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 152v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law of Nazarite (Numbers 6:10) ‐‐ Nazarite bringing two doves and ram to Aaron nimbed, high priestʹs vestments, seated on cushioned bench, altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,152B 034799 Hesseling (1909), pl. 68 (222) Hesseling (1909), pl. 68 (222)
743
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
358 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 159r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School 1) Miriam: punished with Leprosy (Numbers 12:10) ‐‐ Miriam and Aaron, as high priest, before Moses nimbed, standing before altar under altar‐canopy; Hand of God issuing from arc of heaven; 2) Moses: Spies of Canaan (Numbers 13:3) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, sending spies, armed with spears and shields, into Canaan. Inscriptions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,159A 034633 Hesseling (1909), pl. 69 (227) Hesseling (1909), pl. 69 (227)
744
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
359 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 164v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Aaron: Blossoming Rod (Numbers 17:7‐8) ‐‐ Twelve rods, one blossoming, leaning against draped altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; Aaron in high priestʹs vestments and Moses, both nimbed and holding rolls, standing to right; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,164B 034636 Hesseling (1909), pl. 71 (233) Hesseling (1909) pl. 71 (233)
745
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
360 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 166r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Heave Offering (Numbers 18:8 ff.) ‐‐ Five men bearing lamb, goat, jar and dove to two Levites; draped altar under altar‐canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,166 034637 Hesseling (1909), pl. 71 (234) Hesseling (1909), pl. 71 (234)
746
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
361 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 177v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: teaching (Numbers 30:1 ff.) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, teaching law concerning vows to Israelite; draped altar under canopy in background; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,177B 034646 Hesseling (1909), pl. 75 (248) Hesseling (1909), pl. 75 (248)
747
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
362 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 179r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Clothes washed (Numbers 31:24) ‐‐ Moses nimbed, standing beside draped altar under altar‐canopy, directing three men washing clothes in stream; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,179A 034647 Hesseling (1909), pl. 75 (249) Hesseling (1909), pl. 75 (249)
748
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
363 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 197r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Law, Offering of Blood (Deuteronomy 12:27) ‐‐ Two men, one killing lamb with knife, blood flowing into bowl, one pouring blood from bowl on steps of draped altar under cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,197A 034825 Hesseling (1909), pl. 76 (256) Hesseling (1909), pl. 76 (256)
749
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
364 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 63v Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Joseph: Brethren begging Forgiveness (Genesis 50:15‐21) ‐‐ Brethren, some kneeling, before Joseph nimbed, seated on faldstool before canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,63B A 034596 Hesseling (1909), pl. 49 (150) Hesseling (1909), pls. 49 (149‐150), 50 (151)
750
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
365 Smyrna Octateuch, A.1, fol. 102r Constantinople 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Destroyed by fire in 1922. Smyrna: Library, Evangelical School Moses: Instruction, Aaron set apart (Exodus 28:1) ‐‐ Aaron nimbed, wearing high priest’s vestments with bells (?), bearing bowl toward altar under cross‐ surmounted altar‐canopy before cathedra; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 S66 LES1 2,102A 034619 Hesseling (1909), pl. 63 (197) Hesseling (1909), pl. 63 (197)
751
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
366 Chronicle of John Scylitzes, cod. 5‐3, no 2, fol. 53v Spain? Byzantine school 12th c Chronicle of John Scylitzes, manuscript on vellum Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid Marriage of Theophilos to the sister of the emperor Theophilos crowned by the patriarch
752
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
367 Patriarch Iannis orders the destruction of icons, vitr. 26.2, fol. 64v Spain? Byzantine school 12th c manuscript on Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid
Cutler (1987) 145‐154, fig. 1 Cutler (1987) 145‐154. V. Sarabianov “The Sanctuary Barrier of the 12th‐century Churches in Novgorod” in Iconostasis ed. A. Lidov (Moscow, 2000) 312‐359, 730‐731
753
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
368 Canopy with icons (?), Sinai gr. 418, fol. 269r 12th c manuscript Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid Monks praying and reading. The lectern of the reader is framed by a canopy‐like structure flanked by two icons of Virgin and Christ.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
J. R. Martin The Illustration of the Heavenly Ladder of St. John Climacus (Princeton, 1954) fig. 213. Cutler (1987) 145‐154.
754
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
369 Gospel Book, Congregazione Armena, 1635, fol. 54v Cilicia, Skevra 1193 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Destroyed by fire in 1922. Venice: Library, Congregazione Armena Altar‐canopy with lamp hanging from center of arch, suggesting Apostle, Peter: Rock of the Church, in margin. Illustration of Matthew 16:18. Image/Text Assoc.‐‐ Margin Text NT, Matthew 16:18 Armenian Canopy is depicted in reference to St. Peter. It also has a lamp in texts associated with Apostles
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 V45 LCA 4,54B 013739 Venice, Mekhitharist Library, Manuscrits arméniens illustrées, Album (1937), pl. XXXIII (65) Venice, Mekhitharist Library, Manuscrits arméniens illustrées (1936‐1937) , Text, 64; Album, pl. XXXIII (65) Der Nersessian, S., Miniature Painting in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (1993) 20
755
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
370 Retable, Venice, San Marco, Pala dʹoro Constantinople? early 12c. h. 13cm, w. 13.4cm Enamel, cloisonné In the inscription, the first letters NZI which now takes the place of SOLVE are the work of a restorer. Church, S. Marco Christ: Presentation; Prophet 2. Scene; Joseph 2. Scene ?; Jacob 2. Scene ?; Cross: surmounting Altar‐canopy; Anna, Prophetess 2. Scene; Lower section, border, top 6) Christ: Presentation (54) ‐‐ Two nimbed prophets, possibly Joseph and Jacob, holding scrolls inscribed NY and TE (possibly based on Genesis 46:30 and Luke 2:29), flanking cross‐surmounted altar‐canopy; Joseph nimbed, holding two doves; Virgin Mary nimbed, holding cross‐nimbed Christ Child above altar on which is book toward Simeon nimbed, hands draped; Prophetess Anna nimbed, holding scroll inscribed ʺThis is the childʺ(Greek); inscription SOLVENS VINCLA REIS FERTUR SUB MUNERE LEGIS (ʺHe who looses the bonds of the guilty submits Himself to the duty of the lawʺ).
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐43 V45 ChMr R4,1 B1ae‐B1af 008923 Florence, Anderson 22626 43 V45 ChMr R4,1 B1af 009455 Florence, Alinari 38582 San Marco, the Patriarchal Basilica in Venice, II (1991) , 234 Volbach, W. F., ʺSmalti della Pala dʹoro,ʺ Pala dʹoro (1994) cat. 54; 28; color pl. XXIX
756
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
371 Presentation of Christ in the Temple Kastoria: Church, H. Nikolaos Kasnitzes second half 12c. Fresco Damaged; fragmentary. Nave, south wall, zone 1: Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Prophetess Anna nimbed, veiled (hands destroyed), behind Simeon of Jerusalem nimbed, holding Christ Child cross‐nimbed, hands extended above draped altar on which is book before altar canopy toward Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, right hand extended toward Him, drapery fold in left hand, and Joseph the Carpenter nimbed, holding two doves in draped hands; architectural setting of buildings.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 K1556 ChNK D9,1 B1a2 160012 Pelekanidis, S., Kastoria (1953), pl. 49b Pelekanidis, S., Kastoria (1953) , pl. 49b ; Pelekanidis, S., & Chatzidakis, M., Kastoria (1985) , fig. 5 54
757
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
372 Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple Patmos: Monastery, St. John, Chapel of the Virgin last quarter 12c. Fresco Sanctuary, south wall, zone 1: Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Zacharias nimbed (head damaged), as High Priest, bending forward, hands extended toward young Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, hands raised, standing before doors of sanctuary over which is altar‐canopy; to right, Joachim, right hand on the Virgin’s shoulder, and Anna, both nimbed, and seven Daughters of the Hebrews, holding candles; building; to left, Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, seated on cathedra at top of synthronon, hands extended toward bread in right hand of half figure of nimbed angel, staff in left hand, descending.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐31 P2744 MyJCpV D9,1 A4aa 000000 Kollias, E., Patmos (1986), col. pl. 12; 31 P2744 MyJCpV D9,1 A4ab 000000 Kollias, E., Patmos (1986), color pl. 13 Orlandos, A., Architektonike kai hai Vyzantinai toichographiai tes Mones tou Theologou Patmou (1970) 333‐334; fig. 98; color pls. 6‐7; Kollias, E., Patmos (1986) , color pls. 12‐13
758
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
373 Pilate under canopy Athens: Library, National Library, 93, fol. 51r second half 12c. Illuminated Manuscript Gospel Book miniature, column Flaked. Canopy‐throne Pilate: asked to guard Sepulcher (Matthew 27:62‐64) ‐‐ Group of priests and Pharisees standing before Pilate crowned, seated on throne under canopy. Gold background.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 A86 LNa 2,51A 033729 Athens, National Library, Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, I (1978) 226; color fig. 632
759
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
374 Christ delivered to Jews Athens: Library, National Library, 93, fol. 83v second half 12c. Illuminated Manuscript Gospel Book miniature, column Flaked. Canopy‐throne Christ: delivered to Jews (Mark 15:15‐16) ‐‐ Pilate seated under canopy, behind table; armed soldier leading Christ cross‐nimbed, hands bound, by rope about neck.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 A86 LNa 2,83B 033717 Athens, National Library, Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, I (1978) , 226; color fig. 636
760
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
375 Joseph of Arimathea before Pilate Athens: Library, National Library, 93, fol. 85r second half 12c. Illuminated Manuscript Gospel Book miniature, column Flaked. Canopy‐throne Joseph of Arimathea: before Pilate (Mark 15:43) ‐‐ Joseph of Arimathea, hands crossed on breast, standing before building, supplicating Pilate seated behind table on bench under canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 A86 LNa 2,85A 03371 Athens, National Library, Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, I (1978) , 227; color fig. 638
761
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
376 Presentation of Christ in the Temple ‐‐ University Library, 965, fol. 59v late 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, New Testament‐Psalter, miniature, column Rockefeller McCormick New Testament Chicago: Library, Christ: Presentation Christ: Presentation (Luke 2:27‐33) ‐‐ Joseph nimbed, holding doves; draped altar under altar‐canopy flanked by Virgin Mary nimbed, left hand raised to face, and Simeon nimbed, holding nude Christ Child cross?‐nimbed. Canopy is suggested by columns flanking the table
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 C43 LUn 1,59B 001565 Rockefeller McCormick New Testament (1932), I, fol. 59v Rockefeller McCormick New Testament (1932) , I, fol. 59v; III, 155
762
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
377 Presentation of Christ in the Temple, Harley 1810, fol. 146v late 12c Illuminated Manuscript, Gospel Book, miniature, column London: Library, British Library Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Joseph the Carpenter nimbed, two doves in basket in draped left hand, right hand raised, behind Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, presenting Christ Child cross‐nimbed, hands extended, seated on her hands to Simeon, hands draped, beside Prophetess Anna veiled, inscribed scroll in left hand, right hand raised, all flanking draped altar beneath canopy; building in background; title inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 LBr 124,146B 067088
763
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
378 Evangelist Mark, Gospel Book, Garrett 7, fol. 65v 2/2 12th c Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, interspersed, pen drawing with color wash Princeton: Library, University, Garrett 7 Evangelist Mark, name inscribed, seated on cushioned bench, feet on footstool, tablet? in right hand, pen in left hand, before desk with lectern and canopy; building.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P935 LUn 4,65B 071712
764
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
379 Psalter, gr.1927, fol. 51r Constantinople 1/2 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana, gr.1927 Psalm 032 (LXX, 031) Psalm 32 (LXX, Psalm 31) verse 2 ‐‐ In center, the Blessed Man with hands extended to bust of Christ‐Logos, cross‐nimbed, under canopy; at left side, Psalm 32 (LXX, Psalm 31), verse 5 ‐‐ Three male figures standing before a hermit holding staff; in foreground, Psalm 32 (LXX, Psalm 31, verse 10 ‐‐ Nude figure, hands bound behind back, neck and feet in irons, seated on stool beside fire; above to right, Psalm 32 (LXX, Psalm 31), verse 11 ‐‐ Group of righteous men rejoicing; inscriptions. Landscape. Canopy is set in the open space!
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 23,51A 001279 Department DeWald (1941) 12‐13; pl. XV
765
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
380 Psalter, gr.1927, fol. 154v Constantinople 1/2 12c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column Rome: Library, Biblioteca Vaticana, gr.1927 Psalm 84, verse 1 (LXX, Psalm 83, verse 2) ‐‐ Group of elders with hands extended to bust of Christ‐Logos, cross‐nimbed, under cross‐surmounted canopy; inscription; Psalm 84, verse 3 (LXX, Psalm 83, verse 4) ‐‐ Nests of sparrow and swallow in two trees on hill; inscription; Psalm 84, verse 8 (LXX, Psalm 83, verse 9) ‐‐ Group of elders with hands raised to arc of heaven; inscription. Canopy is set in the open space.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 R76 LVt 23,154B 001322 Department DeWald (1941) 25; pl. XXXVI
766
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
381 Baptism Kiev 12th c fresco Baptismal font is canopied
INDEX ‐01055
767
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
382 Communion of the Apostles and Heavenly liturgy Gelati 1125 fresco Three tiers with 4 canopies depicted!
R. Mepisašvili, and T. Virsalaże, Gelati: arkitektura, mozaika, preskebi (Tbilsi, 1982) Mepisašvili and Virsalaże (1982)
768
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
383 Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple Daphni, near Athens 12th c mosaic Narthex Canopy strongly resembles altar canopy from Paros.
769
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
384 Ordination of the Armenian priest, frontispiece Cilicia 1248 Illuminated manuscript Ordination of a priest in front of a canopy. Two deacons are holding candles.
Source of ill. Bibliography
Glory of Byz cat. no 238
770
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
385 Monk Sabas Reads to the Emperor, Homilies of John Chrysostom fol.1r Constantinople Ca. 1071‐81 Illuminated manuscript Canopy‐throne Emperor is enthroned below a canopy
Glory of Byz p.82
771
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
386 Entry into Jeruselem Constantinople 10th c ivory Corner panel of the ivory triptych icon; Entry into Jerusalem The scene is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Glory of Byz cat. no 99
772
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
387 Deposition from the Cross Constantinople 10th c ivory The scene of the deposition is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame
Glory of Byz cat. no 100
773
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
388 Crucifixion Byzantine (Ottonian ?) ivory The scene is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame
Glory of Byz p. 323
774
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
389 Panel of the Triptych with the Crucifixion Constantinople 10th c ivory The scene is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame
Source of ill. Bibliography
Glory of Byz cat. no 97
775
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
390 Koimisis of the Virgin 10th c Steatite icon The scene is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame
Glory of Byz cat. no 102
776
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
391 Deesis 10th c ivory The scene is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame; only fragments remain visible
Source of ill. Bibliography
Glory of Byz cat. no. 82
777
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
392 Koimesis 10th c ivory The scene is framed by a lattice canopy‐frame
Glory of Byz cat. no 101
778
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
393 Diptych with twelve scenes from the Life of Christ Constantinople Late 10th early 11th c ivory In the scene of the Presentation in the Temple, Temple is represented as a latticed canopy
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Glory of Byz cat. no 91
779
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
394 Christ before Annas and Caiphas 12c. h. 7cm, w. 8cm (fragment) glyptic, steatite plaque, Baltimore: Gallery, Walters Art Gallery, inv. no. 41.209 Christ: before Annas; and Christ: before Caiaphas ‐‐ Only part of canopy presumably denoting the Temple has been preserved; upper part of man with right arm raised, and upper parts of Annas and Caiaphas remain.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐41 B217 GaW P3,4 074964 Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Early Christian and Byzantine Art (1947), pl. LXXX (604); 41 B217 GaW P3,4 bis 172131 Kalavrezou‐Maxeiner, I., Byzantine Icons in Steatite (1985), pl. 37 (59) Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Early Christian and Byzantine Art (1947) cat. 604; 121; pl. LXXX; Kalavrezou‐Maxeiner, I., Byzantine Icons in Steatite (1985) cat. 59; 155‐156; pl. 37 (59)
780
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
395 Communion of the Apostles Church of Peribleptos, Mystra 13th fresco Christ ordains vine to the apostles behind curtained canopy; the curtains are inscribed in Greek letters (illegible)
Illustration
Source of ill. Millet (1910) pl. 112, fig.2 Bibliography
781
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
396 Communion of the Apostles Brontochion, Mystra 13th fresco Christ ordains vine to the apostles behind curtained canopy
Source of ill. Bibliography
Millet (1910) pl. 92, fig.2
782
Number Title
397 Temple of Jerusalem, detail of the fresco of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple Place of origin St. Sophia, Mystra Date 13th Dimensions Medium fresco Condition Location Subject Description Curtained canopy with the lamp and the book on the table Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Millet (1910) pl. 134, fig.3
783
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
398 Communion of the Apostles St. Apostles church, Peć Ca. 1230 fresco
Djurić, V. J. and G. Babić, Srpska umetnost u srednjem veku, vols. 1‐2 Beograd: SKZ, 1997.
784
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
399 Communion of the Apostles Akhatala monastery, North Armenia 13th c fresco
Lidov, A. “Heavenly Jerusalem: The Byzantine Approach.” JewArt 25 (1999) 340‐353
785
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
400 Vision of Isaiah Deir Anba Antonius: Monastery, Church of St. Anthony 1232 ‐ 1233 fresco Haykal of St. Anthony, north wall, zone 2 Isaiah: Vision ‐‐ Isaiah, name inscribed, nimbed, hands extended, receiving live coal in tongs held by nimbed seraph; inscription, ʺHe is giving the [burning] coal to Isaiahʺ (Coptic); to right, altar‐canopy above altar inscribed ʺplace of sacrificeʺ (Coptic), draped with cross‐inscribed altar cloth, on which is vessel filled with coals;
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 D3AA11 MyChSA D9,1 A6b 000000 Monastic Visions: Wall Paintings in the Monastery of St. Anthony at the Red Sea (2002), color fig. 4.33 Moorsel, P. van, Peintures du monastčre de Saint‐Antoine prčs de la Mer Rouge (1995) , pp. 32‐35; fig. 8; pls. 16‐18 Bolman, E., ʺTheodore, ʹThe Writer of Life,ʹ and the Program of 1232/1233,ʺ Monastic Visions: Wall Paintings in the Monastery of St. Anthony at the Red Sea (2002) , pp. 68‐70; color fig. 4.33 Pearson, B., ʺCoptic Inscriptions in the Church of St. Anthony,ʺ Monastic Visions: Wall Paintings in the Monastery of St. Anthony at the Red Sea (2002), p. 236
786
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
401 Gospel Book, W.539, fol. 210r Asia Minor, Cilicia, Hromklay 1262 Illuminated Manuscript Baltimore: Gallery, Walters Art Gallery, W.539 Text about Presentation of Christ in the Temple suggested by a canopy in margin (Luke 2:22 in Armenian).
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B217 GaW 28,210A 157892 Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Armenian Manuscripts (1973), fig. 113 Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, Armenian Manuscripts (1973)
787
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
402 Icon canopy, Mount Athos, Monastery, Dionysiu, 105, Psalter 13th c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, headpiece Mount Athos: Monastery, Dionysiu Icon of Basil the Great nimbed, name inscribed, in bishopʹs vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion, holding book, beneath cross‐surmounted a canopy
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 M92A MyDy 27, 139208 Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974), color fig. 158 Mount Athos, Treasures, I (1974) , p. 427; color fig. 158
788
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
403 Presentation of Christ in the Temple, syr.355 late 12c. ‐ early 13c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, prefatory Paris: Library, Bibliothèque Nationale Christ: Presentation, Anna, Prophetess 2. Scene, Building, Furniture, Liturgical: Altar‐canopy, Building: Architectural Setting Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Joseph nimbed, holding two doves, and Virgin Mary nimbed, arms crossed, before altar on which is book; Simeon nimbed, holding Christ Child cross?‐nimbed; Prophetess Anna nimbed, scroll in left hand, pointing; in background, two buildings, and altar‐canopy; architectural frame.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 123,2A 036606 Monuments et mémoires, XIX (1911), pl. XVI Omont, H., ʺPeintures dʹun évangéliaire syriaque.ʺ Monuments et mémoires, XIX (1911) , p. 207; pl. XVI
789
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
404 Evangelist Luke, M.423, fol. 74r Southern Italy late 13c Illuminated Manuscript, Lectionary, miniature, full‐page, interspersed, pen drawing New York: Library, Morgan Library, Evangelist Luke nimbed, name inscribed, roll in left hand, scroll in right hand, seated on cushioned chair surmounted by monogram of Cross with eight arms, feet on footstool beside lectern and canopy decorated with fish; decorated borders.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 N56 LM 73,74A 065893
790
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
405 Presentation of Christ in the Temple Sopocani: Church, Trinity second half 13c. Fresco Crossing, south wall, zone 1: Christ: Presentation Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Within architectural setting, Joseph the Carpenter, two doves in draped hands, behind Virgin Mary veiled, presenting Christ Child cross‐nimbed, roll? in left hand, right hand raised, seated on her draped hands, to Simeon, draped hands extended, accompanied by Prophetess Anna veiled, inscribed scroll in left hand, right hand raised, all nimbed, beside draped altar beneath canopy. The interior of the depicted canopy overlaps with the window opening, thus focusing the interior on light.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
Index‐31 So659 ChTn 3,1 J 117450 Djuric, V., Sopocani (1963), fig. p. 130; 31 So659 ChTn 3,1 J bis 082787 Byzantinoslavica, I (1929), pl. 5; 31 So659 ChTn 3,1 J1‐J2 117506 Millet, G., Peinture du moyen Age en Yougoslavie, II (1957), pl. 5 (2) ; 31 So659 ChTn 3,1 J1 117350 Djuric, V., Sopocani (1963), color pl. XII Djuric, V., Sopocani (1963) , fig. p. 130; color pl. XII; Zivkovic, B., Sopocani (1984) , fig. p. 10
791
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
406 Communion of the Apostles Merenta: Church, Panagia, Attica, Greece mid 13c. Fresco Fragmentary. Sanctuary, north wall Christ: Communion ‐‐ building behind eleven apostles, two with right hands raised, behind Apostle Peter? (destroyed) receiving bread in raised right hand of Christ (damaged), decorated crossed nimbus, beside nimbed angel wearing stephane and deacon’s vestments, flabellum in R. hand; behind, altar canopy with curtains.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Index‐31 M5425 ChP D9,1 A3 161247 Coumbaraki‐Pansélinou, N. Kalyvia‐ Kouvara et Marenta (1976), pl. 61 Coumbaraki‐Panselinou, N., Kalyvia‐Kouvara et Mérenta (1976) , p. 130; pl. 61
792
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
407 Communion of the Apostles Mileseva: Monastery, Church, Serbia first half 13c. Fresco Naos, East Bay, dome, drum, west side (lower layer, first half 13c.): Christ: Communion (fragmentary) ‐‐ Christ (only part of head, cross‐ nimbed, remaining), behind altar on which is paten with bread and chalice, under altar‐canopy, flanked by two groups of apostles (fragmentary) bending forward, hands raised. Naos, East Bay, dome, drum, west side (upper layer, 16c.): Abraham: entertaining the Angels (very fragmentary) ‐‐ Only parts of three nimbed angels, seated, and parts of Sarah and Abraham, both nimbed, remain.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 M5945 MyCh 3,1 A1 116734 Millet, G., Peinture du moyen Age en Yougoslavie, I (1954), pl. 65 (1) Radojcic, S., Mileseva (1963) , fig. 14 p. 81; Zivkovic, B., Mileseva (1992) , fig. p. 20
793
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
408 Evangelist Mathew Berlin: Library, Staatsbibliothek, gr.qu.66, fol. 5v early 13c. Illuminated Manuscript , Gospel Book , miniature, full‐page, interspersed Evangelist Matthew, name inscribed, decorated nimbus, seated on chair with footstool, pen in right hand on parchment inscribed with beginning of Matthew 1:1 on lap, with left hand turning page of open inscribed book on lectern on desk above draped canopy with curtains.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 LSs 11,5B 033771
794
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
409 Presentation of Christ Berlin: Library, Staatsbibliothek, gr.qu.66, fol. 171v early 13c. Illuminated Manuscript , Gospel Book , miniature, full‐page, interspersed Christ: Presentation (Luke 2:22‐38) ‐‐ Joseph the Carpenter holding dove, beside Virgin Mary extending Christ Child, cross‐nimbed, to Simeon of Jerusalem, hands covered, beside Prophetess Anna holding inscribed scroll, all nimbed; altar with canopy; two buildings in background.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 LSs 11,171B 033748; 32 B51 LSs 11,171B bis 138082 Munich, Hirmer 21.011
795
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
410 Christ reading in Synagogue Berlin: Library, Staatsbibliothek, gr.qu.66, fol. 180r early 13c. Illuminated Manuscript , Gospel Book , miniature, full‐page, interspersed Christ: reading in Synagogue (Luke 4:16‐19) ‐‐ Christ cross‐nimbed, reading from book of Isaiah on lectern; three elders seated before canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 LSs 11,180A 033752
796
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
411 The T’oros Roslin Gospels, Armenian, 1262, Baltimore Ms. W.539, fol. 174r 13c. Illuminated Manuscript, Gospel Book , miniature, full‐page Entry into Jerusalem Detail of a canopy with an inscription in the canopy interior
Source of ill. Bibliography
Noeal and Weiss (2002) 127, fig. 8
797
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
412 Communion of the Apostles Virgin Peribletos (St. Clement), Ohrid, F.Y.R.O.M. 1294/5 fresco Sanctuary
798
Number 413 Title Icon Canopy, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 39v Place of origin Belonged to Queen Charlotte of Cyprus (regina Carlotta de Jerousalem de Chypre et Armenie) Granddaughter of Theodore Palaeologue, despot of Mystra; Made in Constantinople Date Ca. 1300 Dimensions Medium Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, prefatory Condition Location Berlin: Museum, Staatliche Museen, Kupferstichkabinett Subject Description Canopy surmounted by Christ inscribed IC XC, half figure, beardless, cross‐ nimbed; under canopy, icon of Virgin Mary and Christ Child ‐‐ Virgin inscribed ʺMother of Godʺ (Greek), half figure, nimbed, flanked by half figures of two nimbed angels, holding Christ Child inscribed IC XC, nimbed, holding roll, seated on her left arm; icon flanked by two hanging lamps, and mounted on pedestal flanked by donors, husband and wife kneeling, three sons and three daughters standing; in lower frame of the icon, small icon of Virgin Mary and Christ Child ‐‐ Virgin nimbed, Christ Child nimbed; architectural frame flanked above by cranes or egrets; Note: Christ beardless after 700 Figures are kneeling in proskynesis to an Icon (decorated by an icon) and not to a person, The icon is in a tabernacle, supported by four legs and surrounded by a gauze net ‐ ref. I. Spartharakis, The Proskynesis in Byzantine art (1974) Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Faith and Power (c2004) cat. no. 77 Faith and Power (c2004) 153‐154
799
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
414 Communion of the Apostles, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 85v Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Psalm 034 (LXX, 033) 1) Psalm 34, verses 5‐6 (LXX, Psalm 33, verses 6‐7); John Baptist: recognizing Christ ‐‐ John nimbed, wearing garment of skins; Christ cross‐nimbed, holding roll; 2) Psalm 34, verse 7 (LXX, Psalm 33, verse 8) ‐‐ Nimbed angel leading nimbed bishop saint from prison; 3) LXX, Psalm 33, verse 11; Christ: Communion ‐‐ Christ cross‐nimbed, twice represented, standing under canopy behind altar on which are paten with bread and book, and giving bread to six apostles to left, and chalice to six apostles to right. Image/text Margin Text OT, Psalm 034:05‐06 (LXX, 033:06‐07) Greek ; Margin Text OT, Psalm 034:07 (LXX, 033:08) Greek ; Margin Text OT, Psalm 033:11 (LXX) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX
800
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
415 Christ before Pilate, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 87v Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Psalm 035 (LXX, 034) Psalm 35 (LXX, Psalm 34), verse 11; Christ: before Pilate ‐‐ Soldier with Christ cross‐nimbed; two false witnesses; under canopy, Pilate crowned?, seated on bench, looking back over shoulder, and washing hands in basin held by one of two attendants standing behind table; wife of Pilate at window. Margin Text OT, Psalm 035:11 (LXX, 034:11) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 MStlKp 4,87B 002546 New York, Frick
801
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
416 Presentation of the Virgin, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 106r Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Psalm 45, verses 14 ff. (LXX, Psalm 44, verses 15 ff.); Virgin Mary: Presentation ‐‐ Virgin nimbed, followed by Joachim and Anna, both nimbed, and Daughters of the Hebrews, each holding lighted candle; High Priest nimbed, standing in exedra before altar under canopy with hanging lamp. Margin Text OT, Psalm 045:04 (LXX, 044:15) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 MStlKp 4,106A 002562 New York, Frick
802
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
417 Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 128v Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Psalm 65, verse 9 (LXX, Psalm 64, verse 10) ‐‐ Bearded saint, nimbed, giving food (LXX) to group of people seated under draped canopy, with flat roof.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 MStlKp 4,128B 002593 New York, Frick
803
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
418 Communion of the Apostles, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 200r Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Psalm 110 (LXX, 109) Psalm 110 (LXX, Psalm 109), verse 4 (badly rubbed); Melchisedek: represented with Chalice ‐‐ Melchisedek crowned, holding paten? and chalice?; to right, Christ: Communion ‐‐ Christ cross‐nimbed, standing beside altar with cross‐inscribed altar cloth, under canopy, giving paten? to foremost of six apostles; fish? on basin on altar; above in text, a mouse. Margin Text OT, Psalm 110:02 (LXX, 109:02) Greek ; Margin Text OT, Psalm 110:04 (LXX, 109:04) Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 MStlKp 4,200A A 002703 New York, Frick; 32 B51 MStlKp 4,200A B 002702 New York, Frick
804
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
419 Habakkuk, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 251v Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Canticle: Habakkuk ‐‐ Habakkuk nimbed, holding roll, standing under canopy. Margin Text Canticle: Habakkuk Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 MStlKp 4,251B 002614 New York, Frick
805
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
420 Virgin at Prayer, Hamilton Psalter, 78.A.9, fol. 261r Ca. 1300 Illuminated Manuscript, margin Cyprus Canticle: Virgin Mary; Virgin Mary: at Prayer ‐‐ Virgin nimbed, orant, standing under canopy; below, three trees. Margin Text Canticle: Virgin Mary Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 B51 MStlKp 4,261A A 002622 New York, Frick; 32 B51 MStlKp 4,261A B 002622 New York, Frick
806
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
421 Communion of the Apostles Markov Manastir 1376‐1381 fresco Communion of the apostles in the altar space
Faith and Power (c2004)
807
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
422 Tomb of Christ Markov Manastir 1376‐1381 fresco prothesis niche The Tomb of Christ is signified by a canopy
Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261. Ćurčić (1991) 251‐261.
808
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
423 Service of the Hierarchs Church of Christ’s Ascension, Monastery Dečani, Kosovo and Metohija, Serbia c.1335‐48/55 Fresco Narthex, east wall Servce to Christ, Lamb of God: aside there are founding‐fathers of Liturgy‐ St. John Chrysostom (left) and St. Basil the Great (right)
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 3.20 Djurić, V. J. and G. Babić, Srpska umetnost u srednjem veku, vols. 1‐2 Beograd: SKZ, 1997; Todic and Medic, Manastir Decani (2005)
809
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
424 Communion of the Apostles Church of Christ’s Ascension, Monastery Dečani, Kosovo and Metohija, Serbia c. 1338 ‐ 1347 Fresco Sanctuary, apse, semidome: Beneath altar canopy, two nimbed seraphim wearing stephanes, behind altar draped with altar cloth, decorated with medallions enclosing double‐headed eagles, on which is paten with bread; to left, nimbed angel wearing stephane and deacon’s vestments, holding flabellum decorated with seraph, behind Christ inscribed IC XC, cross‐nimbed, wearing sakkos decorated with medallions enclosing crosses, roll in left hand, with right hand extending bread to Apostle Peter, bending forward, extended hands followed by eleven apostles, some with hands extended; to right, nimbed angel wearing stephane and deacon’s vestments, holding flabellum decorated with seraph, behind Christ inscribed IC XC, cross‐nimbed, wearing sakkos, extending chalice to Evangelist John, bending forward, followed by eleven apostles, some with hands extended; architectural setting of two draped colonnades, and altar enclosure; title inscriptions
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Index‐31 D355 Ch 5,1 A1a 163085 Petkovic, V., & Boskovic, Dj., Decani (1941), pl. CCLXXXII Petkovic, V., & Boskovic, Dj., Decani (1941) , pl. CCLXXXII; Popovic, B., ʺProgram zivopisa u oltarskom prostoru,ʺ Zidno slikarstvo manastira Decana (1995) , pp. 79‐80; diagram I.17; Todic and Medic, Manastir Decani (2005)
810
Number 425 Title Joachim: Offerings rejected Place of origin Church of Christ’s Ascension, Monastery Dečani, Kosovo and Metohija, Serbia Date c. 1338 ‐ 1347 Dimensions Medium Fresco Condition Location Prothesis, east wall, south pilaster, zone 1 Subject Joachim: Offerings rejected; High Priest: Zacharias Description Joachim: Offerings rejected ‐ Under altar canopy, Zacharias, name inscribed, as high priest, right hand extended, standing within enclosure (scene continued on south wall, zone 1. Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Index‐31 D355 Ch 6,1 A1, A2a‐A2b, B3a‐B3b 163017 Petkovic, V., & Boskovic, Dj., Decani (1941), pl. CCLI Petkovic, V., & Boskovic, Dj., Decani (1941) , pl. CCLI; Popovic, B., ʺProgram zhivopisa u oltarskom prostoru,ʺ Zidno slikarstvo manastira Decana (1995) , p. 90; diagram Ia.98; Todic and Medic, Manastir Decani (2005)
811
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
426 Life of St. Nicholas of Myra Sopocani, Serbia 1370s Fresco Chapel of S. Nicholas, north wall, zone 1: 1) Nicholas of Myra: Scene, ordained Priest ‐‐ Tonsured cleric holding bowl and pitcher behind nimbed bishop wearing vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion, left hand holding scroll grasped by figure, right hand raised toward Nicholas nimbed, hands raised, wearing priest’s vestments, accompanied by nimbed priest, hands raised, all beside draped altar beneath altar canopy; inscription giving scene title; 2) Nicholas of Myra: Scene, Consecration as Bishop ‐‐ Cleric holding vessels behind nimbed bishop wearing vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion and polystavrion, right hand raised, left hand holding scroll grasped by figure; Nicholas nimbed, hands raised, accompanied by nimbed bishop, book in right hand, roll in left hand, both wearing vestments with cross‐inscribed omophoria, all before altar canopy; inscription giving scene title.; Chapel of S. Nicholas, north wall, zone 2: 1) Nicholas of Myra nimbed, name inscribed, wearing bishop’s vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion, right hand raised, book in draped left hand, flanked by Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, inscribed ʺMother of God,ʺ extending cross‐inscribed omophorion in right hand, and Christ cross‐nimbed, inscribed IC XC, presenting book in left hand, right hand raised; 2) Gregory Nazianzen and John Chrysostom (lower parts of both figures destroyed), both nimbed, names inscribed, wearing vestments with cross‐inscribed omophoria and polystavria, turned in three‐quarter pose toward right, holding scrolls.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Index‐31 So659 ChTn 11,1 A‐B 117467 Djuric, V., Sopocani (1963), figs. p. 140; 31 So659 ChTn 11,1 A1 117440 Djuric, V., Sopocani (1963), color pl. LX Djuric, V., Sopocani (1963) , figs. p. 140; color pl. LX, Zivkovic, B., Sopocani (1984) , fig. p. 35
812
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
427 Communion of the Apostles Studenica, Serbia: Monastery, Church, Joachim and Anna 1314 Fresco Sanctuary, apse, wall, zone 2: Christ: Communion ‐‐ Beneath altar canopy, two nimbed angels wearing stephane and deacon’s vestments, one holding flabellum decorated with seraph, flanking Christ, decorated crossed nimbus, inscribed IC XC, left hand on bread in paten on draped altar, His right hand kissed by Apostle Peter, bread in right hand, accompanied by five apostles, one with hands draped, the others with hands raised; beneath altar canopy, two nimbed angels wearing stephane and deacon’s vestments, one holding flabellum decorated with seraph, the other with hands draped, flanking Christ, decorated crossed nimbus, inscribed IC XC, behind draped altar, chalice in left hand, right hand extended toward group of six apostles headed by Evangelist John, three with hands draped, two with hands extended; architectural setting.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
B. Todic, Serbian medieval painting (Belgrade, 1999) p. 82 Babic, G., Kraljeva crkva (1987) , color pls. VIII‐XI, figs. 66‐72; diagram IV
813
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
428 Virgin Mary doubted Studenica, Serbia: Monastery, Church, Joachim and Anna 1314 Fresco Naos, east wall, zone 2, north side: 1) Virgin Mary: doubted, Testing with Water ‐‐ Within architectural setting, two figures (upper part destroyed); Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, hands extended toward vessel held by nimbed High Priest wearing headdress before draped altar beneath canopy; inscription; within prothesis niche, 2) half figure of nimbed bishop saint wearing vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion and polystavrion, book in draped left hand.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 St944 MyChJA D9,1 B2c‐B2d 118198 Millet, G., Peinture du moyen Age en Yougoslavie, III (1962), pl. 61 (3) Babic, G., Kraljeva crkva (1987) , fig. 128; diagram V
814
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
429 Joachim: Offerings rejected Studenica, Serbia: Monastery, Church, Joachim and Anna 1314 Fresco Naos, east wall, zone 2, south side: Joachim: Offerings rejected ‐‐ Within architectural setting, High Priest nimbed, wearing headdress, beneath altar canopy before which are Joachim holding lamb and Anna veiled, vessel in left hand, both nimbed; inscription; within diaconicon niche.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 St944 MyChJA D9,1 B2e‐B2h 118095 Petkovic, V., Peinture serbe du moyen Age, II (1934), pl. XLVI Babic, G., Kraljeva crkva (1987) , fig. 119; diagram V
815
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
430 Presentation in the Temple Studenica, Serbia: Monastery, Church, Joachim and Anna 1314 Fresco Naos, north wall, zone 2: Virgin Mary: Presentation; and Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Joachim and Anna veiled, both nimbed, hands raised, beside seven Daughters of Hebrews, one veiled, the others wearing fillets, all carrying lighted tapers behind child Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, inscribed ʺMother of Godʺ (Greek), draped hands raised toward nimbed High Priest wearing headdress and inscribed mantle, hands extended; nimbed angel wearing fillet, descending, extending loaf toward Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, inscribed ʺMother of Godʺ (Greek), draped hands raised, seated on cathedra beneath canopy; architectural setting; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill.
Bibliography
INDEX‐31 St944 MyChJA D9,1 B2q‐B2t, B3e 118194 Millet, G., Peinture du moyen Age en Yougoslavie, III (1962), pl. 58 (4) ; 31 St944 MyChJA D9,1 B2r 118196 Millet, G., Peinture du moyen Age en Yougoslavie, III (1962), pl. 60 (2) Babic, G., Kraljeva crkva (1987) , color pls. XXVII‐XXVIII; figs. 126‐127; diagram VII
816
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
431 Miracle of Bethesda Pool Thessaloniki, Greece: Church, H. Demetrios, Chapel of H. Euthymios 1303 Fresco Damaged. north wall, zone 2, 2 In arch spandrel. Christ: Miracle of Bethesda Pool Christ: Miracle of Bethesda Pool ‐‐ At the left, Christ cross‐nimbed is seated, raising his right hand toward the paralytic carrying his bed on his back. Four apostles stand behind Christ. In the background, the arched canopy of the Bethesda Pool is seen within an architectural setting.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 T3446 ChDe 11,1 D2bb‐D2bc 159504 DOP 32 (1978), fig. 16 foll. p. 216 Soteriou, G. & M., Hagios Demetrios (1952) , II, pl. 87b; Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺChrist as Ministrant,ʺ Dumbarton Oaks Papers, XXXII (1978) , fig. 16; Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺFrescoes of the Parekklesion of St. Euthymios,ʺ Twilight of Byzantium, Princeton, 1989 (1991) , fig. 14
817
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
432 Purging of Temple Thessaloniki, Greece: Church, H. Demetrios, Chapel of H. Euthymios 1303 Fresco Damaged. Nave, south wall, zone 2, 3 Christ: Purging of Temple Christ: Purging of Temple ‐‐ Christ cross‐nimbed holds a scourge in his right hand, extended behind Him, and places his left hand on the shoulder of a money‐changer who holds a box. At their feet are an overturned table, and sheep and goats. In the background of the architectural setting at the left there is a draped altar‐canopy representing the temple. At the upper right is a group of money‐changers and merchants (mutilated).
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 T3446 ChDe 11,1 D3bc 159502 DOP 32 (1978), fig. 12 foll. p. 216 Soteriou, G. & M., Hagios Demetrios (1952) , II, pl. 86a; Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺChrist as Ministrant,ʺ DOP 32 (1978) , fig. 12; Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺFrescoes of the Parekklesion of St. Euthymios,ʺ Twilight of Byzantium, Princeton, 1989 (1991) , fig. 13
818
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
433 Euthymius the Great ordained Lector Thessaloniki, Greece: Church, H. Demetrios, Chapel of H. Euthymios 1303 Fresco Damaged. North aisle, north wall, zone 2, 1 Euthymius the Great: Scene, ordained Lector ‐‐ Within an architectural setting, Eudoxius of Melitene II and Dionysia of Melitene veiled, stand behind Euthymius the Great nimbed, as a child. Otreius of Melitene nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion, placing his right hand on Euthymius’ head, and holding a book in his left hand, stands before an altar beneath an altar‐canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 T3446 ChDe 11,1 E2ba‐E2bb 162002 Athens, Benaki Museum 16715 (P.95.23) Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺSt. Euthymios in Thessalonica,ʺ Art Bulletin, LVIII (1976) , fig. 11; Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺFrescoes of the Parekklesion of St. Euthymios,ʺ Twilight of Byzantium, Princeton, 1989 (1991) fig. 27
819
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
434 Christ Teaching in the Temple Manasija, Serbia 1407‐17 fresco
Stojaković, A. Arhitektonski prostor u slikarstvu srednjovekovne Srbije. Novi Sad: Matica Srpska, 1970.
820
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
435 Communion of the Apostles Staro Nagorično 1317 fresco
Source of ill. Bibliography
Stojaković, A (1970).
821
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
436 Communion of the Apostles Nova Pavlica 1381‐1386 fresco
Source of ill. Bibliography
Stojaković, A (1970).
822
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
437 Communion of the Apostles and Christ Universal Patriarch Lesnovo, F.Y.R.o.M. c. 1346 fresco
Gabelić (1998) Pl. IX Gabelić (1998)
823
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
438 Communion of the Apostles Thessaloniki, Greece: Church, H. Nicholas Orphanos second decade 14c. Fresco Sanctuary, east wall, zone 3, 3 Christ: Communion Christ: Communion ‐‐ Under altar‐canopy behind altar draped with cross‐ inscribed cloth, nimbed angel wearing stephane and deacon’s vestments, holding two flabella decorated with seraphim, behind Christ inscribed IC XC, cross‐nimbed, wearing sakkos decorated with medallions enclosing crosses, extending chalice toward group of twelve? apostles, headed by Evangelist John, hands extended, and including another apostle with hands extended. Iscription reads: “And taking the cup and haven given thanks. He gave it to them, saying, All of you drink from this; for this is my blood” (Mat. 26:27‐28)
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ch. Bakirtzis, Hagios Nikolaos Orphanos (Athens, 2003) Xyngopoulos, A., Nikolaos Orphanos (1964) , figs. 73‐75 ; Mavropoulou‐ Tsioumi, C., St. Nicholas Orphanos (1986) , p. 20; pl. 13; Tsitouridou, A., Nikolaos Orphanos (1986) , pp. 73‐76; pl. 13
824
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
439 Communion of the Apostles Nicholas Orphanos, Thessaloniki, Greece c. 1320 fresco
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ch. Bakirtzis, Hagios Nikolaos Orphanos (Athens, 2003)
825
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
440 Presentation of Christ into the temple Nicholas Orphanos, Thessaloniki, Greece c. 1320 fresco
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ch. Bakirtzis, Hagios Nikolaos Orphanos (Athens, 2003)
826
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
441 Nicholas of Myra ordained Deacon Thessaloniki, Greece: Church, H. Nicholas Orphanos second decade 14c. fresco Narthex, east wall, zone 1, center, upper register, 3 Nicholas of Myra: Scene, ordained Deacon Nicholas of Myra: Scene, ordained Deacon ‐‐ Within architectural setting, three deacons, one with right hand extended, behind Nicholas of Myra nimbed, wearing deacon’s vestments, hands clasped, bending forward over draped altar, behind which is nimbed bishop saint, right hand extended toward Nicholas’s head, book in left hand; altar canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Ch. Bakirtzis, Hagios Nikolaos Orphanos (Athens, 2003) Xyngopoulos, A., Nikolaos Orphanos (1964) , figs. 108, 181 ; Sevcenko, N., Saint Nicholas (1983) , pp. 42, 77, 83; pl. 23.3; Tsitouridou, A., Nikolaos Orphanos (1986) , pp. 162‐163; pl. 64
827
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
442 Ordination of St. Nicholas to the priesthood and consecration as a bishop Thessaloniki, Greece: Church, H. Nicholas Orphanos second decade 14c. fresco
Ch. Bakirtzis, Hagios Nikolaos Orphanos (Athens, 2003)
828
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
443 Evangelist Luke Athens, Greece: Library, National Library, 150, fol. 108v mid 14c. Illuminated Manuscript, New Testament miniature, full‐page, interspersed Athens, Greece: Library, National Library, 150 Evangelist, Luke 1. Portrait Beneath canopy at top of architectural frame of lobate arch supported on brackets, Evangelist Luke nimbed, name inscribed, seated on cushioned bench, feet on footstool, with pen in right hand writing beginning of Luke 1:1 on parchment in left hand, before scroll with Arabic inscription draped over lectern above desk on which are writing utensils including inkwells, knife and scissors and within which is jar.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 A86 LNa 38,108B 161340 Athens, National Library, Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, II (1985), color fig. 357 Athens, National Library, Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, II (1985) , pp. 178, 182‐183; fig. 357
829
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
444 Ark of the Covenant Lesnovo, F.Y.R.oM. c. 1346 fresco
Gabelić (1998)
830
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
445 Ark of the Covenant, Moses Chapel. Mt. Sinai, St. Catherine Monastery 14th‐15th c. drawing and detail of the apse
Kessler, H. L. “ ‘Thou Shalt Paint the Likeness of Christ Himself’: The Mosaic Prohibition as Provocation for Christian Images.” Jewish Art 23‐24 (1997‐98): 124‐139.
831
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
446 Vision of St. Peter of Alexandria Metropolis, Mystra, Greece 13th c fresco
Millet (1910) pl. 82, fig. 2
832
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
447 Vision of Heavenly Fire H. Demetrios, Chapel of H. Euthymios; Greece, Thessaloniki 1303 fresco Damaged. North aisle, north wall, zone 2, 5 Euthymius the Great: Scene, Vision of Descent of Heavenly Fire ‐‐ Within an architectural setting, a group of men, including a monk and Terevon of Arabia, hand raised to face, stand in the left background. Euthymius the Great nimbed, wearing priestʹs vestments, bending forward, holds a scroll inscribed with the Prayer during the Cherubicon. He stands before a draped altar on which there is a book. Behind the altar a deacon stands. Over the altar is an altar‐canopy. Euthymius, the altar, and the deacon are all enveloped by two streams of fire.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 T3446 ChDe 11,1 E2be 161999 Athens, Benaki Museum 16729 (P.95.37) Soteriou, G. & M., Hagios Demetrios (1952) , II, pl. 89b Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺSt. Euthymios in Thessalonica,ʺ ArtBull LVIII (1976) , fig. 13 Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺChrist as Ministrant,ʺ DOP XXXII (1978) , fig. 26 Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺFrescoes of the Parekklesion of St. Euthymios,ʺ Twilight of Byzantium, Princeton, 1989 (1991) fig. 30 Gerstel, S., ʺLiturgical Scrolls in the Byzantine Sanctuary,ʺ Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, XXXV (1994) , pp. 199‐200; pl. 2
833
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
448 Christ: Communion; Christ: reading in Synagogue H. Demetrios, Chapel of H. Euthymios; Greece, Thessaloniki 1303 fresco Damaged. Sanctuary, south wall, zone 2 Christ: Communion ‐‐ Within an architectural setting, under an altar‐ canopy, Christ cross‐nimbed, stands behind an altar with curtains, extending a chalice toward six apostles, including Evangelist John, beardless, all bending forward, gesturing. Behind the apostles, a nimbed angel stands, wearing stephane and deaconʹs vestments, left hand raised and holding a flabellum in his right hand.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐31 T3446 ChDe 11,1 A5b 159499 DOP XXXII (1978), fig. 5 foll. p. 216 Soteriou, G. & M., Hagios Demetrios (1952) , II, pl. 85b Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺChrist as Ministrant,ʺ DOP XXXII (1978) , fig. 5 Gouma‐Peterson, T., ʺFrescoes of the Parekklesion of St. Euthymios,ʺ Twilight of Byzantium, Princeton, 1989 (1991) , fig. 6
834
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
449 The Elevation of the Cross on the ambo with a canopy Gračanica, Kosovo, Serbia 14th c fresco
B. Todić, Gračanica slikarstvo (Beograd‐Pristina, 1988)
835
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
450 The Church and State Council – Council of St. Sava of Serbia St. Demetrios, Peć, Kosovo, Serbia 1336‐48 fresco Vault of the western bay Canopy inscribed as “sabor” the Old Church Slavinic counterpart for the Greek word Kouvouklion
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
V. Djuric, Pecka patrijarsija (Belgrade, 1990) fig. 129
836
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
451 Virgin and Child Pecka patrijarsija, Kosovo, Serbia Ca. 1330 c Fresco South wall, narthex of Archbishop Danilo II Virgin Galaktophilousa
Source of ill. Bibliography
V. Djuric, Pecka patrijarsija (Belgrade, 1990) fig. 81
837
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
452 Communion of the Apostles Pecka Patrijarsija, church of the Holy Apostles, Kosovo, Serbia Ca. 1260 Altar space vault, south side
V. Djuric, Pecka patrijarsija (Belgrade, 1990), fig. 15
838
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
453 Epitaphios with Maria of Mangop Monastery of Putna, Romania c. 1476 Textile, epitaphios Maria Mangrop is embroidered within a canopy‐like niche‐tomb; the arch is decorated with an interlace alternating with the monogram of Maria of Mangop, swastikas and other geometrical motifs inscribed in medallions.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Faith and Power (c2004) 29 Faith and Power (c2004) 59, with further references
839
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
454 Christ stoned Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript; Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 238v London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Christ: stoned (John 8:59) ‐‐ Three Jews throwing stones at Christ nimbed; altar under altar‐canopy; to right, Christ looking backward, and three apostles, all nimbed, departing; trees; text in Slavonic
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,238B 022969 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 114 (311) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) , p. 53; pl. 114 (311) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) , fig. 311
840
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
455 Purging of Temple Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript, Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 217v London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Christ: Purging of Temple (John 2:15) ‐‐ Altar under altar‐canopy; Christ nimbed, stick in right hand, driving out money changers, one carrying book; stool; book on ground; bowls and jars; money; birds flying.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,217B B 022948 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 106 (288) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 52; pl. 106 (287‐288) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) , figs. 287‐ 288; color pl. L
841
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
456 Widowʹs Mite (Luke 21:1‐4) Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript, Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 199r London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Christ: Widowʹs Mite (Luke 21:1‐4) ‐‐ Two nimbed apostles with Christ cross‐ nimbed, seated on cushioned bench with footstool, arm extended toward group of men; widow standing near altar on which are two mites, under altar canopy; group of rich men.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,199A 022915 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 93 (254) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 50; pl. 93 (254) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) fig. 254
842
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
457 Parable, Pharisee and Publican (Luke 18:10‐13) Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript, Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 191v London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Christ: Parable, Pharisee and Publican (Luke 18:10‐13) ‐‐ Pharisee, arms outspread, and publican nimbed, arms crossed, ray descending to him from arc of heaven, both standing beside altar on which is book, under altar‐canopy; to right, Christ: Suffer Little Children (Luke 18:16‐17) ‐‐ Christ nimbed, hand on head of one of group of children; two nimbed apostles; trees.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,191B 022908 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 90 (247) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 49; pl. 90 (247) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) fig. 247
843
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
458 Naming (Luke 1:63) Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript; Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 140v London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 John Baptist: Naming (Luke 1:63) ‐‐ Zacharias nimbed, wearing headdress, seated on cushioned bench with footstool, writing in book, before Elizabeth holding John, both nimbed; group of men; altar under canopy.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,140B 022543 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 69 (181) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 46; pl. 69 (181) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) fig. 181
844
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
459 Zacharias speechless Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript; Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 138v London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Zacharias: speechless Zacharias: Annunciation; Furniture, Liturgical: Altar‐ canopy Zacharias: speechless (Luke 1:22) ‐‐ Zacharias nimbed, standing before group of people; to right, Zacharias: Annunciation (Luke 1:11‐20) ‐‐ Zacharias nimbed, swinging censer before altar under canopy; nimbed angel.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,140B 022543 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 69 (181) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 46; pl. 68 (177 Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) fig. 177
845
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
460 Miracle of healing Blind Born (John 9:24‐34) Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript; Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 241r London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Christ: Miracle of healing Blind Born (John 9:24‐34) ‐‐ Group of Jews and blind man; altar under altar‐canopy; to right, group of Jews casting out blind man; to right, (John 9:35‐38) ‐‐ Blind man before Christ nimbed, arm extended, attended by two nimbed apostles; tree.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,241A 022974 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 116 (315) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 54; pl. 116 (315) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) fig. 315
846
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
461 Death of Zacharias Bulgaria, Turnovo 1356 Illuminated Manuscript; Gospel Book of John Alexander, fol. 69r London: Library, British Library, Add.39627 Cain killing Abel (Matthew 23:35) ‐‐ Cain killing Abel with stone; to right, Zacharias, Son of Barachias: murdered (Matthew 23:35) ‐‐ Four armed guards; man killing Zacharias nimbed, kneeling before altar under altar‐ canopy; building; trees.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 L84 MBr 59,69A 022441 Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934), pl. 29 (76) Filov, B., Evangile du roi Jean Alexandre (1934) p. 39; pl. 29 (76) Zhivkova, L., Tetraevangeliar des Zaren Ivan Alexandar (1977) fig. 76
847
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
462 Annunciation to Zacharias Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessaloniki, Greece c.1314. Fresco. Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessaloniki, north ambulatory, Chapel of St. John the Baptist, pendentive
Source of ill. Bibliography
848
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
463 Akathistos Hymn cycle: Young Christ Enthroned with Bishops and Clergy Church of St. Nicholas Orphanos, Thessaloniki, Greece c.1310‐20. Fresco. Church of St. Nicholas Orphanos, Thessaloniki, north ambulatory, south wall Young Christ Enthroned, canopy in the background
849
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
464 Miracles of St. Demetrios Staro Nagoricino, F.Y.R.o.M. 1315‐1317 fresco north wall of the naos
B. Todic, Serbian medieval painting (Belgrade, 1999) plate XX
850
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
465 Purification of the temple Hilandar katholikon, Mt. Athos 1320‐21 Temple depicted as a canopy with curtains
Source of ill. Bibliography
B. Todic, Serbian medieval painting (Belgrade, 1999) XLII
851
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
466 Presentation of the Virgin in the temple Hilandar katholikon, Mt. Athos 1320‐21
Source of ill. Bibliography
B. Todic, Serbian medieval painting (Belgrade, 1999) XLIII
852
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
467 Communion of the Aposltes Gracanica, Kosovo, Serbia 1319‐21 fresco
B. Todic, Serbian medieval painting (Belgrade, 1999) p. 89
853
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
468 Communion of the apostles Bogorodica Ljeviška, Prizren, Kosovo, Serbia 1309‐1313 fresco
Source of ill. Bibliography
B. Todic, Serbian medieval painting (Belgrade, 1999) XII
854
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
469 Canopy for the icon, Ms. 34.3, fol 194r 14th c Manuscript, tempera on vellum Benaki museum, Athens Canopy with curtains and a canopy‐like shrine for the icon of the Virgin with Christ child, installed outdoors
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 63 Faith and Power (c2004) 143‐152.
855
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
470 Communion of the Apostles Iviron monastery, Mt. Athos Late 15th c Manuscript, Greco‐Georgian Communion of the apostles, canopy on three columns
Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 175
856
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
471 Icon of St. Catherine, Mt. Sinai 14‐15 c icon
Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 201 detail
857
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
472 Presentation of Christ into Temple Pecka Patrijarsija, Kosovo, Serbia, church of the Holy Apostles Ca. mid‐14th c Fresco South wall of the choir In the uppermost part presentation of Christ into Temple; below St. Theodor from Tyre, and St. Theodor Stratilat; St. Mercurios, and Procopoios
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
Pecka Patrijarsija , fig. 139
858
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
473 Temptation, Church of Christ in Chora Constantinople early 14c. Mosaic Outer narthex, vault, bay 2: Christ: Temptation ‐‐ In landscape with trees, winged devil, stone in left hand, right hand extended toward Christ cross‐nimbed, inscribed IC XC, right hand raised, roll in left hand, beside stones in rectangular container; inscriptions of Matthew 4:3 and 4:4; six crowned kings, four holding scepters, seated within city wall, indicated by winged devil, head turned toward Christ cross‐nimbed, inscribed IC XC, right hand extended, roll in left hand; inscriptions of Matthew 4:9 and 4:10; Christ (lower part destroyed) cross‐nimbed, inscribed IC XC, roll in left hand, right hand raised toward winged devil at top of mountain, gesturing ahead; winged devil (lower part destroyed) gesturing downward and toward Christ cross‐ nimbed, inscribed IC XC, right hand extended, roll in left hand, on roof of draped building beside draped altar beneath altar‐canopy; inscriptions of Matthew 4:5, 4:6 and 4:7.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐42 C758 ChKD 10,1 E2 106281 Washington, Byzantine Institute Underwood, P., Kariye Djami (1966) , I, pp. 114‐117; II, pls. 216, 222‐227; Underwood, P., ʺMinistry Cycles,ʺ Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami (1975) 277 ff
859
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
474 Offerings Rejected, Church of Christ in Chora Constantinople early 14c./ 1315‐21 Mosaic Inner narthex, north wall, pendentives. at northwest and northeast of bay 1: Joachim: Offerings rejected ‐‐ Trees and draped buildings flanking enclosure in which is altar beneath altar‐canopy; behind gate of the enclosure, High Priest nimbed, wearing headdress, hands raised toward Joachim and Anna (both destroyed; only fragment of tree remains of northeast pendentive; inscription (fragmentary).
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐42 C758 ChKD 10,2 A1a 105518 Washington, Byzantine Institute Underwood, P., Kariye Djami (1966) , I, pp. 60‐61; II, pls. 86‐87; Lafontaine‐ Dosogne, J., ʺLife of the Virgin,ʺ Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami (1975) 167‐168
860
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
475 Mary’s Life in Temple, Church of Christ in Chora Constantinople early 14c. Mosaic Inner narthex, east wall, arch between bays 3 and 4, soffit: Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Half figure of nimbed angel wearing fillet, descending, scepter in left hand, loaf in right extended toward young Virgin Mary inscribed, nimbed, veiled, hands raised, seated on cushioned cathedra, feet on topmost of three steps, beneath altar‐canopy; to left, Daughter of the Hebrews wearing fillet, seated on bench; architectural setting; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐42 C758 ChKD 10,2 B8 105560 Washington, Byzantine Institute Underwood, P., Kariye Djami (1966) , I, p. 74; II, pls. 126‐128; Lafontaine‐ Dosogne, J., ʺLife of the Virgin,ʺ Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami (1975) , pp. 181‐183
861
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
476 Calling of Suitors, Church of Christ in Chora Constantinople early 14c. Mosaic Inner narthex, west wall, arch between bays 2 and 3, soffit: Virgin Mary: Calling of Suitors ‐‐ Three steps behind young Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, draped hands raised, behind twelve rods, one flowering, on draped altar, all under altar‐canopy in enclosure before gates of which nimbed High Priest is prostrating himself; architectural setting with drapery tied to a column of the altar‐canopy; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐42 C758 ChKD 10,2 D6 105564 Washington, Byzantine Institute Underwood, P., Kariye Djami (1966) , I, pp. 78‐79; II, pls. 135‐137; Lafontaine‐ Dosogne, J., ʺLife of the Virgin,ʺ Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami (1975) 184‐186
862
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
477 Espousal, Church of Christ in Chora Constantinople early 14c. Mosaic Inner narthex, west wall, lunette of bay 2: Virgin Mary: Espousal ‐‐ Eleven rods on draped altar beneath altar‐ canopy in enclosure with open gate before which is High Priest nimbed, wearing headdress, left hand on veiled head of young Virgin Mary, draped hands raised, in his right hand extending flowering rod to Joseph nimbed, hands extended, advancing from group of fourteen? suitors, one with draped hands extended, two with left hands raised; tree; draped architectural setting; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐42 C758 ChKD 10,2 D7 105565 Washington, Byzantine Institute Underwood, P., Kariye Djami (1966) , I, pp. 79‐80; II, pls. 138‐142; Lafontaine‐Dosogne, J., ʺLife of the Virgin,ʺ Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami (1975) 184‐186
863
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
478 Presentation in Temple, Church of Christ in Chora Constantinople early 14c. Mosaic Inner narthex, vault of bay 3: Virgin Mary: Presentation, and Life in Temple, fed by Angel ‐‐ Joachim nimbed and Anna nimbed, veiled, both with right hands extended, following young Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, hands raised toward nimbed High Priest before enclosure in which is draped altar beneath altar‐canopy enclosing young Virgin Mary again represented, nimbed, veiled, seated in cathedra on third step, receiving loaf from nimbed, flying angel wearing fillet; all flanked by architectural setting with trees and two quail, with nine Daughters of the Hebrews, each holding candle, some veiled, some wearing fillets, emerging from building; inscription.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐42 C758 ChKD 10,2 H 105557 Washington, Byzantine Institute Underwood, P., Kariye Djami (1966) , I, pp. 72‐74; II, pls. 119‐125; Lafontaine‐ Dosogne, J., ʺLife of the Virgin,ʺ Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami (1975) 179‐181
864
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
479 Presentation in Temple, Serbian Psalter, fol. 59r Serbia 2/2 14c. ‐ early 15c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column, Very damaged. Munich: Library, Staatsbibliothek, slav.4 Psalm 45, verse 14 (LXX, Psalm 44, verse 15); Virgin Mary: Life in Temple, fed by Angel; Virgin Mary: Presentation; and Virgin Mary: Presentation, Preparation (all badly effaced) ‐‐ Under canopy, half figure of nimbed angel bringing food to Virgin, nimbed, veiled, seated on third step of altar; High Priest, nimbed, standing before altar, extending hands to Virgin nimbed, veiled, attended by Daughters of the Hebrews; Virgin nimbed, veiled, brought to temple by Anna and Joachim, both nimbed; tree.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 M96 LSs 48,59A 083860 Strzygowski, J., Die Miniaturen des serbischen Psalters (1906), pl. XV (32) Strzygowski, J., Die Miniaturen des serbischen Psalters (1906) , pl. XV (32); Der serbische Psalter, I (1978) , pp. 105, 205; Der serbische Psalter, II (1983) , color pl. fol. 59r
865
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
480 Presentation of Christ in Temple, Serbian Psalter, fol. 62r Serbia 2/2 14c. ‐ early 15c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column, Very damaged. Munich: Library, Staatsbibliothek, slav.4 Psalm 48, verses 8‐9 (LXX, Psalm 47, verses 9‐10); Christ: Presentation ‐‐ Prophetess Anna, nimbed, holding scroll inscribed ʺThis Child makes fast heaven and earth,ʺ pointing with left hand to bust of statue on pedestal rising from two wings surmounting small building; Simeon of Jerusalem nimbed, standing with draped hands beside altar before altar‐canopy; Virgin Mary inscribed, nimbed, veiled, holding Christ Child nimbed; Joseph the Carpenter, name inscribed, nimbed, holding two doves; book lying on altar; on doors in front of altar, Virgin Mary: Annunciation ‐‐ Archangel Gabriel and Virgin Mary, veiled, both nimbed, standing; inscription of scene title.
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 M96 LSs 48,62A 083863 Strzygowski, J., Die Miniaturen des serbischen Psalters (1906), pl. XVI (35) Strzygowski, J., Die Miniaturen des serbischen Psalters (1906) , pl. XVI (35); Der serbische Psalter, I (1978) , pp. 106, 206‐207; Der serbische Psalter, II (1983) , color pl. fol. 62r
866
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
481 The Annunciation, Serbian Psalter, fol. 211r Serbia 2/2 14c. ‐ early 15c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, column, Very damaged. Munich: Library, Staatsbibliothek, slav.4 Virgin Mary: Annunciation ‐‐ Within draped building, Gabriel nimbed, staff in left hand, right hand extended, striding; attendant seated on floor; Virgin Mary nimbed, veiled, holding two spindles, standing on podium before bench under canopy. Illustration for Akathistos Hymn, Stanza 2 (Kontakion 2).
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 M96 LSs 48,211A 083950 Strzygowski, J., Die Miniaturen des serbischen Psalters (1906), pl. LII (125) Strzygowski, J., Die Miniaturen des serbischen Psalters (1906) , pl. LII (125); Der serbische Psalter, I (1978) , pp. 164, 262; Der serbische Psalter, II (1983) , color pl. fol. 211r
867
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
482 Consecration of the altar, Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, gr.543, fol. 51v 1/2 14c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, two registers Paris: Library, Bibliotheque Nationale, gr.543 1) Apostle, Thomas: Incredulity ‐‐ Christ cross‐nimbed, roll in left hand, before closed door of draped building, flanked by two groups of apostles, including Thomas, right hand outstretched; below, below, 2) Gregory Nazianzen: Scene, Unidentified ‐‐ Gregory nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion and polystavrion, prostrate beside altar beneath altar‐canopy, flanked by two groups of clerics including four vested bishops, one holding book, and five deacons; to left and right, two altar tables; architectural setting (Scene, Liturgical: Consecration of Altar). Border of foliate ornament. Illustration for Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio XLIV (Homily III read on First Sunday after Easter). Image/text ass. Facing page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 44 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 152,51B 055529 Omont, H., Miniatures des manuscrits grecs (1929), pl. CXX (1) Omont (1929) 56; pl. CXX (1); Galavaris, G., Homilies of Gregory Nazianzenus (1969) 38‐40, 240; fig. 457
868
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
483 Koimesis of St Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, gr.543, fol. 130v 1/2 14c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, two registers Paris: Library, Bibliotheque Nationale, gr.543 1) Basil the Great: Scene, Obsequies ‐‐ Basil nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion, holding book, lying on draped bier beneath canopy, flanked by two groups of vested bishops holding candles, one nimbed, leaning over the body, possibly Gregory Nazianzen; two buildings; 2) Gregory Nazianzen: Scene, Funeral Oration ‐‐ Gregory nimbed, as bishop, holding inscribed scroll, beside sarcophagus beneath canopy; group of vested bishops, one holding book; two buildings. Border of foliate ornament. Illustration for Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio XLIII (Homily IX read on Feast of St. Basil, January 1). Facing page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 43 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 152,130B 055534 Omont (1929), pl. CXXII (2) Omont (1929) 57; pl. CXXII (2); Galavaris (1969) 240; fig. 461
869
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description
484 Koimesis of St Athanasios, Gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, gr.543, fol. 260v 1/2 14c. Illuminated Manuscript, miniature, full‐page, two registers Paris: Library, Bibliotheque Nationale, gr.543 1) Athanasius, Patriarch: Scene, Obsequies ‐‐ Athanasius nimbed, wearing bishop’s vestments with cross‐inscribed omophorion, holding book, lying on draped bier beneath canopy, flanked by group of monks wearing habits and group of vested bishops, one holding book, swinging censer; architectural setting; below, 2) Gregory Nazianzen: Scene, Funeral Oration ‐‐ Gregory Nazianzen nimbed, as bishop, holding scroll, behind sarcophagus flanked by two groups of vested bishops; architectural setting. Border of foliate ornament. Illustration for Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio XXI (Homily XIII read on Feast of Patriarch Athanasius, January 18). Image/text ass. Facing page Incipit Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio 21 Greek
Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
INDEX‐32 P23 LNa 152,260B 055537 Omont (1929), pl. CXXIV (1) Omont (1929) , p. 57; pl. CXXIV (1); Galavaris (1969) , p. 240; fig. 466
870
Number Title Place of origin Date Dimensions Medium Condition Location Subject Description Illustration
Source of ill. Bibliography
485 Mourning of Alexander the Great Fol. 191 15th c Manuscript, full page illustration Sofia, Bulgaria The Tomb of Alexander the Great depicted as a canopy
Maksimović, J. Srpske srednjovekovne minijature [Serbian medieval illuminated manuscripts] Beograd: SANU, c1983 Maksimović (c1983)
871
CANOPIES: THE FRAMING OF SACRED SPACE IN THE BYZANTINE ECCLESIASTICAL TRADITION. Volume 4 Jelena Bogdanović A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY Adviser: Prof. Slobodan Ćurčić June 2008
Fig. 486 Small cubic capital, potentially coming from church furnishing, ‐‐ canopy? Archaeological Museum, Istanbul [D.O. Bouras 20‐16‐11]
872
Fig. 487 Capital addorsed birds with center palmette in heart shape, Small, cubic capital, H.185 m dia.12m, White marble, Archaeological Museum, Istanbul, capital #924 [D.O. Ch. Bouras #20‐17‐4, ref. Mendel. II, 751]
873
Fig. 488 Small cubic capital with inscribed circular medallion (Inscription: Kurie), H .024m, diam. 0.245, marble, Museum of Antiquities, Istanbul, neg. museum 1762 [D.O. 2001.00786; Bibl. Mendel, II, no. 753]
874
Fig. 489 Capital for a canopy ? [Faith and Power, cat. no. 57]
875
Fig. 490 Figurative capitals for a canopy ?, Constantinople, said to have been found in 1905 during construction on the grounds of the Istanbul Archaeological museum, inv. 71.148, marked no. 1573; Early 1300s; Proconnesian marble, 34.5 x 15 cm [Faith and Power, cat. no 55.]
876
Fig. 491 Figurative capital for a canopy ?;Constantinople, excavation Fethye Cammi; early 14th c ? marble; Archaeological museum, Istanbul, inv. No. 71.147 Four‐sided capital decorated with busts of nimbed figures. One of the fugires is pointing towards something, presumably that which stood inside the space that this capital framed. Four‐sided high‐relief decoration suggest that the capital was part of a canopy‐like structure [Photo J. Bogdanović]
877
Fig. 492 Figurative capital for a canopy ?;Constantinople, excavation Fethye Cammi; early 14th c ? marble; Archaeological museum, Istanbul [Photo J. Bogdanović]
878
Fig. 493 Capital with the cantilevered top to support the supra‐structure, potentially a roof of a canopy?, Virgin Peribleptos [Faith and Power, cat. no. 50]
879
Fig. 494 Figurative capital for a canopy ?, Constantinople, provenance unknown, first half 14th c ?, marble Archaeological museum, Istanbul, inv. No. 940, cat. No. 758 Four‐sided capital decorated with a bust of a nimbed figure with an open scroll in hands; high‐ relief carving of all one side and decorative carving on the other three sides suggest use for a canopy or similar structure where all four sides of a capital would have been visible; the capital rested on two supports, suggesting perhaps twin‐column beneath, usually seen in proskynetaria canopies, or templa. [Photo J. Bogdanović]
880
Fig. 495 Capital with monogram Alexios that might have belonged to a canopy; Constantinople, Fethye mosque; 14th c; marble; Archaeological museum, Istanbul, inv. No 1235 T [Photo J. Bogdanović]
881
Fig. 496 Capital with monograms in roundels; capital might have belonged to a canopy; Constantinople, Fethye mosque; 14th c; marble; Archaeological museum, Istanbul [Photo J. Bogdanović]
882
Fig. 500 Capital for a canopy ? [Faith and Power, 36A, 36B]
883
Fig. 501 Capital for a canopy ?, 12th‐13th c [Glory of Byz, cat. no. 4]
884
Fig. 502 Capital for a canopy ?, 11th c, Kiev [Glory of Byz, cat. no. 194]
885
Fig. 503 Canopy fragment, Kotor, Montenegro, 11th c [Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122.]
886
Fig. 504 Canopy fragment, Kotor, Montenegro, 11th c [Vežić (2001‐02) 91‐122.]
887
Fig. 505 Canopy fragments, 6th c, Byzantine, limestone Sam Fog Museum, London, inv. no. 10991 [Public domain]
888
Fig. 506 Fragmentary marble arch with bust figures from the Lips monastery, Constantinople, late 13th or early 14th c [Faith and Power, fig. 4.10]
889
Fig. 507 Fragmentary marble arch with acanthus leaves from Constantinople and marble column with inlaid (part of the liturgical furnishing, possibly, canopy) from Hag. Euphemia, today in the Archeological Museum, Istanbul [Photo J. Bogdanović]
890
Fig. 508 Marble column with inlaid (part of the liturgical furnishing, possibly, canopy) from Hag. Ioannes in Hebdomon, today in the Archeological Museum, Istanbul [Photo J. Bogdanović]
891
Fig. 509 Fragmentary marble arch with bust figure of an angel found near Pantokrator monastery, Constantinople, late 13th or early 14th c [Faith and Power, fig. 4.10]
892
Fig. 510 Reconstruction drawing of the tomb of Michael Tornikes (d. c. 1328) and his wife, south pareklession, Chora monastery, Constantinople [Faith and Power, fig. 4.2]
893
Fig. 511 Reconstruction drawing of the tomb of the despot Demetrios Palaelogos (d. after 1340) and his wife, inner narthex, Chora monastery, Constantinople [Faith and Power, fig. 4.11]
894
Fig. 512 The tomb of the Istacidii, Pompeii, reign of Augustus, c. 79 [Weber, Marga. Baldachine und Statuenschreine. Roma: G. Bretschneider Editore, 1990.]
895
Fig. 513 The mausoleum of the Julii, S. Rémy, France c. 30‐20 BCE. [Weber, Marga. Baldachine und Statuenschreine. Roma: G. Bretschneider Editore, 1990.]
896
Fig. 514 Late Roman mausoleum, Dana, Syria [Colvin, Howard. Architecture and the After‐Life. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1991.]
897
Fig. 515 The tomb of St. Babylas, 4th c [ECBA (1986), fig. 34]
898
Fig. 516 Tetrapylon at Aphrodisias [image in the public domain]
899
A
B Fig. 517 Schematic reconstruction of the spatial position of the veil of the desert Tabernacle according to Ex. 26:32: A ‐ in a straight line; B – as a square‐based enclosure [drawing J. Bogdanović]
900
Fig. 518 Moses Communicating with God [up] The Tabernacle [bottom], Ashburnham Pentateuch, Bibl. Nat. N.Acq.lat.2334, fol. 76r, 6th –7th c. [Beckwith, John. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. New Haven/London: Yale UP, 1993.]
901
Fig. 519 The Myrophores at the Tomb. London, British Library. Cod. Add. 7169, folio 12v (detail). [M. Evangelatou (2002)]
902
Fig. 520 Vienna, Mekhitharist Library. Cod. 697, folio 6r. [M. Evangelatou (2002)]
903
Fig. 521 Adysh, Treasury. Loose folio from a gospel. [M. Evangelatou (2002)]
904
Fig. 522 Canopy roof of an early Imperial honorific monument at Sagalassos, Turkey [M.‐H. Gates, “Archeology in Turkey” AJA 99/2 (1995) 207‐255, fig. 21.]
905
Fig. 523 Hodegetria icon and detail showing procession of the icon sheltered by a canopy‐ umbrella. Kremlin Museums
906
Fig. 524 Epitaphios (koubuklion), Church of the Virgin, Hosios Loukas Monastery, Post‐byzantine [Photo J. Bogdanović]
907
Fig. 525 Tomb of Christ, Gracanica, Post‐byzantine [Photo S. Ćurčić]
908
Fig. 526 Altar Canopy, Docheiariou monastery, Mt. Athos, Greece, Katholikon [Dolger, Monchsland Athos, p. 247, pl. 56]
909
Fig. 527 Altar Canopy, Vatopedi, Mt. Athos, Greece, katholikon [D.O. A15]
910
Fig. 528 Wooden canopy over the lectern in the refectory, Great Lavra, Mt. Athos, Greece, post‐ Byzantine [D.O. Dolger BF.P.2002.001208]
911
Fig. 529 Phiale – Great Lavra, Post‐Byzantine Detail of the interior of the dome [Soteriou]
912
Fig. 530 Phiale, Hilandar, Mt. Athos, 18th c
913
Fig. 531 Phiale, Iviron, Mt. Athos, Greece [unpublished, axial communication emphasized by two doorways with curtains] [D.O. Dolger BF.P.2002.001222]
914
Fig. 532 Great Lavra Monastery, Architectural setting of the tomb of St. Athanasios the Athonite (ca. 925‐1001) in red and the depiction of the altar canopy in the apse. [According to Grigorovich‐Barskii]
915
Fig. 533 Altar canopy and canopy‐shrine of St. Catherine, Saint Catherine monastery, Sinai, Egypt, Post‐Byzantine [Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 11.6]
916
Fig. 534 Proskynetaria icons, Samos Makrini [Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, figs. 17‐18]
917
Fig. 535 Proskynetaria icons from the church of St. George, Kurbinovo, F.Y.R.O.M. [Kalopissi‐Verti (2006) 107‐134, figs. 8‐9]
918
Fig. 536 Altar screen with cherubim, Karan, Serbia [Babić (1975): 3‐49]
919
Fig. 537 Altar screen with cherubim, South‐eastern pillar, western side, 1196, Nereditsa, Russia [Sarabianov (2005): 83‐98]
920
Fig. 538 Danae cast ashore, Pompeii, c. 79, drawing after wall painting. [Murray (1981) drawing, color image public domain]
921
Fig. 539 Attic kalyx‐krater by the Triptolemus Painter, c. 480 BCE, now kept in St. Petersburg’s Hermitage [Murray (1981)]
922
Fig. 540 Apamea‐Kobotos coin, 2nd or 3rd c. [Weitzmann, Kurt, ed. Age of Spirituality: A Symposium. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, c. 1980b.]
923
Fig. 541 Noah in the Ark, Cubiculum F, Catacomb of Pamphilus, Rome [E. Josi, ʺCimitero di Panfilo, I,ʺ Rivista di archeologia cristiana, I (1924) 108 ff.; figs. 56‐6]
924
Fig. 542 Noah in the Ark, Catacombs of Petrus and Marcellinus, Rome, l.3rd‐e.4th c [Wilpert, J., ʺPitture nel cimitero dei SS. Pietro e Marcellino,ʺ Nuovo bullettino di archeologia cristiana, VI (1900) p. 93]
925
Fig. 543 Noah in the Ark, Catacomb of Sts. Petrus and Marcellinus, Cubiculum 21, Rome, 4th c, wall painting. [INDEX]
926
Fig. 544 Noah in the Ark, Catacomb of Sts. Petrus and Marcellinus, Cubiculum 19, Rome, 4th c, wall painting. [Murray (1981), INDEX]
927
Fig. 545 Noah’s Ark, Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes, 11th c., Mount Sinai: Saint Catherine Monastery, Cod. 1186, fol. 94v, manuscript page. [Gutmann, Joseph. Sacred Images: Studies in Jewish Art from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Northampton: Variorum Reprints, 1989.]
928
Fig. 546 Dura Europos synagogue, west wall. Torah niche and the central panel above the Torah shrine, b. 256. / ca. 240s [Weitzmann, Kurt and Herbert L. Kessler. The Frescoes of the Dura Synagogue and Christian Art. DOS 28, Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, c. 1990.]
929
Fig. 547 Ark of Nabratein. In the center is a photograph of the pediment of the ark. Below the photograph is drawing of the fragment. Above both is a reconstruction of the ark as it may have appeared in the synagogue. [Hoppe, Leslie J. The Synagogues and Churches of Ancient Palestine. Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical P, 1994.]
930
Fig. 548 Bar Kochba coins, Jerusalem, Israel Museum, 132‐135. [public domain]
931
Fig. 549 Ark of the Law, Ritual Objects, Beth Alpha synagogue, 6th c., ground plan and detail of floor mosaic. [Sukenik, Eleazar L. Ancient Synagogue in Palestine and Greece. London: The British Academy, 1930.]
932
Fig. 550 Synagogue at Beth Alpha, 6th c., plan and floor mosaic [Meek, H.A. The Synagogues. London: Phaidon P, 1995.]
933
Fig. 551 Beth Shean, Jerusalem, Synagogue floor mosaic with temple façade and implements, 6th c, Israel Museum [Weitzmann, Kurt, ed. Age of Spirituality: A Symposium. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, c. 1980b.]
934
Fig. 552 Naro (Hammam‐Lif), Tunisia, second half 5th c., fragments of a synagogue floor Beth Shean. Temple facade with tabernacle and implements. [Weitzmann, Kurt, ed. Age of Spirituality: A Symposium. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, c. 1980b.]
935
Fig. 553 Synagogue, Khirbet Samara, floor mosaic. [Meek, H.A. The Synagogues. London: Phaidon P, 1995.]
936
Fig. 554 Aaron in front of the tabernacle., Basilewsky Pyxis., St Petersburg, Hermitage Museum [M. Evangelatou (2002)]
937
Fig. 555 Early Christian marble plaque from the church of Sustia, east of the Sea of Galilee [Piccirillo (2006) 51‐113, fig. on p.73.]
938
Fig. 556 Graffito from Kellia, Egypt, 7th c [Bolman (2006) 73‐106, fig 23]
939
Fig. 557 Statue of Goddess in Aedicula, Codex Arcerianus, Wolfenbuttel, Herzog August Bibliothek, 36.22, Aug. 2, fol. 74v [Nordenfalk (1973) 233‐258, fig. 6]
940
Fig. 558 Prudentius Psychomachia, Leiden, University Library, Codex Burmannorum Q.3 fol. 148v, 9th c., manuscript page. [Kühnel (1987)]
941
Fig. 559 Marble slab from the tomb of the ”Porta Silvri” in Constantinople; Archaeological Museum, Istanbul, slab has canopied structure and cross behind curtains, orant figures [Photo J. Bogdanović; see also Th. F. Mathews, I sarcophago di Constantinopoli come fonta iconographica” in XLI Corso di Cultura sull’arte ravennate e bizantina (Ravena, 1994) 313‐335, fig. 4 for the image when the slab was in one piece]
942
Fig. 560 Stela for Anna, with cross within a shell headed niche, Fayum. [Thomas, Thelma K. Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture. Images for This World and the Next. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2000.]
943
Fig. 561 Menas of Phrygia, Ivory pyxis, 6th c, Egypt, Alexandria? (London: Museum, British Museum, inv. no M & LA 79,12‐20,1) [New York, Metropolitan Museum, Age of Spirituality (1979) cat. 514]
944
Fig. 562 St. Menas, ivory plaque, ca. 6th c (?), from Alexandria, today in Milan, Museo d’Arte Antica [INDEX]
945
Fig. 563 St. Demetrios in front of his shrine, mosaic, Church of St. Demetrios, Thessaloniki, pre‐ Iconoclastic – 7th – 8th c.
946
Fig. 564 Miracle of St. Euphemia, Drawing of Mystra fresco, 13th c [G. Millet, Monuments byzantins de Mistra; matériaux pour l’étude de l’architecture et de la peinture en Grèce aux xive et xve siècles. Paris: E. Leroux, 1910, fig. 4]
947
Fig. 565 Patriarchate of Peć, Kosovo, Serbia with the central church of the Holy Apostles, ca. 1230, ground plan. The ambo‐rosette is framed by four, red square stones at the corners and is positioned below the central dome. The penthaomphalon floor design in the north arm of
naos suggests the position of a canopy in front of the prothesis. The floor remains in its more‐or‐less original state and was executed sometime between mid‐13th‐mid‐14th centuries judging by the insertion of the Episcopal throne in the mid‐14th c. [Čanak‐Medić (1989), p. 72, fig. 121 – detail of the floor, Korać and Šuput (2005), fig. on p. 345 – ground plan of the Patriarchate complex in Peć]
948
Fig. 566 God inside his temple, Greek vase painting from Taranto, Italy showing Apollo, ca. 385 [J. and E . Romer, The Seven Wonders of the World (New York, 2005) fig. on p. 7]
949
Fig. 567 Shrine of Gregory Nazienzus, Basilensis Gr. Cod A.N.I. 8f Fv [Pallas]
950
Fig. 568 Cross section of the monastery of Hosios Loukas with the disposition of the shrine outlined in red.
951
Fig. 569 Hosios Loukas – interior view
952
Fig. 570 Hosios Loukas, Dome
953
Fig. 571 Shrine of Hosios Loukas before the most recent restoration [Stikas]
954
Fig. 572 Comparative analysis of the shrines of Hosios Loukas and St. Menas and associated imagery
955
Fig. 573 Opus sectile floor in front of Hosios Loukas’ shrine [Photo J. Bogdanović]
956
Fig. 574 Drawing of Hosios Loukas’ interior by Barsky [Barsky]
957
Fig. 575 The Descent of the Holy Fire, ink drawing, Biblioteka Vaticana, cod. Urb. Lat. 1362, f. 1v, 14th c [Biddle (1999) fig.39]
958
Fig. 576 The Church of Myralaion, Romanos I Lakapenos (920‐44) in the 920s, Constantinople; and dome, detail [Photos N. Stanković]
959
Fig. 577 Vefa [Molla Gurani] Kilise Camii, unidentified church, Constantinople, ca. 1000 (?);dome [Photo J. Bogdanović]
960
Fig. 578 Nea Moni, Chios, ca. 1050s; dome [Bouras (1982) fig. 89]
961
Fig. 579 Panagia Krina, Chios, ca. 1200; dome [Bouras (1982) fig. 94]
962
Fig. 580 Hag. Apostoloi, Pyrgi, Chios, 13th c; dome [Bouras (1982) fig. 92]
963
Fig. 581 Church of Fountoukli, Rhodos, 13‐14th c (?) [Photo S. Ćurčić]
964
Fig. 582 King’s church of Joachim and Anna at Studenica, Serbia, 14th c, cross‐section and exterior view [Babić (1987)]
965
Fig. 583 The church of the Virgin, Hosios Loukas monastery, 10th c, dome. [Photo J. Bogdanović]
966
Fig. 584 The complex of the Holy Sepulchre (ideal reconstructions) A 4th c B 11th c C 12th c [Biddle (1999) fig.63]
967
Fig. 585 The Tomb Aediculae, Jerusalem [Biddle (1999) fig.8]
968
Fig. 586 The central position of the Tomb Aediculae in the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem [image in the public domain]
969
Fig. 587 The Tomb Aediculae, Jerusalem [Biddle (1999) fig.8]
970
Fig. 588 Ideal reconstruction of Constantine’s Anastasis complex at Jerusalem [Biddle, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (2000) fig. on p. 34]
971
Fig. 589 Altar canopy, Nazareth, St. Gabriel church, Post‐ Byzantine [public domain]
972
Fig. 590 Altar ciborium for King Arnulf, ca. 870s [public domain]
973
Fig. 591 Erhard serves the mass, Uta Codex, 11th c illuminated page [up] and detail [bottom] showing altar ciborium for king Arnulf [public domain]
974
Fig. 592 St. Demetrios Reliquary, 11th c, Constantinople, Kremlin Armoury Museum in Moscow [A. Bank, Byzantine Art in the Collections of Soviet Museums (Leningrad, 1977)]
975
Fig. 593 Reliquary of St. Anastasios the Persian, late 10th c [Glory of Byz, cat. no. 300]
976
Fig. 594 “Jerusalem,” from Constantinople, Hagia Sophia, Novgorod, e. 11th c. [Sterligova, I.A. “Jerusalems as Liturgical Vessels in the Old Rus.” Jerusalem in Russian Culture, A. Batalov and A. Lidov, eds. (1994) 46‐62.]
977
Fig. 595 “Jerusalem,” Hagia Sophia, Novgorod e. 12th c. [Sterligova, I.A. “Jerusalems as Liturgical Vessels in the Old Rus.” Jerusalem in Russian Culture, A. Batalov and A. Lidov, eds. (1994) 46‐62.]
978
Fig. 596 Small Zion, 1486, Kremilin Armoury
979
Fig. 597 Great Zion, 1486, Kremlin Armoury
Fig. 597‐a Handles of the Great Zion, 1486, Kremlin Armoury [Photo J. Bogdanović]
980
Fig. 598 Bronze candle holder in the shape of canopy, Byzantine, today in Venice [Boura (1973) 132‐147, fig 11a]
981
Fig. 599 Bronze candle holders and cross holders in the shape of canopies [Boura (1973) 132‐147, fig 11b]
982
Fig. 600 Processional crosses with canopy forms [Glory of Byz, cat. no. 21B‐E]
983
Fig. 601 Processional cross with a canopy base [Glory of Byz, cat. no. 21A]
984
Fig. 602 The Service of the Patriarchs, aer, Hilandar, Mt. Athos, 15th c [Hilandar ed. G. Subotić (Beograd, 1998) p. 343]
985
Fig. 603 Communion of the Apostles, aer, Hilandar, Late 14th e. 15th c [Hilandar ed. G. Subotić (Beograd, 1998) p. 342.]
986
Fig. 604 Communion of the Apostles, chalice veil, Byzantine, e. 14th c [Faith and Power (c2004) 310‐311, fig. 186.]
987
Fig. 605 Epitaphios from Sergeiev Posad, e. 15th c [Medieval Pictorial Embroidery, cat. no 6]
988
Fig. 606 Celestial procession of the epitaphios, fresco, church of St. Anthony at Vrontesi, Crete, 1425‐50 [Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 10.4.]
989
1A
1B Fig. 607 The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Sakkos First half of the 15th c.; Red silk border and pearl string – 17th c (?) (1A–front; 1B–back) [Faith and Power (c2004) fig. 10.6.]
990
Fig. 608 The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Schematic drawing of the front and back side [drawing J. Bogdanović]
991
Fig. 609 The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Detail, Metropolitan Photios (1408‐1431) [no. 38 on the scheme Fig.]
992
Fig. 610 Christ the High Priest, fresco, Lesnovo, F.Y.R.O.M., ca. 1346 [Gabelić (1998) pl. 10]
993
Fig. 611 The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Schematic drawing of the cloth [drawing J. Bogdanović]
994
Fig. 612 Communion of the Apostles, fresco, Virgin Peribletos (St. Clement), Ohrid, F.Y.R.O.M., Sanctuary, 1294/5
995
Fig. 613 Epitaphios of King Stefan Uroš II Milutin (r.1282‐1321), 14th c [Faith and Power (c2004) cat. no. 189]
996
Fig. 614 The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Schematic drawing with the compositional scheme and the disposition of the images of the Holy Sepulchre [Fig. 615a – no. 11 on Fig. 608] and Transfiguration [Fig. 615b – no. 69 on Fig. 608] [drawing J. Bogdanović]
997
Fig. 615a [left] The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Detail, Holy Sepulchre Fig. 615b [right] The Major Sakkos of Metropolitan Photios, Detail, Transfiguration
998
Fig. 616 Moses’ Tabernacle furnishing and vestments, Octateuch, Vat. Gr. 747, fol. 10v, Constantinople, 11th c.
999
Fig. 617 Bishops celebrating the Liturgy, Church of Sts. Peter and Paul in Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria (ca. 1230), view of the sanctuary and detail [GloryByz (1997) image on p. 34 ]
1000
Fig. 618 Personification of “Renewal”, Floor mosaic, East church, Qasr‐el‐Lebia, 539‐40. [Maguire and Maguire (c2007) Fig. 57]
1001
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1002
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