Calculations for Veterinary Nurses

CALCULATIONS FOR VETERINARY NURSES

Dedication The authors would like to dedicate this book to Vic Moore in appreciation of all his hard work as our `uno¤cial' editor and advisor

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank their spouses Vic Moore and Sylvia Palmer for their patience and understanding during the time taken to write this book

CALCULATIONS FOR VETERINARY NURSES Margaret C. Moore MA, VN, Cert Ed, FETC. MIScT and

Norman G. Palmer

# 2001 by Blackwell Science Ltd Editorial O¤ces: Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0EL 25 John Street, London WC1N 2BS 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EN3 6AJ 350 Main Street, Malden MA 02148 5018, USA 54 University Street, Carlton Victoria 3053, Australia 10, rue Casimir Delavigne 75006 Paris, France Other Editorial O¤ces Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag GmbH KurfÏrstendamm 57 10707 Berlin, Germany Blackwell Science KK MG Kodenmacho Building 7^10 Kodenmacho Nihombashi Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104, Japan Iowa State University Press A Blackwell Science Company 2121 S. State Avenue Ames, Iowa 50014^8300, USA The right of the Author to be identi¢ed as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. F|rst published 2001 Set in Souvenir 9/11 12 pt by Aarontype, Easton, Bristol Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin, Cornwall The Blackwell Science logo is a trade mark of Blackwell Science Ltd, registered at the United Kingdom Trade marks Regisrty

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Contents

Preface Disclaimer Common Abbreviations Used in Text

vii viii ix

1.

Units, Conversion Factors and Related Medical Abbreviations

2.

Basic Principles

13

3.

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

33

4.

Calculating Energy Requirements

55

5.

Dosages ^ Oral Route

61

6.

Dosages ^ Injections

71

7.

Rehydration of the Patient

82

8.

Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration

98

9.

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

113

10.

Radiography

127

11.

Value Added Tax (VAT)

140

12.

Examination Techniques

151

Index

1

156

v

Preface

Currently, there are excellent technical books available for both student and quali¢ed veterinary nurses. However, no single publication encompasses all the di¡erent types of calculations on which student veterinary nurses may be examined or which quali¢ed veterinary nurses are expected to carry out routinely during the course of their work. During twenty years as a course tutor for veterinary nurses, my own students have repeatedly indicated the need for such a book. Thus the aim of this volume is to meet that need by including a separate section on each of the di¡erent calculations which a veterinary nurse is likely to use. It is structured in such a way that the reader can progress from a simple explanation of the principles involved to their application of essential veterinary calculations. Numerous worked examples are included together with selftest exercises which, where appropriate, have also been supported with fully-worked answers. The aim of this approach is to help readers understand the arithmetic principles needed to perform basic calculations, thus enabling them to have the con¢dence and ability to carry out any veterinary calculations which they are likely to come across during the course of their careers. Although this book is designed primarily to assist student veterinary nurses for whom calculations are an essential part of their studies, it will undoubtedly be an invaluable aide-me¨ moire and reference for quali¢ed sta¡. It will also be an extremely valuable text book for students following other animal-based careers, for example, animal technicians and animal carers. In discussing this book with veterinary surgeons, many of them kindly expressed the view that it may also be of use to veterinary students. vii

viii

Preface

Disclaimer The primary aim of this book is to explain how to carry out basic veterinary calculations. To achieve this, some of the ¢gures used have given way to convenience of calculation rather than adhering to clinical accuracy. F|nally, any similarities to animals, whether living or dead, are purely coincidental!

Note All answers to worked examples appear in bold type. Margaret C. Moore Norman G. Palmer

Common Abbreviations Used in Text

Weight g kg mg mcg

gram(s) kilogram(s) milligram(s) microgram(s)

Volume ` ml

litre(s) millilitre(s)

Time min s hr(s)

minute(s) second(s) hour(s)

Unit of electric current mA

milliampere(s)

Unit of electromotive force kV

kilovolt

ix

Chapter 1

Units, Conversion Factors and Related Medical Abbreviations

It is imperative that a good understanding of units and the relationship between them is gained at an early stage when studying calculations. Many of the problems encountered whilst carrying out basic calculations stem from a lack of understanding of the units in which various quantities are measured, and of the relationships between them. A thorough working knowledge of the most common units is vital to anyone in the veterinary nursing profession. A mistake in the use of units could be fatal to a patient. The metric system of weights and measures is now used by the veterinary profession in most countries. It is international and simpler to use than any other system. Thus it is the safest to use because mistakes are less likely to occur. The units which are most commonly used in the veterinary profession are shown below.

Weight 1 kilogram (kg) ˆ 1000 grams (1000 g) 1 gram (g) ˆ 1000 milligrams (1000 mg) 1 milligram (mg) ˆ 1000 micrograms (1000 g also referred to as mcg) 1 microgram (g )ˆ 1000 nanograms (1000 ng) 1

2

Chapter 1

Length 1 kilometre (km) ˆ 1000 metres (1000 m) 1 metre (m) ˆ 100 centimetres (100 cm) 1 centimetre (cm) ˆ 10 millimetres (10 mm)

Volume 1 litre (` ) ˆ 1000 millilitres (1000 ml) 1 decilitre (dl) ˆ 100 millilitres (100 ml)

Notes .

.

.

. .

Centimetres are not used as frequently as millimetres and metres. Therefore instead of a certain length being described as 10 cm, it is more likely to be referred to as 100 mm or 0.1 m. 1 gram of water occupies 1 millilitre of space (at 158C). Therefore, 1000 ml or 1 litre of water will weigh 1000 grams or 1 kilogram. To help avoid confusion weights of less than 1 gram should be written as milligrams e.g. 500 mg rather than 0.5 g. Similarly, weights of less than 1 milligram should be written in micrograms. The letter `L' in upper case is sometimes used as an abbreviation for litre. See note after examples below. mcg is sometimes used in pharmacy as an abbreviation for micrograms.

Abbreviations and pre¢xes The abbreviation for each of the common units is normally the ¢rst letter of the name. Thus the abbreviation for metre is m and the abbreviation for gram is g. In order to express a multiple of a unit, pre¢xes are placed in front of the name. The common pre¢xes are shown in table 1.1.

Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations

3

Table 1.1 Common pre¢xes Pre¢x

Symbol

Value

Multiplies by

deci

d

0.1

one tenth

centi

c

0.01

one hundredth

milli

m

0.001

one thousandth

micro



0.000001

one millionth

deca

da

10

ten

kilo

k

1000

one thousand

mega

M

1 000 000

one million

Notes .

.

When a pre¢x is used with a unit of measurement, the abbreviation for the pre¢x is followed by the abbreviation for the unit, e.g. 25 millilitres is written as 25 ml. Although 25 ml obviously refers to the plural of the word millilitre, there is no letter `s' added, i.e. 25 millilitres is not written as 25 mls. This rule applies to all of the units listed above.

Examples Write the abbreviations for the units together with the appropriate pre¢x when necessary for the following: (i)

Twenty one millilitres Answer: 21 ml

(ii)

Twenty one litres Answer: 21 ` or 21 L (see note below)

4

Chapter 1

(iii)

Twenty one milligrams Answer: 21 mg

(iv)

Twenty one micrograms Answer: 21 g

Note The abbreviation for litre is the letter `l' in lower case but this abbreviation could cause confusion when it is preceded by the digit one, i.e. 21 l could be mistaken for the ¢gure 211. In order to avoid the possibility of such a mistake, the abbreviation for the litre is sometimes written as `L' so that in the above example, twenty one litres would be written as 21 L. In this book, the symbol ` is used to denote litres.

Converting units within the metric system The most frequent conversions used in the veterinary profession are likely to involve volumes and weights.

Examples Convert the following: (i)

750 g to kg

There are 1000 grams in 1 kilogram, therefore to convert grams to kilograms, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the left). For a full explanation see Chapter 2. Therefore 750 g ˆ (ii)

750 kg ˆ 0:750 kg 1000

7.50 g to kg

There are 1000 grams in 1 kilogram, therefore to convert grams to kilograms, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the left).

Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations

Therefore 7:50 g ˆ (iii)

5

7:50 kg ˆ 0:0075 kg 1000

750 mg to g

There are 1000 milligrams in 1 gram therefore to convert milligrams to grams, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the left). Therefore 750 mg ˆ (iv)

750 g ˆ 0:750 g 1000

750 g to g

There are 1 000 000 (one million) micrograms in 1 gram, therefore to convert micrograms to grams, divide by 1 000 000 (move the decimal point 6 places to the left). Therefore 750 g ˆ (v)

750 g ˆ 0:000750 g 1 000 000

0.0075 g to mg

There are 1000 milligrams in 1 gram, therefore to convert grams to milligrams, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the right). Therefore 0.0075 g ˆ 0.0075  1000 mg ˆ 7.5 mg (vi)

0.750 mg to g

There are 1000 micrograms in 1 milligram, therefore to convert milligrams to micrograms, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the right). Therefore 0.750 mg ˆ 0.750  1000 g ˆ 750 g (vii)

750 ml to litres

There are 1000 millilitres in 1 litre, therefore to convert millilitres to litres, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the left).

6

Chapter 1

Therefore 750 ml ˆ (viii)

750 ` ˆ 0:750 ` 1000

7.50 ` to ml

There are 1000 millilitres in 1 litre, therefore to convert litres to millilitres, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the right). Therefore 7:50 ` ˆ 7:50  1000 ml ˆ 7500 ml (ix)

0.0750 ` to ml

There are 1000 millilitres in 1 litre, therefore to convert litres to millilitres, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to the right). Therefore 0:0750 ` ˆ 0:0750  1000 ml ˆ 75:0 ml

Converting `old' imperial units to metric values The imperial system of units is being phased out. However, some of the `everyday' units are likely to remain in use for many years and it is therefore important to be able to understand the abbreviations used and to be able to convert the units to their metric equivalents. The most common conversions used by the veterinary profession are shown in table 1.2. Table 1.2 Common conversion factors Imperial unit

To convert multiply by

Metric

lb pt (pint) in (inch) £ oz (£uid ounce)

0.45 0.57 25.4 28.4

kg ` (litres) mm ml

Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations

7

Examples Convert the following imperial units into their metric equivalents. (i)

20 lb To convert lb to kg multiply by 0.45 Therefore 20 lb ˆ 20  0.45 kg ˆ 9 kg

(ii)

10 lb To convert lb to kg multiply by 0.45 Therefore 10 lb ˆ 10  0.45 kg ˆ 4.5 kg

Note to multiply by 10, move the decimal point one place to the right. (iii)

0.5 lb

To convert lb to kg multiply by 0.45 Therefore 0.5 lb ˆ 0.5  0.45 kg ˆ 0.225 kg (iv)

1.5 pt

To convert pt to ` multiply by 0.57 Therefore 1.5 pt ˆ 1.5  0.57 ` ˆ 0.86 ` (to 2 decimal places) (v)

30 in To convert in to mm multiply by 25.4 Therefore 30 in ˆ 30  25.4 mm ˆ 762 mm

(vi)

3 £ oz

To convert £ oz to ml multiply by 28.4 Therefore 3 £ oz ˆ 3  28.4 ml ˆ 85.2ml

`Household' or `domestic' measurement system Several units of measurement are based on the volumes of common household utensils. These units are still widely used by

8

Chapter 1

Table 1.3 Approximate volume of `household' measurements Household measurement

Approximate volume in ml

Standard teaspoon Standard dessert spoon Standard table spoon Teacup Twelve drops

5 10 15 150 5

manufacturers of such products as disinfectants or animal shampoos, which may be sold via pet shops etc. to people who do not have access to accurate volumetric measuring equipment or who are not familiar with the metric system of units. The `household' units are also invaluable when giving advice to, or eliciting information from, clients over the telephone. For instance, when describing clinical signs, a client may state that `my dog has vomited and produced about a teaspoon of bile'. It is because of the practical application of these units that a knowledge of their metric equivalents is occasionally tested in the RCVS Veterinary Nursing examinations. The most commonly used of the `household' units are shown in table 1.3.

Note Under no circumstances should these conversions be used for measuring out drugs.

Temperature conversions An examination of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales will reveal that each degree on the Celsius scale is nearly twice as big as a Fahrenheit degree. This is because on the Celsius scale there are only 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling points (of water), whilst on the Fahrenheit scale there are 212 degrees

Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations

9

between the freezing and boiling points. A further obvious difference is that the freezing point on the Celsius scale is zero, whilst on the Fahrenheit scale it is 32. These di¡erences are the reason that temperature conversions have to be carried out in stages using one of the methods shown below.

Notes . .

The correct name of the temperature unit is Celsius not Centigrade. Method 2 below is based on the fact that 408C is the same as 408F

To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius Method 1 . .

First subtract 32 (This takes account of the di¡erence in freezing points) Next multiply by 59 (This takes account of the size di¡erence)

Method 2 . . .

First add 40 Next multiply by 59 Finally subtract 40

To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit Method 1 . .

First multiply by 95 Next add 32

Method 2 . . .

First add 40 Next multiply by 95 Finally subtract 40

10

Chapter 1

Examples Convert the following temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celsius. (i)

A room temperature of 508F

Method 1 50 32 ˆ 18 18  59 ˆ 108C

Method 2 50 ‡ 40 ˆ 90 90  59 ˆ 50 50 40 ˆ 108C (ii)

A guinea pig's temperature of 1048F

Method 1 104 32 ˆ 72 72  59 ˆ 408C

Method 2 104 ‡ 40 ˆ 144 144  59 ˆ 80 80 40 ˆ 408C (iii)

A chinchilla's temperature of 978F

Method 1 97 32 ˆ 65 65  59 ˆ 36:18C

Method 2 97 ‡ 40 ˆ 137 137  59 ˆ 76:1 76:1 40 ˆ 36:18C

Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations

11

Convert the following temperatures from Celsius to Fahrenheit. (i)

A hamster's temperature of 378C

Method 1 37  95 ˆ 66:6 66:6 ‡ 32 ˆ 98:68F

Method 2 37 ‡ 40 ˆ 77 77  95 ˆ 138:6 138:6 40 ˆ 98:68F (ii)

An autoclave temperature of 1208C

Method 1 120  95 ˆ 216 216 ‡ 32 ˆ 2488F

Method 2 120 ‡ 40 ˆ 160 160  95 ˆ 288 288 40 ˆ 2488F

12

Chapter 1

Related medical abbreviations u.i.d. u.d.s. o.d. b.i.d or b.d. b.d.s. t.i.d. or t.d. t.d.s. q.i.d. or q.d. q.d.s. q.h. altern.d p.r.n. repet. or rep. a.c. p.c. o.m. o.n.

once daily to be taken once daily every day (used to mean once a day) twice daily to be taken twice daily 3 times a day to be taken 3 times a day 4 times a day to be taken 4 times a day every 4 hours every other day repeat as required repeat before food after food every morning every night

Chapter 2

Basic Principles

In order to carry out veterinary calculations, it is necessary to have a working knowledge of a few simple but essential arithmetic concepts. This chapter explains how to perform these basic calculations. The method of carrying out each type of calculation is illustrated with worked examples and self-test exercises.

Fractions A fraction is another word for a part of something; for instance, a tablet could be broken into two equal sized parts, i.e. 1 divided by 2 which is written as 12. In this case, each part or fraction is called a half. If the tablet was broken into four equal sized parts, i.e. 1 divided by 4, then each part or fraction would be called a quarter and written as 14. The above examples may seem fairly obvious but the situation may arise where something has to be divided into many more parts. For instance, an hour is divided into 60 equal fractions 1 called minutes or, put another way, a minute is one sixtieth ( 60 ) of an hour. Further complications arise when something is broken into uneven parts; for instance, a can of food may be divided between three dogs in such a way that one of them receives twice as much as the other two. In this case, the can of food will be divided into one half and two quarters which, added together, would equal one whole can or, putting this in mathematical terms, 1 1 1 4 ‡ 4 ‡ 2 ˆ 1. 13

14

Chapter 2

The number on the top line of a fraction is known as the numerator and the one on the bottom line is the denominator. It should be noted that the larger the denominator in relation to the numerator, the smaller each part or fraction will be. For instance the fraction 16 will be smaller than the fraction 13. 3 Similarly, 10 is smaller than 37 and so on. It should also be noted that some calculations produce rather complicated looking fractions, e.g. 350 400. Sometimes fractions are produced in which the numerator is larger than the denominator, e.g. 16 12. These are known as improper fractions, as opposed to proper fractions, in which the numerator is smaller than the denominator.

Simplifying fractions (cancelling) Complicated fractions are confusing to use in calculations and even more di¤cult to translate into practical applications; for instance, how can 12 60 of a bag of dog food be measured out? What does such a fraction mean in everyday terms? In order to deal with complicated fractions, they have to be cancelled or simpli¢ed. Cancelling a fraction is the process of dividing both the top and bottom lines by the same number in order to produce a simpler (and more understandable) fraction.

Example 1 The fraction 14 28 can be cancelled by dividing both the top and the bottom by 7. This produces 24 which can be cancelled further by dividing both the top and bottom by 2. This produces 12. The above cancelling process has actually shown that 14 divided by 28 ˆ 12.

Example 2 The fraction 21 63 can be cancelled by dividing both the top and the bottom by 7.

Basic Principles

15

This produces 39 which can be cancelled further by dividing both the top and bottom by 3. This produces 13 which cannot be cancelled or simpli¢ed any further.

Example 3 Returning to the problem mentioned above which involved measuring out 12 60 of a bag of dog food, it can be seen that the top and bottom of the fraction can both be divided by 12. This will produce a much simpler fraction of 15 which indicates more clearly that the bag will have to be divided into 5 equal portions.

Example 4 The fraction 12300 000 looks quite complicated at ¢rst sight but because both the numerator and the denominator end in zeros, it can be simpli¢ed very quickly by cancelling out the zeros. In this case, two of the zeros on the top will cancel out two of the zeros on the bottom. In other words, both the top and the bottom can be divided by 100. 3 This produces 120 which can be cancelled further by dividing both the top and bottom by 3. 1 This produces 40 .

Self-test exercise 1 (answers at the end of this chapter) Simplify the following fractions. (i ) (vi)

25 5 18 4

(ii)

34 68

(vii)

(iii) 3 6

57 19

(viii)

(iv) 20 15

27 36

(ix)

(v) 54 18

31 93

(x)

112 4

Converting fractions to decimals It is possible to add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions but the easiest way to perform these tasks is to convert the fractions

16

Chapter 2

into their decimal equivalents ¢rst. To convert a fraction to its decimal equivalent, divide the numerator by the denominator. It is suggested that a calculator is used for this purpose.

Example 1 3 10 expressed

as a decimal ˆ 0.3

Note that when a decimal value is less than one it will begin with the decimal point. In such cases a zero should be placed to the left of the decimal point in order to prevent confusion. In this case, the zero helps to clarify that the value is 0.3 and not 3.0.

Example 2 7 5 expressed

as a decimal ˆ 1.4

Self-test exercise 2 (answers at the end of this chapter) Change the following fractions into decimals: (i) (vi)

25 50 18 24

(ii) (vii)

34 68

(iii) 3 5

(viii)

57 90

(iv) 20 45

(ix)

29 87

(v) 54 68

31 17

(x)

112 345

Rounding decimals Decimal calculations often produce answers with many digits after the decimal point. Sometimes these digits appear to (and in fact some do) go on forever. An instance of such a ¢gure would be the result of converting the fraction 23 into a decimal. Dividing 2 by 3 produces an answer of 0.666666666 . . . Similarly, dividing 30 by 7 produces an answer of 4.2857142. The use of such extremely accurate ¢gures for dispensing solids or liquids in everyday life is normally neither necessary nor practical. Therefore, decimal numbers are rounded to give the

Basic Principles

17

appropriate degree of accuracy. To round a decimal number, ¢rst determine how accurate the ¢nal ¢gure must be; for example, when recording the temperature of an animal, an accuracy 1 of 10 (one tenth) of a degree (0.1) is su¤cient. This is known as an accuracy of one decimal place. Some injectables require a 1 syringe marked in graduations of 100 (one hundredth) of a ml (0.01). This is known as an accuracy of two decimal places. Once the required accuracy has been determined, the decimal ¢gure can be rounded accordingly. The basic principle of rounding is to examine the digit to the right of the number of decimal places required. When this digit is 5 or greater, it is rounded up i.e. it is removed but the digit to its immediate left is increased by 1. When the digit to the right of the number of decimal places required is less than 5, it is removed but this time no change is made to the digit to its immediate left.

Example 1 To round 2.36 to one decimal place (or the nearest tenth), the digit 6 will be removed but because it is greater than 5 the digit located to its immediate left will be increased by 1. Thus the rounded ¢gure ˆ 2.4

Example 2 To round 2.34 to one decimal place (or the nearest tenth), the digit 4 will be removed but because it is not greater than 5, the digit located to its immediate left will not be increased by 1. Thus the rounded ¢gure ˆ 2.3

Example 3 To round 2.457 to two decimal places (or the nearest hundredth), the digit 7 will be removed but because it is greater

18

Chapter 2

than 5, the digit located to its immediate left will be increased by 1. Thus the rounded ¢gure ˆ 2.46

Example 4 To round 2.5 to the nearest whole number, the digit 5 will be removed but because it is 5 or greater, the digit located to its immediate left will be increased by 1. Thus the rounded ¢gure ˆ 3

Example 5 To round 2.4 to the nearest whole number, the digit 4 will be removed but because it is less than 5 the digit located to its immediate left will not be increased by 1. Thus the rounded ¢gure ˆ 2

Self-test exercise 3 (answers at the end of this chapter) Round the following ¢gures to the nearest whole number (i)

9.88

(ii)

9.088

(iii)

9.0088

Round the following ¢gures to one decimal place (nearest tenth) (iv)

9.88

(v)

9.088

(vi)

9.0088

Round the following ¢gures to two decimal places (nearest hundredth) (vii)

9.88

(viii)

9.088

(ix)

9.0088

Moving the decimal point Any whole number can be easily multiplied by 10, 100, 1000 etc. by adding

Basic Principles

19

one zero for 10 two zeros for 100 three zeros for 1000, and so on. For instance, the number 99.0 becomes 990.0 when multiplied by 10. Similarly, any whole number can be easily divided by 10, 100, 1000 etc. by removing one zero for 10 two zeros for 100 three zeros for 1000, and so on. Therefore, 9900 becomes 99 when divided by 100. However, dividing numbers which do not end in a zero involves moving the decimal point. This procedure is explained below. Decimal numbers can be very easily multiplied or divided by 10, 100, 1000 etc. The golden rule is to move the decimal point one place for 10 two places for 100 three places for 1000, and so on. When dividing the decimal point is moved to the left. When multiplying it is moved to the right. When necessary, additional zeros may have to be added as shown in examples (iii) and (vi) which follow.

Examples (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

The number 99.99 becomes 999.9 when multiplied by 10 The number 99.99 becomes 9999.0 when multiplied by 100 The number 99.99 becomes 99990.0 when multiplied by 1000 The number 99.99 becomes 9.999 when divided by 10 The number 99.99 becomes 0.9999 when divided by 100 The number 99.99 becomes 0.09999 when divided by 1000

The above principles can be easily proved by using a calculator!

20

Chapter 2

Notes .

.

A decimal point has been inserted after the whole numbers to avoid confusion. It would not normally be shown, i.e. the number 9999 would be written as such and not 9999.0 A zero is often placed at the end of a decimal ¢gure to indicate that there are no more digits to follow.

Self-test exercise 4 (answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

Multiply the following ¢gures by 10 50, 5, 0.5, 0.05

(ii)

Multiply the following ¢gures by 100 50, 5, 0.5, 0.05

(iii)

Multiply the following ¢gures by 1000 50, 5, 0.5, 0.05

(iv)

Divide the following ¢gures by 10 6000, 6, 0.6, 0.06

(v)

Divide the following ¢gures by 100 6000, 6, 0.6, 0.06

(vi)

Divide the following ¢gures by 1000 6000, 6, 0.6, 0.06

Converting fractions into percentages To convert a fraction to a percentage, ¢rst convert to its decimal equivalent by dividing the numerator by the denominator. Then multiply the answer by 100. Note that it is sometimes possible to simplify the fraction at the same time!

Example 1 3 10 expressed

as a percentage ˆ

3 300 30  100 ˆ ˆ ˆ 30% 10 10 1

Basic Principles

Example 2 10 3 expressed

as a percentage ˆ

21

10 1000  100 ˆ ˆ 333:33% 3 300

Self-test exercise 5 (answers at the end of this chapter) Convert the following fractions into percentages: (i) (vi)

25 50 18 24

(ii) (vii)

34 68

(iii) 3 13

57 36

(viii)

(iv) 20 60

27 36

(ix)

(v) 54 117

31 17

(x)

112 293

Percentages Percentage is another way of saying `how many out of 100'. For example, if 20 sheep in a £ock of 100 are black, then the percentage of black sheep is 20%. Any percentage can be represented 20 as a fraction of 100, therefore 20% can be expressed as 100 . In this case the fraction could be simpli¢ed (or cancelled) by dividing both the top and bottom by 20 to produce 15. In other words, expressing the situation as a fraction, it could be stated that one ¢fth of the sheep are black. Percentages are also easily converted into their decimal equivalents by dividing the number by 100 or by moving the decimal point two places to the left as previously explained. Percentages appear in almost all areas of everyday and professional life. In an everyday situation they will appear, for example, in relation to interest rates in banks and building societies. Professionally, veterinary sta¡ will encounter them being used to express . .

the amount of solute in a solution expressed as a percentage solution of the amount of concentrate in 100 ml of £uid. the number of di¡erent types of white cells when compared to the total of white cells expressed as a percentage (di¡erential white blood cell counts).

22

Chapter 2

As `per-cent-age` means `how many per one hundred', the use of percentages provides a way to compare varying samples, with di¡erent constituent parts on a common base. For example, the results of a di¡erential white blood (leucocyte) count are likely to show the following leucocyte types (basophils are not included here as they are very rare and are therefore unlikely to be recorded in a typical blood pro¢le). For the purpose of these examples, the di¡erent leucocyte types will be given type numbers. Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 5

Unlobulated (band) neutrophils Lobulated (adult) neutrophils Eosinophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

The amount of each type of leucocyte is recorded and then a simple calculation made e.g. white blood cell (leucocyte) count as shown in table 2.1: Table 2.1 Di¡erential leucocyte count Batch No.

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Type 4

Type 5

Total cell count

No.1 Type %

60 30%

70 35%

14 7%

16 8%

40 20%

200 100%

Example 1 Type 1: 60 cells counted out of the total 200 leucocytes counted. 60 Therefore, to ¢nd the percentage:  100 ˆ 30% 200 Type 2: 70 cells counted out of the total 200 leucocytes counted. 70 Therefore, to ¢nd the percentage:  100 ˆ 35% 200

Basic Principles

23

These calculations may be continued for the whole of batch no. 1. When possible, it is good practice to try and count 200 leucocytes in a di¡erential white blood cell count to increase the range of cells encountered, or a minimum of 100 leucocytes if the cells are di¤cult to ¢nd. Working with total ¢gures of 200 or 100 makes the conversion of the individual types into percentages easy, and once accustomed to the calculation, the results can be converted at a glance. However, if the animal has leucopenia (a decrease in the total number of leucocytes), then it may be impossible to ¢nd such amounts and the total number of leucocytes that can be seen once the whole slide has been searched may be very low. It is still necessary to convert such results into percentages for a differential white cell count.

Example 2 Which of these three solutions is the most concentrated? Solution A has 25 g of solute dissolved in 750 ml of solution Solution B has 253 g of solute dissolved in 1750 ml of solution Solution C has 2.56 g of solute dissolved in 78 ml of solution Just by looking at these ¢gures it would be impossible to tell which was the most concentrated. Reduce them all to percentages and the answer will stand out immediately! Solution A Solution B Solution C

25  100 ˆ 3:33% 750 253  100 ˆ 14:46% 1750 2:56  100 ˆ 3:28% 78

Obviously solution B is the most concentrated but A and C have similar concentrations, although the basic data vary considerably. From these examples it can be seen that the use of percentages is a powerful comparison tool.

24

Chapter 2

Example 3 Which of the following solutions contains the most solute by weight? (i) (ii) (iii)

Solution y: 750 ml of a 5% solution Solution x: 1200 ml of a 2% solution Solution z: 800 ml of a 4% solution

Calculation: (see manipulating formulae (equations) later in this chapter) % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

To rearrange the equation, ¢rst multiply both sides by volume. Therefore % solution  volume ˆ

weight  100  volume volume

Volume can be cancelled out from the right hand side of the equation. Therefore % solution  volume ˆ weight  100 The next step is to remove the 100 from the right hand side of the equation by dividing both sides by 100. Therefore

% solution  volume weight  100 ˆ 100 100

Now 100 can be removed from the right hand side by cancelling out. % solution  volume ˆ weight 100 5  750 ˆ 37:5 g e.g. weight of solution y ˆ 100 Therefore

Basic Principles

25

Table 2.2 Examples of percentage solutions Solution

% solution

volume ml

weight g

y x z

5 2 4

750 1200 800

37.5 24 32

Example 4 A veterinary surgeon has analysed `patients' over the last year and has created the following table from the data: Table 2.3 Patients treated over the previous year Dogs

Cats

Birds

Jan^Mar

260

150

90

28

528

Apr^Jun

329

192

71

19

611

Jul^Sep

197

201

52

21

471

Oct^Dec

419

157

87

32

695

1205

700

300

100

2305

Totals

(i) (ii) (iii)

Exotics

TOTAL

What is the percentage of each category of birds and animals treated? In which quarter does the percentage of exotics treated exceed 5% of the total animals treated in that quarter? Convert the above table into percentages using the total 2305 as the base.

Calculations: (i)

Calculations to ¢nd the % of each category of animal 1205  100 ˆ 52:28% Dogs 2305

26

Chapter 2

700  100 ˆ 30:37% 2305 300  100 ˆ 13:02% Birds 2305 100  100 Exotics ˆ 4:34% 2305

Cats

(ii)

To calculate the percentage of exotics treated each quarter, compile a simple table as set out below : Quarter

1 2 3 4

Number of exotics treated 28 19 21 32

Total animals treated per quarter 528 611 471 695

% of exotics treated in quarter 5.30 3.11 4.46 4.60

From the table it can be seen that the number of exotics treated exceeds 5% of the total animals treated during the ¢rst quarter of the year. (iii)

Calculations to ¢nd the % of each category of animal treated per quarter. Example of a calculation given in table 2.4: Dogs 1st quarter:

260  100 ˆ 11:28% 2305

Table 2.4 Percentage of animals treated per quarter Dogs

Cats

Birds

Exotics

TOTAL

Jan^Mar

11.28

6.51

3.90

1.21

22.91

Apr^Jun

14.27

8.33

3.08

0.82

26.51

Jul^Sep

8.55

8.72

2.26

0.91

20.43

Oct^ Dec

18.18

6.81

3.77

1.39

30.15

Totals

52.28

30.37

13.02

4.34

100.00

Basic Principles

27

Self-test exercise 6 (answers at the end of this chapter) Calculate the percentages for each of the cell types from the three batches of di¡erential white blood cell counts, which are listed in the following table, and then complete the table. Round the percentages to the nearest whole number. Table 2.5 Di¡erential leucocyte counts Batch No.

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Type 4

Type 5

Total cell count

No. 2

29

14

11

14

6

74

26

14

10

27

9

86

22

10

7

13

3

55

Type % No. 3 Type % No. 4 Type %

(ii) (iii) (iv)

The dose of a drug, which is currently given at 200 mg per day is to be reduced by 20%. What will the new daily dose be? What percentage of 500 mg is 50 mg? A drug has to be given ¢ve times per day. What percentage of the daily total is each dose?

Manipulation of formulae (equations) There are many occasions when a simple equation has to be changed around (or transposed) so that it can be applied to a practical problem. For example, if A ˆ B  C and the value of B

28

Chapter 2

has to be calculated, the equation has to be transposed so that it makes B the subject of the equation. In this case, B ˆ

A (This is explained later in this chapter) C

As a practical example of the above, suppose that a certain drug had to be administered at a rate of 20 mg per kg of body weight. If the body weight were12 kg, the total dose would be 240 mg. Expressing the above information as a simple equation (or formula) it can be stated that: Total dose ˆ dose rate  body weight i.e. 240 mg ˆ 20 mg/kg  12 kg If the situation were changed so that it were necessary to calculate what weight of animal the same total amount of drug would be suitable for, then the equation would have to be transposed in order to make body weight the subject. In this case body weight ˆ

total dose dose rate

(see below for explanation, rules 1 and 3)

Basic mathematical rules There are some basic rules that must be adhered to when using or transposing equations of any kind. An equation is exactly what it says it is, i.e. equal. It is imperative that it remains equal no matter what is done to it.

Rule 1 Whatever happens to the left hand side must also happen to the right hand side. Therefore, taking the equation A ‡ B ˆ C as an example, if the left hand side is multiplied by 2, to keep the equation equal, the right hand side must also be multiplied by 2. The equation becomes 2  (A ‡ B) ˆ 2  C

Basic Principles

29

Notice also that if the ¢gures on one side of the equation are added together like A and B in the example, then they must have a bracket put round them before they can be multiplied by the 2. The same principle applies if the left hand side is divided by 2. In this case, the right hand side of the equation must also be divided by 2 in order to keep the equation equal (or balanced). So, the equation would become

(A ‡ B) C ˆ 2 2

To prove the above, replace A, B and C by easy numbers that can be worked out mentally. For instance, if A is 2 and B is 4 then C must be 6. Putting these into the original equation would give 2 ‡ 4 ˆ 6 which is clearly the right answer. If the right hand side is multiplied by 2 then the left hand side must also be multiplied by 2 to keep the equation in balance. 2  (2 ‡ 4) ˆ 2  6 would give 12 ˆ 12 However, if the brackets had been omitted on the left hand side it would be easy to miscalculate as follows: 22‡4ˆ26 This would give 4 ‡ 4 ˆ 12 which is clearly a nonsense. Division works in exactly the same way. If one side of the equation is divided by 2 then the other side must also be divided by 2. Replacing A, B and C with the same simple numbers proves the point. If A ˆ 2, B ˆ 4 and C ˆ 6, (2 ‡ 4) 6 ˆ 2 2 Therefore

6 6 ˆ 2 2

Therefore 3 ˆ 3

30

Chapter 2

Rule 2 To change sides, change signs. Using the same simple example of A ‡ B ˆ C, in order to change the equation to make A the subject i.e. so that it reads A ˆ, as opposed to A ‡ B ˆ, then the B on the left hand side must be `disposed of'. The only place it can go is to the other side of the equation. Taking the B to the other side involves changing its sign from ‡ B to B. Therefore A ˆ C B. Again, this can be proven by replacing the letters with the same numbers that were used in the previous examples. Therefore 2 ˆ 6

4

Rule 3 Fractional equations can be cross-multiplied. A C Fractional equations such as ˆ can be simpli¢ed using a B D technique known as cross-multiplication. This involves multiplying the bottom of the left hand side by the top of the right hand side and multiplying the bottom of the right hand side by the top of the left hand side. In the above example, after cross-multiplication the equation becomes: ADˆBC In order to make A the subject and dispose of D on the left hand side, divide both sides by D: Therefore

AD BC ˆ D D

The Ds on the left hand side can also be cancelled: Therefore

A1 BC A1 ˆ but, ˆA 1 D 1

Basic Principles

Therefore A ˆ

31

BC D

To make B, C, or D the subject, exactly the same process is followed.

Answers to self-test exercises Exercise 1 (i) 5 (vi) 4 12

(ii) 12 (vii)

1 2

(iii)

3 (viii)

(iv) 1 13

3 4

(ix)

(v) 3

1 3

(x)

28

Exercise 2 (i) 0.5 (ii) 0.5 (iii) 0.63 (iv) 0.33 (vi) 0.75 (vii) 0.6 (viii) 0.44 (ix) 0.79

Exercise 3 (i) 10 (ii) 9 (iii) 9 (iv) 9.9 (v) 9.1 (vi) (vii) 9.88 (viii) 9.09

9.0 (ix) 9.01

Exercise 4 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

500, 50, 5, 0.5 5000, 500, 50, 5 50 000, 5000, 500, 50 600, 0.6, 0.06, 0.006 60, 0.06, 0.006, 0.0006 6, 0.006, 0.0006, 0.00006

Exercise 5 (i) 50% (ii) 50% (iii) 158.33% (iv) 75% (v) 182.35% (vi) 75% (vii) 23.08% (viii) 33.33% (ix) 46.15% (x) 38.23%

(v) (x)

1.82 0.32

32

Chapter 2

Exercise 6 (i)

see table below

Table 2.6 Di¡erential leucocyte counts Batch No.

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Type 4

No. 2

29

14

11

14

6

Type %

39

19

15

19

8

No. 3

26

14

10

27

9

Type %

30

16

12

31

10

No. 4

22

10

7

13

3

Type %

40

18

13

24

5

(ii) (iii) (iv)

160 mg 10% 20%

Type 5

Total cell count 74

86

55

Chapter 3

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

This is a very practical problem, as concentrated solutions are often the preferred method of transportation, leaving the veterinary practice to dilute them to the strength required. Conversely, there may be instances where the only solution available is weaker than the one required and the solution has to be more concentrated. There are several methods of approaching the problem of changing the concentration of solutions. Therefore, where appropriate, at least one alternative method of performing the calculations has been illustrated in this chapter.

Notes .

The standard formula for a percentage solution ˆ

.

weight of substance in grams (solute)  100 volume of water in millilitres …solvent†

The above formula is often written as: % solution ˆ weight (in g)/volume (in ml)  100

.

When % solution is written in the above form, the forward slash indicates `over' or a fraction 33

34

Chapter 3

Example 1 (i)

20 g dissolved in 100 ml ˆ 20/100  100% ˆ 20%

(ii)

25 g dissolved in 400 ml ˆ 25/400  100% ˆ 6.25%

(iii)

30 g dissolved in 1000 ml ˆ 30/1000  100 ˆ 3%

Dilution of a concentrated solution Example 2 A 50% solution of a particular drug is available at the practice. 500 ml of a 2.5% solution of this drug is required. Calculate the amount of the 50% solution and additional water that is required.

Summary of facts relating to this problem weight in g  100 volume in ml (or weight in g/volume in ml 100)

% solution ˆ

Therefore a 50% solution ˆ 50 g/100 ml  100 50 g ˆ  100 100 ml Likewise a 2:5% solution ˆ 2:5 g/100 ml  100 2:5 g ˆ  100 100 ml

Answer Method 1 To use the more concentrated 50% solution to make a 2.5% solution, ¢nd out how many ml of the 50% solution contains

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

35

2.5 g of the drug (solute). Once this is known it is easier to change the 50% solution into the required solution strength. Why 2.5 g? Because that is the weight of the solute required in every 100 ml of a 2.5% solution. 100 ml of a 50% solution contains 50 g of drug. But only 2.5 g of drug are required in the 2.5% solution. 1 That is only 2:5 50 or 20 of the amount. 1 1 20 of the drug will be contained in 20 of the volume of the 50% solution. Therefore, the volume of the 50% solution which contains 2.5 g of drug will be 100 20 ˆ 5 ml. Therefore, to produce a 2.5% solution (which is 2.5 g in 100 ml of solution), for each 100 ml of a 2.5% solution required take: 5 ml of the 50% solution plus 95 ml of sterile water ˆ 100 ml of 2.5% solution Originally, the question asked for 5 times this amount, i.e. 500 ml of a 2.5% solution of this drug. Therefore: 5 ml of the 50% solution is multiplied by 5 ˆ 25 ml Plus, 95 ml of the sterile water is multiplied by 5 ˆ 475 ml ˆ 500 ml of a 2.5% solution

Method 2 Rather than performing the calculation from ¢rst principles as shown in method 1, the volume of the solution available which must be used to obtain a speci¢ed dilution can be found by applying the following formula: strength required  final volume strength available Therefore volume of the 50% solution required ˆ

2:5  500 ml ˆ 25 ml 50

36

Chapter 3

Therefore, to make 500 ml of 2.5 % solution, take 25 ml of the 50% solution and make it up to 500 ml with 475 ml of sterile water.

Example 3 Once again a 50% solution is available. This time, 500 ml of a 10% solution is required from it. What needs to be done to complete this task?

Answer Method 1 A 50% solution is available. This can be expressed as 50 g/100 ml  100. 500 ml of a 10% solution is required. In standard form, a 10% solution can be expressed as 10 g/100 ml  100. This time, the volume of the 50% solution which contains 10 g of drug has to be calculated ¢rst. 50 g are contained in 100 ml. Therefore, 10 g (which is 15 of 50) will be contained in 100 ml ˆ 20 ml

1 5

of

Therefore, 20 ml of the 50% solution made up to 100 ml with sterile water will produce 100 ml of 10% solution. The question requires that 500 ml of the solution be produced, and 20 ml of the 50% solution is required to make 100 ml of 10% solution. Therefore 100 ml of the 50% solution will have to be made up to 500 ml with 400 ml of sterile water in order to make 500 ml of 10% solution i.e. 100  5 ˆ 500 ml.

Method 2 strength required  ¢nal volume strength available

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

37

Therefore volume of the 50% solution required ˆ

10  500 ml ˆ 100 ml 50

Therefore, 100 ml of the 50% solution will have to be made up to 500 ml with 400 ml of sterile water in order to make 500 ml of 10% solution.

Example 4 This example is a more complex variation of examples 2 and 3 (the answer is based on method 1 shown in examples 2 and 3). 500 ml of a 20% solution is available in the drug store. (i) Two solutions are required as follows: Solution 1 requires 200 ml of a 2.5% solution Solution 2 requires 500 ml of a 1% solution What calculations are needed to produce the two required solutions from the 20% solution? (ii) What volume would remain of the original 20% solution? (iii) What weight of solute would be in the remaining volume?

Answer (i)

What calculations are needed to produce the two required solutions from the 20% solution?

Given solution: 500 ml of 20% solution is available. A standard 20% solution is expressed as 20 g of solute in 100 ml of solvent (the base solution e.g. sterile water). Therefore, there are 5  20 g in 5  100 ml of this solution, i.e. 100 g in 500 ml. Solution 1 requires 200 ml of a 2.5% solution. A standard 2.5% solution is expressed as 2.5 g of solute in 100 ml of solvent.

38

Chapter 3

Therefore, there are 2  2.5 g in 2  100 ml of this solution, i.e. 5 g in 200 ml. Solution 2 requires 500 ml of a 1% solution. A standard 1% solution is expressed as 1 g in 100 ml of solvent. Therefore, there are 5  1 g in 5  100 ml of this solution, i.e. 5 g in 500 ml. Calculate how many ml of the more concentrated 20% solution contains 5 g of the solute. It is known that there are 100 g of solute in 500 ml ˆ 20% Only 5 g are required to make 500 ml of a 1% solution, there100 g 1 fore of 100 g ˆ 20 i.e. 5 g is 20 5g 500 ml Then the 5 g will be contained in ˆ 25 ml 20 ml of solution i.e. 5 g are contained in 25 ml of solution

Solution 1 Take 25 ml of the 20% solution and add 175 ml of solvent (e.g. sterile water) ˆ 5 g in (25 ml ‡ 175 ml ˆ 200 ml) 5g  100% i.e. 5 g in 200 ml ˆ 200 ml ˆ 2.5% solution

Solution 2 Take 25 ml of the 20% solution and add 475 ml of solvent (e.g. sterile water) ˆ 5 g in (25 ml ‡ 475 ml ˆ 500 ml) 5g i.e. 5 g in 500 ml ˆ  100% 500 ml ˆ 1% solution (ii)

What volume would remain of the original 20% solution?

Answer ˆ 500 ml 2  25 ml samples ˆ 450 ml

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

39

(iii) What weight of solute would be in the remaining volume? Weight of solute left in this 450 ml of 20% solution? Original solution contained 100 g and 2 samples have been taken out containing 5 g. Therefore, there must be 100 g (2 samples  5 g) ˆ 90 g left. Alternatively the answer could be calculated thus: weight  100 becomes: volume % solution  volume weight ˆ 100 20  450 ˆ 90 g weight ˆ 100

% solution ˆ

Manipulating the formula (see also Chapter 2, Basic Principles) The standard equation for a percentage solution is: % solution ˆ weight in g/volume in ml  100 weight in g  100 i:e: % solution ˆ volume in ml It is possible to manipulate this standard % solution formula to ¢nd the `missing part'.

For example weight in g  100 (standard formula) volume in ml weight in g  100 (manipulated formula) volume in ml ˆ % solution volume in ml  % solution weight in g ˆ 100 (manipulated formula) % solution ˆ

It may be easier to remember the above manipulation if it is thought of as a triangle:

40

Chapter 3

weight in g 100

 volume in ml

 

%

To apply the triangle: . . .

First put the known information into the appropriate places in the triangle Next, cover the part of the triangle which contains the information which has to be found Finally, divide or multiply (as appropriate) the remaining visible ¢gures.

Example 5 Calculate the weight of solute which must be dissolved in 250 ml of solvent in order to make a 5% solution.

Answer Place the known information in the appropriate parts of the triangle and cover the section marked `weight' as shown below:

Cover up weight in g 100



250 ml





5%

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

41

From the triangle, weight  100 ˆ vol  % Therefore weight  100 ˆ 250  5 ˆ 1250 g In order to make weight the subject of the equation, i.e. to remove the 100 from the left hand side, both sides must be divided by 100. weight  100 1250 ˆ g 100 100 Therefore weight ˆ 12:5 g

Therefore

Example 6 Calculate what volume of a 25% solution contains 20 g of solute.

Answer Place the known information in the appropriate parts of the triangle and cover section marked volume as shown below:

20 g 100





Cover up volume 

25%

weight  100 % 20  100 ˆ ml 25 ˆ 80 ml

From the triangle, volume ˆ

42

Chapter 3

Example 7 What is the concentration of a solution which is produced by dissolving 15 g of solute in 60 ml of solvent?

Answer Place the known information in the appropriate parts of the triangle and cover section marked % as shown below:

15 g 100

 60 ml

 

Cover up %

weight  100 volume 1500 % ˆ 60 ˆ 25%

From the triangle % solution ˆ

Example 8 10 litres of a 25% solution are held in stock. Earlier in the book, 250 ml of a 5% solution had been prepared from the above solution. (i) (ii) (iii)

What weight of solute did this volume contain? What volume of the 25% solution was used? What amount of sterile water was added to reduce the concentration to 5%?

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

43

This question can easily be answered by using the standard formula for % solutions and by manipulating the formula: Standard formula: weight in g  100 volume in ml For the 5% solution manipulate the formula to give: % solution  volume in ml weight in g ˆ 100

% solution ˆ

Substituting the ¢gures given means that the weight will be calculated ¢rst: 5%  250 ml ˆ 12:5 g 100 i.e. weight of the solute in 250 ml ˆ 12.5 g weight in g ˆ

Now ¢nd what volume of the 25% solution contains 12.5 g of solute by substituting the values calculated 12:5 g  100 25% ˆ 50 ml

volume ˆ

250 ml of 5% solution was originally prepared from the stock solution. Therefore, 200 ml needs to be added to this 50 ml.

Answers (i) (ii) (iii)

Volume of the 25% solution used Weight this volume contains Volume of sterile water added to give a 5% solution

ˆ 50 ml ˆ 12.5 g ˆ 200 ml

Example 9 A surgery has run out of 5% solution of a drug. The veterinary surgeon has, however, requested that 250 ml of this solution be available for urgent treatment of a cat. There is only 500 ml of a

44

Chapter 3

1.5% solution. Explain how 250 ml of 5% solution could be produced from the 1.5% stock.

Answer To increase the concentration of a solution the weight of solute in a given volume of solvent must be increased. The ¢rst step is to calculate the weight of the solute in 250 ml of the available solution. Why 250 ml? This is the volume requested by the veterinary surgeon. Using the standard formula % solution ˆ

weight  100 volume

and by manipulating it to give the weight as the subject of the equation: weight in g ˆ

% solution  volume in ml 100

By halving the volume of the available 1.5% solution to 250 ml, two parts of the equation are known. The third unknown part can be calculated thus. Substituting the 1.5% and the 250 ml into the equation gives the following: 1:5%  250 ml 100 ˆ 3:75 g in 250 ml of the 1:5% solution If the same equation is used, but this time substituting the vet's requirements, the calculation becomes: weight ˆ

5%  250 ml 100 ˆ 12:5 g

weight ˆ

The situation can be recorded as follows: Required weight of solute in 250 ml of 5% solution is 12.5 g Actual weight of solute in 250 ml of 1.5% solution is 3.75 g

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

45

By adding (12.5 g 3.75 g) ˆ 8.75 g to 250 ml of the available 1.5% solution, the concentration can be increased from 1.5% to 5%. The standard formula can prove this: by substituting the known weight and volume values, the concentration can be calculated. Hence % solution ˆ

12:5 g  100 ˆ 5% 250 ml

Self-test exercise (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) Changing the percentage concentration of a solution (i)

(a)

How many grams of glucose powder are required to make 50 ml of a 2.5% solution?

(b)

What weight of glucose should be added to increase the concentration of 50 ml of 2.5% solution (in (a)) to 5%?

(ii)

How much of 50% dextrose solution must be added to a 750 ml bag of sterile water (once an identical volume of water is removed) to make a 5% dextrose solution?

(iii)

How many milligrams of solute are required to make 50 ml of 2.5% solution and what volume of sterile water is needed to reduce its concentration to a 0.25% solution?

(iv)

Two solutions containing the same drug are mixed together. What is the resultant concentration if the two solutions are: 200 ml of 2% solution and 100 ml of 1% solution?

(v)

By adding 5 g of a solute to 200 ml of 3% solution containing the same solute, what is the % concentration of the new solution?

(vi)

How much sterile liquid needs to be added to 100 ml of 10% solution to reduce its concentration by half?

46

Chapter 3

(vii)

12 mg of a drug are dissolved in 50 ml of sterile £uid and 25 ml then used for an injection. A further 25 ml of sterile £uid are then added to the unused 25 ml of original solution. Calculate the % concentration of the ¢nal solution.

(viii)

When 250 ml of a 20% solution were accidentally added to a 750 ml beaker of sterile water the vet, who had asked for 250 ml of a 5% solution, was not concerned. Why?

(ix)

10 mg of a drug are dissolved in 5 ml of a sterile £uid but the required concentration should have been 2.5%. What needs to be done to rectify the situation?

(x)

Four students have just ¢nished working with the same solution in di¡erent concentrations. The laboratory technician has only one 5 litre beaker in which to keep all of the solutions left by the students. The technician decides to make up 2.5 litres of a 2.5% solution, in order to make stock-keeping simple. What must the technician do in order to accomplish this? Given that: Student 1 left 250 ml of a 5.0% solution Student 2 left 100 ml of a 10.0% solution Student 3 left 750 ml of a 2.5% solution Student 4 left 50 ml of a 1.0% solution

Answers to self-test exercises (i)

Weight of glucose powder in 50 ml of 2.5% solution: Use either the triangle diagram or the manipulated formula weight in g ˆ

volume in ml  % solution 100

Substituting known values gives: weight in g ˆ

2:5%  50 ml ˆ 1:25 g 100

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

47

Use the same formula to calculate the weight of glucose in 50 ml of a 5% solution. weight in g ˆ

5:0%  50 ml ˆ 2:5 g 100

Therefore to convert 50 ml of a 2.5% solution into 50 ml of a 5% solution, a further 1.25 g of glucose needs to be added to the 2.5% solution. (ii)

This question starts with 750 ml of sterile water in a bag. It then asks how much water needs to be removed and replaced by a dextrose solution to produce 750 ml of 5% solution of dextrose and then states that the only source of dextrose available is in a 50% solution. The ¢rst stage in calculating the answer to this question is to calculate the weight of dextrose needed to create 750 ml of 5% solution. Use weight in g ˆ

750 ml  5% ˆ 37:5 g of dextrose 100

The only source of dextrose available is a 50% concentrated solution. Therefore what volume of 50% solution contains 37.5 g of dextrose? 50% solution ˆ

50 g  100 100 ml

means that 1 g is dissolved in every 2 ml. Therefore, what volume in ml of 50% solution contains 37.5 g of dextrose? If 1 g of a 50% solution is dissolved in 2 ml (see above), then 37.5 g of dextrose will be dissolved, or contained in, 37.5  2 ml ˆ 75 ml. Therefore, if 75 ml of sterile water are taken out of the bag containing 750 ml, leaving 675 ml of sterile water, and 75 ml of a 50% solution of dextrose are added to the 675 ml of sterile water, then the resulting solution will contain 37.5 g of dextrose.

48

Chapter 3

This means that the resulting solution will have 37.5 g of solute in 750 ml of solution. Using the equation % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

to check the concentration of the new mixture gives the following answer: % solution ˆ (iii)

37:5 g  100 ˆ 5% 750 ml

This question is best answered by ¢rst calculating the weight of solute in the 2.5% solution using the standard formula and substituting the known values: 2:5%  50 ml ˆ 1:25 g 100 Expressed in mg this is (1.25  1000) mg ˆ 1250 mg

weight in g ˆ

The question then asks how this solution can be diluted to change it into a 0.25% strength solution. This requires the weight to volume ratio of the above solution to be calculated. In other words, how many g of solute are contained in a standard 0.25% solution, again using the standard formula: weight in g  100 volume in ml 0:25 g  100 ˆ 0:25 g in 100 ml 0:25% solution ˆ 100 ml or it can also be expressed as (0.25  1000) mg in 100 ml or as the ratio of 250 mg of solute in 100 ml of solution producing a solution of 0.25% concentration. % solution ˆ

Two sets of data have now been calculated from the data given in the question.

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

49

50 ml of a 2.5% solution contain 1250 mg of solute. (statement 1) 100 ml of a 0.25% solution contain 250 mg of the same solute (statement 2) The question asks, `What volume of sterile water is needed to reduce the concentration of the 2.5% solution to a 0.25% solution?' In order to compare the two solutions, either the weights or the volumes need to be equal. In this case, as the question requires the 2.5% solution to be diluted i.e. volume added by the addition of more water, the weight needs to remain constant. To do this, statement 2 needs to be multiplied by 5 to get the weight the same as in statement 1. i.e. 5  100 ml of a 0.25% solution contain 5  250 mg of solute which translates to 500 ml of a 0.25% solution contain 1250 mg of solute. Comparing this to statement 1 which is: 50 ml of a 2.5% solution contain 1250 mg of solute The question asks `what volume of sterile water is needed?' By deduction, if 50 ml of a 2.5% solution contain 1250 mg of solute and 500 ml of 0.25% solution contain 1250 mg of the same solute, then the addition of (500 50 ˆ) 450 ml of sterile water to the 2.5% solution will give a 0.25% solution. (iv)

The key to answering this question is to calculate the weight of the solute in each of the given solutions. Add the weights together and divide the weight by the total volume using the standard formula for a % solution to calculate the new concentration. Use the manipulated formula 2%  200 ml weight in gˆ ˆ 4g 100

50

Chapter 3

and for the other solution, 1%  100 ml ˆ 1g weight in g ˆ 100 Add the two weights to give 5 g, and the two volumes (200 ‡ 100) ˆ 300 ml. Use the standard formula weight in g % solution ˆ  100 volume in ml Substitute known values 5g  100 ˆ 1:67% solution % solutionˆ 300 ml (v)

To answer this question, use the manipulated formula to calculate the weight of solute in the given solution. Then add 5 g to the weight calculated. Recalculate using the standard formula with the new values. Use manipulated formula % solution  volume in ml weight in g ˆ 100 Substitute given values 3%  200 ml ˆ 6g Weight in g ˆ 100 Add 5 g to give 11 g Recalculate using standard formula % solution ˆ 11 g in 200 ml  100 ˆ 5.5% Note: only the weight changes, not the volume.

(vi)

The technique for answering this question is exactly the same as those above. Use the standard formula to express each of the solutions by weight and volume. Thus a 10% standard solution is: 10 g  100 100 ml 5g  100 5% solution ˆ 100 ml 10% solution ˆ

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

51

10 g by multiplying top 200 ml and bottom of the equation by 2. or, it can also be expressed as

This enables direct comparison of the 10% and the 5% solutions as both have the same weight but are dissolved in di¡erent volumes. Hence: 10% solution is 10 g of solute dissolved in 100 ml of solution 5% solution is 10 g of solute dissolved in 200 ml of solution Adding 100 ml of sterile liquid to a 10% solution would convert it to a 5% solution. (vii)

This question is similar to question (v) except that the volume changes rather than the weight. 12 mg of drug are dissolved in 50 ml of sterile £uid. 25 ml are used for an injection. This leaves 25 ml of the solution (i.e. half) containing 6 mg of solute, i.e. half of the weight. A further 25 ml of £uid are added. Which gives 6 mg in (25 ml ‡ 25 ml ˆ ) 50 ml of solution. Use the standard formula to calculate the concentration after changing the weight units to g (as the standard requires). 6 mg ˆ

6 ˆ 0:006 g 1000 g

% solution ˆ (viii)

0:006 g  100 ˆ 0:012% solution 50 ml

This question can only be answered by using the standard calculation for a % solution to determine the weight in the 20% solution, then adding 750 ml of volume to the solution, and recalculating using the standard formula.

52

Chapter 3

Using manipulated formula % solution  volume in ml 100 20%  250 ml ˆ 50 g weight in g ˆ 100

weight in g ˆ

The weight is now known. The volume was 250 ml and has been increased by being accidentally added to a beaker containing 750 ml of sterile water, i.e. the total volume has increased to (250 ml ‡ 750 ml ˆ ) 1000 ml of solution. 50 g  100 ˆ 5% The concentration is now ˆ 1000 ml Exactly what the vet asked for, hence the lack of concern! (ix)

First calculate the % concentration of the solution. Note that the weight is in mg, and must be converted to g. Then express 2.5% solution in standard terms. Make either the weight or the volume equal in both solutions. Compare the answers and deduce what has to be done to convert one solution into the other. Calculate the % solution from the facts given in the question. 0:010 g % solution ˆ  100 5 ml (weight needs to be converted to g ¢rst) ˆ 0.2% 2:5 g 2:5% ˆ  100 100 ml (2:5  1000) mg  100 or 2:5% ˆ 100 ml 2500 mg i.e. 2:5% ˆ  100 (equation 1) 100 ml expressed as weight in mg in 5 ml (which is the volume 125 mg (divide top and of the original solution) gives 5 ml bottom of equation 1 by 20).

Changing the Concentration of a Solution

53

Therefore if 10 mg in 5 ml ˆ 0.2% solution and 125 mg in 5 ml ˆ 2.5% solution then 115 mg (125 mg 10 mg) of solute must be added to rectify the situation. This will convert the 0.2% solution into a 2.5% solution (x)

In each case, the weight of solute in the solution left by the students must be calculated. Use the manipulated formula: % solution  volume in ml 100 5%  250 ml ˆ 12:50 g Student 1 weight in solution ˆ 100 10%  100 ml Student 2 weight in solution ˆ 100 ˆ 10:00 g 2:5%  750 ml Student 3 weight in solution ˆ 100 ˆ 18:75 g 1:0%  50 ml ˆ 0:50 g Student 4 weight in solution ˆ 100 Total weight in solution is 41:75 g in …250 ‡ 100 ‡ 750 ‡ 50 ˆ )1150 ml weight in g  100 and the ¢gures above, the Using volume in ml mixed solution has a combined concentration of 41:75 g  100 ˆ 3:63%. 1150 ml The technician wants to store this as 2.5 litres of a 2.5% solution. The weight of solute in this solution can be calculated from the equation weight in g ˆ

2:5%  2500 ml ˆ 62:5 g 100 or 62.5 g dissolved in 2500 ml is equivalent to a 2.5% solution.

54

Chapter 3

The mixture of the students' solutions gave 41.75 g in 1150 ml. Therefore the technician needs to add (62.5 g 41.75 g) ˆ 20.75 g to the solution and increase the volume to 2500 ml by adding (2500 ml 1150 ml) ˆ 1350 ml of sterile water. To check this answer substitute the calculated ¢gures into the standard formula. 41:75 g ‡ 20:75 g  100 1150 ml ‡ 1350 ml 62:5 g  100 ˆ 2:5% ˆ 2500 ml

% solution ˆ

Chapter 4

Calculating Energy Requirements

In physics, 1 calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 18C. More correctly, energy should be expressed in terms of joules. To convert calories to joules, multiply the calorie value by 4.2 (4.18 to be totally accurate). However, energy in food is usually de¢ned in both units, i.e. in kilojoules (kJ) and kilocalories (kcal). Calculations relating to food units usually use kilocalories, where one kilocalorie is equal to 1000 calories. Thus 1 kilocalorie ˆ 1000 calories.

Note In this chapter there are several types of energy requirements but the unit used for all of them is the kcal.

Basal Energy Requirement ^ BER This is the energy required by an animal (even when it is asleep) to sustain its Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) generally calculated for a 24 hr period. For dogs >5 kg (or >2 kg, in some publications) The BER is calculated from the formula: BER kcal ˆ 30  body weight ‡ 70 55

56

Chapter 4

For cats and small dogs The BER is calculated using the formula: BER kcal ˆ 60  body weight

Resting Energy Requirement ^ RER This is the energy required by an animal at rest in an environment that is at the optimum temperature for the species. The RER is calculated using the formula for BER.

Maintenance Energy Requirement ^ MER This is the amount of energy used by an active animal in an optimum temperature for the species. The MER is calculated from the formula: MER kcal ˆ RER  1.8

Illness Energy Requirement ^ IER This is the extra energy required by an animal in order to help it recover from trauma and/or repair damaged tissue. To calculate the IER it is necessary to have access to a table of factors for various conditions. See table 4.1. Table 4.1 Disease factors Description

Disease factor

Cage rest Surgery/trauma Multiple surgery/trauma Sepsis/neoplasia Burns/scalding Growth

1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.0

Calculating Energy Requirements

57

Notes .

.

.

If the animal has multiple conditions, for example sepsis (1.7) and burns (2.0), the highest factor, in this example 2.0, is used. The factors are not added together or multiplied. The highest factor prevails. The IER is calculated from the formula: IER kcal ˆ BER  disease factor Also note that the calculation results in the number of kcal required by the animal over a given time period.

Example 1 Calculate the RER for an adult cat with a body weight of 4 kg.

Answer Using the formula: RER kcal ˆ 60  body weight And substituting the ¢gure given for the cat's body weight (4 kg). RER ˆ 60  4 kcal ˆ 240 kcal in a 24 hour period

Example 2 Calculate the MER for a 60 kg Irish wolfhound.

Answer In this example, the BER should be calculated ¢rst using the formula: BER ˆ 30  body weight ‡ 70 kcal for a 24 hour period. Substituting the body weight of the hound into the formula gives BER ˆ 30  60 kg ‡ 70 kcal for a 24 hour period BER ˆ 1800 ‡ 70 ˆ 1870 kcal for a 24 hour period

58

Chapter 4

MER ˆ 1.8  BER MER ˆ 1.8  1870 kcal for a 24 hour period MER ˆ 3366 kcal for a 24 hour period

Example 3 A 2.5 kg cat has been involved in a road tra¤c accident (RTA) and requires an operation to repair a fracture of both femurs. Calculate the IER.

Answer Using the formula: IER ˆ BER  disease factor BER ˆ 60  2.5 kg ˆ 150 kcal IER ˆ BER  disease factor Substituting the calculated BER ¢gure and the factor from the table above gives: IER ˆ 150  1.5 ˆ 225 kcal

Note .

From the table, the factors for both surgery and trauma (RTA) are 1.5, therefore the factor to use is 1.5, not 2  1.5 (ˆ 3).

Self-test exercise (i)

Calculate the RER for a 20 kg dog, a 5 kg cat and a 1 kg kitten.

(ii)

Calculate the MER for the following: 3 kg rabbit 5 kg cat 12 kg Basenji 70 kg Irish wolfhound

Calculating Energy Requirements

(iii)

59

Calculate the IER for the patients listed below A 20 kg dog has su¡ered multiple injuries in an RTA. A 3 kg cat burnt in a house ¢re which develops infection in the wound within 1 week. A 4 kg rabbit recovering from surgery needing cage rest.

Answers to self-test exercise As these calculations are similar in nature they can be answered in tabular form. Table 4.2 Answers to calculation of energy requirements (i)

Patient

 Factor

Body weight kg

Additional factor

Total kcal

Dog

30

20

70

670

Cat

60

5

^

300

Kitten

60

1

^

60

Table 4.3 Answers to calculation of energy requirements (ii)

Patient

 Factor Body Additional Constant Total weight factor factor kcal kg

Rabbit

60

3

^

1.8

324

Cat

60

5

^

1.8

540

Basenji

30

12

70

1.8

774

Irish wolfhound

30

70

70

1.8

3906

60

Chapter 4 Table 4.4 Answers to calculation of energy requirements

(iii)

Patient

 Factor

Body Additional weight factor kg

Disease factor

Total kcal

Dog

30

20

70

1.5

1005

Cat

60

3

^

2.0

360

Rabbit

60

4

^

1.3

312

Chapter 5

Dosages ^ Oral Route

These extremely important calculations relate a drug dosage to an animal's body weight and the period of time over which it is administered. Thus, the dose rate is normally expressed in the following units: mg/kg/day. That is, mg per kg of the drug to be given, multiplied by the animal's body weight in kg, to be administered over a given time period. There is always a time element involved, such as twice daily (b.i.d.) or `x' number of tablets, say, every 8 hours (hrs). The body weight may need to be converted from lb to kg. From the conversion tables within this book, it can be determined that: 2.2 lb converts to 1 kg. If such conversions are needed in an examination, multiples of 11 lb are often used to make the ¢gures easier to convert. It follows therefore that 22 lb is equal to 10 kg (just multiply each side of the equation by 10). Therefore, a 22 lb dog becomes a 10 kg dog and a 44 lb dog becomes a 20 kg dog. See table 5.1. Table 5.1 Conversion of lb to kg lb

kg

22 33 44 55 66

10 15 20 25 30 61

62

Chapter 5

The dosages calculated can be either in solid form as a tablet, or in liquid form which is administered with a graduated dropper or syringe.

Example 1 A 5 kg rabbit requires medication at the rate of 50 mg/kg per day and the total amount should be split into two doses. A liquid form for oral dosage is available at 125 mg per ml. How many ml should be administered to the rabbit over the course of the day?

Answer Body weight of rabbit ˆ 5 kg Dose rate/kg of body weight ˆ 50 mg Dose ˆ body weight in kg  dose rate in mg/kg of body weight ˆ 5 kg  50 mg/kg ˆ 250 mg NB: the kg cancel out and the answer is left in mg 1 ml contains 125 mg of antibiotic Therefore, the number of ml required per day ˆ

250 mg ˆ 2 ml 125 mg

Therefore the dose of 250 mg should be given as 1 ml b.i.d.

Example 2 A dog weighing 88 lb needs a course of antibiotics, which are available as 100 mg tablets. The recommended daily dose is 10 mg/kg of body weight. (a) How many tablets are required? (b) What would the tablet requirement be if it was a puppy weighing 22 lb?

Dosages ^ Oral Route

63

Answer In this example, both answers can be calculated together Body weight of dogs in lb Body weight in kg Dosage mg/kg Dosage in mg Tablet strength/mg Tablets required

88 40 10 400 100 4

22 10 10 100 100 1

Notice however that the ratio of the dogs' weights is 88 : 22 which is the same as 4 : 1. Once the tablet requirement had been calculated for the adult dog i.e. 4 tablets, the requirement for the puppy could be deduced i.e. 1 tablet. As the dosage remains constant per kg of body weight, then the ratio of weights is re£ected in the ratio of the tablets.

Example 3 A young Chihuahua weighs 2 kg and requires a drug at a dose rate of 4 mg/kg/day. The tablet strength is 8 mg. How many tablets are required per dose if they are administered b.i.d.?

Answer Body weight ˆ 2 kg Dose rate ˆ 4 mg/kg Dose calculated ˆ 2 kg  4 mg /kg ˆ 8 mg Tablet dose ˆ 8 mg calculated dose 8 mg Tablets required ˆ ˆ 1 tablet tablet dose 8 mg Dosing period ˆ b.i.d. Dose/occasion ˆ 1 tablet/2 occasions ˆ 12 tablet b.i.d.

64

Chapter 5

Example 4 Antibiotics are to be given orally to a small goat weighing 4 kg. The dose rate is 50 mg/kg every 24 hours, for 7 days. The dose is to be divided so that it can be administered b.i.d. How many ml of suspension should be dispensed if it contains 100 mg/ml of the antibiotic?

Answer Body weight ˆ 4 kg Dose rate ˆ 50 mg/kg Dose calculated ˆ 4 kg  50 mg /kg ˆ 200 mg/day Suspension strength ˆ 100 mg/ml 200 mg ˆ 2 ml/day Volume required ˆ 100 mg Dosing period ˆ b.i.d. ml/dose ˆ 1 ml Course of treatment for 7 days  2 ml/day Therefore, 14 ml should be dispensed.

Example 5 A dog weighs 35 kg and requires medication at a dose rate of 40 mg/kg. The tablets available are 280 mg in strength. How many tablets are required? How would this dosage alter if the tablets were only 140 mg in strength?

Answer Body weight ˆ 35 kg Dose rate ˆ 40 mg/kg Dose calculated ˆ 35 kg  40 mg/kg ˆ 1400 mg Tablet dose ˆ 280 mg

Dosages ^ Oral Route

65

1400 mg ˆ 5 tablets 280 mg If the tablets were only 140 mg in strength then the number of 1400 mg ˆ 10 tablets. tablets would be 140 mg Tablets required ˆ

Self-test exercise (worked answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

A drug is available in tablets which should be administered at a dose rate of 3 mg/kg. This applies to all parts of the question. The tablets are to be given to an animal weighing 20 kg. (a) If the tablets available were 30 mg in strength, how many tablets does it need? (b) What would the requirement be if the tablet strength were 60 mg? The tablets are to be given to an animal weighing 60 kg. (c) If the tablets were 30 mg in strength, how many tablets would be required? (d) If the tablets were 20 mg in strength, how many tablets would be required?

(ii)

A 20 kg animal requires a drug at the rate of 5 mg/kg/ 24 hrs. The drug is supplied as a 50 mg tablet. How many tablets are required for 7 days of treatment?

(iii)

A 280 kg animal is receiving 4 tablets per day, for 7 days. The total daily dose is 560 mg. What is the: (a) (b) (c)

(iv)

weight of drug in each tablet? dose rate in mg/kg/24 hrs? total drug weight, in g, administered over the course of 7 days?

A hamster, weighing 125 g requires medication at the rate of 1 mg/kg of body weight per 8 hrs. An oral suspension is available containing 0.25 mg of drug per ml.

66

Chapter 5

How many ml must be prescribed for a 7 day course of treatment? (v)

A 1 kg kitten requires 60 mg/kg/day of a drug. The kitten has already had 8 tablets over the last 4 days. The total course of treatment requires an intake of 0.3 g. How many more days has the treatment to last before it is complete? Each tablet contains 30 mg of drug.

(vi)

A large bird weighing 33 lb is being treated with 2  12.5 mg tablets of a drug, b.i.d. The drug is administered in a food treat, over a 5 day period. Calculate the daily dose rate in mg/kg. What would the total dose of drug be for 5 days, if the bird weighed 44 lb and the dose rate remained the same?

(vii) How many tablets of 2.5 mg strength should be administered per dose to a 5 kg dog, if the dose rate is 4 mg/kg/ day and the tablets are given b.i.d? (viii) A 1500 g kitten needs 12 mg of a drug every 12 hours given in a 4 mg tablet form b.i.d. Calculate the dose rate in mg/kg/day. (ix)

An animal is being treated with two 15 mg tablets every 8 hrs. The dose rate is 5 mg/kg/day. Which one of the following is the weight of the animal in kg? (a) (b) (c) (d)

(x)

12 16 18 20

A 50 kg animal is being treated with 4 ml of antibiotic suspension every 6 hrs. Each ml of suspension contains 5 mg of drug. Calculate the dose rate in mg/kg/day.

Dosages ^ Oral Route

67

Answers to self-test exercise (i)

(a)

Body weight of animal ˆ 20 kg Dose rate ˆ 3 mg/kg Dose required ˆ 20 kg  3 mg/kg ˆ 60 mg Each tablet contains 30 mg of the drug 60 mg Therefore number of tablets required ˆ 30 mg ˆ 2 tablets

(b)

If the tablets were double the strength, i.e. 60 mg then only 1 tablet would be required.

(c)

However, if the animal to be treated weighed 60 kg and the dose rate remained the same at 3 mg/kg of body weight, the requirement would be 60 kg  3 mg/kg ˆ 180 mg. If the tablets contained 30 mg of drug, then the 180mg number of tablets ˆ ˆ 6 tablets 30 mg

(d)

For a drug requirement of 180 mg using 20 mg tablets, the number of tablets required ˆ 180 mg/ 20 mg ˆ 9 tablets

(ii)

Body weight of animal ˆ 20 kg Dose rate ˆ 5 mg/kg/24 hrs Requirement ˆ 20 kg  5 mg/kg ˆ 100 mg Each tablet contains 50 mg.   100 mg Therefore 2 tablets are required per day. 50 mg Consequently, 14 tablets would be required for a 7 day course.

(iii)

Body weight of animal ˆ 280 kg Tablets given per day (24 hr period) ˆ 4 tablets

68

Chapter 5

Daily dose of drug ˆ 560 mg (given in question) (a) (b)

(c)

560 mg ˆ 140 mg/tablet 4 tablets Dose rate is weight of drug administered in 24 hr period/body weight 560 mg ˆ ˆ 2 mg/kg/day 280 kg Total weight of drug ˆ 7 days  560 mg ˆ 3920 mg ˆ 3.92 g Tablet strength ˆ

(iv)

Body weight of hamster ˆ 125 g Dose rate ˆ 1 mg/kg/8 hrs 1 mg  125 g Drug requirement per dose ˆ 1000 (hamster's weight of 125 g is divided by 1000 to convert it to kg) ˆ 0.125 mg of drug per dose 24 hrs Doses per day ˆ 8hrs ˆ 3 doses each requiring 0.125 mg ˆ 3  0:125 mg ˆ 0.375 mg/day Strength of suspension ˆ 0.25 mg/ml 0:375 mg Therefore daily requirement ˆ 0:25 mg ˆ 1.5 ml per day for 7 days 7 day course ˆ 10.5 ml

(v)

Body weight of kitten ˆ 1 kg Dosage rate 60 mg/kg/day ˆ 60 mg Total drug intake recommended ˆ 0.3 g ˆ (0:3  1000) mg ˆ 300 mg 300 mg To ¢nd the number of tablets ˆ tablet ˆ 10 tablets. 30 mg 8 tablets have already been administered over the last 4 days (i.e.1 b.i.d.) One more day will complete the prescribed course.

Dosages ^ Oral Route

(vi)

Body weight of bird is 33 lb ˆ 15 kg Amount of drug taken over 1 day ˆ 2  12.5 mg b.i.d. i.e. 25 mg b.i.d. ˆ 50 mg/day daily weight of drug in mg Dose rate ˆ body weight of patient in kg For the bird weighing 15 kg, the dose rate would be

69

50mg 15 kg

ˆ 3.33 mg/kg/day For a bird weighing 44 lb (20 kg), the total dose in 5 days ˆ (3.33 mg  20 kg) per day  5 days ˆ 66.6 mg per day  5 days ˆ 333 mg total dose (vii) Body weight of dog ˆ 5 kg Dose rate ˆ 4 mg/kg/day Dose ˆ 4 mg  5 kg/day ˆ 20 mg/day Tablets contain 2.5 mg of the drug therefore 20 mg number of tablets required per day ˆ ˆ 8 tablets 2:5 mg Therefore 4 tablets should be given b.i.d. 1500 g ˆ 1:5 kg 1000 (1500 g is divided by 1000 to change g into kg) Required amount of drug per day ˆ 12 mg  2 ˆ 24 mg/day 24 mg The kitten needs 1:5 kg Therefore dose rate ˆ 16 mg/kg/day

(viii) Body weight of kitten ˆ

Note that tablet strength is irrelevant to the calculation and is not required as part of the ¢nal answer, as only the dose rate is required. Questions such as this, which may contain unnecessary additional information, could arise in examinations.

70

Chapter 5

(ix)

Total amount of drug administered daily to the animal ˆ 2 tablets  15 mg ˆ 30 mg every 8 hrs ˆ 90 mg per day Dose rate ˆ 5 mg/kg/day To ¢nd the weight of the animal 90 mg=day ˆ 18 kg (answer c) 5 mg=kg=day

(x)

Weight of antibiotic per ml ˆ 5 mg Number of ml administered every 6 hrs ˆ 4 ml Weight of antibiotic ingested every 6 hrs ˆ 5 mg  4 ml ˆ 20 mg Weight of antibiotic ingested every 24 hrs ˆ 20 mg q.i.d. ˆ 80 mg 80 mg=day Dose rate ˆ ˆ 1.6 mg/kg/day 50 kg

Chapter 6

Dosages ^ Injections

These extremely important calculations usually relate a drug dosage to an animal's body weight and the period of time over which it has to be administered. Thus, the dose rate is normally expressed in the units mg/kg/day; that is, milligrams per kilogram of the drug to be given, multiplied by the animal's body weight in kilograms, to be administered over a given time period. There is always a time element involved such as twice daily (b.i.d.). It may be that the weight is given in lb rather than kg. The conversion from lb to kg is a fairly easy conversion. This is because 1 kg converts to 2.2 lb (approximately). Therefore: 10 kg ˆ 22 lb 15 kg ˆ 33 lb 20 kg ˆ 44 lb 25 kg ˆ 55 lb 30 kg ˆ 66 lb

Example 1 Calculate the volume of drug required to treat a bird weighing 15 g if the dose rate is 200 g/kg body weight.

Answer First the body weight must be converted to kg: 15g ˆ

15 kg ˆ 0:015 kg 1000 71

72

Chapter 6

Next multiply the body weight by the dose rate. Therefore dose ˆ 0.015 kg  200 g ˆ 3g

Example 2 A 33 lb dog has to be treated with a drug at a dose rate of 10 g/kg. Calculate the amount of drug required.

Answer First convert the dog's weight to kg by dividing by 2.2 or by multiplying by 0.45 (see conversion factors in Chapter 1). 33 lb ˆ

33 kg ˆ 15 kg 2:2

Next multiply the weight in kg by the dose rate. Therefore, dose ˆ 15 kg  10 g ˆ 150 g

Example 3 The drug used to treat the dog in example 2 is in the form of a 0.02% solution. Calculate what volume of the solution will be required.

Answer First convert 150 g to g by dividing by one million (move decimal point 6 places to the left). Therefore 150g ˆ 0:00015 g Next change the standard formula for a % solution as shown below % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

Dosages ^ Injections

Therefore volume in ml ˆ ˆ

73

weight in g  100 % solution 0:00015 g  100 0:015 ˆ 0:02 0:02

ˆ 0:75 ml Note that dividing 0.015 by 0.02 is the same as dividing 1.5 by 2 which is a more simple calculation!

Self-test exercise (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

A dog weighing 66 lb needs to be treated with a drug at a dose rate of 5 mg/kg/day. The solution available is 2%. Calculate the volume in ml of the daily injection to give the correct dose.

(ii)

A 2.5 kg Chihuahua needs two  5 ml injections daily of a 0.3% solution of a drug. Calculate the dose rate in mg/kg/day.

(iii)

A Toucan requires a daily injection of 0.06 g of a drug which is contained in a 10% solution. Calculate the dose rate if the Toucan weighs 1.5 kg.

(iv)

5 ml of a 0.03% solution of a drug is administered to a 200 g toad. Calculate the dosage administered.

(v)

A kitten is given an injection of a 0.5% solution. The dose rate is 1 mg/kg/day and the kitten weighs 0.5 kg. Calculate what volume is injected.

(vi)

A python weighing 70 kg needs an injection. The recommended dose rate of the prescribed drug is 2 mg/kg/day.

74

Chapter 6

If the python has two injections/day, what volume is required for each injection of the 2% solution in which the drug is available? (vii)

A guinea pig has to be treated with a drug at a dose rate of 20 mg/kg/8 hrs. It weighs 750 g and the drug is only available as a 2.5% solution. What is the volume of each injection? Would this change if the weight of the guinea pig was 1.5 kg and the solution's concentration increased to 5%?

(viii)

A gerbil needs a 0.5 ml injection of a 2% solution over a 24 hour period. What is the dose rate if the gerbil weighs 60 g.

(ix)

A 7.5 kg dog needs two daily injections. If each injection is 15 ml, calculate the dose rate in mg/ kg/day. What weight of the drug, in g, will be administered over a 5 day period if the solution used is of 2.5% concentration.

(x)

A dog weighing 8 kg needs injections t.i.d. of a 4% solution. Calculate the weight in mg of the drug and the volume in ml that it receives per injection. Assume a dose rate of 6 mg/kg/8 hrs.

Answers to self-test exercise (i)

66 ˆ 30 kg 2:2 Dosage 5 mg/kg/day ˆ 5 mg/kg  30 kg ˆ 150 mg 150 mg ˆ ˆ 0:15 g 1000 Solution available ˆ2 %

Weight of dog ˆ 66 lb ˆ

Dosages ^ Injections

75

To solve this problem, the volume of 2% solution that is required contains 0.15 g of the drug. Using the formula for the percentage solution (from Chapter 3), % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

The % solution and weight in g is either given or can be calculated from the data presented. From this and by manipulating the formula above, the volume can be calculated: weight in g  100 % solution (See Chapter 3 to understand how the formula was manipulated.)

volume in ml ˆ

Substituting the values into the formula gives: 0:15 g  100 volume in ml ˆ ˆ 7:5 ml 2% (ii)

Using the formula weight in g  100 volume in ml % solution  volume in ml Therefore weight in g ˆ 100 % solution ˆ

2 daily injections of 5 ml are given i.e. 10 ml/day Substituting values into the formula gives the following 0:3%  10 ml 100 3 ˆ 100 ˆ 0.03 g per day ˆ 30 mg/day

weight in g ˆ

Dose rate is therefore 30 mg/day/2.5 kg of body weight. This can be expressed as a dose rate of 12 mg/kg/day.

76

(iii)

Chapter 6

Sometimes, non-essential information is included in an exam question! Notice that the % value of the solution is immaterial as the question states that the solution contains 0.06 g of drug. As the body weight has already been given as 1.5 kg, the dose can be calculated from these two pieces of data i.e. the dosage rate can be calculated by dividing 0.06 g by the bird's weight. i.e. 0:06 g 

1000 ˆ 40 mg /kg /day 1:5

Multiplying by 1000 converts g to mg and the dosage can be expressed in the conventional way in mg/kg/day.

NB

(iv)

Using the usual formula with the correct units, the given quantities can be substituted into the formula. 0.03% solution ˆ

weight in g  100 5 ml

Rearranging the formula to make the unknown value (in this case the weight in g) the subject of the equation gives 0:03%  5 ml 100 ˆ 0.0015 g ˆ 0.0015  1000 mg ˆ 1.5 mg

weight ˆ

Toad weighs

200 g ˆ 0:2 kg 1000

Therefore dose rate is 1.5 mg/0.2 kg/day Note that the mg need to be expressed per kg, therefore the 0.2 kg must be multiplied by 5 to get to 1 kg, hence the 1.5 mg also needs to be multiplied by 5 to keep the ratios consistent. Therefore the dose rate is 7.5 mg/kg/day

Dosages ^ Injections

(v)

77

Dosage rate is given as 1 mg/kg/day The kitten weighs 0.5 kg therefore using the above dosage it only requires 0.5 mg of the sedative per day. The drug is available in a 0.5% solution. The answer to the question lies in the calculation of the volume which contains 0.5 mg of the drug. This can be achieved by using the standard formula % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

As the question has given two of the elements (% solution and weight) of this formula, the missing element (volume) is the answer to the question. Substituting the given ¢gures in the correct units gives: (0:5 g/1000)  100 0:5% ˆ volume in ml   0:5 note 0:5 mg ˆ g 1000 Rearranging the formula and calculating the units gives the following: volume in ml ˆ

(vi)

0:0005 g  100 ˆ 0:1 ml 0:5%

Python's body weight ˆ 70 kg Dose ˆ 2 mg/kg/day Weight required to be administered per day is 2 mg  70 kg ˆ 140 mg i.e 70 mg or 0.07 g per injection, twice a day (stated in question) Using the standard formula % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

78

Chapter 6

Substituting known values 0:07 g  100 2% ˆ volume in ml 0:07 g  100 volume in ml ˆ 2% ˆ 3:5 ml (vii)

Body weight of guinea pig ˆ 750 g ˆ 0.75 kg Dose rate ˆ 20 mg/kg/8 hrs Notice that the guinea pig weighs less than 1 kg! Weight of drug required for this guinea pig is 20 mg  body weight (0.75 kg) ˆ 15 mg every 8 hrs Therefore weight of each injection is 15 mg ˆ 0.015 g Using the standard formula % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

Substituting the given values gives 2.5% ˆ (0.015 g/volume in ml)  100 0:015 g  100 2:5% ˆ 0:6 ml per injection

volume in ml ˆ

If the weight of the guinea pig were doubled to 1.5 kg and the dosage rate remained the same, the guinea pig would require twice as much weight of drug per injection i.e. 20 mg  body weight (1.5 kg) ˆ 30 mg every 8 hrs If the solution available were now a 5% solution, the standard formula above would give the following ¢gures 0:030 g  100 volume in ml 0:030 g volume in ml ˆ  100 ˆ 0:6 ml per injection 5% 5% ˆ

Therefore, the volume would remain the same but the concentration would have doubled.

Dosages ^ Injections

(viii)

79

Body weight of gerbil ˆ 60 g Period of administration ˆ 24 hrs Solution strength ˆ 2% Volume of solution used ˆ 0.5 ml The question asks for the dose rate to be calculated. The missing piece of data is the weight injected into the gerbil contained in the 0.5 ml of 2% solution. Standard formula is % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

This can be rearranged to give % solution  volume in ml 100 2%  0:5 ml ˆ 0:01 g weight in g ˆ 100

weight in g ˆ

0.01 g converts to 10 mg (1000  0.01 mg ˆ 10 mg) Dose rate ˆ

10 mg/day 60 g

This ratio must to be converted to mg/kg/day, i.e. the bottom ¢gure of 60 g must be `factored up' to 1 kg and the `factor' required to do this must then be used on the top ¢gure to keep the dose rate in proportion. This will then convert the dose rate above into the units required in the question. To `factor up' 60 g to 1 kg, divide by 60 and multiply by 1000. The same must be done for the top ¢gure of 10 mg 10 mg  1000 ˆ 166:7 mg/day 60 The dose rate would be expressed as 166.7 mg/kg/day

80

(ix)

Chapter 6

Body weight of dog ˆ 7.5 kg Period of administration ˆ 12 hours Volume of solution administered ˆ 2  15 ml ˆ 30 ml Solution strength ˆ 2.5% The question asks for the dose rate to be calculated in mg/kg/day. The best approach to this question is to calculate the weight of drug which is injected into the dog, contained in the daily administered volume. This is two injections of 15 ml every day ˆ 30 ml/day. This is done by applying the standard formula for a % solution and substituting the known values. % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

Therefore weight in g ˆ % solution 

volume in ml 100

Substituting known values gives 2:5% solution  30 ml 100 weight in g ˆ 0.75 g administered every day

weight in g ˆ

To convert this weight into mg (required to give the answer in the required units), multiply by 1000. Weight in mg ˆ 0.75 g  1000 ˆ 750 mg/day Expressing this in terms of the body weight of the dog 750 mg ˆ 100 mg/kg/day: 7:5 kg The question also asks for the weight in g administered over 5 days. This quantity was calculated earlier in the answer as 0.75 g/day. The amount of drug administered over a 5 day period is 5  0:75 g ˆ 3:75 g

Dosages ^ Injections

(x)

81

Body weight of dog ˆ 8.0 kg Dose rate ˆ 6 mg/kg/8 hrs Solution strength ˆ 4% Weight of drug required ˆ body weight  dose rate Substitute known values ˆ 8 kg  6 mg/kg/8 hrs ˆ 48 mg every 8 hrs (per injection) Standard formula for % solution is % solution ˆ

weight in g  100 volume in ml

In this formula the weight and the % concentration are known. The volume is to be calculated volume in ml ˆ

weight in g  100 % solution

(See chapter on percentage solutions (Chapter 3) to understand how the formula was manipulated.) 0:048 g  100 4% solution ˆ 1:2 ml per injection

volume in ml ˆ

Chapter 7

Rehydration of the Patient

There are various ways of estimating the £uid replacement needs of an animal, some of which are more accurate than others. When replacing £uids by infusion it is important to replace the: . existing £uid de¢cit . maintenance needs . any ongoing losses

This chapter looks at the ways in which £uid de¢cit is estimated, for example by: . assuming that £uid maintenance volumes are about the same per kg for all species and individuals . using the clinical history given by an animal's owner . noting the clinical (cardinal) symptoms and using a chart (see later) to assess the percentage dehydration

There are also ways in which £uid de¢cit and replacement needs are further estimated by carrying out a calculation to achieve a reasonable approximate de¢cit for rehydration purposes, for example by: . multiplying the assessed % dehydration by the body weight in kg . carrying out a packed cell volume (PCV) and using the % increase above the average normal value for each species to calculate the amount of £uid de¢cit 82

Rehydration of the Patient

83

Replacement of normal daily £uid loss Although a daily £uid loss, i.e. a de¢cit, will vary between species and individuals, it is now widely accepted that an average replacement or maintenance volume is 50 ml/kg/24 hrs. This is based on: insensible losses ˆ 20 ml/kg/day (respiration and sweating) urine ˆ 20 ml/kg/day faeces ˆ 10 ml/kg/day total losses ˆ 50 ml/kg/day Under normal circumstances, animals will replace this de¢cit with £uid taken in by drinking and eating and adjusting this intake when the de¢cit increases, e.g. after exercise. However, when carrying out calculations related to £uid therapy requirements, the replacement of normal daily losses are usually included and are referred to as the maintenance requirement.

Assessment of % dehydration based on clinical history This is the least accurate method of assessing % dehydration as it relies on obtaining a reasonable clinical history from an animal's owner, such as how many times a day the animal has vomited and encouraging the owner to estimate the volume produced on each occasion. It is unlikely that many owners will relate volume of £uid lost to millilitres, but they should be able to relate it to typical household measurements, with which they are familiar. However, it is important to recognise that this is only a guide and cannot be relied upon to give a very accurate estimate of the £uid de¢cit. The calculated amount of £uid lost is based on the `anecdotal' evidence of an owner who may not be a very observant or objective witness.

84

Chapter 7

Example 1 A dog weighing 15 kg has been vomiting 5 times a day for 3 days and is presented at evening surgery. The owner states that: `the dog has been vomiting for the last 3 days, about 5 times a day, producing about a tablespoonful each time'. What is the total volume of £uid lost in the vomit?

Answer In this instance, the weight of 15 kg is irrelevant and the £uid de¢cit is based only on the owner's perception of the situation. 1 tablespoon (standard) is equivalent to 15 ml (see Chapter 1 for conversion of household measurements) 5  15 ml ˆ 75 ml of £uid lost in vomit/day 3 days  75 ml ˆ 225 ml total £uid de¢cit lost in the vomit

Assessment of % dehydration based on weight When an animal is presented at the surgery with such a history, a far more accurate method of estimating the amount of £uid lost in the vomit, is to base it on the animal's weight. It is usual to assume that diarrhoea and vomit are lost at a rate of 4 ml/kg/day of body weight.

Example 2 A dog weighing 15 kg which has vomited 5 times a day for 3 days is presented at evening surgery. Assume that vomit is lost at the rate of 4 ml/kg/day. What is the total volume of £uid lost in the vomit?

Rehydration of the Patient

85

Answer 15 kg  4 ml ˆ 60 ml 5  60 ml ˆ 300 ml 3 days  300 ml ˆ 900 ml total £uid de¢cit lost in the vomit

Assessment of % dehydration based on laboratory diagnosis Fluid de¢cit can be assessed by carrying out a packed cell volume (PCV) and assuming that every 1% increase is equivalent to a 10 ml/kg de¢cit. Unless the normal value for an individual patient has been recorded beforehand, the % increase has to be taken as being above the average normal values for each species, such as: normal average PCV value ˆ 45% for a dog ˆ 35% for a cat

Example 3 A dog weighing 15 kg has been vomiting 5 times a day for 3 days and is presented at evening surgery. A PCV is carried out and gives a reading of 52%. What is the total volume of £uid lost in the vomit?

Answer PCV reading ˆ 52% Normal PCV (dog) ˆ 45% (52% 45%) ˆ 7% increase from the normal average 7  10 ml ˆ 70 ml 15 kg dog  70 ml ˆ 1050 ml total £uid de¢cit lost in the vomit

Note .

As PCV will decrease in cases of anaemia or acute blood loss, this method of £uid de¢cit assessment should not be used for such patients.

86

Chapter 7

Assessment of % dehydration based on clinical symptoms Clinical symptoms can be used to assess percentage dehydration. See table 7.1. Once a visual assessment of % dehydration has been made using the clinical symptoms, a calculation based on this and the weight of the animal can then be carried out to estimate the £uid de¢cit which needs to be replaced.

Table 7.1 Assessment of percentage dehydration Clinical symptoms

Estimated % dehydration

Urine looks and smells more concentrated

Less than 5%

Some loss of elasticity to skin

Approximately 6% (range 5 ^ 6%)

No skin elasticity `Sticky' mucous membranes Eyes softening/slight sunken appearance Capillary re¢ll time (CRT) slightly above the normal of 2 seconds

Approximately 7% (range 6 ^ 8%)

Skin is easily `tented' and stays in place when pinched `Sticky' mucous membranes Eyes obviously sunken CRT obviously prolonged Low urine output (oliguria)

Approximately 11% (range 10 ^12%)

Shock Death impending

Approximately 14% (range 12 ^15%)

Rehydration of the Patient

87

Example 4 A dog weighing 15 kg has been vomiting 5 times a day for 3 days and is presented at evening surgery. It is showing clinical symptoms typical of about 7% dehydration. What is the total volume of £uid lost in the vomit?

Answer Using the formula: body weight (kg)  % dehydration (changed into a decimal) ˆ 15  0.07 ˆ 1.05 litres (1000 to ¢nd number of ml) ˆ 1050 ml total £uid de¢cit or alternatively use the quicker formula body weight (kg)  % dehydration  10 ˆ 15  7  10 ˆ 1050 ml total £uid de¢cit It can be seen that estimating £uid de¢cit using the anecdotal clinical history in example 1, is the most inaccurate. The total volume calculated in example 1 is vastly di¡erent when compared to the totals calculated in examples 2, 3 and 4.

Calculation of total £uid requirements It should be noted from the beginning of the chapter that, when replacing £uids by infusion, it is important to replace the: . . .

existing £uid de¢cit maintenance needs any ongoing losses

and a calculation can be carried out to include all of these requirements.

88

Chapter 7

Example 5 A dog weighing 15 kg has been vomiting 5 times a day for 3 days and is presented at evening surgery. It is showing clinical symptoms typical of 7% dehydration. Calculate the total £uid replacement requirement over the next 24 hrs for this animal. Body weight (kg)  % dehydration  10 ˆ 15  7  10 ˆ 1050 ml total £uid de¢cit Body weight (kg)  maintenance requirements per 24 hrs ˆ 15  50 ˆ 750 ml total maintenance requirements Body weight (kg)  ongoing losses per 24 hrs taken as 4 ml/kg vomit, in this case vomiting 5 times in 24 hrs. ˆ 15  4 ˆ 60 ml  5 times/24 hrs ˆ 300 ml total ongoing losses Adding together the total £uid de¢cit, maintenance requirement and the ongoing losses to ¢nd the total £uid requirement over 24 hrs, gives total £uid requirement ˆ 2100 ml over 24 hrs It will sometimes be necessary to replace the total de¢cit more quickly than over 24 hrs and, if this is the case, a proportion of the daily maintenance requirements should also be given during this shorter period.

Example 6 A dog weighing 15 kg has been vomiting 5 times a day for 3 days and is presented at evening surgery. It is showing clinical symptoms typical of 7% dehydration. (a) (b)

Calculate the total £uid replacement requirement over the next 24 hrs, for this animal. The veterinary surgeon requires the total de¢cit plus a proportional amount of the daily total £uid maintenance to be given over the ¢rst 8 hrs. Calculate this amount.

Rehydration of the Patient

89

Answer It can be seen from example 5 that: (a) 1050 ml ˆ total £uid de¢cit 750 ml ˆ total maintenance requirements Total £uid replacement requirement ˆ 1800 ml over next 24 hrs Ongoing losses are not mentioned in this question and therefore cannot be included in the total amount. (b) To ¢nd the £uid which must be given in 8 hrs: 24 hrs ˆ 3 (i.e. in 13 of 24 hrs) 8 hrs Total maintenance per 24 hrs is 750 ml; divide this amount by 3: 750ml ˆ 250 ml total maintenance in 8 hrs 3 The dog needs 250 ml maintenance £uid, plus the total £uid de¢cit over the next 8 hrs. Therefore add these two totals together: 250 ml ‡ 1050 ml ˆ 1300 ml over the next 8 hrs

Note It is very important to remember the following points when calculating the infused £uid requirements of an animal. .

.

Obese animals should have all £uid replacement calculated on estimated `normal' body weight. This is because fat cells hold less water, but take up more room, than other tissue cells. It would therefore be possible to over-hydrate an obese patient and cause pulmonary oedema, which can be fatal. Where colloid (as opposed to crystalloid) infusions are to be given, manufacturers' instructions should always be checked carefully to ascertain if there is a limit to the amount of ml which can be administered safely per kg over a particular time period, e.g. over 24 hours. The remainder of the de¢cit is usually made up by infusing with a crystalloid.

90

.

Chapter 7

Once the total amount of £uid replacement to be given over a certain time period, e.g. 24 hours, has been estimated, it will then be necessary to work out the drip rate. For these calculations see Chapter 8 (Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration).

Self-test exercise (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

A 3 kg Pomeranian dog is brought into the surgery showing 5% dehydration. Calculate the £uid it needs to receive over 24 hours, for both maintenance and de¢cit requirements.

(ii)

A 22 lb Dachshund has had acute vomiting and diarrhoea, vomiting 6 times and producing diarrhoea 5 times, within the last 24 hours. What is the total £uid de¢cit?

(iii)

A 20 kg cross-bred Collie bitch needs a hysterectomy due to a closed pyometra. She is very toxic and weak, having vomited 7 times in the last 24 hours. She is still vomiting at the same rate and the veterinary surgeon prescribes rehydration for 2 hours prior to surgery to improve the prognosis. The PCV reading is 56%. Infusion will continue throughout and following surgery, and £uid replacement calculations will need to be carried out daily. Calculate the £uid de¢cit, ongoing losses and maintenance requirements for the bitch over the initial 24 hour period.

(iv)

A 9 kg T|betan terrier is brought in with arterial haemorrhaging, following a road tra¤c accident (RTA). The haemorrhaging is arrested by the veterinary team and the dog is to be infused, rather than transfused as there is no whole blood available. The dog is showing clinical symptoms typical of 10% dehydration, although a PCV gives a reading of 51%. Calculate the £uid replacement requirement for this dog over the next 24 hours.

Rehydration of the Patient

91

(v)

A 5 kg New Zealand white rabbit has been o¡ its food and water for four days due to malocclusion. It is showing clinical symptoms typical of about 8% dehydration. Calculate the £uid requirement for the next 24 hour period.

(vi)

A stray cat weighing 2.2 kg is brought in su¡ering from malnutrition. It is showing clinical symptoms of pale mucous membranes and there is some loss of elasticity to its skin. Blood is taken for laboratory diagnosis and a blood smear with Giemsa's stain and a PCV are carried out. The blood parasite, Haemobartonella felis is con¢rmed and the PCV reading is 43%. Calculate the £uid de¢cit and ongoing maintenance requirements for £uid replacement over the next 24 hour period.

(vii)

Following open reduction of a fractured femur, a 5.5 kg Manchester terrier has become anorexic and has refused to drink for 24 hours. Its urine is very concentrated and smelly, but the animal shows no other signs of dehydration. As it will still not be persuaded to eat or drink, and its PCV has a reading of 50%, it will be necessary to carry out £uid therapy. Calculate the £uid replacement requirements for this dog over the next 24 hours.

(viii)

Following a poor hibernation, a dehydrated and anorexic tortoise needs to be properly rehydrated before it has food administered. This is in order to make sure the intestinal villi are standing up and able to absorb food. This rehydration will take at least 2 weeks of daily stomach tubing before food supplements can safely be tubed, otherwise diarrhoea will occur causing further dehydration and the reptile is still likely to die. The tortoise weighs 2400 g. As the metabolic rate of reptiles is very slow when compared to the mammal, it will be rehydrated by replacing the £uid at the normal maintenance rate of 50 ml/kg of body weight/day. This is to be given by stomach tube.

92

Chapter 7

(a) Calculate the amount of £uid needed per day. (b) As a tortoise of this size and in this condition would have a stomach capacity of about 20 ml, how many times a day would this tortoise need to be stomach tubed during that time period? (c) To both ¢t in with the working day and allow the tortoise to rest at night, the total amount would need to be administered over 12 hours ^ how often would the tortoise need to be stomach tubed? (ix)

Following the ingestion of a cooked bone, a Dalmation dog has vomited 9 times over 36 hours prior to being presented at surgery. Prior to being anaesthetised, the dog was weighed and found to be 29 kg, i.e. about 6 kg overweight. An enterotomy was necessary and the veterinary surgeon prescribed nil by mouth for 24 hours. Calculate the £uid de¢cit, plus the maintenance requirements for this dog for the next 24 hours.

(x)

A hedgehog is presented with an open wound which is infested with maggots; the animal is in toxic shock as a result. It is weighed before it is anaesthetised, and is found to be underweight at 0.9 kg. The maggots are removed, but it is showing all the clinical symptoms of 12% dehydration. (a) (b)

Calculate the £uid de¢cit and the maintenance replacement requirements for the next 24 hours. The veterinary surgeon wants the full £uid de¢cit, plus the £uid maintenance requirements for 6 hours, to be given over the next 6 hours. Calculate what this amount will be.

Answers to self-test exercise (i)

A 3 kg Pomeranian, showing 5% dehydration needs 24 hrs of £uid therapy for both maintenance and de¢cit.

Rehydration of the Patient

93

To ¢nd the de¢cit, use the formula: Body weight (kg)  % dehydration  10 3 kg  5%  10 ˆ 150 ml ˆ total £uid de¢cit To ¢nd the maintenance requirements: Body weight (kg)maintenance requirements per 24 hrs 3 kg  50 ml ˆ 150 ml ˆ total maintenance requirements Total £uid requirement: 300 ml over 24 hrs (ii)

A 22 lb Dachshund with acute vomiting and diarrhoea for 24 hours. Calculate the £uid de¢cit (only this is asked for here). F|rst convert lb (pounds) to kg by dividing 22 lb by 2.2 22 lb ˆ 10 kg 2:2 Assume 4 ml is lost per kg in both the diarrhoea and vomiting. 10 kg  4 ml ˆ 40 ml Vomiting: 6  40 ml ˆ 240 ml Diarrhoea: 5  40 ml ˆ 200 ml Total ˆ 480 ml total £uid de¢cit

(iii)

A 20 kg cross-bred Collie bitch needs a hysterectomy due to a closed pyometra. She needs rehydration for 3 hours prior to the surgery. Her PCV reading is 56%. Calculate the £uid de¢cit and maintenance requirements over the initial 24 hour period. The 2 hour pre-operative infusion is irrelevant to this calculation, but the question requires the £uid de¢cit and maintenance requirements to be calculated over the initial 24 hour period. As there is a PCV reading which can be used, the losses from vomiting during the previous 24 hr period do not have to be calculated separately.

94

Chapter 7

PCV reading of 56% (56%^ 45%) ˆ an increase of 11% Each 1% increase represents 10 ml de¢cit: 11  10 ml ˆ 110 ml 20 kg  110 ml ˆ 2200 ml total £uid de¢cit Vomiting is still occurring and it must be assumed that ongoing losses will continue at the same rate, i.e. 4 ml/kg of body weight, 7 times a day: 20 kg  4 ml ˆ 80 ml 7 times in 24 hrs ˆ 560 ml total ongoing losses Normal maintenance rates need to be included, as 50 ml/kg/24 hrs 20 kg  50 ml ˆ 1000 ml total maintenance needs Total £uid requirement ˆ 3760 ml in 24 hrs (iv)

A 9 kg T|betan terrier, su¡ering from arterial haemorrhaging following an RTA. The haemorrhaging has been arrested, but the dog is showing clinical symptoms typical of 10% dehydration, although a PCV reading is 51%, i.e. 6% above the normal for a dog of 45%. The £uid requirements need to be calculated over the next 24 hrs. As the dog has been haemorrhaging, the PCV reading should not be used here: the clinical symptoms which indicate 10% dehydration should be taken. To ¢nd the de¢cit use the formula: body weight (kg)  % dehydration  10 9  10  10 ˆ 900 ml total £uid de¢cit To ¢nd the normal £uid maintenance of 50 ml/kg/24 hrs: 9 kg  50 ml ˆ 450 ml total maintenance needs There are no ongoing losses to include, therefore: Total £uid requirement ˆ 1350 ml in 24 hrs

Rehydration of the Patient

(v)

95

A 5 kg rabbit o¡ food and water for four days, with clinical symptoms typical of 8% dehydration. Calculate the £uid required for the next 24 hrs. To ¢nd the de¢cit, use the formula: 5 kg  8%  10 ˆ 400 ml total £uid de¢cit To ¢nd the normal £uid maintenance of 50 ml/kg/24 hrs: 5 kg  50 ml ˆ 250 ml total maintenance needs Total £uid requirement ˆ 650 ml in 24 hrs

(vi)

A stray cat su¡ering from malnutrition and weighing only 2.2 kg. It has pale mucous membranes and the Giemsa's blood smear is positive for H. felis, which indicates anaemia. The PCV is 43%, i.e. 8% above the normal average for the cat (35%). However, there is some loss of elasticity to its skin, which from Table 7.1 indicates dehydration to be about 6%. As this cat is anaemic, the PCV reading for this cat should not be used. Therefore to ¢nd the £uid de¢cit use the 6% ¢gure, with the formula: 2.2 kg  6%  10 ˆ 132 ml total £uid de¢cit To ¢nd the normal £uid maintenance of 50 ml/kg/24 hrs: 2.2 kg  50 ml ˆ 110 ml total maintenance needs Total £uid requirement ˆ 242 ml in 24 hrs

(vii)

A 5.5 kg Manchester terrier has been anorexic and refused to drink for 24 hrs, with the result that its urine has become very concentrated and smelly. The PCV has a reading of 50%, i.e. (50%^ 45%) ˆ 5% above the normal average for a dog. Calculate the £uid replacement requirements over the next 24 hrs. To ¢nd the de¢cit, use the formula: 5.5 kg  5%  10 ˆ 275 ml total £uid de¢cit

96

Chapter 7

To ¢nd the normal £uid maintenance of 50 ml/kg/24 hrs: 5.5 kg  50 ml ˆ 275 ml total maintenance needs Total £uid requirement ˆ 550 ml in 24 hrs (viii)

A tortoise weighs 2400 g and needs 50 ml/kg body weight/day. To ¢nd the weight in kg, divide 2400 g by 1000 (as there are 1000 g in 1 kg): 2400 g ˆ 2:4 kg 1000 (a) To ¢nd how many ml are needed per day by the tortoise: 2.4 kg  50 ml ˆ 120 ml Total £uid requirement ˆ 120 ml per day. (b) This tortoise has a stomach capacity of about 20 ml. The number of times per day the tortoise is stomach tubed is: 120 ml ˆ 6 times per day 20 ml (c) To ¢nd how often the tortoise needs to be stomach tubed over 12 hrs: 12 hrs ˆ every 2 hrs 6 times per day The tortoise needs to be stomach tubed every 2 hrs.

(ix)

A 29 kg Dalmation has vomited 9 times over 36 hrs. Calculate the £uid requirements for the next 24 hrs. To ¢nd the £uid de¢cit, assume vomit is lost at the rate of 4 ml/kg body weight, using the normal body weight (23 kg) in the formula. 23 kg  4 ml ˆ 92 ml

Rehydration of the Patient

97

Vomited: 9  92 ml ˆ 828 ml total £uid de¢cit To ¢nd the normal £uid maintenance of 50 ml/kg/24 hrs: 23 kg  50 ml ˆ 1150 ml total maintenance needs Total £uid requirement ˆ 1978 ml in 24 hrs (x)

A hedgehog weighing 0.9 kg is in toxic shock with clinical symptoms typical of 12% dehydration. (a) Calculate the £uid de¢cit and the maintenance replacement requirements for the next 24 hrs. To ¢nd the de¢cit, use the formula: 0.9 kg  12%  10 ˆ 108 ml total £uid de¢cit To ¢nd the normal £uid maintenance of 50 ml/kg/ 24 hrs: 0.9 kg  50 ml ˆ 45 ml total maintenance needs Total £uid requirement ˆ 153 ml in 24 hrs (b) The veterinary surgeon wants the full £uid de¢cit, plus the £uid maintenance requirements for 6 hrs, to be given over the next 6 hrs. Calculate what this amount will be. To ¢nd the £uid which must be given in 6 hrs: 24 hrs ˆ 4 (i.e. in 14 of 24 hrs) 6 hrs Total maintenance per 24 hrs is 45 ml. Divide this amount by 4: 45 ml ˆ 11:25 ml total maintenance in 6 hrs 4 Hedgehog needs 11.25 ml maintenance £uid, plus the total £uid de¢cit over the next 6 hrs. Therefore add these two totals together: 11.25 ml ‡ 108 ml ˆ 119.25 ml over the next 6 hrs

Chapter 8

Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration These calculations determine the amount of £uid administered to a patient over a given period. The £uid is controlled by a giving time period set which enables the drip rate to be changed to produce the desired rate. The £ow rate is usually expressed as drops/time period and is known as the drip rate. Calculations normally centre around calculating the drip rate, e.g., `drops per minute' for a given volume requirement over a period of time. To achieve this calculation the critical data required are: (1) (2) (3)

The volume The drip factor (a conversion factor indicating how many drops there are in 1 ml) The relevant time period

With all of these details, the drops/time period can be ascertained. Examples of typical calculations are illustrated and the preliminary objective on reading the question is to identify the critical details.

Example 1 A 15 kg dog requires 750 ml of an infusion over a 24 hr period. A giving set is used that delivers 20 drops per ml. What drip rate is needed? The answer should give the time (in seconds) for one drop to be delivered. 98

Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration

99

Answer Critical details to note: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Fluid required ˆ 750 ml Drip factor of giving set ˆ 20 drops per ml Time period for administration ˆ 24 hrs The body weight is given, but it is not needed for any part of the calculation i.e. it is irrelevant information

The critical detail (1) is the volume requirement of 750 ml. This can be converted into drops using the drip factor. The critical detail (2) gives a conversion factor for changing ml into drops ^ i.e. the drip factor, `the giving set delivers 20 drops per ml'. 750 ml  20 drops/ml ˆ 15 000 drops This has to be administered over a 24 hr period ^ critical detail (3). From this derived data the number of drops per hr can be calculated Total number of drops to be administered ˆ 15 000 Total time available to deliver these drops ˆ 24 hrs Therefore drops per hr required to achieve this: 15 000 ˆ 625 drops per hr 24 625 drops per minute ˆ ˆ 10:4 drops/min 60 ˆ

Therefore, the giving set is delivering 10.4 drops every 60 seconds. For practical purposes it may be necessary to ¢nd the frequency of the drops: 60 seconds ˆ 10:4 drops ˆ 5.8 seconds i.e. 1 drop every 5.8 seconds (s)

100

Chapter 8

Example 2 A 30 kg dog requires 1500 ml of an infusion over a 24 hr period. The giving set provided has a drip factor of 15 drops /ml. Calculate the £ow rate to the patient in drops/minute.

Answer The ¢rst calculation is to convert the volume prescribed from ml into drops. The conversion factor is given in the question as 15 drops for every ml of solution. 15 drops 1 ml ˆ 22 500 drops (notice the ml units cancel out) The patient needs 22 500 drops every 24 hrs 22 500 drops this converts to ˆ 937:5 drops/hr 24 hrs 937:5 drops ˆ 15:6 drops/min which in turn converts to 60 min Therefore 1500 ml converts to: 1500 ml 

Note that as this question requires the ¢nal answer as drops per minute, the ¢nal step of converting how often each drop is delivered is not taken.

Example 3 A dehydrated 20 kg Collie cross-breed is receiving an infusion at the rate of 10 drops per minute for a 24 hr period. The drip factor is 12 drops per ml. Calculate the amount of £uid received by the patient over the day.

Answer Here, the question has been reversed as usually questions are framed to calculate the drops per minute. This question starts with this data and requires the calculation of the volume. It is designed to ensure that manipulation of the units involved is understood.

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101

Note also that even in such a short question there is still some irrelevant information, i.e. the weight of the patient, although this is given, plays no part in the calculation. Step 1 Convert the 24 hr period into minutes. This is done to align the time units, minutes (min), with the rate at which the infusion is being delivered, given in the question as 10 drops/min. 24 hrs ˆ 24  60 min ˆ 1440 min Now that the drip rate and time period have similar units, they can be multiplied together to give the number of drops administered over 24 hrs. 10 drops ˆ 14 400 drops 1 min (the minutes cancel out ^ leaving drops as the unit) i.e. 1440 min 

Step 2 To convert the number of drops administered over the course of 1 day (24 hrs) to ml, all that is required is the number of drops in 1 ml of infusion. To convert drops to ml, all that needs to be done is to divide the drops calculated above by the conversion factor of 12 drops per ml (given in the question). Hence,

14 400 drops ˆ 1200 ml will be administered to 12 drops/ml the patient over 24 hrs

Example 4 A very dehydrated 20 kg dog is placed on an intravenous drip at 1.5 times the maintenance rate (maintenance ˆ 50 ml/kg/ 24 hrs). What is the total daily volume required, and what would the drip rate be if the giving set delivers 20 drops/ml?

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Chapter 8

Answer In this question the weight of the patient is vital because it is needed to calculate the volume of £uid required by the patient. In the previous examples the volume was already given, thus making the weight factor irrelevant information. The question gives this crucial information: Maintenance ˆ 50 ml/kg/24 hrs This conveys volume information (ml), with the patient's body weight (kg) and connects this information to a time period (hrs). The question also states that `maintenance' is not su¤cient for this patient and that 1.5 times the maintenance rate must be administered. Step 1 Calculate the volume required by the dog within the 24 hr period. Given maintenance ˆ 50 ml/kg/24 hrs Body weight ˆ 20 kg Maintenance ˆ 50 ml  20 kg ˆ 1000 ml 1.5 maintenance ˆ 1000 ml  1.5 ˆ 1500 ml per day Step 2 Drip factor ˆ 20 drops/ml

20 drops ˆ 30 000 drops ml These drops have to be given over a 24 hr period 24 hrs ˆ 24  60 min ˆ 1440 min

1500 ml converts to 1500 ml 

Therefore the drip rate i.e. the number of drops/min that need to be given in order to ensure that the patient receives 30 000 drops over 1440 min is calculated by total number of drops 30 000 ˆ the total time available in min 1440 ˆ 21 drops per min

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103

Example 5 What drip rate would be required for a dehydrated 2 kg Chihuahua bitch that required 150 ml of £uid over a 12 hr period, given a conversion factor of 10 drops/ml for the infusion being used?

Answer There is no need to calculate the volume as it is given in the question. The weight of the dog is irrelevant as there is no maintenance statement which relies on weight, hence this is irrelevant data. Convert the volume to drops using the drip factor 10 drops per ml 10 drops This gives 150 ml  ˆ 1500 drops ml Notice that the period of time allowed to get this infusion into the patient is only 12 hrs. 12 hrs ˆ 12  60 min ˆ 720 min 1500 drops Drops per minute ˆ ˆ 2:08 drops/min 720 min ˆ 2 drops/min in practical terms

Self-test exercise (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

A large dog is brought into the surgery dehydrated, after being left in a car for too long. It has been decided that 3000 ml of infusion must be administered as quickly as possible. Is this achieved faster (a) by using a giving set with a 20 drops/ml drip factor and a drip rate of 1 drop every 2 seconds? Or (b) by using a giving set with a 15 drops/ml drip factor and a drip rate of 20 drops/min?

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Chapter 8

(ii)

The given maintenance factor is 50 ml/kg/24 hrs and a 14 kg dog needs 50% maintenance. Calculate what volume, in `, the vet has prescribed for the dog.

(iii)

How long would it take to deliver 2000 ml of £uid to a dog if the giving set delivers 15 drops/ml and the drip rate is 20 drops/min?

(iv)

A 40 kg ewe requires £uid at the rate of 60 ml/kg/24 hrs. (a) By what factor must this original volume be increased if 3600 ml were required for a very dehydrated ewe? (b) If the conversion of ml to drops is 10, what will the giving set have to deliver to administer the 3600 ml in 24 hrs?

(v)

A drip rate of 1 drop every 3 seconds is required to sustain a poodle puppy su¡ering from excessive heat-stroke. If it is to receive 300 ml of £uid, how long will it take to deliver this if the drip factor is 15 drops per ml?

(vi)

A baby elephant was found distressed and dehydrated, on the plains of the Kruger Valley Safari Park. It required 7 ` of £uid in 15 hrs to give it a chance of survival. The drip factor of the giving set is 15 drops/ml. (a) Calculate the drip rate to drops per second required to accomplish this task. (b) What would this drip rate to drops per second reduce to, if the time allowed was 20 hrs and all other factors remained the same?

(vii)

Calculate the frequency of the drops required to deliver the following volumes in 24 hrs using a giving set with a drip factor of 15 drops/ml. (a) 960 ml (b) 1440 ml (c) 1960 ml (d) 2400 ml

Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration

105

(viii)

At a safari park, a lion cub has been neglected by its mother and the attendant veterinary surgeon has decided that it needs rehydration with dextrose saline before being bottle fed. This is administered by an intravenous drip at 1.5 times maintenance. The cub weighs 32 kg and the maintenance rate is 50 ml/kg/24 hrs. The giving set delivers 15 drops/ml. Calculate the frequency of the drops.

(ix)

In order to administer a solution of 1920 ml over a 24 hr period with a giving set of 20 drops/ml, what would the frequency of the drops need to be?

(x)

A dehydrated male ferret weighing 800 g needs an infusion of 90 ml administered over a 2 hr period. The giving set has a drip factor of 10 drops per ml. (a) Calculate the £ow rate required to achieve this. (b) Would this £ow rate change if the ferret weighed 700 g? (explain your answer) (c) State how the time would be a¡ected if the volume required was 180 ml and the drip rate was increased to 25 drops/min.

Answers to self-test exercises (i)

This is a comparative question and as such can be formatted into two columns to compare the answers.

Volume in ml Drip factor Drops Drops/min Min required

Scenario 1 3000 20 drops/ml 60 000 30 2000

Scenario 2 3000 15 drops/ml 45 000 20 2250

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Chapter 8

Answer: the £uid to use is that described in scenario 1. 1 drop every 2 seconds (s): to calculate the drip rate, divide 60 s (1 min) by 2 s to give the number of drops in 1 min: 60 s ˆ 30 drops per min 2s (ii)

Maintenance is 50 ml/kg/24 hrs and the dog weighs 14 kg. Therefore, volume ˆ 14 kg  50 ml ˆ 700 ml 50% of 700 ml ˆ 350 ml The answer is required in ` (i.e. 1000 ml) 350 ml 1000 ml (i.e. move decimal point 3 places to the left) Answer: volume = 0.35 `

Therefore

(iii)

2000 ml of £uid delivered to a dog, with a giving set delivering 15 drops/ml. Therefore 2000 ml  15 drops ˆ 30 000 drops The drip rate is 20 drops per minute, therefore: 30 000 drops ˆ 1500 min 20 drops/min There are 60 min per hr, therefore: 1500 min ˆ 25 hrs 60 min Answer ˆ 25 hrs to deliver 2000 ml of £uid

(iv)

A 40 kg ewe needs 60 ml/kg/24 hrs, therefore 40 kg  60 ml ˆ 2400 ml

Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration

(a)

107

If a ewe was very dehydrated and needed 3600 ml: To ¢nd the factor that the original volume must be increased by: 3600 ml ˆ 1:5 2400 ml 2400 ml  1:5 ˆ 3600 ml Answer: the factor is 1.5

(b)

The conversion of ml to drops is 10 (i.e. giving set delivers 10 drops/ml) The ewe needs 3600 ml over 24 hrs To ¢nd the number of drops: 3600 ml  10 = 36 000 drops To ¢nd the number of min in 24 hrs: 24 hrs  60 mins ˆ 1440 min i.e. 3600 ml need to be delivered in 1440 min To ¢nd how many ml need to be delivered per min: 3600 ml ˆ 2:5 ml/min 1440 min Giving set delivers 10 drops per ml To ¢nd the number of drops per min: 2.5 ml  10 drops ˆ 25 drops/min Alternatively, divide the number of drops by the number of minutes: 36 000 drops ˆ 25 drops/min 1440 min

Note To check answer: drip given over 1440 min  25 drops ˆ 36 000 drops, which agrees with original amount of drops calculated.

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Chapter 8

(v)

Poodle puppy needs 300 ml of £uid at a drip rate of 1 drop every 3 s, using a giving set with a drip factor of 15 drops per ml. To ¢nd the number of drops: 300 ml  15 drops per ml ˆ 4500 drops To ¢nd the number of seconds: 4500 drops  3 seconds ˆ 13 500 s To ¢nd the number of min, divide the total number of s by 60 s (i.e. number of s in 1 min): 13 500 s ˆ 225 min 60 s To ¢nd the number of hrs, divide the total number of min by 60 min (i.e. number of min in 1 hr): 225 min ˆ 3:75 hrs 60 min

(vi)

Baby elephant requires 7 ` of £uid in 15 hrs. The drip factor of the giving set is 15 drops/ml. (a) To calculate the drip rate: First turn litres into ml: 7 `  1000 ml ˆ 7000 ml To ¢nd the number of drops: 7000 ml  15 drops/ml ˆ 105 000 drops To ¢nd the number of min, multiply the number of hrs by 60 min (i.e. number of min in 1 hr): 15 hrs  60 min ˆ 900 min To ¢nd the number of s, multiply the number of min by 60 min (i.e. number of s in 1 min): 900 min  60 s ˆ 54 000 s

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109

To ¢nd the number of drops per s, divide the total number of drops needed by the total number of s: 105 000 drops ˆ 1:94 drops/s 54 000 s i.e. 2 drops/s for practical purposes (b)

Time is increased to 20 hrs but all other factors are the same, what is the new drip rate? To ¢nd the new drip rate: 20 hrs ˆ 72 000 s 105 000 drops ˆ 1:46 drops/s 72 000 s i.e. 1.5 drops/s for practical purposes

(vii)

Drip factor remains constant at 15 drops/ml, as does the time at 24 hrs. The drip rate is to be calculated for each of the following volumes: (a) 960 ml To ¢nd the number of drops: 960 ml  15 drops/ml = 14 400 drops To ¢nd the number of min in 24 hrs: 24 hrs  60 min ˆ 1440 min To ¢nd the number of drops per min: 14 400 drops ˆ 10 drops per min (i.e. every 60 s) 1440 min To ¢nd the frequency of the drops: 60 s ˆ 1 drop every 6 s 10 drops (b) (c)

Calculate answers (b), (c) and (d) in the same way Answer ˆ 15 drops per min ˆ 1 drop every 4 s Answer ˆ 20.4 drops per min ˆ 1 drop every 2.9 (i.e. 3) s

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Chapter 8

(d) (viii)

Answer ˆ 25 drops per min ˆ 1 drop every 2.4 (i.e. 2.5) s

Lion cub weighing 32 kg needs £uid at 1.5 times the maintenance rate of 50 ml/kg/24 hrs. To ¢nd the volume of £uid needed over 24 hrs: 32 kg  50 ml ˆ 1600 ml over 24 hrs Needs 1.5  the maintenance rate: 1600 ml  1.5 ˆ 2400 ml To ¢nd the number of drops: 2400 ml  15 drops ˆ 36 000 drops To ¢nd the number of minutes: 24 hrs  60 min ˆ 1440 min To ¢nd the number of drops per min: 36 000 drops ˆ 25 drops/min 1440 min To ¢nd the frequency of the drops 60 s ˆ 2:4 s 25 drops ˆ 1 drop every 2:4 s

(ix)

Administer 1920 ml over 24 hrs with a giving set of 20 drops/ml. What is the drip rate. To ¢nd the number of drops: 1920 ml  20 drops ˆ 38 400 drops over 24 hrs To ¢nd the number of minutes the £uid is given over: 24 hrs  60 min ˆ 1440 min

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111

To ¢nd the number of drops per min: 38 400 drops ˆ 26:66 drops/min 1440 min (i.e. 27 drops in practical terms) To ¢nd the frequency of the drops: 60 s ˆ 2.2 s 27 drops i.e. 1 drop every 2.2 seconds (x)

800 g ferret needs 90 ml of £uid over 2 hrs, using a giving set with a drip factor of 10 drops per ml. (a) To ¢nd the number of drops: 90 ml  10 drops ˆ 900 drops To ¢nd the number of minutes: 2 hrs  60 min ˆ 120 min To ¢nd the number of drops per minute: 900 drops ˆ 7:5 drops per minute (8 drops per 120 min minute in practical terms) To ¢nd the frequency of the drops: 60 s ˆ 1 drop every 7.5 s (i.e. 8 s in practical 8 drops terms) (b) (c)

Answer no, as the weight has not featured as a key factor in the £ow rate calculation. Fluid volume has doubled to 180 ml, given at 25 drops per min. Giving set still at 10 drops per ml To ¢nd the number of drops: 180 ml  10 drops per ml ˆ 1800 drops

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Chapter 8

To ¢nd the number of minutes that the infusion is given over: 1800 drops ˆ 72 minutes 25 drops/min Answer: 72 minutes, i.e. it would take 48 minutes less to deliver twice the amount at 25 drops per min.

Chapter 9

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

This section focuses on the calculations involved in determining the £ow rates required to administer anaesthetic gases to patients. There are several sub-calculations involved in this process which need to be learnt and mastered, in order to calculate the gas £ow rates. These calculations involve: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Tidal volume Respiratory rate Minute volume Circuit factor

Tidal volume The volume of gas inhaled or exhaled during each respiratory cycle multiplied by the body weight. It is expressed in ml/kg and for a cat or dog is usually in the range of 10^15 ml/kg.

Respiratory rate The number of inspirations taken each minute. In the dog, this is about 10^30 respirations/min and in the cat, about 20 ^30. Normally a heavier animal would inhale/exhale more slowly than a lighter animal. 113

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Chapter 9

Minute volume The tidal volume multiplied by the respiratory rate per min, i.e. the total amount of air inhaled/exhaled in 1 min.

Circuit factor The factor to be applied to the calculation is dependent upon the type of anaesthetic circuit in use. The weight of the patient is a determining factor in the type of circuit. Where there is a range given for a circuit factor, e.g. 2.0^3.0, (see table 9.1) and there is a choice of circuit factor, ideally the middle of the range or the highest factor should be chosen. In an examination question, the circuit factor may be given, or optional. Therefore, the circuit factors should be learnt as they may need to be inserted into a calculation. Another consideration of circuit choice is the size of the patient's lungs. A slim, deep-chested dog such as a greyhound may weigh less, but have a larger lung capacity than, for example, an overweight Labrador retriever.

Table 9.1 Anaesthetic circuit table Circuit type

Circuit factor

Weight of patient in kg

Ayres T-Piece

2.0 ^3.0

up to 8

Bain

2.0 ^3.0

8 ^30

Circle

1.0

20 kg or more

Lack or Magill

1.0 ^1.5

8 ^ 60

To & Fro

1.0

15 kg or more

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

115

Flow rate is calculated by multiplying the minute volume by the circuit factor: £ow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor NB : The unit of £ow rate in relation to the body weight of the

patient is ml/kg/min

Example 1 Calculate the £ow rate required for an 8 kg dog using an Ayres T-piece. Assume a respiratory rate of 20 respirations/min.

Answer First calculate tidal volume (as the minute volume depends on this): tidal volume ˆ body weight  volume of gas inhaled/exhaled per kg during each respiratory cycle (in this case use 15 ml/kg) ˆ 8 kg  15 ml/kg ˆ 120 ml Then calculate minute volume: minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate (given as 20 respirations/min) Therefore, minute volume ˆ 120 ml  20 ˆ 2400 ml/min Then calculate £ow rate: £ow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor ˆ 2400 ml/min  2.5 ˆ 6000 ml/min NB : 2.5 circuit factor is chosen as Ayres T-piece is to be used for

an 8 kg patient and 2.5 is the mid point in the range 2.0^3.0.

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Divide the £ow rate by the patient's body weight in kg to express the £ow rate in ml/kg/min The £ow rate would then be expressed as 6000 ml/min ˆ 750 ml/kg/min 8 kg

Example 2 Calculate the £ow rate required for a 25 kg dog using a Magill circuit. Assume a respiratory rate of 15 respirations/min.

Answer (1) Calculate the tidal volume (2) Calculate the minute volume (3) Calculate the £ow rate (1) Tidal volume ˆ 10 ml/kg  body weight ˆ 10 ml/kg  25 kg ˆ 250 ml (10 ml/kg was selected as, at 25 kg, this is a reasonably large dog) (2) Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate ˆ 250 ml  15 respirations/min ˆ 3750 ml/min Circuit factor ˆ 1.5 (as Magill's factor not given so higher end of range chosen) (3) Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor ˆ 3750 ml/min  1.5 ˆ 5625 ml/min To express this £ow rate in relation to the body weight of the patient, divide the £ow rate by the body weight to determine the £ow rate in ml/kg/min. 5625 ml=min ˆ 225 ml/kg/min 25 kg

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

117

Example 3 Calculate the £ow rate mix required of oxygen and nitrous oxide for a 25 kg dog, to be maintained on a Magill circuit (assume a tidal volume of 250 ml) and use a circuit factor of 1.35. Oxygen is 33% of the mix. Respiratory rate is 20 respirations/ min. Select from: (a) (b) (c) (d)

1.25 ` oxygen : 2.50 ` nitrous oxide 1.75 ` oxygen : 3.25 ` nitrous oxide 2.25 ` oxygen : 4.50 ` nitrous oxide 2.75 ` oxygen : 5.50 ` nitrous oxide

Answer It may be thought that the 33% mix of oxygen is a clue to the answer and that by calculating the % composition of each mix ¢rst, it gives a quick route to the answer. If there were only one answer which gave a 33% split to the oxygen in the mixture then the correct selection would be obvious. However, all the ratios of the gases give a similar answer. The quickest way to the answer is to calculate it: Tidal volume ˆ 250 ml, given in question (check: 25 kg weight  10 ml as recommended ˆ 250 ml) Respiratory rate ˆ 20 respirations/min Circuit factor ˆ 1.35, given Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate ˆ 250 ml  20 respirations/min ˆ 5000 ml/min Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor ˆ 5000 ml/min  1.35 ˆ 6750 ml/min Therefore, if the £ow rate is 6750 ml/min and the required mix contains 33% oxygen, then the oxygen content can be

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Chapter 9

calculated by dividing by 100 to get the representative ¢gure for 1% then multiplying by 33 to obtain a ¢gure for 33%. The oxygen content is

33  6750 ml ˆ 2227.5 ml of oxygen 100

i.e. for every 100 ml of gaseous mixture, 33 ml is oxygen and 67 ml is nitrous oxide. In 6750 ml of mixture there are 2227.5 ml of oxygen. Therefore the mix is 2.23 ` of oxygen : 4.52 ` of nitrous oxide The nearest answer to this mixture is answer (c).

Example 4 What £ow rate is required for a male Weimaraner weighing 66lb: it is geriatric and has a respiratory rate of 20 respirations/min? A Circle circuit is in use with a circuit factor of 1.0. What would the rate be if the dog were a Newfoundland weighing 154 lb, and all other factors remained constant?

Answer The patient's weight is expressed in lb (pounds), which must ¢rst be converted to kg. The question is comparative and lends itself to a tabular form of answer as follows: First establish the weight of the patient in kg using 1 kg ˆ 2.2 lb 66 kg ˆ 30 kg 2:2 154 kg ˆ 70 kg Weight of second dog ˆ 2:2 Weight of ¢rst dog ˆ

Next create a simple table:

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

Weight kg 30 Tidal volume 10 ml/kg resp. cycle Respiratory rate 20 Circuit factor 1.0 Tidal volume 300 total ml Minute volume 6000 ml/min Flow rate ml/min 6000 Flow rate ml/kg/min

200

70 10 20 1.0 700 14 000 14 000 200

119

(see beginning of chapter) (respirations/min (given)) (given) (body weight  tidal volume ml/kg) (tidal volume  respiratory rate) (minute volume  circuit factor) (£ow rate ml/min divided by body weight)

Example 5 A 20 kg dog is to be anaesthetised; its minute volume is known to be 4.5 `/min. A Lack circuit is being used with a circuit factor of 1.5. Which one of the following is the £ow rate? (a) (b) (c) (d)

6075 ml/min 6570 ml/min 6750 ml/min 7650 ml/min

Answer The weight is irrelevant when answering this question. A simple multiplication of the minute volume  circuit factor (both given in the question) provides the £ow rate. Hence 4.5 `/min  1.5 circuit factor ˆ 6.75 `/min converted to ml by multiplying by 1000 (Note: 1000 ml ˆ 1 ` ) ˆ 6.75 `/min  1000 ˆ 6750 ml/min

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Chapter 9

NB : If the £ow rate then needs to be expressed in relation to the

body weight, divide the £ow rate by 20 kg which is given in the question. Therefore

6750 ml=min ˆ 337.5 ml/kg/min 20 kg

Self-test exercise (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

A 4 kg cat needs to be anaesthetised. Its tidal volume lies within the normal range. Calculate the minute volume and £ow rate required using an Ayres T-piece and a circuit factor of 3. Respiratory rate is 25 respirations/min. Also express the £ow rate in ml/kg/min.

(ii)

Calculate the £ow rates for the two dogs whose details are listed below: Name Weight Tidal volume Respiratory rate Circuit factor

Mutton 132 lb 10 ml/kg 10 1.25

Je¡ 3 kg 15 ml/kg 20 respirations/min 3.00

Compare the £ow rates per kg/min for the two dogs. (iii)

A hedgehog has been injured in an RTA and needs to be anaesthetised. What data would you require in order to calculate the £ow rate? The hedgehog weighs 1.5 kg. From the information at the beginning of the chapter, work out the rest of the data required and calculate the £ow rate both in `/min and as ml/kg/min.

(iv)

Calculate the circuit factor required to obtain a £ow rate of 20.25 ` per min using a Bain circuit when anaesthetising a 30 kg dog. The respiratory rate is 15 respirations/min.

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

121

(v)

Calculate the £ow rate in ml/min required for a 55 kg Great Dane using a Magill circuit. The respiratory rate is 10 respirations/min.

(vi)

Calculate the £ow rate mix required of oxygen and nitrous oxide for a 50 kg dog, to be maintained on a Magill circuit (assume a tidal volume of 500 ml) and use a circuit factor of 1.35. Oxygen is 33% of the mix and the respiratory rate is 10 respirations/min. Which one of the following is the correct £ow rate mix? (a) (b) (c) (d)

1.50 ` oxygen : 3.05 ` nitrous oxide 2.25 ` oxygen : 6.78 ` nitrous oxide 2.23 ` oxygen : 4.52 ` nitrous oxide 2.75 ` oxygen : 5.50 ` nitrous oxide

(vii)

What £ow rate is required for a 33 lb dog with a respiratory rate of 15 respirations/min. A Lack circuit is in use with a circuit factor of 1.5. What would the rate be if the dog weighed 99 lb and all other factors remained constant ?

(viii)

Express the following £ow rates in `/min 450 ml/kg/min for a 2 kg patient 300 ml/kg/min for a 15 kg patient 200 ml/kg/min for a 30 kg patient 100 ml/kg/min for a 60 kg patient

(ix)

Express the following litre £ow rates as ml/kg/min 5.0 ` /min for a 16 kg patient 7.5 ` /min for a 30 kg patient 9.0 ` /min for a 90 kg patient 1.5 ` /min for a 4 kg patient

(x)

A 40 kg dog needs to be anaesthetised. Its tidal volume lies within the normal 10^15 ml/kg range. Calculate the minute volume and £ow rate in ml/min required using a Magill circuit with a circuit factor of 1.5.

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Chapter 9

Respiratory rate is 10 respirations/min. Also express the £ow rate in ml/kg/min.

Answers to self-test exercise (i)

Body weight ˆ 4 kg Tidal volume ˆ 4 kg  15 ml/kg (see beginning of chapter) ˆ 60 ml Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate ˆ 60 ml  25 respirations/min ˆ 1500 ml/min Flow rate ˆ circuit factor  minute volume ˆ 3  1500 ml ˆ 4500 ml/min Can also be expressed as

(ii)

This question was given as a table and it can also be answered in tabular form: Name Weight kg Tidal volume in ml/kg Tidal volume total ml Respiratory rate breaths/minute Minute volume ml/min Circuit factor Flow rate ml/min Flow rate ml/kg/min

(iii)

4500 ml ˆ 1125 ml/kg/min 4 kg

Mutton 60 10

Je¡ 3 15

600 10

45 20

6000 1.25 7500 125

900 3.00 2700 900

Only one piece of data is given and the rest is standard information. Calculate the tidal volume, which is body weight  volume of gas inhaled/exhaled per kg during each respiratory cycle. This is 1.5 kg  15 ml/kg (choose 15 ml as small animal) Tidal volume ˆ 22.5 ml

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

123

Respiratory rate ˆ 30 respirations/min (assumed as smaller animal breathes faster than a larger one) Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate ˆ 22.5 ml  30 respirations/min ˆ 675 ml/min Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor ˆ 675 ml/min  3 (highest factor in the range for an Ayres T-piece) ˆ 2025 ml/min Expressed as ml/kg/min 2025 ml=min ˆ 1350 ml/kg/min 1:5 kg (iv)

This question is unusual as it requires the circuit factor to be calculated. (This type of question is likely to arise in an examination in order to check understanding of the mechanics of the formulas ^ however, as the circuit factors should be learnt, it should be easy to recognise a reasonable answer.) Flow rate ˆ 20.25 `/min ˆ 20 250 ml/min ( NB : 20.25 `  1000 ˆ 20 250 ml) Tidal volume ˆ 30 kg  15 ml/kg (volume of gas inhaled/ exhaled per kg per respiratory cycle) ˆ 450 ml Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respirations/min ˆ 450 ml  15 respirations/min ˆ 6750 ml/min Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor flow rate Therefore circuit factor ˆ minute volume 20 250 ml/min ˆ 6750 ml/min Answer ˆ 3 (a reasonable answer as a Bain circuit has a factor in the range of 2.0 ^3.0)

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Chapter 9

(v)

Body weight ˆ 55 kg Tidal volume ˆ 55 kg  10 ml/kg (assumed) ˆ 550 ml Respiratory rate ˆ 10 respirations/min Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate ˆ 550 ml  10 respirations/min ˆ 5500 ml/min Circuit factor (Magill) assume 1.5 Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor ˆ 5500 ml/min  1.5 ˆ 8250 ml/min

(vi)

Tidal volume ˆ 500 ml, given in question (check: 50 kg weight  10 ml/kg as recommended ˆ 500 ml) Respiratory rate ˆ 10 respirations/min Circuit factor ˆ 1.35, given Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate ˆ 500 ml  10 respirations/min ˆ 5000 ml/min Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor ˆ 5000 ml/min  1.35 ˆ 6750 ml/min Therefore if the £ow rate is 6750 ml/min and the required mix contains 33% oxygen, the oxygen content can be calculated by dividing by 100 to get the representative ¢gure for 1%, then multiplying by 33 to get a ¢gure for 33%. 33 The oxygen content is  6750 ml ˆ 2227.5 ml of 100 oxygen i.e. for every 100 ml of gaseous mixture, 33 ml is oxygen and 67 ml is nitrous oxide. In 6750 ml of mixture there are 2227.5 ml of oxygen. Therefore the mix is 2.23 ` of oxygen : 4.52 ` of nitrous oxide Answer ˆ (c)

Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates

(vii)

125

To answer this question, ¢rst change the weight from lb to kg as the units must be the same in order to compare the data and the answers. 33 lb ˆ 15 kg and 2:2 99 lb ˆ 45 kg 99 lb ˆ 2:2

Therefore 33 lb ˆ

Then create a simple comparison chart Weight kg Tidal volume ml/kg Tidal volume total ml Respirations/min Minute volume ml Circuit factor Flow rate ml/min Flow rate ml/kg/min (viii)

(ix)

Flow rate ml/kg/min

Weight kg (given)

450

2

300

15

200

30

100

60

Flow rate `/min (given) 5.0

Weight kg (given)

7.5

30

16

15 15 225 15 3375 1.5 5062.5 337.5

45 10 450 15 (given) 6750 1.5 10 125 225

Answer `/min 450  2 ˆ 0:9 1000 300  15 ˆ 4:5 1000 200  30 ˆ 6:0 1000 100  60 ˆ 6:0 1000 ml/kg/min 5:0  1000 ˆ 312:5 16 7:5  1000 ˆ 250:0 30

126

(x)

Chapter 9

9.0

90

1.5

4

9:0  1000 ˆ 100:0 90 1:5  1000 ˆ 375:0 4

A 40 kg dog needs anaesthetising. As the minute volume relies on the tidal volume, calculate this ¢rst, i.e. tidal volume ˆ body weight  10^15 ml/kg (as this is a large dog use 10 ml/kg) Tidal volume ˆ 40 kg  10 ml/kg ˆ 400 ml Minute volume ˆ tidal volume  respiratory rate (given at 10 respirations/min) Therefore minute volume ˆ 400 ml  10 ˆ 4000 ml/min Flow rate ˆ minute volume  circuit factor (circuit factor is given as 1.5 for the Magill) ˆ 4000 ml/min  1.5 ˆ 6000 ml/min To express this as ml/kg/min, take flow rate 6000 ml=min ˆ ˆ 150ml=kg=min body weight 40 kg

Chapter 10

Radiography

This chapter explains how to carry out the basic calculations which are necessary in order to ensure that the maximum bene¢t is obtained from the use of X-ray machines.

Terminology The use of pre¢xes such as kilo- and milli- are explained fully in Chapter 1 but where appropriate a brief explanation has been included in this section.

Kilovoltage (kV) Kilovoltage refers to how many thousands of volts are applied across the X-ray tube, e.g. 100 kV means 100 thousand volts are applied.

Note kV is written with a small k (kilo) and a large V (volt). Changing the kV is the most e¡ective method of changing the contrast. The higher the kV, the greater the penetrating power of the Xray beam will be.

Milliamperage (mA) Milliamperage refers to the current £owing through the X-ray tube. 127

128

Chapter 10

The £ow of electricity is measured in amperes (A) (often abbreviated to amps) The mA setting determines the intensity of the X-ray beam. 200 mA means the current £owing is 200 thousandths of an ampere.

Note mA is written with a small m and a large A.

Milliampere^seconds (mAs) The exposure time is measured in seconds (s). Thus the product of the current £owing and the exposure time will re£ect the amount of X-rays produced. Changing the mAs a¡ects the density of the radiograph.

Note mAs is written with a small m (milli), a large A (ampere) and a small s (second).

Examples of mAs 200 mA  1 s ˆ 200 mAs 800 mA  0.25 s ˆ 200 mAs 20 mA  1 s ˆ 20 mAs 20 mA  0.5 s ˆ 10 mAs The aim is to use an exposure time (s) which is as low as possible (among other bene¢cial e¡ects, this will reduce the risk of blurring due to movement). From the above examples it can be seen that in order to keep the mAs constant, reducing the exposure time necessitates increasing the mA. Occasionally in examination questions, time is expressed as fractions of a second rather than as a decimal. In such cases it is

Radiography

129

best to convert the fraction into its decimal equivalent (by dividing the top of the fraction by the bottom) before calculating the mAs.

Example 1 Calculate the mAs produced by the following settings: (i)

100 mA and 12 s

(ii)

1 250 mA and 20 s

(iii)

300 mA and 15 s

Answer (i)

100 mA  0.5 s ˆ 50 mAs

(ii)

250 mA  0.05 s ˆ 12.5 mAs

(iii)

300 mA  0.2 s ˆ 60 mAs

Manipulating the formula (see also Chapter 2, Basic Principles) The standard formula (or equation) is mAs ˆ mA  s This allows the mAs to be calculated when the mA and exposure time (s) are known. However, sometimes the mAs and either the exposure time or the mA are known, and the other value has to be calculated. To do this necessitates transposing or manipulating the formula. This process is explained fully in Chapter 2 but, in brief, it involves changing the formula to make mA or s the subject as follows: mAs ˆ mA  s mAs mA ˆ s mAs sˆ mA

130

Chapter 10

It may be easier to remember the manipulation if it is thought of as a triangle:

mAs





mA



s

To apply the triangle: . . .

First put the known information into the appropriate places in the triangle. Next cover the part of the triangle which contains the information which has to be found. Finally divide or multiply (as appropriate) the remaining visible ¢gures.

Example 2 Calculate the mAs for settings of 50 mA and 0.5 s.

Answer Place the known information in the triangle and cover the section marked mAs:



Cover up mAs

50 mA



 0.5 s

Radiography

131

From the triangle, mAs ˆ mA  s ˆ 50 mA  0.5 s ˆ 25 mAs

Example 3 Calculate the exposure time needed to produce 80 mAs when the mA setting is 160.

Answer Place the known information in the triangle and cover the section marked mAs:

80 mAs

 160 mA





Cover up s

mAs mA 80 mAs ˆ 160 mA ˆ 0.5 s

From the triangle, s ˆ

Example 4 Calculate the mA needed to produce 120 mAs when the exposure time is 0.25 s.

Answer Place the known information in the triangle and cover the section marked mA:

132

Chapter 10



120 mAs

Cover up mA





0.25 s

mAs s 120 mAs ˆ 0:25 s ˆ 480 mA

From the triangle, mA ˆ

Combined e¡ects of kV and mAs The kV and the mAs are linked by a simple rule: Increasing the kV by 10 allows the mAs to be halved Decreasing the kV by 10 necessitates doubling the mAs

Example 5 A radiograph is taken using settings of 50 kV and 24 mAs. The next exposure is taken using 60 kV. What should the new mAs setting be if the radiographic density is to be kept the same?

Answer Increasing the kV by 10 means the mAs must be halved 24 2 ˆ 12 mAs

Therefore the new mAs setting ˆ

Radiography

133

Example 6 A radiograph is taken using settings of 60 kV and 24 mAs. The next exposure is taken with a setting of 36 mAs. How many kV are required in order to keep the radiographic density the same?

Answer The mAs has increased by 50%

  36 24  100 24

Therefore the kV can be reduced by 5 Therefore 55 kV are required.

The grid factor The grid factor is the amount by which the exposure (mAs) must be increased when using a particular grid. New exposure ˆ old exposure  grid factor

Example 7 The mAs setting for a particular radiograph is 150. Calculate the new mAs setting if a grid with a factor of 2 is used but all other variables are unchanged.

Answer New mAs ˆ old mAs  grid factor ˆ 150 mAs  2 ˆ 300 mAs

Film Focal Distance (FFD) The focal distance between the X-ray head and the ¢lm is known as the Film Focal Distance (FFD). Changing the FFD has a dramatic e¡ect upon the intensity of the X-ray beam. The rule is: The intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the FFD

134

Chapter 10

This is known as the inverse square law which, put simply, means that if the FFD is doubled, then the intensity will be reduced to a quarter of its previous value (double the distance ˆ quarter the e¡ect). The practical implication of this is that if the FFD is changed, the mAs must also be changed to compensate if the radiographic density is to remain the same. To calculate what the new exposure should be, the following formula must be used: new exposure ˆ old exposure 

new FFD2 old FFD2

Note FFD 2 means that FFD is multiplied by itself once e.g. 4 2 ˆ 4  4 ˆ 16

Example 8 The exposure settings for a particular radiograph are FFD ˆ 1200 mm, mAs ˆ 64 The next radiograph is to be taken after the FFD is decreased to 600 mm. Calculate what the new mAs setting should be if the radiographic density is to remain the same.

Answer New exposure ˆ old exposure 

new FFD2 old FFD2

6002 12002 600  600 ˆ 64 mAs  1200  1200 (note the top and bottom can be divided by 600 twice) ˆ 64 mAs  12  12 ˆ 64 mAs  14 ˆ 16 mAs ˆ 64 mAs 

Radiography

135

Note In this example the ¢gures are simple which means that the calculation could have been carried out by applying the logic that because the FFD has been halved, the intensity will have increased by a factor of 4. Therefore the mAs will have to be reduced to a 14 of its previous value in order to compensate.

Example 9 The exposure settings for a particular radiograph are FFD ˆ 700 mm mAs ˆ 64 The next radiograph is to be taken after the FFD is increased to 1400 mm. Calculate what the new mAs setting should be if the radiographic density is to remain the same:

Answer New exposure ˆ old exposure 

new FFD2

old FFD2 14002 ˆ 64 mAs  7002 1400  1400 ˆ 64 mAs  700  700 (note the top and bottom can be divided by 700 twice) 2 2 ˆ 64 mAs   1 1 4 ˆ 64 mAs  1 ˆ 256 mAs

Self-test exercise (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) (i)

An exposure requires 30mA, and 2.5 s Calculate the mAs.

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Chapter 10

(ii)

Settings of 80 kV, 40 mAs and 16 mA are to be used for a particular radiograph. Calculate the exposure time.

(iii)

The standard exposure (as recorded in the practice exposure book) for a radiograph is 60 kV, 15 mA and 0.2 s. If the original kV setting is increased to 70 kV, what mAs should be used to keep the density of the radiograph constant?

(iv)

After taking a radiograph using 10 mAs and 60 kV you decide to double the radiographic density for a second ¢lm. Which exposure should be used? (a) (b) (c) (d)

(v)

200 mA, 0.10 s, 60 kV 150 mA, 0.20 s, 60 kV 100 mA, 0.20 s, 70 kV 300 mA, 0.03 s, 60 kV

By how much must the mAs be decreased from 40 mAs to halve the radiographic density? (a) (b) (c) (d)

5 mAs 10 mAs 15 mAs 20 mAs

(vi)

Settings of 80 kV, 40 mAs and 16 mA have been used for a particular radiograph. The kV setting is to be lowered from 80 kV to 60 kV. Calculate what the new mAs setting should be in order to keep the radiographic density constant.

(vii)

The standard exposure (as stated in the practice exposure book) for a radiograph is 60 kV, 15 mA and 0.2 s at a FFD of 700 mm. What is the new time setting required in order to maintain the same radiographic density if a grid (with a grid factor of 3.0) is used and the other settings remain the same?

Radiography

137

(viii)

The standard exposure (as stated in the practice exposure book) for a radiograph is 60 kV, 15 mA and 0.2 s at a FFD of 700 mm. What is the new time setting required in order to maintain the radiographic density, if a grid (with a grid factor of 2.0) is used and the kV is raised to 70?

(ix)

If the FFD is increased from 800 mm to 1600 mm, how must the mAs be adjusted to maintain the same radiographic density? (a) (b) (c) (d)

(x)

decreased by a factor of 4 decreased by a factor of 2 increased by a factor of 4 increased by a factor of 2

The exposure settings for a particular radiograph are FFD ˆ 700mm mA ˆ 64 exposure time ˆ 1 s The next radiograph is to be taken with the same mA setting but the FFD halved to 350 mm. Calculate what the new exposure time should be if radiographic density is to remain the same.

Answers to self-test exercise (i)

mAs ˆ mA  s ˆ 30  2.5 ˆ 75 mAs

(ii)

mAs ˆ 40, mA ˆ 16 mAs Therefore s ˆ mA 40 ˆ 16 ˆ 2.5 s

138

Chapter 10

(iii)

Original mAs ˆ 15  0.2 ˆ 3 mAs Increasing the kV by 10 requires half the mAs 3 Therefore new mAs ˆ ˆ 1.5 mAs 2

(iv)

(a)

(b) (c) (d)

60 kV; 200 mA  0.10 s ˆ 20 mAs (double the original mAs doubles the radiographic density) 60 kV; 150 mA  0.20 s ˆ 30 mAs 70 kV; 100 mA  0.20 s ˆ 20 mAs 60 kV; 300 mA  0.03 s ˆ 9 mAs

(v)

Answer (d) because half of 40 mAs ˆ 20 mAs

(vi)

Lowering the kV by 20 will reduce the radiographic density by a factor of 4. Therefore the mAs must be increased by a factor of 4. Therefore the mAs must be increased from 40 to 160

(vii)

Original mAs ˆ 15 mA  0.2 s ˆ 3 mAs New mAs ˆ original mAs  grid factor ˆ 3 mAs  3.0 ˆ 9 mAs 9 mAs New time ˆ 15 mA ˆ 0.6 s

Note Another way of looking at this problem would be to say that if the mAs increase by a factor of 3 but the mA does not change then the time must increase by a factor of 3 (viii)

No change in exposure time will be required because raising the kV by 10 allows the mAs to be halved, but this is o¡set by the addition of the grid which would necessitate doubling the mAs.

(ix)

The FFD has been doubled, therefore the intensity of the X-ray beam will have been reduced to a 14 of its previous value.

Radiography

139

Therefore the mAs will have to be increased by a factor of 4 in order to keep the radiographic density the same. Therefore, answer ˆ (c) (x)

Original mAs ˆ 64 mA  1 s ˆ 64 mAs The FFD has been halved. Therefore the intensity of the X-ray beam will have increased by a factor of 4. Therefore the mAs must be reduced to a 14 of its previous value in order to keep the radiographic density the same. 64 Therefore the new mAs will be mAs ˆ 16 mAs 4 mAs ˆ mA  s mAs Therefore new time ˆ mA 16 mAs ˆ 64 mA 1 ˆ s 4 ˆ 0.25 s

Chapter 11

Value Added Tax (VAT)

Although this book is primarily concerned with the explanation of veterinary calculations, it is likely that veterinary sta¡ will also have to be involved in the administration of VAT. This may be at the reception desk or in dealing with suppliers or clients. This chapter explains the principles of VAT and describes various methods of calculating it. VAT is a tax on turnover, not on pro¢t and the basic principle is that the VAT should be borne by the ¢nal consumer. Businesses registered for VAT may deduct the VAT they pay to suppliers from the VAT they collect from clients. The di¡erence must be either paid to, or claimed from, HM Customs and Excise. There are two common calculations relating to VAT. The ¢rst case is where the VAT needs to be calculated on a given amount. The second is where the total amount is known including the VAT and there is a need to ascertain the VAT element and the basic amount separately.

The principle of VAT The illustration below demonstrates the mechanics of collection and handling of VAT. It also shows how: . . .

VAT is handled at each stage of the transaction Customs and Excise gets net VAT from each stage the ¢nal consumer pays the entire VAT amount

140

Value Added Tax (VAT)

141

Illustration of how VAT is calculated and charged This illustration tracks the VAT collected at each transaction during the manufacture and retailing of a desk. It also shows how the VAT is calculated at each stage resulting in the ¢nal amount of VAT paid to Customs and Excise. An estate has surplus wood, which it sells to the local furniture maker for »100 plus VAT. The furniture maker uses the wood to make a desk and sells it to a local retail shop for »150 plus VAT. The shop then sells the desk to the ¢nal consumer for »300 plus VAT. The VAT for each of the transactions will be calculated below. The current rate of VAT is 17.5%. Furniture maker Pays »100 ‡ 17.5% VAT to the estate for the wood. As shown in the chapter on percentages (Chapter 2), a percentage means the amount per cent or per hundred. In other words, for every »100 of goods the supplier buys, he must pay a tax of 17.5% of its value to Customs and Excise. This % can be turned into a money value by dividing the original amount of »100 by 100 to ¢nd the value of 1%, then multiplying this answer by 17.5 to calculate the value of 17.5%. £100 ˆ £1:00 and £1:00  17:5 ˆ £17:50 100 Therefore, the furniture maker pays »100 ‡ »17.50 ˆ »117.50 for the wood. The furniture maker sells the desk to the retailer for »150.00 ‡ VAT ˆ »176.25 (see following calculation). Furniture retailer Pays the furniture maker »150 ‡ 17.5% VAT for the desk. From the illustration above, to calculate the amount of VAT, take the original cost of »150 and divide it by 100. This will

142

Chapter 11

establish what 1% of »150 is; multiply by the tax ¢gure 17.5 to calculate what 17.5% of this ¢gure is. £150 ˆ £1:50 ˆ 1%, multiply this by 17.5 to ¢nd 100 what 17.5 % is Therefore »1.50  17.5 ˆ »26.25 VAT The total ¢gure the retailer pays the furniture maker is »150 for the desk plus »26.25 VAT ˆ »176.25

Take

The ¢nal customer Pays the retailer »300 ‡ 17.5% VAT for the desk. As before, to calculate the VAT, divide the original cost by 100 to establish what 1% is equivalent to i.e.

£300 ˆ £3:00 ˆ 1% 100

Then multiply by 17.5 to calculate the VAT, i.e. »3.00  17.5 ˆ »52.50 VAT. Therefore, the total paid by the customer is »300 for the desk plus »52.50 VAT ˆ »352.50 This is what the ¢nal consumer pays: »352.50 for the desk. Put into a table the ¢gures calculated above look like this: Table 11.1

Tracking VAT

Seller

Cost

Tax paid

Sold for

Plus tax collected

Di¡erence paid to Customs and Excise

Estate

^

^

»100

»17.50

»17.50

Furniture maker

»100

»17.50

»150

»26.25

»8.75

Retailer

»150

»26.25

»300

»52.50

»26.25

Total paid to Customs and Excise

»52.50

Value Added Tax (VAT)

143

Notice that each vendor only need pay Customs and Excise the tax collected less the tax paid, but all of the net amounts paid add up to the total VAT paid by the ¢nal consumer.

Note If the desk is purchased by a veterinary practice, it will have to pay »300 ‡ »52.50 VAT, but as the practice is VAT registered, once again the VAT can be reclaimed. However, if the ¢nal purchaser is a veterinary nurse who is not VAT registered, then the VAT could not be claimed back and the total net outlay would be »352.50.

Calculation of VAT if the base cost is known Put simply, the calculation of VAT involves multiplying the base cost by the VAT rate 100 The most common VAT rate is 17.5%. Therefore, to calculate the VAT due on a certain base cost, the latter must be multiplied by 17:5 or 0:175 100 For instance, the VAT due on a base cost of »120.00 ˆ »120.00  0.175 ˆ »21.00

Calculating VAT without a calculator Calculation of VAT can easily be done with the aid of a calculator but there is a simple way to calculate 17.5% of any ¢gure without a calculator. This method is carried out in three easy stages. Notice that 17.5% is made up of 10% ‡ 5% ‡ 2.5% Therefore by calculating 10% of a ¢gure, which is simply a matter of dividing by 10,

144

Chapter 11

then halving this ¢gure to get 5%, then halving this ¢gure to get 2.5%, then adding the three answers gives 17.5%.

Example 1 Calculate 17.5% of »84.40 using the procedure explained above. 10% ˆ »8.44 (divide »84.40 by 10) 5 % ˆ »4.22 (divide the previous answer by 2) 2.5% ˆ »2.11 (divide the previous answer by 2) Total 17.5% ˆ »14.77 VAT 17:5 Check on calculator £84:40  (or »84.40  0.175) 100 ˆ »14.77 Total price ˆ »84.40 ‡ »14.77 VAT ˆ »99.17 incl VAT

Example 2 Calculate 17.5% of »975.23 using the procedure explained above. 10% ˆ »97.523 (divide »975.23 by 10) 5% ˆ »48.7615 (divide the previous answer by 2) 2.5% ˆ »24.38 (divide the previous answer by 2) Total 17.5% ˆ »170.66 VAT 17:5 Check on calculator £975:23  (or »975.23  0.175) 100 ˆ »170.66 Total price ˆ »975.23 ‡ »170.66 VAT ˆ »1145.89 incl VAT

Example 3 Calculate 17.5% of »37 .94 using the procedure explained above. 10% ˆ »3.794 (divide »37.94 by 10) 5% ˆ »1.897 (divide the previous answer by 2)

Value Added Tax (VAT)

145

2.5% ˆ » 0.9485 (divide the previous answer by 2) Total 17.5% ˆ » 6.6395 VAT 17:5 (or »37.94  0.175) Check on calculator £37:94  100 ˆ »6.6395 ˆ »6.64 (to 2 decimal places) Total price ˆ »37.94 ‡ »6.64 VAT ˆ »44.58 incl VAT

Example 4 Calculate 17.5% of 59p using the procedure explained above. 10% ˆ »0.059 (divide »0.59 by 10) 5% ˆ »0.0295 (divide the previous answer by 2) 2.5% ˆ »0.01475 (divide the previous answer by 2) Total 17.5% ˆ »0.10325 VAT 17:5 Check on calculator £0:59  (or »0.59  0.175) 100 ˆ »0.10325 ˆ »0.10 (to 2 decimal places) Total price ˆ »0.59 ‡ »0.10 VAT ˆ »0.69 incl VAT

Example 5 Calculate 17.5% of »1583.91 using the procedure explained above. 10% ˆ »158.391 (divide »1583.91 by 10) 5% ˆ »79.1955 (divide the previous answer by 2) 2.5% ˆ » 39.59775 (divide the previous answer by 2) Total 17.5% ˆ »277.18425 VAT 17:5 Check on calculator £1583:91  100 (or »1583.91  0.175) ˆ »277.18425 ˆ » 277.18 (to 2 decimal places) Total price ˆ »1583.91 ‡ »277.18 VAT ˆ »1861.09 incl VAT

146

Chapter 11

Self-test exercise 1 (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) Calculate the VAT at 17.5% on the following sums of money. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

»23 456.88 »10 677.98 »1445.96 »237.88 »53.57

(vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

»177 230.11 »89 789.20 »12 345.59 »17.50 »2.17

Calculation of VAT from inclusive amounts VAT is easily calculated on amounts which have no VAT included (see the previous examples). However, the calculation is slightly more complex if the amount given includes VAT and the situation requires that the VAT is split away from the base price. In order to calculate the base price from any VAT inclusive ¢gure, multiply it by: 100 117:5

or 0.8510638

The amount of VAT can then be found by subtracting the base price from the VAT inclusive ¢gure. To check if the calculation is correct, the two answers added together should equal the VAT inclusive ¢gure.

Example 1 A bill for servicing an autoclave is »80.00 including VAT. How much did the service cost without VAT? What is the VAT amount? Calculation Base price ˆ £80:00  ˆ »68.09

100 (or »80.00  0.8510638) 117:5

Value Added Tax (VAT)

147

VAT amount ˆ VAT inclusive ¢gure minus base cost ˆ »80.00 »68.09 ˆ »11.91 (Amount of bill ˆ »68.09 ‡ »11.91 ˆ »80.00 incl VAT)

Example 2 A new operating table cost »6987.75 including VAT. How much did the table cost without VAT? What is the VAT amount? Calculation

100 (or »6987.75  0.8510638) 117:5 ˆ »5947.02 VAT amount ˆ VAT inclusive ¢gure minus base cost ˆ »6987.75 »5947.02 ˆ »1040.73 (Amount of bill ˆ »5947.02 ‡ »1040.73 ˆ »6987.75 incl VAT) Base price ˆ £6987:75 

Example 3 A box of 12 ballpoint pens costs »2.50 including VAT. Calculate the base (VAT exclusive) price. Calculation Base price ˆ £2:50  ˆ »2.13

100 (or »2.50  0.8510638) 117:5

(Amount of bill ˆ »2.13 ‡ »0.37 ˆ »2.50 (to 2 decimal places) including VAT)

Example 4 An invoice for medical gases is »49.77 including VAT.

148

Chapter 11

Calculate the base (VAT exclusive) price. Calculation Base price ˆ £49:77 

100 (or »49.77  0.8510638) 117:5

ˆ »42.36 (Amount of bill ˆ »42.36 ‡ »7.41 ˆ »49.77 (to 2 decimal places) including VAT)

Example 5 A box of 5 laboratory coats costs »135.00 including VAT. Calculate the base (VAT exclusive) price and the amount of VAT paid. Calculation Base price ˆ £135:00 

100 (or »135.00  0.8510638) 117:5

ˆ »114.89 VAT amount ˆ VAT inclusive ¢gure minus base price ˆ »135.00 »114.89 ˆ »20.11 (Amount of bill ˆ »114.89 ‡ »20.11 ˆ »135.00 (to 2 decimal places) including VAT)

Self-test exercise 2 (fully-worked answers at the end of this chapter) Calculate the VAT exclusive amount and VAT for each of the following VAT inclusive sums of money: (i) (iv) (vii) (x) (xiii) (xvi) (xix)

»34.56 »33.57 »56.97 »10278.99 »1.55 »1144.33 »15.57

(ii) (v) (viii) (xi) (xiv) (xvii) (xx)

»456.87 »1233.99 »1237.55 »864.24 »0.57 »47.92 »111.99

(iii) (vi) (ix) (xii) (xv) (xviii)

»231.55 »531.58 »383.77 »4507.73 »7239.25 »23.18

Value Added Tax (VAT)

149

Answers to self-test exercises Exercise 1 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

£23 456:88  17:5 ˆ £234:5688  17:5 ˆ £4104:95 100 £10 677:98  17:5 ˆ £106:7798  17:5 ˆ £1868:65 100 £1445:96  17:5 ˆ £14:4596  17:5 ˆ £253:04 100 £237:88  17:5 ˆ £2:3788  17:5 ˆ £41:63 100 £53:57  17:5 ˆ £0:5357  17:5 ˆ £9:37 100 £177 230:11  17:5 ˆ £1772:3011 17:5 ˆ £31 015:27 100 £89 789:20  17:5 ˆ £897:8920  17:5 ˆ £15 713:11 100 £12 345:59  17:5 ˆ £123:4559  17:5 ˆ £2160:48 100 £17:50  17:5 ˆ £0:175  17:5 ˆ £3:06 100 £2:17  17:5 ˆ £0:0217  17:5 ˆ £0:38 100

Note All answers are rounded to two decimal places.

Exercise 2 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

Ex VAT VAT »29.41 »5.15 »388.83 »68.04 »197.06 »34.49 »28.57 »5.00 »1050.20 »183.79 »452.41 »79.17

(vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (xi) (xii)

Ex VAT »48.49 »1053.23 »326.61 »8748.08 »735.52 »3836.37

VAT »8.48 »184.32 »57.16 »1530.91 »128.72 »671.36

150

Chapter 11

(xiii) »1.32 (xiv) »0.49 (xv) »6161.06 (xvi) »973.90

»0.23 »0.08 »1078.19 »170.43

(xvii) (xviii) (xix) (xx)

»40.78 »19.73 »13.25 »95.31

Note All answers are rounded to two decimal places.

»7.14 »3.45 »2.32 »16.68

Chapter 12

Examination Techniques

Pre-examination planning For anyone taking examinations of any kind, it is always a good investment of time to investigate the structure and composition of the examination. Question the lecturers. Look at past papers to see how they are structured.

Veterinary Nursing examinations Currently, the structure of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS), Veterinary Nursing examinations consist of two papers, each consisting of 90 multi-choice questions for both Year I and Year II student veterinary nurses (SVNs). Year II have, in addition, four oral and practical sections to the examination, and under the NVQ Scheme these are made up of Laboratory Diagnosis, Radiography, Medical Nursing plus Fluid Therapy, and Surgical Nursing plus Anaesthesia. All questions for both Year I and II students relating to the multi-choice papers, and the oral and practical sections for Year II students, are compulsory. Throughout the two-year training period, student veterinary nurses also have to complete many speci¢ed case log sheets, relating to the patients that they nurse, which are also assessed and veri¢ed according to RCVS regulations. Both Year I and Year II SVNs will be required to carry out calculations which relate to case logs on a day to day basis, and they are often asked to carry out calculations in any one of the di¡erent examination sections. 151

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This includes calculations which need to be carried out in a very short time during the practical and oral sections, which can be stressful for many candidates. However, students are allowed to take basic calculators into both the multi-choice question papers and the orals and practicals. Therefore, provided the basic related mathematical rules have been learnt and application of these has been practised before the examinations, at least some of the stress may be alleviated! In an examination situation, most mathematical questions will have ¢gures which are reasonably easy to calculate and percentage solutions are likely to have sensible ¢gures to work with. If the answer calculated results in a long convoluted ¢gure, it may be wrong and should be checked, if there is time. Student veterinary nurses should always make sure when calculating drug doses in a practical and oral examination, that once they have given their answer, they tell the examiner that they would always ask a veterinary surgeon to check the calculation and ¢nal drug dosage. It should not be forgotten, however, that the reason for learning such calculations in the ¢rst place is so that this knowledge can be applied by the veterinary nurse on a day to day basis when calculating and administering the various drugs and treatments prescribed by a veterinary surgeon. Although the ¢nal dosages given currently remain the legal responsibility of the veterinary surgeon and should be checked by them, quick, accurate calculation and administration of drugs is an important part of most veterinary nurses' duties, often being carried out in a busy and stressful environment. Administration of a miscalculated dose and subsequent overdose of a drug may cause side e¡ects or in the worst case scenario, cost an animal its life. Conversely, under-dosage could also cause great problems, for example, where an antibiotic under-dose has consequently created a bacterial mutation which is resistant to that particular antibiotic.

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Although such events are rare, if veterinary nurses are as skilled as veterinary surgeons at calculating dosages for their patients, miscalculation by either party is more likely to be noticed and recti¢ed long before a drug is administered to a patient.

Examinations in general For other students from related areas of study who may be using this book as a learning tool, it is essential that they ¢nd out from their lecturers and/or the examining body concerned, the answers to such questions as: How many questions are there? How many parts to the question are there? Is there a choice? Are there any compulsory questions? How many questions must be answered in total? Are the questions multi-choice, short answer or essay, or a mixture of these? What is the duration of the examination? What aids, if any, can be taken into the examination hall? Is there an oral and/or practical examination? Does course work count towards the ¢nal marks ^ if so, what percentage? All of these questions should be answered early on in a student's course of study. This preparation will sweep away the `unknowns' and dispel at least some of the `myths' surrounding the examination and help to build con¢dence.

The examination Many students fail examinations because they don't answer the questions set. Reams of script may be produced, or an answer

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given in an oral, but this may be what is thought the examiner has asked; or the answer may be slanted towards a vaguely similar subject to that being asked in the question, but with which the student is more familiar. Whatever the type of question ^ from multi-choice to essay, before beginning to answer the paper in the examination room, it is worth taking 10 minutes to read the questions carefully. Try to work out exactly what the examiner is trying to obtain from you. If all questions are compulsory, answer all those which you ¢nd easy ¢rst. If there is a choice, decide which questions you will be attempting and again, answer the easiest ¢rst. If all questions are compulsory, then attempt all the questions. If a certain amount are required, then attempt that amount. This sounds obvious, but many students leave examinations early with questions left unanswered. Marks can only be awarded for questions answered ^ some marks may always be gained however little is known about the subject. It is worth trying, especially if there is time to spare. Questions should not have more time spent on them than is recommended, unless there is time to spare at the end, to `revisit' questions and improve your answers. To avoid rushing an answer, work out before starting the apportioned time for each question. Make sure the 10 minutes required to read the paper also ¢gure in the exam question schedule. This way each question will get the time it deserves. Apportion time to each question in relation to the marks awarded, so that a question carrying 20 marks should only be given half the time as one carrying 40 marks. If possible, also allocate 5 minutes to read through the paper when it is ¢nished. A typical schedule could look like this: Exam time: 3 hours ˆ 180 min Reading time: 10 min at start and 5 min at end ˆ 15 min Questions to be answered in order of attempt: 5, 4, 3, 2, 6 ˆ 5 questions Marks for the above questions: 10; 30; 20; 10; 30

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Start time: 09.00 Read questions until 09.10 Time remaining to answer questions: 165 min (until 11.55) Reading time at end: 5 min Timings would have to be approximate, but bearing in mind that the questions allocated the most marks should be allocated the most time, a quickly devised plan for this exam could look like this: Question

Marks allocated

5 4 3 2 6

10 30 20 10 30 öö Total marks 100

Total min

Time allocated min 10.0 (read question) 16.5 49.5 33.0 16.5 49.5 5.0 (check answers) ööö 180.0

Most examination bodies expect short, to the point answers, which answer the question exactly (this is the case in both written and oral examinations). Remember, those that set the papers know exactly how long each question should take to answer and appreciate the pressure that students will be under.

Index

Abbreviations, 1, 2, 11 Anaesthetic circuit tables, 114 Anaesthetic circuits, 114 Anaesthetic gases ^ £ow rates, 113 Ayres T-Piece, 114 Bain circuit, 114 Basal energy requirement, 55 Basic mathematical principles, 13 Basic mathematical rules, 28 Calories, 55 Cancelling fractions, 14 Celsius, 9 Changing solution strengths, 33, 34 Circle circuit, 114 Circuit factor, 114 Clinical symptoms of dehydration, 86 Conversion charts, 2, 6, 8 Converting pounds to kilograms, 6 Converting fractions to percentages, 20 Converting percentages into decimals, 15 Cross multiplying, 30 Customs & Excise, 140

Daily £uid loss, 82, 83 Decimals, 15 Decimal point, 16,17, 18 Dehydration, 83 Dehydration ^ assessment, 83, 84, 85, 86 Diluting solutions, 34 Disease factors, 56 Division by 10,100 and 1000, 19 Dosage, 61 Dosage ^ injectables, 71 Dosage-oral, 61 Dose rate, 61 Drip rate, 98 E¡ects of changing kV and mAs, 132 E¡ects of changing FFD, 134 Energy , 55 Energy requirements, 55 Equations, 27, 39 Exposure time, 128 Fahrenheit, 9 F|lm focal distance, 133 Fluid loss, 83 Fluid therapy, 98 Fractions, 13 Fractions, converting to decimals, 15 156

Index Grid factor, 133

Oral dosages, 61

Household system of measurement, 7, 8 Hydration, 83

Percentage, 21 Percentage calculations, 22 Percentage dehydration, 83 Percentage solution, 33 Pre¢xes, 3

Illness energy requirement, 56 Imperial units, 6 Infused £uid requirement, 83 Injectables, 71 Intensity of radiographs, 133 Inverse square law, 134 Joules, 55 Kilocalories, 55 Kilojoules, 55 Kilovoltage, 127 Lack circuit, 114 Length, 2 Magill circuit, 114 Maintenance energy requirement, 56 Manipulating formulae/ equations, 24, 27, 39 Metric system, 4, 6 Metric units, 4, 5, 6 Milliamperage, 127 Milliampere-seconds, 128 Minute volume, 114 Moving the decimal point, 18 Multiplication by 10,100 and 1000, 18

157

Radiography, 127 Rehydration, 82, 83 Respiratory rate, 113 Resting energy requirement, 56 Rounding decimals, 16 Rules for manipulating formulae, 28 Simplifying fractions, 14 Standard formulae for solutions, 33 Tablets, 64 Temperature conversions, 8 T|dal volume, 113 To & Fro circuit, 114 Total £uid requirement, 83, 87 Units, 3 Value Added Tax, 140 Value Added Tax ^ calculations, 141 Volume, 2 Weight, 1